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Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924014141968 
 
Columbia THntvereitB ©dental Stu&fes 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 RICHARD J. H. GOTTHEIL, Ph.D. 
 
 THE IMPROVEMENT 
 
 OF 
 
 THE MORAL QUALITIES 
 
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY ORIENTAL STUDIES 
 
 Vol. I. 
 
 THE IMPROVEMENT 
 
 OF 
 
 THE MORAL QUALITIES 
 
 AN ETHICAL TREATISE OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY BY 
 
 SOLOMON IBN GABIROL, PRINTED FROM AN UNIQUE 
 
 ARABIC MANUSCRIPT, TOGETHER WITH A TRANS : 
 
 LATION, AND AN ESSAY ON THE PLACE. OF 
 
 GABIROL IN THE HISTORY OF THLDE- 
 
 VELOPMENT OF JEWISH ETHICS 
 
 BY 
 
 STEPHEN S. WISE, Ph.D. 
 
 jQeto gorfe 
 
 THE COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS 
 
 The Macmillan Company, Agents 
 
 66 Fifth Avenue 
 
 1901 
 
6*7? K 31 
 
 Copyright, igoi, 
 
 BY 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
Zo tbe /nsemore 
 
 OF 
 
 MY FATHER AND TEACHER 
 
 IN LOVE, REVERENCE, AND 
 GRATITUDE 
 
i^ma jntn ns rrperini 
 
 "Help the Celestial bodies with your souls, even as tilling and 
 irrigating help the seed to grow." — Ethics of Gabirol. 
 
 Ut ager, quamvis fertilis, sine cultura fructuosus esse non 
 potest, sic sine doctrina animus. — Seneca. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The original suggestion to write on the " Ethics " of Ibn 
 Gabirol came from my revered friend and teacher, the late 
 Rev. Dr. Alexander Kohut. After some study I came upon 
 the counsel of Dr. Rosin in his article' on the same subject, 
 which strengthened my determination to prepare a work on 
 the "Ethics" of Solomon ibn Gabirol, and, if possible, publish 
 the text of Gabirol's ethical treatise, " The Improvement of the 
 Moral Qualities," a manuscript of which, I learned, was con- 
 tained among the treasures in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. 
 
 For a time I was compelled to base my studies upon a pho- 
 tographic reproduction of the manuscript, made under the kind 
 supervision of Dr. A. Neubauer. During the summer of 1895 
 I resided in Oxford, and was enabled to make a careful exami- 
 nation of those passages the difficulty of reading which had 
 been increased by the photographic process. During my stay 
 in Oxford my work was facilitated in every way by Dr. Neu- 
 bauer, of whose kindness and hospitality I desire to make grate- 
 ful acknowledgment. 
 
 The manuscript, herewith published, is unique : a there being 
 no opportunity to collate the manuscript with other texts, it has 
 
 1 Cf. "J. Q. R.." iii., p. 161. 
 
 2 In the summer of 1S96 Professor Gottheil found, in the library of the Alli- 
 ance Israelite Universefle, Paris, a copy of the " Ethics," which, upon comparison, 
 proved to be an exact reproduction of the text of the Oxford manuscript, evidently 
 having been copied from it letter by letter. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 been reproduced with the fewest possible changes ; a few sug- 
 gestions, with a view to emending the text, have been em- 
 bodied in footnotes. 
 
 The translator has collated four Hebrew manuscripts 1 (Paris, 
 Bodleian (2), Jews' College) as well as the printed editions, and 
 he expects to edit in the near future a Hebrew version of the 
 " Ethics," 2 which, while taking account of the various Hebrew 
 manuscripts, shall more clearly reproduce, in some respects, the 
 spirit of the original Arabic. 
 
 I wish at this time to express my sincere gratitude to Prof. 
 Richard Gottheil for his unfailing kindness and valued counsel 
 during the term of my study at Columbia University. 
 
 I am indebted to Prof. J. H. Hyslop for some hints in the 
 
 interpretation of the " Ethics," and to Mr. I. Broyde of the 
 
 Jewish Encyclopedia staff for a number of suggestions bearing 
 
 on the Arabic text as well as the translation. 
 
 S. S. W. 
 Portland, Ore., May 2, 1901. 
 
 1 Cf. Introduction, p. 7. 
 
 2 " The Improvement of the Moral Qualities " is referred to, for the sake of 
 brevity, under the title " Ethics. " 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introductory Essay, i 
 
 Translation, 29 
 
 Appendix A (Preface of the Hebrew Translator), . . 105 
 
 Appendix B, 108 
 
 List of Abbreviations 115 
 
 Arabic Text 119 
 
 p IX 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 To write an history of Jewish Ethics is to begin with the 
 first pages of the Bible. ' The doctrine that the world was 
 created by Deity has a purely ethical significance, which bears 
 upon many departments of human conduct. That Deity pro- 
 nounced all that He had created good, is the sum and substance 
 of optimism ; the idea that one man was the progenitor of the 
 whole human race, implies the loftiest humanitarian principles 
 that can be conceived. In this wise, almost all the narratives 
 of the Bible, and, certainly, a large number of passages in the 
 Pentateuch, the Prophets, and the Hagiographa, are of clear 
 and unmistakable ethical bearing and import. _ But in the days 
 of the Biblical authors the branches of learning were not as 
 strictly divided as they are at present. Jurisprudence, history 
 (including family and tribal traditions), and whatsoever there 
 was of natural science and speculative thought clustered around 
 one subject, Religion, and were intertwined with it. 2 
 
 The command, " Thou shalt not steal," was binding not 
 because theft was a social crime, but because God prohibited it. 
 The historical records of the Hebrew people, as they developed 
 from a family and tribe into a union of tribes and a nation, 
 were looked upon as authentic, because Moses had written them 
 at the command of God. The geometrical and architectural 
 principles in accordance with which the tabernacle in the desert 
 and, subsequently, the Temple of Solomon were built, were 
 
 1 Cf. Rosin (" Maimonides,'' pp. 1-4). The first sentence in Lazarus (Ger- 
 man edition, p. 3) is "Die Bibel ist das Grundbuch der jiidischen Ethik. " 
 
 2 Cf. H. Cohen, "Das Problem der jiidischen Sittenlehre " (" M. G. W. J.," 
 vol. xliii., p. 387). 
 
 I I 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 of divine inspiration. " Love thy neighbor as thyself " was a 
 sacred command of God. 1 
 
 Medicine was practised by the priests, hygienic laws were 
 strictly enforced, astronomical observations were made, because 
 the religious law required these things. Thus all the wisdom 
 of Biblical times was identified in a degree with religion. The 
 wisdom of the prophets came to light as suggested by a relig- 
 ious subject or occasion ; hence the peculiar feature of the Bible, 
 to wit, the interblending of all the subjects of art, science, phi- 
 losophy and literature, without any plan or system other than the 
 one predominant desire, to further the cause of religion. Ethics 
 shared the same fate at the hands of those who wrote the Bible. 
 
 In the consciousness of the people a goodly number of 
 ethical thoughts and principles became crystallized in time in 
 the form of sayings or adages, and many of these sayings or 
 maxims were stored up in the Book of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, 
 Ben Sira, and scattered here and there throughout the other 
 books of the Bible. In the Hebrew such proverbs or adages, 
 together with parables, fables, and even didactic songs, bore 
 the common name of Mashal (^b>d), and in the collections just 
 mentioned we sometimes find these ethical dicta interspersed 
 with religious exhortations. 
 
 In the period of the development of the Mishna, the Tal- 
 mudim (Jerusalem and Babylonian) and the Midrashim, some 
 advance had been made in the exposition of ethics. 2 We fre- 
 quently meet in these works with ethical sayings and parables 
 of real beauty and value, and even attempts at explaining Biblical 
 injunctions on the basis of ethical principles. Still no attempt 
 seems to have been made to reduce the study of ethics to a 
 formal science or the study of ethical teachings to a system; 
 although the works of Plato, Aristotle, and other Greek philos- 
 
 1 Cf. Lazarus (pp. log, no): "In its origin Jewish ethics is theologic. . . . 
 For man's will and conduct there are standards — that is, moral laws to be obeyed, 
 and God is the law-giver. Judaism regards what is morally good and what 
 pleasing to God. moral law and divine regulation, as inseparable concepts." 
 
 2 Cf. Back (Winter und Wiinsche, iii., pp. 627 et seq. ). 
 
 2 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 ophers were not unknown to the Hebrew sages. Here, again, 
 efforts were made to collect memorable sayings and proverbs, 
 for instance, in the " Chapters of the Fathers," but none to con- 
 struct a system. Abundant attention was given to the matter 
 of concrete ethics' (s'0«s), but no attempt was made to formulate 
 a systematic treatise on the subject corresponding to -J l Uu< s .' 1 
 
 During the period of the Saburaim and the Gaonim, up to 
 the time of Saadya Gaon, the representatives of Jewish thought 
 and learning certainly could not busy themselves with the build- 
 ing up of a theoretical system of ethics. The chief efforts of 
 the schools of Sura and Pumbaditha were bent upon evolving 
 order from out the chaos of Talmudic jurisprudence, social, 
 criminal, and religious, and upon adapting the Talmudic law to 
 the various conditions under which the Jews lived in their dis- 
 persion the world over. In addition to the profound wisdom 
 and untiring activity required for the performance of such a 
 task, the rabbis must have wielded a moral power which com- 
 manded unbounded respect for their teachings and enactments ; 
 but, engaged as they were in the truly herculean task of keep- 
 ing a vastly dispersed constituency in common allegiance to the 
 law, and that without any worldly means of coercion, they could 
 not think of constructing a system of ethics, independent of 
 dogmatic religious teaching. 
 
 The first to undertake this task was Saadya (892-942) in 
 the tenth chapter of the " Emunoth we-Deoth." According to 
 his theory, the higher soul of man manifests itself in three 
 dynamic forces, so to speak — inborn love, inborn aversion, and 
 discernment. In the tenth chapter of his book, Saadya enumer- 
 ates thirteen qualities of the soul which originate in intuitive 
 love, and which must be made subservient to discernment or 
 mental training. Although this may be considered an endeavor 
 to systematize ethical theory, it cannot by any means be regarded 
 
 1 Cf. Lazarus (pp. 8, 9) . 
 
 5 Cf . Hyslop ("Elements of Ethics," New York, 1S95, p. 1), "Choice of 
 Pearls" (p. 162, note to maxim 360), Rosin (" Maimonides," p. 34 et seq.), and 
 "J Q. R." (vol. iii., pp. 165, 166), and Guttmann (p. 17). 
 
 3 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN- GABIROL 
 
 as a complete work. Saadya makes no reference to the qualities 
 which result from inborn aversion, and thus leaves us in the 
 dark as to one-half of the system which he proposes to con- 
 struct. Moreover, the principal dynamic force of the soul, dis- 
 cernment, by which the offshoots or qualities resultant from the 
 other forces must be controlled and trained, is nothing more nor 
 less than what is called soul in a theological sense, in a Jewish 
 theological sense, and means little or nothing to the non-Jew 
 or non-believer. The real merit of the " Emunoth " consists in 
 the philosophical view it takes of the Jewish religion, and in its 
 brilliant defense of the ancient faith, as interpreted by the rab- 
 bis, as against the onslaughts of Karaism on the one hand, 
 and of heretical rationalism on the other. Still the writer foots 
 entirely upon tradition and dogmatic belief, and one must read 
 through the entire work and put one's self en rapport with the 
 author's religious views before being able to read appreciatively 
 the last chapter on the subject, of ethics. 
 
 Ibn Gabirol took a new stand : he made an attempt to sys- 
 tematize ' the principles of ethics, independently of religious 
 dogma or belief. What Saadya ascribes to the higher soul of 
 man Gabirol attributes to the lower soul ; and the dynamic forces 
 of Saadya's higher soul he reduces to mere qualities or traits of 
 
 1 Munk (p. 169) believed that it was not the aim of Gabirol to establish "un 
 systeme de morale," but that he merely endeavored to write "un manuel populaire 
 de morale." Horovitz (p. 141, notes 155-158), following Munk, argues from 
 Gabirol's statements that the latter does not purport to set up an ordered system 
 of ethics, but merely wishes to write a practical handbook of morals in compliance 
 with the desire of his friends. "Er schlagt daher kein streng wissenschaftliches 
 Verfahren ein, es fehlt an jeder Definition der behandelten Begriffe, noch viel 
 weniger lasst er sich auf eine psychologische Zergliederung der erorterten Tu- 
 genden und Laster ein. . . . Wir konnen seinen Versuch nur als misslungen an- 
 sehen." Cf. also p. 142, note 164. Bacher (p. 51) holds that Gabirol's "Ethics" 
 pursues a scientific method. L. Venetianer ("Das Buch der Grade von ibn Fala- 
 quera," Berlin, 1894, p. xiv. ) considers "Das Buch der Grade" "die erste wissen- 
 schaftliche systematische Ethik in der Literaturgeschichte der arabisch-jiidischen 
 Philosophie." The "Buch der Grade" is no more streng- wissenschaftlich than 
 the ethical system of Gabirol. Hertz (p. 13) makes a similar claim for Bahya's 
 "Hoboth Ha-lebaboth,'' which he considers "the first Jewish ethical treatise — 
 according to philosophical method. " 
 
 4 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL' V 
 
 the lower soul. Discernment, again, which his predecessor 
 regards as the balancing force of the higher soul, Gabirol 
 acknowledges to be no more than the utmost limit of perfection 
 in the lower soul, the line, so to speak, where the purely human 
 and the divine meet in man. In this wise, Gabirol's system of 
 ethics covers all that is truly human in conduct and in charac- 
 ter. With religious ethics which is beyond the " line of intel- 
 ligence," in so far as intelligence itself depends upon higher 
 inspiration, he does not meddle. From this point of yiew 
 his " Ethics " is unique, and must have created a considerable 
 stir among the religious thinkers of his time; but since Gabirol 
 avoids all religious questions, refers to the rabbis in reverent 
 tone, and quotes the Bible 1 in support of his views, he could 
 not be condemned as a heretic — he was shunned rather than 
 despised. 
 
 The life of Gabirol, sharing in this respect the fate of the 
 Hebrew prophets and many later leaders in Jewish affairs, is 
 little known, and the little that is known is gleaned from casual 
 remarks which occur in his poems and from the meagre notices 
 of authors 2 who refer to his works. 
 
 Salomo ben Jehuda ibn Gabirol 3 (the Arabic form of his 
 
 ' In the " Ethics, " Gabirol refers to the Bible in order to find some additional 
 support for his views, but he nowhere bases his thought upon a biblical verse or 
 paragraph. In the " Fons Vita? " he went one step further and entirely refrained 
 from citing the Bible. Horovitz (p. 78, notes 4, 5) alludes to this, following 
 Munk. Cf. Schmeidl (p. 103), Bacher (p. 45), Guttmann (p. 4), and Stossel (p. 
 47) , who points out that Gabirol in this respect stands alone among the Jewish- 
 Arabic philosophers, Saadya, Maimonides, and their successors. 
 
 As proof of the attempt "Gabirol todtzuschweigen," one need but refer to 
 the work of a philosopher of the thirteenth century, who, in his " Ya'ir Netib." re- 
 commends the dil'gent study of D ,- ID10n nSD. but fails to mention Gabirol's 
 "Ethics." Cf. Giidemann ("Das jud. Unter. wahr. der Span. -Arab. Per.," p. 
 59 of the Hebrew part). The mention of "The Choice of Pearls," by the 
 same author, Jehuda b Sam. b. Abbas, may imply that even as early as the thir- 
 teenth century the Gabirolian authorship of the "Choice of Pearls " was not ac- 
 cepted. Cf. Steinschneider ("H. U.,"pp. 382-388). 
 
 ! Cf. Dukes (pp. 118-121). 
 
 8 The name may be written either Gabirol or Gebirol ; cf. Geiger (p. 119, 
 note 25). As to the form Gebirol, a diminutive, cf. Kaufmann ("M. G. W. J.," 
 vol. xliii. , pp. 308, 309). 
 
 5 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 name being Abu Ayyub Sulaiman b. Yahya ibn Jabirol), poet * 
 and philosopher, 2 was born in Malaga about 1021, lived for 
 a time at Saragossa, and died at Valencia in the year 1058 J or 
 1059. The two philosophical works of Gabirol are " Fons Vitae " 
 and " The Improvement of the Qualities of the Soul," the 
 
 1 Cf. Geiger, Sachs, Kampf, Dukes (several works), Stein and Steinschneider 
 ("H. U.,'' p. 379, note 77), who give the literature on the subject. 
 
 5 For an account of the life and the works of Gabirol, consult Munk, Gratz, 
 Dukes, Guttmann, Geiger, Horovitz, Kaufmann, Kampf (pp. 167-191), Myer, 
 Schmiedl, Sachs (pp. 213-248), Joel, Stossel, Bacher (pp. 45—55) , Rosin 
 (" Maimonides,'' pp. 11, 12), Lbwenthal, Kaufmann ("Attributenlehre," pp. 95- 
 115), Dukes ("Ehrensaulen," pp. 1-25 and 59-76), Karpeles (" Geschichte der 
 jiidischen Literatur," i., pp. 465-483). Winter und Wiinsche (ii. , pp. 723-730), 
 Eisler (" Vorlesungen iiber die jiidischen Philosophen des Mittelalters," Wien, 
 1876, i., pp. 57-68), Friedlander ("Geschichtsbilder," Briinn, 1S80, pp. 23-28), 
 Baumker ("Avencebrolis Fons Vita?,'' Miinster, 1895), Adler("Ibn Gabirol and 
 His Influence upon Scholastic Philosophy," London, 1865), Guttmann ("Das 
 Verhiiltniss des Thomas von Aquino . . . zur jiidischen Litteratur," Gottin- 
 gen, 1891, pp. 16-30), Muller (" De Godsleer der Middeleeuwsche Joden, " Gron- 
 ingen, 1898, pp. 90-107), Kahana (P1PET1. vol. i. , pp. 38-48). 
 
 3 This latter date is uncertain, but is accepted by Steinschneider ("H. U.," 
 p. 379) and Neubauer ("M. G. W. J.," vol. xxxvi. , p. 498 et seq.), who base 
 their judgments upon the statements of authors nearly contemporaneous with Gab- 
 irol. Steinschneider accepts the statement of Sa'id (circa 1070) , who praises 
 Gabirol as a logician and makes mention of his death, February, 1058, before the 
 ■completion of Gabirol 's "thirties. '' This coincides with the date given by the 
 poet Jehuda al-Harizi, who relates that Gabirol died at something over thirty 
 years. Munk (p. 157, note 1) quotes these words of Harizi from the Amsterdam 
 edition of the Tahkemoni, N3 nh D'E^BTI Ijn H33 1"0 DntW JJBTI pi. but 
 raises the very vulnerable objection that Gabirol could not have died at so early an 
 age, seeing that his works were important and revealed above all the prolonged 
 meditations of a .spirit ripened by years. Munk (p. 156. note 1) , who accepts the 
 date of Gabirol's death, 1070, in the city of Valencia, as given in Abraham Zacu- 
 to's "Yuhasin," publishes an extract from an Arabic work of Moses ibn Ezra 
 (Hebrew Supplement, pp. 515-517, and French translation, pp. 263-265), whom 
 Harizi probably followed, which declared that "this young man, Gabirol, died in 
 the flower of his youth, in the early part of the eighth century {i.e., about 1040 of 
 the present era)— he had hardly passed his thirtieth year." Kampf (pp. 187- 
 191), basing his argument upon an explanation of Professor Roediger, holds that 
 the Arabic text of ibn Ezra bears out the interpretation that Gabirol " had already 
 passed the thirties." Neubauer, Steinschneider ("H. U.," p. 379, note 76), and 
 •Kaufmann (p. 79, note 2) accept this date, namely, about 1057, which corresponds 
 with Sa'id's date. Guttmann (p. 1, notf t) without giving any reasons in support 
 of his position, inclines to the later date of Zacuto; Gratz (note 2, pp. 419-421) 
 
 6 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 latter being ethical in character. The " Ethics " was written 
 in the year 1045 ' ( io 48). On the whole, the " Ethics " is writ- 
 ten in a fluent and classic Arabic style. Though excellently 
 translated it must be said that the occasional obscure pass- 
 ages are not made less obscure by the translator. The main 
 difficulty in translating arose from the fact that the Hebrew 
 language did not compare with the Arabic in the copiousness 
 of its philosophical terminology. In some places the Hebrew is 
 marked by an almost slavish fidelity to the original. The present 
 translator has erred, in not a few passages, in the same way. 
 
 The manuscript (1422,2 in the Bodleian Library) is a part of 
 the collection which was founded by Bishop Huntington during 
 his residence in the East as chaplain to the English merchants 
 at Aleppo. It consists of 46 pages 8vo, written in the Syrio- 
 Rabbinic Hebrew characters, about the end of the fourteenth 
 century, according to Neubauer. The following Hebrew man- 
 uscripts of the " Ethics " are extant : Paris (Bibliotheque natio- 
 nale, Ms. Hebr., 671,2), Bodleian (Neubauer 2413,7, and 
 1402,2), Jews' College, London (Neubauer 48,3), Leeuwarden 
 (cf. Neubauer, " Israelitische Letterbode," vol. xii., p. 83), Miin- 
 chen (St. 201,1 and 327,3), Talmud Torah Library in Rome, 
 and Casanate Library in Rome. 3 The following are the 
 printed editions : 3 
 
 likewise accepts the date 1069 or 1070. Dukes ("Ehrensaulen, 1 ' p. 10, note 2), 
 whose calculation is rather far-fetched, believes that Gabirol died some time be- 
 tween the years 1070-1080, at about the age of thirty. 
 
 1 Steinschneider and Neubauer are correct in reading the date as 828 (1068), 
 but it has occurred to me that this date may be merely a reminiscence of the year 
 of Gabirol's death, current in the days of the copyist. Munk admits that 1428 (Sel. 
 era), as he reads the manuscript, leads to an erroneous conclusion. Steinschneider 
 (" H. U.," p. 381, note 94) is inclined to accept the date 1045, which is given in 
 the earliest Hebrew sources and some of the Hebrew manuscripts. 
 
 s The two manuscripts in Rome were collated by K. Pollak for the Budapest 
 edition. 
 
 3 Cf. Steinschneider ("H. U.," 381). Lengthy extracts from the "Ethics" 
 are given in a Latin translation by G. Gentius, Amsterdam, 1640 (cf. Dukes, p. 
 121), in a Latin version of Maimonides' niJTI ITD?!! The translator evidently 
 used only a Hebrew text, for the verses, as well as the concluding paragraphs of 
 the Arabic text, are missing. Rosin (p. 163, note 2) mentions an edition of the 
 " Ethics,'' published at Wilna in 1845. 
 
 7 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 Constantinople, 4to, 1550 (together with Bahya's main 
 rvm^n). 
 
 Riva di Trento, 1 4to, 1562 (together with Honein's nDio 
 D'SlD'tan, and msn.f D under the general title, \Q3 p1J. 
 
 Luneville, 4to, 1807 (same title and contents as the Riva di 
 Trento edition). 
 
 Lyck, i2mo, 1859 (same general title JV3J plJ, but only the 
 "Ethics"). 
 
 Warsaw, 8vo, 1886 (not mentioned by Steinschneider, 
 "H. U."> 
 
 Budapest, 8vo, 1896. 
 
 The " Fons Vitae " was attributed for centuries to a scho- 
 lastic philosopher, Avicebron, until Munk recognized" in 1846 
 that Ibn Gabirol and Avicebron were one, the name Avicebrol 
 (Avicebron) being a corruption of Ibn Gabirol or Ibn Gebirol. 3 
 The Arabic original of the " Fons Vitae" is lost, but a Latin trans- 
 lation has been preserved which was made by Johannes Hispa- 
 lensis, with the aid of Dominicus Gundisalvus. According to 
 Steinschneider (" H. U. ," p. 380) four manuscript copies of this 
 translation are extant. Munk discovered the identity of Avice- 
 bron and Ibn Gabirol through a comparison of the Paris manu- 
 script of the " Fons Vitas " with a Hebrew work by Shemtob 
 Palquera in the Paris Library, which proved to be a paraphrase 
 of the Arabic original, of which the " Fons Vitas " was evidently 
 likewise a translation. This discovery was of the greatest im- 
 portance, inasmuch as Avicebron the Jew, Salomon ibn Gabirol, 
 played no unimportant part in the development of scholastic phi- 
 
 1 In the Index Expurgationis ; cf. " R. E. J.," xxx., p. 273. 
 
 2 Cf. Guttmann (p. 7, note i)and " Literaturblatt des Orients," 1846, No. 46. 
 
 3 Kampf (p. 175, note 11), in showing that the name Ibn Gebirol was natu- 
 rally altered in time into Avicebron, cites the name Reuben ha-Barceloni, which 
 became Bargeloni. The reverse change occurred in the name Ibn Gebirol, through 
 the transitional stages of Avengebirol, Avencebrol, and Avencebron, to Avicebron. 
 The change from Ibn to Avi is not uncommon; cf. Ibn Sina — Avicenna, Ibn 
 Badsha — Avempace. According to M. Wittmann ("Die Stellung des HI. 
 Thomas von Aquin zu Avencebrol, Ibn Gebirol," Milnster, 1900, p. 1, note 5), 
 the form Avicebrol is found as late as the time of Bradwardina, who died 1349. 
 The note is based upon information furnished by Dr. CI. Baumker. 
 
 8 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 losophy. In recent years the " Fons Vitae," particularly the 
 Latin version, has received scholarly and ample treatment in 
 the works of Seyerlen, Guttmann, Baumker, and Wittmann. 
 
 In setting out to write the " Ethics," Gabirol endeavored 
 to give a systematic exposition of the endowments of the 
 human soul, i.e., the impulses, which may be so trained as to 
 lead to virtue, or permitted, ungoverned or ill-governed, to make 
 for vice. This task accomplished, he began to work at the 
 "Fons Vitae,'' which was designed to explain the revelation of 
 Deity in the world. 1 The " Ethics " may be regarded as a work 
 preparatory to the " Fons Vitas." The results, at which he ar- 
 rived in the " Ethics," 2 reasoning from the human senses, as he 
 perceived them, up to the highest spiritual possibilities of man, 
 formed the basis of his theological demonstration in " Fons 
 Vitae," which is based upon deductive methods of reasoning. 
 
 In the " Ethics " D Gabirol does not 'question any of the 
 theological or philosophical conceptions of his time." God is: 
 He has created all that exists; man is the masterwork and 
 highest purpose of creation, the aim of all that has been called 
 into existence. 6 The symmetry of his form and the beauty of 
 
 1 Cf. Munk (p. 4 and p. 170 et seq.). 
 
 2 Frankel-Griin (p. 43, note 2), following Geiger (p. 86 et seq.), speaks of 
 Gabirol's "Ethics" as "Vorstufe zur Metaphysick." Lowenthal ("Pseudo- 
 Arist.," p. 39) holds the "Ethics" to have been written demonstrably later than 
 the "Fons Vitae." 
 
 3 An excellent, though brief, analysis of the " Ethics '' of Gabirol is given by 
 Guttmann (pp. 17, 18), who, however, overestimates, in my judgment, the influ- 
 ence of Saadya upon the teachings of Gabirol. Cf. Munk (pp. 167-169), Dukes, 
 Rosin (pp. 166-1S1), and Horovitz (pp. 138-142). 
 
 4 It would undoubtedly be a fruitful task to trace the elements of Gabirol's 
 system of ethics, in so far as these are directly related to physics and metaphysics, 
 back to their first — mainly Greek — sources. Nevertheless, even though we would 
 insist in the spirit of Gabirol upon viewing this work as a system of ethics rather 
 than as a mere compilation of moral maxims, Gabirol does not dwell sufficiently 
 upon this aspect of his work to justify such a course. 
 
 5 This theory was held by Saadya (Emunoth we-Deoth, iii. 58, iv. 75, vi. 95, 
 edition of Slucky, Leipzig, 1864), Bahya (Briill, p. 73, note 1), Donolo and Israeli 
 (Fried, pp. 59 and 37) , Joseph ibn Zaddik, and even by Gabirol's fierce antagonist, 
 Abraham ibn Bau.d, but opposed by Maimonides ; cf. Rosin (" Maimonides," p. 
 99) , Guttmann (" Saadya," pp. 83, 84, and 159-163), and Fried (p. 42). 
 
 9 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 his construction 1 render him the peer of all animal creatures; 
 and his intelligence and the spiritual endowments, which con- 
 stitute his soul, raise him infinitely above those creatures." 
 This soul makes him the equal of the angels, which are the 
 powers intermediary between the physical world and Deity. 
 By cultivating his powers for good (his virtues), man becomes 
 even the superior of those intermediary beings ; 3 for the latter 
 cannot be any more or less than that which they are, or accom- 
 plish any more or less than that unto which they are destined, 
 while man may rise through the measure of his spiritual perfec- 
 tion and beneficent activity to Deity himself, and even cause 
 the angels to serve him. At this point Gabirol quotes passages 
 from the Bible in which the angels are represented as acting 
 in the service of man, or even dominated by him. Curiously 
 enough, in this place, as well as in all the subsequent parts of 
 this book in which the Bible is cited in support of his views, 
 the author ignores the Talmudim and Midrashim, which might 
 have answered his purpose better and illustrated his thoughts to 
 greater advantage. 
 
 The argument thus far is based on the assumption that man 
 is a direct emanation of the Deity, and that his soul tends 
 toward reunion with the source of all being. The question now 
 suggests itself — why is there any difference between man and 
 man ? In other words, why do individual men vary in their 
 temperaments and spiritual powers? There can be but one 
 answer to this question, and that is, the differences are due to 
 the cultivation of the soul. In the measure in which the soul 
 is more or less cultivated, in the measure in which it divests 
 itself of its sympathies with the lower sensual impulses and 
 makes for a loftier spiritual ideal, it places itself higher in the 
 scale of human perfection and ascends nearer to Deity. Still, 
 
 'Cf. Musen(p. n). 
 
 2 Cf. Brilll (p. 73, note 2). 
 
 3 Saadya places man above the angels, according to Abraham ibn Ezra ; cf. 
 Guttmann (" Saadya," p. 160, note 1) and Schmiedl (p. 84) . This view was held 
 as early as the ninth century— by David ben Merwan, who is quoted ad rem by 
 Jephet ben Ali of the tenth century ; cf. Beer (p. 15, and notes 27-30). 
 
 10 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 the soul, as it manifests itself in the life of this earth, in visible 
 existence, is but a creation of Deity and not Deity itself; it is 
 not entirely free 1 to act of its own accord. In our time we 
 would say that the powers of every individual soul are limited 
 to a degree by the accidents of birth and environment, as well 
 as by racial and family peculiarities — heredity. In Gabirol's 
 time it was believed that the soul was limited by the celestial 
 bodies : in principle, the ancient and modern thought on this 
 subject concur; the qualifications of every individual soul are 
 limited. But since we cannot accurately determine our relation 
 to Deity, and know not what limits the accidents of birth and 
 environment have destined for our souls, it is our duty to make 
 for the highest ideal. 
 
 " Help the celestial bodies with your souls, even as plowing 
 and irrigating help the seed to grow." Through such efforts 
 man can evoke the latent powers which are within him. There 
 are numerous passages in the Talmudim in support of these 
 views, of which our author could not have been ignorant ; * but 
 Gabirol, it appears, studiously avoided quoting these authorities 
 unless he had some special reason for so doing. 
 
 The question next suggests itself — how and when should 
 this helping of the celestial bodies, this cultivating of the soul, 
 begin ? Gabirol answered this question in the following way : 
 In order to cultivate his soul, man must necessarily know its 
 peculiarities. He must therefore study himself as he is, closely 
 examine his character and inclinations, habituate himself to the 
 abandonment of what is mean, i.e., whatsoever draws him into 
 close contact with the physical and temporal, and aim at the 
 
 1 Cf. Maimonides (Wolff, p. 58) , who takes especial note of these limitations, 
 which he calls "natural," but he makes light of "celestial influences." Cf. p. 48, 
 note 1, showing that Gabirol's belief in planetary influence did not weaken his 
 faith in man's freedom of will. 
 
 2 Cf. Lowenthal ("Pseudo-Arist. ," p. 43, note 1), who holds, together with 
 Sachs, in opposition to the view of Guttmann, that Gabirol was a student of the 
 Talmud. Stossel (p. 39) holds that Gabirol's Azharot, as well as the "Gebet- 
 stilcke verrathen ohne Zweifel seine Vertrautheit mit dem rabbinischen Schrift- 
 thume " 
 
 II 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 spiritual and the abiding. This effort in itself is blessedness, 
 and man's ability to make such an effort is a proof of divine 
 benevolence. Passages from the Psalms are adduced in support 
 of these views. 
 
 Up to this point Gabirol has said nothing new; he merely 
 sums up the accepted articles of belief in a manner that leads to 
 his own system. If the conjecture be correct, that he deliber- 
 ately avoided the Talmud in order to place his system of ethics 
 on a basis independent of rabbinical dogmatism,' such an in- 
 troduction to his work was nothing less than ingenious. The 
 most ardent devotee of the Talmud could not object to these 
 postulates, for the Bible bears them out, and the rabbinical 
 law contains nothing to oppose them. Men of thought and 
 insight could hardly fail to see that if the author could dis- 
 pense with the rabbinical teachings in the exposition of ethical 
 principles, a strong doubt arises as to the necessity or even the 
 validity of those teachings concerning the ceremonial law. 
 Undoubtedly at the hands of such thinkers, such rabbinists, he 
 received the unkind treatment of which he makes mention 
 further on. In the introductory chapter of the "Ethics," 
 Gabirol's task has not been difficult ; for he leaned on generally 
 accepted beliefs and principles. At this point, he abandons 
 the beaten track and proceeds to pursue a then comparatively 
 
 1 Seyerlen (p. 25 and notes 38 and 43) compares Gabirol with Spinoza, the 
 latter introducing modern philosophy as the former introduced mediaeval philo- 
 sophy, and he emphasizes Gabirol's philosophical independence of Jewish theo- 
 logical dogma in the words (p. 41, note 43) : "Denn er hat die Philosophie 
 keineswegs bloss als die Magd der rabbinischen Theologie angesehen und behan- 
 delt, als das bloss formale Organ fiir die Vertheidigung und den Ausbau der tal- 
 mudischen Weisheit, wie z. B. der bei den Juden so hochgefeierte Maimonides ; 
 ihm ist die Philosophie durchaus Selbstzweck, er weist ihr eir.e souverane Stel- 
 lung an, eine Stellung so ganzlich unabhangig von der Theologie, dass selbst 
 jeder Seitenblick auf diese vermieden wird." Cf. Geiger (pp. go-93), Stbssel 
 (pp. 46-48), Sandler ("Problem der Prophetie in der jiid. Religionsph. , " Bres- 
 lau, 1891, p. 2g, note 66), and Spiegler ("Geschichte der Philosophie des Juden- 
 thums," Leipzig, p. 254), who holds that Gabirol "trug nicht des Glaubens 
 Sklavenketten " and also " attacked the authority of the 'Kalam.'" Kampf (p. 
 173) maintained that although Gabirol was untrammelled in his philosophic re- 
 search, he yet expected to reconcile his results with the teachings of theology. 
 
 12 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 unknown path. He bases his ethical system on the work of 
 Rabbi Shabbatai Donolo, 1 whose words he copies in so far as 
 is required for his purpose. 
 
 Gaiiikol. Donolo. 
 
 (Translation o£ Jehuda ibn Tibbon.) (Introduction to 1JdSs3 din nipjn IPWS) 
 
 -|Sinn Snjn oSiyn nx ma omSkh <3 idini aSiyn "73 nn kiji ne rftun omen jd-ikdi 
 
 av :'i3i Ni3 nj pdij 1 ?! . . oiy30 nyaiN by £>ni cdi nn nniDin njmx an rfwn 1S13 
 
 O'Dn nci>) L > nja'jn nrvSni -nwtn nDiyS mn 13 n-nrw mnni norm mm nmVi on om -iojn 
 
 novwtn mom -iayn nniyS n-iina>n mnni nnnni nSi ip nmSn nai . . . . nnn njj3 oin 
 
 VS3S331 imix3 o 1 ?!^ -parr ixi3i £>Nn nciyS "uja mirwn mnnni .... ii'Nn -U13 nDrmn 
 '131 B'Cin nii-cn 13 N131 -iai -lDrp n 1 ? 'Oi "isyn 
 
 Being a close and logical thinker, he merely sums up and 
 iterates Donolo's idea 3 that man is the microcosm, a counter- 
 part or reflex of the universe entire, macrocosm, and leaves 
 this subject, bringing us directly to his own assumption that 
 the five senses, whose powers of perception are manifested 
 through the composition and intermingling of the four elements 8 
 of the human body, constitute the links between the physical 
 and the spiritual in the constitution of man. To impress this 
 thought upon his readers, Gabirol allegorizes 4 the passage of 
 
 1 A physician and astronomer of the tenth century (b. 913). 
 
 2 Fried (p. 59, note 1) shows that Donolo, in considering the world a micro- 
 cosm and man a macrocosm, and in deriving the composition of the body from 
 four humors corresponding to the four elements, follows the work of Israeli (855- 
 955)i which is in turn dependent upon JIT'S' 1 D. Cf. Geiger (" Melo Chofnajim," 
 Berlin, 1840, p. 29). Fried furthermore proves the dependence of Gabirol (p. 
 59), Bahya, Moses ibn Ezra, Halevi, Ibn Daud, Joseph ibn Zaddik — (cf. Jellinek, 
 "Mikrokosmos,'' p. x., Bloch in Winter und Wilnsche, ii., p. 729, Steinschneider, 
 " H. U.,"p. 407, Kaufmann, p. 5, note 2, Joel, i. , pp. 29, 30) — upon Israeli. 
 
 3 Cf. Horovitz (p. 129, note no). On the place of the four elements in the 
 metaphysical speculation of the Middle Ages, cf. Schmiedl (pp. 282-287). 
 
 4 According to Gratz (vi. , p. 47), Gabirol " allegorisirte Schriftverse urn sie 
 den Ideen seiner Philosophie anzubequemen." Dukes (p. 113), changing the 
 opinion he had expressed in " Ehrensaulen " (p. 11), declares, in regard to this 
 passage : " Dieses ist eine philosophische Allegorie zu nennen." The critics, who 
 viewed this " philosophical allegory" as a mere exegetical effort, have done an in- 
 justice to the great thinker and poet. Gabirol's exegetical proofs of his ethical 
 principles are mere mnemonics, as the Talmudists have it, or inserted for the mere 
 purpose of giving an apparently religious or theological coloring to his extremely 
 secular and rationalistic views. This I would hold in opposition to the belief of 
 Bacher and Rosin, who lay great stress upon Gabirol's theological bearing and sig- 
 
 13 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 Ecclesiastes (ix. 1 1), in such a manner as to make its compo- 
 nent elements severally indicate the different points of his 
 proposition. 
 
 Though he attributes the virtues to the senses, 1 Gabirol 
 would have it distinctly understood that he treats only of the 
 five physical senses, and not of the concealed 2 senses, which par- 
 take of the nature of the soul, such as ne>J"in, perception, and nra, 
 understanding. Thus he draws a sharp line of distinction be- 
 tween the purely physical and the purely psychical perceptions ; 3 
 with the latter Gabirol does not pretend to meddle, having made 
 only the qualities that depend on the former the object of his 
 
 nificance. BrUll (p. 71) thinks that Gabirol's method is common to all mediaeval 
 ethical writers. A confirmation of this opinion is to be found in the fact that Gab- 
 irol always, or usually, states his thesis before citing biblical passages, while his 
 contemporaries and predecessors, excepting perhaps Saadya, who is almost as much 
 of a rationalist, practise the reverse method. Bloch (Winter und Wiinsche. ii., p. 
 700) thinks it is characteristic of the Jewish " religious philosophy" of the Middle 
 Ages to cite the Bible only in support of propositions, the very reverse of the schol- 
 astic tendency, which was to make all reasoning follow upon and be subsidiary to 
 scriptural statement. Schmeidl (p. 103) remarks that Gabirol in " Fons Vitae " 
 makes no effort to adduce biblical verses in support of his arguments — as has been 
 noted before. From this, again, Joel infers that Gabirol placed himself entirely 
 outside of the pale of Jewish belief. This, however, was thoroughly refuted by 
 Kaufmann (" Attributenlehre," p. log, note ig). Hence it seems that Gabirol 
 failed to quote the Bible in his philosophical works, rather out of reverence for 
 Scripture than because of aversion to it. But in his younger days, when he wrote 
 the " Ethics," he was not so cautious, and quoted biblical passages as mnemonics, 
 if not in confirmation of his thought. This he did in compliance with the practice 
 of all the Hebrew writers of his age. It would appear from this that when Gabirol 
 was mature enough to compose the " Fons Vita;," he felt himself so strong and 
 secure that he no longer deemed it needful to accommodate himself to the prevalent 
 style of writing. Cf. Guttmann (p. 4). For this additional reason his philosophy 
 was ignored by his contemporaries and he personally was persecuted. Abraham ibn 
 Baud-alone set forth (in his MOT ilJIOK) expressly to confute the heretical teachings 
 of Gabirol. Maimonides completely ignored him. Cf. Beer (pp. 22, 23, and An- 
 merkungen, xxxii. to xxxv.). 
 
 1 Cf. Guttmann (" Saadya,'' p. 261, note 1.) 
 
 a Horovitz (p. 138, note 138). 
 
 3 Rosin (p. 174) remarks that among the virtues enumerated by Gabirol, 
 "three of the cardinal platonic virtues, viz., temperance, wisdom, and justice, are 
 omitted." Viewing the line of distinction here laid down, there is no room left 
 for such an objection. Only such qualities as are attributed to the physical senses 
 are considered by Gabirol. 
 
 14 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 investigation. The good and the evil in man are judged on the 
 basis of his relations to the world without. These relations 
 take their rise through the physical senses, for a man cannot act 
 toward that which is outside of him, save as he perceives it 
 through coming into physical touch with it. Therefore, all the 
 tractable qualities of the soul must be cultivated with due re- 
 gard to the part played by the senses. ' In addition to the dis- 
 tinction between the physical and the concealed senses, Saadya 
 made a further distinction between the tractable qualities of 
 the soul, such traits as can be trained unto the good, or 
 allowed to lead unto evil, and the "powers of the soul," 
 B'DJn mro. These "powers of the soul," according to Saadya, 2 
 are natural impulses acting independently of the power of will or 
 even of consciousness. It is by means of these that the exist- 
 ence of the soul is made manifest. These are man, cognition,' 
 nixn, desire (inborn love), and DJJ3, wrath (inborn aversion). The 
 two latter powers act from impulse, so to speak ; their possessor 
 being unconscious of, and, in a measure, irresponsible for their 
 action. Cognition or discernment is the supreme natural 
 power, which maintains the balance between inborn love 
 and inborn aversion. Gabirol ignored this idea of his great 
 predecessor, for he disagreed with Saadya, as will be made 
 clear, but appears unwilling overtly to express his disagree- 
 ment. 
 
 The wise man ought to profit by the knowledge that the 
 senses, in a measure, determine the qualities (the virtues and 
 vices), and that these again are constituted of and governed by 
 
 1 For a fuller treatment of the relation of the senses to the moral qualities, cf. 
 the last chapter of Horovitz. 
 
 2 Guttmann (" Saadya." p. 261, note 1 ; p. 201, notes 2 and 3; p. 223, 
 note 2). 
 
 8 Maimonides divides this " power of the soul " into two parts— iSfJftDrl 73C 
 ' ' practical intelligence, " ; e., that part of intelligence which chooses between the 
 good and the evil; and 'JVJffl ?3B>, "theoretical intelligence." which can distin- 
 guish between the true and the false. In both cases discernment acts intuitively, 
 (cf. tn nil. ch. 3). The two aspects of this "power of the soul" are alike dis- 
 tinct from the ^JJlBn f>3B', which is a clear, rational conception of the causes that 
 affect man from without. 
 
 IS 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 the four humors' which represent the four physical elements. 1 
 The wise man ought to make his senses serve him, and yet hold 
 them well in check, in order to keep them from that which is not 
 meet for them. Like the skilful physician, 3 who determines 
 the nature of an illness by taking account of the disproportionate 
 division (or combination) of heat and cold, humidity and dryness 
 in the body of the patient, and who mingles his drugs in such 
 proportions as to respond to the wants of the sick body and re- 
 store its natural equilibrium, the wise man ought to take heed 
 of his qualities, which are identical with his senses, and yield 
 to them only in so far as it may be necessary. Deity has given 
 these natural impulses that they may be trained according to 
 the requirements of worthy conduct ; through rightful rule over 
 them, the object of man's being is attained; that is, the higher 
 life is attained as long as life endures. 
 
 Thus we have Gabirol's theses, which may be summed up 
 as follows : The qualities of the soul are made manifest through 
 the five senses, and these senses in turn are constituted of the 
 four humors. Even as the humors may be modified one by 
 the other, so can the senses be controlled and the qualities of the 
 soul be trained unto good or evil. 
 
 One qualification must be noted : the soul here spoken of 
 
 1 Cf. Dieterici (" Mikrokosmus," pp. 89, go). 
 
 ! Cf. Dieterici (" Logik," p. 103). In a very appreciative paper, included in 
 the " Sitzungsberichte der konigl. bayer. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu 
 Munchen," 1866, ii., Haneberg, who is closely followed by Guttmann, shows 
 the relationship of Ibn Gabirol to the Encyclopadie of the " Ihwan al-safa." The 
 points of contact between the Encyclop die and the "Ethics" are less marked, 
 except in those things common to both " Fons Vitae " and " Ethics," e.g.. Micro- 
 cosm and Macrocosm. Cf. Guttmann (p. 35, note 7), Seyerlen (p. 21 and note 
 29), and Horovitz (p. 91). 
 
 3 Rosin (" Maimonides," p. 12, note 2 ; p. 37, note 5 ; p. 47, note 3 ; pp. 77, 78 
 and notes) thinks that Maimonides' term for ethics nTlDn tlpD (possibly a remi- 
 niscence of Gabirol's designation, the title of this book in the translation) shows 
 that he. too, conceived ethics to be, figuratively speaking, like the attempt of the 
 physician to order or re-arrange the bodily elements with a view to restoring har- 
 mony, which is health. Cf. Guttman ("Ibn Daud," p. 217, note 1), Wolff 
 (" Maimonides," p. 2), Guttman (" Saadya,'' p. 282), Dukes (p. 93, and " Phil.," 
 p. 79, note 2), Rosin (p. 169), and Musen (p. 6). 
 
 16 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 does not connote the divine within man ; it refers only to the 
 animal soul within man. 1 The author is cognizant of purely 
 psychical qualities, which have no relation to the physical con- 
 stitution, but he does not treat of these. Similarly, he is cog- 
 nizant of the concealed senses, which stand in no relation to 
 the humors and elements. But he refrains from treating of 
 these. Gabirol's object is to establish a system of purely 
 physio-psychological ethics. 2 
 
 In attributing the qualities of the soul to the five senses, 
 Gabirol is as original J as he is ingenious. In his demonstra- 
 tions he leans altogether on the Bible and avoids the Talmudim 
 and Midrashim. To the sense of sight he attributes the vir- 
 tues of meekness and pudency, and their opposites, pride and 
 impudence. He describes the sense of sight as the principal 
 one possessed by man, 4 standing in relation to the whole human 
 
 1 Cf . Rosin (" Maimonides," p. 46, note 1), also chap. 7, KT1D TID\ of 
 Abraham ibn Ezra, translated by Creizenach, Frankfort, 1840. 
 
 ° Dukes uses the term (p. 10) " eine psychologisch-ethische Abhandlung. " 
 
 3 Cf. Dukes (pp. 95, 96). Kaufmann (" Die Theologie des Bachya ibn Pa- 
 kuda, " Wien, 1874, p. 193 et seq.) argues that Bahya's failure to mention Gabirol 
 in the enumeration of his philosophical sources, together with the fact of "eine 
 entschiedene Verwandschaft mit Bahya in einem Punkte," compels us to the con- 
 clusion " dass Gabirol in dieser Schrift bereits aus dem Werke Bachya's entlehnt 
 habe " (cf. " Sinne," p. 29, note 92). Kaufmann (p. 194, note 2) gives a close 
 comparison of Gabirol's classification of the twenty qualities with Bahya's r)13in 
 rVDOpri- For a thoroughly convincing refutation, cf. Brull (p. 71 et seq.). 
 Steinschneider (" H. U.," p. 372, note 39), while undecided, leans a little to the 
 side of Gabirol's priority. Dukes (p. 10) does not doubt Bahya's dependence 
 upon Gabirol. Bacher (p. 57, note 1) thinks that Bahya's arrangement (iii. , 10) 
 of the good and evil qualities follows that of Gabirol, — thus dissenting from the 
 view of Kaufmann. Hertz (p. 28, note 4) regards it "questionable whether 
 Bahya and Gabirol at all knew each other's work." Broyde (" Les Reflexions de 
 l'ame par Bahya ben Joseph ibn Pakouda," Paris. 1896) believes that Bahya de- 
 signed this work to be a refutation of the ethical principles laid down by Gabirol. 
 Schreiner (" II. B. ," vol. i., pp. 121-128) dissents from Broyde in this, and Gutt- 
 mann ("M. G. W. J.," vol. xli. , pp. 241—256) strenuously denies the authenticity 
 of this work, maintaining, moreover (p. 246, note 5), " Der Parallelismus zwischen 
 Bachya's und Gabirol's Schriften, den Broyde aufstellt (Hebr. Einleit. , S. 9), 
 entbehrt jeder wissenschaftlichen Begrundung." 
 
 4 Maimonides adopts this idea in full ; in fact, many resemblances to the 
 thought of Gabirol are traceable in the writings of Maimonides (jn ITD, end of 
 chap. 1 and beginning of chap. 2). 
 
 2 17 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 structure as the sun to the solar system. Its excellence con- 
 sists in that it perceives near and distant objects within the 
 same time; its demerit, on the other hand, consists in the ina- 
 bility of the eye to see when it is closed; but the opening 
 and closing of the eyes in a conscious state depend upon the 
 power of the will, and the will power is exercised by the mind, 
 which is an attribute of the divine soul. Hence the sense of 
 sight stands nearest to the divine soul. 1 Another proof of this 
 is that the eye performs its functions only while its possessor is 
 awake and has full control over his senses ; when man is asleep, 
 the activity of his mind is at a standstill, his eyes do not see. 
 " Wonderful," says Gabirol, "are the words of the philosopher, 
 who said that the soul has spiritual hues, which are reflected 
 by the motions of the eyebrows." Hence the eye expresses 
 directly the qualities of the divine soul. 2 Our author, however, 
 will not go a step further into the inquiry as to the nature of 
 the divine soul ; the animal soul with its qualities forms the 
 field of his research. He touches upon this boundary only to 
 prove that the sense of sight forms, so to speak, the link between 
 the purely animal and the divine within man, and to justify his 
 position in attributing to it the qualities of meekness and 
 pudency, pride and impudence. 
 
 From Gabirol's discussion respecting each of the virtues, to 
 which the second part of the " Ethics " is devoted, it appears that 
 meekness is occasioned by a clear perception of the insignifi- 
 cance of the individual man as compared with the greatness and 
 grandeur of the world ; pride, on the other hand, is caused by 
 an over-estimation of self and self's attainments. Pudency, 
 likewise, is the effect of calm consideration and wise reflection 
 touching the fitness of action to environment, whereas impu- 
 dence is a sanguine, ill-considered display of over-estimation of 
 
 1 For a full exposition of the relation of the senses to the soul as understood 
 in the time of Gabirol, see Kaufmann's " Sinne." 
 
 2 Lowenthal ( ' ' Pseudo-Arist. , " p. 125, note 6) suggests the Talmudic allegory 
 ("Niddah,'' f. 30 b), showing that the sense of sight is the principal agent in 
 conveying wisdom, — even to the unborn child. 
 
 18 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 self, and disregard for the worth and attainments of others. 
 Gabirol advises the proud and impudent to contemplate the 
 grandeur of creation, and to ponder upon the worth of the wise 
 and truly great men, in order that their arrogance may be mod- 
 erated. He points out, too, that pride and impudence are in- 
 stinctively, as it were, hated and despised, and that they provi- 
 dentially lead to disgrace and humiliation. 
 
 Next to the sense of sight is the sense of hearing, which 
 may be said to be almost as important as the former. The 
 " perceptions " of the sense of hearing are not as numerous and 
 not as attractive as the "perceptions" of the sense of sight; 
 nor can the ear be controlled, as is the eye, by the power of the 
 will — still, as a mere animal function, it is tractable. To the 
 sense of hearing Gabirol attributes the qualities of love and 
 mercy, hatred and cruelty. He is not quite explicit in giving 
 the reasons which lead him to attribute these qualities of the 
 animal soul to this sense, but he intimates that men. of under- 
 standing will find his hints quite sufficient, and begs the reader 
 to excuse him for failing to produce arguments which require 
 elaborate and scientific demonstration. It is easy to perceive 
 why he is reticent at this point, and why he here puts forward 
 the provocation suffered by him at the hands of adversaries. In 
 attributing love and mercy, together with their opposites, to the 
 sense of hearing, and thus including them among the qualities 
 of animal life which can be modified by intelligent design, 
 Gabirol runs counter to the accepted belief of his time. It was 
 pointed out that his predecessor, Saadya, laid down as a postu- 
 late that desire and aversion, inborn love and inborn hate, be- 
 longed to the "powers of the soul" which work independently 
 of the will, and for the working of which man is, in a certain 
 measure, irresponsible. Gabirol, on the other hand, classifies 
 these with all other animal qualities which are subject to change 
 and modification at the demand of human reason. This point 
 of difference between him and Saadya was not alone sufficient 
 to arouse against him the enmity of the disciples of Saadya, 
 but even to mark him as an heretic. For he had ruled out 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 providential intervention in the two most important " forces of 
 the soul," and thus made them out to be the servants of reason 
 or intelligence. 
 
 Love, according to Gabirol, is identical with lust, and is to 
 be attributed to animal passion. It is a quality to which most 
 human beings are heir, and which only those whose reason has 
 perfectly mastered their animal nature are spared. One of 
 the most pernicious effects of this trait is, that he who is 
 given to it lacks consistency and does not abide by his word. 
 The wise man must keep himself free from this passion. The 
 good sides of this quality come to light in the love of friends 
 and relatives, in the love of native land, in the love of wisdom 
 and of God, that love which prompts to good-will, to the fulfil- 
 ment of duty, and to ideal pursuits. Mercy is the noble twin 
 sister of love, and Gabirol finds no evil in it. Its nobility is so 
 exalted that it has even been represented as an attribute of 
 Deity. Hate is the opposite of love, and, as in the case of the 
 latter, its possessor is marked by inconsistency and a lack of 
 truthfulness. Sorrow and discontent are its constant compan- 
 ions. The worst form of hate is that which is caused by envy 
 or jealousy. Love and hate merge into each other if the object 
 of love be not ideal, if it be the mere satisfaction of physical 
 desire. Cruelty again is a quality of degraded and savage hu- 
 man beings, of those whose nature i c most nearly related to 
 that of wild beasts. Even in cases of meting out justice, cru- 
 elty may be excusable, but is never commendable. A wise 
 man should abstain from it altogether. 
 
 To the sense of smell are attributed the virtues of good-will 
 and wide-awakedness, wrath and jealousy. All these qualities 
 are revealed or expressed in the act of breathing. In order to 
 exercise good-will under exasperating circumstances, where dis- 
 pleasure would almost be in place, an effort is required like 
 unto that which is expended in holding one's breath. Wide- 
 awakedness in the doing of any work requires free breathing, 
 and jealousy, which is related to wrath, is betrayed by strong 
 or suppressed breathing. The critics of Gabirol, who pointed 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 out the incompleteness of the " Ethics," must have had this 
 part of his work in view, for he is too laconic in his explana- 
 tions in this part of the treatise. But in this case, as in the 
 case of the sense of hearing, it has been pointed out that his re- 
 ticence can easily be explained. Attributing wrath to mere ani- 
 mal life, and subjecting it unconditionally to the training of the 
 higher spiritual endowment in man, he again runs counter to 
 the accepted belief of his time, which classed wrath among the 
 "forces of the soul." In the second part of the work, treating 
 of wrath, Gabirol plainly says that he does not follow the ac- 
 cepted systems of ethics which classed wrath among the "forces 
 of the soul," but places it among the " tractable qualities of 
 the soul," i.e., among the animal impulses, which the rational 
 soul can and must control. To justify his position he quotes 
 two rabbinical passages, viz., " Pirke Aboth," v., 14, where this 
 trait is declared to be of four kinds or degrees, and " Sabbath " 
 (Babylonian Talmud) f. 105, where it is said that "he who 
 rends his garments in his wrath, is like unto an idolater." 
 Avoiding the Talmud wherever he could, and quoting it only 
 when he opposed the accepted theory of Saadya, our author 
 simply intended to disarm the animosity of the adherents of the 
 old doctrine, which he knew his opposition would arouse. The 
 two passages he cites are indeed a strong refutation of Saadya's 
 assumption. If wrath were an intuitive impulse and beyond 
 the control of the rational soul, the rabbis could not classify it 
 as of four degrees ; a natural impulse always remains true to 
 itself, and consistent in all its manifestations. Nor could they 
 judge so harshly the individual who yields to this impulse. 
 That they have done so proves their agreement with the teach- 
 ing of Gabirol, that wrath is a tractable quality of the animal 
 soul over which the rational soul must prevail. 
 
 Gabirol holds that contentedness is closely related to, if not 
 identified with, meekness or humility, and the same process of 
 thinking which leads to the latter must also conduce to the 
 former. Contemplating the grandeur of creation leads, as we 
 have seen before, from pride to humility, and in the same way, 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 attributing every individual experience to life as a whole, which 
 is the " origin of all that is good, and the source of grace," leads 
 man to contentedness. Man should aspire to be deserving of 
 honor and elevation, but he should be contented with his posi- 
 tion humble though it be, until deserved preferment is bestowed 
 upon bim; let him never seek promotion or preferment. Try- 
 ing circumstances should be accepted as a training and influ- 
 ence for the good, as a providential guide. Forbearance and 
 forgiveness are offshoots of the quality of contentment, for he 
 who exercises this virtue will not allow provocation and dis- 
 pleasure to affect his demeanor toward others. Envy is an off- 
 shoot of wrath ; it is a trait common to all rational beings, and 
 few are they who can escape its pangs. Primarily it is an 
 incentive to activity, for if a man sees that his neighbor pos- 
 sesses good things, he desires to acquire similar things, or other 
 things that are equally good, although, if he had not seen them, 
 he could very well do without either the one or the other, and 
 would never make any efforts to possess them. When jealousy 
 is allowed to gain the upper hand it develops into covetousness, 
 which is diametrically opposed to nobility and leads to the 
 greatest wrong-doing. The wise man should keep himself aloof 
 from it, for it brings no good ; it causes pain and constant wor- 
 riment, leads to misanthropy, brings on spiritual and physical 
 disquietude. Envy is a good quality only when it conduces to 
 a desire to emulate the good, when it develops into zeal for 
 noble principles. Wide-awakedness is peculiar to a sanguine 
 disposition, and is displayed at its best by persons who are free 
 from evil inclinations and who are not burdened by the weight 
 of care and worry. The wise man must exercise this quality in 
 all his actions, in his search for wisdom as well as in the per- 
 formance of his practical duties. Laziness is its opposite, and 
 in its turn conduces to duplicity ; the person who is too lazy to 
 perform his work has recourse to sly cunning in order to gain 
 what he wants or to find excuses for not performing his duty. 
 When a man is active and wide-awake, the gases which the 
 body exhales vanish in the air ; on the other hand, when the 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 body is inactive, these gases mount to the brain, causing drow- 
 siness and sleep. Wide-awakedness is a very commendable 
 quality and leads to prosperity. Still the wise man should take 
 care lest it degenerate into rashness or light-mindedness, for 
 good work can be accomplished only after calm consideration. 
 
 The sense of taste is the least noble of all the senses, but it 
 has an advantage in that none of the other senses can exist with- 
 out it, nor can it be thought of where the other senses are miss- 
 ing. The control of the sense of taste requires a nobler effort 
 than the control of the other senses, for through it the predom- 
 inance of intelligence over the purely animal inclinations is 
 most clearly manifested. It must not be forgotten that the 
 first sin of man was committed as a result of the desire to grat- 
 ify this sense. 
 
 To the sense of taste are attributed the qualities of joy and 
 grief, 1 tranquillity and penitence, qualities which imply enjoy- 
 ment and gratification or the reverse, privation and care. Ga- 
 birol has no difficulty in connecting cheerfulness, apprehensive - 
 ness, and intellectual calm with the sense of taste, but he uses 
 a roundabout argument to establish the connection of penitence 
 (remorse) with this sense. A person who is not resolute in his 
 deeds, and regrets one day what he has done the preceding day, 
 is always disturbed in his enjoyment of life and is never grati- 
 fied by that which is, because he cannot rid himself of the 
 thought of the mistakes, real or imaginary, of the past. Cheer- 
 fulness is a quality of various aspects in different persons ; it is 
 peculiar to the "warm-humid temperament," and more espe- 
 cially to those whose wishes are always gratified and who, for a 
 long time, have been spared the pangs of disappointment and 
 regret. It is natural that such persons be in good health, and 
 that age come not quickly upon them. Sometimes, however, 
 cheerfulness comes with the attainment of a long-cherished de- 
 sire. If this happen to a light-minded person, his joy is mani- 
 fested in outbursts of merriment upon occasions when merri- 
 ment and laughter are out of place. " It is my opinion, " says 
 
 1 Cf. Rosin (p. 174, note 1). 
 23 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 Gabirol, "that cheerfulness is becoming to those pure and 
 clarified souls, which are inaccessible to flattery and exempt 
 from hypocrisy, the souls which are 'related to dominion,' which 
 rise in the scale of spirituality — I mean to say, the souls of the 
 righteous who have perfect enjoyment in the object of their 
 activity and great delight in their abstinence from worldly 
 pleasures. " 
 
 Our author emphasizes here that rejoicing, as well as de- 
 spondency, belongs to the purely animal nature, and cites Galen 
 as his authority to that effect. Man must always see to it that 
 his "animal soul" be in perfect submission to his "rational 
 soul," i.e., "that his intelligence control his natural impulses." 
 
 Apprehensiveness or grief is the opposite of cheerfulness 
 and appears in those whose desires are not gratified, and who 
 are disappointed in their hopes — " when the soul misses that 
 which she loves." The possession of this quality leaves visible 
 marks upon the features of the countenance. The more a man 
 yields to the transient things of this world, the more he sue 
 cumbs to his animal desires and inclinations, the oftener is he 
 subject to disappointment, and a feeling of dissatisfaction and 
 gloom. On the other hand, the more he turns away from the 
 transient things and physical enjoyments, the more he devotes 
 himself to the study of science or the quest of moral and relig- 
 ious wisdom, the less disappointment will he suffer, and the 
 farther away from him will be sadness. It will be seen in the 
 translation (iii., 2) that Gabirol dwells upon the subject of 
 sadness at some length, and says many admirable things with a 
 view to consoling the sad at heart and the sorrow-stricken. 
 Dr. Sachs pertinently points out that Gabirol's brooding dispo- 
 sition and saddening experience seem to have dictated his utter- 
 ances on this subject. 1 It is noteworthy that the optimistic 
 spirit of Gabirol prompts him to find a good use even for sad- 
 ness, and this on purely pathological principles. Sadness 
 causes a person to shed tears, and by these means nature rids 
 itself of the used-up fluids which accumulate around the eye. 
 
 1 Cf. Sachs (p. 217, note 3). 
 24 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 It is because of this that children, in whom the animal soul is 
 dominant, cry so often : nature adjusts itself in them, so to 
 speak. Concerning the quality of tranquillity, our author 
 declares that it is most praiseworthy when it develops into per- 
 fect trust and reliance upon the goodness of God. Penitence, 
 on the other hand, is praiseworthy only when it leads to " re- 
 pentance for sin." But it is most despicable if it prompt one 
 "to say ' aye ' one day, and 'nay ' on the next day," or to make 
 vows and not fulfil them. It is best for man to avoid doing 
 or saying anything of which he must afterward repent. 
 
 The sense of touch is nearest to the sense of taste, and akin 
 to it. Its desire and enjoyment spring from a " perception " of 
 kinship to the desired object. The rational soul has no need 
 of it, save as it answers the physical requirements of the body. 
 To it are attributed the qualities of liberality and valor, nig- 
 gardliness and cowardice. The hand is the most active instru- 
 ment of the sense of touch; hence open -handedness (liberality) 
 and close-fistedness (niggardliness), as well as the power to 
 hold fast or to strike hard (valor), and the possibility of being 
 weakened by fright and deterred by danger (cowardice), are ex- 
 pressed in the terms of this sense. Biblical passages in which 
 these four qualities are connected with the hand are cited in 
 support of this thesis. Liberality, or generosity, is a precious 
 virtue, if it does not degenerate into prodigality and wasteful- 
 ness. It should by all means be made to prevail over the 
 inclination to parsimony. It leads a man to honor and recogni- 
 tion, and to compensation at the hand of Deity. But if gener- 
 osity degenerate into wastefulness, or deteriorate into an apt- 
 ness to sacrifice all possessions for the sake of satisfying one's 
 desires, or to a careless surrender of self-respect and self-honor, 
 it is anything but a virtue. Niggardliness is detestable to an 
 even greater extent than generosity is praiseworthy. Generos- 
 ity in its worst aspects, even when it deteriorates into prodi- 
 gality and wastefulness, affords some enjoyment and evokes 
 commendation to a certain degree ; while its opposite, niggard- 
 liness, calls forth nothing but blame and reproach. The wise 
 
 2 5 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 men held that no superior traits of character are ever associated 
 with parsimony, and no trustworthiness with love of gain. He 
 who yields to that inclination must part with the hope of a 
 good reputation. The only. good side of this quality lies in the 
 fact that its possessor takes care of that which is his own by 
 rightful acquisition ; but, even here, a man must be on his 
 guard constantly lest he become avaricious. A wise man should 
 not be niggardly with his wisdom, but give it freely to those 
 who desire to learn, for wisdom is a light which never loses of 
 its brightness and intensity because other lights are kindled by 
 it. When a man perceives that a tendency toward avarice is 
 beginning to creep over him, he should break its power at once; 
 he must begin to practise liberality toward those who are nearly 
 related to him, and, little by little, extend his generosity to 
 larger circles of his surroundings. Valor is the quality of men 
 of a sanguine disposition whose hearts are large, whose veins 
 and muscles are generously developed ; it waxes greatest in men 
 who practise the art of war. It is a noble quality when prac- 
 tised in the right time and at the right place, when its posses- 
 sor exercises it in order to ward off danger that comes upon him 
 unprovoked. But it is wrong to court danger and to brave death 
 needlessly ; in such instances the quality ceases to be bravery, 
 becomes foolhardiness, and is akin to madness. It is noble to 
 display bravery in defence of a principle, but ignoble to put one's 
 self in danger merely to show the absence of all fear of injury 
 and death. Valor should manifest itself only when there is a 
 need of it ; fortitude and serenity ought to be its limitations and 
 safeguards. Patience and forbearance toward those one loves, 
 fortitude and endurance in moments of hardship, are the noblest 
 manifestations of the quality of courage. 
 
 Cowardice is a quality peculiar to mean and despicable souls ; 
 the wise ought to loathe it, for it never brings any good. It is 
 most despicable when it leads an intelligent man to use his wis- 
 dom and knowledge as a plea to hide from danger and avoid war 
 at a time when the intelligent man is required in order to 
 protect a worthy cause. Cowardice is an offshoot of indolence. 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 One may, however, display cowardice when one is convinced 
 that strength and bravery cannot avail ; in such a case, coward- 
 ice ceases to be cowardice and becomes discretion. 
 
 The foregoing paragraphs constitute a brief, withal compre- 
 hensive, summary of Gabirol's system of ethics as contained in 
 both parts of his work. I have deemed it advisable to connect 
 the principal thoughts on the individual traits of character, to 
 which he gave utterance in the second part of his work, with 
 his theses touching the senses, to which the first part is devoted, 
 in order to make apparent the way in which these individual 
 traits are connected with the senses, according to the theory of 
 Gabirol. The chief aim of the author was to guide his reader 
 to the " improvement of the moral qualities," and this he ex- 
 pected to do by citing the simplest and commonest facts of 
 physical life. The organs of perception were, according to 
 Gabirol, not alone the instruments but also the emblems of the 
 various manifestations of physical life. Having attributed to 
 each of them a number of impulses, which are designated as 
 virtues or vices, he developed a general conception of life as it 
 is in this world (the animal life in man as he distinctly wishes 
 us to understand), which should and must be guided and gov- 
 erned by reason. Reason itself is over and above the life which 
 is cognizable through the perceptions of the sense-organs. The 
 consciousness of holding the animal impulses under control is 
 felicity. The very effort that a man puts forth to make his 
 animal soul subject to his rational soul affords him happiness, 
 but, unlike his predecessor Saadya and his successors, Maimon- 
 ides and Ha-Levi and their followers, Gabirol treats of ethics as 
 entirely independent of the religious law. In two or three 
 places, it is true, he mentions divine requital; but this he does 
 in such general terms as may be construed in a purely rational- 
 istic sense, or as mere phrases of common parlance. In no in- 
 stance does he refer to any particular command of the religious 
 law, that is not based upon an ethical principle. 
 
 And yet Gabirol was not an unbeliever. He speaks of 
 
 divine grace and mercy with a sincerity which leaves no room 
 
 27 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 for doubt in his belief. The word of Scripture is to him un- 
 questionable law and revelation; even to the authors of the 
 Talmud he refers with a reverence that is due to superior 
 beings. Why, then, does he avoid all reference to the specific 
 laws of the Bible and the Talmud ? The answer that suggests 
 itself to me is, that, according to Gabirol, all the written and 
 ■ oral laws were designed for intellectual beings and for the 
 training of the rational soul. Logical, systematic thinker that 
 he was, he would have insisted upon an elaborate treatise on 
 the ethics of that soul, i.e., on the qualities of human intelli- 
 gence and reason, before undertaking to expatiate on the laws 
 and regulations which bear upon it. This was not the task he 
 had set himself in writing the " Ethics," as we have pointed 
 out before. The few instances in which he alludes to the 
 intellectual soul show that he regarded it as altogether exempt 
 from and superior to impulsive action; he would not even ad- 
 mit that intuitive love and aversion are integral parts of and 
 inherent in it. He believes in the superior endowments of 
 some souls, and refers to them frequently. It appears, more- 
 over, that this mystic doctrine makes a sharp distinction between 
 the purely animal and the higher, or intellectual, qualities of 
 man; the former manifest themselves and work through the 
 senses, and the latter, the inward senses, are divine endowments, 
 which manifest themselves in the control they exercise over 
 the animal impulses. The principal agent in the exercise of 
 this control is reason or intelligence. This intelligence is the 
 mediator between the divine and animal in man, and any human 
 being who makes his intelligence master over his natural incli- 
 nations may enjoy the bliss to which Gabirol points. 
 
 28 
 
TRANSLATION 
 
 OF 
 
 THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE MORAL 
 QUALITIES.' 
 
 This is an essay on the improvement of the moral qualities 
 {i.e., character), according to the opinion of the greatest of the 
 ancient sages, composed by the learned, the worthy, the schol- 
 arly Solomon ben Gabirol, the Israelite, 2 the philosopher — may 
 God sanctify his soul. He composed it in the city of Saragossa, 
 in the month of Nissan, in the year 828' (?) of the Alex- 
 andrian era. 
 
 Blessed be God, the Mighty, the Wise, the One who is 
 nigh, Responsive, the One, the Eternal, the Primordial, the 
 Creator; greatly exalted be He. 
 
 Verily, when we look at man who is the best of all the 
 creatures of the Creator, exalted be His majesty, we recognize 
 that he is the object aimed at in the creation of all substances 
 and beings. Furthermore, he is best proportioned, as regards 
 constitution, of all living beings ; and, in addition to this, most 
 perfect and most beautiful of form, and most completely fash- 
 ioned. He possesses a rational soul, elemental," wise, everlast- 
 ing, which does not perish with him. For all this there are 
 clear proofs, both intellectual and Scriptural, which every in- 
 telligent man knows. The surest proof that man is pre-emi- 
 nent among creatures is, that he partakes of the state of the 
 
 1 Rosin renders the title more freely by " The Ennoblement of the Character. " 
 
 2 The term " Israelite " is replaced in the Hebrew versions, printed and manu- 
 script, by " the Spaniard." 
 
 3 Cf. Introduction, p. 6, note 3, and p. 7, note I. 
 
 4 Horovitz, accepting the Hebrew translation, fVJ\JB, would render this 
 " transparent," " luminous " (p. 108, note 65); cf. Dukes (" Phil.," p. 57, note 5). 
 
 29 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 angels in regard to speech and understanding. These two 
 are divine and spiritual properties. Nay more, we see, be- 
 sides this, that the angels busy themselves with the righteous 
 man, as we learn from the case of Abraham, peace be unto him, 
 in that they brought him glad tidings and also warned him ; like- 
 wise from the case of Isaac and Jacob, our fathers. The latter 
 said in the course of his excellent prayer for his son (Gen. xlviii. 
 1 6), " The angel which redeemed me " ; ' and Scripture says of 
 him (Hos. xii. 5), " Yea, he had power over the angel and pre- 
 vailed " ; and Daniel said (vi. 23), " My God hath sent his angel." 
 Concerning the help vouchsafed to the pious and the destruction 
 of their enemies, it is said (II Kings xix. 35), "And it came to 
 pass that night that the angel of the Lord went out and smote 
 in the camp of the Assyrians.' - There are many similar ex- 
 amples, which I will not go to the length of enumerating. 
 
 We know that some men may undoubtedly be superior to 
 others, nay more, that one man may be equal to a large number 
 of men — although they be of one form and one composition, 3 
 except that the soul of one man is predisposed to worldly honor, 
 with the help of the celestial bodies, 3 and his preference for 
 ethical practice, and because the baser part of him is obedient 
 to the higher, i.e., his intellect exercises control over his phys- 
 ical nature. 4 But if his aim be low and his station unfit to reach 
 
 1 In giving the English of Gabirol's biblical citations, I have quoted as much 
 as is required to elucidate the general context. In doing so, I depart from the 
 precedent laid down by the author or scribe, who frequently cites no more than an 
 initial word or two of the Scriptural passage, — sometimes even the non-essential 
 ones, — leaving it to the reader to recall the rest. In citing the number of chapter 
 and verse, the Hebrew original has been followed. 
 
 2 Wolff (p. 82, note 2) cites the somewhat similar idea of Maimonides. 
 
 3 Dukes (" Ehrensaulen," p. 12, note 1) makes mention of the Talmudic 
 thought respecting planetary influence upon the physical conditions of man and 
 upon his fate; in his religio-metaphysical poem, "The Crown of Royalty," 
 Gabirol treats of this in a brilliant, poetic style. Ibn Ezra did not fail to note 
 that Gabirol had fallen under the spell of the "astrological dreaming of his cen- 
 tury " : cf. Stein (p. 33) , and Schmiedl (p. 308, note 3), as well as Schmiedl's entire 
 chapter on this subject (pp. 2gg-3i6). 
 
 4 This thought, frequently expressed by Gabirol (cf. ii. r, iii 1). is often met 
 with in Bahya ; the references are to the edition of the ril33^n ]"IUn. by Jellinek 
 
 3° 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 that distinction, so that he does not rise to that control of which 
 the bodies in their course have not given promise, 1 i.e., a sign, 
 or to which ethics have not aided him, then the wise and in- 
 telligent man ought to expend all his efforts in order to reach 
 the highest dignity which he seeks, in order that it may be, as 
 one of the sages said, " Help the celestial bodies with your 
 souls, even as tilling and irrigating help the seed to grow " ; * 
 and this occurs naturally through the instrumentality of the 
 earth. He should endeavor to be one of the number of the ex- 
 cellent and through his zeal follow in their steps. Further, 
 he must refine his qualities until they be improved and not 
 employ his senses except when it appears necessary, until 
 he becomes one (of those) who is honorably known and famed 
 for his excellence, for that is worldly happiness. But when 
 man reaches it, his eyes must not cease to gaze wistfully at the 
 attainment of that which is above it, i.e. , enduring happiness 
 which he can reach in the intellectual world, the world to 
 come. For this is the highest gift of God to His servants, in 
 addition to the favor which is their common lot as existent 
 creatures. 3 The prince David, peace be unto him, had implored 
 that he might attain to the well-being of this world, in saying 
 (Ps. lxxxvi. 17), "Make with me a covenant for goodness." 
 He also desired to be one of those well fitted to attain the bliss 
 of the world to come, in that he said (Ps. xxxi. 20), " O how 
 
 (iii., 2, p. 135; ix., 1, p. 400; ix. , 2, p. 402; iii., 2, p. 137); cf. Briill (p. 74, 
 note 3). 
 
 1 Steinschneider ("Alfarabi, " p. 75, note 5). 
 
 2 Horovitz (pp. 127, 128, notes 105, 106). Maimonides holds that to admit 
 the influence of the planets upon human relations is to limit the freedom of man. 
 The possibility of such limitation of human freedom by planetary influence Gabirol 
 would not be ready to admit, except in some such way as modern freedomists 
 take account of the influences of heredity and environment. Thein (" Der Talmud 
 oder das Princip des planetarischen Einflusses," Prag, 1874, p. 65 et seq.) dis- 
 cusses the position of Maimonides, Albo, Ibn Ezra, and Jehuda ha-Levi in regard 
 to this mystic and unphilosophic teaching. 
 
 3 The thought that existence is in itself a mark of favor from God to man, as 
 set forth in this passage, is dwelt upon at greater length in "The Crown of 
 Royalty," and is, according to Sachs (p. 244, and note), emphasized by many of 
 the later moralists. 
 
 31 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 great is the goodness which Thou hast laid up for them that fear 
 Thee"; (Ps. x.xxvi. 9), "They shall be abundantly satisfied 
 with the fatness of Thy house." This height cannot be reached 
 by any one save through merit. Thus he asked (Ps. xv. 1, 
 2), " Lord, who shall abide in thy tabernacle, who shall dwell 
 in thy holy hill ? " And the answer is, " He that walketh 
 uprightly and worketh righteousness." Having arrived in the 
 course of our remarks at this stage in the account of man's pre- 
 eminence, let us direct our attention to the statement of the 
 object of this our work and the method of deriving some ad- 
 vantage therefrom. This will come to pass after we shall have 
 divided the treatise into all its sections as is incumbent upon 
 us. Then will we realize the benefit of it. Thus Solomon 
 the Wise, peace be unto him, has said (Eccles. vii. 27), "Be- 
 hold this have I found, saith the Preacher, counting one by one 
 to find out the account " ; by which he meant to say that when 
 things are brought together, it is necessary to enumerate them. 
 So, also, by properly ordering the discourse, it will be under- 
 stood. 
 
 God, Mighty and Exalted, has created the expanse of the 
 smaller world ' dependent upon four elements : He places in 
 man blood corresponding to air, yellow gall corresponding to 
 fire, black gall corresponding to earth, and white moisture cor- 
 responding to water. 2 Moreover God, exalted be He, equipped 
 him, i. e., man, with perfectness of form and with every organ 
 
 1 There is evidently an omission in the Arabic text, p. 4, line 5 ; the 
 Hebrew version includes a line omitted through the mistake of an early copyist, 
 who skipped from the former JJ31X JPN313 "v]? to the latter, thus omitting the 
 intervening line or lines. This Arabic omission is supplied by Kaufmann 
 (" Sinne," pp. 37, 38). 
 
 2 " Fons Vita; " of Gabirol, Tractate iii. (Guttmann, p. 117, note 3) ; Dieterici, 
 " Mikrokosmus," pp. 89, go ; and " Logik," p. 103 ; " Anthropologic der Araber 
 im Zehnten Jahrhundert," Leipzig, 1871 (pp. 4, 42, 189) ; M. Friedlander, " Essays 
 on the Writings of Abraham ibn Ezra," London, vol. iv. (p. 24, note 4). This 
 purely Greek conception was speedily incorporated into Jewish teachings. Gabi- 
 rol's immediate successor — in point of time — Bahya, follows him here. (Cf. In- 
 troduction, p. 13, note 2.) The teaching that man is a microcosm, constituted of 
 the four elements, found its way even into the poetry of the Middle Ages. Cf. 
 a poem of Abraham ben Meir ibn Ezra, cited by Sachs (p. 115, and p. 42 of the 
 
 32 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 complete and not wanting in any respect ; and He created within 
 him five senses, as we shall relate. Solomon the Wise alludes 
 to them when he says (Eccl. ix. u), "I returned and saw un- 
 der the sun " ; "seeing" here means to observe carefully, the 
 general term for " seeing " being here used in the place of the 
 specific term, " observing carefully " as in saying, "under the 
 sun," he means whatever the sun encircles. In the saying, 
 "The race is not to the swift," he hints at the sense of smell, 
 which is (situated in) the nose, because running is impossible 
 except through the inhalation of air from without to cool the 
 natural heat which is within man. The inhalation is accomp- 
 lished by the sense of the nose, and if there were no nose there 
 could be no breathing, which causes motion. In saying " Nor 
 is the battle to the strong," he wishes to indicate the sense of 
 hearing; just as we see that war consists of crying and of hear- 
 ing in battle, as it is said (Ex. xxxii. 17), "There is a noise of 
 war in the camp." In saying, "Nor yet is bread to the 
 wise," he refers to the sense of taste and the meaning is 
 to be taken literally. In saying " Nor yet riches to the un- 
 derstanding," he refers to the sense of touch, which is of a 
 kind with the understanding : ' the latter is of the category of 
 the inner senses, which are concealed in the nature of the soul, 
 as for example, perception, thought, and understanding. In 
 saying, " Nor is there favor to men of skill," he wishes to indi- 
 cate the sense of sight, which does not become knowledge except 
 through prolonged attention to scripture and continuous study 
 of books. 9 Were it not for the great length involved and our 
 love of conciseness, we would follow up these allusions with 
 clear arguments, (adduced) from syllogistic 3 reasoning and the 
 
 Hebrew supplement), who refers to an eleventh century exposition of this theory 
 in a Piut of R. Isaac ibn Giat (" Ritual of Tripoli," p. 92 b). 
 
 1 Horovitz appears to hold (p. 140, note 154) that Gabirol follows Aristotle in 
 bringing the sense of touch into relation with the understanding ; cf. Dukes 
 (" Phil.," p- 121, note 4). 
 
 2 Horovitz (p. 138, note 141) adduces the somewhat similar views of Aristotle 
 and Plato ; cf. Kaufmann (p. 140). 
 
 3 Kiyas is rendered by the Hebrew X"QD, "reason." According to Stein- 
 
 3 33 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 science of oral traditions, 1 in order that they might be easily and 
 simply comprehended. But for those whose faculties are above 
 the ordinary and who are of high-minded purpose, this little will 
 suffice as evidence that the wise prince alluded to naught else 
 in this passage but the visible (outer) senses, and veiled the 
 mention of the hidden (inner) ones. 2 If a man be wise, he will 
 employ them in the right place and restrain them from every- 
 thing in connection with which he ought not to use them. Let 
 him rather be like a skilful physician, 3 who prepares prescrip- 
 tions, taking of every medicine a definite quantity; thus the 
 ingredients vary in quantity ; he uses of one the weight of a 
 Danik, and of the other the weight of a Kirat ; and so on ac- 
 
 schneider ("Alfarabi," pp. 26, 27, notes 21, 22), it is usually translated by the 
 term E»pn. 
 
 1 M. Ehrenpreis ("Die Entwickelung der Emanationslehre, " Frankfurt, 
 1895, p. 1, note 1 ) holds that Gabirol's use of this term "das Vorhandensein 
 spekulativ-kabbalistischer Schriften im 10. und 11. Jahrh. vermuten lasst," assuming 
 that the Arabic word connotes " spekulativer Kabbala." Munk (p. 283, note 2) 
 insists with much emphasis that Jellinek wrongly renders this term by " la science 
 de la Kabbale." adding " II est evident que le mot i"IP3pn signifie ici simplement 
 tradition, ou ce qui est admis sur l'autorite traditionelle. L'original arabe d'ail- 
 leurs ne laisse aucun doute a cet egard. " Cf . Dukes (p. 103). B. Zimmels 
 ("Leo Hebraeus, ein jildischer Philosoph der Renaissance," Leipzig, 1886, pp. 
 57, note 1 ; 58, note 1 ; 68, notes 1 and 2) maintains Munk (p. 527) was similarly 
 mistaken in believing Leo Hebraeus to be " sous les auspices de la Kabbale," the 
 mistake arising from the use of the term !"|?3p, which Leo expressly uses as does 
 Gabirol. in the signification, the " ancient Hebrew tradition." The term ntop is 
 used with the same meaning by Saadya, Bahya, and Ibn Daud , vide Bacher (p. 
 6, note 4; page 40, note 3; p. 59, note 4; p. 145, note 2). Stossel (p. 51) 
 goes so far as to say, "Gabirol ist der Fortsetzer des Buches Jezirah und der 
 Vorarbeiter des Zohar." This view has met with little or no acceptance, save in 
 the case of Isaac Myer (author of " Qabbalah, the Philosophy of Ibn Gebirol, the 
 Qabbalah and the Zohar," Philadelphia, 1888), whose voluminous work is written 
 in support of the theory that Gabirol was an outspoken Kabbalist. Mr. Myer 
 calls "The Crown of Royalty" a " kosmic Qabbalistic hymn," and the " Fons 
 Vita; " " a philosophical Qabbalistic work," " one of the earliest exposures of the 
 secrets of the speculative Qabbalah." 
 
 2 Quoted by Kaufmann (" Sinne," p. 47, note 32), in the chapter treating of 
 the " inner and outer senses." 
 
 3 Guttmann (" Saadya," p. 284, note 2, and " Gabirol," p. 18, note 1) points 
 out the similarity of this passage to " Emunoth," x. , p. 159 (ed. Slucky), and " Die 
 Propadeutik der Araber, " Berlin, 1865 (pp. 44 and 163). 
 
 34 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 cording to his estimate of their respective effects. He will 
 not be satisfied until there be mixed in with it something 
 which will keep it from doing harm (to the person to whom it 
 is administered), and all this must be calculated. 
 
 Since this is so, man ought to consider carefully the qualities 
 which belong to his senses and not employ them except when 
 it is necessary ; for God, exalted be He, has so constituted them 
 in man that he can wisely order them, since through them he 
 guards the normal condition of his life. By their means he 
 sees colors, hears sounds, tastes food (flavors), smells odors, dis- 
 tinguishes between hard and soft, and all other things which 
 are necessary to his life; and many which are useful we will 
 mention when we commence (the subject), please God. We 
 will now describe the senses and the various advantages to be 
 derived from their use and the necessity of refraining from the 
 use of them when they would cause harm. 
 
 We hold that the first and foremost of the senses is that of 
 the eye, since its position with regard to the body is like that 
 of the sun to the universe. 1 It is a sense which never fails to 
 perceive an object without (the lapse of) time, i.e. , its percep- 
 tion of that which is near to it is as quick as its perception of 
 that which is far from it ; nor does any time elapse between its 
 perception of the near and its perception of the far, 2 as is the 
 case with the other senses. The eye alights upon its objects 
 of perception as long as it is open. 3 Therefore, sleep is impos- 
 sible unless it be closed. How wondrous is the saying of a 
 philosopher with regard to the sense of the eye ! " The soul has 
 spiritual tints, which sometimes become apparent in the motion 
 of the eyelid." 4 Again he said, " Keep watch over the sense of 
 sight : verily it may lead to various kinds of wrong : by some of 
 its motions it may testify to your (having) pride and haughtiness, 
 
 1 Cf. Horovitz (p. 13S, note 140). 
 
 2 Cf. Kaufmann (" Sinne, " pp. 117, 118, note 55, and p. 120, note 61), and 
 Horovitz (p. 139. note 144). 
 
 * Horovitz (p. 139, note 143). 
 
 4 Platonic doctrine. Cf. Horovitz (p. 139, note 142), and Dukes ("Phil.," 
 p. 78, note 1). 
 
 35 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 and by others to your possession of meekness and humility. * 
 Therefore, compel it to make the very best movements and 
 restrain it from the most ignoble." " Furthermore," he said, 
 "social intercourse does not exist for the pleasure of the eye, 
 but the enjoyment of the mind." The learned man will under- 
 stand this saying. How beautiful is the agreement of this ut- 
 terance with the word of God, exalted and magnified be He 
 (Num. xv. 39), " Do ye not seek after your own heart and your 
 own eyes." 
 
 The sense of hearing is next in point of importance. Though 
 the effect of this sense upon the soul is more readily felt than 
 that of sight, 2 man does not heed it as he does the eye. Under 
 good training, with reference to this sense, is included man's 
 refraining from listening to indecent things, and not judging in 
 regard to the pleasant tones which he hears according to their 
 sound, but according to their meaning and intent. One ought 
 not to be ensnared by what he hears, as the bird is ensnared 
 by the sounds to which it inclines with admiration; and one 
 ought to know of the places where it is necessary to pay good 
 heed and those wherein it is not fitting to listen at all, as he of 
 whom it is said (Isa. xxxiii. 15), "that stoppeth his ears from 
 the hearing of blood." 
 
 The sense of smell follows the sense of hearing, because 
 a sound is felt in the air ; and it is of lesser moment than the 
 sense of hearing. Accordingly, there is less need of training 
 it, because it entails not (the possibility of) obedience or 
 revolt. 
 
 As for taste, though it be, in degree, below the senses afore- 
 mentioned, still the manner of training it is more important, 
 for the body cannot exist without it, as it can exist without the 
 others. The way to train it is, — keep it from that which is for- 
 bidden, and give it free rein with regard to that which is per- 
 
 1 Dukes (pp. 97, 98) shows the thought, " Humility dwells in the eye," to be 
 Aristotelian. Cf. "Ethics," i. 3, where two maxims of Aristotle are quoted in 
 the paragraph, which restates the thesis, that pride and meekness are closely re- 
 lated to the sense of sight. 
 
 2 Kaufmann (p. 141, note 4). 
 
 36 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 missible. Reason' should exercise rule over desire in all this. 
 The first instance wherein you can evidence your mastery over 
 your desire is in eating and in drinking, just as it was in this 
 regard that man first sinned. 
 
 Touch follows the sense of taste, 2 and is very similar to it. 
 Its pleasures are peculiar to those members of the body in 
 which the humors are well balanced. There is no occasion for 
 the reasoning soul therein, except to guide the body. As to 
 the manner of exercising it, thou must know that these desires 
 are ills of the body, which thou must treat, and diseases which 
 thou must heal. Think not that it is characteristic of the in- 
 tellectual soul. Do not suppose that complete happiness and 
 perfect blessedness are to be attained thereby, as one attains 
 to excellences, in virtue of which man is adjudged deserving of 
 honor in matters pertaining to the intellect. 
 
 As we have entered upon a description of the senses, let us 
 regard each of them in the light of a genus and then mention 
 the species comprised under it, namely, the qualities of man. 
 Then let us name every individual in the species and describe 
 its useful and harmful qualities and the method of effecting its 
 improvement. If now we proceed to represent the qualities of 
 the senses according to number, the result is that every sense 
 has four qualities. We would attribute, firstly, to the sense of 
 sight four, and a like number to the other senses, so that the 
 sum would amount to twenty qualities for the five senses. 
 
 Accordingly, we assign to the eye Pride, Meekness, Pudency, 
 and Impudence. 3 Our reason for putting pride in connection 
 with the sense of sight is clear, as has been remarked above, 
 while treating of it ; also because thou perceivest the haughty 
 glance of the proud and boastful of spirit. The very reverse of 
 that we behold in the lowly of spirit, that is, meekness. Scrip- 
 
 1 " Plato looks upon the sensual desires as the baser portion of the soul. As 
 such it is intended to be ruled by the nobler, and its virtue lies consequently in 
 obedience to the Reason " (Ritter, "Ancient Philosophy," vol. ii., p. 411). 
 
 5 Horovitz (p 140, note 151). 
 
 3 Maimonides appears to me to have been familiar with this enumeration of 
 |;ood and evil qualities. Cf. Wolff (pp 6 and 10). 
 
 37 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 ture says with reference to the unduly lofty (Isa. ii. n), "The 
 lofty looks of men shall be humbled," and again (id. v. 15), 
 " The eyes of the lofty shall be humbled," and so forth. The 
 use here of (the word) " eyes " shows that the quality of pride 
 is to be attributed to the sense of sight. Of meekness it is said 
 (Hab. i. 13), "Thou art of humbler eyes than to behold evil," 
 and so forth. With regard to the impudent, thou observest in 
 most cases that his eyes stare and he is indifferent to shame; 
 thus it is said of them (Isa. iii. 9), "The shew of their counte- 
 nance doth witness against them." Thus thou wilt notice that 
 the eyes of the unrighteous, the impudent, are troubled and 
 restless, like those of whom it is said (Job xi. 20), " The eyes 
 of the wicked shall fail." Again it is said of the impudent 
 (Jer. v. 3), "They have made their faces harder than a rock." 
 On the other hand, thou wilt find that the pudent man lowers 
 his eyes so that he may merit, by reason of this, the abundant 
 favor of God and men, as it is said (Prov. iii. 34), " He giveth 
 grace unto the lowly " ; and as we, with the help of God, ex- 
 alted be He, will explain very clearly in the successive chapters. 
 This favor can be acquired only by means of (the faculty of) 
 sight, having regard to him that sees and that which is seen. 
 Thus it was said of Moses our Master, peace be unto him (Num. 
 xii. 3), "The man Moses was very meek." Previously it was 
 said, corresponding to this (Ex. xi. 3), " The man Moses was 
 very great." 
 
 The sense of hearing constitutes a genus embracing four 
 •species, namely, four qualities — Love, Hate, Mercy, and Hard- 
 heartedness (cruelty). One has need of great precision in de- 
 termining the relation of these four qualities to the sense of 
 hearing. Even though we do not make our exposition tho- 
 roughly clear, nevertheless men of understanding will be con- 
 tent with hints and allusions. He ought not to be blamed who 
 brings forward a fraction of the truth for not gathering together 
 the whole. Perhaps the reader will admit as excuse for me, in 
 that I have not succeeded in bringing together the metaphysi- 
 cal and logical proofs and the Scriptural examples as far as I 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 have gone, the fact that human power is but slight, especially in 
 the case of a man like me, who is always greatly troubled and 
 who .does but scantily realize his hopes. In some places in the 
 Bible (a mention of) the hearing occurs, followed by urging; 
 thus the expression (Deut. vi. 4, 5), " Hear, O Israel," and 
 after that it is said, "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God," etc. 
 Furthermore (Gen. xxiv. 52), "When Abraham's servant 
 heard " ; it is said immediately following, " He who worshiped 
 the Lord, bowing himself to the earth " ; and again (Gen. xxix. 
 13), " And it came to pass that when Laban heard the tidings," 
 "he embraced him and kissed him." Hearing is also used in 
 connection with acceptance and approval, which are at the basis 
 of love; thus it is written (Ex. xxiv. 7), "We will do and we 
 will hear." The performance of a thing is due to the love of 
 a man therefor; thus it is said (Gen. xxvii. 4), "Make me sa- 
 voury meat, such as I love." Sometimes satisfaction and cheer- 
 fulness follow upon hearing : thus it is said (Lev. x. 20), 
 " When Moses heard that he was content," just as anger ensues 
 in the absence of assent and hearkening, as (Ex. xvi. 20), " Not- 
 withstanding, they hearkened not unto Moses." ..." And 
 Moses was wroth with them." Hatred also results from hear- 
 ing, as thou must know from the case of Esau, of whom it is 
 said (Gen. xxvii. 34), "When Esau heard," and then follows 
 (id. xxvii. 41), "Esau hated Jacob." Mercy is known to result 
 from "hearing " ; thus God said (Ex. xxii. 26), " I will hear, for 
 I am merciful." It is said of the righteous dead (Prov. i. 33), 
 " Whoso hearkeneth unto me shall dwell safely." In contrast 
 to this, it is said of the unrighteous (Job xv. 21), "A sound of 
 fright is in his ears : in peace the despoiler shall come upon 
 him," and so forth. Hard-heartedness results from the want 
 of assent; thus it is said of Pharaoh in many places (Ex. ix. 
 12), " The Lord hardened the heart of Pharaoh and he hearkened 
 not." A hard-hearted people is called (Jer. v. 15), "A nation 
 whose tongue thou shalt not understand, neither shalt thou 
 hearken unto what it speaketh," and so forth. 
 
 The sense of smell also commands four qualities — Anger, 
 
 39 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 Good-will, Jealousy, and Wide-awakedness. Anger is attributed 
 to the sense of smell, as it is said (Jud. xiv. 19), "And his nose 
 (anger) was kindled " : anger, indignation, and wrath appear 
 mostly in connection with the nose, as it is said (Dan. iii. 19), 
 " Then was Nebuchadnezzar full of fury, and the form of his 
 nose (visage) was changed." Good-will consists in the tran- 
 quillity of the thoughts, which are in the brain, and it is not 
 altered by an " illness " of the sense of smell, though the near- 
 est among the senses affecting it. Concerning good-will it 
 is said (Prov. xvi. 15), "In the light of the king's nose (coun- 
 tenance) is life, and his favor is as a cloud of the latter rain." 
 Jealousy and wide-awakedness are of the sense of the nose, and 
 jealousy is a branch of anger: thus it is written (Prov. vi. 34), 
 " For jealousy is the rage of a man." Thus becomes clear the 
 association of the heated temperament, which is anger, with 
 jealousy in the matter of this sense. Wide-awakedness con- 
 sists in the movements of a man and results from the ordering 
 of the organs of breathing, which are pivotal to the sense of 
 smell, as we have remarked above in the section devoted to the 
 exposition of the passage beginning with " The race is not to 
 the swift. " 
 
 The sense of taste includes as its species four qualities, 
 namely, Joy (Cheerfulness), Grief (Apprehensiveness), Peni- 
 tence, and Tranquillity. Dost thou not see that the greatest 
 pleasure is derived through eating and drinking, — which is at- 
 tained by means of the sense of taste ? Hast thou not heard 
 of the saying on the part of Isaac (Gen. xxvii. 25), "Bring it 
 here unto me and I will eat of my son's venison " ; and also 
 (Ruth iii. 7), " And when Boaz had eaten and drunk, his heart 
 was merry." Speech, consisting as it does of words, which are 
 of a kind with (the objects of) taste, sometimes gives rise to joy ; 
 thus it is said (Prov. xv. 23), " A man hath joy by the answer of 
 his mouth." Opposed to this we find that grief follows upon 
 the failure to exercise this sense, as it is said (1 Sam. i. 7), " She 
 wept and did not eat." It is also related of Jonathan {id. xx. 
 34), " He did eat no meat the second day of the month, for he 
 
 40 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 was grieved for David." Many such expressions are used with 
 reference to Saul and others. As to the quality of penitence, 
 the reason for referring it to (the sense of) taste is that contri- 
 tion and penitence are felt for what has gone before, and one 
 denies himself different kinds of enjoyment, which are rendered 
 possible by means of the taste, as it is said (Hos. xiv. i), "O 
 Israel, return." The attributing also of the quality of tran- 
 quillity to (the sense of) taste is seen in the saying of Senne- 
 charib (II. Kings xviii. 31), "Eat ye every man of his own 
 vine, and every one of his fig-tree; " and again (Jud. xviii. 7), 
 " And they saw the people that were therein, how they dwelt in 
 safety." 
 
 The sense of touch also stands in relation to four qualities, 
 and these are Liberality, Niggardliness, Valor, and Cowardice. 
 Liberality in connection with touch is possible only through 
 the action of the hand. Liberality consists in open-handedness, 
 even as niggardliness is but closefistedness. With regard to 
 giving, it is said (Prov. xviii. 16), "A man's gift maketh room 
 for him, and before great men it will lead him." Of niggard- 
 liness, it is said (Prov. xiii. 11), "He that gathereth by close 
 hand will increase." That valor is in connection with the 
 touch is evident from the connection between seizing hold of 
 (something) and the hand ; thus it is said (Jud. v. 26), " Her 
 hand she put forth to the nail." In opposition to this, it is 
 said of cowardice (Isa. xxxv. 3), " Strengthen ye weak hands " ; 
 and again (Ezek. vii. 17), "All hands shall become feeble," and 
 so forth. 
 
 It having been made clear that all the qualities of the soul 
 are related to the five senses, let us now return to our first 
 theme — (the elucidation of) which we have stated to be the 
 purpose of this book. Seeing that most men are not sufficiently 
 versed in the ruling of their qualities to enable them to regu- 
 late these according to ethical standards and a rational method, 
 we have resolved to write a satisfactory treatise concerning this, 
 which shall contain an account in extenso of the qualities, the 
 ways in which to use them, and the mode in which to bring 
 
 41 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 about their improvement. 1 In addition to this I have met 
 with the persistent importunity of one of my friends, who de- 
 sires this as a memorial and preparation for himself and for 
 me, in the event that conditions change in the course of time, 
 places become disturbed and men alter. He desires also that 
 the relationship of the qualities to the senses should be set 
 forth. Before explaining this at all, I will make it clear to him 
 by means of a geometrical diagram and visible proofs. Then 
 let us first sketch a diagram of the four temperaments, which 
 we have mentioned above. We have drawn it at the beginning 
 of our work, in the form of a figure, so that the imagination 
 may be quick to grasp it and the senses ready to comprehend 
 it. We have indicated with reference to every temperament 
 whatever are its elements, and then joined to every tempera- 
 ment five qualities, in accordance with the requirements of the 
 calculation. We have joined them to whatever quality they 
 have, in preference to any other, after having classified them in 
 the diagram, — giving those which are hot and cold, and to which 
 of the elements they belong, and likewise those that are moist 
 (humid) and dry (arid) and their conjunctions and disjunctions — 
 all this in the diagram. Of God we pray that He may put an 
 end to the opposition (clamor) of those who, on the strength of 
 their knowledge, enter upon a discussion with us, and that He 
 silence the mouths of those who argue with us in their folly. 
 I have no reason to trust that their envy will not lead them to 
 attempt to humiliate us ; yet will I not be deterred by their 
 disturbance, nor dismayed by their brutishness. The Lord 
 sufficeth as my portion, and in Him I trust, for He is a shield to 
 those taking refuge with Him, the surest protection to those 
 seeking after His help, as it is written (Lam. iii. 25), "The 
 Lord is good unto them that wait for Him." Verily, I am 
 innocent of that wherewith they charge me if they speak 
 haughtily : I am too pious to be the victim of their pride, even 
 though they occupy the foremost place, for there is no iniquity 
 
 1 Cf. the words of Bahya (iii. 10 and iii. i), who has the same purpose in 
 view ; Brtlll (p. 79, note 1). 
 
 42 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 in my hand. Therefore will I bear their attacks ; but I do say 
 (Ps. xxxviii. 21), " They hate me only because I pursue the 
 good." God knows that I have not admitted into my work any- 
 thing except my own thoughts and writing, nor have I busied 
 myself with anything outside of my own ideas. ' To those who 
 have superior souls and lofty aspirations, their strong affection 
 for our discourse will point out that which we have in mind; 
 and if they alight upon any mistakes in the course of it, they 
 will allow that my excuse is clear and evident, since in its 
 chief parts there is good sense. This is a copy of the first dia- 
 gram, which represents the elements and the temperaments : 
 
 
 
 3"eau. jo loadsaa m a^Jiv 
 
 
 
 \<*>, 
 
 
 
 
 4*X 
 
 
 y/ 
 
 
 3 
 
 \ / 
 
 rJ 
 
 
 p 
 
 X. jT 
 
 f 
 
 > 
 
 m 
 5' 
 
 »-i 
 m 
 
 fit 
 
 -I c 
 
 ^v 
 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 -c 
 
 CD 
 
 
 D 
 
 a> 
 
 P 2 
 
 
 -O 
 
 n 
 
 M Zi 
 
 
 
 
 £<* 
 
 
 J 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 -1 
 "<: 
 
 D 
 n> 
 '_/■, 
 in 
 
 tn -. 
 ■ P 
 
 re 
 en 
 
 jy Xa, 
 
 W* xx 
 
 > 
 
 o 
 
 & 
 
 o 
 •— > 
 
 
 o 
 
 >^ N. 
 
 o 
 
 
 S" 
 
 / \ 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 jr Tranquillity, Penitence, Meekness, Pudency, ^v 
 
 
 
 ,&/ 
 
 r Mercy. \ 
 
 \ ^5 
 
 
 <r/& 
 
 
 £v* 
 
 
 
 
 ■X 
 
 Alike in respect of cold. 
 
 1 Briill (p. 71) attaches too much importance to these words, as if they proved 
 that Gabirol made no use of the writings of his predecessors. I take this state- 
 ment to be nothing more than a disavowal of plagiarism, such as is commonly- 
 met with in the mediaeval writers. Cf. N. Weisslovitz, " Prinz und Derwisch," 
 Miinchen, 1890, p. 15, note I. 
 
 43 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 We have arranged to refer every temperament to its element 
 and every quality to its temperament,' as required by the argu- 
 ment, which we shall make clear in another place with the help 
 of the Almighty, the Sufficient, may He be exalted. Having 
 sketched this diagram as just explained, we would say here that 
 the sum of the human qualities which we can enumerate is twenty, 
 of which some are praiseworthy per se, and others blameworthy 
 per se. Whosoever wishes to attain to the improvement of his 
 qualities must pursue in his own person the goodly course so that 
 the praiseworthy qualities come to be to him excellences, unto 
 which he must accustom himself, from which he must not sep- 
 arate from the time of his youth, and whereunto he must apply 
 himself step by step and little by little. Thus saith the sage 
 (Prov. xxii. 6), " Train up a child in the way he should go, and 
 when he is old he will not depart from it. " The philosopher hath 
 said, " Intelligence is a gift, moral conduct is an acquirement, 
 but habit is master over all things." Know thou that all the 
 qualities of man, of the possession of which he gives evidence 
 at the period of his youth and manhood, are in him during his 
 infancy and boyhood : though it be not in his power to mani- 
 fest them, they are nevertheless within him in potentia, (if) not 
 in actu. Thou wilt observe that in some boys the quality of 
 pudency manifests itself, and in others impudence ; some incline 
 to enjoyment, others aspire to virtue, and still others are dis- 
 posed to vices ; these qualities above mentioned and others sim- 
 ilar to them being among those of the animal soul; and when 
 men reach unto the stage of maturity, the strength of the ra- 
 tional soul displays its activity and it directs him that possesses 
 it to a proper understanding with regard to the improvement of 
 the qualities, since it is not the practice of the animal soul to 
 improve these. Now in addition to this proposition being sus- 
 ceptible of proof, it has been handed down to us by tradition 
 in the words of the Saint (Prov. xx. n), "Even a child is 
 known by his doings." As to the youths whom baseness over- 
 
 1 We meet with the same thought in Jehuda ha-Levi ; cf. Dukes (" Phil., " 
 pp. 74 and 127, notes 2 and 3). 
 
 44 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 comes, it is possible to transform them into a noble state as 
 long as the limits of childhood have not been passed ; but if 
 they overstep the boundaries of youth and reach maturity, and 
 continue to remain in this condition, it becomes difficult to set 
 them along a good course, just as a sprig may be made to stand 
 erect before it is full grown ; but when it has become a tree, it 
 is difficult to bend or move it. From this thou seest that most 
 men when they have reached maturity cannot be turned aside 
 from the course which in their youth they pursued, whereas 
 most men can be directed between the periods of childhood 
 and youth unto good habits. ' This is the simple meaning of 
 (Prov. xxii. 6), " Train up a child in the way he should go, and 
 when he is old," etc. Thus, too, our Rabbis say, " At twenty 
 years of age, one dies with it." 
 
 It is impossible that evil-doing should belong to the rational 
 soul by nature, for this would not be in accordance with wis- 
 dom. The Deity hath created the soul pure, stainless, and 
 simple, as saith the sage (Ecc. vii. 29), " This only have I found, 
 that God hath made man upright." Whatever results there- 
 from that is not good, is the work of the vegetative soul, 2 i.e., 
 the natural impulse. A philosopher has said that, " He who 
 clings to good qualities in order to enjoy by means of them the 
 pleasures of his senses and (to satisfy) the necessities of his 
 body, does not understand their true value ; but he understands 
 them who seeks after them, because he recognizes their merit 
 and usefulness and knows that death caused by following them 
 is better than life, based upon their opposites; and he who 
 keeps his thoughts away from the base, lifts them up to the 
 
 1 Rosin (" Maimonides, " p. 5, note 4, and p. 65, note 3) suggests the following 
 parallels: " Ueber die ethische Bildungsfahigkeit der Jugend," "Arist. . N. E., 
 ii. 2, im Namen Plato's nach dessen De Leg. ii.; aber auch Aristot. ohne Nennung 
 Plato's, N. E. ii. 1. Schl. und x. 10 ; dazu vgl. Maim, zu Abot i. 14." 
 
 2 This threefold division of the soul, vegetative, animal, and rational (cf. the 
 preceding paragraph of the text), is discussed at greater length in the " Fons 
 Vitse" ; cf. Munk (p. 200), Rosin (p. 46, note 1), and Horovitz (p. 115, note 77, 
 and p. 117, note 82). This same division occurs in Israeli (cf. Fried, p. 37) 
 and Kalonymos b. Kalonymos ; cf. J. Landsberger, " Iggereth Baale Chajjim," 
 Darmstadt, 1882 (p. 172, and note on p. 266). 
 
 45 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 good." In the measure in which man separates himself from 
 baseness does he near God, may He be exalted ; and in the 
 measure in which he nears baseness, does he separate himself 
 from Him. Now in regard to the twenty qualities of man, 
 David, peace be upon him, points to them and alludes to their 
 origin in the " Psalm of David " (xxxvii.) " Contend not 
 with thyself because of evil-doers." Of some of these he 
 clearly treats, as may be gathered from the literal interpreta- 
 tion of the verse; others he indicates merely by allusions : viz., 
 he enjoins serving God, by cultivating qualities that are praise- 
 worthy, and inhibits the exercise of the blameworthy qualities. 
 Furthermore, he condemns the course of those who depart from 
 the right way, as it should be observed, and praises the course 
 of those who rightly habituate themselves to good practice. In 
 saying at first, "Contend not with thyself because of evil- 
 doers," he would put an inhibition upon envy of the wicked; 
 for, if man does not envy them, he is necessarily bound to hate 
 them. Moreover, he warns against envy of them and jealousy 
 of their condition, these being his words (Ps. xxxvii. i), "Be 
 not envious against the workers of iniquity." He enjoins 
 trustfulness in the Lord and confidence in Him, in saying {id., 
 xxxvii. 3), "Trust in the Lord and do good." Furthermore, 
 he alludes to the exercise of the qualities of pudency and mod- 
 esty (id., xxxvii. 3), " So shalt thou dwell in the land and feed 
 jn faithfulness." His saying, first, " So shalt thou dwell in 
 the land," and then "and feed in faithfulness," shows that long 
 life on earth is the result of cultivating humility and pudency, 
 which he calls "faith," as thou knowest from the saying (Num. 
 xii. 7), "He is. faithful in all my house," and that which pre- 
 ceded in the description of modesty. That which we have said 
 of the meriting of life, even long life on earth, corresponds to the 
 expression (Ps. xxxvii. 11), "The meek shall inherit the earth." 
 In saying (id., 4), "Delight thyself also in the Lord," he alludes 
 to the quality of joy, which the righteous exercises in that 
 service of the Lord, wherein he delights. Thus he says else- 
 where (Ps. xxxii. 11), "Be glad in the Lord and rejoice, O ye 
 
 46 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 righteous " ; again, he says of the season of gladsome tidings 
 (Isa. lxi. 10), " I will greatly rejoice in the Lord." In saying 
 (Ps. xxxvii. 4), " He shall give thee the desires of thine heart," 
 he alludes to the quality of yearning which is love, for God 
 satisfies the yearning of the righteous, as is promised them 
 in the saying (Ps. xx. 6), "The Lord will fulfil all thy de- 
 sires." The words, " Cease from anger " are to be taken 
 literally; they forbid giving way to violent anger and wrath. 
 To " Cease from anger and forsake wrath " requires, first, the 
 uprooting thereof, and, second, penitence for what has gone 
 before. "The meek shall inherit the earth." These are the 
 lowly, — viewing the verse literally. In saying (Ps. xxxvii. 
 12), "The wicked plotteth against the just and gnasheth upon 
 him with his teeth," he alludes to the use which the wicked 
 make of impudence and recklessness. In saying (id., 13), 
 "The Lord shall laugh at him," he means that He will destroy 
 the impudent one and cause the righteous to rejoice in his de- 
 struction; thus it is said (Ps. lviii. 11), "The righteous shall 
 rejoice when he seeketh vengeance." In saying (id., 14), 
 "The wicked have unsheathed the sword," he alludes to the 
 fervor and the daring which they (the wicked) display. In 
 saying (id., 14), "To slay such as be of upright conduct," he 
 alludes to the quality of hard-heartedness which prevails over 
 all their (other) qualities. In saying {id., 15), "Their bows 
 shall be broken," he hints at the quality of pride; similarly 
 it is said of a "brazen-faced nation" (Jer. vi. 23), "They shall 
 lay hold of bow and spear." In saying (id., 17), " The arms 
 of the wicked shall be broken," he means that the quality of 
 faint-heartedness takes possession of them when their youth 
 and strength are enfeebled, so that they cannot raise their arms 
 at all. In saying (id., 21), "The wicked borroweth and payeth 
 not," he alludes to the quality of niggardliness. In saying (id., 
 21), "The righteous showeth mercy and giveth," he has in 
 mind the two qualities which dwell in the soul of the righteous, 
 namely, mercy and liberality. Concluding his enumeration of 
 these qualities, he seals them with the quality of good-will. 
 
 47 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 We would say that when man pursues the right course in refer- 
 ence to these twenty qualities, i.e., in the manner in which we 
 have described the exercise of those that are praiseworthy, and 
 the putting aside of those that are blameworthy, then God be- 
 comes well pleased with him, as it is said (id. , 23), "The 
 steps of a good man are ordered by the Lord." Let not man 
 suppose that the passage, " The steps of a good man are ordered 
 by the Lord " implies any compulsion 1 to obedience (to God) 
 
 1 Thus briefly Gabirol may be said to urge the doctrine of free-will, and to ex- 
 press his opposition to the Asharitic teachings in respect of predestination. Cf. 
 Maimonides (Wolff, p. 55 et seq. and pp. 94, 95, notes 36, 37), who acknowledges 
 the influence exerted by the physical temperament, which predisposes, without pre- 
 determining, the soul to certain lines of action and modes of being'. Maimonides 
 proceeds to demonstrate the futility of commanding, instructing, rewarding or 
 punishing him who lacks " freedom of choice. " Wolff (p. 94, note 36) is right in 
 saying that the doctrine of the freedom of the will (iTVrQ) is one of the funda- 
 mental principles of Judaism. He cites Philo and Maimonides, — the latter closely 
 follows Aristotle ;*»cf. Introduction (p. 11, note 1), Rosin (pp. 167, 168), and 
 Dukes (pp. 57-62). Saadya devotes the fourth chapter of his " Emunoth 
 weDeoth " to the advocacy of the doctrine of free-will ; cf. Guttmann (Saadya, 
 pp. 163-174). Bahya devotes the eighth section of the third chapter of his " Ho- 
 both ha-lebaboth" to an exposition of his understanding of the freedom of will 
 with which man is endowed ; vide Kaufmann in loco. According to Frankel-Grun 
 (chap. ii. pp. 35-41, and Kusari, v. 20. 25), freedom of the will constitutes one of 
 the most important bases of religion in the judgment of Jehuda ha-Levi. Joseph 
 ibn Zaddik is likewise an exponent of this doctrine ; cf. Jellinek (" Der Mikro- 
 kosmos," p. 60) . and Rosin (" Maimonides," p. 18, notes 4 and 5) . According to 
 Rosin (" Maimonides,'' pp. 23, 24), Abraham ibn Daud is no less pronounced in 
 his advocacy of the freedom of the will, as well as Abraham ibn Ezra (p. 73, note 
 4). An admirable survey of the question is given by Rosin (" Maimonides,'' pp. 
 62-76). According to Joel ("Die Religionsphilosophie des Lewi ben Gerson," 
 p. 54, and " Milhamot Adonai," tractate iii., chap. 4), Gersonides was obliged, 
 without acknowledging it, to sacrifice a part of divine omniscience in order to save 
 human freedom. Hasdai may be said to be the one notable protestant against the 
 freedom of the will ; cf. M. Joel, " Don Chasdai Creskas' religionsphilosophische 
 Lehren " (Breslau, 1866, pp. 46, 47) , " Or Adonai " (tractate ii., part 5, chap. 4) , 
 and Ph. Bloch ("Die Willensfreiheit von Chasdai Kreskas," Munchen, 1879). 
 Moses of Narbonne wrote a treatise. ,TVrnn "lOKDri, in order to disprove the 
 fatalistic doctrine expounded in the work of a contemporary, nYTJil JTIJN ; cf. 
 Beer (pp. 114, 2, 3, 40-42). This entire problem has found fairly comprehensive 
 treatment at the hands of Stein, who shows Saadya, Bahya, Jehuda ha-Levi, 
 Abraham ibn Daud, Maimonides, Gersonides, Moses of Narbonne, Aaron of Nico- 
 media, and Joseph Albo to have been at one in their acceptance of what may 
 truly be called the Jewish dogma of the freedom of the will. Evidently overlook- 
 
 48 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 or disobedience ; (it does point) however, to the bliss and misery 
 (which are their respective reward and punishment). In say- 
 ing, " The steps of a good man are ordered by the Lord," he 
 means that God created his soul perfect, not wanting in any- 
 thing; and when it inclines to virtue, to wholesome practice and 
 good conduct, the expression " are ordered " implies that he 
 merits the approval of God; and this is meant by the expres- 
 sion {id., 23), "And He delighteth in his way." As a result 
 of what we have said, it is clear that David, peace be upon him, 
 in these hints, gives a description of the way in which to im- 
 prove the qualities of the human soul and to accustom it to vir- 
 tuous practice in the same manner as Solomon the Wise has 
 done in his writings, wherein he urges (men) to effect their im- 
 provement in every possible manner, — as I shall indicate, please 
 God, exalted may He be. Following our argument, we shall 
 proceed to describe the method of the diagram, which we have 
 drawn, of the senses and the qualities, and (in the course of 
 the description), we will explain how the qualities originate 
 in the senses, uniting every individual to its species, and 
 every species to its genus, i.e., we will make clear the nature 
 of the qualities derived from the sense of sight and their 
 quantity; so also those derived from the sense of hearing, 
 and the remaining senses in the same way. It will be a 
 tabular diagram, so that it may easily be grasped by beginners 
 in the study of this science, and those desirous of procuring 
 the benefit thereof, those asking help of God in order that 
 they may bring about their improvement, with the help of 
 abstract (exact) and concrete (worldly) sciences. This is the 
 form of the tabular diagram, which is devised in order to illus- 
 
 ing the passage to which our note is appended, Stein confessedly omits to treat of 
 Gabirol (p. 22), " da er in seinem einseitigen Neuplatonismus unserer Frage . . 
 gar keine Beachtung widmet." Cf. Schmiedl (pp. 24-26). L. Knoller ("Das 
 Problem der Willensfreiheit in der alteren jiidischen Religionsphilosophie des 
 Mittelalters." Leipzig, 1S84) goes over the same ground as Stein, taking up in turn 
 Saadya. Bahya, ha-Levi, Ibn Zaddik, Ibn Daud, and Maimonides, but likewise 
 omits to discuss Gabirol's view with reference to the freedom of the will, giving his 
 reason for the omission (p. 15, note I) . 
 
 4 49 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 trate the branching forth of the twenty qualities from the 
 five senses . 
 
 Sight. ' 
 
 
 Hearing, 
 
 Pride. 
 
 
 Love. 
 
 Meekness. 
 
 
 Hate. 
 
 Pudency. 
 Impudence. 
 
 
 Mercy. 
 
 Hard-heartedness (Cruelty), 
 
 Smell. 
 
 
 Taste. 
 
 Wrath. 
 
 Good-will (Suavity). 
 
 Jealousy. 
 
 Wideawakedness. 
 
 Touch 
 
 Joy (Cheerfulness). 
 Grief (Apprehensiveness). 
 Tranquillity. 
 Penitence (Remorse). 
 
 
 Liberality. 
 
 Niggardliness. 
 
 Valor. 
 
 
 Cowardia 
 
 
 Having attained what we desired in the matter of the repre- 
 sentation of the figures, let us now conclude this introduction 
 to our work by enumerating its divisions and its chapters. We 
 have named our work, " The Improvement of the Qualities," 
 for the benefit largely of the masses, in order that they may 
 gain a knowledge of the nature of the noble, and understand 
 this matter through various methods of expression (illustra- 
 tion). We have introduced in the following whatever logical 
 and demonstrable arguments have occurred to us ; and, further- 
 more, as far as we are able, have adduced Scriptural verses. 
 Nor, after first giving these, do I see any harm in briefly citing 
 some utterances of the wise ; 2 and I shall follow this by adorn- 
 ing (what I have said) with "rejez" verses of litterateurs, and 
 some verses from the poets, and anything uncommon that occurs 
 to me, and whatever else I can recall, so that my book may be 
 complete in all its parts. 
 
 Perhaps the reader of this will, in his magnanimity and 
 
 1 This classification is not unlike the one to be found in Dieterici (" Logik," 
 p. 148), which gives a list of praiseworthy and blameworthy " Charackterztige, " 
 such as " Hochmuth, Gier, Neid." 
 
 * Cf. Bahya; Briill (p. 77, note 1). 
 
 5° 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 highmindedness, excuse my not having exhausted my theme, 
 for my aim in composing this book was not to benefit him who 
 surpasses me in talent at this time, since I do not lay claim, 
 God forbid, to superiority in any department of science. Ver- 
 ily, the fruit which I have plucked from wisdom is my knowl- 
 edge that I am not wise, that I must not abandon the counsel of 
 my contemporaries, and that I must acknowledge to them my 
 weakness. I would be, in that case, as the saying goes, " as one 
 who tends a garden well when it is in its full bloom ; or like one 
 who heaps up brocaded stuffs boastfully in the presence of those 
 •who make them. " The clearest ground for excusing me, in that 
 I have not exhausted my theme, and the surest reason for omit- 
 ting to blame me for not having completed it to the very end,' 
 is that we live at the present time amid evil and distress, an 
 uninterrupted succession of troubles and disquieting circum- 
 stances ; but I complain not. Despite this, I do not cease to 
 praise our Creator, exalted may He be, for the grace which Hie 
 has vouchsafed to us, and for having enlightened our under- 
 standing and our judgment, causing us to find the way in which 
 to comprehend something of the sciences. 
 
 I have divided my work into five parts, every part con- 
 taining four chapters, which makes a total of twenty chapters, 
 the number contained in the diagram. To every part I have 
 joined the sense belonging to it, and to every sense whatever 
 qualities belong to it. These are the parts of the work, to wit, 
 five, corresponding to the five senses already mentioned. 
 
 1 Despite his voluntary acknowledgment of incompleteness, it is interesting to 
 note the critical remark of Abraham ibn Hasdai (as pointed out by Steinschneider, 
 " H. U. ," p. 342) , respecting Gabirol's " Ethics " ; pTH 'JtSD. ed. J. Goldenthal, 
 Leipzig and Paris, 1839, Preface p. 3. nan ^1T32 p TO^C I pB^.l "IUJ D3niYl 
 
 s6i p loa -nxpn th hv u i?n hm e>ajn nno jipn iNnpi ind np" 1 man 
 
 • D^aE'Dn an ny\ '•Sib "nxin by tahwn Cf. Rosin (p. 166, note i) and Dukes 
 (p. 119, note 2 and " Ehrensaulen, " p. 11). 
 
 51 
 
PART I. 
 
 The sense of sight, containing four chapters. 
 
 Chapter I., treating of the quality of pride. 
 
 Chapter II., treating of the quality of meekness, and urging 
 the exercise thereof. 
 
 Chapter III., treating of pudency and modesty. 
 
 Chapter IV. , treating of impudence and the refraining there- 
 from. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 The sense of hearing, comprising four chapters. 
 
 Chapter I., treating of love and the methods of exercising it. 
 Chapter II., treating of hate, the thrusting aside thereof, and 
 
 the abandonment of any leaning toward it. 
 Chapter III., treating of the quality of mercy and compassion, 
 
 the praise of those possessed of it, and the encouragement 
 
 to choose it. 
 Chapter IV., treating of the quality of hard-heartedness and the 
 
 relinquishment of any leaning toward it. 
 
 PART III. 
 The sense of taste, comprising four chapters. 
 
 Chapter I., treating of the quality of joy and the methods of ex- 
 ercising it. 
 
 Chapter II., treating of grief and consolation for sorrow. 
 
 Chapter III., treating of tranquillity. 
 
 Chapter IV., treating of penitence and guarding against (the 
 need of) it. 
 
 53 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 The sense of smell, containing four chapters. 
 
 Chapter I., treating of the quality of anger and wrath. 
 Chapter II., treating of good-will and cheerfulness. 
 Chapter III., treating of jealousy and envy. 
 Chapter IV. , treating of the quality of wide-awakedness. 
 
 PART V. 
 
 The sense of touch, embracing four chapters: thus completing the 
 twenty chapters of the book. 
 
 Chapter I., treating of liberality and generosity. 
 
 Chapter II., treating of the quality of niggardliness and the 
 
 dispraise thereof. 
 Chapter III., treating of valor and the exercise thereof. 
 Chapter IV., treating of cowardice and the guarding against it. 
 Having finished numbering the parts of the book and its 
 chapters, let us now begin to explain it all, with the help of 
 God, exalted may He be. We pray that He lead us in the paths 
 of rectitude, and by His grace bring us near unto the ways 
 of uprightness. Thus His Saint besought Him (Ps. xxv. 5), 
 " Lead me in Thy truth. " 
 
 54 
 
PART I 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Treating of Pride (Haughtiness). 
 
 How good it is that this chapter happens to be the first of 
 all the chapters, as required by the connection. For I have 
 seen many of the elect exercise this quality unnecessarily and 
 give it preference over their other qualities ; so much so, that 
 the masses take it unto themselves and make use of it in cases 
 where it is needless to do so, until it gains the upper hand over 
 their nature. I also observe this quality frequently present in 
 young men, i.e. , in the child and the youth, especially if the 
 temperament happen to be "yellow-hot." For it is character- 
 istic of the yellow gall to rise. In its excitement it accustoms 
 the nature of man to exercise this quality until he almost comes 
 to exercise it amid circumstances unsuited to its appearance. 
 Among the special branches of this quality are vanity (presump- 
 tuousness), boastfulness, and haughtiness. These are not (in- 
 cluded) among the qualities of the ancient saints, of whom their 
 noble virtues testified that they were opposed to them. Now, 
 as we see, some men, who were known to exercise these quali- 
 ties out of place, have thereby become despicable. Others aim 
 to exercise the praiseworthy aspects of the quality of Pride, 
 and are praised therefor. I shall not go to the length of re- 
 counting their names, for they are well known. This being so, 
 we must carefully consider how to acquire the means of exercis- 
 ing this quality in the right place, and subduing it out of 
 season ; and we must make mention of the loathing, which en- 
 sues as a result of its blameworthiness. 
 
 55 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 When we perceive this quality beginning to affect the nature 
 of a man, it becomes necessary for us to call his attention to 
 serious matters, such as lead to reflection on the origin of exist- 
 ent things and their end, i. e. , the coming into being of things, 
 their beginnings, their transitoriness, and their destruction. 
 When he learns that all existent things are changeable, 1 and 
 finally that his own being will change (waste away) and his 
 body become extinct, then the quality of his soul, which was 
 haughty throughout the course of his life, will become meek 
 and penitent at (the thought of) death. Since we are forced 
 to accept this logical conclusion and traditional reasoning, it 
 behooves the wise man to avoid preferring this quality of his 
 own free will, since it is detestable and there results no benefit 
 whatever from pursuing it. On the contrary, it is the cause of 
 many dangers, especially if man's arrogance urge him not to 
 incline to the advice of any man ; and although in (seeking) 
 advice is the essence of good counsel, he turn away from it 
 and abide by his own opinion. Of such a man Solomon the 
 Wise, peace be upon him, said (Prov. xii. 15), "The way of a 
 fool is right in his own eyes." Thou knowest also what befell 
 Korach and Rehoboam and others like them, who cared only 
 for their own opinion. Man must remember that if he realize 
 not his own sins but consider his course correct, there will 
 surely befall him what befell them. Concerning this the sage 
 saith (Prov. xvi. 2), "All the ways of a man are clean in his 
 own eyes, but the Lord weigheth the spirits " ; and he saith of 
 pride (id. xvi. 18), "Pride goeth before destruction," i.e., the 
 result of pride and pomp is overthrow and degradation. Thus 
 it happened to Pharaoh, who said (Ex. v. 2), "Who is the 
 Lord? " and Goliath when he spake (1 Sam. xvii. 10), "I defy 
 the armies of Israel; " and Sennacherib for his boastfulness in 
 saying (II Kings xviii. 35), " Who are they among all the gods 
 of the countries " ; and Nebuchadnezzar in that he said (Dan. iii. 
 1 s), " Who is that God that shall deliver you out of my hands ? " 
 and others who follow them in the manner of their speech 
 
 1 Cf. Bahya vi. 5 (p. 297), and Brlill (p. 75, note 2). 
 56 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 and whose end was complete abasement and utter obscurity. 
 Whosoever is in this state is not secure from error and sin. 
 Thus saith the sage (Prov. xxi. 24), " Proud and haughty scorn- 
 er is his name." He mentions craftiness, because it is the 
 source of boastfulness. Whoever acts in this wise ought to be 
 ashamed, and remember that according to the measure of his 
 superciliousness will he experience contempt, and in propor- 
 tion to his power will humiliation suddenly befall him. Thus 
 the sage saith (id., xxix. 23), "A man's pride shall bring him 
 low," i.e., boastfulness and arrogance are the main causes of 
 man's humiliation, and these, by my life, are characteristic of 
 the wicked, as he saith (id., xxi. 4), " A high look and a proud 
 heart." Some of the proud vaunt themselves in the exercise 
 of this blameworthy quality, because they delight therein (and 
 try to excuse themselves by) arguing, that the soul inclines 
 to distinction, and finds lowliness irksome. Again, they hold 
 that domineering (supremacy) strengthens it, while submission 
 weakens it, and were there no domination, the world would not 
 be well adjusted. ' They further say that the prayers of the 
 excellent had the attainment thereof in view when they said 
 (Gen. xxvii. 29), " Let people serve thee and nations bow down 
 to thee." Yea, in this way God distinguished His prophet 
 when He spake to him (Gen. xxxv. 1 1), "And kings shall come 
 out of thy loins." On the other hand, he punished those who 
 deserved punishment by humbling their power; thus it is said 
 (Isa. ix. 14), "Therefore the Lord will cut off from Israel head 
 and foot, branch and rush in one day," and so forth. Sim- 
 pletons, discussing this superciliousness, do not consider that, 
 when they resort thereto, their souls become unduly great, that 
 they overstep their bounds, become overbearing toward their 
 relatives, turn away from their companions, deride the advice of 
 
 1 Guttmann (" Saadya,'' pp. 276, 277, note 2, Emunoth we-Deoth, x. 9) 
 points out that Gabirol closely follows the teaching of Saadya with respect to the 
 love of dominion ; it is worthy of notice that Gabirol quotes the same scriptural 
 passages. S. Landauer (pp. xix.-xxi. of his introduction to the Arabic text of 
 Saadya's work) holds that this chapter, the tenth, is a later addition to the book ; 
 cf. D. S. A. Taubeles (" Saadia Gaon, " Halle, 1S8S, p. 32, note 43). 
 
 57 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 every man, for as much as they rely upon their own opinions 
 and go their own way. But when it is so exercised as to keep 
 one away from baseness, to enable one to rise unto the excel- 
 lences, and to be firm in devotion to God, exalted be He, — 
 which is His highest gift, exalted and magnified may He be, to 
 His servants, — then this becomes the means whereby men gain 
 the grace of God and reach the everlasting kingdom. Of these 
 it is said (Job xxxvi. 7), " He withdraweth not his eyes from the 
 righteous, but with kings are they on the throne ; yea, he doth 
 establish them forever, and they are exalted." But he, who 
 resorts to superciliousness unnecessarily and takes only his own 
 counsel, is like him of whom it was said (Prov. xviii. 1), " He 
 intermeddleth with all wisdom." Men disregard such a man 
 and desire not his presence : of such as these the sage saith 
 (Prov. xxvi. 16), "The sluggard is wiser in his own conceit than 
 seven men that can render a reason." And often, moreover, 
 his vanity impels him to undertake something outside of his 
 usual course of action, because he relies upon his opinion sav- 
 ing him and upon his counsel protecting him. It is this that 
 causes him to stumble; thus it is said (Job v. 12), " He disap- 
 pointeth the devices of the crafty, so that their hands cannot 
 perform their enterprise." Having progressed thus far in our 
 description of the quality of superciliousness, the way in which 
 to make use thereof moderately, and the mode of suppressing 
 its use in the wrong place, we must now proceed to quote very 
 sparingly a few prose utterances of the wise concerning this 
 quality, and whatever verses concerning it we can. 
 
 The divine ' Socrates said : " From whom doth disappoint- 
 ment never part ? He who seeks a rank for which his ability 
 is too feeble." Again he said, " He who sets himself upas 
 wise will be set down by others for a fool." I hold that bad 
 manners are attributable to superciliousness. Socrates said, 
 " Aversion is always felt for him who has an evil nature, so that 
 men flee away from him." Aristotle says, "As the beauty of 
 
 1 The appellation "divine," as applied to Socrates and other Greek philos- 
 ophers, was not uncommon ; cf. Schmiedl (pp. 263, 264). 
 
 58 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 form is a light for the body, so is beauty of character a light for 
 the soul." Again he said in his testament to Alexander his 
 pupil, " It does not show much nobility of purpose on the part 
 of a king to lord it over men ; (the less so) for one man over a 
 fellow-man." A certain haughty man is said to have been 
 journeying along with his effects; some of them fell down, 
 whereupon he threw the others out of the wagon. The ancients 
 say, "With him who is pleased with himself, many become dis- 
 pleased." _ A poet ' composed these lines concerning the blame- 
 worthiness of haughtiness and arrogance : 
 
 " Let him who shows great vanity concerning his beauty 
 consider this ! If men would but consider what is within them, 
 neither young nor old would feel proud. Are there not in the 
 head of every son of man five orifices from which come forth 
 effluvia? The nose exudes, the ear gives forth an unpleasant 
 odor, the eye sheds tears, and the mouth salivates. O son of 
 earth, to be consumed of earth on the morrow, desist from thy 
 pride, for thou wilt be food and drink (to the earth) ! " 
 
 It is told of Ardeshir, 2 the king, that he gave a book to a 
 man accustomed to stand at his side, and said unto him, " When 
 thou seest me become violently angry give it to me," and in the 
 book (was written), " Restrain thyself, for thou art not God ; 
 thou art but a body, one part of which is on the point of con- 
 suming the other, and in a short while it will turn into the 
 worm and dust and nothingness." 
 
 1 The Arabic verses, printed in our text, were not translated into Hebrew by 
 Jehuda ibn Tibbon, the translator of the work. He left them untranslated, with 
 a view to making good at a later time the omission by some Hebrew verses of 
 Gabirol or the verses of another. Cf. Appendix A. p. 106 and Munk (note 4 to p. 
 167). This purpose was never carried out ; cf. Steinschneider (" H. U.," p. 382), 
 and " Ermahnungsschreiben, " p. 9 (through a misprint the number ix. reads xi. ), 
 who had expected to publish these verses The citing of these Arabic verses by 
 Gabirol is taken by Steinschneider (Introduction, "J. Q. R.," xii., p. 609) to 
 show that some Jews must have been versed in this part of Arabic literature. 
 
 2 Called an "Indian King" in the "Choice of Pearls" (No. 538, and note 
 175). Cf. Steinschneider (" H. U.,"p. 388, note 130, and p. 881, note 193), 
 also Dukes (p. 72). 
 
 59 
 
CHAPTER II. 1 
 
 Treating of Meekness.' 
 
 This quality is more nearly a virtue than that which was 
 mentioned just before, because the possessor of this attribute, 
 i.e. , modesty and humility, withholds his desire from seeking 
 gratification. When one attains this precious rank, the praise- 
 worthy character in man is made perfect. This, in my opinion, 
 is a disposition which merits praise for him who acquires it. 
 Verily, he is accorded the loftiest praise. Dost thou not see that 
 humility is the highest degree of the nobles and of the proph- 
 ets, distinguished by their divine rank ? 3 One of them said 
 (Gen. xviii. 27), " I am but dust and ashes " ; another said (Ps. 
 xxii. 7), " I am a worm and no man " ; and so forth. They were 
 praised for their actions and were honored. A man of intelli- 
 gence should know that lowliness and meekness cause him to rea- 
 lize his desire in regard to present things, as thou knowest from 
 the account of what happened to the captains of Achaziah, be- 
 cause of their folly; and what happened to the third captain who 
 gently spake to Elijah (II Kings i. 13), " I pray thee let my life 
 and the life of these thy fifty servants be precious in thy sight." 
 Him there befell the reverse of what had befallen the former. 
 Verily, fame and glory will be the reward of whosoever is lowly. 
 The recompense of meekness is honor and prosperity, and also the 
 deserving of honor. Thus it is said (Prov. xxii. 4), " The reward 
 of humility and the fear of God are riches, and honor, and life. " 
 
 The most excellent of the ancient nobles (may God guide 
 thee aright) were accustomed to exercise the quality of meek- 
 
 1 This chapter is given in a German translation, based on the Hebrew text, in 
 Winter and Wtinsche (vol. ii., pp. 727, 72S), being copied from Dukes (pp. 113- 
 115). 
 
 9 Cf. the chapter on iTOJ?, in " Emunali Raman " (ed. S. Weil, Frankfort, 1852). 
 
 s Cf. Bahya, vi. 8 and 10 ; Briill (p. 75, note 1). 
 
 60 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 ness, and preferred it to their natural impulses. It is related 
 of an illustrious king,' that one night while a number of people 
 were assembled about him, he arose to trim the lamp. Where- 
 upon it was said to him, " Why didst thou not utter a command, 
 which would have sufficed?" And he answered them, "As 
 king I rose, and as king I resume my seat." He was wont to 
 say that " Every grace (of man) is envied, except meekness." 
 The philosopher Buzurjmihr' said, "The fruits of lowliness 
 are love and tranquillity." Know thou that in honoring his 
 brother or his neighbor, man honors himself. Some one has 
 remarked that " lowliness consists in being beforehand with 
 greetings to whomsoever one may meet, and in descending to 
 the lowest rank." Contentment is of a kind with this quality. 
 When one is gifted with its presence, he has already gained su- 
 periority. It is said, " Whomsoever the Lord loveth he inspireth 
 with contentment." Scripture says of the contented servant of 
 God (Prov. xiii. 25), "The righteous eateth to the satisfying of 
 the soul." And it says of the reverse, "But the belly of the 
 wicked shall want." He who possesses strength, health, and 
 a sense of security ought never to feel sad. The fruit of con- 
 tentment is tranquillity. 3 The greatest riches are contentment 
 and patience. One of the sages has said, " He who desires of 
 this world only that which is sufficient for him, will be con- 
 tent with the very least thereof." Another sage was wont to 
 admonish his son, " He who cannot bear with one word, will be 
 compelled to listen to many. He who esteems his rank but 
 slightly, enhances men's estimation of his dignity." In holding 
 the view that it may be right (at times) to repudiate this qual- 
 
 1 Dukes (p. 114, note 2) points out that this tale is cited in Ibn Khallikan (i. 
 526), the King being there called Caliph Omar. 
 
 5 Cf. Steinschneider (" H. U.," p. 382. and "J. Q. R.," xii., p. 606, note 
 3; the reference to the "Ethics" in the same page should be i. 2, not i. 3) ; 
 Dukes (" Blumenlese, " p. 60, note 3), and Landsberger (as above cited, p. 
 223, note to p. 18). 
 
 3 Gabirol's demonstration that patience and contentment are the offshoots of 
 pudency is shown by Brull (p. 75, note 3) to have been copied almost literally by 
 Bahya, vi. 10 (p. 311). 
 
 61 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 ity, I mean thereby that a man should not abase himself before 
 the wicked. With reference to such a case it is said (Prov. xxv. 
 26), "A righteous man, falling down before the wicked, is as a 
 troubled fountain and a corrupt stream." It was said concern- 
 ing this, " He who deserves (the greatest) compassion is the 
 wise man lost among fools. " In the ethical sayings of Lokman 1 
 (we find), " When the noble man forsakes the world, he becomes 
 humble : the ignoble in forsaking the world becomes haughty." 
 In the book of al-Kuti * (it is said), " Be humble without 
 cringing, and manly without being arrogant. Know thou that 
 arrogance is a wilderness and haughtiness a taking refuge 
 therein, and, altogether, a going astray." 
 
 1 Cf. Steinschneider ("H. U.," p. 853). In general see V. Chauvin, " Bib- 
 liographie des Ouvrages Arabes," iii., Louqmane et les Fabulistes, Paris, i8g8. 
 Dukes (" Phil.," p. 161) cites a similar passage attributed to Ibn Ahnaf. 
 
 2 Gabirol refers to an Arabic paraphrase of the Psalms by one IJefes al-Kuti. 
 Cf. Neubauer(" R. E. J.," xxx., pp. 65-69), and Steinschneider (" H. U.," p. 382, 
 note 99, and "J. Q. R.," xiii., p. 312). Cf. also Dukes (p. 105) , who (p. nf, 
 note 2) instances a number of parallels to this maxim of Lokman in the writings 
 of Maimonides, al-Gazzali, etc. 
 
 62 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 On the Qualities of Pudency and Modesty. 
 
 A wise man was asked, " What is intelligence ? " and he 
 answered, " Modesty." Again he was asked, " What is mod- 
 esty?" and he replied, "Intelligence." This quality, although 
 like unto meekness and agreeing therewith, is of a nobler rank 
 than the latter, for it is kindred to intelligence. To every 
 man of understanding the nobility of the intellect is patent, for 
 it is the dividing line between man and beast, in that it mas- 
 ters man's natural impulses and subdues passion. With the 
 help of intelligence man realizes the benefit of knowledge and 
 gets to understand the true nature of things ; he comes to ac- 
 knowledge the Unity of God, to worship his Master, and to 
 bear a striking resemblance to the character of the angels. 1 
 Since this precious quality is of so noble a kind, it follows that 
 modesty which resembles it is almost equally so. The proof 
 of its being thus related is, that thou wilt never see a modest 
 man lacking intelligence, or an intelligent man devoid of mod- 
 esty. This being so, man must direct all his efforts to the 
 attainment of this wonderful and highly considered quality. 
 
 He must prefer it to all his natural impulses, and regard it 
 as superior to all his other qualities, for by means of it he 
 acquires many virtues, and all vice becomes hidden from him. 
 Thus it is said, " The faults of him, whom modesty clothes with 
 dignity, will not be remarked by men." Dignity and honor fol- 
 low upon him. Thus it is said (Prov. xv. 33), "Before honor 
 is humility." The meek find acceptance before God because of 
 their modesty; He brings them unto everlasting bliss. Con- 
 
 1 As to the advantages which accrue to man by reason of his intelligence, cf. 
 Bahya, ii. 5 (p. 114), and Brttll (p. 74, note 2). 
 
 63 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 cerning him who understands its ways, it is said (Ps. xxv. 9), 
 "The meek will He guide in judgment: and the meek will He 
 teach His way." Even as it is necessary that the intelligent 
 man be pudent in the presence of others, so must he be pudent 
 when alone. It was said that, " Pudency and faith are interde- 
 pendent, and either cannot be complete without the other." A 
 poet said, " Keep guard over thy modesty : truly pudency marks 
 the countenance of a nobleman." It is said that "Impudence 
 and a lack of pudency are offshoots of unbelief." He who 
 wishes to acquire pudency should associate with those who are 
 modest with respect to him. An Arab was wont to say, " Pay 
 no regard to any man unless he show thee that he cannot do 
 without thee, even when thou needest him most, so that, if thou 
 sin, he will forgive and act as though he were the sinner; and, 
 if thou wrong him, he will demean himself as though he had 
 been the offender." Another said, "Finally, one learns from 
 the words of prophecy, 'If thou art not pudent, do whatsoe'er 
 thou wilt.' " In the course of a characterization of modesty, 
 the poet said, 
 
 " Upon him reposes the mantel of piety : and, in truth, a 
 light streams from between his eyes." 
 
 Al-fadil says : " By reason of belief and piety, men dwell 
 together for a time. Afterward they are kept together by 
 reason of modesty, pudency, and blamelessness." Aristotle 
 said in his discourse, " As a result of modesty (one's) helpers 
 are multiplied." He was accustomed to say, " In chaste chil- 
 dren modesty clearly rules over their countenance." It was 
 termed pudency 1 only because it is the way to eternal life. A 
 philosopher said, " Modesty asserts itself in the midst of 
 wrath." Again it was said, "The enmity of the modest man 
 is less harmful to thee than the friendship of the fool. " He 
 who desires to guard this quality should not trifle away his 
 dignity when asked to serve men, for when thou hast once 
 worn out thy dignity, thou wilt find no one to renew it for 
 thee. To make use of pudency (that is, to be overpudent), 
 
 1 Play upon the similarity of the words " pudency" and "life" in the Arabic. 
 
 64 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 in speaking the truth or enjoining good acts, in spreading re- 
 ligion and devotion, is blameworthy. In such cases one 
 must not make use of it; thus the saint said (Ps. cxix. 46), 
 " I will speak of thy testimonies also before kings, and will 
 not be ashamed." But it is necessary for man to cover his 
 face with the mantle of modesty before all men, as thou 
 knowest from the case of Saul when he hid himself, (as) it 
 is written (1 Sam. x. 23), "Behold he is hidden among the 
 vessels." God selected him for kingship, as it is written (1 
 Sam. x. 24), "Behold whom the Lord hath chosen." To sum 
 up, according to the opinion of the philosophers and the sages, 
 this quality is one of the virtues of the noble soul, and its rela- 
 tion to these is as that of the spirit to the body. A philoso- 
 pher said, " Modesty consists in conducting affairs in the best 
 way wherein it is possible for them to be conducted, and in 
 leaving them in their best aspects." He who is modest will 
 attain to power. 
 
 65 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Treating of the Quality of Impudence. 
 
 We had much to say on the praiseworthiness of the quality 
 of pudency, but the quantity of blame which we shall mete out 
 to the quality of impudence is small. He who is possessed of 
 the quality of shamelessness is culpable in the eyes of God, 
 as are those of whom it is said (Jer. v. 3), " They have made 
 their faces harder than a rock; they have refused to return." 
 The Saint says with reference to the impudent (Prov. xi. 2), 
 " When pride cometh, then cometh shame," which means that 
 when impudence prevails over the qualities of man, he is 
 scorned by men and not respected. He is not taken seriously, 
 nor is he regarded with that consideration for his wisdom, even 
 though he be learned, which is paid to the pudent. Thus it is 
 written (ib.), "But with the lowly is wisdom." If one is wise 
 and desires to pursue the goodly course which is acceptable 
 unto God, let him abandon this quality, refrain from exercising 
 it, and keep it afar from the character of his soul. Of him 
 who is impudent the prince saith. (id. xxi. 24), " Proud and 
 haughty scorner is his name," by which he means that God will 
 requite according to his doing, whosoever is impudent, as it 
 is written (ib.), " Who dealeth in proud wrath." It is possible 
 also that " Who dealeth in proud wrath " refers to such an im- 
 pudent one as, by reason of the quality of impudence, provokes 
 the displeasure and annoyance of others, and so forth. When 
 this disposition becomes part of man's nature, whosoever is 
 familiar with him must turn him away from it by rebuking 
 him as much as he is able, and by annoying him, until he be 
 rid of all that was in him. Thus it is said (id. xxi. 29), "A 
 wicked man hardeneth his face." Yet impudence (boldness) 
 
 66 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 may be commendable when supporting religion, when perform- 
 ing " service " and speaking the truth. But to oppose thereby 
 the righteous and the Prophets of God is reprehensible. Thus 
 it is said (Ez. ii. 4), " Impudent children and stiff-hearted." 
 If the man who practises this quality be of a yellow (bilious) 
 constitution, and if in the course of his youth he give strong 
 evidence of its possession, he must oppose to it its very reverse. 
 Let him trust in God, and he will accustom himself to avoid 
 this blameworthy quality and subdue it. 
 
 (end of part 1.) 
 
 67 
 
PART II. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 On the Quality of Love. 
 
 It is almost impossible for any man to be secure from this 
 " accident," O God, save he whose intellect is master over his 
 nature. None such exists ; and if any (be found to) exist, he is 
 undoubtedly one of the most excellent (men). Lust is a con- 
 stituent element in the nature of man, and if he desire to be 
 master and ruler, let him cast away lust (passion), make no use 
 .of it whatever, ignore it and do without it, for it is one of the 
 baser qualities. It is well known that the qualities of the wise 
 are not perfected until their souls gain the mastery over their 
 desires. The deeds of him whose intellect prevails over his lust- 
 fulness are commendable. Upon the realization of desires, 
 there ensues the penalty of misfortune. One of the signs of 
 him, who is overcome by his lust, is that he is very changeable, 
 restless, and fickle of speech. Especially if, added to this, the 
 bloody temper prevail in his constitution and he be in the period 
 of youth and the season of spring, then it proves too strong for 
 him. Therefore the wise man must shrink from this quality 
 lest he make use of it and turn away from it, for there is 
 connected with it no inconsiderable harm. Thou knowest how 
 contempt, obscurity, and abasement come upon its devotee, and 
 that finally its outcome is evil. This thou knowest from the 
 story of Amnon and what happened to him when he hastened 
 after his desire. Man ought to employ this quality only in the 
 service of God and His divine Law, as it is written (Ps. i. 2), 
 
 "And his delight is in the law of the Lord," and again {id., 
 
 68 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 cxix. 97), "How I love thy law," etc. Necessarily, one who 
 occupies himself with the quest of knowledge and moral science 
 (theoretical science and the practical arts), will be (so busy as to 
 be) kept from his lusts. The wise one said, " If aught befall 
 thee and no one occur to thee whom thou migbtest consult with 
 reference thereto, avoid it and bring it not near to thy passion, 
 for passion is an enemy of the heart." And he said, " He who 
 is submissive to his lust is routed, and he who rebels against it 
 gains the victory." This quality is preferred by foolish men 
 only because of the imminence (immediateness) of its delight 
 and for the sake of the amusement and merriment and the hear- 
 ing of mirthful songs which they get through it. They heed not 
 the suffering and the wretchedness that follow in its train, and 
 therefore incline in accord with their natural impulses to the 
 attainment of present pleasure, as it is said (Prov. xiii. 19), 
 "The desire accomplished is sweet to the soul " — turning aside 
 from wisdom and the service of the Lord, because of what ap- 
 pears to be the remoteness of the delight and pleasurableness 
 of these things. Verily, in their opinion, these are remote. 
 Yet these are not remote, but near at hand. They are remote 
 only in their mind. Therefore man must devote this quality of 
 love to God, exalted may He be, as it is written (Deut. xi. 1), 
 " Thou shalt love the Lord thy God " ; and to his soul, as it is 
 written (I Sam. xx. 17), " For he loved him as he loved his own 
 soul"; to his relatives, as it is written (Gen. xxix. 18), "And 
 Jacob loved Rachel " ; to his offspring, as it is written {id., 
 xxxvii. 3), " Israel loved Joseph " ; to his country, as it is writ- 
 ten (Num. x. 30), " But I will depart to my own land and to my 
 kindred"; to his companion, as spake David to Jonathan (II 
 Sam. i. 26), " Very pleasant hast thou been unto me " ; to his 
 wife (Prov. v. 19), " Let her be as the loving hind and the pleas- 
 ant roe"-; to wisdom, as it is written (Prov. xxix. 3), "The 
 man that loveth wisdom rejoiceth his father." The moral 
 application of this quality is, man must evince it (in his deal- 
 ings) with all men. It has been said, " He who desires to be 
 endeared to men should conduct himself with regard to them in 
 
 69 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 the best possible manner. Benefit occasions love even as in- 
 jury begets hatred." Moreover, included under this quality are 
 wishes and unattainable desires. It is right for the man of un- 
 derstanding that he train himself (to keep aloof) therefrom. 
 The following is part of what the poets have said concerning 
 such wishes as cannot be realized, and wherefrom the soul real- 
 izes naught except possibly weariness of spirit, continual dis- 
 quietude, and protracted restlessness : 
 
 " My day is a day which is common to men until the dark- 
 ness of the night is fallen, and then my couch wearies me. I 
 spent my day in entertainment and in desire but the night 
 brought me altogether to grief." 
 
 Among other things which have been said with reference to 
 devoting one's self wholly to pleasure and passion, the blamewor- 
 thy outcome of this, and the trouble which is associated there- 
 with, the poet says : 
 
 " We have drunk of the dregs of the wine as if we were 
 kings of the two Iraks and the sea; but when the sun shone 
 brightly, thou mightest have found me with my riches flown, 
 and poverty once more my own." 
 
 When this quality obtains the mastery of the soul, the 
 senses become blunted and man is not conscious because of his 
 being given over to pleasure. He is as those of whom it is 
 said (Isa. v. 20), " Woe unto them that call evil good and good 
 evil." The maxim of the sage is, "Thy love of anything ren- 
 ders thee blind and deaf." One sage, writing to another on 
 the subject of subduing the lusts, said, "Thou shalt not attain 
 what thou lovest until thou suffer much from what thou loath- 
 est. And thou shalt not be delivered from that which thou 
 loathest, until thou suffer much through that which thou lovest." 
 
 70 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 (Treating of) Hate. 
 
 Thou shouldst know that he who hates men is hated by 
 them, and when this quality takes firm hold of the soul, it de- 
 stroys it, because it leads to the hatred of the very food and 
 drink with which man sustains life. Besides, he suffers injury 
 through the hostility of men. When excessive love is expended 
 on other than divine things, it is changed into the most violent 
 hatred. As thou knowest from the expression (II Sam. xiii. 
 15), " Then Amnon hated her exceedingly." He who loves thee 
 for some reason will turn his back, simultaneously with its dis- 
 appearance and ending. Thou must not trust in the counsel of 
 the enemy, the " Hater. " Thus it is written (Prov. xxvii. 6), 
 "The kisses' of an enemy are deceitful." From this quality 
 there branches out fretfulness. Thou knowest how the preva- 
 lence of fretfulness has been censured, the blameworthiness 
 which attaches to its use and the repugnance the soul feels 
 therefor. It has been said that the fretful cannot abide by one 
 state ; he has not a friend ; his circumstances are always dis- 
 turbed, and misery never parts company with him. He is like 
 one of whom it is said (Prov. xii. 27), "The slothful (listless) 
 man roasteth not that which he took in hunting." Thou know- 
 est that many men make a show of friendship in their speech 
 and yet frequently are enemies at heart. Do not trust them, as 
 it is written (id., xxvi. 24), " He that hateth, dissembleth with 
 his lips." Even though he be gentle in discourse with thee, 
 do not associate with him, as it is written (id., 25), "When he 
 speaketh fair, believe him not." Thus Joab also made a show 
 of kind-heartedness and affection for Abner and Amasa before 
 killing them. So also did Ismael favor Guedaliah ben Achi- 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 kam ere he killed him. It is said, " He who sows hatred will 
 reap regret." He who is of this character is ill-disposed to 
 his fellow-man in matters concerning himself and another. So 
 much the more will he be so in those affecting him and his 
 Lord. He acts as though he were praying, but his secret 
 thoughts are quite different. Thus it is written of them (Ps. 
 lxxviii. 36), " Nevertheless they did flatter him with their 
 mouth and they did lie unto him with their tongues," and so 
 forth. The divine Socrates spake unto his disciples, bidding 
 them " Beware of whomsoever your heart hate, for the hearts of 
 men are like a mirror." Thus the sage said (Prov. xxvii. 19), 
 " As in water, face answereth to face, so the heart of man to 
 man." Souls are alike, and the most harmful and persistent 
 form of hatred is that caused by envy. The poet saith, 
 
 " Thou canst cure all manner of enmity except the enmity 
 which comes to thee through envy." 
 
 In the book of al-Kuti (it is said), " The very best that 
 thou canst look forward to in regard to thy enemies is that thou 
 bring them back to the love of thee, if that be possible." 
 
 72 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 Treating of the Quality of Mercy and Compassion 
 (Pity), the Praise of its Possessors, and an Exhor- 
 tation to Give Preference Thereto. This Forms 
 the Seventh Chapter of the Book. 
 
 Since this quality is of a kind with the nature of the Crea- 
 tor, may He be greatly praised and mightily exalted, it is com- 
 plementary to the twelve attributes especially characteristic of 
 Him, i.e. , the thirteen qualities which are ascribed to the Lord 
 of Worlds, viz., " The Lord eternal is a merciful and gracious 
 God," and so forth. That which it is possible for the wise man 
 to aim at in action is, — being slow to anger, "long-suffering," 
 and largely generous, as it is said, "abundant in loving-kind- 
 nesses," tolerant of sin, as it it is said, "Forgiving iniquity," 
 and so forth. The upright and wise man must emulate these 
 as far as he is able to do. Even as man desires that he be dealt 
 with mercifully, when compelled to seek help, so must he be 
 merciful to whosoever seeks his help. This quality is extremely 
 praiseworthy, and God, exalted may He be, has distinguished 
 His righteous servants through their love therefor. As thou 
 knowest of Joseph, where it is said (Gen. xliii. 30), "His bow- 
 els did yearn upon his brother. " The intelligent man has the 
 qualities of pity and compassion implanted in his soul and ever 
 present therein. The sage said, " Mercy is the result of kind- 
 liness and honesty. " In regard to it, Solomon the Wise spake 
 when he exhorted to mercy and compassion (Prov. xxiv. 11), 
 " If thou forbear to deliver them that are born unto death." 
 A beautiful feature of this quality in connection with the Crea- 
 tor, exalted and hallowed may He be, is that He is merciful in 
 dealing with all His creatures. Thus it is said (Ps. cxlv. 9), 
 
 73 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 "The Lord is good to all, and His tender mercies are over all 
 His works." In the book of Al-Kuti, it is said, "Spare no 
 effort to deliver those who are confronted with death." Again 
 he said, " Do not wrong the weak, for their Protector is God, 
 the mighty One. " He said, " Prosperous are they whose heart 
 is ever merciful and meek," and again we find therein, " He who 
 is not merciful will die by the hand of one who is merciless." 
 
 74 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Treating of Hard-heartedness. This is the Eighth 
 Chapter of the Book. 
 
 I do not find this quality among righteous or superior men. 
 But it is (to be found) in him whose nature resembles that of 
 a lion, for he is one who is never sated. These are the ones of 
 whom it is said (Deut. xxviii. 50), "A nation of fierce counte- 
 nance." Upon my soul, this is a wholly detestable quality, 
 whether (its measure be) great or small. It comes into being 
 when the spirit of wrath prevails over a man. This quality 
 is exercised for the purpose of wreaking vengeance upon ene- 
 mies. There is no harm in making use of it in this manner, 
 although the intelligent man ought not endeavor to be avenged 
 upon his enemies. For this is not befitting. Thus saith 
 the sage (Prov. xxiv. 17), "Rejoice not when thy enemy fall- 
 eth." To make use of it in order that one may do evil to his 
 fellow-man, to kill him, or to lay hold of the possessions of one 
 who has given no offence, is reprehensible. From such as 
 these may God preserve me, for of their ilk, the Saint said 
 (Ps. cxxiv., 1 and 3), " If it had not been the Lord who was on our 
 side, now may Israel say" : "Then they had swallowed us up 
 quick, when their wrath was kindled against us." A proof that 
 this quality is only found in the wicked is the expression (Prov. 
 xii. 10), "But the tender mercies of the wicked are cruel." 
 Plato, the author of the laws in regard to vengeance, said, " He 
 who desires to be revenged upon his enemies should add (a de- 
 gree of) excellence to himself," 
 
 END OF PART II. 
 
 75 
 
PART III. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Treating of Joy (Cheerfulness). This is the Ninth 
 Chapter of the Book. 
 
 This quality is found to differ in various men. Sometimes, 
 it is natural ; this is the case in him whose temper is humid- 
 hot as is that of blood ; especially when his hopes are well 
 ordered and never confounded, and who, in addition, is far from 
 experiencing suffering and free from affliction. It is but 
 meet that in the nature of him who is of this character there 
 appear the sign of this quality — that his exterior be sound, his 
 health robust, and old age without haste in overtaking him. 
 Thus it is said of such an one (Prov. xvii. 22), "A merry heart 
 doeth good like a medicine, but a broken spirit dries the bones. " 
 Sometimes it is coincident with the attainment of the desire 
 and the realization of a wish. Peculiar to it is continual smil- 
 ing without (apparent) cause. Very often lightmindedness ac- 
 companies it, whereof it is written (Eccl. vii. 6), " For as the 
 crackling of thorns under a pot, so is the laughter of the fool." 
 It has been said that one of the distinguishing marks of the 
 fool is his laughing when there is no occasion for laughter. I 
 hold that this quality is to be found in the souls of those, above 
 all, who are free from defilement, the righteous, the pious, 
 the pure, destined for the Heavenly Kingdom, rising to spir- 
 ituality, i.e., the souls of the upright, for they are in perfect 
 enjoyment of their condition of service and greatly rejoiced be- 
 cause of their worship, as it is written (Ps. xxxii. 11)," Be glad 
 in the Lord and rejoice, ye righteous; and shout for joy, all ye 
 
 76 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 that are upright in heart." The well-bred man ought not to i\ 
 dulge in laughter when seated in an assembly, for it was said that 
 for him who laughs much, but little respect is felt. Facetious- 
 ness takes away the veil of dignity. Even as anxiety (appre- 
 hensiveness) when it is aroused gives rise to weeping, so glad- 
 ness, when it is stirred, incites to laughter. Therefore the 
 intelligent man ought to understand that this quality and some 
 other qualities are not of the rational soul, as Galen holds, but 
 of the animal soul. The proof of this is that thou seest laugh- 
 ter break out in spite of dreadful events. Often, too, man is 
 unable to refrain therefrom. The same is held with regard to 
 wrath and other qualities. Considering this, man should urgent- 
 ly seek to render his animal soul submissive to his rational soul : 
 namely, that his intellect guide his nature. When he does this, 
 he becomes included among the most excellent men. Where- 
 fore Socrates says in regard to joy, "Whatever causes joy 
 causes sorrow." In the ethics of Diogenes, treating of joy, he 
 states : " Joy is life and exaltation to the heart, whereas grief 
 is distress and destruction." 
 
 77 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 Treating of Grief (Apprehensiveness). This is the 
 Tenth Chapter of the Book. 
 
 This quality usually succeeds in establishing itself in the 
 soul when wishes fail of realization, and then the soul is 
 brought to such a point as almost to be killed when it loses the 
 objects of its love. Oh, what a quality is this ! How serious 
 a matter when it comes into evidence, and how waste is its place 
 when it prevails ! Thus it was said, " Apprehensiveness is a 
 living death." I have determined to linger here a little in the 
 discussion of this chapter. Perhaps God will grant us His 
 grace and inspire us with excellent words, which may relieve 
 the sadness of man, so that he may find healing in our discourse, 
 because it is impossible to find healing for psychical ills other 
 than in spiritual remedies. As this takes firmer hold of the 
 soul, so also it becomes more difficult to find the remedy. Of 
 God we pray that He protect us therefrom in His graciousness. 
 
 The constitution of apprehensiveness is cold and dry, like 
 the black gall (humor). No man can absolutely escape it. In 
 some it attains immense proportions, so that they thereby be- 
 come afflicted with psychical ailments. Thus it is said (Prov. 
 xii. 25), " Gloom in the heart of man maketh it stoop, but a 
 good word maketh it glad." Know thou that this quality is 
 generally visible in the countenance, as thou hast seen in the 
 case of Joseph, who discerned what was in the heart of " the 
 servants of Pharaoh," when he beheld their austere counte- 
 nances; it being said (Gen. xl. 6), "And he looked upon them, 
 and behold they were sad," and as Artaxerxes said to Nehe- 
 miah (Neh. ii. 2), " Why is thy countenance sad, seeing thou art 
 not sick." Thus it is obvious that this quality is generally dis- 
 
 78 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBX GABIROL 
 
 tinctly visible in the countenance. Thou shouldst know that 
 if a man be madly in love with this world,' which is a world 
 de gencrationc et corruptionc, he never omits to seek the grati- 
 fication of the senses, constantly moving on from one thing to an- 
 other. If he attain them and then lose them, gloom overcomes 
 him. On the other hand, if he be made to forget this world, 
 and apply himself to the world of intellect, then it becomes 
 possible for him to escape the psychical ills, which are (occa- 
 sioned by) worldly acquisitions, — that is, if he turn away from 
 vain works and incline in the fulness of the soul to ethical sci- 
 ence and religious laws. Therefore the intellectual man ought 
 to cast away the lowly quality of the masses and the grandiose 
 manner of kings. If it be impossible for a man to have what 
 he desires, he must desire what he has. Let him not prefer 
 continual gloom. We ought to strive to cure our souls of this 
 evil (disease), in the same way as we must suffer hardships in 
 trying to cure our bodies and to rid them of diseases by means of 
 burning and cutting (fire and iron), and so forth. Rather must 
 we gradually accustom ourselves to improve our souls through 
 strength of purpose, and to endure a little difficulty in order 
 that, as a result of this, we may pursue a praiseworthy course. 
 We know, moreover, that if we represent to ourselves that no 
 misfortune will befall us, it is as though we desired not to exist 
 at all. Because misfortunes are a necessary condition of the 
 passing of worldly things. If this were not, there could be no 
 becoming. Ergo, to wish that no accident should come to pass 
 is like wishing not to exist. But existence is (a part) of nature, 
 and annihilation likewise is (a part) of nature. Then if we 
 desire that this be not (a part) of nature, we desire the impossi- 
 ble; he who desires the impossible will have his wish denied, 
 and he whose wish is denied is miserable. We ought to be 
 ashamed to give the preference to this quality, grief, and we 
 should yearn to rise unto a state of beatitude. Let him who 
 would not mourn represent to his soul the things that lead to 
 mourning, as though they already were ; thus, for example, let 
 
 1 Cf. Bahya, x. 7 (P- 45i)> i*- 7 (P- -4-5) ; Briill (p. 77, note 2). 
 
 79 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 man say, "A certain possession of mine will be destroyed and I 
 will mourn for it," accounting it as already destroyed, or (con-, 
 sidering) as already lost that which he loves. Concerning this, 
 the poet-philosopher said : 
 
 " The man of prudence grows up, representing to himself 
 his mishaps before they befall him ; if they befall him sud- 
 denly, they will not terrify him because of the things already 
 pictured in his soul. He sees that one thing will lead to an- 
 other, and therefore he knows the end from the beginning." 
 
 But not the least trace of apprehensiveness is to be found in 
 those who are of lofty souls and noble aspirations. Socrates 
 was asked, " Why do we never perceive in thee any sign of ap- 
 prehensiveness ? " And he answered, "Because I have never 
 possessed anything over the loss of which I would grieve." 
 Wherefore let the intelligent man consider that there is nothing 
 in this world of all that grows, save it be insignificant at the 
 outset, and afterward develops, except grief, which is greatest 
 on the day it comes into being, and the longer it continues the 
 less it becomes, until it entirely disappears. The firm and re- 
 solute man is he who braces himself up with all his might in the 
 hour of his affliction. Alexander, in order to console his mother 
 about himself (in the event of his death), wrote to her as fol- 
 lows : " My mother, order a great and fortified city to be built 
 when the news of Alexander's death reaches you. Prepare 
 therein for eating and drinking, and gather together in it, on an 
 appointed day, men from all the lands to eat and drink. When 
 that has been done and all the men are ready to eat and drink 
 what the queen has prepared, let it be proclaimed at that mo- 
 ment that no man should enter her abode whom misfortune has 
 befallen." And thus she did upon the death of Alexander. 
 But when she ordered that no one whom misfortune had befal- 
 len should enter her house, she noticed (that) no one (came). 
 Then she felt sure that he had only wished to comfort her about 
 himself. 
 
 Alexander had heard from Aristotle, his master, that "Grief 
 injures the heart and destroys it." He wished to ascertain the 
 
 80 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 truth of this. He therefore decided upon an animal, the nature 
 of which was nearest to that of man, confined it in a dark place, 
 and allotted to it nourishment only sufficient to sustain its body. 
 Afterward he led it forth and slaughtered it : whereupon he 
 found its heart dissolved and melted away. Then he knew that 
 Aristotle had spoken nothing but the truth. Among the 
 words spoken by Galen on grief (we find), " Apprehensive- 
 ness is a consuming of the heart, and sadness is a sickness of 
 the heart." Afterward he explained this, saying, "Sadness is 
 felt for what is past, and apprehensiveness for what may occur.'' 
 In another place again (he said), " Sadness (is occasioned) by 
 what has occurred, and apprehensiveness is (felt) for what may 
 come to pass. Therefore beware of sadness, for sadness is the 
 end of life." Dost thou not see that when the face of man is 
 overclouded (with sadness), he will perish of grief. One of the 
 sages said, " Drinking poison is easier (to endure) than appre- 
 hensiveness." Now, if one should ask what benefit is derived 
 from choosing this quality at the occurrence of misfortune 
 and its appearance, I would answer that in shedding the tears 
 which have become spoiled and stagnant, and which nature is 
 incapable of returning to their place, we pour out the putrid 
 humors, which have become rotten, the chyme, and we remedy 
 it through purifying drugs, and thus we cleanse the humor in 
 such a manner as to cause it to return to its original state. 
 Thus it is known that in some small children there is a spoiled 
 excess, which cannot be passed off save through weeping. 
 This, then, is the natural use of weeping. Wherefore Socrates 
 said, " Sorrows are a species of ills of the heart, as diseases are 
 ills of the body." Among the words of Ptolemy on this (sub- 
 ject are), " Let him who wishes to live long, prepare to meet 
 misfortunes with a patient heart." 
 
 81 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 Treating of Tranquillity. This is the Eleventh 
 Chapter of the Book. 
 
 This quality is commendable when a man directs it in faith 
 in the Lord, and places his reliance and his confidence in Him. 
 Thus it is said (Prov. xxii. 19), "That thy trust may be in the 
 Lord." This is a praiseworthy disposition : its possessor is 
 worthy of very good fortune and abundant mercy from God, as 
 it is written (Ps. xxxii. 10), "He that trusteth in the Lord, 
 mercy shall compass him about." He who is in this state de- 
 serves to be blest, as it is said (Jer. xvii. 7), " Blessed is the 
 man that trusteth in the Lord and whose hope the Lord is." 
 This quality is usually found in the upright, those who fear 
 God and who are referred to in the command, which declares 
 (Ps. cxv. 11), "Ye that fear the Lord, trust in the Lord." The 
 excellence of this quality and its merit before God, exalted be 
 He, (is seen in the fact that) He promised it to Jacob during 
 his sleep, as it is said (Isa. xliv. 2), " Fear not, O Jacob, my 
 servant," and as it is said of the righteous man who trusts in 
 the Lord and who confides in Him (Ps. cxii. 7), " He shall not 
 be afraid of evil tidings : his heart is fixed, trusting in the 
 Lord." 
 
 8 r 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Treating of Penitence (Remorse) and Guarding Against 
 (the Need of) It. This is the Twelfth Chapter 
 of the Book. 
 
 This quality comes into being, when a man quits a sinful 
 state and repents. When he gives evidence of the quality of 
 penitence, then his repentance is complete. It must be pre- 
 ceded by three conditions, namely, penitence, seeking pardon, 
 and guaranteeing to abandon one's wonted course. Thus our 
 master Saadya Alfayumi, may God be gracious unto him, ex- 
 plained that one of the righteous was wont to say, " He who 
 repents of his past sins is as though he had not sinned." This 
 trait is commendable from this point of view. But the repre- 
 hensible side of it comes to light in the case of him who says 
 " Yes " to-day in some matter and after a time regrets what he 
 has said and retracts, or who vows to fast or to give alms and 
 repents of his vow. All this is blameworthy. The reasonable 
 way, in my opinion, is for man to beware of placing himself in 
 a position which he may be compelled to regret. Although 
 men have not the power so to control themselves, that they can 
 choose (all) their qualities, nevertheless they can desire to rise 
 gradually from a base to a lofty course, and from faulty qualities 
 to sound ones. The acme of bliss for man is to be able to bri- 
 dle his soul, to rule it, to lead it along the right way. He 
 whose nature yields to his intellect becomes lordly; his merit 
 becomes high and profitable, and his deeds are praised. 
 
 end of the third part. 
 
 33 
 
PART IV. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Treating of Wrath. This is the Thirteenth Chapter 
 of the Book. 
 
 This quality, although among the forces of the animal soul, 
 we have set down as one of the qualities of man, because of 
 its analogy to his other qualities. Let us begin by describing 
 its useful side, although the latter is inseparable from its bane- 
 ful aspect. There is no quality so reprehensible, but that it at 
 times serves a use, even as no quality is so praiseworthy, but 
 that it frequently becomes detrimental. Thus thou knowest 
 that silence is a commendable trait, but it becomes detestable 
 when resorted to while listening to absurdities. Wrath is a 
 reprehensible quality, but when employed to correct or to re- 
 prove, or because of indignation at the performance of trans- 
 gressions, it becomes laudable. Therefore the thoroughly wise 
 and ethically trained man must abandon both extremes and set 
 about the right mean. 1 Galen said in his book on the qualities of 
 the soul, "Wrath and anger are two words with one meaning.'' 
 "Sometimes it appears, (to judge) from the countenance of the 
 wrathful, that he is distressed, his body feverishly inflamed, his 
 heart throbbing violently, his pulse beating strongly and 
 
 1 Rosin thinks that Maimonides followed Gabirol in his emphasis upon the 
 Aristotelian " middle way " (p. 12, note 1 ; p. 14, note 3 ; p. 26, note 1 ; pp. 27, 
 28, note 2; pp. 79-82). Cf. also Rosin ("J. Q. R.," iii., pp. 16S, 169), Wolff 
 (chap, iv., pp. 15-17), Dukes (pp. 99-101, notes 2, 3 and 4, and " Phil. ," pp 66, 
 67. and notes). Schmiedl (p. 268 note 1) says very truly that the Aristotelian 
 doctrine of "the golden mean," " via media," became in time " ein wahrhaft, 
 jlidischethisch&r Lehrsatz. " 
 
 ?4 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 swiftly." He said again, " Dignity becomes apparent in him 
 who indulges in wrath only after reflection. But he who in- 
 dulges therein unadvisedly gives evidence of stupidity." Where- 
 fore the saying, " He who is mighty in wrath and violent in 
 anger is not far removed from the mad." In the book of Al- 
 Kuti (it is said) that the man of wrath is never seen to be joy- 
 ful. We would classify the wrathful soul as of four kinds.' 
 He who is quickly angered and (as) quickly appeased is of an 
 even-balanced disposition. This is mainly characteristic of a 
 man possessed of a yellow (bilious) temperament. He who is 
 slow to anger and difficult to appease is likewise of an even- 
 balanced disposition. But he who is difficult to appease and 
 quickly angered is in a reprehensible condition because he has 
 overstepped the boundaries of moderation. But he who is slow 
 to anger and quickly appeased is most praiseworthy. This is 
 one of the virtues of the noble and excellent men, among 
 whose qualities wrath rarely ever appears. Those who subdue 
 their souls' anger and prevail upon their nature to restrain it, 
 have been described as noble and characterized as exalted. 
 Thus the sage said (Prov. xvi. 32), " He that is slow to anger is 
 better than the mighty." This is one of the thirteen attributes 
 ascribed to God, exalted is He, in the passage (Ex. xxxiv. 6), 
 " And the Lord passed by before him," etc. It is said that as 
 scab is a disease of the body, so is wrath a disease of the soul. 
 The moral man must not become wrathful often, because, by 
 reason of his wrath, he is compelled to bear burdens. Thus 
 saith the sage (Prov. xix. 19), "A man of great wrath 
 shall bear punishment." The sage has forbidden it, saying 
 (Eccl. vii. 9), "Be not hasty in thy spirit to be angry." Fur- 
 thermore the verse makes clear the reason for his forbidding it 
 in the expression (ib.), "For anger resteth in the bosom of 
 fools." The wrathful deserves to be called "fool." It is im- 
 possible in most cases for the man of violent wrath to be secure 
 from grave sin and serious transgression. Thus the sage spake 
 
 1 Aristotelian j cf. " Moral Philosophy of Aristotle," by W. M. Hatch (Lon- 
 don, 1879, p. 223 et seq.). 
 
 35 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 (Prov. xxix. 22): "A wrathful man aboundeth in transgression." 
 Thou wilt notice that most men, when they become wroth and 
 violently angry, take no heed of the disaster which they may 
 incur through the violence of their anger, like him of whom it 
 is said (id., 1 1), " A fool uttereth all his mind," and on the other 
 hand (ib.), " But a wise man keepeth it till afterward." There- 
 fore our masters, peace be upon them, sought to interdict the 
 immoderate exercise of this quality, saying, " He who rends his 
 garments in wrath is like unto an idolator. " Acording to this, 
 a superior man must not be violent in wrath, for he accustoms 
 himself to the qualities of the wild and wicked beast. Nor 
 must he be so gentle as never to become wrathful, for this were 
 characteristic of little boys. ' The discreet stand with refer- 
 ence to this is to take the intermediate course. Thou must 
 know that man's reason is perfected when it subdues his wrath. 
 Thus Scripture says (Prov. xix. 11), "The discretion of a man 
 deferreth his anger." Ptolemy, the sage, said of wrath, 
 " When thou becomest wrathful, pardon, for if thou dost not 
 yield, the taking 2 of vengeance is a sign of weakness." 
 
 1 Attributed to Aristotle in an article on ' ' Ruhmliche Denkmale der Joiner 
 aus den Tttrkischen," Diez (vol. i., p. 83); cf. Hatch (above cited, p. 223). 
 
 2 Versified by Steinschneider ("Manna," chap, i., p. 89); cf. Bahya, vi. 7, 
 and Brull (p. 77, note 3). 
 
 86 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 Treating of the Quality of Good-Will (Suavity). 
 This is the Fourteenth Chapter of the Book. 
 
 This is one of the praiseworthy qualities, since it is rarely 
 to be met with, except in the case of a noble-minded person, 
 who accepts things just as they come to him and looks not for 
 better ones. The quality of contentment is also derived 
 therefrom. This is, as thou knowest, reader, an excellent qual- 
 ity, which we have portrayed and extolled above in the second 
 chapter of Part I., whilst treating of the quality of meekness. 
 If the righteous man be well disposed toward his fellow-men 
 and the latter similarly disposed toward him, it is certain that 
 he will be acceptable unto God. 1 Yea, more, even his enemies 
 will make peace with him. Thus the sage saith (Prov. xvi. 7), 
 " When a man's ways please the Lord, he maketh even his ene- 
 mies to be at peace with him," as thou knowest from the good- 
 will Abimelech bore Abraham, peace be upon him, and the lat- 
 ter's making peace with him ; thus also in the speech of our 
 sainted Rabbi to R. Hiyya, and so forth. Wherefore the excel- 
 lence of good-will is related to life, being a source of superior- 
 ity and a fount of good fortune according to the saying (id. , xvi. 
 15), "In the light of the king's countenance is life; and his 
 favor is as a cloud of the latter rain." So also in that of man ; 
 thus Pharaoh bore good-will to Joseph, even bringing him unto 
 kingly power. Thus Ahasuerus, too, bore good-will to Morde- 
 cai. Thou seest how such a man is treated and exalted; how 
 much more he to whom God bears good-will, — therefore the say- 
 ing (Isa.xlviii. 17), " I am the Lord thy God which teacheth thee 
 
 1 Cf. Diez (vol. i., p. 18, No. 29); cf. Bahya, v. 5, and vii. 10 (pp. 270, 271), 
 and Brttll (p. 76, note 1). 
 
 87 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 to profit, which leadeth thee by the way that thou shouldst go." 
 The sage said, " Whosoever is contented is rich : whosoever is 
 obedient is joyous: whosoever is rebellious is sad. " He was 
 wont to say, " He who is not content of his own accord with 
 his condition will be (compelled to be) satisfied despite him- 
 self." From this quality there branch out forbearance and for- 
 giveness, which are of the attributes of the Creator, exalted is 
 He and blest, and of the wise and noble man. The poet spake, 
 " If I were not to pardon a brother's fault, and if I were to 
 say that I would exact vengeance from him, where then would 
 be the superiority? And if I were to cut myself from my 
 brethren because of their sins, I would be alone, and have 
 none with whom to associate. " 
 
 It is related : " A king once became angry at a company of 
 men and commanded that they be slain. Then spake one of 
 them, 'Verily we have sinned grievously. Will not thy good- 
 liness manifest itself in forgiveness ? ' Whereupon he forgave 
 them and slew them not." 
 
 88 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 Treating of Jealousy. This is the Fifteenth Chapter 
 
 of the Book. 
 
 This quality is an offshoot of wrath. Most rational beings 
 are not exempt from it : but it is in them all, for we see men 
 seeking to imitate the actions of their companions. For instance, 
 when one (man) sees that his friend has acquired some worldly 
 gain, mineral, animal, or vegetable, or other possessions, he 
 likewise endeavors to acquire similar things, although he be 
 able to dispense with them or compensate himself with other 
 things in their stead. Let him not protract his endeavor, nor 
 set his heart upon attaining such possessions. This is the ex- 
 pression to which the sage, peace be upon him, gave utterance 
 (Eccl. iv. 4), "Again I considered all travail and every right 
 work, that for this a man is envied of his neighbor." He whose 
 nature is overcome by this disposition is blameworthy, for it 
 leads him to envy, and a noble man is never found to be envious. 
 Books (z. e., of poetry) have been filled with the censure of envy, 
 and every man of intelligence knows how much has been said 
 as to its baseness. It is necessary to turn from it, for fre- 
 quently the affairs of the envious lead him to use violence. 
 Thus it is said of such as these (Micah ii. 2), "And they covet 
 fields and take them by violence." Enviousness is a loathsome 
 trait. The wise man must keep himself as far from it as he 
 can, for he gains no advantage through it : on the contrary, 
 continued depression and fatigue of the spirit through desires 
 and the constant hatred of men, scantiness of repose, preoc- 
 cupation of the mind, apprehensiveness and the punishment of 
 God, for transgressing that which He forbade in His revealed 
 Scripture. Man must not be jealous of unrighteous men, be- 
 
 89 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 cause he sees them devote themselves to pleasure and (the grati- 
 fying of) passions. But let him employ his zeal in the service 
 of God. Thus the sage said (Prov. xxiii. 17), "Let not thy 
 heart be envious of the sinners." Again he spake (Ps. xxxvii. 
 1), "Be thou not envious against the workers of iniquity." 
 Zeal is goodly only in the service of God, as thou knowest from 
 (the case of) Phinehas, of whom it is said (Num. xxv. 11)," While 
 he was zealous for my sake," and the good reward which he 
 merited thereby, as it is said (id., 12), " Wherefore, say, behold 
 I give unto him my covenant of peace." Among the things 
 which have been said with reference to the jealous and envious 
 (we find), "Thou wilt observe the envious man effusive in his 
 affection (for thee) when he meets thee, but hating thee in 
 thy absence. His name is friend, his intention unfriendly." 
 Again it has been said, " It appears as though the envious were 
 created in order to be angered." Furthermore it has been said, 
 " Let it suffice for thee that the envious man is grieved at 
 the time of thy joy." It is incumbent upon man to mount to 
 such an exalted rank with the aid of his powers and gifts, that 
 he be envied therefor. " Let him ponder over this, as saith the 
 poet: 
 
 " Lo, I was envied, but God increased men's enyiousness 
 touching me. Let man rather not live at all than live for a 
 single day unenvied. Man is not envied save for his excellences, 
 which are forbearance, scholarship, nobility, and generosity." 
 
 90 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Treating of Wide-awakedness. This is the Sixteenth 
 Chapter of the Book. 
 
 I must preface, in treating of this quality, of what nature it 
 is derived. I would hold that it is of the yellow-gall species. 
 This quality appears usually when the soul is free from other 
 blamable qualities and when it is not mingled with aught of 
 grief, and most frequently it is (found) in pure and noble souls. 
 It is a commendable quality, and man ought to make use of it in 
 whatsoever work of art or science he be engrossed. Was it not 
 said of him (Prov. xii. 27), "The substance of a wide-awake 
 man is precious," which means that the most precious virtue of 
 the lofty is wide-awakedness, both in the present and future 
 life. In the world de generatione et corruptione, he is wide- 
 awake in his quest of knowledge as well as goodness of service 
 and faith, and in the attempt to attain to the world of intellect. 
 With reference to the reverse of this quality, i. e., weakness of 
 purpose in worldly affairs and in the attempt to save souls, it 
 has been said (Prov. xxiv. 10), "If thou faint in the day of ad- 
 versity thy strength is small"; and again (id. , xii. 27), "The 
 slothful man roasteth not that which he took in hunting." 
 However, we have mentioned the languid while treating of the 
 quality of hatred. He who is one of the estimable, and admin- 
 isters his affairs with alacrity, will succeed in them. Thus it 
 is said (Prov. xii. 24), "The hand of the diligent shall bear 
 rule; but the slothful shall be under tribute." Concerning 
 this the poet spake : 
 
 " If the souls become too greatly ambitious, the bodies 
 will be wearied thereby." 
 
 This is a beautiful maxim. The sage, peace be upon him, 
 exhorted to wide-awakedness in matters religious and worldly 
 
 9 1 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 in saying (Prov. xix. 15), " Slothfulness casteth into a deep 
 sleep." This saying is very evident, for slothfulness necessa- 
 rily induces lethargy. For when the vapors, which are de- 
 signed to exude from the pores of the body through forcible 
 movements, are motionless and do not dissolve, they mount to 
 the brain, and bring about constant drowsiness. In the book 
 of Al-Kuti it is said of wide-awakedness, " He who satisfies his 
 land in respect of cultivation, will be satisfied by it with bread." 
 The ethical aspect of this quality is, " Man must not display it 
 in his lust." He shall not be rash through this in his wrath, 
 for rashness is blameworthy since it is not one of the qualities 
 of the wise. The excellent do not make use of it. But one 
 ought to employ wide-awakedness in matters relating to religion 
 and law. The surest reason for the success of a man is (to be 
 found in) the wide-awakedness with which he conducts his 
 affairs, and the greatest sign of misfortune is his slothfulness 
 with regard to them. The poet has said : 
 
 " The pure and noble souls are wakeful, watchful, and sound 
 of judgment, while the stupid and heavy souls are drowsy, mean, 
 and low." 
 
 But that intense wide-awakedness which leads to hastiness 
 is culpable. Let the intelligent man beware of using it, for it 
 is the very worst of evils. 1 He who is hasty, rushes to destruc- 
 tion, and the man of hastiness is not secure from disappoint- 
 ment. A verse reads : 
 
 "A cautious man will realize his desires. But he who 
 hastens unduly is bound to stumble." 
 
 Man must not make undue haste in his affairs, because no 
 good result can be obtained by haste, but through deliberation 
 ends are (more) easily attained. The beauty of the state of 
 wide-awakedness lies in its being potential in the soul and not 
 appearing quickly in action. 
 
 1 Attributed to Plato ; cf. " Denkwurdigkeiten " (above cited, vol. i., p. 82); 
 paraphrased by Steinschneider (" Manna," chap. iii. , p. go). 
 
 END OF PART IV. 
 92 
 
PART V. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Treating of the Quality of Liberality (Generosity). 
 This is the Seventeenth Chapter of the Book. 
 
 This quality, when it is employed with moderation' and 
 does not lapse into prodigality, is commendable. Man must 
 prefer this quality to its antithesis, i.e., the quality of niggard- 
 liness, since the great men who are renowned by reason of their 
 excellences are not convinced that niggardliness is a praise- 
 worthy quality. Dost thou not see, may God guide thee aright, 
 in how many places the sage extols the man who is generous? 
 In one place he says that liberality brings a man to many de- 
 grees of eminence in this world and in the world to come. 
 Thus it is said (Prov. xviii. 16), "A man's gift maketh room 
 for him and bringeth him before great men " — in this world, 
 because it brings him near to kings whose good-will he gains 
 through gifts ; as thou knowest from the respect of Ben Hadad 
 for Asa, and Tiglath for Ahaz, because presents were made to 
 them — and in the world to come he will attain the merited 
 (share of its) bliss, which man realizes because of his serving 
 the Lord with his substance in almsgiving. Thus it is said 
 (Isa. liii. 12), "Therefore will I divide him a portion with the 
 great." Since liberality was a virtue of our father Abraham, 
 peace be upon him, he became known thereby and it was ascribed 
 to him. This quality is attributed to him in the Holy Scrip- 
 ture in several places, and thus is to be understood the explana- 
 
 1 Maimonides (Wolff, p. 16) likewise holds that liberality is the golden mean 
 between prodigality and niggardliness. 
 
 93 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GA.BIROL 
 
 tion of (Ps. xlvii. 9), " The generous of the people are gathered 
 together, even the people of the God of Abraham." This is a 
 commendable quality because it secures honor for him who 
 exercises it. Thus it is said (Prov. xix. 6), " Many will entreat 
 the favor of the generous, and every man is a friend to him 
 that giveth gifts." Through this a man merits his fellow-men's 
 praise when he gives generously, and he is lauded therefor. 
 Thus spake a poet : 
 
 " When thou goest to him, thou wilt find him of pleasant 
 demeanor as if thou wert about to give him what he will give 
 thee. Had he naught but his life to give, he would give this. 
 Wherefore, let the fear of God be upon whomsoever would ask 
 this of him." 
 
 But the unseemly side of this quality appears when man 
 wastes his substance needlessly and mismanages it; as, for in- 
 stance, he who spends it in devotion to pleasures and in gratify- 
 ing his lust. This is squandering and is not characteristic of 
 the wise. A gift in the right place is a treasure put aside. It 
 perisheth not in the course of time, but abideth with the ages. 
 This is the opinion of Solomon, peace be upon him, who said 
 (Eccl. xi. 1), "Cast thy bread upon the waters; for thou shalt 
 find it after many days." This verse evidently exhorts to gen- 
 erosity, for if man be generous and bountiful, he will reap the 
 fruit thereof. Thus spake the poet : 
 
 " Sow thou generosity in the field of gifts, and noble deeds 
 shall be harvested by thee early." 
 
 Wherefore man ought to know that if he be in a prosperous 
 condition, then his generosity will not impair his prosperity, 
 and if he be in a straitened condition, his adversity will not 
 continue on that account. It is peculiar to this noble quality, 
 that he who employs it never feels the want of anything; on the 
 contrary, his abundance is much increased. Thus it is said 
 (Prov. xxviii. 27) : " He that giveth unto the poor shall not 
 lack." Furthermore, David the Saint, peace be upon him, 
 says of generous and liberal men (Ps. cxii. 9), " He hath dis- 
 persed, he hath given to the poor : his righteousness endureth 
 
 94 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 forever." What is your opinion with reference to the use of 
 this gracious virtue ? It is like lending unto God, exalted and 
 magnified is He. Thus the saying (Prov. xix. 17), "He that 
 hath pity upon the poor lendeth unto the Lord. " Thus it was 
 said in the book on Ethics : " Bestow kindness on those who 
 are worthy and upon those who are unworthy. In the case of 
 the worthy, thy kindness will be in the right place; and in the 
 case of the unworthy, prove thou thy worth. " Again it was 
 said with reference to liberality, " It is a part of the noble qual- 
 ities to give liberally to him who asks." In the book of Al- 
 Kuti (it is said) : " Know thou that resolution consists in doing 
 things with firmness. Consider well when to yield and when 
 to deny, when to grant and when to promise. For a gift after 
 denying is better than denying after (promising) a gift and favor. 
 Setting out to do after consideration is better than to abandon 
 after setting out. Know that thou shouldst be more prompt to 
 do what thou hast not promised, than to promise what thou wilt 
 not do. Therefore beware of hastily promising what thou fear- 
 est thou mayest be unable to perform. Adorn thy promise 
 with truth and thy deed with justice." 
 
 95 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 Treating of Niggardliness. 1 This is the Eighteenth 
 Chapter of the Book. 
 
 Know thou that this is a reprehensible quality. Among the 
 host of reprehensible qualities there is none more abominable 
 than this. For thou seest that he who is lavishly bountiful of 
 his substance, although blameworthy, is satisfied with the pleas- 
 ure he derives and men's goodly praise which is his. But nig- 
 gardliness is accompanied by evil repute without even the 
 attainment of pleasure; and to be of evil repute is not one of 
 the qualities desired by the excellent. The noble-minded man 
 ought to shrink from this quality and not employ it on any occa- 
 sion. The sages are at one in thinking that manliness does not 
 go well with prodigality, nor religion with an inordinate desire 
 (for gain). He who is of this character may well despair of a 
 good repute and a fair record. Thus it was said (Isa. xxxii. 5), 
 "The vile person shall be no more called liberal, nor the churl 
 said to be bountiful." This "vile person" is like him, in the 
 wilderness of Maon, who said (I Sam. xxv. 11), "Shall I then 
 take my bread and my water, . . . and give it unto men whom 
 I know not whence they be? " Thou knowest the severe pun- 
 ishment with which he met. But the good feature of this state 
 is that man does not squander his substance, be it great or 
 small, but guards it by means of this quality. He must not 
 overdo this, however, lest he pass over to the quality of greed, 
 which is not of the qualities of the noble. Thus the sage 
 spake in condemning niggardliness (Prov. xi. 26), " He that 
 withholdeth corn, the people shall curse him " ; and, on the con- 
 trary, " Blessing shall be on the head of him that selleth it." 
 
 ' This chapter is given, in a German translation from the Hebrew, by Dukes 
 (" Ehrensaulen," pp. 12, 13). 
 
 96 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 This verse outwardly' refers to "charity," but its hidden im- 
 plication is knowledge. 2 The wise man ought not be niggardly 
 in dealing out his knowledge, for knowledge is not lessened by 
 imparting it (to others), as little as the brightness of the fire 
 dies away when a light is kindled therefrom. The best rule 
 with regard to the employment of this quality is to accustom 
 one's self to beneficence toward kinsmen, until one gradually 
 habituate one's self to benevolence toward strangers, and thus 
 train one's self to choose generosity. 
 
 1 On this point, Bacher (p. 53, note 1) says : " Was hier als verborgener (al- 
 legorischer) Sinn angegeben ist, fallt mit der agadischen Deutung des Verses zu- 
 sammen (Sanhedrin, 91 b, unten). Ebenso gilt als selbstverstandlich diese 
 allegorische Auffassung des Verses als Warnung vor engherziger Zuriickhaltung 
 der Belehrung bei Abraham b. Chija, {^SJ |VJn. ed. Freimann, p. 17 a. . . .*' 
 Gabirol's use of terms in this place suggests the formal distinction between the 
 "outward" and "inward" — manifest and hidden — meanings of Scripture, made 
 by the Islamic sect of Batiniya; cf. Haarbriicker (Th. i. , p. 256). 
 
 2 The same idea is expressed in the Midrash (Bemidbar rabbah, par. 15), in 
 reference to the prophetic powers of Moses; cf. Wolff (" Muhammedanische 
 Eschatologie, " Leipzig, 1872, p. 207, and note 412). 
 
 97 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 Treating of Valor. This is the Nineteenth Chapter 
 of the Book. 
 
 The man who prevails over the temperament of the blood- 
 nature, who is large-hearted, full- veined, and long-armed, thou 
 wilt generally find to be a man of valor, especially if, com- 
 bined with that, he be master of the art of war. This quality 
 is praiseworthy (in man), when it is manifested in his strength, 
 and in accordance with his determination to be saved from what 
 might befall him. But when he departs from a moderate course 
 and unites valor with the quality of folly and it becomes the 
 cause of a man's throwing himself into dangerous places then it 
 is reprehensible. Of these two dispositions the sage saith (Prov. 
 xxviii. 14), " Happy is the man that feareth always; but he that 
 hardeneth his heart shall fall into mischief." But as regards 
 the great men who are mentioned as possessors of this quality, 
 heavenly signs gave evidence of their possessing this power, — 
 thus Joshua, Gideon, Samson, Saul, David, Jonathan, Joab, and 
 Abner, and others like them, whose power gave evidence of the 
 quality of valor, were praised therefor; and those whose weak- 
 ness, in contradistinction to the former, gave evidence of the 
 quality of cowardice, were not commended for it, as I will show 
 in regard to them in the following chapter. It is necessary to 
 devote this quality to the service of God, as thou knowest from 
 (the story of) Moses, peace be upon him, when he retaliated 
 upon the people by saying to the children of Levi (Ex. xxxii. 
 27), "Put every man his sword by his side"; and as thou 
 knowest from Phinehas in the matter of his zeal. Thus it is 
 said (Num. xxv. 7), "And when Phinehas, the son of Aaron the 
 priest, saw it, he rose up from among the congregation and took 
 
 98 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 a javelin in his hand." This quality of valor never fails to be 
 conspicuous in the souls of mighty men and courageous heroes. 
 With reference to valor and patience in facing danger, the poet 
 spake : 
 
 " There came a day in the heat of which some people 
 warmed themselves, but though there was no fire, they acted 
 as if in the fire's midst. But we had patience until the clay 
 was done. Likewise, a case of misfortune can be brought to a 
 close only through patience." 
 
 Among the things which have been said in order to encour- 
 age the use of valor is : " Crave death, and life will be granted 
 thee." The Arabs were accustomed to call the man of valor 
 "safe." Among the things which have been said on the em- 
 boldening of the spirit in combat is the word of the poet : 
 
 " I went to the rear to preserve my life (in battle), but I 
 found that I could not preserve my life unless I went forward. " 
 
 Thus the noble man must make use of this quality in such 
 a way as not to overstep the middle path lest he be called de- 
 mented (foolhardy). But he must pursue an excellent course 
 in regard to this quality. The philosopher spake, " The ex- 
 treme limit of valor is strength and endurance with respect to 
 what thou abhorrest. " Valor cannot go hand-in-hand with 
 vanity (untruth), nor firmness with absurdity, nor patience with 
 weariness, for these are of the qualities of asses and swine. 
 Valor consists in persevering in the right and overcoming thy 
 desires, until thou feel that to die in the best way thou hast 
 found is more desirable than to live in the opposite (i.e., evil) 
 way, which the power of understanding may have revealed to 
 thee. According to Al-Kuti, " Valor is the nature of a noble 
 soul, corresponding to the strength of the body. " 
 
 99 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Treating of Cowardice. This is the Twentieth 
 Chapter of the Book. 
 
 This quality is generally found in spirits that are abject and 
 downcast, poor and wretched. It is a reprehensible quality. 
 Let the wise man be on his guard against it, let him make no 
 use of it, exert himself to keep away and abstain from it, since 
 he derives no benefit from it; on the contrary, he reaps ill- 
 repute, a vile record, and a diminution of praise. Men of lofty 
 purpose must dread it when they have learned to employ their 
 power of distinguishing in the use of things, so that it may be 
 the means of escaping serious danger. Among the offshoots of 
 this quality is slothfulness, of which we have already treated. 
 Thou knowest what was said with regard to its ignominy and 
 baseness. Thus the sage, peace be upon him, said (Prov. xxvi. 
 15), "A slothful man hideth his hand in his bosom, and will 
 not so much as bring it to his mouth again." This is the utter- 
 most that can be said of the shame thereof. The slothful cow- 
 ard is known to say : " I will not travel, for fear of highwaymen 
 and wild beasts. I will not engage in business, lest I meet 
 with losses. I will not fast, lest I become ill. I will give no 
 alms, lest I become poor," and similar words that put an end to 
 all activity, until there remains nothing for him to do, but 
 living on without moving from his place, as it is said (id., xxvi. 
 14), " As the door turneth upon its hinges, so doth the slothful 
 upon his bed. " A wise man should not choose this quality of 
 cowardice or make use thereof in preference to his other quali- 
 ties, lest he become known thereby and be as one who fancies 
 that he will be killed before the expiration of the appointed 
 time, as was said exaggeratedly of the slothful coward by the 
 poet, who spake thus : 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 " If a little bird merely raises its voice, the heart of the 
 coward is consumed (leaps with terror). But his teeth are sharp 
 as iron, — at meal times." 
 
 But in a case where escape is impossible, it is permissible 
 for the quality of cowardice to come into play — as in the case of 
 him, concerning whom it is said : " The king dispatched him to 
 a dangerous place. He refused to go. The king reviled him, 
 whereupon he said, 'It is better that thou revile me when liv- 
 ing than bless me when dead.' " It has been said that this 
 quality has been made use of by those who prefer repose in this 
 world to all other qualities, not knowing that repose can be 
 enjoyed to the full, only after zealous care in the regulating of 
 affairs and the attainment of whatsoever be needed. Thus it is 
 said (Prov. xxiv. 27), " Prepare thy work without, and make it 
 fit for thyself in the field." Repose in and of itself signifies 
 slothfulness and cowardice. Thou knowest what happens to a 
 man by reason of his slothfulness : namely, he is deprived of 
 all his honor through utter poverty. Thus it is said (id., xxiv. 
 33-34): "Yet a little sleep, a little slumber, a little folding of 
 the hands to sleep : so shall thy poverty come as one that trav- 
 elleth, and thy want as an armed man." Again this quality 
 engenders in the body not a few ills and diseases, thus flab- 
 biness, dulness, swelling, gout, sciatica, and elephantiasis, and 
 similarly whatsoever results from indigestion; in fact, this 
 quality becomes habitual to a man and he considers everything 
 else as faulty and worthless; especially if this feeble coward 
 be of a phlegmatic disposition and on the way to old age, then 
 it weighs him down even more.' 
 
 1 We have here a reminiscence of Saadya's distinction between the results of 
 tranquillity and slothfulness. between the reposeful and the indolent, as found in 
 the " Emunoth weDeoth," x. 
 
 END OF PART V. 
 
 IOI 
 
Thus' thou hast, may God have mercy upon thee, all that 
 was promised in the introduction. Because of our love of con- 
 ciseness, our aversion to prolixity, and our fear of departing 
 from the purpose of. the book, we have much curtailed the dis- 
 course in the individual chapters and in the various parts. We 
 have not united every one of these qualities to its nature and 
 its sense, nor have we referred the senses to their natures, 
 although we ought to make clear the situation of every quality in 
 the body and give much of the science of the temperaments, 
 anatomy and physiognomy. We think, however, that this must 
 be deferred to some other time, when it may please God, exalted 
 may He be, for He is the One from whom to seek help. Hav- 
 ing finished as much as we could, and having said enough in the 
 chapters of this book, we would hold it to be possible that there 
 exist in man qualities other than those which have been classi- 
 fied, and still other natures. We say — yes. We have been brief 
 with regard to the others for two reasons : First, we know that 
 among the qualities of men are those of vexation and weariness. 
 We feared that these might occupy as much space as the whole 
 book, and therefore we did not go to the length of collecting 
 many verses from the Hebrew and Arabic. Furthermore, be- 
 cause we knew that there is no quality which we have avoided 
 mentioning, that is not implied among those which have been 
 mentioned. It would bear the same relation to them that the 
 branches do to the root. If any one should happen to say, 
 "Thou must not exhort men to improve their qualities, nor 
 arouse them concerning the betterment of their moral status, 
 unless this be characteristic of thine own self — because thou 
 wouldst be as he who recommends piety and forgets himself " 
 
 ' This concluding paragraph is omitted in the Hebrew translations, to which 
 is appended a Hebrew poem. 
 
 I02 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 — we would reply, " Every vessel gives forth whatever it con- 
 tains." How foolish is he who seeks to measure this world 
 and does not know the value of the parasang wherewith it is 
 measured. We have not mentioned any excellence which we 
 have not emulated; nor have we extolled any quality which we 
 have not tried to make part of our own nature. He who 
 adorns himself with what is not in him, will find his claims laid 
 bare after a time. 
 
 To Him that giveth understanding do I owe thanks: with 
 Him do I triumph : in Him do I greatly glory: with Him do I 
 take refuge against such things (as those aforementioned). 
 Him do I praise for he is worthy of praise; to Him it belongs 
 and Him praise behooves. Thus spake His saint, peace be 
 upon him (Ps. cix. 30, 31), " I will greatly praise the Lord with 
 my mouth ; yes, I will praise Him among the multitude. For 
 He shall stand at the right hand of the poor to save him from 
 those that condemn his soul." 
 
 Thus is ended what I sought to establish in the book on 
 " The Improvement of the Qualities," with the help of God and 
 Flis assistance. He is my lot and my fortune, the Helper and 
 the Giver of aid. Praise be to God, the Lord of both worlds ! 
 Blessed be the Merciful who hath helped us ! 
 
 103 
 
APPENDIX A. 
 
 PREFACE OF THE HEBREW TRANSLATOR OF 
 THE "ETHICS." 
 
 Letter of Rabbi Jehuda ibn Tibbon ' to Rabbi Asher ben 
 Meshullam of Lunel : 
 
 To the sweet comrade and the brother-ever-near, whose 
 words are as a light to my path, and whose memory is sweet 
 to my palate, my bundle of spices, my honey, and my honey- 
 comb. R. Asher, may God direct thy heart in the ways of 
 wisdom, and lift thee up to the inheritance of the most high 
 excellences. For thou art so precious in my sight, that I have 
 made my aim the doing of thy will. I have lightened for 
 myself the burden of translation, touching (the difficulties 
 of) which I was warned, because of the things which I have 
 mentioned in the introduction to my translation of the chapter 
 on " Unity,'' made by me for our Master, the holy Rabbi, thy 
 father (may his light shine), from out the book " The Duties of 
 the Heart." For remember when thou and I were studying 
 that chapter in his presence, I told thee in the course of con- 
 versation of the existence of a small work on the " Improvement 
 of the Qualities of the Soul," by the wise philosopher, Solomon 
 bar Rabbi Jehuda (may his memory be blessed) bar Gabirol 
 (may his memory be blessed), which contains all the subjects 
 discussed in the nine chapters of that book, and adds some- 
 thing concerning these things. His words are spoken rightly 
 
 1 Appended to the manuscripts (Neubauer. 1402, 2, Michael, 401) of the 
 Hebrew translation of the "Ethics." Steinschneider published it for the first 
 time (pp. 366, 367, of the " Katalog der Michael'schen Bibliothek," Hamburg, 
 1848); it was reprinted in the Lyck edition, 1S59; Q f- St. ("H. U.," p. 381) 
 and H. Gross, Gallia Judaica (Paris, 1S97, p. 280). 
 
 I0 5 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 in a wise manner ' they lean 2 on Scripture, and are based 
 on the words of the sages, the parables of the ancients, 
 and the ethical sayings of the philosophers. The arrange- 
 ment of all the chapters is good, the author attains his ob- 
 ject in briefest' terms, his expressions are well chosen, and 
 the problems he raises are wholesome. He fills them with the 
 wisdom of the heart, with rare ethical sayings, with thoughts 
 like pearls and words like sapphires. When thou didst hear 
 this, thy soul did long to behold it, and to examine it carefully, 
 and thou didst say that if that work should come into our hands 
 with that chapter, it would suffice for us, as if it were the whole 
 work on the ''Duties of the Heart," and even take its place. 
 It would spare us the trouble of over-much elaboration, and we 
 should be the better able to remember his words according to 
 the arrangement of his chapters. For such things as are long 
 drawn out, no man can master in good order. I promised thee 
 at that time to translate it after the completion of the first 
 chapter. Behold, I have translated it for thee, to the best of 
 my knowledge and power, all its words and its poetical expres- 
 sion, its parables, its ethical maxims, and its problems. But 
 the place of the verses which are noted therein is left vacant in 
 every chapter because of the word of our master, thy father, 
 Rabbi (may his light shine), who urged me to complete the task 
 before undertaking to give the verses in poetic paraphrase. 
 
 If I should find the words of the ancient poets like unto the 
 words of the author of this book, and the words of the Prince 
 (Samuel ha-Nagid), or of those who conducted themselves as 
 these did in matters similar to and relating to them, I will write 
 them in the book with the names of the respective authors. 
 Whatever I cannot find, I shall render to the best of my own 
 judgment, as well as with the aid of the opinion of a friend. I 
 will put every verse in its place on the page. Thou in thy 
 
 1 Cf. Dukes (p. Tig, note i). 
 
 2 The use of this term in this way shows that Ibn Tibbon regarded the Scrip- 
 tural citations of Gabirol as mere mnemonics ; cf. Introduction, p. 13, note 4. 
 
 3 Cf. Rosin (p. 166, note 1). 
 
 106 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 grace, take thou the trouble to correct its errors, to explain its 
 terms, and to elucidate its meaning, for no one is free from 
 error and sin. Thus said our master, David (Ps. xix. 13), 
 " Who can understand his errors? " As for our God, may He 
 teach us to profit, instruct us that we may understand and be- 
 come wise, so that wisdom become remembered of us and treas- 
 ured in our hearts. May He conduct us in the good and right 
 way, and enlighten our eyes with the light of the law as it is 
 written (Is. xlviii. 17), "lam the Lord, Thy God, which teacb- 
 eth thee to profit"; and, as it is written (Ps. xxxii. 8), "I 
 will instruct thee and teach thee in the way thou shalt go." 
 Blessed is He that giveth strength to the weary. 
 
 107 
 
APPENDIX B. 
 
 A COMPARISON OF SOME PROVERBS AND MAXIMS 
 IN THE -'ETHICS" WITH PARALLEL SAYINGS 
 IN OTHER ARABIC, MAINLY JUDyEO-ARABIC, 
 WORKS. 
 
 The attempt has not been made to find out all the sources 
 whence Gabirol derived his maxims and apothegms, seeing 
 that, according to his own statements, these are merely cited 
 as illustrative of his ethical teachings. The parallels between 
 the "Ethics" and "Choice of Pearls" are pointed out with 
 some care, because the comparison may tend to throw some 
 light on the moot question of the authorship of the latter. 
 Steinschneider ("H. U.," pp. 387, 388) after pointing out the 
 similarity between the " Choice " and " Ethics " (with some 
 slight variants), makes mention of the surprising circumstance 
 that in the " Choice " no authors' names nor titles are cited, 
 whereas in a number of cases the " Ethics " gives authors and 
 titles in connection with quotations to be found in both works. 
 Even though Gabirol compiled the " Choice " for his personal 
 use when young, it is difficult, as Steinschneider remarks, to 
 see the reason for this omission. 
 
 A work by Honein, an Arabic florilegium of the ninth cen- 
 tury, translated into Hebrew by Harizi under the title nDlD 
 d'SlDl^an, was published in a Hebrew text together with a Ger- 
 man translation by Lowenthal, who has performed with much 
 diligence the task of collating the maxims of Honein with those 
 of the Ethics and other mediaeval collections of apothegms — 
 hence the frequent references to Lowenthal's German transla- 
 
 108 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 tion of Honein. Lowenthal holds that Gabirol made use of the 
 collection of Honein ibn Ishak in the Arabic original, and 
 (PP- 33> 34) points out the agreement of Gabirol with Honein 
 whenever Gabirol cites maxims and gives the authors' names 
 (with occasional exceptions), and also shows that many of the 
 anonymously given proverbs in the Ethics are identical with 
 those cited by Honein. Steinschneider (" H. U.," p. 350, note 
 658) thinks that Honein's work was known to the Spanish 
 Jews of the eleventh century, but that the maxims in the 
 " Ethics " and " Choice," and also those of Honein, may be de- 
 rived from a common (earlier) source. 
 
 Page 30. — On the question of man's preference for ethical practice, cf. " Choice '' 
 (xlii. 429). 
 
 Page 44. — The saying of the philosopher, " Habit is master over all things " ; 
 cf. Steinschneider ("Erm.," p. 5 and p. xiv., Anm. 36, and " H. U.," p. 
 353, note 6S7), Dukes (" Blumenlese." p. 96, no. 44; p. 156, no. 275 ; p. 
 244, no. 657), " Choice " (xliii., 480), Dukes (" Phil. ," p. 75 and note 2), who 
 quotes the words of Publius Syrus, " Gravissiminn est imperium consuetudi- 
 nis," attributed by Honein to Plato (i., chap. v.. no. 7. p. 55 and note 7, and 
 ii., chap, ii , no. 1, p. 101 and note 5), and to Aristotle (i., chap. .\., no. 59, p. 
 67); cf. Honein, pp. 10, 11). 
 
 Page 45. — On directing men " between the periods of childhood and youth unto 
 good habits," cf. p. 45, note 1, Dukes (" Spruchkunde," p. 58, no. 3, and 
 "Blumenlese," p. 133, no. 171). 
 
 Page 48. — Respecting compulsion to obedience and freedom of will, cf. p. 48, 
 note 1, and "Choice" (p. 170, note 49 1 )- 
 
 Page 51. — The fruit plucked from wisdom, etc. ; cf. Steinschneider ('' H. U.," 
 p. 97S, from Bonsenyor's " Paraules"). 
 
 Page 56. — On abiding by one's own opinion, cf. Burckhardt (p. 102, no. 259). 
 
 Page 57. — On the need of domination for the adjustment of affairs, cf. p. 57, 
 note 1, and " Pirke Aboth." iii. 2. 
 
 Page 58. — On the danger of stumbling because of reliance upon one's own opin- 
 ion, cf. " Choice "(lv. 623). 
 
 Page 58. — The saying of the divine Socrates, "From whom doth disappoint- 
 ment," etc.; cf. Steinschneider ("Erm., p. 20, n. 36) and "Choice" (lvi. 
 629). 
 
 Page 58.— " He who sets himself up," etc.; cf. Honein (ii., chap, i., no. 6, 
 p. 88). 
 
 Page 58. — The saying of Socrates with respect to aversion ; cf. Honein (ii., 
 
 chap, i., no. 72, p. 97). 
 
 109 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 Page 59. — Aristotle's comparison of beauty of form with beauty of character; 
 
 cf. "Choice" (xliv. 551, and note on p. 178), Honein (ii., chap, iii., no. 9, 
 
 p. log, and note 4). and Steinschneider (" H. U.," p. 882). 
 Page 59. — Aristotle's testament to Alexander; cf. Honein (ii. , chap. iv. , no. 
 
 g, p. 115 and note 4), and Journal of American Oriental Society, vol. xv. , 
 
 "Arabic Proverbs and Proverbial Phrases," by J. R. Jewett, p. 73, no. 130. 
 Page 59.— The saying of Ardeshir; cf. p. 59. note 2 : this tale is cited (together 
 
 with twelve other extracts from the " Ethics ") in the Hebrew, together with a 
 
 German translation in " Proben Morgenlandischer Weisheit," by D. Otten- 
 
 soser, Furth, 1851, p. 26. 
 Page 60. — Honor, the recompense of meekness; cf. "Choice" (xliv. 514), and 
 
 Fleischer (p. 67. no. 32). 
 Page 61. — " Lowliness consists," etc. ; cf. Dukes (p. 67, no. 13, and " Spruch- 
 
 kunde," p. 17, no. 47). 
 Page 61. — The fruit of contentment; cf. p. 6i,note3, and "Choice"(x. 170). 
 Page 61. — "He who desires of this world," etc.; cf. "Choice" (x. 161, and 
 
 note on p. 148). Honein (ii., chap, vi., no. 19, p. 124 and note 5), and 
 
 Steinschneider (" Erm.," p. 21, no. 81). 
 Page 61. — " He who cannot bear with one word," etc.; cf. "Choice" (iii. 95, 
 
 and note 79, p. 145), and Dukes (" Blumenlese," p. 164, no. 305). 
 Page 62. — "A wise man lost among fools " ; cf. " Choice " (i. 66, 67, and note 
 
 488, p. 170), and Steinschneider (" Manna," p. 90, " Erm.," p. 20, no. 46, 
 
 and "H. U.," p. 978, from Bonsenyor's " Paraules"). 
 Page 62. — The saying of Lokman ; cf. Honein (ii., chap, xii., no. 13, p. 141 
 
 and note 6) , and Dukes (p. 78). 
 Page 63. — On the kinship of modesty and intelligence; cf. "Choice" (iii. 78). 
 Page 63. — " The faults of him,'' etc. ; cf. "Choice" (xii. 177). 
 Page 64. — Pudency when alone ; cf. " Choice'' (xxxi. 328, 332 and notes on p. 
 
 159), Honein (ii., chap, v., no. g, p. 118 and note 3, chap, vii., no. 5, p 
 
 126, chap, xix., no. 23, p. «56 and note 3), Dukes ('' Blumenlese," p. 105, 
 
 no. 86, and " Spruchkunde," p. 25, no. 78), and Steinschneider ("Erm.," 
 
 p. 22, no. 139, and " H. U.," p. 979, from Bonsenyor's " Paraules"). 
 Page 64. — The interdependence of pudency and faith; cf. " Choice " (xii. 178 
 
 and note on p. 150), and Dukes ( ' Blumenlese," p. 106, no. 86). 
 Page 64. — " Pudency marks the countenance of a nobleman" ; cf. "Choice" 
 
 (xii, 176 and note on p. 150). 
 Page 64. — "If thou art not pudent," etc. ; cf. Fleischer (p. gi, no. 24), and 
 
 Burckhardt (p. 188, no. 643). 
 Page 64. — " Upon him reposes," etc. ; cf. Fleischer (p. 69, no. 54). 
 Page 64. — The saying of Aristotle, "as a result of modesty," etc.; cf. 
 
 Honein (i., chap. a., no. 15, p. 65 and note 7) where it is said " Through 
 
 long-suffering one's helpers are increased. " 
 Page 64.— Modesty in the midst of wrath ; cf. Honein (ii., chap, xxi., no. 57, 
 
 p. 167 and note 9). 
 Page 64. — '" The enmity of the modest man"; cf. Fleischer (p. 79, no. 175), 
 
 Burckhardt (p. 110, no. 415), Steinschneider ("Erm.," p. 22, no. 117) and 
 
 Haarbrucker (ii. p. 150): this proverb is to be found in some form in almost 
 
 IIO 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 every Arabic collection, cf. "Choice" (xx. 266) and Honein (ii., chap, xxi., 
 
 nos. 47, 48, p. 167 and note 2). 
 Page 64. — On trifling away one's dignity; cf. Honein (ii. chap, xxi., no. 24, 
 
 p. 165 and note 14). 
 Page 66. — On consideration for the wise, cf. Honein (i., chap, x., no. 62, o. 
 
 68). 
 Page 68. — "None such exists,'' etc.; cf. Honein (ii., chap, xi., no. 50, p. 
 
 13S). 
 Page 68. — " The penalty of misfortune" ; cf. " Choice " (xv. 190). 
 Page 68. — " Fickle of speech " ; cf. " Choice" (xv. 192). 
 Page 69. — "Passion is an enemy of the heart " ; cf. "Choice" (xv. 195), and 
 
 Honein (ii., chap, xvi., no. 12, p. 151, and note 2). 
 Page 69. — " He who is submissive to his lust," etc.; cf. "Choice" (xv. 199) 
 
 and Kurckhardt (p. 9S, no. 249). 
 Page 70. — On being blind to the object of one's love, cf. Honein (ii., chap. 
 
 xxi., no. 59, p. 167), and Dukes (" Blumenlese,'' p. SS, no. 13). 
 Page 70. — "Thou shalt not attain what thou lovest, " etc. ; cf. Honein (ii., 
 
 chap, xix., no. 29, p. 157, and note 3), and Steinschneider (" Erm.," p. 22, 
 
 no. 140, attributed to Gregorius in the ^Ethiopic version of Honein ; cf. 
 
 Cornill, " Buch der Weisen l'hilosophen," Leipzig, 1S75, p. 48, and in Ger- 
 man translation, p. 24. 
 Page 71. — "He who loves thee for some reason," etc. ; cf. Honein (i.,chap. 
 
 v., no. 5, p. 55 and note 5, and ibid., nos. iS, 19, p. 57 and note 5, and nos. 
 
 23, 24, p. 58 and note 2), being attributed in these five passages to Diogenes, 
 
 Apollonius. Solon, Gregorius, and Pikorus, respectively ; cf. Dukes (p. 45, 
 
 and "Phil.," • 140), " Choia- " (xxv. 2S8), and Steinschneider ( "H. U," 
 
 p. 979, from Bonsenyor's " Paraules "). 
 Page 72. — " He who sows hatred," etc.; cf. "Choice" (liii. 616, and note on 
 
 p. 1S2). 
 Page 72. — "Beware of whomsoever your heart hate," etc.; cf. Honein (ii., 
 
 chap, i., no. 31, p. 90 and note 7), and Steinschneider ("Erm., "p. 21, no. 
 
 76). 
 Page 72. — The most persistent form of hatred caused by envy ; cf. Dukes 
 
 (" Phil.," p. 135 and note 2) and Fleischer (p. S3, no. 224). 
 Page 72. — " Thou canst cure," etc. ; cf. " Choice" (xlviii. 594, and note on p. 
 
 ]8i). 
 Page 75. — The best revenge upon one's enemies ; cf. " Choice" (liii. 617, and 
 
 note on p. 1S2), Honein (ii., chap. ii. , no. 47, p. 107 and note 5). Dukes 
 
 (p. 71. note 21, and " Phil.," pp 132 and 134, note 17), Steinschneider (" H. 
 
 U.," cited as found in Bonsenyor's " Paraules"). and Briill (vol. ix., p. 46, 
 
 no. 8, — in part 21, " Spriiche des Aristoteles " of a manuscript discussed 
 
 under the caption, " Beitrage zur Jiidischen Sagen- und Spruchkunde im 
 
 Mittelalter"); attributed to Plomer in Shahrastani (Haarbrucker, ii., p. 
 
 144) 
 Page 76. — Description of joyous souls; cf. Honein (i., chap, vi., p. 59). 
 Page 77. — "For him who laughs much," etc.; cf. "Choice" (xviii. 234 and 
 
 note on p. 152, xlii. 425, and note on p. 167), Honein (ii., chap, xiii., no. 
 
 Ill 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 17, p. 145 and note 10) , and Dukes (" Spruchkunde,'' p. 70, no. 23, and p. 
 61, no. 12). 
 
 Page 77. — Diogenes on the effects of joy and grief; cf. Honein (ii., chap. 
 vi., no. 19, p. 124, and chap. xii. , no. 32, p. 143) andSteinschneider(" H.U." 
 p. 979, from Bonsenyor's " Paraules "). 
 
 Page 79. — " If it be impossible for a man to have what he desires,'' etc.; cf. 
 Steinschneider ("Erm.,"p. 20, no. 37, and " H. U.," p. 979, from Bon- 
 senyor's " Paraules"), Dukes (p, 88) and Marcus Aurelius (vii. 27). 
 
 Page 80. — "Socrates was asked," etc.; cf. "Choice" (vi. 118 and note on 
 p. 147), Honein (ii., chap, i., no. 64, p. 95 and note 3) and Dukes (p. 64, 
 note 6). 
 
 Page 80. — ■" Grief is greatest on the day it comes into being" ; cf. Dukes 
 (" Spruchkunde," p. 64, No. 9) , who cites parallels from "TUffi "|?Dn )3, in 
 which, according to Guttmann (p. 48, note 2) , there are many points of agree- 
 ment with the "Ethics'' and "Sayings of Aristotle.'' Attributed to Alex- 
 ander by Honein (iii. , chap, i., p. 173 and note 1 ; cf. p. 23). 
 
 Page 80. — Alexander's attempt to console his mother ; cf. Honein (iii. , chap, i., 
 p. 173 and note 2, p. 174 and note l) and Dukes (pp. 46, 47). 
 
 Page 80. — "Alexander had heard from Aristotle"; told of Alexander in 
 Honein (ii. , chap, v., no. 2, p. 117 and note 1), and of Galen (ibid., chap, a., 
 no. 2, p. 133 and note 1). 
 
 Page 81. — Galen on apprehensiveness and sadness; cf. Honein (ii.,chap. i. , no. 
 11, p. 88 and note 5), and Steinschneider (" Erm.," p. 20, nos. 28 and 38, 
 and " H. U. " p. 979, from Bonsenyor's " Paraules"). 
 
 Page 81. — On the difference between sadness and apprehensiveness; cf. 
 Honein (ii., chap, viii., no. 2, p. 128 and note 5, and chap. ix. , p. 131 and 
 note 2). 
 
 Page 81. — On the second version of the difference between sadness and appre- 
 hensiveness ; cf. Honein (ii., chap. ix. , p. 132 and note 1). 
 
 Page 81. — On the benefits to be derived from apprehensiveness; cf. Honein 
 (ii., chap, xvii., Nos. 6 and 7, pp. 151, 152 and notes). 
 
 Page 81. — Socrates on sorrows; cf. Honein (ii., chap, i., no. 12, p. 88 and 
 note 6) and Dukes (" Blumenlese," p. 68, no. 3). 
 
 Page 81. — Saying of Ptolemy; cf. Honein (ii., chap, xi., no. 26, p. 136 and 
 note 9); Steinschneider (" Erm.," p. 20, no. 40), and Briill (vol. ix., p. 47, 
 no. 17, as above cited). 
 
 Page 83. — On regretting what has been said and retracting ; cf. " Choice " (xxx. 
 327, and note on p. 159, and xxv. 290). 
 
 Page 84. — On indignation being praiseworthy at the sight of wrong-doing ; cf. 
 Frankel-Griin (p. 25, note I). 
 
 Page 84. — On the right mean, or "middle way," cf. p. 84, note 1, and 
 Honein (ii., chap, i., no. 10, p. 88and note 4). 
 
 Page 84. — Galen on anger and wrath ; cf. Honein (p. 19). 
 
 Page 85. — Al Kuti on the man of wrath ; cf. Honein (ii., chap, iii., no. 1, p. 
 108). 
 
 Page 85. — " Wrath is a disease of the soul," attributed to Galen in Honein (ii., 
 chap. A ., no. 5, p. 133) 
 
 1 I 2 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 Page 86.—" Nor must he be so gentle as never to become wrathful" ; cf. p. 86, 
 
 note I, and Honein (ii., chap, iv., no. 5, p. 114) 
 Page 86 — Ptolemy on wrath ; cf. p. 86, note 2, and Honein (ii., chap, xi., no. 
 
 32, p. 137 and note 4). 
 Page 87.— On the acceptabJeness of the righteous man ; cf. p. 87, note 1, and 
 
 " Pirke Aboth " (iii. 13). 
 Page 88.— The story of the king ; cf. "Choice" (i. 28, and note on p. 138, iv. 
 
 112, and xxvi. 295). 
 Page 89.— The noble man is never envious; cf. Burckhardt (p. 98. no. 246). 
 Page 90 — "His name is friend, his intention unfriendly"; cf. Honein (ii., 
 
 chap, xiii., no. 21, p. 146 and note 4). 
 Page 90. — The envious man, "created in order to be angered"; cf. Honein 
 
 (ii., chap, xiii., no. 33, p. 147 and note 2). 
 Page 90. — " The envious man is grieved at the time of thy joy"; cf. Honein 
 
 (ii., chap, xiii., no. 34, p. 147, and note 3), and " Choice" (xlviii. 598, and 
 
 note on p. 181). 
 Page 92. — " Hastiness the very worst of evils" ; cf. p. 92, note 1, "Choice" 
 
 (v. 114-116, vi. 145, and lxiv. , nos. 648, 649, and note on p. 184) ; Honein 
 
 (i., chap, a., no. 53, p. 67, and ii., chap, i., no. 18. p. 89 and note 4) ; Stein- 
 
 Schneider (" Erm. , " p. 20, no. 7) , and Ibn Hasdai (W. A. Meisel, ' ' Prinz und 
 
 Derwisch," Pest, i860, p. 201). 
 Page 92. — "The man of hastiness is not secure from disappointment"; cf. 
 
 Brtill (p. 78, note 2). 
 Page 92. — "On the value of deliberation; cf. Honein (i., chap. x. , no. 54, 
 
 P- 67). 
 Page 95. — Bestowing kindness on the worthy and unworthy; cf. "Choice" 
 
 (xvi. 207). 
 Page 95. — "Beware of hastily promising," etc.; cf. Burckhardt (p. 243, no. 
 
 53o). 
 Page 96. — Religion incompatible with inordinate desire ; Saadya speaks in 
 
 similar terms of undue greed (Emunoth we-Deoth, a.). 
 Page 97. — "Knowledge is not lessened by imparting it"; cf. p. 97, notes 1, 
 
 21 ; ascribed to Plato in Honein (ii., chap, ii., no. 6, p. 102 and note 3); 
 
 cf. Lowenthal (" Pseudo-Arist.," chap, vi., p. 108), Dukes (" Blumenlese, " 
 
 p. 178, no. 370 and note 1, and " Spruchkunde," p. 31, no. 103, and p. 91, 
 
 note f). 
 Page 99. — "Crave death and life will be granted thee"; cf. Honein (ii., 
 
 chap, i., no. 13, p. 88 and note 7), Steinschneider (" Erm.," p. 20, no. 43) 
 
 and Dukes ("Blumenlese," p. 180, no. 377). 
 Page 103. — " Every vase gives forth whatever it contains" ; cf. Dukes ("Blu- 
 menlese," p. 149, no. 242, and note on p. 275 ; p. 153, no. 255 ; p. 182, no. 
 
 389). 
 
 113 
 
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 In the citation of the principal authorities, the following 
 abbreviations have been used : 
 
 Bacher W. Bacher, " Die Bibelexegese der jiidischen 
 
 Religionsphilosophen des Mittelalters vor 
 Maimuni," Budapest, 1892. 
 
 Beer B. Beer, " Philosophie und philosophische 
 
 Schriftsteller der Juden," Leipzig, 1852. 
 
 Burckhardt J. L. Burckhardt, " Arabic Proverbs," Lon- 
 don, 1830. 
 
 Brtill N. Bri'ill, " Jahrbiicher fiir jtidische Geschichte 
 
 und Literatur," Jahrgang v. 
 
 *' Choice " B. H. Ascher, " A Choice of Pearls," Lon- 
 don, 1859. 
 
 Dieterici (" Logik ") F. Dieterici, " Die Logik und Psychologie der 
 
 Araber, " Leipzig, 1868. 
 
 Dieterici (" Mikrokosmus"). .. . F. Dieterici, "Die Philosophie der Araber," 
 
 vol. ii. , " Mikrokosmus," Leipzig, 1879. 
 
 Diez H. F. von Diez, " Denkwi'irdigkeiten von 
 
 Asien," Berlin. 1811. 
 
 Dukes L. Dukes. " Salomo ben Gabirol aus Malaga 
 
 und die ethischen Werke desselben I.," 
 Hannover, i860. 
 
 Dukes (" Blumenlese ") L. Dukes, " Rabbinische Blumenlese," Leip- 
 zig, 1844. 
 
 Dukes (" Ehrensaulen ") L. Dukes, "Ehrensaulen und Denksteine 
 
 . . . hebraischer Dichter und Dichtungen," 
 Wien, 1837. 
 
 Dukes ("Phil."; L. Dukes, " Philosophisches aus dem zehnten 
 
 Jahrhundert, " Nakel, 1868. 
 
 Dukes (" Spruchkunde ") L. Dukes, " Zur rabbinischen Spruchkunde," 
 
 Wien, 1851. 
 
 Fleischer H. L. Fleischer, " Ali's Hundert Sprilche," 
 
 Leipzig, 1837. 
 
 Frankl-Griin A. D. Frankl-Grlin, " Die Ethik des Juda- 
 
 Halevi," Bilin. 
 
 Fried S. Fried, nVTlDVI 1SD. "Das Buch fiber die 
 
 Elemente I.," Leipzig, 1884. 
 
 Geiger A. Geiger, " Salomo Gabirol und seine Dich- 
 tungen," Leipzig, 1867. ,.,, 
 
 Gratz H. Gratz, " Geschichte der Juden," vi., Leipr 
 
 zig, r86l. 
 
 US 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 Guttmann J. Guttmann. " Die Philosophie des Salomon 
 
 ibn Gabirol," Gottingen, 1889. 
 
 Guttmann (" Ibn Daud ") J. Guttmann, " Die Religionsphilosophie des 
 
 Abraham ibn Daud aus Toledo," Gottingen, 
 
 1879. 
 Guttmann (" Saadya ") J. Guttmann. " Die Religionsphilosophie des 
 
 Saadya, " Gottingen, 1882. 
 "Z. H. B." "Zeitschrift fur Hebraische Eibliographie," 
 
 Berlin 
 Haarbriicker Th. Haarbriicker, " Religionspartheien und 
 
 Philosophen - Schulen," 2 vol., Halle, 
 
 1850-51. 
 Hertz J. H. Hertz, " Bachya, the Jewish Thomas a 
 
 Kempis," New York, 1898. 
 Honein A. Lowenthal, " Honein ibn Ishak, Sinn- 
 
 spriiche der Philosophen," Berlin, 1896. 
 Horovitz S. Horovitz, " Die Psychologie Ibn Gabirols," 
 
 Breslau, 1900. 
 Jellinek A. Jellinek, " Der Mensch als Gottes Eben- 
 
 bild von . . . Rabbi Schabtai Donolo, " 
 
 Leipzig, 1854. 
 Jellinek (" Mikrokosmos ") A. Jellinek, " Der Mikrokosmos . . . von R. 
 
 Josef ibn Zadik," Leipzig. 1854. 
 "J. Q. R." " Jewish Quarterly Review, " London. 
 
 Joel M. Joel. " Beitrage zur Geschichte der Phi- 
 losophie," i., Breslau, 1S76. 
 
 Kampf S. I. Kampf, " Nichtandalusische Poesie an- 
 
 dalusischer Dichter . . . ," Prag, 1858. 
 
 Kaufmann D. Kaufmann, " Studien iiber Salomon ibn 
 
 Gabirol." Budapest, 1S99. 
 
 Kaufmann (" Attributenlehre ").D. Kaufmann, "Geschichte der Attributen- 
 
 lehre in der jlidischen Religionsphilosophie 
 des Mittelalters von Saadya bis Maimuni," 
 Gotha, 1877. 
 
 Kaufmann (" Sinne ") D. Kaufmann, " Die Sinne," Budapest, 1884. 
 
 Lazarus M . Lazarus, "The Ethics of Judaism . " i. , 
 
 Philadelphia, 1900. 
 
 Lowenthal ("Pseudo-Arist."). .A. Lowenthal, " Pseudo-Aristoteles iiber die 
 
 Seele, " Berlin, 1891. 
 
 " M. G. W. J." " Monatsschrift ft'ir Geschichte und Wissen- 
 
 schaft des Judenthums." 
 
 Munk S. Munk, " Melanges de philosophie juive et 
 
 arabe." Paris, 1859. 
 
 Musen J. Musen, " Hatapuach," niDDn "D, Lemberg, 
 
 1873- 
 
 Myer I. Myer, " Qabbalah. The philosophical writ- 
 ings of Avicebron, '' Philadelphia, 1888. 
 
 Neubauer Ad. Neubauer. " Catalogue of the Hebiew 
 
 Manuscripts in the Bodleian Library," Ox- 
 ford, 18S6. 
 
 " R. E. J." " Revue des Etudes Juives." 
 
 Rosin D. Rosin, "J. Q. R.," iii., pp. 159-181. 
 
 116 
 
THE ETHICS OF SOLOMON IBN GABIROL 
 
 Rosin ("Maimonides ") D. Rosin, "Die Ethikdes Maimonides." Bres- 
 
 lau, 1876. 
 
 Sachs M. Sachs, " Die religiose Poesie der Juden in 
 
 Spanien," Berlin, 1845. 
 
 Schmiedl A. Schmiedl, " Studien tiber judische, inson- 
 
 ders jttdisch-arabische Religionsphiloso- 
 phie," Wien, 1869. 
 
 Seyerlen R. Seyerlen, " Die gegenseitigen Beziehungen 
 
 zwischen abendlandischer und morgenlan- 
 discher Wissenschaft mit besonderer Riick- 
 sicht auf Solomon ibn Gebirol und seine 
 philosophische Bedeutung," Jena., 1899. 
 
 Stein L. Stein, " Die Willensfreiheit . . . bei den 
 
 jl'idischen Philosophen des Mittelalters," 
 Berlin, 1882. 
 
 Steinschneider (" Al-Farabi ")..M. Steinschneider, " Al-Farabi des Arabischen 
 
 Philosophen Leben und Schriften," St. Pe- 
 tersburg, 1869. 
 
 Steinschneider (" C. B.") M. Steinschneider, " Catalogus Librorum He- 
 
 brseorum in Bibl. Bodl.," Berol., i860. 
 Steinschneider (" Erm.") M. Steinschneider, " Ermahnungsschreiben 
 
 des Jehuda ibn Tibbon und Spruche der 
 
 VVeisen," Berlin, 1852. 
 Steinschneider (" H. U.") M. Steinschneider, " Die hebraischen Ueber- 
 
 setzungen des Mittelalters," Berlin, 1893. 
 Steinschneider (" Intro.") M. Steinschneider, "An Introduction to the 
 
 Arabic Literature of the Jews," " J. Q. R.," 
 
 vols, ix., x., xi., xii. 
 
 Steinschneider (" Manna ") M. Steinschneider, " Manna, " Berlin, 1847. 
 
 Stossel D. Stossel, " Salomo ben Gebirol als Philosoph 
 
 und Forderer der Kabbala, " Leipzig, 1881. 
 Winter und Wiinsche Winter und Wiinsche, " Die judische Lite- 
 
 ratur" (three volumes), Trier, 1894-1896. 
 Wolff M. Wolff. " Mose ben Maimun's acht Capi- 
 
 tel," Leipzig, 1863. 
 
 117 
 
CORRECTIONS OF THE ARABIC TEXT. 
 
 The editor has closely followed the MS. and has allowed 
 the peculiarities of the Judaso-Arabic Script to remain un- 
 changed. In the following list he offers a number of sug- 
 gestions in correction of what are evident errors of the 
 copyist. A renewed collation of the MS. has enabled him 
 to correct in a few places his own previous readings. These 
 have invariably been indicated by the addition of "MS." 
 
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 6, 13 
 
 22 
 
 24 
 
 P- 7.25 
 
 p. 8, 11. .MS. 
 
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 P- 14. 12 
 
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 p. 21, 11. .MS 
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 16 
 
 p. 23, 25.. MS. 
 24, 21 
 
 26, 22 . . (?) 
 
 27. 2 
 
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 Ajy ,j, Us jijo «.^s.tJ \ ^U-J-to jUo I i^sj • La -S'JJ-to l»S ^y- 
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 Aj >\)\ • marten nmari «^i y'3 • ^SysaJJ ^^a»yjl ^^iJJ\ c ^ 15 
 
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 ^o i^\ ^n nvirt n 1 ? dji y^ f^"- 1 ^ »yUJ^ iLLksJ\ yoJ ^^^y^i-Jl 20 
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 3 [Margin]. 
 * Ms. f ^SJ\. 
 
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 Jy J, Jo j-m JyM JL-j JJJ^ -s^^yiuo ^vilj^y || y^U-i 61 a. 
 
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 2 Ms ^jjy^Js.1-0. 
 
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 60 a. Jj.UiJI J-oil || <«wiU ^jJ>MI J-* Ui/ill J>%]\ ^1 J.?^ 
 
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