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CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 
 
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Cornell University 
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A DANISH 
 
 AND 
 
 Dano-Norwegian Grammar 
 
 BY 
 
 P. GROTH, A. M. 
 
 COPENHAGUE 
 VILHELM PRIORS KGL. HOFBOGHANDEL 
 
&i% v 
 
 e.c& 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 A S a teacher of the Danish or Norwegian language to 
 English speaking students I had very often felt the 
 lack of a reliable grammar of the language, and finally I made 
 up my mind to try to supply the want. Special conditions 
 of which I have not been master have caused the time inters 
 vening between the writing of this book and its appearance 
 in print to be a good deal longer than it ought to have been, 
 i. e. about two years, and meanwhile there have appeared a 
 couple of Danish or Norwegian grammars that may deserve 
 this name. 
 
 The reason why I have given my book the somewhat cum- 
 bersome title of a " Danish and Dano-Norwegian Grammar" 
 will be apparent from the "Introduction." As regards the 
 use of the book I would advise the student first to make up 
 his mind, whether he wants to study the pure Danish language 
 or the Dano-Norwegian language. This must to a large ex- 
 tent depend upon personal and practical considerations. The 
 tourist, the commercial traveller, the merchant may need to ■ 
 study one branch of the language or the other ; the literary 
 student may wish to acquaint himself with genuine Danish, or 
 he may wish to study the vernacular of Bj0rnson and Ibsen. 
 As a general rule I would say that the Danish pronunciation of- 
 fers, with its "glottal catch" and other peculiarities, more diffi- 
 culties to the English speaking student than the Norwegian 
 pronunciation. 
 
II 
 
 The student who wants to study Danish must pass by 
 §§ 81 to 146, while those who want to study Norwegian 
 must pass directly from §§ 8 to 81. Besides, in the "Etymo- 
 logy," attention is often called to certain rules as being pecu- 
 liar to Danish, others to Norwegian. The student must 
 select those he needs, and pass by those that refer to the 
 language that he is not studying. 
 
 I have added some " Exercises " at the end of the book in 
 order to help the student fix in his memory those rules and 
 paradigms which he must know before he can, with any de- 
 gree of success, commence reading the language. For those 
 who wish more exercises I can recommend Mr. K. Brekke's 
 excellent Lcerebog i Engelsk which is intended for Norwegian 
 students of English, but may also to a certain extent be used 
 the other way. The student may find an abundance of good 
 readers prepared for use in the Danish and Norwegian 
 schools. I mention only Otto Borchsenius and E. "Winkel 
 Horn's Dansh Lcesebog, Eriksen and Paulsen's Norsk Lmse- 
 bog, Pauss and Lassen's Lmsebog i Mbdersmaalet, each of 
 them in several volumes. As Dictionaries can be thoroughly 
 recommended : A. Larsen's Dansk-Norsk-Engelsk Ordbog 
 and Eosing's Engelsk-Dansk Ordbog. To those who want to 
 study the Norwegian form of the language I would recommend : 
 I. Brynildsen's Norsk-engelsk ordbog and the same author's 
 edition of Geelmuyden's Engelsk-norsk ordbog. The tourist 
 will find Bennett's Phrasebook, Olsvig's Words and Phrases 
 and the same author's Yes and No valuable guides to famili- 
 arity with the peculiarities of the language. 
 
 This Grammar, besides being based upon my own studies 
 and knowledge of the language, rests, as far as Danish is con- 
 cerned, chiefly upon the works of Sweet, Dahlerup and 
 Jespersen, Jessen, Bojesen, Lefolii and B. T. Dalil, and for 
 
Ill 
 
 the Norwegian upon the grammars of Lbkke and Hofgaard 
 and the treatises of Storm, Western, Brekke and J. Aars. To 
 those who desire a more detailed knowledge of the language 
 than can be had from this book I would recommend Poestion's 
 D&nische Siirache and the same author's Lehrbuch der Nor- 
 wegischen Spraclie; both these books are excellent, and especi- 
 ally the Danish Grammar has often been of use to me in 
 writing this book. 
 
 The several species of types that are peculiar to the 
 Scandinavian languages compelled me to have this book set in 
 a Danish Newspaper printing office in New York City, not prop- 
 erly equipped for a work of this kind. On that account the ty- 
 pographical appearance of the book is not in every respect as 
 good as I would like it to have been. Deserving of special 
 mention is the fact that the types ce and ce are everywhere in 
 the book used promiscuously to represent the latter character 
 except in §92 where the sign ce is used a couple of times to 
 denote and explain a variety of the sound of o. 
 
 Finally I must acknowledge my debt of gratitude to Pro- 
 fessor Dr. Joh. Stokji of the "University of Christiania for 
 kindly sending me those advance sheets of the 2d edition of 
 his ' 'Englische Philologie" that were of use to me in preparing 
 this grammar, to my honored friend Professor A. H. Palmer 
 of Yale University for kindly reading throngh the larger part 
 of the book in manuscript and making valuable suggestions, 
 and, last but not least, to Mr. Che. Boss, late Consul of 
 Norway and Sweden at New York, without whose munifici- 
 ence, proverbial among Norwegians in New York, this book 
 would never have seen the light of day. 
 
 Brooklyn, N. Y., August 25th, 189^. 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
Contents. 
 
 Page. Page. 
 
 Introduction 1 — 2 
 
 The Alphabet 3 
 
 Danish Sounds 4—29 
 
 Vowels 4 
 
 Diphthongs 11 
 
 Consonants 11 
 
 Colloquial forms 21 
 
 Accent 21 
 
 Sentence accent 25 
 
 Glottal Stop 26 
 
 Quantity 28 
 
 Norwegian Sounds 30—65 
 
 Vowels 30 
 
 Diphthongs 35 
 
 Consonants 36 
 
 Accent , 52 
 
 Abbreviations 58 
 
 Quantity 63 
 
 Vowel Changes in inflection and word formation 66 
 
 Etymology 67—131 
 
 Articles — genders 67 
 
 Nouns 70—83 
 
 Gender of the nouns 70 
 
 Formation of the possessive 70 
 
 Syntactical remarks about the use of the pos- 
 sessive 77 
 
 Formation of the plural 78 
 
VI 
 
 Page. Page. 
 
 The Adjectives 83—91 
 
 Declension of the adjectives 83 
 
 Use of the definite form of the adjectives 86 
 
 Agreement of the adjective 'with its noun 87 
 
 Comparison of adjectives 87 
 
 Inflection and use of the comparative and super- 
 lative 90 
 
 The Pronouns 91—99 
 
 The personal pronouns 91 
 
 The reflexive and reciprocal pronouns 92 
 
 The possessive pronouns 93 
 
 The demonstrative pronouns 94 
 
 The interrogative pronouns 95 
 
 The relative pronouns 96 
 
 The indefinite pronouns 98 
 
 The Numerals 99—102 
 
 The Verbs 102—121 
 
 Weak verbs 104 
 
 Strong verbs - • ■• 107 
 
 Irregular verbs 113 
 
 The use of the numbers 114 
 
 The use of the tenses 114 
 
 The use of the modes 116 
 
 The passive voice 119 
 
 Eeflexive and impersonal verbs 121 
 
 The Adverbs 122—124 
 
 The Prepositions 124—126 
 
 The Conjunctions 126—128 
 
 The Interjections 128—129 
 
 The order of the words in the sentence 129 — 130 
 
 The Punctuation 131 
 
 Exercises 132—143 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES. HISTORY OF THE 
 DANO-NORWEGIAN LANGUAGE. 
 
 1. The Danish and Dano-Nof.wegian language belongs to the 
 Scandinavian group of the Teutonic languages. This group com- 
 prises, in modern times, besides the language already mentioned, the 
 Swedish, Norwegian, Icelandic and Faroish languages. 
 
 2. The earliest specimens of Scandinavian language are found in 
 the Runic inscriptions, written in the earlier Bunic characters and dat- 
 ing as far back as the 4th century A. D. In these inscriptions the 
 similarity with the other earlier specimens of Teutonic languages (espe- 
 cially Gothic) is more prominent than the peculiar Scandinavian charac- 
 teristics. 
 
 3. During the Viking Age (750—1000 A. D.) the language of the 
 Scandinavian nations underwent a very decided change. The Scandi- 
 navian peculiarities distinguishing the language from the other Teu- 
 tonic idioms appear fully developed, and by and by dialectic differences 
 between the languages of the several Scandinavian nations commence 
 to assert themselves. 
 
 4. In the Middle Ages the Danish and Swedish languages form one 
 group that may be designated as the Eastern group of the Scandi- 
 navian languages, having in common the monophthongification of origi- 
 nal diphthongs, while the Danish language had a development of its 
 own in the direction of substituting voiced stops (mediae) or even open 
 consonants (spirants) for voiceless stops (tenues, hard consonants) after 
 
2 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 a long vowel at the end of a word or syllable. The Norwegian language 
 and its offspring the Icelandic tongue, on the other hand, form the 
 Western group of the Scandinavian languages, having in common 
 the retention of the old diphthongs as diphthongs, but with some 
 changes peculiar to each of the two languages. These two languages 
 have, in co mm on with the Swedish, retained the old voiceless stops. 
 
 o. In the Middle Ages we have the most valuable literature in the 
 Norwegian-Icelandic language, consisting chiefly of the Eddie 
 songs, the Scaldic art poetry, the Sagas and the Laws, while 
 the chief products of the earliest Danish literature are the provincial 
 laws and popular songs (folk lore), the latter not being reduced to 
 writing until later. 
 
 C. When Norway in the latter part of the 14th century was united 
 with Denmark, Norwegian literature fell into decay and Danish grew 
 more and more to be the official language used in Court Documents, 
 Eoyal Ordinances etc. In the latter part of the 17th century Norwe- 
 gian authors again began to take an active part in the literature; but 
 their language was Danish, this language having come to be adopted 
 by the educated classes of the Norwegian people and chiefly by the 
 inhabitants of the towns and cities, while the Norwegian language 
 still remained the spoken idiom of most of the rural population. Still 
 the language spoken and written by the educated classes in Norway 
 was never p u r e Danish. Norwegian authors have always used some 
 native words, taken from the rural dialects, in their writings, and 
 while the official and professional people during the union with Den- 
 mark affected as far as possible a correct Danish pronunciation, the 
 tendency in Norway now, even though it be unconscious, is to natio- 
 nalize the language more and more. This tendency is chiefly notice- 
 able in the pronunciation (retaining the voiceless stops, tenues), but 
 it also appears in the grammar, especially the syntax, and in the 
 vocabulary. 
 
 7. Thus it is that we have at the present time two kinds of Danish 
 language, the pureDanish used in Denmark and by Danish authors , 
 and the Dano-Norwegian used in Norway by most of the educated 
 classes, especially in the cities, and by most of the Norwegian authors. 
 Still it should be noted that the language s p o k e n in Norway even by 
 educated people is far more national in its character than the one used 
 in writing. 
 
THE ALPHABET. 6 
 
 THE ALPHABET. 
 
 8. The alphabet used in Danish and Dano-Norwegian lite- 
 rature has the same letters as the English alphabet and besides 
 these the signs M (se) and (0, 0, ). As for the sounds 
 indicated by these letters see § § 12, 13, 25, 26, 82, 91. 
 
 The names of the vowels are represented hy their sounds. 
 
 The names of the consonants b, c, d, etc. are he, ce, de etc. (pro- 
 nounce e like a in name.) h and k are called h a a and k a a (aa pron. 
 ■with a sound between in h o 1 e and a in call), /is called jod (yod), g ge 
 (pronounced like g in give), w is called "dobbelt ve" (double v), z zet 
 pr. set. 
 
 The Gothic characters are still in very common use, espe- 
 cially in newspapers and popular books. These letters have the 
 following forms : 
 
 21 a 
 
 S3& 
 
 Sc 
 
 2>b 
 
 (§ c 
 
 5f 
 
 ®9 
 
 ©§ 3t 3i 
 
 a 
 
 b 
 
 c 
 
 d 
 
 e 
 
 f 
 
 g 
 
 * i J 
 
 Iff 
 
 SI 
 
 mm 
 
 9?n 
 
 O 
 
 <Pp 
 
 n q 
 
 9ir © f 6 
 
 k 
 
 1 
 
 m 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 q 
 
 r s 
 
 set 
 
 Uu 
 
 So 
 
 Bm 
 
 Xf 
 
 ?)*> 
 
 3 a 
 
 2gce g)e 
 
 t 
 
 u 
 
 V 
 
 w 
 
 s 
 
 J 
 
 z 
 
 se 
 
 Some authors also employ the sign a, borrowed from the 
 Swedish language, to express the same sound as is usually in 
 Danish and Dano-Norwegian literature denoted by a a (see 
 above). 
 
 Note. — Capital letters are still according to official Danish rules of 
 spelling used at the beginning of substantives and adjectives employed 
 as substantives, while the official Norwegian orthography only acknowl- 
 edges capital letters in proper nouns. A great many Danish authors 
 also have done away with capital letters in common nouns. 
 
 The sounds of the Danish and the Dano-Norwegian branches 
 of the language are so widely different, that it bas been found 
 practical to treat of them in separate chapters. 
 
DANISH SOUNDS. 
 
 DANISH SOUNDS. 
 
 VOWELS. 
 
 9. Table of Danish, vowels classified according to their 
 articulation. 
 
 (A period* up in the line after a vowel indicates length of the vowel). 
 
 f 
 
 Back. Mixed. 
 
 i 
 
 Front. 
 
 
 Not 
 rounded. 
 
 Rounded. 
 
 Not 
 rounded . 
 
 Rounded. 
 
 Not 
 rounded. 
 
 Rounded 
 
 5 
 
 Narrow 
 
 
 U - 
 
 
 
 v 
 
 y 
 
 Wide 
 
 
 u ! 
 
 
 i 
 
 y 
 
 a 
 
 Narrow 
 
 
 o- ! 
 
 
 e- e 
 
 0- 
 
 Wide 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 se 
 
 6 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 Narrow 
 
 
 aa - 
 
 
 
 ar 
 
 o - 
 
 Wide 
 
 a 
 
 aa 
 
 
 
 
 
 [ 10. For the benefit of those not familiar with the phonetic terms as 
 established by Mssrs. Bell, Sweet and others it is here remarked, that 
 the terms "Back", "Mixed" and "Front" refer to the horizontal arti- 
 culation of the tongue, indicating what part of the tongue has to be 
 raised from its normal position in order to form such an articulation as 
 to produce the vowel in question. Intermediate positions between 
 those mentioned are designated by the names "advanced" or "outer" 
 and "retracted" or "inner". 
 
 The words "High", "Mid" and "Low" refer to the vertical posi- 
 tion of the tongue. An intermediate position between two of these 
 positions may be described as a lowering of the position immediately 
 above or a raising of the one below. 
 
DANISH SOUNDS. 
 
 The terms "Narrow" and "Wide" refer to the shape of the tongue. 
 "In forming "narrow" sounds there is a feeling of tenseness in that part 
 of the tongue where the sound is formed, the surface of the tongue 
 being made more convex than in its natural "wide" shape in which it is 
 relaxed and flattened". (Sweet). 
 
 ' 'Rounding is a contraction of the mouth cavity by lateral compres- 
 sion of the cheek passage and narrowing of the lip aperture" (Sweet).] 
 
 In Danish pronunciation of rounded vowels the rounding is accom- 
 panied by a projection of the lips so as to increase the length of the 
 mouth cavity. 
 
 Note 1. — The articulation of Danish a is really advanced back, that 
 of e raised mid. The vowels aa (a) and o are both pronounced with the 
 same rounding as o and u, respectively, in common European pronun- 
 ciation. 
 
 Note 2. — It should at once be noticed that in Danish pronunciation 
 the lips play a more prominent part than in English, that the upper 
 lip is never drawn so close to the teeth as in English pronunciation, 
 and that the tongue normally has a more advanced and flattened posi- 
 tion than with English speaking people. 
 
 SOUND VALUE OF DANISH TOWELS AND THEIR. 
 
 GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION IN COMMON 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 11. A has a sound very near that of English a in f a t h e r, 
 although not quite as deep (somewhat palatalized). Ex. long: 
 Gade street, Abe monkey; short: Hat hat, Tak thanks. 
 
 Note. The long a has in the vulgar Copenhagen pronunciation a 
 sound very near English a in fa t prolonged. The foreigner must avoid 
 imitating this pronunciation. 
 
 12. <P (l° n g) h as tae same sound as English aiinair; Ex. : 
 Ilcer army, vcere to be, svwve to hover. 
 
 This sound is in orthography represented by e in: bedre better, der 
 there, her here, deres their, ere are, regjere to rule, Regjering government 
 
6 DANISH SOUNDS. 
 
 (and upond the whole before — r), Legeme body, sjette (pr. sjate) sixth, 
 tjene to serve, fjer(d)i fourth, Stedet the place, udstede to issue, tiltude 
 to permit and other derivatives of Sted; Chef chief. 
 
 13. cb (short) has the same sound as English e in men; 
 Ex. : hmsliff ugly, Icegge to lay. 
 
 This sound is in orthography as a rule represented by the sign e 
 which is pronounced in this way in most cases when it is short and at 
 the same time stressed ; Ex. : denne this, Yen friend , elske to love, Er.de 
 end, svensk Swedish. It is written cs when derived from a word with long 
 sound of ce, written se, or from word with a, aa or ei in the root; Ex.: 
 kmrlig affectionate, (from kar dear), fedde to fell (from Fald fall), niegt-e to 
 deny (from nej no); Saender hands (from Haand hand); furthermore in 
 Freest priest and some other words. 
 
 f4- b represents the sound of French e in e t e or of Eng- 
 lish a in n a m e, but without the diphthongic element of the 
 latter (more like the common American pronunciation of a). 
 This is the common sound of e when it is long (except before 
 r, see § 12) ; Ex. : se to see, Reb rope, Snes score. 
 
 When a word in one form has a long e, then it, as a rule, retails 
 the same quality of the sound, even if the vowel in other forms of the 
 word is shortened: Jiedt hot (neuter of lied), ledt searched (partcp. of ledi}. 
 The short variety of the same sound is also found in the unstressed 
 prefixes be — and ge — : bestemme to decide; Gemal consort; furthermore 
 in some monosyllables ending in — d or — v: Bed bed (in garden), Fid 
 step, Drev pinion (but Sted see § 12). 
 
 I 5 . This sound (e) is represented by the orthographical sigri 
 of i in a great many cases where the vowel is short ; especially 
 is i pronounced this way before mm, mp, nt, ng, oik, besides 
 some other cases; Ex.: Fish fish (pron. fesk), fiike to fish, ridse to 
 scratch, PUgt duty, nil will, Spil play, Pille pill, digte to make poem-. 
 lidt a little (pron. let, but lidt suffered [partcp. of lide] pron. lit), mid; 
 middle (pron. met, but mit mine pron. mit), Skin appearance, Jin tic. 
 in the prefix mis, misbruge to misuse: Misdader malefactor; unstressed ia 
 the derivative endings — ling, — ning: Tndling favorite, SUegtning relative. 
 Some words may be spelt with either i or e: tusinde and tusende thousand, 
 
DANISH SOUXDS. i 
 
 JErinde and JErende errand (these two words may also be pronounced 
 with i). 
 
 16. 9 has a sound approaching that of French e in que, 
 English i in b i r d. This sound only occurs in unaccented 
 syllables, and its orthographic sign is e. Ex. : Gave gift, 
 Gade street. 
 
 Some words may lie pronounced and spelt •with or without a («); 
 Ex.: tusind and tusinde thousand, hundred and hundrede hundred, 
 jErind or jErinde errand, Billed(e) picture, Embed(e) office, Arbeid(e) 
 work, Legem{e) body, Hadarrte), Himmerig{e) kingdom of heaven, Tind{e) 
 peak; in the words Serre Master, Frue Mistress, Madame, Konge king, 
 Eyrste prince, Grew count the final e is omitted before a name or another 
 title; Hsrre is then spelt Hr.: Hr. Petersen, Mr. P. 
 
 17. Immediately after another stressed vowel a is often 
 slurred in the pronunciation, so as almost to disappear : trodde 
 believed. In some cases it is written but not pronounced at 
 all ; it can never be pronounced immediately after a single vowel 
 with glottal catch (see § 76) nor after a short stressed vowel. 
 In some cases there may be a choice between a long stressed 
 vowel with pronounced d and a short vowel without d. The 
 former is then used in more select language, and especially is 
 the retaining of a common in the passive form; Ex. : slaaes to 
 be beaten, but slaas to fight, slaaet and slaa't beaten, gaaet 
 and gaaH gone. After i and u e is commonly retained (but 
 iefri liberate, forny renew, without e because of glottal catch). 
 
 An e is sometimes written without being pronounced, either to in- 
 dicate length of the preceding vowel or to distinguish between different 
 words of the same sound or words that although differing in sound 
 would according to common rules have to be written in the same way. 
 This e is called mute; Ex.: saa{e) saw, to distinguish it from saa so; 
 fo{e)r (long o) went to distinguish from for, prp. for (short open a). 
 
 18. i has, when long (i - ), about the same sound as Eng- 
 lish ee in s e e ; Ex. : Mine mien, Pile pipe, smile to smile. 
 
 TVhen short it has the same sound as English i in fill; 
 this sound occurs a) when the same word in another form or 
 
8 DANISH SOUNDS. 
 
 when the root word, from which the word in question is 
 formed, has long i : mit my (neut. of min), stri(d)t fought, prtcp. of 
 stride, 7ivi(d)te to whitewash, derived from hvid white; b) before Id or It: 
 /St'Whering, Milt milt; c) in some other words; Ex.: Kridt chalk, hid 
 here (hither), Pisk whip, grUsk greedy; d) in unstressed syllables; Ex.: 
 Eital rival, irrwd against. 
 
 The orthographic sign of this vowel is i, except in de they, 
 De you, where it is e. 
 
 19. aa (a) has a sound similar to English a in call, but 
 closer. The long sound is as a rule written aa: blaa blue, 
 Naade grace ; but it is in some words denoted by o Vfore v 
 (except in diphthongs, see § 28) and g; Ex.: Bog book; Brog 
 breeching, broget variegated, hlog prudent, koge to cook, Krog hook, 
 kroget crooked, lore to promise, Bvoger brother-in-law, Drog a good-for- 
 nothing, Fjog booby, Sprog language, Tog expedition; unstressed in Orlog 
 (naval) warfare, Orlov leave of absence (in the six last named words the 
 vowel may be pronounced long and short); furthermore in hzor where, 
 Tor&dag Thursday, borte away, Yorte wart, tore ours, otte eight, (pron. 
 a-te, but the ordinal ottende the eighth with short vowel), and unstressed 
 Alvor earnest. 
 
 20. The short a-sound is as a rule denoted by the letter 
 o ; Ex. : Lod $ ounce ; Boble bubble, Borg castle, hoppe to 
 jump, Krop body, lokke to allure, vor our. 
 
 The short sound of a is denoted by aa in some words formed by 
 derivation or inflection of words with a long aa, and besides in some 
 other words; Ex.: bloat blue (neut. of blaa), taadt wet (neut. of vaad), 
 Skaansel mercy (from skaane to treat with leniency), Aadsel corpse, 
 Aand spirit, Aande breath, Baand ribbon, Flood flux, Haand hand, 
 Load fleece, laadden fleecy, en Maatte a mat, Baad pus (but Raad council, 
 long aa), saa so (when unstressed), Saald sieve (also written .Sold), Taand 
 wand, Vaande jeopardy; and with secondary accent Undersaat a sub- 
 ject, usaattes on bad terms. 
 
 21. is a sound peculiar to the Scandinavian languages, 
 midway between English o in t o e and oo in too, but nearer 
 the latter ; and it is spoken with the same rounding of the lips 
 
DANISH SOUNDS. 9 
 
 as the English oo. The sound of o when long is in orthogra- 
 phy represented by o, which letter when representing a long 
 vowel generally denotes this sound ; Ex. : stor large, Blod 
 blood, god good, Sko shoe, Bro bridge (as for o with sound 
 of long a see § 19). 
 
 22. The short sound of o is represented in orthography by 
 O in the following cases : 1) in words formed by inflection, derivation 
 or composition from a root word or form with long o; Ex.: nordisk 
 Northern (from nor(d), Gods goods (from god good), (but godt neuter of 
 god, pron. gat); 2) in unstressed first syllables before a single consonant: 
 Motel, Koloni, brodere to embroider (also in Hospital, Osteri); 3) in the 
 following words: Kost broom, ond bad, Onsdag Wednesday, Ost cheese, 
 sort black, Torden thunder. 
 
 23. Otherwise the short sound of o is represented in com- 
 mon orthography by u, which sign when representing a short 
 vowel usually indicates this sound (except in the cases stated 
 
 in § 24) ; Ex.: Dug dew (but Dug table cloth with u'); *muk nice, Buk 
 he-goat, lukke close, slukke extinguish, Hul hole, dum foolish, stum mute, 
 Summer lobster; unstressed infordum formerly. Some words may be 
 spelt with either u or o, the pronunciation in both cases being o; Ex.: 
 Kunst and Konst art, Kummen and Kommen caraway, Kuffert and Koffert 
 traveller's trunk. 
 
 24. u represents a sound similar to the English oo, but 
 closer ; Ex. : Hus house, iruge to use, ud out. A short 
 sound of u, similar to English u in full, occurs in some cases : 
 1) in words derived from words or forms with long u or y ; 
 Ex. : irugt parte, of bruge to use, skudt parte, of skyde to 
 shoot ; 2) in unstressed syllables ; Ex. : ugj'orlig impossible, 
 Musik, Uniform ; 3) when u is followed by Id, It or sk ; Ex. : 
 fuld full, Quid gold, suite to starve, fuske to bungle ; 4) in 
 the words : Krudt gunpowder, Lut lute, lurvet shabby, and 
 some others (about u in other cases representing the sound of 
 o see § 23). 
 
 25. o has a sound like French eu in peu; the English 
 
10 DAXISH SOUNDS. 
 
 language has no corresponding sound (to produce the sound 
 one should say a as in English fate and at the same time 
 hold the lips in almost the whistling position) ; Ex. : Fodsel 
 birth, Bander peasants, Saster sister, Stad blow, here to hear, 
 lad sounded (impf. of lyde), Solv silver, las loose, Preve trial, 
 Eager books. The sound of is represented by the letter 
 (6) always when it is long, and sometimes when short. But 
 the short sound of is as a rule in writing represented by the 
 sign of y; Ex. : Tryk pressure, StyJche piece, dryppe to drip, 
 dyrke to cultivate, Fyrste a prince, kysse to kiss, Lygte lan- 
 tern, Lylcke fortune, Nytte utility, shylle to rinse, synke to 
 sink. 
 
 26-o has a more open sound, like French eu in peuple, 
 German 6. (Pronounce English a in fat with the lips in a 
 whistling position) ; Ex. : forste first, Bcrommelse fame, storre 
 larger, Bjom bear, Bonner prayers, Son son, forsomme to 
 neglect. 
 
 Note. In Danish spelling there is not as a rule made a consistent 
 distinction between the signs o and 0, most writers using both signs 
 promiscuously or either one exclusively.*) o is as a rule used before m, 
 n ending a word, nn, rr, rn. (As for the sound and use of S as first 
 part of a diphthong see § 28). 
 
 27. y has the sound of French u, German ii; the English 
 language has no corresponding sound (to produce it the tongue 
 takes the position for i, the lips that for «). The letter y 
 represents this sound 1) when it is long ; Ex. : flyde to flow, 
 adlyde to obey, sy to sew, Ojenlryn eyebrow, Tyv thief, Sky 
 cloud ; 2)when short, a) in case the root word or form has 
 long y; Ex. : dybt neuter af dyb deep, nyt neuter af ny new; 
 b) in unstressed syllables; Ex. : Hypothek mortgage, Hyperlol, 
 
 *) As for consistency in pronunciation the Danish grammarian Dr. Jessen says, that 
 it is not easy to find two persons "vvho agree on this point. 
 
DANISH SOUNDS. 11 
 
 Fysih ; c) when y is followed by the combinations Id or It; 
 Ex. : fylde to fill, Stylte stilt; d) in some other words; Ex. : 
 Frygt fright, styg ugly, iyh thick. (As for the letter y re- 
 presenting the sound of see § 25.) 
 
 DANISH DIPHTHONGS. 
 
 28. Danish spelling has the following Diphthongs: 
 av, ov, cev, bv and aj, ej, oj, bj. 
 
 The consonant part of these diphthongs has in spite of 
 the peculiar Danish spelling with v and/ the sounds of w and 
 i*). In the diphthongs of the w-series the vowel part retains 
 its peculiar sound (a, 0, m, 0) ; Ex. : Havn harbor, hoevne to 
 revenge, nmvne to name, hovne to swell, Hovl plane, Stovle 
 boot, Vrbvl nonsense ; but in the i-series a and e are pro- 
 nounced as a, and as a sound approaching a ; aj and ej are 
 pronounced like English yinmy, oj and oj like English oy in 
 boy; vaje to wave and veje to weigh pronounced in the same 
 manner ; loje to bend and Boje a buoy, both pronounced alike. 
 Another sign for the diphthong ej is eg; Ex. :jeg pr. jaj ; Vegne 
 in allevegne, everywhere (pron. vaina, e. g. rhyme : Vegne, Hy- 
 giajne). 16 is now spelt sejsten, formerly sexten. Nbgh (pr. 
 naila) key; Tindbeutel (pron. venbaitl) braggart; but in Zeus, 
 Europa etc. eu is pronounced bv. 
 
 DANISH CONSONANTS. 
 
 29. The difference between tenues (p, t, k) and mediae 
 (b, d, g) is not so much dependent upon the circumstance of 
 
 *) Some Danish grammarians think that the Danish diphthongs really have the con- 
 sonants vand j for their second part. 
 
12 DANISH SOUNDS. 
 
 the former being voiceless, the latter voiced, as is the case in 
 English. But the Danish tenues are followed by a voiceless 
 breath, thereby becoming aspirates. Thus the energy of ex- 
 piration becomes the chief distinguishing feature between 
 Danish tenues and mediae. 
 
 In some cases the tenues are written where the sound is 
 really nearer to that of the mediae ; thus Nor dens Skuder (the 
 ships of the North) and Nordens Guder (the gods of the North) 
 are both pronounced in almost the same manner (sguder), i. 
 e. the aspiration of tenues does not take place after s and thus 
 the chief characteristic of the hard sound disappears. The 
 same rule applies to shut consonants written double in the 
 middle of words, pp, tt, hk representing about the same sound 
 as ib, dd, gg; Ex. : tykke thick, plur. , and tygge to chew, 
 BcekTce rivulets, and iegge both, Lapper patches, and Labler 
 paws, have the same sound, something between tenues and 
 mediae. 
 
 30. p has the hard aspirated sound of p-h (not ph=f) in 
 the beginning of syllables : Poire pear, Penge money, Parade. 
 
 The sound of p is written b before s and terminative t (te), the long 
 root vowel at the same time being shortened; Ex.: Ribs currants, Stribs 
 flogging, dybt deep (neut. of dyb), drabte killed, impf. of droebe, tdbt 
 lost, partcp. of tcCbe to lose. 
 
 31. 1) Afters, 2) when written double {pp) and 3) at the 
 end of words the signp represents the sound midway between 
 f and Z>, or a hard i; Ex. : spare to save (sb), pippe to peep 
 up (pron. p-hibba), op up, pron. obb (bb in these cases indi- 
 cating the hard sound of b). 
 
 32. In some foreign words ph indicates the sound of / (see § 36). 
 Fkarisceer, Philosophi (more commonly now spelt with f). In Ps in 
 Greek words p is mute: Psalme psalm (also written Salme); in others 
 like Psylcologi psychology, Psalter, Pseudonym, Ptolemaus it is sounded 
 by some people, omitted by others. 
 
DANISH SOUNDS. 13 
 
 33. i is pronounced as the voiced labial stop (Engl, b) 1) 
 in the beginning of a word or a syllable ; Ex. : bade to bathe, 
 Brok hernia, Bloek ink, Taabe fool ; 2) at the end of a word 
 or a syllable after a long vowel; Ex.: Gab gap, Stab stoff, 
 Daab baptism. 
 
 34. The sound midway between b andj9 is represented by 
 the sign of J, 1) at the end of a word or syllable after a short 
 vowel ; Ex. : Lab paw, Orib vulture ; 2) when written double 
 between two vowels : Labber paws, Ribbe rib. 
 
 35. m like English m: Mad food, ham him; double m 
 (mm) pronounced short: koin(m)e to come. 
 
 36. /is a labiodental voiceless open consonant and has a 
 sound similar to English f: faa few, Skuffe drawer, Ruf 
 deckhouse. 
 
 In some words the sound of / is represented in writing by v. thus 
 in the beginning of the foreign words: Vernis varnish, Viol, violet, Vio- 
 lin, and also sometimes before t as in grovt rough (neut. of grov), 7iavt 
 had (prtcp. of have) pron. grqft, haft, which now also is the official way 
 of spelling. 
 
 Note. Stiffader stepfather, pronounced stefar, so also other com- 
 pounds with stif- step- pronounced ste. 
 
 37- v is a labiodental open voiced consonant similar in 
 pronunciation to English v; it occurs in the beginning of 
 words and after a consonant, after a long vowel and in for- 
 eign words ; Ex. : Van(d) water, Svcerd sword, evig eternal, 
 lavt low (neuter), Avis newspaper. 
 
 In the pronunciation of the Copenhagen dialect v often, 
 takes the place of b after a vowel ; labe pron. lave, Kobenhavn 
 pron. Kovenhavn; in some words both forms are written pro- 
 miscuously: Knebel and Knevel, knevle and knebh gag and 
 to gag. 
 
 The sound of t is written / in of prsep. of, pron. av, aw (see 
 § 28), a. 
 
14 DANISH SOCNDS. 
 
 38- Eor v being the sign of the w-sound in diphthongs, 
 see § 28. Some words may be pronounced both with diph- 
 thong (the vowel preceding v then being short) and with a long 
 vowel and v; Ex.: Hav sea pron. Hav or Haw, Stove forests pron. 
 Ska've or Skawe, over over, pron. awcr or awer. The vowels a and o 
 are mostly short before » (implying the diphthongic pronunciation), hut 
 there are some exceptions: bra'v brave, Gm'v grave, Kra'v claim, la'v 
 low, ga'v gave (impf . of give), gwv dug (impf. af grave). 
 
 39. Colloquially v is often dropped after I: hal(v) half, 
 tol(v) 12, S0l(v) silver; after along vowel: bra{v) brave, ga(v) 
 gave, gi(v) give, Ui{v) become, ble(v) became. Between two 
 vowels, the second of which is e, v is often dropped together 
 with the following o ; Ex. : ha(ve) to have, gi{ve) to give, 
 gi(ve)r gives, bli(ve)r becomes, Hoved head, pron. HoSa in its 
 original meaning, but HoveS in compound words used figura- 
 tively : Hovedsag matter af chief importance, Hovedstad capi- 
 tal, ha{ve) to have, imperf. pron. ha5e written havde. 
 
 40- t an aspirated English t (t-h, but not an open (spi- 
 rantic) sound like English th) ; Ex. : Tag roof, ti ten. After 
 s the aspiration does not take place, so st sounds almost like 
 sd : Sted place, pron. Sdeb. Also tt sounds almost like a d, 
 but without voice : matte satisfied (plur.), pron. mae'de (see 
 §29). 
 
 41. The sound of t is in Danish spelling in some words rendered 
 by th in conformity with the old pronunciation; Ex.: thi (conjunction) 
 for, Thing diet (to distinguish it in writing from Ting thing). Also in 
 words of Greek origin: Theater, Ihrone, TJieori. 
 
 42. t is at the end of the unstressed syllable in words of 
 two syllables or more pronounced as a soft 6 (see § 46) ; espe- 
 cially in participles and words with the definite article; Ex. : 
 lojet bent (boje5), Huset (5) the house. But in foreign words 
 with the stress upon the second syllable t is pronounced as t: Serviet 
 napkin. 
 
DANISH SOUNDS. 15 
 
 43- t is written but not pronounced in adverbs ending 
 in igt; Ex.: tydeli(gt) plainly; in the article and pronoun 
 de(t). 
 
 44. In foreign words ti before a vowel as a rule is pronounced as 
 tsi; Ex.: partiel, Kwtient, Differentiering differentiation; but the 
 ending t ion is pronounced as sjon: Nation pron. Nasjon, Motion exer- 
 cise, pron. Mosjon. 
 
 45. d has a sound like English d, but less voiced, 1) in 
 the beginning of words: Dal valley, Doh dock, din thine; 2) 
 in the middle and at the end of words after a consonant (if 
 not mute (see § 47) ; Ex. : Olding old man, Forceldre parents, 
 Byrd birth, Imrd learned ; 3) between two vowels, when the 
 word is of foreign origin or a proper noun: Soda, Adam, 
 Edda. 
 
 46. The sign d also represents an o p e n consonant with a 
 sound similar to that of English soft th in father; in pro- 
 nouncing this "soft" d (phonetic sign 5) the tip of the 
 tongue is allowed to remain in the lower part of the mouth, 
 while the front of the tongue is raised towards the gums and 
 the breath is gently squeezed between the tongue and the 
 gums. This sound occurs : 
 
 1) in the middle of words between two vowels (also when written 
 double: Padde toad, Kladde rough-draught; but Bredde breadth and 
 Vidde width, have closed d); Ex.: bede to beg, grade to cry, weep, Naade 
 grace, Maade manner; 2) in the middle of words after a vowel before j, 
 1, m, n, r and the genitive s; Ex. : dadle to reproach, Sedler bills, r'6dme 
 to blush, hrydre to spice; 3) at the end of a word after a vowel; Ex.: 
 Chid God, Stud bullock, Vid wit. Also when ending the first part of a 
 compound word, even if the second part begins with a hard consonant; 
 Ex. : Blodtab loss of blood, udsat exposed. 
 
 47. d is written but not pronounced (mute) 1) in most 
 cases after I and n; Ex. : Gul(d) gold, 11(d) fire, smml(d)e to 
 crack (a whip), Shul(d)er shoulder, hol(d)e to hold, Haan(d) 
 hand, Venin(d)e lady friend. 
 
16 BANISH SOUNDS. 
 
 Note, d is pronounced after I and n a) in derivative adjectives 
 ending in — ig and — elig; Ex.: mandig manful, tandelig truthfully; 
 b) when followed by r; Ex.: forandre to change, liindre to prohibit, 
 Forceldre parents; c) in the ending — ende; Ex.: kesende reading, 
 Tidende news; d) in some specific words: Olding old man, JElde age, 
 Voelde power, Bande gang, Blonde lace, Grande neighbor, Kunde cus- 
 tomer; and in foreign words: Indien East India, Cylinder, Oelcender 
 bannisters. (Tnde grace, charm, pron. Onde, but ynde to favor, pron. 
 Onne). 
 
 2) After r when tlie preceding vowel is long; Ex.: Bord 
 table (pron. Bor), Or{d) word, Jor(d) earth (sometimes on the pulpit and 
 in similar style pronounced Jord with short o and audible d); jor(d)et 
 earthy, without d, jordet buried, with d. But when the preceding 
 vowel is short d is pronounced after r: Fcerd voyage, and fozrdes to 
 travel, (but paafmr{d)e abroad, afoot), Byrd birth, Byrde burden. 
 
 Note. In nordisk northern, the d is pronounced but in Norden it 
 is not unless when signifying the three Scandinavian countries; nor(d)en- 
 for to the north of, nor(d)enfra from the north etc. 
 
 3) Before an — s (not being the genitive ending) d as a. 
 rule is not pronounced (and it is never pronounced before sh 
 or between n and s) ; be(d)st best, Lo(d)s pilot, en Stads of a 
 city (gen.), but Sta(d)s state, show. In compound words the — * 
 as a rule originally is the genitive ending and therefore the d is pro- 
 nounced; Ex.: Daadskraft energy, but Baa(d)smand boatswain, Baa{d)s- 
 liage boat-hook; in adverbs which originally are genitive forms d is pro- 
 nounced: allesteds etc., everywhere; in tilfreds satisfied d may be pro- 
 nounced or not. 
 
 4) Before t: go{d)t neuter of god good, sj>ce(d)t neuter of 
 speed tender, et Ri(d)t a ride. 
 
 5) Before 7c in the words B<s{d)lcer cooper, Sne(d)ker 
 joiner. 
 
 48. In many words of frequent occurrence d between two 
 vowels is dropped together with the following vowel when the 
 latter is 8 ; such words are Fader, Moder, Broder pron. Far, 
 Mar, Bror father, mother, brother ; in compounds also written 
 
DAXISH SOUXDS. 17 
 
 in the short form : Farfader father's father, but Faderrnorder 
 parricide, Mormor mother's mother, Fjeder or Fjer feather, 
 Foder or Foer pron. for, fodder or lining (generally spelt 
 -with d in the former meaning without it in the latter) ; Spar 
 or Sjja(de)r spades (in cards) but Spader (spaoar) spades (as a 
 tool); han la{de)r he lets (prses. of la(de) to let), Klce(de)r 
 clothes, but Kheder cloths (generally called Sorter Klcede 
 kinds of cloth), Lce(de)r leather, d is also in common con- 
 versation dropped at the end of many words of common oc- 
 currence : go(d) good, han lo(d) he let, sto(d) stood, ve(d) with, 
 jegve(d) I know, (Ji)va(d) what; also Kjedel kettle, pron. Kele. 
 
 This dropping of the d may be used as a means of distinguishing 
 two meanings of one word; thus vid wide is pronounced vi when signi- 
 fying wide in opposition to narrow: et Par vi(d)e Buxer a pair of wide 
 trousers; but vden videre without further (ado), og saavidere etc., den 
 vide Verden the wide, wide world. 
 
 49. n has the same sound as in English; ng has the same 
 sound as English ng in singer; Ex. : Finger finger, Sanger 
 singer ; the same sound is before k represented by n alone ; so 
 also in some foreign words before g; Ex.: sanke (pron. 
 sangke) to gather, Enke (ngk) widow, Fvangelium (ngg) 
 gospel, Ungarn (ngg) Hungary. 
 
 50. I has the same sound as in English. 
 
 51. s never has the soft (voiced) sound of English s be- 
 tween vowels. Ex. : Hus house, sy to sew (s in both cases 
 pronounced alike), sj represents one single sound, that of a 
 palatalized s, similar in sound to English sh ; Ex. : sjelden sel- 
 dom, Sjcel soul. 
 
 German sch, English sh, French eh, g, j are by the Danes pro- 
 nounced with this same sound in words borrowed from those lan- 
 guages: Schak chess, Shavl shawl, Olwc onset, Chocolade, jaloux (sj.) 
 gene re (sj.) to worry. 
 
 52. ,j is a palatal open voiced (except after k, p, t) con- 
 
18 DANISH SOUNDS. 
 
 sonant corresponding in sound, to English y before vowels; 
 Ex. : ja yes, jeg (pron. jai) I. 
 
 Eor j representing the sound of i in the second part of 
 diphthongs see § 28. 
 
 j is often written without being pronounced after k and g 
 before ce, o and open e. K(j)(Br dear, g(j)erne willingly. 
 (According to the latest official rules of spelling this j is not 
 to be written except in Danish names such as Kjega, Kjaben- 
 havn, where the use of j is optional). Before other vowels 
 than those mentioned j is pronounced (except in the Copen- 
 hagen dialect) ; Kjole dress coat, woman's gown ; gjor(d)e did 
 
 53. T° is an aspirated tenuis; kalde pron. k-hal.e; the 
 aspiration does not take place after s and when written double 
 in the middle of words, see § 29. Ikke not, forming rhyme 
 with ligge, Sukke sighs (plur.) forming rhyme with Vugge 
 cradle, skal shall, pron. sgal. 
 
 54. 9 is n °t so distinctly voiced as the corresponding 
 English sound, to which it otherwise corresponds, g occurs 
 1) in the beginning of words ; Ex. : Gave gift, grave to dig, 
 glide to slide, give to give ; 2) in the middle of words a) when 
 written double : ligge to lie, iegge both ; b) between two vowels 
 in foreign words : Agurk cucumber, Cigar; 3) in the end af, 
 words after a short vowel : styg ugly, Byg barley, Hug cut, 
 blow; somet imes after a long vo wel : 2Eg egg, definite form 
 JEgget^ where the double g (gg) is the sign of this sound and 
 does not indicate the shortness of the preceding vowel. 
 
 55. The sign of g also represents an open (spirantic) gut- 
 tural voiced sound, similar to German g in legen, Tage. 
 This sound never occurs in the beginning of words, but 1) in 
 the middle of words between two vowels (but not after a short 
 
DANISH SOUNDS. 19 
 
 m or o), or between a vowel and avoico consonant or two voicec-i. 
 consonants; 2) at the e nd of words after a long vowel o r 
 a voice consonant; Ex. : bage to bake, vige to yield, sluge to 
 devour, hogle to charm, vaagne to awaken, Mcengde quantity. 
 
 Note 1. For g serving as orthographical sign of the sound i in 
 diphthongs see § 28. 
 
 g represents this sound 1) after the vowels open e or 5 before I or n 
 or before a termination commencing with unstressed a; 2) in the end of 
 words after a short open e, a or o; Ex.: Nbgle (Oj) key, Egn (aj) region, 
 P9 (aj) I. Luji&f) play, meget(a,pt) much, legede(&ft) played; 3) in the 
 pronouns mig me, dig thee, you, sig him (her) self (pron. maj etc.). 
 (Colloquially these pronouns are when unstressed pronounced ja, ma, 
 da, sa, and in church oratory and recitations the three last mentioned 
 may be pronounced as written mig, dig, sig, but that is never the case 
 with jeg). In stead of dejg dough, feig cowardly, sejg tough the official 
 orthography now is dej, fej, sej. 
 
 Note 2. g serves as the sign of the sound w in diphthongs (see 
 § 28) after the sound a written o) in : Eogn spawn, Sogn parish, 
 Vogn wagon. (In stead of the former spelling, Laug guild, Saug saw, 
 taug was silent, Ploug plough, Toug rope, there is now generally writ- 
 ten Lav, Sav, tav, Plov, Tov. Wholly antiquated is the spelling Mauge 
 for Have garden). 
 
 56. In common every day pronunciation g is often drop- 
 ped: 1) after long u in slu(g)e to devour, sn(g)e to suck, 
 Ku{g)le bullet, Fu(g)l fowl, (the g was in these cases first 
 assimilated to u and then dropped) ; 2) after long i in : li(g)e 
 straight, direct, Pi(g)e girl, si(g)e to say, Skri(g) cry etc. (g 
 in these cases was assimilated to j and then dropped) ; 3) af- 
 ter I and r: scel(g)e to sell; spor(g)e to ask; impf. sol(g)te 
 sold, spior{g)te (sporte) asked, dul(g)te concealed; 4) In ta(ge)r 
 takes, (a(ge) to take, to(g) took, slo{g) struck, la(gde) laid. 
 
 57. The r commonly used by educated Banes is the un-. 
 trilled back or throat r, produced by raising the back of the 
 tongue towards the roof of the pharynx ; this r is as a rule 
 voiced, but it is voiceless after aspirated stops; it is never vo- 
 
20 DANISH SOUXDS. 
 
 calic like English final r ; Ex. : Raab cry, trmt tired, (han) 
 laber he runs. 
 
 Note. In Jutland and in some other local dialects the r is pro- 
 nounced "with a strong trill, either front or uvular; the latter pronun 
 ciation is especially employed in the stage and pulpit language. 
 
 H is dropped in the pronunciation of the appellative noun: Ka(r)l a 
 man, laborer (in the derivative Kalling, an old ivoman, r is not even 
 retained in writing), but in the proper noun Karl Charles, r retains its 
 sound. 
 
 58. h has the same sound as English h; it is pronounced 
 before yowels in the beginning of a word or a syllable; Ex. : 
 lian he, udlwlde to endure, Mceha ninny.. 
 
 Note 1. In some words h is written before j and v without influ- 
 encing the pronunciation: (E)vile rest, (H)jul wheel. 
 
 Note 2. A vowel ending a sentence is in Danish pronounced with 
 a peculiar breath that may be compared with an h. This is not indi- 
 cated in spelling; vi we, pron. (in the position mentioned) vih, nu now, 
 pron. nuh. 
 
 59. O only occurs in foreign words and is pronounced as s and h 
 according to the same rules as in English; Ex.: Centrum, Scene, Accent. 
 
 According to the latest official orthography c is only to be used in- 
 dicating the sound of Tc before an other c that represents the sound of 
 c; in all other cases it is to be replaced by k: Vokal, Konsoiiant. 
 
 60. ch is in words of Greek origin pronounced as k and 
 now also officially written that "way; it indicates the same 
 sound in the proper names Tycho and Munch, but in words of 
 French origin ch is usually pronounced as sj : Chausse high- 
 way, sch in words of German origin is pronounced like Dan- 
 ish sj. Instead of a former sch (ch) there is now in many 
 words regularly written sk : Droske cab, Mansket cuff, Mar- 
 shal, Marskandiser f ripper, Skak chess, Skatol cabinet, Skakt 
 shaft, SkallotteKg eschalot. 
 
 61. Q only occurs before v in foreign words, but it is now 
 mostly in those of such words as are in popular use replaced 
 
DANISH SOUNDS. 21 
 
 by h. Kvinde woman is now only by very oldfashioned 
 people spelt Quinde; Kvartet, Kvint. 
 
 62. W only occurs in foreign words and has the sound of v. 
 Wien Vienna. 
 
 63. X according to the latest rules is to be replaced by ks in words 
 of common use: seks six, Okse ox. 
 
 64. Z represents the sound of * and is only used in foreign words. 
 In words of German origin it is to be replaced by s: sitre to tremble, sire 
 to adorn; in other foreign words it is to be retained: Zone, Zenit, Zelot. 
 
 COLLOQUIAL FORMS. 
 
 65. In colloquial language words of frequent occurrence and of no 
 particular logical importance undergo some abbreviations and changes 
 besides those already spoken of. Some of the most important of them 
 may here be mentioned. 
 
 at, to, before infinitives pronounced k. 
 
 den is enclitically pronounced 'n: gi me'n for giv mig den give it me. 
 
 det (which proclitically is pronounced de : de(t) store Hus the big 
 house) is enclitically pronounced '6: si me 5 for sig mig det tell it me. 
 
 endnu yet, pron. inu. 
 
 idet when, pron. ide' (see § 43). 
 
 nej no, pron. nse. 
 
 og and, pron. a (thus taking the same form as the infinitive particle 
 at, with which it is often confounded). 
 
 ogsaa also, pron. o'sa. 
 
 shal shall pron. sga. 
 
 til to, pron. t-he. 
 
 tredive 30, pron. treovg. 
 
 ■nil will, pron. ve. 
 
 DANISH ACCENT. 
 
 66. The accent stress in Danish as a rule rests on the 
 root-syllable, which in most cases is the first syllable. The 
 
22 DANISH SOUNDS. 
 
 accent stress is not in common writing indicated by any ortho- 
 praphic sign. 
 
 67. Some derivative suffixes take the accent: — ads, — inde, — i; 
 Ex.: Mora'ds morass, Veni'nde lady friend, Vcsrdi' value. 
 
 68. Foreign words as a, rule have the accent on the same syllable 
 as in the language from which they have been adopted: Stude'nt, Kor- 
 pora'l, Universite't, Fami'lie, Ame'rika. 
 
 Note 1. In a few foreign words the accent is on another syllable 
 than in the language from which they were taken; Ex.: TaUe'rken dish 
 plate, from Low G. Te'llerTcen; Bersoi'rk from O. N. be'rserkr; Valky'rie 
 from O. N. m'lkyria. 
 
 Note 2. In words ending in — or (adopted from the Latin) the ac- 
 cent in plural moves according to the Latin rule: Profe'ssor, Professo'rer 
 (but with the definite article Profe'ssoren the professor). 
 
 69. Adjectives derived in — agtig and — ha/tig (German 
 endings) have the accent on the termination: lama'gtig 
 childish, dela'-gtig partaking, mandha'ftig mannish ; the same 
 is also the case with most adjectives ending in — isk: parti'sk 
 partial; poli'sk sly (but kri'-gerisk warlike). 
 
 The ending — Kg often has the power of moving the ac- 
 cent towards the ending of the word : saidva'niig customary 
 (but Sce'dva?ie custom), eventyWlig marvellous (but E'-ventyr 
 adventure): 
 
 70. In compound words the first part as a rule takes 
 the chief accent('), the first syllable of the second part 
 a secondary accent ('); Ex. : Hu'slcei'rer private tutor, 
 Prp'veaa'r trial year; Mo'msterpoHte flower pot. 
 
 7 I . The chief accent is on the second part of compound 
 words, a) in substantives; 1) in some Scandinavian local 
 names: Ktflenha'vn Copenhagen, Rd'rse'-r; 2) in some com- 
 pounds, where the second part qualifies the first part : Aar- 
 hu'ndrede century, Aartu'sinde millennium, Aarti 1 decen- 
 nium (but Fe'maar lustrum); 3) in some titles: Borgme'ster 
 
DANISH SOUNDS. 23 
 
 burgomaster, OeneralWjtnant lieutenant general; 4) in the 
 words: nordo'st northeast, nordve'st northwest etc., and in 
 Skjcerso'mmer month of June, Pebermy'tite peppermint, 
 Skarnty'de hemlock, Fastela'vn shrovetide, SkjcertoWsdag 
 Maundy Thursday, Langfre'-dag Good Friday; 5) in words, 
 the second part of which is lille : BarnliHle little child, Mor- 
 h'lle dear mother; 6) in some words the first part of which is 
 a verbal stem, the second an adverb: Paso'p (dog's name), 
 Farve'l farewell; b) in adjectives: 
 
 1) in some adjective derivatives in -ig or -Kg: agtvcB'rdig 
 estimable, tilba'rlig proper, hcevngje'rrig vindictive, frimo'- 
 dig frank, taalmo l dig patient (but Tw'vmodig haughty), neder- 
 drw'gtig mean. But most compound adjectives formed in 
 this manner have the accent on the first part of the composi- 
 tion: slci'nhellig hypocritical, ma'ngesidig manysided, e'nsfor- 
 mig uniform ; no strict rules can be given, because the lan- 
 guage of different persons differs even in the same words, and 
 sometimes similar words differ without any apparent reason 
 (Ex.: ko'rtvarig of short duration; but: langva'rig of long 
 duration) and in some cases difference in accent serves to indi- 
 cate difference of meaning; Ex.: enfo'ldig simple minded, 
 e'nfoldig yielding a return equal to the seed sown; 2) in ad- 
 jectives derived in -som and -bar: opfi'-ndsom inventive, udfo'r- 
 bar practicable ; 3) in compound adjectives the first part of 
 which is al: alvi'dende omniscient, almce'gtig almighty, ale'ne 
 alone; 4) in some other compound adjectives: hojvelbaa'ren 
 nobel, hojce'-del highly noble, Jidjstce'ret highly honored, med- 
 li'dende sympathetic, tilfre'ds satisfied; 
 
 c) compound adverbs the first part of which is der or her 
 and the second part a preposition, are accentuated on the first 
 part, if they commence the sentence ; if not, they are accen- 
 tuated according to the logical importance of the component 
 
24 DANISH SOUNDS. 
 
 parts (see § 75) : de'ri liar Do Bet there you are right, Jian 
 gik derfra 1 med tunpt Hjerte he left (literally: went thence) 
 with a heavy heart; e l ngang once (but no more), enga'ng once 
 upon a time; desvat'rre alass, desu'dcn besides (but de'sfor- 
 uden besides), desli'ge in the same manner, dc'suagtet never 
 the less, de'sangaaende thereabout; also adverbs compound 
 with saa- and hvor- change accent according to the logical 
 importance of the component parts : saasna^rt (som) as soon as 
 (but saa'snart so soon), saa'megei so much, saamce'nd indeed, 
 saavi'dt as far as (but saaHedes thus, saa'som because), livor- 
 naa'r when, hvorle'des how (but hvo'rledes in what manner), 
 hvorda'n how, livorve'l albeit, hvorvi'di whether. Compound 
 adverbs consisting of a preposition with a following substan- 
 tive or adjective used as substantive as a rule have the accent 
 on the second part; Ex. : igmWe going on, afste'd off, overa'U 
 everywhere, itu' a sunder, efterhaa i nden by and by, oversty'r 
 to naught, (komme) overe'ns (to come) to terms, foru'deii 
 outside of, foro'ven above, fome'dett below, tilsa'mmen to- 
 gether. (But o'verhaands, o'vervcettes exceedingly, afsides 
 apart, foWlods in advance). Furthermore may be noted: al- 
 de'les wholly, fremdeHes further, scerde'les especially, cdlere'de 
 already, atti'gevel though, maaske'', kanske' perhaps, monstro 1 
 I wonder. 
 
 72. In words compound with the (originally German) 
 prefixes be-, er-, for-, ge- the accent as a rule is on the syllable 
 following next to the prefix; Ex. : begri'be to understand, er- 
 fcfre to leaxn, For sta'nd sense, Gelia'-r (musical) ear. The origi- 
 nally German prefix for (Ger. ver) is to be distinguished from 
 the originally Danish prefix of the same sound corresponding 
 to English fore in such words as Fo'rmiddag forenoon, Fo l r- 
 laber forerunner. 
 
 73. The Danish prefix u-, Eng un-, takes the accent ex- 
 
DANISH SOUNDS. 20 
 
 cept in adjectives derived (chiefly from verbs) with the termi- 
 nations -lig, -elig, -bar, -som. U'ro disquiet, U'aar bad year, 
 uska'dehg harmless, uanse'lig insignificant (but u'adelig not 
 of nobility), utvi'vlsom indubitable- Note further the adjec- 
 tives uvi'dende ignorant, umce'lende speechless, ue'nig of a 
 different opinion, ukri'stelig un-Christian, the conjunction 
 ucfgtet although, and the verbs umcfge (or u'magv) and ulei'- 
 lige to trouble. 
 
 74. The prefixes mis-, sam-, und-, van-, veder- as a rule have the 
 accent; Ex.: ifi'sdader evildoer, Sa'marbejde co-operation, u'ndsige to 
 defy, Va'n-art wickedness, Ve'derlag compensation, but adjectives de- 
 rived in -dig and -som takes the accent on the second part of the compo- 
 sition: mistm'nksom suspicious (but Mi'stanlce suspicion), undgaa'dig 
 avoidable, vedersty'ggelig abominable; and so do the following words: 
 Misu'ndelse envy, Undta'gelse exception, Uiidvi' gdse or U'ndvigelse es- 
 cape, undta'gen except (but with inverted position of the words: e'n 
 aleneu'ndtagen one only excepted), undrxe'rlig dispensable, samdros'gtig 
 unanimous, zana'rtig wicked, vanku'ndig ignorant. 
 
 SENTENCE ACCENT. 
 
 75. Different from the syllabic accent is the sentence or 
 rhetoric accent, whereby a different stress is given to the dif- 
 ferent words of the sentence according to their logical impor- 
 tance. 
 
 Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions and other particles as 
 well as auxiliary verbs are as a rule unaccented. When a 
 word is used in the sentence without stress it is subject to dif- 
 ferent changes, such as abbreviation of long sounds, loss of 
 glottal stop (see § 76) and even loss of a part of their sub- 
 stance (see §§65 and 16). 
 
2G . DANISH soryos. 
 
 Sometimes the whole meaning of a sentence is changed by 
 a change of accent: Min Ten gi'k ip j :n my friend left again, 
 min Ven gik ige'-n my friend reappeared (as a ghost, haunted 
 the house). 
 
 GLOTTAL STOP. 
 
 76. The accent stress (including in some cases the se- 
 condary accent) takes in Danish in a great many (originally) 
 monosyllabic words the peculiar form ofaglottal stop or 
 catch (Sweet), by the Danish grammarians called Stadtone or 
 Tonehold. This glottal stop is produced by a temporary clos- 
 ure of the glottis and a corresponding interruption of the 
 voice, the result being a sound very similar to the one produ- 
 ced by cough or hiccough. Those Danish dialects, therefore, 
 which are especially given to the use of the glottal stop are 
 said to "hiccough the words forth". As the glottal stop con- 
 sists in an interruption of the voice, it results that it can only 
 occur in sounds that are produced or a:-companied by an emis- 
 sion of voice (vowels and voiced consonants). 
 
 The accent stress of originally polysyllabic words is cha- 
 racterized by the absence of the glottal stop. 
 
 [The glottal stop is here indicated by (*).] 
 
 77. The glottal stop chiefly occur; in the following cases 
 (although there is some difference between the various dialects 
 and also individually as to its use) : 
 
 1) a great many monosyllables : Ma*nd man, Hu*s house, 
 faa* few (always in monosyllables consisting of long vowel 
 sound followed by consonant (excepting Fa~r, Mo'r, Bro'-r, 
 iVr, PovH which are originally dissyllabic) or short vowel 
 
DAXISH SOUNDS. 27 
 
 sound followed by two voiced consonants ; as a rule in those 
 ending in a long vowel or diphthong ; those consisting of short 
 vowels followed by h, m, n, ng with following voiceless con- 
 sonant take the glottal stop in the dialect of Sealand, but not 
 in that of Jutland, while r in this position is incompatible 
 with glottal stop ; sometimes it occurs in words having a short 
 vowel before one single voiced consonant). 
 
 2) many dissyllables in -el, -en and -er: Ex.: 2E*sel 
 donkey, Vin*ter winter, A*sen donkey. 
 
 3) the radical syllable of many compound verbs, ad- 
 jectives, adverbs and nouns derived from verbs, where the 
 glottal stop is lacking in the non-compound words : Ex. : 
 (7i)jems0*ge to visit, 2fe l dskyl*dig accomplice, Ankla*ger 
 accuser. 
 
 4) in some foreign words : Kano*n, Stude*nt, Ante*rika. 
 
 78. The glottal stop serves to distinguish pairs of words 
 which otherwise would have the same sound: 
 
 1) the definite form of monosyllables from that of dis- 
 syllables ending in -e, the former with, the latter' without 
 glottal stop. 
 
 with glottal stop without glottal stop 
 
 Aan*den the spirit (Aand) Aand'en the breath (Aande) 
 S/c0*det the lap (Shed) Ska'det the deed (of convey- 
 
 ance, Skede) 
 Bun*den the bottom {Bund) Bond'en the peasant (Bonde) 
 
 2) the plural form of monosyllables, ending in -er (with 
 stop) and of dissyllables, ending in -r (without stop). 
 
 with stop without stop 
 
 JEn*der ducks {And) End'er ends {Ende) 
 
 Stcen*ger sticks {Stang) Stmng i er hay-lofts {Stcenge) 
 
28 DANISH SOUNDS. 
 
 3) the definite form of monosyllabic substantives (with stop] 
 and corresponding adjectives or participles (without stop). 
 
 with stop without stop 
 
 Sej*let the sail sejV-et sailed 
 
 St&*vet the dust siav'et dusty 
 
 4) past participle plural of some weak verbs (with stop] 
 and the corresponding imperfect tense (without stop) : Ex. : 
 
 (de ileve) pi*nte they were tortured; (de) pi'nte the} 
 tortured ; 
 
 5) some proper nouns (with stop) and corresponding ap 
 pellatives (without stop). 
 
 with stop without stop 
 
 En*gel Eng'el angel 
 
 Jce*ger Jce i ger hunter 
 
 Kri(e)*ger Kri'-ger warrior 
 
 Mal*ler MelVer miller 
 
 6) present tense of some verbs (with stop) and the corre- 
 sponding nouns (without stop) ; 
 
 with stop without stop 
 
 (lian) ma?*er he paints Mal'er painter 
 
 " ltj*ler he runs Lab l er runner 
 
 7) the definite form of some monosyllabic substantives 
 (with stop) and verbal nouns ending in -en (without stop) ; 
 
 TvivHen the doubt Tviv'len doubting 
 
 Sme*den the smith Sme'den forging. 
 
 QUANTITY OF DANISH SOUNDS. 
 
 79. Vowels and open consonants can be long or short 
 shut consonants (stops) are in the Danish language always short. 
 
BANISH SOUNDS. 29 
 
 Long.sounds can only occur in accentuated syllables. A con- 
 sonant written double between two vowels indicates that the 
 preceding vowel is short, but final consonants are not written 
 double to indicate shortness of preceding vowel except in a 
 few cases where it may be done, when it is thought desirable 
 to distinguish between two words that otherwise would look 
 alike ; Ex. : Brud(d) rupture, Brud bride, Dug(g) dew, Dug 
 table cloth. 
 
 Note. In the following words consonants are written double alter 
 a long vowel to indicate the hard (non-spirantic) sound: Drcegge grapnels, 
 doegge to coddle, Haggen the bird cherry, Loeggen the calf, Loegget the 
 fold, tuck, Plaggen the colt, Skasgget the beard, Vceggen the wall, JEggen 
 the edge, Mgget the egg, Ncebbet the beak Bredde breadth, Vidde width. 
 The vowel is also long before double consonant in the following words: 
 otte eight, sjette sixth, Sotten the sickness, jEtten the family, and in 
 words derived by the termination -mszssig: forlioldsmxssig propor- 
 tionate, etc. 
 
 80. The quantity of consonants is not indicated in spell- 
 ing. Long is the first of two soft consonants (I, m, n, r, d, g) 
 in intermediate position between two vowels, the preceding 
 vowel then being short, accentuated and pronounced without 
 glottal stop: hamre to hammer, hornet horned, Almagt omni- 
 potence, Stenlord stone table. (But short consonant in ramse 
 to say by rote, Skjorte shirt, Hor*net the horn). 
 
30 
 
 NORWEGIAN SOUNDS. 
 
 NORWEGIAN SOUNDS. 
 
 8 I . Table of the Norwegian vowels classified according 
 to their place of articulation. 
 
 Back. 
 
 Mixed 
 
 Frost. 
 
 j Not 
 1 rounded. 
 
 Rounded. 
 
 Not 
 rounded. 
 
 Rounded. 
 
 Not 
 rounded. 
 
 Rounded. 
 
 , 
 
 Narrow 
 
 
 
 
 
 U 
 
 i 
 
 y 
 
 a 
 
 Wide 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Narrow 
 
 
 a- 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 Wide 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 a i 6 
 
 i 
 
 O 
 
 Narrow 
 
 
 
 
 
 £6 ! ce 
 
 Wide 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 For the explanation of the technical terms: Back, Mixed, Front, 
 High, Mid, Low, see § 10. 
 
 Note, a is a little advanced, but not so much so as in Danish. 
 Vulgarly and dialectically the long a may be pronounced further back 
 and with a slight rounding, approaching the English aw in law. 
 
 o is midway between high and mid and a midway between mid and 
 low, but both are pronounced with the rounding corresponding to th< 
 higher stage. 
 
 ACOUSTIC VALUE OF THE NORWEGIAN TOWELS. 
 
 82. a has the sound of English a in father, short or long. 
 Ex. short : Hat hat, Man(d) man ; long : Dag day, Sal hall, 
 
NORWEGIAN SOUNDS. 31. 
 
 83. <b has the sound of English a in care ; it occurs long 
 or short before r ; Ex. long : bare to bear, Icere to teach, ncer 
 near; short: Fcerd conduct, voyage, Smerte pain, Verk work. 
 
 Note. The orthographic sign of this sound may be, as seen from 
 the above examples, m or e; the former is used when the same word in 
 another'form or another kindred word has a or aa where the word in 
 question has ae ; Ex. : Fxrd derived from fare to travel, bxre to carry, 
 impf. bar; fazrre fewer, comp. oifaa; KsErring old (or married) woman 
 derived from Kar(l) man. Where this rule does not apply, i. e. where 
 there is no such as or aa to judge by, then the long a-sound as a rule is 
 written a, the short e. But there are some exceptions. Ex. long sound 
 written e: der there, er is, Erende message, fjerde fourth, Tier here, 
 igjer(d)e (or igjsere) going on, Jerri iron, Jertegn sign, miracle. Short 
 sound written m: ford&rve to spoil, forfxrde to frighten; sszrdeles espe- 
 cially, vazrd (colloquially pronounced vetzrt) worth, werre worse. 
 
 Obs. Veir weather, pron. user. 
 
 84. a long or short, like English e in "men"; Ex. short: 
 ret right, slet even, bad, treat tired; long: Glcede joy, Fcedre 
 fathers, Slmder cities. 
 
 Orthographic signs of the sound a are m and ej their use 
 corresponds to the rule given in § 83 note. Exceptions: 
 a) long a written e: JEventyr fairy tale, ihje'l to death, Kjede 
 chain, vever agile ; b) short a written w : Drosg grapnel, Vceg 
 wall, Grces grass, hosslig ugly, lemlmste to maim, Vceske 
 satchel, V(e{d)ske fluid, reed afraid, trcet tired, Kjceft (vulgar) 
 mouth, Tceft scent, Krceft cancer, Blmk ink, Icekke to leak, 
 Leek leak, Sprcek crack, sproskke to crack, Fcelle fellow, Trcel 
 thrall, Vceld spring, Vcelde power, {H)vcelv vault, Kjcelke sled, 
 Frwnde relative, cense to mind, faafcengt useless, forfasngelig 
 vain, IT&vd prescriptive right. 
 
 Note. In the dialect of Christiania and the southern part of Nor- 
 way the long sound of S, has been replaced by the long e, and the short 
 sound of a is only half wide. 
 
32 NORWEGIAN SOUNDS. 
 
 85. « like French e in "ete", English a in "name" as 
 usually pronounced in America, i. e. without the diphthongic 
 element. Short e only occurs in words formed by inflection 
 or derivation from words with long e; Ex. : ire(d)t neuter 
 form of bre(d) broad, Bredde breadth, derived from the same 
 word; Ex. long: Te tea, Ve(d) wood, heel (pron. het) hot. 
 
 Orthographic sign of this sound is e. 
 
 Note. In the dialect of Christiania and the southern part of Nor- 
 way the long sound of e has been substituted for that of a, see § 84 note. 
 On the other hand the short sound of e is in the speech of many, even 
 educated, people in the course of being replaced by a half wide short a. 
 As yet, however, the pronounciation of brat instead of bre(d)t may be 
 considered as bordering on the vulgar. 
 
 86. * short or long; it has the narrow sound of English ee 
 in "see"; Ex. long: Vin wine, ii ten, i in; short: Vin(d) 
 wind, li(d)t (neut.) little. Orthographic sign i, except in the 
 word de (De) they, the, you. 
 
 Note. For the pronunciation of mig, dig, sig see § 94. Before 
 vowels i as a rule is pronounced so very short as to make it almost or 
 wholly consonantic in character: Kastanie (pron. Kastanje) chestnut, 
 Familie (j) family, Krisiiania (j , or as a very short i); as a short i also 
 in Kariol carriole, Million; tredie the third is pronounced tredde or 
 
 87. ^ has the sound of German unaccented e in " Gabe," 
 approaching French e in "que"; but often its articulation is 
 more advanced and then it sounds almost like a short e. This 
 is especially often the case in unaccented prefixes. 3 only 
 occurs in unaccented syllables ; orthographic sign e ; Ex. : 
 Gave gift, vssre to be, lefale (a-a-e) to order. 
 
 Note, the orthographic sign for 3 is i or e in tusintd) or tusen(d) 
 thousand. 
 
 88. & has a sound approaching English a in call (but it is 
 pronounced with a somewhat higher articulation ; raised low 
 
NORWEGIAN SOU2STDS. 33 
 
 or lowered mid ; the rounding is the same as corresponds to 
 the mid sound (o) in the European languages generally. 
 It may be long or short, the short sound being somewhat 
 ■wider than the long one. 
 
 Note 1. Orthographic sign of the long sound is as a rule aa (a); 
 Ex : Aal eel, graa grey, Vaar spring. 
 
 Exceptions: before g and v the sound of a is usually written o: over 
 over, doven, lazy, love to promise, Shot forest, og and, Sprog language: 
 but if g represents the sound of k (see § 122j, then the sound of a is 
 written aa (a): Maage mew, pron. mhke (or mage), laoge(k) fog, vaage{k) 
 to wake, vaagen awake; also in Yaag (g) bay, Aag (g) yoke. Observe 
 also Pole (a) colt, Jorsdag (a) Thursday, vor (a) our, fore a prefix (fore- 
 bygge to prevent, Foremen foTetop). 
 
 note 2. The orthographic sign of the short sound as a rule is o; 
 Ex. : Lod half an ounze, holde to hold, Konge king. Exceptions: aa is as 
 a rule written before nd, representing the sound nn: Baan(d) ribbon, 
 Saan(d) hand; in the words Aadsel carcass, fraadse gourmandize, and 
 others; furthermore in forms or words derived from corresponding 
 words with a long aa; Ex. : groat neut. of graa grey, 7iaar(d)t neut. of 
 haar(d) hard, etc. 
 
 89. o has no exact equivalent outside of the Scandinavian 
 languages, although it comes very near to the sound of Eng- 
 lish oo in "poor." Its place of articulation is midway between 
 "high" and "mid," and the rounding corresponds to high (oo). 
 It may be short or long. Orthographic sign for the long 
 sound is o, for the short o or u ; Ex. long : (jeg) lo (I) laughed, 
 Horn horn, Hob multitude; Ex. short: Sonde peasant, op up 
 (in Christiania pronounced ap), Buk (o) he-goat, tung (o) 
 heavy u serves to represent this sound before ?ig, nk and as 
 a rule before m ending a syllable or followed by another con- 
 sonant, /, k and gt. Furthermore in the following words : 
 Kunst art, Spuns bung. Kul, coal, is sometimes pronounced 
 kol. 
 
 90- Also the Scandinavian u is a peculiar sound without 
 
34 NORWEGIAN SOUNDS. 
 
 any exact equivalent in English. It comes nearest to the 
 English u in "full" or "put." In pronouncing the Norwe- 
 gian u the back of the tongue is raised towards the hard pal- 
 ate and the point remains behind the lower incisors, while the 
 lips are considerably protruding. Ex. long: Oud God, Ur 
 watch, liul (adj.) hollow, Brud bride; short: Brud breach, 
 Out boy, Hul hole (also pronounced Hoi). 
 
 Note. For u being the orthographic sign of o see § 89. 
 
 91. y has the tongue position of i, the lip rounding of u. 
 It sounds like German ii, French win "lune," only still 
 thinner, nearer to i. It may be short or long. Phonetic 
 
 Sign y. Ex. long: By town, syv seven, yde yield; short: yppe to raise, 
 yste to make cheese, bygge to build. 
 
 Note. For y being sometimes pronounced as see § 92 note. 
 
 92. 6. 
 
 is a rounded e and has a sound like French eu in "peu"; 
 it only occurs long, but is never found before radical r; Ex. : 
 island, da die, (Hunden) gjar (the dog) barks, b is a 
 rounded ce and has a sound like French eu in "peuple," 
 German b in "Gotter." It occurs both short and long, long 
 only before radical r. In this latter position, however, the 
 dialect of Christiania has a still lower (more open) sound 03. 
 Ex. 6: sb(d)t sweet (neut.), grbn green ; 6 or 03: Born or Beam 
 children, gjbr or gjozr does, hbrlig or hcerlig audible. 
 
 Note. The orthographic sign of all three sounds, 0, o and 03 is in 
 print as a rule 0, in writing 6. 
 
 In a few words the sign y represents the sound of b : syt- 
 ten (6) 17, sytti (0) 70, fyrti (0, 03) 40. Also in some other 
 words y may be pronounced as 6 : Lyklce luck, Styklce piece, 
 Bryst breast, jJytte to move. But the pronunciation as y is 
 regularly heard among educated people. 
 
XOR'W'EGIAN SOUXDS. 35 
 
 NORWEGIAN DIPHTHONGS. 
 
 93- The diplithongic sounds occurring in the Norwegian 
 language are: ai, cei, oi, oi, cew. ai has a sound like English 
 i in "mile." Ex. : Hai shark, Kai quay, vaie wave, float. 
 In the word Mai May, a as a rule is pronounced long. 
 
 94- fel ' has the orthographic sign ei, which sign always 
 represents the sound here indicated (not as in Danish: ai); 
 Ex. : lei tedious, disagreeable ; Vei road. 
 
 In some words eg, ek, ig serve as signs for this diplithongic sound: 
 yg I (pron. josi), mig me, dig you, sig himself etc. (pron. mcei etc.). seks- 
 ten 16 (pron. soeuten). 
 
 egl, egn are in the greater part of Norway pronounced ceil, orin; but 
 in the northern part egn is pronounced engn; Ex.: Negl (osi) nail, legl 
 (osi) tile, Segn (atin or engn) rain. In mathematics distinction is made 
 between Segle cone and Kile wedge, lat. cuneus. But in everyday 
 speech both words are pronounced alike; slaa Icjiler (i. e Regler) play 
 at ninepins, slaa ind en k^ile (i. e. 'Kile) drive in a wedge. 
 
 95. oi only occurs in some foreign words; it has the same sound as 
 English oy in "boy," but has a tendency to become assimilated with 8i: 
 halloi halloo, Konvoi convoy. 
 
 96- I Q oi the first element of the diphthong is the wide 5, 
 the second a wide y ; Ex. : hoi high, T'di cloth, foite to gad. 
 bg in Logn lie, Dogn day and night, as a rule represents the 
 same sound, but in the northern part of the country those 
 words are pronounced longn, dbngn. Nogel key is by some 
 people pronounced neiel, commonly n'dkkel. 
 
 The word Bygd country township is sometimes pronounced 
 bbidy but usually as it is spelt. The former pronunciation is 
 still considered somewhat vulgar, although Ibsen uses it in 
 "Brand" in the following rhyme: 
 
 lusen fulgte mig af Bygden (5i), 
 ikke en zandt op til Hoiden. 
 
36 NORWEGIAN SOUNDS. 
 
 The sound of oi is in some foreign words represented by 
 eu: Farmaceut (pron. sbit) pharmacist, Lieutenant (pron. 
 and now regularly spelt loitnant), neutral (pi) neuter, Eugen 
 (pron. disjen). 
 
 97. ceu has a sound that comes very near tte Cockney 
 pronunciation of ou in "house." Orthographical sign av. 
 Ex. : taus silent, August, Tang rope. 
 
 This diphthong is written eu in Muropa. (But in Greek names 
 Zeus etc. eu is pronounced ev). 
 
 NORWEGIAN CONSONANTS. 
 
 98- P as i n English; Ex. : Pave pope, Penge money, Pil 
 arrow, op up. 
 
 Note 1. Vulgar is a tendency to pronounce p before t as/; Ex. : 
 Tcaftein for Kaptein Captain, skaft for skapt (written skabt) shaped. 
 Note 2. The sound of p is written i in the following cases: 
 1) after short vowel before, mostly inflective, t and s: slcabt (p) 
 shaped, radbt (pron. ropt) called, KreJs (p) crawfish, Skibshv^i {p) ship's 
 dog, Labskaus (p) lobcscouse: Lcebe lip is often pronounced Iczppe, with 
 short vowel. 
 
 %) after a long vowel when p either ends a word or i= followed 
 hy 3 (see § 6 in fine) ; Ex. : Gal ( p) yawn, gabe (pi) to yawn, 
 Skrab (p) trash, skrabe (p) to scrape, Skab (p) wardrobe, 
 Tab (p) loss, tabe (p) to lose, Kaabe (p) cloak, tacbelig (b or 
 p) foolish, krybe (p) to creep. Among the younger generation of 
 authors it is getting always more common to spell these "crords in ac- 
 cordance with the Norwegian pronunciation. It is only in i small part 
 of the coast districts in the southernmost part of Norway thit b in these 
 words is pronounced as written, similarly to the pronunciation, in Danish 
 (see § 4). 
 
NOEAVEGIAN" SOUNDS. 
 
 37 
 
 99. i sounds like English b; this sound occurs in the be- 
 ginning, middle (chiefly in foreign words) and end of words ; 
 Ex. : By town, Bly lead, Hybel garret, Lab (pr. labb) paw. 
 
 Note. Sometimes b interchanges with p after a long vowel (see § 98 
 Note 2), b being reserved for a more elevated style or a figurative mean- 
 ing; Ex.. 
 
 ddbe, p, to baptize. 
 
 gribe, p, to catch. 
 
 raabe (pr. rope) to call aloud, cry. 
 
 Saab (raap, rop) cry, call. 
 
 skrQbelig, p, fragile, frail. 
 tabe, p, to lose. 
 
 sleben, p, ground, cut (slepet Glas, 
 
 cut glass). 
 skabe, p, sig to act in an affected 
 
 manner. 
 Sv'dbe (pr. Svepe) driving whip. 
 — shab, p, in Ondshab, p, evilness, 
 
 Troldskab, p, witchcraft; JEgte- 
 
 skab, p, marriage. 
 
 100. m bilabial nasal, like the English m; Ex. : maa must, 
 om about, Jcomme to come. Before/ m assumes a labiodental 
 character, more rarely before v ; Ex. : Jomfru young woman, 
 stewardess. 
 
 Daab, b, baptism; JoJiannes den 
 Dober John the Baptist. 
 
 figuratively: en gribende Seem an 
 impressive scene. 
 
 raabe in some sentences figura- 
 tively: Turns Forbrydelse raaber 
 om Bcevn his crime cries for 
 vengeance. 
 
 Baab, b: Maabet paa Reformer the 
 clamor for reforms. Baaber a 
 speaking trumpet. 
 
 figuratively: Kjbdet er skrQbeligt, 
 b, the flesh is weak. 
 
 fortabes, b (theol.) to be damned; 
 et Fortabelsens Barn a child of 
 perdition. 
 
 et slebent, h, Vczsen a polished 
 address. 
 
 skabe, 5, to create; Skabelse crea- 
 tion. 
 Stbbe, 65, scourge. 
 — skab, 5, in Kundskab (also p) 
 knowledge, Yidenskab, 5, sci 
 ence. 
 
38 NORWEGIAN SOUNDS. 
 
 101. /is a labiodental open Bound like English f; Ex.: 
 faa get, puffe to push. 
 
 Note 1. In the word af of /is a sign for the sound of v, see § 102, 
 Note 1. 
 
 Note 2. In inflective forms of words, the stems of which end in 
 "v" the sound of/is sometimes written "v": liavt (partcp.) pron. lioft 
 had (colloquially pron. hat); see § 102 Note 2. 
 
 102. v is a labiodental open voiced sound, not quite so 
 sharply articulated as English v. Occurs both in the begin- 
 ning, middle and at the end of words ; Ex. : vi we, love to 
 promise, Skov forest. 
 
 Note 1. In the word af of this sound has the orthographic sign/. 
 
 Note 2. v is the orthographic sign of the sound / 1) before s and t 
 in inflective forms of words, the stems of which end in v, when the 
 vowel preceding v is short; if the preceding vowel is long, then v retains 
 its sound; in some words both pronunciations (long vowel & v and short 
 vowel &/) are admissible; Ex. : soette tillivs (/) to dispatch (food); Livsens 
 (/) of life, grout (v or/) rough (neuter form), paaskrcevs (v or /) astride, 
 tilliavs (v or /) at sea. Also revse (J ) to castigate. Colloquially the 
 imperfect lovede promised is pronounced lofte. 2) In the words: Viol 
 (flower) violet, Violin, Violoncel. 
 
 Note 3. v is written but not pronounced after I in haUy) half, 
 sel(v) self, So2(v) silver, tol(v) twelve, tol(v)te twelfth, Tyl(v)t dozen; 
 furthermore in Pro(v)st dean, Tvj(v)Z doubt (now regularly written Tvil), 
 li/.t{v)t had, hra(v) or brav, plural pronounced brave or bra. 
 
 For bli(ve)r gi(ve)r see § 140 c. 
 
 103. t is a voiceless dental stop, slightly aspirated, espe- 
 cially in the beginning of words, but much less so than in Dan- 
 ish. The aspiration is omitted after s, t in this position thus 
 representing a sound between t and d ; Ex. : Tal number, Hat 
 hat, Potet potato, stor big. 
 
 tli does not represent any other sound than i; it is used in some 
 words of Greek origin and as a rule in the conjunction ihi for, to distin- 
 guish it from the numeral ti ten, both words being pronounced alike. 
 Sometimes also in llring Session of court, Storthing name of Norwegian 
 
NORWEGIAN' SOUNDS. 39 
 
 parliament, to distinguish these words from Ting thing; furthermore in 
 Throndhjem, lliarsdag Thursday; but these words are now generally 
 spelt without h. 
 
 Note 1. t is written but not pronounced 1) in de{t) that, the (pron. 
 art.) and in the enclitic definite article neuter; Ex.; Husdf) the house. 
 In elevated speech, however, the t in this latter case usually retains its 
 sound. 
 
 2) in the words Gjes(t)giver country innkeeper, V<er{t)$hu$ inn. 
 
 3) in the infinitive particle at to, colloquially pronounced a, thus 
 distinguished from the conjunction at that, pronounced as written. In 
 stead of Disputats disputation, JVotits notice, etc., it is now the rule to 
 write Disputas, Notis, etc. 
 
 Note 2. For tj in some words representing the sound of Jcj see 
 § 119 Note. 
 
 104. The sound of t is represented by the sign d in many 
 words finally and before 9 after a long vowel ; Ex. : bled (t) 
 soft, bide (t) to bite, Baad (t) boat, kaad (t) jolly, vaad (t) 
 wet, Flaade (t) raft, Maade (t) manner, (but Saate hay-cock 
 also spelt with t, because it is a distinctly Norwegian word), 
 Fad (t) dish, flad (t) flat, Oade (t) street, lad (t) lazy, Mad (t) 
 food, fed (t) fat, Gjed (t) goat, hed (t) hot, hede (t) to be called, 
 lede (t) to search, Hvede (t) wheat, Sosde (t) seat (but gjmfe to 
 guard (grazing animals) spelt with t cfr. Saate), did (t) 
 thither, hvid (t) white, hid (t) hither, liden (t) little, Fod (t) 
 foot, mod (t) against, Bod (t) amende, Rod (t) root, rode (() 
 to rummage, Sod (t) soot, Grud (t) grounds, lude (t) to stoop, 
 Knude (t) knot, Lud (t) lye, Fude (t) pillow, Stud (t) oxe, 
 tude (t) to toot, Tud (t) spout, ud (t) out, tide (t) out, bryde 
 {t) break, Gryde (t) pot, Lyde (t) blemish, skryde (t) to boast, 
 shyde (t) to shoot, snyde (t) to blow (the nose), bade (t) to pay 
 a fine, Bader (t) fines, Flede (t) cream, Grad (t) porridge, 
 made (t) meeting, Stad (t) push, stzde (t) to push, Skjade (t) 
 deed of conveyance. 
 
40 
 
 XOE^VEGIAK SOUNDS. 
 
 Double consonant after short vowel : Nod pron. Nott nut, 
 Fodder feet, pron. Fbtter, sidde to sit, pron. sitte. 
 
 Note. For some of these words in specific meanings being 
 pronounced with d, see § 106. 
 
 105- d like English d; Ex. : da then, blodi(g) bloody, reed 
 (dd) afraid. 
 
 Notb. Where the Danish and the common Norwegian orthography 
 have d in the end or middle of words after a long vowel, the common 
 Norwegian pronunciation as a rule either has t or drops the d. In the 
 former case d corresponds to ON. t (see §§ 4& 6), in the latter to ON. S. 
 
 106. Some words written with d are pronounced with d 
 or t according to the meaning. The voiced explosive as a rule 
 occurs in learned words and those chiefly occurring in higher 
 stvle. 
 
 fiyde, t, to float, to flow. 
 grcede, t (gr&te) to cry, to weep. 
 R)§d, tt, meat. 
 lide, t, to trust. 
 
 JIaade, t, manner. 
 
 nyde, t, to take (food), nyde, t, godt 
 af noget to draw profit of some- 
 thing. 
 
 raadden, tt, rotten, putrid. 
 
 Mod, t, courage. 
 
 Flade, d or t, plane. 
 
 Sfjdd, t, lap (Frakkesjod coatlap;, 
 Skjodskind (shoemaker's) apron. 
 
 tide, t, to know. 
 
 d. 
 
 fiydende d, liquid. 
 
 begrwde, d, to cry over. 
 
 Kj'6d, ad, flesh. 
 
 littid, d, trust, paalzdelig, d, trust- 
 worthy. 
 
 Note. Always lide, d, to suffer. 
 
 Maade, d, mode (gram.)- 2dk i lige 
 Maade thanks, the same to you. 
 
 nyde, d, to enjoy, nydelig enjoy- 
 able, pretty. 
 
 raadden (morally) foul. 
 
 modig, courageous. 
 
 always overfladisk superficial. 
 
 i Familient Skjod in the bossom of 
 
 the family. 
 Vidensiab science, Yiden know- 
 ledge. 
 
NORWEGIAN SOUNDS. 
 
 41 
 
 t. 
 
 ydre, tt, outer; Tderfrak, tt, over- 
 coat; ydent, tt, outermost. 
 bide t, to bite. 
 bind, t, soft. 
 fflaade t, raft. 
 forbryde, t, sig to offend, trespass. 
 
 lade, t, let; ladesomom to make it 
 
 appear that. (See also § 140). 
 onerlade, t, to leave; tillade, t, to 
 
 allo-w. 
 
 107. A is often written at the end or in the middle of 
 words after a long vowel without being pronounced (see § 105 
 Note). In rhetoric language the d may be retained in pro- 
 nunciation, and in some words there are duplicate forms with 
 or without d according to the meaning. 
 
 d. 
 
 ydent utmost, den yderste Dag the 
 
 day of judgment. 
 bidende pungent (answer, speech). 
 blodagtig effeminate. 
 Flaade fleet. 
 Forbryder criminal, ForbrydeUe 
 
 crime. 
 lade: det maa man lade ham, it 
 
 must be admitted that he. 
 tilsyneladende apparently, UUa- 
 
 delse permission. 
 
 Without d. 
 
 Sla{d) leaf, sheet, newspaper. 
 
 bli(d) gentle, bland. 
 Blo(d) blood, at spytte Blo{d) to spit 
 blood, blo(dyr'6!d) red as blood. 
 
 bre(d) broad: der skal en bre(d) Byg 
 til at bare gode Dage it takes a 
 broad back to carry god for- ' 
 tune. 
 
 Br5(d) bread. 
 
 With d. 
 
 NordUke Blade (name of news- 
 paper), ta{ge) Bladetfra Munden 
 to speak one's mind. 
 
 dit Hide Aasyn your sweet face. 
 
 Kjod og Blod flesh and blood, Blo- 
 dets Baand the ties of blood; in 
 many compounds: Blodbad car- 
 nage, Blodhevn revenge for mur- 
 der, Blodskam incest. 
 
 de brede Bygder the broad parishes. 
 
 vort daglige Brod our daily bread; 
 den enes D'6d, den andens Brod 
 one man's death, the other man's 
 breath (literally: bread). 
 
42 
 
 NORWEGIAN SOUNDS. 
 
 Without d. 
 
 db(d) dead ; 
 
 (colloquially may be used the 
 genuine Norwegian form dau 
 in the meaning of sluggish). 
 
 Mo{d) high tide. 
 glaid) joyous. 
 
 go(d) good. 
 
 Baa{d) means, expedient: der er 
 ingen Raa{d) med ham there is 
 no outcome -with him, det er iklce 
 Raa(d) it is not possible, jeg liar 
 ikke Raaid) I cannot afford, 
 raaldfibs without an expedient. 
 
 rb{d) red, en roid) Noise a red nose. 
 
 With d. 
 
 D'6d death; 
 
 dbd og magteslbs null and void; rf 
 is always pronounced when the 
 adjective is used as a noun: en 
 dbd a dead mau, staa op fra de 
 dbde to rise from the dead. 
 
 Flod river. 
 
 et glad Budskab glad tidings, en 
 glad Ajten a merry night. 
 
 den gode the good man, et Gode a 
 blessing. 
 
 Road advice, en Statsraad (king's) 
 minister, Kongens Road the 
 king's council, raadfore sig med 
 en to seek somebody's advice. 
 
 stri(d), adj. headstrong. 
 
 li{d) time, in go{d) li{d) plenty of 
 
 time, altiid) always. 
 mid) wide, en mid) FraMe a wide 
 
 coat. 
 
 Kan er rod he is red (i. e. radical 
 in politics), de rode Munde the 
 red dogs (i. e. roseola). 
 
 Strid, subst. strife. 
 
 lid time, usual form. 
 
 en vid Horisont a wide horizon 
 (i. e. scope of ideas), uden videre 
 without further ado. 
 
 109- d is always pronounced in Bad bath, Bod booth, 
 Bryderi trouble, Daad deed, Ed oath, Fraade foam, Fred 
 peace, Grade crop, Gud God, Had hate, Haider honor' led 
 loathsome, LyA sound, Naade grace, Odel allodial ownership ; 
 as a rule in Bud message, always when this word indicates 
 messenger. 
 
 d also as a rule is pronounced in derivatives; Ex.: fredelig peaceful, 
 Glade joy, raadelig advisable. 
 
NORWEGIAN SOUNDS. 4o 
 
 109. nd and Id are as a rule pronounced tin and 11: Mand 
 (nn) man, Mund (tin) mouth, hold (11) cold, Kulde (lie) 
 subst. cold, holde (lie) to hold, volde (lie) to cause. 
 
 d is pronounced as d after i! before r: Alder age, i?«/- 
 <Zer noice, Hulder wood nymph, Skulder shoulder; and in 
 the following words : Gilde company, hilde to snare, Kilde 
 fountain, Olding old man, JElde age, Vcelde power; further- 
 more in derivative words when the ending commences in a 
 vowel: gylden golden, heldig fortunate (but Hel(d) fortune). 
 
 d is pronounced after n before r and I: andre others, 
 handle to deal, Handel (pr. handl) a deal; d is also pro- 
 nounced in derivatives : sandelig verily, sandig sandy ; also as 
 a rule in Kvinde woman, Minde reminiscence; jeg liar i Sinde 
 I have in mind (but jeg gjorde det i Sinne I did it in anger), 
 Kunde customer. 
 
 110. d is mute 1) before s a) after a short vowel, in which 
 case ds is pronounced ss : ie(d)st best, Bi(d)sel bridle, bi(d)sh 
 snappish, Pla(d)s place, Kry(d)s cross, hind quarter, pu(d)sig 
 funny, and many others ; b) in some words after a long vowel : 
 Lo(d)s pilot, lo(d)se to pilot, Seila(d)s sailing, Straba(d)s 
 (or ts) exertion; c) between n and s: Brmn(d)sel fuel, 
 min(d)ske to decrease (the orthographic rule is to write d be- 
 tween n and s in the words derived from primitives with d : 
 Ex. : Han(d)she glove, from Haand hand ; but danse to 
 dance, Grcense limit, etc.); 2) before t when a d belonging 
 to the stem comes before an inflective t: Ex. : god — go(d)t 
 good, Hod — blo(d)t soft lide — li(d)t (part.) suffer; [before t 
 of a derivative ending d is retained in writing when the end- 
 ing consists of t alone; Ex. : et Skri(d)t a step, et Ri(d)t a 
 ride; but changed into t when the ending consists of t with a 
 following vowel : god — gotte sig to regal one's self. ] 
 
 Ml. (^ is mute in some words after r; the preceding 
 
44 NORWEGIAN SOUNDS. 
 
 vowel is usually long ; Ex. : Jor(d) earth, Fjor(d) fjord, 
 Gjcer(d)e fence, O(d) word, Nor{d)mand (short o) Norwegian. 
 
 In the following words d is pronounced after r (the preceding vowel 
 
 in that case is short): Bord border, Byrd birth, Fard voyage (but paa- 
 
 far(d)e astir), Hjord herd, hoirde to harden,- Icerd learned, Mord murder: 
 
 Verden the world, jorde to inter, Norden the North, (but nor(d)enfra from 
 
 the North, nor(d)enfjelds north of the mountains). 
 
 112- s is a voiceless opon Made sound; the voiced (soft) 
 * (z) of English and other languages does not exist in Nor- 
 wegian ; Ex. : se to see, lease to read, Eus house. 
 
 I I 3- sj or skj have about the same sound as English &h; 
 Ex. : Sjb sea, sjelden seldom, Skjorte shirt, Skjbrt skirt. Be- 
 fore i and y this sound is written sk. Ex. : Ski Norwegian 
 snowshoe, Sky cloud ; also before e in the following wordB : 
 Ske spoon, (at) ske to happen, maaske, kanske (also pro- 
 nounced k) perhaps, Besked information, beskeden modest, 
 skele to squint, Skelet skeleton, (at) skeie (ud) to lead a dis- 
 solute life ; before bi in : Skbite smack, Skbiter skates (but 
 Skoi fun, Skoier mischief maker, with k). 
 
 The same sound may in foreign words be rendered by sch, sh, g, ch, 
 j, >, according tho the spelling of the language from which the word is 
 borrowed: Chef, Gent, Bagage, jaloux, Journal, Kalesclie. Brosche brooch, 
 Punch, Schak chess, March, Revision, Mission, Addition, Direktion, (but 
 Kwtient pr. kvotsient in 3 syllables and Konsoriium partnership, pr_ 
 konsortsium in 4 syllables). 
 
 1 1 4. I has about the same sound as in English; Ex. : lide 
 to suffer, Laar thigh, Pil arrow, spille to play ; for 11 is in 
 some words written Id (see § 109). 
 
 I is written but not pronounced before j in the words Lja 
 or Ljaa scythe, Ljore opening in the roof for the smoke to 
 pass out, Ljom echo, Ljan place near Christiania; further- 
 more in : Karl man, and its compounds (pronounced and 
 often written Kar ; Stakkar a wretch, Dan. Stakkel; but in 
 
NORWEGIAN SOUNDS. 45 
 
 Suskarlene the housecarles pr. I) ; and in skal shall, often 
 pron. ska; and til to often pron. te. 
 
 Note. After point r, I in the eastern part of Norway assumes a 
 supradental character, being formed against the gums, and r is reduced 
 to a gliding sound; Ex.: Karl (naxae), farlig dangerous, Perle pearl. 
 
 115. In eastern Norway the Old Norse combination r5 has devel- 
 oped into a peculiar sound of inverted r or I, being pronounced by in- 
 verting the tongue and raising the point up towards the hard palate and 
 then bringing it forward with a smack. The inverted or "cacuminal" 
 sound produced in this manner makes upon the foreigner the impression 
 of being an r, while to the Norwegians it appears to be an I; it is called 
 the thick 1; Ex.: Svelvik (O. N. Sverdvik), name of a place. This sound 
 is considered vulgar, but it is often used colloquially in Eastern Nor- 
 way, even instead of common I; Ex.: EXasse class, Aal eel, Ola 
 (name). 
 
 116. n like English n: nu now, Bon prayer, vcenne to 
 accustom. 
 
 The sound of nn is written nd in a great many words (see 
 § 109). Of words spelt with nn or n (if final) may be noted : 
 Bonne bean, Bon prayer (plur. of both : Bonner, but Bonder 
 peasants, with the same w-sound) ; en Finne a pimple, but at 
 Jinde to find, at kunne to be able \\mtjeg kunde (nn) I could], 
 Skin light, appearance (at skinne to shine), but Skind (nn) 
 skin, Skinne rail, Vantro disbelief (but Vandfarve water 
 color). 
 
 Note. When n is preceded by an r, then it in the eastern part of 
 Norway assumes a supradental character, the r being reduced to a mere 
 gliding sound. Other dental sounds are affected in the same way by a 
 preceding r, and these combined sounds of r & following dental repre- 
 sent the same sounds that in the Sanskrit Grammar are called cerebral 
 (murdhanja). 
 
 117- nff represent a single sound, the guttural nasal con- 
 sonant, like English ng in singer; Ex. : synge to sing, tung 
 heavy. 
 
46 NORWEGIAN* SOUNDS. 
 
 Before k the same sound is represented by n alone; Ex.: lanlce (ngk) 
 thought, Bmnk bench. 
 
 The same is also sometimes the case before g in foreign -words, ng 
 thus representing the sound of ngg: Kongo, Uhgarn Hungary; and in 
 words of French origin also in other cases; Ex.: balancere (ngs) to 
 balance. Sometimes also in compound words a k or g may affect a pre- 
 ceding dental n so as to make it guttural: Maan{d)kla{d)e (ngk) towel; 
 but as a rule both sounds remain the same as in the separate words; 
 Angiver (n-j) informer, angaa{n-g) to concern. In some words of French 
 origin ng is pronounced ngsj (sj representing the sound of Engl. s7i, see 
 § 113); Ex. : rangere pron. rangsjere, to rank, but tangere {ngg) to touch. 
 
 118. r lrl Norway as a rule is a trilled point consonant. 
 Before a voice consonant or vowel it is voiced, before a voiceless 
 consonant it is generally voiceless. It is formed by allowing 
 trie point of the tongue to vibrate against the gums while the 
 breath of air passes trough. It is always distinctly pro- 
 nounced, never modified like final r in English ; Ex. : Ry fame, 
 Ror rudder, ho?-e to hear. 
 
 Note 1. In the south-western part of Norway is used an uvular r. 
 
 Note 2. The alveolar r exerts a peculiar influence on a following 
 dental sound t, d, I, •«, s (see §§'114 note, 116note). In polished language 
 these supradental varieties of the front sounds as a rule are avoided 
 after a short vowel as vulgar, except rs; Ex.: Vers verse (pron. almost 
 versh), Person (pron. almost pershon). 
 
 119- kj is a medio-palatal fricative sound corresponding 
 to German ch in i c h. The English language has no corre- 
 sponding sound although the middle sound produced in Eng- 
 lish between t and y in such combinations as not yet, don't 
 you has a certain resemblance to it. The sound is produced 
 by raising the middle of the tongue towards the palate with- 
 out touching it, while at the same time the point of the 
 tongue is lowered behind the lower teeth and the side edges 
 of the tongue touch the second molars. The orthographic 
 sign is kj except before i and y when it is k ; Ex. : kjbre to 
 
NORWEGIAN SOUNDS. 47 
 
 drive, kjcer dear, Kirhe church, Kys kiss. The sign of k repre- 
 sents this sound also before e in the words Kegle cone, Kemi chemistry, 
 Eerub. (But Keiser emperor with k). 
 
 Note. The sound of kj is written tj in Ijeld oyster catcher (a bird), 
 and Hern a small lake, Ijor tether, Ijcere tar. 
 
 120. j is the voiced sound corresponding to the voiceless 
 kj, pronounced like English y in yawn. 
 
 This sound is represented 1) by j, usually; Ex. : ja yes, jeg 
 (jei) I, Jul Christmas, Mj'6(d) mead, Linje line, tredje (also 
 pron. tredde) third, J'ode jew. 2) by g before i (except Jib 
 jib, jibbe gybe) and sometimes before y ; Ex. : gift married, 
 gik went, gylden golden. (But Jyde Jutlander, Jylland Jut- 
 land. And in foreign words g may retain its proper sound 
 before these vowels : Gigant, jEgypten, Religion ; so also in 
 Gyda woman's name) and sometimes in give (see § 140 c). 3) 
 by gj sometimes before other vowels than the two above men- 
 tioned: gjcdde to resound, Gjed (pron. je - t) goat, jeg gjor(d)e 
 I did, Gjmld debt. 4) by lij in a few words ; Hjalte hilt, ihjel 
 to death, Hjelm helmet, Hjem Home, Hjemmel warrant, Hjeme 
 brain, Hjalmar, Hjerte heart, Hjord herd, Hjort hart, Hjul 
 wheel, Hjcelp help, Hj'orne corner. 5) by Ij in Ijaa, Ljore, 
 Ljaii (see § 114). 
 
 (For skj, sj and kj see §§ 113 & 119). 
 
 121. & nas the sound of English k but more aspirated ; 
 not so much so, however, as in Danish. The letter k represents 
 this sound before consonants (except/, see§ 119), back vowels 
 (a, o, n) and unstressed front and mid vowels (a, i) and at 
 the end of words; Ex. : kaste to throw, Klo claw, Knee knee 
 (take care not to make the k mute as in English!), Laks 
 salmon, like to like, Viking, Raak lane of water (cut in the 
 ice), Tak (kk) thanks. 
 
 Note. When a word is spelt with k after a long vowel it is a sign 
 
48 NORWEGIAN SOUNDS. 
 
 that the word is originally Norwegian and does not occur in the Danish 
 language. (See § 122). 
 
 122. '-The sound of h is in many words represented in 
 writing by the letter g; 1) after a short vowel before s or t; 2) 
 after a long vowel at the end of words or before o; Ex.: 1) 
 Slags (aks) kind (but Slags of a battle), Krigsfiaade (ks) 
 navy, Rigs{ks)-advokat attorney general, iugsere (ks) to tow, 
 Jagt (kt) chase, l-agt (kt) laid, Digt (kt) poem, sligt (kt) 
 (neut.) such, stygt (kt) ugly, stegt (kt) ptc. fried, Vcegt (kt) 
 weight; 2) Ager (k) field, 5a<7 (k) behind, Bager (k) baker, 
 irw^e (k) to use, Bag (k) beech, Dug (k) table cloth, Hage (k) 
 chin, i?0<7(k) hawk, Lage (k) brine, Lagen (k) (bed)-sheet 
 (but Lager (g) stock in store), Xe^ (k) play, lege (k) to play, 
 TO 2# 00 pliable [but Jfy<7 (gg) mosquito], s«/<; (k) sick, ryoe 
 (k) to smoke (intr.), ro^e (k) to smoke (trans.), Spiger (k) 
 nail, Tag (k) roof, grasp, rig (k) rich, My (k) adj. like, Forlig 
 (k or g) agreement, for lige (k or g) to reconcile [but Forlig el- 
 seskommission (g) commissioners of arbitration] , Taage (k) fog. 
 
 Note. Often in these words the pronunciations as g and & inter- 
 change with each other, the former being considered more polite and 
 appropriate for elevated style. 
 
 In the following words there are double forms (with A; and g) partly 
 with a different meaning. 
 
 with k with g. 
 
 Bog book pr. bo - k. Bog pr. Bag more polite. 
 
 Flag sometimes pron. flak in Flag (a - g or agg) national en- 
 
 Isflag flake of Ice, Skjorte- sign. 
 
 flag (k or g) shirtlap. 
 
 Mog (pr. klo"k) sagacious ; en Jclog (ag) Eone a wise woman 
 
 han er ikke rigtig klog (i.e. on supernatural things); 
 
 (k) he is not quite in his del er meget klogt gjort that 
 
 right senses, jeg er lige (k) is a very clever move, a/Ska- 
 
 klog (k) I am just as wise de iliver man klog damage 
 
 as I used to be. makes wise. 
 
NORWEGIAN SOUNDS. 
 
 49 
 
 Rige (k) empire, et start 
 Rige (k) a great empire. 
 
 Sag (k) matter, enfarli(g) 
 Sag(k)a, dangerous thing, 
 det er ingen Sag (k) it is 
 a very easy matter, sag- 
 soge (k, k) to sue. 
 
 Smag (k) taste, en ubehage- 
 li{g) Smag (k) i Munden 
 (nn) a disagreeable taste 
 in the mouth; det har 
 Mersmag (k) it has a 
 morish taste. 
 
 vaage (k) to watch ; vaage 
 (k) over en syg to watch 
 a sick person ; Vaage(k)- 
 kone a sick-nurse. 
 
 Naturrigerne (g) the kingdoms 
 of nature, Guds Rige (g) the 
 kingdom of God, det tyske 
 Rige the German empire, 
 Frankrige (g) France (but 
 Suerige~pron. Sverie or Sverje, 
 Sweden). 
 
 Sagen the matter, saglig perti- 
 nent (strictly to the point), 
 Sagforer lawyer. 
 
 Note: always Sag (g) saw. 
 
 Smag (g) taste, god Smag good 
 
 taste, 
 smagfuld(g, ll)tasteful, elegant, 
 Smage/i er forskjellig taste dif- 
 fers. 
 
 vaager (g) og beder watch and 
 pray. 
 
 Aag (sometimes pron. 
 yoke, oxbow. 
 
 ak) gaa under Aaqet (g) to walk 
 under the yoke ; mii Aag (g) 
 er gavnli(gt), my yoke is use- 
 ful. 
 
 123- & is written but not pronouuced in the words: 
 Au(k)tion, Mul(k)t fine, mul{k)tere to fine, Engels{k)mand 
 Englishman; sometimes k is also dropped in pronouncing 
 .Frans(k)mand Frenchman, and always in Frans(k)bro(d) 
 French rolls. 
 
 Note 1. For Jc being the orthographic sign of kj see § 119. 
 
 Note 2. There are still many people who instead of ks write at; 
 Ex. : sexten or seksten pron. seisten see § 94. 
 
 Note 3. The sound of h is still sometimes written q before u, 
 pron. kv: Quadrat square, as a rule now written Kucdrat, Aquavit 
 (pron. akkevit) Norwegian gin, now as a rule written Akevit. 
 
50 NORWEGIAN SOUNDS. 
 
 124- 9 has the sound of English g in "give", "go"; Ex. : 
 gaa to go, gli{de) to slide, Onier miser, grave to dig, jage to 
 hunt, Norge Norway, Dag day, Sprog (ag) language, Tog (ag) 
 train, Svmlg gullet, Sorg grief, Helg holidays, Elg elk, Talg 
 tallow. 
 
 Note 1, In some of these words, after I and r, g is sometimes pro- 
 nounced as j, but this pronunciation is considered vulgar. 
 
 Note 2. For g as the sign of k see § 122 note; for the pronunciation 
 varying between g and k see § 122 note; for g and gj being signs of j 
 see g 120, 2 and 3; gid would, o that, gide to prevail upon one's self to, 
 are pronounced with g before i. 
 
 For g representing i as second part of diphthongs see §§ 94 and 96. 
 For g representing the sound of sj in foreign words see § 113. 
 
 Note 3. g sometimes before n represents the sound oing: Agn 
 pron. angn, bait, Magnus pron. Mangnus or Magnus, Vogn pron. 
 vongn. So also in the western and northern part of Norway in Egn, 
 Logn etc. (see § 94 and 96). 
 
 125. g is written but not pronounced: 
 
 1) in adjectives and adverbs ending in — ig (lig) : storag- 
 ti(g) haughty, fmrdi(g) ready, aldri(g) never : also when the 
 plural ending e is added g remains mute; Ex.: mmrkeli{g)e 
 Ting strange things ; and if the neutral ending t is added that 
 also is mute: Huse(£) er fcerdi(gt) the house is ready. 
 
 2) after the diphthongs ei and au: sei(g) tough, Dei(g) 
 dough, Bau{g) bow. 
 
 2) in the word o(g) and, and in some compounds of Dag: 
 godda(g) good day (how do you do), Manda(g) Monday, Tirs- 
 da(g) Tuesday etc. ; sometimes in Ru(g) (or rugg). 
 
 4) after a long vowel before I: Fu{g)l bird, Ku(g)le ball, 
 Pry(g)l thrashing (but g always pronounced before I after a 
 short vowel: Ex. : Hagl hail). 
 
 5) sometimes after I and r before an unstressed vowel: 
 
NORWEGIAN SOUNDS. 51 
 
 imorges (rr) this morning, imor(g)en to-morrow. Sometimes 
 the meaning changes according as g is pronounced or not : 
 
 g not pronounced : g pronounced : 
 
 folge (11) to follow ; en Folge (g) a consequence, 
 
 et Folge (11) a company. folgende following, Fblgescet- 
 
 ning consequent (sentence), 
 folgevcerdig worth following. 
 scelge (11) to sell, sol{g)te Scelger (lg) a salesman. 
 
 sold. 
 spbrge (rr) to ask, Spor(g)s- spbrgende inquiring, Sporge- 
 maal question. smtning interrogative sen- 
 
 tence. 
 126- A has before vowels the sound of English h ; Ex. : 
 han he, Haab hope, holde to hold, hilse to greet. 
 
 Kote. A mute h is written before j and e in the following words: 
 Hjeme brain, Hjelm helmet, ihjel to death, Hjerte heart, Ejort hart, 
 Ejord herd, H\em home, HyuX wheel, Hjoelp help, Sj'drne corner, 7it>a{d) 
 what, hvem, hvo who, hvis whose, if, Jmlken which, Tvcor where (and 
 compounds thereof hvorfor why etc.), Hval whale, Hvalp whelp, ftxas 
 sharp, hcasse to whet, Svede wheat, ITveps wasp, hver each, Hverda(g) 
 week day, Averken, neither, Bserv task, hverve to enlist, hvid white, 
 hvidte to whiten, Svil rest, hvine to shriek, Hvirvel whirlpool, hviske to 
 whisper, Jivisle to hiss, Hvitting whiting, Hv<eZv vault, hvaese to hiss. 
 
 Note. In the western and northern part of Norway the pronomi- 
 nal words spelt with hv are regularly pronounced with k: kem, ka etc., 
 while some others are pronounced with Jcv: kvass, kvit, kvalp etc. 
 
 This pronunciation is not used by polite society, but the traveller 
 may come across it. 
 
 127. x i n some foreign words represents the sound of hs 
 (many people still use this sign to express the same combina- 
 tion of sounds also in domestic words, see § 123 note 2) ; Ex. : 
 orthodox, Oxycl, extraor dinar, Exa/men. At the beginning of 
 words of Greek origin it is usually pronounced s : Xerxes (pr. 
 serses), Xylograf. 
 
52 NORWEGIAN SOUNDS. 
 
 1 28- 2 is also used in some foreign words to represent the 
 sound of s : Zebra, Zelot. 
 
 I 29- e is use d i* 1 foreign words representing the sound of 
 s ; Ex. : Ceder cedar, Centaur, Ceremoni, Cigar, musicere to 
 make music. In foreign words where it formerly was used to 
 express the sound of h it is now the rule to write k. Greek 
 proper nouns are now usually written and pronounced with 
 k: Kimon, Kyros. 
 
 NORWEGIAN ACCENT. 
 
 130. In Norwegian speech a distinction must be made 
 between the accent-stress and the musical accent. 
 
 131- The accent stress as a rule rests upon the first syl- 
 lable, which at the same time generally is the radical syllable. 
 A secondary stress is sometimes, especially in compound words, 
 laid on o following syllable, i. e. in most cases on the first syl- 
 lable of the second part of the compound; Ex. : Bo i r(d)tce'ppe 
 table cover, La'mpeskjai'rin lampshade, Gla'sme'ster glazier. 
 (' denotes primary accent, 'secondary accent). 
 
 132- The accent strees is on another syllable than the first. 
 
 1) in some foreign words; Ex.: Genera'l, Cogna'c Apo- 
 stro'f, ApotJie'k. 
 
 2) in words (of German origin) with the prefixes be-, ge-, 
 er-, which never have the stress on the first syllable; Ex.: 
 begri'be to understand, GevmW shot-gun, GemaH consort, er- 
 fa k re to learn, bekje'nde to acknowledge, etc. 
 
 Note. In vulgar speech these words are accented on the first syl- 
 lable; bearbei'de to adapt has usually the stress on the first syllable when 
 meaning to belabor. 
 
NORWEGIAN SOUNDS. 53 
 
 3) in some words with the prefix for representing the Ger- 
 man ver ; Ex. : ForfaHter author, f organ' sig to offend, for- 
 fo're to seduce, Fomuft reason; but: fo'ranstalte to cause to 
 be done, fo'rarbeide to manufacture, Fo'rbud prohibition (but 
 forby'de to prohibit), Fo'rbund alliance (but forbi'nde sig to 
 agree), Fo'rhold relation (but forhoHde sig to behave), Fo'r- 
 lag publishing, Fo'rlcegger publisher (but forlce'gge to pu- 
 blish), FoWmue competency, Fo'rsog attemt (but forso'ge to 
 try), Fo'rsvar defence (but forsva're to defend, Forsva'rer 
 defender). When for represents the preposition for (Germ, 
 fiir, vor, Eng. fore) then it has the stress: FoW bon interces- 
 sion, Fo'rbjerg promuntory, Fo'rgaard fore court, Fo'rhcBiig 
 curtain, Fo'rtand foretooth, Fo'riiavn Christian name, Four- 
 fold impediment (but for fa'lden decayed). 
 
 4) words with the negative prefix u (Eng. un-, in-) as a 
 rule have the stress on the first syllable ; Ex. : U'naade dis- 
 grace ; but adjectives ending in -elig and those ending in -Kg 
 which are derived from verbs and denote a feasibility have the 
 stress on that syllable of the second part of the compound, 
 which had the accent before the composition took place; Ex. : 
 ubeha'gelig disagreeable, umu'lig impossible, usaa'rlig invul- 
 nerable, ugjo'rlig not feasible. Also a great many other ad- 
 jectives in -lig and -ig have the stress on the second part of 
 the compound : uanstce'ndig indecent, uscedva'nlig unusual, 
 uheHdig unfortunate, ua'gfet although, but ufarlig not dan- 
 gerous, u'personlig impersonal, u'naturlig unnatural or una- 
 tu'rlig. 
 
 5) The suffixes -inde and -ri generally have the stress : 
 Lcereri'nde (lady) teacher, Generali'nde general's wife, Hyk- 
 leri 1 hypocrisy, Tyveri 1 - theft, (but Svi'neri and Gri'seri 
 piggery, filthiness take the stress on the first syllable). The 
 suffixes -else and -ning usually when added to compound words 
 
54 NORWEGIAN - SOUNDS. 
 
 cause the accent to be moved forward to the second part of 
 the compound; Ex.: mis'unde to envy, but Misu'ndelse 
 envy, Tilvce'relse existence, Tilskik'kelse dispensation (by 
 providence) but til'skikke to dispense, Indie' dning introduc- 
 tion but i'ndlede to introduce) ; in A'fsmttelse removal, U'd- 
 forelse execution, O'versc&ttelse translation, A'fledning deriva- 
 tion, U'dtap?iing draining and some others the accent is on 
 the first syllable. Some derivative adjectives with -lig, -ig 
 (cfr. No. 4) and -som have the stress on another syllable than 
 the first (most of these words are of German origin) ; Ex. : op- 
 ri'gtig sincere, mrvm'rdig reverend, forsm'tlig intentional (but 
 Fo'rscet intention), veldce'dig charitable, alvo'rlig serious (but 
 A 'Ivor earnest). 
 
 , 6) note the following words : Taller'ken plate, Vidun'der 
 miracle, undta'gen except, Hense'ende regard, vedkom'mende 
 yd. for mit Vedkom'mende as far as I am concerned (but ved'- 
 kommende pertaining to). 
 
 133- Compound words as a rule have the principal stress 
 on their first part (see § 131) ; Ex. : Ho'vedpine (pron. Ho'de- 
 pine) headache, Hus'hovme 1 ster majordomus. But in some 
 words the stress is on the second part of the composition : 
 
 1) in some titles and geographical names; Ex. : Oberstldi't- 
 nant lieutenant colonel, Stifta'mtmand high civil official. 
 Kristianssa'nd, Fredrikslia'ld (but Fre'drikstad), Ostin'dien 
 East India; furthermore Sydo'st southeast, JVordve'st nortr. 
 west etc. Yelbaa'renhed lordship (and other words composed 
 with vel- : Velgje'ming deed of charity, Yelanstm'ndighed pro 
 priety, velsma'gende savory, velsi'gne to bless, Velsi'gnelst 
 blessing (but Vel'levnet luxurious living, Yel'magt vigor, vel'- 
 skait well shaped etc.), Skoma'ger shoemaker, Budei'e milk- 
 maid, Smaagut'ter little boys, Smaapi'ger little girls (bu 
 Smaa'jerJer little girls, has the stress on the first part) ; som< 
 
NORWEGIAN SOUNDS. 55 
 
 words composed with lialv half : halvanden one and a half, 
 halvsjette five and a half; Aa'rhundrede century and Aa'rlu- 
 sinde milennium as a rule have the accent on their first part 
 (aar) but may also have it on the second. 
 
 2) compounds the first part of which are prepositions have 
 the stress on the first part when the word as a whole belongs 
 to the same class of words as its second part, but on the second 
 part when this is governed by the preposition ; Ex. : O'verhoved 
 (pron. O'verhode) chief, headman, but overho'vedet (pr. over- 
 ho'de) upon the whole, tilsjo's on sea, tilla'nds on land, igaar i 
 yesterday, imor'gen to-morrow, Ibr'sommer spring, ForHid 
 past tense, but forti'den for the time being. Obs. Efterret i - 
 ning news, but U'nderretning or UnderreHning information, 
 forbi' by, but fo'rbigaa to pass by. 
 
 des is unstressed when indicating a comparison : desvce'rre 
 the worse, alass, desme're the more etc. ; but when it repre- 
 sents the old gen. of demonstrative pronoun ruled by the sec- 
 ond part of the composition it has the stress: des'aarsag on 
 that account, des'angaaende thereabout, des l foruden moreover 
 besides that (but desu'den besides, desforme' deist for that rea- 
 son), i in adverbial compounds never has the stress : imo'd 
 against, igje'n again, ibla'ndt among; saa is stressed when in- 
 dicating manner: saaHy deride reading as follows, saa'kaldet 
 so called; but unstressed when indicating degree: saasna'rt as 
 soon, saafre'mt provided, saavi'dt as far as. 
 
 Kanhce'nde perhaps, maaske 1 (pr. maasje' or maaske') per- 
 haps; but ka'nske (pr. ka'nsko orka'nsja) perhaps. 
 
 134. Different from the stress accent is the musical ac- 
 cent. There are two kinds of musical accent employed in single 
 words, the monosyllabic and the dissyllabic. The former is 
 used in (original) monosyllables and in so far corresponds with 
 the Danish "St0dtone" (Glottal catch), while the dissyllabic 
 accent belongs to (originally) dissyllabic or polysyllabic words. 
 
56 
 
 NORWEGIAN SOUNDS. 
 
 135- The monosyllabic accent begins in a very low tone 
 and ascends to a somewhat higher pitch, about a third or a 
 fourth. This somewhat higher pitch is the regular base of 
 the voice. 
 
 136- The dissyllabic accent begins in a strong medium 
 tone, descends about a third and ascends in the weak final syl- 
 lable again about a fourth. 
 
 [137. From professor Johan Storm's "Englische Philolo- 
 gie" are taken the following "tunes" of words with monosyl- 
 labic and dissyllabic accent. As many originally monosyllabic 
 words in the present language have two syllables, there will 
 among the words with monosyllabic accent be found many 
 dissyllables. 
 
 Eastern Norway (Ohristiania). 
 I. Monosyllabic accent. 
 
 g ^° r J.J I j N'l 
 
 tS-lan 
 
 ssl'7n. 
 
 Se'- ka - 1 
 
 II. Dissyllabic (compound) accent. 
 
 Western Norway (Bergen). 
 I. Monosyllabic accent. II. Dissyllabic (compound) accent. 
 
 (ja yes, Solen the sun, Bogerne the books, Maanen the 
 moon, Menneskene the human beings)]. 
 
NORWEGIAN SOUNDS. 
 
 57 
 
 138. By their different musical accent are distinguished 
 many pairs of otherwise consonous words. Monosyllabic words 
 with the affixed definite article are, as far as the accent is con- 
 cerned, considered as monosyllables. 
 
 . Simple or monosyllabic 
 accent (') 
 Amen (pron. am 'man), amen. 
 
 Bonder (pr. Bonner) plasants. 
 
 Bund-en ('nn) the bottom. 
 
 Dyr-et (') the animal. 
 
 Haar-et (haa'ret or haa're(t) 
 the hair). 
 
 Kok'ken the cook (male, in- 
 definite: Kok). 
 
 Lomhnen the loon (Colymbus 
 arcticus, ind. Lorn). 
 
 SvaP-en the balcony. 
 
 Ul(d)en the wool. 
 
 Jceger (name). 
 
 Moller (name). 
 
 (jeg) bcerer (I) carry, (jeg) 
 drager (I) draw. 
 
 (jeg) Imgger (I) lay. 
 
 (jeg) Idler (p) (I) run. 
 (jeg) Iceser (I) read, 
 (jeg) fiber (pipor) (I) pipe, 
 (jeg) skriver (I) write. 
 (jeg) smtter (I) set. 
 (jeg) scel(g)er (I) sell. 
 
 Compound or dissyllabic 
 
 accent (') 
 
 Ammen (pron. am'men) the 
 
 wet nurse. 
 Bo nner beans (sing. Bonne), 
 
 Bonner prayers (sing. B0n) 
 
 pron. Bon'nar. 
 btmden ('nn) tied. 
 dyre expensive (plur.). 
 haar'et hairy. 
 
 Kok^ke-n the cook (woman). 
 Lomm-en (') the pocket. 
 
 Svale-n the swallow. 
 
 ul(d)en woolly. 
 
 Jceger hunter. 
 
 Moller miller. 
 
 Bmrer carrier, (en) Drager 
 
 (a) porter. 
 Legger (pr. logger) calves (of 
 
 the legs). 
 Lbber (p) runner. 
 Laser a reader. 
 Fiber (pipar) pipes. 
 Skriver penman. 
 Smtter typesetter. 
 Scelger (g sounded) a seller. 
 
58 NOKWEGIAN SOUNDS. 
 
 The present tense of the strong verbs have the simple 
 tone, that of the weak verbs the compound tone. The plnral 
 form of a great many nouns which in the old language formed 
 their plural in — r still retains the simple tone, while those 
 words which in the old language formed their plural in — ar 
 and — ir have the compound tone. 
 
 139. The musical accent of the words may be modified 
 by the sentence or the tonic accent. Thus e. g. a gradual 
 raising of the pitch of the voice through the whole sentence 
 indicates a question or something unfinished, where a conti- 
 nuation of the sentence may be looked for. 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 140- I Q colloquial language there are used a great many 
 abbreviations which do not occur in the more solemn language 
 used on the pulpit, in recitals etc. 
 
 These abbreviations chiefly consist in the dropping of the 
 syllables de, ge(ke), ve, especially in verbs; most of the words 
 affected by these abbreviations are in some figurative or not 
 very frequent meanings exempt therefrom. Especially may 
 be noticed that the abbreviation as a rule does not take place 
 in pres. partcp. (ending in -e?ide), and before suffixes com- 
 mencing with -e, -er, -en, -else etc.) and in pres. and inf. pass, 
 (ending in-es). 
 
 a) abbreviations consisting in the omission of de: 
 de dropped. de retained. 
 
 ie(de) to ask, pray, also be(de) Bededag day of prayer, Tilbe- 
 til Gud pray to God. delse adoration. 
 
NORWEGIAN SOUNDS. 
 
 59 
 
 de dropped. 
 blo(d)e to bleed. 
 
 bry(de) (in past tense brydde) 
 to trouble, bry sit Hode med 
 (spelt: bryde sit Hoved) to 
 trouble one's head about 
 something. 
 
 bry(de) sig om to mind. 
 
 bry(de) en Gut med en Jente 
 to tease a boy about a girl. 
 
 by{de) to offer, by(de) paa no- 
 qet to give a bid for some- 
 thing or to invite to partake 
 of something. 
 
 fo(de) to bear (give birth) and 
 to feed (especially is the 
 abbreviation the rule in this 
 latter meaning), sultefd sine 
 Kreaturer to starve one's 
 cattle. 
 
 gli(de) to glide. 
 
 glce(de) to gladden jeg glce(de)r 
 mig til de(t) I anticipate it 
 with pleasure. 
 
 klce(de) to dress, at Mce(de) 
 paa en to dress somebody, 
 det Ma(de)r Dem godt it fits 
 you well, Elce{de)r clothes, 
 Haandlclce(de) towel, Klce- 
 {de)sbbrste clothes brush. 
 
 la(de) et Oevcer to load a gun. 
 
 la(d) det vcere let that be, i. e. 
 don't do that (see § 106). 
 
 de retained. 
 
 mit Hjcerte bidder my heart 
 bleeds. 
 
 bryde to break (a wholly dif- 
 ferent word, pres. tense 
 pron. bryte, past tense br'dd 
 (pron. brat). 
 
 byde command, Loven byder 
 the law commands, scelge til 
 Jwistbydende to sell to the 
 highest bidder. 
 
 du skal fode en Son thou 
 shallt bear a son, Fodeland 
 country of birth. Fbdemid- 
 del aliment. 
 
 Glidebane a slide. 
 
 Glade joy, de(t) glceder mig 
 
 at hore I am glad to hear it. 
 
 bekloede et Embede to fill an 
 office, Klcede cloth, sort 
 Klcede black broadcloth, 
 Ligklcsde pall. 
 
 Ladested small town (without 
 
 a city charter). 
 lade to leave undone. 
 
60 
 
 XOKWEGIAX SOCXDS 
 
 de dropped. 
 
 li(de) to suffer, jeg li(de)r ondt 
 I suffer hardships. 
 
 det li(de)r langt paa Dag it is 
 passing late into the day. 
 
 ri(de) or ri(d)e to ride on 
 horseback, en Bi(de)tur a 
 horseback ride. 
 
 raa(de) to advise, Mennesket 
 spaar, Gud raar man pro- 
 poses, God disposes. 
 
 ska{de) to injure, de(i) kan 
 ikke ska{de) it can do no 
 harm. 
 
 smede, pron. smi, to forge, 
 smi Jem to forge iron. 
 
 spre(de) to spread, Epidemien 
 spre(de)r sig over hele By en 
 the epidemie spreads all over 
 the town. 
 
 stri(de) to strive, at stri{de) 
 med noget to strive with so- 
 mething, at stri{de) imod to 
 be opposed to. 
 
 de retained. 
 
 lide af en Sygdom to suffer 
 from a disease, Lideformen 
 the passive voice, lide Skib- 
 hr ud paa sin Tro to make 
 shipwreck concerning one's 
 faith. 
 
 Tiden lider time is passing. 
 
 -Sender a horse trainer, Ride- 
 kunst the art of riding. 
 
 forraade to betray, tilraade to 
 counsel, Omraade territory, 
 Raaderuin free scope. 
 
 skade is the more common 
 form in polite language ; det 
 skader ikke at forsoge there 
 is no harm done in trying. 
 
 af Skade bli(ve)r man klog 
 injury makes wise. 
 
 man maa smede, mens Jernet 
 er varmt you must strike 
 while the iron is hot. 
 
 jeg skal sprede mine Fiender 
 I shall scatter my enemies, 
 du maa sbrge for at ad- 
 sprede ham you must take 
 care to divert his thoughts. 
 
 det strider mod Fornuften it 
 is against all reason, at stri- 
 de den sidste Strid to fight 
 the last battle, to die. 
 
NORWEGIAN SOUNDS. 
 
 61 
 
 de dropped. 
 
 trm{de) to step, at trm(de) on 
 pact, Foden to step on some- 
 body's toes, trce(d) of retire! 
 
 bety(de) to signify, livad hety- 
 (de)r dette? what is the 
 meaning of this? 
 
 va(de) to wade. 
 
 Bro(de)r brother, Fa{de)r fa- 
 ther, Mo{de)r mother when 
 signifying the degree of 
 relationship; also in com- 
 pounds : Farbror father's 
 brother, Farfar father's fa- 
 ther, Farmor, Morfar, Mor- 
 mor and Morbror, Brorshab 
 (p) : der er intet Brorskap i 
 Eortspil relationship (bro- 
 therhood) is of no avail in 
 cards. 
 
 Sadel saddle, pron. Sal in 8a- 
 (de)lmager a saddler, uphol- 
 sterer, in other cases usually 
 pronounced Sale: siddefast 
 i Salen to have a firm seat. 
 
 de retained. 
 
 trtede i ens Fodspor to follow 
 one's example, det optrmder 
 i Form of it appears in the 
 shape of; at tiltrce.de et Em- 
 bede to enter upon an office. 
 
 at betyde en noget to give so- 
 mebody something to un- 
 derstand, at tyde en Ind- 
 skrift to decipher an in- 
 scription, antyde to inti- 
 mate, lientyde to allude. 
 
 Vadefu{g)l wading bird, Va- 
 dested ford. 
 
 Broder, Fader, Moder figura- 
 tively : en Broder i Aanden 
 a brother in the spirit, Em- 
 bedsbroder a brother officer, 
 Fostbroder 6worn brother, 
 Brodermordi ratricide, Bro- 
 derkys brotherly kiss, bro- 
 derlig fraternal, den hellige 
 Fader the holy father, Fa- 
 dermord parricide, Fader- 
 mordere sideboards, Fader- 
 hjcerte paternal heart, hun 
 er alter ede Moder she is al- 
 ready a mother, Moderglcede 
 maternal joy. 
 
G2 
 
 XORWEGIAST SOUNDS. 
 
 b) abbreviations by dropping ge. 
 
 ge dropped. 
 
 dra(ge) to draw, dra(ge) Pu- 
 sten to draw the breath, 
 dra(ge) Kjendsel paa to re- 
 cognize, d)-a(ge) en Sluttiing 
 to draw a conclusion, be- 
 dra(ge) to defraud, jeg liar 
 draget (pr. drad) ham liele 
 Vejen I have been dragging 
 him all the way. 
 
 si(ge) or si(g)e to say, pres. 
 tense always si{ge)r, past. 
 sa(gde), imp. si(g), passiv 
 si(g)es. 
 
 ta(ge) to take, past tense tog 
 pron. tok or to, imper. ta, 
 ptcp. tagen, taget pron. co- 
 loquially tatt. 
 
 Morgen pron. mar'n morning, 
 imar'n to-morrow, imorges 
 pron. im&rres early this 
 morning. 
 
 no(ge)n, no(g)en no(g)e(t) any- 
 body, anything. 
 
 ge retained. 
 
 drage intr. to depart, med 
 draget Svmrd with drawn 
 sword, jeg andrager om TJd- 
 scettelse I apply for a respite, 
 Tildragelse happening (and 
 other derivatives). 
 
 sige: 120, siger og skriver et 
 hundrede og tyve 120 — say 
 one hundred and twenty — , 
 efter sigende according to 
 report, Frasigelse resigna- 
 tion (and other derivatives). 
 
 tage sometimes in religious 
 diction and always in some 
 derivatives : Antagelse sup- 
 position, Fritagelse exemp- 
 tion, etc. 
 
 Morgenstund liar Guld i 
 Mund early to rise makes a 
 man wealthy, Morgenstjer- 
 ne (a name). 
 
 nogenlunde fairly, nogensinde 
 at any time (sometimes 
 pron. nagen — ). 
 
 c) abbreviations by dropping ve. 
 ve dropped. 
 
 ve retained. 
 
 bli(ve) to become, remain, 
 past tense ile(v), prtcp. ble- 
 vet (pron. blit). 
 
 Uive in pres. ptcp. 
 derivatives. 
 
 and some 
 
NORWEGIAN SOUNDS. 
 
 63 
 
 ve dropped. 
 
 fly(ve) orfly(v)e to flie, i fiy- 
 (v)ende Fart in a flying 
 hurry, paaflyende Flcekken 
 (somewh. vulg.) right here 
 on the spot. 
 
 gi(ve) to give, gi(v) mig det 
 give it me, prtcp. givet pr. 
 git (in these abbreviated 
 colloquial forms g is pro- 
 nounced as/ (see § 118, 2). 
 
 ha(ve) to have, pres. written 
 and pronounced jeg har, 
 past tense spelt havde pron. 
 hadde, prtc. &aw£pronhatt. 
 
 Hoved pron. hode head: et 
 godt Hode a clever person, 
 ondt i Hode(f) pains in the 
 head, Hodepine, Hodeverle 
 headache (always spelt Ho- 
 vedpine etc.) 
 
 ve retained. 
 
 medflyvende Faner with ban- 
 ners flying, den flyvende 
 Hollander the flying Dutch- 
 man, en Flyvemaskine a 
 flying machine, et Flyve- 
 hlad a pamphlet. 
 
 der gives Folk som there are 
 people who, anse nogetfor 
 givet consider something as 
 given, en given Stbrrelse a 
 given quantity (in the un- 
 abridged forms g usually 
 is pronounced as g). 
 
 liavende having, passive haves 
 or ha{y)es. 
 
 Hoved chief: Hovedmanden 
 the head, the leader, Ho- 
 vedveerk principal work. 
 
 QUANTITY. 
 
 141. Vowels are long 1) in monosyllables when ending 
 the word ; Ex. : gau to go, Ko cow. {Nu now has long or 
 short vowel according as it has the sentence stress or not : 
 nu 1 kommer jeg here I am, nu kom'mer jeg lam commg now). 
 2) in the accented syllable of dissyllables and polysyllables 
 when followed by a single consonant with following vowel: 
 
64 NORWEGIAN" SOUXDS. 
 
 Iwse to read, Pre-ve test, Naa'de grace. Exceptions: Abor 
 perch (pron. abbor), Furu fir tree (pron. furru), Lever (vv) 
 liver, ilforo (rr) fun, Niding (dd) villain, traitor. 
 
 142. Vowels are short when followed by two or more 
 consonants or a double consonant; Ex. : hoppe to jump, mork 
 dark, mange many. 
 
 Note 1. Before st a vowel may be short or long; Ex.: long: 
 Bast wild beast, meet most; short : LTest horse, Vest waistcoat. If the 
 t belongs to an ending of inflection, then a preceding long vowel as a 
 rule retains its length: litest hoarse (neut. of haes), blast prtcp. of blase. 
 to blow (but Blaest, wind), last prtc. of lase to read; in the same manner 
 a vowel is treated before I, n, r, withfollowinginflective£:/0'fte past tense 
 oifole to feel, gwlt yellow, neut. of gul, ine'nte past tense of mene to 
 mean, ho'rt prtcp. of hors to hear. 
 
 Note 2. Before r{d) the vowel is long (see g 109); Ex. : Jo-r(d) 
 earth etc ; but Sc&rd sword, Hjord herd with short vowel and pro- 
 nounced d. 
 
 Note 3. Before dl, dr, gr, pr and tr the preceding vowel as a rule 
 is long, but may also be short; Ex.: long : adle to ennoble, bedre better, 
 magre lean (plur.), kapre to capture, (make a prize of). Tlveatret the 
 theater; short: snadre to cackle, pludre to jabber. 
 
 143. In monosyllables ending in a single consonant the 
 vowel may be long or short. It is as a rule long before b, g, d, 
 whether they be pronounced as written or as p, k, t (or mute d) ; 
 Ex. : Haab hope, Tog (a) expedition, Bad bath, Gab (p) gap, 
 Tag (k) roof, bag (k) behind, lad (t) lazy. 
 
 Note. Short is the vowel in some words ending in one of the 
 above mentioned consonants (the consonant in that case being pro- 
 nounced long); Ex.: Laag cover, pron. lakk (but Ojenlaag eyelid as 
 written), Leg, gg, leg, V&g, gg, wall, Egg, gg, back, tig, gg, imper. of 
 tigge to beg, lig, gg, imper. of ligge to lie, Lab, bb, paw, Flab, bb, chaps. 
 
 144. A vowel followed by a single I, n, r, s, may be long 
 or short, the consonant in the latter case being pronounced 
 long; Ex. : Hul, 11, hole, but hid hollow,/or, rr, for, but/o - r 
 
NORWEGIAN' SOUNDS. 65 
 
 travelled, vis, ss, certain, but vi-s wise, Me'n injur}', but men, 
 nn, but; a vowel followed by a single m is short except in E'm 
 vapor. 
 
 145. A vowel before a single final k, p, t as a rule is 
 short, the consonant then being pronounced long; Ex. : Talc, 
 kk, thanks, Hop, pp, jump, Hat, tt, hat. 
 
 Exceptions are some specific Norwegian words which 
 have never been accepted into the Danish literature and there- 
 fore never have been spelled in accordance with Danish pro- 
 nunciation: Aat food of fishes, Laat sound (=Danish Lyd), 
 laak (being) in poor healt, Raah a lane of water through the 
 ice, Lop a kind of wooden box. 
 
 Note. In compound words the component parts retain their ori- 
 ginal quantity; Ex. : Tog-tdbel a Railroad time table, Mo&stand (pr. Mot- 
 stand) opposition. 
 
 [46. A consonant is always long after a stressed short 
 vowel ; when an unstressed vowel follows then the consonant 
 is written double ; Hul hole, plur. Huller, Suppe soup, Smor 
 butter (Smorret the butter). 
 
 Note 1. It will he seen from the above examples that if during 
 the inflection of words ending in a single consonant with a preceding 
 short vowel the consonant comes before a termination commencing in 
 a vowel then the consonant is written double. 
 
 Note 2. Some foreign words retain their original spelling but are 
 pronounced in accordance with the above rule; Ex.: Artikel (pr. artik- 
 kel) article, Amen (pr. Ammen), Titd (pr. Tittel) title. A consonant 
 written double after an unstressed vowel is pronounced short; Ex.: Tal- 
 lerken (pr. Tale'rken) plate, Parallel (pr. Parale'll). 
 
 Note 3. A consonant is not written double before another conso- 
 nant even if it be long; Ex.: gammd old, plur. gamle (pr. gammle); ex- 
 cept in compound words: Ex. . ManMrab homicide'(Mand-drab). A long 
 consonant is not as a rule written double at the end of words, except in a 
 few cases to avoid ambiguity; Ex.: viss certain, to distinguish it from 
 
66 TOWEL CHANGES. 
 
 TOWEL CHANGES IN INFLECTION AND WORD FORMATION. 
 
 147. The Dano-Norwegian language employs two most 
 important kinds of vowel changes, which the Danish and Nor- 
 wegian grammarians call "Aflyd" and "Omlyd", in English 
 generally called "gradation" and "mutation". 
 
 148. By gradation (Aflyd, ablaut) we understand that 
 system of the language enabling it out of the same root to 
 form several stems by using different vowels; this principle 
 is of great importance in the inflection of the verbs, but it 
 also plays an important part in word formation ; Ex. : hmre to 
 bear, bar bore, baaren borne, binde to bind, bandt bound, 
 Baand ribbon, Bundt bunch, tage take, tog took. 
 
 149. By mutation (Omlyd, umlaut) is understood the 
 change of a vowel caused by assimilation to a following vo- 
 wel (i, u) or consonant (;). The sound causing the change 
 has in the present language as a rule disappeared, but it is shown 
 by a comparison with the earlier stages of the language. The 
 principle of mutation is active both in inflection and in 
 word formation. The u-umlaut is now in inflection found only 
 in the word Barn child, plur. Born. 
 
 By the i-umlaut the following changes are caused : 
 a — ce : Fader father, plur. Fcedre, /aide to fall, fmlde to fell. 
 aa — ce: Haand hand, plur. Hcender. 
 
 o — o : Moder mother, plur. M&dre, Blod blood, blade to bleed. 
 u — y : tung heavy, comp. tyngre, liuld gracious, hylde to swear 
 
 allegiance to. 
 
 Note. In the i-umlaut it is a following front sound that influences 
 (palatalizes) a preceding back sound. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 67 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 ARTICLES. — GENDERS. 
 
 150. The Dano-Norwegian language has a definite and 
 an indefinite article. The definite article has two forms, one 
 employed in connection with a noun alone, the other used 
 with a noun qualified by an adjective or with an adjective 
 alone. The former is called the post-positive article (also the 
 definite article of the substantives). The latter is called the 
 prse-positive article (also the definite article of the adjectives). 
 
 151. The Dano -Norwegian language has two genders, 
 common gender and neuter. The former comprises both 
 the masculine and feminine of the old language. 
 
 Note. In colloquial Norwegian speech there is still sometimes 
 made a distinction between the masculine and feminine genders. The 
 cases where such distinction is made will be mentioned in their proper 
 places. 
 
 152- The post-positive article is: 
 common gender. neuter. plural. 
 
 -en (-n) -et (-t) -ne (-ene). 
 
 gen. -ens -ets -nes (-enes). 
 
 Ex. : Hest-en the horse, Hus-et the house, Huse-ne the houses, 
 Mcengde-n the quantity, Vcerelse-t the room, Mcsnd-ene the 
 men. Thus it appears that the forms -n, -t are used in con- 
 nection with nouns ending in -e and the form ene in con- 
 nection with words forming their plural without an ending. 
 
 Note 1. This article was originally a demonstrative pronoun 
 which in the old language has the form of hinn, Tiitt, hinir and by 
 being used enclitically with nouns gradually lost its independent charac- 
 ter and a part of its substance. This enclitic definite article is one of 
 
68 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 the chief characteristics distinguishing the Scandinavian languages 
 from the other Teutonic tongues. 
 
 Note 2. The enclitic (post-positive) article, besides being used 
 ■with substantives standing alone, is employed with substantives quali- 
 fied by the following adjectives: al all, begge both, Stic self; Ex.: al Wi- 
 den all the food, selve Kongen or Kongcn selv the king himself, bt^.ge 
 Brbdrene both the brothers. 
 
 153. The pras-positive definite article is: 
 comm. gender. neuter. plural. 
 
 den de(t) de 
 
 den store Man{d) the great man, de(t) nye Hv.s the new house ; 
 plur. : de store Mmnd the great men. This article may also 
 be employed with an adjective alone when used substantively : 
 den gode the good (man), de(t) skjbnne the beautiful, beauty. 
 
 Note 1. With the following adjectives the postpositive and the 
 prsepositive article may be used promiscuously: lid whole, halv half; 
 Ex. : tele Dagen. or den. tele Dag the whole day, Iiah-e B'.gct or det halce 
 Rige half the kingdom, storste, mindste Delen the gi eater, smaller part. 
 Sometimes, mostly in poetry, the postpositive article may be used where 
 the prsepositive is regularly employed: ct Skud (if gamle Heltest/imwai 
 a scion of the old stock of heroes, Svenske Kysten or den sten-ike Kvit 
 the Swedish coast. 
 
 Note 2. Colloquially it is common in Norway to use both the 
 post-positive and the prae-positive article at the same time with nouns 
 qualified by an adjective; Ex. : den store Manden the big man. In the 
 same manner the postpositive article is in Norwegian often added to 
 nouns determined by demonstrative pronouns: i der.ne Villaen in this 
 villa here; den Manden der that man there. This is not used in Danish. 
 
 Note 3. The prsepositive article is sometimes in poetry and religi- 
 ous style used with nouns not qualified by adjectives; Ex. : Brett til at 
 Bomere the Epistle to the Romans, de Voter saa sagtdig trille the waves 
 roll leisurely along. 
 
 Note 4. The prsepositive article is originally the same word as 
 the demonstrative pronoun den, det, de which has lost its logical stress 
 and consequently its accent stress and has come to be considered as a 
 mere prefix. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 C9 
 
 154. Some words are in Danish used without an article, 
 while the English language requires the article with the same 
 words ; Ex. : Verden the world, Verden er stor the world is 
 great (but i Kunstverdenen in the world of art), Hojesteret 
 the Supreme Court, Rehtor the Principal (of the School). 
 
 Furthermore may be noted that the article is never affixed 
 to a noun that is qualified by a genitive : Kongens Slot the 
 palace of the king, Naboens Hus the ■ house of the neighbor. 
 But if a complement (af of, with a noun) is used instead of 
 genitive, then the article is used : Ejeren af Huset or Husets 
 Ejer the owner of the house. 
 
 Sometimes the prepositive article may be omitted with 
 superlatives : forste Gang the first time, overste Stokvcerk the 
 top floor, med st'drsle Fornbjelse with the greatest pleasure. 
 But in all these cases the article may also be used. 
 
 155. The indefinite article has the form: 
 
 common gender. neuter. 
 
 en et 
 
 Ex. : en Man{d) a man, et Hus a house. 
 
 Note 1. The indefinite article was originally the numeral en one. 
 
 Note 2. The indefinite article always has its place before the noun 
 and also before a qualifying adjective: en Mand, en stor Mand. But when 
 the noun is connected with an interrogative word or an adjective quali- 
 fied by the adverb saa so, and /or too, then the article is placed after 
 the interrogative word, or adjective; Ex.: hvilken en Mand whata man? 
 Tivor stort et Hus what a big house ! saa ungt et Menneske such a youth I 
 for tyk en Hals too thick a neck. In connection with mangen the article 
 has its place after that word but before another adjective: mangen en 
 Mand many a man, ■mangen en tapper M.and many a brave man. In con- 
 nection with saadan such, the article may be placed before or after that 
 word: saadan en Island or en saadan Mand. In connection with a 
 comparative and jo — desto the article is placed between the comparative 
 and the noun; Ex. . jo tykkere en Uuls Mn Mr, desto snarere skal den 
 
70 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 over the thicker a neck he has, the quicker he shall be decap- 
 itated. (In this case the article is more, commonly omitted). 
 
 Note 3. The indefinite article is used in connection with numerals 
 to indicate an approximate number; Ex.: Hr. Sorensen liar her ifjorten 
 Dage Mr. S. stayed here about two weeks. 
 
 NOUNS. 
 
 GENDER OF THE NOUN'S. 
 
 156. The genders of the nouns are only of importance 
 syntactically, in so far as the adjective or the article assume 
 different forms in conformity with the gender of the noun 
 qualified by them. No generally binding rules can be given 
 for the genders of the nouns in Danish-Norwegian, but the 
 following intimations may be of some help: 
 
 1) Most words denoting living beings are of common gender. 
 En Hand a man, en Eest a horse, en Hund a dog, en Ko a 
 cow, en Flue a fly. 
 
 Note 1. Some nouns comprising the natural masculine and femi- 
 nine genders are neuter: Kmtget, the cattle; Folket the people (also the 
 compounds: et Mandfolk, et Kvindjolk a male, female individual), Men- 
 nesket man (generally), etDyr an animal, etSvin a hog, etFaar a sheep, et 
 JEsel a donkey. Also several wordsindicating the young ones of animals: 
 etZam a lamb, et Fol a colt, et Kid a kid. 
 
 2) Names of trees, plants and stones are as a rule 
 of common gender : Bogen the beech, en Eg an oak, Rugen the 
 rye, Graniten the granite, Flinten the flint. 
 
 Note 2. Neuter are: et Blads. leaf, et Beer a berry; (but in com- 
 pounds common gender in Norwegian when used collectivelv; Ex. : 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 71 
 
 Multebaren staor rod over 7iele Myren the cloudberry stands red all over 
 the bog), et Grass a grass, et Straa a straw, et Irce a tree. 
 
 3) Names of seasons, months, days and other divi- 
 sions of time are mostly common gender. Hosten the fall, 
 
 Yintereis the winter, Dagen the day. 
 
 Note 3. Aaret the year, et Dogn day & night, et Minuta, minute (but 
 paa Minuten this very minute). 
 
 4) Names of wind and weather: Ostenvinden the East 
 wind, Sneen the snow, Stormen the storm. (But Hagl hail, 
 may be c. and n. and Regn rain is in Norway usually n. , 
 
 Vejret the weather). 
 
 5) Names of rivers and lakes: den blaa Donau the 
 blue D., Rliinen the Ehine, den grbnne Gjendin the green G. 
 
 6) Names of sciences : Filologien, Medicinen, Matliema- 
 tiken. 
 
 157- 1) Most collective nouns and names of substances 
 are of neuter gender : Trceet the wood, Blyet the lead, Jemet 
 the iron, Staalet the steel. But Malmen the ore, Vlden the 
 wool, Melken the milk, Vinen the wine, and others. 
 
 2) Names af countries and cities: det Mile Danmark 
 the little Denmark, det mcegtige Mom the mighty K. 
 
 3) Names of mountains: det hbje Mont Blanc the high 
 M. B., det ildsprudende JEtna the fire spouting M. 
 
 Note. Names of letters are in Denmark, usually of neuter, in Nor- 
 way of common gender: et stort (Nor. en slor) A a capital A. Also in 
 Denmark et Bogstav a letter, in Norway en Bogstav. Names of languages 
 are of common gender when combined with the post-positive article. 
 Frans ken the French language, Grossken Greek; but paa godt Norsk in 
 good Norwegian. 
 
 158- The following nominal suffixes form words af com- 
 mon gender: 1) -hed, -inde, -ing, (-ling, -ning) -er (nomina 
 agentis), -en (nomina actionis), -ske, -dom; Ex.: Storhed 
 
72 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 greatness, Lcererinde (lady) teacher, Stilling position, Virk- 
 ning effect, Gj&sling gosling, Better suitor, Yaklen vacilla- 
 tion, Barndom childhood. 
 
 2) as a rule -sel, -else, -e (in derivatives of adjectives), -d, 
 -t, -st,j Fmrdsel traffic (but et Fcengsel prison, et Stcengsel bar, 
 et Bidsel a bit, bridle) , For else guidance (but et Spogelse a 
 ghost, et Vmrelse a room), Styrkesir&D^it, H'djde height, (but 
 Market the darkness), Byrd birth, Fcerd behavior, Kunst art, 
 Magt power (but et Skridt a step). 
 
 3) Foreign words ending in -ion, -isme, -tet, -ur, -us: 
 Kommunionen, Radikalismen, en Kalamitet (but Universite- 
 tet), en Kultus, en Habitus, Kultur en (but et Kreatur); Dik- 
 tat ur may be used both as c. and n, 
 
 159- 1) Nouns having the same form as the stem of verbs 
 are usually neuter; Ex. : Badet the bath {hade to bathe), Kal- 
 det the call (kalde to call), Radbet the cry (raabe to cry). 
 
 Xotb. This rule does not apply in cases where the verb is derived 
 from the corresponding noun (although, of course, also in that case the 
 noun may be neuter); thus we have en Dvom a dream (at dromme to 
 dream), en Leg a play (at lege to play), Iroslen the comfort (at troste to 
 comfort). Also Drik drink, Grav grave, Hjcelp help, Straf punishment, 
 Strid strife, lorst thirst are common gender, and so are 'words ending in 
 -gt as Frygten the fright (at frygte to fear), and those in -ang, to -which 
 correspond verbs in -inge (ynge), Sang en the song (at synge to sing), 
 Klangen the sound (at Hinge to sound). 
 
 2) The following suffixes as a rule form words of neuter 
 gender: -domme, -ende, -maal, -ri, -skab; med mit Vidende 
 with my knowledge, (but i en Henseende in one respect, defi- 
 ne Tidende this news, en Tiende a tithe), Kongedbmmet the 
 kingdom, et Sporgsmaal a question, Tyveriet the theft, Bage- 
 riet baker's shop, mit Kjendskab my knowledge, Mgteskabet 
 marriage (but derivatives of adjectives are- of common gender: 
 Troskaben the faithfulness, Ondskaben the wickedness). 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 3) Foreign words ending in -iv, -ment, -om, -um are 
 neuter; et Komplement (but en Komphment) ; et Ultimatum, 
 et Arkiv, et Axiom. 
 
 160. Compound words have the gender of the last com- 
 ponent part: en Bordplade a table slab, et Hestehen a horse's 
 leg. 
 
 Exceptions: En Qdeland a spendthrift, en Graashjag a greybeard, 
 et Folkefaird a race, et Gjenfaerd a ghost, et Vidnesbyrd a testimony, dette 
 Perlemo(de)r this mother-of-pearl, Brcendevinet the brandy, Forskjellen the 
 difference (but GrmndsesJcjellet the border line). 
 
 161. Some words imply a different meaning according as 
 they are used in common gender or neuter. In other cases 
 originally different words have the same sound, but disagree 
 in gender. 
 
 common gender 
 Arhen the ark. 
 en Bid (Norw. Bit, Bete) a 
 
 bit, piece. 
 en Bo (in compounds Nabo 
 
 etc. a neighbor). 
 en Brug a custom. 
 
 en Buk a he-goat. 
 Felten the campaign. 
 en Fro a frog. 
 en Fyr a fellow, chap. 
 en Folge a consequence. 
 Lejen the rent. 
 en Lem a trap. 
 en Lod share, lot. 
 en N'dgle a key. 
 
 en Raad (in compounds : Stats- 
 raad, etc.) a councillor. 
 
 neuter 
 et Ark a sheet (of paper). 
 et Bid (dd) a bite. 
 
 et Bo an estate. 
 
 et Brug (Norw.) establish- 
 ment, concern. 
 et Buk a bow. 
 Feltet the field, sphere. 
 et Fro a seed. 
 et Fyr a light-house. 
 et Folge a retinue. 
 Lejet the couch. 
 et Lem a member. 
 et Lod a weight. 
 et Nbgh (D.) a ball (of yarn). 
 et Raad a council, advice. 
 
74 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 common gender 
 Rimen the hoar frost. 
 Risen the rice. 
 en Segl (D.) a sickle. 
 
 en Skrift a (hand) writing. 
 en, Spand (D.,et Spand N.) a 
 
 pail. 
 en Stift a tack. 
 en Som a seam. 
 en Ting a thing. 
 en Tryk a print. 
 
 en Trcek a draught (of air). 
 Vaaren the spring. 
 
 en Vcerge a guardian. 
 en Vcev a tissue. 
 Vcelde power (i al sin Vcelde 
 in all his might). 
 
 en JEsel (D., et 2E. N.) an ass. 
 
 neuter 
 Rimet the rhyme. 
 Riset the fagots, rod. 
 et Segl a seal (also et Sejl a 
 sail). 
 
 et Skrift a writing, a book. 
 et Spand a span, a team. 
 
 et Stift a diocese. 
 
 et Som (D., ew Som N.) a nail. 
 
 e£ Tiling {Ting) assembly. 
 
 et Tryk (N. also e* 7 1 .) a 
 pressure. 
 
 e£ 7Vra& a feature. 
 
 e£ Vaar (D., N. e£ Far) a 
 cover. 
 
 e< F«r$re a weapon. 
 
 noget Vcev nonsense. 
 
 Vcelde (N. in compounds 
 Enevcddet the absolute 
 monarchy; D. Enevmlden). 
 
 et JEsel a donkey. 
 
 In some words the gender is not quite fixed, so they some- 
 times appear as neuter, at other times as of common gender. 
 Ex.: Fond (D. ena.nd.et, N. always et) fund, Helbred (D., 
 always c. N.) health, Katdlog (D., always c. N.) catalogue, 
 Lak (D. c. and n., No. always n.) sealing wax, Log (D. al- 
 ways c. N.) onion; Tforw requirements. Sometimes the gender 
 differs in Danish and Norwegian, as can be seen from some 
 of the examples given above ; Kontingent is in D. n., in N. 
 c. Kind cheek, D. c, N. mostly n. 
 
 162. Something different from the question of gram- 
 matical gender is the circumstance that the language in some 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 75 
 
 cases has different words to denote the natural genders. Thus 
 the genders can be distinguished: 
 
 1) by adding the feminine ending -inde to the masculine 
 word: Greve count — Orevinde countess; Lcerer teacher — 
 Lmrerinde female teacher ; Love lion — Lbvinde lioness ; 
 
 2) by adding the feminine ending -she to the masculine 
 word: Opvarter waiter — Opvartershe waitress (usually Op- 
 vartningsjomfruen); Berider riding-master, circus-rider — • 
 Beridershe female rider. 
 
 Note. The ending she is usually applied to denote persons of 
 lower position than -inde, but sometimes both may be used: Sangerinde 
 and Sangerske (less common) songstress. 
 
 3) by adding the words —hone woman, -pige girl, -jomfru 
 miss to the masculine words or to the corresponding verbs : 
 
 Vasherhonen, Vaskerpigen the laundress, Badehonen, Bade- 
 jomfruen the woman attendant (at the bath), but Badetjene- 
 ren the man attendant. 
 
 4) in some foreign words the foreign feminine endings 
 are retained : Baronesse, Oomtesse, Prinsesse, Restauratrice 
 woman restaurant keeper. 
 
 5) The two natural genders of animals are usually denoted 
 by Han he and Hun she placed before the name: Hanbjorn, 
 Hunbj'dm (N. Bingse, Binne) he-bear, she-bear Hanhat, Hun- 
 hat (N. Ejmtte) tom-cat, tib-cat. But in some cases there are 
 different words for the two genders Ex. : Buk — Gjed he-goat, 
 she-goat, Vmder — Faar (N. Sau) ram — sheep, ewe. 
 
 INFLECTION OF NOUNS. 
 
 162b. The nouns of the Danish and Dano-Xorwegian 
 language have two cases and two number s. The cases 
 are: nominative and possessive (genitive). 
 
76 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 163. The formation of the possessive. The posses- 
 sive is formed by adding -s to the nominative (but without 
 apostrophe). 
 
 S. PL 
 
 Nom. Mand Msend. 
 
 Poss. Mands Masnds. 
 
 When the noun has the postpositive definite article, the -s 
 is added to the latter : 
 
 Norn. Manden Masndene Huset Husene. 
 
 Poss. Mandens Maendenes Husets Husenes. 
 
 Note 1. Nouns ending in s (z, x) form their possessive by adding 
 es; Ex.: den liUe Gnoses Mening the opinion of that little goos. Para- 
 dises rindende Kilde the running fountain of Paradise; paa et jorgyldt 
 Paladses flade Jag ou the flat roof of a guilt palace. But as a rule the 
 possessive form of these words, except in the definite form, is avoided. 
 Proper nouns ending in — s may have their possessive of same form as 
 the nominative, only adding an apostrophe, or an s with preceding 
 apostrophe may be added. Ex.: Sokrates' of Socrates, Voider s's 
 Fjelddole the mountain valleys of Valders. Biblical nouns are sometimes 
 used with the Latin gen. form: Mose Lov Moses' law, Pauli Breve St. 
 Paul's epistles. 
 
 Note 2. A prepositional complement following the noun which it 
 determines is considered as one word with it and the possessive s is added 
 to the complement: Kongen of Danmarks Brystsukker the king of Den- 
 marks barley sugar (a kind of congh drops), Keiseren oner alle Rwsseres 
 Rige the realm of the Emperor of all Russians. 
 
 TThen several nouns are used to denote one person or thing only the 
 last word gets the s: Kong Olavs Hozr the army of king 0. 
 
 Note 3. Some names of cities, especially those ending in « vowel, 
 have their possessive (when employed as definitive genitive) like the 
 nominative: Kristiania By , 'Kristiania Universitet etc. the city of Ch., 
 the university of Ch., but Kristianias Indbyggere the inhabitants of Ch. 
 In the same manner: Humor Stift the diocese of H., Kallundborg By, 
 Sor'6 Academi, Aalborg Skole the school of Aa., ~Kongsberg Solizs,erk the 
 silver mines of K. (but Bergens By, 1 rondhjems Domkir\e the Cathedral 
 of T. ~Kjuben7iavns Universitet the university of Copenhagen). 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 77 
 
 Note 4. In the old language tlie possessive g was added both to the 
 article and the noun; Ex. : land, gen. landsins. A rest of this mode of 
 inflection is found in such expressions as: Landsens Kost a country bill 
 of fare, Linsens Ira the tree of life, du er Dodsens you are a dead man. 
 Also such forms as: 3)<zrtens Lyst the desire of the heart, Alterens 8a- 
 kramente the Lord's supper, find their explanation in the old language 
 where the genitive of the definite article neuter had the form of ins 
 (or n s ), not ets (Is) as now. A rest of an old genitive plur. is found in 
 such expressions as: tilhaande {gai en tilhaande to assist one); tilgrunde 
 to the bottom, tilgode due, tilfulde fuHy, tiWage back,(0. N. til lianda to 
 the hands etc). 
 
 164. Syntactical remarks about the use of 
 the possessive. The possessive is employed to convey 
 the meaning of possessive, subjective, objective and definitive 
 genitive. In stead of the possessive may in some meanings 
 be used a complement with af (or colloquially til). Han er 
 Son af sin Fader and lian er sin Fader s Son he is a son of his 
 father, Hunden til Federsen and Pedersens Hund P's dog. 
 The possessive meaning i. e. the pure relation of property 
 can, different from English, never be expressed by af. If two 
 kinds of genitive (poss. and obj. or sub j. and obj.) occur in 
 connection •with one word, then the objective genitive must 
 be expressed by af. Thus it is wrong to say : Hr. Pedersens 
 Afstraffelse af Hr. Kristensen to indicate the punishment of 
 Mr P. by Mr. K. ; it means Mr. P's punishment of Mr. K. 
 
 A peculiar use of the possessive form is to express a past 
 time in such expressions as: igaaraftes last night, iaftes 
 last night (but iaften this night) ; iforgaars the day before 
 yesterday, ihostes last fall, ivaares last spring. 
 
 The possessive form is very common as the first part of com- 
 pound words -.Landsmand countryman, Krigsskib warship, ska- 
 deslbs indemnified (probably analogously with this latter word 
 are formed the following with irregular genitive in -es: frugtes- 
 
78 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Ids fruitless, magteslos, krafteslos powerless, stundeslbs fidgety, 
 trosteslos disconsolate). The genitive is especially frequently 
 used when the first part of the composition is itself a compound 
 word : Kirketaarnsur a church steeple clock (but Taarnur a 
 tower clock) : Sandstensmur a sand stone wall (but Stenmur a 
 stone wall)Such possessives may sometimes be found as first part 
 of a composition even if there is no corresponding nominative; 
 Ex. : Fralandsvind a land breeze ( Vinden staar fra Land 
 the breeze sets from land). 
 
 Note: Neither possessive nor af is used to connect a name of ma- 
 terial to a name of measure: el Olas Ol a glass of beer, en I'loske Vin a 
 bottle of wine, en 1'dnde Poteter a barrel of potatoes etc. 
 
 165. Remains of an old gen. plur. are found in a great many 
 compound words the first part of which ends in e (0. W. a). 
 Sengested bedstead, Stoleben chair's leg, Barneaar years of 
 childhood (Bornebal childrens ball, Bornehave kindergarten, 
 are exclusively Danish, in M". they say — or are taught to 
 say — Bamebal, Barnehave). 
 
 .166. EemainB ofan old dative is found in the ad- 
 verbial phrases : ad Aare next year, Hide in due time, iliv& 
 alive, paaftxrde abroad, at work, igjcere in progress, etc. 
 
 THE FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 
 
 167. The plural is formed in the following manners : 
 
 I) by adding r or er to the singular, with or without 
 "mutation" (see § 149). 
 
 II) by adding e to the singular, in a few cases with "muta- 
 tion." 
 
 III) the plural has the same form as the singular, except 
 that in a few cases the vowel is changed by "mutation". 
 
ETXM 
 
 168- First Declension. 
 
 OLOGY. 
 
 75 
 
 Paradigms: Flaade fleet, 
 
 Rige empire, Tand tooth, Kon 
 
 sul, Kjedel kettle ; 
 
 
 
 
 Indef. Sing. 
 
 Def. Sing. 
 
 Indef. Plur. 
 
 Def. Plur. 
 
 N. Flaade 
 
 Flaaden 
 
 Flaader 
 
 Flaaderne. 
 
 Poss. Flaades 
 
 Flaadens 
 
 Flaaders 
 
 Flaadernes. 
 
 1ST. Eige 
 
 Riget 
 
 Riger 
 
 Rigerne 
 
 Poss. Pages 
 
 Rigets 
 
 Rigers 
 
 Rigernes. 
 
 1ST. Tand 
 
 Tanden 
 
 Taender 
 
 Taenderne. 
 
 Poss. Tands 
 
 Tandens 
 
 Taenders 
 
 Taendernes. 
 
 N. Konsul 
 
 Konsulen 
 
 Konsuler 
 
 Konsulerne. 
 
 Poss. Konsuls 
 
 Konsulens 
 
 Konsulers 
 
 Konsulernes. 
 
 N. Kjedel 
 
 Kjedlen 
 
 Kjedler 
 
 Ejedlerne. 
 
 Poss. K/jedels 
 
 Kjedlens 
 
 Kjedlers 
 
 Kjedlernes. 
 
 Remarks. 1) Words ending in an unaccented -e add -r. 
 Exceptions : die eye, has plural Oine ; Tilfcelde case, and Ore a 
 coin have plural the same as singular. Antiquated is Oren 
 plur. of Ore ear, and Oksne (Oxne) plur. of Okse (Oxe)- t 
 Menneske man (generally) has plur. Mennesker but def. form 
 Menneskene, Bonde peasant forms it plural with "mutation": 
 Bonder. 
 
 2). Words ending in stressed vowel (or an unaccented 
 vowel that is not e) add -er: Toga -Togaer; Mo heath Moer. 
 Except. : Sko shoe plur. same as sing. 
 
 3) The fclloving monosyllables form their plural with -e r 
 and "mutation". 
 
 And duck; Mark a weight (£lb. also unchanged in plural) ; 
 Rand border, Stand state, (condition of life), Stang pole, 
 Tang thongs, Haand hand, Stad city, Kraft povrer. (Plural : 
 JEnder (N.) Mcerker, Rcender, Stcender, Stcenger, Tcenger, 
 Hcender, Stceder, Krcefter). N. Skaak shaft (of a sleigh) 
 
80 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 plur. Skjceker. Bod fine, plur. Bbder; Pod foot, pi. Fodder; 
 Rod root, pi. Rodder ; Bog book, pi. Boger ; N. Glo(d) live 
 coal, pi. Gloder (or Glbr) ; N. JSot seine, plur. Nbter. Raa 
 yard (ship's), Taa toe, Klo claw, have their pi. D. Roser, 
 Tceer, Klber (se § 17) ; N. Rmr, Tcer, Elbr. Ko cow, D. 
 pi. Kjber or Kber (se § 17). N. Ajw - (Dei. Kjorne or N. 
 Kjbrene). 
 
 Most of these words, in spite of consisting in plural of 
 two syllables, have the monosyllabic accent (see §§ D. 76, 
 N. 134). 
 
 4) A great many monosyllables of common gender form 
 their plural in -er without mutation: Ex.: Aander spirits, 
 Sager cases, Floder rivers, and with doubling of final conso- 
 nant: Bonner sons, Knapper buttons; and N. Gutter boys. 
 
 In some words the Danish and the Norwegian forms of 
 the language disagree: Plads place, D. Pladser, TS. Pladse. 
 
 Also the following neuter monnosyllables form their plu- 
 ral in —er : Bryst breast, Gods estate, Hul hole, Lem member, 
 Loft ceiling, Punkt point, Skjbrt skirt, Syn sight, Vcerk 
 work; so also the polysyllables: Bryllup wedding, Roved 
 head, Herred township, Hundred, Tusind thousand, Lcerred 
 linen, Linncd linen, Marked fair. 
 
 5) Words ending in -el, en, -ing, -hed, -skaband 
 derivative -s t (/) and d : Gjcester guests, Punster arts, Togter 
 expeditions, Bygder settlements. Words ending in — e 1 and 
 some ending in -e n drop their e before the ending : Kjedel 
 kettle, Ejedler, Lagen (bed)sheet, Lagner or Lagener. 
 
 In the same manner : Poged sheriff, plur. Pogder. 
 
 Note: Olding old man, Slagtning kinsman, Jngling young man 
 as a rule form their plural in-e, but may also take-er: Engel angel, 
 Djcevel devil, Himinel heaven form their plural by adding -e and drop- 
 ping the e of their second syllable: Engle, Djavcle, Bimle (see § 169). 
 
ETYMOLOGY. SI 
 
 6) Most foreign words add -er: Koiwuler, Patriarker, 
 Prindser etc. But Vest plur. Veste. Foreign words ending 
 in um drop their um before -er: Verbum — Verier. But 
 Album — Albums or Albumer. Pretiosum — Pretiosa. 
 
 Also proper nouns used in plural to denote several persons 
 of same name. Ex. : Hedviger, Orstederne but OhUnschlkgere. 
 Furthermore other classes of words (not adjectives) used 
 substantively : Jaerne og Neienie the yeas and noes. 
 
 169. Second Declension. 
 
 Paradigms: Stol chair, Hat hat, Fader father. 
 
 
 Indef. Sing. 
 
 Def. Sing. 
 
 Indef. Plur. 
 
 Def. Plur. 
 
 X. 
 
 Stol 
 
 Stolen 
 
 Stole 
 
 Stolene. 
 
 p. 
 
 Stols 
 
 Stolens 
 
 Stoles 
 
 Stolenes. 
 
 N. 
 
 Hat 
 
 Hatten 
 
 Hatte 
 
 Hattene. 
 
 P. 
 
 Hats 
 
 Hattens 
 
 Hatxes 
 
 Hattenes. 
 
 K 
 
 Fa(de)r 
 
 Fa(de)ren 
 
 Fse&re 
 
 Fsedrene. 
 
 P. 
 
 Fa(de)rs 
 
 Fa(de)rens 
 
 Fsedres 
 
 Fsedrenes. 
 
 Most monosyllables of common gender ending in a con- 
 sonant follow this declension. Also words ending in — e r 
 irrespective of gender ; some of these drop the e of their last 
 syllable before the e of the ending: Ager field, plnral Agrej 
 Fingre fingers, Skuldre shoulders. 
 
 But most words ending in -e r retain the e of the second 
 syllable in plural : Anhere anchors, Bceg-:re cups, Undere 
 wonders. Especially all nouns denoting persons belonging to 
 a trade or nationality or engaged in an occupation, ending in 
 — e r : Bagere bakers, Sangere singers, Tyskere Germans. Words 
 ending in plural in —ere drop their last e before the article : 
 Bagere — Bcegerne. 
 
 Note. In Denmark they say: en Damier, pi. Danzxern-e. a Dane, 
 and en Svensker, pi. Svenskerne. a Swede. 
 
 In Norway they say: en Danske, plur. Daruier, and er. Scensix, 
 plur. SvenskL)'. 
 
82 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 The following words form their plural in -e with "muta- 
 tion": Bro(d)er brother, Brodre; Moder mother, Ifodre; 
 Fader father, Fcedre; Datter daughter, Dotre. 
 
 Note 2. Colloquially it is common in Norway to give those words 
 of common gender, which in the literary language take plural -e, the 
 ending -er: Hester, Sander, Hatter etc. Also the neuters Huser, Quiver 
 etc., but most neuters are unchanged in plural; Ex.; Writable, lag 
 roof. Before the article -ne the r is dropped in the procunciation, so 
 they say: Hestene, Haitene, Guttene etc. Broder etc. never add -er. 
 
 170. Third Declension. 
 Paradigm: Ord word. 
 
 N. Ord Ordet Ord Ordene. 
 
 P. Ords Ordets Ords Ordenes. 
 
 Most nenters ending in a consonant follow this declension. 
 Exceptions : Bord table, Brev letter, Gulv floor, Hus house, 
 Navn name, Skib ship, Sogn parish, Tag roof, Tov.g (N. Taug) 
 rope and some others take —e : Borde etc. ; others take — e r (see 
 § 165, 4 and 5, and § 169 note 2.) "Mutation" without any 
 ending have : Mand man, plur. Mosnd; Gaas goose, plur. 
 Gjms (D. also Gas) Barn child has plural Born and Barne- 
 lam grandchild pi. Borneborn. These are the only remains 
 of the U-mutation of the old language. In Norway they saj 
 (and have commenced to write) : pi. Barn and Barnebam (the 
 same as singular). 
 
 171. Some nouns have regularly no plural on account of theii 
 signification. Such are proper and collective nouns, names oi 
 substances, and abstract nouns indicating a quality. Ex. : 
 Bjdmson, Jem iron, Godhed goodness. So also woids, which 
 otherwise take a plural, when they are used collectively. Ex. : 
 Har dufaaet meget Fisk (or mange Fish) idag have you caughl 
 many fish to-day. Words indicating measures or values wher 
 ending in a consonant have, as a rule, in that meaning and 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 83 
 
 when connected with a numeral, no plural. Ex. : To Fod Vand 
 two feet of water (but to Fodder two feet, as part of the 
 body). Other such words: Alen ell, Meier, Fad cask, Anker 
 anker, Baler Dollar, Glas glass. But Krone crown (coin), 
 T'dnde barrel, and others ending in —e take plural-, also Pot 
 (Potte) quart, Okselioved hog's head, plur. Oksehoveder, 
 Mark (£ lb) may have plur. N. Mcerker, but also unchanged, 
 Bog quire, plur. Soger, Favn cord and fathom pi. Favne. 
 Last, last (two Reg. tons) pi. Lcester. Also : en Hoer paa 1000 
 Mand an army of 1000 men. 
 
 Other nouns only occur in plural ; Ex. : Forceldre parents, 
 Forfcedre ancestors, Soskende brothers and sisters (at least one 
 of each), Penge money, Indvolde entrails, Briller eyeglasses, 
 Tyvekoster (also Roster alone) stolen property, Hbns chickens. 
 
 Others have singular but in a different meaning from the 
 plural: Klceder clothes, but Klmde cloth (see also § 140), 
 Kopper (Smaakopper) smallpox, but Fop — Kopper cup, Mid- 
 ler means (money), Middel means (instrument). 
 
 Note: Colloquially it is common to say: Jeg er gode Venner med 
 Tiam I am on friendly terms with him. 
 
 THE ADJECTIVES. 
 
 I. Declension of Adjectives. 
 
 172. The adjectives have a strong or indefinite and 
 a weak or definite form. 
 
 173. The indefinite form has its neuter ending in t, its 
 plural in -e. The definite form has the ending -e all through 
 
84 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Paradigm : lang long. 
 
 c. g. neut. plur. 
 
 Indefinite lang langt lange. 
 
 Definite lange lange lange. 
 
 Note. The definite form of the adjective may be used as a sub- 
 stantive and may then take the possessive ending -s; Ex. : Defattiges 
 Glasder er(e) of en anden Art end de riges the pleasures of the poor are of 
 another kind than those of the rich. 
 
 Note 2. A remnant of an old accusative singular m is found iu 
 poetical language: paa Hoienloftssal in the highvaulted hall; i dyben 
 Dal in the deep valley. 
 
 174- The following adjectives do not add any t in the 
 neuter : 
 
 1) Adjectives ending in a distinctly derivative sk: Ex.: 
 krigersk warlike, Norsk Norwegian. But rash quick, falsk 
 false, frisk and fersk fresh add t: et raskt Lob a quick run. 
 
 2) Adjectives ending in a vowel ; except aa : et sanddru 
 Menneske a truthful person; et stille Vand a quiet lake; et 
 ode Sted a desolate place. But et Uaat Baand a blue ribbon. 
 Exceptions are further : ny new, fri free, 1\T. sto steady ; neut. 
 nyt,frit, stot. 
 
 3) Adjectives ending in -t; Ex. : let easy ; and some adjec- 
 tives ending in -d : glad joyful, lad lazy, led loathsome, kaad 
 wanton, reed frightened, Icerd learned, fremmed strange and 
 foreign words such as absurd, nitid, solid, splendid. 
 
 4) Furthermore those ending in -e s or -s with preceding 
 consonant : fcelles common, af sides out of the way ; and ny- 
 modens newfangled, stakkels poor, gjcengs current. 
 
 Note. "With adjectives ending in -i g or -1 i g a t is added in neuter 
 in writing, but neither g nor t is pronounced; see §§ (D.) 43 aod 
 (N.)125. 
 
 I 75- -A- l° n g vowel with or without a following d (Danish 
 pron. 8, Eorw. mute or pron. f) is shortened before the t of 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 85 
 
 the neuter; Ex. : blaat of blaa blue, Mi{d)t of blid (D. pr. 
 bli6, N. bli-) mild; Ub{d)t of Mod (D. pr. bkfS, N. blat). 
 
 176. The following pronominal adjectives ending in -en 
 drop their n before the t of the neuter : niegen — meget much, 
 mangen — mangt many, nogen some, ingen — intet none ; an- 
 den — andet other, hvilken — hvilket which, en — et one, din — 
 dit your, min — mit my, sin — sit his, her; N. liden — lidet. 
 So also past participles ending in -en: skreven — skrevet 
 written, egen — eget in the meaning of own; but in the mean- 
 ing of peculiar egent : et egent Menneske a peculiar person ; 
 sceregen, scereget and seer egent peculiar, voxen — voxent adult, 
 and in the same manner other adjectives which were originally 
 past prtcpls. but are now used as pure adjectives : et voxent 
 Menneske a grown-up person; but hem er voxet he has grown. 
 
 Note. The adjective liden is now obsolete in Danish, only occasion- 
 ally used in poetry, while it still continues to be the regular form in 
 Norwegian. In Danish they use the originally definite form lille both 
 as definite and indefinite, both as neuter and common gender. As plural 
 of D. lille N. liden is employed smaa. 
 
 177- Adjectives ending in -e 1, -en and -e r drop the e of 
 their last syllable before e of the plural or definite form : 
 gammel — gamle old, mager — magre lean, hoven — hovne swollen. 
 
 Adjectives ending in an unstressed -e t form their plural 
 and definite form in -e d e ; Ex. : stribet — stribede stripet, but 
 let — lette light, violet — violette. 
 
 Note. In Norwegian colloquial language the adjectives ending in 
 -et are often given the form of -ete, even in the indefinite form; Ex.. 
 stripete striped, Veien er slenete the road is stony. 
 
 178. The following adjectives do not add any -e in plural 
 or in the definite form: 
 
 1) Those ending in -e: stille quiet, cegte genuine, ode 
 desolate. 
 
86 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 2) Those ending in -e s or -s with preceding consonant. 
 Exception : tilfreds satisfied always takes the -e, and aflcegs 
 obsolete, dagligdags commonplace, and gammeldags old- 
 fashioned may take it ; Ex. : det altid tilfredse Barn the al- 
 ways satisfied child. 
 
 3) Most adjectives ending in a stressed vowel ; Ex. : blaa 
 blue, tro faithful, cedric sober, bly bashful; fri and ny may in 
 D. be written and pronounced with or without -e, frie and 
 nye or fri and ny ; in Norwegian always with -e : nye, frie ; 
 so also N". stoe. 
 
 179. The following adjectives lack the definite form in 
 -e : megen much, anden other, egen own (but egen peculiar, 
 egne). N. liden has the definite form Kile. 
 
 The;e adjectives also have irregular plurals: megen — 
 mange, anden — andre ; liden uses as plural smaa small ; faa 
 few occurs only in plural ; smaa, however, may also occur in 
 singular, mostly neuter with collective words : smaat Kvmg 
 small cattle, den smaa the little one. 
 
 Note. In Norwegian colloquial language anden may take the defi- 
 nite form den andre in stead of den anden the other. 
 
 180. Indeclinable are, besides those adjectives ending in 
 -e, -e s or -s with preceding consonant mentioned in §§ 174, 
 4 and 178, land 2, the following : idel sheer, lutter mere, nolc 
 sufficient, kvit rid of, alene alone (only used predicatively),' 
 var in the expression blive var to become aware of (but N. 
 adj. var cautious, is declinable). Also Kg like, equal may in 
 mathematics and elsewhere be used unchanged : et Tal Kg 
 Summen of to andre a number equal to the sum of two others. 
 
 181. Use of the definite form of the adjectives: 
 The definite form of the adjective is used 1) after the definite 
 article : det store Hus the big house ; 2) after a possessive pro- 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 87 
 
 noun or a genitive; Ex. : min nye Hat my new hat; min Ku- 
 sines lyse Parasol my cousin's light parasol ; 3) after a de- 
 monstrative pronoun and after the relative pronoun hvilken 
 which ; Ex. : dette hbie Tree this high tree, hin sorte Kat that 
 black cat. Han reddede med personlig Livsfare ti Menneske- 
 liv, hvilken tapre Handling skaffede ham en Medalje he saved 
 with danger for his own life ten human lives, which brave 
 deed procured him a medal ; 4) in expressions of address and 
 in apposition to a personal pronoun : Kjcere Ven Dear friend, 
 jeg elendige Mand I miserable man. 
 
 Note. For examples of the definite form of the adjective used with 
 the postpositive article see § 153, Note 1. 
 
 182. Agreement of the adjective with its 
 noun. The adjective must agree with its noun in gender 
 and number both as attribute, apposition and predi- 
 cate. Et start Hus a big house, store Huse big houses ; 
 Huset, et stort rbdmalet the house, a big red one, Huset er 
 stort the house is big. Yore Ansigter er(e) solbramdte our 
 faces are sunburnt. (As for the superlative forming an ex- 
 ception as predicate see § 189.) 
 
 II. COMPARISON" OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 183- The adjectives form their comparatives in -ere 
 (-re), superlative in -e s t (-st). 
 
 glad — glad gladere gladest. 
 
 rig — rich rigere rigest. 
 
 Adjectives ending in -e add only -r e and -s t. 
 ringe — slight ringere rinqest 
 
88 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Adjectives ending in an unaccented -i g (—1 i g) -s o m add 
 in superlative only -s t : 
 fattig — poor fattigere fattigst. 
 
 nmsom — easily contented nbisommere nbisomst. 
 
 Adjectives ending in a single consonant with preceding 
 short vowel double their final consonant before the compara- 
 tive and superlative terminations : 
 
 smuk — nice smukkere smukkesi. 
 
 Adjectives ending in an unstressed -el, -en, (see § 187, 1) 
 -e r drop the -e before the comp. and superl. endings : 
 mdel — noble cedlere cedlest. 
 
 fager — fair fagrere fagrest. 
 
 fuldkommen — perfect fuldkomnere juldkomnest. 
 
 184. The following adjectives form their comparative 
 and superlative by adding -r e (-e r e) and -s t and at ihe 
 same time modifying the radical vowel by mutation : 
 
 ung — young yngre yngst. 
 
 stor — great storre stbrst. 
 
 tung — heavy tyngre tyngst. 
 
 or tungere tung est. 
 
 lang — long Icengere Icengst. 
 and irregularly: 
 
 fact — few fcerre /arrest. 
 
 185. The following adjectives form their comparatives 
 and superlatives of a different stem from the positive: 
 
 gammel — old celdre midst, 
 
 god — good iedre bedst. 
 
 lille (liden) — little mindre mindst. 
 
 mange — many Here flest. 
 
 meget — much mere viest. 
 
 ond — bad vcerre vcsrst. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 89 
 
 The adjective (and adv.) ncer near forms its comparative 
 and superlative by adding -m ere, -m est: narmere ncermest. 
 In the same manner the adj. fjern far in Danish forms the 
 comp. fjcermer, but only in the meaning of the off (horse). 
 
 186- The following comparatives and superlatives have 
 no corresponding adjectives as positive (but there are corre- 
 sponding adverbs) : 
 
 {nede — down) nedre — lower nederst. 
 {oven — above) ovre — upper overst. 
 
 (ude— -without) ydre — outer yderst (N. also pr. ytterst). 
 
 {bag — behind) N. bagre — hind bagerst — hindmost. 
 {inde — within indre — inner inderst. 
 {midt- — middle) midtre m idterst. 
 
 {frem — forward) fremmere (or fremre) fremmest {oifremst). 
 
 The following adjectives occur only in the comparative : 
 nordre northern, sondre southern, bstre eastern, vestre western. 
 
 In the superlative alone occur : ncest next, forst first, forrest 
 foremost, sidst last, ypperst supreme, mellemst middle. 
 
 137- The following adjectives do not form any compara- 
 tive and superlative. To denote the comparative and super- 
 lative meaning mere more and mest most are placed before the 
 positive : 
 
 1) Most adjectives derived in -sk (-isk) -en and -e t : 
 mere krigersk more warlike, mest morderisk most murderous. 
 (But friskere fresher, raskere quicker, hadskere more rancor- 
 ous, glubskere more ferocious, harskere more rancid.) Vaa- 
 gen — awake, mere vaagen, mest vaagen. (But modnere more 
 mature.) 2) Adjectives ending in -es or -s with preceding 
 consonant: mere, mest af sides, more, most out-of-the way; 
 mere, mest gjcengs, more, most current ; also mere fremmed 
 most strange. 3) Participles: mere for slaaet more beaten, et 
 
90 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 mere vindende Vce.sen a more prepossessing manner. (But a 
 few participles which have come to be used completely as adjec- 
 tives may form comparative and superlative : Icerdere more lear- 
 ned ; fuldkomnere more perfect). 
 
 Some adjectives do not form any comparative and super- 
 lative on account of their signification ; such are evig eternal, 
 ■udbdelig immortal etc. 
 
 INFLECTION AND USE OF THE COMPARATIVE 
 AND SUPERLATIVE. 
 
 188. The comparative has only the form ending in -e : 
 den bedre Del the better part; et storre Hus a larger house. 
 When used as a substantive it may take the genitive -s : det 
 gode er det bedres Fiende the good is the enemy of the better. 
 
 Note. Observe the use of the comparative to denote a pretty high 
 degree. En aldre Herre an elderly gentleman; et storre Forretningslmt 
 quite a large business house; mindre less is used as a less emphatic ne 
 gative than ikke not, or a negative prefix. Det -car en mindre smuk Ererii- 
 gangsmaade that was not a very nice way of doing. 
 
 189. The superlative has as a rule the definite form 
 when connected with a noun: Den bedste Mand the best man. 
 Det smukkeste T'di the nicest cloth. But it occurs also in the 
 indefinite form : jeg liar stbrst Lyst til ikke at gjore det I feel 
 most inclined not to do it [but: jeg liar den stbrste Lyst (aj 
 Verden) til ikke at gjore det I have the greatest mind not do 
 it]. When used as a predicate the superlative as a rule is in- 
 declinable, but may also take the definite article, and accord- 
 ingly the definite form. Dette Hus er stbrst this house is 
 largest. Disse Bar er bedst these berries are the best. But 
 also : dette Hus er det stbrste this house is the largest. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 91 
 
 Note. The superlative may be emphasized by alter placed before 
 the superlative: allerbedst best of all; allerst'&rst largest of all. This alter 
 is an old gen. plur. (O. N. allra of attr all). 
 
 The Pronouns. 
 
 I. THE PEKSOKAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 190. The personal pronouns have a nominative and an 
 oblique case, and some of them also have a possessive case. 
 The personal pronoun for the 3d person has separate forms for 
 masculine and feminine. 
 1st person. 
 
 Sing. Nom. jeg 
 
 Poss. — 
 
 Obi. mig 
 
 Plur. Nom. vi 
 
 Poss. — (vores) 
 
 Obi. os 
 
 {jeg pron. Dan. jai, jae, Nor. jei; mig, dig pron. Dan. mai, 
 dai, ma?, dae, Nor. mei, dei.) 
 
 Note 1. jeg and du have no corresponding possessive forms ; in 
 their stead are used the possessive pronouns (see § 192). Instead of 
 poss. vores (which is mostly colloquial Danish) the poss. pron. vor is 
 usually employed, while eders is more common than the corresponding 
 poss. pron. jer. An antiquated form is hannevi for liar® him. de they 
 is originally a demonstrative pronoun corresponding to the singular 
 den, det. Analogously with Jumnem is formed dennem for dem. 
 
 Note 2. Du and dig thou, you is only used between members of 
 the same family or near relatives (1st or 2d cousins) or between intimate 
 friends (schoolmates or people acquainted since childhood, or those who 
 have drunk ' 'dus" , thus entering into a kind of fraternity that places 
 
 ■d person. 
 
 3d person. 
 
 
 Masc. Pem. 
 
 du 
 
 han hun 
 
 — 
 
 hans hendes 
 
 di g,- 
 
 ham hende 
 
 tpe. ^ 
 
 de 
 
 eders, (jers) 
 
 deres 
 
 eder, jer 
 
 dem 
 
92 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 them upon a footing of intimacy. The act of drinking "dus' is per 
 formed with certain ceremonies. 
 
 Note 3. Colloquially Ivan and liun are often used referring to ani 
 mals according to their natural gender, and in N. colloquially or rathe; 
 vulgarly even to things according to thegender (masculine or feminine 
 which the noun in question has in colloquial Norwegian language. 
 
 II. THE EEFLEXIYE AKD KECIPftOCAL PROXOUNS. 
 
 19ia- The reflexive pronoun is sig (pronounce D. sai, N,. 
 sei), which can only be used in dependent functions, corre- 
 sponding to a subject of 3d person, when the direct or indireci 
 object is the same person or thing as the subject; Ex. han slog 
 sig he hurt himself ; K". de satte sig paa Bmnhene they sat down 
 upon the benches (but D. as a rule de satte dem, because in 
 modern Danish sig is very rarely used referring to a subject of 
 plural). 
 
 Sig is n e t e r used reflexively to De you : slog De Dem ? 
 did you hurt yourself ? 
 
 Observe: liver for sig each for himself, separately. 
 
 191b. Reciprocal pronouns are hinanden and hverandre, 
 one another each other. Hinanden should, according to the 
 grammarians, be used referring to a subject consisting of two 
 parties, hverandre to three or more. Ex. : Han og hun saa hin- 
 anden for forste Gang he and she saw each other for the first 
 time. Allefaldt ora Halsenpaa hverandre they all threw them- 
 selves upon one another's necks. 
 
 But this rule of the grammarians is rarely observed in the 
 spoken language. 
 
ETTMOLOOY. 93 
 
 III. THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 192. The possessive pronouns are : 
 
 1st person sing. 2d person sing. 3d pers. refl. (sing. & pi. ) 
 com. neut. com. neut. com. neut. 
 Sing, min mit din dit sin sit 
 
 Plur. mine dine sine 
 
 1st person plur. 2d person plur. 
 Sing, vor vort jer jert 
 
 Plur. vore jere 
 
 In stead of jer, jert, jere the gen. of the pers. pronoun eders 
 is usually employed. 
 
 193. sin, sit, sine is only in Norway used referring to a 
 subject of plur. In Denmark it is a rule to say : Herrerne tog(e) 
 deres Hatte the gentlemen took their hats ; in Norway they 
 say : Herrerne tog sine Hatte. 
 
 Sin may refer to another word than the subject in such 
 combinations as : Giv hver sit give each one his due. 
 
 When therebesidesthe predicate verb is another verb (infini- 
 tive or participle) in the sentence sin may refer to the subject 
 of either of these verbal forms, thus causing some ambiguity : 
 Hr. Pedersen had Pigen hente sin Hat: Mr. P. asked the ser- 
 vant girl to fetch his hat. But Hr. Pedersen bad sin Ven tcende 
 sin Cigar Mr. P. asked his friend to light his (whose?) cigar. 
 Hanfandt ham liggende i sin Seng he found him lying in his 
 bed (whose?). Sin may also refer to the logical subject of a 
 noun indicating action : hendes Kamp for sin Kongemagt her 
 fight for her royal power. 
 
 194. The possessive pronouns replace the missing genitive 
 forms of the personal pronouns and are used in the same mean- 
 ings and ways as the genitive of the nouns (see § 164). Observe 
 
94: ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 the idiomatic expressions : din Dumrian you fool ! dit Fee you 
 ass! etc. 
 
 The possessive pronouns cannot be combined with the 
 pre-positive definite article. But in Norwegian they can 
 colloquially be combined with nouns that have the postpositive 
 definite article, in which case the pronoun is placed behind ; 
 Ex. : Vennen min mv friend. 
 
 IV. DEMONSTRATIVE PKONOUXS. 
 
 N. 
 
 0. G. N. 
 
 G. G. N. 
 
 det 
 
 denne dette 
 
 hin hint 
 
 dets 
 
 dennes dettes 
 
 hin.s hints 
 
 
 disse 
 
 hine 
 
 s 
 
 disses 
 
 hines 
 
 195. Demonstrative pronouns are : den that, denne this,, 
 
 hin that, yonder. 
 
 C. G. 
 
 Sing. Norn, den 
 
 Gen. dens 
 
 Plur. Nom. de 
 
 Gen. deres 
 
 Obi. dem 
 
 "When these pronouns are used adjectively, they are only 
 
 subject to inflection as to numbers; Ex. : Han valgte de Mmnd 
 
 he chose those men; disse Menneskers Oine er forblindede 
 
 the eyes of those people are blinded. Hin that, yonder is 
 
 mostly a literary word ; colloquially it is as a rule replaced by 
 
 den der that there, det is often used where the English 
 
 language requires the adv. so : tror De det ? do you think so. 
 
 Note, det is used without stress like the English it as subj. of im- 
 personal verbs, or as an "indicator" if the real subject is another 
 sentence: det regner it rains; detfortcelles, at Kongen er dod it is said that, 
 the king is dead; se efter, hvad det er, som staar pact look what it is, that 
 is the matter. 
 
ETYJIOLOOT. 95 
 
 196. Among the demonstrative pronouns are as a rule, 
 counted the pronominal adjectives stiff such; saadan such; 
 begge both ; samme same ; selv self. Slig has n. sligt, pi. slige, 
 saadan, n. saadant, plur. saadanne. All these forms can take 
 the gen. -s if the word is used substantively, begge and samme 
 can take the genitive — s when used alone, but are otherwise 
 indeclinable, selv is indeclinable, except that when used before 
 a noun with the postpositive def . article it may add an -e : selve 
 Manden the man himself. Observe that selv in Dano— Norwegian 
 is used alone : jeg skal gjore det selv I shal do it myself. The 
 adv. saa may in some cases be used as a pronoun : i saa Til- 
 fcelde in such a case, i saa Maade in that respect, i saa Hen- 
 seende in that respect. 
 
 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 197. Interrogative pronouns are: hvo, hvem which, hvad 
 what, livilken which. (The initial -h is mute in all these pro- 
 nouns, see §§ D. 58, N. 126). Hvo and hvem refers to per- 
 sons and are only used substantively. They have the genitive 
 hvis whose ; livo is becoming obsolete and is chiefly used in 
 poetry and elevated style. Hvad when used substantively only 
 refers to things ; when used as an adjective it may qualify na- 
 mes of living beings as well as of things and irrespective of 
 gender. Hvilken is used adjectively and has the neuter hvil- 
 ket pi. hvilke. "When the interrogative pronouns are ruled by 
 a preposition, the latter can be placed before the pronoun or 
 at the end of the sentence. Ex. Hvem er der who is there? 
 Hvo ved, hvor ncer mig er min flnde? who knows how near my 
 end might be? Hvis Boger er del? whose books is it? Hvad si- 
 ger De what do you say? Hvad Tjeneste kan jeg gjore Bern 
 
96 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 what service can I do you? Hvilke Lande er(e) de rigeste? 
 what countries are the richest? Hvilken Kjole har hun paa? 
 what dress does she wear? Afhvem har Defaaet Bogen? from 
 whom did you get the book? or Hvem har Defaaet Bogen af? 
 Til hvem har lian sagt det? To whom has he told it? or Hvem 
 har han sagt det til? 
 
 Hvadfor en what, neut. hvadfor et, plur. hvadfor is used 
 adjectively. Hvadfor en Mand er dette? what man is this? 
 Hvadfor et Hus er dette? or hvad er dette for et Hus? what 
 house is this? Hvadfor Kj'dr er dette? what cows are these? 
 (Obs. the use of the neuter dette in all these queries.) Note: 
 Hvilken may he used in exclamations : Hvilken Udsigt ! what 
 a view ! Hvilken Skjonhed what a beauty. The same meaning 
 may in Danish be expressed by : sikken, contraction for se hvil- 
 ken see what a ; Ex. sikken en nydelig Dame what a beautiful 
 lady, and in JSTorwegian'by for en: For en Sorg, what a grief! 
 For en Dumrian du er! what a fool you are ! 
 
 VI. EELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 I 98. Kelative pronouns are: som, der, hvilken, hvem. 
 Som and der are used substantively and are not inflected. As 
 genitive is used hvis whose. Hvilken is used both adjectively 
 and substantively and is inflected as the interrogative pronoun 
 of the same form. Som is the general relative pronoun, which 
 is used when there is no special reason to employ one of the 
 others. It must always have the first place in the sentence 
 and therefore when it should follow after a preposition this 
 latter must be placed adverbially at the end of the sentence. 
 der can only be used as subject and is chiefly employed when 
 there is another som near by so as to avoid confusion and ca- 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 'J7 
 
 cophony ; Ex. : den Hand som var her the man who was here. 
 Det saa ud, som om den Mand, der var her, var syg it 
 looked as if the man who was here was sick. Det Synspunkt, 
 som han saa Sagen fra, var ikke det rigtige the point of view 
 from which he looked at the matter was not the right one. 
 
 hvem only refers to persons and can never be used as sub- 
 ject; Ex.: en Gjatst hvem fyrstelig JEresbevisning tilkommer 
 a guest to whom princely honor is due. 
 
 hvilken refers to persons and things. The neuter hvilket 
 sometines refers not to any single word in the preceding sen- 
 tence, but to the whole sentence ; Ex. : der ilev en skarp Frost 
 med haardt Veir, hvilket Hedningerne tilskrev Gudernes Vrede 
 a piercing cold set in with rough weather, something that the 
 heathen attributed to the wrath of the gods. With the 
 same meaning may be used hvad what, a pronoun that other- 
 wise only refers to the word alt all, everything; Ex. : alt, hvad 
 jeg liar, er dit everything I have is yours. 
 
 Note. The relative pronoun may be omitted except as subject; Ex. : 
 den eneste Ro, lian eiede, blevfunden dod the only cow he owned was found 
 dead. In antiquated language and sometimes in poetry the relative may 
 be omitted also as subject, :but then the verb must be preceded by an- 
 other word; Ex.: allesmaa Fugle, i Skoven var all the little birds that 
 were in the wood; den Maud, tier staar the man, who stands here. 
 
 199. A^o, hvem, hvad, may sometimes perform functions 
 at the same time in the principal and in the subordinate pro- 
 position. They are then called indefinite relative pro- 
 nouns. After these pronouns may sometimes be added som 
 or der, in which case these indefinite relative pronouns to a 
 certain extent act as demonstratives. Hvo som staar, se til, 
 at han ikke /aider whoever stands, see that he does not fall. 
 Hvem der gjbr det, skal miste sit Liv whoever does that, shall 
 lose his life. Hvad du har gjort, er tilstrmkkeligl what you 
 
98 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 have done, is sufficient. The indefinite meaning is emphasized 
 in: hvemsomhelst som whoever, hvadsomhelst som whatever, 
 hvilkensomhelst som whichever. 
 
 VII. INDEFINITE PKONOUNS. 
 
 200. Indefinite pronouns are: man, en, hver, enhver r 
 enliversomhelst, hvilkensomhelst, hvemsomhelst, hvadsomhelst. 
 
 man corresponds to the French o n, German man. Eng- ' 
 lish has no exact equivalent. It can only be used as subject ; 
 Ex. : man siger they say, it is said. 
 
 en is originally the numeral one ; it has the same meaning as 
 man, but is not in its use limited to being subject of the 
 sentence ; Ex. : det gj'dr en ondt at se saadanne Krcefter gaa 
 tilspilde it pains a man to see such abilities wasted. 
 
 hver or enhver each, every; gen. hvers, enhvers; neut. 
 hvert, ethvert; alle og enhver each and everyone ; hver eneste 
 every single one; enhver somhelst, hvemsomhelst everybody; 
 hvilkensomhelst, neut. hvilketsomhelst, plur. hvilkesomhelst 
 which(so)ever, any; hvadsomhelst what(so)eyer, anything. 
 These pronouns together with the relative som form indefinite 
 relative pronouns (see § 199). 
 
 201. Among the indefinite pronouns are as a rule counted 
 the indefinite numerals: nogen some one, mangen many a, 
 ingen none, alle all, somme some, anden other. 
 
 nogen some one, neut. noget, gen. nogens, nogets, plur. 
 nogle, gen. nogles. nogen also means any ; then it has plur. 
 nogen (like singular). Har De nogen Penge? Have you 
 any money ? Ja, jeg har nogle Kroner. Yes, I have a few 
 
ETYJIOLOOY. 99 
 
 crowns. Instead of noget used substantively may be said 
 nogenting something, anything. 
 
 Note. Colloquially the plur. is always nogen, in eastern Norway 
 pron. 7io?i, no9n. 
 
 mangen many a, nent. mangt ; usually occurring in plur. 
 mange many, gen. mangens, mangts, manges. Jeg liar mange 
 Penge I have much money. Mangen en many a, neut. mangt 
 et. ingen none, neut. intet, plur. ingen, gen. ingens, intets. 
 Ingen may be connected with a noun in plur. or in singular ; 
 plural is used whenever in affirmative case a plural would 
 have been expected ; Ex. : der var ingen Mennesker der there 
 were no people there; intet Menneske har set ham nobody has 
 seen him. Emphasized ingensomhelst none whatever. Instead 
 of intet used substantively may be said indenting nothing. 
 
 anden other, neut. andet, plur. andre, gen. andres etc. 
 nogle — andre some — others, en — en anden one — another. 
 
 al all, neut. alt, plur. alle, gen. alts, allesj the common 
 gender sing, can not be used as a substantive and accordingly 
 cannot take the gen. s; subst. alting everything, altsammen, 
 allesammen all and every one. 
 
 somme some is a somewhat antiquated word ; somme Kj&r- 
 ringer ere slige some women are that way. 
 
 THE XOIEEALS. 
 
 202. The following is a list of the numerals: 
 A. Cardinals. B. Ordinals. 
 
 1 en (een), neut. et (et, D. eet, N. ett) forste 
 
 2 to andet 
 
 3 ire tredie 
 
100 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 A. Cardinals. 
 
 4 fire 
 
 5 fern 
 
 6 seks (sex) 
 
 7 syv 
 
 8 otte 
 
 9 ni 
 
 10 ti 
 
 11 elleve 
 
 12 tolv 
 
 13 tret ten 
 
 14 fjorten 
 
 15 femten 
 
 16 N. seksten (sexten), 
 D. sejsten 
 
 17 sytten 
 
 18 a^ew 
 
 19 nitten 
 
 20 fo/ve 
 
 21 en o^ fo/ve 
 
 22 to o# fo/«e 
 
 30 tredive, X. also £?-e#(' 
 
 35 /e?n o<? tredive 
 
 40 D. fyrrctyve, fyrre, 
 
 X. firti, farti, far 
 50 D. halvtredsindstyve, lialv- 
 
 treds, X. feint i 
 60 D. tresindstyve, tres, 
 
 X. seksti 
 70 D. halvfjerdsindslyve, lialv- 
 
 fjerds, X. s^h' 
 80 D. firsindstyve, firs, 
 
 X. oWt, oWrf/ 
 
 B. Ordinals. 
 
 fjerde 
 femte 
 sjettc 
 syvende 
 ottende 
 iiiende 
 titnde 
 ells vie 
 tolvte 
 trettende 
 fjortendc 
 femtende 
 sextende 
 
 syttende 
 
 attende 
 
 nittende 
 
 tyveyide 
 
 enogtyvende 
 
 toogtyvende 
 
 tredivte, X. also trettiende 
 
 femogtredivte 
 
 D. fyrretyvendc, 
 
 X. firtiende, ferfiende 
 
 D. Iiah'tredsindstyvende, 
 X. femtiende 
 
 D. tresindstyve/ide, 
 X. sekstiende 
 
 D. hahfjerdsindstyrende, 
 X. sytiiende 
 
 D. firsi>idstyvei.'<<\ 
 X. ottiende 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 101 
 
 A. Cardinals. B. Ordinals. 
 
 90 D. halvfemsindstyve, halv- D. halvfemsindstyvendc, 
 
 ferns, X. niti, nitti N. nittiende 
 
 100 hundrede 
 
 101 hundrede og en, hundrede og fdrste 
 neut. Hundrede og et 
 
 129 hundrede og ni og tyve hundrede og ni og tyvende 
 
 1000 tusind(e), N. tusend(e) 
 
 The cardinals are all uninflected save en, neut. et, which, 
 to distinguish it from the indefinite article, is often written 
 (D.) een, (N.) en; neut. (D.) eet, (N.) et, ett. But with the 
 definite article always den ene. 
 
 203. The ordinals are used only in the weak or definite 
 form, excepting anden second ; den anden the second or the 
 other (N. colloquially den andre), plur. andre others. 
 
 hundred{e) and tusind(e) have no corresponding ordinals. 
 In arithmetics the cardinals are also used as ordinals, but 
 otherwise the use of the ordinals of these words is avoided as 
 much as possible. En Hundrededel one hundredth part; en 
 Tusindedel one thousandth part. (D.) Jeg siger dig det for 
 ni og halvfemsindstyvende Gang; (N.) Jeg siger dig det for 
 ni og nittiende Gang I tell you so for the hundredth time. 
 
 204. The cardinals halvtredsindstyve 50 etc. are ex- 
 clusively used in Denmark and by the older generation in 
 southern Norway. Femti, selcsti etc. are used in most parts 
 of Norway by all ages and classes of the people and by the 
 younger generation all over the country. The abbreviated 
 form halvtreds etc. are only used when the numerals occur 
 alone, the full forms are used in connection with a noun. 
 For halvtredsindstyve Aar siden fifty years ago. I Aaret femti 
 in the vear fifty. 
 
102 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Note. The forms tresindstyvc etc. are to be explained in the follow- 
 ing manner: tre-siiids-tyre=thiee times twenty, sinda is a form of an old 
 noun occurring in denne sinde this time, riogensinde anytime etc. For 
 explanation of the forms fuilvtred-sindstyve etc. see § 205. 
 
 205. Qe aa d a half is called hdlvanden, 2A- lialvtredje, 
 Si halvfjerde etc. (hence halvtredsindstyve etc. see § 204). 
 
 At 3 o'cl. is: Klokken tre; half past two : Klokken halv tre; 
 halv fire, halv fern etc. Ten minutes past five: ti Minuter 
 over fern; ten minutes off three: ti Minuter i tre (or til tre); 
 fifteen minutes past six: et Kvarter over seks; it is twenty mi- 
 nutes past five : Klokken mangier ti Minuter paa (or i) halv- 
 seks ; at 7.40 : tiMinuter over halv otte; at 9.45 : tre Kvarter til 
 ti. It is 9.45 : Klokken mangier et Kvarter paa ti. 
 
 selvanden, selvtredje etc. with one, two etc. others ; jeg var 
 her igaar selvtredje I was here yesterday with two others. 
 
 en Trediedel one third ; en Fjerdedel one fourth etc. ; ni 
 Tyvendedele nine twentieth parts. 
 
 Obs. en Procent one percent, pro anno per annum. 
 
 For detfbrste in the first place, for det andet in the second 
 place, for det tredje etc. in the third place etc. 
 
 Note, et Snes a score (the unity always used by the sale of eggs) 
 en lylti a dozen (boards etc.) et Dusin a dozen (buttons etc.) et Gros 12 
 dozen. 
 
 THE TEEBS. 
 
 206. The verbs in the Danish and Dano-Norwegian lan- 
 guage have separate forms for voices, tenses and to a certain 
 extent modes and numbers. 
 
 The forms of the verbs are either simple or compound 
 (formed by means of an auxiliary verb). 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 103 
 
 The verbs are divided into two classes — the weak (also 
 called regular) and the strong (or irregular) according to 
 the formation of the imperfect and past participle. 
 
 207. The present tense of all verbs is formed alike, 
 namely by adding -e r (in a few cases -r ) to the theme of the 
 verb (or -r to the infinitive form) ; Ex. : jeg elsk-er I love ; 
 han bring-er he brings; du less-er you read; han tru-er he 
 threatens. Present plural is in written language, when 
 used, formed by dropping the final -r of the singular. 
 
 The infinitive is formed by adding -e to the theme of 
 the verb : elsk-e, bring-e, tru-e. 
 
 Some verbs the root of which ends in a stressed vowel form 
 their present by adding only -r and use their root unchanged 
 as infinitive; Ex. : staa stand, pres. staar; gaa go, pres. gaar; 
 at bo to reside ; at do to die ; at sy to sew ; at se to see. 
 
 Some verbs have double forms in infinitive, with or with- 
 out -e: du or due to be fit; di or die to suck; fri or frie, be- 
 fri or befrie to liberate; vi or vie to wed, to consecrate ; forny 
 or fornye to renew; all these verbs in Danish form their pre- 
 sent in -e r : duer, dier etc. 
 
 Note: In Norwegian the infinitive of these verhs is with the excep- 
 tion of fri and befri formed in -e. 
 
 -e is written and pronounced in the following verbs : bie 
 to wait; tie to be silent; grue to dread; kue to cow; true to 
 threaten ; skrue to screw ; lue to blaze ; bejae to answer in the 
 affirmative. 
 
 The present participle of all verbs is formed by 
 adding —ende to the theme of the verb: lob-ende running, 
 gaaende walking. 
 
 The passive or medial voicj is formed in -e s and 
 in a few cases in -s. 
 
104 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 A. WEAK VERBS. 
 
 208- The weak verbs are divided into three classes; those 
 belonging to the first class form their imperfect in 
 -e d e, their past participle in -e t. 
 
 I. PARADIGM 
 
 OF VERBS OE THE 1ST CLASS. 
 
 
 elske to love. 
 
 A. Active. 
 
 
 1) Simple forms. 
 
 
 Ind. 
 
 Subj. Imp. Inf. Partcpl. 
 
 Pres. : Sing, elsk-er, 
 
 elsk-e elsk, at elsk-e elsk-ende 
 
 Plur. elsk-e 
 
 elsk-er 
 
 Imperf. (jeg etc., vi etc.) 
 elske- de 
 
 2) Forms compound with past participle : 
 Perfect. : Sing, liar elsket at have elsket 
 
 Plur. have elsket 
 Pluperf. : (sing, and plur.) havde elsket 
 
 3) Forms compound with pres. infinitive : 
 
 Future : Sing, skal or vil elske at skulle or ville elske 
 
 Plur. skulle or ville elske 
 Conditional (sing, and plur. ) skulde or vilde elske 
 
 4. Doubly compound forms : 
 Compound future : 
 
 Sing, skal or vil have elsket at skulle or ville have elsket 
 Plur. skulle or ville have elsket 
 
 B. Passive. 
 
 
 1) Simple forms: 
 
 
 Ind. 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 Present : elskes 
 
 at elskes 
 
 Imperf. : elskedes 
 
 
 Past Partcpl. : elsket 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 105 
 
 2) Compound forme: 
 
 Ind. Inf. 
 
 Pres. : Sing, bliver clslcet at blive elsket 
 
 Plur. blive elskede 
 
 3) Doubly compound forme: 
 
 Perfect : Sing, er Haven elsket at vcere bleven elsket 
 
 or har vceret elsket or at have vceret elsket 
 
 Plur. ere blevne elskede or have vceret elskede 
 Pluperf. : Sing, var lleven elsket or havde vceret elsket 
 
 Plur. vare blevne elskede or havde vceret elskede 
 Fut. : Sing, skal or vil Hive elsket at skulle or ville blive 
 or skal elskes elsket or at skulle elskts 
 
 Plur. skulle or ville blive elskede or skulle elskes 
 Conditional : skulde or vilde blive elsket or skulde elskes 
 
 209. In thie manner are inflected almost all derivative 
 verbs ending in a vowel or in a combination of consonants 
 with which the ending -t e does not readily agree. 
 
 In poetry verbs ending in a vowel often drop -e before the 
 ending -d e, and an apostrophe is written in its place, befrPde. 
 In Norway verbs ending in a vowel colloquially form their 
 iniperf . in -d d e and this form is now often used also in lite- 
 rature, naadde reached ; trodde believed ; etc. in stead of 
 naaede, troede. 
 
 In forms such as elskede the final -e is of teD dropped collo- 
 quially and in poetry: elsked" 1 for elskede. In Norway it 
 takes the form elsket, a form that also is commencing to ap- 
 pear in the literature. 
 
 Verbs ending in -1 e and -r e with a preceding consonant 
 have their imperative of the same form as their infinitive : 
 handle/ act; logre, wag your tail! But imperative of such 
 
106 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 words is in writing as much as possible avoided and colloqui- 
 ally Jiandl! logr! are the common forms. Verbs in -n e with 
 preceding consonant form their imperative regularly: vaagn 
 op, wake up; sygn hen! languish. 
 
 210. Verbs belonging to the second class form their 
 imperfect by adding — te, past participle by adding 
 -t without change of the radical vowel. 
 
 Inf. at rose to praise, pres. roser, impf . roste, past parte, rost. 
 
 (The other forms can easily be formed by comparison with 
 the paradigm given of the first class). 
 
 In this manner are conjugated a great number of verbs en- 
 ding in a single consonant (-b, -d, -g, —I, -r, -n, -s) with a 
 preceding long vowel, or in the double consonant -m m or the 
 combinations -1 d and -ng; Ex.: raabe to cry, raabte (but 
 haabe to hope, haabede) ; koge to cook, kogte (but toge to march 
 in procession, togede) ; tbmme to empty, tbmte (but svomme 
 swim, svbmmede coll. svbmte. 
 
 Obs. have to have, pres. liar, pi. have, impf. havde; do 
 to die, impf. dode, ptcp. dbd; ske happen, imp. skete or ske- 
 de, ptcp. skeet. 
 
 211. Verbs of the third class add in impf. -te (-de), 
 partcp. -t and at the same time change the radical vowel 
 from -se or -0 in infinitive to resp. -a and -u (-o) in impf. 
 
 Note: This change of vowel is explained by the fact that the infi- 
 nitive of these verbs which in the old language ended in -j a, has the 
 form with mutation, while in imperf . there was no reason for mutation, 
 so the original radical vowel again appeared there (retro-mutation, G. 
 Euckumlaut, D. Ojenomlyd). 
 
 To this class belong : 
 
 kvcele to stifle, kvalte kvalt. 
 
 Icegge to lay, lagde lagt. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 107 
 
 smite to set, satte sat, 
 
 tcelle to count, talte tall. 
 
 rcekke*) to stretch, rakte rakt. 
 
 strakke**) to stretch, strakte strakt. 
 
 takke to roof, takte takt. 
 
 vmkke to arouse, vakte vakt. 
 
 varnne to accustom, vante vant. 
 
 trade to tread, to step traadte traadt. 
 
 dblge conceal dulgte dulgt. 
 
 folge, follow fulgte fulqt. 
 
 sp'drge ask spurgte spurgt. 
 
 smore smear smurte smurt. 
 
 Irregular : 
 
 sedge sell solgte solgt. 
 
 sige say sagde sagt 
 
 bringe bring bragte bragt. 
 
 Note 1: vatnne, takk«, stroikke, «a;kke as a rule follow the first 
 class: ■Bcennede, voinnet etc.; this is in N. always the case with tekke. 
 
 Note 2: bringe is an originally German word and has retained its 
 German inflexion. The Old Norse form of sige was segja which explains 
 the modern imperf . sagde. Of eie to own sometimes in poetry occurs the 
 antiqu. imperf. aalte 
 
 Note 3: Present of gjore is gjor and of sparge colloquially and in 
 antiquated style spor, a form that is commencing to be introduced 
 again into Norw. literature. 
 
 B. STRONG VERBS. 
 
 212. The strong verbs form their imperfect by changing 
 the vowel (gradation, ablaut, Afiyd) without any termi- 
 
 *) But N. rmkke to reach is strong: rak, rulcket. 
 **) But N. strcek/ce til to be sufficient: ttrak, strukket. 
 
1. 
 
 i (m, e 
 
 2, 
 
 i (e) 
 
 3. 
 
 i 
 
 i. 
 
 y 
 
 5. 
 
 a 
 
 6. 
 
 No a 
 
 108 ETYMOLOOY. 
 
 rial addition. Past. ptcp. in these verbs regularly has the 
 ending -en for common gender and -et for neuter, but of 
 many verbs only the latter form can be used, and others while 
 forming a strong imperf. form their prtcp. according to the 
 weak conjugation. The vowel of the participle is sometimes 
 that of the present, sometimes that of the imperf. 
 
 The strong verbs are divided into 6 classes depending upon 
 the vowels occurring in the different forms (gradation series) : 
 
 a u 
 
 a i (e) or aa 
 
 e e (i) 
 
 o « (5, y) 
 
 o a 
 
 No apparent gradation, in historical grammars 
 called the reduplicating class. 
 
 213. Class I. 
 
 i (as, e) — a — u. Ex. : linde to bind, bandt, iunden; 
 sprmkke to crack, sprak, sprulcken; finde to find; rinde to 
 ran (of running water); spinde to spin; stinke to stink (ptcp. 
 stinket)j svinde to vanish ; tvinde to twist ; vinde to win ; 
 klinge to souud (ptcp. klingef); syringe to spring; svinge to 
 swing; tvinge to force; synge to sing (sang, sungen, poet, and 
 ant. sjunge) ; synke to sink (sank, sunket); slippe to let go ; 
 briste to burst (inf.); drikke to drink (drak, drukket; druk- 
 ken adj. drunk); stikke to stab (poet, and ant. stinge, stak, 
 stungen) ; brmkke to break ; N. rmlclce to reach ; N. strcekke til 
 to suffice; troskke to draw; fornemme to perceive (ptcpl. for- 
 nemmet or famttmmet) ; hjcslpe to help; N. brcende to burn, 
 (intr. brandt, ptcp. brcendt; D. impf. brcendte); hcenge to hang, 
 hang or limngte, hmngt; N. slcenge to loiter (slang, slcengt; but 
 
 *) N. rende, rendte, rendt to ran. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 109 
 
 ~D. N. slcenge to fling, slcengte); gjcslde*) to be worth, to refer 
 to (gjaldt, gjcsldt) ; N. smcelde to make a noise (smaldt or smcel- 
 dede, smceldte, ptc. smoddt); skjcelve to shiver, (skjalv or 
 skjcelvede, N. skalv, skjcelvet); knoslcke to crack, kncehkede or 
 knak, kncekket; sprcette to sprawl, imperf. K". sprat, D. sprcel- 
 iede, sprcettet; skvcette to get a start, N. skvat, skvcettede, 
 skvoettet. 
 
 Note 1. When there is a double set of forms in imperf., a strong 
 one and a weak one, the strong form has originally represented the in- 
 transitive meaning, the weak form the transitive; Ex.: han strakle sin 
 Haand lid he stretched his hand forth; Pengene stralc ikke til the money 
 was not sufficient; Huiet brandt op the house burned down; jeg brcendte 
 mine Skibe I burned my ships; jeg skvat tilside I jumped aside; Pigen 
 skvcettede Vand paa mig the girl splashed water on me ; jeg Jiangte min 
 Hat paa Knagen I hung my hat on the rack; Manden hang i Galgen the 
 man was hanging in the gallows. 
 
 Note 2. Antiquated and poet. Danish are the imperf. plurals: 
 funde, rvm.de, svuiide, sprunge, stunge, sunge, drukke, Tijulpe. 
 
 214. Class II . 
 i (e) — a — i (e) or aa. Ex. : give to give, gav, glvet; 
 bede to pray, bad, bedt (bedet). To this class belong: give to 
 give ; gide to prevail upon one's self to, gad, gidet; sidde to 
 sit, sad, siddet; Tcvmde to sing, kvad, kvmdetj vcere to be, var, 
 vceret; bcere to wear, bar, baaren; skjcere to cut, skar, skaa- 
 ren; stjcele to steal, stjal, stjaalenj se to se, saa, sect; ligge to 
 lie, laa, ligget; cede to eat, aad, cedt. 
 
 Note 1. drcebe to kill, although regularly following the weak 
 conjugation (drosbte, drcebt) occurs in N. poetry in the Strang impf. 
 drop: han drapfar he killed my father (Bjornson). 
 
 Note 2. To the infinitive voire, to be, corresponds the pres. (jeg) er 
 I am (pi. ere), but overture, to be present at, has pres oxerv^rer, imp. 
 overvar,, and undvgzre to be without, undvserer, v.ndvxrede. 
 
 *) always weak: undgjodde to pay the penalty of, gjeng]o'.lde to 
 requite. 
 
110' ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Note 3. Some of these verbs may in Danish form their impf. plu- 
 ral in -e: hare, aade etc. 
 
 215. Class III. 
 
 i — e — e (i). ~EiX.:gribe to catch, greb, greben; Side to bite, 
 bed, bidtj Jivine to shriek, liven or hvinede, hvinte, hvinet); 
 grine to grin (N. gren, D. grinede or grinte, grinet); trine to 
 step (tren, trinet); gribe to catch ; knibe to pinch ; pibe to pipe 
 (peb, pebet) ; slibe to grind (sleb, slebet, N. pron. slipt; sleben 
 adj. polished) ; blive to become (blev, bleven) ; drive to drive ; 
 hive to heave (impf. D. hivede, N. Aew, hevet); rive to tear; 
 shrive to write (all these as Sfo'we) ; Side; ^Zide to slide (gled, gle- 
 den, ~N. pron. glidd); lide to wear on {led, leden) ; lide to suf- 
 fer (led, lidt); ride to ride (red, redet, N. pron. n'cM) ; shride 
 to proceed (sJcred, skredef); slide to wear (sZe<2, sfo'c^) ; smide 
 to fling (smed, smidt) ; stride to fight (stred, stridt) ; svide to 
 singe (sved, sveden, 7$. pron. svidd); vride to wringe (vred, 
 vreden, N. pron. vridd) ; £t</e (pron. Nor. kjikke) to peep 
 (£e^ or kigede, keget or kiget); snige to sneak (sneg, sneget) ; 
 svige to deceive (sv«^, svegen) ; vige to yield (ve<7, veget). 
 
 Note. These verbs may in Danish form their ipf . pi. in -e: Sieve, 
 vege etc. (but not bede, because that would be liable to be confounded 
 with bede plur. pres. of at bede to pray). 
 
 216. Glass IV. ' 
 
 y — o — u (o, y). Ex. : krybe to crawl, krbb, Jcroben; 
 bryde to break, brbd, brudt; fyge to drift (prtc. foget) ; ryge*) 
 to smoke (det ryger it smokes), rog, roget; stryge to stroke 
 (ptcp. strogen); klyve to climb (N. imperf. klbv, D. klyvede, 
 ptc. N. klbvet, D. klyvet) ; N. skyve to push (skjbv, skjbvet) ; 
 j?yve to fly (^6z, flbiet) ; fo/»e to lie (Zen, Zoi'e^) ; Syde to bid 
 
 *) Usually intr. ; in transitive meaning is in Norway used rbge ; at 
 rage lobak to smoke tobacco (impf. rogte, ptcp. r'6gt). 
 
ETYMOLOGY. Ill 
 
 (ptc. buden, budt) ; bryde *) to break ; flyde to flow (ptc. 
 flydt) ; gyde to pour (gj'od or D. god, gydt) ; lyde to obey (ptc. 
 lydt) ; nyde to enjoy (nydi) ; skryde to boast (skrydt) ; snyde 
 to cheat) — ptc. snydt ; skyde to shoot {skjbd, ptc. skudi) ; 
 fortryde to regret (ptc. fortrudt) ; betyde to signify (D. JeW^ 
 or betydede, N. betydde**) or 5«^6^, ptc. betydet) ; syde to boil 
 (generally sydede, prt. sydet) ; /wyse to fret (/»os otfnyste, 
 ptc. fnyset, fnyst) ; fryse to be cold (/ros — Jrosset) ; gyse to 
 shudder (gjos, g'ds, gyste — gyst); nyse to sneeze (ptc. nyst). 
 
 Note. The imperfect fr'6s, fnos, nos, gj'6s do not regularly form 
 any plural in — e in Danish, tod is in Danish an antiquated imperii . of 
 tude to howl, while in Norway t'6t is impf. of tyte to ooze out. 
 
 217. Class V. 
 
 be/ale to command {befalede or ant. befol, befalet); gale to crow 
 {galede or gol, galet); fare to travel {for, faret); lade to let 
 (lod, ladet) ; grave to dig (gravede or ^rov, gravet); drage to 
 draw (drog, dragen); jage to hunt {jagede or jo^, jagen); tage 
 to take (<o^, tag en). 
 
 Irregular are : 
 slaa to strike (sfo<7, slaaet or slagen); staa to stand (siM, 
 staaet); svcsrge to swear (s«or, svoren); le to laugh (Zo, &«<)_,- 
 
 Note: hefalede is now exclusively used in common speech: so is 
 galede; jagede is more common than its corresponding strong form, jage 
 is always weak when it indicates to go hunting. Han blev slagen he was 
 conquered: han blev slaaet he was struck. 
 
 * Not to be confounded with bryde to trouble, in Danish regularly 
 conjugated : impf. br'6d— ptc. brydt (or brudt), N. brydde (or br'6d), ptc. 
 brydd. That these two words are originally different is seen from the 
 fact that bryde to trouble in Norway is pronounced bry, while bryde to 
 break is pronounced bryte. 
 
 **) Always betydede when signifying: gave to understand. 
 
112 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 An antiquated inf. and present for staa and staar is stande, stander; 
 imperative stat, plur. staruier, parte, standet. 
 
 Antiquated is vov for vcevede of vceve to weave; also vog 
 imf pf . of veie in the meaning : to kill ; in the meaning : to 
 weigh, in which it is now exclusively used in common speech 
 veic has impf. veiede. 
 
 218. Class VI. 
 
 Apparently no gradation in the different tenses. The 
 following verbs belong to this class : 
 
 lobe to run, lob lobet. 
 
 sove to sleep, sov sovet. 
 
 grmde*) to weep, greed grcedt. 
 
 D. hedde (IS. liede) to be called, lied (D. also hedte), liedt. 
 hugge to cut, N. hug (D. commonly liuggede), hugget. 
 
 Tcomme to come, horn kommen. 
 
 /aide to fall, faldt falden,**) faldt. 
 
 holde to hold, holdt holdt.\) 
 
 To this class are also counted : 
 
 faa to get, fih faaet (S. pron. fkt. ) 
 
 gaa to go, gik gaaet (N. pron. gkt.) 
 
 "Wholly irregular is : tie to be silent, taug (N. tiede, pron. 
 tidde,) ptcp. tiet. 
 
 Note: None of these verbs form an impf. plural in -e. 
 
 219. When there are two sets of verbs, one strong and 
 one weak, the former originally was intransitive the latter 
 transitive. But this difference, to a great extent, has been wi- 
 ped out, both forms now being largely used promiscuously; 
 
 *)N. also graate. **)falden usually refers to a moral downfall;/al- 
 denfra Himlen (himmelfalden) fallen from the skies, struck with amaze- 
 ment. \)lwldcn is an adj. well-to-do. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 113 
 
 see remarks to hcengte and hang, brcendte and branch 
 (213 Note 1) It is very common in Norway to say: jeg 
 liar lagt i min Seng I have laid in my bed, (ptcp. of Icegge to 
 lay) instead of : jeg liar ligget i min Seng I have been lying in 
 my bed, (ptcp. of ligge to lie) ; in the same manner : jeg liar 
 nu sat her en Time I have now set here an hour (ptc. of scette 
 to set) instead of: jeg har nu siddet her en Time I have now 
 been sitting here for an hour. But in the following pairs of 
 verbs the distinction is complete : springe — sprcenge to spring 
 and to burst, falde—fcelde to fall and to fell ; synke, scenke 
 to sink (intr. and trans.) 
 
 IRREGULAR VERS. 
 
 220. The following verbs have an irregular inflection. 
 
 Pres. 
 
 Sing. 
 kan can 
 skal shall 
 bbr ought 
 tor dare 
 maa must 
 (subj. 
 vil will 
 ved know 
 
 Plur. 
 
 kunne 
 
 skulle 
 
 to ibr 
 
 tor 
 
 maa 
 
 maatte) 
 
 ville 
 
 vide 
 
 Imperf. Partcp. 
 
 vidste 
 
 villet 
 vidst 
 
 Inf. 
 
 kunde kunnet at kunne 
 
 skulde skullet at skulle 
 
 burde burdet at burde 
 
 turde turdet at turde 
 
 maatte maattet at maatte 
 
 at ville 
 at vide 
 
 These verbs are in historical grammars generally called 
 preteritopresents, because the forms now used as their pre- 
 sent tenses are original imperfects. Hence the change of 
 vowel between pres. sing, and plural (ved — vide, skal — skulle). 
 
114 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 To this class also belongs the antiquated imperf . aatte ptc. aatt 
 owned corresponding to the present inf. eie, regular impf. and 
 ptc. eiede, eietj also mon and monne used in antiquated style 
 promiscuously as pres. or imperf. periphrastically with infi- 
 nitives like English doth and did. 
 
 THE USE OF THE XUilBERS. 
 
 221. In colloquial language there is no distinction be- 
 tween singular and plural, the singular form being used with 
 plural as well as with singular subjects. In written language 
 the plural form in the present tense is still retained by most 
 Danish authors and according to official Danish rules of 
 spelling, while most Norwegian authors and the official Nor- 
 wegian rules of spelling have dropped the distinction between 
 singular and plural. In the imperf. of the weak verbs there 
 can be no distinction. In the imperf. of the strong verbs the 
 rule is about the same as in the present, although the plural 
 form of some verbs is avoided even by Danish authors as stated 
 in §§ 216 note, 218 note. As a general rule it can be said 
 that the imperf. plural is not formed whenever it would have 
 the same form as the present plural. In poetry plural or sin- 
 gular forms are used promiscuously with a subject in the plu- 
 ral according tothe necessities of prosody. Ex. : Kvinder selv 
 stod op og strede (Bjarnson) even women arose and fought 
 (arose to fight). 
 
 THE USE OF THE TEASES. 
 
 222. The present tense is often employed with future 
 meaning, Ex. : jeg reiser imorgen I shall depart to-morrow ; 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 115 
 
 naar jeg ser ham, sJcal jeg hilse ham fra dig when I see 
 him I shall bring him jour greeting. 
 
 The present tense may also be employed to signify the past. 
 Igaar medens jeg qaar paa Gaden ser jeg pludselig en ifand 
 komme Vdhende imod mig yesterday while walking in the street 
 I suddenly see a man coming running towards me. 
 
 223. The imperfect is used in conditional sentences 
 referring to the present as in English; Ex. hvis jeg vidste 
 hans Navn, saa vilde jeg fortmlle dig det if I knew his 
 name I should tell it to you. In the 6ame manner the plu- 
 perfect is used in conditional sentences referring to the 
 past: om jeg havde set ham, skuldejeg nok ikke have ladet ham 
 lobe if I had seen him I should certaiuly not have let him skip. 
 
 224. In the future tense ska I and vil as a rule have retain- 
 ed some of their original signification of duty and necessity 
 or will and desire and they are used accordingly. There is no 
 distinction as to the use in the different persons as in English. 
 Skal is used in promises: jeg skal sikkert have Elmderne 
 fcerdig i rette Tid I shall surely have the suit ready in time. 
 For the use of skal and vil in the passive voice see §233. 
 
 The compound future more commonly takes the form of faar 
 elsket (faar with pastptc.) instead of skal have elsket. Ex. naar 
 jeg faar ffjort det, skal jeg lade Bern det vide when I shall 
 have done it (or when I get it done) I shall give you word. 
 
 In Norwegian faa with infinitive is used to express neces- 
 sity: jeg faar nok gjore det, enten jeg vil eller ikke I guess I 
 shall have to do it whether I want to or not, (cfr. Engl. I've 
 got to do it.) 
 
 225. Some intransitive verbs indicating a change form 
 their perfect by means of vmre instead of have, when it is in- 
 tended to express only that something has taken place frith- 
 
116 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 out emphasizing the notion of action. Han er oiaei he is 
 gone. Min Fader er reist for en Time siden my father left 
 (has left) an hour ago; Blomsten var visnet, for j-.g fik den 
 the flower had faded before I got it. But : jeg liar gaaet fern 
 Mil idag I have walked five miles to-day. Min Tc: har reist 
 fern Gange over Atlanterhavet my friend has crossei the At- 
 lantic five times. 
 
 THE USE OF THE MODES. 
 
 226. The subjunctive which only occurs in tie present 
 tense and has the same form as the infinitive is used in an op- 
 tative or concessive meaning: Leve Fcedrelandet! Long live 
 our native land! det koste livad det vil i. e. at all hazards. 
 
 227. The infinitive is as a rule used together with the 
 particle at to. Jeg onsker at tale med Bern I wish, to speak 
 to you. The infinitive is used without at after the so called 
 modal auxiliaries iurde, gide, kunne, maatte, monne, skulle, 
 ticrde, ville; Ex. jeg tor paastaa, at lian er en stor Slyr.gel I dare 
 assert that he is a great scoundrel. Du lor gjbr-: det you 
 ought to do it. If b'dr (in antiquated style) is used imperson- 
 ally in the meaning of "behoves to," then the following in- 
 finitive takes at : eder b'dr at give efter it behoves you. to yield. 
 The infinitive is also after some verbs used withot: at when 
 it is a predicate to the object of the sentence, the ame as in 
 English : jeg kan hore Hjertet banke I can hear :he heart 
 beat. Han lod de andre faa et langt Forsjrrin-c (X. For- 
 sprang)he allowed the others to get a good lead. Aiter other 
 verbs the infinitive with at is used: jeg fandt ham at vare en 
 brav Mand I found him to be an honest man (more common : 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 117 
 
 jeg fandt, at han var etc.) Jeg lad ham komme, at komme 
 or om at komme I asked him to come. 
 
 After lade to let, in the meaning of "to have" with a 
 participle, "to cause to he done," the Dano-Norwegian lan- 
 guage uses infinitive 'with an object of its own, placed before 
 the infinitive : jeg lod Huset bygge I had the house built ; 
 Generalen lod Forrmderen skyde the general ordered the traitor 
 to be shot. 
 
 228. The infinitive is used after prepositions, where in 
 English the gerund is employed — the Dano-Norwegian lan- 
 gauge having no gerund; any preposition may govern the in- 
 finitive ; Ex. Be gjorde ret i at sige det til ham you did right 
 in telling it to him; jeg er kommen hid for at tale med Dem I 
 came here to speak to you ; jeg reiste til Markedetfor at kjobe 
 en Hest I went to the fair to buy a horse ; efter at have sagt 
 Farvel gik han sin Vei (after) having bidden farewell he went 
 away ; det gaar langsomt med at faa samlet Pengene there is 
 tardy progress in collecting the money; for at tjene Penge of- 
 rede han sit gode Xavn og Rygte in order to make money he 
 sacrificed his good name and reputation. 
 
 229. The present participle cannot be used periphrastically 
 with the verb at voire, to be, as in English. I was just 
 thinking about what to do must be rendered : 
 jeg tmnkte netop paa, hvad der var at gjore. " The widow 
 was mending the clothes of her youngest son," must be ren- 
 dered : Enken holdtpaa at gjore istand sin yngste Sons KUb- 
 der. Note the use of the participle in the following senten- 
 ces : han horn loibende he came running ; han blev staaende he 
 remained standing or : he came to a stand still. A second 
 verb connected with such a participle by og, and, is not put 
 in participial form but in the infinitive : han blev staaende 
 
118 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 midt paa Oulvet og glo he remained standing in the middle of 
 the floor, Btaring. 
 
 Colloquially and vulgarly a present participle in-s is some- 
 times formed without any passive signification. Han kom gaa- 
 endes he came walking. Or with signification of what is to be 
 done (cfr. lat. gerundive), Kongen er ventendes the king is 
 to be expected. Sometimes, especially in advertisements, the 
 active participle is used with signification of passive: mit 
 iboende Hus the house I live in ; et byggende Skib a ship that 
 is being built (cfr. the Engl, expression: efforts are making.) 
 
 Note. Expressions like the following : ' ' Having made the 
 necessary preparations Mr. Jones at once started on his voyage" can 
 not in Dano-Norwegian be rendered by means of a participle : efter at 
 Tiave fuldendt sine Forberedelser tiltraadte 7uin straks sin Seise. 
 
 230. The past participle in compound tenses formed by 
 means of the auxiliary have is indeclinable; the past participle 
 in compound tenses formed by means of the auxiliary vcere 
 follows the gender and number of the subject in so far as it is 
 susceptible to the corresponding inflection : Han er gaaet he 
 is gone ; de er (e) gaaede they are gone ; jeg erkommen I have 
 come ; vi er(e) komne we have come ; jeg er bleven (colloqui- 
 ally N. blit) meget syg I have grown very ill ; vi er(e) blevne 
 forvistefra vort Fcedreland we have been expelled from our 
 native country (colloquially in Norway : vi er blit (or Met) for- 
 vist. ) 
 
 The past participle is often used as an adjective and may 
 in that capacity also be employed as a substantive ; the par- 
 ticiple of intransitive verbs may then have an active signifi- 
 cation : en bortreist Mand a man who has departed ; et for- 
 tabt Faar a lost sheep. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 119 
 
 THE PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 231. As is seen from the paradigm § 208 the passive may 
 be formed through all its tenses by means of the auxiliary 
 blive ; but in the present, imperfect and infinitive (according- 
 ly also in the future) there also occurs another form ending 
 in — es. 
 
 Note 1. The passive ia-es is a formation peculiar to the Scandi- 
 navian group of the Teutonic languages. It was originally a medial 
 or reflexive formation, the terminal s being derived from original-si 
 (representing the reflexive pronoun O. N. sik.) This original reflexive 
 signification is retained in many words; tengstes — szngste sig to be alarm- 
 ed; Tiarmes, vredes to get angry ; undres-undre sig to wonder, etc. 
 
 Note 2. The form in-* is sometimes used in a reciprocal signi- 
 fication : to sees igjen we are going to see each other (i. e. to meet) again; 
 mddes to meet ; trxffes to meet ; slaas to fight ; kappes to vie with each 
 other ; hives to quarrel; strides to dispute ; nsebbes to bill ; mundhugges 
 to quarrel ; enes to agree, etc. 
 
 Sometimes the verb is used this way in connection with a preposi- 
 tion where the pronoun contained in the reflexive verb must be taken to 
 be governed by the preposition ; Ex. at tales ved to speak with each 
 other (in Norway they still say dialectically tale ved en, generally tale 
 meet en) ; the preposition is used adverbially in s/cilles ad to separate 
 folges ad to go to-gether ; Ajxlpes ad to assist each other. 
 
 232. Some verbs which only occur in passive form and 
 some others, that have both an active and a passive form, but 
 with an entirely different meaning, are called deponent 
 verbs ; Ex. lykkes to succeed ; Hues to be ashamed ; Icenges 
 to long ; (Bides to grow old ; mindes to remember (but minde 
 to remind), Jindes to exist {but finde to find), gives to exist (G. 
 es giebt' from give to give). These deponent verbs, and to this 
 
120 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 class are also counted many of the above mentioned recipro- 
 cal verbs, form a deponent participle ; Ex. det liar lykkedes 
 (also lykkets, lyktes) mig I have succeeded in — ; ]egharlosng- 
 tes I have been longing. But this form is not very much in 
 use and is generally avoided, whenever possible. 
 
 233. The two passive forms may in some instances be used 
 promiscuously. But the form in-s is much more common 
 than the other one, especially in the present tense and the in- 
 finitive (after the verbs skal, maa, bor etc.) The imperfect 
 of the compound form occurs much more frequently than the 
 present. 
 
 The compound form (blive rost to be praised) signifies the 
 complete passivity, where all action on the part of the subject 
 is wholly excluded, hence it is used to denote the single re- 
 corded fact, while the form in-s is used to denote a common 
 condition or general rule. 
 
 The imperfect in-s is not used of strong verbs with radical 
 vowel a in imperf. followed by two or more consonants: (not 
 sanges but) blev sungen was sung; (not tvanges but) blev 
 ivungen was forced; (not drakkes but) blev drukket was 
 drunk; (not stjales but) blev stjaalen was stolen; note: fand- 
 tes existed, but blev funden was found; gaves existed, but 
 blev given was given. 
 
 In the future passive the form jeg vil roses cannot be 
 used except to denote: I wish to be praised. The simple 
 future is either :jeg skal roses or jeg skal or vil blive rost;~Eix. 
 vilde Imn inviteres ? did she wish to be invited (E. Brandes : 
 En Politiker.) The reason is that the verb vil and the ending 
 in-s both imply so much activity, that they combined cannot 
 possibly convey a passive meaning. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 121 
 
 REFLEXIVE AND IMPERSONAL VERBS. 
 
 234. Keflexive verbs are those that always have as 
 their object a pronoun denoting the same person as the sub- 
 ject; Ex. at skamme sig to feel ashamed; jeg shammer mig I 
 feel ashamed, lian shammer sig, vi skamme(r) os, I skamme(r) 
 eder, de skamme(r) sig. 
 
 Transitive verbs may be used reflexively ; Ex. at slaa sig 
 to hurt one's self {at slaa to beat); at vise sig to appear (at 
 vise to show). 
 
 Note. At Jixnde, at Tvs.-n.de sig, at h&ndes all indicate : to happen ; 
 da hxndte det, at — , da hsdndtes det, at — . da Imndte det sig, at — then it 
 happened that. 
 
 235. Impersonal verbs are those that have only the 
 demonstrative pronoun neut. det as subject; Ex. det regner it 
 rains ; det sner it snows, etc. ; det dages it dawns ; det vaares 
 spring comes; or there may be a definite subject of the 3d 
 person ; Ex. Forsbget mislykkedes the attempt was unsuccess- 
 ful!. En Ulykke licendte a misfortune happened (only the 
 active hmnde can be used in this manner, not hcendes or licende 
 sig.) 
 
 Any passive form may be used impersonally; intransitive 
 verbs cannot be used in passive, except impersonally. Such 
 intransitive verbs used impersonally do not take the subject 
 det, but in its stead the demonstrative adverb der is used ; 
 Ex. der reises meget i Norge i Sommer there is much travel 
 going on in Norway this summer. In poetry der may be 
 omitted : nu tales jo lydt om, at Folket er vakt now they talk 
 so much about the people being aroused. 
 
122 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 THE ADVERBS. 
 
 236. The neuter form of most adjectives can be used ai 
 an adverb : snart soon ; licit high or highly ; stnukt nicely 
 godt well etc. 
 
 Note. Of adjectives ending in -ig, -lig in Norway the cominoi 
 gender form is used as adverbs but in Denmark the neuter: D. oprigtigi 
 N. oprigtig candidly ; D. azrligt, N. Bsrlig honestly (in both cases pro 
 nounced oprigti, ajrli). 
 
 Adverbs may furthermore be formed of adjectives (and 
 partly of nouns) by the following endings : 
 
 1. — lig : snarlig soon; nylig recently; storlig greatly (oi 
 nouns: oieolikkelig instantly; hovedsaqelig chiefly; fangslig 
 only in connection with the verb anJiolde : fangslig anholdt 
 to arrest, derived iromfcengsel prison). 
 
 2. • — vis, heldigvis happily; lykkeligvis happily; tydelig- 
 vis plainly (of nouns delvis partly ; parvis in pairs ; skevis by 
 one spoonful). 
 
 3. — e: bare only; tide ill; vide widely; gjerne willingly; 
 D. g runtime highly. 
 
 Note. To the adjective god good correspond the adverbs godt 
 and -el. Sometimes both may be used promiscuously : jeg ved det godt 
 and jeg tied det ml I know it well. In other cases one of them alone can 
 be employed : lev 'Bel live well (£. e. good bye) ; sov godt sleep well (but sov 
 Del og drom behageligt sleep well and have agreeable dreams) ; vel is also 
 used by adjectives and adverbs in the meaning of rather : det er Tel 
 megit of det gode it is rather much of a good thing (not quite as strong 
 as : det er for vieget). 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 123 
 
 237. Adverbs which have the same form as the neuter (or 
 in Norwegian in some cases the common) gender of the ad- 
 jectives are susceptible of comparison : 
 
 stiart soon snarere snarest 
 
 Kbit highly hbiere hbiest (or Mist) 
 
 Ex. jeg sidder hbiest oppe i Trceet I am highest up in the 
 tree;/e^ er hoist ulykkelig I am most unhappy. 
 
 Also some ending in — e : 
 
 icenge long (time) imngere or Icenger Icengst 
 (also: langt Iwngere or Icenger Icengst) 
 
 ofte often far oftere oftest 
 
 The following adverbs have a different stem in compara- 
 tive and superlative from that of the positive ; 
 
 vel well ledre bedst 
 
 tide badly vcerre vcerst 
 
 gjerne willingly hellere or heller rather heist 
 Jeg vil heller danse end synge I will rather dance than 
 than sing (but it is rather a large house — det er et temmelig 
 stort Sus.) 
 
 238. The adverbs are generally by grammarians divided 
 according to their use in the sentence into demonstrative, re- 
 lative, interrogative and indefinite, or according to their signi- 
 fication into adverbs of time, place, mode, degree etc. We 
 shall here only mention some peculiarities in the formation 
 and use of some adverbs : 
 
 bort away (to a place) borte away (in a place) 
 
 derhen thither derhenne there 
 
 hvorhen whither hvorhenne where 
 
 frem forth fremme in front 
 
 ind in (to a place) inch in (in a place). 
 
124 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 hjem home hjemme at home 
 
 tied down (to a place) nede down (in a place) 
 
 op up (to a place) oppe up (in a place) 
 
 xtd out (to a place) udc out (in a place) 
 
 siden since /or lang Tid siden long ago 
 
 saaledes) ,, livorledes) . 
 
 , f thus , , r how. 
 
 saadan ) hvordan ) 
 
 saadan and hvordan may also be used as adjectives ; saaledes 
 
 and livorledes only as adverbs. 
 
 The affirmative adverb ja is used in answer to a positive 
 
 query, jo to a negative. .Har- i?r. Per sen vmret her idag? Ja. 
 
 Has Mr. P. been here to-day ? Yes. Har ikke Hr. Persen 
 
 vmret her idag ? Has not Mr. P. been here to-day ? Jo Yes. 
 
 Note. The more the better is in D.-N. jo mere desto (or des) bedre; 
 jo mere vigik, desto leengere syntes vi at vxre bortefra vort Maal the more 
 we walked along the farther we seemed to be from our destination ; col- 
 loquially there may also be said jo mere jo bedre in the same meaning. 
 
 239. About the demonstrative local adverb der and the 
 interrog.-rel. local adv. hvor can be noticed that they are 
 used in many compounds without any local signification re- 
 presenting the dem. pronoun neuter del and the relative- 
 interr. hvilketj derpaa thereupon; derefter thereafter; derfor 
 therefore ; hvorefter after which ; hvorfor why. 
 
 THE PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 240. The prepositions do not in the language as it is to- 
 day govern any case, except that in the pronouns which have 
 separate forms for the subjective and objective case, the latter 
 always follows the preposition : hos mig with me ; til ham to 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 125 
 
 him; der er intet ondt i ham there is nothing bad about him; 
 i Huset in the house ; paa Gaden in the street. 
 
 Note. In some phrases the ancien: cases have been retained as 
 governed by prepositions ; the nouns either end in -e or -s, the latter 
 being the genitive singular, the former representing an original genitive 
 plural (in the ancient language ending in -<i) or dative singular (in the 
 ancient language ending in -i) : in some cases the preposition and the noun 
 governed by it are written together in one word, so as to show that the 
 whole expression now is considered as an adverb ; Ex. . ih&nde (dat. 
 sing ) at hand ; Hive alive ; Hide in due, good time, igjxre in progress ; 
 isinde in mind ; {gaa en) tilhaande to assist somebody (literally go 
 him to the hands ; gen. pi.) ; tillands on shore ; tilsos (N. tilsjUs) at sea ; 
 tilvands at sea; tilskibs on a ship; tilbord* at table (but lilliejt on horse- 
 back) ; have en tilbedste to make fun of one ; have noget tilgode to have 
 something coming due ; til Ihinge at the court session. 
 
 241. In relative sentences introduced by som the preposi- 
 tion comes at the end of the sentence; Ex. min Ven, som j eg 
 ikke pact, Icenge liar hbrt fra, er dad my friend, from whom I 
 have not had any news for a long rime, has died ; sometimes 
 a preposition may be used adverbially at the end of the sen- 
 tence: en Hal med et sort Baand ornkring a hat with a black 
 ribbon around it; Karl liar faaet en stor Tavle at shrive 
 paa Charles has got a big slate to write on ; nu har han faaet 
 sig en Vogn, han Jean kjore rundt i now he has got a carriage 
 in which to ride around. 
 
 242. As to the distinction between i in and paa on may 
 he noticed that paa is always used in connection with the 
 name of islands and in Xorway with the names of certain 
 (especially minor) towns ; Ex. paa Sjmlland in Zealand ; paa 
 Bomholm in B. ; paa Island in Iceland (but i England, i 
 Irland); paa Moss at Moss; paa Eongsberg at K. ; paa Fre- 
 drikshald at E. ; (but i Fredriksstad, i Eristiania, i Dram- 
 men, i Skien, i Bergen, i Stavan'/er, i Trondhjem). The 
 
126 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 use varies also with the names of different districts ; 2 }aa 
 Hedemarken in H. ; i Osterdalen in 0. 
 
 Af of ; fra from : En af os one of our number ; en Mand 
 fra Byen a man from the city ; Johnson er fra Aarhus J. is 
 from A. ; Jeg reiste fra Kristiania til Bergen I went from 
 Chr. to B. A rich merchant of Copenhagen (is 
 in D.-N.) en rig Kjobmand i Kbbenhavn, but a r. m. of 
 this city en rig Kjobmand her af Byen ; Hekla af Kjbbenhavn 
 H. of Copenhagen. 
 
 Note. The following prepositional phrases are used as preposi- 
 tions : istedenfor (also written i Steden for, i Stedetfor) instead of; paa 
 Grund af on account of ; i Anledning af on the occasion of; i Kraft af 
 in virtue of ; ved Hicdp af by means of. 
 
 COKJTJis T CTIOK"S. 
 
 243. The conjunctions are divided into co-ordinating and 
 sub-ordinating ; both these classes are again divided accord- 
 ing to their signification into several subdivisions. 
 
 The grammarians mostly enumerate the conjunctions be- 
 longing to the several classes, but we shall here only mention 
 those of special importance or about the use of which there is 
 anything to remark. 
 
 A. Co-ordinating : 
 
 og and ; baade — og both — and ; in the same meaning : saa vel — 
 som as well — as : jeg saavel som du or saavel jeg som du I as 
 well as you; dels — dels partly — partly; snart — snart now — 
 now; han er snart Icold, (og) snart varm now he feels cold, 
 now warm; ellcr or; enten — eller either — or; hverken — eller 
 neither — nor; tin for; men but. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 127 
 
 B. Subordinating : 
 da -when, as ; indicates both time and cause ; da Jian kom, var 
 jeg alter ede gaaet when he came I was already gone ; da hanhar 
 forbrudt sig, maa Jian straffes as he has offended, he must 
 be punished ; siden since (temp, and causal) ; forsaavidt (som) 
 in so far as; kvis, dersom, om if; hvis ikke, medmindre if not, 
 unless; skjbnt, endskjbnt, omendskjbnt although, admit some- 
 thing actually existing; om end, selv om though, even if, 
 admit something supposed ; at that : jeg ved at De liar vceret 
 her I know that you have been here ; at may also be omitted : 
 jeg ved Dehar vceret her I know you have been here; forat 
 in order that. Ex. : Ejbbmanden sendte sin Son til Udlan- 
 det, forat han skulde Icere Sprog the merchant sent his son 
 abroad in order that he should learn languages (also forat 
 here Sprog to study languages, see §228 ;) jeg loegger op Penge, 
 forat jeg kan nyde en sorgfri Alder dom I lay money by in or- 
 der to be able to enjoy a comfortable old age (or for at kunne 
 nyde en sorgfri Alderdom) ; jeg gav ham en Krone, forat Jian 
 skulde give den til Tiggeren I gave him a Crown to give to the 
 beggar. The infinitive construction is regularly employed 
 when the infinitive and the predicate verb have the same sub- 
 ject, and often when the subject of the infinitive is the objeet 
 of the predicate verb; in other cases forat must be used with a 
 sentence. (Obs. for with an infinitive at written separately : 
 for at, while the conjunction is written as one word : forat) ; 
 forat ikJce (or after a verb signifying fear forat) lest ; Ex. 
 Borgeme brcsndte Byen, forat den ikke skulde falde i Men- 
 dens Hcender the citizens burned the town, lest it should fall 
 into the hands of the enemies ; Borgeme var bange for, at 
 Byen skulde falde i Fiendemes Hcender the citizens were 
 afraid, lest the town should fall into the hands of the enemies; 
 saa at so as to ; Ex. mine Reisefceller Jiar forladt mig, saa at (or 
 
128' ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 only : saa) jeg er nu ganske alene my traveling companions have 
 left me, so I am now perfectly alone ; Stedet er saa ode, at det er 
 formeligt uhyggeligt the place is so desolate that it is (or : as 
 to be) dismal; end than; han er stbrre end jeg he is larger than 
 I (colloquially is said : han er stbrre end rnig he is larger than 
 me — but only: Hr. Persen liar et stbrre Hus end jeg Mr. P. 
 has a larger house than I) ; dette er noget ganske anclet, end 
 hvad vi saa igaar this is something quite different from what 
 we saw yesterday. 
 
 INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 244. The interjections proper are natural sounds, hardly 
 to be counted among the forms of articulate speech, conse- 
 quently they are beyond the domain of grammar. We shall 
 here only mention that the D.-N. equivalents of hall o o hallo, 
 halloi, hei are not used as a salute ; as regards interjectional 
 phrases may be mentioned that the equivalents of how do 
 you do livorledes liar Be det, hvorledes staar det til med 
 Bern are only used when it is really intended to ask about 
 somebody's health. As a simple greeting is employed : god 
 Bag good day ! {god Morgen, god Aften, good morning, good 
 evening, and when leaving god Nat good night). Om Forla- 
 delse! beg your pardon! undskyld! excuse me; tor jeg sj/orge ? 
 if I may ask? Talc! thanks, thank you. Mange Tak, Tu- 
 sind Tak many thanks, a thousand thanks! ingen Aarsag ! 
 don't mention it, not at all ; vcersgo ! (i. e. vmr saa god, in 
 which form it is written) if you please, please (when fetching 
 or offering somebody something) ; vmr saa venlig (N. vmr saa 
 snil) at gj'dre det for mig please do it for me; strax paa Oie- 
 blikket at once, right away. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 129 
 
 The English Sir in yes, sir; no, sir is not trans- 
 lated unless when speaking to a superior or a person of rank 
 in which case the title is added : ja, Hr. Kaptain (N. Kap- 
 tein) yes, Captain; nei, Hr. General no, General. But m a'm, 
 madam, is translated Fru-e (Mrs.) or Froken (Miss) accord- 
 ing to circumstances: Nei, Froken, det tror jeg ikke no 
 ma'm, I don't think so ; Nei, Frue, dd liar jeg aldrig sagt 
 no, ma'm ; that I have never said. 
 
 THE ORDER 01 THE WORDS IX THE SENTENCE. 
 
 245. In a sentence consisting only of subject and predi- 
 cate the former is placed before the latter; Manden kommer 
 the man comes ; if the position is inverted, then the sentence 
 assumes an interrogative meaning : Kommer Manden ? does 
 the man come ? If the predicate has an object the order of 
 the words is as follows : subj. — pred. — obj. ; Hesten bar Ryt- 
 teren the horse carried the rider. The indirect object is 
 placed before the direct object: Fader gav Johan Bogen 
 father gave John the book : in interrogative sentences only 
 the position of subj. and predicate is inverted: Gav Fader 
 Johan Bogen ? did father give J. the book. An adjective as 
 attribute is placed before the noun : en stor Hund, den store 
 Hund a big dog, the big dog; so also a genitive before the 
 noun governing it: Mandens Hits the man's house; Giceros 
 Taler the speeches of Cicero. An adverb determining an ad- 
 jective or other adverb is placed before the word which it de- 
 termines, but an adverb determining a verb is placed after it : 
 en meget smuk Hand a very handsome man ; Karl gik meget 
 hurtigt Charles walked veiy fast. 
 
130 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Note. The personal pronouns and the demonstrative plural de 
 having retained their objective form (mig, dig, etc.) may in dependent 
 function exchange position with the subject without causing ambiguity: 
 Sam saa jeg him I saw; 7iende gav jeg mine bedste lanker to her I gave my 
 best thoughts. When it is desired to emphasize any certain part of the 
 sentence it may be given the first place in the sentence ; in that case the 
 subject always follows after the predicate : Joluxn gav lianen Bog og Marie 
 en nydelig Dukke he gave Johnny a book, but Mary a beautiful doll. 
 
 246. Interrogative and relative words (pronouns, adverbs 
 and particles) and all conjunctions always take the first place. 
 In interrogative sentences the predicate always precedes the 
 subject, if the latter is not itself the interrogative word : hvad 
 liar du der ? What have you got there ? if the predicate is a 
 compound form of the verb the subject is placed immediately 
 after the auxiliary: hvor har du vteret? Where have you 
 been. 
 
 In relative sentences the subject follows immediately after 
 the relative word, if this latter is not itself subject : det Hus, 
 som du har Tcjobi er meget daarligt the house, which you 
 have bought is very poor. Overalt, hvor hail har vosret, har 
 han gjort sig forhadt wherever he has been he has made him- 
 self disliked. 
 
 After conjunctions the words as a rule follow in the ordi- 
 nary succession: naarjeg hammer til Byen skaljeg kjobe miff 
 nye Klceder when I go to town I shall buy myself a new suit 
 of clothes. 
 
 Note 1. The inverted position of interrogative sentences is some- 
 times used in conditional propositions when the conjunction is omitted: 
 kommer jeg til Byen, skal jeg liilse din Moderfra dig or Jtvis jeg kommer til 
 Byen, skal etc. if I come to town I shall bring your mother your greet- 
 ings. 
 
 Note 2. Antiquated and chiefly used in official and commercial 
 correspondence is the custom of inverting the subject and predicate 
 after op 1 and; Ex. denne FeUtagelse var meget uJieldig, og formener Depar- 
 tementet, at den burde Iiave vseret undgaaet this error was very unpleasant 
 and the Department believes that it ought to have been avoided. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 131 
 
 247. As to p u n c t u a t i o n the D.-N. language follows 
 about the same rules as the English, excepting that comma 
 is always used between the principal and the subordinate pro- 
 position. Comma is also used before independent proposi- 
 tions introduced by og and, and before single words connected 
 by men but. Before complete sentences introduced by men 
 but, semicolon is used. Sig mig, hvad du liar gjort! Tell 
 me what you have done! Den Ring, somjeg havdepaa Fin- 
 geren, er kommet hort the ring I had on the finger has been 
 lost. Min Soster fortalte, at hendes Bog, som hun havde lagt 
 fra sig paa Bordet for en Time siden,var forsvunden, da hun 
 horn tillage til Vcerelset : My sister told me that her book 
 which she had left on the table an hour ago had disappeared, 
 when ehe returned to the room. 
 
132 
 
 EXERCISES, 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 at vcere to be 
 Jeg, du, (De), han er I am etc. 
 vi, I, de er(e) we are etc. 
 
 (see § 221). 
 Jeg, du, (De), han var I was etc, 
 vi, I, de var(e) we were etc. 
 
 at have to have. 
 Jeg, de, (De), han har I haTe etc. 
 vi, I, de have we have etc. 
 Jeg, du, (De), han havde I had etc. 
 vi, I, de havde I had etc. 
 
 Horn (u. ) horn ; Rosv fox ; 
 
 Maane moon; Hah tail; 
 
 Eo cow; stor big; 
 
 Haar (n.) hair; Mar.i man; 
 
 long lang Mar'<: field. 
 
 (§§ 150 — 155) Katten har Nasse, og (and) Miinen bar 
 Horn, og Rseven har Haar paa (on) Halen. Kati^a har en 
 lang Hale. Koen har Horn, men (but) Hesten har ikke 
 (not). Bonden har en Hest og en Ko. Den lange Zvcse, som 
 
 K at cat ; 
 Hus(n.) house; 
 Hest horse; 
 Wosse nose; 
 Bonde farmer ; 
 
EXERCISES. 133 
 
 (which) Manden har, forskj0nner {beautifies) ham (Aim)ikke. 
 Maanen skinnede (shone) paa det store Has. I Huset var der 
 en Kat med (with) lang Hale. 
 
 The horse and the cow were in the house, but the man was in the 
 field. He was looking at (saa paa) the moon. The man has a long 
 nose, hut no (life noget) hair on his (use def. art.) head (Hozcd, pron. 
 hode). The house is large. The moon shines on the large house and 
 on the field, on the horse, on the cow and on the cat. 
 
 (§ 161.) I Arken var ikke et Ark Papir (paper) at faa 
 (to be had). Men der Tar en Buk, som gjorde (made) et dybt 
 (loic) Buk for Noa, da (when) han (he) med Bit (his) F0lge 
 forlod (left) Arken. Fyren havde fandet (found) sig et 
 Leie i Fyret, men han betalte (paid) ingen (no) Leie. Bar- 
 net (child) har en Vserge, men Soldaten (soldier) har et 
 Vserge. 
 
 This (denne) draught is » special (eiendommeligt) feature of this 
 (delte) house. The fellow had the choice ( Valget) between (mellem) the 
 rice and the rod. A soldier without (uderi) weapon is a miserable 
 (elendig) fellow. The father (fader) is [the] guardian of (for) Ms child. 
 
 (§ 163.) Form the possessive of the following words, 
 with and without the article : 
 
 Slot (n.) castle. Tag (n.) roof. Farve color. 
 
 Bog book. Hjcerte heart. Ven friend. 
 
 Bind (n.) cover. Fiende enemy. 
 
 Et Tags, Tagets. En Farves, Farvens. Bogens. Mit 
 (my) Hjsertes, Hjaertets. En Vens, Vennens. Min (my) 
 Vens Bog har et radt (red) Bind. Bogens Bind er rodt. Bin- 
 dets Farve er red. Den rede Farve er Hjaartets Farve. Far 
 ven paa ( NB . ) Bogens Bind er red. Vser (be) din (your) 
 Vens Ven. 
 
134 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 The roof of the castle. The color of the roof of the castle is red. 
 Be not the friend of your enenry's friend. My friend's enemy is my 
 (min) enemy. 
 
 (§ 168.) Form the plural of the following words with and. 
 without the article : 
 
 Have garden. 
 Jxirke church. 
 Muffe muff. 
 Marie field. 
 Yen. 
 
 Lampe lamp. 
 Skuffe drawer. 
 By city. 
 Skaal bowl. 
 
 Stuc parlor. 
 Vcerelse room. 
 So (N. Sjo) sea. 
 Son son. 
 Blomst flower. 
 
 Min Vens S0nner er(e) min S0ns Venner. Min Ven har 
 ingen {no) Fiender. Mit Hus har to {two) Stuer og fire 
 {four) smaa {small) Vserelser. Paa Markerne rnndt {around) 
 Byen er der mange {many) Blomster. Brooklyn har mange 
 Kirker. Kirkernes Tal {number) er stort {large). 
 
 The friends of my son are sons of my friend. The enemies of my 
 (mine) friends are not my friends. My house has two (to) gardens. In 
 (j) the gardens are (er der) many flowers. 
 
 (§ 169.) Form the plural of the following words : 
 
 Dor door Stun stone 
 
 Dag day Dal valley 
 
 Fjeld mountain Bcek brook 
 Kat cat Snedker joiner 
 
 Skomager shoemaker 
 
 Knyu knife. 
 Elv river. 
 Fjord. 
 
 Amerikaner American. 
 Skrwdder tailor. 
 
 Dette Vserelse har to D0re. I Korge er der mange Bsek- 
 ke, fulde {full) af 0rret {trout). ELve og Bsekke, Fjorde og 
 SJ0er, Fjelde og Dale er ISTorge fuldt {full) af. Mine Br0dre 
 har mange Venner, og mine S0stre har mange Veninder. 
 Fasdre og S0nner. 
 
EXERCISES. 135 
 
 These (disse) mountains and valleys with (med) their (D. deres, N. 
 sine) rivers and brooks are rather (temmelig) monotonous (ensformige). 
 Shoemakers and tailors are useful (nyltige) members (Medlemmer) of 
 SDciety (Samfundel). 
 
 (§§ 170 — 171). Decline the following neuter words: 
 Mag flag; Ben bone, leg; pi. also feet; Aar year; Deek 
 •deck. Vceddelob horse race. 
 
 Udstillingsbygningen (the exposition building) var deko. 
 xeret (decorated) med alle Nationers Flag. Mine Ben er(e) 
 «mme (sore). Mine Forseldre og Seskende have (N. har) 
 mange Penge, men jeg har ingen. Min Vens Klaeder er(e) 
 a f K 1 se d e (broadcloth); men mine er(e) af Vadmel (rus- 
 set). For mange Aar siden (for siden ago) havde jeg ogsaa 
 mange Penge. Denne Mand er seks (six) Fod hoi (tall). 
 
 The ship has two decks. The distance (Afstand) between (mellem) 
 the decks is eight (otte) feet. Have you money, then you have (saa har 
 ■du) food (Mad) and clothes. 
 
 (§§ 172 — 177.) Decline the following adjectives 
 stor big ; smuk nice ; tarn tame, domesticated ; hostbar exr 
 pensive; billig cheap ; engelsk English; fransk French; 
 glat smooth ; dm tender, sore ; barsk severe, stern ; haard 
 hard; varm warm; sund healthy; vanskelig difficult; 
 simpel simple; kjblig cool; lydig obedient. — 
 
 fblges ad go together. 
 
 Hesten, Hunden, Koen og Katten er tamme Dyr 
 (animals). Smukke Klseder er(e) i Regelen (as a rule) kost- 
 bare; det billige (what is cheap) er sjelden (seldom) smukt. 
 Et barskt Vassen (manner) og et 0mt Hjerte Mges ofte 
 (often) ad, og det gj0r ogsaa (and so do) et glat Ansigt og et 
 haardt Hjerte. 
 
136 EXERCISES. 
 
 The big city has many nice and expensive houses. A tame lion 
 (Lbve) is like (som) a big cat. Cheap and healthy residences (Boliger) 
 are difficult to get (skaffe) in a big city. The cool night is very refresh- 
 ing (forfriskende) after {efter) the warm day. A nice child (Barn, n.) 
 ought always to (burde altid) be obedient. 
 
 (§§ 178 — 182). Decline the following adjectives : 
 sagte soft; Uaa, tro, fri, 
 
 inegen, afsides, nymodens. 
 
 Den frie Mand og den frie Kvinde (woman) blev prokla- 
 meret (were proclaimed) for alle Vinde (winds). Min egen 
 Stue. Kongens eget Slot. Det ham (him) egne Vsesen. 
 
 New-fangled ideas. Out-of-the-way towns. This man's eyes 
 (Sine) are blue. A nice suit (Sat) of clothes made (syel) of blue 
 cloth. 
 
 (§§ 183 — 189). Compare the following adjectives : 
 &o^cold; sod sweet; Mod soft; 
 
 venlig friendly ; from pious ; ung ; 
 
 ond ; gammel. 
 
 Min Broder er yngre end jeg, men jeg har et venligere 
 Vaesen. Det st0rste Hue er ikke altid (always) det snrak- 
 keste. De Eeldste B0rn er(e) de VEerste. Det nederste Trin. 
 (step) var ganske glat (slippery). Hr- Jensen er laerdere end 
 Hr . Kristensen. Verdens (in the world) st0rste Mand er ikke 
 netop (exactly) den, som (who) veier (weighs) mest. Den 
 yngste af de to Br0dre er den smukkeste. 
 
 My father has the largest house in the block (Kvartalet). It has 
 more windows ( Vinduer) than (end) the other houses. The younger 
 girl (Pige) is the handsomer. [N.B. Use the superlative in D. 
 N. in this case ! ] 
 
 (§§ 190 — 194). Har du min Bog? Nei, men jeg saa 
 (saw) den (it) nu nylig (just now). Hvor (where) var den? 
 
T3XEECISES. 137 
 
 Den var paa Bordet i mit Vaerelse. Jeg har ikke lagt ( placed) 
 den der (there). Nei, din Moder lagde (placed) den der. 
 Saa du hende gjeire (do) det (it) ! Nei, men hun bar selv 
 (§196) fortalt (told) mig det. Min Broder fortalte (told) mig 
 ogsaa (also), at (that) han havde seet (seen) den der. Den 
 Den unge Mand har nylig mistet (lost) his S0n. 
 
 I have a nice little horse; have you seen it 1 My father gave {gav) 
 ;t to me, and I thanked (takkede) him. Does (kan) your brother ride ? 
 No, he does not ride ; but my sister does. She rides better 
 than I do myself (§ 196). Once (engang) she lost (mistede) (§ 245 note) 
 her hat -while riding horseback (mens hun var ude og red). My parents 
 (ForasLdre) have lost five (Jerri) of their [N.B. different in Danish and 
 in Norwegian] children. 
 
 (§§195 — 198.) Hvem er denne Mand med den lange 
 Naese ? Det er en Landstryger (tramp), som saelger (sells) 
 Blikt0i (tinware). TJndertiden (sometimes) stjaeler (steals) 
 han lidt fra eaadanne Polk (people), som ikke holder (keep) 
 deres (D. , sine N".) D0re lukkede (closed). Hvor sover (sleeps) 
 han ? Hvem giver (gives) ham Mad (food) ? Hvem faar 
 (get) han Penge af ? Han sover paa Marken, han spiser 
 hvad han kan faa, og Penge har han ikke. 
 
 "Who has got (har) my book? Which book do you mean (miner) ? 
 By (af) whom is the book? Whose book is it? Mine, of course (naiur- 
 ligms). It is the book, that I placed on this table an hour ago. 
 
 (§§ 200, 201). Man siger (say), at nogen har vseret 
 (been) her og ringet (rung the bell). Men da (as) ingen luk- 
 kede op (opened the door), gik (went away) de. Det kan ikke 
 have vseret nogen af vore Venner. Nei, det var nogle frem- 
 mede (strange) Mennesker (people). Mangen Mand gaar 
 (goes) hungrig (hungry) tilsengs (to bed), som man ikke vilde 
 (would) tro (believe) det om (about). 
 
138 EXERCISES. 
 
 They think that everybody can do this thing, but they are mistaken 
 (tagefeil). Nobody can learn (loere) a foreign (fremmed) language (Sprog 
 n.) without persistent (ihmrdig) work (Arbeide n.). Some called (kaldte) 
 him a hero (Helt), others a humbug (Huinbugmager). Many a heart is 
 aching (bidder). 
 
 (§§ 202 — 205). Der er trehundrede og fern og seksti 
 Dage i et Aar. Et Minut liar seksti Sekunder (tresindtyve 
 Sekunder). Min Soster er tolv Aar gammel. Tolv Gange 
 tolv er hundrede og fire og fyrretyve (or: firti). For tyve 
 Aar si den var jeg halvandet Aar gammel. En Centimeter er 
 to Femtedels Tomme (inch). Han har sine Penge staaende 
 (standing) paa (at) seks Frocents Rente. 
 
 Some months (Maaneder) have 30 days and others have 31. One 
 month, February, has only 28 days. The war (Krigeri) lasted (varede) 
 seven years. Seven times seven is 49. 20 years ago this big town was 
 nothing but (ikke andet end) a little village (Landsby) , My friend rises 
 (staar op) at 6 in the morning (om Morgenen) and goes to bed (gaar til- 
 sengs) at 10 in the evening (om Aftenen). 
 
 (§ 208). Conjugate the following verbs: 
 hie to wait, hoppe to jump, plante to plant, 
 
 onske to wish, ofre to sacrifice, spend, salve to anoint, 
 
 raade to advise, vente to wait, hakke to peck. 
 
 Jeg har nu (now) ventet paa ham i en halv Time (hour), 
 men nu kan jeg ikke bie lasnger. Jeg vil raade Dem til at 
 vente en Stund (while) til (more). Nei, jeg har allerede 
 (already) ofret for (too) megen Tid (time) paa ham. Jeg 
 skulde have veDtet en Stund til, hvis jeg ikke havde havt 
 det saa travlt (been so lusy). Se den lille Spurv (sparrow), 
 6om hopper udenfor Vinduet (window) og hakker i Vin- 
 dueskarmen (wi?idow frame) . Den venter paa at faa (to get) 
 sin Frokost (breakfast) . 
 
EXERCISES. 139 
 
 Whom do you wish to see (at tale tried) 1 I wieh to see your father? 
 Please (vxr saa god at) wait a while, he is not in (hjemme) just now (netop 
 i Qieblikket) . I can only (bare) wait 5 minutes. Cannot you spend any 
 more time on him, he will be in (kommer tilbage) at 5 sharp (paa Elaget 
 fern). "What do you advise me to do ? 
 
 (§§ 210 — 211). Conjugate the following verbs: 
 
 iabe to lose, sluge to devour, lede to seek, 
 
 tale to speak, betale to pay, laane to borrow, to lend, 
 
 lose to loosen, scette to set, scette sig to sit down (§234), 
 
 folge to follow. 
 
 Fienderne tabte det ferste Slag {battle). Paa Slagmarken 
 (battlefield) var mange Folk {people), som ledte efter deres 
 (N. sine) Venner. Min Ven talte ikke til mig hele Aftenen. 
 Det var, fordi (because) jeg har laant ham Penge, som han ikke 
 kan betale tilbage (back). Han havde sat sig, dog (yet) stod 
 han op (got up) og fulgte mig til D0ren. 
 
 He spoke slowly (langsomf), as if (som om) he did not wish his 
 audience (lillvdrere) to lose a single (eneste) syllable (Stavelse). An honest 
 (cerlig) man pays back with interest (Rente) what he borrows Sit down 
 and wait a little while, then I shall follow you to church (Kirke). 
 
 (§§ 213 and 214.) Skibet begyndte (commenced) at synke 
 ti Minuter efter Sammenst0det (collision). Alle Passagererne 
 (passengers) sprang til Baadene (boats), som var(e) bundne 
 saa fast, at man maatte hugge dem las (loose). Matroserne 
 (sailors) havde drukket adskilligt (considerably) og vilde ikke 
 slippe Passagerne ned i Baadene farst. Tiggeren (tramp) 
 bad f0rst om Penge, men da de ingen gav him, kom (came) 
 han, igjen (again) om Aftenen og stjal, hvad de ikke vilde 
 (would) give ham . Han havde seet Pengene ligge i en aaben 
 Komodeskuffe (bureau drawer). 
 
140 EXERCISES. 
 
 I found a dog, tied to the fence (Ojarde); it ran to-wards (imod)me 
 as far (langt) as the chain (Lxnke) would allow (tillade) it [to]. It was 
 very thirsty (torst), it had not drunk water ( Vand) the whole day. I 
 helped it to get out (komme ud af) the chain and gave it something to 
 eat. While (medens) I was sitting (§ 229) by the roadside, I saw a man 
 cutting (skjmre, use inf.) grass in the field. Another man was helping 
 nim. 
 
 (§§ 215—217). Da Musen (mouse) krab frem {forth) af 
 af sit Hul (hole), greb Katten den og vilde sede den. Men 
 fcret vilde den lege (play) lidt men den. Den slap den, lige- 
 eom (as) om (if) den vilde lade (allow) den labe (run), men 
 saa (then) greb den den igjen og bed den ihjsel (to death). 
 Det ryger fra Skorstenen (chimney), mens jeg roger min Ci- 
 gar og nyder den. Medens du jagede Harer (hares) og skjod 
 Kaeve, jog (chased) jeg Fienden ud af Landet. Fienderne 
 blev(e) slagne i tre Slag (battles), og mange af dem blev(e) 
 tagne tilfangne (made prisoners). 
 
 I only (torn) obeyed [see § 245 in fine] your order (Befaling) when I 
 chased the pigs (Svinene) out (ud)oi the garden (Haze). They had dug 
 themselves an entrance ( Vei) under the fence. They took the same 
 way back again, and they pushed (sk?'oa til) each others in their 
 efforts (translate i. th. e.: idet de anstrazngte sig for) to get (komme) 
 forst ud. 
 
 (§§ 218—220). Naar (when) kom din Broder ? Han 
 kom for nogle Dage siden ; nu skal han netop (just) gaa ud. 
 Han gav mig en Velociped (Mcycle), og Kristian fik et ud. 
 maerket (excellent) Gevaer (gun). Jeg laa og sov, da min 
 Broder kom, men stod (got) straks (at once) op, da jeg h0rte 
 det ringe paa Klokken (the bell). Jeg kan ikke gjare, bvad 
 du beder mig om. Jo du skal og maa gJ0re det. T0r De 
 ikke gaa forbi Kirkegaarden (cemetery) om Natten ? Jo, jeg 
 er ikke bange (afraid) for Sp0gelser (ghosts). 
 
EXERCISES. 141 
 
 I know I ought to do it, but I dare not do it now. Yes, you must 
 do it. What is your name, my friend 1 John is my Christian name 
 (Fbrnavri) and Johnson is my family name (Efternavn). Did you sleep 
 well last night (inat), Mr. Johnson? Yes, thank you. I slept very 
 well and did not get up (get up : staa op) till (/or) it (Kloklceri) was 
 after (over) 8. Did you really (virkelig) stay in bed (liggc) as long as 
 that. Yes, I have often stayed in bed longer than (end) that. 
 
 (§§ 234 to 235). Jeg skammer mig over at se, hvor (how) 
 lidet jeg virkelig ved . Det hsender undertiden, (sometimes), 
 at man ikke ved, hvad man skal gJ0re. Det siges, at Kongen 
 kommer (§ 222) hid (here) i Sommer {this summer). Det er 
 blevet mig f ortalt (I have been told*), at ti Skibe forliste (were 
 lost) i den frygtelige Orkan (hurricane), som blaeste (blew) 
 ifredags (last Friday). 
 
 I was told that I could come whenever I wanted to (saa ofte 'jeg liavde 
 I/yst). Don't you feel ashamed that you did not know this ? Ko, I 
 do not feel ashamed. You ought to do (gj&re det), at least (i det 
 -mindste). How did this thing happen ? 
 
 (§§ 237 — 237.) Hr. Jones ar bes0gt ^visited) os oftere i 
 den senere Tid (of late), end han gjorde f0r (formerly) . Ja, 
 og han har vseret laenger hver Gang. Hvor lsenge er det, 
 siden du saa ham Bidst (the last time) ? Jeg saa ham for en 
 Time siden. Vil De heist danse eller synge ? Jeg vil gjerne 
 begge Dele (do both). Hvor reiser De hen ? Jeg reiser til 
 ]STorge og tanker, jeg bliver to Maaneder borte (tsenker, jeg 
 bliver borte — expect to be gone). Har De ikke seet mine 
 Handsker (gloves)"? Jo, jeg har. 
 
 *) "What is in the active the indirect object should not in D.-N. be 
 made subject in passive. Some authors follow the English rule 
 in that respect, but it is not considered good language. 
 
142 EXERCISES. 
 
 How long do you expect to be gone ? Four months. I would 
 like to stay (Kim der) longer, because (JordC) it is so long since I 
 was there the last time. Why do you like better to dance than to sing? 
 Because there is more fun (1/bro) in it. Have you seen your father's 
 hat? Yes, I have. Have not you seen your father's hat? Yes, I 
 have. 
 
 (§§240—212). Hvem har han h0rt (heard) detaf? Af 
 mig kan han ikke have hert del. Paa Island er der ingen 
 KJ0reveie (carriage roads), saa der maa man overalt reise til- 
 hest;'men i Irland er der gode Veie. Min Broder Karl har 
 vaeret tils0s i 25 Aar, saa det er nu paatide (about time), at 
 han slaar sig ned (settles) tillands. Paa Grund af den tsette 
 (thick) Taage (fog), kunde vort Skib ikke komme ind til 
 Bryggen (pier). 
 
 Where do you come from ? From Iceland. Have you been a 
 long time in Iceland 1 Yes, I have been there quite (temmelig) long, 
 and everywhere we had to travel around on horseback, because they 
 Lad no roads there. By {meet) which ship did you come from America? 
 By the " Island " of Copenhagen. Have you been in any of ihe cities 
 of Norway ? Yes, I have been in Christiania and Bergen, and at 
 Exragsberg and Fredriksstad. 
 
 (§ 243). " Dine Penge eller dit Liv" (life) er et haardt 
 Valg (choice) ; men vserre er det at miste baade Pengene og 
 Livet. I Byens Udkant (outskirts) bor der mange fattige 
 (poor), som hverken har Mad eller Klaeder. Naar (when) du 
 ikke vil hjare, maa du fale (must be made to feel). Jeg maa 
 straffe (punish) dig, forat du kan blive en brav (good) 
 Mand. Min Saster har en smukkere Hat en du. Jeg har 
 ingen bedre Ven end dig. Han er eaa glad (happy), at han 
 nsesten ikke (hardly) kan lade vasre at (1. v. a. — abstain from) 
 hoppe (jump) hait op i Veiret (air). 
 
EXERCISES. 143 
 
 I give you this punishment (Straf) in order to improve (forbedre) 
 your morals (Seeder). I make (lader) you study in order that you may 
 be a useful (nyttigt) member (Medlem) of society (Samfundet). When 
 (naar) I come here, I wish (brisker) to see everybody happy. When 
 (da*) I came home, I saw many sad [bedr'dnede) faces (Ansigter). Neither 
 my mother, nor my sister had such a nice hat as you had. A judgment 
 (Dom) must either be right (rigtig) or wrong (gal), and it cannot be 
 bo.h right and wrong at the same time. 
 
 (§§ 245 — 246). Hvem har De talt med {seen) ? Jeg har 
 talt med Deres Broder. Er det min asldste Broder, De har 
 talt med ? Hvor er min Hat ? Deres Hat er her. Han gav 
 en Tigger (beggar) sin nye Hat. Hvem gav han sin gamle 
 Frak (coat). Trailer (meet) jeg dig her igjen, skal jeg lade 
 (have) dig kaste (throw) ud af Vinduet. 
 
 Whom did you see? Where did you get (fad) that hat? I got it 
 at the hatter's (Iws Haltemagereri), and I gave my old hat to a beggar. 
 If I ever (nogevsinde) see you again, I shall certainly (xisselig) be most 
 (soerdeles) happy. 
 
 *) " When'' referring to a single occurrence of the past is da, when re- 
 ferring to the future is naar. Da, besides time, indicates cause, 
 naar, besides time, indicates condition.