QforttcU Untoeraitg ffiibrarg Stljata, SJew ^ntk BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE FISKE ENDOWMENT FUND THE BEQUEST OF WILLARD FISKE LrBRARIAN OF THE UNIVERSITY 1868-1883 1905 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924006409357 SUPPLEMENTARY EDUCATIONAL MONOGRAPHS PahliaheJ in conjancUon with THE SCHOOL REVIEW and THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL Vol. II July 1918 No. 4 Whole No., 10 READING: ITS NATURE and DEVELOPMENT By CHARLES HUBBARD JUDD with the co-operation of WILLIAM SCOTT GRAY' CLARENCE TRUMAN GRAY KATHERINE McLAUGHLIN CLARA SCHMITT ADAM RAYMOND GILLILAND THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS CHICAGO. ILLINOIS "^ THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS, London and Edinbuigh THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA, Tokyo, 0.»ka, Kyoto, Fukuoka, Sendai THE_MISSION BOOK COMPANY, Shanghai PUBLICATIONS EDITED BY THE FACULTY OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO JOINT EDITORIAL COMMITTEE CHARLES HUBBARD JUDD, Chairman Articles and Editorials of The School Review Articles and Editorials, of The Elementary ROLLO LA VERNE LYMAN School Journal ^„^„„ . „ FRANKLIN WINSLOW JOHNSON HARRY ORRm GILLET Reviews . » »^ ^ / HAROLD ORDWAY RUGG Supplementary Educational Monegraphs, ROLLA MILTON I'HYON WILLIAM SCOTT GRAY SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE ON CURRENT EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS ' . THE SCHOOL REVIEW THE School Review is an open forum for the discussion of progressive move- ments in secondary education. It prints scientific studies in regard to the jimior high school, supervised study, standards and tests, probleras of organization and class instruction, etc. It presents practical material ip the form ;of discussions of -classrgoni methods and administrative devices. It includes a department of reviews which keeps the reader in touch with signifi- cant publications from month to month. THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL THE Elementary School Journal promotes the scientific study of school problems, emphasizes progressive movements in elementary education, encourages and prints studies which contribute results of value to teachers, principals, and superintendents, devotes milch space to reviews of recent . literature, and publishes news notes on major movements in education. THE SUPPLEMENTARY EDUCATIONAL MONOGRAPHS THE Supplementary Educational Monographs present a body of scientific and practical material covering reading, arithmetic, penmanship, algebra, and the administrative organization of elementary schools and high schools. These represent a t3rpe of quantitative scientific material which is indispensable to the student of current educational problems and to the school administrator. Subscription rates have been arranged for the two journals aiiti the supplementary mono- graphs. If the journals are taken separately, the price of subscription is $1.50 each! If the monographs are taken by the volume, each volume to be completed in oqp year and to contain approximately one thousand pages, the subscription price will be $5.00 with an additional cost of 50 cents for postage. A combination of all three pubucations is offered for $6.50 plus 50 cents for postage on the monographs. Either one of the journals with one volume of the monographs is offered at $5.75 plus 50 cents postage for the monographs. SUPPLEMENTARY EDUCATIONAL MONOGRAPHS Published in conjunction with THE SCHOOL REVIEW and THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL Vol. II July 1918 No. 4 Whole No. 10 READING: ITS NATURE^'anc/ DEVELOPMENT READING: ITS NATURE and DEVELOPMENT By CHARLES HUBBARD JUDD with the co-operation of WILLIAM SCOTT GRAY CLARENCE TRUMAN GRAY KATHERINE McLAUGHLIN CLARA SCHMITT ADAM RAYMOND GILLILAND THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS CHICAGO, ILLINOIS Copyright igiS By The University of Chicago All Rights Reserved Published July 1 918 Composed and Printed By The University of Chicago Press Chlcaso^IUinols, U.S.A. PREFACE In June, 1915, the General Education Board made an appro- priation to the Department of Education of the University of Chicago with which to prosecute laboratory studies in reading and writing. This subsidy was given after a careful canvass of the work commenced by members of the Department. Prior to 19 15 scattered studies in these subjects had been com- pleted by candidates for advanced degrees and by members of the Department. The usual difficulties had impeded these investiga- tions, conspicuous among which were lack of apparatus and lack of time to devote to the task. The gift of the General Education Board removed entirely the material obstacles. Apparatus of a most elaborate type was made possible and was at once set up. The gift of the Board also went far toward supplying time and energy. A part of the fund was devoted to the employment of research and clerical assistants. The outcome of two years of experimental work on reading is herewith presented. It is the product of the co-operative research of a number of workers. It is always a dehcate task to attempt to assign personal credit for work of this type. In some measure the individuals who have cast their lots with this investigation will suffer because the final formulation is the work of a single editor. He is eager to make it very clear that the product is a co-operative output. Dr. WilUam S. Gray was well advanced in the formulation of his widely used reading tests before this work began. He has suppUed the background, both by lending the results of his investi- gations and also by active contributions at many points. Pupils are classified throughout the report on the basis of his tests. Dr. C. T. Gray worked during the academic year 1915-16 setting up the apparatus and performing experiments. It seemed best to recognize his independence in the part of the work which he did by publishing his results in advance of the general report. His work was accordingly pubhshed as Vol. I, No. 5, of the vi PREFACE Supplementary Educational Monographs of the School Review and the Elementary School Journal. The subsidy of the General Edu- cation Board made possible his leave of absence from the Uni- versity of Texas during the year 1915-16 and also the separate pubHcation referred to above. Miss Katherine McLaughlin was released by the subsidy of the General Education Board from a part of her duties as teacher in the University Elementary School to carry on the special work which she has reported fully in Chapter V of this report. Mr. A. R. Gilliland is continuing the work he began in the fall of 1916. The results which he collected as the basis for Chapter III may therefore be expected to be enlarged in the future into an independent publication. Dr. Clara Schmitt of the department of child-study of the public schools of the city of Chicago completed four years ago a study which included some work on the reading of defectives. . This was published in Monograph Supplement No. 83 of the Psychological Review. Her new paper on "Developmental Alexia," from which liberal quotations are made in Chapter VI, was published inde- pendently in the issues of May and June, 1918, of the Elementary School Journal. A number of other advanced students and teachers in the Uni- versity made minor contributions to the investigation. The editor of the report cannot refrain from expressing the hope that the study here presented will prove to be more than a mere contribution to the technique of dealing with a single branch of school work. With the earher works of Dodge and Erdmann, of Dearborn and of Huey, this report exhibits the possibility of laboratory analysis of important school problems. Intensive laboratory work is slow and laborious as contrasted with the extensive statistical investigations which have contributed so largely to the advance of educational science in recent years. But minute analysis, even though laborious, must be made if school methods are to have a sound scientific foundation. The report is offered, therefore, as a plea for more intensive analysis of educational processes. C. H. J. Chicago, Illinois TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE List op Figures ix List of Plates xi List of Tables xiii CHAPTER I. Radical Changes in the Teaching of Reading . i II. A Study of Reading Books 6 III. Eye-Movements of Adult Readers .... 15 IV. Analysis of Children's Reading 54 V. Speclal Experiments in the Training of Pupils . . ' . 82 VI. Extreme Cases of Pupils Backward in Reading ... 119 VII. Progress through the Grades . . . ... 135 VIII. Individual Differences .... . . .... 156 IX. Reading for Meaning 177 Index 189 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE 1. Improvement in Rate of Articulation and in Rate of Recognition of Printed Words in Successive Grades . ... . . 145 2. Changes in Comprehension of Subject-Matter Resulting in the Different Grades from Special Training in the Reading of Easy Paragraphs and Difficult Paragraphs . . ... 150 3. Improvement in Rate and Quality of Silent Reading in 13 Cities 154 4. Distribution of 329 Pupils in the Second Grade and 322 Pupils in the Third Grade of the Cleveland Public Schools in Quality of Silent Reading ..... . 168 5. Number of Seconds Required to Read 100 Words by the Median Pupil in Each of the Quality Groups Represented in Fig. 4 169 6. Distribution of 228 Pupils in the Seventh Grade and 193 Pupils in the Eighth Grade of the Cleveland Public Schools in Quality of Silent Reading .... .... 173 7. Nimiber of Seconds Required to Read 100 Words by the Median Pupil in Each of the Quality Groups Represented in Fig. 6 174 LIST OF PLATES I. The Passage Read, Showing the Spacing between Lines and the Size of Letters as Used in the Experiments II, Silent Reading by Subject A .... III. Silent Reading by Subject A . . . . IV. Oral Reading by Subject A . ... V. Oral Reading by Subject A . ... VI. Silent Reading by Subject B VII. Silent Reading by Subject B VIII. Oral Reading by Subject B . IX. Oral Reading by Subject B X. Silent Reading by Subject C XL Silent Reading by Subject C XII. Oral Reading by Subject C XIII. Oral Reading by Subject C . XIV. Silent Reading by Subject A XV. Silent Reading by Subject B XVI. Silent Reading by Subject C XVII. Oral Reading by Subject A ... XVIII. Oral Reading by Subject B . . XIX. Oral Reading by Subject C . . . . XX. Silent Reading by Subject A . . XXI. Oral Reading by Subject A . . XXII. Silent Reading by Subject C XXIII. Oral Reading by Subject C . . . . XXIV. Silent Counting out of a's by Subject A XXV. Silent Reading by a Rapid Reader in the Third Grade with a Fair Quality Record (Subject No. 2 in C. T. Gray's Tables) XXVI. Silent Reading by a Slow Reader in the Third Grade with a Fair Quality Record (Subject No. 9 in C. T. Gray's Tables) 16 17 18 22 23 25 26 28 29 30 31 32 33 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 48 49 49 SI 56 59 xii LIST OF PLATES PLATE PAGE XXVII. Silent Reading by a Rapid Reader in the Fourth Grade (Subject No. 13 in C. T. Gray's Tables) . ... 63 XXVIII. Silent Reading by a Slow Reader in the Fourth Grade with a Poor Quality Record (Subject No. 15 in C. T. Gray's Tables) . . .... 64 XXIX. Silent Reading by a Fair Reader in the Fifth Grade (Subject No. 24 in C. T. Gray's Tables) ... . . . 66 XXX. Silent Reading by a Poor Reader in the Fifth Grade (Sub- ject No, 23 in C. T. Gray's Tables) ,, . . 67 XXXI. Silent Reading by a Good Reader in the Sixth Grade (Sub- ject No. 31 in C. T. Gray's Tables) .... 68 XXXII. Silent Reading by a Poor Reader in the Seventh Grade (Sub- ject No. 36 in C. T. Gray's Tables) . 70 XXXIII. Silent Reading by a Good Reader in the Seventh Grade (Subject No. 41 in C. T. Gray's Tables) 72 XXXIV. Silent Reading by a Good Reader in the High School (Sub- ject No. 43 in C. T. Gray's Tables) ... 73 XXXV. Silent Reading by a Poor Reader in the High School (Sub- ject No. 49 in C. T. Gray's Ta,bles) 74 XXXVI. Oral Reading by a Fair Reader in the Fifth Grade (Subject No. 18 in C. T. Gray's Tables) .... 77 XXXVII. Oral Reading by the Reader Whose Record for Silent Read- ing Is Shown in Plate XXXI . -77 XXXVIII. Oral Reading by the Pupil Whose Record for Silent Read- ing Is Shown in Plate XXXIII . . -78 XXXIX. Silent Reading of Pupil G before Special Training (Subject No. 16 in C. T. Gray's Tables) 84 XL. Silent Reading of Pupil G after Special Training 92 XLI. Silent Reading of Pupil H before Special Training (Subject No. I in C. T. Gray's Tables) 93 XLII. Silent Reading of Pupil M before Special Training (Subject No. 19 in C. T. Gray's Tables) 99 XLIII. Silent Reading of Pupil M after Special Training . . 107 XLIV. Second Silent Reading of Pupil M after Special Training . 108 XLV. Silent Reading of Pupil E before Special Training (Subject No. 28 in C. T. Gray's Tables) 109 XL VI. Silent Reading of Pupil E after Special Training . .116 XL VII. Second Silent Reading of Pupil E after Special Training . 117 LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE I. Summary of the Number of Pauses and the Aggregate Time of Pauses in the Records of Adult Readers 52 II. Data Concerning Eye-Movement Records in Silent Reading 79 III. Mistakes Made by Case G in Oral-Reading Test . 85 IV. Silent-Reading Records for Case G 86 V. Rate and Quality of Oral Reading by Case G during the Period of Special Training . . 87 VL Errors Made by Case G in Oral Reading during the Eighteen Weeks of Training ... .88 VII. Rate and Comprehension for Silent Reading by Case G during the Eighteen Weeks of Training 88 VIII. Silent-Reading Records for Case G before and Sfter Training 89 IX. Oral-Reading Records for Case G , . . 89 X. Summary of Oral- and Silent-Reading Records for Check Case Compared with Case G . . . . 90 XI. Summary of Oral- and Silent-Reading Records for Case G 90 XII. Silent-Reading Record of Case H before Special Training . 95 XIII. Oral-Reading Record of Case H during Period of Special Training . ' 96 XIV. Oral-Reading Records for Case H before and after Training 97 XV. Errors in Oral Reading of Pupil H before and after Training 97 XVI. Ability of Pupil M to Reproduce after Silent Reading 100 XVII. Oral-Reading Record of Pupil M during Period of Special Training ... . ... 102 XVIII. Oral-Reading Records for Case M before and after Special Training . . 103 XIX. Oral-Reading Records for Check Case Compared with Pupil M . . 103 XX. Silent-Reading Record of Pupil M during Period of Special Training . . 104 XXI. Silent-Reading Records with Questions for Case M . . . 105 xiv LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE XXII. Summary of SUent-Reading Records for Case M before and after Special Training . . . • 105 XXIII. Summary of Silent-Reading Records for Check Case Com- pared with Case M . loS XXIV. Errors Made by Pupil E in Oral Reading before Special Training . . . . . no XXV. Silent-Reading Record of Pupil E before Special Training . 111 XX VI. Oral-Reading Record of Pupil E during Period of Special Training . . . .113 XXVII. Oral-Reading Records of Case E before and after Special Training . . . .114 XXVIII. Oral-Reading Record of Check Case Compared with Case E 115 XXIX. Summary of Silent-Reading Record of Case E . 118 XXX. Svunmary of Silent-Reading Record of Check Case Com- pared with Case E . . . .118 XXXI. Rate of Rapid Articulation (Counting Tens) in Various Grades . . 143 XXXII. Rate of Sustained Counting in the Different Grades 143 XXXIII. Percentage of Increase in the Rate of Silent Reading . . 148 XXXIV. Number of Words Read per Second by the High-School Girl Described in the Text . . 162 XXXV. Description of Members of the Industrial Class . 164 XXXVI. Results of the Oral-Reading Tests Given to the Boys of the Industrial Class .... ' . . . 164 XXXVII. W. S. Gray's Standard Scores in Oral Reading 164 XXXVIII. Standards Given by W. S. Gray in Rate and Quality of Silent Reading , , ... ... 165 XXXIX. Rate of Silent Reading of the Boys in the Industrial Class . 165 XL. Quality of Silent Reading of the Boys in the Industrial Class 165 XLI. Quality and Rate of Silent Reading of 329 Second-Grade Pupils in the Cleveland Public Schools . . . .167 XLII. Quality and Rate of Silent Reading of 322 Third-Grade Pupils in the Cleveland Public Schools . . .170 XLIII. Quality and Rate of Silent Reading of 228 Seventh-Grade Pupils in the Cleveland Public Schools . 172 XLIV. Quality and Rate of Silent Reading of 193 Eighth-Grade Pupils in the Cleveland Public Schools . . 172 CHAPTER I RADICAL CHANGES IN THE TEACHING OF READING In the second annual report which Horace Mann made to the Board of Education of Massachusetts in 1838 he discussed the methods and results of the teaching of reading in the elementary schools of that state. Anyone examining this report or studying the conditions to which it refers will recognize that one of the most far-reaching educational reforms of the last two generations is that which began in the days of Horace Mann and has completely changed the methods of teaching reading. Webster's "speller" When Horace Mann wrote his report the Speller prepared by Noah Webster was the chief textbook in all schools. This book is said to have been sold to the number of eighty milUons during the century following 1783, when it was written. It opens with a few pages on the letters and sounds used in Enghsh spelling. The first exercise introduces the pupil to the combinations of the first five consonants with the vowels. The pupil learns meaningful and meaningless combinations together as follows: ba, be, bi, bo, bu, by ca, ce, ci, co, cu, cy da, de, di, do, etc. He then studies phrases made up of words of two letters, such as go on, go in, go up, an ox, by me, etc. After the two-letter combi- nations have been learned the pupil is given combinations of three, four, and five letters, the spelling being reHeved from time to tim^e by such reading exercises as the following: (Lesson 86) "Heavy clouds foretell a shower of rain. The rattan is a long slender reed that grows in Java. Good children will submit to the will of their parents. Let all your precepts be succinct and clear." 2 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT The arduous tasks in spelling set before the pupils of Horace Mann's day were evidently not wholly mastered, for he writes as follows : I learn, also, that, with scarcely a single exception in the whole State, the scholars are kept in spelling-classes, or they spell daily from their reading- lessons, from the time of their earliest combination of letters, up to the time of their leaving school; and yet, if testimony, derived from a thousand sources, and absolutely uniform, can be rehed on, there is a Babel-like diversity in the spelling of our language.' HORACE MANN'S CRITICISM OF READING If the results in spelling were not all that could be desired, certainly the reading suffered because of the excessive devotion to formal spelHng. On this matter Horace Mann writes : Entertaining views of the importance of this subject, of which the above is only the feeblest expression, I have devoted especial pains to learn, with some degree of numerical accuracy, how far the reading, in our schools, is an exercise of the mind in thinking and feeling, and how far it is a barren action of the organs of speech upon the atmosphere. My information is derived, principally, from the written statements of the school committees of the respective towns, — gentlemen who are certainly exempt from aU. temptation to disparage the schools they superintend. The result is, that more than eleven-twelfths of all the children in the reading-classes, in our schools, do not understand the meaning of the words they read; that they do not master the sense of the reading-lessons, and that the ideas and feelings intended by the author to be conveyed to, and excited in, the reader's mind, still rest in the author's intention, never having yet reached the place of their destination. And by this it is not meant that the scholars do not obtain such a fidl com- prehension of the subject of the reading-lessons, in its various relations and bearings, as a scientific or erudite reader would do, but that they do not acquire a reasonable and practicable understanding of them. It would hardly seem that the combined efforts of all persons engaged could have accomplished more in defeating the true objects of reading. How the cause of this deficiency is to be apportioned among the legal supervisors of the schools, parents, teachers or authors of school-books, it is impossible to say; but surely it is an evil, gratuitous, widely prevalent, and threatening the most alarming consequences. But it is not a remediless one. There is intelligence enough in this community to search out the cause, and wisdom enough to find and apply a remedy.^ I Horace Mann, " Second Annual Report of the Secretary of the Board of Edu- cation, 1838," in Life and Works oj Horace Mann (Lee & Shepard, iSgi), II, 508. ^lUd., pp. 531-32- RADICAL CHANGES IN TEACHING READING 3 THE WORD METHOD Finally, we may draw one further quotation from the report to show that the beginnings of reform were already appearing: When a motive to learn exists, the first practical question respects the order in which letters and words are to be taught; i.e., whether letters, taken sepa- rately, as in the alphabet, shall be taught before words, or whether monosyllabic and familiar words shall be taught before letters. In those who learnt, and have since taught, in the former mode, and have never heard of any other, this suggestion may excite surprise. The mode of teaching words first, however, is not mere theory; nor is it new. It has now been practised for some time in the primary schools of the city of Boston, — in which there are four or five thousand children, — and it is found to succeed better than the old mode. In other places in this country, and in some parts of Europe, where education is successfully conducted, the practice of teaching words first, and letters sub- sequently, is now established. Having no personal experience, I shall venture no affirmation upon this point; but will only submit a few remarks for the con- sideration of those, who wish, before countenancing the plan, to examine the reasons on which it is founded. During the first year of a child's life, he perceives, thinks, and acquires something of a store of ideas, without any reference to word or letters. After this, the wonderful faculty of language begins to develop itself. Children then utter words, — the names of objects around them, — as whole sounds, and with- out any conception of the letters of which those words are composed. In speaking the word "apple,'' for instance, young children think no more of the Roman letters which speU it, than, in eating the fruit, they think of the chemical ingredients — the oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon — which compose it. Hence, presenting them with the alphabet, is giving them what they never saw, heard, or thought of before. It is as new as algebra, and, to the eye, not very unlike it. But printed names of known things are the signs of sounds which their ears have been accustomed to hear, and their organs of speech to utter, and which may excite agreeable feelings and associations, by reminding them of the objects named. When put to learning the letters of the alphabet first, the child has no acquaintance with them, either with the eye, the ear, the tongue, or the mind; but if put to learning familiar words first, he already knows them by the ear, the tongue, and the mind, while his eye only is unacquainted with them. He is thus introduced to a stranger through the medium of old acquaint- ances. It can hardly be doubted, therefore, that a child would learn to name any twenty-six familiar words much sooner than the twenty-six unknown, unheard, and unthought-of letters of the alphabet.' Teaching reading by the so-called word method had, indeed, been suggested long before the time of Horace Mann. Comenius ' Ibid., pp. 519-21. 4 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT suggested it in the Orhis Pictus in 1657. But the A-B-C method, which was the method of the Greek and Roman schools' and later of the mediaeval schools, survived and was well-nigh universal even in the middle of the last century. EEFORMS SINCE THK DAYS OF HORACE MANN Since Horace Mann made his criticisms of the teaching of read- ing in Massachusetts a sweeping reform has been under way in this country. This reform gained momentum slowly. In 1850 McGufifey's New Eclectic Readers appeared. These famous readers treated the content of reading as more important than the mere spelling of words. They contained much material which was graded and so selected as to meet the immature tastes of children. Indeed, it is said that McGuffey proceeded in strictly empirical fashion by calling in the children of his neighborhood and sub- mitting to their tastes the passages he had collected. Such passages as appealed to those of first-reader age went into the first reader, and so on. The McGuffey readers, in spite of their emphasis on content, did not break completely with tradition; they contained spelling exercises. We recognize in the spelling exercises the influ- ence of Webster's Spelling Book. But there is such a change in form and spirit of instruction that it is evident that schools tried to respond to Horace Manti's demand for meaningful exercises suited to children's tastes and capacities. After the McGuffey readers came more readers, bolder in their omissions of spelling exercises and broader in the variety of their content, imtil finally the volume of this kind of publication has become so great that one can hardly keep up with the readers which appear each year. The innovations in method know no Umits. There are new methods which lay stress on silent reading; new methods which base their claims to recognition on the fact that they begin in the primer with verbs or action words instead of nouns; new methods which appeal to the child's interest in objects of the familiar environment, and so on. " "A-B-C Books and Primers," Barnard's American Journal of Education, XII, 593-604. RADICAL CHANGES IN TEACHING READING $ Since 1880 there has also been a flood of books classified as supplementary readers. These books are intended to give pupils the opportunity and incentive to read broadly outside the regular class exercise. SCHOOL EXPERIMENTS IN READING Parallel with the new reading books a wide variety of theories and an equally wide variety of school methods have developed. There are those who tell teachers that instruction in reading may be safely postponed until pupils are ten years of age. Others would allow pupils of kindergarten age to read. There are teachers who regard reading in the early years as a process of the most mechanical type. These teachers are interested in pauses and intonation and in the position in which the reader holds the book. There are other teachers who emphasize meaning and regard the mechanics of reading as altogether subordinate. Such a variety of views and practices shows that we are in the experimental stage with regard to the teaching of reading. The danger is that we shall go on experimenting without making the kind of study of results which will tend to bring experimentation to a definite issue in scientifically defensible methods. A scientific study of reading should point out the way in which the experiences of the school and the investigations of the educational laboratory may be combined to supply certain principles of procedure which will surely improve instruction. GENERAL OUTLINE OF THE PRESENT STUDY The following chapters aim to carry out such a program of scientific study. The discussion will open with an analysis of some of the chief lines of practical experimentation in the school. The major problems requiring scientific study will thus be brought to the surface. Then will follow the exposition of the laboratory experiments and practical school devices used in the effort to solve these problems. The later chapters will summarize the results of the whole study in a systematic view of the place of reading in the pupil's mental development and in the school curriculum. CHAPTER II A STUDY OF READING BOOKS READING BOOKS REPRESENT SCHOOL PRACTICE The systems of readers which have appeared since the abandon- ment of the A-B-C method furnish in very tangible form the material with which a scientific study of the teaching of reading may begin. In the first place each system is based on the experience of editors who have been successful enough in school work to seek wider apphcations of their methods through pubhcation. Secondly, the practices of schools in all parts of the country are determined in very large measure by reading books. Finally, a number of the systems of readers are accompanied by manuals which exphcitly set forth and defend theories in regard to the teaching of reading. THE WORD METHOD It was stated in the last chapter through quotations from Horace Mann that the word method was one of the earhest methods of teaching reading which was tried as a substitute for the A-B-C method. Children were taught words as wholes and learned to recognize them without analyzing them into letters. Experience soon brought out the fact that a child who is not taught to analyze the words in his reading usually makes rapid progress so long as he needs only a small vocabulary and is in contact with short, simple words. Such a pupil is commonly lost when he encounters long, comphcated words or is called on to deal with a large Hst of words. Furthermore, the word method, when followed in its' extreme form, leaves the pupil with Httle or no ability to spell. For this reason there was a reaction against the word method in its simple form after it had been tried for a time. Out of that reaction has grown an emphasis in many quarters on what is known as phonic analysis, PHONIC METHODS Phonic analysis differs from the A-B-C method in two essential respects. First, words are broken up by phonic analysis into their 6 A STUDY OF READING BOOKS 7 sound elements instead of into their visual elements, that is, letters. Thus, as the matter is stated in one of these systems, "The word lightning, which the child learning by this method reads, / ihgi n ing, he finds no more difficult than the short word left, in which also he has to recognize and put together four separate sounds.'" Secondly, phonic methods are inductive in procedure. They begin by analyzing the word wholes with which the child is f amiUar in his oral speech; they arrive at the phonic elements by breaking , up this larger original unit. The method in Webster's Speller is to build up words by adding together single letters. The phonic methods do not begin by building up new words out of elements but by discovering sound elements in words already known to the pupil. After analyzing familiar words the pupil acquires the power of attacking new words. Equipped with phonic elements dis- covered in earlier analyses, he can in his later experience unravel new combinations. In these later stages there is synthesis of phonic elements into new word wholes, but the new wholes are made up of sound units which were first secured by analysis. The procedure in the Ward system, from which the quotation given above was borrowed, is described in the following statement: The Rational Method is a peculiar combination of the word and phonetic methods. It utilizes each for that part of the work to which it is especialfy adapted. The word method is used, first as principal, because of its value in developing a habit of reading thoughtfully, and afterward as auxiliary, to remedy the shortcomings of the phonetic method, and increase the stock of word phonograms. The phonetic method, which is introduced by easy stages during the ascendency of the word method, finally becomes the principal means of growth and progress. It imparts power, while it supplies the key which the word method is inadequate to give.'' The dual character of the training involved in giving a pupil word units which he can use and phonic elements which will help him in pronouncing words is clearly set forth in the following quota- tion from one of the newer phonic systems: Do not confuse the directions found on this and on the following pages, which relate entirely to the development of the phonetic power, with the ' E. G. Ward, The Rational Method in Reading, Manual of Instruction (Silver, Burdett & Co., 1907), p. .i. 'Ibid., p. 1. 8 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT directions which relate solely to the development of the reading lessons by the word and sentence method. It should be clearly imderstood that at first there must be two distinct lines of teaching carried on side by side, naniely: (i) the drill upon phonetic lists for the purpose of developing phonetic power in the child; (2) the reading of simple stories by the word and sentence method until the child's power in phonetics is far enough advanced to enable him to apply it in his reading lessons.' It is of importance to note in this connection that there are many different phonic systems. When one begins to analyze words into their sound elements one finds several possible ways of carrying out this analysis. For example, it is the practice in many phonic systems to stress the last part of the word. Then such words as "bit," "sit," "knit," "fit," etc., belong to the same family. On the other hand, it is possible to build up lists in which the initial sound is the common element, as in "sit," "sin," "sing," etc. The A-B-C method is of necessity the same for every teacher because the A-B-C elements are capable of only one definite arrangement into words. Phonic elements are variable just in the degree in which complexes of sound are capable of different types of analysis. SILENT READING AND ORAL READING Not unrelated to phonics is the problem of teaching silent read- ihg as contrasted with the teaching of oral reading. This contrast is of far-reaching importance because in all schools the greater emphasis is laid at the present time on oral instruction, whatever the system of reading books used. While instruction emphasizes oral reading the demand made on the pupils in the upper grades is very largely a demand for efficient silent reading. Pupils are expected to get their lessons in history and geography, and even in arithmetic, by reading silently. In spite of this they are offered little or no specific training in silent reading as distinguished from oral reading. This matter has been touched on from time to time in introduc- tions to readers. Nowhere has this been more vigorously expressed than in a recent manual which makes this problem and its solution the chief justification for the publication of a new series. In our search for new roads to reading it is strange that we seldom think of the time that would be saved if pupils were trained to get the thought from ' James H. Fassett, The Beacon Primer (Ginn & Co., 1912), p. v. A STUDY OF READING BOOKS g a page at the first rapid, silent reading of it. If we can train a pupil so that at the first reading of a lesson he will do it intensively and grasp the thought expressed by the printed page, it wiU be unnecessary for him to read it again and again, repeating the printed text, word for word, until the thought is" impressed on his mind. • By actual test it has been found that a few minutes of silent, intensive reading by a pupil trained under our system will suflSce to master a lesson in history that under ordinary conditions would require half an hour of study. This is our plea for presenting to teachers another system of reading. Much time is wasted in teaching reading, in reading, and in useless vague study of sentences and paragraphs. Train a pupil to read silently, rapidly, and intensively. He can then master a text. Silent reading is a necessity and any system that trains pupils to grasp the thought at sight is developing in the child an incalculable power for future education. In view of this fact it seems strange that silent reading has not been emphasized and that no method for training in it has been heretofore presented. When we consider that all of our information from books is obtained through silent reading, and that oral reading is seldom employed for this purpose, we become convinced of the value of the former. If we reflect on the saving of time, we can readily perceive that rapid reading is also an essential. Many of the systems now in use are good, having only this one great fault — they do not develop intelligent, rapid, silent readers. One reason for this is that the thought of the text in the first books is given to the pupils by the teacher. She tells the story, they dramatize it, then read it. This plan develops an intense interest. Just as great interest, however, can be gained by training the pupils to read, that they may dramatize later.' Another quotation which bears on this matter is as follows: Since reading is a complex operation consisting of word recognition, thought recognition, and thought expression, it is well to simplify it for beginners. This can readily be done by a process of elimination. We may, for example, elimi- nate the element of thought recognition by having the children read something with which they are already familiar. We may eliminate the element of word recognition, as in reading by position. Or we may eliminate the element of thought expression, and this is more important than either of the other ways. This is accomplished through silent reading, in which the children recognize the word and get the thought, without being put to the very considerable trouble of expressing the thought definitely with proper emphasis, inflection, and phrasing. The means employed are various, all being alike in that they provide a sure test of having grasped the thought. A typical case is the writing on the blackboard of commands to be read and obeyed by the children, the proof ' Teachers Manual, The Method Used in the New Barnes Readers, Primer and Book One (A. S. Barnes Co., 1916), p. i. lo READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT of understanding being not words, but deeds. In the early stages silent reading should usually precede oral reading, at least until the children can read at sight. In more advanced work it takes the form of reading to get the gist, the point, the story.' If the demand for silent reading set forth in these quotations is legitimate, there must be a careful consideration of the practices of schools which usually give much more time and attention to oral reading than to silent reading. Is oral reading justified at any level of school training ? If so, how shall the Hmits of oral reading be determined? These and other practical questions depend for their answers on a careful, scientific study of school practices and their results. THE DEMAND FOR MEANINGFUL READING MATTER In the first chapter it was pointed out that one of the strong motives for abandoning the A-B-C method was the demand for meaningful reading matter for pupils. In recent times the demand for meaningful material has been expressed in various ways. First and foremost is the conspicuous change in the character of the reading matter introduced into reading books, even the primers. The folk stories which children know and are able to tell are now commonly used at an early period. Descriptions of farm life and of the famihar environment are put into the first book. Instead of using merely descriptive words the primer is filled with commands to the children to run or hop or stand. With this new type of reading matter have come discussions which draw the line sharply between the formal side of language teaching and the content side. Sometimes the discussions aim to show that formal training is not neglected even when emphasis is laid on the content. There is a note of apology at times in some of the statements about content as though the editor recog- nized that the demand for formal training is deep-seated in the thinking and practice of teachers and might lead to a rejection of his books. At other times the writers of "meaningful" texts make as much as they can of the contrast between their books and those ' Walter L. Hervey and Melvin Hix, Daily Lesson Plans, Horace Mann Readers, First Year (Longmans, Green & Co., 1912), pp. xxiii-xxiv. A STUDY OF READING BOOKS ii 6f the earlier type. An example of the type of discussion here referred to is as follows: With all this attention to content, what becomes of form, the mechanics of language ? Are the uses of the marks of punctuation, of capitals, of sen- tences, paragraphs, and the rest neglected ? Not at all; the learning of correct language forms is emphasized, but never as an end in itself, always as a means to an end. In the study of the bits of literature which the child understands and loves, he learns that certain forms are necessary to the expression of the content; he learns to appreciate the significance of forms. When he attempts to give expression to his own language material — at first taking a bit of litera- ture as a model — ^he uses the conventional language forms with discriminating intelligence. Forms are taught only as the child needs them to use; but once taught, it is uniformly insisted that he shall always use every language form correctly, and that he shall know why he uses it. This conscious and dis- criminating use of language forms from the first soon grows into right habits. Questions are used throughout the pupil's book, for the most part, not to test the pupil's knowledge but to arouse and direct his thought. This accounts for the character of those questions, sometimes quite frequent, that strongly suggest their answers. This type of question is often necessary to insure the trend of thought desired.' Another example taken from a book published in 1910 is as follows: For years the most progressive educators have been urging that only good literature should be used in sthool readers. Some authors of primers have thought it impossible to provide such material within the vocabulary that beginners can learn with ease. Others have used a little real literature with a large amount of unrelated and uninteresting material specially prepared for the sake of word repetition and phonic drill. After years of careful work we present some of these [simple folk] tales so as to utihze the child's love for the stories and make an easy road to reading. Avoiding the long struggle through forced interest, and the devious byways of artificial methods, we start the child at once into the realm of good, appro- priate literature." Another similar statement is as follows : In the past, a number of elaborate systems or "methods" have been worked out, and used in the schools with greater or less degrees of success. ' Frank E. Spaulding,and Catherine T. Bryce, Aldine Language Method (Newson & Co., 1913), Part One, pp. 4-5- ' Harriette Taylor Treadwell and Margaret Free, Reading-Literature, The Primer (Row, Peterson & Co., 19 10), Preface. 12 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT Practically all of these methods have been based upon the plan of analyzing our entire spoken language into its various phonetic elements, and then supply- ing drill on each of these elements by means of type words. The reading material of texts which foUow these methods consists largely of disjointed sen- tences, built up out of phonetically selected words, as they are from day to day developed. In recent years, however, experimental psychology has been throwing new light on the reading process In the light of the new psychology of reading, it would appear that the natural method of teaching the child to read provides him with material (stories) of such nature as wiU grip his interest and constantly develop his power for connected thinking, by means of incident and plot structure. Through the use of this vital content, the natural method develops the various phonetic elements of our language, one by one, as they are encountered in the story. A content of simple but vivid stories, expressed in a typical child vocabulary, wiU inevitably contain these phonetic elements, a.nd wiU bring them to the child in the course of his reading needs quite as rapidly as he is capable of master- ing them. Moreover, the type words selected from such material for drill purposes will come to him in interesting associations, as integral parts of real stories. Contrast the type words found in many primers and first readers, — doled out to the child in stiff, unnatural sentences, built up merely because some particular page is designed to exhibit, let us say the " in " family and there- fore weaves an inane sentence to contain the word "pin." In the nature of things, reading-material constructed on this artificial basis is certain to lack continviity of thought. Indeed, pages of such primers and first readers may be read almost as effectively by beginning with the last sentence and reading up to the top of the page, as by reading in the usual way from top to bottom.' THEORIES AS TO THE PSYCHOLOGICAL NATURE OF MEANING It will be seen from these quotations that there is developing in teachers' manuals and in introductions to readers a body of theory with regard to what goes on in the child's mind when he reads. The theories are obviously of importance in that they determine the methods by which pupils are to be taught and also the subject-matter to be offered them. How far the discussion carries one into the psychology of reading can, perhaps, be made clear by considering one contrast brought out by a system of readers which emphasize action words. 'William H. Elson and Lura E. Runkel, Teachers' Edition Elson Primary School Reader, Book One (Scott, Foresman & Co., 1915), pp. 163-64. A STUDY OF READING BOOKS 13 The Summers Readers are worked out on the principle that the most natural word with which to begin teaching a child is a word which appeals to his active nature. The pupil wants to do some- thing; therefore one should begin by writing on the board the word "run." When the pupil looks at that word and associates with it first the oral command and then the motor impulse he will have a motor interpretation of the word. This is better than a picture interpretation. This principle is a departure from the time-honored belief that the interpretation of words depends on a train of pictures in the mind. The ordinary primer with its profuse illustrations is based either explicitly or implicitly on the theory that children need to have in mind vivid mental pictures of the things about which they read. Current psychology has become so absorbed in the studies of behavior as contrasted with mental images that it has adopted the name "behaviorism" to describe its chief interest. The behavior- istic psychology will give careful heed to the suggestion that the early training of children emphasize action. In the later chapters we shall come back to the problem of meaning and to the methods of cultivating meaning in the most productive form. PRACTICAL ADJUSTMENT OF MEANING AND FORMAL DRILL It is clear in the light of current experience that the broad antithesis between emphasis on meaning or interpretation on the one side and emphasis on the foririal elements of reading on the other side is a matter of increasing importance. The time has passed when teachers can be satisfied with any system which does not give heed to the intelligent interpretation of what is read. There exists, on the other hand, a danger which should iiot be overlooked. It is the danger that enthusiasm for meaning will lead to neglect of the necessary training in the mechanics of reading. The older systems undoubtedly overemphasized driU in mechanics. The newer systems are sometimes neglectful of mechanics; they are sometimes scornful of all drill and of all detailed word analysis. 14 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT ' SCIENTIFIC STUDY BASED ON ANALYSIS OF READERS Our study of reading books leaves us with a number of problems sufi&ciently important to justify actual experimenting in the schools. Scientific study may safely follow the suggestions of practical experimentation in seeking out its major problems. SUMMARY The word method, which first developed after the abandonment of the A-B-C method, was found inadequate without the support of some type of phonic analysis. Phonic analysis has developed along various lines and has received varying degrees of emphasis. It deals with sound units, not letters, and inductively breaks up into elements words which are at first given as wholes. Oral reading, which is the chief subject of instruction in the schools, is different from silent reading and is not adequate for complete preparation of pupils who must use books for purposes of study in the upper grades. Of late great emphasis has been laid on meaningful reading matter. This has led to the development of theories as to the psychological nature of interpretation of printed matter. It has also raised pointedly the question whether formal drill in the mechanics of reading is necessary, and if so to what extent and at what period in the pupil's training. CHAPTER III EYE-MOVEMENTS OF ADULT READERS If we find out what an experienced reader does when he is reading a printed page we shall be able to define the goal toward which school training must carry the pupil. A study of the eye- movements of adults is therefore a suitable introduction to a later analysis of the eye-movements of pupils of various grades. The apparatus and method of this investigation have been described by C. T. Gray in an earHer monograph.' We may therefore omit the description here. One important refinement was introduced. On the same fihn on which the movements of the eye were photographed, a photograph was taken of a spot of hght reflected from a bead fastened to a pair of spectacle rims worn by the reader. This gave a reference Hne on the film and rendered it possible to determine with greater precision the exact position of the eye. The series of photographs to be reported in this chapter were made by A. R. GilUland. The readers were university students in the graduate deparment. All readings were of a single paragraph taken at random from a novel. Plate I reproduces the passage in I i-point type in the exact form in which it was presented to the reader at each reading. ANALYSIS OF THE RECORD OF EYE-MOVEMENTS. IN SILENT READING Plates II and III show the fixation pauses of Reader A during two silent readings of the passage. The Hnes have been separated in the vertical so as to make it easy to insert a number of figures and short vertical Knes. The short verticals indicate in each case a point of fixation. In some cases there are obHque or broken hnes; these indicate a sHght shift of the eye during fixation. The serial ' C. T. Gray, Types of Reading Ability as Exhibited through Tests and Laboratory Experiments, Supplementary Educational Monographs of the School Review and the Elementary School Journal, Vol. I, No. s (iQi?)) PP- 83-91. IS i6 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT PLATE I When Denny had regained consciousness, and everything possible for his comfort and for the as- sistance of his distracted mother, had been done; and the physician had assured them that the lad would be as good as evet in a day or two, the men crossed the street to the little white house. The passage read, showing the spacing between lines and the size of letters as used in the experiments. EYE-MOVEMENTS OF ADULT READERS PLATE II 3 /a 4 S \|Vhe|i Qpnny had ^ r regainec consciousne ss, ani 1 // /(? /2 evi :ry :hing possib le for his comf c rt and for the as • 17 sistanc^ of his distractep mother, had been done; ar d /3 S.0 /¥ /O the physi( ian had assui ed them that he lad wo iild // /S /3 /2 6 be as J ;obd as ever in /9 /3 a day or tpo, the men crossed 9 Ji ^ f 3 ¥ the sirejst to the little white house. f /3 // . 6 Silent reading by Subject A i8 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT PLATE III 3 U IVhen Denny had regainel consciousn ss, an I ^S tt 7 9 f // ev srything possi )le for his cdijif ort and for t le a i- /5- /y J3 // S sista nee of his distra 3 :ted mother, had beei i done; 4nd the pfysician had assured them that JS IS' // the lad woild /3 be as good as evt r m a day J¥ // /^ the stn let to the little or two, the meh cross ;d 3 ¥ white houi e, Silent reading by Subject A EYE-MOVEMENTS OF ADULT READERS 19 numbers above the verticals indicate the order of the pauses; at the lower end of each vertical is a number indicating in fiftieths of a second the length of the fixation. In the two cases presented in Plates II and III, A read the passage silently. The passage was perfectly familiar and yet was not memorized. The time consumed in reading the passage com- pared with A's general reading time shows that he read it carefully, that is, he consumed more time than he usually consumes in rapid reading but the same average time as in careful interpretation of simple material. Line i, Plate II, begins with a typical performance for the begin- ning of a line, especially the first line of a passage. A looks first at the last part of the first word. This does not satisfy him and he moves to the left and fixates the first letter. In general, records of the first line show an abnormal number of pauses because they usually include at the beginning such a series of movements as appear in this case. The third fijcation in line i, Plate II, is adequate to carry the reader over the second word; this means that he saw "Denny" either from point 3 or from point 4. Pauses 4 to 7 in the first line, Plate II, are short in duration and somewhat more numerous than the pauses in subsequent lines. It seems likely that the reading is not of normal type until after the first line. It is not safe to base generalizations on the results obtained in records of the first line, and in the tables this line will not be included in making up averages. Pause 7, hne i, Plate II, falls in the part of this word which Subject A regularly fixates. Apparently he needs to see clearly the last syllable of this word in order to distinguish it from related words ending differently. Lines 2 to 5 of this record show the typical eye-movements of silent reading for a trained adult. The fixations are fairly uniform in duration and they are so distributed as to make it clear that the reader recognizes phrases at each fixation. Striking examples are fixation 4, line 2; fixations 2 and 3, line 3; fixations i and 2, hne 4; and all of the fixations in line 5. 20 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT ANALYSIS OF PLATE III, SHOWING SILENT READING Plate III gives the same passage as Plate II, read silently on a different day by the same subject. This reading shows an abnor- mally long pause at the beginning of Kne i and short, frequent pauses in other parts of the line. The fixations in subsequent lines are uniform in duration and indicate a wide range oi recognition. There are a number of very noticeable coincidences in the two plates. Note the points of fixation in the words "regained" and "consciousness" (Kne i), in the phrase "for his comfort" (hne 2, both plates), and throughout hne 3. By way of contrast it may be noted that the two readings differ at the end of Kne 4 and at the beginning of lines 2 and 6. The fluency of a reader's perception differs at different times, but his habits of deahng with words are very much ahke. Certain further details are important. Short pauses at the ends of lines 2, 4, and 6 in Plate II, and Hnes 2, 3, 5, and 6 in Plate III, suggest that the pause immediately preceding the last virtually finishes the recognition of the line, but the eye moves to the extreme end to confirm and complete the process of recognition. Long pauses often accompany large achievements of perception, as will be seen in Plate II, line 3, pause 2; Hne 4, first two pauses; Hne 5, pause i ; and in Plate III, Hne 2, first three pauses; Hnes 3 and 4, pauses I and 2. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF READER A'S RECORD The length of the pauses and their distribution reveal much with regard to the inner processes of recognition on the part of the reader. Three general statements are justified: (i) Reader A exhibits certain recurring tendencies which seem characteristic of his methods of reading; (2) there are units of recognition which in some cases consist of words, in most cases of phrases or groups of words. These units are different according to the character of the words presented; (3) the beginning and end of a Hne present unique situations. At the beginning the process of recognition gets under way slowly in some cases while at the end the process of percep- tion is compHcated by the necessity of fitting the movements of the eye to the material presented. EYE-MOVEMENTS OF ADULT READERS 21 ANALYSIS OF PLATES IV AND V, SHOWING ORAL READING Plates IV and V show the results of the oral reading of the same passage by the same reader. It has long been known that the time reqiiired for oral reading is very different from that required for silent reading. Recently W. A. Schmidt' has shown for forty- five adults that the number and length of the pauses in silent read- ing and oral reading differ. The pauses in oral reading are more numerous in each line and their average length is greater.^ A superficial comparison of Plates IV and V with Plates II and III shows that the eye moves in an entirely different way in oral reading and in silent reading. The most conspicuous fact in the oral record is the tendency to fixate each word, while in silent reading the units of recognition are usually phrases. To be sure there are exceptions to the rule, but in general the fixations in oral reading fall on every word in the passage. The explanation of this difference is to be sought in the fact that oral reading is controlled by speech units rather than divided into units of visual perception. The unit of speech is the word. In oral reading the eye moves from word to word, directing in this way the vocal apparatus as it utters each unit. In silent reading, on the other hand, the unit for the trained adult is wholly different; it is not a unit determined by the requirements of speech. It is rather a unit of recognition. If the mind can grasp a phrase, that becomes the unit governing fixation. The difference in units in the two cases is related also to the difference in rate. The vocal apparatus requires more time to make its adjustments than does the eye. The slower pace in oral reading is- not determined, therefore, by the inability of the reader to see and recognize words rapidly. The silent-reading records show that he can recognize whole phrases rapidly. In oral reading the eye lingers on each word, waiting for the vocal apparatus. ' W. A. Schmidt, An Experimental Study in the Psychology of Reading, Supple- mentary Educational Monographs of the School Review and the Elementary School Journal, Vol. I, No. 2 (1917), p. 39. " Schmidt's table shows that the average number of pauses per line in silent read- ing for his forty-five readers was 6.5, while the average number of pauses in oral reading was 8 . 2 per line. The average duration of pauses in silent reading was 308 . 2 thousandths of a second; the average duration in oral reading was 380 . 8 thousandths. 22 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT PLATE IV V^hen Denny ha i regj ihed consciousr ess, an 1 2/ 7 Z& IS^ /o 1/ Z 3 everything possi)Ie for his corifort aid for the a; Z6 /i fZ /^ ^ /f // 7 S 3 Z ¥ sis ^f & ance of 1 is > listn cted mother, hi id be sn done; and 22 7 // /5- 22 /Z Zf tne physician had assured them Y Zf S 7 (> r tha the lad would /3 // ^ // i, 7 8- b( as g ood as *ver ii a da >r or two, the me: i ci ossed n f /Z IS' 13 22 /o S tfa e street to the 2y little w lite h )use. S 22 23 /r Oral reading by Subject A EYE-MOVEMENTS OF ADULT READERS 23 Z ■/ V^h(n Denn^ bad ij 7 PLATE V ¥ 5- regafied consciousness, ani 19 fo /Z II 7 a. / 3 eve ryi hing poss; ble f 01 5- (, his comfort aid for the iS' /3 /O JS Ig /(, /g. (f sistai ce of lis di stracted motl er, hi A been £f // /jT done; and /<, /z // ;?/ the 31 Z 3 physician lad issured hssa. hat the 13 IS IZ 9 lad won d /3 ? be i ,s go )d as e\ er in : i day or twc 17 II l(> ZO , the nen c 'ossec /Z Z3 /¥ ZO th( street to the little miite hoide. /Z ? IZ IZ 10 Ig Oral reading by Subject A 24 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT The differences between oral reading and silent reading are impressively illustrated by contrasting lines 4 and 5 in the two sets of plates. These lines are made up of short words and phrases; when read silently (Plates II and III) they require few fixations. When the same Hues are read aloud (Plates IV and V) the vocal apparatus must sound each word separately even though it is a short word; the eyes change their movements completely, accom- modating themselves to the demands of speech. The comphcations and long pauses at the beginning of hnes are more conspicuous in oral reading than in silent reading, indicating a leisurely adjustment throughout. In oral reading the ends of the lines have short fixations in fewer cases than in silent reading (Plate IV, Hnes 4 and 5; Plate V, Hne 4). This is undoubtedly due to the fact that in most of the Hnes read orally the eyes linger on the end until articulation catches up with them. There is no motive, as in silent reading, for the eyes to move on as soon as possible. Conspicuous cases, in which long pauses are not dictated by the demands of perception but are due to delay until the vocal apparatus can overtake perception, are seen in Plate IV, Hne i, pause 3 ; Hne 2, pauses 2-4; Hne 3, pauses 3 and 6; Plate V, line 3, pause 7; and Hne 5, pause 6. SUMMARY OF THE CONTRAST BETWEEN ORAL READING AND SILENT READING A study of these cases makes it clear that oral reading and silent reading are very different processes. Silent reading consists of a series of pauses determined in number and length by the demands of recognition, while oral reading consists of a series of pauses dominated by articulation, recognition in this latter case being more than adequately provided for within the pauses required for pronunciation. ANALYSIS OF SILENT RECORDS FROM SUBJECT B Plates VI and VII show two silent readings by Reader B . The record in Plate VII was taken immediately after that in Plate VI. The reading in Plate VII shows unmistakable signs of faciHtation of recognition as compared with the reading in Plate VI. It is EYE-MOVEMENTS OF ADULT READERS 25 Z 3 / W PLATE VI hi a Denny It had regained consciousnes s, anc everythi ig possible J9 3 V 9 S g" for his comf rt ai id for |the as- sistapce of his distracted piother, hid been donej and / Z J' the ph] sici Ein had assured the m that the la 1 would // f /5- /5" f- S n be as go( d as ev( r in a day oi two, th( me i crossed /S If JS /o the street io the little white hoi ,se. Silent reading by Subject B 26 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT PLATE VII Z I 3 ¥ Whcij penny had /3 tz Ig If regained coisciousness, and // evcr3fthing possible for h^ comfort and for the If /f 10 as- /Z sistance qf his distracted piolher, had b^en done; ; md /2 /« /7 '^ the physicim had assured hem that th< lad irould i¥ IS be as good as ever in a day or two, the msn crossed- /g- 19 /r /6 3 ¥ the sf reet to tie little white 1 ous z. /3 X Silent reading by Subject B. X indicates that it was impossible to determine with precision the length of the pause. EYE-MOVEMENTS OF ADULT READERS 27 easily demonstrated by experiments that one reading of a passage so prepares the reader that the second reading is more rapid. The facts shown in Plate VII give an important suggestion as to a method of teaching pupils to become rapid silent readers.* Suc- cessive readings of the same passage develop habits of recognition of phrases. It is not necessary to comment at length on the details of Plates VI and VII. As in the silent-reading records of individual A, so here phrases are recognized in many of the pauses. The units of recognition are longer in some instances than in the case of A. There is less consistency in the recurring fixations exhibited by B than there is in the readings of A in Plates II and III. The lack of consistency is to be explained in part by the improvements made in the second reading. Otherwise the typical facts discovered in the reading of A are repeated here. ANALYSIS OF ORAL RECORDS Plates VIII and IX show oral readings by Reader B and, as in the oral records of A shown in Plates IV and V, there are unmis- takable signs that the eye-inovements are accommodated to the rate of the vocal apparatus. The decided change in movements from those in Plates VI and VII confirms the conclusion, reached by examining A's record, that the mental attitude of the individual is very different in oral reading from that which he shows in silent reading. SELECTION OF READER OF DIFFERENT TYPE Readers A and B can be described in practically the same terms. Other adult readers have been photographed who have like general records. In the course of the photographing one subject was found who gave a characteristically different result. Four records from this subject, C, are given in Plates X-XIII. Plates X and XI show" silent reading; Plates XII and XIII, oral. C is a slow reader. He reports that his instructor in public speaking criticized him as a word reader. He had difficulty in his law courses because they required a great deal of reading. An examination of C's records shows that the unit of recognition in his 28 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT PLATE VIII f g. 3 ¥ 5- (.7 When Deany hid regaii ed consciousness, and J3 zz II z(, ir 17 / 7 r eve rything poss ible f ( r his cone fort a id f < r t le as- // /f 17 Zo 3Z IS" // /3s sist mce of h 33 17 g i distracted n othei , had 7 ^ beei L dor e; and // Zo 22 /f // iZ S 7 & g t le physician h 1 d ass ired t lem thj ,t tl e lad Zf 10 Ig would // Ig Ig /g. zc fio Z I 3 (. 57 17 Ig l¥ /(> 10 10 t leas good a 5 evei in i day r two, the men 9 10 l( /o /o crosied /f // /g Z. f- 3 the stn et o t le little t hite h wse /« ZZ zo Zo 4 7 22 3Z X Oral reading by Subject B. X indicates that it was impossible to determine with precision the length of the pause. EYE-MOVEMENTS OF ADULT READERS 29 PLATE IX 3 ¥ When D(nny had VS /3 /3 regained consciousness, and /S IS e' erythiig possible f(ir his comfort anc for ao g /¥ IS (, the as- 13 ¥ sistaice of I is dist acted mothe ■, had I een 6 7 If l¥ done and // la 1/ 1/ (, IS ¥ S & /f t le physician had ; assured hem that he lac would Z6 S Jl (> fi b£ as g( od as e ^er in a da y or t ra, the 1 aen croi sed l(> f IK g 9 ^i- A ¥ the stre st to the l¥ ittle VI hite hous< // // 9 «6 Oral reading by Subject B 3° READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT Z I S PLATE X V 5- 7 i f Whei Demy haf his < listi icted mother, &/ 17 fo J / /« S & 7 Y had be ;n d m ;j a id /5 /o /o f the pi ysician |had assumed thefi that fl|e lad wotfld f? 7 /& 13 /¥ 7 6 5 « / b( as // g // (. 7 i go d as I !ver in a i lay 01 i¥ 9 /e 13 twc, the men cr )ssed /S /(, // 'A S-o g / « y 3 5" 6 the St eet ,0 t le itt e \ rhite Y ouse. £ goo 1 as ;ver in 25" /5 /O i s I d ly or ijwo, the men cqossed ¥0 // / s the £ ti eet to the I: ttle n hite h }use. 3Z W /o S¥ /6 i'S' Silent reading by Subject C 32 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT PLATE XII 7 r W len Denry had regained consciousness, ard &(. Ri RC // /S- 9 /v /y V S everything ^g f ^0 IS /3 /3 g /^ possible f<;r his comf )rt 4 7 r // 10 and flor ;he 3 5- (> /o /3 Z 3 sis tance o ' hi; dist S ^ 7 ? f /o // Z3 acted moth :r, \ ad jeen ion;; ind 7 'f So /;? /3 &f Z3 7 IS «f 5" ^ V 3 /r t le physi :iar ha 1 assun d then tha the /e. g to 7 ^ ifi /a ad woull /6 /f /f /Z 32 S f ; 7 f f 10 // /Z 13 /*/■ be isyg 3 xl as ;ver in i , da ^ or ;wo, 10 g ( /s, an 1 ^6 i 8 fS «/ /S /o // /r /3 / R 3 ■/ 5" everj thing poi sil le f o r hi > comf o t and for the is- «7 / 3 Z sistanc ; of his c is ¥ 5 (, 7^9 racted n othe ■, had been ( lone ; ar d 23 Zf ZO /S /y ^0 i3 Z6 So 3 / S. the ph) sicijn hid assured th;ni (> 7 ? 9 /o tha the 1: ,d w ould /S Zb /V /9 '3 Zo /(, /3 fS f3 / Z 3 ¥ 5 i> 7 be a 5 goo( a; eve ? 9 '^ ir a dny or t"i/o, tie men crissed ^r J5 /3 13 IZ ^o ZS 13 Zf // I Z 3 the St e( t to ie lit 5 6 le whitt hoi se Zo to /3 ZL ZS /g Oral reading by Subject C 34 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT case is very small. Even in silent reading there is a marked tend- ency to fixate each word. His oral record shows in many lines more than one pause in a word. C's records when compared with those of Readers A and B furnish impressive evidence that somewhere in the education of this individual there must have been defective training in reading. It is easy to surmise that he probably was brought up in a school which emphasized oral reading, with the result that even when he reads silently he is dominated by oral-reading habits. The next chapter will take up a number of cases of pupils who are poor readers. There is evident need for early diagnosis of such cases if slow readers of the type represented by C are to be avoided. THE SPAN OF RECOGNITION FOR LARGE TYPE For further light on the matter of the span of recognition certain variations were introduced in the size of the type. First the type was increased to twice the size and later reduced to half the size of the original. If the eye-movements are merely adjustments of the eyes to the sensory material offered to the reader's observation, surely so radical a change in size of type would result in marked differences in the number and length of fixations. The records in Plates XIV-XVI prove that the span of recognition for each of the Readers A, B, and C is very Httle affected by the increase in size of type. In the case of A there is an increase of one and a half fixations in the average number of pauses per hne. For B there is no change in the number of pauses. For C the large type requires one or one and a half fixations less per line than did the medium- sized type. The average length of the pauses is different for A and B and the same for C. When all the variations are' taken into account it can be said that there is only a very sUght change in the number of words recognized at each fixation in spite of the doubling of the size of the type. Plates XVII-XIX show oral-reading records for the three readers and should be compared with Plates IV, V, VIII, IX, XII, and XIII. The correspondence here is even closer than in the silent-reading records. Not only so, but each reader exhibits clearly the personal characteristics discovered in his earlier records. EYE-MOVEMENTS OF ADULT READERS 35 SPAN OF RECOGNITION A MATTER OF TRAINING, NOT A MATTER OF SENSATION The results of this comparison can be expressed in psychological terms by saying that the sensory conditions of reading are of less importance than the established habits of recognition. In other words, that which a reader recognizes at each fixation is largely a product of training. Equipped with mature powers of recognition an individual will behave in the same way even when there is a difference in sensory material. SENSORY MATERIAL BECOMES DETERMINING FACTOR There comes a point, if type is steadily increased in size, when the words are spread out so much that recognition is difficult be- cause of the character of the sensory material. An extreme case is that of an illuminated sign where the letters are so large that even familiar words must be spelled out. SPAN OF RECOGNITION FOR SMALL TYPE Plates XX-XXIII show the way in which readers A and C deal with small type. In these records the characteristic personal traits of the readers appear once more, as do also the typical differ- ences between oral reading and silent reading. As compared with the records made with medium-sized t3^e the disturbance of the span of recognition is somewhat more marked with small type tha,n it was with 22-point type. The number of pauses is less and the average length of the pauses in silent reading is sUghtly greater. The effect on the fixations is, however, in this case by no means proportional to the change in the size of type. Such change as there is can be explained as due to the fact that more words fall within the area of clear vision than is the case with i i-point type. Furthermore, eye-movements are somewhat more difl&cult because of the small size of the line to be followed. The tendency is there- fore to reduce the number of fixations and enlarge the number of words recognized at a single fixation. The impressive fact is that the deviation from the record with i i-point type is small. Instead of there being half as many fixations for type half the size, the character of the eye-movements undergoes only shght change. 36 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT X H < c en (A -^ crj- c\i- 0) U -^ Wl 1> c ■♦J .- EYE-MOVEMENTS OF ADULT READERS 37 V- (U CO CtV fV- 0) CD (A O c 0) ■^ a> o •o CQ C u ->- 03 •o -O- o bo cd ■^ ^ ^ 4> — ^ tr). iCVf- u en ^ 38 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT NO. > < Ah Vck- "n- cvi- c (A (A <]> C 3 -O-b c o c be c c G ■s^ rr). 0<- (1> -w o c C8 o o u o ■§ ■(V C • ^ c -©- c 0) o E •a 0) ■M :d CA ' -o o 4^ (15 •■wm a> CA EYE-MOVEMENTS OF ADULT READERS 39 3 O -1^ o 0) E d 0) 3 C <1> (V tr>- cvc >^ o •5! <^- -©- CD 3 o V. 5 a. ■3 'S 13 .00 S "S. & "L. -^ JJ2 a> .S > (U X Q> £ ^M M ^ 8 CO o ■^-^ ^ •o >. o_ ^ 1 o be 2: 2 4^ •hj tn CO es a> S 0) j: £ -M 4P > f<- (T)- NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT CO -e- c Q -4^ ^ CT). ^ •§ \0- V.- 5^- o>- cd • 0\ c o c •a 9i ■4^ O E u "5 c ed .22 *55 -.^ ■5 EYE-MOVEMENTS OF ADULT READERS Q> vs- c E a> 41 -5i Or>- to 3 O -«h _AJ_ .«) o .s g c .S D. oi- (1> > CO CO JD •so (V- (1> 0) .JO .Cs. 42 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT < cr>- CVi- c 09 (A c (A .CO O CO C O •a c bo c c Q c 0) -^ Oi >s- t^ ««■ II -CO — 6o 0^ :0- c -oS- > -J? u o <^ E o u w •WM JB ^ o< s. O «*-« (1> Vs ^ <: • VM tf) (A O D. b« ^- «v- cr>- C\i- -s- c c JD ei3 o E cd u -ta- c ■XT -5J -^ ^ — w EYE-MOVEMENTS OF ADULT READERS 43 Nfl- o 3 -tfj— 5^ <5) VS- O -O- CO O o (A -©- -^ };? ^ \B. CT)- 3- -N6 ^ 0) <1> (1> (A 5* ■ (1h CQ (A CO a> CD 3 O C o £ c c ■ «ri- -tft- :0- 0) o a C 0) «o •a c e<3 4» — ^ c o o E -JSJ — ^ •5 ■^ -fli- <\i. c EYE-MOVEMENTS OF ADULT READERS. 45 '^■ >®- CT). CVJ- 3 O cs -5^ ■S E 0) -53 ^3 3 (A (A — fl3 — ^ 'O x: c -03 — •< *CA -lU— N, ^ tA JO— ^ o o V g a o .§ (A 46 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT ^ .Q ^ -«— 5< C (D 3 ®_^ C o u c ■^S3 — oi u ■^S-^ ^^^ >, -B-^ C Q ^■ >- VS- (\i- II 0) c -C8- o o -tir -e- o D. > .^ \ •§ -^ Si - < C C3 ^ C CO .- ■•o -x .«^. ■^ -N EYE-MOVEMENTS OF ADULT READERS 47 •o T3 — ^ o . c« ^ s> 2 *o ^ - b <*\ •5^.- 0) o !_ u o >> CO 45- > "5B~ . .Q Q hn W .3 ^ "3 48 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT PLATE XX PLATE XXI 3 ^ /6 ^ 'hen Denny hod egained conicii aineH, ' a id /f // 7 / Z 3 ¥ 5" rhen : enny hod uineas. an If, tSi. RO 3 6 f rything poseil e for his omfort and foi the as' /(, /3 /¥ /(, 5 ^ distracted mother, had been IS /(. /g 6 lie phTiician had as ared them that the 1« would /■/ /7 ;?e as gi od as ever a a day or wo, the men ya /o fz 9 // / z 3 ¥ tpe street to the little wh te h ase. /a /o /o f Silent reading by Subject A / Z 3 ¥ S- 6 7 irything possible for tiis eomf rt and foi /s g to R7 S ^3 7 3 4,¥ s r sis anceofhiei istracted mot ler, hi d J(, /K /o /¥ /7 9 r / -e 3 ¥ s & le physic an had assi red tt tm thai the lad rouJd ZS /S /o /S /? 7 S3 ¥ w as good ai or two. tl e men crossed / « 3 ^ ff to the lit le whi e honse. g // /f t& Z¥ Oral reading by Subject A EYE-MOVEMENTS OF ADULT READERS PLATE XXII PLATE XXIII / Z 3 ¥ S & Z / 3 ¥ S 67^ len De iQy lad egamed co iBCiousnei i, and 30 Z0 3g^S. /6 /Z 49 ly hat regali l^ 10 RS l(, /3 /O g,S >4 / z 3 'f S & 7 thing pouil|le foq his i|omtort and J3 /(, Zo // /S /e 1/ Z / 3 ¥S (, 7t fiverj ihini possible 1 ir hi If mfort and (oi th< as so lit / « f S (>7 hiBdtatrai ted mother, b id been dont : ai d /i // RS Z¥ /f IS // I Z 3 If S & 7 fhe rh] lician had : saur rl the n that the &/ 2/ /9 tS Z9 If. !(, Z / 3 ¥ 5 i, 7 t Z/ oo( HSever D a daj r tffc the ^¥ n /S Z9 7 /(, Z / 3 fS i Z/ 17 -5/ Z¥ J3 I? Silent reading by Subject C J Z 3 .¥ S i 7 Bdiati ictedmot ler.had leendt ae; a I Zo /Z 10 % IZ ZO IJ n 9 to / Z 3 ¥ $■ 6 7 ? the p lyaician h d a sured t lem t /S /o'Z Z? iS 17 /S /3 17 /2 / « 3 V S (, 7 be as gooc as ev ir in -a d yoi two, the Zt 13 IS' 13 /S Z8 30 Z f ¥ (.7 tbe itrmt to th lit le vbitii IZ IZ/S 17 tf IZ Oral reading by Subject C. X indi- cates that it was impossible to determine with precision the length of the pause. so READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT It is therefore legitimate to reiterate the statements made above regarding the span of recognition. This is a product of personal training. Its range is dependent more largely on the individual's powers of interpretation than on the character of the sensory material. For our later study of the reading of pupils in school this con- clusion is of crucial importance and will furnish the key to all analyses of children's records. MEANINGLESS SERIES OF LETTERS A further confirmation of the foregoing statement was secured by repeating with Reader A an experiment which has been tried by earher investigators. A series of unrelated letters was presented to this reader and he was asked, as in the common test for marking out a's, to note the letter a wherever it appeared. He was required to count the a's rather than mark them out. In this way the record reported in Plate XXIV was secured under conditions which make it directly comparable to A's silent-reading record. The mode of perceiving isolated letters is wholly different from the mode of perceiving words. Especially interesting are the frequent backward movements. These can be noted in line 3, pauses 7 and 8j in line 6 four times, and also in other lines. The span of recognition here is also much narrower than in reading. There is a certain clumsi- ness in carrying out the process of recognition. It would be inter- esting for the purpose of experimenting in the psychology of learning to repeat the test with a view to determining what course this clumsiness would follow in its disappearance. This record shows that where recognition is of a different type from that cultivated in reading the fixations of the eye will reflect the change in the character of the psychological situation. A line of meaningless letters requires more fixations and ,longer fixations than a fine of meaningful words because words can be learned and recognition of them can be facihtated through training, while the selection of a's is not a matter for which education can prepare in the same degree. SUMMARY TABLE All of the facts that have been shown in the foregoing plates are summarized in quantitative form in Table I. This table can EYE-MOVEMENTS OF ADULT READERS 51 PLATE XXIV hp /5- f S £, /of gvjen bsfgt( dbvmzkhfpc ial gjflurcc ihdj( u b tv /3 /y ndefx :jcdtn /f Zt 4- S IZ /o 8 // /z /a // wfzeojc Ifhycij' ypz ikeqfvyz & 7 \ sxfpv jy Z3 /r «7 f¥ f9 /r /^ ;8 / mxn Luf itvxpyralkj 5-6 )wqfv ►ystexr ilp biqcrdj 'u qzihj /r f ^ / 3 «7 /5- /f 7 7 // J« /f' >ey ¥ s 7 c pskd( moi gfy iwepka sditc gmqi fts libdrp2 vxqufs id /¥ 9 /s Z3 -25" /r /3 sz /r s r f / < « O ■^ ■* I- lo O Oi 0\ 0> 00 fO o ** Si," 1^ •9 s 1^ o p< o o. II -or*. t^Tl- t^O t-.TOOOC*Oto ^"O t^ t^ t» t-CO O ■* CO < ) lo 03 V3 *0 t 00 00 w 00 "O rO 00 00 00 t- ^ \n -^ lo H ^ O t^ « Oi ":1- r^ Th coo r* N to 00 « ooo »o to »000 ^ Ov \0 The record reproduced in Plate XXV is the silent-reading record of a third-grade child who is a rapid reader rated fair in quaUty of reading. This child was not the best reader in the class but gave the only complete photograph. Her rating was brought down to fair by a low score in reproducing what she read. Her unit of recognition tends to be the word. The curious gaps in lines 3 and 4 probably explain why the child is only fair in reproduction. There is no possibility of a complete understanding of passages if sections of lines are overlooked. The probabilities are that these gaps do not represent sudden enlargements of the span of recognition but rather a failure to see certain words due to some distraction of the reader. It is to be noted that in both cases the letters fixated after S6 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT PLATE XXV I (, b f o^ r, a i th e ball /O f JO 9 // urns ro und, i litt e, am I a r t3 IS 19 13 13 6 If 7 ts t I 3 f f it le I lore, what is it 4 that cor les out of the ^ ' 5- V i iarl and gl earns /7 f n thi ligl t of the sun ? H ts 10 g g.3 i: tret< /6 3 S^ hes w de /6 ^ 4 the ocean, and spark les to( ; I& Si3 I 4 ZOIflO 13 7 (, i 'ita e places, si looth is~ ,\ ond ; in 9 IS. It fl^ others, IS Silent reading by a rapid reader in the tliird grade with a fair quality record (Subject No. 2 in C. T. Gray's tables). ANALYSIS OF CHILDREN'S READING 57 the gap are conspicuous letters and may have furnished strong motives for long eye-movements forward. The record is not unUke the oral records of adults except for the irregularities noted. In general the wide units of recognition characteristic of adult silent records are absent, and the lengths of the pauses show that recognition is comparatively slow and often quite irregular. The limited units of recognition of third- grade pupils are confirmed by all the children's records and by all earlier investigations of pupils' eye-movements. The broad unit of recognition characteristic of adult silent reading is thus proved to be a matter of cultivated experience. Even here it must be remembered that we are dealing with a fair reader who has had more than two years of school experience. The fact that this child is at a level of development at which words are the common units of recognition suggests a number of questions. Is a word a common unit because of the spacing between words in ordinary printed matter, or is the spacing in printed lines the result of the printer's effort to facilitate a human habit ? In the cases of adults the word is the unit in oral reading. Is there a relation between adult oral reading and the silent reading of a third-grade pupil ? REGRESSIVE MOVEMENTS In adult records several cases were noted in which the eye returns upon the path it has traversed. A similar backward movement often appears at the beginning of lines. Backward movements are so common in children's records that they deserve special attention. For example, in Plate XXV regressive move- ments are shown in pauses 9-10 in Kne i, pauses 4-5 in line 3, pauses 4-5 in line 4, and pauses 6-7 in line 5, besides at the begiiming of every hne in the plate. The regressive movements at the begin- nings of lines are easy to explain. Evidently the eye, in making the long trip back to the beginning of a new line, fails to fijcate the first word with precision and makes a second movement to bring about a satisfactory begiiming. The short duration of the first pauses in Plate XXV, lines 1,3, and 4, and the relatively short fixations in the first pauses in lines 2 and 5, make it clear that the first fixations are periods of readjustment rather than of complete S8 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT recognition. In cases of true regressive movements within the line the explanation is probably of somewhat the same type. The eye has made a movement which does not fit recognition. In order to get the word or letter necessary to complete recognition the eye must move back. The first pause in a regressive pair — and in a few cases the second pause — ^is often short, indicating that read- justment is going on in the effort to get material for recognition. Such facts appear in pause 9, line i; pause 4, line 3; pause 5, line 4; and pause 6, Hne 5. The record of a child's reading in Plate XXV lacks the fluency and breadth of units of recognition characteristic of an adult silent record. The short units of recognition, the regressive movements, the gaps, and the irregularities in the time units of fixation when taken together justify the statement that the child is very immature in his reading and consequently clumsy in his recognitions. POOR READING IN THE LOWER GRADES The record in Plate XXVI is taken from a third-grade pupil who is a slow reader, graded as fair. It is in striking contrast to the record shown in Plate XXV. Time records of pauses are not supplied in the first line because it was impossible to make out the time dots with precision for several of the fixations. After the first line the record was clear. Parts of this record seem to indicate that the reader can recog- nize a word at a fixation. This is true in the main throughout line 2. But the second half of line i and several portions of the record of line 3 can be described only by the one term "confusion." The child is evidently compelled to riiake the greatest efforts before he can master the words. He moves his eyes about, restlessly trying by getting different views to recognize the complex of letters. MEANING OF PERIODS OF CONFUSION There must be a corresponding degree of mental effort during such a period of confusion. The continuity of thought must be seriously interrupted, and the mechanical side of the reading process which consists in the effort to master words must occupy the center of attention. ANALYSIS OF CHILDREN'S READING 59 PLATE XXVI // /3 9 /« /2 f // go / Z 3 ¥ S 6 '^( w, its t le hal turr ! /f /f /( id, i litt;( «/ , tnda ;e/3yf^7 f f it le nore, wliat sit hat rcmcs (|ut 4 lO // « /5 tilt 7 ^7 f // 7< / ¥ s dari L ; ir d g^I !ai is /o distant c \\\ les /f // n,x /& f // -e a ii del &3 Zl 26' 5ia Davyth i */* /3 '7 // // /i» /e tn 1 istb !p i stiaidi i ght ZIZZZI /«■ /<< >sr>7>s and that C iri it C3 3< /if « /6 Silent reading by a slow reader in the fourth grade with a poor quality record (Subject No. IS in C. T. Gray's tables). X indicates that it was impossible to determine with precision, the length of the pause. ANALYSIS OF CHILDREN'S READING 65 in the analysis of words may very properly be described as training him in the mechanics of reading. Purely mechanical training is in an important sense in opposition to the purpose of the school in its effort to make good readers. The school aims to reach the level of fluent synthetic grasp of phrases. Mechanical training does, indeed, temporarily prevent the pupil from understanding the meaning of passages. Mechanical training would not be justified if distractions could be avoided by ready recognitions of all words. Mechanics are justified only when they contribute to final fluent recognition of words. SERIES or EECORDS FROM VARIOUS GRADES The next record, Plate XXIX, is that of a fair reader rated as the best in the fifth grade. The girl ,from whom this record is taken is described as nervous. It is interesting to note that at times she is confused, but the fact that she gets the meaning of what she reads shows that she knows how to extricate herself. For example, from pause 4 to pause 7 in line 3 she is confused, but she masters the situation and goes forward successfully in fixations 8 to 12. Confusion also appears in pauses 6 to 8 in hne 2. The record appears in general characteristics less mature in tjrpp than the record in Plate XXVII and more mature than the record in Plate XXVIII. In all these cases some allowance should be made for difficulty of reading matter. The passages used for the different records may be of different degrees of difl&culty. Plate XXX shows the record of a poor reader in the fifth grade. The units of recognition are throughout very short. There are several regressive movements and the lengths of pauses are irregular. In spite of these marks of immaturity the record is free from any gross cases of confusion. In Hne i, fixations 11 and 12, and in line 3, fixations 7 to 10, there is a suggestion that regressive move- ments within the line are the last remnants of spots of confusion. Plate XXXI shows the record of a good reader in the sixth grade. This record has the characteristics of a mature adult record. 66 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT PLATE XXIX « / 3 A po tioi o f ^ 7 the Gi !cian hos : br >ke i p camp anc // /S It, IR r // set sai « 3 as if the y wei : hoin iwardl ( und; bi /O /O ;, one ; 13 out o: le. 3 6^ 7f igdt ^7 /3 «/'^/3 // r 9 /e tl ly and ore< X /f /3 /X thei: s bips b hind a /7 /£ Silent reading by a fair reader in the fifth grade (Subject No. 24 in C. T. Gray's tables). X indicates that it was impossible to determine with precision the length of the pause. ANALYSIS OF CHILDREN'S READING 67 PLATE XXX / « 3 9 S (, The re was an( th X f 13 iS T bir I in tl wl o 3 ¥ /g S r f 'o /3 (■ 7 7 /o hoi rev< r, ^3 // /e kn( w ^ 'hat g: asshop] ers v ere good fi r. He / / « 3 /r /« // 9 Z .1 S i J wt sai orchaid oriole ;ai d,a terlc )king( lawhi! /(> 9 /z 'f 10 js- /o Silent reading by a poor reader in the fifth grade (Subject No. 23 in C. T. Gray's tables). X indicates that it was impossible to determine with precision the length of the pause. 68 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT PLATE XXXI A pi rtion c f the Gre< «3 // J3 3 Jan host broke up camp a: /2 - set sail as if they wi re homeward /f // bound; but, once /^ /O out of S" J3 sight, they ancho ed their ships behind i Silent reading by a good reader in the sixth grade (Subject No. 31 in C. T. Gray's tables). ANALYSIS OF CHILDREN'S READING 69 Plate XXXII shows the record of a poor reader in the seventh grade. The characteristic fact here is that the reader is painfully slow and that the scope of each perception is very narrow. There are occasional regressive movements. In a way the danger, in this situation is even greater than in the situations discovered in the lower grades. Here the pupil gets through the task of reading by slow and painful methods. His habits are evidently becoming fixed while his methods are wrong. Where the pupil got such bad methods is difficult to say. Pos- sibly he acquired them through his own unguided efforts. It is not at all impossible that he got the first suggestion of short units of recognition from phonic work or spelling taught in the school. Whatever the source, these short units of recognition represent a pernicious limitation of the child's efforts. His habits are the more pernicious because they are reinforced by the natural tendencies toward visual analysis and run counter to the demand for broad units of recognition comprehending meaningful phrases. In an earlier paragraph we had occasion to point out that phonic analysis is a possible means of helping a pupil out of confusions. We encounter in the short units of recognition one of the possible dangers of phonic or other analytical methods. THE COURSE OF PROGRESS IN READING If we review the records examined, from the immature reading in the third grade to the mature form of reading exhibited in the sixth-grade record, it is possible to describe the progress of the pupil in some such general terms as the following. The pupil starts with no very definite ability to recognize written or printed matter. Ultimately he is to arrive at the point where he can take in at each fixation a whole phrase made up of many letters. If, in passing from the first vague recognition to the mature recognition of phrases, he is given too much to see or is pushed so fast that he encounters unfamiliar combinations, he becomes confused. If, on the other hand, the units of recognition are made too short and are drilled too much in detail, then he never learns to comprehend in a single act of recognition more than a few elements. Either con- fusion or the habit of seeing few letters will defeat the purpose of 70 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT PLATE XXXII Z / 3 ¥ S 7 ac osi the kiiii cklcs f 9 /O vhic [ liardlv fel das) ed >ut of 3 S ¥ the do 3r in :o th^ clear s ^nlight /O IS 7 /^ g /o IX. /« Some oni 3 Silent reading by a poor reader in the seventh grade (Subject No. 36 in C. T. Gray's tables). In the first line and at X it was impossible to determine with precision the length of the pauses. ANALYSIS OF CHILDREN'S READING 71 instruction. If, on the other hand, familiarity with words and combinations of words is cultivated in such a way as to lead to synthesis of larger wholes, the pupil will pass rapidly from recog- nition of words to synthetic mastery of large units. No one who has sympathetically studied records of the type discussed will have the sUghtest doubt what all the experimentation is about when schools try to find methods of helping pupils to. recog- nize what is presented in a line of printed matter. Plate XXXIII shows the record of a good reader in the seventh grade. The contrast with the record in Plate XXXII of a pupil in the same grade furnishes an impressive example of individual differences. The handicap of the child who cannot recognize words in getting information out of a book is very great as contrasted with the advantage enjoyed by the well-prepared pupil. It is clear that the pupil who has the power exhibited in Plate XXXIII will have the advantage in every respect in school work. RELATION OF THE FOREGOING ANALYSES TO STUDIES OF SPEED It may be well to point out the relation of these findings to speed in reading. It has been shown in a number of recent investi- gations, notably by WiUiam S. Gray,' that the rapid reader is in general the one who can reproduce most completely what he has read. The meaning of the statement is clear from these records. The child who reads rapidly has a good technique of reading. His processes of recognition are unconfused and wide in scope. The pupil who is not well trained is tangled up in confused perceptions or absorbed in short units of recognition and cannot give attention to the meanings of passages. DIFFERENT LEVELS OF ABILITY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL Plates XXXIV and XXXV present the now familiar contrast between a good reader and a poor reader. These two readers are taken from high-school classes. ' William S. Gray, Studies in Elementary-School Reading through Standardized Tests, Supplementary Educational Monographs of the School Review and the Ele- mentary School Journal, Vol. I, No. i (1917), p. 136- 72. READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT PLATE XXXIII Zf I matched a ci tiass from U e pile, and some 2(7 ^/ 3 at thi same time s latching ano her, gave m : a cut /So /£> // /s ¥ 3 acro|s the knuc^es which I hare ly felt. I di shed 9 9 13 /f Silent reading by a good reader in the seventh grade (Subject No. 41 in C. T. Gray's tables). ANALYSIS OF CHILDREN'S READING n PLATE XXXIV On th« lower step of this thro le the char pion '¥ /g /t 'was made I ¥ ^ o kneel d f Silent reading by a poof reader in the high school (Subject No. 49 in C. T. Gray's tables). In the first two lines and at X it was impossible to determine with precision the length of the pauses. ANALYSIS OF CHILDREN'S READING 75 Even though the reader whose record is presented in Plate XXXV can be described as in advance of the poorest readers of lower grades, there are clear evidences of what we have called con- fusion. Thus at the beginning of line 2 there is a halting start. From pause 5 to pause 9 in line i there is confusion, and again from paHise 7 to pause 10 in line 2. There is double fixation of certain words, as in pauses 3, 6, and 7, line 3, and pauses 11 and 12, line 2. These distractions are enough to. make reading a difl&- cult process for the individual. The freedom and swing in Plate XXXIV promise much for the study of history or science or any other subject which calls for reading free from the mechanics of recognizing words. That a high-school record should show the imperfections exhibited in Plate XXXV is a highly significant fact. The asser- tion is often made that high-school students are not able to get the meaning from the printed page. Here is direct evidence of the validity of that statement. The student represented in Plate XXXV may by sheer perseverance get his lessons, but the effort involved in reading greatly increases his labor. The simplest and most desirable solution of the problem in his case would be to correct the imperfect reading habit. Such a case raises at once the question, Why does the high school fail to check up the students in their reading habits ? The answer is that the high school assumes that all students can read well when they come from the eighth grade. This assumption has no justification in experience. A very large number of pupils in the upper grades do not read well. Methods of diagnosis some- what less elaborate than those described in the text must he^ devised for the detection of these poor readers. In the mean- time one of the most important lessons from this study will be lost if it is not clearly recognized that side by side in the same grade and in the same high-school class are pupils who are very widely separated in reading abihty. In the degree in which this is true our methods of teaching reading are unsuccessful and our methods of testing, our results have up to this time been defective. 76 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT ORAL AND SILENT READING OF IMMATURE READERS All of the foregoing records have been records of silent reading. The contrast between silent reading and oral reading which was pointed out in the study of adult records may be worth confirming. Three plates are presented: Plates XXXVI, XXXVII, and XXXVIII. Plate XXXVI is from a fifth-grade pupil rated fair, whose corresponding silent record is not complete. This fifth- grade record is one of the few satisfactory oral records secured with a lower-grade child and is inserted in spite of the fact that there is nothing to permit a direct comparison. A vague, general comparison with the fourth- and fifth-grade records of silent read- ing above presented is not wholly unjustifiable. The record shows that fixations are long in duration and numerous, indicating that here as in the adult records the eyes are waiting for the vocal cords. The record in Plate XXXVII shows one satisfactory line from the same pupil who gave the very good record in Plate XXXI. The contrast is of the type which became familiar in the study of adult records. Plate XXXVIII is from the pupil who gave the excellent record in Plate XXXIII. These three examples of oral reading are enough to confirm the conclusions of the last chapter with regard to the characteristic differences between oral reading and silent reading. gray's general table of FIXATIONS The details presented in the foregoing plates will make intel- ligible the general body of facts collected by C. T. Gray and pubKshed in his Table XXXVIII. This table is accordingly reproduced here in Table II. It gives averages for each of the readers reported in the plates. In some cases the plates do not report all of the lines of printed matter on which Gray's figures are based. The table also reports a number of persons who are not included in the plates here reproduced. The results discussed in this chapter are given greater generality by an appeal to Gray's full table. ANALYSIS OF CHILDREN'S READING 77 PLATE XXXVI / g 3 (, ¥ S g T 9 /O tl This was s( une: ;p ectei , an j sei med s< S( riov s a 7 /3 13 IS n iz 1/ IT It X f / 2 3 V ^ to 6 m itter that Di 'was 1 n c ^ 8 /R 10 Z 3 S 9 // /Z /3 /S idist ressed, worn e: ir % 13 X6 // If 10 g /3 /¥ what had becon le of h s /¥ '¥ J< (> 7 ? 1 /o dear old j ;rai An other, and /3 /Sr If /s- f If Oral reading by a fair reader in the fifth grade (Subject No. i8 in C. T. Gray's tables). X indicates that it was impossible to determine with precision the length of the pause. PLATE XXXVII mutineers hai ?0 S (. X ig. ilrend] been v warming i p the pali /is 1^ . /S i iz Oral reading by the reader whose record for silent reading is shown in Plate XXXI. X indicates that it was impossible to determine with precision the length of the pause. 78 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT PLATE XXXVIII 10 Wh« /s n I had |rs /O 4, & Xf t3 1 // 17*. If 6 "f IR e( f: om M le do ir, the othi /3 /O // mutii leers had a 3 read] been i warming up h( pali 9 7 i sad< to make 13 // an em I of us. One man, in a r id /J- ¥0 /3 Oral reading by the pupE whose record for silent reading is shown in Plate XXXIII. X indicates that it was impossible to determine with precision the length of the pause. ANALYSIS OF CHILDREN'S READING 79 TABLE II Data Concerning Eye-Movement Records in Silent Reading Grade Subject Average No. of Pauses per Line Average Length of Pauses Average Variation for Length of Pauses Average No. of Regressive Move- ments Average Length of Regressive Move- ments Average Variation for Length of Regres- sive Move- ments Silent- Reading Rate 3 I 2 3 , 4 6 7 8 . 9 13-8 7-9 9.2 6.2 7-3 7-1 14.0 I4S 18.2 135 12.9 12.8 IS. 6 II. 8 1S.6 13 I 6.9 3-6 4.0 2.1 5.2 2.2 4-2 4.8 4.1 2.0 4.0 0-3 I.O 1-3 30 3-S 19.6 14.6 13-3 3-7 8-S 12.2 16.6 II. 6.2 2.8 3-9 0.0 o-S 0.2 1. 1 3S 3-I-I-3 4-S-2-S 3.6-2.1 4 . 1-2 . 2 3-3-1-9 S.8-2.S I . 9-0 . 8 2-S-1-9 Average. 10. 6.7 5-6 II. 7-4 12.3 II-5 14.2 10.9 IO-5 4-1 2-3 2.7 2.4 0.9 1.2 4-5 1.6 30 IS 12.4 S-9 9S 2-3 0-3 1.0 lo 11 [2 13 IS I 17 3 - i-i - 7 2.7-1.6 3.0-1.6 2.4-1-3 2 .2-1 .0 2.0-1 .2 4 16.9 II. 9 3-7 2.9 IS -2 iSS 2-S ■i-S Average . 91 9.0 10.7 7.0 130 10.3 7.0 130 12.5 14.7 II-3 14. S 2.9 4-3 3-3 4-2 2. 1 1.0 3-2 1.0 4-3 1.0 2.0 4-5 ii-S 8.6 12.8 11. 1 1-3 0-3 4-3 0.4 5 ■ i8 19 21 22 23 24 25 3-I-I-7 2.9-1.2 3S-I-S 2.3-0.8 3.8-1.4 4. 1-2. I 3-0-1.2 12.6 16.0 2.9 31 iS-3 12-S 0.0 o-S 10. 155 4.0 9-3 6.3 5.8 4.6 7-5 13.8 iS-4 12.2 139 12. 1 11. 2 II. II-5 3-S S-7 3-2 3-4 2.4 2. 1 2.7 2.0 2.4 4.5 0.0 1-7 I.I o-S 1.0 1.0 12.0 13-4 I.I 3-4 26 27 28 29 30 31 I 32 2 . 9-0 . 8 S-3-I-8 3-7-1-3 4 . 1-2 . I 6.0-4.3 S-6-2.S 4.6-1 .6 6 iS-6 9-1 3-9 10.3 6.8 1-7 o-S 0. 2 0.2 i.8 7-5 7.0 10. S 9-3 10,7 8.2 8.1 7.0 50 4.6 12.5 31 1-4 2.0 2.0 2.0 3-2 0.7 2.0 1.0 0.0 o-S 9.8 1-3 ■ 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 I 41 4-1-2. S 3-4-1-3 3.0-1.9 3-4-1-9 4.1-1.6 5 -9-2-0 S-9-2-8 4.6-2.4 3-S-2-I 7 ■■ iS-3 14.4 II. 4 135 13 I 12.9 14.0 14. 1 4-3 4.7 3-5 3-4 3-3 35 2.4 ,3-1 13-3 17.7 II. 4.4 10.4 9-S 0,0 s-s 1.2 i-S 2. 2 0. 1 0.6 0.8 u.O 0.2 7-8 13-6 35 '•S 9.0 0.8 8o READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT TABLE 11— Continued Grade Subject Average No. of Pauses per Line Average Length of Pauses Average} Variation for Length of Pauses Average No. of Regressive Move- ments Average Length of' Regressive Move- ments Average Variation for Length of Regres- sive Move- ments Silent- Reading Rate 42 43 44 45 46 47 50 I SI 6.0 6.3 7.0 8.6 4.6 5-4 6.2 - 7-1 12.8 10.4 2.5 1.8 0.0 1. 1 0.5 2.1 0.4 U.6 0.6 I.I 0.0 6.0 0.0 0.7 4-9-2-5 6-5-3-5 4.7-2-0 3-9-2-6 4.6-1.9 6-S-3-3 5.1-2.1 4.6-2.1 H.S II. 4 10. 1 12.8 3-3 2.2 2,6 4-7 4-9 12.4 0.0 0.2 0.2 Average . 6.4 S-i 8.8 S-o 8.4 7.6 S-2 6.8 8.2 ii-S 8.7 II. 9 II. 12.3 9.9 12-5 10.4 13-8 2-S 3-i 2.9 1-4 2.1 2-S 2.8 2.2 4-3 0.8 I.O 2.0 0. 1 1.2 1-4 0.7 1.0 1.2 5-6 10.3 10.3 1.2 10.6 12.8 S-2 6.9 7-7 U.2 0.2 1.8 0.0 0.4 0.8 o.os 0.1 o-S C ' 52 S3 54 H S6 57 S8 . 59 8.2-3.8 8.2-3.1 8.2-3-4 4-1-2.4 6.8-3.3 10 . 0-3 . 6 6.8-3.1 6.0-2.8 Average. 6.9 "•3 2.6 I. I 8.1 o-S SUMMARY Immature readers are characterized by a narrower span of recognition than that exhibited by mature readers. Poor reading in the upper grades is in many cases characterized by a persistence of short units of recognition. Such short units apparently may become fixed if, indeed, they are not induced by excessive emphasis on methods of analysis. Periods of confusion appear in the reading of immature pupils. With increased training these become less marked and less frequent, but traces of them persist in the records of .poor readers even in the upper grades and high school. There are evidences that analysis may train a pupil to proceed by very short steps through a series of words and letters which at first are unrecognized. In the third grade the word is the longest unit of perception commonly found even in good readers. In a few cases short phrases are recognized at a single fixation. The fourth grade ANALYSIS OF CHILDREN'S READING _8i^ exhibits more mature types of reading, and above this grade records show a steadily increasing nuihber of cases in which phrases are recognized in a single fixation. Poor readers in the upper grades are characterized by long fixations, by short spans of recognition, including very often only small groups of letters, by regressive movements, and by' traces of confusion. The reading process is in these cases evidently ineffec- tive because the reader has not overcome mechanical difficulties and distraction. The contrast between oral reading and silent reading which was described in an earlier chapter is fully confirmed by the records of pupils. Individual differences are marked. Pupils in the same grade differ radically in their methods of reading. These differences appear even in the upper grades and in high school. CHAPTER V SPECIAL EXPERIMENTS IN THE TRAINING OF PUPILS EXPERIMENTAL TRAINING OF SLOW AND INEFFECTIVE READERS This chapter will report in full the cases of four pupils who were very poor in reading and were given special training. This special experimental training was accompanied by careful records and tests repeated at frequent intervals. The cases were selected as the worst in their grades, and every effort was made to benefit the pupils at the same time that their difficulties were investigated and the changes resulting from their training measured. Some begiiuiings of experimental work of this type were made during the first year of the investigation. The results of the present analysis of the reading process were not in hand at that time and the experimental training was not as fully under control as it was during the second year. Furthermore, the training was adminis- tered during the first year by college students, whereas during the second year the experiments were in the hands of an experienced teacher. Some of the results of the preliminary work are reported by C. T. Gray in the monograph referred to above. The studies described in the present chapter were made by Miss Katherine McLaughhn and the cases are reported by her. Her work extended over three periods of about six weeks each, begiiming in the fall of 19 16 and continuing to the middle of May, 1917. The Christmas holidays and an interruption in March divided the training into the periods stated. Each pupil was given from twenty to twenty-five minutes four days a week. The tests to which reference is made throughout the chapter are the standard- ized oral-reading tests of William S. Gray and the passages used in the silent-reading tests by C. T. Gray. CASE G IN THE FIFTH GRADE The first case is that of a girl in the lower fifth grade, age 10 years and 4 months when selected for special training in November, 1916. 82 SPECIAL EXPERIMENTS IN TRAINING PUPILS 83 This girl had been included in the tests and photographs made earlier in 1916 and proved to be a slow, inefficient reader. Her photographic record for silent reading was one of the worst in the whole series. It is exhibited in Plate XXXIX. Every type of difficulty known to those who have followed the analyses made in the last two chapters appears in this record. The second hne begins badly. There are numerous regressive movements, as in pauses 3-4, 5-6, 8-9-10, 11-12, in line i and throughout line 2. The units of recognition are very small. The spots of confusion appear notably in pauses 1 1-19 in line 2. The whole record makes it clear that the pupil could not unravel the intricacies of the printed lines which proved easy to many of her classmates. The girl. Case G, entered the first grade of the Elementary School of the University of Chicago when six years and two months old; left the city at the end of the year; entered the second grade in the public school of a small town in a neighboring state; returned to Chicago again after a year's absence and entered the low third grade of the public schools of Chicago. In the middle of the same year she re-entered the University Elementary School in the high third grade. The school physician's record shows that she is a normal, healthy child, with no special defects in eyes, ears, or throat. She was absent sixteen days during her two and a half years in this school; eleven of these absences were in Grade I A. She is very slow in movements but responsive in her reactions when especially interested. She israted by her teachers as a good student in subjects other than reading. Her school record in handwork, drawing, penman- ship, and mathematics is very good (B-|- and A), and good (B) in history, geography, and science. In reading, however, she has stood consistently at C or D from the first through the fourth grade. Reading seems to be her greatest weakness. Her fourth-grade teacher reported her as "a slow reader who reads hesitatingly and haltingly, repeating words and phrases. Her breathing is very shallow, often causing her to pause for breath in the middle of a word or phrase. Her voice is thick, heavy, and unpleasantly nasal. 84 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT PLATE XXXrX / Z ¥ 3 4 f 7 ^o 1 hi ki ei wh it ( rassi lop le: /ZIf f ZO /Z /i, Zf ge f /« // s W( re g< oc for. I [e /f JO IZ /? /o 'f 10 i a, ¥ S 6 13 IZ II K Jl Zl g /« «: i ai o c] ai dor Ig M to He /y /* 23 lo lY Zo 10 o e:a! id, \t e l «: kin go i /O f /f wl il( , 19. I'Z /f Silent reading of Pupil G before special training (Subject No. i6 in C. T. Gray's tables). SPECIAL EXPERIMENTS IN TRAINING PUPILS 85 Silent reading is particularly distasteful to her. She always settles down to it reluctantly and tardily." From the home comes much the same story. "She has never read a story to herself, though she has several attractively illus- trated children's books. She frequently, however, after eagerly studying the illustrations in a new book, begs to have the story read to her, saying, 'You read it, mother. I can't understand it very well when I read it myself.'" The various tests given to this pupil disclosed some interesting facts about her difficulties in reading. In the oral test (W. S. Gray's Standard Oral-Reading Test) her rate for the first ten selections averaged i . 95 words per second with a range of 3 . 2 to I.I. The record of errors is given in Table III. TABLE III Mistakes Made by Case G in Oral-Reading Test Mispronunciations •. 16 Omissions 8 Repetitions 6 Insertions 5 Substitutions 2 Total 37 The prontmciation of unfamiliar words seemed most difficult. She usually hesitated a moment before attacking a new word and then whispered to herself the spelling of the word letter by letter. The repetitions all occurred in phrases containing a difficult word. The omissions were almost entirely the small words: "his," "the," "and," etc. On the basis of rate and errors her score was 33. This is considerably below the standard for the grade. The tests of her silent reading made with passages used by C. T. Gray gave the facts presented in Table IV in regard to rate and comprehension. The rate in silent reading shows an unusual condition. It is practically . 6 of a word slower than the oral rate. This fact taken in connection with the score for comprehension shows clearly what the child had discovered for herself, namely, that she does not understand much of the "story" when she reads silently. 86 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT Observations made during the silent-reading tests showed that there was much vocalization. The reading was done in a low whisper, and difl&cult words, as stated above, were spelled out letter by letter. She followed the line with her finger. In one of the early practice periods, when urged to read more rapidly, she remonstrated, saying that she could not hear the words so well if she did. TABLE IV Silent-Reading Records for Case G Selections of Series Used by C.T.Gray Time Rate in Words per Second Range Compre- hension Reading to answer ques- tions . 1-9 1-3 1-3 9:23 2:40 3:43 1-4 1.4 1-4 2.9-0.9 2 . 6-1 . 6 I . 9-1 . 2 Percentage 633 28. s 19. 1 Careful reading for repro- duction Rapid reading From the foregoing data it is evident that her difficulties in reading were due to a lack of famiharity with printed words and a lack of method of working out new or unknown word forms. In an effort to help her overcome this handicap she was given various types of training during eighteen .weeks. The first six weeks were devoted to a great deal of oral reading. The second six weeks were spent on drills in phonics and in word analysis. During the last six weeks she was given a great deal of silent reading. While each period of six weeks thus stressed some one phase of reading, all three tj^es of work were carried along throughout the eighteen weeks. For example, oral reading was continued with less empha- sis during the last twelve weeks. The selections for oral reading were made along the line of the pupil's school interests in history and geography. These included Baldwin's Fifty Famous Stories and Thirty More Famous Stories, Harding's Story of Europe, Allen's Industrial Europe, Carpenter's Europe, "Our European Cousins Series," the Merrill and the Horace Mann Third and Fourth Readers, Tappan's Old World Heroes, Terry's The New Liberty, and Brown's English History Stories. SPECIAL EXPERIMENTS IN TRAINING PUPILS 87 Records of rate and accuracy were taken from time to time; but since the selections read gradually increased in difficulty it is impossible to make direct comparisons that show the whole improvement. However, the oral rate shows a slight increase, and the quality improves very clearly during the eighteen weeks of training. TABLE V Rate and Quality of Oral Reading by Case G during the Period of Special Training Errors per loo Rate Words First six weeks 2.4 4.5 Second six weeks 2.5 2.1 Third six weeks 2.7 i.i Phonics and word analysis were emphasized during the second six weeks. Various systems of phonics with some modifications to suit the particular needs were used. Words mispronounced in oral-reading lessons were worked out phonetically, and Ksts of words similarly pronounced were built up and reviewed from time to time. There seemed to be a gradual growth in abihty to attack an un- familiar word. In the earlier period the pupil frequently looked at the word helplessly or pronounced a known syllable but was unable to attack it at all phonetically. She usually asked the instructor to pronounce it. Later she began immediately to sound the new word phonetically, and though sometimes making a mis- take in the length of the vowel or in the position of the accent her manner of attack indicated that she had confidence in her own ability to work it out. From Table VI it is readily seen that there was a reduction in the number of mispronunciations per hundred words even though, as explained above, the oral-reading selections gradually increased in difficulty. Silent reading was emphasized during the last six weeks after some training in silent reading had been given throughout the first twelve weeks. For special training paragraphs or selections dealing with topics of particular interest to the pupil were used. In many instances the original selections were edited, and the words which had been used in the phonic exercises were woven into the text. 88 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT Frequently before the silent reading began a question was raised the answer to which was to be found in the text. Oral or written reproduction or a discussion of the thought of the selection usually followed the reading. It is interesting to note in passing that though no effort was made to reduce the vocaHzation so perceptible at first it entirely disappeared except when an unusually difficult passage was encountered. TABLE VI Errors Made by Case G in Oral Reading during the Eighteen Weeks of Training 1^ .2*0 1 ■| 1 1 II 1 = 1! 2; a '$. Vi a •5 H ^ First period of six weeks . . . 650 10 2.q 4 6 20 4.'; Second period of six weeks . 1,745 10 0.6 II 7 6 2 ^6 2.1 Third period of six weeks . . 5,164 II 0.2 16 S 20 6 S8 I.I The record of rate and comprehension kept throughout the eighteen weeks is given in Table VII. TABLE VII Rate anb Comprehension for Silent Reading by Case G during the Eighteen Weeks or Training Rate Comprehension First six weeks 2.4 22 per cent Second six weeks 3.4 60 per cent Third six weeks 3.6 74 per cent The silent- and oral-reading tests given before the practice period began were repeated. The results are given in Table VIII. The pupil showed by her whole manner that she felt competent to do the task. She wrote with a precision and directness not at all characteristic of her earUer tests. The tests in oral reading also showed a gain in rate and a reduction in the number of errors. There is a gain of . 63 of a word in rate and a decrease of twenty- three errors, or a gain of 62 per cent. This result is fully in accord with the daily records kept throughout the eighteen weeks. SPECIAL EXPERIMENTS IN TRAINING PUPILS TABLE VIII Silent-Reading Records for Case G BEroEE and after Training 89 Before Practice After Practice Average Rate Reading for questions 1-4 1-4 1-4 3-9 Reading for reproduction Reading for speed Range ■Rpflding fnr qiiPs^'^iR 2.9-0.9 2.S-I.6 X.9-I.2 "^ . %—% I Reading for reproduction 5.6-3-1 Reading for speed Percentage Correct Reading for questions 63-3 28. 5 19. 1 81.'; Reading for reproduction ss-s 56.2 TABLE rx Oral-Reading Records for Case G Beeore Practice AriER Practice Time Rate Errors Time Rate Errors IS 16 21 ZS 29 29 27 34 39 43 3.20 3.06 304 2.44 2.04 2.10 1.93 i-SS I-3I I OS 3 I 2 2 s 4 2 9 9 10.0 16. s 17s 18. s 21-5 22.0 25.0 330 340 4.80 3.12 3.63 3-48 3-24 2.88 2.40 2.16 I-S7 1.30 2 I C 2 6 3 7 2 8 I I 10 4 Total.. . 278 37 210. S 14 Total number of words read, S4S. Rate for all passages before practice, i.gs;. after practice, 2.58. In order to find what part of this gain may be attributed to the special work given, another pupil in the same grade of about the same ability in reading, who had no special training, was tested before and after the period during which Pupil G was trained. The results are presented in Table X. 90 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT By comparing the records of the two pupils it is seeji that the special Pupil G made a net gain of .63 in oral rate and 2 . 5 in silent rate. Furthermore, she is beginning to estabhsh a silent-reading rate while the second pupil continues to read silently at the same rate as she does orally. The gain made by Pupil G in rate of silent reading is even more significant when it is remembered that her silent rate was less than her oral rate of reading before practice began. The gain in comprehension, while not striking, places Pupil G at a normal level for the grade while the other student is still below average. TABLE X Summary or Oral- and Silent-Reading Records sor Check Case Compared with Case G OaAL Reading Silent Reading Rate Errors Range Rate Range Percentage Correct Before G's practice pe- riod 1.6 2.1 46 23 2.7-0.8 3.2-1.2 1.60 2.03 2 . OO-I . 2 3.07-1.6 42.2 After G's practice pe- 60.0 Gain •S 23 ■43 17.8 TABLE XI Summary of Oral- and Silent-Reading Records for Case G Oral Reading SiiENT Reading Rate Range Errors Rate Range Percentage Correct Before practice I -95 2.58 3 . 2-1 . 1 4.8-1.3 37 ' 14 1-4 3-9 2.9-0.9 S-3-3-I 63.3 81. S After practice Gain ■63 23 2.S 18 2 Her teachers report that Case G reads with much greater ease and fluency of expression. The quaUty of her voice has improved and the nasal tones have almost disappeared. She seems to enjoy reading silently much more than before training. Frequently she expresses a preference for reading a passage silently, saying, SPECIAL EXPERIMENTS IN TRAINING PUPILS 91 "I can do it faster." Her oral reproductions contain many more of the expressions found in the original passage than formerly. When told that her written work does not include many new words, she said, "Well, I remember them, but I am not always absolutely sure of the spelling, so I use a word that means the same." She ranks among the upper third of her class in ability to read rapidly when reading for the purpose of reproducing the thought. At the end of the eighteen weeks of traiiiing a series of photo- graphs was taken of the eye-movements of Case G during silent reading. The record is presented in Plate XL. This record might be discouraging if it were not preceded by the record shown in Plate XXXIX. Contrasted with the earlier record this shows great progress. There are, indeed, regressive movements and spots of confusion, but there are also regions where a new type of mastery of the lines begins to appear. The fifth line, for example, is a fairly good Hne. Even where confusion appears the child seems to be able to extricate herself. The con- fusion is not so utter as it was in Plate XXXIX. CASE H IN THE FOURTH GRADE Case H is a boy nine years and four months old and in the beginning fourth grade in November, 1916, when the training began. Unfortunately it is not possible to report this case in full because he was suddenly withdrawn from school by the removal of the family to another state. The training did not prove as effective in this case as in the preceding. The photographic record taken earKer in 19 16 (Plate XLI) shows a bad case of laborious and confused eye-movements. It is not necessary to offer detailed comments. It is the companion of the record shown for Case G in Plate XXXIX. The boy H entered Grade IB in October, 1913, and completed a grade each year. His attendance throughout his school course has been very irregular. He has an aggregate absence of one hundred and eight days, or 21 per cent of the entire school time. Furthermore, eighty days of absence occurred in the first grade. The school physician's record shows that for the most part his 92 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT PLATE XL / S 7 3 (> ^ Thife was anptlie|r pir4 in th^ room, If iZ 13 II IS If- II II r 10 however '/ ■/ 7 3 G yrass hoppers we re g( od fo :. H f 10 Jl ' wHo kne w wha f IS ir v./ 3a s & 7 ? ^ \, aft was in // 10 t II z I ore lard oridle; and, after looking IS on s while, he cj me dowi and cai /4 n II g.1 II 5 10 S 7 10 b IZ 9 II JO rijd 3ff IS If g Ig the hogipjer to eat. '3 13 IS & The jay did not li ie to 1 zi 8 7 V 5" Sf 3se his slay It, If 7 9 hing; he ran II Silent reading of Pupil G after special training SPECIAL EXPERIMENTS IN TRAINING PUPILS 93 PLATE XLI thi b 11 turrs round /a // O IZ /f- 33 , a little, an da /y f /3 «g little mo ' f 7 f /" s it thi t c( me s out of tl e /i 10 3Z X // i». Rf ;23 /»•/# dark : ,nd gl ZS If V tl 10 K t. e light of t ^e ? I Jo no 3 ¥ stret ipe ¥3 31 /t. 9 SI 10 1 R If «f 31 iSi¥ /3 widi : as the i iceai Zf /f I* «/ jijidi pa kles :oo; /f X /^ // 9 V Silent reading of Pupil H before special training (Subject No. i in C. T. Gray's tables). X indicates that it was impossible to determine with precision the length of the pause. 94 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT absences were caused by the usual children's diseases: colds, inflamed tonsils, adenoids, and by exclusion on account of contact with contagious disease. After his adenoids and tonsils were removed in 19 15 his attendance became somewhat more regular. His eyes and ears were normal. The foregoing facts are significant and should be borne in mind in a diagnosis of his reading difficulties. Despite the frequent interruptions, however, he has apparently maintained a fair average in general school work other than reading, spelling, and mathematics. In these he is graded poor (C or D). His best work is done in the manual arts and in natural science. In the latter subject he is keenly interested, takes an active part in the work, and frequently adds to the class discussions facts and ideas he has gained from contact with his father's science collec- tions. Though he has apparently considerable native ability, he is classed as the poorest reader of his grade. He gains but few ideas from a selection read either orally or silently. His oral reading is done in a high uimatural tone of voice, and is mechanical, labored, and expressionless. As he reads he sways his head from side to side in rhjrthmical motion and follows the Hne of the page with his finger. While he thus keeps the place he occasionally omits words or a whole line and continues, oblivious of the omission, showing clearly that the thought in the selection has Uttle to do with his reading. While these omissions are conspicuous his dominant errors are mispronunciations and repetitions. Tests were given in an effort to ascertain some of the causes of his apparent deficiency in reading. In the oral-reading tests the time for the first seven paragraphs was 4:51, or an average rate of i .4 words per second and a range of 2 .5 to 0.8 words per second. Yet his rate of vocaUzation as shown by counting was 7 . 3 monosyllables per second. His slow rate in reading was not due to inability to speak rapidly. The record for accuracy showed a total of 55 errors, or a rate of 14 per hundred words. The con- spicuous facts in this record were the 31 repetitions and the 17 mispronunciations that made up 88 per cent of the total. Repe- titions were often made after a mispronunciation or before a word of two or three syllables. If a word was mispronounced he repeated SPECIAL EXPERIMENTS IN TRAINING PUPILS 95 the phrase, trying another pronunciation equally incorrect, and proceeded with the reading even though his reading of the sentence made no sense. In the silent-reading tests for rate and comprehension he read the first seven selections in 3 : 48. This gives an average slightly above the oral rate. The silent rate is accordingly i . 8 words per second with a range of 3.1 to 1.3. There was much vocalization, and unfamiliar words were spelled out letter by letter. The quahty score for comprehension appears in Table XII. TABLE XII Silent-Reading Record of Case H before Special Training Rate Range Percentage Correct Reading for questions 1.8 1.6 2,0 3-I-I-3 2 . i-i . 2 2.9-J.7 44.2 37-2 37-7 Reading for reproduction Reading for speed As in the oral reading the rate is very low. In the test for span of attention he averages but 0.7 of a word, an indication probably that he reads words a letter at a time. The photographic record of eye-movements shows an average of 13.8 pauses to a hne and .38 second for the average length of the pauses. These facts taken in conjunction with the rate in oral and silent reading warrant the assumption that he reads by the alphabet method. Indeed, he verified this statement by remarking, "I spell out any word I don't know, but I know the ones I've spelled out a lot of times." It is not surprising that with such a procedure he should achieve a low score in comprehension. To teach" him to read phonetically was the purpose of much of the training attempted. During the first six weeks much oral reading and phonic analysis with a few minutes of silent reading constituted the daily program. Easy selections from the Merrill, Horace Mann, the Aldine, and Free and Treadwell readers and the Child Classics were used extensively. Attention was focused on thought-getting. At first even in the simplest selections where the meaning of each word was understood the pupil read words as 96 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT unconnected ideas, not recognizing the larger thought of which they were only a part. Furthermore, after the meaning of a sen- tence was grasped, he read each sentence as though it had no rela- tion to the ones before and after it. A method of phonetic analysis was built up, using modifications of both the Beacon and the Aldine systems. Lists containing words phonetically learned were used in frequent reviews. All new words met in oral reading were sounded phonetically and never spelled by letters. This work was continued during the remainder of the training period though less intensively. A daily record was kept of rate and errors. No allowance has been made for the varying degrees of difficulty characterizing the numerous selections, and for that reason the results obtained from Gray's standardized paragraphs give a more accurate basis for com- parison. One further word of explanation should be added. Dur- ing the latter part of the second six weeks of practice the pupil met with an accident on the playground in which his front teeth were broken off. This handicap not only lowered the rate but increased the number of errors. TABLE Xm Oral-Reading Record of Case H during Period Training OF Special -Rate Range Errors per loo Words 2.1 1. 9 30-I.8 2.S-I.6 6 Second six weeks 3 During the second six weeks and before the accident spoken of above the oral tests given before practice began were repeated. The results are given in Table XIV. The test shows that, while the speed had almost doubled, the number of errors had decreased more than threefold from 14 to 4.5 errors per hundred words. He read with much greater ease and confidence, grouping thought units fairly well, especially in the first five selections. He mispronounced but three words: "Jakie," "evident," and "contrast." A comparison of the types SPECIAL EXPERIMENTS IN TRAINING PUPILS 97 ctf errors in the earlier and later readings indicates clearly the lines of progress. TABLE XIV Oral-Reading Records tor Case H before and apter Training Selection Beforje Practice After Practice Time Rate Errors Time Rate Errors 19.0 22.8 26.8 S4-6 59° 67.4 2.52 2.14 2.23 I 13 I OS 0.80 2 4 3 II 13 14 II. 12.0 17.2 3S-8 27.0 31.0 4.36 4.08 3S2 1-74 2.20 2.00 I 2 2 2 e 5 6 I 7 4 Total. . . 249.6 47 134 IS Total numl er of words rea d, 334- Rate for all passage TABLE XV before practice, 1.33; after practice, 2.57. After Practice Errors in Oral Reading of Pupil H before and after Training Before Practice Mispronunciations iS 3 Repetitions 27 5 Omissions 3 2 Substitutions and insertions 2 5 Total. 47 IS The training in oral reading was accompanied by training in silent reading. While there were a few minutes of silent reading in each lesson during the first six weeks silent reading was not emphasized especially imtil the second period. It was then con- tinued into the third period for two weeks, at the end of which time the boy moved from the city. For this reason it was not possible to complete the records for this phase of the work. The material used in silent reading was taken from the readers mentioned above. The selections used at first were those pre- dominantly narrative in character; later the informational type was used extensively. Interest in the story strongly motivated the reading. Often when interrupted by the close of the lesson he would say, "Wait just a minute until I see what happened next." 98 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT Oral or written reproduction usually followed the reading. The quahty of the two types of reproduction stood out in marked con- trast. The oral reproductions were given in an animated, dramatic maimer; details were readily recalled and words flowed freely; but before he could get many ideas on paper the inspiration of the selection had fled, leaving but a shadow of the narrative in a few disjointed sentences inadequately expressed. The daily record for speed shows an average of 2.1 for the first period and 2,-2> for the two weeks of the second period, and the corresponding quality scores in comprehension are 26 per cent and 3 5 per cent. As has been said above, it is difficult to make a comparison of the amount of progress made imless the material is of the same degree of difficulty. However, it seems fair to say that both the rate and comprehension scores, since they were for the most part made with material more difficult than that used in the first six weeks, represent a gain. The improvement indicated by these tests is relatively small. How far it was due to general grade training and how far to special training is difficult to say. As stated in the paragraph at the beginning of the description of this case, the boy left the school without notice, and there was no possibility of finishing the tests or of securing a photographic record. CASE M IN THE SIXTH GRADE The third case differs radically in character from those described thus far. The difference is apparent at once from the photographic record which preceded the training. This record is presented in Plate XLII. The most striking comphcations in this record are those which appear in the long regressive movements occurring in every line. Line i shows such a movement between pauses 4 and 5; line 2, between pauses 9 and 10; line 3, between pauses 9 and 10. Otherwise the record looks like that of a fair but immature reader. M is a boy who was eleven years and ten months old and in the sixth grade when training began in November, 1916. He had attended the Chicago pubhc schools for three years prior to his entrance into Grade IV B of the University Elementary SPECIAL EXPERIMENTS IN TRAINING PUPILS 99 PLATE XLII There ras another I ird in \ isr IS- 7(. he rooDQ, howev( r /¥ '¥ /z 3 4 if to t 3 Z ^ Z S /o K7 ^ // /A fl ho kn< w ? hat g :ai shoppers w« r< good ft r. He // n'l to 7t // X /f 7 // S" S i /O 9 was. no 'chardoiiole;and,a terl < 1 ingon iwhile /7 /¥ 3S /3 fO 9 ^ Silent reading of Pupil M before special training (Subject No. 19 in C. T. Gray's tables). X indicates that it was impossible to determine with precision the length of the pause. lOO READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT School in October, 1914. The school physician's records contain the following statements about his general physical condition: {a) Chronic catarrhal inflammation of throat and nasal passages. {b) Broken down arches, indicative of poor general physical con- dition, (c) Farsighted in left eye ; wears glasses, {d) Very nervous, (e) Absent seven days in two years. In general school standing he is rated as a poor student. He has received C or D in all subjects except physical training and the manual arts. In the latter he ranks as C+ or B. He has never been rated above C — in reading. His teachers report him as a nervous, restless boy who seems unable to concentrate for any length of time. He is a poor reader who comprehends little of the passages read silently and not much more when he reads aloud. He apparently does not follow the page as others read aloud, yet he frequently can give a fairly full reproduc- tion of the paragraph or selection read. He intensely dislikes to read aloud and will by artfully raising a question for discussion dodge the ordeal whenever possible. The report from the home confirms these observations at school. His mother says that he rarely ever reads at home even though he has many opportunities to do so. He is much interested in baseball and football, but he never reads the accounts of the games if he can inveigle his older brother into reading to him. He enjoys having others read to him, and this his father has done evenings for years. The same tests were given as in the preceding cases. A com- parison of the oral- and silent-reading rates showed his range to be 3.1 to 0.7 words per second for oral reading and 2 . 9 to i . 2 f or silent reading. Of the errors made in oral reading 67 per cent were mispronunciations and 2 1 per cent were repetitions of words or phrases. In the tests for comprehension his averages were low. TABLE XVI Ability of Pupil M to Reproduce after Silent Reading Reading for questions 56 . 7 per cent Reading for reproduction 40. 5 per cent Reading for speed 9.6 per cent SPECIAL EXPERIMENTS IN TRAINING PUPILS loi When allowed to read at his own rate he is able to glean about one-half of the ideas of the selection, but when his pace is speeded up he understands very little of what hp reads. How to increase his power of word recognition and overcome his aversion to reading became the important problems in the eighteen weeks of training. Silent reading was included in the training throughout the eighteen weeks in an effort to cultivate his interest in reading. During one six-week period, however, word analysis was stressed, while for another period oral exercises were given. The word analysis was both phonic and interpretative. For the first two weeks phonics were studied exclusively, but little interest was aroused. The pupil was nervous and inattentive, and finally naively explained the difficulty by remarking, "My sister studies these things in the second grade." When asked if he ever had, he replied, "Oh, they had them when I was in the lower grades, but I never learned them." The phonic work was continued but made to include the study of prefixes, suffixes, and stems of words. This aroused his interest to such an extent that he brought in from time to time long lists of words containing the stem or prefix studied. Usually the words were taken from the silent reading of the pre- ceding lessons and included those that were unfamiliar. Lists of words having the same prefix, stem, or suffix were written out and grouped into " famihes." The dictionary was consulted when there was any doubt about the pronunciation; the words were then marked diacritically and sounded phonetically. After an analysis of the meaning of a new word from the text and from its stem, prefix, or suffix, the dictionary was consulted to verify the inferred meaning. The work was kept as simple as possible and included only the most common prefixes, suffixes, and stems, as un, con, dis, ex, re, sub, ante, trans er, ar, or and ant, able, ish, ment, ing, ize, age port, spect, tract, diet, ced, cred, loc, fact During the second six weeks oral reading was emphasized and was continued, though less intensively, throughout the last period of six weeks. Some of the selections read silently during the previ- ous period were now read orally; these were soon replaced by new I02 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT ones when the interest lagged. Easy prose narratives were selected from the Merrill Third and Fourth Readers and from the Horace Mann Third and Fourth Readers. Toward the end of the twelve weeks the fifth readers of these series were used extensively. Daily records were kept of the rate and errors, and though it is impossible to make any accurate comparisons because of the varjdng degrees of difficulty in the selections it is interesting to note in Table XVII that there is a distinct gain in rate over the record made before practice, and, further, the number of errors per hundred words shows a distinct decline. TABLE XVII Oral-Reading Record or Pupil M during Period OF Special Training Errors per Rate I oo Words Before practice i . 40 8.0 During six weeks 2 . 68 1.9 After six weeks 2.62 1.8 More accurate evidence of progress was obtained at the end of the training period in May. The oral test given before training began was repeated. The time for reading each of the paragraphs had been lowered in every instance and the number of errors reduced 65 per cent. The range in the first record is from 3 . i to o . 7 words per second, while that on the latter is 5 . 7 to 2 . 6. The most notable gain was made in rate. The time was reduced from 360 . 6 seconds to 139.2 seconds, a gain of 221.4 seconds, making an average rate of 3 . 8 words per second for the ten selections read. It may be argued, and rightly, that a part of this growth is the result of the regular school work. To approximate the amount a comparison was made with another poor reader, a girl, in the same grade. She is rated by her teachers as slightly better than Case M. M's training in silent reading was continued throughout the period of eighteen weeks but was especially emphasized during the last six weeks. The material, as with Case G, was chosen along the hnes of the pupil's school interests and included Southworth's Builders of Our Country, Books I and II, Baldwin's Conquest of SPECIAL EXPERIMENTS IN TRAINING PUPILS 103 the Northwest Territory (first six weeks), Merrill Readers, Books III, IV, and V, and Horace Mann Readers, Books III, IV, and V (second TABLE XVIII Oral-Reading Records for Case M before and after Special Training Selection Before Practice After Practice Time Errors Time Errors . IS. 6 16.0 26.8 20.0 24.8 30-4 S90 41.0 62.0 65.0 I I 3 I 2 4 9 S 7 8 9.0 12.0 130 136 10.8 150 17.0 14.8 16.0 18.0 2 I A e: 7 8 2 I 4 II 3 Total 360.6 41 139.2 14 Total number of words read, 531. Rate for all passages before practice, 1.47; after practice, 3.83. TABLE XIX Oral-Reading Records for Check Case Compared with Pupil M Selection Before Period of M's Training After Period of M's Training Time Errors Time Errors I 2 IS -2 234 20.0 25.0 24.0 310 S6.2 SS-° 60.0 71.0 I I I 2 s 10 3 8 10 II. 8 16.2 17.8 17.2 16.8 18.8 22.0 30-4 41.2 340 '0 I 2 A I 7 .... I 8 I 7 6 n S Total 380.8 41 226.2 24 Totalnumberof words read, S3I. Rate for all passages before practice, i. 39; after practice, 2.34. six weeks), and Thwaites's Daniel Boone (third six weeks). As Thwaites's Daniel Boone proved too difficult for this particular I04 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT pupil the first four or five chapters were edited by working over the long, involved sentences and by omitting some of the most difficult words and weaving in words familiar to the student. The later chapters, however, were read unmodified. Silent reading was followed by oral or written reproduction. When the oral reproductions were inadequate questions were asked and the pupil, if unable to answer, re-read the paragraph. After a chapter had been studied in this way a resume was made of the main points. A record was kept of the rate and comprehension for the material read, but the varying degree of difficulty of the selec- tions makes a comparison of Httle value. TABLE XX Silent-Reading Record of Pupil M during Period of Special Training First Period Easy Reading Second Period Medium Reading Third Period Difficult Reading Rate 3-4 4.6-2.6 3-7 4.8-2.6 3-7 5 -8-3 -I Range There was an increase in comprehension from 7 per cent for the first period to 42 per cent for the second period and 73 per cent for the third period. The percentage of gain is difficult to estimate, as most of the reading dealt with the theme of exploration and coloniza- tion and each story served to build up a background which gave the student ^a distinct advantage in later reproductions. The silent-reading tests given before practice were repeated and the comparisons of rate and comprehension can be made from Table XXI. The summary of all the silent-reading records indicates that the increase in rate has been accompanied by a corresponding increase in comprehension. Case M has raised his rate from 1.7 to 3 . 2 words per second and, furthermore, is able at this higher rate to achieve a much more satisfactory comprehension score. The summary of M's check case in Table XXIII reveals gains in comprehension but shght gains in rate. This pupil continues apparently to read silently at her oral-reading rate. In the speed SPECIAL EXPERIMENTS IN TRAINING PUPILS 105 test she is unable to maintain even this rate and reproduces fewer ideas than did Case M. TABLE XXI Silent-Reading Records with Questions tor Case M Before Practice After Practice Selection Time Rate Percentage Correct Time Rate Percentage Correct I 24.0 16.6 30.0 3SO 41 .0 43 Si-o ' 440 45° 1.66 2.89 1.80 1.97 1.90 iSi 1 . 20 1-34 1-4S 60 100 70 70 100 70 20 20 7.0 II .0 17.0 22.6 20.0 20.4 25.0 40.0 S-70 4.40 3.60 40s 3 40 3.00 2.36 2.20 80 100 80 100 100 80 30 60 2 a e 6 7 8 Q Total.. . 329.6 178.0 Total number of words read, 563. Rate for all passages before practice, 1.7; after practice, 3.2. Percentage correct for all passages before practice, 56.6; after practice, 72.2, TABLE XXII Summary of Silent-Reading Records for Case M before and after Special Training Before Practice After Practice Rate Range Percentage Correct Rate Range Percentage Correct Questions 1.70 1.88 363 2 . 9-1 . 2 I. 9-1. 7 3-9-3-4 S6.6 40s 9.6 3.20 332 3-34 S ■ 7-2 . 2 3-7-3-2 3-S-3-2 72. 2 S3-8 43-7 Reproduction Speed TABLE XXIII Summary of Silent-Reading Records for Check Case Compared with Case M Before Practice After Practice Rate Range Percentage Correct Rate Range Percentage Correct 1-79 2.07 3.10 3.0-1.2 2.0-1 .7 39-2-3 52. 2 21.7 8.9 2.09 2.54 1.87 3-7-1.6 2.9-2.3 2.0-1.7 71. 1 Reproduction Speed 40.0 29.6 At the end of training Pupil M seems more interested in reading, especially in silent reading, though it is difficult for him to hold his io6 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT attention on a single problem for more than a few minutes at a time. Two photographic records, which were taken at the end of the period of training, are shown in Plates XLIII and XLIV.. They exhibit a reduction of the long regressive movements characteristic of the record taken before training. There are regressive move- ments at the beginnings of the Hnes and. scattered through the record as in Plate XLIII, line 2, pauses 4-5; Hne 4, pauses 3-4; line 5, pauses 5-6; and in Plate XLIV, line 2, pauses 2-3; line 3, pauses 4-5; line 5, pauses 8-9; but some of these regressive movements are short, and there appears to be some improvement when these records are compared with the earUer photograph (Plate XLII). The record is by no means one which indicates a high degree of reading ability, but it is evident that the boy's method of attack- ing the problem of reading is better than before training. CASE E IN THE SEVENTH GRADE Case E is that of a boy who was fourteen years and ten months old and in the seventh grade when training began. The photo- graphic record of his reading before practice is given in Plate XLV. The record shows a number of regressive movements and more pauses than usual for pupils of this grade. Case E entered the first grade of the University Elementary School at the age of eight, was withdrawn for a half year at the end of Grade IIIB, returned to the school in Grade IV B, repeated Grade VA, completed Grade VI in one year, and entered Grade VII B in October, 19 16. The school physician's report shows his general health as fair and attendance somewhat irregular. His tonsils and adenoids have been removed. His hearing is dull, especially so in the left ear. In general school standing he is rated as a poor student, although he is given a grade of good (B) in the manual arts, music, and physical training. In all other subjects he is poor. During the past two and a half years he has received no grade higher than C in history, geography, science, hterature, composition, and gram- mar. In this connection it is interesting to note that progress in SPECIAL EXPERIMENTS IN TRAINING PUPILS 107 / 3 There w$s /o PLATE XLIII f 9 another bid in the room, however, 17 1/ Z I 9 s ¥ & 7 r who knew what giasshoppers were jood ior. He /9 /3 /« 10 i 7 s (. 7 t \ 12& 1 in o rchard ori^)le; and, a IS II ¥ 10 te • lookin: \ on awl: ile, /3 7 13 f ¥ 3 S he came down and carriec of the hopper to eat zo 7 I z 3 ¥ 6 7 IS- 7 & The j£ y c id 19 9 r 10 notlikt to l)se hs plaything;; he ran 8 13 '3 /o 7 Z6 Silent reading of Pupil M after special training io8 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT Z 3 PLATE XLIV there w^s pnother bird jn the room however, 3 R 10 knew what gras sho )pers were gc od for. ^e Si & Nas, ajn orchard Driole; and, af e* looiing on a^'hile, ? 7 f / 2 f /S hi cime do\k'n and earned oil the topper to /o IS eat. /s S / 3 ¥ The jay d d not 7 '5 ike to lost his p f 10 aything; he lai /z /? 10 Second silent reading of Pupil M after special training SPECIAL EXPERIMENTS IN TRAINING PUPILS 109 PLATE XLV / « 3 I SI atchi d a c itlass tn m the p 4 f f 7 f // /^ /O // S g /i 7 S" le, f nd ! oni( om at the s) me tinn snatcbin ; anotl ei , gave 1 ae a ci I g / 3 s ¥ 4 2 9 /ff ac: 031 the knui kles t 'hi( h I hi rdl; felt I ( ash< d Silent reading of Pupil E before special training (Subject No. 28 in C. T. Gray's tables). X indicates that it was impossible to determine with precision the length of the pause. no READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT these subjects after the fourth grade is dependent to a large degree on ability to get thought from the printed page. His teachers report him as a shy, timid boy, easily embarrassed, lacking in self-confidence and initiative in the classroom, though very energetic and responsive on the athletic field. He rarely takes part voluntarily in class discussions, and when called on to do so responds in a few brief fragmentary sentences, badly expressed, but usually containing a thought or an idea on the topic being considered. His English teacher finds great difficulty in getting him to read with any degree of expression, for he makes no attempt to group words into thought units. He reads in a dull, monotonous tone, slurring words and phrases. When asked to tell what he has read, he reproduces a few ideas in short, scrappy sentences, for apparently he makes few associations as he reads. His teachers in history and geography explain his poor standing in their subjects as attributable to an inability to get ideas from the text. He apparently reads as rapidly silently as any in the class but gets and retains less of the thought. The tests in oral and silent reading sustained the opinions given by his teachers. In the oral test he read fairly rapidly, pronoimdng the words mechanically and enunciating poorly. Several periods were eUminated and two adjoining sentences were read as single thoughts. The record in rate for the twelve paragraphs read shows a general average of 2 . 4 words per second with a range of 3.8 to 0.9. The distribution of the total of twenty-two errors is given in Table XXIV. TABLE XXIV Errors Made by Pupil E in Oral Reading before Special Training Mispronunciations 19 Repetitions i Omissions '. 2 Twelve of the mispronunciations were made in the last two paragraphs of the series and included such uncommon words as "hypothesis," "statistician," "archaeological," and "physicist." Unlike the other cases previously described he made few repetitions. SPECIAL EXPERIMENTS IN TRAINING PUPILS iii probably because he readily recognizes word forms in common use and also possibly because he makes so few associations that he is not constrained to repeat a phrase from any new idea that would cause him to go back for a different grouping of the thought unit. The test in silent reading defined more clearly his apparent difi&culties. The record for the three types of tests given is pre- sented in Table XXV. His average score for the three tests in TABLE XXV Silent-Reading Record of Pupil E before Special Training Rate Range Percentage Correct Reading for questions I-7S 1.67 2.60 3-7-I-3 I.8-I.S 3-8-2.3 57-8 Reading for reproduction; Reading for speed 9.6 comprehension is but 31.1 per cent while, that for Case G, the fifth-grade girl, was 36 .9 per cent, and that for Case M, the sixth- grade boy, was 35.6. Clearly this particular seventh-grade boy ranks in comprehension at a lower level than the poorest readers in the two preceding grades. This result verifies the estimates of his teachers of history and geography. A r6sume of the facts brought out by the tests would seem to indicate that he had acquired a mastery of the rudimentary mechanics of word recognition but lagged far behind in the mastery of word meaning. He read words as mere names and not as sjTnbols of ideas. How to build up a background of meaning that would form a basis for his reading was and still is an urgent and difficult problem. Because of his interest in aiumal stories and tales of camp and pioneer life emphasis was laid throughout the eighteen weeks on literature dealing with these topics. The Boy Scouts' Manual, Custer's Boots and Saddles, Roosevelt's Winning of the West, Southworth's Builders of Our Country, Book II, the Merrill and the Horace Maim Fourth and Fifth Readers, Burrough's Stickeen, CoflSn's Boys of '76, the Seton Thompson and KipHng stories, and similar literature were drawn upon freely. Silent reading was 112 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT continued throughout the eighteen weeks, but was especially emphasized during the first six weeks and again during the last six weeks. After reading a selection the pupil reproduced it orally or in writing. These reproductions at first were so meager and inadequate that he frequently had to re-read several times before he could answer the questions raised. Many selections were read in this way paragraph by paragraph and the main points jotted down to assist in the organization of the thought. Before the work had progressed very far it became apparent that definite word study was necessary in order to build up a background of meaning. Words were studied in the context for meaning, and certain ones were chosen for detailed analysis of prefix, sufl&x, and stem. A stem word analyzed in this manner became the nucleus for grouping together other closely related words more or less famihar to the student. The word "traction" encountered in an article on the "Lincoln Highway" brought out a discussion of traction engines, their use in plowing, road-building, and trench warfare, why so called, etc. This centered attention upon the stem "tract." As its meaning became clear the following Hst was elaborated : subtract distract attraction contract extract distraction detract retract subtraction attract contraction extraction A study of the prefixes in these words gave a point of leverage for attacking the meaning of words containing them. In this type of prefix study only those words were listed whose stems were familiar to the pupil, as, for example: recall rebound retake reclaim retain reinforce rearrange reform return regain remake reframe, etc. In a similar manner an acquaintance was made with the most com- mon suffixes. The meaning of some words was approached by the study of synonyms and equivalent idiomatic phrases. These were, as far as possible, studied in the context and discussed at length to bring SPECIAL EXPERIMENTS IN TRAINING PUPILS "3 out shades of difference in meaning. "An indomitable hero" met in^ the pioneer tales brought forth the following synonyms and idiomatic phrases : indomitable fearless stout-hearted brave heroic intrepid courageous bold audacious resolute daring defiant manly plucky undismayed to look danger in the face to screw one's courage to the sticking-point to take the bull by the horns to beard the lion in his den to put on a bold front This type of intensive word study was continued throughout the first six weeks but was supplemented by incidental word study during the remaining twelve weeks. Oral reading was given special attention during the second six weeks and continued during the following six seeks. The hterature was of the same general type as that used in silent reading. The purpose was to improve, if possible, enunciation and expression. Special drills in the enunciation of vowels and of the terminal and initial consonants were a part of each reading lesson. Many of these drills were taken from reading books. Selections were studied silently before being read aloud and the meaning discussed. The various thought units were marked off .and the whole selection was then read aloud. Before the close of each lesson the pupil read a selection at sight, unaided by this kind of preparation. The record was kept of this oral reading, showing the results given in Table XXVI. TABLE XXVI Oral-Reading Record of Pupil E during Period of Special Training Rate Range Errors per 100 Words 2.96 2.99 3-5-2-4 3-9-2-4 .8 Second six weeks '"■ While these records show little gain in rate or reduction of errors, there was a distinct improvement in tone quality, enunciation, and 114 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT expression. While some of his difficulty in enunciation is probably- due to his lack of acuity of hearing, yet doubtless his inability to grasp the thought as he reads is a more important part of the difficulty. As in the other cases described, the oral and silent tests given before practice were repeated. The results appear in Table XXVII. TABLE XXVII Oral-Reading Records of Case E before and after Speciai, Training Selection Before Practice After Practice Time Errors Time Errors I 17.0 17.8 16.2 16.0 18.4 18.2 20.0 21.2 22.0 29.0 29.0 40.4 I I I 2 I 2 6 6 12.0 10.2 14.6 14.0 ISO 14.0 16.0 19.0 17.0 24.0 23.0 28.0 I 2 . . . . 4 6 7 8 lO II 3 12 Total 265.2 22 206.8 II Total number of words read, 631. Rate for all passages before practice, 2.37: after practice, 3.1. There is a 50 per cent reduction in errors and a gain in rate. In looking over the type of errors made it is interesting to note that only three of the twelve words mispronounced in the last two para- graphs in the ffi-st test were mispronoimced in the second test. Furthermore, with the exception of two repetitions, all other errors in the second test were substitutions or omissioiis which did not materially change the meaning of the passage. An increase in rate was made despite the fact that the words were more clearly enunciated than before training. A comparison was made with another poor reader in the same grade to determine the net gain or loss in the year's work. The record for this second reader who had no special training is given in Table XXVIII. SPECIAL EXPERIMENTS IN TRAINING PUPILS "S From the following record it is easily seen that the pupil without special practice made little gain in this type of reading. The explanation is probably to be found in the fact that oral reading is not stressed in the regular work of this grade. TABLE XXVIII Oral-Reading Record of Check Case Compared with Case E Selection BEroRE Period of E's Training After Period of E's Training Time Errors Time Errors I 2 130 IS-O 20.0 19.0 19.0 20.8 20.0 27.0 29.4 340 31.0 39 2 I 2 2 3 I 6 6 8 10 4 12.4 12.4 17.2 IS. 8 iS-o 17.6 21.2 23.0 28.6 32.0 38.0 43-8 I 4 A I 6 3 3 3 8 6 lO 7 s 7 Total 287.2 45 277.0 40 Total number of words read, 631. Rate for all passages before period of E's training, 2.2; after period of E's training, 2.27. The summary of silent-reading tests with both pupils indicates that greater progress has been made here than in oral reading. This is probably explained by the fact that the regular classroom work encourages this type of reading. A comparison of the records of these two pupils, however, brings out several interesting facts. Case E is evidently estabUshing a, higher rate for silent reading than for oral reading, while the check pupil maintains practically the same rate in both types of reading. The scores for comprehension also indicate striking differences. For example, in the speed test before practice the check pupil's rate and comprehension score were both higher than those of Case E, but in the test after practice the latter pupil has by far the better record. Yet, upon the whole, the comprehension score still leaves Case E below a satisfactory level for his grade. Plates XLVI and XL VII show the records of Pupil E after special training. A comparison of these plates with Plate XLV ii6 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT ^ I PLATE XLVI H- 3 5 7 & There was ano /2 10 10 g Z ¥ 3 ther bird in th(! nom, however f 9 RS what grasshoppers // 9 S" 7 6 (, «■ «^ «" f ^ / was an orchaid oriole; £nd, a 'ter loDking or awhile were good iyc. He 7 g 9 /o /o // /z g /6 / & 3 Jt 13 he canK! down and carrisd off the hopp // 3r to ea lo i& lO The jjiy did not 17 is. g 7 f9 ike to s ope h s \)\c - FiG. 5. — Number of seconds required to read 160 words by the median pupil in each of the quality groups represented in Fig. 4. 170 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT TABLE XLII Quality and Rate of Silent Reading of 322 Third-Grade Pupils in the Cleveland Public Schools Quality Number of PuPItS WITH Foregoing Score Percentage of Pupils with Foregoing Score Rate in Seconds per 100 Words Score Lowest Highest Median 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60 7 12 18 39 27 30 42 41 25 36 22 13 10 2 4 6 12 8 9 13 13 • 8 II 7 4 3 26 17 13 16 17 16 18 15 20 16 13 16 22 60 170 147 100 95 107 140 100 75 68 90 80 67 40 54 48 40 45 41 39 35 37 30 28 24 40 Total. . . . 322 T HOW SHALL CLASS INSTRUCTION DEAL WITH THESE DIFFERENCES? We come back at this point to the question propounded at the opening of the chapter. Is there any justification in holding together in a single class pupils as widely separated as are these in rate and quality of reading ? The answer to this question is suggested by the discussions of methods of reading which have filled this and preceding chapters. There are advantageous methods of attacking new words. Pupils at different levels of achievement can very properly be dealt with as a group for the purpose of imparting the universally useful inethods of word analysis. It is the duty of the school to discover the common lessons of this type which should be given to the group. For example, phonic analysis in the primary grades and word and sentence analysis in the upper grades represent such steps in method. Beyond this common body of instruction in method appropriate to all the members of the class there is a demand for a great deal of individual training which has usually been neglected in the INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 171 schools. Pupils who lag behind the class or who do not take on correct methods rapidly should be watched and given special help. Forward pupils should be encouraged by every possible device to work by themselves. CHANGES IN THE SCHOOL PROGRAM The practical school program would undergo a change if these suggestions were adopted. Fifth-grade reading, for example, would no longer consist of an oral exercise in which each pupil holds his book and waits for an opportunity to read a sentence in his turn. This class would devote three-fifths of its time each week to silent reading under supervision. This supervision would be so organized that the teacher would select the backward pupils and give them one tj^e of instruction, consisting probably in phonic analysis. The forward group would be encouraged to read much. This rapid group would also be given instruction in spelling. The teacher who thus has several different kinds of reading exercises under way will be led to make an analysis of each pupil and will soon cultivate a true understanding of the meaning both of class organization and of individual variation from the average. WHAT TYPE OF INSTRUCTION IS NEEDED IN THE UPPER GRADES ? In the grades beyond the fifth reading should take on individual character in increasing degree but should be standardized by a careful comparison of results. Facts parallel to those presented for the second and third grades are given in Tables XLIII and XLIV and Figs. 6 and 7 for the seventh and eighth grades. The full-drawn lines in the figures represent the seventh grade; the broken lines, the eighth grade. UPPER GRADES MORE HOMOGENEOUS, ESPECIALLY ON SIDE OF MECHANICS OF READING A study of the four tables and figures brings out two important conclusions. First, the range of differences in rate in the upper grades is small. This means that in the sheer mechanics of read- ing the seventh and eighth grades are fairly homogeneous. The 172 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT TABLE XLIII Quality and Rate oe Silent Reading or 228 Seventh-Grade Pupils in the Cleveland Public Schools Quality Number of Pupils with Foregoing Score Percentage of Pupils with Foregoing Score Rate in Seconds per 100 Words Score Lowest Highest Median 0-4 5-9 10-14 IS-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60 13 32 40 31 30 22 19 20 10 3 5 3 6 14 18 14 13 10 8 9 4 E 2 I 26 25 20 20 19 15 22 16 16 30 20 82 72 85 67 76 60 72 85 52 37 43 43 • 35 37 35 32 32 .27 30 28 35 30 34 52 35 Total. . . . 228 TABLE XLIV Quality and Rate of Silent Reading of 193 Eighth-Grade Pupils in the Cleveland Public Schools Quality Number of Pupils with Foregoing Score Percentage f Pupils with Foregoing Score Rate in Seconds per 100 Words Score Lowest Highest Median 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60 3 13 21 34 26 21 24 16 13 5 6 7 4 2 7 II 18 13 II 12 8 7 3 3 4 2 29 17 20 IS 20 17 15 17 19 20 25 22 22 32 77 65 72 65 72 53 52 57 40 41 44 61 30 32 36 33 32 31 30 31 31 36 3i 29 30 Total. . . . 193 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 173 of Vupits It Quality 0-V S-9 IH¥ IS-II Zo-if es-Zf 30-yf- 3S-39 ^•¥¥ VS-^ So-S¥ SS-gf it- FiG. 6. — Distribution of 228 pupils in the seventh grade (full-drawn line) and 193 pupils in the eighth grade (broken line) of the Cleveland public schools in quality of silent reading. The percentage of correct answers is represented in the groups along the horizontal axis. The percentage of pupils in the grade scoring the various quality- marks is represented in the vertical. 174 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT homogeneity here shown has, indeed, been secured in large measure by ehminating pupils who could not keep up with the grade, but it has been produced, undoubtedly, in some degree by instruction in the school. Secondly, the widest divergence is in quality rather than in rate of reading. The height of the quahty curves for the seventh and T?»te so Vo ^ ^ ^.....-■••■''^•'"/''"■'''■•^s.,^^^ V---- .10 to 10 Quality 0-¥ S-9 /0-'¥ K-/9 eo-g¥ es-zf 3o-3¥ di-39 •fo-f^ K-V9 So-Sf SS-Sf io- Fio. 7. — Number of seconds required to read 100 words by the median pupil in each of the quality groups represented in Fig. 6. eighth grades at their modal points is greater than the height of the modal points of the curves for the second and third grades. This shows that the pupils in the seventh and eighth grades are more nearly alike in quality of silent reading than are the pupils in the lower grades. The scores of the majority are poor. The fact that the quality scores are comparatively low for the majority of pupils indicates the direction in which effort must be expended. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 175 NEED OF ANALYTICAL STUDY OF CASES Here again cases must be analyzed if teachers are to be properly guided in their work. Inability to get meaning is due in some cases to defects on the purely mechanical side. That there is need of mechanical drill in some cases in the upper grades is not denied. But in most cases inability to get meaning is due to lack of training in interpretation, and this is a matter quite different from the mechanics of reading. The teacher must be ready to analyze the situation and fit instruction to individual needs. ANALYSIS IN SCHOOL WORK The purposes of this chapter have been served if it has been shown that analysis is the common task of the student of the science of education and of the practical school officer. There are vast individual differences in pupils. There is also the practical neces- sity of deaUng with pupils in groups. The problem is how to recog- nize individual needs and at the same time economize effort by working with groups. The solution of this problem will be found only when analysis of the process which is being taught reveals those aspects which are common to all the members of the class and those which must be dealt with individually. When analysis has brought out these distinctions it is the duty of the school to so organize its instruction as to provide for both class instruction and individual instruction. There can be little doubt that teaching in groups has been overdone. Individual instruction based on analysis of individual performances is called for as one of the most important innovations to be worked out in the schools. Individual instruc- tion, when it is properly worked out, will not be a chance concession to personal caprice but a systematic analysis of individual per- formances followed by an adaptation of instruction to individual levels of achievement. SUMMARY This chapter may be summarized in the following statements: There are great individual differences in methods of reading and in success in getting meanings from passages. These differences have various origins, some of them obscure and impossible of determination in the case of an advanced pupil. 176 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT The duty of the teacher is to diagnose the individual case as though it were a matter of method of work, ignoring the remoter causes which are part of the individual's inherited temperament. When the pupil's method of work is understood- through analysis an attempt should be made to bring that method into a more efficient form. The more efficient form will in turn be known through analysis of successful readers. Analysis does not require the minute scientific testing of every case. Such scientific testing is desirable wherever possible. But the most direct applications of laboratory investigations of reading are to be found in the suggestions which they yield as to the probable character of miscellaneous cases which cannot readily be subjected to scientific study. Such analysis of cases as has been suggested will undoubtedly lead to changes in school practices. The results of such changes in school practices will serve as true scientific checks on the theories developed in the effort to apply laboratory results. Changes in school practice will follow different lines in view of differing needs. Especially will different grades emphasize differ- ent modes of instruction, as was shown also in the last chapter. The lower grades will of necessity give more attention to the mechanics of reading. The upper grades will attend more to the cultivation of powers of interpretation. This final conclusion opens the way for the last chapter, which deals with the problem of the nature of interpretation. CHAPTER IX READING FOR MEANING There is danger that this report will be misleading because it has given great emphasis to what may be called the mechanical side of reading. It is true that most of our discussions have dealt with fixation pauses, units of articulation, and the other purely formal aspects of reading. It is well, therefore, that the relation of the mechanics of reading to the interpretation side of the process be made a subject of explicit discussion. LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS MUST DEAL WITH RECORDS In opening the discussion it may be well to point out why this report has dealt at such length with the mechanical side of the reading process. Experimental investigations must of necessity deal with the tangible aspects of the process. When the eye fixates a word there is a possibility of securing a record. When the organs of articulation react there is a definite sign of inner processes. All our records and measurements deal with these and like objective aspects of reading. INTERPRETATIONS SHOULD NOT BE IGNORED The school is compelled, as is the experimental scientist, to give a great deal of attention to the externals of the reading process. Not infrequently the school becomes so absorbed in the externals that it forgets the true end and aim of all instruction in reading, which is the cultivation of the power of interpretation. It behooves the scientist and the teacher, therefore, to try to get behind the mechanical processes and understand the less tangible aspects of reading. SUBDIVISION OF GENERAL PROBLEM The general problem which thus confronts us divides at once into three minor problems. ( i ) What is the nature of interpretation or of the recognition of meanings? (2) What are the successive stages in the recognition of meanings which appear as the pupil 177 lyS READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT progresses through the grades ? (3) What is the relation of inter- pretation to the various methods of reading, that is, to the mechani- cal processes which have been described in detail in this report ? PSYCHOLOGY OF MEANINGS In deahng with the first of these problems we are fortunate in having a very complete psychology of the mental processes involved in the interpretation of words. The most general statement which can be made and one which will certainly not be challenged l?y anyone is that the interpretation of a word or phrase depends on the presence of associated experiences in the mind of the reader. The prime requisite, therefore, in learning to read is that the pupil possess personal experiences other than those of the words themselves. In this connection it is well to point out one fallacy which has sometimes been committed. It has been said that a word which does not call up some past experience is an utterly barren item in the pupil's mental life. The truth is that many words when first heard do not arouse interpretative experiences. It is enough in these cases if the word becomes a motive for seeking an idea. If the pupil is aroused by a word to look for further experiences to attach to it, then the word which is at first without meaning may be a very potent instrument of instruction. Our principle should, therefore, be formulated in some such way as this: A word must ultimately be connected with some other experience in order that it may be interpreted, but the word may, and often does, furnish the motive for seeking the interpreting experience. Our attention is turned from the experience of the word itself to that phase of experience which we have called interpreting mean- ing. The psychology of a generation ago had a very simple formula for the description of this interpreting experience. It conceived of the mind as full of images or pictures of external objects and events. MEANINGS ARISE OUT OF REACTIONS The recent developments of psychology have established a much more fruitful doctrine. The mind is not a mere storehouse of memory images; it is an active organized personality responding with reactions to the excitations from the outer world. When I READING FOR MEANING 179 see food I do not merely receive in the mind an impression or call up memory images; I am aroused to a form of vivid desire and vigorpus reaction. My experience corresponds to the tendencies toward reaction which are aroused in me more than to the image which I have in mind. Indeed, I may not look at the food in a way to see it in very great detail; I may be vague about what it is that appeals to my hunger, and yet I may have a very vivid consciousness of desire corresponding to the fact that I eagerly reach for the food. Thus with many of our experiences, especially those which have to do with our most urgent and fundamental needs, there is little emphasis on the picture in the mind and great emphasis on our reactions. The most common and vivid experiences in life come from our own attitudes toward things. Seldom, indeed, do we analyze and scrutinize in detail the things about us. Analysis of a situation is itself evidence that we have reached an advanced stage of mental development. The scientist analyzes where primitive man is afraid or filled with the desire of possession. The primitive atti- tudes of fear and desire are the common interpreting experiences attached to objects. For example, the ordinary person recoils from a worm or from a strange object in the dark. The child is afraid of a dragon fly and has a mysterious dread of a bat. These vivid, personal attitudes are carried over to words. When one hears the word "worm" one has something like the vivid feeling of recoil that is experienced in the presence of the worm itself. It is not necessary to assume that one calls to mind a picture of a worm in order to have this interpreting recoil. The picture would often be a real distraction. The mind is aroused by the word to react directly and without delay in the dynamic way in which it would respond to the object itself. Without attempting to pursue this matter further it becomes evident that in learning to read the child must ultimately connect with the printed word the forms of interpreting reaction which will make the printed words centers of vivid personal attitudes. The word "short" must give one the experience of contraction, while the word "long" is interpreted by an expanding attitude sharply contrasted with that aroused by the word "short." i8o . READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT So subtle are the meanings of some words that it is difficult to explain just what one has in experience. When I describe an act as beneath contempt my experience is full of vivid attitudes which can in no sense be described as made of up memory images. Some words are never capable of interpretation except as parts of phrases. The word "on" is an example of such a relational word. Other words of the same type are "therefore," "accordingly," such comparative words as "more" and "less," and such defining words as "strictly" and "precisely." All of these words are vague or lacking in interpretative imagery but are vivid in that type of association which can be described by the term "mental attitude." WHY TEACHERS USE PICTURES When a teacher tries to marshal experiences which will attach meaning to words the process is in danger of being misunderstood. For example, the teacher holds a picture of a dog before the class and writes the word "dog" on the board. The observer may think that the picture is held up for the purpose of stamping an image on the mind. Not at all. The picture of the dog arouses all the child's vivid interest in and personal reactions to the animal. Then when the word is put on the board the whole experience with its reactions of pleasure goes over to the written symbol and the word "dog" becomes a center of direct living interest and interpre- tation. MEANING DERIVED FROM SPOKEN WORD Again, since the spoken word "dog" has all the rich associations of childish reactions the teacher may without using a picture write the word on the board and at the same time pronounce the sounds. Is this for the sake of producing in the pupils a mere reaction of pronunciation? Certainly not. The written word is to stand in the place of the spoken word and is to carry all the personal reac- tions which give real character and meaning to the earlier oral word. INTERPRETATION IS A MATTER OF PERSONAL ATTITUDES Whether the teacher uses the picture or the spoken word, the real purpose of the exercise is to attach to the printed word an interpreting attitude. The more vivid the experience used the READING FOR MEANING i8i more vivid will be the reaction and the more complete the inter- pretation attached to the printed word. It is well, therefore, that a teacher should use pictures and objects. But in trying to under- stand what goes on in the pupil's experience the teacher should understand that the concrete object is itself a subject of interpreta- tion through the reactions which attach to it. The statements made above are strikingly confirmed by the fact that in speech and writing we constantly use figures of speech which are devices for carrying over attitudes rather than pictures. Thus if a person says that he has passed through a bitter experience he really means that he has experienced the same unpleasant recoil which he feels when he gets a bitter taste in his mouth. Bitter here means an attitude, not a taste. PROGRESSIVE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERPRETATION With the general definition of what constitutes meaning we turn to the second problem mentioned in the introductory paragraph. How should the school deal with meanings in different grades ? Broadly speaking, the early grades are devoted to attaching mean- ings to printed words while the later grades are devoted to deriving meanings from the printed page. EARLY READING ATTACHES MEANINGS TO WORDS It is not possible for the pupil just beginning to read to derive new meanings from printed words or even to get many recombina- tions of ideas through the use of words. His problem is to attach meanings to the words. Hence the reading matter of the early grades should deal with experiences familiar to pupils. The words and phrases should be such that pupils will be able to attach cpiickly vivid personal reactions to words. The gravest danger at this stage of development is that strange words and combinations will be used and the child, having no vivid personal reaction at hand for real interpretation, will be content with the reaction of articulation. A kind of false interpretation will thus be set up in his experience. Too much emphasis cannot be laid on the demand that early reading be in familiar fields of common experience. The experiences i82 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT may bethose which attach to folk stories, or to the child's personal activities, such as running and jumping, or the famiUar pictures of objects and animals about the house and yard. Anything that is familiar enough to arouse vivid reactions will serve, but it must be famib'ar. Furthermore, it is .well if the experience is highly charged with interest. Children can learn to read through contact with the duller objects of the familiar environment. One can read about cats and balls and chairs. But the newer readers show unmis- takably that primary teachers are beginning to show a decided preference for stories of the little red hen and the three bears. The more vivid the interest the more interpretation, that is, the more personal attitude there will be to carry over and attach to the printed word. IN HIGHER GRADES READING EXTRACTS MEANINGS After one has learned the art of interpreting printed words through the association of these words with earlier experiences the process can be largely reversed. The older pupil who has a stock of interpretations can understand the book which combines and recombines ideas and builds up wholly new complexes. The process of interpretation is now one of extracting ideas from the printed page. Thus one reads in the geography of a land which is always covered with ice. The word "ice" is familiar and the word "always" has also acquired definite meaning. Put the two ideas together and the pupil is carried into a world which is unknown but capable of being understood through the ideas acquired in everyday life and in the earlier grades. TIME AND CONSTANT REFERENCE TO THE CONCRETE NECESSARY IN LEARNING TO READ The real processes in reading are thus seen to be those which go on in the mind back of the eye-movements and fixations. The combinations of ideas and the reorganization of these combinations are the processes with which the teacher is concerned. The practical teacher knows, however, that two fundamental facts must be kept in mind all the time one is trying to make READING FOR MEANING 183 intelligent readers out of pupils, (i) The setting up of ideas and preparing for later reorganizations require time and effort. Who- ever thinks that reading is a natural art picked up in a day is sure to discover his mistake if he puts his theory to the test of practical school application. (2) The cultivation of the complete power of getting meanings is possible only after many returns to the concrete examples which give content to words. CONCRETE IDEAS NEEDED EVEN IN UPPER GRADES With these facts in mind the teacher will have pupils read much. At first the material will be simple and familiar. Later the material will be less familiar and more exacting, but it will be interspersed from time to time with references to concrete matters. Reading will thus become a part of the problem of the teachers of geography and nature-study. These teachers will not make the mistake, if they understand the nature of reading, of believing that the pupil will read all the facts of geography out of his textbook. Some of the facts of geography must be read into the book through contact with the products of countries and through observation of land forms. Reading should be enriched by concrete experiences, and concrete experiences should be classified and explained through reading. SHIFT OF ATTENTION FROM MECHANICS TO INTERPRETATION The change in the character of the reading matter which has been sketched in the foregoing paragraphs is intimately related to a shift in emphasis from the mechanical side of reading to the inter- pretative side. In the early grades the mind of the pupil is largely absorbed in seeing words and in attaching meanings to them. In the later grades the process of seeing words is so perfected that attention is freed to concentrate on interpretation. The probability is very great that the mechanical requirements are mastered by many pupils very much faster than is ordinarily assumed. It is probably not necessary to do more than set a pupil on the right track and then supply him with material appropri- ate to his interest. He will acquire the higher technique of reading through much reading. The present practice of continuing drill i84 BEADING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT in the mechanics of reading throughout the elementary school undoubtedly retards pupils rather than helps them. OVEREMPHASIS IN SCHOOLS ON THE MECHANICS OF READING Many a pupil leaves school equipped with the mechanical ability to read words but utterly unacquainted with the possibility of interpretation. School reading has been a formal ceremony for the pupil. He has formed the habit of thinking that words have been adequately, dealt with w;heh they have been sounded. The fault is with the school's selection of reading matter and with the school's emphasis on mere mechanical perfection in oral reading. FORMALISM DUE TO OVEREMPHASIS ON ADULT INTERESTS The time wiU come when the reading matter wUl not be of the formal type now common in schools. The reading matter in the .lower grades will be so selected as to induct the pupil gradually into the intricacies of the interpretative process. Emphasis on interpretation will be so graded as to use the pupil's power as fast as it is cultivated. Put in terms of particular grades, this means that for the first, three years the pupil will read stories and famiUar matter made up of phonetically simple words. Concrete material dealing with new but definite experiences will be presented in the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades. Reading matter for these grades should appeal to concrete interests and should stimulate the more intelligent approach to new ideas in books. Reading selections should be drawn from science as well as from literary classics. At the present time there is overemphasis on mature adult Uterary interests, and consequently reading becomes formal and lacks con- tact with real life. This plea will be regarded by some people as a crass attack on the classical literature of our language. It is not. If one would have pupils read literature the worst possible mistake is to force them at too early a period to read anything that is abstract. Reading must be developed by the expenditure of much time and effort. Subject-matter must be vivid and concrete in the middle grades if words are to have meaning and if reading is to be more than a formal process. READING FOR MEANING 185 LATER GRADES HAVE TO DO WITH INDIVHJUAL INTERESTS The pupil who has had irnich reading up to the sixth grade and has all along been kept in contact with meanings, first by the selection of familiar matter and afterward by the selection of vivid concrete material, will arrive at the beginning of the adoles- cent period with a mastery of the technique of reading and with an interest in interpretation which may safely be relied on to guide him through the more intricate problems of reading in the upper grades and high school. It appears in all aspects of school organization that the upper grades, more than the lower and middle grades, have to do with individual tastes and individual specialization. A continual check should be kept on the pupil's reading in these grades to make sure that meaning is being gained from the matter read and that improvement in rate and fluency is constant. But the problem here should no longer be one of detailed instruction in technique or of close adherence to those words which can be illustrated in the concrete. MECHANICAL SIDE OF THE READING PROCESS The third problem mentioned at the beginning of this chapter has been in some measure dealt with in the discussions taken up in the last paragraphs. This problem, it will be remembered, is. How is acquisition of meaning related to the mechanics of reading ? MECHANICS SHOULD BE MASTERED EARLY The answer to the question is this. Under ideal conditions the mechanics of reading are disposed of very early and the pupil is encouraged to improve in speed, and accuracy by the natural incentives growing out of his desire to get meanings more readily from the books with which he comes in contact. There ought to be no serious problem of mechanics in the upper grades and at the same time there ought to be continuous improvement. The unit of recognition should continually be enlarged. Unfortunately these ideal conditions do not always exist. As has been shown in earher chapters, many readers are so clumsy in their reading methods that they are continually distracting i86 READING: ITS NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT themselves and losing the meaning of passages in the sheer effort to get the words. The middle grades are full of readers who cannot devote their attention to interpretation because they are tangled up in the process of seeing the words. Like every other failure the failure to dispose of mechanics when they should be disposed of is expensive. How expensive the failure is can hardly be estimated until one begins to think of the pupils who leave school unaware of, the value of the art of reading and of the pupils who fall behind in their studies because they cannot read. AMERICAN SCHOOLS EMPHASIZE READING Perhaps the most impressive way of bringing out the importance of successful training in reading is to point out the fact that the American educational system is essentially a reading system. The schools of this country depend on textbooks to an extent equaled nowhere else in the world. In European schools the instruction is oral, the teacher delivering the information to the class. By con- trast our schools are almost entirely dependent on reading. Historically the European method of instruction is a survival of the practices of the cloister schools and the catechism schools where the teacher gave the truth by oral instruction, and the truth was heard and accepted. The American school grew out of the de- mand of the Puritans for such training of each individual that he should be able without an intervening interpreter to read the Scriptures for himself. The religious motive of instruction has expanded into a broader view of what the schools should undertake, but the methods have continued into these later days. The oral method is characteristic of the European schools; the textbook method is characteristic of our schools. INTENSIVE USE OF TEXTBOOKS IN MIDDLE GRADES What is implied in the fact that geography, textbook arithmetic, and other reading subjects' begin in the fourth grade ? What is impUed in the rapid multiphcation in the fifth and sixth grades of textbook demands on the pupils ? The answer to these questions is that the whole school organization is based on the assumption READING FOR MEANING 187 that by the time pupils reach the fourth grade they have learned to read well enough to take in new meanings from the printed page. It is a cardinal mistake to separate reading from the rest of instruction in the fourth and upper grades. Below the fourth grade reading may very properly be looked on as a separate subject because the pupil is being inducted into the difficult art of seeing and recognizing words. After the fourth grade the school assumes that a pupil can use a textbook and get his lessons out of the book. EUROPEANS READ LESS COMMONLY THAN AMERICANS The European child does very little reading in the upper grades. He is asked to cultivate the power of listening well, and he trains his powers of oral expression. But he never uses reading matter as familiarly as the great majority of American children do. The demand in the upper grades of American schools for much reading can be met only by completing the essential drill in mechanics before the fourth grade. Cases of difficulty after that period must be thought of as cases in which the school has not accomplished its results on schedule time. INDEX A-B-C method, i, 139, 158 Acquired differences, 157 Action readers, 13 Action words, 127 Adult eye-movements, 15 Aldine Readers, 11 Alexia, developmental, iig American schools and reading, 186 Analysis, 62; in reading, 60, 140; scien- tific, of cases, 1 75 Articulation, rate of, 143 Attitudes and meaning, i8i Backward readers, 119; treatment of, 158 Barnes Readers, New, 9 Beacon Primer, 8 Behaviorism, 13 Board, General Education, v Careless reader, 163 Children's reading, 54 Class instruction, 170 Clemesha on word-bUndness, 126 Comenius, 3 Comprehension in various grades, 149 Concrete ideas and reading, 182 Confusion, 61; and analysis, 62; periods of, 58 Defectives in reading, 131 Diagnosis of backward readers, 119 Differences, acquired and native, 157; individual, 138, 156 Drill and meaning, 13 Education in speech, 135 Elson, W. H., 12 Experimentation in education, vi Experiments in teaching reading, 5 Eye-movements: of adults, 15; of pupils, 79 Failures in reading, 163 Fassett, J. H., 8 Fifth-grade girl, special case, 82 First-grade child's mental characteristics, 136 Fisher on word-blindness, 124 Flexibility of language in early life, 137 Formalism in reading, 184 Fourth-grade pupil, special case, gi General Education Board, v Gilliland, A. R., vi, 15 Grades, various, reading in, 135 Gray, C. T., v, 15, S4, 76, 82 Gray, W. S., v, 71, 82, 149, 153, 164, 166 High school, reading in, 71 Higher grades and meaning in reading, 182 Hogan, R. M., 164 Horace Mann Readers, 10 Images and meaning, 180 Immature readers, 76 Individual differences, 138, 156 Individual instruction, 170 Individual interests in reading, 185 Instruction, class and individual, 170 Interests, individual, 185 Intermediate grades, psychology of, 148 Interpretation, cultivation of, 153; in reading, 177 Jackson on alexia, 124 Kerr on backward readers, 121 Letters, meaningless, series of, 50 Lower grades, excellent readers in, 166; reading in, 5$, 136 McCready on word-bljndness, 123 McGuffey's Readers, 4 McLaughlin, Katherine, vi, 82 Mann, Horace, i, 2 Meaning: and drill, 13; psychology of, 12, 178; reading for, 177 Mechanics: early mastery of, 185; of language, 11; of reading, 13, 183 Method, A-B-C, 139; phonic, 6, 139; rational, 7; Ward, 7; word, 6 191 192 INDEX Methods, special, with backward pupils, 127; special, with poor reader, 86, 95, lOI, III Morgan on word-blindness, 122 Movements, regressive, 57 Native differencfes, 157 Oberholtzer, 144 Oral language: and reading, 141; train- ing in, 135 Oral reading, 8, 24, 27; of an adult, 21; in upper grades, 142 Phonic method, 6, 139, 158 Phonic methods, special, 128 Pictures and instruction, 180 Poetry, reading, rate of, 147 Practical versus scientific attitude, 156 Pre-school training, 136 Primary child, mental characteristics of,- 136 Progress in reading, 135 Pronunciation, rate of, 143 Psychology: of intermediate grades, 148; of meanings, 178; of reading, 12 Pupils, photographing, 54 Quality of reading in various grades, 167 Rapid, careless reader, 161 Rate: of articulation, 143; of pronuncia- tion, 143; of reading in various grades, 167 Rational method, 7 Reactions and interpretation, 178 Reader, careless, 163; rapid, careless, 160; slow, 161; slow, overcareful, 159 Readers of various types, 159 Reading: in American schools, 186; history of, in American schools, i; period of beginning, 136 Reading books, study of, 6 Recognition: rate of, 144; span of, 34; unit of, 58, 152 Regressive movements, 57 Results of training backward readers, 1 29 Rieger on word-blindness, 123 Russell, Mrs. Lelah C, 127 Rutherford on word-blindness, 1 23 Schmidt, \V. A., 21, 146 Schmitt,. Clara, vi, 119, 131 Schrock on word-blindness, 126 Scientific versus practical attitude, 156 Seventh-grade pupil, special case, 106 Silent reading, 8, 15, 24, 151; of an adult, 19, 24, 27; teaching of, 146 Sixth-grade pupil, special case, 98 Size of type and recognition, 35 Slow reader, 27, 161; overcareful, 159; special case, 83 Sound unit in reading, 139 Span of recognition, 34, 35 Spaulding, F. E., 11 Speech units and fixations, 21 Speed in reading, 71 Speller, Webster's, i Spelling, 141 Stages in reading, 181 Stephenson on word-blindness, 122 Summary of chapter: on adult eye- movements, S3; on children's eye- movements, 80; on individual dif- ferences, 17s; on progress through the grades, 153; on reading books, 14 Summers Readers, 13 Synthesis in reading, 62 Test, marking out a's, 50 Textbooks, 186 Theories of teaching reading, 5 Thomas on word-blindness, 122 Town on aphasia, 127 Training backward readers, 129 Training difficult pupils in reading, 82 Treadwell and Free Readers, 1 1 Type, size of, 35 Unit of recognition, 58, 152 Units of various types, 139 Upper grades: instruction, in, 171; and meaning, 182; and oral reading, 142; readers of poor quality in, 163; reading in, 65; and silent reading, 151 Visual unit in reading, 139 Voss on word-blindness, 126 Waldo, K. D., 148 Warburg on word-blindness, 122 Ward method, 7 Webster's Speller, 1 Witmer on chronic bad spelling, 126 Word-blindness, 122, 124 Word method of teaching reading, 3, 6 Words, meaning of, 180 Supplementary Educational Monographs Edited in conjunction with The School Review and The Elementary School Journal PubUshed by THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS VOLUME I Monograph No. 1 ~ Studies of Elementary-School Reading through Standardized Tests. By WiLiiAM Scott Gray, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Education and Dean of the College of Education, University, of Chicago. Pp. viii+isS. Price |i . oo. Monograph No. 2 An Experimental Study in the Psychology of Reading. By William A. Schmidt^ Ph.D., Professor of Education, University of Oklahoma. Pp. iv+126. Price $0.75. Monograph No. 3 The Administration of Secondary-School Units. By Leonard V. Koos, Ph.D., Professor of Education, University of Washington. Pp. x+194. Price $1.00. Monograph No. 4 Experimental Studies in Arithmetic. 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