ANGLO-SAXON COLLECTION THE BEQUEST OF PROrESSOE OF EXG-MSH LlTEITATTIRE isr THE CorneLlL University 18TO-1911 p^.-7'^Lcc \ n\\xr|^ VL Cornell University Library PE 135.S64 Old Enalish grammar and exercise book wi 3 1924 027 322 928 Cornell University Library The original of tliis bool< is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924027322928 AN OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND EXERCISE BOOK INFLECTIONS, SYNTAX, SELECTIONS FOR BEADING, AND GLOSSARY BY C. ALPHONSO SMITH, A.M., Ph.D. PBOFESSOB OP ENGLISH IN THE LOUISIANA STATE UNITEBSITT Boston ALLYN AND BACON 1896 COPTKIQHT, 1896, BY C. ALPH0H80 SMITH. J. S. Cashing & Co. - Berwick & Smith Norwood Maas. U.S.A. PREFACE. The scope of this book is indicated in § 5. It is intended for beginners, and in -writing it, these words of Sir Thomas Elyot have not been forgotten : " Grammer, beinge but an introduction to the understandinge of autors, if it be made to longe or exquisite to the lerner, it in a maner mortifieth his corage : And by that time he cometh to the most swete and pleasant redinge of olde autors, the sparkes of fervent desire of lernynge are extincte with the burdone of gram- mer, lyke as a lyttell fyre is sone quenched with a great heape of small stickes." — The Oovernour, Cap. X. Only the essentials, therefore, are treated in this work, which is planned more as a foundation for the study of Modern English grammar, of historical English grammar, and of the principles of English etymology, than as a gen- eral introduction to Germanic philology. The Exercises in translation will, it is believed, furnish all the drill necessary to enable the student to retain the forms and constructions given in the various chapters. The Selections for Reading relate to the history and literature of King Alfred's day, and are suf&cient to give the student a first-hand,' though brief, acquaintance with the native style and idiom of Early West Saxon prose in its golden age. Most of the words and constructions contained in them will be already familiar to the student through their intentional employment in the Exercises. For the inflectional portion of this grammar, recourse iv Preface. has been had chiefly to Sievers' Ahriss der angelsdchsischen GrammatiTc (1895). Constant reference has been made also to the same author's earlier and larger AngelsachsiscJie Grammatik, translated by Cook. A more sparing use has been made of Cosijn's AUwesisdchsische Grammatik. For syntax and illustrative sentences, Dr. J. E. Wiilfing's Syntax in den Werken Alfreds des Grossen, Part I. (Bonn, 1894) has proved indispensable. Advance sheets of the second part of this great work lead one to believe that when completed the three parts will constitute the most important contribution to the study of English syntax that has yet been made. Old English sentences have also been cited from Sweet's Anglo-Saxon Reader, Bright's Anglo- Saxon Header, and Cook's First Book in Old English. The short chapter on the Order of Words has been condensed from my Order of Words in Anglo-Saxon Prose (Publications of the Modern Language Association of America, New Series, Vol. I, No. 2). Though assuming sole responsibility for everything con- tained in this book, I take pleasure in acknowledging the kind and eflcient assistance that has been so generously given me in its preparation. To none do I owe more than to Dr. J. E. Wiilfing, of the University of Bonn; Prof. James A. Harrison, of the University of Virginia ; Prof. W. S. Currell, of Washington and Lee University; Prof. J. Douglas Bruce, of Bryn Mawr College; and Prof. L. M. Harris, of the University of Indiana. They have each ren- dered material aid, not only in the tedious task of detecting typographical errors in the proof-sheets, but by the valu- able criticisms and suggestions which they have made as this work was passing through the press. C. ALPHONSO SMITH. Louisiana State TJniteksity, Baton Kouge, September, 1896. TABLE OP CONTENTS. PART I. — INTBODUCTION. Chapters Pages I. History (§ 1-5) 1 n. Sounds (§ 6-11) 4 III. Inflections (§ 12-19) 10 IV. Order of Words (§ 20-21) •. . . 18 V. Practical Suggestions (§ 22-24) 21 PART n. — ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. VI. The a-Declension : Masculine a-Stems (§ 25-30) . . 27 Vn. Neuter a-Stems (§ 31-36) 30 VIII. The o-Declension (§ 37-42) 33 IX. The i-Declension and the u-Declension (§ 43-55) . . 35 X. Present Indicative Endings of Strong Verbs (§ 56-62) 39 XI. The Weak or n-Declension (§ 63-66) 44 XII. Remnants of Other Consonant Declensions (§ 67-71) 47 XIII. Pronouns (§ 72-77) 50 XIV. Adjectives, Strong and Weak (§ 78-87) 53 XV. Numerals (§ 88-92) 57 XVI. Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions (§ 93-95) . 60 XVII. Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs (§ 96-100) . 64 XVIII. Strong Verbs : Class I, Syntax of Moods (§ 101-108) 68 XIX. Classes II and III (§ 109-113) 74 V VI Table of Contents. Chapters XX. Classes IV, V, VI, and VII ; Contract Verbs 121) Pages 114- 78 XXI. Weak Verbs (§ 122-133) 82 XXII. Eemaining Verbs ; Verb-Phrases with habban, beon, and weorSan (§ 134-143) 90 PART III. — SELECTIONS FOK READING. Introductory 98 I. The Battle of Ashdown 99 II. A Prayer of King Alfred .101 III. The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan 102 Ohthere's First Voyage . 103 Ohthere's Second Voyage .... . . 106 Wulfstan's Voyage 107 GLOSSAEIES. I. Old English — Modern English . II. Modern English — Old English . Ill 125 OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAE AND EXERCISE BOOK. oXXo PART I. INTRODUCTION. CHAPTER I. History. 1. The history of the English language falls naturally into three periods ; but these periods blend into one another so gradually that too much significance must not be attached to the exact dates which scholars, chiefly for convenience of treatment, have assigned as their limits. Our language, it is true, has undergone many and great changes ; but its continuity has never been broken, and its individuality has never been lost. 2. The first of these periods is that of Old English, or Anglo-Saxon,' commonly known as the period of full 1 This uufortunate nomenclature is due to the term Angli Saxones, which Latin writers used as a designation for the English Saxons as distinguished from the continental or Old Saxons. But Alfred and jElfric both use the term Englisc, not Anglo-Saxon. The Angles spread over Northumhria and Meroia, far outnumbering the other tribes. Thus Englisc (= Angel + isc) became the general name for the language spoken. 2 Introduction. inflections. E.g. stan-as, stones; car-u, care; will-a, wiR; bind-an, to hind; help-aS (= ath), they help. It extends from tlie arrival of the English, in Great Brit- ain to about one hundred, years after the Norman Conquest, — from A.D. 449 to 1150; but there are no literary remains of the earlier centuries of this period. There -were four' distinct dialects spoken at this time. These were the North- umbrian, spoken north of the river Humber; the Mercian, spoken in the midland region between the Humber and the Thames ; the West Saxon, spoken south and west of the Thames ; and the Kentish, spoken in the neighborhood of Canterbury. Of these dialects, Modern English is most nearly akin to the Mercian ; but the best known of them is the West Saxon. It was in the West Saxon dialect that King Alfred (849-901) wrote and spoke. His writings belong to the period of Early West Saxon as distinguished from the period of Late West Saxon, the latter being best represented in the writings of Abbot JElfric (955 ?-1025 ?). 3. The second period is that of Middle English, or the period of leveled inflections, the dominant vowel of the in- flections being e. E.g. ston-es, oar-e, will-e, bind-en (or bind-e), help-eth, each being, as in the earlier period, a dissyllable. The Middle English period extends from a.d. 1150 to 1500. Its greatest representatives are Chaucer (1340-1400) in poetry and Wiclif (1324-1384) in prose. There were three prominent dialects during this period : the Northern, corresponding to the older Northumbrian ; the Midland 1 As small as England Is, there are six distinct dialects spoken In her borders to-day. Of these the Yorkshire dialect is, perhaps, the most peculiar. It preserves many Northumbrian survivals. See Tenny- son's Northern Farmer. History. 3 (divided into East Midland and West Midland), corre- sponding to the Mercian ; and the Southern, correspond- ing to the West Saxon and Kentish. London, situated in East Midland territory, had become the dominant speech center; and it was this East Midland dialect that both Chaucer and Wiclif employed. Note. — It is a great mistake to think that Chaucer shaped our language from crude materials. His influence was conservative, not plastic. The popularity of his works tended to orystalize and thus to perpetuate the forms of the East Midland dialect, but that dialect was ready to his hand before he began to write. The speech of London was, in Chaucer's time, a mixture of Southern and Midland forms, but the Southern forms (survivals of the West Saxon dialect) had already begun to fall away ; and this they continued to do, so that "Chaucer's language," as Dr. Murray says, "is more Southern than standard English eventually became." See also Morsbach, Ueber den Urstprung der neuenglischen Schriftsprache (1888). 4. The last period is that of Modern English, or the period of lost inflections. E.g. stones, care, will, bind, help, each being a monosyllable. Modern English extends from A.D. 1500 to the present time. It has witnessed compara- tively few grammatical changes, but the vocabulary of our language has been vastly increased by additions from the classical languages. Vowels, too, have shifted their values. 5. It is the object of this book to give an elementary knowledge of Early West Saxon prose, or the language of King Alfred. With this knowledge, it will not be difficult for the student to read Late West Saxon, or any other dialect of the Old English period. Such knowledge will also serve as the best introduction to the structure both of Middle English and of Modern English, besides laying a secure foundation for the scientific study of any other Germanic tongue. Introduction. Note. — The Germanic, or Teutonic, languages constitute a branch of the great Aryan, or Indo-Germanic (known also as the Indo- European) group. They are subdivided as follows: ' North Germanic : Scandinavian, or Norse. Germanic ■ East Germanic : West Germanic Gothic. High German . Low German ■ Old High German, (to A.D. 1100,) Middle High German, (A.D. 1100-1500,) New High German. (A.D. 1500-.) Dutch, Old Saxon, Frisian, English. CHAPTER II. Sounds. Vowels and Diphthongs. 6. The long vowels and diphthongs will in this book be designated by the macron (~). Vowel length should in every case be associated by the student with each word learned: quantity alone sometimes distin- guishes words meaning wholly different things: for, he went, for, for; god, good, god, Grod ; man, crime, man, man. Long vowels and diphthongs : a as in father : stan, a stone. Be as in man (prolonged) : slaepan, to sleep. e as in they : her, here. i as in machine : min, mine. o as in note (pure, not diphthongal) : b5c, book. Sounds. 5 u as in rjtle : tun, town. f as in German gritn, or English green (with lips rounded):' br^d, bride. The diphthongs, long and short, have the stress upon the first vowel. The second vowel is obscured, and represents approximately the sound of er in sooner, faster ( = soon-uh, fast^K). The long diphthongs (ee is not a diphthong proper) are eo, le, and ea. The sound of eo is approximately reproduced in mayor ( = md-uJi) ; that of le in the dissyllabic pronunciation oi fear (^—fe-uK). But ea = oe-uh. This diphthong is hardly to be distinguished from ea in fear, bear, etc., as pronounced in the southern section of the United States (= bce-uh, pce-uh}. 7. The short sounds are nothing more than the long vowels and diphthongs shortened; but the student must at once rid himself of the idea that Modern English red, for example, is the shortened form of reed, or that mat is the shortened fqrm of mate. Pronounce these long sounds with increasing rapidity, and reed will approach rid, while mate will approach met. The Old English short vowel sounds are : a as in artistic : habban, to have. ae as in mankind : dseg, day. e, ^ as in let : stelan, to steal, s^ttan, to set. i as in sit : hit, it. o as in broad (but shorter) : god, &od. 9 as in not : l^mb, lamb. u as in full : sunu, son. y as in miller (with lips rounded): gylden, golden. 1 Vowels are said to be round, or rounded, when the lip-opening is rounded ; that is, when the lips are thrust out and puckered as if 6 Introduction. Note. — The symbol f is known as umlaut-B (§58). It stands for Germanic a, while e (without the cedilla) represents Germanic e. The symbol q is employed only before m and n. It, too, represents Germanic a. But Alfred writes manig or monig, many; lamb or lomb, lamh ; hand or hond, hand, etc. The cedilla is an etymologi- cal sign added by modern grammarians. Consonants. 8. There is little difference between the values of Old English consonants and those of Modern English. The following distinctions, however, require notice : The digraph th is represented in Old English texts by 3 and Jj, no consistent distinction being made between them. In the works of Alfred, 8 (capital, b) is the more common : 8as, those; Sast, that; bindeS, he hinds. The consonant c had the hard sound of k, the latter symbol being rare in West Saxon : cyning, king; cwen, queen; ou3, known. When followed by a palatal vowel sound, — e, i, w, ea, eo, long or short, — a vanishing y sound was doubtless interposed (cf. dialectic kvind for kind). In Modern English the combination has passed into ch: cealo, chalk; cidan, to chide; laece, leech; cild, child; ceowan, to chew. This change (c > ch) is known as Palatalization. The letter g, pronounced as in Mod- ern English gun, has also a palatal value before the palatal vowels (cf. dialectic gvirl for girl). The combination eg, which frequently stands for gg, had probably the sound of dge in Modern English edge: fcg, edge; slogan, to say; brycg, bridge. preparing to pronounce w. Thus o and u are round vowels : add -ing to each, and phonetically you have added -wing. E.g. goHng, swing. Sounds. 7 Initial h is sounded as in Modern English: habban, to have; haiga, saint. When closing a syllable it has the sound of German ch: sloh, he slew; hsah, high; iSurh, through. , 9. An important distinction is that between voiced (or sonant) and voiceless (or surd) consonants.^ In Old English they are as follows : OIOBD. VOIOELEBB. e h, c d t 8, j> (as in thovLgh) 8, ]7 (as in thin) b P f(=v) f B(=Z) 8 It is evident, therefore, that 8 (j>), f, and s have double values in Old English. If voiced, they are equivalent to th (in though'), v, and z. Otherwise, they are pronounced as th (in thin'), f (in /in), and s (in sin). The syllabic environment will usually compel the student to give these letters their proper values. When occurring between vowels, they are always voiced : o3er, other; ofer, over; risan, to rise. Note. — The general rule in Old English, as in Modem English, is, that voiced consonants have a special affinity for other voiced con- sonants, and voiceless for voiceless. This is the law of Assimilation. Thus vrhen de is added to form the preterit of a verb v^hose stem 1 A little practice will enable the student to see the appropriateness of calling these consonants voiced and voiceless. Try to pronounce a voiced consonant, — d in den, for example, but without the assistance of en, — and there will be heard a gurgle, or vocal murmur. But in t, of ten, there is no sound at all, but only a feeling of tension in the organs. 8 Introduction. ends in a voiceless consonant, the d is unvoiced, or assimilated, to t : B^ttan, to set, sftte (but tr^ddan, to tread, has tr^dde); slEepan, to sleep, slsepte ; dr^ncan, to drench, dr^ncte ; cysaan, to kiss, cyste. See § 126, Note 1. Syllables. 10. A syllable is usually a vowel, either alone or in combination with consonants, uttered with a single impulse of stress; but certain consonants may form syllables : oven (= ov-n}, battle (= bcet-l) ; (of. also the vulgar pronunciation of elm'). A syllable may be (1) weak or strong, (2) open or closed, (3) long or short. (1) A weak syllable receives a light stress. Its vowel sound is often different from that of the cor- responding strong, or stressed, syllable. Cf. weak and strong my in " I want my large hat " and " I want my hat." (2) An open syllable ends in a vowel or diphthong : de-man, to deem; 3fl, thou; sea-can, to shake; dse-ges, hy day. A closed syllable ends in one or more conso- nants : Sing, thing; god, good; glsed, glad. (3) A syllable is long (a) if it contains a long vowel or a long diphthong: dri-fan, to drive; lu-can, to lock; slee-pan, to sleep; ceo-san, to choose; (5) if its vowel or diphthong is followed by more than one consonant : ^ cr^ft, strength; heard, hard; lib-ban, to live; feal-Ian, 1 Taken separately, every syllable ending in a single consonant is long. It may be said, therefore, that all closed syllables are long; but in the natural flow of language, the single final consonant of a syllable so often blends with a following initial vowel, the syllable thus becoming open and short, that such syllables are not recognized as prevailingly long. Cf. Modern English at all (= a-tall). Sounds. 9 to fall. Otherwise, the syllable is short: iSe, which; be-ran, to bear; Saet, that; gie-fan, to give. Note 1. — A single consonant belongs to the following syllable: ha-lig, holy (not hal-ig) ; ■ro-ri-tan, to write ; ise-der, father. Note 2. — The student will notice that the syllable may be long and the vowel short ; but the vowel cannot be long and the syllable short. Note 3. — Old English short vowels, occurring in open syllables, have regularly become long in Modern English: -we-fan, to weave; e-tan, to eat; ma-cian, to make; na-cod, naked; a-can, to ache; o-tei, over. And Old English long vowels, preceding two or more consonants, have generally been shortened: breost, breast; heelS, health; sliepte, slept; leedde, led. Accentuation. 11. The accent in Old English falls usually on the radical syllable, never on the inflectional ending : bringan, to bring ; stSnas, stones; b^rende, bearing; !delnes, idleness; frgondscipe, friendship. But in the case of compound nouns, adjectives, and adverbs the first member of the compound (unless it be ge- or be-) receives the stronger stress : h^ofon-rice, heaverirkingdom ; ^nd-giet, intelligence ; B63-f3est, truthful; g6d-ciind, divine; ^all-unga, entirely; bliSe-lice, blithely. But be-htt, promise; ge-bed, prayer; ge-fealio, joyous; be-B8ne, immediately. Compound verbs, however, have the stress on the radical syllable : for-giefan, to forgive; of-Unnan, to cease; a-cnSwan, to know; ■wi3-st9ndan, to withstand; on-s^can, to resist. Note. — The tendency of nouns to take the stress on the prefix, while verbs retain it on the root, is exemplified in many Modern English words: preference, prefer; cdntract (noun), contrdct (verb); dbstinence, abstain; perfume (noun'), perfume (verb). 10 Introduction. CHAPTER III. Inflections. Cases. 12. There are five cases in Old English: the nomi- native, the genitive, the dative, the accusative, and the instrumental. 1 Each of them, except the nomi- native, may be governed by prepositions. When used without prepositions, they have, in general, the fol- lowing functions : (a) The nominative, as in Modern English, is the case of the subject of a finite verb. (6) The genitive (the possessive case of Modern English) is the case of the possessor or source. It may be called the of case. (c) The dative is the case of the indirect object. It may be called the to or for case. (c?) The accusative (the objective case of Modern English) is the case of the direct object. (e) The instrumental, which rarely differs from the dative in form, is the case of the means or the method. It may be called the with or hy case. The following paradigm of muS, the mouth, illus- trates the several cases (the article being, for the present, gratuitously added in the Modern English equivalents) : 1 Most grammars add a sixth case, the vocative. But it seems best to consider the vocative as only a function of the nominative form. Inflections. 11 Singular. Plural. N'. mu3 = the mouth. mu3-aa = the mouths. G. muS-ea 1 = 0/ the mouth mu3-a = of the mouths. (= the mouth's'). (= the mouths'). D. muS-e = to or /or {Ae mouJft. mu8-um = to or /or (fte moMtfts. A. muS = the mouth. muS-aa = the mouths. I. muSe = with or by means of muS-um = with or by means of the mouth. the mouths. Gender. 13. The gender of Old English nouns, unlike that of Modern English, depends partly on meaning and partly on form, or ending. Thus mu3, mouth, is mas- culine ; tunge, tongtie, feminine ; gage, eye, neuter. No very comprehensive rules, therefore, can be given ; but the gender of every noun should be learned with its meaning. Gender will be indicated in the vocabu- laries by the different gender forms of the definite article, se for the masculine, seo for the feminine, and Saet for the neuter : se mu3, seo tunge, 3aet eage = the mouth, the tongue, the eye. All- nouns ending in -dom, -had, -scipe, or -ere are masculine (c/". Modern English wisdom, childAooc?, friendship, worker). Masculine, also, are nouns end- ing in -a. Those ending in -nea or -ung are feminine {of. Mod- 1 Of course our "apostrophe and s" (= 's) comes from the Old English genitive ending -es. The e is preserved in Wednesday ( = 01d English Wodnes daeg). But at a very early period it vras thought that John's book, for example, was a shortened form of John his book. Thus Addison {Spectator, No. 135) declares 's a survival of his. How, then, would he explain the s of his? And how would he dispose of Mary's book 9 12 Introductioii. ern English goodness, and gerundial forms in -ing: see- ing is believing). Thus se wisdom, Wisdom; se cildhad, childhood; se fieondscipe, friendship ; ae &sceie, fisher (^man'); se hunta, hunter; seo gelicnes, likeness; seo leornung, learning. Declensions. 14. There are two great systems of declension in Old English, the Vowel Declension and the Consonant Declension. A noun is said to belong to the Vowel Declension when the final letter of its stem is a vowel, this vowel being then known as the stem-characteristic ; but if the stem-characteristic is a consonant, the noun belongs to the Consonant Declension. There might have been, therefore, as many subdivisions of the Vowel Declension in Old English as there were vow- els, and as many subdivisions of the Consonant De- clension as there were consonants. All Old English nouns, however, belonging to the Vowel Declension, ended their stems originally in a, 6, i, or u. Hence there are but four subdivisions of the Vowel Declen- sion : a-stems, o-stems, i-stems, and u-stems. The Vowel Declension is commonly called the Strong Declension, and its nouns Strong Nouns. Note. — The terms Strong and Weak were first used by Jacob Grimm (1785-1863) in the terminology of verbs, and thence trans- ferred to nouns and adjectives. By a Strong Verb, Grimm meant one that could form its preterit out of its own resources ; that is, without calling in the aid of an additional syllable : Modem English run, ran ; find, found; but verbs of the Weak Conjugation had to borrow, as it were, an inflectional syllable: gain, gained; help, helped. Inflections. 13 15. The stems of nouns belonging to the Consonant Declension ended, with but few exceptions, in the let- ter n (cf. Latin homin-em, ration-em, Greek iroLfiev-a). They are called, therefore, n-stems, the Declension itself being known as the n-Declension, or the Weak Declension. The nouns, also, are called Weak Nouns. 16. If every Old English noun had preserved the original Germanic stem-characteristic (or final letter of the stem), there would be no difficulty in deciding at once whether any given noun is an a-stem, 6-stem, i-stem, u-stem, or n-stem; but these final letters had, for the most part, either been dropped, or fused with the case-endings, long before the period of historic Old English. It is only, therefore, by a rigid com- parison of the Germanic languages with one another, and with the other Aryan languages, that scholars are able to reconstruct a single Germanic language, in which the original stem-characteristics may be seen far better than in any one historic branch of the Ger- manic group (§ s. Note). This hypothetical language, which bears the same ancestral relation to the historic Germanic dialects that Latin bears to the Romance tongues, is known simply as G-ermanio (Gmc), or as Primitive Q-ermanic. Ability to reconstruct Germanic forms is not ex- pected of the students of this book, but the follow- ing table should be examined as illustrating the basis of distinction among the several Old English declensions (O.E. = Old English, Mn.E. = Modern English) : 14 Introduction. Strong or Vowel De- clensions (1) a-stems (2) 6-stems (3) i-stems (4) u-stems ■ II. Consonant Declensions Gmc. staina-z, O.E. Stan, Mn.E. stone. Gmc. hallo, O.E. heall, Mn.E. hall. Gmc. boni-z, O.E. ben, Mn.E. boon. Gmc. suntt-z, O.E. sunu, Mn.E. son. ' Gmc. (1) n-stems (Weak Declension) O.E. (2) Eemnants of other Con- sonant De- clensions (o) (6) (c) tungon-iZ; tung-an, . Mn.E. tongues. ' Gmc. jolr-iz, O.E. let, . Mn.E. feet. ■ Gmc. frijond-iz, O.E. friend, . Mn.E. friend-s. Gmc. brSSr-iz, O.E. broSor, . Mn.E. brothers. Note. — "It will be seen that if Old English eage, eye, is said to be ann-stem, what is meant is this, that at some former period the kernel of the word ended in -n, while, as far as the Old English language proper is concerned, all that is implied is that the word is inflected in a certain manner." (Jespersen, Progress in Language, § 109). This is true of all Old English stems, whether Vowel or Consonant. The division, therefore, into a-stems, 6-stems, etc., is made in the interests of grammar as well as of philology. Conjugations. 17. There are, likewise, two systems of conjugation in Old English: the Strong or Old Conjugation, and the Weak or New Conjugation. Inflections. 15 The verbs of the Strong Conjugation (the so-called Irregular Verbs of Modern English) number about three hundred, of which not one hundred remain in Modern English (§ lOl, Note). They form their pret- erit and frequently their past participle by changing the radical vowel of the present stem. This vowel change or modification is called ablaut (pronounced dhp-lowty : Modern English sing, sang, sung ; rise, rose, risen. As the radical vowel of the preterit plural is often different from that of the preterit singular, there are four principal parts or tense stems in an Old English strong verb, instead of the three of Modern English. The four principal parts in the conju- gation of a strong verb are (1) the present indica- tive, (2) the preterit indicative singular, (3) the preterit indicative plural, and (4) the past participle. Strong verbs fall into seven groups, illustrated in the following table : Pbebent. Pket. SlSQ. Peet. Plue. Past Paeticiple. I. Bitan, to bite : Ic bit-e, / bite or shall bite.^ Ic bat, / bit. ■We bit-on, we bit. lo haebbe ge^-bit- en, / have bitten. Beodan, to bid: lo beod-e, / bid or shall bid. Ic bead, I bade. We bud-on, we bade. Ic haebbe ge-bod- en, / have bidden. 1 Early West Saxon had no distinctive fonn for the future. The present was used both as present proper and as future. Cf. Modern English "I go home tomorrow," or "I am going home tomorrow" for "I shall go home tomorrow." ^ The prefix ge- (Middle English y-), cognate with Latin co (con) and implying completeness of action, was not always used. It never 16 Introduction. Present. Pret. Sing. Pret. Plur. Past Participle. III. Bindan, to bind : Ic bind-e, / bind or shall bind. IV. Beran, to bear : Ic ber-e, / bear or shall bear. V. Metan, to measure : Ic met-e, I measure or shall measure. VI. Faran, to go : Ic far-e, I go or shall go. VII. Feallan, to fall : Ic ieall-e, I fall or shall fall. Ic bQnd, I bound. Ic bser, / bore. Ic mset, I measured. Ic for, / went. Ic feoU, / fell. We bund-on, we bound. We baer-ou, we bore. We maet-on, we measured. We for-on, we went. We feoll-on, we fell. Ic hsebbe ge-bund- en, I have bound. Ic haebbe ge-bor- en, I have tome. Ic haebbe ge-met- en, / have meas- Ic eomi ge-far-en, I have {am) gone. Ic eom^ ge-f eall-en, I have {am) fallen. 18. The verbs of the Weak Conjugation (the so-called Regular Verbs of Modern English) form their preterit occurs in the past participles of compound verbs : o)}-feallan, to fall off, past participle o}>-feallen (not o]}-gefeallen). Milton errs in prefixing it to a present participle : " AVliat needs my Shakespeare, for his honour'd bones, The labour of an age in piled stunes ? Or that his hallow'd reliques should be hid Under a star-ypointing pyramid." — Epitaph on William Shakespeare. And Shakespeare misuses it in " Y-ravished," a preterit {Pericles III, Prologue 1. 35). It survives in the archaic y-clept (Old English ge-clypod, called). It appears as a in aioare (Old English ge-waer), as e in enough (Old English ge-noh), and as i in handiwork (Old English hand-ge-'weoro). ' With intransitive verbs denoting change of condition, the Old English auxiliary is usually some form of to be rather than to have. See § 139. Inflections. 17 and past participle by adding to the present stem a suffix^ with d ov t: Modern English love, loved; sleep, slept. The stem of the preterit plural is never different from the stem of the preterit singular ; henpe these verbs have only three distinctive tense-stems, or prin- cipal parts : viz., (1) the present indicative, (2) the preterit indicative, and (3) the past participle. Weak verbs fall into three groups, illustrated in the following table : Pebsent. Preterit. Past Paeticiplb. I. Fr^mman, to perform : Ic fr^mm-e, / perform Ic fr^m-ede, I per- Ic haebbe ge-frf m-ed, or shall perform. formed. / Jiave performed. II. Bodian, to proclaim : lo bodi-e, I proclaim Ic bod-ode, I pro- Ic hsbbe ge-bod-od, or shall proclaim. claimed. / have proclaimed. in. Habban, to have : Ic haebbe, / have or Ic hset-de, I had. Ic haebbe ge-haef-d, I shall have. have had. 19. There remain a few verbs (chiefly the Auxiliary Verbs of Modern English) that do not belong entirely to either of the two conjugations mentioned. The most important of them are, Ic maeg I may, Ic mihte I might; Ic opn I can, Ic cu3e I could; Ic mot I must, Ic moste I 1 The theory that loved, for example, is a fused form of love-did has been generally given up. The dental ending was doubtless an Indo-Germanic suflSx, which became completely specialized only in the Teutonic languages. 18 Introduction. must; lo sceal I shall, Ic sceolde I should ; lo eom I am, Ic waes I was; Ic wille I will, Ic wolde I would ; Ic do I do, Ic dyde I did; Ic ga J^O, Ic eode I went. All but the last four of these are known as Preterit- Present Verbs. The present tense of each of them is in origin a preterit, in function a present. Gf. Modern English ought (= owed'). CHAPTER IV. Order of Words. 20. The order of words in Old English is more like that of Modern German than of Modern English. Yet it is only the Transposed order that the student will feel to be at all un-English ; and the Transposed order, even before the period of the Norman Conquest, was fast yielding place to the Normal order. The three divisions of order are (1) Normal, (2) Inverted, and (3) Transposed. (1) Normal order = subject -l- predicate. In Old English, the Normal order is found chiefly in inde- pendent clauses. The predicate is followed by its modifiers : Se hwael biS tnicle liessa )>oune oSre hwalas. That whale is much smaller than other whales; Qnd he geseah twa scipu, And he saw two ships. (2) Inverted order = predicate-)- subject. This order occurs also in independent clauses, and is employed (a) when some modifier of the predicate precedes the predicate, the subject being thrown behind. The Order of Words. 19 words most frequently causing Inversion in Old Eng- lish prose are Jja then, ]}onne then, and Jjeer there : ©a for he, Then went he; ©onne sernaS hy ealle toweard \)dBva. feo, Then gallop they all toward the property ; ac Jjeer biS medo genoh, but there is mead enough. Inversion is employed (&) in interrogative sentences: Lufast 8u me? Lovest thou me? and (c) in imperative sentences: Cume iSln rice, Thy kingdom come. (3) Transposed order = subject . . . predicate. That is, the predicate comes last in the sentence, being pre- ceded by its modifiers. This is the order observed in dependent clauses : ^ Donne cymeS se man se Jjaet swift- oste hors hafaS, Then comes the man that has the swiftest horse (literally, that the swiftest horse has') ; Ne mette he SBt nan gebun land, ai]})7Ein he fr^m his agnum ham for, Nor did he before find any cultivated land, after he went from his own home (literally, after he from his own home went). 21. Two other peculiarities in the order of words require a brief notice. (1) Pronominal datives and accusatives usually pre- cede the predicate : He hine oferwann, He overcame him (literally, He him overcame); Dryhten him andwyrde, The Lord answered him. But substantival datives and accusatives, as in Modern English, follow the predicate. 1 But in the Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan, in which the style is apparently more that of oral than of written discourse, the Normal is more frequent than the Transposed order in dependent clauses. In his other writings Alfred manifests a partiality for the Transposed order in dependent clauses, except in the case of suhstantival clauses introduced by Jjset. Such clauses show a marked tendency to revert to their Normal oratio recta order. The norm thus set by the indirect affirmative clause seems to have proved an important factor in the 20 Introduction. The following sentence illustrates both orders : Hy genamon loseph, qnd bine gesealdon' cipem9nnuia, qnd by bine gesealdon in Egypta l9nd, They took Joseph, and sold him to merchants, and they sold him into Egypt (literally, They took Joseph, and him sold to merchants, and they him sold into Egyptians' land~). Note. — The same order prevails in the case of pronominal nomi- natives used as predicate nouns ; Ic bit eom, It is I (literally, / it am) ; Dfl bit eart, It is thou (literally, Thou it art) . (2) The attributive genitive, whatever relationship it expresses, usually precedes the noun which it quali- fies: Breoton is garsecges igland, Britain is an island of the ocean (literally, ocean's island^; Swilce bit is eac berende on wf cga orum, Likewise it is also rich in ores of metals (literally, metals' ores') ; Cyninga cyning, King of kings (literally, Kings' king) ; Ge witon Godes rices geryne, Fe know the mystery of the kingdom of God (literally. Ye know God's kingdom's mystery). A preposition governing the word modified by the genitive, precedes the genitive : ^ On ealdra manna ssegenum, In old men's sayings; ^t Sseza. strseta ^ndum, At the ends of the streets (literally. At the streets' ends) ; For ealra £Knra halgena lufan, For all thy saints' love. See, also, § 94, (5). ultimate disappearance of Transposition from dependent clauses. The influence of Norman French helped only to consummate forces that were already busily at work. 1 The positions of the genitive are various. It frequently follows its noun : Jja beam Jjafa ASeniensa, The children of the Athenians. It may separate an adjective and a noun : An lytel saes earm, A little arm of (the) sea. The genitive may here be construed as an adjec- tive, or part of a compound = A little sea-arm; Mid mQnegum Godes gifum, With many God-gifts = many divine gifts. Practical Suggestions. 21 CHAPTER V. Pkactical Suggestions. 22. In tlie study of Old English, the student must remember that he is dealing not with a foreign or isolated language but with the earlier forms of his own mother tongue. The study will prove profitable and stimulating in proportion as close and constant com- parison is made of the old with the new. The guiding principles in such a comparison are reducible chiefly to two. These are (1) the regular operation of phonetic laws, resulting especially in certain Vowel Shiftings, and (2) the alterations in form and syntax that are produced by Analogy. (1) "The former of these is of physiological or natural origin, and is perfectly and inflexibly regular throughout the same period of the same language; and even though different languages show different phonetic habits and predilections, there is a strong general resemblance between the changes induced in one language and in another; many of the particular laws are true for many languages. (2) " The other principle is psychical, or mental, or artificial, introducing various more or less capricious changes that are supposed to be emendations; and its operation is, to some extent, uncertain and fitful."^ 1 Skeat, Principles of English Etymology, Second Series, § 342. But Jespersen, with Collitz and others, stoutly contests "the theory of sound laws and analogy sufficing between them to explain every- thing in linguistic development." 22 Introduction. (1) Vowel-Shiftings. 23. It will prove an aid to the student in acquiring the inflections and vocabulary of Old English to note carefully the following shiftings that have taken place in the gradual growth of the Old English vowel system into that of Modern English. (1) As stated in § 3, the Old English inflectional vowels, which were all short and unaccented, weakened in early Middle English to e. This e in Modern Eng- lish is frequently dropped : Old English. Middle English, Modern English stan-as ston-es stones sun-u sun-e son sun-a sun-e sons ox-an ox-en oxen swift-ra swift-er swifter swift-ost swift-est swiftest loc-ode lok-ede looked (2) The Old English long vowels have shifted their phonetic values with such uniform regularity that it is possible in almost every case to infer the Modern Eng- lish sound ; but our spelling is so chaotic that while the student may infer the modern sound, he cannot always infer the modern symbol representing the sound. Old English. Modern English. o (as in no^^ na = no ; stan = stone ; ban = hone; ia.d=road ; a.c = oak; hal = whole ; ham = home; saw^an = to sow; gast = ghost. 1 But Old English a preceded by w sometimes gives Modern Englisli o as in two : twa = two ; hiva = who ; h'wain = whom. Practical Suggestions. 23 Old Eholish. Modern ENaLisu. ) in he) i(y) I (j/) (as in mine) o (as in do) ou {ow) (as in thou) ■ ae, ea, eo ea (as in sea) he = he ; -we = vie ; 8e = thee ; me=me ; ge=ye; hel=heel ; ■werig = weary ; gelefaii=to believe ; ges = geese. min = mine ; Sin = thine ; Wii = wire ; mya = mice ; rim = rime (wrongly spelt rhyme); \ya=lice ; bi=by ; scinan— to shine ; stig rap = sty-rope (shortened to stirrup, stigan meaning to mount). &o=Ido; t6 = too, to; gos= goose; to& = tooth; mona= moon; &om=doom ; m6d= mood; 'wogian = to woo; slob = / slew. &u=thou; f^l= foul; hus = house; nvL = now; bu=how; tun=town ; nie = our ; iit= out; hlad=loud ; 3usend=: thousand. §e: Bee = sea ; mEel = meal ; dEelan = to deal ; cleene = clean ; graedig = greedy. ea : eare = ear; east = east; drgam= dream; geaz=year; beatan = to beat. eo : Sreo = three ; dreorig = dreary; aeo = she ; hreod= reed ; deop = deep. (2) Analogy. 24. But more important than vowel shifting is the great law of Analogy, for Analogy shapes not only words but constructions. It belongs, therefore, to 24 Introduction. Etymology and to Syntax, since it influences botli form and function. By this law, minorities tend to pass over to the side of the majorities. "The greater mass of cases exerts an assimilative influence upon the smaller."^ The effect of Analogy is to simplify and to regularize. " The main factor in getting rid of irregularities is group-influence, or Analogy — the influence exercised by the members of an association- group on one another. . . . Irregularity consists in partial isolation from an association-group through some formal difference. "'^ Under the influence of Analogy, entire declensions and conjugations have been swept away, leaving in Modern English not a trace of their former existence. There are in Old English, for example, five plural end- ings for nouns, -as, -a, -e, -u, and -an. No one could well have predicted 3 that -as (Middle English -es) would soon take the lead, and become the norm to which the other endings would eventually conform, for there were more an-plurals than as-plurals ; but the aa- plurals were doubtless more often employed in every- day speech. Oxen (Old English oxan) is the sole pure survival of the hundreds of Old English an-plurals. ^ Whitney, Life and Growth of Language., Chap. IV. 2 Sweet, A New English Grammar, Part I. , § 535. ' As Skeat says (§ 22, (2)), Analogy is "fitful." It enables us to explain many lingxiistic phenomena, but not to anticipate them. The multiplication of books tends to check its influence by perpetuating the forms already in use. Thus Chaucer employed nine en-plurals, and his influence served for a time to check the further encroachment of the es-plurals. As soon as there is an acknowledged standard in any language, the operation of Analogy is fettered. Practical Suggestions. 25 No group of feminine nouns in Old English had -es as the genitive singular ending ; but by the close of the Middle English period all feminines formed their genitive singular in -es (or -s, Modern English 's) after the analogy of the Old English masculine and neuter nouns with es-genitives. The weak preterits in -ode have all been leveled under the ed-forms, and of the three hundred strong verbs in Old English more than two hundred have become weak. These are not cases of derivation (as are the shifted vowels) : Modern English -s in sons, for example, could not possibly be derived from Old English -a in suna, or Middle English -e in sune (§ 23, (1)). They are cases of replacement by Analogy. A few minor examples will quicken the student's appreciation of the nature of the influence exercised by Analogy : (a) The intrusive I in could (Chaucer always wrote coud or coude') is due to association with would and should, in each of which I belongs by etymological right. (6) ffe need not (for JTe needs nof) is due to the assimilative influence of the auxiliaries may, can, etc., which have never added -s for their third person singular (§ 137). (c) / am friends with him, in which friends is a crystalized form for on good terms, may be traced to the influence of such expressions as He and I are friends. They are friends, etc. (dy Such errors as are seen in runned, seed, gooses, ladder, hisself, says I (usually coupled with says he") 26 Introduction. are all analogical formations. Though not sanctioned by good usage, it is hardly right to call these forms the products of "false analogy." The grammar in- volved is false, because unsupported by literary usages and traditions ; but the analogy on which these forms are built is no more false than the law of gravitation is false when it makes a dress sit unconventionally. PART tl. ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. The Strong ok Vowel Declensions op Noxjns. The a-DECLENSION. CHAPTER VI. (a) Masculine a-Stems. [O.E., M.E., and Mn.E. will henceforth he used for Old English, Middle English, and Modern English. Other abbreviations employed are self- explaining.] 25. The a-Declension, corresponding to the Second or o-Declension of Latin and Greek, contains only (a) masculine and (J) neuter nouns. To this declen- sion belong most of the O.E. masculine and neuter nouns. At a very early period, many of the nouns belonging properly to the i- and u-Declensions began to pass over to the a-Declension. This declension may therefore be considered the normal declension for all masculine and neuter nouns belonging to the Strong Declension. 26. Paradigms of se mu3, mouth; se fiscere, fisher- man; se hwsel, whale; se mearh, horse; se finger, finger: 27 28 Etymology and Syntax. Sing. N.A. G. D.I. ma's mu'S-es ma'S-e fiscer-e fiscer-es fiscer-e hwsel htysel-es hwsel-e mearh mear-es mear-e finger fingr-es fiugr-e Plur. N.A. G. D.I. mu'8-as mu^-a mu^-um fiscer-as flsoer-a fisoer-um hwal-as h-wal-a hwal-um mear-as mear-a mear-mn fingr-as fingr-a fingr-um Note. — For meanin .gs of the cases, see § 12. The dative and instrumental are alike in all nouns. 27. The student will observe (1) that nouns whose nominative ends in -e (fiscere) drop this letter before adding the case endings ; (2) that se before a consonant (hwael) changes to a in the plural ; ^ (3) that h, preceded by r (mearh) or 1 (seolh, seal), is dropped before an inflec- tional vowel, the stem vowel being then lengthened by way of compensation ; (4) that dissyllables (finger) hav- ing the first syllable long, generally syncopate the vowel of the second syllable before adding the case endings.^ 28. Paradigm of the Definite Article^ se, seo, Saet = the : 1 Adjectives usually retain se in closed syllables, changing it to a in open syllables: h-wset (active), glaed (glad), vrset (wary) have G. hwates, glades, -wares ; D. hwatum, gladum, -warum ; but A. hwsetne, glaedne, ■wseme. Nouns, however, change to a only in open syllables followed by a guttural vowel, a or u. The se in the open syllables of the singular is doubtless due to the analogy of the N.A. singular, both being closed syllables. 2(7/. Mn.E. drizzHing, rememhWing, abysmal (abysm = abiz"m), sickening, in which the principle of syncopation is precisely the same. 8 This may mean four things : (1) Tlie, (2) That (demonstrative), (3) He, she, it, (4) Who, which, that (relative pronoun). Mn.E. de- monstrative that is, of course, the survival of O.E. neuter Seet in its demonstrative sense. Professor Victor Henry (Comparative Grammar of English and German, § 160, 3) sees a survival of dative plural demon- strative Seem in such an expression as in them days. It seems more probable, however, that them so used has followed the lead of Masculine a-Stems. 29 Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. Sing. iV. se sgo •Sset G. ISses «£ere •Sees D. «8em ('Sam) «3Bre •Ssem (■Sam) A. •Sone M «8Bt I. «y, «on All Genders. ■Sy, «on Plur. N.A. ■Sa G. •Sara D. •S^m (Sam) 29. Vocabulary. 1 Be bocere, scrifie [boo]. se cyning, king. Be dseg, day. Be fnde, end. se fngel, angel [angelus]. ae freodom, freedom. se fugol (G. sometimes fugles), bird [fowl]. se gar, spear [gore, gar- fish]. se heofon, heaven. se hierde, herdsman [shep-herd]. qnd (and), and. se B^cg, man, warrior. se seolh, seal. se Stan, stone. se 'wealh, foreigner, Welshman [wal-nut]. se -v^eall, wall. se 'Wisdom, wisdom. se wulf, woy. 30. Exercises. I. 1. Dara wulfa muSas. 2. Dses fiseeres fingras. 3. Dara Weala cyninge. 4. Deem ^nglum qnA. Saem hierdum. 6. Dara this and iftese, JAaf and those, in their double function of pronoun and adjective. There 'was doubtless some such evolution as, I saw them. Them what ? Them boys. An unquestioned survival of the dative singular feminine of the article is seen in the -ter of Atterbury (= set Ssere byrig, at the town); and Sseva survives in the -ten of Attenborough, the word borough having become an uninflected neuter. Skeat, Principles, First Series, § 185. 1 The brackets contain etymological hints that may help the student to discern relationships otherwise overlooked. The genitive is given only when not perfectly regular. 30 Etymology and Syntax. daga ^nde. 6. Dgem bocerum (jnd 8»in s^cgum *ses cyninges. 7. Dsem seole (jnd SEem fuglum. 8. Da stanas Qiid tSa garas. 9. Hwala gnd meara. 10. Dara ^ngla -wisdom. 11. Dses cyninges boceres freodom. 12. Dara hierda fuglum. 13. Dy stane. 14. Dam wealle. II. 1. Por the horses and the seals. 2. For the Welsh- men's freedom. 3. Of the king's birds. 4. By the wis- dom of men and angels. 6. With the spear and the stone. 6. The herdsman's seal and the warriors' spears. 7. To the king of heaven. 8. By means of the scribe's wisdom. 9. The whale's mouth and the foreigner's spear. 10. For the bird belonging to (= of) the king's scribe. 11. Of that finger. CHAPTER VII. (6) Neuter a-Stems. 31. The neuter nouns of the a-Declension differ from the masculines only in the N.A. plural. 32. Paradigms of Sset hof, court., dwelling ; 3set beam, child; Saet ban, bone; Sset rice, kingdom; Sset spere, spear ; Sset werod, land of men ; iSaet tungol, star: Sing. N.A. hof beam ban ric-e sper-e werod tungol G. hof-es bearn-es ban-es rio-es sper-es werod-es tungl-es D.I. hof-e bearn-e ban-e ric-e sper-e werod-e tungl-e Plur. N.A. hof-u beam ban ric-u sper-u werod tungl-u G. hof-a beam-a ban-a ric-a sper-a werod-a tungl-a D.I. hof-um bearn-um ban-mn rio-um sper-um werod-um tungl-um 33. The paradigms show (1) that monosyllables with short stems (hof) take -u in the N.A. plural ; (2) that Neuter a-Stems. 31 monosyllables with long stems (beam, ban) do not distin- guish the N.A. plural from the N.A. singular; ^ (3) that dissyllables in -e, whether the stem be long or short (rice, spere), have -u in the N.A. plural ; (4) that dissyllables ending in a consonant and having the first syllable short ^ (werod) do not usually distinguish the N.A. plural from the N.A. singular; (5) that dissyllables ending in a con- sonant and having the first syllable long (tungoi) more frequently take -u in the N.A. plural. Note. — Syncopation occurs as in tlie masculine a-stems. See § 27, (4). 34. Present and Preterit Indicative of habban, to have: Present. Sing. 1. lo hsebbe, I have, or shall have." 2. 8u bsefst (hafast), thou hast, or wilt have. 3. he, heo, hit haeiS (hafaiS), he, she, it has, or will have. Plur. 1. we habbaS, we have, or shall have. 2. ge habba3, ye have, or will have. 3. hie habbaS, they have, or mil have. Pketeeit. Sing. 1. lo hsefde, I had. 2. SvL hsefdest, thou hadst. 3. hS, heo, hit haefde, he, she, it had. Plur. 1. w§ haefdon, we had. 2. ge haefdon, ye had. 3. hie haefdon, they had. 1 Note the many nouns in Mn.E. that are unchanged in the plural. These are either survivals of O.E. long stems, swine, sheep, deer, folk, or analogical forms, flsh, trout, mackerel, salmon, etc. 2 Dissyllables vfhose first syllable is a prefix are, of course, ex- cluded. They follow the declension of their last member: gebed, prayer, gebedu, prayers; gefeoht, battle, gefeoht, battles. ' See § 17, Note 1. Note that (as in hwael, § 27, (2)) as changes to a vyhen the foUovfing syllable contains a ; haebbe, but hafast. 32 Etymology and Syntax. Note.— The negative ne, not, which always precedes its verb, contracts with all the forms of habban. The negative loses its e, habban its h. Ne + habban = nabban ; Ic ne hsebbe = Ic nsebbe ; lo ne hsefde = Ic nsefde, etc. The negative forms may be gotten, therefore, by simply substituting in each case n for b. 35. VOCABULAKY. 3aet dael, dale. Saet deor, animal [deer*]. 8aBt dor, door. Sset feet, vessel [vat]. iSset fyr, fire. Seet gear, year. iSaet geoc, yoke. Saet geset, habitation [set- tlement]. iSaet heafod, head. Saet bus, house. Saet lie, hody [lich-gate]. Sset lim, limb. on (with dat.) in. Saet spor, track. Saet: wiepen, weapon. Saet ■wif , wife, woman. Saet ■wTte, punishment. Saet -word, word. 36. Exercises. I. 1. He haf atS tSaes cyninges beam. 2. Da Wealas liab- balS t5a speru. 3. Da wif habbatS tSara s^cga waepnu. 4. Dii hsef st tSone f ugol Qnd Saet bus tSses hierd.es. 5. HaefS ^ heo Sa f atu« ? 6. Haef de he Sees vrlf es lie on «£em hof e ? 7. He naefde tSses wifes lie ; he hsefde Saes deores heafod. 8. HsefS se cyning gesetu on Saem daele ? 9. Se bocere hsefS t5a sgolas on tSsIm huse. 10. Ge habbacS freedom. II. 1. They have yokes and spears. 2. We have not the vessels in the house. 3. He had fire in the vessel. 4. Did the woman have (= Had the woman) the children ? 5. The animal has the body of the woman's child. 6. I shall have 1 The old meaning survives in Shakespeare's " Rats and mice and such small deer," King Lear, III, 4, 144. 2 See § 20, (2), (6). » See § 27, (2). The o-Declension. 33 the heads of the ■wolves. 7. He and she have the king's houses. 8. Have not (= NabbaS) the children the warrior's weapons ? CHAPTER VIII. The 6-Declbnsion. 37. The 6-Declension, corresponding to the First or a-Declension of Latin and Greek, contains only feminine nouns. Many feminine i-stems and u-stems soon passed over to this Declension. The 6-Declension may, therefore, be considered the normal declension for all strong feminine nouns. 38. Paradigms of seo giefu, gift; seo wund, wound; seo rod, cross ; seo leoraung, learning; seo sawol, soul: Si7ig. iV. gief-u wund rod leornung sawol G. gief-e 1 wund-e rod-e leornung-a (e) sawl-e D.I. gief-e wiind-e r6d-e leornung-a (e) sawl-e A. gief-e wund-e rod-e leomung-a (e) sawl-e Plur. N.A. gief-a wund-a rod-a leomung-a sawl-a 0. gief-a wund-a rod-a leornung-a sawl-a D.I. gief-um wund-nm rod-um leomung-um sawl-um 39. Note (1) that monosyllables with short stems (giefu) take u in the nominative singular ; (2) that monosyllables with long stems (wund, rod) present the unchanged stem in the nominative singular ; (3) that dissyllables are declined as monosyllables, except that abstract nouns in -ung prefer a to e in the singular. Note. — Syncopation occurs as in masculine and neuter a-stems. See § 27, (4). D 34 Etymology and Syntax. 40. Present and Preterit Indicative of bSon (wesan), to he : Peesent (first form) . Pkbsent (second form) . Preterit. Ung. 1. Ic eom 1. Ic beom 1. lo wses 2. «ueart 2. tSubist 2. tSuwEere 3. he is 3. hs bits 3. he wKs ^lur. 1. we 1. Wg 1. wg 2. ge sind (on), sint 2. ge beo« 2. ge waeron 3. hie 3. hie. 3. hie. Note 1. — The forms beom, biat, etc. are used chiefly as future tenses in O.E. They survive to-day only in dialects and in poetry. Farmer Dobson, for example, in Tennyson's Promise of May, uses be for all persons of the present indicative, both singular and plural ; and there be is frequent in Shakespeare for there are. The Northern dialect employed aron as well as sindon and sind for the present plural ; hence Mn.E. are. Note 2. — Fusion with ne gives neom and nis for the present; naea, neere, n£eron for the preterit. Note 3. — The verb to be is followed by the nominative case, as in Mn.E. ; but when the predicate noun is plural, and the subject a neuter pronoun in the singular, the verb agrees in number with the predicate noun. The neuter singular Sset is frequently employed in this construction ; Daet WEeron eall Finnas, They were all Fins ; Oset Bind fnglas, They are angels; Diet weeron ^ngla gaatas, They were angels' spirits. Notice, too, that O.E. vrriters do not say It is I, It is thou, but I it am, Thou it art: Ic hit eom, 8u hit eart. See § 21, (1), Note 1. 41. Vocabulary. aeo geoguS, youth. aeo glof, glove. seo halignea ^ holiness. aeo hecdl, hall. her, here. aeo brycg, aeo costnung, temptation. aeo cwalu, death [quail, quell]. aeo for, journey [faran]. aeo irofor, consolation, comfort. 1 All words ending in -nea double the -a before adding the case endings. The i- Declension. 35 hwa, who? h-wser, where f seo lufu, love. seo mearc, boundary [mark, marches 1]. seo med, meed, reward. seo mildheortnes, mild-heartedr- ness, mercy. seo stow, place [stow away]. 8ser, there. seo cSearf, need. seo vryU, she wolf. 42. Exercises. I. 1. HwSr is tSSre brycge ^nde ? 2. Her sind tSara rica mearca. 3. Hwa hseftS fa glofa ? 4. Deer biS SSm cyninge frofre Searf. 5. Seo wund is on Sffire wylfe heafde. 6. We habbaS costnunga. 7. Hie nSron on tSaere healle. 8. Ic hit neom. 9. Dset wseron Wealas. 10. Dset sind tSses wifes beam. II. 1. We shall have the -women's gloves. 2. Where is the place? 3. He will be in the hall. 4. Those (Deet) were not the boundaries of the kingdom. 5. It was not I. 6. Ye are not the king's scribes. 7. The shepherd's words are full (hill + gen.) of wisdom and comfort. 8. Where are the bodies of the children? 9. The gifts are not here. 10. Who has the seals and the birds ? CHAPTER IX. The i-Dbclension and the u-Declbnsion. The /-Declension. 43. The i-Declension, corresponding to the group of i-stems in the classical Third Declension, contains chiefly (a) masculine and (6) feminine nouns. The N. A. plural of these nouns ended originally in -e (from older i). 1 As in warden of the marches. 36 Etymology and Syntax. (a) Masculine /-Stems. 44. These stems have almost completely gone over to the a-Declension, so that -as is more common than -e as the N.A. plural ending, whether the stem is long or short. The short stems all have -e in the N.A. singular. 45. Paradigms of se wyrm, worm; se -mine, friend. Sing. N.A. wyrm win-e a. wyrm-es win-es D.I. wyrm-e win-e Plur. N.A. wyrm-as win-as (e) a. wyrm-a win-a D.I. wyrm-um win-um Names of Peoples. 46. The only i-stems that regularly retain -e of the N.A. plural are certain names of tribes or peoples used only in the plural. 47. Paradigms of 3a ^ngle, Angles; iSa NorSymbre, Northumbrians ; iSa leode, people : Plur. N.A. ll^ngle NorSymbre leode Q. pngla NoriSymbra leoda D.I. pnglum Nor'Symbrum leodum (&) Feminine /-Stems. 48. The short stems (fr§m-u) conform entirely to the declension of short 6-stems ; long stems (cwen, wyrt) differ from long o-stems in having no ending for the A. singular. They show, also, a preference for -e rather than -a in the N.A. plural. The u-Declension. 37 49. Paradigms of seo fr^m-u, benefit; seo owen, woman, queen [quean] ; seo wyrt, root [wort] : Sing. iV. fr^m-u cwen wyrt G. fr^m-e cwen-e wyrt-e D.I. fr^m-e cwen-e wyrt-e A. fr^m-e owen wyrt Plur. N.A. fr^m-a cwen-e (a) wyrt-e (a) G. fr^m-a cwen-a wyrt-a D.I. fr§m-um ewen-um wyrt-um The (i-Declension. 50. The u-Declension, corresponding to the group of u-stems in the classical Third Declension, contains no neuters, and but few (a) masculines and (J) feminines. The short-stemmed nouns of both genders (sun-u, dur-u) retain the final u of the N.A. singular, while the long stems (feld, hqnd) drop it. The influence of the mas- culine a-stems is most clearly seen in the long-stemmed masculines of the u-Declension (feld, feld-es, etc.). Note. — Note the general aversion of all O.E. long stems to final -u: ef. N.A. plural hof-u, but beam, ban; N. singular gief-u, but iiTuud, rod ; N. singular fr^m-u, but cwen, -vTyrt ; N.A. singular Bun-u, dur-u, but feld, hijnd. (a) Masculine tf-Stems. 51. Paradigms of se sun-u. son; se feld, field Sing. N.A. sun-u feld G. sun-a feld-a (es) D.I. sun-a feld-a (e) Plur. N.A. sun-a feld-a (as) G. sun-a feld-a D.I sun-um feld-um 38 Etymology and Syntax. (b) Feminine (/-Stems. 52. Paradigms of seo dur-u door; seo hQnd, hand: Sing. N.A. G. D.I. dur-u dur-a dur-a hijnd h(jnd-a hgnd-a Plur. N.A. G. D.I. dur-a dur-a dur-um hgnd-a hQud-a hijnd-um 53. Paradigm of the Third Personal Pronoun, he, heo, hit = he, she, it : Masculine. Feminine. lis heo his hiere him hiere hine, hiene hie All Genders. hie hiera him Sing. N. G. D. A. Neuter. hit his him hit Plur. N.A. G. D. 54. Vocabulary. D. BU- (i-SlEMS.) se cierr, turn, time [char, chare, chore] . seo died, deed. se deel, part [a great deal]. 3a D^ne, Danes. se freondscipe, friendship. seo hyd, skin, hide. 8a Ipndleode, natives. 8a Mierce, Mercians. 8a Rom-ware, Momans. Note. — The numerous masculine nouns ending in -had, — cild- had (childhood), ■wifhad (womanhood), — helong to the u-stems his- torically ; but they have all passed over to the a-Declension. 8a Seaze, Saxons. se stfde, place [in-stead of]. (u-Stems.) seo flor, floor. seo nosu, nose. se Bumor (G. sumeres, mera), summer. se -winter (G. -wintres, D. vria- tra), winter. se -wudu, wood, forest. Present Indicative Endings of Strong Verbs. 39 55. EXBECISES. I. 1. Da Seaxe habbatS tSses deores hyd on tSSm wuda. 2. Hwa hsefS t5a giefa? 3. Da Mierce hie' habbaS. 4. HwSr is tSses Weales fugol? 5. Da D^ne hiene hab- batS. 6. Hwaer sindon hiera wiuas? 7. Hie sindon on tSses cyninges -wnda. 8. Da Eomware (jnd tSa Seaxe haef- don (5a garas (jnd t5a geocu. 9. Heo is on 6gem hiise on wintra, gnd on Saem feldum on sumera. 10. HwEer is Sees hofes duru? 11. Heo^ (= seo duru) nis her. II. 1. His friends have the bones of the seals and the bodies of the Danes. 2. Art thou the king's son ? 3. Has she her gifts in her hands ? 4. Here are the fields of the natives. 6. Who had the bird? 6. I had it.^ 7. The child had the worm in his fingers. 8. The Mercians were here during (the) summer (on + dat.). CHAPTER X. Present Indicative Endings of Strong Verbs. 56. The unchanged stem of the present indicative may always be found by dropping -an of the infinitive : feall-an, to fall ; ceos-an, to choose; bid-an, to abide. 57. The personal endings are : Sing. 1. -e Flur. 1. 1 2. -est 2. l-a3 3. -e3 3. J 1 See § 21, (1). 2 Pronouns agree in gender with the nouns for which they stand. Hit, however, sometimes stands for inanimate tilings of hoth mascu- line and feminine genders. See Wlilfing {I.e.) I, § 238. 40 Etymology and Syntax. /-Umlaut. 58. The 2d and 3d singular endings were originally not -est and -ei8, but -is and -i8 ; and the i of these older endings has left its traces upon almost every page of Early West Saxon literature. This i, though unac- cented and soon displaced, exerted a powerful back influence upon the vowel of the preceding accented syllable. This influence, a form of regressive assimi- lation, is known as i-umlaut (pronounced odm-lowf). The vowel i or j (=«/), being itself a palatal, suc- ceeded in palatalizing every guttural vowel that pre- ceded it, and in imposing still more of the i-quality upon diphthongs that were already palatal.^ The changes produced were these : a became ?(ae): nifnn (-<*inaim-iz), men. senig «*an-ig), any. wyllen « *TWTill-m), woollen. mys (<*iiius-iz), mice. d^bter «*dohtr-i), to or for the daughter. fet «*lot-iz),/ee«. vT-iexS (< *weax-i3), he grows (v(reaxan={o grow). hievrS (<*liea'w-i3), he hews (hea'waii=Jo hew). wiercan (<*weorc-jaii), to work. liehtan (<*leoht-jan), to light. The Unchanged Present Indicative. 59. In the Northumbrian and Mercian dialects, as well as in the dialect of Late West Saxon, the 2d and 3d singular endings were usually joined to the present 1 The palatal vowels and dipMhongs were long or short se, e, i, (ie), y, ea, eo; the guttural vowels were long or short a, o, u. a ae u ' ' y u ' y o " ? 5 ' e ea ' ' ie ea ' ' ie eo " ie eo ' ' ie Present Indicative Undings of Strong Verbs. 41 stem without modification either of the stem itself or of the personal endings. The complete absence of umlauted forms in the present indicative of Mn.E. is thus accounted for. In Early West Saxon, however, such forms as the following are comparatively rare in the 2d and 3d singular : Sing. 1. 2. 3. Ic feall-e (^Ifall) ^u feall-est he feall-e« ceos-e {I choose) ceos-est ceos-e« bid-e {I abide) bid-est bld-e« Plur. 1. 2. 3. we ge hie J feall-a« ceos-a'S bid-a« The Present Indicative with /-Umlaut and Contraction. 60. The 2d and 3d persons singular are distin- guished from the other forms of the present indicative in Early West Saxon by (1) i-umlaut of the vowel of the stem, (2) syncope of the vowel of the ending, giv- ing -St and -8 for -est and -eS, and (3) contraction of -St and -3 with the final consonant or consonants of the stem. Contraction. 61. The changes produced by i-umlaut have been already discussed. By these changes, therefore, the stems of the 2d and 3d singular indicative of such verbs as (1) st^ndan (= standan), to stand, (2) cuman, to come, (3) gro-wan, to grow, (4) brucan, to enjoy, (5) blawan, to blow, (6) feallan, to fall, (7) heawan, to hew, (8) weorpan, to throw, and (9) ceosan, to choose. 42 Etymology and Syntax. become respectively (1) st^nd-,! (2) cym-, (3) grgw-, (4) bryo-, (5) bleew-, (6) fiell-, (7) hiew-, (8) wierp-, and (9) cies-. If the unchanged stem contains the vowel e, this is changed in the 2d and 3d singular to i (ie) : cweSan to say, stem owiS- ; beran to bear, stem bier-. But this mutation 2 had taken place long before the period of O.E., and belongs to the Germanic languages in gen- eral. It is best, however, to class the change of e to i or ie with the changes due to umlaut, since it occurs consistently in the 2d and 3d singular stems of Early West Saxon, and outlasted almost all of the umlaut forms proper. If, now, the syncopated endings -st and -8 are added directly to the umlauted stem, there will frequently result such a massing of consonants as almost to defy pronunciation : cwi3-st, thou say est ; st^nd-st, thou standest, etc. Some sort of contraction, therefore, is demanded for the sake of euphony. The ear and eye will, by a little practice, become a sure guide in these contractions. The following rules, however, must be observed. They apply only to the 2d and 3d singular of the present indicative : 1 The more common form for stems with a is se rather than g : iaran, to go, 2d and 3d singular stem fser- ; sacan, to contend, stem saec-. Indeed, a changes to § via se (Cosijn, Altwestsdchsische Grammatik, I, § 32). 2 Umlaut is frequently called Mutation. Metaphony is still another name for the same phenomenon. The term Metaphony has the advan- tage of easy adjectival formation (metaphonic). It was proposed by Professor Victor Henry ( Comparative Orammar of English and Ger- man, Paris, 1894), hut has not been naturalized. Present Indicative Endings of Strong Verbs. 43 (1) If the stem ends in a double consonant, one of the consonants is dropped : 1. feall-e {I fall) 1. winn-e {Iftght) 1. swimm-e {I swim) 2. flel-st 2. win-st 2. swim-st 3. flel-tS 3. win-'S 3. swim-'S (2) If the stem ends in -3, this is dropped : 1. cwe«-e(Jsoy) 1. weor'5-e (/ftecome) 2. cwi-st 2. wier-st 3. cwi-'S 3. wier-'S (3) If the stem ends in -d, this is changed to -t. The -3 of the ending is then also changed to -t, and usually absorbed. Thus the stem of the 2d singular serves as stem and ending for the 3d singular: 1. st an adder 2]. se oza, ox. se sceo'OTyrhta, shoe-maker [shoe- wright]. seo sunne, sun. se teona, injury [teen]. biddan (with dat. of person and gen. of thing ^), to request, ask for. cvvelan, to die [quail]. 1 The r is intrusive in -groom, as it is in cart-r-idge, part-r-idge, vag-r-ant, and hoor-r-se. ^ The n has been appropriated by the article. Cf. an apron (< a napron), an auger (< a nauger), an orange «a norange), an umpire « a numpire). ' In Mn.E. we say " I request a favor of you " ; but in O.E. it was 46 Etymology and Syntax. gescieppan, to create [shape, land-scape, friend-ship]. giefan (with dat. of indirect ob- ject), to give. healdan, to hold. helpan (with dat.), to help. Ian (with dat.), to injure [scathe]. wiSstqndan (-standan) (with dat.), to withstand. vTritan, to write. 66. EXEKCISES. I. 1. Se sceowyrhta brycS Ms »mettan. 2. Da guman biddatS Sgm cnapan Sses adesan. 3. Hwa is se curna? 4. Hielpst Sti Ssem bgnan ? 5. Ic him ne helpe. 6. Da beam sc^SSaS Saes bgnan. eagiim gnd earum. 7. Se cuma cwielS on SSre cirican. 8. Se bunta wiSst^nt tSeem wulfum. 9. Da oxan beraS tSees cnapan geferan. 10. Se mona ond t5a tunglu sind on SSm heofonum. 11. Da huntan bealdaS Seere nSdran tungan. 12. He hiere giefS Sa giefa. 13. Da werod sc^t5Sat5 Sees cyninges feldum. II. 1. Who will bind the mouths of the oxen? 2. Who gives him the gifts? 3. Thou art helping him, and I am injuring him. 4. The boy's companion is dying. 5. His nephew does not enjoy his leisure. 6. The adder's tongue injures the king's companion. 7. The sun is the day's eye. 8. She asks the strangers for the spears. 9. The men's bodies are not here. 10. Is he not (Nis he) the child's murderer? 11. Who creates the bodies and the souls of men? 12. Thou withstandest her. 13. He is not writing. " I request you (dative) of a favor" (genitive). Cf. Cymbeline, III, 6, 92 : " We'll mannerly demand thee of thy story." Remnants of Other Consonant Declensions. 47 CHAPTER XII. Remnants of Othee Consonant Declensions. 67. The nouns belonging here are chiefly masculines and feminines. Their stem ended in a consonant other than n. The most important of them may be divided as follows: (1) The foot Declension, (2) r-Stems, and (3) nd-Stems. These declensions are all characterized by the prevalence, wherever possible, of i-umlaut in certain cases, the case ending being then dropped. 68. (1) The nouns belonging to the foot Declension exhibit umlaut most consistently in the N.A. plural. Sing. N.A. se f5t {foot) se m heht > het. Note 2. — A peculiar interest attaches to hatan : the forms hatte and hatton are the sole remains in O.E. of the original Germanic passive. They are used both as presents and as preterits : hatte = / am or was called, he is or was called. No other verb in O.E. could have a passive sense without calling in the aid of the verb to he (§ 141)- 80 Htymology and Syntax. Contract Verbs. 118. The few Contract Verbs found in O.E. do not constitute a new class; they fall under Classes I, II, V, VI, and VII, already treated. The present stem ended originally in h. This was lost before -an of the infinitive, contraction and compensatory lengthen- ing being the result. The following are the most important of these verbs : Classes. fgeSig-en 1 I. 3eon (<*3ihan), 8ah, 8ig-on, j « U to thrive. II. teon «*teohan), teah, tug-on, getog-en, to draw, go [tug].' V. seon (<*seh-wan), seab, sa-sir-on, gese-w-en, to see. VI. Blean(<*slahan), sloh, slog-on, geslaeg-en, to slay. VII. ion «*f6han), feng, feng-on, gefqng-en, to seize [fang]. 119. The Present Indicative of these verbs runs as follows (see rules of i-umlaut, § 58): Sing 1. Ic ISeo teo seo slea fo 2. •Sa «ihst tiehst siehst sliehst fehst 3. he «ih« tieh« sieh« slieh« fgh« Flur 1. we 2. ge «eo« teo« seo« slea« f5« 3. hie. The other tenses and moods are regularly formed from the given stems. 120. VOCABTJLAEY. aeo aeht, property, possession [agan]. aweg, away [on weg]. seo fierd, English army [faran]. se h^re, Danish army [h^rgian]. on gehwseSre hpnd, on both sige niman (= sige habban), to loin {the) victory. seo sprsec, speech, language. Contract Verbs. 81 to rice fon, to come to the throne. se weall, wall, rampart. Seet ■roildor, wild beast, reindeer. se -wingeard, vineyard. Sset wael [Val-halla] 1 slaughter, se wselslilit, J carnage. abrecan,^ abrsec, abrsecon, abrocen, to break down. cw^edan, cwaeS, cwsedon, gecweden, to say [quoth]. geseon, geseah, gesawon, gesewen, to see. groTvan, greow, greoTiT'on, gegrowen, to grow. ofslean, ofsloh, ofslogon, ofslsegen, to slay. sprecan, spraec, sprEecon, gesprecen, to speak. stelan, stael, stcelon, gestolen, to steal. stQndan, stod, stodon, gestQnden, to stand. weazan, -weox, 'weoxon, sevreaxen, to groiv, increase [wax]. 121. Exercises. I. 1. JEfter tSgem soSlIce (indee'd) ealle m^n sprScon ane (one) sprSce. 2. Qud he cwsetS : " Dis is an folc, ond ealle hie spreca'S ane spreece." 3. On sumum stowum wingeardas growatS. 4. He het Sa naedran ofslean. 5. Da Engle abrS- con tSone longan weall, ^nd sige nomon. 6. Qnd tSaet sSd greow (jnd weox. 7. Ic ne geseah Sone rnqn se Se Sees cnapan adesan steel. » 8. He waes swySe spedig man on tSeem jehtum iSe hiera speda on^ beoS, Sset is, on wildrum. 9. Qnd Saer wearS (was) micel waelsliht on gehwseSre hQnd. 10. Qnd aefter Sissum gefeohte, com Alfred cyning mid his fierde, (jnd gefeaht wiS ealne 5one h^re, 9nd sige nom. 11. Decs burg hatte ^scesdun (Ashdown). 12. Deere cwene lie leeg on SSm huse. 13. Qnd se dSl t5e SSr aweg com wees swySe lytel. 14. Qnd tSees Sreotiene dagas MS&ved to rice feng. II. 1. The men stood in the ships and fought against the Danes. 2. Before the thanes came, the king rode away. 1 Literally, to take to (the) kingdom. Cf. " Have you anything to take to? " {Two Gentlemen of Verona, IV, 1, 42). ^ Brecan belongs properly in Class V, but it has been drawn into Class IV possibly through the influence of the r in the root. 8 See §94, (5). o 82 Etymology and Syntax. 3. They said (sEedon) that all the men spoke one language. 4. They bore the queen's body to Wilton. 5. Alfred gave many gifts to his army (dat. without to) before he went away. 6. These men are called earls. 7. God sees all things. 8. The boy held the reindeer with (mid) his hands. 9. About six months afterwards, Alfred gained the victory, and came to the throne. 10. He said that there was very great slaughter on both sides. CHAPTER XXI. Weak Veebs (§ is). 122. The verbs belonging to the Weak Conjugation are generally of more recent origin than the strong verbs, being frequently formed from the roots of strong verbs. The Weak Conjugation was the grow- ing conjugation in O.E. as it is in Mn.E. We in- stinctively put our newly coined or borrowed words into this conjugation (telegraphed, boycotted'); and children, by the analogy of weak verbs, say runned for ran, seed for saw, teared for tore, drawed for drew, and growed for grew. So, for example, when Latin dictdre and hrevidre came into O.E., they came as weak verbs, dihtian and brefian. The Three Classes of Weak Verbs. 123. There is no difficulty in telling, from the infini- tive alone, to which of the three classes a weak verb belongs. Class III has been so invaded by Class II Weak Verbs. 83 that but three important verbs remain to it : habban, to have; libban, to live; and slogan, to say. Distinction is to be made, therefore, only between Classes II and I. Class II contains the verbs with infinitive in -ian not preceded by r. Class I contains the remaining weak verbs ; that is, those with infinitive in -r-ian and those with infinitive in -an (not -ian). Class I. 124. The preterit singular and past participle of Class I end in -ede and -ed, or -de and -ed respectively. Note. — The infinitives of this class ended originally in -jan (= -ian). This accounts for the prevalence of i-umlaut in these verbs, and also for the large number of short-voweled stems ending In a double consonant (§ 115, Note 2). The weak verb is frequently the causative of the corresponding strong verb. In such cases, the root of the weak verb corresponds in form to the preterit singular of the strong verb : Mn.E. drench (=to make drink), lay (—to make lie), rear {=to make rise), and set {=to make sit), are the umlauted forms of drqnc (preterit singular of drincan), laeg (preterit singular of licgan), ras (preterit singular of risan), and saet (preterit singu- lar of aittan). Preterit and Past Participle in -ede and -ed. 125. Verbs with infinitive in -an preceded by ri- or the double consonants mm, nn, ss, bb, eg (= gg), add -ede for the preterit, and -ed for the past participle, the double consonant being always made single : ri: n§ri-an, n§r-ede, gen^r-ed, to save. mm: fr^mm-an, fr^m-ede, gefr^m-ed, to pcr/orm [frame]. nn : 8f nn-an, S^n-ede, ge3^n-ed, to extend. Bs ; cnyss-an, cnys-ede, gecnys-ed, to beat. 84 Etymology and Syntax. bb : BW§bb-an, sw^f-ede, gesw^f-ed, to put to sleep. eg : w^cg-an, w^g-ede, gew^g-ed, to agitate. Note. — Lf cgan, to lay, is the only one of these verbs that synco- pates the e: Ifcgan, l^gde (lede), gel^gd (geled), instead of l^gede, gel^ged. Preterit and Past Participle in -de and -ed. 126. All the other verbs belonging to Class I add -de for the preterit and -ed for the past participle. This division includes, therefore, all stems long by nature : el]. deel-an, deel-de, gedSl-ed, to deal out, divide [di dem-an, dem-de, gedem-ed, to judge [dom]. gret-an, gret-te, gegret-ed, to greet. hier-an, hier-de, gehier-ed, to hear. laed-an, Ised-de, gelSd-ed, to lead. Note 1. — A preceding voiceless consonant (§ 9, Note) changes -de into -te : *gret-de > gret-te ; *met-de > met-te ; *iec-de > iec-te. Syncope and contraction are also frequent in the participles: gegret-ed > *gegret-d > gegret(t) ; geleed-ed > gelsed(d). Note 2. — Euan, to dwell, cultivate, has an admixture of strong forms in the past participle : buan, bude, gebud (byn, gebun). The present participle survives in Mn.E. husband = house-dweller. 127. It includes, also, all stems long by position ex- cept those ending in mm, nn, ss, bb, and eg (§ 125) : 8fnd-an, s^nd-e, gesfnd-ed, to send. s^tt-au, a^t-te, ges§t-ed, to set [sittan]. sigl-an, Bigl-de, gesigl-ed, to sail. spf nd-an, sp^nd-e, gesp^nd-ed, to spend. tr^dd-an, tr^d-de, getr^d-ed, to tread. Note. — The participles frequently undergo syncope and contrac- tion : ges^nded > ges^nd ; ges^ted > ges§t(t) ; gesp^nded > gesp^nd ; getr^ded > getr?d(d). Weak Verbs. 85 Irregular Verbs of Class I. 128. There are about twenty verbs belonging to Class I that are irregular in having no umlaut in the preterit and past participle. The preterit ends in -de, the past participle in -d ; but, through the influ- ence of a preceding voiceless consonant (§ 9, Note), -ed is generally unvoiced to -te, and -d to -t. The most important of these verbs are as follows : bring-an, broh-te, gebroh-t, to bring. geboh-t, to buy. geaob-t, to seek. geseal-d, to give, s getieh-t, to teach. geteal-d, to count ge3oh-t, to think. geiSuh-t, to seem [ geworh-t, to work. Note. — Such of these verbs as have stems in c or g are frequently written with an inserted e : bycgean, secean, tiecean, etc. This e indicates that c and g have palatal value ; that is, are to be followed with a vanishing y-sound. In such cases, O.E. c usually passes into Mn.E. eft : taec(e)an > to teach ; r£ec(e)an > to reach ; str§cc(e)aii > to stretch. Sec(e)an gives beseech as well as seek. See § 8. byo-gan, boh-te. geboh-t. to buy. sec-an, soh-te, geaoh-t. to seek. Bfll-an, seal-de, geseal-d, to give, sell. teec-an, tseh-te, getieh-t. to teach. t^U-an, teal-de, geteal-d. to count [tell]. Sgnc-an, eSoh-te, ge3oh-t. to think. 3ync-an, 8uh-te, geSiih-t, to seem [methinks] wyrc-an, ■worh-te. geworh-t, to work. Conjugation of Class I. 129. Paradigms of n^rian, to save; fr^mman, to per- form; daelan, to divide: Sing. 1. Ic n^rie 2. ISa n^rest 3. hS nereis Plur. 1. we 1 2. ge y n^ria^ 3. hie Indicative. Present. fr^mme djele fr^mest dselst fr^me« dSltS fr^mma'S dselatJ 86 Etymology and Syntax. Pretekit. Sing. 1. Ic n^rede fr^mede 2. 15u n^redest fr^medest 3. he n^rede fr^mede Plur. 1. we 2. ge • n^redon fr^medon 3. hie Subjunctive. Sing. 1. Ic Present. 2. •Su n^rie fr^mme 3. he Plur. 1. we ' 2. ge n^rien fr^mmen 3. hie -Sins'. 1- Ic Preterit. 2. •Su ■ n^rede fr^mede 3. he PZmj'. 1. we" 2. ge n^reden fr^meden 3. hie Imperative. 5'mg'. 2. n^re fr^me Plur. 1. n^rian fr^mman 2. n^rialS fr^mmaS Infinitive. n^rian fr^mman dellde d^ldest dslde d^ldon deele dselen djelde dselden dEel dEelan djelalS dselan Genind. to n^rianne (-enne) to fr^mmanne (-enne) to dselanne (-enne) n^riende Present Participle. fr^mmende daelende gen^red Past Participle. gefr^med gedseled Weak Verbs. 87 Note. — The endings of the preterit present no difficulties; in the 2d and 3d singular present, however, the student will observe (a) that double consonants in the stem are made single : fr^mest, fr^meS (not *{r§mmeBt, ^fr^mmeS) ; Sanest, Sf neS ; attest (s^tst), s^teiS (sgtt); fylst, fyl3, from fyllan, to fill; (6) that syncope is the rule in stems long by nature: deelst (a ojjre wjeron hungre acwolen, and the Verb-Phrases. 95 others had perished of hunger; qnd eac se miola h^re waBs pa Jjaer to cumen, and also the large army had then arrived there. 140. A progressive present and preterit (not always, however, with distinctively progressive meanings) are formed by combining a present participle with the present and preterit of beon (wesan). The participle remains uninflected : 9nd hie alle on 8one cyning weerun feohtende, and they all were fighting against the king; Symle he bi3 lociende, ne alspS he ueefre, Me is always looking, nor does He ever sleep. Note. — In most sentences of this sort, the subject is masculine (singular or plural) ; hence no inference can be made as to agreement, since -e is the participial ending for both numbers of the nominative masculine (§ 82). By analogy, therefore, the other genders usually conform in Inflection to the masculine : -wSron Jja ealle J>a deo&u clypigende aure stefne, then were all the devils crying with one voice. Verb-Phrases in the Passive Voice. 141. Passive constructions are formed by combining beon (wesan) or weor3an with a past participle. The participle agrees regularly with the subject : hie waeron benumene segSer ge ]73es ceapes ge (jses comes, they were deprived both of the cattle and the corn ; hi beoS ablf nde mid Seem Jjiostnim heora scylda, they are blinded with the darkness of their sins; and se wselhreowa Domicianus on 3am ylcan geare wearS acweald, and the murderous Domi- tian was killed in the same year ; pnd .aifjelwulf aldormQn wearS ofslsegen, and ^thelwulf, alderman, was slain. Note 1. — To express agency, Mn.E. employs hy, rarely of; M.E. of, rarely by ; O.E. frqm (fram), rarely of: Se 3e Godes bebodu 96 Etymology and Syntax. ne gecneewS, ne biS he oncnawen frQm Gode, He who does not recognize God's commands, will not be recognized by God; Bet'wuz ]}Eem wearS ofslagen Eadwine . . . fram Brytta cyninge, Mean- while, Edwin was slain by the king of the Britons. Note 2. — O.E. had no progressive forms for the passive, and could not, therefore, distinguish betvreen He is being wounded and He is wounded. It was not until more than a hundred years after Shakespeare's death that being assumed this function. WeorSan, which originally denoted a passage from one state to another, was ultimately driven out by beon (wesan), and survives now only in Woe worth (= be to). 142. VOCABULAKY. 3a Beormas, Permians. iSa D^niscan, the Danish (men). Banes. 3a Finnas, Fins. Sset ge'wald, control [■wealdan] . seo scir, shire, district. seo -wselstow, battle-field. agan 'virselstowe ge'wald, maintain possession of battle-field. se wealdend, ruler, wielder. to the geflieman, gefliemde, gefliemed, gestaSelian, gestaSelode, gestaSelod, gewissian, gev7issode, gewissod, -wician, wicode, geiwicod. to put to flight. to establish, restore. to guide, direct. to dwell [-wlc = village]. 143. Exercises. I. 1. Ond SSr waes micel wsel geslsegen on gehwsefre bond, Qnd jEjielwulf ealdormon wearf of slsegen ; (jnd fa D^niscan ahton -waelstowe gewald. 2. Qnd fees ymb anne mona)) gefeaM ^Elfred cyning wif ealne pone h^re, ond hine gefliemde. 3. He ssede peah pset feet land sie swipe lang norp ponan. 4. pa Beormas lisef don swipe wel gebtid (§ 126, Note 2) hiera land. 5. Ohth^re sSde paet seo seir hatte (§ 117, Note 2) Halgoland, pe he on (§ 94, (6)) bude. 6. pa rinnas wicedon be psere sg. 7. Dryhten, selmihtiga (§ 78, Note) God, Wyrbta and Wealdend ealra gesceafta, ic bidde Verb-Phrases. 97 86 for Slnre miclan mildheortnesse tSaet 6u me gewissie to JSinum willan ; and gestatSela min mod to tSinum willan and to minre sawle tSearfe. 8. pa sceolde he ^eer bidan ryht- norfanwindes, for 'Seem fset land beag feer suSryhte, off e seo sse in on tSset land, he nysse hwsetSer. 9. For Sy, me SyncS b^tre, gif eow swa SyncS, Saet we eac tSas bee on Saet getSeode w^nden t5e we ealle gecnawan msegen. II. 1. When the king heard that, he went (= then went he) westward with his army to Ashdown. 2. Lovest thou me more than these ? 3. The men said that the shire which they lived in was called Halgoland. 4. All things were made (wyroan) by God. 6. They were fighting for two days with (= against) the Danes. 6. King Alfred fought with the Danes, and gained the victory ; but the Danes retained possession of the battle-field. 7. These men dwelt in Eng- land before they came hither. 8. I have not seen the book of (ymbe) which you speak (sprecan). PART III. SELECTIONS FOR READING. INTRODUCTORY. I. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. This famous work, a series of progressive annals by- unknown hands, embraces a period extending from Caesar's invasion of England to 1164. It is not known when or where these annals began to be recorded in English. "The annals from the year 866 — that of Ethelred's ascent of the throne — to the year 887 seem to be the work of one mind. Not a single year is passed over, and to several is granted considerable space, especially to the years 871, 878, and 886. The whole has gained a certain roundness and fulness, because the events — nearly all of them episodes in the ever-recurring conflict with the Danes — are taken in their connection, and the thread dropped in one year is resumed in the next. Not only is the style in itself concise ; it has a sort of nervous severity and pithy rigor. The construction is often antiquated, and suggests at times the freedom of poetry ; though this purely historical prose is far removed from poetry in profusion of language." (Ten Brink, Early Eng. Lit., I.) II. The Translations of Alfred. Alfred's reign (871-901) may be divided into four periods. The first, the period of Danish invasion, extends from 871 to 98 The Battle of Ashdown. 99 881 ; the second, the period of comparative quiet, from 881 to 893 ; the third, *the period of renewed strife (beginning with the incursions of Hasting), from 893 to 897 ; the fourth, the period of peace, from 897 to 901. His liter- ary work probably falls in the second period.* The works translated by Alfred from Latin into the vernacular were (1) Consolation of Philosophy {De Conso- latione Philosophiae) by Boethius (475-525), (2) Compen- dious History of the World (Historiarum Libri VII) by Orosius (c. 418), (3) Ecclesiastical History of the English (Histona Ecclesiastica Anglorum) by Bede (672-735), and (4) Pastoral Care {De Gura Pastorali) by Pope Gregory the Great (540-604). The chronological sequence of these works is wholly unknown. That given Is supported by Turner, Arend, Morley, Grein, and Pauli. Wulker argues for an exact reversal of this order. Accord- ing to Ten Brink, the order was more probably (1) Orosius, (2) Bede, (3) Boethius, and (4) Pastoral Care. The most recent contribution to the subject is from Wiilflng, who contends for (1) Bede, (2) Orosius, (3) Pastoral Care, and (4) Boethius. I. THE BATTLE OP ASHDOWIST. [From the Chronicle, Parker MS. The event and date are significant. The Danes had for the first time invaded Wessex. Alfred's older brother, Ethelred, was king ; but to Alfred belongs the glory of the victory at Ash- down (Berkshire). Asser {Life of Alfred) tells us that for a long time Ethelred remained praying in his tent, while Alfred and his followers went forth " like a wild boar against the hounds."] 1 871. Her cuom' se h^re to Eeadingum on Westseaxe, 2 Qnd fses ymb iii niht ridon ii eorlas up. pa gemette hie * There is something inexpressibly touching in this clause from the great king's pen : gif we Sa stilnesse habba^. He is speaking of how much he hopes to do, by his translations, for the enlightenment of his people. 100 Selections for Reading. 1 ^felwTilf aldorman^ on ^Ignglafelda, Qnd him fSr wi)) ge- 2 feaht, 9iid sige nam. pses ymb iiii nilit ^fered cyning 3 gnd iElfred Ms brofur^ far micle fierd to Readingum 4 gelSddon, Qnd wif fone h^re gef uhton ; qad. fSr wses 6 micel wael geslaegen on geliwsefre liQnd, (jnd ^felwidf 6 aldorm^n wearf ofsleegen ; ^nd pa D^niscan ahton weel- 1 stowe gewald. 8 Qnd faes ymb iiii niht gefeaht jEfered cyning ond 9 Alfred his brofur wif alne ' fone h^re on jEscesdune. 10 Qnd hie waerun " on tweem gef ylcum : on ofrum wses 11 Bachs^cg ond Halfd^ne fa hSpnan cyningas, (jnd on 12 ofrum wjeron fa eorlas. Qnd fa gefeaht se cyning 18 ^fered wif fara cyninga getruman, gnd feer wearf se 14 cyning Bags^cg of slaegen ; ond iElfred his brofur wif 15 fara eorla getruman, 9nd fffir wearf Sidroc eorl ofslsegen 16 se alda," ond Sidroc eorl se gioncga/ gnd Osbearn eorl, 17 ond Freena eorl, ond Hareld eorl ; ond fa h^rgas " begen 18 gefliemde, Qnd fela fiisenda ofslaegenra, (jnd onfeohtende 19 wjeron of niht. 20 Qnd faes ymb xiiii niht gefeaht ^fered cyning (jnd 21 Alfred his broSur wif fone h^re aet Basengiun, (jnd fSr 22 fa D^niscan sige namon. 23 Qnd fses ymb ii monaf gefeaht ^fered cyning Qnd 24 Alfred his brofur wif fone h^re set M^retune, ond hie 25 wSrun on tueem ' gefylcium, ond hie btitu gefiiemdon, Qnd 26 longe on dseg sige ahton ; (jnd f sir wearf micel wselsliht 27 on gehwaef ere hond ; Qnd fa D^niscan ahton waelstowe 8. gefeaht. Notice that the singular is used. This is the more common construction in O.E. when a. compound subject, composed of singular members, follows its predicate. Cf. For thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory. See also p. 107, note on vrass. 18. qnd fela Jjusenda ofslaegenra, and there were many thou- sands of slain (§ 91). ' The Battle of Ashdown. 101 1 gewald ; Qnd fSr wearp Heahmund biseeop ofslsegen, 2 qnd fela godra mgnna. Qnd sefter fissum gefeohte cuom ' 3 micel sumorlida. 4 Qnd faes ofer Eastron gefor M\>eied. cyning; ^nd lie 5 ricsode y gear ; (jnd his lie lif> aet Winburnan. 6 pa feng ^Elfred JSjielwulfiiig his brofur to Wesseaxna 7 rice. Qnd fses ymb anne monap gefeaht Mliied cyning 8 wij) alne * fone h^re lytle werede '" aet Wiltiine, 9nd hine 9 Ignge on daeg gefliemde, qnd fa D^niscan ahton waelstowe 10 gewald. 11 Qnd fses geares -wurdon viiii folcgefeoht gefohten wif 12 fone h^re on fy cynerice be sufan T^mese, butan Jiain fe 18 him Alfred f aes cyninges brofur qni anlipig alderman ^ (jnd 14 cyninges fegnas oft rade onridon fe m^n na ne rimde ; 15 ond faes geares wSrun* ofslaegene viiii eorlas qnd an cyning. 16 Qnd fy geare namon Westseaxe frip wi)) pone h^re. Consult Glossary and Pakadigms under Forms given below. No note is made of such variants as y (y) or i (i) for ie (le) . . See Glossary, under ie (Ie) ; occurrences, also, of and for Qnd, land for Iqnd, are found on almost every page of Early West Saxon. Such words should be sought for under the more common forms, qnd, Ipnd. 1 = cwom. * = ealne. "> = h^ras. '' = ealdormcjn. ^ = wseron. ^ = twKm. ' = bro|>or. ^ = ealda. ^° = werode. ' = geonga. II. A PEAYEE OF KING ALEEED. [With this characteristic prayer, Alfred concludes his translation of Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy. Unfortunately, the only extant MS. (Bodleian 180) is Late West Saxon. I follow, therefore, Prof. A. S. Cook's normalization on an Early West Saxon basis. See Cook's First Book in Old English, p. 163.] 12. biitan Jjam \>e, etc., besides which, Alfred . . made raids against them (him), which were not counted. See § 70, Note. 102 Selections for Reading. 1 Dryhten, aelmihtiga God, Wyrhta and Wealdend ealra 3 gesceafta, ic bidde tSe for Slnre miclan mildheortnesse, 8 and for Seere halgan rode tacne, and for Sanctse Marian 4 msegShade, and for Sancti Michaeles gehlersumnesse, and 5 for ealra Sinra halgena lufan and hiera earnungum, fSset 6 tSu me gewissie b^t Sonne ic aworhte to t5e ; ' and gewissa 7 me to Sinum willan, and to minre sawle Searfe, b^t tSonne 8 ic self cunne ; and gestatSela min mod to tSinum willan and 9 to minre sawle tSearfe ; and gestranga me wiS tSaes deofles 10 costnungum ; and afierr f ram me Sa fulan galnesse and 11 selce unrihtwisnesse ; and gescield me wiS minum witSer- 12 winnum, gesewenlicum and ungesewenlieum ; and tsec me 13 Sinne willan to wyrceanne ; Saet ic maege Se inweardlice 14 lufian toforan eallum Singum, mid clsenum geSance and 15 mid clSnum llcliaman. For Son Se 6u eart min Scieppend, 16 and min Aliesend, min Pultum, mm Trofor, mm Treow- n nes, and min Tohopa. Sie Se lof and wuldor nti and IS a a a, to worulde butan eeghwilcum ^nde. Amen. III. THE VOYAGES OE OHTHEEE AND WULESTAN. [Lauderdale and Cottonian MSS. These voyages are an original Inser- tion by Alfred into his translation of Orosius's Compendious History of the World. " They consist," says Ten Brink, " of a complete description of all the countries in which the Teutonic tongue prevailed at Alfred's time, and a full narrative of the travels of two voyagers, which the king wrote down from their own lips. One of these, a Norwegian named Ohthere, had quite 3-4. Marian . . . Micbaeles. O.E. is inconsistent in the treat- ment of foreign names. They are sometimes naturalized, and some- times retain in part their original inflections. Marian, an original accusative, is here used as a genitive; while Michaeles has the O.E. genitive ending. 17. Sie iSe lof. See § 105, 1. The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan. 103 circumnavigated the coast of Scandinavia in his travels, and had even penetrated to the White Sea ; the other, named Wulfstan, had sailed from Schleswig to Frische HafE. The geographical and ethnographical details of both accounts are exceedingly interesting, and their style is attractive, clear, and concrete." Ohthere made two voyages. Sailing first northward along the western coast of Norway, he rounded the North Cape, passed into the White Sea, and entered the Dwina River (an micel ea) . On his second voyage he sailed southward along the western coast of Norway, entered the Skager Rack (vridsee), passed through the Cattegat, and anchored at the Danish port of Haddeby (set HEe]}um) , modern Schleswig. Wulfstan sailed only in the Baltic Sea. His voyage of seven days from Schleswig brought him to Drausen (Truso) on the shore of the Drau- sensea.] Ohthere's First Voyage. 1 Ohthere ssede his hlaforde, jElfrede cyninge, Jjaet he 2 ealra NortSmqima norfmest biide. He cwaeS feet he bude 8 on psein lande norfweardum wif fa Westsae. He seede 4 feah Jjset fset land sle swipe lang norp pcjnan ; ac hit is 5 eal weste, buton on feawum stowum styccemgelum wiciaS 6 Finnas, on huntoSe on wintra, ^nd on sumera on fiscape 7 be pSre sse. He seede peet he aet sumum cirre wolde 8 fandian hii Iqnge pset land norpryhte leege, oppe hwseSer 9 ffinig nwjn be norban pSm westenne bude. pa for he 10 norpryhte be peem lande : let him ealne weg paet weste 11 land on tJset steorbord, (jnd pa widsse on «set bsecbord prie 12 dagas. pa wees he swa feor norp swa pa hwselhimtan 18 firrest farap. pa for he pa giet norpryhte swa feor swa u he meahte on paem oprum prim dagum gesiglan. pa beag 15 peet land peer eastryhte, oppe seo sse in on «a3t Ignd, he 16 nysse hweetSer, buton he wisse t5»t he Seer bad westan- 17 windes Qnd hwon norpan, (jnd siglde Sa east be lande 18 swa swa he meahte on feower dagum gesiglan. pa 19 sceolde he tSeer bidan ryhtnorpanwindes, for SSm peet 20 land beag paer supryhte, oppe seo see in on Seet land, he 21 nysse hwseper. pa siglde he pqnan supryhte be lande 104 Selections for Reading. 1 swa swa he m^hte' on fif dagum gesiglan. Da leeg fsei 2 an micel ea up in on fast land, pa cirdon hie Up in on 8 Sa ea, for fgem hie ne dorston forp bi fgre ea siglan for 4 unfripe ; for feem Saet land waes eall gebun on ofre healfe 5 fgere eas. Ne raette he sbv nan gebiin land, sipfan he 6 from his agnum ham for ; ac him waes ealne weg weste 7 land on fset steorbord, butan fiscerum gnd fugelerum gnd 8 huntum, (jnd feet wSron eall Finnas ; (jnd him wses a 9 widsEe on Sset baecbord. pa Beormas hsefdon swipe wel 10 gebud hira land : ac hie ne dorston peer on cuman. Ac u para Terfinna land wses eal weste, buton Ssr huntan 12 gewicodon, oppe fisceras, oppe fugeleras. 13 Eela spella him seedon pa Beormas eegper ge of hiera 14 agnum lande ge of peem landum pe ymb hie utan weeron ; 15 ac he nyste hwaet pees sopes wses, for paem he hit self ne 16 geseah. pa Finnas, him puhte, 9nd pa Beormas sprScon 17 neah an gepeode. Swipost he for 8ider, to eacan pees 18 landes sceawunge, for pam horshweelum, for tSsem hie 19 habbaS swipe eepele ban on hiora^topum — pa teS hie broh- 20 ton sume peem cyninge — Qnd hiora hyd biiS swiSe god to 21 sciprapum. Se hwael bitS micle laessa ponne otJre hwalas : 22 ne bis he l^ngra Sonne syfan' ^Ina lang; ac on his agnum 23 lande is se b^tsta hwaelhuntaS : pa beoS eahta and feo- 24 wertiges ^Ina lange, and pa mgestan fiftiges §lna lange ; 25 para he sSde pset he syxa sum ofsloge syxtig on twam 26 dagum. 6. frqm his agnum ham. An adverbial dative singular with- out an inflectional ending is found with ham, daeg, morgeu, and eefen. 8. pnd Jjset ■wSron. See § 40, Note 3. 15. h'wset Jjses so)jes ■waes. Sweet errs in explaining aoTpea as attracted into the genitive by Jjses. It is not a predicate adjective, but a partitive genitive after h-waet. 25. syxa sum. See § 91, Note 2. The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan. 105 1 He -wses swySe spedig man on faem Eehtum fe heora^ 2 speda on beoS, feet is, on wildrum. He haefde f>a gyt, tSa 8 he fone cyningc ° sohte, tamra deora unbebohtra syx bund. 4 pa deor bl bataS ' branas ' ; para waeron syx stselbranas ; 5 ^a beoS swySe dyre mid Finnum, for tSffim by foS fa 6 wildan branas mid. He wses mid fSm fyrstum mannum 7 on fsem lande : nsef de be feab ma tSonne twentig bry^era, 8 and twentig sceapa, and twentig swyna ; and past lytle 9 paet he ^rede, be ^rede mid borsan.' Ac byra ar is meest 10 on pSm gafole pe Sa Finnas him gyldaS. paet gafol biS 11 on deora fellum, and on fugela feSerum, and bwales bane, 12 and on pgm sciprapum pe beoS of bwaeles byde geworbt 13 and of seoles. ^ghwilc gylt be bys gebyrdum. Se byrd- 14 esta sceall gyldan fiftyne mearSes fell, and fif branes, 15 and an beren fel, and tyn ambra fe6ra, and berenne kyr- 16 tel 0(5tSe yterenne, and twegen sciprapas ; ffigper sy syxtig 17 §lna lang, oper sy of bwaeles byde geworbt, oper of sioles." 18 He SEede tSset NorSmanna land wrere swype lang and 19 swySe smsel. Eal pset bis man a6er o6Se ^ttan o8Se ^rian 20 maeg, pset li3 wiS 6a sa ; and paet is peah on sumum 21 stowum swySe cludig ; and licga? wilde moras wiS eastan 22 and wis upp on emnlange peem bynum lande. On psem 23 morum eardiaS Finnas. And pset byne land is easte- 24 weard bradost, and symle swa norSor swa smaelre. Easte- 25 w^rd' hit mseg bion* syxtig mila brad, oppe hwene breedre ; 26 and middeweard pritig oSSe bradre ; and nortSeweard be 2T cwaeS, pSr bit smalost wSre, pset bit mihte been preora 28 mila brad to pSm more ; and se mor sySpan,' on sumum 2. onbeoS. See § 94, (5). 19. Eal paet his man. Pronominal genitives are not always pos- sessive in O.E. ; his is here the partitive genitive of hit, the succeeding relative pronoun being omitted: All that (portion) of it that may, either-of-the-two, either be grazed or plowed, etc. (§ 70, Note). 106 Selections for Reading. 1 stowTim, swa brad swa man maeg on twam •wucum ofer- 2 f eran ; and on sumum stowum swa brad swa man mseg 3 on syx dagmn oferferan. 4 Donne is toemnes pSm lande stiSeweardum, on oSre 5 healfe fees mores, Sweoland, op past land nortSeweard ; 6 and toemnes feem lande norSeweardum, Cwena land, pa 7 Cwenas h^rgiaS hwllum on 6a NorSm^n ofer gone mor, 8 hwilum fa NorSm^n on hy. And far sint swiSe micle 9 m^ras fersce geond fa moras ; and beraS fa Cwenas hyra 10 scypu ofer land on 6a m^ras, and fanon h^rgiatS on 6a 11 !Nor6m^n ; hy liabbaS swy6e lytle scypa and swy6e 12 leohte. 1 = meahte, mihte. * = horsum. ' = -weard. 2 = hiera. * = oyning. ' = beon. * = seofon. 8 = seoles. ^ = si'SISan. Ohthere's Second Voyage. 18 Ohth^re sSde feet sio^ soir hatte Halgoland, fe lie on 14 btide. He cwae6 feet nan man ne btide be nor6an him. 15 ponne is an port on su6eweardum fSm lande, fone man 16 hset Sciringesheal. pyder he cwseS feet man ne mihte IT geseglian on anum mon6e, gyf man on niht wicode, and 18 ffilce dsege haef de ambyrne wind ; and ealle 6a hwile he 19 sceal seglian be lande. And on fast steorbord him bi6 20 serest Iraland, and fonne 6a Igland fe synd betux Irar 21 lande and fissum lande. ponne is fis land, o6 he cym6 22 to Scirincgesheale, and ealne weg on faet bsecbord ISTorS- 11-12. Bcypa . . . leohte. These words exhibit inflections more frequent in Late than in Early West Saxon. The normal forms would be scypu, leoht ; but in Late West Saxon the -u of short^stemmed neuters is generally replaced by -a ; and the nominative accusative plural neuter of adjectives takes, by analogy, the masculine endings : hwate, gode, halge, instead of hwatu, god, halgu. The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan. 107 1 weg. Wi6 suSan pone Sciringesheal fylt5 swytSe mycel 2 see up in on tSeet land ; seo is bradre fonne eenig man ofer 8 seon msege. And is Gotland on oSre healfe ongean, and 4 siSSan Sill^nde. Seo see liS maenig^ h.und mila tip in on 8 feet land. 6 And of Sciringesheale he cwaeS t5set lie seglode on fif 7 dagan ' to fsem porte pe mqn hSt aet Heepum ; sS st^nt 8 betuh Winedum, and Seaxum, and Angle, and hyrS in 9 on D^ne. Da he piderweard seglode fram Sciringes- 10 heale, pa waes him on pset baecbord D^namearc and on 11 pset steorbord widsS pry dagas ; and pa, twegen dagas Sr 12 he to Hffipum come, him waes on pset steorbord Gotland, 13 and Sill^nde, and iglanda fela. On pgem landum eardo- 14 don Engle, eer hi hider on land coman.^ And hym wses 15 t5a twegen dagas on Saet bsecbord pa Igland pe in on 16 D^nemearce hyraS. 1 = seo. ^ = rnqnig. » = dagum. * = comen. Wulfstan's Voyage. 17 Wulfstan ssede paet he gefore of HeeSum, paet he waere 18 on Truso on syfan dagum and nihtum, pset pset scip wees 19 ealne weg yrnende under segle. WeonocSland him wses 7. set Hee]}um. " This pleonastic use of xt with names of places occurs elsewhere in the older writings, as in the Chronicle (552), 'in Ijjere stowe \>e is gen^mned set Searobyrg,' where the (Bt has been erased by some later hand, showing that the idiom had become obsolete. Cp. the German ' Gasthaus zur Krone,' Stamboul = es tdm p6lin." (Sweet.) See, also, Atterhury, § 28, Note 3. 14-15. ■waes . . . pa. Tgland. The singular predicate is due again to inversion (p. 100, note on gefeaht). The construction is compara- tively rare in O.E., but frequent in Shakespeare and in the popular speech of to-day. Cf. There is, Here is, There has been, etc., with a (single) plural subject following. 108 Selections for Reading. 1 on steorbord, and on beecbord him wses Langaland, and 2 LSland, and Falster, and Sconeg ; and fas land eall 3 hyraS to D^nemearcan. And ponne Burgenda land waes 4 us on bsecbord, and fa habbaS him sylfe ^ cyning. ponne 6 sefter Burgenda lande wgron us fas land, fa synd hatene 6 Srest Blecinga-eg, and Meore, and Eowland, and Gotland 1 on baecbord ; and fas land hyraS to Sweom. And Weo- 8 nodland waes us ealne weg on steorbord otS WislemtiSan. 9 Seo Wisle is swySe mycel ea, and hlo^ tolitS Witland and 10 Weonodland ; and f set Witland belimpeS to Estum ; and 11 seo Wisle liS tit of Weonodlande, and liS in Estm^re ; 12 and se Estm^re is huru fiftene^ mila brad, ponne cymeS 13 Ilfing eastan in Estm^re of S»m m^re, 6e Truso stande<5 14 in staeSe ; and cumatS ut samod in Estm^re, Ilfing eastan 15 of Estlande, and Wisle suSan of Winodlande. And 16 fonne benimt5 Wisle Ilfing hire naman, and ligeS of feem 17 m^re west and nortJ on see ; for Sy hit man haet Wisle- 18 muSa. 19 past Estland is swy^e mycel, and fSr biS swytSe manig 20 burh, and on seloere byrig biS cyning. And fSr bi6 21 swycSe mycel hunig, and fiscnaS ; and se cyning and fa 22 ricostan m^n drincaS myran meolc, and fa unspedigan 23 and fa feowan drincaS medo.* peer biS swySe mycel 24 gewinn betweonan him. And ne biS tSeer neenig ealo' 25 gebrowen mid Estum, ac fser biS medo genoh. And fSr 26 is mid Estum Seaw, fonne f»r biS man dead, faet he liS 27 inne unforbeerned mid his magum and freondum monaS, 28 ge hwilum twegen ; and fa cyningas, and fa oSre heah- 29 tSungene m^n, swa micle l^ncg ^ swa hi maran speda 80 habbatS, hwilum healf gear fset hi beoS unforbserned, and 1-4. him . . . us. Note the characteristic change of person, the transition from indirect to direct discourse. The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan. 109 1 licgaS bufan eorSan on hyra liusum. And ealle fa hwlle 2 ]>e paet lie biS inne, f«r sceal beon gedrync and plega, 8 0(5 tSone daeg pe hi hine forbaernaS. ponne fy ylcan daege 4 J)e hi hine to psem ade beran wyllaS, f onne todSlatS hi 5 his feoh, faet feer to lafe bi(5 eefter pSm gedrynce and fSsm 6 plegan, on fif ot5Se syx, hwylum on ma, swa swa ))8es feos 7 andefn biS. Al^cgaS hit Sonne forhweega on anre mile 8 fone msestan deel fram fsem tune, {lonne oSerne, Sonne 9 fone friddan, op fe hyt call aled biS on fSre anre mile ; 10 and sceall beon se ISsta dsel nyhst pSm tune Se se deada 11 man on li5. Donne sceolon' beon gesamnode ealle tSa 12 m^nn Se swyftoste hors habbaS on psem lande, forhwsega 13 on fif milum oSSe on syx milum fram fSm feo. ponne 14 sernaS hy ealle toweard fsem feo : Sonne eymeS se man 15 se fset swiftoste hors hafaS to peem Srestan dSle and to 16 faem meestan, and swa «lc eefter oSrum, of> hit biS eall IT genumen ; and se nimS fone laestan dSl se nyhst fSm 18 tune faet feoh geserneS. And ponne rideS aelc hys weges 19 mid Seem feo, and hyt motan' habban eall; and for Sy 20 fSr beoS fa swiftan hors ungefoge dyre. And fonne his 21 gestreon beoS pus eall asp^nded, ponne byrS man hine ut, 22 and forbserneS mid his weepnum and hrsegle ; and swiSost 2. Bceal. See § 137, Note 2 (2). 7. Al^cgad hit. Bosworth illustrates thus : vi V iv iii ii i l 2 3 456 I I I I I I #•••.. e d c b a ^here l^he six parta of the the horsemen property placed aBsemble. withm one mile. "Tlie horsemen assemble five or six miles from the property, at d or e, and run towards c ; the man who has the swiftest horse, coming first to 1 or c, takes the first and largest part. The man who has the horse coming second takes part 2 or 6, and so, in succession, till the least part, 6 or a, is taken." 110 Selections for Reading. 1 ealle hys spgda hy forsp^ndaS mid fsem langan legere 2 fees deadan mannes inne, and fees fe hy be fsem wegum 8 al^cgaS, fe Sa fr^mdan to aernaS, and nimaS. And fset 4 is mid Estum feaw fset feer sceal eelces geSeodes man 5 beon f orbaerned ; and gyf par " man an ban findeS unf or- 6 baerned, hi hit sceolan' miclum gebetan. And fSr is mid 7 Estum an meegS faet hi magon cyle ge-vryrcan ; and fy 8 Jjser licgaS fa deadan m^n swa lange, and ne f uliaS, fast 9 hy wyrcaS fone cyle him on. And feah man as^tte 10 twegen fStels full ealaS oSSe wseteres, hy gedoS fset 11 ffigfer bis oferfroren, sam hit sy sumor sam winter. 1 = selfe. » = medu. ' = sculon. 2 = heo. " = ealu. * = moton. » = fiftiene. ^ = l^ng. " = Sffir. 5-6. man ... hi. Here the plural hi refers to the singular man. Cf. p. 109, 11. 18-19, selc . . . motan. In Exodus xxxii, 24, we find " Whosoever hath any gold, let them break it off" ; and Addison writes, " I do not mean that I think anyone to blame for taking due care of their health." The construction, though outlawed' now, has been common in all periods of our language. Paul very sanely remarks {Principien der Sprachgeschichte, § 451) that " When a word is used as an indefinite [one, man, somebody, etc.] it is, strictly speaking, incapable of any distinction of number. Since, however, in respect of the external form, a particular number has to be chosen, it is a matter of indifference which this is. . . . Hence a change of numbers is common in the different languages." I. GLOSSARY. OLD ENGLISH — MODERN ENGLISH. [The order of words is strictly alpliabetical, except that 3 follows t. The combination SB follows ad. Gender is indicated by the abbreviations, m. ( = masculine) , f . (= fem- inine), n. (= neuter), instead of the gender forms of the definite article.] a, ever, always, aye. abrecan (§ 120, Note 2), to break down, destroy. ac, but. ad, m. , funeral pile. adesa, m., hatchet, adze. aefter (§ 94, (1)), after; setter Seem, after that, thereafter; aefter Seem 8e, after (conjunc- tion). sgh-wa (§ 77, Note), each, every. Eegbwilc (§ 77, Note), each, any. EigSer (sgbwaeSer, aiSer) (§ 77, Note), each, either; eeg]}er . . . ojjer . . . ofier, either . . . or . . . or; aegjjer ge . . . ge (§ 95, (2)), both . . . and. Sht, f., property, possession. eelc (§ 77), each, every. aelmibtdg, almighty. jemetta, m., leisure. jenig (§ 77), any. Ser, ere, before; Set Seem 3e, be- fore (conjunction). Sresta (§ 96, {i)), first. seman (§ 127), to ride, gallop [iernan]. iEscesdiin, f ., Ashdown (in Berk- shire) . set (§ 94, (1)), at. aeSele, noble, excellent. seSeling, m., o noble, prince. .SiSel-wulfing, m., son of Ethel- wulf. .SiSered, m., Ethelred. afierran (§ 127), «o remove [feor]. agan (§ 136), to own, possess, gain. agen, own [agan] ; dative singu- lar = agnum. abton, see agan. alfcgan (§ 125, Note), to lay down [licgan]. aled, see alf cgan. Aliesend, m., Eedeemer [alieaan = to release, ransom}. ambor, m., measure; genitive plural = ambra (§ 27, (4)). ambyre, favorable. an (§ 89), one, an, a. Ill 112 Crlossary. andefn, f. , proportion, amount. Angel, n., Anglen (in Denmark); dative singular = Angle (§ 27, W)- anllpig, single, individual. ar, f . , honor, property. arisan (§ 102), to arise. as^ttan (§ 127), to set, place. aspfndan (§ 127), to spend, ex- pend. aS, m., oath. aSer, see segSer. aweg, away. awjrrcan (§ 128), to work, do, perform. B. Bachsf eg, m bsecbord, n., larboard, left side of a ship. ban, n., bone. Basengas, m., plural, Basing (in Hantshire). be (bi) (§ 94, (1)), by, about, near, along, according to ; be norSan \>sera -weatenne (§ 94, (4)), north of the waste (desert) . beag, see bugan. beam, n., child. begen (declined like tvT-egen, § 89), both. beginnan (§ 110), to begin. belimpan (§ 110), to belong. beniman (§ 114), to take, derive. beon (§ 134), to be. Beormas, m., plural, Permians. beran (§ 114), to bear. beren, of a bear. b?t, see wel (§ 97, (2)). bftsta, see god (§ 96, (3)). betuh, (§ 94, (1)), between. betweonan, (§ 94, (1)), between. bi, see be. bidan (§ 102), to expect, await (with genitive). biddan (§ 115, Note 2), to pray, request (§ 65, Note 3). bindan (§ 110), to bind. bisceop, m., bishop [episcopus]. Blecinga-eg, f., Blekingen. bli3e, blithe, happy. boc (§ 68, (1), Note 1), f., book. bocere, m., scribe. bqna (bana), m. , murderer. brad, broad. breedra, see brad (§ 96, (1)). bringan (§ 128), to bring. brohton, see bringan. br68or (broSur) (§ 68, (2)), brother. brucan (§ 109, Note 1), to enjoy (§ 62, Note 1). brycS, see brucan. brycg, f., bridge. buan (§ 126, Note 2), to dwell, cultivate. bude, see buan. bufan, above (with dative and ac- cusative) . bugan (§ 109, Note 1), to bend, turn. burg (§ 68, (1), Note), f., city, borough ; dative singular = byrig. Burgenda, m., genitive plural, of the Burgundians ; Burgenda land, Bornholm. burh, see burg, butan (buton) (§ 94, (1); § 95, (1)), except, except for, except that, unless, without. butu, both ( = both-two. The word is composed of the combined neuters of begen and twegen, Old English — Modern English. 113 but is masculine and feminine as well as neuter) . byn (§ 126, Note 2) , cultivated. byrde, of high rank, aristocratic. byrig, see burg. byrS, see beran. ceosan (§ 109), to choose. cild, 11., child. cirdon, see cirran. cilice, f., church. cirr (cierr), m., time, occasion. cirran (cierran) (§ 127), to turn, go. cl^ne, clean, pure. cludig, rocky. cnapa, m., boy. cniht, m., warrior, knight. costnung, f., temptation. Crist, m., Christ. cuma, m., stranger. cuman (§ 114), to come. cxuinan (§ 137), to know, can. cunne, see cunnan. c-walu, f. , death, murder. cwelan (§ 114), to die. cvren, f., queen. CTvenas, m., plural, a Finnish tribe. cweSan (§ 115), to say. c-wom, see cuman. cyle (ciele), m., cold [chill]; cyle gevryrcan, to produce cold, to freeze. cynerice, n., kingdom. cyning, m., king. deed, f., daeg, m. , day. dael, n., dale. deel, ra.,part, division. dead, dead. D^namearc, see D^nemearc. D^ne (§ 47), m., plural, Danes. Dfnemearc (Df nemearce) , t., Denmark ; dative singular = D^nemearce (strong), D^ne- mearcan (weak). D^nisc, Danish; Sa D^niscan, the Danes. deofol, m., n., devil; genitive singular = deciles (§ 27, (4)). deor, n. , wild animal. don (§ 135), to do, cause. dorston, see durran. Dryhten, m., lord, the Lord. durran (§ 137), to dare. duru, f., door. dyre (diere), dear, costly. ea, f., river; genitive singulars eas ; dative and accusative sin- gular = ea. eac, also. eaca, m., addition [Sac]; to eacan, in addition to (§ 94, (4)). eage, n., eye. eahta, eight. ealaS, see ealu. eald (§ 96, (2)), old. ealdorrnqn, m., alderman, chief magistrate. eall (eal), all; ealne weg, all the way (§ 98, (1)). ealu (§ 68), n., ale; genitive singular = ealaS. eardian (§ 130), to dwell. eare, n., ear. 114 Grlossary. earm, poor. eamung, f., merit [earning]. east, east. eastan (§ 93, (5)), from the east. easteweard, eastward. eastrihte (§ 93, (6)), eastward. Eastron, plural, Easter. eastryhte, see eastrihte. eln, f., ell. emnlQug (emnlang) , equally long; on emnlange, along (§ 94, (4)). ^nde, m., end. fngel, m., angel. Englafeld (§ 51), m., Englefield (in Berkshire). Engle (§ 47), m., plural, Angles. eode, see gan. eorl, m., earl, chieftain. eorSe, f., earth. eow, see 3u. EoTiT-land, n., Oland (an island in the Baltic Sea). frian (§ 125), to plow. Estland, n., land of the Estas (on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea). Estm^re, m., Frische Haff. Estum, m., dative plural, the Estas. etan (§ 115), to eat. ^ttan (§ 127), to graze [etan]. P. fseder (§ 68, (2)), m., father. tsBt, n., vessel. feetels, m., vessel; accusative plural = feetels. Falster, Falster (island in the Baltic Sea). fandian (§ 130), to try, investi- gate [findan]. faran (§ 116), to go. feallan (§ 117), to fall, flow. feawe, few. tela, (indeclinable), many, much (vpith genitive). feld (§ 51), m., field. fell (fel), n.,fell, skin, hide. feng, see fon. feoh, n. , cattle, property [fee] ; genitive and dative singular = feos, ieo. feohtan (§ 110), to fight. feond (§ 68, (3)), enemy, fiend. feor(§96, H)), far. feowertig, forty ; genitive = feo- wertigea (§ 91, Note 1). fersc, fresh. f eSer, f . , feather. iierd, f., English army. Ef , five. fiftiene, fifteen. fiftig, fifty ; genitive = 5ftiges (§ 91, Note 1). findan (§ 110), to find. Finnas, m., plural, Fins. firrest (fierrest) , see f eor. fiscaS (fiacnaS), -m.., fishing. fiscere, m.., fisherman. fiscnaS, see fiscaS. folc, n., folk, people. folcgefeoht, n., battle, general engagement. ton (§ 118), to seize, capture, take ; to rice fon, to come to {ascend) the throne. for (§ 94, (1)), for, on account of; for Smm (3e), for Son (3e), because; for 8y, there- fore. for, see faran. forbaernan (§ 127), to burn. forh'wsega, about, at least. Old English — Modern English. 115 forsp^ndan (§ 127), to squander. forS, forth, forward. Frsena, m., Frene. frfmde, strange, foreign; Sa fr^mdan, the strangers. freodom, m., freedom. friS, m., u., peace, semrity. frofor, f., consolation. fiqm (fram) (§ 94, (1)), from, hy. fugela, see fugol. fugelere, m., foioler. fugol (fugel), m., bird. ful, foul. fuUan (§ 130), to grow foul, de- compose. tall, full (with genitiTe). iultum, m., help. tylS, see feaUan. fyrst, chief, first. O. gafol, n., tax, tribute. galnes, f., lust, impurity. gan (§ 134), to go. gar, m., spear. ge, and; see eegSer. geseman (§ 127), to gain by run- ning [ieman]. gear, n., year. gebetan (§ 126), to make amends for [bot = remedy]. gebreowau (§ 109), to brew. gebro'wen, see gebreov^an. gebud, see buan. gebun, see buan. gebyrd, n., rank, social distinc- tion. gecnawan (§ 117), to under- stand. gedon (§ 134), to do, cause. gedrync, n., drinking. gefaran (§ 116), to go, die. gefeaht, see gefeohtan. gefeoht, n., fight, battle. gefeohtan (§ 110), to fight. geflieman (§ 126), to put to flight. gefohten, see gefeohtan. gefor, see gefaran. gefuhton, see gefeohtan. gefylce, n., troop, division ; dative plural = gefylcum, gefylcium. gebiersumnes, f., obedience. gehTwaeiSer (§ 77, Note), either, both. gelSdan (§ 126), to lead. gemetan (§ 126), to meet. genob, enough. genumen, see niman. geoc, n., yoke. geond (§ 94, (2)), throughout. geong (§ 96, (2)), young. ger^cednes, f., narration. gesanmode, see gespmnian. gesceaft, f., creature, creation. gesceap, n., creation. gescieldan (§ 127), to shield, de- fend. gesegliau (§ 130), to sail. geseon (§ 118), to see. geaet, n., habitation, seat. gese^7enlic, visible [past partici- ple of seon + lie] gesiglan (§ 127), to sail. geslsegen, see slean (§ 118). gesQmnian (§ 130), to assemble. gestaSelian (§ 130), to establish, restore. gestranglan(§ 130), to strengthen. gestreon, n., property. gesTvican (§ 102), to cease, cease from (with genitive). getruma, m., troop, division. 116 Crlossary. geiSanc, m., n., thought. geSeode, n., language, tribe, geinrald (gevreald), n,, control, possession, power. ge'winn, n., strife. ge-wissian (§ 130), to guide, direct. gewyrc(e)an (§ 128), to work, create, make, produce. giefu, f., gift. giet (gyt), yet, still. g«, if glsed, glad. God, m., God. god, good. Gotland, n., Jutland (in Ohthere^s Second Voyage), Gothland (in Wulfstan's Voyage). growan (§ 117, (2)), to grow. guma, m,, man. gyf, see gif. gyldan (gieldan) (§ 110), to pay; 3d singular indicative = gylt. gyt, see giet. habban (§ 133), to have. \iset, see hatan. bEeSen, heathen. H^Sum (set HeeSum), Haddeby (= Schlesioig). hal, hale, whole. Halfd^ne, m., Halfdene. halga, m., saint. Halgoland, n., Halgoland (in an- cient Norway). halig, holy. halignes, f., holiness. ham, m., home ; dative-singular = hame, ham (p. 104, Note). hand, see h^nd. hatan (§ 117, Note 2), to call, name, command. hatte, see hatan. he, heo, hit (§ 53), he, she, it. heafod, n., head. heahSungen, highly prosperous, aristocratic [heah + past par- ticiple of Seon (§ 118)]. healdan (§ 117), to hold. healf (adjective), half. bealf, f., half, side, shore. heall, f., hall. heard, hard. hea-wan (§ 117), to hew, cut. helan (§ 114), to conceal. helpan (§ 110), to help (vfith dative) . heofon, m., heaven. heora (hiera), see he. heorte, f., heart. her, here, in this year. h^re, m., Danish army. hfrgian (§ 130), to raid, harry, ravage [h^re]. h^rgung, f ., harrying, plundering. hider, hither. hiera, see he. hieran (hyran) (§ 126), to hear, belong. hierde, m., shepherd. hira, see he. hiaford, m., lord, master. hof, n., court, abode. hQnd (hand), f., hand; on ge- hwseSre h9nd, on both sides. hors, n., horse. horsh-wael, m., walrus. hraegel, n., garment; dative sin- gular = brsegle. bran, m., reindeer. brySer, n., cattle. bu, how. Old English — Modern English. 117 bund, hundred. hunig, n., honey. hunta, m., hunter. hunto3 (huntaS), m., hunting. hum, about. bus, n., house. bwa, bwaet (§ 74), who ? what f h-wael, m., whale. b'wselhimta, m., whale-Jisher. bw3elbunta3, m., whale-fishing. U'wsei, where 9 h'waeSer, whether, which of the two? bw^ene, see bw^on. bwil, t, while, time; ealle 3a bvTile 3e, all the while that; hwilum (instrumental plural), sometimes. bw^on, n., a trifle; bw^ene (in- strumental singular), somewhat, a little. by (hie), see he. hyd, f., hide, skin. hyra (biera), see he. hyran, see bieran. hys (his), see he. byt (hit), see he. ic (§ 72), I. ieldra, see eald. ieman (yman) (§ 112), to run. igland, see iglQnd. igl9nd, n., island. ilea (ylca) , the same. niing, the Elbing. in, in, into (with dative and accu- sative) ; in on (with accusa- tive) ; in on, to, toward. inne, within, inside. inweardUce, inwardly, fervently. Iraland, n., Ireland (but in Oht- here's Second Voyage, Iceland is doubtless meant). K. kyrtel, m., kirtle, coat. Isege, see licgan. Leeland, n., Laaland (in Den- mark). lEBBsa, see lytel. leesta, see lytel. Istan (§ 117), to let, leave. laf, f., remnant; to lale, as a remnant, remaining. land, see Itjnd. lang, see iQng. Langaland, n., Langeland (in Denmark). leger, n., lying in, illness [lic- gan]. Ifng, see l^nge. If ngra, see iQng. leof, dear. leobt, light. 1st, see laetan. Uc, n., body, corpse. licgan (§ 115, Note 2), to lie, extend, flow; 3d singular indi- cative = ligeS, 113. lichama, ra., body. ligeS, see licgan. lim, n., limb. liS, see licgan. lof, m., praise, glory. Ipnd (land), n., land, country. l^ng (lang) (§ 96, (2)), long. l9nge(lange) (§ 97, (2)), long; Ipnge on daeg, late in the day. 118 Grlossary. lufan, see lufu. lufian. (§ 131), to love. lufu, f., love; dative singular = lufan (weak form). lytel (litel) (§ 96, (3)), little, small. M. ma, see micle. meeg, m., kinsman ; dative plural = masum(§27, (2)). msege, see magan. miegS, f., tribe. maegShad, m., maidenhood, vir- ginity. msest, see micel. magan (§ 137), to be able, may. magum, see meeg. man, see mqn. mara, see micel. meahte, see magan. mearc, f., boundary. mearb, m., horse. mearS, m., marten. medu, m., mead. m^n, see vacyi. meolc, f., milk. Meore, More (in Sweden). m^re, m., lake, meer, sea. MeretUn, m., -Merton (in Surrey). micel (§ 96, (3)), great, large. micle (adverb), much. miclum (§ 93, (4)), greatly. mid (§ 94, (1)), with, among, therewith. middangeard, m., world. midde^wreard, midward, toward the middle. Mierce, m., plural, Mercians. mihte, see magan. mil, f., mile. mildheortnes, f., mercy. mm (§ 76), my, mine. mod, D., mind, mood. modor, f., mother. mQn (mqnn, man, mann) (§ 68), man, one, person, they (§ 70, Note). mona, m., moon. monaS (§ 68), Note 1), month; dative singular = monSe. mQuig (manig, maenig) , many. monSe, see monad, mor, m., moor. morgen, m., morning. motan (§ 137), may, must. munuc, m., monk. mu3, m., mouth. myre, f., mare. N. na, not; na ne, not (emphatic), not at all. nabban (p. 32, Note), not to have. nsedre, f., serpent, adder. nsefde, see nabban. neenig (§ 77), no one, none. neere, see beon (§ 40, Note 2). naes, see been (§ 40), Note 2). nama, see nqma. namon, see niman. ne, not. ne, nor ; ne . . ne, neither . . . nor. neah (§ 96, (4)), near. near (adverb), nearly, almost. niehst, see neah. nigontiene, nineteen. niht (§ 68, Note 1), night. niman (§ 114), to take, gain. nis, see beon (§ 40, Note 2). nivtre, new. n9ma, m., name. Old Unglish — Modern English. 119 norS (§ 97, (1)), north, in the north, northwards. norSan (§ 93), (5)), from the north ; be nor3an, see be. norSeweard, northward. NorShymbre, m. plural, North- umbrians. NorSmanna, see Nor3m(jn. ITordmf n, see NorSm^n. norSmest, see norS. NorSmQn (-man) (68, (1)), Nor- wegian. norSor, see norS. norSryhte, northward. norSvireard, northward. NorSweg, Norway. nu, now. nyhst (ntebst), see ueah. nysse, see nytan. nyste, see nytan. nytan (nitan < ne witan, § 136), not to know ; 3d singular preterit = nysse, nyste. of (§ 94, (1)), of, from, concern- ing. ofer (§ 94, (2)), over, across, after. ofer (adverb), over, across. ofeiferan (§ 126), to go over, trav- erse. oferfreosan (§ 109), to freeze over. oferfroren, see oferfreosan. ofslaegen, see ofslean. ofslean (§ 118), to slay. ofsloge, see ofslean. on (§ 94, (3)), in, into, on, against, to, among, during ; on fif oSSe syx, into five or six parts. quA (and), and. onfeohtan (§ 110), to fight. ongean (adverb), JMS« across, op- posite. onginnan (§ 110), to begin. onridan (§ 102), to ride against, make a raid on, o8 (§ 94, (2)), until, as far as; o3 Se, until. oSer, other, second; oSer . . . oSer, the one . . . the other. o33e, or ; o33e . . . oSSe, either . . . or, P. plega, m., play, festivity. port, m..,port [portus]. rad, f., raid. Readingas, m., plural, Beading (in Berkshire). rice, inch, powerful, aristocratic. rice, n., kingdom. ricsian (§ 130), to rule. ridan (§ 102), to ride. riman (§ 126), to count. rod, f. , cross, rood; rode tacen, the sign of the cross. Romv7are, m., plural, Bomansj rybtnorSan^vind, m., direct north wind. S. sS, f., sea. seed, n., seed. SEede, see slogan. sam . . . sam, whether . . . or. samod, see sQmod. sanct, m., f., saint; genitive sin- gular = sanctse (fem.), sancti (masc.) [saiictus]. sawan (§ 117), to sow. 120 Glossary. sa-wol, f., soul; genitive singular = sawle (§ 39, Note). Bceal, see sculan. Bceap, n., sheep. soeawTang, f., seeing. sceolde, see sculan. sceowyrhta, m., shoe-maker. sc^SSan (§ 116), fo injure, scathe (with dative). scieppan (§ 116), to create. Scieppend, m.. Creator. scinan (§ 102), to shine. Boip (scyp), n., ship. sciprap, m., ship-rope, cable. soir, f., shire, district. Sciringesheal, m., Sciringes/ceal (in Norway). Sconeg, f., Skaane (southern dis- trict of the Scandinavian penin- sula). sculan (§ 136; § 137, Note 2), shall, have to, ought. scyp, see scip. se, seo, Saet (§ 28 ; § 28, Note3), the; that; he, she, it; who, which, that; Saes, from then, afterwards; Saes 3e (p. 110, 1. 2), with what; 3y . . . Saet, (p.-llO, 11. 1-8), for this reason . . . because. Seaze, m., plural, Saxons, Sax- ony. secan (§ 128), to seek, visit. sfcg, m., man, warrior. sfcgan (§ 132), to say, tell. Begel, m., n., sail; dative singu- lar = segle. seglian (§ 130), to sail. Belt (sylf), self, Amsey (declined as strong or weak adjective). s^ndan (§ 127), to send. see, see se. seofon (syfan), seven. seolli, m., seal; genitive singular = seoles (§ 27, (3)). sie, see beon. slez, six; syza (sieza) sum, see sum. siextig, sixty. sige, m,, victory. siglan (§ 127), to sail. Sillende, Zealand. Bind, Bint, sindon, see beon, singan (§ 110), to sing. siSSan, after that, afterwards, after. slean (§ 118), to slay. smael, narrow. smaloBt, see smael. s5hte, see secan. BQmod (samod), together. BoiS, true. so3, n., truth. BoSlice, truly. sped, f., possessions, success, riches [speed]. spedig, rich, prosperous. spell, n., story, tale. spere, n., spear. spor, n., track. sprjec, f., speech, language. sprecan (§ 115), to speak. staelhran, m., decoy-reindeer. staelTwierSe, serviceable, BtaeS, n., shore. Stan, m., stone, rock. standan, see Btcjndan. Bt^de, m., place. stelan (§ 114), to steal. st^nt, see standan. Bteorbord, n., starboard, right side of a ship. Btilnes, f., stillness, quiet. Bt9ndan (§ 116), to stand. Old English — Modern English. 121 atow, f., place. Strang, see str9ng. str9ng (§ 96, (2)), strong. BtyccemSlum, here and there. Bum (§ 91, Note 2), some, certain, a certain one; he syza sum, he with five others. sumera, see sumor. sumor, m., summer; dative sin- gular = sumera. Bumorlida, m., summer-army. sunne, f., sun. sunu, m., son. sflS, south, southwards. suSan (§ 93, (5)), from the south ; be suSan, south of (§ 94, (4)). BuSe^'eard, southward. suSryhte, southward. swa, so, as; swa S'wa, just as, as far as; Bvra. . . . swa, the . . . the, as . . . as. Sv7eoIand, n., Sweden. Svreom, m., dative plural, the Swedes. ewUt (swyft), swift. s-win (sTvyn), n., swine, hog. s'wiSe (swySe), very. STBriSost, chiefly, almost. swuster (§ 68, (2)), f., sister. swyft, see swift, swyn, see swin. swy8e, see sv7i3e. symle, always. synd, see beon. sySSan, see siSSan. syz, see siez. syztig, see sieztig. T. tacen, n., sign, token ; dative sin- gular = tacne (§ 33, Note). teecan (§ 128), to teach. tam, tame. T^mea, f., the Thames. Terfinna, m., genitive plural, the Terfins. te3, see t63. tien (tyn), ten. til, good. tima, m., time. to (§94, (V)), to, for. todselan (§ 126), to divide. toemnes (to emnes) (§ 94, (4)), along, alongside. toforan (§ 94, (1)), before. tohopa, m., hope. tolicgan (§ 115, Note 2), to sepa- rate, lie between; 3d singular indicative = tollS. toliS, see tolicgan. toiS (§ 68, (1)), m., tooth. toweard (§ 94, (1)), toward. treownes, f., trust. Triiso, Drausen (a city on the Drausensea). tun, m., town, village. tunge, f., tongue. txingol, n., star. t-wa, see tw^egen. twegen (§ 89), two, twain. twentig, twenty. tyn, see tien. 3a, then, when ; 3a . . . 3a, when . . . then. 3a, see se. 8eer, there, where. Sass, afterwards (see se). 3aet, that. 3as, see 3es. 3e (§ 75), xiiho, whom, which, that. 122 Q-lossary. Seah, though, however. Searf, f., need, benefit. iSeavy, m., habit, custom. Segn (8egen), m., servant, thane, warrior. Seowa, m., servant. 8es (§ 73), this. dider, thither. Siderweard, thitherward. Sin (§ 76), thine. Sing, n., thing. Sis, see Ses. Sissum, see Ses. Sqnan, thence. Sone, see se. Sonne, than, then, when; Sonne . . Sonne, when . . . then. Sreora, see Srie. Sridda, third. Srie (Sry) (§ 89), three. Srim, .see Srie. Siitig, thirty. Sry, see Srie. Su (§ 72), thou. Suhte, see Syncan. Surh (§ 94, (2)), through. Sub, thus. Susend, thousand. Sy, see se. Syder, see Sider. Syncan (§ 128), to seem, appear (impersonal) ; me SynoS, me- thinJcs, it seems to me; him Suhte, it seemed to him. U. unbeboht, unsold [bebycgan = to sell}. unforbsemed, unburned. unfriS, m., hostility. ungefoge, excessively. ungese^irenlic, invisible [past participle of seon + lie]. unrihtwisnea, f., unrighteous- ness. unspedig, poor. up (iipp), up. ure (§ 76), our. ut, out. utan, from without, outside. uton, let us (with infinitive). W. ■wael, n., slaughter. ■wselsliht, m., slaughter. ■wselato'w, f., battle-field; wasl- stowe geiwald, possession of the battle-field. vraepen, n., weapon. ■vrseie, see beon. VT^aes, see beon. ■waster, n. , water. wealdend, m., wielder, lord, ruler. wealh, m., foreigner, Welshman. ■weall, m., wall. wearS, see weorSan. •weaxan (§ 117), to grow, wax. weg, m., way; hys weges, see §93, (3). wel (§ 97, (2)), well. w^ndan (§ 127), to change, translate [vrindan]. Weonodland (WeonoSland), n., Wendland. Tveorpan (§ 110), to throw. ■weorSan (§ 110), to be, become. ■werod, n., army. w^esan, see beon. Wesseaxe, m., plural. West Sax- ons; genitive plural = Wes- seazna. Old Unglish — Modern English. 123 ■west, icest, westward. ■westan-wind, m., west wind. ■weste, loaste. -westen, n., waste, desert. Westsee, f., West sea (west of Norway) . Westseaze, m., plural, West Saxons, Wessex. virician (§ 130), to dwell, lodge, sojourn. ■widsae, f., open sea. V7if, n., wife, woman. ■wild, wild. vrildor, n., wild beast, reindeer; dative plural = wildrum (§ 33, Note). willa, m., will. wUlan (§ 134 ; § 137, Note 3), to will, intend. Wiltun, m., Wilton (in Wilt- shire) . wm, n., wine. ■Winbume, f., Wimhorne (in Dor- setshire). wind, m., innd. wine, m. , friend. Winedas, m., plural, the Wends, the Wend country. wingeard, m., vineyard. winter, m. , winter ; dative singu- lar = -wintra. WIS, wise. wisdom, m., wisdom. wisle, f., the Vistula. WislemuSa, m., the mouth of the Vistula. wisse, see Tvitan. witan (§ 136), to know. wite, n., punishment. ■Witland, n., Witland (in Prus- sia). wiS (§ 94, (3)), against, toward; wiS eastan and wiS upp on emnlange S^m bynum lande, toward the east, and upwards along the cultivated land. ^yiSerwinna, m., adversary. wolde, see -willan. ■word, n., word. woruld, f., world; to ■womlde bCtan segh-wilcum ^nde, world without end. ■writan (§ 102), to write. wucu, f., week. ■wudu, m., wood, forest. ■wuldor, n., glory. ■wulf, m., wolf. ■wund, f., wound. ■wurdon, see weorSan. wylf, f., she loolf. ■wyllaS, see willan. wyrc(e)an (§ 128), to work, make. ■wyrhta, m., worker, creator [-Wright]. ylca, see ilea. ymbe (ymb) (§ 94, (2)), about, around; Sees ymb iiii niht, about four nights afterwards. yrnan, see iernan. yteren, of an otter [otor]. II. GLOSSARY. MODERN ENGLISH — OLD ENGLISH. a, an (§ 77). abide, hidan (§ 102), dbidan. about., he. (§ 94, (1)), ymhe (§ 94, (2)) ; to -write about, wntan be; to speak about (= of), ^recan ymbe ; about t-wo days afterwards, fSces ymbe twegen dagas. adder, nSdre (§ 64). afterwards. Sees (§ 93, (3)). against, toiS (§ 94, (3)), on (§ 94, (3)). Alfred, Alfred (§ 26). all, eall (§ 80). also, eac. although, tSeah (§ 105, 2). always, a; ealne weg (§ 98, (1)). am, eom (§ 40). an, see a. and, gnd (and). angel, (ngel (§ 26). animal, deor (§ 32). are, sind, sintj sindon (§ 40). army, werod (§ 32) ; Danish army, h%re (§ 26) ; English army, fierd (§ 38). art, eart (§ 40). Ashdown, ^scesdun (§ 38). ask, biddan (§ 65, Note 3 ; § 115, Note 2). away, aweg. B. battle-field, wmlstow (§ 38). be, heon (§ 40) ; not to be, see § 40, Note 2. bear, beran (§ 114) . because, for 15Bm (pe), for ton (Se). become, weorSan (§ 110). before (temporal conjunction) , Sr, ser tSeem t!e (§ 105, 2). begin, onginnan (§ 107, (1) ; § 110). belong to, belimpan to + dative (§ 110). best, see good, better, see good, bind, bindan (§ 110). bird, /Mjfo? (§ 26). bite, bitan (§ 102). body, lie (§32). bone, ban (§ 32). book, boe (§ 68). both . . . and, %3er ge . . . ge. boundary, mearc (§ 38), boy, cnapa (§ 64). 125 126 Grlossary. break, breotan (§ 109), brecan, abrecan (§ 114). brother, broSor (§ 68, (2)). but, oc. by, frqm (fram) (§ 94, (1) ; § 141, Note 1). Caedmon, Gxdmqn (§ 68, (1)). call, hatan (§ 117, (1)). cease, cease from, geswlcan (§ 102). child, beam (§ 32). choose, ceosan (§ 109). Christ, Crist (§26). church, cirice (§ 64). come, cmnan (§ 114). comfort, frofor (§ 38). companion, gefera (§ 64). consolation, frofor (§ 38). create, gescieppan (§ 116). Danes, Dpie (§ 47). day, dees' (§ 26). dead, dead (§ 80). dear (= beloved), leof (§ 80). deed, dmd (§38). die, cioelan (§ 114). division (of troops), gefylce (§ 32), getruma (§ 64). do, cZon (§ 134). door, dor (§ 32), duru (§ 52), drink, drincan (§ 110). during, on (§ 94, (3)), See also §98. d-well in, buan on (§ 126, Note 2). earl, eoW (§ 26). endure, dreogan (§ 109). England, Mnglalqnd (§ 32). enjoy, brucan (§ 62, Note 1 ; § 109, Note 1). every, selc (§ 77). eye, eage (§ 64). F. father, feeder (§ 68, (2)). field, fekl (§ 51). fight, feohtan, gefeohtan (§ 110). find, findan (§ 110). finger, finger (§ 26). fire, fyr (§ 32). fisherman, flscere (§ 26). foreigner, wealh (§ 26). freedom, freodom (§ 26). friend, Mine (§ 45),/reo?id (§ 68, (3)). friendship, freondscipe (§ 45). full, full (with genitive) (§ 80). G. gain the victory, sige habban, sige niman. gift, giefu (§ 38). give, giefan (with dative of in- direct object) (§ 115). glad, glxd (§ 81). glove, glofi^ 38). go, gan (§ 134), /arore (§ 116). God, God (§ 26). good, gfO(J (§80). H. Halgoland, Hdlgoland (§ 32). hall, heall (§ 38). Modern English — Old English. 127 hand, Mnd (§ 52). hard, heard (§ 80). have, habban (§ 34) ; not to have, nabban (p. 32, Note). he, he (§ 53). head, heafod (§ 32). hear, hieran (§ 126). heaven, heofon (§ 26). help, helpan (with, dative) (§ 110). herdsman, hierde (§ 26). here, her. hither, hider. hold, healdan (§ 117, (2)). holy, hdlig (§ 82). horse, mearh (§ 26), hors (§ 32). house, hus (§ 32). I, ic (§ 72). in, on (§94, (3)). indeed, sotSlice. injure, sc^an (with dative) (§ 116). it, ftft (§ 53). K. king, C)/M'ng' (§ 26). kingdom, rice (§ 32), (§ 32). cynerice land, liind (§ 32). language, sprSc (§ 38), gefSeode (§ 32). large, micel (§ 82) . leisure, mmetta (§ 64). let us, uton (with infinitive). limb, Urn (§ 32). Uttle, ?y«eZ (§ 82). live in, buan on (§ 126, Note 2). lord, hldford (§ 26). love, lufian (§ 131). love (noun), Tufu (§ 38). M. make, wyrcan (§ 128). man, s^cg (§ 26), mqn (§ 68, (1)). many, mQnig (§ 82). mare, myre (§ 64). mead, medu (§ 51). Mercians, Mierce (§47). milk, meolc (§ 38). month, monaiS (§ 68, (1), Note 1). mouth, miW (§ 26). much, micel (§ 96, (3)), micle (§ 97, (2))- murderer, b^na (§ 64). my, mm (§ 76). N. natives, l^ndleode (§ 47). nephew, ne/a (§ 64). neiw, Jiiwe (§ 82). Northumbrians, Nortymbre (§ 47)- not, «e. of, see about. on, on (§ 94, (3)), ofer (§ 94, (2)). one, an (§ 89) ; the one . . . the other, oSer . . . SiSer. other, oner (§ 77). our, ure (§ 76). ox, oxa (§ 64). place, stow (§ 38). plundering, h^rgung (§ 38). 128 Grlossary. poor, earm (§ 80), unspedig(^ 82). prosperous, spedig (§ 82). queen, cwen (§ 49). reindeer, hrdn (§ 26). remain, bidan (§ 102), dbldan. retain possession of the battle- field, agan wcelstowe gewald. rich, rice (§ 82), spedig (§ 82). ride, ridan (§ 102). say, cweSan (§ 115), slogan (§ 133). scribe, ftocei'e (§ 26). seal, seoZft (§ 26). see, seon (§ 118), geseon. serpent, niedre (§ 64). servant, Seoioa (§ 64),ae^ra(§ 26). shall, scwJare (§ 136; § 137, Note 2). she, heo (§ 53). shepherd, hierde (§ 26). ship, scip (§ 32). shire, sclr (§ 38). shoemaker, sceowyrhta (§ 64). side, on both sides, on gehwce^re h