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NOTES 
 
 ON THE 
 
 GEOLOGY 
 
 OF 
 
 Onondaga County, N.Y 
 
 EMBRACING 
 
 A short description of the various eras, periods and groups, 
 together with statements as to their (i) outcrop, 
 (2) thickness, (3) economic importance, (4) fos- 
 sils, (5) favorable localities for study. 
 
 BY 
 
 PHILIP F. SCHNEIDER. 
 
 PRICE, - .iJ3ffl3ttB»»-eENTS. 
 
 SYRACUSE, N. Y.,, 
 
 Hall & McChesney, Printers, 
 
 1894- 
 
Copyrighted, 1894, 
 
 by 
 
 Philip F. Schneider. 
 
PREFATORY NOTE. 
 
 The following treatise is practically the same as that 
 submitted to the Syracuse University in June, 1893, for 
 the degree of Master of Philosophy. 
 
 The work will be found serviceable in locating and 
 identifying the various geological epochs found in this 
 vicinity. The descriptions are not designed to be suffi- 
 cient in themselves for identifying specimens. They were 
 added simply to give students, doing field work in our 
 county, a list of the more abundant species. We can, how- 
 ever, by knowing the exact localities in which certain 
 periods, groups and layers occur, together with the speci- 
 m.ens found in them, practically, although not positively, 
 identify many of the fossils from the descriptions given, 
 
 PHILIP F. SCHNEIDER. 
 
 Syracuse, N/Y., January, 1894. 
 
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Geology of Onondaga County, N. Y. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Onondaga Connty, N. Y., presents to the naturalist 
 one of the finest places in the State for the study of geol- 
 ogy, and it is doubtful whether we could find another place 
 of like dimensions anywhere in the United States which 
 would present more features of interest. Not only are 
 the rocks presented here extremely regu lar, but, dipping 
 slightly as they do, we have successively brought to the 
 surface rocks belonging to the Upper Silurian, and to th e 
 Lo wer and U pper Devonian A ges. 
 
 The dip of the rock is slightly west of south, and is 
 about twenty-six feet to the mile, while the outcrop ex- 
 tends in a line running nearly east and west From the 
 preceding statement it will be seen that the dip is not so 
 flight as to present for study only the unbroken line of 
 one formation, neither is it so great as to compel us to 
 draw our conclusions from an insufficient number of facts ; 
 for the periods, with one exception, crop out in lateral 
 bands, which are several miles in breadth. 
 
 There are seven different periods found in the county, 
 they are: the Niagara, Salina, Lower Helderberg, Oris- 
 kany, Corniferous, Hamilton and Chemung. For conven- 
 ience of description the various geological periods are sub- 
 divided into smaller divisions or groups. These groups 
 are more local in distribution and character than are the 
 larger divisions, and consequently we need not be sur- 
 prised because we do not find in our county all the groups 
 into which these seven periods are divided. Some of 
 
these groups are found to the east of us, but gradually 
 thin out toward the westward, and have entirely disap- 
 peared before reaching us, e. g., the Schoharie Grit, of 
 the Corniferous Period. Again, although we have numer- 
 ous exposures of the Niagara Period in our county, never- 
 theless, not all the groups composing it are found here^ 
 e. g., the Medina Sandstone, although extensively found 
 in Oswego County, just north of us, is nowhere found ex- 
 posed in our county. 
 
 Of the numerous groups into which these seven 
 periods are divided, fourteen are found in Onondaga 
 County. A complete description of each of these groups 
 will be given later, when we speak more particularly con- 
 cerning the various periods. 
 
 The rocks found in our county belong almost entirely 
 to the class known as stratified rocks. Shale, slate, sand- 
 stone and limestone, with the various combinations of 
 these, as shaly limestone, calcif erous sandstone, etc. , form 
 the prevailing kinds of rock. In addition to these, how- 
 ever, we find a vast quantity of drift scattered over the 
 surface of the county, and mixed with its soil. This drift 
 is composed of many large and medium sized bowlders, 
 together with a great deal of fine sand and gravel. In 
 composition it is extremely variable, some of the bowlders 
 are quartzytes, others are schistose, others micas, etc., but 
 the greater portion are so different from any of the rocks 
 found in place in our county that they must have come 
 from some other source. We also find a great deal of cal- 
 careous tufa, or travertine. Not only is this peculiar rock 
 found in many places upon the surface, but in the form of 
 stalactites and stalagmites it also covers the ceilings and 
 floors of those caves found in the county. Marl is another 
 substance that is found to a considerable extent. Many 
 of our lakes are continually depositing it. Serpentine also 
 occurs, although very sparingly. We will speak more 
 
concerning all of these interesting deposits in another por- 
 tion of our treatise. 
 
 In describing the various systems of rocks, we will 
 suppose that we begin our trip in the northeastern part of 
 the county, near Oneida Lake, and by traveling in a south- 
 western direction we will complete it at the southern boun- 
 dary, near Skaneateles Lake. Distances, however, will be 
 computed from Syracuse. 
 
 Our starting point, at the outlet of Oneida Lake, is 
 about twenty- six feet lower than Syracuse, and is, there- 
 fore, 369 feet above tide water. In our trip we will cross 
 the outcrop at nearly right angles. We will first pass over 
 the great level, and after passing a line parallel with the 
 city, we will gradually begin to ascend the hills, while the 
 latter part of our journey will be one constant ascending 
 and descending of hills. The highest elevation which we 
 will find is Fabius Mountain, 2,015 feet above tide water. 
 
 The scenery of the entire route over which we will 
 pass is extremely picturesque. From the sides of the vari- 
 ous hills crystal streams of the purest water trickle down, 
 making the valleys virtually "blossom as the rose." Over 
 the sides of the slopes and down the ravines, dash rapids 
 and cascades of remarkable beauty and size ; one of them 
 even competing with the noted Niagara in height of fall. 
 Climbing to the tops of the hills, we will be bountifully 
 repaid for our toil by the beautiful panorama which every- 
 where meets the eye. It is asserted that from the top of 
 one of the elevations in Pompey seven different counties 
 can be seen. 
 
 Our lakes, also, are a source of pardonable pride, and 
 this thesis would be incomplete without a few words con- 
 cerning some of them. Skaneateles Lake, soon to become 
 the water supply of Syracuse, is a beautiful body of water 
 eighteen miles in length. It has no visible inlet of any 
 size, and its water supply is supposed to be kept up by 
 numerous springs. 
 
 7 
 
The Green Lakes, of which there are several in the 
 county, are also noted far and wide. The bottom of those 
 at Manlius goes down gradually for several yards, and 
 then suddenly breaks off, going straight down to a maxi- 
 mum depth of 1 80 feet. Their color is a beautiful green, 
 especially so in the bright sunshine, while the water is so 
 clear that trees and rocks lying at considerable depths can 
 be clearly and distinctly seen. These trunks of trees, 
 branches, etc. , have for many years excited the curiosity 
 of all beholders, for the persons living in that vicinity 
 positively assert that they have occupied these same posi- 
 tions from the time that the early settlers first saw them. 
 Furthermore, these logs absolutely refuse to decay. An 
 investigation will prove that these stories contain more 
 truth than one might at first suppose. For, besides the 
 fact that these lakes contain quite a strong^ solution of sul- 
 phur, they also deposit marl, which slowly but surely cov- 
 ers and encrusts everything that falls into them, and in 
 this way the form of the substance is preserved. Green 
 Lake, west of Jamesville, differs from those in Manlius, 
 not only in the fact that its color is much darker, more 
 dismal looking and awe inspiring, but also in the fact that 
 it is almost completely surrounded by bold and precipitous 
 walls of limestone, which rise up 200 feet above the sur- 
 face of the water. Hence, should we happen to see the 
 place for the first time while alone, and also on a dark fore- 
 boding day, we could not but be impressed by the ex- 
 treme stillness of the place, while a single glance down 
 the steep banks and into the dark green water below 
 would fill our hearts with the remarkable feelings, first, 
 of awe and of fear, then of grandeur and sublimity at this 
 wonderful manifestation of the Creator's power in nature. 
 
 These lakes have long furnished sources for conjecture, 
 but it seems probable that at some time or other the water 
 contained in them was on a level with the surrounding 
 
 8 
 
surface, and by the forming of caves in the rock under- 
 neath, the bottom afterwards sunk down, leaving the lakes 
 thus with their precipitous sides. It is, perhaps, not out 
 of place to mention in this connection that there are sev- 
 eral large caves in the surrounding limestone rock; some 
 of these have never been thoroughly explored. 
 
 In bringing these introductory remarks to a close, we 
 conclude, not because we have exhausted the list of the 
 natural advantages of our county, but because enough of 
 them have been mentioned to prove the statement with 
 which we started. Hence, we refrain from enumerating 
 others, and pass on to that portion of the work which will 
 treat more particularly about its geological facts and phe- 
 nomena. 
 
 THE SILURIAN AQE. 
 
 The Age of Invertebrates, as it is sometimes called, has 
 been subdivided into two parts: the Lower and Upper 
 Silurian Ages. Since the first of these divisions is n owhere 
 found exposed in our county, we will leave it without 
 further notice and say a few words concerning the second. 
 
 The Upper Silurian Age is introduced with a limestone 
 formation, has some courses of shale and a large distribu- 
 tion of limestone. It is divided into three periods: the 
 Niagara, Salma and Lower Helderberg. As a whole, the 
 -character of these different formations indicates an epoch 
 when there were shallow waters, or even swamps and 
 marshes. The mud-cracks and ripple-marks of the Medina 
 Sandstone, or the immense hopper-shaped pseudomorphs 
 •of the Salma Period clearly indicate this. 
 
 This age is marked by an abundance of life, especially 
 the marine ; land animals probably did not exist, although 
 a few terrestrial plants grew in the swamps and marshes. 
 Vertebrates, however, were still unknown, none of them 
 l)eing found until we come to the Devonian Age. 
 
NIAGARA PERIOD. 
 
 This is the first period that we will find in our study of 
 the rocks of this county. As its name would lead us to 
 suppose, it is over a part of the rocks of this period that 
 the noted cataract of America makes its descent. The 
 period is sub-divided into three groups: the Medina, the 
 Clinton and the Niagara. 
 
 The Medina Group with its two divisions, the Onfida 
 Conglomerate and the Medina Sands i one, is nowhere 
 exposed in our county. It may, however, be easily studied 
 in Oswego County, just north of us, where it occurs in 
 situ. 
 
 The Clinton Group is the first division of this period 
 found in our county. It occurs in a narrow strip across 
 our entire northern boundary. Although the group is 
 about eighty feet in thickness, it is, nevertheless, difficult 
 to find good exposures, since it is usually overlaid by sev- 
 eral feet of soil and drift. 
 
 By digging through the overlying soil near the shores 
 of Oneida Lake, we come to a dark red shale, which forms 
 a part of this group. Broken fragments of the shale wiir 
 also be found scattered along both banks of Oneida River. 
 
 There are also some soft, brittle, greenish-colored 
 shales, constituting a part of this group, that are alsa 
 found near Oneida Lake. These shales form the bed of 
 the small creek emptying into the river near the outlet of 
 the lake They also constitute the small knoll in the vil- 
 lage of Brewerton on which the Disciples Church stands. 
 The shales are well exposed in the excavation for a cellar 
 just north of the church. On some of the small hillocks, 
 where the overlying soil is thm, the upper surface of this 
 shale is sometimes broken and worked up in ploughing. 
 Several of our northern roads, also, cut through parts of 
 this shale. The road running west from Brewerton has 
 
 lO 
 
an exposure just before crossing the Rome, Watertown 
 and Ogdensburg tracks, and another just beyond the rail- 
 road. 
 
 At Three River Point there is a quantity of shale that 
 was thrown out by the workmen in digging for the foun- 
 dation of the bridge. The shale is considerably darker 
 than the green shale, and is more properly called a blue 
 shale. It is the only exposure of its kind that I have as 
 yet found in the county. 
 
 As a rule, the shales composing this group are thin and . 
 readily broken, and are usually largely colored with iron. 
 Indeed, in many places, the iron ore beds found in this 
 group form one of its chief characteristics. Although the 
 group is usually quite fossiliferous, nevertheless, on ac- 
 count of the poor exposures found here, and the small part 
 of the group which they cover, we cannot obtain a repre- 
 sentative collection of Clinton fossils from ovtr county. A 
 few small brachiopods, mostly Sptrzfers, the Strophomena 
 rhombotdalis^ Strophodonta (sp.), together with numerous 
 specimens of Fucoides^ are all that I have as yet been able 
 to find. 
 
 Since several of the adjoining counties have this shale 
 so much more advantageously exposed, we will find it 
 more satisfactory to study this group at those places, or in 
 the excellent gorges at Rochester, Lockport or Niagara, 
 than to spend much time at the exposures found in our 
 county. 
 
 The Niagara Group is the next division of this period, 
 which we will meet by continuing in our course toward 
 the south. It is composed of two divisions, which are 
 known as the Niagara Shale and the Niagara Limestone. 
 It is these two layers that occur at the famous falls. At 
 that place there is some eighty feet of limestone overlying 
 an equal amount of shale. The same formation extends 
 in an easterly direction across our entire State, gradually 
 
 II 
 
growing thinner as it approaches the Hudson River, where 
 it entirely disappears. At the northwestern corner, where 
 this group enters our county, it is slightly thicker than at 
 Bridgeport, on the eastern border, where it leaves the 
 county. The greatest thickness is not more than seven 
 feet, there being four or five feet of limestone overlying 
 some two feet of shale 
 
 There are several places where the group is exposed 
 and quarried, although, like the preceding, it is largely 
 covered with soil and drift. Nevertheless, as the limestone 
 is but a few feet in thickness, and dips toward the south, 
 it forms a sort of ledge which can be traced across the en- 
 tire county. 
 
 This group can be recognized by its dark blue and 
 almost black color, and by its concretionary structure. 
 This structure is characteristic of the formation wherever 
 it is small in quantity. Geodes are common in the rock. 
 They are usually lined with the rhombohedral crystals of 
 carbonate of lime. 
 
 The most western exposure in the county is at Diet- 
 rich's Quarry, just west of Lysander. The concretionary 
 structure is clearly shown at this place ; geodes are very 
 abundant, some of them containing crytals of dolomite. 
 Although the layers are too thin for a good building stone, 
 a neighboring lime-kiln, much dilapidated at present, 
 shows for what purpose the rock has been used. 
 
 At Ham's Quarry, two miles northwest of Baldwinsville, 
 we have another exposure. At this place the rock is about 
 four feet in thickness, and was used in making neighbor- 
 ing culverts on the railroad. This limestone contained 
 r^z.nj fucoides. 
 
 At Young's Quarry, half a mile northeast of Clay Sta- 
 tion, the exposure is not more than two feet in thickness. 
 The rock was darker colored than at Ham's Quarry, neither 
 was it as compact and fine grained. A neighboring bridge 
 
 12 
 
on the Rome, Watertown and Ogdensburg Railroad was 
 built with stone taken from this qnarry. The stone at 
 the bridge appeared to be of two kinds, a dark variety, 
 containing fticotdes^ and showing the concretionary struc- 
 ture in a marked degree. These were probably the lower 
 layers. Another variety, harder and more compact, be- 
 came lighter colored where exposed to the weather. 
 
 At Whiting's Quarry, near Cicero, this limestone is 
 quarried to some extent and used for a building stone. It* 
 is also burned for lime. Geodes are numerous at this 
 place. 
 
 Although the Niagara Group is usually quite f ossilif er- 
 ous, in our county it does not possess that characteristic. 
 Fiuoidcs are very abundant ; a small Orthis and a Leder- 
 ditia are also quite common. Some of the limestone from 
 the town of Clay is reported to be oolitic in character, al- 
 though I did not find any possessing that characteristic. 
 
 This group is important economically, because it fur- 
 nishes a fairly good building stone to a section of the 
 county, which would otherwise be lacking in good build- 
 ing material. The lime that is obtained from this rock is 
 also important It can be used for all purposes to which 
 that article is put, except where a very white lime is re- 
 quired. This economic value, however, is limited to that 
 region where the outcrop occurs, and is not important 
 enough to furnish one of the exports of the county. 
 
 THE SALINA PERIOD. 
 
 The Onondaga Salt Group, as it is sometimes called, is 
 attractive to the casual observer as well as to the geolo- 
 gist. Its pockets of selenite and its seams of satin spar are 
 not only the wonder of our county's inhabitants, but of all 
 its visitors as well. Its immense plaster beds are a wel- 
 come factor to such as regard the group merely from a 
 
 13 
 
financial standpoint, while its vast accumulations of salt 
 make it a source of comfort and enjoyment to us all. 
 
 The period is divided into two parts, the Lower or Red 
 Shales ; and the Upper or Green Shales. Although both 
 names by which the period is known are local, the extent 
 of the rock is not, for it reaches in a strip entirely across 
 our own State, still further westward into Canada, and 
 then again recrosses the boundary separating that country 
 *from ours. The beds of rock salt found in Canada and in 
 some of our Central States belong to the same period. 
 The local names were given it because the salt which it 
 contains was discovered, and for a long time worked only 
 at these places. 
 
 In our county the Erie Canal may be taken as the 
 dividing line between the two groups. The Red Shales 
 extend across the county in a lateral belt about six miles 
 in breadth and north of the canal ; the Green Shales in a 
 similar belt three miles in breadth and south of the canal. 
 
 The Lower Group, or Red Shale, is for the most part 
 a soft red marl; mainly composed of thin, uneven and 
 brittle reddish shales, with a few thin layers of sandstone. 
 All of these layers readily crumble when exposed to the 
 atmosphere. 
 
 There is an excellent exposure two miles north of the 
 city on the east bank of the Oswego Canal. The expos- 
 ure is about twenty feet in height, and extends for half a 
 mile. A few layers of green shale, also belonging to this 
 group, occur at the same place. Two other exposures of 
 Red Shale occur on the line of the Rome, Watertown and 
 Ogdensburg Railroad. The first, which is about ten feet 
 in height, occurs just south of Woodard Station ; another, 
 considerably higher, occurs on the northern side. 
 
 The conditions existing at the time these shales were 
 deposited must have been unfavorable for life, for we do 
 not find a single instance of fossil life in the entire group 
 
 14 
 
There are many small hills scattered throughout this 
 part of the county, which deserve a word of mention. On 
 account of their form, some of these have become linked 
 in the popular mind with the works of the ancient mound- 
 builders. A study of their structure and composition, 
 however, will readily show that they are collections of 
 material that was probably gathered together and left in 
 heaps by whirlpools existing in the great interior sea that 
 once covered this part of the cotintr}^ Some of them 
 show evidences of being hills of circumdenudation. 
 
 The Red Shales are extensively used in the manufac- 
 ture of brick. Further than this they have no economic 
 value. 
 
 The Upper Group, or Green 5hales. — These might 
 more truly be designated the gypseous shales, for their 
 color is not a green throughout; furthermore, there are 
 some layers of green among the Red Shales, and parts of 
 the Clinton Group are also known by that name. 
 
 The group is mainly composed of clayey shales, which 
 are, as a rule, quite calcareous. There are also some lay- 
 ers of magnesian limestone. The group varies in thick- 
 ness from 500 to 700 feet, and, together with the red shales 
 of the Lower Group, makes a maximum thickness of 1,000 
 feet for the entire period. 
 
 Several interesting deposits are found in this group, 
 some of which we will no^^ consider. The first forma- 
 tions which we will find are the gypsum and plaster beds. 
 They occur throughout the entire extent of this group. 
 The plaster rock, which is merely the ordinary name for 
 the gypsum bearing shales, is quarried in large quantities, 
 and used extensively as a fertilizer. Immense beds have 
 been opened up in Camillus, Marcellus and Dewitt, and 
 large quantities have been taken out and exported. Neither 
 are the towns of Manlius, Onondaga and Elbridge lacking 
 in this commodity. 
 
 15 
 
The plaster rock may be examined at the quarries in 
 any of the towns mentioned, or at South Syracuse, for- 
 merly Brighton, or on the Split Rock Road, three miles 
 southwest of the city. At the latter place there are some 
 thick seams of satin spar,* which is not rare in any of the 
 beds, although not always in thick seams. A mile north- 
 west of Fayetteville, at the cut on the Chenango Valley 
 Railroad, we find pure whitef and the transparent gypsumf 
 in masses, or pockets, in the rock. 
 
 In many of the clayey layers overlying the beds of gyp- 
 sum, we find large hopper-shaped crystals, after salt. 
 These are interesting to us as geologists, because, until re- 
 cently, they were the only evidence we had that salt ever 
 existed in the rocks of our county. These hopper casts, 
 which are found in many layers of this group, were at one 
 time immense crystals of solid salt. This salt has long 
 since been washed out by percolating waters, leaving only 
 these pseudomorphs in the clayey shale. It is these waters^ 
 holding in solution the salt that once filled the hoppers, 
 that have for a long time been pumped up, boiled and 
 evaporated, thus furnishing the salt for which our county 
 is noted. This supposition will appear more plausible 
 when I mention the fact that only three years ago a well 
 was sunk in the southern part of our county, and after 
 passing through the overlying and protecting limestones, 
 pure rock salt was found. Since that time many other 
 wells have been drilled through the overlying rock in the 
 southern part of the county, and in every instance solid 
 salt has been found. According to the statements of the 
 workmen, they drilled through some 1,600 feet of over- 
 lying rock, after which a bed of rock salt, varying in thick- 
 ness from 60 to 200 feet, was found. In Tully Valley 
 there are thirty such wells. Their plan of operation is to 
 allow the water from the Tully Lakes to flow into the 
 
 * Fibrous gypsum, + Selenite. 
 
 16 
 
wells, and after it has absorlDed the salt, it is forced tip and 
 sent on to the Solvay Process Company. As this brine is 
 much stronger than that primped tip near Onondaga Lake, 
 it is probable that it will soon supplant that article alto- 
 gether in the manufacture of salt. 
 
 Still another interesting deposit found in this group is 
 a peculiar calcareous rock called magnesian, or vermicular 
 limestone. It is perforated with a large number of cavi- 
 ties, somewhat resembling worm borings. It is calcareous 
 in composition, and resembles porous tufa more than any- 
 thing else. The pores are circular and somewhat irregu- 
 lar cavities, often communicating with each other; they 
 extend in almost every direction throughout its mass. 
 The intervening rock is quite solid. The cavities vary 
 in size from those whose diameter is almost infinitesimal 
 to those which are over a quarter of an inch in diame- 
 ter. Although the rock resembles lava quite closely, 
 and at first one might almost conclude it to be such, 
 nevertheless a little study will clearly prove its mineral 
 origin. The cells are no doubt due to the simultane- 
 ous forming of the rock and of some soluble mineral, pro- 
 bably a magnesian salt, which was afterwards washed out, 
 leaving the rock in its present porous condition. There 
 are two masses of this rock, the lower being about twenty 
 feet thick. It is interesting to note that where this mass 
 is found near James street hill, Syracuse, it contains some 
 rocks of a crystalline character, which are serpentines. 
 Serpentine is one of the compounds of magnesia, and since 
 it is found in the vermicular limestone, it would seem more 
 probable that the cavities were formed in the manner sug- 
 gested. The upper mass of this limestone is much thin- 
 ner than the lower, often dwindling down to a few feet in 
 thickness. 
 
 Vanuxem was one of the first to show that in the Salina 
 Period, as a whole, we have the same deposits as are found 
 
 17 
 
in tlie salt vats where solar evaporation takes place. In 
 such vats we first find a deposit of oxide of iron, impart- 
 ing a reddish tint to everything- with which it comes in con- 
 tact. The next deposit is gypsum; and lastly, we have 
 common salt, the magnesium and calcium chlorides re- 
 maining in solution. In the Salina Period we have the 
 same state of affairs. First, the Red Shales, colored with 
 iron ; second, the beds of gypsum ; third, the argillaceous 
 shales with their hopper-shaped pseudomorphs ; while 
 above the whole we find the vermicular limestones with 
 their somewhat doubtful traces of the salts of magnesia. 
 
 To this period more than to any other, the city of 
 Syracuse is greatly indebted. In the early history of our 
 city, it was the salt found here that gave to Syracuse its 
 remarkable growth, and even at the present time it forms 
 no small part of our wealth. One company, the Solvay 
 Process, uses enormous quantities of salt water in the 
 manufacture of soda and potash, and furnishes employ- 
 ment to 1,500 men. Although the city no longer depends 
 on its trade in salt for its wealth and position, neverthe- 
 less the salt industry is still successfully carried on, and 
 Syracuse will, no doubt, always be known as the * ' City of 
 Salt." 
 
 In some places a few fossils are found in the upper 
 layers of this group. Only one, however, a lederdttta^ is 
 known to occur in our county. 
 
 LOWER HELDERBERQ PERIOD. 
 
 In our ramblings over the Upper Group of the Salina x 
 Period we have gradually ascended a rising slope, and are 
 now beginning to find ourselves among the low hills of 
 our county, while a little farther to the south they rise 
 still higher, and in the distance seem to uphold the very 
 SKiies. 
 
 18 
 
The next exposure of rock that we will find, or a glance 
 at the stone fences arotind us, will readily show that w^e 
 are in the midst of a limestone formation, and that we 
 have left the shales of the Salina Period in the gentle 
 slope toward the north. These limestones belong to the 
 next great limestone formation, the Lower Helderberg. 
 As but one group of this period, the Waterlime Group, 
 occurs in our county, the other groups having thinned out 
 and disappeared to the east of us, we will speak of this 
 group as the Lower Helderberg Period. It comes to view 
 in many places in the county, and like the remaining 
 periods it can be more easily studied than those already 
 found. The rocks to the north being deeply covered with 
 soil and drift, while those to the south, situated among 
 the hills, are only, covered with a thin layer of soil, and 
 can be easily studied in any of the numerous gorges or 
 ravines. 
 
 Although in our county the Lower Helderberg is en- 
 tirely a limestone formation, nevertheless there are two 
 kinds ; they are called the blue and the drab. The former 
 is extensively burned in the manufacture of the ordinary 
 quicklime, and the latter for the waterlime of commerce. 
 Immense quantities of both kinds are packed, either in 
 sacks or barrels, and transported by the carload to all parts 
 of the country. Owing to the fact that hydraulic cement, 
 so named because it will form a cement which sets under 
 water, is made in large quantities from the waterlime- 
 stone, the drab is often called hydraulic limestone. 
 
 The two kinds usually occur conjointly, being in alter- 
 nate layers. At Behan's Quarry, near Manlius village, 
 there are two alternate layers of each, neither being more 
 than four feet thick. The entire exposure at this place is 
 about sixteen feet in thickness. At Alvord's Quarry, but 
 a short distance from the preceding, we have the same 
 state of affairs. In the perpendicular face of rock at the 
 
 19 
 
Dorwin Quarry there are about eight feet of waterlime- 
 stone overlying twenty-five feet of blue. At Britton's 
 Quarry, on the eastern ridge of Onondaga Valley, we have 
 two layers each of blue and of drab. At Hibbard's and 
 Russel's Quarries, both near the Britton Quarry, we have 
 practically the same state of affairs as at that place. 
 
 The blue limestone is full of fossils, while the drab is 
 characteristic in being wholly destitute of them. But 
 there is a compensating quality here for the geologist, for 
 many of the seams of this rock are lined with the rhom- 
 bohedral crystals of fluor-spar and of calcite. At Alvord's 
 Quarry, Manlius, we often find these beautiful crystals 
 lining the cavities of small geodes. At other places such 
 geodes are rare, the crystals being generally found in the 
 seams of the rock. Occasionally calcite crystals are also 
 found in the blue limestone. Many of the layers also con- 
 tain a peculiar form called lignilite, or epsomite. It re- 
 sembles the suture joints in the skull, except that the 
 individual sutures are generally, though not always, much 
 longer. 
 
 We have found the following fossils in the Lower 
 Helderberg of our county. 
 
 Tentaculites irregularis, A pteropod found sparingly 
 in the lower layers. 
 
 Holopea antiqua. A small univalve usually about a 
 half inch in height. Good specimens are rare, although 
 they are common in the form of casts. The best speci- 
 mens are found near Skaneateles. 
 
 Replaced Coluimtaria is also abundant. It is usually 
 found in large masses, and is common in all the layers. 
 
 BRACHIOPODS. 
 
 Spirtfer vanuxemi. A Small but exceedingly abundant 
 fossil. 
 
 Strophodonta vartstriata. Is somewhat larger than 
 
 20 
 
the preceding, with a smoother surface. Both are ex- 
 tremely abundant, and are found at all the localities men- 
 tioned. 
 
 Merista sulcata. Not as common as the preceding. 
 Found at Britton's Quarr3\ 
 
 LAMELUBRANCHS. 
 
 Pterinea rugosa. This specimen is quite abundant, be- 
 ing found at nearly all the quarries mentioned. 
 
 Avicula communis and Avicnla umhonata are two 
 lamellibranchs that are rarely met with in our county. 
 They are found in the lower layers. 
 
 CRUSTACEANS. 
 
 Euryptcriis reinipes represents a new family that makes 
 its appearance with this period. It is quite abundant in 
 some of the counties east of us, but we have the only 
 known specimen that has as yet been found in our county. 
 As this fossil is found in similar layers of the Waterlime 
 Group to the east and to the west of us, it is reasonable to 
 suppose that it exists somewhere in the rocks of this for- 
 mation in our county. The specimen mentioned was 
 picked up amid some loose material and drift in Onondaga 
 Valley, and it is possible that it may have drifted in from 
 one of the adjoining counties. 
 
 Lederditia alta is another crustacean found in this 
 period. It is an ostracoid, and very abundant. Speci- 
 mens a fourth of an inch in length are not rare. Dana 
 says of it, * ' The Lederditia alta of this period is unusually 
 large for its family, modern ostracoids seldom exceeding 
 a, twelfth of an inch in length. " 
 
 This period may be advantageously studied at the fol- 
 lowing places : 
 
 (i) Dorwin Springs, (2) Split Rock, (3) Britton's, (4) 
 Hibbard's, (5) Russell's Quarries, the three latter being on 
 
 21 
 
the tipper road to Jamesville, near the cross-road going ta 
 Onondaga Valley, (6) Carrigan's Quarry, Skaneateles, (7) 
 Behan's Quarry, Manlius, (8) Alvord's Quarry, Manlius, 
 (9) at the falls three-fourths of a mile south of Manlius, 
 on the East Branch, and one mile southwest of Manlius, 
 on the West Branch of Limestone Creek. 
 
 The economic importance of this group is considera- 
 ble, neither is it limited to the immediate vicinity. Vast 
 quantities of quicklime and of waterlime are manufactured 
 and sent to all parts of the country. The blue limestone 
 makes a good building stone, and is used extensively for 
 that purpose. Large quantities of crushed stone are also* 
 exported. This article can be used for many purposes, 
 the most important of which is in making solid founda- 
 tions for the modern asphalt and macadamized pavements. 
 It is also used extensively in the manufacture of the 
 cement sidewalks which have recently become so popular. 
 In the towns of Dewitt and Manlius, where the lower 
 measures of the group occur, it is often used for farm 
 fences. It is well adapted to this purpose, as the compar- 
 atively thin layers are easily broken into oblong blocks, 
 which a little skill will readily convert into good fences. 
 
 THE DEVONIAN AGE. 
 
 With the next period a new era, the Devonian begins. 
 Like the Silurian, it has sometimes been divided into two* 
 parts, the Lower and Upper Devonian Ages. These have 
 usually been subdivided as follows : 
 
 Lower Devonian. \ ^- O^skany Period. 
 
 ( 2. Corniferous Period. 
 
 ( I. Hamilton Period. 
 Upper Devonian. •< 2. Chemung Period. 
 
 ( 3. Catskill Period. 
 
 The system commences with a sandstone formation,. 
 
 after which it is mostly composed of limestone and shale^ 
 
 22 
 
with some sandstone. During this era, land plants be- 
 came abundant, fishes swarmed in the seas, and corals, 
 crinoids, brachiopods, lamellibranchs and gasteropods con- 
 tmued in undiminished numbers. Toward the latter part 
 of the era, plants became so abundant as to foreshadow 
 the Carboniferous Age, while the large deposits of carbon- 
 aceous shale have more than once led to a fruitless search 
 
 for coal. 
 
 THE ORISKANY PERIOD. 
 
 While studying the rocks of the Lower Helderberg 
 Period, we sometimes found that they were overlaid by a 
 thin deposit of coarse sandstone, which we immediately 
 recognized as bemg different from anything which we 
 have as yet met. If the character of this sandstone would 
 leave us in doubt as to its identity, a glance at the pro- 
 fusion of its fossils ought immediately to tell us that it is 
 the first member of the Devonian Age, the Oriskany Sand- 
 stone. 
 
 This period has sometimes been referred to the Silur- 
 ian Age ; in fact, many geologists have at one time placed 
 it in the Silurian, and at another time in the Devonian 
 Age. This is due to the fact that in some localities its fos- 
 sils are related to those of the preceding group, and at 
 other localities to those of the following. Since this is 
 the case, it will be safe to say that this sandstone forms 
 the passage beds between the two ages. At the present 
 time, however, the tendency is to place it in the Devonian 
 Age. 
 
 The rock is a very rough, dark, and oftentimes rust- 
 colored sandstone. Where it has been protected from the 
 weather, however, it sometimes occurs as a clear white 
 sandstone. Its thickness varies from a few inches to some 
 thirty feet. 
 
 The first place where we find this period m our county 
 is at the Britton Quarries, three miles south of Syracuse, 
 
 23 
 
on the upper road to Jamesville. The quarry, lying 
 among the hills to the east of Onondaga Valley, is but a 
 short distance from the lime-kiln, which is usually reck- 
 oned as being midway between Jamesville and Syracuse. 
 The sandstone occurs in a thin layer, not more than thirty 
 inches in thickness. As this quarry is quite extensive, 
 covering more than half a square mile, in some parts the 
 sandstone comes to the surface, while in others this is 
 overlaid by the Corniferous Limestone. As this sand- 
 stone has no economic value, it is often gathered up as 
 waste by the quarrymen and thrown into large heaps. 
 Many of these heaps are excellent collecting grounds. 
 Where the sandstone comes to the surface it is much dis- 
 colored, and is often so disintegrated that it crumbles into 
 sand. 
 
 Another place where this sandstone occurs is near Dor- 
 win Springs. This is five miles southwest of Syracuse, 
 and isLdlay between that place and the village li South 
 Onondaga. It is in the ridge of hills west of Onondaga 
 Valley, and almost directly opposite the Britton Quarries. 
 The exposure of Oriskany occurs about half way up the 
 hill ; it overlies the Lower Helderberg, which is quarried 
 at the base of the hill, and is in turn itself overlaid by the 
 rocks of the Corniferous Period. Its thickness on the slope 
 of this hill is about eight feet, the perpendicular distance or 
 real thickness being about six feet. The rock is very simi- 
 lar to that at Britton's Quarry, a rough sandstone largely 
 colored by iron. About one foot from the top, and near 
 the transition to the Corniferous, the rock is not so highly 
 colored, having more the color and nature of limestone, 
 although mainly arenaceous. The rock is full of fossils, 
 especially the lower layers, though it is often difficult to 
 obtain them from the rock in sittt. Many large bowlders, 
 some of them four or five feet in diameter, have become 
 detached from the mass of the rock, and by demolishing 
 
 24 
 
these and other smaller bowlders, which one will find in 
 the surrounding stone fences, a representative collection 
 of this period's fossils can readily be obtained. 
 
 In the bluff east of the Glenside Mills, Skaneateles, 
 this rock again occurs. At this place it is about twenty- 
 feet in thickness, but since the exposure is in a bluff which 
 is not easily accessible, it does not form as favorable a 
 place for collecting specimens as some of the other places 
 mentioned. Another exposure will be found in the south- 
 ern part of the town of Elbridge, where the sandstone is 
 about thirty feet in thickness. This represents the maxi- 
 mum thickness exposed anywhere in our county. The 
 other extreme will be found in Manlius, where the rock is 
 but a few inches in thickness, or at Split Rock, where it 
 has almost entirely disappeared. 
 
 The following fossils are found in this period : 
 
 BRACHIOPODS. 
 
 Spirifer arenosus^ a large and course brachiopod is the 
 most abundant. The spirifer itself is not very common, 
 but the cast is extremely so. Almost any large piece of 
 the sandstone, chosen at random, when broken open will 
 reveal parts of it. Although the spirifer and its cast are 
 perceptibly different, they would not be mistaken for dif- 
 ferent genera or species. 
 
 The Orthis hippiraonyx is another bivalve of common 
 occurrence, although not as abundant as the preceding. 
 The lower valve bears a striking resemblance to a colt's 
 foot, and is commonly called by that name. 
 
 The Orthis imiscidosa^ another species of the same 
 genus, is usually smaller than the pAceding, and not as 
 abundant. 
 
 The Mertsta lata is another brachiopod which is plen- 
 tiful but not abundant. The casts of this specimen are 
 quite unlike either of the valves, which are also slightly 
 different. 
 
 25 
 
The Rensselaria ovotdes is a much larger and more 
 handsome brachiopod than any of the others. It is only 
 occasionally found. 
 
 Among Gasteropods we have found a large Platyceras 
 nodos2mi, and a smaller univalve, the Platyostoma ven- 
 tricosa. 
 
 Economic Value. In some places the sand has been 
 used for manufacturing glass. It is also reported that 
 when the Erie Canal was constructed that blocks of the 
 Oriskany Sandstone were used in the locks at Jordan, and 
 it is said to have worn very well for a rock of that charac- 
 ter. Inasmuch as iron exists quite plentifully in the rock, 
 quantities of it have frequently been obtained for the pur- 
 pose of smelting. Nevertheless the difficulties of extrac- 
 tion, together with the attendant expense, have heretofore 
 proved insurmountable obstacles to a successful enterprise. 
 
 CORNIFEROUS PERIOD, 
 
 In nearly all the places where we found the Oriskany 
 Sandstone it was overlaid by a very tough limestone. 
 This protected it, not only from such destructive agen- 
 cies as air, frost and moisture, but also from the attacks 
 of enthusiastic geologists, who might otherwise have soon 
 appropriated our small allowance of that interesting 
 period. 
 
 The limestone is the last of the great limestone forma- 
 tions, the Corniferous. It has sometimes been called the 
 Upper Helderberg Group to distinguish it from the Lower. 
 It is found very abundantly in our county, and is chiefly 
 a limestone formation. The period has been divided into 
 three groups: the Schoharie Grit, Caudi-Gauli Grit and 
 the Corniferous Limestone. Only the last of these is 
 found in our county. This has usually been subdivided 
 into three divisions, the Onondaga, the Corniferous, and 
 the Seneca Limestones. Although these divisions are all 
 
 26 
 
limestones, they vary slightly in structure and composi- 
 tion. While all the strata are fossiliferous, it is often dif- 
 ficult to obtain good specimens on account of the extreme 
 toughness of several of the layers. Both plants and ani- 
 mals are represented in these fossil remains. Fishes first 
 make their appearance in this period. Sponges, corals, 
 crinoids, brachiopods, gasteropods, lamellibranchs, ceph- 
 alopods and trilobites are common, while plants are 
 represented by ferns and lycopods. Many of the courses 
 of rock furnish excellent building stone, and some are 
 burned for the manufacture of lime. 
 
 The Onondaga Limestone.— The first group of this 
 period which we will discuss is the far-famed Onondaga 
 Limestone. In color it is gray ; in structure, tough and 
 crystalline; in durability it approaches granite, which it is 
 often said to resemble. If it has once been carefully 
 noted it will henceforth be easily recognized. It is capa- 
 ble of taking a very excellent polish, which, with its other 
 qualities, makes it a valuable substitute for granite 
 and marble in monuments, tombstones, ornamental trim- 
 mings, etc. In these forms it is often sold by local deal- 
 ers for granite. As a building stone it is unsurpassed, 
 and not only has it the local reputation of being one of 
 the finest building stones in the country, but is known as 
 such all over the United States. For several years past, 
 however, competition has sprung up, its rivals being two 
 handsome sandstones. Owing to an unlimited amount of 
 advertising these have gained a considerable amount of 
 public attention and praise. In our own city, several large 
 buildings have been constructed from these materials, and 
 we heartily join in the popular voice which has called 
 them ** handsome.*' Whether they will prove superior to 
 the Onondaga Limestone, as "their promoters have often 
 maintained, or whether they will eventually occupy an 
 inferior position to the limestone, which on account of its 
 
 27 
 
durability, its resistance of pressure, of atmosplieric agen- 
 cies, etc. , etc. , has gained a national reputation extending 
 through half a century, is at present only a matter of con- 
 jecture. 
 
 A few of the structures built of this limestone are : 
 the new Cathedrals of St. Paul and St. Mary, the new 
 Government Building and the new City Hall. Of those 
 which have stood the storms of a quarter of a century we 
 mention the Court House, the Onondaga County Savings 
 Bank, and the Hall of Languages of Syracuse University. 
 The continual and growing demand for the Onondaga 
 Limestone, and the many large public buildings that are 
 being constructed of it, are ample evidences of its contin- 
 ued popularity. 
 
 As many of the layers are very f ossiliferous, if these 
 be taken, ground smooth and polished, not only will the 
 fossils first seen be brought out more clearly, but others, 
 which were at first invisible, will be distinctly brought to 
 view. When burned this rock furnishes an extremely 
 pure white lime. Formerly it was burned in large quan- 
 tities for this purpose, and always brought a price largely 
 in advance of the amount paid for the ordinary article. 
 For a number of years past, however, this industry has 
 not been carried on very extensively. This is probably 
 due to the fact that this particular rock brings more money 
 with less trouble as a building stone than as lime. 
 
 Although this group is abimdant in fossils, none of 
 them are limited to it alone, but are distributed through- 
 out the entire period. We will, therefore, leave the dis- 
 cussion of its fossils until we speak of those of the entire 
 period. 
 
 This group can be easily studied at Split Rock Quarry, 
 five miles southwest of Syracuse ; at the Indian Reserva- 
 tion, six miles south of the city; at the Glenside Mills, 
 Skaneateles; at the quarries north of Skaneateles Falls; 
 
at Green Lake, Jamesville ; in the southern part of Man- 
 litis, and in the northern part of Pompey. 
 
 The Corniferous Group differs from the Onondaga 
 Limestone, in that it has scattered throughout its mass, 
 nodules of flint, or hornstone. Frequently these nodules 
 are arranged in layers. So plentiful are these particles of 
 flint, that not only has this group but the entire period 
 been named from this circumstance. These nodules of 
 hornstone are the remains of multitudes of small organ- 
 isms ; as, diatoms and desmids. Should you carefully ex- 
 amine a small piece of hornstone under the microscope 
 you would find it to be largely composed of the siliceous 
 remains of plants and animals. Diatomaceous shells and 
 spicules of sponges are the most common. As this horn- 
 stone is mainly siliceous and much harder than the sur- 
 rounding rock, it often happens that where it has been ex- 
 posed to the weather, large masses will be found protruding 
 from the parent rock. Since it is also slightly darker than 
 the rest of the rock, such protrusions often appear in pecul- 
 iar and grotesque shapes, which are distinctly visible. On 
 account of the occurrence of these masses in the Cornifer- 
 ous and Seneca Groups, and because the limestone itself 
 has begun to deteriorate, for it no longer has the crystal- 
 line character of the Onondaga Limestone, it contains for- 
 eign inatter, has a tendency to become shaly, aud shows 
 in many ways its inferiority, therefore the two latter 
 divisions have no very great economic value. Although 
 it is almost valueless for practical purposes, it is, never- 
 theless, interesting to us on account of the many evidences 
 of former life which it contains. 
 
 The 5eneca Group closely resembles the preceding, 
 both in structure and composition, and is not separated 
 from it by any distinct line of division. It was made a 
 new group because it contained a particular fossil, the 
 Strophemena lineata^ in great abundance. For a long 
 
 29 
 
time none of these specimens were found in the preceding 
 groups, and this was supposed to be a sufficient reason for 
 making the upper layers a new division. A more diligent 
 search, however, shows that these fossils also occur, al- 
 though sparingly, in the other groups; since this is so, 
 and as the line of division between the groups is not dis- 
 tinct, they have very properly been designated as one 
 group. In some places these upper layers contain courses 
 of very good limestone. This is true of the western part 
 of our county. For instance, in Marcellus this limestone 
 is often quarried and used for building purposes; occa- 
 sionally it is burnt for lime, although the product obtained 
 is not very pure. 
 
 The Corniferous Limestone and the Seneca, also, if we 
 persist in retaining this subdivision, may be studied at the 
 following places: just east of Manlius Village, south of 
 Jamesville, and at the quarries north of Onondaga Hill, 
 north of Skaneateles Falls, and south of Marcellus. 
 
 Unless otherwise indicated, the following fossils are 
 found throughout this entire period. 
 
 PORIFERA. 
 
 Petra Spongia^ a small globular sponge about the size 
 of an ordinary marble. Abundant in the shaly layer over- 
 lying the Onondaga. 
 
 COELENTERATA. 
 
 •In several places this formation consists almost entirely 
 of ancient coral reefs. There are several species of corals 
 found in it. Stag-horn and cup corals are the most 
 abundant. Heliophyllum Halli is a common variety. 
 Favosites, or honey-comb coral, is also quite common. 
 The most abundant species are the Favosites Goldfussi and 
 F, Gotklandicus. 
 
 30 
 
ECHINODERHATA. 
 
 The crinoidea, at least one family of them, are said to 
 he especially partial to New York State. Not only is this 
 true in regard to the vast number of crinoids found, but 
 also in regard to the size which many of them have at- 
 tained. In our county crinoid stems are the only parts 
 found. These, however, grew to be quite large, speci- 
 mens half an inch in diameter being common, while those 
 an inch in diameter are not rare. Their length also is 
 remarkable. It is not a strange thing to see them extend- 
 ing across the entire breadth of some of our stone side- 
 walks, often several feet in length. Since these crinoids 
 are not found entire, but the stems only, there has been 
 some doubt as exactly where to classify them. In the 
 early State reports they are called Encinitiis Lavis. Some 
 of these stems are very beautiful, having a radiating struct- 
 ure extending from a central star, circle or polygon. 
 Usually these stems are the same color as the limestone, 
 but occasionally specimens are found having a very deli- 
 cate pink color ; the latter are, of course, the more highly 
 prized. This variety is often found at Split Rock. 
 
 GASTEROPODA, 
 
 This family is well represented in the Corniferous 
 Period, and is, no doubt, more abundant in that formation 
 in our county than anywhere else. The particular layer 
 that abounds in these specimens is an impute shaly mass 
 overlying the Onondaga Limestone. It is well exposed 
 at the Indian Reservation. In referring to this layer at 
 the Reservation, State Geologist Hall says: '*This shale 
 has probably afforded twenty times as many specimens (of 
 Platyostoma turbtnata) as all the other localities in the 
 State." Again, in commenting upon the great variety in 
 genera and species found at this place, he says : ** It would 
 
 31 
 
appear that the physical conditions favoring the abundant 
 production of individuals, has, at the same time, favored 
 a degree of variation mtkjiown under conditions existing 
 elsewhere.'* So great is this variation in some of them 
 that, in not a few instances, it is at first difficult to recog- 
 nize the characteristics of the gasteropods. 
 
 We have found the following species especially abund- 
 ant : Platyceras dumosinn^ P. rarispinum^ P. perplcxu7n^ 
 P. rictmn^ P, atteiiuatuin^ P, coniaun. Also Platyost07na 
 lineata^ P. pletirotoma^ P, tiirbinata^ variety P, cochleata. 
 Two other species abundant at this place, but also found 
 throughout the entire period, are: Pleurotoinaria lucina 
 and Strophostyhts varians. 
 
 Gyroceras undulatum. A large cephalopod often meas- 
 uring-six inches in diameter, is quite abundant in many of 
 the layers. It is rolled in one plane, the volutions may be 
 in contact or open, and a transverse section is elliptical. 
 
 BRACHIOPODA. 
 
 The Airypa rettcularis is a handsome brachiopod found 
 sparingly in this period, but more abundant in some of 
 the others, especially in the Hamilton. It is well to note 
 that the specimens from the Corniferous are larger and 
 better preserved than those from some of the other 
 periods. It is abundant in the shaly layer at the Indian 
 Reservation. 
 
 Strophomena rhomboidalis is abundant in most of the 
 layers. Oftentimes the fossil form is colored red, making 
 it very distinct and prominent. 
 
 Strophomena rugosa is usually regarded as a variety of 
 the preceding. It differs from it in that it has but eight 
 ridges, while the preceding usually has eighteen. 
 
 Or this eboracensts is a small but very abundant brach- 
 iopod. Both valves are usually found together. 
 
 32 
 
Spirifer raricosta. A medium sized spirifer common 
 in the Onondaga Limestone. It has been described tinder 
 the names Spirifer undulatum, S. raricosta^ Deltliyris un- 
 dtdatum, 
 
 CRUSTACEA. 
 
 Phacops bufo. A small trilobite occasionally found. 
 
 Odoiitocephalus selemirus. Another which is charac- 
 teristic of this period, and is quite abundant. As its name 
 implies, it is the spiked-head, moon-shaped tail, trilobite. 
 Although parts of this specimen are very common, es- 
 pecially the pigidium, whole specimens are rare. Owing 
 to this fact, It was long thought that the head and tail 
 portions were parts of two different trilobites, and they 
 were accordingly given different names. For some time the 
 head was known as the Calymerie odontocephalus^ and the 
 tail as the Asaplms selemtriis^ but later an entire specimen 
 was found, and it was accordingly known as the Odonto- 
 cephalus selcnurus. 
 
 The Dalvianites ( Coronura) Myrmecophortis is a large 
 and exceedingly beautiful trilobite existing somewhere in 
 this period. The exact layer is as yet unknown. No 
 whole specimen has yet been found, but the few frag- 
 ments all show that it is large and handsome. An entire 
 specimen of the same proportions as the largest fragment 
 would indicate a trilobite over a foot in length. 
 
 VERTEBRATA. 
 
 Fish spines are the only parts which have as yet been 
 found in our county. In some of the counties east of us^ 
 however, the fossil form of the entire fish has been found. 
 
 HAMILTON PERIOD, 
 
 The next period which we find in our trip toward the 
 south is the Hamilton. This period consists of sand- 
 
stones, shales and some layers of limestone. The seas 
 which existed at the time these layers were formed, must 
 have abounded with life, for the remains of corals, brachi- 
 opods and lamellibranchs are found in the greatest pro- 
 fusion. Occasionally the remains of the earliest fishes are 
 found, while terrestial plants are now more numerous than 
 heretofore. Insects, too, make their appearance in this 
 period. 
 
 The four groups into which this period has been 
 divided, the Marcellus Shale, the Hamilton Beds, the 
 Tully Limestone and the Genesee Slate, are all well 
 represented in our county. Two of them, the Marcellus 
 Shale and the Tully Limestone, here reach their culmina- 
 tion. 
 
 The riarcellus Shale. — Directly succeeding the upper 
 layers of the Corniferous Limestone, we find an extremely 
 soft, black, fine-grained shale with an occasional layer of 
 limestone. This is the oldest member of the Hamilton 
 Period, the Marcellus Shale. It can readily be distin- 
 guished from any of the preceding groups by its black 
 color, by the extreme thinness of the shale, and by the 
 fact that when rubbed it gives off a bituminous odor. * As 
 stated, it is for the most part a thin, slaty and extremely 
 brittle mass, which quickly disintegrates when exposed to 
 the weather. Nevertheless, a few feet above the base of 
 the shale a thin layer of limestone, usually not more than 
 two or three feet in thickness, occurs. This limestone is 
 very impure, and readily breaks up into small irregular 
 fragments when hit with the hammer. It is often called 
 by the popular name, *' shell rock", not because it con- 
 tains an abundance of shells, but because to the popular 
 mind the small irregular masses into which it readily 
 breaks somewhat resemble shelled corn. Local geolo- 
 gists, however, term this rock by a more appropriate 
 name, the Goniatite Limestone. The shales in the upper 
 
 34 
 
part of this group are not as highly colored as they are in 
 the lower part, and they gradually become dark bluish in 
 color, closely resembling the lower layers of the Hamil- 
 ton Beds, into which they gradate. Indeed, it is often 
 difficult to tell the exact line of division between the 
 groups. 
 
 The group extends in an unbroken line across the en- 
 tire breadth of the county. It is exposed in many of the 
 ravines and waterfalls in the towns of Manlius, Pompey, 
 Lafayette, Onondaga, Marcellus and Skaneateles. 
 
 The rock attains its maximum thickness in the town of 
 Marcellus, where it is about 200 feet thick. The lower 
 shales are exposed to the east of the village, while the 
 upper layers may be found to the west and south. There 
 is a fault in the rock here, and another near Manlius. 
 Both are extremely local, however. It is also interesting 
 to note, that in the midst of the shale at the latter place 
 there is a black limestone, varying in thickness from five 
 to ten feet. It is weathered into huge rough masses, and 
 has sometimes been worked and used for rough building 
 purposes. It also makes an excellent cement. This mass 
 of limestone, as well as the concretions of calcareous mat- 
 ter, known as septaria, which are found scattered through- 
 out the shales of the entire group, clearly indicate that 
 the mud of which the group was composed contained 
 throughout its mass calcareous material in varying pro- 
 portions. Where the amount was small, it congregated 
 into the oval masses or septaria ; where it was large, as at 
 Manlius, limestone was formed. The septaria are oval, 
 flattened, or oblong bodies, usually crossed by numerous 
 seams, which are filled with foreign matter. They are 
 calcareous, and were probably deposited along with the 
 material of the shaly matter, the calcareous portion sepa- 
 rating from the rest of the mass and uniting. In drying 
 and shrinking, these cracks, or septa, were formed. These 
 
 35 
 
were afterwards filled witli crystalline matter ; as, calcite, 
 sulphate of strontian, etc. Sometimes these septaria seem 
 to have aggregated around a nodule of iron pyrites, a 
 shell, or some other particle of matter, for on being 
 broken open such bodies are found within. Occasionally 
 they contain cavities lined with crystals. 
 
 Since we often find particles of coal, and a small per- 
 centage of combustible material, distributed throughout 
 the mass of this shale, numerous excavations have been 
 made in it with the hope of finding sufficient quantities 
 of these materials to make mining profitable. We occa- 
 sionally hear of fortune seekers who are wasting their time 
 and money in the vain hope of finding coal in this shale. 
 In vain, because the limited amount of vegetation at this 
 time clearly indicates that all such expenditures are in 
 vain, and that the search for coal must necessarily be 
 fruitless. 
 
 It has, however, an indirect economic value, for by its 
 disintegration our county receives a valuable addition to 
 its soil. This is all the more valuable, because the soil as 
 fast as it is formed on the sides and summits of our south- 
 ern hills, is transported by the action of our streams to the 
 valleys and levels beneath, and thus serves for our com- 
 mon benefit. 
 
 FOSSILS. 
 
 Should we say that the Marcellus Shale is almost desti- 
 tute of fossils, it is not at all likely that we would be con- 
 tradicted by anyone who has hunted for specimens in the 
 black shales which compose the greater part of this group. 
 Indeed, this part of the group is almost non-fossiliferous, 
 for it is only after the shales have begun to change to the 
 thicker and harder layers of the Hamilton Beds that fos- 
 sils appear. But, to the geologist, there is a part of the 
 group vastly more interesting and important than the 
 
parts already named. I refer to the thin calcareous mass 
 near the base of the shale, which is commonly known as 
 the Goniatite Limestone. The interest in this layer is not 
 dne to any great abundance in the variety of its specimens, 
 for the number of varieties is small, even though the 
 layer is well described by saying that it virtually abounds 
 in its peculiar fossils. But, as its name implies, it is in 
 this layer of the Marcellus Shale that the new and ex- 
 tremely interesting family of goniatites first makes its ap- 
 pearance. In fact the cephalopods as a class are very 
 well represented in this layer, for, besides the goniatites, 
 we find several species of orthoceras and of nautilus. 
 
 Orthoceras Marcellense. This fossil may be recog- 
 nized by its long straight shell, which gradually expands 
 from the apex to the aperture. A transverse section is 
 circular, and is pierced by a slightly excentric siphuncle, 
 situated on the ventral side. 
 
 It is common in nearly all the places where the Goni- 
 atite Limestone occurs. Good exposures for obtaining 
 specimens are southwest of Manlius, east of Jamesville, 
 and east of Marcellus. 
 
 Orthoceras aptum differs from the preceding in that the 
 septa are more frequent, the sutures are curved and 
 oblique, and the entire appearance of the shell is more 
 tapering, due to its more gradual enlargement. Although 
 not as abundant as the preceding, it is, nevertheless, often 
 found at the above mentioned places. 
 
 Discites Marcellensis is the noted Goniatites Marcel- 
 lensis of the early reports, and is still occasionally called 
 by that name. For a long time, however, it has been 
 classified as a nautilus, but on account of a closer relation- 
 ship to the goniatites th'an the nautilus usually shows, 
 some paleontologists have placed it in the new class, 
 Discites, We consider it a good classification, for the 
 
 37 
 
specimen closely resembles the early goniatites, and is fre- 
 quently mistaken for one of them. 
 
 Nautilus hratus and A"", buccinum^ two species of nau- 
 tilus proper, are also found in this limestone. 
 
 Goniatitcs Vanuxemt, the goniatite proper found in 
 this group, is quite a handsome specimen. It often at- 
 tains a large size, specimens a foot in diameter are not 
 rare, but on account of the friable nature of the limestone 
 it is not always easy to obtain entire specimens. 
 
 Some of the other fossils found in this group are the 
 gasteropods : Plcitrotomaria regulata^ Etiomphalus piano- 
 discus and Macrocliihna Hebe. The cephalopods : G^^;;^- 
 phoccras Conradi^ G. Fischeri, G. ovtformc ; and a ptero- 
 pod, Colcohis acicida. A handsome little trilobite, the 
 Proetus Haldema^ii^ is also found associated with these 
 fossils. These specimens are all found in the Goniatite 
 Limestone. 
 
 The Hamilton Group. — As has already been stated, the 
 shales composing the upper part of the Marcellus Group 
 gradually become harder in texture and lighter in color, 
 until they have gradually changed into the dark blue 
 shales everywhere recognized as the Hamilton Beds, thus 
 leaving little or no line of demarkation between the 
 groups. In some places, however, there seems to be a 
 more abrupt chdnge, which is noted more especially on 
 account of the abundance of fossils that suddenly appear 
 than by any distinct change in the rock. In other 
 places even the fossils begin in shales which are without 
 doubt Marcellus, and gradually become more abundant, 
 until at last we find them in the greatest profusion in 
 rocks that are clearly Hamilton. Nevertheless, it is im- 
 possible to say that at any one point the one group begins 
 and the other ends. 
 
 This group, which is quite extensive, includes a variety 
 of rocks occurring between the Marcellus Shale and the 
 
 3S 
 
Tully Limestone. These beds vary in thickness from 300 
 to 700 feet. The kinds that are most persistent are shale, 
 sandstone and slate, usually occurring in the order men- 
 tioned, although the variety of ways in which they are 
 combined makes it a difficult matter to try to enumerate 
 their order of succession. 
 
 Where the division between this group and the preced- 
 ing is most marked, we find that the lower layers are a 
 dark and somewhat slaty shale, which in some places con- 
 tains a few feet of dark colored limestone. This shale is 
 usually quite fossiliferous. It crops out just rtortheast of 
 Skaneateles, on the road between that place and Marcellus, 
 and again just north of Pompey Hill. As we move farther 
 toward the south we find that this shale has changed to a 
 less fissile and more calcareous shale, by which it is over- 
 laid. The latter has sometimes been called the Skaneateles 
 Shale, although the name is not generally recognized. 
 Even when used it has sometimes been made to designate 
 various parts of the group, or even the entire group. We 
 next come to a much harder variety of shale, also fossilifer- 
 ous, which in its turn is overlaid by a hard layer of sand- 
 stone. In some places this appears as a shaly sandstone. 
 Its color is usually brown, and where weathered a yellow- 
 ish brown. Lastly, this sandstone is overlaid by another 
 hard variety of shale, which completes the group. These 
 divisions are not always easily distinguishable, nor are 
 they persistent for the entire county. The enumeration 
 applies more particularly to the eastern part in the towns 
 of Pompey and Fabius. Toward the western part of the 
 county there is more calcareous and less arenaceous mat- 
 ter. The whole situation may be easily summed up by 
 saying, that while the shales and sandstones predominate 
 an occasional layer of limestone is found. 
 
 For delightful field study there is no group in our 
 county as interesting as the one under consideration. 
 
 39 
 
Here the paleontologist can find specimens to his heart's 
 content. Every stratum, with the exception of one fine 
 grained sandstone, is literally filled with fossils. Further- 
 more, our share of this group is very extensive. It cov- 
 ers the greater part of the towns of Pompey, Lafayette and 
 Otisco, and no small part of Onondaga, Marcellus, Fabius, 
 Tully, Spafford and Skaneateles. Another favorable cir- 
 cumstance connected with this group is that in the towns 
 just mentioned we find many small ravines and gorges. 
 These cut through the hillsides, which are largely com- 
 posed of Hamilton rock, and run down to meet, at right 
 angles, the longitudinal north and south valleys into which 
 the county is divided. These ravines furnish excellent 
 places for studying the stratagraphical and paleontological 
 characteristics of this group. Still another favorable cir- 
 cumstance is that the rocks are so arranged, the harder 
 shales and sandstones overlying the softer shales, and all 
 in turn being overlaid by the Tully Limestone, that we 
 have just the conditions necessary for the formation of 
 waterfalls. Consequently, we will find numerous beauti- 
 ful falls throughout this part of our trip. 
 
 As a few of the inviting places, we mention the steep 
 ravines near Amber and South Onondaga, together with 
 numerous others in Tully, Otisco and Spafford. As a few 
 of the best falls for practical study we mention Pratt's 
 Falls, Pompey, where there is a fall of water claimed to be 
 i66 feet in height; Buhr's Falls, Delphi, 64 feet; Tinker's 
 Falls, 60 feet; and Gamble's Falls. The rocky shores of 
 Skaneateles Lake, and the numberless gullies and ravines 
 leading down to them, furnish still other advantageous 
 places for the study of this group. In the ancient coral 
 reef at Staghorn Point we have an excellent place for 
 studying corals. There are fifteen species of cyathaphyl- 
 loid corals found here, together with numerous species of 
 other families. This one case will serve as an example of 
 
 40 
 
the variety and profusion of the fossils found in this group. 
 The study and classification of all its different forms would 
 give ample employment to an enterprising student for no 
 small portion of his lifetime. 
 
 If we overlook the fact that some of the sandstones of 
 this group have been used for building purposes, and that 
 the entire group furnishes a valuable addition to our soil, 
 we can say that it has no economic importance. 
 
 FOSSILS. 
 
 Hdiophyllum Halli is the most abundant of the cy- 
 athophylloid corals, although, as already stated, there are 
 many different species. Most of these are extremely 
 abundant, and in some places constitute a large part of 
 the rock. 
 
 Other genera represented are : Zaphrentis^ Cyathophyl- 
 htin, Favosites^ Taeniopora^ SUctopora and Reptaria, 
 
 Gasteropods. — If it is possible for any family to be 
 more abundant than the corals, we must reserve that place 
 of honor for the gasteropods. Many of the layers are just 
 filled with Pleurotomaria^ and with a little labor almost 
 any number of them may be secured. 
 
 Pleurot07naria sulcomarginata is the most abundant. 
 It can be distinguished from all the others by the two dis- 
 tinct revolving carina of each volution, which are crossed 
 by numerous well marked striae. This species is said to 
 be more abundant at Pratt's Falls and Delphi in our 
 county than at any other locality in the State. 
 
 P. rotalia. Although this species is quite similar to 
 the preceding, it can be distinguished from it by its shorter 
 spire and more convex volutions, which are less distinctly 
 marked by striae. It is abundant in the harder layers at 
 Pratt's Falls, the preceding being more common in the 
 softer. 
 
 
p. itys. This species can be readily recognized by the 
 fact that the revolving striae are crossed and cancellated by 
 distinct concentric striae. Sometimes found at Pratt's 
 Falls, more common in the shale near Skaneateles Lake. 
 
 Loxonema. — Two species of this genus also deserve 
 similar mention. 
 
 Z. Hamiltoniae is the most abundant. It has an elon- 
 gated shell of usually not more than a dozen volutions. 
 Its surface it marked by distinctly arched, longitudinal 
 striae Found at Pratt's Falls and Delphi. 
 
 L. Delphicola is not as abundant as the preceding, and 
 differs from it in that its shell is broader, expanding more 
 rapidly, its volutions are more convex, and its striae less 
 curved. It is found at Delphi. 
 
 Other gasteropods are the Cyclonema Hamiltoniae^ 
 Macrocheilus macrostomtis and Bellerophon patulus^ B, 
 thalia. 
 
 Brachiopods continue to be found in large numbers, 
 the genus Spirifera being the most abundant, A few of 
 the more common species are: Spirifera granulifera^ S. 
 pennata^ 5. mediahs, S. Tullia. Other abundant species 
 are: Athyris spirtferoides^ A. cora^ Product ella trtmcata^ 
 P. Tullia^ Chonetes imicronata^ Atrypa reticularis, Tropi- 
 doleptus carinatus. Several species of Orthis^ Rhyn- 
 chonella and Strophodonta also occur. 
 
 Lamellibranchs. — If space and time permitted, we 
 would speak of this class very elaborately. In the preced- 
 ing groups we did not find it very well represented, but it 
 now becomes quite abundant, lamellibranchs being fully 
 as common as brachiopods. The handsome genus Grajn- 
 mysia is represented by a lialf dozen species, Aviculas 
 occur in even greater profusion, the beautiful Nucula^ the 
 interesting Goniophora^ with a host of other genera, are 
 all found in this group. Some of the more abundant 
 species are : Grammy sia arcuata, G, lirata, G, bisulcata^ 
 
G. magna ^ G. alveata^ Actinoptei'ia Boydii, Pterinca flabcl- 
 bmi^ Niicula Randalli^ N. lirata, JV. belhstriat^is^ Gonio- 
 phora Haviiltonensis^ G. tritncata^ Pterinopccte^i conspectus^ 
 P. regularis. 
 
 There are also several species of pteropods found, tliey 
 belong to the genera Coleohis, Hyolithcs and Cojiidaria, 
 
 Cephalopods continue to be found, although not as pro- 
 fusely as at the beginning of this period. The more com- 
 mon orthocerata are : O. snblatiun^ 0. crotahnn^ 0. exile; 
 those more rarely found are : O. spissnm^ O. co7istrictmn^ 
 O, agea. 
 
 The Nautilus viaxinins is another large cephalopod 
 that is often found, neither are the Gomatites discoideus^ 
 or the G, uniajigularis very rare. 
 
 Crustacea. — Homalonotus Dckayi is a large trilobite 
 abundant in some of the harder layers. On account of the 
 favorable character of these rocks for specimens of all 
 kinds, it is not difficult to obtain entire specimens. 
 
 PJiacops rana, which we found sparingly in the Upper 
 Helderberg Period, is now found very abundantly. 
 
 Dalmamtes calliteles is another trilobite that is quite 
 abundant in the shale of this group. 
 
 EcJmiocaris pmictata is a phyllopod that is often found 
 in the blacker shales. 
 
 Fishes. — Occasionally a fish spine is the only trace of 
 vertebrates that have as yet be^n found. 
 
 Plants. — Lepidodendrons, which in the Carboniferous 
 became so plentiful, ferns, fucoides and other marine 
 plants are all found in this group. 
 
 Tully Limestone. — Immediately overlying the Hamil- 
 ton Beds we find an interesting limestone formation, hav- 
 ing numerous exposures in our county. It is the Tully 
 Limestone, and is interesting because it is the highest 
 naass of limestone (geologically) in the State. It has not 
 an extensive geological distribution, being found in only 
 
 43 
 
a few counties besides our own. For tMs reason it is not 
 always mentioned in works on geology as one of the divis- 
 ions of the Hamilton Period. 
 
 Neither is its thickness as great as that of some of the 
 limestone formations already mentioned. Its average 
 thickness is not more than fifteen feet. The greatest 
 thickness in our county, however, is considerably more 
 than this, it being thirty feet thick in the ravine a mile 
 northwest of Spafford Corners. 
 
 It is an impure, fine-grained limestone, with a dark 
 blue color when freshly broken, which on long exposure 
 to the weather becomes lighter colored. It is often accre- 
 tionary in structure, breaking into small irregular frag- 
 ments. The layers on separating sometimes show the 
 fibrous appearance which was so common in the Lower 
 Helderberg Period. 
 
 Among the fossils found in this group are two hand- 
 some species, which are wholly peculiar to it They are 
 the Rhynchonella venustula and the Ortliis Tulltensis, 
 Since these fossils have never been found in any other 
 group, by their presence alone we can readily distinguish 
 the Tully Limestone from any other. 
 
 The formation occurs sparingly in the towns of Fabius, 
 Tully, Otisco, Spafford and Skaneateles. Some of the 
 best places for studying it are : Tinker's Falls in Fabius ; 
 just south of Delphi ; Ousby's farm, south of Tully ; one 
 mile south of Vesper; in the northeastern part of the town 
 of Otisco, which is the most northern point where it oc- 
 curs ; one mile south of Borodino ; and in any of the ravines 
 near xne neao. ox oK.aneaLei.es x^cl&.Q', 
 
 At Tinker's Falls the limestone is some fifteen feet in 
 thickness. It forms a sort of shelf over which the watei 
 falls, and as the shale (Hamilton) which occurs below the 
 limestone is more rapidly disintegrated by the atmospheric 
 agencies than is the limestone, we have a natural cave ex- 
 
 I" 1" 
 
tending back some ten or twelve feet from the front of the 
 ledge. This cave, owing to the peculiar conditions by 
 which it is being formed, is continually growing larger. 
 This growth will, no doubt, at some future time be the 
 cause of its destruction, for the limestone will not be able 
 to sustain itself indefinitely when supported only by the 
 sides and rear. When the strain upon the limestone, due 
 to the force of gravitation, has become so great as to over- 
 come the cohesion of its particles, the result will be dis- 
 astrous to the cave. The appearance of the ravine would 
 indicate that such has been the fate of a pre-existing cave 
 at some time in the past. 
 
 The more common fossils outside of the two character- 
 istic ones already mentioned are : Spirifer TtiUia^ S, stib- 
 uinbona^ Product ella Tulha^ Airypa sptnosa^ Rhynchofiella 
 congregata and Clwnctes logam (variety) aurora. There 
 are also several species of trilobites found, among them 
 are : Bronteus Tttihus^ Phacops rana^ Dahnamtes calhtclcs^ 
 Proctus Rozvi and P, niacrocephalus. 
 
 The limestone is quarried in several places, and used 
 for a building stone. It is also burned to a limited extent 
 for lime. It makes a good but not a very white lime. 
 
 The Genesee Slate. — Immediately overlying the Tully 
 Limestone we find a very black, fine grained, argillaceous 
 shale, which is known as the Genesee Slate. 
 
 Its structure is somewhat slaty, hard and brittle, much 
 more so than the Marcellus Shale; nevertheless, it is so 
 uneven and fissile that we often hear it spoken of as the 
 Genesee Shale. 
 
 It forms the tops of some of the higher hills in our 
 southern towns, and may be easily recognized by its black 
 color and its hard and brittle structure. We cannot easily 
 mistake it, because it immediately overlies the Tully 
 LimevStone, which may always be recognized by its char- 
 acteristic fossils. 
 
 45 
 
Its thickness is usually not more than sixty feet ; in the 
 western part of Fabius, however, near where the excava- 
 tions have been made for coal, it was considerably thicker, 
 being about eighty feet thick. 
 
 Septaria, which were found so abundantly in the Mar- 
 cellus Shale, are also found in this group, although very 
 sparingly. 
 
 Fossils also are quite rare. The only trace which I 
 have as yet been able to find is a small orthis. Several 
 others, however, are known to occur in this shale. 
 
 This group may be studied in any of the hills in the 
 southern part of Fabius or Tully, in Otisco near the head 
 of the lake, and in Spafford. 
 
 A large amount of money has been spent in searching 
 for coal in this mass. Its black color, together with an 
 old tradition, saying that coal exists in the shale, have 
 been the causes of considerable expenditures. In a few 
 instances pockets of an impure variety of coal were found, 
 its only importance, however, was to increase the mania 
 for coal digging- The finding of these pockets of coal has 
 also been the cause of considerable speculation. One of 
 the theories most frequently met with, and one which 
 seems to be sincerely believed by some of the people in 
 that locality is the following: ''Coal lying exposed to the 
 atmospheric agencies for a considerable length of time has 
 a tendency to deteriorate, or to 'lose its virtue,' " as they 
 say. According to the theory all this slaty mass was once 
 pure coal, which under the conditions mentioned has be- 
 come valueless, except in patches to insignificant for prof- 
 itable mining. 
 
 I did not succeed in finding any of these pockets of 
 coal, but at many of the places where I stopped the peo- 
 ple claimed to have seen and possessed specimens of it. 
 Numerous inquiries to be shown some specimens of it al- 
 
 46 
 
ways brought about a search for the article in question, 
 but in no instance could any trace of it be brought to light. 
 
 THE CHEMUNG PERIOD. 
 
 This period, which is the next, is also the latest geo- 
 logical formation occurring in our county. On the tops of 
 the highest hills, immediately overlying the Genesee Slate, 
 will be found some sandstone flags interspersed with shale. 
 These are the lower layers of the Chemung Period. 
 
 There are several sandstone layers, which are sepa- 
 rated by a coarse shale. The sandstone, however, is usu- 
 ally fine-grained, and breaks with a smooth even fracture. 
 
 As the exposures of this formation in our county are 
 few, and since it is quite difficult to reach them, situated 
 as they are on the tops of our highest hills, we will find it 
 easier as well as more satisfactory to study this group, and 
 make our collections from exposures in Cortland county, 
 just south of us. If, however, it is desirable to study the 
 formation in our own county, exposures may be found in 
 the northwestern part of Spafford and in the western part 
 of Fabius. 
 
 Fossils are more numerous than in the Genesee Slate, 
 although not as profuse as in the Hamilton Beds. The 
 only ones which we have secured from our own county, 
 however, are some crinoid stems, some fucoides, and a 
 strophomena. All of these were secured in Fabius. 
 
 Some of the sandstones are used in making whetstones ; 
 the superior article sold by the Manlius firm is obtained 
 from the Chemung Sandstones at Fabius. In Cortland 
 county the flags are used to a considerable extent for side- 
 walks. 
 
 47