CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY WiLLARD FiSKE Endowment DATE DUE JUL--*" 91^^ miiiyif i^S J^l^'* u D£t' i ; ^ 19721? .' ,■■ i,T .=-- Ihldr. ^^ ?973^ ivwr?- r^gOT-g^ '^^,^gig ifiP^ >Wt..., {(^^"T- 1 GAYLORD PRINTED IN U.S.A. Cornell University Library HD9930.A2 W26 The linen trade, ancient and modern. olin 3 1924 030 128 882 The original of tliis book is in tlie Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924030128882 ^f ^ THE LINEN TRADE, ANCIENT AND MODERN. ALEX. J. WARDEN, MBECHANT, DUNDEE. LONDON: LONGMAN, GREEN, LONGMAN, ROBERTS & GREEN. 1864. ^930 / PRINTED BY ROBERT PARK, DUNDEE. THIS WORK IS BY PERMISSION, RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED TO THE PRESIDENT, VICE-PEESIDENT, DIEECTOKS, AND MEMBERS OF THE gttitbu C^amkr d €mmtxtt, THE AUTHOR. PREFACE. It is somewhat surprising that the history of so ancient and important a manufacture as that of Linen, and of the commerce connected with it, has not long before this time been placed in a comprehensive form before the world. It is one of the axioms of Political Economy, as it is held at the present day, that " de- mand creates supply," but, up to the present time, that has not in this instance been verified. The feeling that such a work was needed has often been expressed, both by the general public and by those immediately concerned in the Trade, but without, until now, having the effect of bringing forth one. Perhaps that is to be accounted for by our system of " division of labour." Books are generally written by literary and scientific men ; but probably very few of either of those classes possess anything like that practical knowledge of the details of the subject, which it would be difficult to obtain without having been actually engaged in the business. That is the only way in which it appears pos- sible to explain the fact that a generally acknowledged want has been suffered to remain unsatisfied, and that it has been left for me to attempt the performance of a task which should have been committed to abler hands. But whatever the deficiencies I may be sensible of with respect to mere literary qualifications, I have the advantage of an intimate practical acquaintance with the Linen Trade in all its branches — the result of having been for many years engaged in it ; and I may venture to hope that the following pages will be found to contain evidence that I have industriously endeavoured to collect information from all acces- sible sources. Conscious that that is the case, I may ask that faults of style, of which I fear there are many, may be indul- gently regarded, and that the Book may be received and judged of, not as a literary effort, but as an attempt to compile a full and reliable record of the rise, progress, and present condition of an important department of manufacture and commerce. Vl PREFACE. Great care has been given to the preparation of the Statistical Tables, and to ensure the correctness of the figures which are scattered through the work ; and the letter-press has been mainly compiled from the writings of historians and authorities, ancient and modern, with the view of making the work trustworthy and complete as a Book .of Reference. In the course of my labours I have beea indebted to many gentlemen in Dundee and other places, for information which would, but for their help, have been inaccessible to me, and I have gratefully to acknowledge their kindness. The names of some of my benefactors are mentioned in the work ; and to those and others who are not specially alluded to, I beg to preseijt my sincere thanks. To Sir John Ogilvt, Bart., M.P. for Dundee, I am under great obligations for the kindly interest he has taken in my efforts, and for the readiness with which he has supplied infor- mation on several points. Mr John Leng, Proprietor of the Dundee Advertiser, in the most handsome manner placed at my disposal the entire file of the Advertiser from its commencement in 1801 to the present time. I went over every paper for the first forty years, and many of later date. From them I gathered much interesting and curious matter, and (as mentioned at p. 610), the data for the Dundee Prices Current for many of the earlier years. Mr Charles Alexander, of the Courier (commenced in 1815), and Mr Robert Park, of the Northern Warder (begun in 1841), also gave me access to their files, and I am indebted to their courtesy for considerable advantages. The Directors of the Dundee Chamber of Commerce obligingly granted me the use of the valuable collection of books in the Library of the Charqj3er, and thus enabled me to give a number of the statistical details con- tained in this volume. As a small mark of my appreciation of their kindness, and of my respect for the Incorporation which watches over the interests of the staple trade of Dundee, I have dedicated this book to the President, Directors, and Members of the Chamber. ALEX. J. WARDEN. Dundee, July 16. 1864. CONTENTS SECTION I. Chap. Page, THE RAW MATERIAL, 1 I. Flax Culture, 1 II. II. Hemp Do. Jute Do., 41 1. The Culture of Jute in the Field, 49 2. Do. do. in the Factory, 66 Tabular Statements regarding Jute, 84 IV. Sunn Culture, 90 V Vabious Fibres, 94 The Nettle, 95 China Grass, 95 New Zealand Flax, 98 Manila Hemp, 100 The Lime Tree, &c., 103 Noble's Prices Current, 108 Tabular Statements regarding Flax, &c. , 110 SECTION II. ANCIBNTLINEN, 118 Chap. I. Bible Linen, ..... 120 II. Egyptian Do. . 145 III. Phcentcian Do. . . 176 IV. CakThagbnian and Babylonian Do. . 180 V. Colchican Do. . . . . 183 VI. Grecian Do. . . . 185 VII. Roman Do. . . 198 SECTION III. THE LINEN MANUFACTURES OF THE OLDEN TIME, 209 Vlll CONTENTS. SECTION IV. MODERN LINEN PART I. Pase. CONTINENTAL LINEN. 248 Chap. I. Italian Linen, .... 252 II. Spanish Do. 260 III. German Do. 266 Grerman Fairs, 280 Hanseatic League, 282 IV. Austrian Linen, 286 V. Dutch Do. 289 VI. Belgian Do. 298 VII. French Do., 303 VIII. Russian Do., 319 IX. Various Countries — Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, 339 Portugal, .... 340 Switzerland, 342 Turkey, . 342 China, 345 The United States of America, 345 PART II. THE UNITED KINGDOM, 351 Chap. I. English Linen, 252 II. Irish Do., 388 III. Scotch Do. , 421 British Linen Company, . 442 Board of Trustees for Manufactures, 444 The Stamp Act, 465 Tabular Statements of Linens Stamped, . 4T6 Rural Districts — 483 Abernethy, 483 Abemyte, 483 Alyth, 484 Arbirlot, 485 Auchterarder, 485 Auchtermuchty, 485 Avoch, 486 Banff, 486 Barry, 487 Bervie, .... 489 COSTKNTS. IX Page. RAL DiSIROTS — Beiidochy, 491 Benholm, 491 Biraay and Harray, . 491 Blair-Athole, 491 Caimie, 491 Cambuslang, . 492 Caputh, 492 Ceres, 493 Cluny, 493 Comrie, 493 Coupar-Angus, 494 Crail, 494 Crieff, 495 Cupar-Fife, 495 CuUen, 490 Deer, 497 Dowally, 497 Dunkeld, 497 Dunottar, 498 Dunnichoii, 498 Dysarti, 498 Elgin, 501 Falkland, 501 Fordonn, 502 Fordyce, 503 Forgan, "02 Forrea, 603 Galston, 503 Glarais, 504 Glasgow, 504 Grange, 505 Greenock, 505 Himtly, 606 Inverary, 508 Inverness, 503 Koitli, 507 Kemback, . . . . 507 Kenmore, 508 Kettle, 608 Kilbride, 503 Kilchoman, Isla, 509 KiUin, 509 Kilwinning, 509 Kinghom, 510 Kinloch, 511 CONTENTS. HUBAL DiSTBlCIti— Kinross, Little Dunkeld, Lochmaben, Strathdon, Strathmiglo, Strichen, Thurso, Turriff, Wecm, Wemyas, Wick, Paje. 511 Kinnettles, _^ ^ 514, Kirkden, ^ Kirkwall and St OkU, . ^^^ ol5 Largo, . 5^5 Leslie, • _.. „ Lethendy, Leuchars, 516 517 518 T ■ •. 518 Logierait, ^^g Logie Pert, Longforgan, . Mains, Markinch, Meigle, Melrose, Menmuir, Methven, Monifieth, Monedie East Monkland, West Monkland, ■ ^'''^ 519 519 520 521 521 522 522 523 523 523 524 524 525 Monzie, Moulin, Newburgh, Fife, North Yell and-Fetlar, " . • 527 Orphir, • ^27 Paisley, . ■ ■ ^^'^ Perth, 528 Peterhead, 530 Rathen, . 531 St Boswells, 532 Salton, 532 Scoonie, 532 Straoathro, 533 Stranraer, . 533 533 534 534 534 535 535 635 537 r'ONTKNTS. XI — I'age. DlSTaiUT TllAJJK — Aberdeen, 538 Arbroath, 541 Blairgowrie, 548 Brechin, 551 Dunfermline, 664 Forfar, 558 Kirkcaldy, 561 Kirriemuir, 667 Lochee, 570 Montrose, 574 Di,'M>EB— . . . 578 Tabular Statements — Imports and Exports, 633 Prices Current, , 639 Tabular Statements of Power, &c. , 654 C'h.M", IV. UXITKD KlNGD-(M lO OSCO'rH OffO O O coiTomcq 0^0-CO COiH" C5000 (N OCO CO CO 50 -!COp tOfH i-HCO : ^ : CO Ok..- "3 - - - o ■ ■ ■ s a S 2 m t>- CO t- CO M CO o «2 J2 E3 .£? OlC^COCOt^CZJOiCOCONC^t^ COi— HOCOODC^^'TjJ'i)rH»OOJt^ CO b^iH ^ Tji iH c4 ef •^{MOMIMOCOi-Hn-HCT-ti-H QOOOit— i-HiOGOiOO'OCQM rH00coOi00COt>t-C5'OiOt- C^CO iH rH 0-*(Mb-0500; CO O^OO ^^CS CO IC) CO rHCOOiN CO'rH cJ C^f §5 COi— lOOiaOOOO lOrH M C^ CO lO lO 50 *<*< O . • C3 r-l CO ■^^ ICi iH rHr-H^lO : ; iCi Cq^ i-T iHi-l »iH COr-i" iH i-icocoi>-ioob--*og?moo ■^iOiHh-asotDc:ooioo'«*< C0i-INCSi;0iOOt-TttQ0t*30 b^ CO -^ CO' Tf to CO -^ OS t>^ t-T" CO OC0!0lAC0iOb*Tt*0i50C0M «DCicocoioocotneo'*ioin coiooiiocsinr-iOiT)H_ocgco cr IH 1-1 r-l r-l iH rH OiOOQcqiHCOOOlOTj^ »-4 lO" oj-o ■^" cd^CO'rH co" 0--(MiNtOCOTtr CO CO t^ a> CO ooocoooiooooin .lOOOCOb-^b-OOOlO , O Oi CO CO I>- m ■* iH iH iH lO r4 iHr-T OS O •-( Ci O tH CO . .iHOCO • -OCO -coco : :oc5r-i : :cm"^ ; co O^COlMt-COTfl— 'COCSCSJfM CDCOCOCOOSO5TfCO(NOSiH0a ITj OlCDr-i'»d;00 I— I rco t^cc) 00 b^oin Cq CN Cq I— I iH iH s ^ s JUTE CULTURE — IN THE FACTORY. 87 ■■a s 00 to 00 1 i>. in o CO Tti b- eq (N ^cDiomioo^v .... SSiHtCbCSMin : : : : c£ri>rt-rcfirf"cro''c-COt-iOOr-( ooootocooic^ii— iooiO(M»n OS3lTt*-ooodcot-t--l b- tjh" ;o lO CO O rH lO cf iHCDiOTf'^'^T-lrHiHr-'rHCO c 1 to 1 ^p-^rHCOCO«»OCOOt^(M cpb-i-(OO"«t-OC0cDl>- 00 r-( t- 00 t^ O O ^ (NCO COCOlOCOCOOOCOOSinCDCO'* OS-*COCO"*rWOSrt-Q0OOOOq5Q MOOOOOrHOOOOinOCDO S O >0 S S t- O r-1 M< O O CO CC CD O t-^ ■* CO CD 05 O oTrH -.dH 1-1 CO -^ ^ (N CO iH iH rH CD OOCSOOrHetlCqCSCDlOCIQOO^ ■e*<'«**OSrHb-CNb-i:OCOini-(CD i w 1 THE KAW MATERIAL. Ss s H Tons. 8.301 6,811 o CO s ai CO 05,00 cToo 1—1 1-1 1 09 CO b- on 1 i-H 11 ^3 1 « 3 Hi 1 g2 § CD 00 88 OO S5S" I" 1 c 5 1 11 Si" i 00- II O o o 1— 1 U3 CO TH 1 CD s §38 oco 00 CD QO I— 'i-H O 1-H oco" I— liH I— [ 00 -in CO CD" 3 o t>. OO t- MCD 1 3 OO o — • ill 1 in CO CO s" 88 b-co 8 1 mIS 1 ■* 00 & CO s SS coco 1— I iH ^ §■■-.=■1 8 00 OQO ctTco co" CO 00 rH oq'oT iH" S3 CCOi o'cT OO S o »j Sis" 8 oco OS (NCO o s, 3 1 CO CO I— ( s" QOO COi-H I" 88 o_o coco 8 O g CO s 1 fg.-'CO CO r-(CO CO 00 8 S" 1— 1 i CO Ol ii 3- S Oi 3 „■ O CI JSd8 OS CO CO If b- o CO 11 oTjlo" O b- London. 1 CO CO coo CO oo b-^ 1 Spot, Afloat Total, f1 3 ^s 1 ^< EH -a '=^t^ M a CO ^ 00 " ■H a 1-5 o -» 9 H 9 JUTE CULTURE IN THE FACTOKY. 89 /^ ^ o 0° = oo fe 'H o o ii o 00 ^o-i -a «sgs 00 Oi g oo & 5 ri ■== S5 M o3 oo f4 '^ I"* trt Si5 -3 ■OCD oo i So CO ,a «!SS 00 to ■="= rHrt »o CO " c«gS5 S?3 •a •s 00 0(M OO na" "^"^ -ta r-l CrtbS g 5 :S p ="= OO .o -«A o t- ^ a 00 E-l-l r-t >0 M «, r-(i:o oco 13 1 09 O oo OO B'-'^ OO ■s' 1=1 g 1 1 CI 02 ^^ So ,oo oo OiO oo u CD o g- ,oo CM Ti d CO OO r-(b- i— t r-l 3 2 1 .s 'a. :5 00 OO oS '"' «S3 (M -rH -p iHiH OO A 01 to ri=° g M<==' OO N« /^- ^ iH v 1 iH^ Q=° OO C CC . , b-CIMOO t-CD -g I coooGr CO' CO iH oi cccoco c:^o COCOCO IC COb- OCOOco lOOi ■^^Jcoooood ■^ CO CO i-H ift W5 ■*a5 b-cooob- o CO >o as o 00 OCOCOrH TO in CD lO -^ -^ C3 CO in cooosco t>- M OfNODOSlO CO i-i Ci (M CSS t- t-M* coooo m CO CO N o o « rMOOQO t>.C»(?l (M CD CO lO t^ t- CO !M rH in O iO m b-cocj coQo t>- 00 Ci O iH !M in lOio coco CD CO 00 00 00 00 00 9(1 THE KAW MATEEIAL. CHAPTER IV. SUNN CULTURE. Crotularia Juncea, Sana, or Sunn Hemp, is a native of India. The fibres of the plant are much used for cordage and for making sackcloth, and are very valuable for these purposes. There are two varieties of the plant ; one, sown in May or June, often grows ten or twelve feet high ; the other, sown in October, rises to the height of four or five feet. After the earth is properly ploughed, cleansed and pidverized, the seeds of these plants are sown very thickly. The natives say that they should be sown so close together that a serpent cannot creep between them. This prevents the plant from throwing branches, which it is prone to do, but which are highly injurious to the fibre. As the growth of the tall variety is extreme- ly rapid, the crops suffer little from weeds, but if the weeds should be numerous they must be extirpated by the hand, when the Sana is only a few inches in height. The Sana (Srma, Sunna, or Sun, the Bengal name for Hemp), begins to flower in August, and when it has done flowering, and the seed vessels have already attained their full size, some time before the seeds ripen, it is cut down, or pulled up by the roots, and tied up in small bundles, each containing ten or a dozen plants. If a fine soft fibre is required it is pulled earlier, and if great strength it is allowed to stand until the seed is ripe. The bundles are then set upright in water, about a foot or a foot and a half of the lower part of the stalk being immersed, and they continue in that condition one day. By this means the upper and comparatively tender part of the stalk is somewhat dried. That produces a great similarity in the quality of the fibre throughout the whole stalk. After the Sana or Hemp has thus stood erect for one day it is steeped in a pond or in some other receptacle for water, to promote SUNN CULTURE. 91 the separation of the fibre from the stalk. This process isconducted as follows : — A number of the small bundles above mentioned are laid one upon another, so as to form a heap five or six feet high, on each side of which three or four stakes have previously been set to prevent it from falling down. A quantity of cow dung, about two or three inches in thickness, is then spread over the heap. Upon this a layer of straw is placed about a foot and a half in depth, and over the whole a quantity of earth sufficient to sink the heap until the upper part is five or six inches below the surface of the water. In two and a half days, or three days at farthest, the putrid fermentation is carried to a sufficient extent. The Sana is then taken out, and the fibre stripped from the stalk in the following manner: — A man, standing up to his knees in the water, takes a few of the stalks, and having broken them about a foot from the lower end, holds them with the large ends from him, and strikes them on the surface of the water till the stems are broken, separate, and faU off. Then turning them, he takes hold of the fibres, which are freed from the broken pieces, and beats the smaU ends in the same manner on the water, tUl the fibre is entirely separated from the stems. A few strokes are sufficient, and by a few more it is cleared from any mucus or fragments of stalks which may adhere to it. It is then dried and packed up for the market. The chief thing to be attended to in this process is the proper regulation of the putrid fermentation. If this be not carried to a sufficient extent, the fibre wiU not separate, and if carried too far, the quality is injured. The most experienced natives count two days and a half a proper medium. The fermentation is doubtless quickened or retarded by the state of the weather, but the difference occasioned thereby is so small, that the Bengal farmers entirely disregard it. By this simple, easy, and short process do the natives of India accomplish, without the aid of machinery, the \scutching of the Sana in a most satisfactory manner. The mode of cultivating and preparing Sunn is not the same in every part of India, but the differences are not material. The above is perhaps the plan most generally adopted, and its description will suffice on this point. 92 THE RAW MATERIAL. The Sunn is probably the earliest of the distinctly named fibres of India, as it is stated in the Hindoo "Institutes of Menu " that the sacrificial thread of the Eajpoot is directed to be made of Sana, cotton being reserved for the Brahmins. Under the name of Sana it is mentioned in many Sanscrit works, and by that of Sunn it is known in most parts of India. It is most extensively cultivated throughout the whole of India, and is much used by the natives, for cordage, sacks, and a great variety of other purposes, as well as exported largely to Eng- land and other countries. Sunn belongs to the family of plants yielding the pulses of India, and the peas and beans of Europe. It is an annual, with a straight stem branching toward the top when growing singly, but with few branches when close, as it is usually cultivated. The leaves are scattered, from two to six inches long, with a small bristle like point, and covered on both sides with soft silvery coloured hairs. The flowers are of a beautifully bright yellow colour, and the seeds, which are numerous, are kidney shaped. The seeds, when ripe and loosened, rattle within the pods, whence the genus has been named from the Greek word krotalos. In the end of last century small quantities of Sunn were im- ported into this country from India, and it was often experi- mented upon both in India and here. When properly prepared it possesses considerable strength, and is well suited for some sorts of cordage. Early in the century some of it found its way to Dundee. In the Advertiser some notices of Simn Hemp appeared at differrent times. It is mentioned that in March, 1804, some Indian Hemp, which had been imported into Dundee, met with general approbation, and that some parts of the fibre, tried against Kussian Hemp, proved beyond all demonstration that it was an article of the first consideration. This may refer to the Brown Hemp of commerce, which comes from India, and in many respects resembles Kussian Hemp. It may, however, refer to Sunn Hemp, which was long an article of considerable importance in the trade of the town. Sometimes it rose in favour, and at others it was declared unsuitable, but this may refer as much to the pur^.ose to which it was applied SUNN CULTURE. 93 as to the fibre itself. In May 1811, it is said, "The Sunn Hemp of India, after a variety of experiments, appears not to have answered the public expectations, and the persons who had been sent out to Bengal to cultivate it have been re- called." In October 1806, a quantity of Sunn Hemp lying in Dundee was advertised for sale by Nelson and Co. In 1819 the article was again advertised for sale in Dundee. For some years about that period India Hemp cotton bagging appears in the Dundee prices current in the Advertiser, the price being generally IJd a yard below Hemp bagging, and |d a yard below Tow warp bagging. The India Hemp referred to was Sunn. Since then it has often been tried, but the fibre is not well adapted for being spun by the machinery in use in Dundee, and for a long period very little of it has been used in the manufac- ture of textile fabrics there. No doubt machinery could be made to spin it, but there has never been sufficient inducement to do so, as Jute nearly answers all the purposes for which Sunn can be applied, and it can generally be bought at a less price. Another objection to Sunn Hemp is, that when wet it is weak and tender, which renders it unsuitable for many textile pur- poses, whilst Jute, on the contrary, is as strong when wet as when dry. This is perhaps the chief cause why Suim has not retained its place among the fibres used there. Quantity and Value of Hemp and Rope, chiefly Sunn, Shipped FKOM India in the Yeaes' named. Year. 1850-1 1852-3 1854-5 Tons. 1053 2579 7036 £ 11,944 30,681 77,590 Year. 1856-7 1858-9 1860-1 Tona. 3696 2999 1372 £ 52,107 38,181 20,471 94 THE RAW MATERIAL. CHAPTER V. VAEIOUS FIBRES. The great staple of the Linen Trade is Flax, the cloth made from this fibre being alone entitled to be called Linen. From various causes the cultivation of this plant has not kept pace with the demands of the world for Linen, and substitutes have been sought for to supply the void. The oldest of these is Hemp, and for many fabrics it is perhaps the_best that has yet been tried. The culture and nature of this valuable fibre have been already treated of in a separate chapter. Neither Flax nor its twin sister Hemp have hitherto been grown in sufficient quan- tity for the wants of the trade, and prices of both have conse- quently continued high. Indeed so limited has been the supply of these fibres that the Linen trade, had it been confined to them, must have been circumscribed within narrower dimen- sions, and the Dundee branch of it could never have attained its present colossal proportions. In a happy hour a cheap substitute for either Flax or Hemp was introduced into Dundee, and since then its progress has been most rapid. Jute, a native of the sunny climes of India, although a babe in years in the Linen trade, has become a full grown man in importance, and already it has supplanted both Flax and Hemp for many fabrics to which they were long supposed to hold a prescriptive right. This useful and beauti- ful, although not sterling Linen fibre, is fuUy elucidated in previous chapters. Its oriental sister Sunn, although it has never yet risen to much importance in this country as a substi- tute for Flax or Hemp in the manufacture of Linens, is a valu- able plant, both in its native country and elsewhere. Its pro- VAllIOUS FIBRES. 95 perties and qualifications for tlie fabrication of cloth have not perhaps been sufficiently tried in the United Kingdom, and when it becomes better known it may be more appreciated. The mode of culture and preparation of this fibre has also been given. In addition to these there are other fibrous plants and sub- stances which have been used for fabrics akin to Linen, or by parties engaged in the Linen trade, and a few of these will now be shortly referred to. The Nettle (UrticacceJ is a very common weed in this and in many other countries. It is shunned on account of its well known sting, and also from the forbidding nature of the places in which it generally grows, yet it is nearly alhed to the Hemp family, and possesses some of its properties. Thread, cloth, and paper have all been made from the common nettle of Europe, and some of the Indian species have long been noted for their fibre. In the hill country of India the large nettle grows to the height of 14 or 1.5 feet, and produces a very strong and useful fibre. The natives steep it for three days only, and then strip off the fibre, which is done by break- ing off the top of the plant and pulling the fibre down from the thin end, which is the contrary way from Hemp stripping. Other species are prepared by different methods, but it is generally done by a simple mode. Some of these plants could probably be made more available in the manufactures of this country than they have hitherto been, and as they grow freely and might be produced in quantity they deserve to be experi- mented upon. Chijsta Grass ( Urtica nivea) is another species of nettle, and perhaps the most famous of the tribe. Although the beautiful fabric called China Grass Cloth has long been known, the plant producing if; was, until quite recently, altogether unknown to Europeans. The subject has now been satisfactorily determined, and the mode of cultivation and preparation of the plant is accu- rately known. The manner of preparing the fibre is fully de- scribed in Chinese works, and the following precis will explain it. A light sandy soil near a river or well is the best for sowing the seeds in, and the ground should be dug, made into beds of one foot by four, again dug, pressed down and raked smooth. 96 THE RAW MATERIAL. After a day they must be watered, raked, and again levelled, and they are then ready for the seed. One pint of seed should be well mixed with four pints and a-half of moist earth, and this wlU sow six or seven beds. The seeds should be sprinkled on the surface of the soil, and not covered with earth, or they will not germinate. Light mats must be placed over the beds, and after the seed has sprung, when the sun's rays are power- ful, straw must be laid over the mats, or the young plants will be destroyed by the heat. Before the young leaves appear the beds must not be watered, but the mats should be wetted to keep the ground underneath moist, and removed at night that the plants may get the dew. If parasitical plants appear they must be re- moved, and when the grass is two inches high the roof may be laid aside, and the earth moistened when dry, either at night or on a cloudy day. The young plants are then transferred into stiffer soil, placed four inches apart, a little earth being retained around the roots, which must be excluded from air and light, and the groimd well watered and hoed. Every two or three days the watering must be repeated. Shortly after being transplanted the grass must be covered with fresh horse or cow dung. The plant then throws oif new shoots, which may be removed and planted elsewhere, and the species can be propagated in this way as well as by seed. Young plants are also raised from layers which spring very quickly. In a few years the roots cross each other and intertwine, when the stems must be sepa- rated and replanted. The first year, when the plants are a foot high, they are gathered, and the fibres of the cut straw are fit for spinning. The Tchou-ma or China grass may be gathered three times a-year, and when the stems are cut the little shoots springing up from the root stock should be about an inch high. After the large stems are cut the suckers spring up with more vigour, and soon furnish a second crop. The seed should be sown in February ; within four months the first crop may be reaped, two months thereafter the second is ready, and in other two months the third and last crop may be cut. The stems of the second crop grow faster than the others, and yield the finest quality of fibre. After reaping the crop the stocks must be covered with manure, and immediately watered VARIOUS FIBRES. 97 The stems are split longitudinally vdth knives, the bark being first removed ; then the lower layer is scraped off, and the under fibres are displayed, and removed by boiling in water. The first layer is coarse and hard and only fit for common materials, the second is finer and more pliable, and the third is the best, and is used for the finest purposes. After peeling the fibres they are tied up in skeins, steeped for a night in a pan of water, and then dried. They are then again steeped in water containing ashes of burnt mulberry wood, then in water and chalk, and then boiled in water containing straw, which makes them white and supple. They are then dried in the sun, again boiled in pure water, washed, and once more dried in the Sim, after which they are joined end to end and spun on a wheel, and the long threads thus formed make the warp and woof of the cloth to be manufactured. Others prepare the stems by boihng in lime water, and washing, &c. ; others by wetting with dew at night, and sun-drying by day ; and others by the steam of boil- ing water, so that the mode of softening and bleaching the fibre is not uniform. The seeds are gathered in October, from the main shoots, dried in the sun, mixed with damp sand, and kept in a basket carefully covered with straw to keep them from frost, which destroys the germinating power. Before sowing the seeds are put in water. Those which sink are used, the others being- useless. The best seeds are those which are spotted black. They should be sown thin or the plants will come up weak and sickly. China grass is cultivated extensively in China and in several other countries in India. It is a most beautiful fibre, pos- sessed of great strength, and admirably adapted for various purposes. China grass cloth has been long known and highly valued for the beauty of its texture. Of late years im- provements have been effected in the preparation of the fibre, and in its adaptation to the manufactures of this country. Very beautiful specimens, both of the fibre and of the cloth were shown in the Exhibition of 1851, and much care was bestowed on their preparation. In 1862 excellent specimens of both were also exhibited in the International Exhibition. Like Hemp, however, but in a greater degree, it is hard and not well adapted for spin- 98 THE RAW MATERIAL. niiig on Flax machinery, and little progress has yet been made in introducing it largely into the trade. From the expense of its cultivation and the comparatively small quantity produced, it has hitherto commanded so high a price in the market, as to put it beyond the reach of the general trade, and make the consump- tion insignificant. The Eheea of Assam is perhaps identical with China grass, and the same fibre under different names is grown to some ex- tent in the district of Eungpore in Burma, in Siam, and in other eastern countries. Its strength has been frequently tested, and found to be considerably greater than Eussian Hemp, it would therefore appear to be a very suitable material for twines and ropes, although too harsh and hard for anything but the coarser kinds of textile fabrics. The Neilgherry or Himmalay mountains abound in other species of nettle valuable for their fibres. The plants of India have each their distinctive varieties, and every oriental country has members of the same extensive family. Little has yet been done to make them available to the industry of this country, but that Httle is now being directed to practical ends, and in a few years the nation may expect to reap the advantage. New Zealand Flax, {Phormium tenas) was discovered by Captain Cook in New Zealand, and he says " The country pro- duced a grass plant like flags, of the nature of Hemp or Flax, but superior in quality to either ; of this the natives make cloth- ing, lines, nets, &c." It is indigenous to these Islands, and grows in various districts of them. In 1798 it was introduced into the South of Ireland, and it has also been found to flourish on the west coast of Scotland, but it is not now cultivated in either of these places. It is a hardy plant, and would thrive in any temperate climate, but the heat of an Indian summer and the cold of a Eussian winter are too great extremes for it. It prefers swampy lands, and is sometimes met with in its native country growing some feet under salt water, and also in places at some distance from the sea shore. The leaves of the plant are perennial, hard, sword-shaped, and from five to seven feet in length, with a flower-stalk rising four or five feet above them, and bearing a profusion of yellow VARIOUS FIBRES. 99 flowers, followed by triangular seed-vessels, filled with flat and thin black shining seeds. Three-year-old plants are said -to yield on an average thirty-six leaves, besides offsets from the roots. An acre planted with them, three feet apart (but that is too close), wiU yield about fifteen or sixteen hundredweight of scutched and cleaned fibre, as six leaves produce one ounce of them. The leaves are cut when full-grown, macerated in water for a few days, and then passed under a heavy roller. The natives, however, cut the leaves when full grown, and separate the fibres while yet green. The leaves are scraped with a shell, the fibres separated with the thumb-nails, and then combed still farther to part them. Instead of the fibre surrounding a woody stem like common Flax, New Zealand Flax is a mass of fibre on the lower side of the leaf, stretching from the bottom to the top of the leaf in per- fectly parallel lines, with a green covering on the upper surface, which, when dried, becomes yellow, and is easily removed in the scutching mill. In cleaning it wastes very little in weight, and it increases in bulk, which is very different from ordinary Flax. After the fibres have been subdivided by the comb, they are dried in the sun, and become perfectly white. Some of them are coarse and strong, others fine with a silky appearance, and which are capable of being heckled to an almost inconceivable fineness. It is said the plant may be shorn of its leaves in the morning, and be ready for weaving before evening, but it is the same with some other endogenous fibres, which are naturally white. The fibres of this Flax are possessed of great strength, and under a direct strain will, if dry, support a heavy weight ; in a damp or wet state their strength is much impaired, but when again dried they regain their original tenacity. It has the great disadvantage of many of the white fibres, of breaking at a knot. For spinning and weaving purposes the extreme brittleness of the fibre is its primary defect, and it is really so very serious a one, that until some means be found to overcome this and make it more pliable, it will never be employed in quantity for those pur- poses. Many attempts have been made from time to time to give it spinning quality, and a person named Burns, by some process invented by him, prepared samples, one half of which 100 THE RAW MATERIAL. were left in the natural state to show the contrast. The others were of a beautiful soft texture, with the brittleness completely overcome. The cost of this process was too great for being turned to practical account, but a less costly mode may yet be discovered, which will bring the fibre within the range of the operations of both the spinner and weaver. In experiments made with the fibre it has been spun over ordinary Flax machinery as fine as one pound per spindle, but until a cheap softening process be adopted little of it will be spun even into considerably heavier sizes than that, as it cannot be wrought profitably. It is, however, well adapted for lines, twines, and cordage, and for these purposes it wiU give satisfac- tion to the consumer. Sail-cloth, sacking, &c., are also made of it, and the sails, cables, and running rigging of the beautiful model frigate presented by King William the Fourth to the King of Prussia were entirely formed of it. The fibre is easily dyed, and takes on a good bright colour, although it may be fugitive. It was at one time supposed that it would not unite with tar, but it has been found to imbibe it in equal proportions with Eussian Hemp. Murray, in his pamphlet on this plant, had it printed on paper made from its leaves. It would therefore appear to be applicable to many purposes, and it may yet prove a valuable plant both to its native country and to its antipodes, Great Britain. Manila Hemp, fMusa textilis,) has of late years come into great favour in this country, and it now supplants Eussian Hemp for a variety of purposes. The plant is a native of the Philip- pine Islands, and is there called Abaca. It is found both in a wild and cultivated state, but the natural groves are considered as property. The plant is of the same family as that which yields the plantain and banana fruit. With the produce of the Abaca the natives of some of the villages in these Islands pur- chase the necessaries of life, clothe themselves, and pay taxes, &c. Some of these villages furnish yearly 1500 arobas (about 17 tons) each of the fibre, and others export as much cordage made of it. The first export of Manila Hemp from the Philippine Islands was about 14 tons in 1818. After this there was no more demand until 1822, when a regular trade began, and since then VARIOUS FIBRES. 101 it has gradually progressed. In 1844 the exports had reached 6234 tons, and by 1852 the total quantity amounted to 15,296 tons, of which 13,782 was for the United States. In 1854, the export to Great Britain was 5805, and to the United States 13,751, making 19,556 tons in all. By 1856 the exports to the United States had increased to 19,528 tons, but to Britain (in- cluding 43 tons to Singapore and India), it had decreased to 2363 tons, making the total exports for that year 21,891 tons. The total quantity shipped from Manila in the year from 21st May 1862 to 21st May 1863 was, to Great Britain, 15,625 tons ; to America, 11,581 tons ; to other places, 359 tons ; making a total of 27,565 tons. Manila Hemp imported into Great Britain from the PhiUp- pine Islands : — 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1861; Cwt. 55,861 Cwt. 144,593 Cwt. 168,893 Cwt. 77,538 Cwt. 208,980 £90,541 iS198,288 £208,321 £88,801 £226,114 The plant which yields Manila Hemp is sometimes called a tree, but it is in fact only a large herbaceous plant. It is abundant in the volcanic region of the PhiHppine Islands from Luzon to Mindanao, as weU as in the neighbouring Islands, even as far south as the Moluccas. It may therefore be easily cultivated in other countries where the soil, moisture, and climate nearly assimilate to those within this range. The plants of the Abaca were subjected to experiment by Dr Eoxburgh in the beginning of the century, and his specimens are still in the East India Museum. The Abaca is cut when about one year and a half old, just before its flowering or fructification is likely to commence. If cut afterwards, the fibres are said to be weaker, and if earlier they are shorter but finer. It is cut near the roots, and the leaves are taken off just below their expansion. It is then slit open longitudinally, and the central peduncle separated from the sheathing layers of fibre, which are the petioles of the leaves. Of these layers the outer are hard and strong, and em- ployed in the fabrication of cordage. The intermediate layers are finer and suitable for coarse cloth, adapted for clothing purposes, and the inner layers consist of still finer fibres, which are used for the manufacture of more delicate textures. Muslin and grass cloth are made from the finest fibres of Manila Hemp, 102 THE RAW MATEKIAL. and some of them are so very fine that a garment made of them may, it is said, be enclosed in the hollow of the hand. The stem-like mass consists of cellular tissue and fibres, with a thickish, watery fluid, which must be pressed out. The fibrous coats, when stripped off, are left for a day in the shade to dry, and are then divided lengthwise into strips, three inches wide. The petioles are stripped off one by one, and an incision made across on the inside with a knife, to take off the bark which covers them. They are then scraped or made to undergo a sort of heckling imtil only the fibres remain, and when sufficiently scraped the bundles of fibres are shaken into separate threads ; they are then washed, dried, and picked up by women, who separate the finest with great dexterity. Those for cord- age require no farther preparation, but those for fine weaving are made up into small bundles, and beaten with a wooden maUet until they are soft and pliable. Their ends are then gummed together, and the connected thread wound into balls, when it is then ready for the weaver. The stuff when woven is soaked in warm water for twenty- four hours, after which it is steeped in cold water, then in rice water, and again washed, which makes it soft, lustrous and of a white colour. Some of the cloths are dyed of various colours, and others are embroidered. Very little of the Manila Hemp imported into this country is of the finest description of fibre, but some of it can be formed into small threads, and it is of a fine light cream colour, lustrous, and very sightly. It is chiefly used for a species of matting, which is both beautiful and durable, and for twines and cord- age, for which purposes it is very suitable. The finest qualities imported command a high price in this country, and, as its valuable properties become better known, it is getting into more general use and greater favour. Although possessed of great strength, like New Zealand Flax and some other fibres, the single fibres cut when knotted, and they do not possess the qualities requisite for being spun over Flax or other small machinery. Could they be rendered suitable for this purpose the fibre would, from its strength and lustre, be very valuable, and it would be highly prized throughout the linen manufactur- ing districts VAKIOUS FIBRES. 103 The Lime or Linden Tree, (Tilia Europcea), although classed by botanists in the some family with Jute, is so very difterent in appearance that an ordinary observer would place it in quite another genus. This tree is well known, and a general favourite in the parks and public places of this country, both for the beauty of its appearance, and the fragrance of its flowers. It abounds in the forests of Europe, but especially in those of Russia, where it is highly prized for its many valuable pro- perties. The wood is light and white, and used for carved works, furniture, and other purposes. After the trees are cut down in summer and the bark removed, some of them are burnt into charcoal, and the sap when drawn off and evaporated yields sugar. The honey of the sweet scented flowers is much sought after by the bees, and at this season their hum is heard throughout the entire day, as they ply their busy labour among the branches. The bark of the tree is made into ropes and mats, and of this the weU-known Russia mats of commerce are manufactured. The Lime trees intended for being cut down for their bar\ are allowed to grow from four to sixteen years, the older one,= being used for the better and larger kinds of mats, and the young stems where size is not essential. They are cut down when from six inches to one foot in diameter, and the trees are selected in the woods a little before the season for cutting. The proper time for cutting them is in the early summer, in the months of May and June, when the trees are full of sap, and the bark is most easily detached from the stem. When they are cut the bark is immediately separated, both from the tree and the branches, being first cut longitudinally in lengths of six or eight feet, then raised with an instrument made of bone, and afterwards torn off by the hand. The bark on being removed from the tree is laid on the ground to dry, two or three strips being placed one over the other, and kept straight by being tied down to long poles. When required for use they are steeped in water until the layers readily separate from each other, and from the bark. The coarse layers are on the outside, and the finest in the interior. After being steeped, the bark is taken out and separated into ribands or strands, which are hung up in the shade, generally in the wood where the trees 104 THE RAW MATERIAL. grew, and in the course of the summer the ribands are manufac- tured into mats. They are also made into a coarse sort of rope, and they are used for making matted shoes, which are much worn by the Eussian peasantry. For every pair of shoes the bark of from two to four young Linden shoots are required, and although the stems again shoot up more rapidly as they are cut, the destruction of the tree for this purpose alone is immense ; and when to this is added the enormous quantity of mats made annually, both for home con- sumption and for export, the total number of trees which must yearly be cut down is something prodigious. A few mats are made in some parts of Sweden, but the vast bulk of them are produced in the Q-overnment of Viatka, and some of the contiguous Governments of Eussia. During the period for barking, the villages in the places where the trade is carried on are nearly deserted, almost the whole population being then in the woods, employed in stripping the trees. After this opera- tion is performed they again return to their homes, and work up the fibre or bast into mats From careful investigation it is estimated that the average annual production of mats in European Eussia is as follows : — Grovernment of Tiatka, .... 6,000,000 pieces. Do. of Kostroma, 4,000,000 „ Do. of Kasan, . . . . 1,000,000 „ Do. of Nijni Novgorod, 1,000,000 „ Do. of Vologda, Tamboff, Simbirsk, & Penza, 2,000,000 ,. Total, . 14,000,000 „ It is further estimated that of this extraordinary quantity about three-fourths are used in Eussia, and one-fourth exported chiefly from Archangel, St Petersburg, and Eiga. These mats will average perhaps fully three pounds each, making a total weight of about 20,000 tons annually. In the vegetable world there are a vast number of fibre pro- ducing plants, in some of which the fibrous parts are in the leaves, in others in the bark, while some have them around the fruit, and others are fibrous throughout their entire structure. The appearance of these plants, their construction and habits, and the soil and climate which produce them, vary as much as VARIOUS FIBEES. 105 the characteristics of the fibres produced. In Endogens the fibres grow inside the stem or leaves, and are pushed outwards by new growths, while in the Exogens the fibres grow outside the stem, and form a bark or outer covering to it. In many of the former the fibrous parts are separated by pressure and washing in water, and in the latter the separation is generally effected by steeping in water, after which the stem or woody part is readily removed. The fibres of many endogenous plants are harsh and coarse, and not at all adapted as substitutes for any description of linen. The want of proper machines for scutching even the softest and most pliable of them has tended to prevent them from being experimented upon in connection with the linen trade. With suitable machinery to clean and prepare the fibre, it is probable that some of this class of plants may yet be made available for mixing with, or as a substitute for Flax fabrics. In the Inter- national Exhibition of 1862 some machinery for this purpose was shown, and much lauded, especially an American invention, which Sandford and Mallory, the parties producing it, and Alex. Gruild of Dundee, their agent in this country, assert to be the desiderated machine. Practical experience of some dura- tion will alone test this, and until it has undergone the ordeal it would be premature to speak confidently on such a subject, however promising the machine may appear to be. It is to exogenous plants, therefore, that the Linen manufac- turer must yet look for a supply of the raw material of his trade. Already some of them have been rendered subservient to his pur- pose, but there is no doubt that very many more exist in the floriculture of nature, although hitherto unknown to man. The discoverer and introducer into the manufactures of his country of a single useful fibre is a public benefactor. Such a discovery creates new fabrics, opens up new markets, employs more people, and, by making trade less dependent on old branches, gives steadiness to it, and raises the general comfort of the people. Some of the fibres already mentioned, though comparatively new to the trade and commerce of this country, have already done much to add to its general prosperity. Many others might be noticed which are known to exist, though not yet experimented upon and made available for useful purposes. It does not, how- 1 06 THE EAW MATERIAL. ever, appear to be needful to do so, as those described give a pretty general idea of the culture of fibrous plants, and the mode of preparation of their filaments for manufacturing purposes- Those who have the desire and may be favourably situated for ex- perimenting upon such plants ought to do so, and if what has now been written on the subject prompts any one to action and pro- duces practical results, it will not have been written in vain. G. and J. A. Noble of London, in theii- monthly circular of 4th March, 1861, make some observations vidth regard to the fibres of India, which being pertinent to the purpose, are given entire :■— ' " In 1857 we sold by auction various parcels of Indian fibres en- trusted to us bythe East IndiaOompany, and forwarded as samples to introduce them to the notice of those interested. Unfortunately the Insurrection in India prevented the development of the results then obtained, the sale was numerously attended, several purchases being made for the continent. We extract particu- lars of a few of the fibres, that can be relied upon as certain to meet with ready demand, which wiU afibrd some index to their practical value, although the prices obtained for many of the lots were we consider, higher (on the account of the com- petition for experimental purposes,) than would be realized with regular supplies. " The Himalayan, or True Hemp from the Punjaub, known also as Kemaon, Kote Kangra, and Kooloo, from the various distritcs that have hitherto produced it, is perhaps the most im- portant ; it possesses aU the good qualities of Eussian Hemp, is naturally strong, whilst it can be reduced to a fibre fit for most Flax purposes. The samples, consisting of 63 bales, realized from £26 15s to £32 per ton. "The Eheea fibre is more valuable, and perhaps more urgently required than the last ; this also is known by several names, indigenous to nearly the whole southern coast of Asia ; it is principally known in Bengal as Kunkhoora in Sumatra, Calooe ; in Singapore and Bankok, Taleh Eameh ; in Japan, Karao; in China, Chu-ma; in Europe frequently as China Grass ; some hundred bales have been imported at difierent periods ; the method of reducing it to its silky condition has not long been perfected, but the whole of the samples (64 bales) VARIOUS FIBRES. 107 were sold for various experimental purposes, at from £30 to £46 per ton. " The Aloe fibre, 55 bales, sold at from £37 to £40 per ton, partly taken for the continent, fromw hence we have had several subsequent inquiries. " The Hibiscus, known in Bengal as Ambaree, attracted the attention of spinners of Jute, to which it bears a great resem- blance, it is sometimes coarser in quahty, and generally much stronger. Prices range from £11 for very common to £25 15s per ton, the latter price being obtained for a sample of fibre superior in every respect to Jute, and for which it would prove a very welcome substitute to our manufacturers. "There was, amongst several other common fibres fit only for paper -makers, a sample of " Grharoo," from Malacca and Arra- can, growing there, it is stated, very abundantly, and easily pro- curable ; being in a rough state it fetched only £10 5s per ton, it has, however, been since inquired after by the manufacturer. " We ought to observe that these fibres were shipped, for the most part, in a very rough condition, without any attempt to assort the qualities, the packing also was invariably very defective ; this inattention materially depreciated the value of the whole of the samples sold, and we believe that they have been upon different occasions the chief cause of disappointment to those who have imported fibre. It is to be feared that the extreme prices paid for Flax during 1854 induced a behef that fibre of any description, and however prepared, would sell here readily ; this caused shipments to be made of parcels hastily and badly selected, which, when received here, were found suit- able for none but the most ordinary purposes, discouraging to the shippers, and unsatisfactory to those manufacturers who tested them. As the cost of importation is the same upon produce badly prepared, as when in good condition, it is very palpable that a great mistake is committed in not attendiug to this im- portant matter in all shipments of fibre, more especially if we remember that good quahty is generally the most saleable and the most remunerating. " As a general rule, it is useless to look for any important practical results to follow the importation of a small parcel of any new fibre ; manufacturers are not disposed to incur expenses 108 THE RAW MATEEIAL. in modifying their machinery, and testing the quality of a new material, unless it he offered in a sufficient quantity to enable them to ascertain its comparative merits and qualifications hy placing it on the market in a manufactured condition." The following list of prices of various fibres is taken from Messrs Noble's Prices Current, dated London, 3d July, 1863. The various statistical tables which follow have been collected from official and other reliable sources, and great care taken to have them accurate. The same remarks apply to the other statistical tables given throughout the volume : — PRICES CUHEENT. JUTE.- Fine, .... Per Ton. £27 10 to £29 Medium to Good, )» 24 0„ 26 10 Common, it 21 0„ 23 Rojections, »5 17 0„ 19 10 Cuttings or Roots, )3 11 10 „ East India Hemp.— Manila.— Superior to Fine Roping, ij 26 0„ 27 10 Fair to Good, . >) 24 15 „ 25 10 Common, »? 23 „ 24 Fine White (Lupiz), . 11 52 „ 54 Do. (Quillot), . J1 50 „ 51 Sunn and Madras.— Good, )1 28 „ 30 10 Common to Fair, 23 „ 26 Bombay.— Good, »» 27 0„ 29 Common to Fair, )) 23 10 „ 25 CoiE Goods.— Yahn.— Fine to Superfine, )» 38 „ 56 Medium to Good, »J 24 10 „ 35 Common, »> 19 10 „ 22 10 Fibre.— Long, Clean, and Good Coloured, „ 32 „ 23 Ordinary to Fair, ») 24 „ 28 Rope.- Cochin, )J 22 10 „ 29 10 Ceylon, .... ,, 22 0„ 26 Bombay, »> 20 0„ 24 JONK— Cochin, )) 24 ,, 25 10 Ceylon, 20 „ 23 Bkistle Fibre. - Superfine, 3» 50 „ 52 Good Fair, )> 30 „ 34 Ordinary, 1» 26 0„ 27-10 KiTOOL Fibre. —Black, Per lb. m „ lid Brown, .... »> 7d „ 9d Piassava. Bahia, .... Per Ton. £14 0„ £14 10 Para, .... ,, 30 „ 31 Mexican Fibre, . J, 60 „ Hemp Yarn. — St Petersburg, 1st Qality, ,, 44 10 „ 45 VARIOUS FIBRES. 109 St Petersburg, 2d Quality, . Per Ton. £30 o„ £32 Palm Leaf, ,» 9 o„ • ■ ■ • Hemp — Eobopean. — St Petersburg— Clean . )» 39 10 „ 40 15 Outsbot, »» 37 10 „ 38 10 Half-clean, . f. 3r o„ Polisb— Rhine, >» 42 10 „ 44 10 Outsbot, ,, 41 10 „ 42 10 Pass, . ,1 41 10 „ 42 10 Italian — 1st Quality, Roping, . »» 40 „ 41 10 2d do. do. . »» 38 o„ 39 Ist do. Spinning, j» 46 0., 48 2d do. do. i> 43 „ 44 1st do. Dressed, ,» 70 0„ 73 2d do. do. » 60 0,. 63 8 3d do. do. ,, 54 „ 57 Hungarian— Dressed, . i» 38 o„ 40 Undressed, J, 30 „ 31 Flax.— Riga— WPPK, » 62 o„ 72 WrPHD, »» 62 0„ 68 WZK(Zins) . ,j 61 o„ St Petersburg— 12 Head, ', 49 o„ 49 10 9 do. ,, 43 10 „ 44 10 6 do. >, 33 10 „ 34 Archangel — 3d Crown, )) 62 o„ 63 Zabrack, . ,, 56 o„ 57 Egyptian— Clean Scutched, . It 58 „ 66 Half clean do. , ,1 48 o„ 54 Government Dressed, ,, 54 o„ 60 Hand Dressed, tt 39 „ 46 Common, . ti 25 „ 30 New Zealand — Dressed, good. ,, 28 „ 30 Undressed, It 20 „ 23 Tow.— Archangel— No. 1 Tow, It 48 10 „ 49 10 No. 2 do., It 47 10 „ 48 10 2d Codilla, tt 48 „ .... 3d do.. tt 35 10 ,. 36 10 Vologda— No. 1 Tow, „ 45 10 „ 46 10 No. 2 do., tt 40 o„ 41 St Petersburg— Codilla, J, 14 „ 14 10 Italian— 1st Bologna, . n 36 „ 36 10 2d do., . tt 33 10 „ 34 1st Cento, tt 37 o„ 38 2d do., tt 32 10 „ 33 10 110 THE RAW MATERIAL. Imposts, &o. of East India Hemp into London in the Tbabs Undekmentioned. Imported. Delivered. Stocks 31st December. Bombay. Sunn. Manila. 1857 Tons, 2,846 3,114 2,388 1858 5,331 3,263 139 498 3,861 1859 5,825 2,650 223 263 7,182 1860 1,664 3,938 50 28 5,397 1861 4,436 4,225 69 18 5,602 1862 4,200 4,640 5,155 Quantities and Computed Real Value op Flax, Hemp, and Jute, Imported into the United Kingdom fok the Yeaks 1854 to 1862, inclusive, and THE Rate at which the Value op the Jute peom Calcutta is Calculated. Flax, Tow, &c. Hemp, Tow, &c. Jute Tons. £ Tons. £ Tons. Rate. £ 1854 65,161 3,384,216 37,312 1,817,905 24,087 25s 6d 553,993 1855 64,672 3,317,122 36,419 1,471,649 26,965 163 7d 447,167 1856 84,352 3,633,194 39,831 1,319,907 36,555 16s 9a 612,290 1857 93,312 3,524,767 40,978 1,216,664 30,942 203 lid 646,356 1858 64,195 3,020,879 45,014 1,222,393 36,904 163 lOd 619,668 1859 71,602 3,769,058 54,935 1,469,360 53,064 14s lid 790,383 1860 73,240 3,836,770 39,620 1,203,869 40,839 16s 2d 660,913 1861 66,684 3,423,137 41,079 1,153,915 4.5,205 153 9d 709,961 1862 89,918 4,693,928 49,088 1,445,004 48,497 807,952 Note. — The rate for 1862 is not known, as the details for that year were not published when this sheet went to press. The want of these details occasions a few blanks in some of the other Tables in the volume. VARIOUS FIBRES. Ill Total Quantities of Flax and Tow Imported into the United Kingdom IN EACH Yeab, from 1801 to 1862. Flax. Average yrly. Imports for Hemp, Jute. die. 1 Year. the 5 yrs ending as under. From From oth- From all From From all From From all Russia. er Parts. Parts. 1 Kussia. Parts, i Russia. Parts. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1801 9,405 4 281 13,686 ! 34,109 37,467 1802 10,754 3,376 14,130 I 22,288 25,370 1803 10,760 3,822 14,582 34,339 37,884 1804 13,091 4,539 17,630 35,801 36,957 1805 18,493 5,094 23,587 12;500 16^723 30,788 31,585 1806 15,306 2639 17,945 13,681 17.575 37,119 .37,404 1807 18,918 2,221 21,139 15,313 18,976 37,591 38,884 1808 6,824 4,015 10,839 14,526 18,228 12,007 13,122 1809 19,761 6,743 26,504 15,860 20,003 39,804 42,792 1810 23,805 1,919 25,724 16,923 20,430 42,215 48,030 1811 11,202 537 11,739 16,102 19,189 22,629 23,444 1812 17,813 317 18,130 15,881 18,587 36,699 43,180 1813 The Records of this Year were Destroyed by Fire . 1814 19,497 5,529 25,026 18,415 21,424 86,324 28,436 1815 11,671 4,623 16,294 16,797 19,382 36,135 37,639 1816 7,516 3,117 10,633 13,540 16,364 18,459 18,773 1817 14,723 6,015 ' 20,738 14,244 18,164 22,926 23,764 1818 14,330 7,052 21,382 13,548 18,814 32,971 34,210 1819 16,775 3,714 20,489 13,003 17,907 24,250 24,639 1820 15,774 3,345 19,119 13,823 18,472 20,792 21,309 1821 18,254 6,673 24,927 15,971 21,331 12,671 12,789 1822 20,993 9,512 30,505 17,225 23,284 29,188 30,823 1823 14,892 12,805 27,697 17,337 24,547 32,658 33,357 1824 22,445 14,682 37,127 18,471 27,875 27,868 28,596 1825 33,314 19,448 52,762 21,979 34,603 28,932 29,754 1826 26,395 8,036 34,431 23,608 36,504 23,254 24,466 1827 33,497 11,8-57 45,354 26,108 39,474 26,243 28,669 1828 32,157 11,652 43,809 29,561 42,696 22,715 25,206 1829 34,198 11,904 46,102 31,912 32,285 44,491 16,369 18,747 1830 35,179 12,026 47,205 43,380 23,055 25,338 1831 31,163 15,658 46,821 33,239 45,858 25,340 26,541 1832 33,393 15,732 49,125 33,218 46,612 24,618 29,678 1833 33,843 17,639 56,482 34,555 49,147 23,498 26, .373 1834 28,141 12,445 40,586 33,344 48,044 29,192 33,690 1835 21,924 15,116 37,040 30,693 46,011 30,526 34,378 1836 51,851 24,605 76,456 34,830 51,938 27,823 29,302 1837 34,101 15,942 50,043 34,972 52,121 29,584 38,681 18.38 54,478 26,836 81,314 38,099 57,088 29,050 36,519 1839 35,285 25,899 61,184 39,528 61,207 39,073 49,785 1840 43,520 19,142 62,662 43,847 66,332 29,954 34,203 1841 48,473 18,869 67,342 43,171 64,509 27,138 32,608 1842 42,236 15,052 57,288 44,798 65,959 20,778 29,295 1843 54,469 17,388 71,857 44,796 64,066 23,153 36,787 1844 55,601 23,573 79,174 48,859 67,664 32,798 45 662 1845 42,981 27,935 70,916 48,752 69,315 30,164 46,592 1846 37,020 20,335 57,355 46,461 67,318 31,033 44,145 1847 34,058 18,546 52,604 44,826 66,381 27,143 40,578 1848 54,287 18,896 73,183 44,789 66,646 26,820 42,288 1849 67,616 22,717 90,333 47,192 68,878 31,847 53,095 1850 62,038 29,108 91,146 51,004 72,924 30,049 52,431 1851 40,934 18,775 59,709 51,786 73,395 33,229 64,670 1852 47,495 22,940 70,435 54,474 76,961 26,856 53,407 1853 64 741 30,382 95,123 56,565 81,349 40,315 61,804 1854 9,290 55,871 65,161 44,897 76,315 1,043 61,399 1865 86 64,586 64,672 32 509 71,020 1,589 63,384 1856 54,008 30,344 84,352 35,124 75,948 27,008 76,386 18.57 63,745 29,576 93,312 38,374 80,524 29,035 71,920 1858 46,544 17,651 64,195 34,734 74,.338 30,624 81,918 1859 53,723 17,879 71,602 43,621 75,626 36,583 107,999 1860 52,486 20,754 73,240 54,101 77,340 29,929 80,459 1861 47,630 19,054 66,684 52,825 73,807 24,017 80,284 1862 89,918 73,128 30,4.50 97,585 112 THE RAW MATERIAL. o ^ It 1-1 5 izi P4 CTCNCOCDin CO OSt^rHCOW o 00 CO '^ CO b- O K5 lO b- ^ 01000-#OI>-iH CO OOTfi COCO o iH Tji r-f O — rH rH CO '^^ CO ■^I^Tr-T nT eo'TfiOr-Tof in rH CO r-i iH (X>— lCO0Ob-COC5 Ttf ooooooomoco (M 00 Tf 5D C^OOOOt^OOCOCDOTfiCOiO O b- rH CO CO OS CD lO CO (Nt-CO^iO rHCqCqcCin T}< ■^J< rH -* CO Cq -^ CJ4 CO CO ^ TiH"c£ri-r 3 cq'b^cor-l'cf b- ^ ocDcomoeot>-coor-icob- ^ 00 UO CO OS CO t- CD CD t^ oiOi-icoco'^rH-M-^iiriro.-t 0000 1-1 Oi-l»CinCOQOrH(M(M QO t- t- b- b- CO 05 b- 1-1 CD to -— 1 rH tH CO CO CO b- CDrHrHlH l-H TtH cq^T-rfxrco'c^f CO" r^ (M iH G^ in (M-Tj4b-(Mr-100iOC0(NOiHrH CD iHOOOCO(MOOO in iH tN 8^^g'"E5&5J§Si5^S CD COIOO coo OtH b~ "* iH b- GO 00 CO T}H « CO t^ Oi 00 tH ■*t- CD (MCD TjfiMG^ s ^ lOCOb-OTHOib-b-.-'OOCaoo rH 00 (M CO b- »-I -Tjl 0» Tt< in i t^t>.OSr-(rH<»mT^iCOG cs cs ci 00 r-t c^ t>- ^ s =^ss g 05 ■eOO i ■* i-H r-H rH co'icrco'"'*"c4' «??g «sg CO " ^ ^ "-^ JO ^«o 7 ^00 CS (M W CD iH CO b- r-l »iS3 1 inoocD t>.(>-ur5co •* tH OJ^^^^ i-HiHOqcD'* r-t OS 00 p S5 s cSQ^}a'^r^ TO P4 =rt^;s =«s§ _:oo Pi-fiH ^00 00 „-oo ^^ss^as g t^O0D(NTt< CO ""i-tS s ^i-T'-ircQco' S5 5 «^^ «S?i! eq CO N (N 01 CO m 00 Ig CD "^ CO ©S i-i g 02 p"2 ^00 s o-eqTirN| g -ss H M ,i°<^ t --fl^^ =flfeS ic ■«# cq CO 00 (M -^ 00 1 r-i CD CO C<) i-H CO 00 r"=" .00 (N rH TjiinCD b-. Iz; p 00 cor-T'^aH" ^ 033 = C^ t>- (M CO Th 1— 1 o CO OS in t— CO M S iO'^iH~ « p'"'- 1 „-oo 1-1 rH ^00 ?5 ■aioosoico :rH C^-rHCq CD pjoto o-oo g ^it^c Ph oqOO ^ i " CftS^ «s^ I^.COt- p°° i M o 13 < ?i EH ^ s „ M §§ §g a t^H f^^ J- -^ tl , § al -E w ■ S g .2S • fh 1 1 ill ill * ■mS l1 To* 33 a^ H 114 THE RAW MATERIAL. i-H 00 O Tj< CO CD C<1 O b-QOQOrH ai':0 ■^ in CO (M r-l CO -^ I* (m'oo CD eo'co'i-Tof O b-COrpCO cc . lO Ol lO W iH ■* (M DDlCOOOOlOOSrHiO n rH JO »0 lO TH TTl l>- CO ^ O •^-^ io o ■* ■^^■^ C3(MCSCCC0jH tH cOncC* . (N CD N CO CD OS CO tn-*mcot>-i>-coTH 2 cd'"^co'tD"T-r b-t-rH b-TtfCOr-I CD t^ CO CO CN O t^ iO O 00 t- CO OS CO * cTirTb-Tin CO -^ih' oT 53 « OSCOOSrH CO- iH t- lO lO iH 5 oTTiTin'-^'rH" ^ CO •^ OT Tt< CO W O CD oso eocooTf (M b-^iH CO O^IN iH b- lO OS ^H 00 OT OT iH -N CD OS CD r-l t- CO j;cDasTf- CO b- CO iO CO OS COOTOTOOOT 1-i 1C5COOTO ■^ COi-HrH CO rHOT TJH COOS OTCO r-l 1 CDCO OOlO -^ oci :g;2b^ :os t- CO^OS b-^O b- : b- CO^oTr- Tc^fb-^ ' CO* otototm"^ *S i COrHlOCSb- b- 3!S$gSg5 IS t^ r-T ■ 1 rjOTTt^OSb- :CO '^TKrHCOcO ^CO r-( CO-* OsOT CO COgSiH-^iH t-T*«iOCO t^ :incor-i-* ^rHOTCOCO OSt^OTOO ;oscoTr- ^ : OQO 5!'-' ■ toco Ol Tt< (MiO ; ooo . rH05 CO CO-* 00 into COO SCO m us T-i b-CO iOO Oeo O COC3 . iH OSCO .00 io.CO(N CDiOlM CflCDtM rH m r-1 OS Tfi Oi Cq (N^OS CO^t- CO t-rco'(M'"t-«"i>^ r^eqcD co(Mr H : O rH : o : b- : t- o : 00 I b- '•tS -co :■*" 00 CD ■«** O rH (M OS Oi r-( OS (M i O Cq ; CO : CD ti CO CD : od" : ■*" COiftfMWOO t— ■*coiooTtv in Greek, on account of its upright position in the loom ; the web when finished, but before it was cut down, was called vestts pendens, hanging garment, or pendula tela, be- POPULAR LECTUKES. 219 cause it hung from the transverse beam or jugum. To set up the loom in Greek was Icttov arrjcraadai, — ^literally to erect the pole — ^being the same phrase which was used for setting up the mast of a ship — and so on. Ovid has given us a very animated description of a contest of skill which he says took place between these famous she- weavers — Minerva and Arachne — in order to decide which was the most accomplished work-woman. The passage is interest- ing, as illustrating the ancient process of weaving. straight to their posts appointed both repair, And fix their threaded looms with equal care. Around the solid beam the web is ty'd, While hollow canes the parting warp divide, Thro' which, with nimble flight, the shuttles play, And for the woof prepare a ready way. The woof and warp unite — pressed by the toothy slay ; Thus both, their mantles button'd to their breast. Their skillful fingers ply with willing haste. And work with pleasure, while they cheer the eye With glowing purple of the Tyrian dye ; Or, justly intermixing shades with light, Their colourings insensibly unite. Then threads of gold both artfully dispose, And as each part in just proportion rose. Some antique fable in their work disclose. As some of my fair hearers may be anxious to learn the result of this apparently unequal contest, 1 may mention that Arachne was declared the victor, which so enraged the goddess — who in this did not certainly give proof of her usual wisdom — that she first half killed the presumptuous maiden by striking her with a box-shuttle, and then repenting somewhat of the foul deed, permitted her to live, but changed her into a spider, and doomed her to incessant weaving during the rest of her mortal existence, as a warning to all earth-born females who should dare to show themselves more gifted than their celestial betters. Among the Grreeks and Komans we find that weaving had become a distinct trade, and was carried on by a separate class of persons called, in Latin Textores and Textrices, male and female weavers, or sometimes Linteones. At the same time, however, it is evident that almost every considerable domestic 220 ANCIENT AND MODEBN LINEN. establishment, especially in the country, contained a loom or looms, with all the necessary apparatus for spinning and weav- ing. This department was imder the special management of the mistress of the household, and ladies of the highest rank did not consider themselves above engaging personally in this use- ful occupation. In the larger houses a particular apartment, called lariov or textrinum, was assigned for this purpose, in which the ladies sat, surrounded by their female slaves, direct- ing and assisting in the cheerful toU, and doubtless keeping their tongues as busy as their spindles. Alexander the Great informed Sisygambis, the captive Queen of Persia, that the garments which he wore were not merely the gift, but the workmanship also of his sisters. Augustus Caesar, when aU simplicity of manners had expired with the Kepublic, affected still to bring up his family on the antique model, and wore no garment but such as was manu- factured in hifi own house. The fair but frail Helen was labori- ous as Penelope, plying her shuttle, or her golden distaff in the midst of a troop of she-manufacturers. Arete, Queen of Phoeacia, is depicted sitting at the fire, distaff in hand, encircled by her maids : and the wife of Odysseus, famed for her household virtues, is seen at her door spinning the purple thread. " In fine" says St John in his Ancient Greece, " the women of these ages were not creatures of mere luxury or show. Possessing considerable power and energy, and much skiU. in the elegant and useful arts of life, they were deterred by no false pride or ignorant prejudices from converting their capacity to the use of their families. The magnificence of their attire, their costly ornaments, or the consciousness of the highest personal beauty, no wise interfered with their thrifty habits. An Homeric princess even thought nothing beneath her which could contri- bute to the comfort or elegant adornment of those she loved." Alas for these degenerate days 1 The romance of female in- dustry has gone, we fear for ever. How unlike to the blooming maidens of classic Greece or Kome, twirling the dancing spindle under then- own sunny skies, and singing or chatting merrily as they toil, are those dust-besprinkled females, breathing the noxious atmosphere of steam, and oil, and smoke, and moving listlessly about in the midst of a horrid uproar of grating wheels POPULAR LECTURES. 221 and clanking engines. The mighty monster steam, with his sinews of iron, and his breath of fire, has revolutionized the manufacturing world, has rendered the interesting appellation of " spinster" obsolete to all but session clerks and musty lawyers, and has driven our beauteous Helens, and our virtuous Penelopes to eke out a profitless existence in the irksome and ill-requited labour of Eerlin-wool frames and crochet needles. The perfection to which the manufacture of cloth was brought in Greece — if we are to believe the poets at least — appears to have been truly wonderful, especially when we consider the simplicity and even rudeness of their implements as compared with modern machinery. The most beautiful patterns were woven in their cloths. Stripes, lozenges, the figures of birds and other animals, sprigs, flowers and stars of the most beauti- ful and brilliant colours, were all produced in the loom. Others were splendidly embroidered. Even the fine soft vests which warriors wore beneath their armour were usually figured with rich embroidery by the females of the family. Homer repre- sents Helen as weaving a representation of a battle between the Greeks and Trojans. Andromache copies flowers in a veil ; the web of Penelope is proverbially known ; Minerva and Arachne " some antique fable in their work disclose " ; and the magnifi- cent chlamys which was weaving for Demetrius at the period of his overthrow, represented in one vast picture both the face of the earth and heaven with all its constellations. Flax was not largely grown in Greece — the mountainous character of the country being better fitted for sheep husbandry. As a consequence wool rather than Flax was commonly used in its textile manufactures. The only district of Greece in which Flax was cultivated was that of Elis, a low-lying plain on the extreme west of the Peloponnesus, watered by the rivers Alpheus and Igliaco ; and the only place in which the manufacture of Linen prevailed to any extent was the seacoast town of Patr« (the modern Patras), lying upon the gulf of that name, and near the entrance to the Gulf of Lepanto. A single glance at the map of Greece will shew that that country, intersected in every part by mountainous ridges, and possessed of no rivers or alluvial plains of any importance, was not by nature adapted for the growth of the Flax plant. Its romantic and beautiful 222 ANCIENT AND MODERN LINEN. mountains of Arcadia, on the other hand, were covered with flocks of sheep, the fineness of whose fleece was long proverbial. It is interesting to observe how the particular kind of indus- try, and even perhaps the very attributes of a people, are influ- enced by the geographical character of their country. Egypt and Germany were the great Linen producing countries of ancient times, because in them had been placed the rich alluvial plains of the Nile and of the Khine ; whereas Syria, Asia Minor, and Greece, being mountainous countries, were chiefly noted for their woollen manufactures. In our own Scotland, in the same way, it was in the basins of the Tay, of the Forth, and of the Clyde, that the cultivation of Flax, and the manufacture of Linen, so extensively prevailed in former times ; while the dis- tricts of the Grampians and Lammermuirs were equally noted for their breeds of sheep, and the manufacture of woollen cloth. In the villages and small towns of the one there arose those in- dependent and industrious burghers who, hating war and civil disturbance as their and the state's worst enemies, were content to remain at peace with their neighbours, and all the world be- sides, were their civil and religious liberties but secured to them ; and, in the other, there was nursed that brave and hardy, but in- dolent and unambitious race, whose character has ever borne the true pastoral type, and whose memory will live longer in the romantic history of clan warfare and border forays, and in the sweet strains of their pastoral ballads, than in the records of social progress and industrial advancement. The Flax grown in Elis was of the very finest quality, and the cloth manufactured from it was sold for its weight in gold. The Linen manufacture of Patras was carried on almost wholly by women, their number, according to Pausanias, being thrice as great as that of the other sex. The articles made were caps or head-dresses of net-work, and very fine Linen intended for the use of the wealthier classes of the Grecian ladies. They im- ported the Flax from Elis and from Egypt. In the Island of Amorgos, in the ^Egaean Sea, a species of very fine Flax was grown, and from it were made Linens of the most delicate and beautiful texture, so fine indeed as to be semi-transparent, and to rival the finer cambric of the modern loom. It was some- times dyed purple, from which the name Amorgos came occa- POPULAR LECTURES. 223 sionally to mean a purple cloth, but it was also frequently finished of the most brilliant and snowy whiteness. It is in a tunic of this Linen that Lysistrata in Aristophanes, advises the Athenian ladies to appear before their husbands in order to give full effect to the splendour of their charms. In imitation of the Egyptians, the inhabitants of Amorgos wove a sort of fine napkins, which were evidently used in the same manner as our pocket handkerchiefs, at least by the ladies and youthful gallants, but for which, says Aristophanes, the old men substituted a fox's tail ! Among the Eomans as among the Greeks, to the women chiefly were assigned the labours of spinning and weaving, especially in the earlier ages of the commonwealth ; the war- like Roman disdaining to occupy himself in tastes which he was accustomed to regard as effeminate drudgery, For a similar reason the wearing of Linen garments was for many centuries wholly confined to females. Afterwards, as greater refinement of manners began to prevail towards the close of the Eepubhc, and especially under the Empire, fabrics of Linen, cotton, and silk were generally worn by the wealthier classes, and by both sexes. These were not, however, manufactured at home, but were imported from those eastern countries to which the Roman conquests had by this time extended. Their price was in consequence very high. The biographer of the Emperor Alexander Severus considers it worthy of note that he took great delight in Linen, but preferred it plain instead of em- broidered, as was the case with the Linen then imported from Egypt. " If," said he, " Linen cloths are made of that material in order that they may not be at all rough, why mix purple with them. And to interweave gold with Linen he considered madness, because this made it rigid in addition to its rough- ness." From this we may conjecture that his imperial Majesty was what we would caU somewhat thin-skinned, and would not have made the most amiable of saints if clad in sackcloth or even in coarse flannel. What might have been the history of Christendom, we may profoundly inquire, had the Roman Pontiff of that day demanded the expiation of imperial sin in a hair- cloth shirt ? The fineness of an emperor's epidermis might have postponed infallibility for centuries ! 224 ANCIENT AND MODERN LINEN. Flax was grown to a considerable extent in various districts of Italy, especially in Etruria and Campania, and in the fertile plains of the Po and Ticino. It was manufactured into articles of dress, sheets, table covers, table napkins (which were very useful among a people whose fingers were at once knives, and forks, and spoons), bath towels, and bakers' aprons. The coarser kinds were used for sails and for awnings for the theatres, forum, and other places of public resort. Pliny, the natural historian, has given some curious particu- lars as to the cultivation and preparation of Flax, and the manufacture of Linen in his day, but appears to have looked upon it as an effeminate and even dangerous innovation upon the greater simphcity and purity of earlier times. He speaks, for instance, withiU-concealed contempt of the Grerman ladies, " who cannot devise to go more rich and costly in their apparel than to wear Linen," and unfavourably contrasts their conduct in this respect with the women of the Serani, who were to be highly commended, he thinks, because they wore no Linen garments of any kind. He mentions that the Germans wove their Linen in dwellings under the ground, and that a similar practice prevailed in some parts of Italy. From the same author we learn that an exceedingly fine kind of Flax was grown in Spain, and that Setavis, the modern Xativa, was celebrated for the beauty of its Linen cloth, especially its sudaria or pocket-handkerchiefs. From these western nations of Europe it is easy to see how the manufacture and the use of Linen in dress would be imported into Britain. Let me pause here, however, for but one reflection. At the period at which we have arrived the world was upwards of 4000 years old, and yet how little had been done in the improvement of the industrial arts ! True, in those arts, such as sculpture, painting, architecture and the like, which appeal merely to the re- fined and cultivated taste, or those others which seek only to gratify the luxurious and voluptuous appetite, great perfection had been attained ; but in those that provide for the comfort of the multitude and go to raise the character and standing of a people, there had been a deplorable stagnation and neglect. Take, for example, the textile manufacture of which we have been POPULAll LECTURES. 225 fittempting to sketch the history. The spindles and looms of Egypt under the Pharaohs were rude enough, but they were not very far behind, indeed they differed little from those used by the luxurious Eoman of the days of Augustus, and neither are they unworthy of comparison with those even now used by the descendants of the same haughty conquerors who rejoice to call the liberal and large hearted Pio Nono father. The Egyp- tian manufacturer, who lived seventeen centuries B.C., employed in his trade implements not much ruder than those used by his Italian brother tradesmen in the 19th century a.d. How is this to be accounted for ? The only answer, I believe, is that commerce and manufactures cannot flourish either amidst the turmoil of war, or under the deadening influence of despotism ; they are plants that may not be watered with blood, nor fos- tered beneath the shade of absolute power. Neither, however, ought they to be forced into unhealthy growth by artificial stimulants, nor confined within the narrow forms framed by em- pirical and ignorant rulers. Unless they breathe the pure air of freedom, and are uncontrolled in every twig and fibre, they will sicken and die. And hence we find that whenever a people are peaceable and free, they are industrious and inventive. Im- provements in the arts, social advancement, and progress in civilization, in comfort, and in wealth, characterize the history of such a nation, but where tyranny and turbulence prevail, there are also to be found barbarism, poverty, and social debasement. This latter was the condition, generally speaking, of the nations of antiquity — (I speak, of course, of the great mass of the people), — and hence it was that so little improvement was made in the industrial arts during the long period we have had upder review. The prodigious advancement which has since been made in these was mainly owing to the peace-loving freemen of Flanders and Brabant — of the Hanseatic cities, and of the burgh towns of England, and Sco.tland, and Protestant Ireland — men who loved, and struggled for, and achieved civil and religious liberty for themselves, and for their children. The history of the Linen manufacture in this country, will, as we shall find, elucidate the same truths, and teach the same lesson. For many centuries, tyrannical monarchies, and selfish oligarchies, foreign wars, and intestine disorders, discom-aged and 226 ANCIENT AND MODERN LINEN. repressed the onward tendencies of the people's industry, and produced their natural fruits of monopoly and commercial re- striction. The abolition of the Scottish and Irish Linen Boards, the Eeform BUI, and Free Trade, were the Magna Charta of British industry, and gave freedom and impetus to British enter- prise and skill. But we anticipate. When the Eomans invaded Britain in the year 55, they found the inhabitants, they say, in a state but little removed from bar- barism. Some were clothed in the skins of animals, but many had no other garment but a coat of blue paint. Among such a people the textUe arts could have made but little progress, the demand for manufactures being of necessity as limited as their wardrobes. It is believed, however, by some writers, that the arts of weaving and even of dyeing in different colours, coarse kinds of woollen and Linen cloth, were known and practised among the more civilized of the ancient Britons for, at least, a century before the first Eoman invasion : but there can be no doubt that this event contributed materially to the improvement and more extended diffusion of those and many other useful arts among the conquered people. The Emperors of Kome were usually at great pains to improve the condition of their foreign subjects. They imported, or sought out amongst the inhabitants themselves, the most skilful artificers in every department, especially the best manufacturers of woollen and Linen cloth, and formed them into colleges or corporations, with various privileges, and under certain officers and regulations. The chief officer in each college was called the Court of the Sacred Largesses, and his business was to see that a certain quan- tity of cloth, of various kinds, was regularly produced for the use of the court, and of the army. Such an imperial manufac- tory was estabhshed, we learn, in England at Venta Belgarum, now called Winchester. The arrival of the Saxons in England in the 5th century had at first an injurious influence upon trade and manufactures, in con" sequence of the unsettled state of the country which it produced. The skilful artizans of all kinds, dreading the depredations of their more warlike neighbours, gradually retired to the con- tinent. So soon, however, as the new invaders became firmly established in their dominion, greater attention began again to be POPULAR LECTURES. 227 paid to the arts of peace. And, in the 7th century, we liave evidence that the art of weaving had attained to considerable per- fection, in the work of an ecclesiastical chronicler of the period, who speaks of" webs woven with shuttles filled with threads of purple and many other colours, flying from side to side, and forming a variety of figures and images in different compart- ments with admirable art." These were commonly executed by ladies of the highest rank, and were designed for ornaments to the churches and vestments for the clergy. The four daughters of Edward the Elder were highly celebrated for their skill in spinning, and weaving, and needlework, which was so far from spoiling the fortunes of these royal spinsters, that it procured for them the addresses of the greatest princes then in Europe. In the 10th century, the people of Flanders and Brabant began to be famous for their manufactures of wool and Flax, in which they were wisely encouraged by Baldwin the Younger, Count of Flanders, who established yearly fairs in several places, free of toll or duty, whether for goods imported or exported. In this century the town of Ypres in Flanders was built, which soon became celebrated for its manufacture of Table-linen, now called Diaper i.e. Gloth d' Ypres. Several towns in Germany began now also to rise into commercial and manufacturing importance — a position which they retained for many succeeding centuries. The English had also by this time very much improved their textile manufactures, and had become more reconciled to the use of Linen, which had previously been looked upon as some- what effeminate. For underclothing especially it was deemed not only pleasant, but necessary as a remedy against cutaneous dis- ease,which was then very prevalent. The wearing of a woollen shirt was in consequence considered doing deep penance for great sins. The ladies of this era, we are told, wore loose and flowing garments, chiefly made of Linen, adorned with broad borders, woven or embroidered with various colours ; and persons of distinction began for the first time to wear a kind of stockings, which consisted of strips of woollen or Linen cloth wrapped round the leg like bandages. The conquest of England by William of Normandy, (a.d. 1066,) gave a very considerable impulse to the manufactures of p2 228 ANCIENT AND MODERN LINEN. that country. Q-reat numbers of weavers came over in his army, and others followed on the invitation of the king, who promised them protection for their goods and persons. This immigration was soon afterwards greatly increased by a remark- able overflowing of the sea, which permanently inundated a large portion of Flanders, and forced many of the poor Flemings to take shelter in England. The skiU of that people in weaving was then so great that an ancient historian remarks that "it seemed to be a peculiar gift bestowed on them by nature." In this reign the weavers in aU the great towns of England were incorporated into guilds, and had certain privileges conferred on them by royal charters, in return for which they paid cer- tain fines into the exchequer, The Linen made in England, however, was still very coarse — all the fine kinds being then, and for long after, imported from the continent. David, king of Scotland, (12th century), who had passed his early youth at the Court of England, was the first to introduce the manufactures of that country into his own less favoured land. He brought English artizans with him into Scotland, and settled them in the burghs and towns to instruct the Scotch, who had as yet barely emerged from barbarism. From this date, however, their progress in the textile arts, at least, must have been consi- derable, for we learn that in the year 1410 Sir Kobert TJmfra- viUe, Vice- Admiral of England, entered the Frith of Forth with ten ships of war, and carried off plunder of woollen and Linen cloth in such quantities, that the sale of them in England lowered the prices there very considerably ; and hence UmfraviUe got the name of " Eobin Mend-market." The 12th century is famous for the origin of the Hanseatic League in Germany, which for long afterwards exerted so great an influence in the improvement of manufactures both on the continent and in England. It would appear that the English of the 14th century dressed better than their neighbours of France ; for Sir John Fortesque remarks that " The French weryn no wooUyn, but if it be a pore cote under their uttermost garment made of grete canvas, and call it a frok. Their hosyn be of like canvas and passin not their knee, wherefor they be gartened and their thyghs bare. But the English wear fine wollyn cloth in all their apparell." POPULAR LECTURES. 229 The Welsh, however, were not so well off, and their dress had apparently more of the French than of the English fashion, as we learn from Barbom-, in his Life of Bruce, where describing the flight from Bannockburn, he says of Sir Maurice Barclay's Welshmen that Wheree'r thej yied meo might them kea, For they well near all naked were, Or linen clothis had but mare. From all this we may gather that coarse Linen, worn as upper garments, was at that time a sign of poverty. By the middle of the 16th century the Netherlands had attained to a high state of commercial and manufacturing pros- perity. Antwerp, the chief town, was perhaps the most opulent city in Western Europe, and exported to all the neighbouring countries vast quantities of Linen both coarse and fine. It was manufactured there, and in the neighbourhood of Bois-le-duc, Nivelle, Cambray (from which came the name "cambric"), Courtray, Tiel, and Ghent. But this prosperity was not destined to be of long continuance. The religious persecution instituted against the industrious inhabitants by orders of the bigoted Philip II., king of Spain, to whom the country then belonged, and the horrible sacking of the town of Antwerp by the Duke of Alva, the regent, had the effect of driving into England great numbers of skilled weavers, who contributed largely to the pro- gress and improvement of the manufactures of that country. " So great an antipathy," says Sir Wm. Temple, " there ever appears between merchants and soldiers." Might he not have added — So blind has religious bigotry ever been to its truest interests ; and so hostile to all useful arts and social advance- ment have all false religions ever shown themselves. In the beginning of this century Eussia was not known to any Europeans, except a few Flemings, who kept their own secret. In 1553 it was accidentally stumbled upon by an English ship, one of an expedition sent out from Gravesend in search of a north-east passage to China. This important dis- covery, so strangely made, led to the formation of a company of merchants for trading with that country, and it is remarkable that for sometime afterwards the only connection which the 230 ANCIENT AND MODEHN LINEN. traffic thus opened had with the Linen trade of England, was that coarse Linens were exported to Kussia, the only imports from thence being hides and furs. The lights which fall upon the state of manufactures in Scot- land at this period are very faint. The use of Linen, it is believed, was chiefly confined to the nobles, and perhaps, as the following incident would suggest, the priests. In one monas- try in Perth, where only eight monks resided, the followers of Knox discovered eight puncheons of salt beef, with wine and beer in proportion, besides abundance of bedclothes, and table Linen of siagularly delicate texture, but whether home-made or imported the record sayeth not. In England, however, Linen cloth was not so much of a rarity, as is evident from a curious pubHcation of the time, which relates the case of a man, who had been cited for offend- ing against a law, then in force, to prevent the wearing of wide breeches, and who pleaded in defence the exceeding utility of this extravagant fashion In proof whereof he produced in open court from the proscribed garments, a number of sheets, two table cloths, ten napkins, four shirts, and other Linen articles, and was proceeding with the extraction of more, when the judge, amidst much laughter, stopped and dismissed him. Shirts were then made of the finest Linen from HoUand, and were sometimes so elaborately embroidered and otherwise adorned, as to cost so much as £10 a piece, a pretty fair price for a shirt it must be allowed, especially considering the value of money in those days. In the old ballad of " Lord Thomas and fair Annie," that lady says My maids gang to my dressing room, And dress me to my sark ; The one half is o' the Holland fine. The other o' needle-wark. While quoting ballads I may extract a stanza, appropriate to my subject, from one writteu about this time, referring to the forays which were so common in the border counties ot England and Scotland before the accession of James VI. to the throne of England (in 1603) :— They spuilisie puir men of their palds (packs, goods), They leve them nocht on bed or bakis, POPULAR LECTURES. 231 Baith hen and cock, with reel and rok, the " Landis Jok," All with him takis. They leit not apendil, spone, nor spit, Bed, bolster, blanket, sark, nor sheit, "John of the Parke " rypis kyst and arke — for all sik warke, He is richt meit. The revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685 drove vast numbers of weavers and other skilled workmen (who were chiefly Protestants), out of France. Many of these settled in England, and brought with them their industrious, peaceful habits, and their skill in manufactures. Thus again did England benefit by the injury inflicted on foreign countries by the igno- rant bigotry of their Popish rulers. The 17th century was prolific in acts of Parliament having for their object the encouraging the growth of Flax, and the manu- facture of Linen, both in England and Ireland. With this view the importation of these articles from France was strictly prohibited, and at one time the wearing of French cambric was punishable with heavy penalties, the reason assigned by the House of Commons being, that the trade with France was detri- mental to this kingdom ! Anderson, in his History of Com- merce, speaking of this prohibition, sagely remarks — " It was indeed more than time for England to interpose and save the almost expiring liberties of Europe " ! ! This magnanimous and summary extinction of the rising for- tunes of their Gallic neighbours did not long satisfy the intelli- gent political economists of England of that day. They began to be equally jealous of the upstart pretensions of their brethren in Ireland to compete with them in the race of industry. The woollen trade of that country had of late risen into alarming importance, and threatened, by rivalling that of England, to overthrow, according to Mr Anderson's reasoning, the British constitution. The English Houses of Parliament accordingly in the year 1698, memorialised the King (William III.) " to induce the people of Ireland to cultivate the joint-interest of both nations," as they said, by putting down the woollen manu- facture in that country, and restricting themselves to the pro- duction of Linen cloth. The King replied, " I shall do all that in me lies to discourage the woollen manufacture in Ireland •232 ANCIENT AND MODERN LINEN. and to encourage the Linen manufacture, and to promote the trade of England." Strange to say, the Irish legislature agreed to the compact, and immediately imposed heavy duties upon the export of all woollen cloth. The consequence was, that this manufacture was completely ruined ; many thousand families left the country ; some of the southern and western districts were almost depopulated ; and the whole kingdom was reduced to the utmost poverty and distress. On the other hand, and for the carrying fuUy out of this strange compact, an act was passed in the following year, 1699, for the special encourage- ment of the Irish Linen trade. A Board was established in Dublin, called " The Trustees for the Linen and Hempen Manu- factures," and certain yearly revenues were assigned to them, according to the custom which then obtained in the manage- ment of the imperial finance These revenues at first amounted to about £6000 per annum, but soon rose to £20,000, at which latter sum the yearly fund at the disposal of the Board was fixed during a long subsequent period. The business of this Board was to encourage the Linen trade of the North of Ire- land in every conceivable way — such as the awarding of pre- miums for the growth and importation of Flax seed; for the cultivation and preparation of the largest quantity of Flax fibre ; for the invention and distribution of new and improved im- plements ; for the erection of scutch mills ; and for the produc- tion of the best qualities of yarn and cloth. Inspectors, seal- masters, and superintendents were appointed and paid by the Board in the various localities where the trade was carried on : and inducements were held out to skilled weavers and Flax- dressers of foreign countries to settle in Ireland, for the purpose of instructing the native population in the mysteries of their art. This Board continued to hold the absohite control of every department of the Linen manufacture till the year 1828, when it was for ever swept away, with all its grievous restrictions and monopolies. That it accomplished much good in the infancy of the trade, when the want of skiU and capital among the manu- facturers rendered them very much dependent upon legislative aid and encouragement, cannot be doubted ; but its cumbersome regulations and irMtating inquisitorial interferences were not suited to the genius of the 19th century, and so " The Board of POPULAR LECTUEES. 233 Manufactures for Ireland" was numbered witli the many other antiquated barbarisms of an unenlightened age, which the supe- rior knowledge of the last fifty years has " decently interred." The spirit which dictated its original appointment cannot be commended. We have seen that a short-sighted selfishness had much to do in the matter, but a worse feature remains, I fear, to be noticed. The Linen trade of Ireland had its cliief seat among the Protestants of Ulster, while the woollen trade was mainly carried on in the Popish districts of the south and west, and there are good reasons for believing that the suicidal com- pact of which I have already spoken, and which produced on the one hand the destruction of the woollen, and on the other the undue fostering of the Linen manufacture, had, in part at least, its secret origin in religious prejudice and bigotry. Were other proof wanting, the records of the British Parlia- ment itself would supply the deficiency : for in an Act, passed in the year 1704, the preamble commences in these words: — " Forasmuch as the Protestant interest in Ireland ought to be supported by giving the utmost encouragement to the Linen manufacture of that kingdom — ^be it therefore enacted," &c. If the Popish governors of the Spanish Netherlands, and the bigoted Louis XIV. of France, are to be condemned for their foolish and wicked expulsion of their most peaceful and indus- trious subjects, justice demands that we should equally repro- bate the cruel and impolitic enactments of the British and Irish Legislatures of William and of Anne. A Board of Manufactures for Scotland, similar to that for Ire- land, was estabUshed in the year 1727. There was this difi'er- ence, however, between the two, that whereas the one was given, as we have seen, partly to appease the selfish jealousy of the English nation, and partly to gratify the sectarian ambition of the northern Irish ; the other was granted in fulfilment of a fair and open compact between two independent nations, and in satisfaction of what was then generally thought to be the just rights of one of the contracting parties. Both were undoubtedly economical blunders, but only one can be said to have been a political crime. By the Treaty of Union between England and Scotland (signed 22d July, 1706), it was stipulated that certain annuities should be paid out of the imperial purse, and apphed 234 ANCIENT AND MODEBN LINEN. specially for the benefit of the latter couBtry, as equivalent for the greater advantages which, it was supposed, would accrue to the former by that treaty. The establishment of the Scottish Board of Manufactures was the tardy carrying out of that sti- pulation. In the act or order in Council appointing the Board, and which was entituled " His Majesty's patent for improving Fisheries and Manufactures in Scotland," we accordingly find the preamble running thus : — " Considering that, by the 15th Act of the Treaty of Union, it is provided that an annuity of £2000 per annum be appropriated for seven years for promoting manu- factures of Coarse Wool : Considering that, by Act 5th Greo. I., an annuity of £2000 per annum be payable out of the revenues of Scotland in lieu of the equivalent claimed by Scotland under the Treaty of Union, to be applied to the encouragement of the Fisheries and Manufactures of Scotland," and so on. The Board was to consist of twenty-one commissioners ap- pointed by the king. Their business was to take charge of the revenues and annuities granted for the purposes of the Act, to submit to the king in council a triennial plan for the apportion- ment of these revenues, and to frame regulations for the manage- ment and control of the diflferent interests entrusted to their charge. The funds at their disposal were very considerable, but varied, of course, according to the produce of the revenues from which they were derived. The first triennial plan of distribu- tion, which was for three years from Christmas 1727, provided for the payment of £6000 yearly in the following proportions, viz:-^ For the Herring Fisheries, .... £2650 For the Linen Trade, ..... 2650 For the Spinning and Maufaoturing of Coarse Tarred Wool, 700 £6000 The particular plan for the distribution of the £2650 allotted to the Linen trade, embraces the following items of expendi- ture : — Premiums for the growing of Lint and Hemp Seed at 15s per acre, ....... £1500 POPTJLAE LECTUEES. 235 For encouraging Spinning Schools for teaching Children to spin Lint and Hemp, ..... £160 For Prizes for Housewiyes who shall make the best piece of Linen Cloth, ...... 200 For Salaries to the General Eiding Officers at £125 each, . 250 For Salaries to 40 Lappers and Stamp masters at £10 each, 400 For expenses of Prosecutions, .... 100 For procuring models of the best looms and other instru- ments, ....... 60 £2650 There are many curious facts, illustrative at once of the state of trade, and of the manners and customs of the people in the time of our great grandmothers, to be gathered from the perusal of the records of this Board. Perhaps the one which will sound strangest in our ears, deafened as they now are by the constant whir of many thousands of steam-impeUed spindles, is that one of the very first acts of the trustees was to give orders for the establishment all over the country, but especially in the Highlands, of schools for teaching the polite art of spin- ning at the wheel. The sum of £10 per annum was allotted as the endowment of each seminary, of which the mistress received as salary £5 ; £4 Is 8d was allowed for the providing of 14 wheels for the use of the scholars, at the rate of 5s lOd each ; 5s was awarded for the " sustaining of pirns, bands," &c. ; and the re- maining 13s 4d was to defray the cost of coal and candle for the whole session, which extended from 13th October to 15th April, inclusive. In a report on the industrial condition of the Highlands, pre- sented to the Board by one of their inspectors, in the year 1754, it is mentioned that Henrietta Mackenzie, daughter of Sir Alexander Mackenzie had applied to be appointed one of the spinning- school mistresses for the purpose of encouraging the people to come to school. The inspector recommends that her application be granted, and thinks that her " being named in that capacity will have a very good effect." In the year 1729, a spinning-school was offered to the town of Dundee, but was refused, the Town Council considering that they had no funds to appropriate for such a purpose. Immediately after the appointment of the Board, the trustees made proposals to Nicholas D'Assaville of St Quentin, cambric weaver, to bring over to Scotland ten experienced men, weavers 236 ANCIENT AND MODERN LINEN. of cambric, with their families, in order to teach their art to others. These proposals were ultimately accepted, and, in the year 1730, the Trustees bought from the Governors of Heriot's Hospital a piece of ground on which to build houses for the French weavers. A committee had been appointed to inspect the ground with a view to its purchase, and reported that they were well pleased with it, because of its nearness to the city and the villages of Broughtown and Coaltown, from all which they expected apprentices and spinners ; and because they could procure stones out of the ground, or from the quarry of Brough- town, for building the houses. The extent of ground was five acres, and was purchased by the Trustees for the capital sum of £273, being the estimated value of the yearly feu-duty of £10 18s 5d. It was sold in 1803 to Mr Burn, architect, for £12,000. The name of the place was changed, shortly after the purchase in 1730, from Broughton Loan to Little Piccardy, in honour of the native country of the French weavers. It now wears the more genteel appellation of Piccardy Place. In the year 1745, the Trustees enter in their records that " a most wicked rebelhon" had prevented their assembling during the latter part of the year, and also from making their usual re- port at Christmas, as the Patent directed, but express them- selves agreeably surprised to find that the quantity of cloth stamped during the year had exceeded that of the previous year by 56,198^ yards, which they argue " is some evidence that the manufactm-ers had not quitted their work to dance after the Highland pipes." This minute, curiously enough, is signed by " Duncan Forbes, of CuUoden, President." From the Eeport on the state of the Highlands in 1754, al- ready referred to, we learn that the inhabitants were very idle, and frequently to be seen " lying by dozens on the sides of the hills conversing and basking themselves in the sun beams." And again, "the people of the country have no employment but caring for their cattle or labouring their ground. They are for the most part idly inclined, and sleep away the half of their time." " In some places they live the whole summer on milk and the blood of their cattle, but have no meal nor grain of any kind." " Their clothing is poor like their food, their bodies being seldom all covered, and what clothes they have are never POPULAR LECTURES. 237 changed till worn into rags." Their houses are described as "extremely mean, especially those of the lower sort, which are so little that a man must almost creep on his hands and feet to get in at the door, and even after having got in he will scarcely be able to stand upright under the roof where the house is highest. In these houses they have no furniture, excepting one pot or pan, and a wooden dish. Their fire is placed in the middle of the house, around which they put large trees or branches, and behind these they lay heath for beds, where the family sleep promiscuously, few of them having any other cover- ing than their body clothes." I have not been able to learn when the spinning wheel was first introduced into Scotland, but it is clear, from the establishment of the Spinning Schools by the Board in 1727, that it was little known, or at least, little used, at that period in many districts of the country. And we do know that the good old fashioned rock and spindle had not been wholly superseded even so late as the beginning of the present century. Many can doubtless testify to this fact. I myself — although the century was a round dozen of years old at least ere I appeared upon its eventful stage — ^have frequently witnessed these implements at work in the hands of a certain old wife, who lived in the neighbourhood of my paternal home. The wheels of 1727 were single-handed, for the double-handed wheel was not invented till about the year 1764. It is spoken of as " A great improvement in the spin- ning-wheel, whereby a child can spin twice as much as a grown person can do with the common wheel." At the date of the establishment of the Board, the returns of Linen stamped in the different counties shew that the manufac- ture was pretty generally prevalent over the whole of Scotland. Its chief localities, however, were in those counties lying in the great valley which extends from Lanarkshire in the west to Forfarshire in the east, — our own county (Forfarshire) being even then far ahead of all the others. Out of 2,1 83,000 yards stamped in Scotland in 1727, Forfarshire had 596,000 ; Perth- shire, 477,000 ; Fifeshire, 362,000 ; and Lanarkshire, 272,000. Soon after this the manufacture began gradually to creep east- ward, especially after the introduction of the cotton manufacture into the western counties about the end of last century ; the testi- 238 ANCIENT AND MODBEN LINEN. mony of the Board being that wherever the manufacture of cot- ton was established, that of Linen sensibly declined ; until, in 1822, the last year in which the returns were made, out of 36,268,000 yards— to which quantity the trade had increased from 2,183,000 yards in 1727— Forfarshire had 22,629,000 yards ; Fifeshire, 7,923,000; Perthshire, 1,605,000; and Lanarkshire, 22,869. All the other counties, with the exception of Aberdeenshire, which had 2,500,000 yards, having only a few thousand yards each, and in some the manufacture had entirely disappeared. The Board continued to exercise its functions with great vigour tiU the year 1823, when it also had to demit its authority, as far at least as the Linen Trade was concerned, at the indignant and oft repeated demands of the manufacturers themselves — a biU for that purpose having been brought in by the late Mr Huskisson, and passed by the Legislature, not- withstanding the most strenuous opposition of the Board, who urged that it was fraught with danger to aU but a few capital- ists, " who are probably aiming at obtaining a monopoly of the manufacture to themselves " ! And thus passed away — ^let us hope for ever — all legislative interference with the Linen Trade of Scotland. On the 5th July, 1746, the King's charter passed for estab- lishing the British Linen Co. at Edinburgh, capital £100,000. One of the chief purposes intended to be served by this com- pany was to supply the British merchants trading to Africa and the plantations in America with such kinds of Linen cloth as they hitherto were obliged to purchase from foreign nations, whereby it was hoped much money would be saved to the na- tion. This highly respectable company, I need hardly remind you, stiU exists, and continues as before to supply British mer- chants with Linens of its own making. The process of manu- facture is, however, slightly different from that of former times. The Linen is now torn up and beaten into pulp, on which, when dried and stiffened, a very pretty &TiA promising pattern is stamped, which gives it so extraordinary a value in the eyes of the merchants, that they believe it to be worth its weight in gold. The first mill for the spinning of yam by machinery in Scotland was erected in Brigton near Glammis, in 1790, by Messrs James POPULAE LECTURES. 239 Ivory and Co,, relatives, I believe of the present Lord Ivory. These gentlenaen presented a petition to the Board of Manufac- tures in November of that year, setting forth " that they have erected one of the patent machines for spinning Linen yarn, to go by water, having purchased a license for that purpose from John Kindrew & Co. of Darlington, the patentees, which, with the expense of the machinery and of a water mill, has cost them about £1000, and they pray that the Board wiU patronise and encourage them in the foresaid undertaking." The Board re- solved by a majority, that " as this is the first undertaking of the kind which has been set on foot in Scotland, and as the under- takers have incurred a large expense in it, they shall be allowed a premium of £300, payable in three moities of £100 per annum." Closely following this experiment, water mUls were erected on the Dighty near Dundee, at Kirkland in Fife, and other places. In June, 1794, Alexander Aberdein & Co. of Arbroath, presented a petition to the Board praying " for aid to erect a mill-house for holding machinery for spinning Linen yarn by water, which they propose erecting on the Brothock, the machinery to be constructed upon original principles of their own." I could not, however, find that their request was granted. The first mill erected in Blairgowrie was the Meikle Mill, or Blairgowrie Mill, in 1798. At first spinning miQs, being driven by water only, were erected, not in the towns, but in the country, on some river or burn where a good fall could be obtained. The introduction of steam power has now numbered these with the things that were, or at least is fast doing so, except in localities such as Blair- gowrie, where the water power is sufficiently great and con- tinuous to enable it stiU to cope successfully with its more for- midable rival. I have in my possession a curious list of the spinning miUs which existed in Dundee and its neighbourhood in the year 1822. They were fifty-one in all, of which eighteen were in the town and thirty-three in the country, containing in all 15,102 spindles, the average number of spindles per mill being — in the town, 451, and in the country, 211J, or over aU 296. Of these fifty-one, twenty are marked as " newly erected." Deducting these there remains thirty-one, of which six only were 240 ANCIENT AND MODERN LINEN. in the town and twenty-five in fhe country, some of the latter having only about ninety spindles each. I have also been able to procure a correct list of all the spinning mills existing in Dundee and Lochee in the year 1851. They are in number forty-three, driving on the whole 109,000 spindles, and averaging 2500 spindles per mill. In Blaurgowrie in 1851 there were thirteen mills, driving 13,000 spindles, or an average of 1000 spindles per mill. The Quantity of Flax Imported into Dondeb In 1745 was 74 Tons. „ 1791 „ , 2,444 „ „ 1814 „ 3,000 „ „ 1830 „ 15,000 „ „ 1843 „ 32,000 „ ., 1853 )t Tow. 34,052 „ In 1853 was Jute. 10,820 Tods In 1853 was , , 16,590 Tons Such details as these are perhaps uninteresting to my non- professional hearers, but they come strikingly to mark the rapid progress in this seven-league -booted century. What was a marvellous novelty yesterday is commonplace to-day, and wiU become a genuine relic of antiquity to-morrow. Water spin- ning mills were thought a wonderfal invention in 1792, were thick as blackberries in 1822, and were set aside as old-fashioned in 1852. A few decades now-a-days bring about greater changes than centuries did before. The rock and spindle of our great grandmothers had held their place undisturbed since the days ofthePharaohs, but James Watt and his tea-kettles have now transferred them to the museum of the antiquary, and our chil- dren will regard them with much the same wondering as we do the mummies of Egypt. Let me now, in conclusion, attempt to give a rapid sketch of the manners and industry of our Scottish peasantry of last cen- tury. POPULAR LECTURES. 241 The tenants of so many " Ploughgates" or farms, built their houses and farm offices in one group, called a " Toon," hence the phrase still common " a farm toon." A few acres were all that each possessed. The land was divided into two portions called " iniield" and "outfield." The first which lay nearest the toon got all the manure and was constantly under crop, hence it was sometimes called the " croft," i.e. the cropped land. The other was pastured for several years iu succession, and when thought to be sufficiently manured by the droppings of the cattle, was broken up, cropped for two or three years with oats, and then, without the sowing- of grass seeds, which had not yet been introduced, the farmer trusted to the spontaneous produc- tion of nature for the pasture of the ensuing seasons. The in- field was all in " run-rigg," i.e. the lands of one farmer inter- mixed with those of another ; and the riggs were universally crooked, the result of ploughing so much with oxen. Every field contained a number of " balks," or waste places between the ridges, full of stones and bushes. The plough used was the old Scottish plough with wooden mould-boards, and was drawn by six, eight, ten, and sometimes so many as twelve oxen ; or by oxen and horses together, or sometimes by oxen, cows, and horses, in one xmited team. Bauldy, in the " G-entle Shepherd," sings — I hae gowd and gear, I bae land eneugh, I hae sax guid owsen ganging in a pleugh ; Ganging in a pleugh, and linkiu' o'er the lea, And gin ye winna tak' me, I can let ye be. In some places the plough was drawn by four horses yoked abreast, the halters being fastened to a long stick in front, which the driver held in both hands, walking back- wards, and guiding them so as to make them pull steadily together. Few carts were used at this time, the manure being carried out to the field in creels (curraghs) on the backs of horses, and the peats and corn brought home in the same manner. Carts when first introduced were merely small wooden frames, placed on low wheels of solid wood. The farm house was the low turf-walled, thatch-roofed erection still common in Q 242 ANCIENT AND MODERN LINEN. the Highlands, a byre and bam at one end, and a peat stack at the other. A snag thatch-house, before the door a green, Hens on the midden, ducks in dubs are seen ; On this side stands a barn, on that a bjre, A peat-stack joins, and forms a rural square ; The house is Glaud's— there you may see him lean, And to his divot seat invite his frien. The front wall of the house was usually graced during the day by a row of clean beech cogs and luggies, used in dairy operations. Inside was the " but" and " ben," the " ben" being drawing-room and best bed-room in one ; the " but" or " hallan'' being kitchen, parlour, and dining-room. In this last the household lived and dined without distinction of caste between master and servant, and here the females span and reeled when Jiot engaged in cooking or cleaning. Every farmer in those days grew an acre or two of Lint, and it is worth mentioning, as illustrative of the manners of the age, that the wages of farm servants, whether male or female, con- sisted in part of so much ground for sowing Flax for their own use. In the parish of Fowlis for instance, the first Statistical Account remarks, that the wages of a maid servant were at that time £3, including bounties, such as two yards of Linen cloth, an apron, and as much ground as would sow two lippies of Lint The Lint when ripe was pulled up by the roots and rippled on the field to separate the straw from the bolls or seed, then steeped or" bogged," dried, beetled, scutched and hackled, audit was then ready for spinning, all which operations are so familiarto most of my hearers that I need not stay to describe them. At the time of which I speak it was customary for all unmarried females (gentle and semple alike) to occupy their whole leisure time in spinning, thus providing in the first place for the necessities of the household, and then for their own outfit in life when they came to be married. And she would have been considered a poorly-tochered bride indeed, whatever her rank, who had not a weU-filled "last" of snaw-white Linen, in table cloths, shirts POPULAR LECTURES. 243 and sheeting, of her own spinning and bleaching, to bring home on the marriage day. Hence arose, I doubt not, the name of " spinster " still applied to unmarried women ; and hence also the practice, still prevalent when a young couple are married, for the lady to provide the " napery." In confirmation of this I have been informed by a near female relative of my own, that not only did she and all her sisters spend a large portion of their youth in " birrin" at the wheel ; but also that the daugh- ters of a noble Earl who lived in their neighbourhood, and whose family is, and has long been, one of the first in Scotland, spent much of their time in the same delightful and intellectual employment. Another fact worth noticing in connection with this subject is, that the spinning engines of these days were locomotive, that is to say, the country lasses, when visiting their friends would generally carry with them their rock and spindle or wheel, as the case might be, much in the same way, I fancy, as the ladies of the present day put their crochet needle or fine seam in their work-bag or box when they go to have an hour's chat with some friendly gossip. Burns* refers to this old fashion in one of his songs: — There waa a lass they oa'd her Meg, And she gaed o'er the muir to spin ; There was a lad that followed her, They oa'd him Duncan Davison. That Meg carried her wheel with her we learn from the subse- quent verses, thus : — The muir was dreigh and Meg was skeigh, Her farour Duncan oouldna win, For wi' her rock she would him knock, And aye she shook the "temper pin." * In making the following quotations from the lyric poetry of Scotland, I beg to explain that I do so merely for the illustration of my subject, my own feeling being that it is exceedingly interesting to be able to trace out the manners and customs of a bygone generation in these old songs, which, whatever their other merits or de- merits, were undoubtedly a faithful impress of the age in which they were written : just as it is so interesting to read the history of a pre-adamic world in the frag- ments of fossil plants and animals which we find embedded in the rocks. Q 2 244 ANCIENT AND MODEKN LINEN, The " temper pin," I may explain for the satisfaction of the uninitiated, was the wooden screw or pin which adjusted or "tempered" the hands of the wheel. This pin Meg would appear to have taken out and used in the most unkind and unlady-like manner as a weapon of defence, or perhaps offence, against the loving Duncan, a treatment very likely, I should think, to shake Ms temper. My only wonder is that he should have persisted in his suit to such a virago as she must have appeared, brandishing in one hand the rock and in the other this " temper pin," and " knocking " him considerably with both. The phraseology of this song can only he explained on the supposition that Meg was on her way to some spinning party such as I have mentioned. These re-unions were generally very merry affairs. The lasses would come early, bringing their rocks and spindles or wheels, as the case might be, in order to have an hour or two's gossip among themselves ; but as gloamin' feU the lads would drop in and range themselves along one side (£ the spacious hallan, or perhaps, according to the discretion of the guidwife, interspersed among the lasses, weaving stockings and mitts, which was their branch of the domestic economy. Sometimes instead of the hallan, the barn, well swept for the .occasion, would be the place of rendezvous. By and bye the •wheels and stockings would be laid aside, and blind man's buff, .story-telling, singing, dancing, and other amusements would succeed until it was time to go home. And then, of course, the gentlemen must convoy the ladies " o'er the muir " again, under ;the plausible pretext, doubtless, that they would need some one to carry their spinning graith for them. Such meetings were 'CaUed " rockins," the term having originated evidently in the days of the rock and spindle. Burns hits off the scene capi- dtaUy : — On Fastern e'en we had a lockin, To ca' the crack and weave the stockin', And there was muckle fun and jokin' Ye needna' doot, And syne we had a hearty yokin' At sang aboot. Indeed the whole of ancient Scottish song has frequent reference POPULAR LECTURES. 245 to the spinning wheel. Another of Burns', called " Bessie and her Spinning Wheel," begins thus : — leeze me on my spinniog wheel, And leeze me on my rock and reel, Frae tap to tae that deeds me bien, And hapa me fiel and warm at e'en. And again : — 1 bought my wife a stane o' lint. As gude as e'er did grow. And a' that uhe has made o' that Is ae puir pund o' tow. The weary pund, the weary pund. The weary pund o' tow, I think my wife wUl end her life Before she spin her tow. The " rock" comes in here again as a lethal weapon, for on the- poor man remonstrating with his thriftless wife to " gae spin her tap o' tow," She took the rook, and wi' a knock, She brak it o'er his pow. In Allan Ramsay's beautiful pastoral we are introduced to Manse in the following prologue : — A green kail-yard — a little fount, Where water poplin, springs, There sits a wife wi' wrinkled front. And yet she spins and sings. And in the tussle which ensued between Madge and Bauldy, the lady's rock played a prominent part : — Te'll gar me stand ? ye ahevelling-gabbit brok. Speak that again, and trembling dread my rock. From all this we learn that the rock, whether in^the hands of coy maiden or irrate old wife, was at once an implement of industry and a formidable weapon of war. 246 AITCIENT AND MODEEN LINEN. I have said that spinning was chiefly practised by the younger females of the family, but we have seen that it was not wholly confined to them. The married women, after passing through the middle period of mothers and housewives, and arriving at the venerable stage of " grannies," reverted to the less toilsome occupation of their youth : — There was an auld wife had a wi' pickle tow, And she but gae try the spinnin' o't, She linted her dowD and the tow gaed a low. And that was a bad beginnin' o't. The yarn when spun, if intended for home use, was sent to the household weaver, who gave back the web when finished, charging so much per yard for weaving. It then underwent a mysterious process called " bookin'," which I shall not attempt to describe ; and after being bleached by some bonnie burn side, the attendant nymph keeping the claith wet by means of a wooden " scupe," as I have myself often witnessed, was stored in the napery-kist for future use. An aunt of my own, now a grey- headed woman, of three-score and ten at least, informs me that when she was a girl she was long in very delicate health, and that, in consequence, to her was mainly assigned the care of the bleaching Linen, the general belief then being that the smeU of wet Linen cloth was beneficial to consumptive patients. The yarn made for sale was disposed of in small quantities of one or two spindles each to the yarn merchant, who attended the country markets for the purpose. These inen again sold their parcels in the larger towns to the weavers and manu- facturers. In the same way the cloth when manufactured was brought into the country market-towns and villages, web by web, on the back of the weaver, ("hand-webs" these were called), where it was purchased by the hawker or agent, who again brought his lots into the larger towns, such as Dundee, on the weekly market days, where, after undergoing the careful inspection and stamp- ing of the stamp-master, they were sold to the "green-cloth " mer- chant, who finally packed and exported them to England, or to the Plantations of America, as the United States were then called. POPULAR LECTUEES. 247 An interesting description of these old times is given in a curious poem, or collection of poems, called the Piper of Peebles. It is as follows : — Twa hunder year and mair sin syne When fashions wer'na near sae fine, When common folk had scrimpev skill, And gentles scarce had wealth at will, When nane but meadow girse was mawn, And nane bit hamit lint-seed sawn, When lint was beaten by the mell, And ilk ane swingl't till himsel'. When sarks were stark and no that saf t, And lennel worn wi' washin's aft, And some had ane and some had twa, Any mony ane had nane aya. When wives wi^ rocks and spindles span, And brawest lasses nsed nae can. When lasses wi' their rocks gaed out To ane anithei nicht about, A full lang mile o' grand and mair, Sometimes no very free o' fear. Lang e'en o' nichts they couutit half. When spinnels ouist their whorles aff Aye and upwards near the tap, They liked aye a bulky knap, Wi' threads cross-breadth'd aye to defend The rest frae ravelin' o'er the end ; On hand reels syne they reeled the yarn Before the use of wheel or pirn, Wi' double down comes, gig and whap, And scores, and so forth, as exact As reels can count that's made to chack. When knocked bear was Sunday's kail, And folk in pots brewed buthel (burial) ale. Wlien men wi' greyheads played billie bracks Wi' younkers round about the stacks. Mix't men, wives, lads, and lasses too, And herds, had neither hose nor shoe. But a' thing has a time atweel, A time to fiourish, time to fail, So to the end of my Old Tale. ( 248 ) SECTION IV. MODERN LINEN. PART I. CONTINENTAL LINEN. The overthrow of the Eoman Empire in the fifth century com- pletely destroyed all trade and commerce in the west of Europe. The new monarchies which sprang up from its ruins were founded in blood, and war was both work and pastime to their hardy sons. The necessaries of Hfe were aH they sought, luxu- ries, and even comforts being uncared for or unknown. For a time the Eastern Empire retained a considerable amount of civilization, and in some of the coimtries under the sway of the Emperors manufactures were encouraged — ^that of Linen, as ha been shown, flourishing for ages in Greece, where the trade was not wholly extinct in the beginning of the ninth century. The enlightened policy of the Christian sovereigns of Byzantium had no influence on the warlike tribes in the west. There dark- ness the most complete reigned for centuries, and during that period there was no Linen manufacture to describe, no progress to record. The Great States, pre-occupied by war, left trade and com- merce, the arts and sciences, to Petty St&.tes, or whoever chose to prosecute them. The free cities in Italy were the first to show CONTINENTAL LINEN. 249 signs of returning life. Those of the Netherlands and of the Hanse Towns afterwards sprang into existence, and they were mainly instrumental in spreading a knowledge of manufacturing industry throughout Europe. Venice, Pisa, Genoa, and other Italian cities became the medium of communication between the nations of the East and of Western Europe. They im- ported the precious productions of India, Egypt, and the various countries of the East, including silks, Linens, &c., and exchanged them with the Germans, Franks, English, and other western nations, for the mineral wealth or the produce of the fields and forests of those lands. By this means these cities acquired vast wealth and political importance, far beyond what the limited extent of their territories would otherwise have commanded. Sometimes one city was predominant in power and then another, and sometimes they rivalled each other in greatness, and, striv- ing for pre-eminence, weakened each other, and rendered them- selves an easy prey to the common enemy. Charlemagne, who ascended the throne of France in 768, by an enlightened and liberal policy did much for the estab- lishment of manufactures in Germany and France, and for the extension of civilization and the arts among his people. He introduced Christianity, founded Hamburg (in 804), and other cities which afterwards rose to great commercial im- portance, and encouraged trade as far as the genius of his age would permit. The city of Bruges, founded in 760, afterwards became famous in the manufactures of Flanders. Other maritime or manufacturing towns gradually rose up in Brabant, Flanders, &c., which in time procured privileges from their feudal lords, especially the guidance of their own affairs, and pre-emption from arbitrary assessment by their feudal superior, and from following him in his wars. This freedom and these privileges were then of great avail in fos- tering commerce and manufactures while in their infancy. Now that trade has attained mature strength, exclusive pri- vileges and national aid are only hindrances, which ought all to be swept away. Baldwin, the younger (III.), Count or Earl of Flanders, was an enlightened prince, far in advance of his age. The Flemings were the first who began to earn their living by weaving, and, 250 MODEKN LINEN. lying near France, says the Pensionary De Witt, they " sold the cloth to that fruitful land, where the inhabitants were not only able to feed themselves, but also by the superfluous growth of their country, could put themselves into good apparel." Baldwin, seeing the advantage to be derived from trade, both by himself and his people, set up annual Fairs, without tolls or duties, ia several towns. The Flemish historians say that " he fortified several cities, and then invited into the country all manner of handicraftsmen for making of all manner of manufactures, to whom he granted great privileges, and established fairs at Bruges, Courtray, Tor- bout, Mount Cassel," &c., &c. Through his instrumentality manufactures both of wool and Flax made rapid progress in Flanders, and from his enlightened policy much permanent good has flowed to all the nations of the world. In Anderson's Commercial History it is said that " the woollen manufacture in all probability preceded the Linen, the former being in a manner absolutely requisite for preserving men from the inclemency of the weather, the latter being a species of luxury, many barbarous nations at this time living without any Linen at all. As men fell into commerce, and consequently grew richer and more elegant, they gave the greater encouragement to so cleanly and desirable a wear as Linen next their bodies. The Linen manufacture came first from Egypt into Greece and Italy, and thence travelled westward into France and Flanders, next probably into Germany and England, before it grew in the more northern and north-eastern parts of Europe, where it has since prospered very much. Others think that the Carthagenians first introduced it into Europe." Whether the Linen manufacture came by way of Carthage, or direct from Egypt to Greece or Eome, it is certain that it ori- ginated in Egypt, and thence found its way into Europe. Diuring the dark ages that succeeded the downfall of the Eoman power it lay dormant, but it was again vivified and restored in the dawn of the new born civilization which gradually threw light over western Europe. The spread of Christianity tended much to withdraw the veil which had overspread the western world, and to introduce a relish for Linen as an article of apparel, and for household and sacred purposes. According to Voltaire, in the time of Charlemagne there were CONTINENTAL LINEN. 251 manufactures of woollen stuff, but Linen was uncommon. In proof of this he relates that " St Boniface, in a letter to a Ger- man bishop, desires him to send him cloth with a large nap for him to make use of in washing his feet — ^probably,'' adds Vol- taire, " this want of Linen was the cause of all the diseases in the stin known by the name of leprosy, at that time so general." If Linen was uncommon in Europe at that period, the value of it very speedily became widely known, and its use general in many countries. The progress of the Linen manufacture in some of the nations on the Continent of Europe where the trade is carried on extensively will now be given. In some of the European States the Linen trade is not in modern times of much consequence, it being wholly of a domes- tic character, and the Flax grown is spun by hand, and weaved at home for family use. In others recent details have not been got to so complete an extent as was or is desirable, in some cases because statistical accounts are not made up, and in others because access to them were not available. Many of the statistics given are taken from the published re- ports by the Secretaries of Legation at the different courts, and from those of the Consuls at the various ports. Several of these reports are got up with great care, and contain much useful information, but others are very meagre and of little use. Un- fortunately there are some Secretaries and many Consuls who do not appear to send in reports at aU, and this is much to be regretted, as these parties have the means of acquiring a know- ledge of the trade and manufactures of the respective countries and ports not available to others. For easy reference the monies and weights and measures given in these reports have generally been calculated into British standards, and are so given. The letter-press has been collected from a great variety of sources, and it is as full as, from the nature of the work, could conve- niently be given, 252 MOBEKN LINEN. CHAPTEE T. ITALIAN LINEN. The rude and barbarous nations who overthrew the Koman power in Western Europe manufactured little and traded less] They came from lands where the necessaries of life alone were sought, where the gratification of their passions was their chief desire, and where might was right. The people, steeped in poverty and ignorance, felt few of the wants of civilized life, and despised its luxuries. Even with their leaders works of art were valueless, and luxurious habits and cultivated taste were looked upon as crimes. The normal condition of such nations was more allied to the savage than, to the civilized state, and rude- ness and barbarity were natural to them. When such was the social state of the dominant race, it is not surprising that their laws should have been arbitrary and cruel, calculated alike to oppress the body and deaden the soul ; or that their govern- ment should have been despotic and tyrannical, extinguishing everywhere the light of civilization, and so producing universal gloom. After centuries of darkness, benighted Italy was the first to re-open her eyes and usher in the dawn of brighter and better days. Her cities, grown independent and great, became marts of commerce, her citizens merchant princes. They opened up the trade with India through Constantinople, Trebizond, and Persia, and were for many ages the medium of communication between the warlike nations of Europe, and the luxurious and enervated inhabitants of the East. Venice, Genoa, and other Italian cities had vast fleets, with which they traded to all the countries bor- dering on the Mediterranean and Euxine Seas, to Western Europe, and to the Moorish cities on the Atlantic. Flax was imported from Egypt and other countries, or raised at home, and the Linen trade formed an important part of their domestic in- ITALIAN LINEN. 253 dustry. With the fall of the proud republican cities the manu- factures of Italy languished and died, but in modern times it has somewhat revived, and the new regime may, by and bye, conso- lidate and extend it. In various parts of Italy, Flax and Hemp are largely culti- vated, not only for the native manufactures of the country, but also for export. Many of the districts of that beautiful country, a land of sunny sMes and fertile soil, are admirably adapted for the growth of these textile j&bres, and some of them produce both Max and Hemp of the very finest quality. The Hemp of Bo- logna, of Ferrara, of Cesena, of Ascoli, and of Naples, is highly esteemed. Not less so is the Flax of the provinces of Cremona, of Lodi, and of Brescia in Lombardy, and of other places. At Solerno, and in some other districts, the cultivation of Flax is of recent date, but it is making some progress. In the mountain- ous regions of Lombardy and Venetia, Flax and Hemp are grown chiefly for native use, but a little of both, and also some cloth, are exchanged with the Milanese and other low countries for the produce and fabrics of these places. According to the Italian Statistical Annual for 1857, the pro- duction of raw Hemp had risen in Italy, in round number, to 40,000,000 kilogrammes, which at £2 17s the 100 kilogrammes gives an annual value of £1 ,120,000, one-half of which applies to Bologna, Ferrara, and Cesena. Some competent valuers esti- mate the total quantity raised at 50,000,000 kilogrammes, allojving to Piedmont and the Neapohtan Provinces about 10,000,000 more than is given in the report. It would thus appear that the total quantity annually raised in Italy is close upon 60,000 tons. About 16,000 tons are exported to Switzerland, Ger- many, France, Great Britain, Spain and Portugal, the remainder being required to supply the inland consumption. The culture of Hemp, in order to be productive, requires numerous special conditions as regards soil, water courses, &c., which very much restricts its Hmits, and localizes it in particular places, sometimes very remote from each other. The provinces of Bologna and Ferrara are not only the centre of the Hemp production in the north, but also that of the best methods of cul- tivation. They yield the best produce, and amongst them the 254 MODERN LINEN. giant Hemp (Ganopa gigante), which has been much approved in the various International Exhibitions. The Bolognese Hemp almost rivals Flax, and is distinguished by its whiteness, bril- liancy, softness, and divisibility of fibre. The Ferrarese Hemp is of long staple, more tenacious, and well adapted for sack- ing, sailcloth^ and cordage. The Hemp of Cesena, Venice, Piedmont, and the south partakes more of the nature of the Bolognese. In the Hemp growing districts of the north of Italy very great attention is paid to it in every stage of its progress. The preparation of the soil is of primary importance, as the crop always corresponds to the care bestowed upon it. It is ploughed and reploughed in autumn, and in many places spade husbandry, auxiliary to the plough, is adopted. Before sowing the soil is broken and levelled by machines adapted for the purpose, and then divided into beds. The refuse of the stable has always been considered as normal and necessary manure, but prepared and other manure is used by some growers. The management of the supply of water requires care, and various contrivances have been adopted for its proper regulation. Under favourable circumstances Hemp grows in some districts to a prodigious height, and some specimen stalks of Farrarese have been shown from sixteen to twenty feet in length. Eetting is the most difficult and the most important of all the operations with Hemp, and it is performed in lakes, ponds, and running streams. Artificial pits or pools are considered best, and almost every grower has his own pits, excavated in the lowest part so as to collect the rain water. When near rivers or canals the water in the pits is changed when the process of maceration has made some progress, which makes it easy to regulate the fermentation, and it prevents the matter formed during the maceration from being deposited. With the same object, where the water cannot be run off it is drawn off by pumps or other means, and fresh water supplied. The quality and quantity of the water, the temperature, the quality of the Hemp, and the care of the grower, contribute essentially to the success of the retting process. To prevent deterioration to the stalk, and to preserve the greatest suppleness and freeness to the ITALIAN LINEN. 255 fibre, is the great object to be attained, and to secure this with the greatest uniformity possible the Hemp is assorted into sizes. The earth of the retting pits is carried to the fields to furnish fertilizing matter, and thus the crop is less exhausting to the soil than it would otherwise be. The nauseous miasma given off while the Hemp is in the steep, although disagreeable, is not deleterious either to men or animals. In scutching, the stems are first crushed by machinery, then beaten either by hand with the common brake, or by machinery constructed for the purpose and moved by animals. The latter operation detaches the fibres from the wood, after which they are straightened with a long toothed comb, and made up into bundles, which completes the practical operation of the grower. The wood is valuable for charcoal used in the manufacture of gunpowder and artificial fireworks. Before being exported the Hemp is carefully picked and selected iuto different qualities, suitable for the various purposes to which it is applied. It is then packed into bales by means of common or hydraulic presses, and this process gives the Hemp greater brightness and flexibility. Hemp softening is carried on to some extent in Italy. A large spinning work has been established for about twelve years near Bologna, tt is now being extended, and will contain 4000 spindles, and consume nearly 900 tons of Hemp yearly. There are some small hand-loom weaving establishments in various parts of the country, but none of great extent. The trade, both in spinning and weaving, is almost wholly of a domestic character, and gives employment to a large number of people. Flax has been cultivated in Italy for a much longer period than Hemp, it having been grown extensively before the Chris- tian era, and when Hemp was but Kttle known. It is now reared in many parts of the country, but not largely in any one dis- trict, and this renders it very difficult to collect complete statis- tical details respecting it. According to the Statistical Annual referred to, the production reaches in round numbers fully 20,000 tons. The Flax cultivated is of two kiads, the winter and the summer sorts. The winter Flax is sown in October and gathered in June, and it yields about six hundred-weight of seed and nearly three of fibre an acre. The su mm er Flax is sown in May and watered abundantly, and it produces only 256 MODERN LINEN. about four hundred-weight of seed and three of fibre an acre. In the rotation the winter crop is made to succeed the harvest of corn, and the summer Flax the grass crop. The production of Flax, as well as the methods of cultivat- ing it, differ greatly in different localities. In some districts the Flax when pulled is put into sheaves and dried in the sun, after which it is thrashed to get the seed. It is afterwards put into pits or in running water to steep. In some places where there is no water for steeping, the Flax is cultivated exclusively for the seed, and the stalks burned in the kilns. In various districts the cultivation of the soil is divided among different parties, each of whom performs some special part of the operation. The farmer furnishes horses, pays the seed in ad- vance, &c.; the cultivator and his family sow the seed, root up the Flax, &c. ; and the peasants have each his allotted work under both. The quit-rent ground (terratico) is either a pertica or a half-per tica, in one of those fields in which the rotation of the Flax crop happens to take place. This part of the Flax serves the family of the peasant, and his women take exclusive care of the ground for it, and of its cultivation even until it is spun. In the mountainous regions of Lombardy and Venetia some Flax and Hemp are grown for native use, and some cloth and Hemp is exchanged with the Milanese and other Low Countries for their produce and fabrics. In the eastern part of Lodi and Crema the finest Flax is cultivated, and it is exported to foreign countries by way of Venice and Genoa. The Flax of Cremona is shorter and coarser in the fibre than that ol Lodi and Crema. In the Milanese and Pavian districts Flax forms one crop in a nine year's rotation, and after the Flax crop is reaped there comes the second harvest, called^the minuto, or smaller crop, which comprehends mUlet, vegetables, and beans. In Brescia, Mantua, Verona, Vicenza, and some other places, there are manufactures of Linen, but they are not sufficient for the domestic consumption of the country, and have to be sup- plemented by large importations. At the commencement of the seventeenth century the Flax trade was of greater importance in the province of Brescia than it now is, as at that period about 1 500 tons were annually exported, while at the commencement of the present century it was only about one-fourth of .that ITALIAN LINEN. 257 quantity. At present about 300 hand-looms are employed in weaving Linens in Brescia, the value of the cloth made being about £20,000 annually. Two centuries ago there was a great trade in Linen thread at Salo, but it has now been lost. The separation of Venetia from Lombardy, and the Austrian tariff, have inflicted much injury on the Linen trade of these provinces, although M. Zanardilli states that the manufacture of Flax in Lombardy still gives employment to 300,000 women, who work at their own homes, spinning by the ancient mode of distaff and spindle, and earning scarcely twopence a day. There are, however. Flax-spinning mills at Capaccio, Olme, and Melagnano in Lombardy, employing about 12,000 spindles, and making about 1100 tons of yarn yearly. There is only one Linen power-loom work in Italy, and there both Flax and Tow goods are manufactured, but it is not of great extent. In Modena, Hemp and some Flax are cultivated, and Linen and canvas are among the few manufactures of this district. Hemp and Flax are also raised in Lucca, and both these articles are exported to some extent. In Peidmont, some Hemp and a little Flax is produced, but not enough for the limited local con- sumption, as the importation exceeded the exportation in 1857 by about 880 tons. Common Linens, canvas, and cordage, are made in Genoa, and some other towns, but excepting for domes- tic purposes this is not a manufacturing country. In the Island of Sardinia a small quantity of Flax is grown, and about 1000 cantars (70 tons) of it exported annually, the rest being used in the Linen manufactures of the country. The quantity of Hemp annually produced in Continental Sardinia represents a yearly value of £400,000 to £500,000, but it is not sufficient for the wants of the country. The Flax grown there is of much less value than the Hemp. In Parma and Tuscany there are almost no manufactures of Linen, and very Kttle Flax is grown in either place. Any manufactures of Flax are done in the country dis- tricts, and they are almost exclusively for the ordinary wear of the peasants. In what was formerly the Papal States some Flax and Hemp are grown, and, both being indigenous to the country, are of very superior quality, but neither are cultivated to a great extent. Both Hempen and Flaxen cloth is made, chiefly in the public 258 MODERN LINEN. schools, orphan asylums, and private houses throughout the country and city. There being no factories, the fabrics made are generally of the lower or middling descriptions, but, from the fine quality of the material used, the goods are excellent of their kind. In the Fair at Sinigaglia considerable quantities of Linens from Germany, &c., are sold. In Naples, Flax and Hemp, equal to twice the consumption of the inhabitants might be grown, many districts being remark- ably fertile, and admirably adapted to produce both plants in perfection, but agriculture of every land is in a rude and back- ward condition. The various branches of manufacturing in- dustry, among which are a few coarsely made Linens, are in as miserable a state as the agriculture of the country. In the fine Island of Sicily, Flax and Hemp are grown with scarcely more cultm'e than scratching the ground to let inihe seed. Although the soil is so fruitful, and as it were wooing to be culti- vated, such is the wretched state of agriculture and of manufac- tures that Sicily can scarcely export a ton of either, nor even supply sufficient Linens for her own domestic consumption. In one of the psuedo Platonic epistles, mention is made of Linen shifts made for ladies in Sicily, but the material for making them may have been imported. In like manner the Linen of Malta was in ancient times exceedingly admired for its fineness and soft- ness, but the raw material was in aU probability imported. The Linen manufactures of what was formerly the kingdom of the Two Sicilies only employ some 400 to 500 hand-looms. Per- haps the freedom now enjoyed under the more enlightened policy of the King of Italy wiU tend to develop the resources of the country, and if so the growth of Flax and the extension of the Linen manufacture will, no doubt, soon become of much greater importance. Comparatively little Linen yarn is- imported into Naples or Sicily from the United Kingdom. The British trade in brown and bleached Linens is now much cut up by Germany and Switzeiland, and the importation of diapers and table Linen is almost wholly from Germany, with which country, it would appear, Britain cannot compete in these articles. Consider- able quantities of plain and fancy drills are, however, got from England and Ireland, as their manufactm-e of these fabrics is ITALIAN LINEN. 259 preferred. The high duties upon Linen manufactures have not been sufficient to call forward the Sicilian or Neapolitan weavers, or to enable them to compete successfully with manufac- turing nations. Several experiments were made some years ago to extend the manufactures of Linen in the country, both from foreign and native grown Flax, but all proved abortive. According to an account made up in 1764, Linens were ex- ported from the following places in Italy, viz. — Verona, Brescia, Crema, Bolonia (damask), Ancona (fine Flax), &c. The causes of the backward state of agriculture, trade, and manufactures throughout Italy generally, is a sad commentary on the despotism and misrule which have so long afflicted that fine country. Italy teems with priests and sacerdotal classes of every rank, and it might have been expected that a people with so many religious instructors would be enlightened, happy, and prosperous ; but it is not so. Freedom of thought and action are absolutely necessary for the successful cultivation of manufacturing industry, and for the prosperous prosecution of commercial enterprise, but they appear to be incompatible with priestly rule, and, in Italy, both are suppressed — to the misfor- tune of the people, and to the ruin of the country. In 1857 the Sardinian States imported 3300 tons of Flax and Hemp, and about the same quantity in 1858, but in 1859 it fell be- low 1400 tons. In 1857 about 900 tons of Flax yarns were im- ported ; in 1858 nearly 1000 tons ; and in 1859 nearly 1200 tons. The Hempen and Flaxen cloth imported in 1858 was about 270 tons, and in 1859, 240 tons. The exports of Hempen cloth from these States for the same year were quite unimportant. The average imports of Linens into the Island of Sardinia in the years from 1857 to 1861 were under 100 tons, of the value of about £18,000. R 2 260 MODERN LINEN. CHAPTER II. SPANISH LINEN. Spain has had a chequered history. Many parts of the country are exceedingly fair and fruitful. It only wants freedom from bigotry, intolerance, and oppression on the part of its rulers, lay and sacerdotal, and intelligent industry on that of the people, to make it rank high among the nations of the earth. After the removal of the Roman legions, Spain was divided into small kingdoms, ruled by petty kings, jealous of and often at war with each other. This made the southern portions of it an easy prey to the Moors from Africa, and for many centuries half the country was overrun by them. During that period arts and sciences flourished in a much higher degree than they have generally done in countries under the sway of the Moslem, and good progress was made in manufactures and commerce. The ruins of the Alhambra, and other magnificent architectural works, still remain to attest the taste and skill of the Moors, who, though warhke in their nature and habits, yet industriously cul- tivated the arts of peace. Flax was largely grown by this extra- ordinary people, and Linens and other textile fabrics were manu- factured by them on an extensive scale. Besides supplying the home demand, many of these fabrics were exported to Constan- tinople, and to other cities in the Mediterranean and adjacent seas, and even as far as India, and eastern produce was brought back in return. This trade enriched the chivalrous yet com- mercial Moriscoes, and enabled them long to maintain their hold of some of the finest provinces of Spain. In 1450, Spain imported Flemish woollen cloth to a consider- able extent. A century later she imported Linens, Flax, thread, <&c., from Antwerp. The same year (1492) in which the Moors were finally expelled SPANISH LINEN. 261 from Spain, Columbus discovered for her a new world. For a tinae wealth, vast wealth, flowed in from her American colonies, and unexampled prosperity gladdened every heart in what was then happy Spain. At that period manufactures flourished in many of her cities, and the ocean was covered with her fleets. Then Spain was a great nation, but this prosperity was not destined to be of long duration. In the 16th century she attained the zenith of her glory, but with it her sun set, and in the following century Spain sank into deep darkness. By the bigotry of the king and nobles, and the grasping character of the clergy, with which that fine country has long swarmed, a deathlike stupor came over the people, and trade sank to the lowest ebb. Spaniards, stung with shame, have abstained from writing the history of the ruin which befel their country at the close of the 17th cen- tury. With the expulsion of the Moriscoes manufactures were nearly extinguished. In the 16th century Seville possessed upwards of 16,000 looms, which gave employment to 130,000 persons. When Philip V., ascended the throne in 1664, the number had dwindled down to 300 looms. Toledo in 1550 had up- wards of fifty woollen factories, and in 1665 only thirteen, almost the whole trade having been carried away by the Moors, who estabhshed it at Tunis. Owing to the same cause, the art of manufacturing silk, for which Toledo had been celebrated, was entirely lost, and nearly 40,000 persons who depended on it were deprived of their means of support. Other branches of industry shared the same fate. The manufacture of gloves, which in the 16th and early in the 17th century existed in every city, and of which enormous quantities were made and exported to England, France, and the Indies, had in 1655 quite disappeared. In 1550 the navy numbered 140 galleys, and in 1656 it was reduced to three wretched galliots, which were with difiiculty manned. In 1752 the Government determined to restore the navy, but to do this they were obhged to send to England for shipwrights, and they had to get persons from the same place to make ropes for their rigging and canvas for their sails. Early in the 18th century a woollen manufactory was estab- lished by Government at Segovia, which had once been a pros- perous manufacturing city, but the most common processes 262 MIOUEBN LINEN. had been forgotten, and workmen had to be imported from Holland to teach the Spaniards how to make up the wool, an art for which in better days, they had been especially famous. In 1757 the Government constructed a similar work on a larger scale at Guadalaxara in New Castile. Soon after something went wrong with the machinery, and it was necessary to send to England for a workman to put it right, as the Spaniards neither knew nor cared anything about these matters. In 1767 the Spanish Government became more alive to the importance of trade and commerce. The leading men in the Go- vernment then, and for some time previous, had been foreigners, and that year the Government expelled the Jesuits, curbed the power of the priests, and let the people breathe, which they could hardly be said to have done while the Inquisition reigned in all its terrors. Trade, commerce, and manufactures started into exis- tence as it were by magic, and the foundation of a prosperity was laid such as had not been known since the Moors were expelled from Granada. Charles III. was conciliating the Spanish colonies while George III. was fomenting rebellion in those of Britain. In 1765 he conceded free trade to his West India Islands, and a few years afterwards he granted the same boon to the American continent. These wise grants gave an immense impetus to the prosperity of the magnificent colonies of Spain, to the vast bene- fit of the mother country. Such enlightened policy had a rich reward. The export of foreign commodities was soon tripled, the export of home produce was increased five-fold, and the returns from America, nine-fold. Spain is a territory so fair and fertile, that the Moors called it an earthly paradise, but the beauty of its scenery and the fruitfulness of its soU have oft been blasted with a curse. In 1788 Charles IV. succeeded to the throne. He was a king of the true Spanish breed, devout, orthodox, and ignorant ; and with him came intolerance and aU its evUs. True religion, when exercised in its purity, humanizes and elevates man, and makes him happy in the enjoyment of nature's gifts, and in the God of nature ; but when performed in unmeaning forms and ceremonies, by an ignorant and debased priesthood, it brutaHzes the mind, and makes man unfit for the duties required of him, either as regards the present or the future state. The Church soon SPANISH LINEN. 263 became dominant, and, as it rose in power, freedom of thought and action were abrogated ; the people, oppressed, groaned under priestly tyranny, and the Inquisition, that worst instrument of Jesuitical rule, was again set up with all its horrors. Then trade, commerce, and manufactures were extinguished, and the rich and beautiful c6untry of Spain once more became almost a commercial blank in Europe. The present century has seen a great change in the condition of Spain. The Government now exercises more of its legiti- mate authority than it previously did. The country, although still greatly priest-ridden, is not so completely under the misrule of the hierarchy as it was. The people enjoy more freedom of action than when under bigoted priestly sway, and prosperity has begun once more to over-shadow bright, but ill-governed, and often cruelly persecuted and persecuting Spain. Within the last quarter of a century the trade of Spain has made good progress, and of late years the manufacture of Linens has been carried on extensively in some of its provinces. This manufacture from imported yarns is of comparatively recent date, but since the revision of the tariff, framed with a view to protect home manufactures, Linen weaving has rapidly increased, and it still promises to do so daily. The great difficulty has been to weave fine Linens for shirting, cambric, and the like, but this is now being gradually overcome. The weaving of Linens through- out Spain is principally by hand, but power-looms are now to be sesn in several districts. Labour there is not very plentiful at present, which makes manufacturers more willing to resort to power-looms, and as their capital accumulates these will increase in Spain, as they have done in other countries. The weaving of aU kinds of coarse Linens is carried on to a considerable extent in Seville. Formerly large quantities of British and German Linens were imported, but the native made goods have entirely superseded them, except for the finest class of fabrics. The manufacturers are almost entirely dependent upon the United Kingdom for their supplies of yarn, very little being spun in the country. Cadiz has long im- ported Linens, besides which it now imports Flax, Hemp, and Linen yarn. From time immemorial Catalonia has been a Linen manufac- 264 MODEBN LINEN. turing country, and it still retains its weU-merited fame. Its Linens found their way to Eome in the days of the Empire, and perhaps since then the trade has never been wholly ex- tinct. In a politico-commercial poem called the " Libell of Bnghsh Policie." we learn that in 1437 there were flourishing manufactures of wool, cotton. Linen, and silk, in that province. Catalonia is perhaps the greatest seat of the Linen manufac- ture in Spain at the present time, and the Catalonians, as well as many other Spaniards, are a Linen-wearing people. Consider- able quantities of Flax, Tow, and Jute yarns, chiefly from the United Kingdom, are imported into Barcelona for the Linen manufactures of Catalonia. That city is the first in importance in this branch of business, whether as regards importation or manufacture ; and, being the principal producer of fine Linen goodSj the value of its importation of yarns is almost one-half of all Spain. The works in that province are, both for spinning and weaving, on an extensive scale, and of late years several power- loom establishments have been erected there. The Flax and Hemp are mostly imported from Genoa and Leghorn, but some of the Northern States of Europe also supply a part of what is spun. Sonie Linens are also imported into Barcelona, the supply of the goods made in the province being insufficient for the wants of the district. Bilboa is the seaport next in importance to Barcelona for the importation of Linen yarns, although very little is manufactured in the neighbourhood. It is the receiving port for the yarns for nearly aU the Linens manufactured in the north of Spain, and it supplies Valladolid, Madrid, Saragossa, and Pampelona, &c. The importation of Linen yarn into Bilboa for the supply of these districts is on the increase. The manufactures are chiefly of coarse Linens for local purposes. In 1859, the value imported was £136,877, all from Great Britain, being a considerable in- crease over the previous year. In 1860, the importation of Linen yarns, a part being from France, but chiefly from Great Britain, was of the value of £158,210, and of Linens, also from Great Britain and France, £13,437. In addition to this there was imported from Great Britain, Jute cloth of the value of £47,250, and Jute yarns of the value of £14,566. In 1861 the imjiortation included — Linen yarns, £129,708 ; Jute yarns, SPANISH LINEN. 265 £19,414 ; Linens, £19,721 ; and Jute goods, £118,256. In 1862, the imports embraced — Linen yarns, £147,076 ; Jute yarns, £29,343 ; Linens £26,152. The heavy importation of Jute Linens in 1861 were made prior to, and anticipatory of, the heavy increased duties on this article, which were imposed in Auf;ust, 1861. The duties were then raised from 50 roubles to 250 roubles per quintal, which may be regarded as prohibi- tory. After that date the importation of Jute goods into Spain almost ceased. The Jute goods and yarns were almost wholly from Great Britain, the Linens and Linen yarns from Great Britain and France, but chiefly from the former. Malaga is next in importance to Bilboa, and being the seat of one of the largest power-loom factories yet built in Europe, it consumes an immense quantity, both of Linen and cotton yarns. It is besides the receiving port for Granada, where hand-loom weaving is pretty extensively carried on. Valencia ranges next in importance. Its consumption of yarns is of the coarser description, to supply home wants and sacks for the guano trade. This town is likely to become the centre of the Jute trade for the south of Spain. In 1860, 413 bales of yarn were imported into Valencia, and since then the quantity has largely increased. There are also Linen manufacturing establishments in other provinces in Spain, two being in Sansebastian, which are on the increase, and one in Corunna. The imports into San- sebastian include Linen and Jute, raw and manufactured. The imports into Santander in 1861 embraced — Linen and Jute manufactures, £61,150 ; Linen yarn, £2,610. In 1862 the imports included Linen £57,600, and Linen yarn £2,520. The Jute goods were from Great Britain; the Linens from — 1st Great Britain ; 2d, France ; and 3d, Belgium ; the quantities from each being in the order stated. In addition to the yarn imported into Spain a large quantity of Flax and Hemp is grown in the Basque provinces, and in nearly aU the other provinces of the country, spun into yarn, and consumed in the native manufactures of the respective districts. The Spanish colonies, like the mother country, are large con- sumers of Linen, and they are excellent customers of ours. In the Consular report from Havana for 1858 it is said that the 266 MODEKN LINEN. Linens of the United Kingdom have deservedly superseded those of Grermany in a great measure, and the coarse descrip- tions those of Russia. The following is an account of the imports and exports of Linen manufactures and Linen yarns into and from Spain for the years from 1857 to 1860 inclusive : — Imports 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. Lined Yarns, Tons, 4203 4153 3542 4975 i> Value, £440,019 £4.38,600 £373,750 £527,098 Linen Manufactures, Tons, 297 189 245 218 „ Value, £153,462 £135,447 £170,982 £154,020 Exports. Hemp, . . . £26,369 £27,678 £36,096 £21,044 Manufactures of Hemp, 35,789 29,959 26,.S59 31,620 Sparta Grass, . . 28,202 36,266 38,889 39,570 In 1826 there were no exports of any of these articles, and the imports for that year consisted of — Flax and Hemp, yaluedat . . . £165,760 Linen Manufactures, „ . . . 222 870 Linen Thread, „ . . . 12,970 It would thus appear that the character of the trade has greatly changed since that period. Then little or no yarn was imported, but in 1860 the quantity had risen to more than half-a-million sterling in value, and since that year, as will be seen by the tables of Exports from the United Kingdom, the quantity sent from this country alone very greatly exceeds that value. CHAPTER Til. GERMAN LINEN. The manufactures of Germany are of ancient standing. Already in the 6th century several towns had sprung up in Germany, GEKMAN LINEN. 267 which were soon after to become famous for their manufactures and trade. The introduction of Christianity was highly instru- mental in advancing the commerce of the country. By the beginning of the 9th century a little progress had been made in general trade, and by the 11th century, Flanders and Brabant, and several German cities, had become important for theirimanu- factures of Linen. It is reported, on the authority of Helinoldus, that in the be- ginning of the 12th century (about 1109), Linen cloth was used as money in exchange for all other things ia the Isle of Eugen, on the coast of Pomerania. Early in the 14th century the Emperors began to infranchise certain German towns ; whereupon these cities found it neces- sary to enter into a confederacy to defend themselves against their feudal lords. This union gave security to traders, and assisted greatly in the extension of manufactures in and around these cities, as well as throughout Germany. The Linen trade is not only one of the oldest, but it is also one of the most important branches of industry in Ger- many. It gives employment to an immense number of the inhabitants, and a vast capital is embarked in it. Many of the articles made in the United Kingdom were at first imitations of German Linens, and some of them are still familiarly known by their German names, or by the district in Germany where they were manufactured. Dowlas, Tecklenburgs, Creas, Platillas, Bretagiies, Silesias, Osnaburgs, &c., &c., have aU a German origin, and most of these fabrics are still made there. Some of the provinces of Prussia proper are integral parts of Germany, and its detached provinces are also German, the pro- gress and present state of the Linen trade of Prussia will there- fore be included in this chapter, as it will save repetitions which would otherwise be necessary. Prussia has been a Linen producing country from a very early period. In 1450 she exported Flax, thread of Cologne, and canvas, principally to Flanders, which was then the great em- porium of trade. The Italians, Hanse merchants, and Flemings, did the chief of business at that period. The Linens of Silesia and Saxony have been long celebrated for their fine and durable qualities. Westphalia, Wiirtemberg, 268 MODERN LINEN. and several other of the sub-divisions of that great country have •also been long deservedly famous for their Linen manufactures. Id 1764 Brandenburg had manufactures of canvas. Frank- fort on the Oder had a tolerable Linen trade. Saxony had manufactures of fine and coarse Linen and ticking canvas, and made large quantities of thread. The persecution of the Pro- testants in Bohemia and Silesia forced great numbers to with- draw and settle in Upper Lusatia, where they introduced the Linen manufacture, particularly table Linen and tickings. Lower Lusatia, Dresden, Leipzic and neighbourhood, Chemnitz, Ham- burg, and other places manufactured Linens. Bremen made large quantities of Osnaburgs. Esenbach, Harburg, Saxe- Lauenburg, Hanover, Hameln, Magdeburg, &c., all had their Linen manufactures. Munster was much engaged in the Linen trade. Osnaburg or Osnabruck made Linen yarn and thread, and manufactured Osnaburgs to the value of upwards of a million of rix-doUars annually. Hamm was famous for its Linen bleacheries. Grlatz had thread and Linen manufactures. Silesia manufac- tured twine and Linen of various kinds very extensively, includ- ing Linen printing canvas, buckram, and damask, and exported these goods largely, particularly to England. Indeed nearly all the places named exported their manufactures to some extent, in addition to supplying the home demand. In 1755 there were 248 Linen looms in Berlin. In 1764 Hemp and Flax and their seeds, and also Linens and thread were exported from Prussia and from Dantzic Hemp, Flax, and Linens. Oddy, in his work on European commerce (1805), mentions that the produce exported from Prussia consisted of Flax, Hemp, &c., chiefly from Memel and Konigsberg ; Linens from SUesia, either by the Elbe, or from Stettin. The value of Linen manufactures exported from Prussia, in 1799 was about £2,000,000, being fully a fourth part of all the exports from that country. Between that year and 1805 the Linen manufacture had increased to a surprising degree. This branch of manufac- ture was at that time the most important trade of the country, and Silesia had then gained a great reputation in the world for the durability and general excellence of its Linens. He goes on to say " that they are as good, or of better quality in Ireland, is certain ; but they at one time were not equally considerate in GERMAN LINEN. 269 the bleaching part. The chemical process for bleaching, once introduced into that kingdom, was wisely done away ; while the gentle process in Silesia has been invariably used. Their cloth is generally three or four months in bleaching, and the lyes made very mild and moderately used. Experience has shown the reputation Silesian Linen has obtained in South and Nortli America and the West Indies, but the Irish Linen must shortly command a preference to any other, as great care and attention is now paid to it. " France, the United Provinces, and Switzerland, formerly carried on a very great trade in the Linen manufacture, but at pre- sent Silesia, Bohemia, Westphalia, Suabia, the Lausitz, and the countries belonging to the House of Brunswick, excel particularly in their Linen manufacture, the produce of which is exported to almost every part of the world. The greater part of the Silesian Linen goes through Higher Saxony and Luneburg, to Hamburg. It is likewise conveyed down the Oder, and from thence by means of canals which connect it with the Elbe. The Hamburg, merchants export it in great quantities to Spain, Portugal, Eng- land, and the United States of America. " The striped and the checked sort of Silesian Linen, the stripes of which are formed of Turkey red yarn, are mostly ex- ported to Italy on account of their fine quality, and are used for curtains, bed-ticks, &c. " The yarn of which the Silesian Linen is made is spun by means of the spindle, which makes it look like cotton, and re- quires less time to bleach than any other. The Silesian Linen of different manufactures is all of the same quality, and there is no other distinction in it than in the width and length of the pieces. The merchants of Hamburg, who are in that Hne, go twice a year to Silesia to make purchases. Dutch and Italians also go there to buy, and even the English, who generally buy lawns, dowlas, checked, and book Linen. " In 1740 the export of Linen from Silesia amounted to only £500,000. In 1805 it was estimated at £3,000,000. In the Prussian part of Silesia in 1792-3 there were 24,761 looms, em- ploying 38,451 workmen, making £1,470,000, of which was exported £1,040,000. The previous year the whole production of Silesian Linen amounted to only £1,250,000, and the exporta- 270 MODERN LINEN. tion to £810,000, of which about niae-tenths consisted of bleached Linens, the remainder being unbleached, bleached and un- bleached yarn, thread, unbleached linen ticks, damasks, hand- kerchiefs, &c. " To the value of the above exportation, made in 1791-2, is still to be added that of the following sorts: — Creas, PlatiUas, Bretagnes, Lawn, and the fine checked Linen. " The Silesian Linen trade is the most important in the Ger- man Empire. The chief places of its manufacture are Hirsch- berg, Landshut, Schmiedeburg, Greiffenburg, Waldenburg, and Schweidnitz. " Hirschberg is the first and most important trading city in Silesia, and is the seat of the lawn manufacture. So early as 1786 the exports amounted to £254,000. The raw long lawns, or what are now called double Silesias, are frequently sent to Haarlem, to be bleached for England. The patterns of the coloured lawns are sometimes mixed with red, blue, and green flowers. Other descriptions of lawns are made for the Italian market, and also still a different sort called cobweb lawns, pro- bably from the fineness of their texture. The other towns mentioned manufactured Linens more or less extensively, and some of them made fabrics peculiar to themselves, such as ticks, damasks, checks and stripes, &c. " The manufacture of flowered damask and ticken had been brought to great perfection in Silesia and Lausitz. It was made in three different modes, plain, marbled, and white flowered, and consisted of table cloths, napkins, towels, &c. The manu- factures of Lausitz were chiefly exported to Cadiz, thence they were sent to the South American colonies of Spain. In 1795 the German manufacturers began to send goods to the United States, but the wars of this period frequently changed the nature of the trade, and caused great fluctuations in it." In 1840 the value of the Linen manufactured in Silesia was estimated at £1,230,000. The principal localities of the Linen manufacture of Prussia at that period were in West Prussia ; in Silesia, where it was, until near that date, all spun and woven by hand, the weavers living in small houses in the valleys be- tween the mountains, but machinery for spinning had then been recently introduced ; at Tecklenburg, and at Bielefeld in West- GERMAN LINEN. 271 phalia ; and in some other places in the Rhenish provinces which were famed for Linen of fine and white quality. The annual con- sumption of Linen in Prussia was then estimated at nine or ten ells, or between seven and eight English yards to each individual. Bavaria grew about 15,000 or 20,000 tons of Flax annually, and she manufactured Linen for domestic use, which was all spun and woven by hand, but exported little. Wiirtemburg, in addition to the home supply, made some Linens and damasks of an ordinary description for export. Thuringia made them chiefly for domestic use. In Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Darmstadt Linens were very generally manufactured. Saxony was once famed for Linen fabrics, both for home use and for export, but although the trade had declined in 1840, the goods produced there were still of deserved repute. The Hanse Towns, Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremen each manufactured small quantities of canvas, but they have long been rather commercial than manu- facturing cities. In Hanover, Flax was a most important article, as the culti- vation and manufacture of it gave employment to nearly one- half of the inhabitants. It was chiefly grown in the southern parts of the kingdom, and the quality was generally of a very good description, and well adapted for spinning. At the end of the seventeenth century, the Linen trade there was at its greatest height, but towards the middle of the eighthteenth century it feU off, as the Scotch and Irish Linens drove Hanoverian goods from the West Indies. During the American war it flourished again, but, in 1806, Napoleon's continental system nearly annihi- lated it. After the peace the trade again assumed a national importance, but it has never reached its former very prosperous condition. In 1843 the value of Linen and Linen yarn ex- ported from Hanover was £300,000. Some Hemp was grown in Hanover, but it was not of very superior quahty. The Osna- bruck hempen Linen, known as Tecklenburgs, was bleached in the yarn, and it took a good colour. The quality of the Linen made in Hanover has considerably improved of late years, and as improvement progresses the trade may extend. MrPetrie, in his report, dated Hanover, July, 1863, says: — " The total value of the Linen manufactures of Hanover (exclu- siveof the export of Flax and Hempen yarns), in so far as they ap- 272 MODERN LINEN. pear in the returns for 1861 , amounted to 1,748,080 dollars, about £262,212. The returns of the Linen industry of Hanover are only- partial, as they record merely what is brought to the Govern- ment Linnen Leg gen, which are offices where they are measured, stamped, and valued, for the purpose of facilitating their sale, but it is very likely that a cousiderable quantity is sold without passing through these marts. The returns for 1861 show an increase of 5624 pieces, measuring 612,653 ells of Linen cloth, value 98,310 dollars, upon 1860. The three previous years there had been a constant and considerable diminution. The chief seats of the Linen industiy in Hanover, are Osnabruck, Hildesheim, Luueburg, and Hamburg, and the greater part of it is carried on by hand-loom weaving, and gives employment to the rural population during the winter. The produce was formerly bought up for export to North and South America and the West Indies, but they now find their way to other states of the Zol- verein, where their excellent and durable qualities procure them a ready sale." Eeturn of the quantities and value of Linen cloths taken to the Hanoverian Linnen Leggen : — 1857 Pieces 220,881 BUs 17,371,668 Value, Dollars 1,684,849 1858 „ 197,396 „ 15,629,934 1,505,375 1859 „ 183,232 „ 14,660,177 1,409,210 1860 „ 174,382 „ 13,797,457 i;321,113 1861 „ 180,006 „ 14,410,010 1,419,443 Flax and Hempen yarns exported from Hanover and Hil- desheim : — 1857 Bundles of 37,500 yards, 1858 1859 1860 1861 Mr Corbet, in his report, dated Frankfort, 31st December, 1862, says : — " Excellent results are said to be attributed to the establishment of a school for weavers in the district of Lauter- bach. The disproportionate import-duty of two rix-doUars charged on Jute yarn, and of twenty silver groschens on Jute 08,142 Value, Dollars 200,452 98,276 194,666 83,785 172,343 71,505 129,575 68,491 „ 123,162 GERMAN LINEN. 273 weft, has exercised the unfavourable interest upon both the spinning and weaving interests which was to be expected ; and its effect was especially felt in the district, where the demand for sackcloth is large, caused by the export of com to France in 1861. There are numerous Linen manufacturing establish- ments in the districts of Upper Hesse." Mr Baillie, in his report, dated Stuttgardt, 31st January, 1863, says : — " The Linen market has for a time benefitted by the high price of cotton, and the production of 1861 con- siderably surpassed that of 1860. This manufacture, which had been abandoned of late years in some places, has now been resumed, and is likely to attain a still farther extension in Wiirtemberg, if not interrupted by political disturbances, and if peace is preserved. An establishment has lately been erected in Laichingen by a Stuttgardt house, in which about sixty looms for fine Linen and damask are now worked. Flax turned out well in most districts. The cultivation of Flax is advancing in Wiirtemberg, and derives additional stimulus from the cir- cumstances which now affect the cotton industry. The attention of agriculturists has latterly been specially drawn to the necessity of a change in the system hitherto adopted for the production of Flax, before its cultivation can be extended and rendered re- munerative. The Flax plant, when first gathered, contains an average of 12 to 15 per cent, of pure Flax capable of serving as raw material for spinning purposes, and, consequently, until the Flax has been prepared by the separation of its worthless parts, it is not current article of trade, and possesses no fixed market price, such as corn, &c. This is a great inconvenience to many farmers in every Flax growing country ; and, to obviate it, estab- lishments have been started for purchasing the straw from the farmers after harvest, preparing the fibre, and selling the Flax in a marketable state to the consumer. Such an establishment has been started at Wiirtemberg, and it is expected that it will lead to a large increase to the growth of Flax, and be highly beneficial to all concerned," &c. In classification of the abundance and quahty of the pro- duce of the land in Bavaria, where 1 stands for super-ex- cellent ; 2, excellent; 3, good or abundant; 4, middling; and 5, bad;— Flax and Hemp in 1862 stood thus: quality, s 274 MODERN LINEN. 2.34 ; quantity, 2.90, which ranges between excellent and abundant. The following are the number of looms employed in the manufacture of Linen in Prussia in the years named ; — In 1822— Constantly Employed, Employed part of the Year, auxiliary to Farming, In 1831 — Constantly Employed, Avcdliary to Farming, In 1834— Constantly Employed, Auxiliary to Farming, In 1838 — Constantly Employed, Auxiliary to Farming, Total, Total, Total, Total, 33,169 186,611 219,780 35,668 216,780 252,448 36,879 220,343 257,222 35,877 246,294 283,171 Of the whole number of looms, in 1838, 256,772 were in the valleys and villages of the country, and the remainder in the towns. In 1832, Linen yams to the extent of 1700 tons, and in 1834 to the extent of nearly 2000 tons, were exported from Silesia, chiefly to Bohemia, where they were woven into Linens, and re- imported in a brown state, to be bleached by the SUesian bleachers. The following statistics of the Linen trade in Prussia refer to the year 1849 :— Flax-Spinning MiUs 11, with 38,729 spindles— 2634 hands employed. Tow Do. Do., 4 „ 7,396 „ 380 „ „ Weaving Linen and Mixed Linen, 48,384 Looms — 56,037 „ ,, Auxiliary Do., Do., 274,096 , Linen Establishments, 274 „ 5896 „ „ The average value of Flax and Hemp, &c., annually exported from Memel prior to the Crimean war was about £200,000. In 1854 it was £2,129,137. From Konigsberg^ it rose from £30,000 to nearly £400,000. In 1850 there were in Prussia 38,254 first-class looms, and GEKMAN LINEN. 275 259,925 second-class looms, being considerably fewer than in 1849. In 1850 there were in Saxony 480 mills and manufac- tories, of which 35 were large, and 445 small. Mr Campbell, on the trade of Memel for 1862, says : — " The business done in Flax was of a very fluctuating nature. Towards the end of May large arrivals came in from Kussia and Poland, which overstocked the market. A lively demand sprang up in the English markets, and towards October stocks were cleared off. 4000 tons were exported during the year." " It is worthy of remark that the Flax which reached our market was the produce of the Eussian provinces which lie immediately in our vicinity. Our merchants used their best endeavours to obtain parcels of the fine Wilna Flax, which formerly found its way to Memel, but they were unable to procure it, the Bydlkuhu railway having conveyed it to Konigsberg during the months our market was inaccessible." Consul Huslet in his report on the trade of Konigsberg for 1861, says : — " The quantity of the Flax crop of 1860 was below an average, and the quality but second rate. The import from Eussia was— in 1860, 4294 tons, and in 1861, 4156 tons. The export by river and sea was insignificant, but that by railway to Germany was very important. Prices of Oberland crown Flax began with £43 per ton, rose to £44, and went down again to £43 10s. The Eussian crown sorts were quoted at £44 to £49 according to quality, but sank in autumn to £43 to £46. The demand was languid in general ; it was most lively from the beginning of August to the middle of September. The business in Linen is declining more and more, and no export worth men* tioning." The consul, in his report of the trade at Konigsberg for 1862, says that the " Linen manufacture in the province of Prussia is rapidly decreasing, and prices are almost too high for exportation." In 1859, the Linen manufactures of Bielefeld in Ebine Prussia, were in a very flourishing condition, and extending greatly. The following particulars are extracted from the report of Mr Lowther, Secretary of Legation at Berlin, dated 20th Jan., 1863 : " The export of Linen from Landesheet was unfavourable in 1861, owing to the American war, and the bad state of the money market in Havana. The trade with Hamburg was s 2 276 MODERN LINEN. small, but it was better witb Leipzio and Saxony. Large quan- tities of diaper were sent to Denmark, and also strong raw Linen. In 1861 the number of weaving chairs at work on raw Linen were 1628, on dowlas 1478 ; 563 weavers worked on their own account on raw Linen, and 63 on dowlas; and for wages, on raw Linen, 774, and on dowlas, 1171. Male and female assist- ants on raw Linen ; weavers, 622, winders, 813 ; on dowlas, 727 weavers and 848 winders. The number of wefts and pieces of raw Linen, 93,663, and dowlas, 57,297. ^' Ur/urt contedns factories for Linen goods, and bleachfields. Linen is only made in small quantities in Munster, and little is now exported to Holland. In Gorlitz the manufacture of Linen did not diminish in 1861, and, notwithstanding the increased price of yarn, there was no want of employment. " In Breslau the American war had a depressing effect upon the Linen trade. Silesia takes a large amount of Eussian Hemp, and small quantities from Hungary. Little business is done in Flax. The Linen trade of Silesia was fully employed, and the goods found a ready sale, but the prices were low, and the quality of the Flax was not remarkably good. " Bielefeld, Halle, and Wiedenbriick. — The Chamber of Com- merce states that in 1861 as in 1860 the Linen trade had not a proper impetus. ' Flax suffered from the wet spring of 1861, but not so much as in other parts of Germany, Belgium, and Holland, and the prices were good for the seller. Tow and Hemp were plentiful, There was not much done in the spin- neries, hand spinning being very much on the decrease. One spinnery in Bielefeld contains 8400 spindles, and occupied 600 people, and sold 17,392 centners (930 tons) of Flax and Tow. A spinnery in Rnavensberg set up 3000 spindles, in addition to the 16,000, but could not make use of them in consequence of the want of work people. It employed about 1100 operatives, consumed 15,850 centners (850 tons) of I'lax, 22,860 centners (1220 tons) of Tow, and produced about 360,252 bundles of yarn. The Schonfeld spinnery employed 3000 spindles, and consumed 12,000 centners (650 tons) of Flax and Tow.' Of foreign machine yarn there were imported, according to the West- phalian Custom House Report, in 1861, 2911 centners ; in 1860, 3114 centners; and in 1859, 5329 centners. String-making GEBMAN LINKN. 277 suffered from the American war. There was but little difference in the Linen trade of 1861 as compared with 1860 ; it feels the want of a proper impulse from Eussia. According to official lists, there were manufactured of Linen cloth and diaper — at Bielefeld, 35,618 pieces, and 31,103 in 1860 ; at Hereford, 5099 pieces, and 4495 in 1860. Total 40,717 pieces in 1861, and 35,598 in 1860. About 500 persons are employed in the Her- ford district in the mixed Linen trade, which suffered from the high price of twist. " Cologne. — The Flax harvest having been good the Linen trade was active, but on the whole the Linen trade has dimin- ished within the last fifteen years one-third." The exports of Flax and codilla from Prussia were as follows, viz : — In Flax. Codilla. 1835 Tons, 8,695 Tons, 326 1840 4,920 1,409 1845 ~ , 8,398 1,042 1850 11,236 1,022 1851 5,222 1,097 1852 9,289 884 1853 11,781 1,028 1854 33,386 1,829 1855 , 54,080 1,525 The great increase during 1854 and 1855 was due to the Crimean war. The Eussians could not export their produce from any of their own seaport towns, because their ports were all blockaded ; but Prussia, who selfishly stood neutral during that war, taking advantage of her geographical position and her ap- parent neutrality, profited largely by the transit of Eussian produce through the country, and its shipment at her ports. With the termination of the war the commerce of Eussia again reverted to its old channels, and her produce was shipped from her own ports. Since then the average exports of Flax and Codilla from Prussia have ranged from 10,000 to 12,000 tons, a great part of which, however, is still grown in Eussian provinces adjoining to Prussia. In Prussia, the employment of children in textile factories is subject to the provisions of a law of the 9th March 1839, and of another of 16th May 1853. The labour of children under 278 MODERN LINEN. twelve years of age is prohibited, and when that age has been attained they must produce, prior to employment, satisfactory evidence of school attendance and acquirement. From twelve to fourteen they must not work more than six hours daily, and they must attend school for other three hours. The statistics of Prussia, with regard to commerce are not given separately, but are included in the ZoUverein calculation. IMPOETS FOB CONSDMPTION, ExpOKia AND Tbansit Tkadb of the Geemauic Ukion. Imports. Bzports. Transit. 1331. 1840. 1834. 1840. 1834. 1840. Linen Yarns, unbleached, centners, . 34,108 40,506 25,429 29,567 226 920 Linen Tarns, bleached, and dyed thread. 7,976 6,671 6,348 2,140 1,282 578 Packing linen and Sail- cloth, 6,265 17,847 31,978 44,976 5,716 221 Unbleached Linen and Ticking, . 5,619 39,571 15,059 14,257 4,172 402 Bleached, Dyed and Print- ed Ticking, including Damaaks, Towelling, &c., . . . . 821 1,528 101,720 93,396 1.3,739 4,418 Flax, Hemp, and Tow, Owts. 168,441 234,357 126,629 162,009 7,808 1,895 The imports and exports of the ZoUverein for the years 1850 and 1853 were as follows : — Imports. Flax, Hemp, &c. . Linen Tarn, Linens, Exports. Flax, Hemp, &c. Linen Yarn— hand spun, Do. mill spun, Linens 1850. 1853. Tons. 13,500 3,350 1,610 13,900 6,600 4,300 5,700 815,750 427,750 358,390 835,520 70,000 52,100 2,222,100 Tons. 14,700 5,340 1,750 13,700 2,900 3,900 6,100 £ 576,740 585,990 442,220 534,410 44,200 59,500 2,264,400 In 1859, the imports into the ZoUverein of Flax, Hemp, &c., amounted to 14,040 tons, and the export of same articles to 7480 tons. GERMAN LINEN, 279 The quantity of Flax and Hemp imported into the Zollvereia in 1861 was 343,969 centners (about 18,430 tons), and ex- ported 269,750 centners (14,450 tons.) Some farther details regarding the imports and exports of Linen manufactures from and to the United Kingdom and Ger- many wiU be found in the statistical tables given in various parts of this volume. They do not, however, shew the full extent of the trade with Germany, as many of the yams and Linens destined for that great country go through Holland, Belgium, &c., and are included in the exports to these countries. Notwithstanding the large extent of the German Linen manu- facture, and its importance to this country, it might be greatly increased were the absurd fiscal restrictions which trammel and seriously injure the trade removed, or judiciously modified, and the unwise, and in some cases prohibitory duties reduced. Each Petty State has customs regulations, scales of duties, monies, weights, and measures of its own, which mistify and confuse merchants trading with them. The conservative and absolutist views of some of these insignificant States hinder the liberal countries of Germany from assimilating the tariff of the Zollve- rein to that of other nations, and from making it more in accord- ance with the free trade principles of the age. A treaty for a new and more liberal tariff with France has been in progress for some time, but it has not yet been fully carried through. The government of this country should not rest until a commercial treaty, mutually advantageous to Germany and to the United Kingdom, is concluded, and the trade thrown open to the people of both countries. Were this done, and care taken to have Linens and Linen yarns, including Jute fabrics, admitted at a moderate rate of duty, it would greatly benefit the Linen trade of this country, and be a boon to the people of Germany. Consul Ward, in his report on the trad^erof Hamburg for 1861, says : — " The Zollverein expires on 31st ^December 1865. Prussia will then have her hand free to establish as liberal a customs tariff as she pleases. It remains to be seen whether she will have the courage to risk the dissolution of the Union, and pro- ceed alone, if necessary, in the path of free trade. In Prussia and in all Northern Germany, pubUc opinion sets iu favour of the non-renewal of the Zollverein as at present constituted. 280 MODEBN LINEN. The principle of the decision of a majority is desired to be sub- stituted for that of an unanimity of votes." Were this alteration effected, the carrying of a liberal tariff by the more enlightened of the German States would follow as a certain result. GEEMAN FAXES. In Germany most extensive Fairs or markets are held periodi- cally at several places, where merchandize to a great value changes hands. Some of the Fairs in Germany were established more than 1000 years ago, and have been continued ever since- Many goods of almost every description are taken there in stock, but, in addition to these, large transations are entered into for delivery afterwards. Merchants from all parts of Germany, and also from aU the neighbouring countries, Kussia, France, Britain, &c., &c., attend at some of these Fairs. In 1842, about 750 tons of Linen goods, at the average price of 200 thalers per centner, value about £500,000, were imported for sale at the Easter Fair at Leipzig, about two-thirds of which were disposed of The total value of all the goods brought to that Fair was estimated at £4,905,000, and the money which changed hands about 3J millions sterhng, an astonishing amount to turn over during the few days the Fair lasts. The privileges which from time to time have been granted to the merchants attending those Fairs, and the exemption of the goods exposed for sale from many taxes which are levied on similar goods at other times, have drawn large quantities of merchandize to the Fairs. They have also tended to stimulate commercial enterprise, and to foster a spirit of freedom in Ger- many and in other countries, and they have helped to spread civilization throughout the world. The extraordinary extent of business still transacted annually at the Fairs in Germany may be imagined when it is stated that the value of goods, the produce or manufacture of the German Customs-Union, imported for sale at the Easter, Michaelmas, and New Year's Fairs at Leipzig in 1856, was £11,095,272 ; GEKMAN LINEN. 281 and of foreign goods, £4,045,893 ; total, £15,141,165. Two- thirds of the German, and seventeen-twentieths of the .foreign goods were sold. In these amounts are included Linens of German manufacture, of the value of about £600,000 ; bleached Linens of British manufacture, the whole of which were sold, of the value of £48,532, and Linen yarn, value £20,122 ; of which £12,060 was British manufacture. In the Fairs at Leipzig for 1858 the sales of Linens were quite up to the average, and British and Irish bleached Linens were then reported to be gaining ground in Germany. British Linen yarn and thread were also in good demand, and a large business was done in them. In 1857 the Linen trade at the Fairs there rose to its maximum, having been about one-sixth more than in 1856. In 1859 it had fallen about one-third from the point reached in 1857, but in 1860 it improved, the fall that year not being quite one-fourth below the highest point. In 1861 there was a slight improvement upon the previous year. This falling off in the imports into the Fairs did not arise from any diminu- tion in the supply from this country, as the quantity of British made goods was even greater than before. The Germans had shaken public confidence in their manufactures by mixing cot- ton with their Linens, which limited the sale of their goods. There was a want of confidence in the Kussians and Poles, and in some others who usually bought largely at these Fairs, which prevented sales being made on credit in 1860, and this tended to restrict business. The protective system of the German Cus- toms-Union, which checks the importation of foreign Linen Yarn, worked unfavourably for the Linen manufacturers and artizans of Germany, and did injury to the trade at the Fairs. In 1860, wages was so low as 2d to 3d for a day's work of sixteen hours, and the condition of the spinners by hand was even worse. In 1861 the home market had somewhat improved, but the export market had rather declined, or more business would have been done. The supply of damasks at the Leipzig Fair of 1861 , particu- larly from Gross Schonau, was largo, but the business in that article, which is one of luxury, was dull. There was a brisk demand for the ready-made clothes and shirts, which Bielefeld furnishes in large quantities. English Linen of the dearer 282 MODERN LINEN. qualities had a fair sale, and Irish goods, notwithstanding the high duties, beat the native articles at the Fairs. In French and Belgium goods there was no business, but a little was done in Dutch Linen. MUl spun yarns were abundant and sold cheap, whilst hand-spun yarn maintained a higher rate. The quantity of Linens, the manufacture of the States com- posing the German Customs-Union, brought to the Leipzic Fairs in 1862, was 1470 tons, and the sales were brisk. Of foreign Linen yarns the quantity at the Fairs was 110 tons, of which about 65 tons, value £10,095, were sold. About 70 tons of British bleached Linen, of the value of £32,468, was brought to the Fairs, and the whole was sold. HANSEATIC LEAGUE. The Hanseatic League was established in 1169 between Ham- burg and Lubeck, and they were shortly after joined by Bremen, and subsequently by other cities. The League was of great service in establishing and consolidating commerce in G-ermany and the north of Europe, and much of the prosperity of these countries is owing to the commercial enterprise of the Hanse Towns. Their sole aim and object was the cultivation and extension of trade and manufactures, of which Linen formed one of the most important articles, and the strength and energy of the united cities enabled the League to overcome aggression, oppression, and other difficulties which, singly, would have crushed the whole of them. The cities forming the League were the depots of merchandize from all quarters, and their ships navigated every sea. At one time from seventy to eighty of the cities in Germany were mem- bers of the League, which was then powerful enough to defend itself against all aggressors. They planted factories in London, Bruges, Bergen, and Novgorod, at each of which they carried on a most extensive trade, exchanging the surplus commodities of one country for those of the others, and vice versa. Through their instrumentality and fostering care the dense forests of Sweden, GERMAN LINEN. !?83 Poland, &c., gave place to smiling fields of corn, Flax, and Hemp ; and the inhabitants exchanged their dresses of skin for woven fabrics of Linen and wool. For many centuries the League played an important part in the commerce of Europe, and for a time ruled its destinies ; but by the progress of events, political and commercial, it was shorn of its ancient glory, and gradually its sun waned, and set. The Hanse towns now only comprise the three cities which first com- posed the League, and of these Hamburg alone can now be called a great city. Its trade is yet enormous, chiefly because it is the highway to a great part of Germany and central Europe ; and, true to its former instincts, it still does extensively in Linen manufactures. The following is a statement of the imports and exports of Hamburg, in as far as regards the Linen trade, for the years named : — IMPOETS. Flax, Hemp, &o., Linen Yarn, &o.. Linen, .... EXPOKTS. Flax, Hemp, &o. Linen Yarn, Linens, 1850. 1855. Tons. 1,170 2,830 5,400 1,030 2,450 3,310 £ 43,400 385,700 800,500 39,160 353,400 667,400 Tons. 2,430 3,540 4,800 1,880 3,440 3.830 £ 87,200 535,100 754,900 56,1.30 536,403 670,000 Of the Linen yarn imported into Hamburg in 1 850, five-sixths was from Great Britain, and one-sixth from Altona. In 1855 about three-fourths the quantity was from Great Britain, and nearly one-fourth from Altona, Of the Linens imported nearly one-half is by the Berlin Eailway, one-fifth from Great Britain, one-sixth from Harburg, and the balance from other countries. Of the yarn exported from Hamburg fully two-thirds goes by the Berlin Eailway, nearly one-fourth to Altona, and the balance to other countries. Of the Linens exported in 1855 fuUy 22 per cent went to Cuba, 16 per cent, to Altona, 8 J per cent, to St Thomas and Porto Eico, 8 per cent, by the Keil EaUway, 6J per cent, to Venezuela, 6J per cent, by the Berlin Eailway, fully 4^ per cent, to Norway, nearly 4^ per cent, to Brazil, fully 284 MODERN LINEN. 4 per cent, to the west coast of South America, and the balance to various other countries. In 1859 the Linens imported amounted to 5725 tons, of the value of £916,759. In 1860 the imports from the United Kingdom of Linen yarn and thread were 3820 tons, value £522,700, and Linen and Linen manu- factures, value £377,400. The exports cannot be ascertained, because, since the export duty was abolished, no accounts, official or otherwise, have been kept, but they are supposed to bear the usual proportion to the imports, which are steadily on the in- crease. The following reports, written from inspection, on the yarns and Linens from Germany shown in the International Exhibition of 1862, give some idea of the state of excellence to which the manufacture has attained in that country. " Hanover exhibits a small but very good assortment of Flax, yarns, and Linens. The Flax is in various stages of preparation, strong, of very fine fibre, and really excellent quality. The yarns comprise both Flax and tow qualities, and are very uniform and well spun. The Linens are of various qualities, brown and bleached, comprising sheetings, shirtings, damasks, &c. They are well manufactured, highly bleached, the damasks of pretty de- signs, and all nicely finished and tastefuUy done up." "Prussia takes a high rank among Linen producers, and makes an excellent appearance in the Exhibition. Numerous speci- mens of Flax are shown from different districts of that kingdom. It is well cleaned and heckled, and some of it of very fine quality. The yarns are shown in the green and bleached states, and spun from both Flax and Tow. Many of the samples are ad- mirably spun, and well bleached. Of Linens there is an excel- lent display. Flax-sailcloth is shown in two or three qualities by different manufacturers. The quality is generally very good, and some of the specimens are highly superior, being made of excellent material, the yarn level and well boiled, and the cloth firmly and carefully manufactured. Sheetings, shirtings, ducks, diapers, damasks, and other Linens, in considerable variety, are exhibited. Some of them are in the rough or loom state, and others are bleached and finished. While some of the specimens AUSTRIAN LINEN. 285 do not possess great merit, others are of first-rate excellence, and not in any respect behind the same class of goods made in this country. Some of the damasks are of splendid designs, and the bleaching is remarkably good and clear. There are some very pretty specimens of indigo-dyed, and also of printed Linens. Many of the goods are highly finished, and got up with good taste. The display is altogether very creditable to Prussia, as it is reaUy very excellent." " Saxony has a small display of Linens, comprising sailcloth of very good quality ; twilled sacking for railway covers, &c., which are well and carefully made ; dowlas, bleached, striped, and checked, made up as creas, lestados, &c., and also sheetings, of beautiful colour and finish ; and diapers and damasks of pretty patterns and designs, and of high colour and excellent quality." CHAPTER IV. AUSTRIAN LINEN. Austria has been long famous for its Linens, but it has never exported either yarn or Linens largely, the manufacture hitherto having to a great extent been confined to the supply of its local consumption. The high duties charged on the importation of these articles from other countries have been almost prohibitory, and comparatively few foreign Linens have found their way thither. Both the exports and imports of Linens have therefore been almost at zero hitherto The quantity of Linen yarn im- ported is also much smaller than might have been expected, con- sidering the extent of the population of the country, and that many of them are a Linen wearing people. Details of the im- ports and exports are given below. Austrian Flanders was among the first countries which, after the dark ages, began the manufacture of Linens in Western Europe. Austrian Hainault and Brabant were also famous for 286 MODERN LINEN. their Linen manufactures at an early period, the city of Louvain alone having, in the 14th century, employed 150,000 weavers in its Linen and -woollen manufactures. These countries are not now numbered among the dominions of Austria. In 1764, Vienna exported Linens, probahly by the Danube and also through Trieste. Among the exports from the latter port in the present time are enumerated Hemp, Linen manufactures, and Linen bags. Hemp is grown largely, and of good quality, in Hungary, Transylvania, &c. Flax is cultivated largely in many districts of Austria, and in some of them to a very great extent. The quantity of Flax and Hemp grown in the Austrian Empire in 1854 was 146,090 tons ; in 1859, 147,840 tons, and it is computed that the quantity has since increased to about 150,000 tons. The quantity of linseed and hempseed raised in 1854 was 5,372,680 bushels ; and in 1859, 3,886,200 bushels. Mr Fane, Her Majesty's Secretary of the Embassy at Vienna, in his report, dated 31st December 1862, says : — " A great part of the manufacturing industry of Austria has been created by artificial means, and is only maintained by high protective duties, and thus the community pay heavily for the benefit of the limited class of manufacturers." It would thus appear that the Linen manufacture of Austria is not in a healthy position. The Government desires that Austria should be dependent on itself alone for its textile fabrics, and, while governed by such a spirit, neither an export nor an import trade of any extent need be looked for. Such a doctrine may do in an absolute country like Austria, but it is contrary to the spirit of the age, and with people living under such a law great progress is an impossibility, as fair competition only will stimulate to first-rate excellence in any branch of manufactm-e. The Linen manufactures of Austria are not confined to any one province of that great empire, but they are established throughout nearly all of them. Kreusberg of Prague says, that in 1835 about 280,000 persons were employed in the Linen manufacture, including those in regular factories, as well as those in farm houses partially employed in husbandry, but pro- bably the number now very considerably exceeds this, as the trade has been on the increase. AUSTRIAN LINEN. 287 There are yet few large Linen spinning or weaving establish- ments by power in the Austrian Empire, but no doubt the manufacturers of that country, as they have hitherto done, will endeavour to keep pace with other nations, and extend with the wants of the trade. In Austrian Silesia, there are spinning mills at Freudenthal, Engelsberg, and SchonHnde ; and the first two places also make excellent Linens. Several towns in Bohemia have spinning-miUs and Linen weaving establishments, such as Hohenelbe, Mark- low, Garten, Rumburg, Nachod, Liebenau, &c. Linens are also made at Liebau, Sternberg, &c., in Moravia, in Vienna, and in many other places of the Austrian Empire, and, from the great quantity of Flax grown, the total Linen manufactures of the country must be very large, and of the value of more than ten millions sterling per annum. Comparatively few of the Linens made in Austria are exported, their domestic consumption must therefore be enormous. A large proportion of the Linen manufacture of Austria is stiU carried on in the primi- tive method common to Scotland last century. The Flax is grown by smaU farmers, spun on the common hand wheel by their wives and daughters during the winter, and woven in the houses of the peasants, partly by those who follow weaving as a trade, but chiefly by hinds when not engaged in field work. Linens when imported into Austria, but not including canvas or Linen thread and yarns, have to be entered under special permit, so that the Government may have the power of prohi- biting their importation altogether, if so inclined. Flax and Hemp passing through Austria pay a transit duty of 2 kreutzers (or the 15th part of a shUling) per centner of 123^ lb. Manufactures of Linen and Hemp, 27 kreutzers (lOfd) per centner. The imports and exports of Flaxen fibres and manufactures in the years 1856 to 1859 inclusive, were as follows : — IMPORTS. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859. Flax, Hemp, Manilla ) Tons, 11,375 10,637 10,676 9,635 Hempf&c, ; Value, L 309,438 L.289,392 L.385,438 L.347,372 f Tons, 2,276 2,241 2,895 1,600 Linen Yarn, ■ ■ •{ Value, L 193,339 L.190.720 L.259,32I L. 146,071 Linen Manufactures, J Tons, 252 237 175 159 Lace, &o,, I Value, L.b7,429 L.63,326 L.51,915 L.33,966 288 MODERN LINEK. EXPORTS. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859. „, , „ ( Tons, 2,723 2,8B0 2,936 3,866 Flax and Hemp, . ^ Yalue, L.98,874 L.10.%748 Ii.l06,480 L.139,983 ^. „ f Tons, 857 1,153 1,488 805 Lmen Yam, • • • ■( Value, L.75,627 L.97,644 L.134,462 L. 78,317 T- Mo„„f„„t„^„= i Tons, 3,160 3,190 3,015 3,356 Lmen Manufactures, j -y^^^'^^ L.655,078 L.66l,942 L.648,054 L.737,741 In 1860 and 1861 the imports and exports of yarns and woven fabrics, as given by Mr Fane, sbow an increase on the total ; but as the report does not give the quantities of each textile fabric separately, it is uncertain what progress may have been made in Linen yarns or Linens. The quantity and value of the Flax and Hemp, and of the Linen manufactures, conveyed in transit through the Austrian Empire for the same years, were — 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859. ™ , rr S Tons, 8,479 7,118 7,910 7,940 Hax and Hemp, . -J y^j^e, L.230,670 L.193,686 L.286,924 L.288,064 ,. ,, - i f Tons, 760 761 429 256 Lmen Manufactures, | y^^j^g^ L 551,920 L.552,320 L.311,600 L. 186 280 In 1850 there were 1500 Flax spinning mills and manufac- tories in Austria, some of them of large and others of small size, and since then they have been largely increased, both in number and extent. Some excellent specimens of Austrian Linen were shown in the Great Exhibition of 1862, and the following short report, written after an inspection of the goods, conveys some idea of the attainments of the Linen manufacturers in Austria at that period. From various causes Great Britain has little to fear from the competition of that Empire ; still, even the most ad- vanced of the manufacturers of Leeds, Belfast, or Dundee, may learn something from the study of Austrian Linens. " A considerable quantity of Flax yarn and Linens, spun and manufactured chiefly in Bohemia and Silesia, are shown in the Exhibition. The yarns are exhibited in the natural, bleached, and dyed states. Some of the specimens are admirably spun, and would do no discredit to the mills of Dundee, Leeds, or Belfast. The art of bleaching and dyeing is well known in Bohemia and Silesia, the colours produced being first-class. The Linens comprise sheetings, fine shirtings, diapers, damasks. DUTCH LINEN. 289 and various other fabrics. They are manufactured with much care, the cloth being well driven up and uniform throughout, and the selvages neatly formed. Some of the goods are of com- mon quality, and some of them of great fineness. The bleach- ing and finish of the finer goods are highly commendable, and contrast very favourably with similar goods made in this country. Some beautiful damask curtains and table Linens are shown, of very rich and lovely designs, and of most superior quality. The Linens exhibited in the Austrian department are possessed of much excellence, and do great honour to the various houses pro- ducing them, as well as to the sections of that empire in which they are made." CHAPTER V. DUTCH LINEN. Holland, although a small and naturally a poor country, a land of sand hardly recovered from the ocean, was early celebrated for her trade and commerce, and for the great wealth which these brought her people. The indomitable love of the Flem- ings and Dutch for civil and rehgious liberty, and consequent hatred of tyranny and oppression, made them both feared and respected by other nations. They have ever been famed for in- dustry and frugality, and for great perseverance in the pursuit of gain. The wealth, once acquired, was handed down from sire to son, increasing as it rolled on, until in many cases it attained colossal proportions. Their hberal and enlightened commercial policy enabled them to make the most of the vast capital at their disposal, until in time they became the richest people in Europe. The history of Holland in the middle ages admirably exem- 290 MODEBN LINEN. plifies the advantages which flow from commercial freedom, and from the absence of all restrictions on trade. Trade to be pros- perous must be free, and if free, it requires no protection, no fostering care, no adventitious aid. The love of gain is sufficient stimulus to urge the merchant on to success, just as the desire for fame impels the warrior to deeds of glory. One country possesses a superfluity of some commodities, and another of others, the interchange of which is advantageous to both. The trader, if let alone, speedily discovers this, and becomes the medium of exchange, to the benefit of both countries, and to his own profit. In Holland, liberty and commerce went hand in hand, until her cities became the depots of the world, and all nations were her customers. The Flemings enjoyed commercial freedom before the Dutch, and were justly jealous of their privileges. When Edward I. of England levied tolls and impositions on foreign merchants, ves- sels and goods, he solicited Eobert, Earl of Flanders, to prohibit all trade with the Scots. The Earl replied " Our country of Flanders is common to all the world, and every person finds in it free admission." The reply is what might be expected from, and would be worthy of, Britain in the present day. It re- flects immortal honour on the noble Earl who spoke it. Austrian Flanders was perhaps the earliest of any country, without the Mediterranean, which began the manufacture of Linens on a large scale, after the dark ages which so long bound Europe as it were in a gloomy prison. Before 1253 the Linen manufacture had been carried to great perfection in Flanders, and the material employed was of the finest quality. Many of the goods made were exported to Eng- land and to other countries. Bj the vast woollen and Linen manufactures of Flanders and Brabant, these countries acquired great commercial importance and much wealth during the 13th century, and their ports were crowded with shipping both of their own and of other countries! The city of Bruges, which had been founded in 760, gradually rose to great importance. In 1 385 it attained the zenith of its pros- perity, having been at that period the centre of all the commerce of Christendom. It then exported Linens largely, and in 1437 it was still noted for its export of fine Linen. About 1487 much DUTCH LINEN. 291 of its commerce was removed to Dort, and thence soon after to Antwerp, which then began to be the emporium of Europe. The cause was a dispute between the inhabitants and the Emperor, who, with the assistance of Antwerp and Amsterdam, blocked up Sluyce, its proper harbour, and so destroyed its commerce. The city of Ypres in Flanders was built in 960, and has been long famous for its table Linen manufacture, commonly called Diaper (i.e.) Cloth D'Ypres. Louvain, in Austrian Brabant, was very celebrated for its woollen and Linen manufacturesi which, in the beginning of the 14th century, maintained 150,000 weavers. De "Witt says, " the province of Holland enjoyed little trade be- fore the beginning of the 14th century, because its feudal lords oppressed and overawed the people, and would not allow the citizens to wall their towns for security, as was the case then with Haarlem, Amsterdam," &c. This statement shows the advantages which the trade of Holland derived from its munici- pal cities, and commerce in other lands has also benefited by the protection they afforded. They were a check and safeguard against the extortions of the barons, and enabled the people to prosecute their trade in peace. He also says that " in the 14th century the cloth halls of the Netherland cities, by making restrictive laws, under pretence of preventing deceit by the debasing of manufac- tures, drove much of the weaving trade into the villages, from which it was again driven by the wars between France and Flan- ders to Louvain and other towns in Brabant." And " that the Brabanters, in turn, no wiser than the Flemings, by the same means drove many of their weavers into England." About the 10th century the woollen cloth manufactures of the Flemings had gained a high name in Britain and in Germany, and large quantities of them were exported in exchange for the products of these lands. About the beginning of the 14th century, the manufacture of woollen cloth was introduced into Holland by weavers from Brabant and Flanders, and before the end of that century the towns of Holland had become strong and had acquired great power and influence. For several centuries thereafter the Dutch and Flemish looms clothed the greater part of Europe, and it was from them that Britain and other countries learned the art of manufacturing textile fabrics. T 2 292 MODERN LINEN. For a long period the Dutch imported the raw material for their manufactures, spun and weaved it, and returned the cloth to the countries whence it was received, in the same way as is done in Britain at the present day. In that early period they had no competitors for their woven fabrics, consequently they had the control of the various markets of the world, and could command their own terms. It may therefore be imagined that their profits were handsome, and the trade well worth culti- vating. Louis Guiciardini, in his description of the Nether- lands in 1560, says : — " It has no wine growing in it, yet they have plenty of that fine liquor ; nor Flax of their own growth, yet they make the finest Linen of any in the universe. They have no wool, either in good quality or quantity, yet make infi- nite quantities of good cloths. They grow no timber, yet they use more for ships, dykes, &c., than perhaps all the rest of Europe together." Strong testimony of their industry and commercial en- terprise. The same writer says : — " Antwerp was then the great em- porium of the world, 400 or 500 ships being in the harbour in one day, and merchants from the principal nations of the world resided there." In enumerating the exports, he says they sent Linen, tapestry, &c., toEome ; to Ancona, English and Flemish cloths, stuffs, Linen, tapestry, &c. ; to Bologna, Naples, and Sicily, the same ; to Milan, in addition to these goods, they sent Enghsh and Spanish " woolinens" ? The same goods were ex- ported to Florence, Genoa, &c., &c. Antwerp also exported FJax, &c., to Italy. To Germany she exported a very large quantity of Linens, &c. To Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Eastland, Livonia, and Poland, Linens, &c. She imported from these countries, particularly Eastland and Poland, Flax, &c., to a large amount. To France she exported great quantities of fine Linens, getting back in return immense quantities of canvas and strong Linens from Bretagne and Normandy. To England, Scotland, and Ireland, she exported Linens. He estimated the exports and imports to and from England at twenty-four million guilders, or £2,400,000. To Spain, Portugal, and Barbary, Linens and Flax thread," &c., &c. He also says that " Bois-le-duc was then the seat of a great many manufactures, among others 20,000 pieces of Linen, DUTCH LINEN. 293 wortli, on an average, ten crowns eacli, were made annually." At Novelle (five leagues from Brussels), he says " they made great quantities of very fine cambric, and also at Cambray, which ori- ginally gave its nameto that fine manufacture. At Courtenay they made fine Linen for the table. At Teel, Linen cloth and buck- ram. At Ghent, the cloth named from that city, Ghenting, in immense quantities, also fine Linen of many sorts, woollen also, and tapestries, fustians, buckrams," &c. Of Amsterdam, Guiciardini says they have no Flax of their own growth, yet make the finest Linen in the universe. This may be true, but in 1560 great quantities of Flax were raised in some parts of Holland. Leyden was early distinguished for its woollen manufactures, and in order to maintain the reputation of Leyden cloths they were, in 1482 subjected to inspection by the Government autho- rities, something in the same way as Linens were in Scotland at a much later period. In 1570 the revolt of the Netherlands against Spain began. In 1585 the sacking of Antwerp by the Spanish soldiery, drove the trade of that city, and of the manufactures of Brabant and Flanders, into England and Holland. Many of the woollen manufacturers settled at Leyden ; the Linen spinners and wea- vers at Haarlem and Amsterdam ; and more than one-third of those who worked and traded in serges, stockings, flannels, taf- fetas, silks, and damasks fled to England. Gerard Malynes says that four -fifths of the merchandize sold in Antwerp, before' its sacking by the Duke of Parma in 1585, were English. In 1595 the Dutch began to trade with India, and in 1601 they opened up a trade with Japan, sending out Linens, woollen cloths, &c. ; but, by the end of the century, the trade was almost annihi- lated. In a manuscript, submitted by Sir Walter Ealeigh, shortly before his execution, to James I., the great extent of the trade ot Holland is graphically detailed, and had this monarch carried out the recommendations of that great man, they would have advanced the prosperity of Great Britain in a wonderful degree, but they were disregarded. In the middle of the I7th century, although the Dutch had no native commodities of their own, having imported their Plax, Hemp, &c., yet their commerce was greater than all the rest of 294 MODEKN LliifEN. Europe together. This prosperity was increased by the great influx of men from Germany, France, and England, whence they were driven by religious persecutions, and civil wars. The security afforded by the Government of Holland drew many of the best people thither, and as they had to work for their sus- tenance, it added to the general opulence. Each town had then its own particular commerce or staple, which they brought to the greatest height of improvement. Haarlem had the manu- facture of Linen, mixed stuffs, and flowers. Holland was not, however, destined to continue a great manu- facturing country. The dearness of labour, high taxes, and circumstances peculiar to the country, were unfavourable to the production of woven fabrics. They owed their manufactur- ing prosperity to the commotions and persecutions in other lands, particularly in France, Spain, and Flanders. As more peaceful times dawned in England and France, manufactures, aided by improved machinery, took root and prospered there, As manufactures rose in these countries, they declined in Hol- land, until at last they only retained those which were not exposed to the competition of other nations. It is thus evident that Holland was more adapted by position, and by the commer- cial spirit of her citizens, for being a trading, rather than a manu- facturing country. The wars with Britain and other countries, which followed the season of prosperity in the Netherlands, did irreparable injury to her manufactures. These wars interrupted trade, caused heavy losses by captures at sea and otherwise, and greatly increased taxation. Voltaire says, " it is war alone that improvishes a nation," and certainly war all but ruined the Netherlands. Her trade declined, her capital had to seek employment abroad, and it nourished the growing trade of those countries in which it was invested, and enabled them to become rivals to the Dutch them- selves. In 1765 there was exported from Kotterdam 2500 to 2700 tons of Flax, and 17,000 hogsheads of Flax seed, value about 50s each, or £42,500 ; and Dort exported from 500 to 600 tons of Flax. At this time English printed Linens and calicoes, being the common summer dress in Holland, were in every shop in the country, and no attempts to imitate them had hitherto sue- DUTCH LINEN. 295 ceeded. At this period Linens were exported from the province of Holland, Haarlem (and bleaching Linens), Amsterdam, and Priesland, the latter being specially noted for its Linens, then the finest in Em'ope. In the palmy days of Holland its Linen trade was large and important, not only supplying the home demand, but affording, as above narrated, great quantities for export to other countries. It declined with the general trade of the country, which in 1795 had become completely paralyzed. After the peace of 1815 the Linen trade began to revive, and it subsequently increased to a very important extent, especially in Flanders. The separation of Belgium from Holland, took place on 15th November, 1831. The two countries have since been distinct, and a short notice of Belgium, subsequent to the separation, will be given in another chapter. There are still some Linens manufactured in Haarlem, but the quantity is unimportant, the bleaching of Linens is, however still extensively carried on. In some other places a few are made, chiefly for home consumption. In Friesland a large quantity of superior Flax is grown, and at Leeuwarden and Harlingen canvas and Linen are manufactured, but not on a large scale. Some Linens are also made in Zwolle. The province of North Brabant is the seat of a considerable Linen trade, chiefly for home use. It is made by the small farmers when not en- gaged in field labour, the yarn being spun by their wives and daughters, by the common hand-wheel, and from their own Flax. Bois-le-duc, in that province, has long lost its former celebrity for Linens, but a considerable number of the peasants are stiU en- gaged in Linen weaving in their own cottages, and they bring the produce of their labour to an annual fair, which is held in that town on St John's day. Holland not being now a manufacturing country, domes- tic fabrics receive little protection from its customs' tariff". From and after 1st November, 1862, Linen and Jute yarns were admitted free of duty. Sail twine pays f. 1.00 per 100 lbs. Linen and all manufactures of Flax, Hemp, and Tow, pay 5 per cent, ad valorum, excepting sail-cloth, which pays if. 0.30 per roll of 42 ells, and when beyond that length, 60 cents. These particulars are taken from "The Tariff for the 296 MODERN LINEN. Netherlands," kindly supplied by Mr Thorns, the Vice Consul at Dundee. Linens can therefore be imported into Holland at a lower price than they can be produced there, and, as will be seen by the Board of Trade returns, given in another portion of this volume, the Dutch are very good customers to the United Kingdom. In 1841 the value of Linen yam and Linens imported, ex- ported, and sent through Holland, was as follows : — YARNS. Yarns, raw, ..... Imports Jths from England, Transit almost all to Germany, Yarns for Sewing .... Imports |ds from England, Transit jths to Germany. Yarns for Weaving, . . Imports ith from England, Transit all to Germany. Manufactures of Elax, &o., Raw and bleached, 166,500 Imports nearly all from Germany, Exports and Transit to various countries. Do. Dyed and Printed, Imports Iths from Germany. Do. Table and Napkin Cloths, white or damask, 12,500 Imports almost all from Germany. Do. Bed Ticks. .... Some other manufactures of Flax, Hemp, &c., came from Ger- many, Russia, England, &c., and were chiefly used for home con- sumption. There were then no mills for spinning Linen yarns, or Linen weaving-factories in HoUand, excepting a few in Overyssel and North Brabant, and they were not extensive. The very large quantities of Jute yarn exported from the United Kingdom (chiefly from Dundee), to Holland, is wrought up into cotton and coff'ee bagging and other fabrics, to a great extent by those confined in the prisons and houses of correction. The bulk of it is sent out to the colonial possessions of the Dutch in the East Indies. The quantity required for this pur- pose is very great, and likely to increase. In 1858 there was imported into HoUand 1,145,600 bags of East India, and 17,600 bags of West India cofl'ee, of which the Netherland Trading Company imported 1,120,900 bags. The value of the ordinary Linen goods exported to Java and the other Dutch possessions Imports. EXPOETS. Teansit. £83,300 £570 £43,300 25,000 500 6,250 23,000 860 8,300 166,500 2,100 8,300 16,650 ... 8.50 k, 12,500 166 250 11,000 ... 450 DUTCH LINEN. 297 in the Eastern Archepelago is 62 per cent, of tlie whole export ; while the value of the imports in this branch is nearly double that of the exports. Hitherto there had been no law in Holland akin to the Fac- tory Act of this country, but recent enquiries have been made by some parties in that country regarding the working of the Act here, with the view of its introduction there. In 1862 men and boys employed at weaving wrought 10 hours a day as a minimum, to 14 hours as a maximum ; women and girls, 10 to 13 ; and children, 9 J to 13 hours. Men, lads, women, girls, and children, at spinning, 10 to 13 hours ; less about 2| hours a-day for meals. Wages — ^men, lOd to Is 8d a-day ; women, 7d to Is 8d ; lads, 5d to Is 8d ; girls and chil- dren, 2J to 8d. The imports into and exports from Holland for the years noted, were as follows : — IMPOKTS. 1850. 1855. . Total Imports Entered for Total Entered including Home Con Imports. for Con- Transit. sumption. sumption Linen Tarn, Kaw, . L.137,362 L. 71, 623 L. 94,942 L. 64,456 Do., Other kinds, Tons 172 Tons 105 Tons 188 Tons 102 Linens. . L. 154,668 L.137,566 L.156,842 L. 136,476 Sackcloth, . Ps. 7390 Ps. 7220 Ps. 15,763 Pa. 15,184 Flax, . Tons 458 Tons 269 Tons 1,128 Tons 1,059 Hemp, . „ 1,712 „ 1,604 „ 3,425 „ 3,465 EXPORTS. 1850. 1855. From Holland. Transit. From Holland Transit. Flax, . . Tons 9,898 Tons 214 Tons 12,857 Tons 68 Linen Yam, Eaw, L.2,205 L.65,712 L. 2,114 L.29,307 Do. Other Kinds, Tons 15 Tons 76 Tons 11 Tons 97 Linens, . L.69,248 L. 16,368 L. 57,549 L.20,263 Sackcloth, . Ps. 3,175 Ps. 125 Ps. 2,439 Ps. 575 The quantity ol Flax and Hemp grown in Holland for the years noted was as follows : — 1852. 1853. 1854. Flax, . Tons 12,918 Tons 6,341 Tons 6,586 Hemp, . „ 1,152 „ 1,210 „ 1,568 The value of the Flax exported to Great Britain in 1859 was 298 MODERN LINEN. £254,802. The value of the Linens imported in 1860 was £171,442, and exported £75,364. Mr Ward, Her Majesty's Secretary of Legation at the Hague, in his report dated 27th June, 1862, says : — " There are no statistics on the manufacturing industry of the Netherlands made up, and any abstracts got are necessarily imperfect and incomplete." No positive reliance can therefore be made on the figures given above, although they are believed to be, on the whole, substantially correct. CHAPTEE VL BELGIAN LINEN. After the separation of Belgium and Holland, the government of the former kingdom paid great attention to the manufactures of the country. The cultivation of Flax received much en- couragement, and large quantities have long been regularly grown in both East and West Flanders, and in other provinces in the kingdom The quality of the Flax raised is highly ex- tolled, and it commands a comparatively high price in all countries. Large quantities of the Flax grown is consumed at home, but it is also exported extensively to the United King- dom, France, and other countries. From time immemorial the Flemings have been famous for their mode of cultivating, preparing, and dressing Flax, which is not surpassed, if indeed equalled, in any other country. Some account of the various processes employed there having already been given in the chapter on Flax culture, it is unnecessary to say more on the subject here. The farmers who grow the Flax have generally small hold- ings, and much of the work connected with its preparation is BELGIAN LINEN. 299 performed by the members of their own family. They also spin and weave a sufficient quantity of it for domestic wear, and sometimes also for sale in the home market. In addition to the quantity thus produced, there are large establishments for the spinning and weaving of Linens in various parts of the country. The chief seats of the plain Linen manufactures are Ghent, Oudenarde, Kenaix, G-rammont, Lokeron, and Alost, in East Flanders ; Thielt and Eoulers, in West Flanders ; Malines, and Turnhout, in Antwerp, and Ath in Hainault. Courtrai, Brus- sels, and, Bruges, are celebrated for lace, thread, ticking, and checks, &c. The machinery for the spinning and weaving factories in Belgium is of the best construction, and with all the recent im- provements, a great part of it having been supplied by the best makers in Leeds and other towns in this kingdom. At one period large quantities of the yarn spun was exported to France, but the high duties charged by France nearly put a stop to the trade. The recent alterations in the French tariff will no doubt again open the door to the Belgium spinners, and enable them to send part of their surplus production thither. Consider- able quantities of Belgian yarn are annually exported to this country, and used in some of the manufactures of Leeds and Belfast. Belgium also imports a good deal of Linen yarn from the United Kingdom, part of which is used in her manufac- tures, and part sent on to Germany. The qiiantity of Linen manufactured annually in Belgium, exclusive of what is made in the houses and worn by the farmers of Flanders, was stated to amount to about 750,000 pieces in 1840. Since then the production has increased very largely, and the increase would appear to be progressive. According to French official accounts the value of the imports from Belgium of the following articles entered for consumption in 1839 was — Flax, £24,997; Linen yarn, £89,689; Linen, £440,915; lace of Linen thread, £91,393; Imseed, £136,623; total, £783,617; besides articles of same class introduced by contraband. The process of bleaching in Belgium is much and deservedly extolled, as the colours produced are very pure and bright. The water in some of the rivers would appear to be admirably adapted, not only for steeping Flax, but also for bleaching both 300 MODEEN LINEN. Linen yarn and cloth, and no doubt this circumstance helps to bring out the high colours for which the Belgian bleachers are so celebrated. There is a bleaching establishment worked by- steam at Antwerp, and others in different parts of the country. In 1856 the numbers engaged in the Linen and Hempen manufactures of Belgium amounted to 199,779 people, of whom 86,663 were males, and 113,116 females. The quantity and real value of the Linen importations into Belgium for the five years ending 1860 were as follows : — FLAX. 1856. 1857. 1868. 1859. 1860. Quantity, Tons, 6900 7420 10,710 8425 9730 Eeal Value, L.482,567 L.452,291 L.652,390 L.581,600 L.592,600 HEMP. Quantity, Tons, 1410 2380 1345 2365 1915 RealValae, L.53,366 L.89,836 L.50,914 L.80,752 L.65,289 LINEN YARNS. Quantity, Tons, 616 663 1246 618 448 Eeal Value, L.10L990 L.110,090 L.259,275 ' L.125,694 L.91,008 LINENS. Quantity, Tons, 116 124 116 151 293 Keal Value, L.101,076 L.89,832 L.73,306 L.86,775 L.119,173 Besides Linen, lace and tulle, and mixed Linen, and cotton small wares. The quantity of Flax, and Hemp, and manufactures thereof, imported into Belgium ("Special Trade") was, in 1861, 19,006 tons, value, £1,030,720. In 1862 the quantity was 18,373 tons. Of the Hemp imported nearly one-half was from Great Britain, about one-fourth from Eussia, and about one-eighth from Austria. Of the Flax, about one-half was from Eussia, and the bulk of the remainder from Holland. Almost the whole of the Linen yarn imported was from Great Britain. The Linen exports for the same period consisted of — HEMP. 1856. Quantity, Tons, 421 Eeal Value, L 15,912 1857. 1858. 274 183 L.10,362 L.6943 FLAX. 1859. 218 L.7436 1860. 227 L.7745 Quantity, Tons, 12,600 Real Value, L.869,631 14,806 14,941 L.901,725 L.910,555 12,394 L. 855. 457 16,840 L. 1,025,561 BELGIAN LINEN. 3U LINEN YAKNS. 1856. :857. 1858. 1859. 1860. Quantity, Tons, 1961 2480 1777 2241 3273 Eeal Value, L. 311,547 L. 403,606 L 355,856 LINENS. L. 444,530 L. 623,481 Quantity, Tons, 3344 3466 3358 3339 4306 Eeal Value, L.676,688 L.1,206,392 L.1,136,011 L. 1,096,193 L.1,139,289 Besides Linen, lace and tulle, of the average value of about £40,000 yearly. The exports from Belgium in 1861 were — Flax and Hemp 17,792 tons, value £1,134,440 ; Linen yarns, 2610 tons, value £512,200 ; Linens, 4410 tons, value £1,131,240. In 1862 the quantities were — Flax and Hemp, 19,340 tons; Linen yarn, 2860 tons ; Linens, 4240 tons. Mr Barron, Secretary of Legation at Brussels, in his report, dated 25th Feb., 1863, (from which the above statistics relating to 1861 and 1862 are taken), says : — " In official parlance the ' special ' trade comprises only imports for home consumption, and exports of native produce. My tables are all intended to depict the ' special ' trade only ; but great quantities of goods not liable to duty, especially Flax, &c., pass in and out of Belgium as if intended for home consumption, and then as if native produce, and thus completely vitiate the returns of the special imports and exports." He farther says : — " The exports of Linen yarns and tissues alone amounted in 1861 to f. 41,000,000. If to this be added the value of Flax and Hemp exported, viz., f. 28,300,000, we should arrive at the prodigious amount of nearly f. 70,000,000 as the aggregate value of these fibres exported from Belgium in a raw or manufactured state. It is true some foreign Flax is confounded with these exports. The finest Flax in the world is grown in Flanders. This is evidently the most important in- dustry of Belgium in exportable value. It has profited largely by the cotton crisis. " Another staple industry of Belgium, the Lace trade shares in the general languor. The manufacture of Valenciennes lace alone occupies 50,000 women in the two Flanders, and repre- sents a value of nearly f. 20,000,000 per annum. De Bruxelles is another national lace which is unsurpassed in any other country, &c. " The extensive Linen mills existing in Ghent have afforded a resource to many cotton workers. 302 MODEBN LINEN. " Tiie new tariff on Linens is from 10 to 20 per cent. Although it offers no real reciprocity it is some improvement on the pre- vious regime, and is even more liberal than the new French tariff, which has already proved beneficial to the English trade." Of the Flax exported, on the average fully one-half is to France, and three-eighths to G-reat Britain. Of the yams about one-half is to France, three-eighths to Prussia, and one- eighth to HoUand ; and of the Linens about one-third is to France, one-fourth to HoUand, and one-fifth to Prussia. The recent progress and present state of the Linen manufac- ture in Belgium was well exemplified by the goods shown in the International Exhibition of 1862. The yarns and Linens ex- hibited gave indisputable evidence of the skill displayed in their production, and the excellence which the manufacture has at- tained in that country, proving unquestionably that Belgium is no mean competitor with the United Kingdom in the markets of the world. The following short report on the Linen shewn by Belgium was written during the Exhibition, and after a careful inspection of the goods exhibited, and it is not without its lesson to all engaged in the trade : — " There are comparatively few private exhibitors of Flax yarns and Linens from this country, the greater part of them being shown by the Belgian Government, and produced at the various Flemish Apprentice Schools throughout the country. The pri- vate exhibitors are the present owners of what were lately Apprentice Schools, some Linen Societies, and a number of private firms. The Yarns comprise heavy Flax and Tow sorts. Some of them are shown in various stages of preparation, and of various qualities and sizes. The Linens exhibited are of many kinds, and comprise sail-cloth, sackings, ducks, sheetings, shirt- ings, ticks, diapers, damasks, &c., &c., forming altogether a large and varied assortment. Both Flax and Hemp sail-cloth is shown. The Hemp goods look rather coarse, and are not of great merit ; but the Flax canvas is made of well-spun yarn, of good colour, and firmly driven up. Some excellent four-yard wide canvas is shown. Many of the Linens are shown in the rough or loom state ; and they are very carefully manufactured and very excellent cloth. Others are shown in the bleached and FKENCH LINEN. 303 finished state, and are of high colour, tastefully done up, and of most superior quality. They are of various degrees of fineness, from common Jute and Tow sacking to very fine lawn or cam- bric. The diapers are strong, useful, and pretty goods. The damasks, in table Linens, and for bed and window curtains, dis- play extraordinary taste in design and finish. They are very lovely, of admirable quality, and some of them of particularly fine texture. In class No. 4, Belgium has also an admirable and large assortment of Flax and yarns. The Flax is exhibited in every stage of preparation, and from a common to the very finest quality. Some of the specimens are most beautifully dressed and made up, and of remarkably fine fibre. The yarns shown in both classes are of many sorts and qualities. Tow, Flax, and Hemp, but the greater proportion are in wet spun line. They are beautifully spun, and sonje of the specimens are of remarkable fineness, and equal, if they do not surpass, the finest examples of either the Leeds or Belfast miUs. With such Flax and with such yarn, no wonder that Belgium makes so fine an appearance in Linens. The display in both these de- partments is of the very highest order, and worthy of the very greatest praise. CHAPTER VII. FEENOH LINEN. The soil of France is, in many districts, admirably adapted for the growth of Flax and Hemp, and both plants have from time immemorial been cultivated extensively in some parts of that empire. The manufacture of Linens in France also dates back to a remote period, and some cities and districts have long been celebrated for the large quantity and high quality of the 304 MODERN LINEN. Linens produced by them. The French are, and have long been, essentially a Linen wearing people, and the consumption of the various qualities for hbusehold and other purposes throughout the country is very large. When the Komans swayed the destinies of France, Linens were extensively produced there, and since that period, although the manufacture may have fluctuated much in different ages, it has never been wholly extinct. Charlemagne, as has been mentioned, wore Linen, and his subjects were partly clothed in the same material. At this period, and perhaps for long afterwards, the making of Linen was chiefly confined to the labour of female servants, who span and weaved it for domestic use. What was not so required would be sold to those who manufactured none in their own establishments, but who could in this way supply themselves with this necessary article. Kheims was famous for its Linen manufactures at an early period. In 1394 it is said the King of France sent "fine Linen of Eheims" to the Sultan, as part of the ransom of some noble prisoners who had fallen into his hands. Reynes or Eennes and Champagne were much celebrated about this period in romances and poems for the excellence of their Linens. Champagne has now lost its Linen trade, but it has acquired as wide a fame for its exhilarating wine as it ever had for its Linens, and probably the substantial benefits which it derives from its " champagne ' is far greater than ever it got from its Linens. In 1422 Normandy had a considerable Linen manufac- ture. In 1437 Bretagne exported canvas. In 1453 France had an extensive foreign trade. She had then her wealthy merchant, Jacques Coeur, who had 300 factors, and traded with the Turks and Persians. He exported large quantities of Linen and other goods. In an enumeration of the exports at this period, cloth and canvas are among the articles sent from Bretagne. During the IGth century the commerce of France presents no feature of striking interest. She then exported Linens and other goods to England, and there seems to have been a great exchange between the woollens of England and the Linens of Bretagne. Guicciardini in his picture of Antwerp in 1560, says that great quantities of fine Linens were exported from Antwerp to FRENCH LINEN. 305 Prance, getting back immense quantities of canvas and strong Linens from Bretagne and Normandy. He also says that at the same period cambric was made at Cambray. The fabric got its name from this town, and it is therefore probable that it had first been made there. Giovani Bolero says that Trance, at the close of the 16th century, possessed four magnets, which attracted the wealth of other countries — one of which was Hemp and cloth, of which, and of cordage, great quantities were exported to Lis- bon and to Seville. He adds that the exportation of the articles of this class was incredibly great. In 1603 King Henry IV. introduced foreign workmen into France for the improvement of manufactures, including tapes- tries, cloths and serges, sUks and stuffs, gaups or thin Linen cloth, &c. At this time, it is said, a Linen manufacture was set up — probably in some town where no establishment of the kind had previously existed. Early in the reign of Louis XIV. Col- bert directed his attention to the improvement of manufactures and commerce in France, which were then raised to their greatest height. In 1685 the value of Linen sail-cloth and canvas ex- ported to England was £400,000, and to Holland £160,000 ; and the average value of Linens exported to England in the years 1686, 1687, and 1688, was about £700,000 sterling. The Popish persecutions which followed the revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685, drove about 600,000 protestants from France. These men were the pith and marrow of the country, and their removal proved a great blow to its manufactures, not only by the loss of their heads and hands, but by the stimulus which, by their skill and industry, was given to the same manu- factures in the countries to which they went. Subsequent wars had also the effect of gradually destroying some of the French manufactures, and of transferring them to other nations. " In this way," says Macpherson, " France was deprived of a most profitable manufacture of two species of Linen, viz., dowlas and buckram, chiefly made in Normandy and Brittany, of which England was said to have taken off to the value of £200,000 annually ; for England, not being able to do without these two sorts of Linen, set the Hamburgers in imitating them so well, that the very names of these French Linens with us are buried in oblivion." In 1753 the value of the Linens exported from France was u 306 MODERN LINEN. 911,465 livres. In 1764 Linens were exported from Lille and Cambray in French Flanders; Valenciennes in French' Hainault; Amas in Axtois ; Amien, St Quentin (lawn), and Abbeville (sactcloth), in Picardy ; Troyes (Linen and canvas), in Champagne ; Caen in Normandy ; and Mortagne (coarse Linens), in Maine. In Postlethwayt's Dictionary of Commerce, published in 1766, it is stated that "Flax abounds in France. They import large quantities, however, from Kussia. Holstein and Flanders lint is of great esteem ; that of Picardy comes near it ; of others, Kiga and Konigsberg are in most repute." He says the Linen trade of Europe is chiefly in the hands of the Eussians, Germans, Swiss, Flemings, Hollanders and French. It would thus appear that Linens had been manufactured very extensively in France a century ago, because in addition to the large quantity of Flax grown at home, the importation of it, the growth of foreign countries, was also large. The following extract, (taken from the Dundee Advertiser), from a decree by the Emperor Napoleon, shews the importance which he attached to the prosperity of the commerce and manu- factures of France, and the large share which the Linen manu- facture then formed of the trade of the country. " Palace of St Cloud, 26th June, 1810. Napoleon, Emperor of the French, King of Italy, &c., &c., , 98 78 5 172 137 7 90 72 Class 4. IS to 17 threads, un 79 por. Fa. s. D. 142 113 7 251 200 10 Class 5, 18 to 2) threads, on. 94 pir. Fr. s. d, 195 156 320 256 Class 6. 21 to 23 threads, un. 108 por. 115 92 170 136 Fr. 350 280 467 373 7 0|260 208 Class 7. 24 thds. and upwards. 108 pr Sups Fr. s. 1^. 350 280 467 373 7 400 320 Jdtb Yarns— Natdeal Colour.— Ddtt on 100 Kils, or 221 lbs. English. Old duly, New I'o , Class 1. Class 2. 20 Ib.to 8 lb. Class 3. Cluss 4. Class 6. Henvier than 21 lb. per spdl. 7 lb. 6 lb. to 5 lb. inclusive. 4 lb. to 2i lb. Fr. s. j). 60 48 7 5 7 Fr. s. b. 6u 48 9.20 7 4 Fr. s. d. 60 48 10.21 8 2 Fr. s. d. 60 48 15 12 Fr. s. d. hO 48 20 16 Pure Jute Goods -NaturalColour— Doty onIOOKils., or 221 lbs. English- Quality fixed by the Number of Threads of Warp in one- fifth of an Inch. Old duty. New do.. Class 1. Class 2. Class 3. Class 4. Mending B.aprgina:, Plain Sacking, Double Warp, do., rp to 14 Porter. TwiUed Sack- ing. Hessians, &c. 4 and 6 threads, 15 to 22 por. 6, 7, & 8 threads, 23 to 33 Porter. Fr. s. d. 77 61 7 13 10 5 Fr. s. d. 77 61 7 15 12 Fr. b. d. 77 61 7 21 16 10 Fr. s. d. 77 61 7 30 24 Bleached or dyed yarns and Linens pay considerably higher rates than brown or unbleached goods. Drills, both brown and bleached, pay higher rates than other Linens, and damasks pay 16 per cent, ad valorum. In 1864 a diminution of the duty on Jute yarns and Jute goods takes effect, amounting on the aver- age, to about 30 per cent, on the rates charged up to that date. There are not existing materials for the minute comparison of the growth of textile industry in France over a series of years, like that which is made up for the United Kmgdom, but the following facts and figures relating to the Linen trade of France give some idea of its extent and importance. The average value of the Linen yarn imported into France from all countries for the five years from 1834 to 1838 was FRENCH LINEN. 311 £524,000. In 1839 it was £1,044,000. The average value of Linens exported from France to all countries for the same five years was £1,104,000, and for 1839 £1,208,000. The average value of Flax exported from France for the same five years was £48,000, and for 1839 £180,000. The average annual imports of Flax into France for the three years ending as under were — 1835. 1838. 1841. 1844. 1847. 1850. 1853. Tons, 424 1,953 2,212 7,345 11,296 15,261 23,083 The imports of Hemp into France for the following years were — 1847. 1848. 1849. 1850. 1851. 1852. 1853. Tons, 4,981 2,268 2,966 2,642 1,978 2,736 3,329 The quantity and real value of the Linen manufactures im- ported into France for the years named were as follows, viz. : — • HEMP. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. Quantity, Tons, 6,655 7,948 6,042 7,350 7,47] Real Value, . L.276,752 L.312,784 L.256,010 L.292,050 L.275,0i4 FLAX. Quantity, Tons, 21,733 19,188 24,608 15,702 21,170 Real Value, . L.1,192,478 L.i,012,991 L.1,678,826 L.1,115,870 L.1,419,100 LINEN AND HEMPEN YARNS. Quantity, Tons, 1,016 1,243 909 1,212 2,388 Real Value, . L.l(;4,000 L.164,000 L.172,000 L.172,000 L.252,000 LINEN AND HEMPEN FABRICS. Quantity, Tons, 1,385 1,321 1,098 1,414 2,139 Real Value, .• L.596,000 L.656,000 L.588,000 L.644,G0l) L.792,000 About half the Flax imported is from Russia and the otlicr half from Belgium ; and the major part of the yarn and Linens imported is from Belgium. The quantity and real value of the Linen manufactures ex- ported for same years were as follows : — 1856. Quantity, Tons, 452 Real Value, . L.21,374 Quantily, Tons, 954 Real Value, . L.45,988 HEMP. 1857. 1858. 600 674 L.27,703 L.35,565 1859. 837 L.39,062 1860. 713 L. 30,535 FLAX. 1,793 2,481 L 85,718 L.131,410 ,284 L. 124,166 2,661 L. 128,423 312 MODEKN LINEN. LINEN AND HEMPEN YAENS. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. Quantity, Tons, 409 457 618 698 995 Eeal Value, . L.73,520 L.89,989 L.132,4e6 L.135,639 L.226,i528 LINEN AND HEMPEN FABRICS. Quantity, Tons, 2,090 2,740 1,996 2,105 2,608 Real Value, . L.844,000 L.892,000 L.708,000 L.828,000 L.876,000 The greater part of the Linens exported are to the various colonies of France. The acreage under Flax and Hemp, the produce thereof, and the value of the same in the years noted, were as follows : — Acres. Linseed. Fibre. Value Seed. Value Fibre Flax 1841 245,603 Imp. Qra., 253,479 Tons, 36,216 L.2,300,288 1852 200,840 „ 186,748 „ 33,049 L.421,129 L.1,270,234 Hemp 1841 440,371 „ 576,428 „ 66,301 L.3,451,494 „ 1852 125,357 „ 316,482 „ 63,071 L.513,743 L.1,986,239 In 1841 the average produce of Flax seed per acre was 8.3 Imperial bushels, and in 1852 7.43, and the value per Imperial bushel for the two years respectively, 50s 2d and 45s Id. The average produce of Flax fibre in 1841 was 375 lbs., and in 1852 368 lbs. avoir, per acre, and the value 46s lOd and 37s 8d per cwt. respectively. The average produce of Hemp seed per acre in 1841 was lOJ Imperial bushels, and in 1852, 8 Imperial bushels, and the value 39s 6d and 32s 5d per Imperial bushel respectively. The average produce of the Hemp fibre in 1841 was 337 lbs., and in 1852 450 lbs. avoir, per acre ; the value being 36s 8d and 31s per cwt. respectively. The number of spindles employed in the Linen trade in France was given as foUows : — In 1840 57,000 Spindles. In 1849 250,000 Spindles. „ 1844 120,000 „ „ 1850 275,000 „ 1847 170.000 „ „ 1831 330,000 In 1853, in 157 MiUs, 395,800 Spindles. These numbers are greatly in excess of those stated in the French Factory Eeturns for 1 855, given below. How the dis- crepancy arises is unknown. It is improbable that the trade could have decreased so much between 1853 and 1855, as it is FRENCH LINEN. 313 understood to have rather increased considerably during these years, and to have gone on extending up to the present time. From the Factory Keturns published in France for the year 1855, it appears that there were 5576 factories engaged in the Flax and Hemp manufacture, with 2 1 0,282 spindles and 20,90 1 looms, driven by 64 steam engines, 90 water wheels, and other mechanical power 124 (it is not said of what nature), employ- ing 33,067 men, 15,868 women, and 7232 children under sixteen years of age, making a total of 56,167 persons. From this return it would appear that the term "factory" must designate in France something very different from its ordinary acceptation in this country. In the United Kingdom the number of factories in 1861-62 on Flax, Hemp, and Jute were 440, employing 94,003 persons, giving an average of 213 to each, while in France the average of persons to each factory on Flax and Hemp were only 10, showing that some of the works, designated factories, must be very insignificant affairs. It is probable that each building containing a few hand-looms may be included in the return as a factory, which would swell the num- ber of them greatly, and may account for so many being given. In France the employment of children in textile factories is governed by a law of 22d March 1841, framed partly on the model of the British law, but which extends to ordinary work- shops as well as to factories possessing mechanical motive power, provided that not less than 20 workpeople are employed in them. By this law no child under eight years can be employed at all, and none between eight and twelve can be employed during more than 8 hours out of every 24 hours, and those 8 hours must be divided by sufficient intervals of rest. From twelve to sixteen years of age, the hours of labour may extend to 12, with similar intervals. No person under sixteen can be employed on Sundays or holidays. A subsequent law of 8th September 1848 hmits the hours of labour of adults in factories of all kinds to 12, reserving power to the government to declare exceptions to this enactment, in those cases where the nature of the work or the mechanism may require it. In 1855 Mr Ked- grave made a careful inquiry into the execution of these mea- sures, and came to the conclusion that the law of 1841 had been obeyed very imperfectly, and that of 1848 fairly. 314 MODERN LINEN. Flax, as has been shown, is extensively grown in many De- partments of France, and some districts are celebrated for the superior quality of what they raise. In the province of French Flanders, now the department of Nord, Flax is one of the mobt important crops cultivated, the quantity raised yearly being large, and the quality very superior. Consul Pringle, in his report of the trade of 1862, says that " a good deal of Flax is grown in the district of Dunkirk. Throughout the entire Department great care is paid to the cultivation and preparation of this valuable fibre, and the quality of what is produced will, in general, contrast favourably with what is grown across the border, in Flanders in Belgium." In the Department of Aisne, good Flax is grown, as weU as in the Departments of Moselle, Voges, and others. In Maine (Depart- ments of Mayenne and Sarthe), Flax of excellent quality is cultivated extensively. In Eure and other 1 )epartments of Nor- mandy superior Flax is grown. Bretagne has been long famous for its Flax, especially the Departments of Finisterre, Cote-du- Nord, and Morbihan, in all of which it is largely raised. Hemp is also grown to a great extent in these and in other districts of France, and the quality is generally very superior, much of it being woven into Linen, for many varieties of which, from its strength and durability, it is well suited. Much of the Flax raised in France is characterized by fine- ness of fibre, and it is prised for its spinning qualities. A con- siderable part of it is well suited for being spun into the finer sizes of yarn, indeed some of it is so very superior that it is ad- mirably adapted for cambric, lawn, and lace, fabrics for which France has long been famous. In addition to the Flax grown in the country, a considerable quantity is imported, the produce of the country not being sufficient for the consumption. The Belgium Flax imported is very similar in quality to the native article, and the Eussian Flax bought by the French spinners is almost wholly of the higher marks, little of common quality being used in France. The very smallest and finest sizes of yarn are still spun by hand, the human fingers being able to produce a thread finer than can yet be made by machinery. There are many Flax- spinning mills in France, where remarkably fine and perfect FRENCH LINEN. 315 yarns are spun, and which will vie with any produced elsewhere. Lille, Valenciennes, Kouen, Abbeville, Dunkirk, Nantes, Eennes, and several other cities and towns have long been celebrated for their yarns, and others are following fast after them. The Departments of Finisterre and Cotes-du-Nord have several extensive Flax-spinning establishments, and the trade is ex- tending there, as well as in the other districts in France where it has got a footing. The Linen manufacture is chiefly confined to the northern and western provinces of France, but there are estabUahments both for spinning and weaving in other parts of the country. Although the trade, as already mentioned, was wholly of a do- mestic character in former times, and, as in Scotland last cen- tury, spread over a great part of the country, it is now gradually settling down in circumscribed localities, where the work is mainly performed in large establishments. The provinces at present most celebrated for their Linens, are French Flanders, Picardy, Isle of France, Normandy, Maine, and Bretagne or Brittany. In some of these the manufacture existed during the palmy days of Eome, and has never since been lost, and in others, although of more recent, it is still of ancient standing. The towns chiefly engaged in the Linen manufacture are Lille, one of the oldest and most celebrated seats of the manu- facture ; Dunkirk, which makes excellent sail-cloth ; Cambray, famed for its cambric, whence the name ; and Valenciennes, noted for its lace and lawns, all situate in Nord, in which De- partment Linen is the most important branch of industry. Ab- beville and Amiens, in Sonime, make strong and coarse Linens ; St Quentin in Aisne, famed for lawns and lace ; Vimoulier and Alenjon, in Orne, in the latter of which, a kind of Hempen and Linen cloth is made largely, styled " ToUes d'Alen9on," which are held in high estimation, and of which fiom 2.5,000 to 30,000 pieces are sold annually ; Lisieux, Caen, and Bayeaux, in Calvados, famous for lace and lawns, in the manufacture of which they employ upwards of 50,000 hands ; Beauvais, in Oise, which produces some of the best Linens made in France ; Boulogne and St Omar, in Pay de Calais ; Dieppe, Fecamp, and Kouen, in Seine Inferieure ; Bernay, in L'Eure ; La Mayenne employs about 10,000 persons in the manufacture of sail-cloth 316 MODERN LINEN, duck, aud table Linen, all of excellent quality ; Haute Rhine for fine broad Linen and Hempen cloth ; Vosges for Linens and lace ; Seine et Oise, and Seine et Marne, for Linen and cotton prints, &c., &c. In all the Departments of Brittany, Finisterre, Oote-du-Nord, Morbihan, lUe et Vilaine, and Loire Inferieure, Linens are manufactured to a greater or less extent, and in some of them on a very large scale. The Linen Company of Finisterre alone employs about 2400 hands, and other large establishments exist throughout that province. At these works sail-cloth, ducks, and almost every variety of fine and coarse Linens are made, the character of which stands very high for excellence of material, and for workmanship. Consul Barrow, in his report of the trade of Nantes, in 1862, says : — " There are three Hemp and Flax spinning factories at Nantes, and there are manufactures of Linen and canvas in the Departments of Loire Inferieure, at some of which several British operatives are engaged. For a number of years past many spinners and other operatives have gone from Britain to France, where they are employed in almost every town where Linen manufactures of any importance are carried on." In the report of Mr Grey, Secretary to the Embassy, dated Paris, 20th February, 1863, he says " The Flax and Hemp trade feel that the high prices of cotton create an increased de- mand for these products ; and the raw material, as well as yarns and twists are rising in value." The value of the exports of Linen cloth, &c., from France as given by Mr Secretary Grey, were in 1859, f.108,900,000 ; in 1860, f.104,200,000 ; and in 1861, f 79, 900,000, which shows a great falling off, especially in the latter year. These figures are greatly in excess of the exports from France ah-eady given, and which were extracted from part viii. of the statistical tables relating to foreign coun- tries, published by Government. Perhaps the values, as given by Mr Grey, embrace both imports and exports, although they are stated in his report as exports only. In the report of the British Consul at Dunkirk, for 1861, he says that " since 1st June a great increase had taken place in the import of Linen sheeting and yarn from England. There was a proposal among some of the dealers in these articles to FRENCH LINEN. 317 import Irisli Linen yarn, and after it had been woven" into Linen, to send it back to Ireland to be bleached. The manu- factures of Lille and other towns in this Department wiU now have the double competition of England and Belgium, and must exert themselves if they wish to maintain their ground. Eveiy article in daily use was so expensive in France, that it was ex- pected the relief to consumers would be great when the new tariff came into operation. The principal factory was Dickson & Co.'s for the manufacture of Linen, sail-cloth, and carpets, and which, in 1861 employed 866 hands, whose wages amounted to £316 per week, consuming about 1718 tons of raw material annually, of the value of about £80,000, and producing manu- factured goods to the amount of £120,000, per annum. There was then another small Linen factory in Dunkirk, employing fifty-eight hands, and the product of which was reckoned at £8000 to £10,000 annually.'' The following report on the Linens and Lin.en yarns exhibited at the Great International Exhibition of 1862, written after a careful inspection of them, will conclude the chapter on the Linen trade of France. Under the Emperor Napoleon III. great progress has been made, not only in Linens but ia other textile manufactures ia France. The state of perfection they have already attained is wonderful, and under the wise and fostering care of so astute a man, they must prosper : — " After the United Kingdom, and perhaps Belgium, France is the largest exhibitor of Linens. Not only is the collection ex- tensive, but it is very varied in kind, and most excellent in quality. The goods are shown in handsome cases, which sets them off with good effect. The position in which some of the stalls are placed is unfortunate, as the cross gallery prevents the light from permeating among them, and throws a shade over some of the cases. Notwithstanding this, the goods have a very splen- did appearance, and command much attention. In Class 3, both Flax and Hemp are shown in the straw, and in various stages of scutching, cleaning, heckling, &c. The quality of some of the specimens is very superior, and the dressed fibre well adapted for very fine yarns. Yarns spun both from the Flax and Hemp are shown. The Flax yarn is both dry and wet spun, and some of the samples are remarkably fine and well spun. Sail-cloth is 318 MODr:RN linen. exhibited made of Flax yarn, and also of Hemp yarn. The Hemp cloth is not very sightly, being rough, but the Flax cloth is well made, firm, and good. The Hemp exhibited, No. 450, is broke and scutched without retting. It appears to be well done, the fibre good, and very suitable both for making into cloth and also for iSne twines, &c. " In Class 19, Flax and Hemp yarn and cloth of many descrip- tions are shown. The yarns vary from the finest cambric quali- ties, to coarse sizes both of Flax and Tow, for sail-cloth, sacking, &c. In the quality of the spin there must necessarily be con- siderable variety, but on the whole the samples are very uniform and level. Some of them are remarkably fine, both in quality and Spin, and quite equal to those shown from either Leeds or Belfast. Jute yarns are also exhibited, of very good quality, which would do no dishonour to Dundee. Beautifully pre- pared sewing thread, of many shades of colour, and of different qualities, are also exhibited. Many of the Linens shown are in the loom state, which makes them appear rough and unsightly, but the quahty is generally very superior. The bleached and finished goods are got up with much care and taste, and are of great excellence. Twilled tow sacking, plain hemp sacking, double warp plain bagging, and other sorts of coarse goods, are exhibited, the quality of which is strong and good. They are made of well-spun yarn, well manufactured, and very suitable for the purposes intended, but like all Flax tow fabrics, they appear rough and coarse beside Jute goods. Sail- cloth is shown by Dickson of Dunkirk and other firms, of re- markably superior quality. The material is excellent, the yarns are well spun, and the cloth is very firm and level, and admir- ably manufactured. It is shown in the various numbers from 7 to 0, and in one instance to 00, and some specimens are equal to any of the goods from this district. Some brown army ducks and similar goods of excellent quality, are shown. Sheetings, shirtings, cambrics, lawns, &c., are exhibited, made of excellent yarn and finely woven. The cloth is very highly bleached and beautifully finished Very pretty cambric handkerchiefs and dresses, rich, yet chaste, both in colour and design, are shown. Damasks in table-cloths, towellings, dowleys, Ac, are exhibited in the white on brown, and in the full bleached state, the quality HUSSIAN LINEN. 319 of which is truly admirable. The design of the damask, is in all cases, rich and beautiful, and, in some of the specimens, it is exquisite, and the finish of all is of the very highest merit. The display is altogether of so great excellence that our home spin- ners and manufacturers have difficulty in holding their own against their brethren in France. They will be entirely outdone in point of quality, design, bleach, and finish, at no distant day, should they at all relax in their efforts to maintain the supe- riority they have hitherto held." CPIAPTEE VIII. RUSSIAN LINEN. EussiA, although now a great country in respect of the vast extent of its territory, is in its intercourse with the other nations of Europe, of comparatively modern origin. Commercially Kttle was known of it three centuries ago, and the trade between Eussia and other countries was at that period quite insignifi- cant. Since it first became known to the trading nations of the world, its commerce has extended greatly, and some branches of its trade is now of first-rate importance. Chief among these are its exports of Flax and Hemp, and their products, which now amount to several millions sterling yearly. Eussia has for a long period been the greatest Flax and Hemp growing country of the world. To its cultivation of these fibres the several Linen manufacturing countries of Europe have been largely indebted for their staple raw material. It is computed that the quantity of Flax annually raised in Eussia is, on the average, about 150,000 tons, of which about one-third is consumed in its native manufactures, and the balance exported. Its Hemp is also largely used in Europe, and in other divisions of 320 M0D£IIN LINEN. the world, for cordage, twines, and in many cases for textile fabrics, for the former of which, from its strength and tar absorb- ing qualities, it is admirably adapted. In the beginning of the 16th century Eussia was not known excepting to a few Flemish merchants, who found the trade profitable, and for a considerable period kept their own secret and the trade to themselves. The English discovered it by chance, after which they were not slow to avail themselves of its advantages. In 1553 an English ship, sent out in search of a north-west passage, touched at the place where Archangel now stands, and this led to the formation, in the following year, of a company of merchants for trading with that country. In 1555, a treaty was entered into by Ivan Vassiliewitch II. of Muscovy, and Philip and Mary of England, by which a monopoly was granted to the English to trade with Russia. The trade was carried on almost exclusively between the English and the Kussian Government itself, private individuals not being allowed the privilege of trading with the foreigners. The English established factories at Kolmogorod, near where Archangel now stands, Novgorod, Vologda, and Moscow, and ultimately ex- tended their commerce by the Caspian Sea to Persia and Bokhara. The Eussia company was incorporated by charter of Philip and Mary, and it was sanctioned by act of Parliament in 1566. The statute 10 and 11, William III., cap. 6, enacts that " every British subject desiring admission into the Eussian company shall be admitted on paying £5 ; and every individual admitted into the company shall conduct his business entirely as a private adventurer, or as he would do were the company abolished." Duties were payable to the Eussian company on all goods im- ported iuto England, among which were the following, viz. : — Flax, the ton, 9d ; Hemp, 7d ; mats, the 100, 2d ; Linen, the 120 eUs — drillings, 1 Jd ; diaper, 2d ; 22J to SIJ inches wide, 3d ; 31^ to 45 inches, 4d ; 45 inches and upwards, 6d ; sailcloth, 3d; cordage, the cwt., 2d; linseed, the quarter, 2d; &c., &c. Goods not enumerated to pay one-eighth per cent, ad valorum, on the declaration of the importer. ' The exports from Eussia at first were chiefly hides, furs, &c. The imports cloth, and what is remarkable, coarse Linens, which, RUSSIAN LINEN, 321 for long after, constituted a large part of the exports to that country. In 1655, the exports from Archangel were valued at ahout £330,000 sterling, and they embraced coarse Linens, and Linen yarns ; but no Flax is mentioned, and the export of that article, if any, must therefore have been very small. In the century from the first opening up of the trade to the English until that period, great changes had taken place in the commerce of Eussia. Linens had now ceased to be imported, and were classi- fied among the exports. Instead of the exports consisting of hides and furs, which imply a people dependent on their flocks and herds, or upon the wild animals of the country, and in a state of rude barbarism, they had changed to yarns and cloth, which infer a considerable degree of practical knowledge and skill. The skins and furs are grown to their hand, but the yarns and Linens require that the Flax shall be cultivated, deprived of its woody stem and the fibre cleaned, then spun into filaments, and these wrought into a textile fabric. AU these changes indicate ac- quaintance with the productions of nature, the preparation of them for use, and the mechanical means necessary for accom- plishing the alterations they must undergo to adapt them for the purposes they are intended to serve. In 1724, the monopoly by the Kussian Government was totally broken up, and private merchants first established themselves at Archangel, duties being charged, for the benefit of the crown, on the importation of goods. In 1726 the first duties were laid on exports. Compared with the days of the monopoly by the Kussian Government, this was a step in the right direction, and the country benefited greatly by this institution of free trade, as will be seen by the following return of the average value of the trade for succes- sive decennial periods from 1724 to 1833, being in all 110 years. Exports. Average Value of Rouble Roubles, 279,113 30dto40d Ten Years Ending Imports. 1733 Boubles, 137,535 1743 181,346 1753 143,276 1763 182,054 1773 327,430 1783 351,386 1793 643,737 1803 555,583 1813 4,506,290 1823 , 1,215,322 1833 878,366 386,728 288,440 j^ 457,960 )) 1,049,685 1,385,786 )» 1,899,419 ^j 3,331,743 >f 6,125,247 23d 9,930,434 ndB.N- 8,797,707 lOgd 322 MODERN LINEN. These figures, for the period up to 1803, were extracted from an old manuscript, some time in the possession of a merchant in Archangel. They show that the trade must have declined after 1655, as it was not until towards the end of last century that the value of the exports reached the same point at which they are stated to be for that year. The following tables show the exports of Flax, Tow, and Oodilla from Archangel, from 1823 to 1853 ; also the same articles, toge- ther ynth the linseed and mats exported, from 1856 to 1863 : — Flax. Towand.Codilla. Flax. Tow and CodiUa. Tons. Tons. Tons, Tons. 1823 1,356 116 1839 4,788 1,897 1824 831 98 1840 3,940 2,521 1825 2,465 227 1841 4,050 2,738 1826 228 .32 1842 2,066 1,578 1827 79 L 74 1843 2,980 3,136 1828 871 67 1844 4,233 4,273 1829 2,082 160 1845 6,414 5,096 1830 2,577 876 1846 5,403 5,563 1831 4,315 1,232 1847 6,340 6,163 1832 1,916 1,287 1848 1,799 1,975 18.33 3,083 1,774 1849 5,530 5.131 1834 2,459 2,266 1850 7,100 4,961 1835 3,188 2,287 1851 4,407 2,953 1836 3,303 1,630 1852 6,204 5,152 1837 2,857 679 1853 8,465 6,138 1838 3,462 2065 Flax. Tow and Cod ilU. Linseed. Mats. Tons, Tons, Quarters, rieces. 1856 7,821 5,247 117,531 630,1H5 1857 4,766 3,461 114,106 §39,012 1858 4,345 4,084 49,106 575,030 1859 8,168 8,063 56,740 282,787 1860 3,588 3,218 60,419 348,011 1861 4,951 4,907 61,497 325,815 1862 4,305 4,114 87,065 785,244 1863 4,134 4,451 8,680 307,555 ■Whereof to Great Britain in 1862— Flax, 4051 tons ; Tow and CodiUa, 3086 toa6 ; Linseed, 33,732 quarters ; Mats, 669,574 pieces. In 1863— Flax, 3340 tons ; Tow and CodUla, 3274 tons ; Linseed, 4684 quarters ; Mats, 276,770 pieces. The Flax goods shipped at Archangel bear a high character in the markets of great Britain. They are grown near the centre of Eussia, in the Governments of Vologda, Viatka, Yaroslav, Kostroma, Novgorod, &c., whence they are taken to Archangel. Some of the districts produce a quality of Flax much superior to others, although the general characteristics of all are the same. RUSSIAN LINEN. 323 The Flax is all dew-ripped or retted, of a soft, silky nature, and the fibre reducible by heckling to a high degree of fineness. This makes it admirably adapted for being spun into the higher numbers of yarn. All dew-retted Flax is very apt to heat, both on the voyage and in the warehouse, if confined in a hot place without free circulation of air, and care should be taken to prevent this, as it weakens the Flax very rapidly, and soon totally destroys it. The Flax grown in the Veligodski district has been long famous for its fineness and softness, and it bleaches well. Viatka has generally a longer fibre, but it is hard and not so well cleaned, and it does not subdivide so minutely en the heckle as the former. Yaroslav produces good serviceable Flax, and so do some of the other districts mentioned above. Of late years the St Petersburg merchants have bought consider- able quantities of Flax in these, which are called the Archangel districts, and there is no doubt that their purchases will yearly increase, because St Petersburg possesses advantages over Arch- angel by its better internal communications and as a port for ship- ment. The brack of Flax in Archangel, which is very strict, is a guarantee of quality which shipments from St Petersburg do not possess ; and while it continues to be as honourably performed as it has hitherto been, Archangel Flax will be preferred by buyers, even although the price is a little higher than at its rival ship- ping port. This may tend to preserve a part of the trade to Archangel, especially that of the districts lying nearest to it. Archangel Flax is divided into Otborny and Crown, but little of the former is now shipped. The Crown is classed into 1st, 2d, and 3d sorts, 4th Crown and Zabrack. The first sort is beautifijUy fine, but the quantity of this class is small, and the price relatively high. After laying aside any strikes fit for 1st sort, the next best is put into the 2d sort, the next into 3d sort, and the worst is 4th Crown. Until 1 862 there were only four classes in all, and the new classification has not yet had sufficient trial to test its merits. Zabrack was formerly the 4th sort ot the growths, but it is now let down a step in the brack ladder. Zabrack is Flax too short, or which contains too much tow to be cleaned with the other qualities, and as it is thus the refuse of every growth it is not very uniform in quality. Codilla is the loose fibres which come off in sorting the Flax in- X 2 324 MODERN LINEN. tended for shipment, and it varies in quality with the district in which it is grown. The tow exported is taken off in heckling the Flax used in the home manufactures of the district whence it comes, (formerly it was taken off with a brush), and it also varies in quality with the Flax from which it is taken. Codilla is classed by the brackers into 1st, 2d, and 3 qualities, and tow into Nos. 1 and 2 qualities ; and both tow and codilla, from their fine and soft fibre, possess superior spinning qualities. The Flax shipped from Archangel is made up in small hand- fuls or strikes, and packed in mats of about five hundredweight. The tow and codilla are also packed in mats of about the same weight. The tow is in small handfuls, as it comes off the heckle, and the codilla generally in fleeces or flakes, rolled to gether at the one end and loose at the other. Both Flax and tow from Archangel are clean, soft, and sUky, and pretty free from shives. The codiUa, which is longer and stronger in the fibre than tow, is also comparatively free from shives, excepting the 3d sort, which is the coarsest of the scutch- ings taken off the Flax. Mr Consul Eenny, in his report on the trade of the district of Archangel for 1862, says : — " The export of Flax and Flax- tow shows a decrease for 1862, principally owing to the fact that in the farther districts which supply this port, the Archangel traders find themselves less and less able to compete with buyers for the St Petersburg market, and for the Kussian factories. The advantages which St Petersburg possesses over Archangel are a lower scale of shipping charges (there being no charges for " brack," or indirect banking business), cheaper freights and rates of exchange. On the other hand Archangel boasts of an excellent Flax brack, which forms a guarantee of quality to foreign buyers, and where the difference of cost is not too great they prefer shipment from Archangel. This circumstance will, at all events, secure to this port the export of Flax from the nearer districts of its growth, and the quantity will probably be sustained about its present standard." The average rates paid for Flax per ton in 1862 was £48 10s, and for Flax-tow £34 3s 6d. In 1863 they were £58 5s 6d, and £40 13s 6d, respectively. At one period large quantities of Hemp were shipped at Arch- angel, sometimes extending to 1500 tons a year, but the article RUSSIAN LINEN. 325 is now almost unknown in the exports from that port. The great shipping ports for the Hemp of Kussia are now Riga and St Petersburg. J For a long period after the opening up of the trade of Arch- angel, that city was the only port accessible to Europeans, and the whole import and export trade of Russia was transacted there. The port of Archangel, from its geographical position, is only open for about five months, being completely ice-hound during the remainder of the year, which is a great drawback to its trade, and confines it to comparatively narrow limits. Peter the Great felt this, and determined, so far as in his power, to obviate such a serious hindrance to the indefinite extension of the commerce of his country, by erecting cities on the Baltic. None of the Russian towns on that sea are open throughout the whole year, but the winter in some of them does not last more than three or four months, so that they are only sealed up about half as long as Archangel annually is. The city of St Petersburg was founded in 1703, and, under imperial patronage, it speedily became a flourishing emporium of trade and commerce. From its position and from other causes, it attracted part of the trade to itself which had previously been all transacted at Archangel, among which was the export of Flax, Hemp, and Linens. The city being erected at some distance up the Neva, Gronstadt, situated on a small island about twenty miles below, may, in some measure, be considered the port of St Petersburg, as only vessels with a small draught of water can get up to the city. Large quantities of Flax and Hemp are now shipped at St Petersburg yearly, as well as canvas and various sorts of Linens, and these articles form a most important portion of the exports from that city, and from its port. The mode of bracking and mak- ing up Hemp has been detailed in the chapter which treats of that fibre. The Flax shipped there consists of the white sorts known as St Petersburg Flax, and of the St Petersburg Archangel qualities. The latter differs little from the real Archangel described above, excepting that among the dew-retted or brown Flax shipped from this port, there are varieties of an in- ferior quality, such as Rjeff, &c., much of which is unfit for the purposes to which this description of Flax is usually 326 MODEBN LINEN. applied. The white Flax, when assorted, is made up in bundles of 12, 9, or 6 heads, which are called bobbins ; and they are tied up with strings, each sort having a stated number. It is not matted when shipped, as the other description is. It is known to the trade under these denominations, the 12 head being the best, and the 6 head the worst of the three qualities. This Flax is steeped in ponds to prepare it for the process of scutching, instead of being laid on the grass and dew-retted as the Archangel sorts are. It is grown in the Governments around St Petersburg, chiefly in Novgorod, &c , and it is longer, broader, and stronger in the harle or fibre than the dew- retted sorts ; but it is not even, and therefore it yields less pure Flax on the heckle, and the fibre does not subdivide so much in heck- ling The Flax raised in some of the St Petersbui'g districts is much superior, and of a different character, to what is grown in others ; thus Pskoff or Ostroff 12 heads is more valuable than ordinary 12 heads. The Flax shipped from Narva, a port in the Gulf of Finland, below Cronstadt, is made up in a simi- lar manner, and under the same names as St Petersburg goodsi and the quality is generally preferred to the latter. The ship- ments from Narva average about 2000 tons of Flax, and 500 tons of cedilla yearly. Formerly St Petersburg (white) Flax was much superior to what it now is, the 9 heads in former times being quite equal to the 12 heads of the present day. Then it was regularly classified according to its quality, and made up into bundles by sworn in- spectors or brackers, appointed by Government. These function- aries for a time performed their duties with laudable impartiality, but latterly buyers lost confidence in them, and the brack was discontinued. Now it is made up in the interior by the dealers' own inspectors, who, of course, follow the instructions of their employers. Free on board buyers must therefore trust to the honour of the dealers from whom it is purchased, as the mer- chants see little of the Flax, and are very much at the mercy of those with whom they may have contracted for its delivery. These dealers go into the interior during the winter, purchase the Flax from the farmers and growers, and bring it down clas- sified to the shipping port, where it is delivered over to the mer- chants, and by them shipped. Government inspection and all BUS8IAN LINEN. 327 interference between the producer and purchaser of any com- modity is bad in principle, and often injurious in practice, but there is no doubt that the excellent brack in Archangel, and the tolerably fair brack in Riga, have retained a character for the ship- ments from these places, which other ports, where the system has been discontinued, have lost. The shipments from Bt Petersburg for the years mentioned were as follows : — Flax, &c. Tons. Hemp, &c. Flax &c. Hemp, &c. Tons. Tons. Tons 1825 7,324 32,367 1843 6.767 22,037 1826 7,432 29,339 1844 7,353 27,530 1827 11,192 30 397 1845 7,135 30,003 1828 10,884 29,1.57 1846 8,567 26,045 1829 6,685 16.387 1847 9,362 28,395 1830 9,365 21,673 1848 14,793 24,629 1831 4 774 24,678 1849 16,689 30.991 1832 8,472 29,136 18.50 15,070 28,836 1833 5.589 31,582 1851 9,650 29,970 1834 5,373 30,035 1852 13,311 26,562 1835 3,596 32,215 1853 20,569 37,793 1836 10,657 31,667 1858 18,764 22,945 1837 8,565 31,579 1859 20,930 28,900 1838 14,229 35,587 1860 19,117 27,820 1839 3716 35,621 1861 20.593 25,298 1840 7.919 28,885 1862 26,450 28,233 1841 7,505 22,781 1863 22,591 24,627 1842 9,233 20,349 Very large quantities of Linens, the manufacture of Russia, were also exported from St Petersburg, but of late years the shipments have declined. The quantities for the years mentioned were — Of which to Great 1807. Britain, 1830. 1863. Kavens ducks, Pes., 122,060 78,154 Pes., 43,506 Pes., 8,500 Flems, . . ,, 46,312 23,428 J» 65,327 1,340 Sailcloth, . Arsh. 64,204 310 )» 40,868 26,000 Diaper— broad, „ 393,470 80,860 Arsli. 1,465,229 Arsh., 13,980 „ — narrow, ,, 117,806 87,988 »j 56,750 Liaen — broad, 56,000 56,000 ,, 60 „ None. „ — narrow, „ 203,540 191,640 ») None. ,, None. Crash, , , ,, 1,081,830 1,058,555 ,, 1,111,301 „ 4,425,090 Drillings, . ,, 3,889 3,519 i) 338,487 „ None. Hemp— clean, Pds., 1,495,522 1,104,265 Pds,, 533,363 Pds., 1,258,527 „ — outshot, „ 238,699 88,173 J» 532,731 71,002 „ —half clean „ 235, S57 161,520 ,, 303,716 „ 222,007 „ — codilla, „ 30,073 19,516 )» 26,032 „ None. Flax— 12 head, „ 456,743 431,307 ,, 126,519 „ 504,996 „ -9 „ 40,506 3S,761 )» 252,265 „ 269,432 i> —6 1, „ 323 323 )» 120,149 „ 293,104 Tow and Codilla, ,, 15,481 8,519 ,, 94,653 „ 355,695 328 MODEEN LINKN. Next to Narva, lower down the Gulf of Fiuland, is Kevel and in the Gulf of Kiga, Pernau, both of which are Flax ship- ping ports. The Flax shipped from Kevel averages about 1000 tons a year, and the codilla about 200 tons. It is mostly- grown in Esthonia, and the quality is strong and good. From Pernau the shipments of Flax average about 4500 tons a year. In 1863 they were about 5000 tons. It is chiefly laised in Esthonia and Livonia, and considerable attention is paid to the classifica- tion and sorting of the goods shipped. Pernau Flax therefore stands high in the estimation of consumers in Dundee, and de- servedly so, as it is of good strong fibre, well cleaned, and pos- sessed of superior spinning qualities The Flax shipped from Kevel and Pernau consists of what was called Crown Marienburg, Marienburg Cut, Hoffs Threeband, and Kisten Threeband. They are now called — M, Marienburg ; C, Cut ; K, Kisten ; HD, Hoffs Threeband ; D, Threeband ; CD, ordinary or inferior Three- band. Kiga ranks next to St Petersburg in the extent of its exports, and in the important article of Flax it has long taken the lead in the superiority andregularity of the quality shipped, as well as in the quantity. Formerly the Flax was distinguished by a few well known names, either those of the provinces or estates in which it was grown, or arising from the manner in which it was tied up in heads or bundles. The following short description of the old Kiga marks will not be without interest to modern dealers in Flax: — TR — Thiesenhausen Kakitzer, (grown on the estate of Count Thiesenhausen), was of a long harle, strong, even, clean, white and soft. From a custom which the country people had in wetting their hands in working or preparing this assortment, it made it unfit for long voyages in a warm climate, as it was apt to heat. The picked parcels of this description was called PTR. DK — Drujana Kakitzer, was rather finer in fibre, not quite so long, but clean, soft, white, and silver coloured, and fit for spinning into the finest yarns. It was not prepared with moist hands, and was generally shipped to Spain, Portugal, &c. Lithuania and Courland Kakitzer was not so good in quality as the other sorts. It was commonly tied up in ban is of four handfuls, doubled at one end. CM — Grown Marienburg, was a description a little superior even to the above marks with a very long stout harle, white, or of a bluish tinge of colour, RUSSIAN LINEN. 329 and much liked in Britain. Since the names of the Eiga Flax were changed a few years ago, these qualities are now represented by the different marks of Crown Flax, such as PK, FPK, &c. DO — Drujana Cut was the rejections made in bracking the Rakitzer, in consequence of not being so well cleaned, or from some other cause. Marienburg Cut was in like manner the re- fuse of the CM. This mark was made up in bundles, loose at both ends, and tied in the middle in such a manner as to leave a gash resembling the cut of a knife. They are now represented by the W marks. RT — Eisten Threeband was in like manner the refuse of the DC and MC, and is now represented by the D marks. The Livonian Flax is denomnated at Eiga, HD, Hoffs Threeband. This mark was tied up in bundles, loose at both ends, and fastened with two or three strings in the middle. Hoffs are still shipped extensively, and as the fibre is strong, and the yield on the heckle considerable, it is very suitable for sailcloth and other purposes where strength is required. The refuse of this Flax is LD, Livonian Threeband. The green ends on Livonian Flax is caused by tying the end, and hanging it over a rope or pole in bleaching or retting. DC cost about Eo. 5 less than TE, and RT from Eo. 3 to 4 less than DC. Eiga Flax is generally shipped in mats of from 3 to 4 cwt. each. The Flax shipped the year it is raised is called fresh, and it possesses more elasticity, and spins better than when long kept. The exports from Eiga in the years noted were as follows : — Flax, &c. Hemp, &c. Flax, &c. Hemp, &o. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1825 23,701 11,828 1844 37,528 19,955 1826 23,383 10,415 1845 21,052 15.286 1827 24,758 11,587 1846 21,449 16,954 1828 21,377 11,156 1847 19,042 15,168 1829 24,394 10 487 1848 34,240 13,245 1830 19,807 12.360 1849 45,344 16,2,39 1831 18,195 11,833 1850 38,637 13,883 3832 20,533 13,838 1851 27,529 17,967 1833 25,474 11,797 1852 33,387 15,678 1834 13,734 15,022 1853 32,956 18,912 1835 13,896 15,477 1856 40,617 24,901 1836 28,415 13 494 1857 44,829 20,412 1837 20,128 13,875 1858 31,777 20,747 1838 30,322 15,166 1859 24,904 25,050 1839 22,257 21,374 1860 33,387 21,267 1840 23,735 20,148 1861 27,953 20 663 1841 26,802 17,424 1862 33 207 20,295 1842 29,185 19,275 1863 .32,472 17,019 1843 37,782 15,219 330 MODEBN LINEN. Destination of Flax and Hemp Shipped pkom Riga in 1860 and 1861, and OP Ckushing and Sowino Linseed and Hemp Seed fob 1861. Flax. Hemp. Countries. 1860. 1861. 1860. 1861. Great Britain, Tons, 25,277 19,452 Tons, 10,188 9,070 France, . . , , 5,687 4,306 1,570 2,220 Belgium, . . , 3,159 1,486 2 442 Sweden and Norwaj', , 206 412 1,914 2,827 Prussia, 497 394 595 780 Portugal, 478 3.55 264 434 Denmark, . . , 774 351 1,026 949 Holland, . . , 139 227 2,946 2,456 Lubeck, . . , 153 129 883 1,068 Bremen, 3 300 135 HanoTer, . . , 78 Spain, 16 America, 421 282 35,464 27,115 20,109 20,663 In 1861. Crushing 1 inseed. Sowing Linseed. Hemp Seed. Great Britain, Imp. Qrs. . 73,147 Barrels 45,345 Imp. Qrs., 781 Holland, )» 16,346 ij 4,780 Belgium, ,, 14,274 )> 50,401 1406 Denmark, ' )i 2702 ») 419 124 Sweden and Norway, „ 1,942 5J 1,123 118 France, )) 1,532 }l 24,450 20 Lubeck, )) 278 *1 21,795 Prussia, ,, 5 ,, 10,625 Portugal, »» 2 ») 7 110,228 158,938 2456 QnANTITY OP EACH QOALITY OP FLAX AND HeMP SHIPPED FEOM RiGA IN 1861 AND 1862. 1861. Flax.— 1st sort Poods, 810,967 or Tons, 12,872 2d „ 510,.539 „ 8,104 3d „ 386,650 „ 6,137 4th „ 1862. Poods, 1,159,902 or Tons, 18,411 624,547 „ 8,326 181,221 „ 2,876 151,375 „ 2,403 Poods, 1,708,156 „ 27,113 Flax CODILLA.— Poods, 52,909 or Tons, 840 „ 2,017,045 „ 32,016 Poods, 75,038 or Tons, 1,191 „ 1,761,065 27,953 2,092,083 33,207 Hemp.— Ist sort Poods, 650,105 or Tons, 10,319 Poods, 683,601 or Tons, 10,851 2d „ 253,113 „ 4,017 „ 221,790 „ 3,520 3d „ 398,598 ,, 6,327 „ 373,214 „ 5,924 Total Poods, 1,301,816 20,663 1,278,605 20,295 RUSSIAN LINEN. 331 The value of the exports of Flax, Hemp, and Linseed shipped from Riga in 1859 and 1861 was as follows :— 1859. 1861. Flax, . £1,292,326 £1,010,896 Flax Tows, 13,822 12,396 Hemp, Hemp Tows, . 1 686,656 595,510 5,036 Crushing Linseed, 258,004 240,875 Sowing Do., 260,499 275,880 Hemp Seed, 3,753 £2,511,307 £2,144,346 The total value of the exports from Riga in 1861 was Ro. 24,203,320, which at the exchange of 36d is £3,630,498. Libau is the Russian port farthest down the Baltic from which Flax is shipped. The growths are distinguished by Four Brand and Three Brand, the same as the ordinary Memel Flax. It was generally good, well prepared Flax, but not very fine in the fibre, and not well suited for spinning into the lighter sizes of yarn. It is chiefly raised in Courland, in which province Libau is situated, and the average quantity shipped from the port annually was about 2000 tons of Flax, and 200 tons Codilla. Of late years the quality of the Flax exported from Libau has dete- riorated greatly, and the shipments have in consequence fallen off. Pro Fobma Invoices of Flax, &o.. Shipped tbom Russia. 1. Flax from Archangel — 630 Poods, or 63 Berkz. , or 10 tons, at s. ro. 40 per Berkz. Duty 83 cop. per berkz. 52.29 ; 5 per cent. cent, thereon, 2.61 Customs, 7 per cent, thereon, . Shipping Charges, weighing, binding, bracking, lighterage, and watching, 16 cop. per pood. Mats, 80 at 19 J cop., .... Town dues, J per cent, on cost. Brokerage, J ,, „ Commission 4 per cent. Drawing Charges, 2J per cent., Postages, .... Cost (exclusive of guarantee and del credere, 2 per cent., on s. ro. 2720.34), At Exchange, of 36d per ro., £434 5s per 10 tons,, or £43 8s 6d a ton. Berkz. s. ro. 2520.00 54.90 3.84 100.80 15.60 12.60 12.60 200.34 s. ro. 2720.34 • 108.81 H. ro. 2829.15 63.65 . 2.20 s. ro. 2895.00 332 MODERN LINEN. 2. Tow and Codilla from Archangel — 630 poods at ro. 30 per berkz., or ro. 6 per 2 poods, viz., 1 of Ist sort and 1 of 2d sort, . . . . s. ro. 1890.00 Duty 5 cop. per pood, and 5 per cent, thereon. Customs, 7 per cent, thereon, . Shipping Charges, 16 cop. per pood, . Mats, ..... Town dues and Brokerage, J per cent, each 33.05 2.31 100.80 15.60 18.90 170.66 ». rffl. 2060.66 Commission, 4 per cent, . . . • 82.42 o. ro. 2143.08 Drawing Charges, 2J per cent. , , . . 48.22 Postages, &c , . . . . . 1.70 Cost(exclusiveofguaranteeanddelcredere,2percent.) 8.ro. 2193.00 At Exchange 36d per s. ro. £328, 19s per 10 tons, or nearly £32 18s a ton. 3. Flax from St Petersburg — 630 poods at s. ro. 40 per berkz. of 10 poods, . , . ». ro. 2520.00 Duty 83 cop. per berkz., and 5 per cent, thereon, 54.90 Entry and Custom House Cliarges, 4 per cent. on duty, ..... 2.19 Keoeiving, weighing, and shipping, 75 cop. per berkz., ..... 47.25 Ship brokerage, and Cronstadt commission, 18 cop. per ton, . . . . 1.80 Brokerage on Purchase, J per cent., . , 12.60 118.74 B. ro. 2638.74 Commission, 3 per cent., . . . 79.16 ». ro. 2717.90 Drawing Charges, J per cent., . . . 13.58 Postages, &c.,. ..... 1.52 s. ro. 2733.00 At Exchange 36d per s. ro. £409 193 per 10 tons, or nearly £41 a ton. 4. Flax from Riga— 630 poods at s.ro. 40 per berkz. of 10 poods. . . s. ro. 2520.00 Duty 83 cop. per berkz., and 5 per cent, thereon, 54.90 Shipping Charges, ro. 2.55 per berkz., . 160.65 215.55 Commission, 2 per cent., . , Extra Charge, 1 ,, Drawing Charges, J „ Postages, &c., .... At Exchange 30d par a. ro, £424 I9s per 10 tons, or nearly £42 10s a ton. o. ro. 2735.55 54.71 27.35 13.69 1.70 97.45 s. ro. 2833.00 RUSSIAN LINEN. 333 List of the present marks, with English and German designa- tions, of the various qualities of Flax shipped from Riga, with the relative value of the respective marks in s. ro. per berkz., taking s. ro. 40 for K. I. as the standard. ] ST— Crown Flai— (Kbon Flachs) :— K, 1— Crown— (Kron), .... PK, 1—Koked Crown— (Pink Kron), FPK, 1— Fine Picked Crown— (Fein Pink Kron), . ZK, 1—Zins Crown— (ZinsKi on). .... 2d— Bback Flax--(Wbaok Flaohs) ;— W, 2— Brack— (Wrack), ..... PW, 2- Picked Brack— (Pink "Wrack), 3d — ^Theee Bakd Flax— (Deeiband Flaohs) : — D, 3— Threeband— (Dreiband), .... PD, 3— Picked Threeband-(Pink Dreiband), SD, 3 — Slanitz Threeband— (Slansky Dreiband) , PSD, 3— Picked Slanitz Threeband— (Pink Slansky Dreibanl), FPSD, 3— Fine Picked Slanitz Threeband— (Fein Pink Slansky Dreiband), . ...... 4th Livonian Flax— (LiNLANDiscHAN Flaohs) : — HD, 2— Hoff'B Threeband— (Hoff's Dreiband, English), . PHD, 2— Picked Threeband— (Pink Dreiband), (French), . FPHn, 2— Fine Picked Threeband— (Fein Pink Dreiband) (Portuguese), ...... LD, 3 Livonian Threeband — (Linlandischen Dreiband), PLD, 3 — ^Picked Livonian Threeband — (Pink Linlandischen Dreiband), ...... 5th— Flax Tow :— H— Tow— (Heide). SH— Slanitz Tow— (Slansky Heide). PH— Picked Tow— (Pinkein Heide). B. ro. 40 42 45 48 36 38 30 32 30 32 34 36 40 43 30 32 In these marks shippers have the liberty of adding to the above, as hitherto, viz. : — W, White, (Weiss)— H, Light, (Hell) — G, Gray, (Grau). DW, 4, Threeband Brack, (Dreiband Wrack) — the refuse of the Flax is likewise shipped. Eos. 1 and 2 are charged the lowest rate of freight, and Nos. 3 and 4 pay a little extra, as they are coarser and do not stow so well as clean Flax. The following statement shews the total quantity of Flax and Tow exported from Russia and shipped at the ports already men- tioned, viz.. Archangel, St Petersburg, Narva, Revel, Pemau, Riga, and Libau, for the years named, and also the average ship- ments for the three previous years : — 334 MODERN LINEN. Average Tliree PreTiou 1835 Tons 27,158 1838 59,264 Tons, 39,510 1841 52,166 „ 48,686 1844 64,782 „ 55,613 1847 46,874 „ 54,017 1850 76,142 „ 73,582 1853 79,656 „ 66,306 During the two years subsequent to 1853, very few goods were shipped at Eussian ports, in consequence of the blockade during the war. Large quantities of Flax and other Eussian produce then found their way to Prussian ports, and were ex- ported thence. After the war the shipment of goods direct from Eussia was again resumed, comparatively httle Flax, the growth of Eussia, having then been sent via Prussia. Previous to the war a good deal of the Flax grown in Wilna, and other Eussian provinces adjoining Prussia had been pur- chased by Prussian merchants, and shipped from Memel and Konigsberg. The quantity of Eussian Flax now shipped at these ports is on the increase, and from Konigsberg it is likely to go on extending year by year, as facilities are opened up for communication with the interior of Eussia. Already the Eydlkuhu Eailway has brought Konigsberg much nearer to some of the central provinces of Eussia than they are to any Eussian port, and as railway ramifications extend into Eussia, that port will become more and more an entrepot for shipping Eussian produce. Konigsberg, from its position, is specially suited for becoming the port of Poland, as well as of the Eussian provinces more to the south and east. From its geographical situation it is not long closed with ice, and shipments can therefore be made from it during the greater part of the year. This advantage has already drawn to that city some of the Flax usually exported from Eiga, which is shipped under the regular Eiga denominations or marks, and Flax from other districts will no doubt ere long find its way there also. In this way the Eussian grower in the interior will be benefitted by quicker sales and better prices, and the consumer more quickly supplied with the raw material. Some details regarding the shipments of Eussian Flax from Memel and Konigsberg are given in the chapter on German Linen. RUSSIAN LINEN. 335 A considerable quantity of Eussian Flax has for many years been conveyed over land to Silesia and other Linen manufactur- ing districts, where it is used in addition to the home grown production. Kussia may therefore be said to supply with Flax, in whole or in part, many of the Linen producing countries of Europe. The total export of J^'lax and Tow from Eussia by land and sea has not been obtained with accuracy, but it is believed rather to exceed than be under 100,000 tons a year on the average. The quantity of Flax annually grown in Eussia is estimated, as already mentioned, at 150,000 tons, and if these computations are correct, it would leave about one-third of the quantity raised for consumption in the native Linen manu- factures of the country. Of course the produce of the crop is subject to many fluctuations and changes, arising from the weather, political events, and other causes. The value of the Flax exported from Eussia varies greatly in different years, buti on the average of the last ten years, perhaps £40 a ton would not be too much to estimate it at, and this would give a sum of about four millions sterling, paid annually to Eussia by the Linen manufacturing countries, for Flax alone. The value of the crushing and sowing Hnseed, and of the Hemp seed annually exported from Eussia, may be fairly esti- mated at about one million sterling. Hemp and its products perhaps amount to about two miUions, and Linen manufactures' mats, and other textile fabrics, to another million sterling. The value of these fibrous materials, and their products, exported annually from Eussia, would, if these estimates are nearly cor- rect, amount to about eight millions sterling. It is therefore of immense consequence to Eussia, mighty though that empire be, to retain so lucrative and so vast a trade, and the government ought to encourage it by every means in their power. In this way Eussia would retain the proud title which she has long held, of being the greatest Flax growing country in the world. Although Eussia has many facilities for manufacturing Linens, arising from the great quantity of Flax raised in the country, from cheap labour, and from fiscal protection, she has never at- tained to eminence as a Linen manufacturing nation. It is true she has suppHed her own wants, the almost prohibitory tariff having prevented any foreign made Linens, excepting small quantities 336 MODERN LINEN. of the very finest fabrics, from entering the country. She has also exported Linen for many years, but considering the capa- bilities of the country, her exports of these textiles when at the greatest would have been trifling although they had been quad- rupled in quantity. Linens to a greater or less extent are made in many of the governments of Eussia, some of which are widely apart, which shows the universality of the trade, if not its magnitude. Tar- oslav, Novgorod, Viatka, and all the Archangel Flax growing districts, make Linens extensively, chiefly for domestic purposes. The tow shipped at Archangel and St Petersburg is the pro- duce of the Flax heckled, spun, and manufactured in those districts, and it is evidence of the large quantity of pure Flax goods made there. In addition to the tow exported, there are many spinning mills in these districts where Flax and tow are consumed extensively, the quantity of Flax used in the manu- factures of these governments must therefore be great. A good deal of the yarn is yet spun by the hand-wheel, but this ancient mode of spinning is being rapidly superseded by Flax spin- ning mills, now scattered throughout these governments, the number of which is on the increase. The Linens are still mostly weaved by hand, but power-looms are not now unknown there, and their introduction is extending gradually and re- gularly. One very large establishment, the Alexandi-osky Works, not far from St Petersburg, was formerly worked by the Govern- ment, or under their auspices ; but the Government interest or patronage was recently terminated, and it is now conducted by private enterprise and skill. In the interior the great bulk of the Linens produced are required to supply the domestic wants of the various districts, but for many years a large quantity of the cloth made at the Government works near St Petersburg was exported. The goods chiefly made in Eussia are sail-cloth, ducks, Eussia sheetings, crash,and other fabrics, some of which are adapted more for local consumption than for export. In 1860 a Flax spinning-mill was started in the environs of Eiga, being the first in that district. It then employed 118 hands, and the value of the manufacture for that year was £5920. Linens are also manufactured in several of the provinces of RUSSIAN LINEN.. 337 central and southern Russia, as well as in some of those near the Baltic ; but perhaps the largest private establishment of the kind, which embraces both spinning and weaving, is that of Baron Steiglitz, near Narva, where sail-cloth is made to a large extent, as well as several other fabrics. In 1836 there were 3742 Flax mills and manufactories in Eussia ; in 1842, 3696 ; and in 1850, 3967. The number at the present time has not been ascertained, nor have any reliable particulars been got as to the number of spindles or looms in operation. The Eussian made Linens have generally been more celebrated for the superior quality of the Flax of which they were made, than for beauty of workmanship, or the sightly appearance of the cloth. The quality of the material used has always been re- markably good, but the yarn has neither been so well spun nor cleaned as in this country, and the appearance of some of the fabrics made is coarse and unsightly. They have not, conse- quently, been so well liked in this market, as, from their in- trinsic merits, might have been expected. Some Eussian Linens, however, are as good in appearance as they are excellent in quality. Real Eussia sheetings are a well known article in many markets, and although they are now well imitated in this country by mixed fabrics, which can be sold cheap, many still prefer the genuine Eussias, even at the additional price. Crash is another article which was and still is largely made in Eussia, and it also has been successfully imitated in Dundee and else- where. Eavens-duck and sail-cloth have long been famous articles of Eussian manufacture, but both fabrics, of a quality equal in material and superior in workmanship, have been made in the Dundee district, and in other parts of this country for many years. These imitations have of late years interfered so largely with the sale of Eussian Linens in foreign markets, as greatly to curtail their manufacture in Russia for export. Jute, and mixtures of Jute, being cheap and sightly, have done much to banish Eussian Linens from the markets of the world, and probably they are destined ultimately to supplant them en- tirely. The absolute and arbitrary character of the Eussian Govern- ment, and their jealousy of the introduction of liberal ideas into the country, have done more to retard the progress of manufac^ Y 338 MODERN LINEN. tures, including those of Linens, in Eussia, than their prohi- bitory tariff has aided it, and so long as such a system exists, trade cannot prosper. The severe restrictions upon commerce, and the unwise fiscal regulations of government, curb private enterprise, and until more enlightened principles prevail, trade must lan- guish, or die. Did the Government know its true policy, and study the best interests of the nation, it would allow the people freedom of thought and action. Manufactures and commerce would then extend rapidly, and Eussia become great and ex- alted. The country would speedily grow rich in material wealth, and the Emperor happy in the love and affection of a prosperous and contented people. By a recent ukase, the tariff on Jute goods has been arranged. Jute cloth may now be imported into the Eussian Empire and into Poland, including the ports in the Black Sea, at a duty of 9s the pood. Jute sacks are admitted at a duty of 9s the hun- dred by the ports in the Baltic Sea, and 7s 2d by land, into Eussia and Poland, and into the ports of the Black Sea they are admitted free. The following report of the Linens from Eussia, shown in the International Exhibition of 1862, w^ill conclude the chapter ; — " Eussia exhibits very many samples of Flax from the various Flax-growing districts of that country. Some of them are in the rough, and others heckled and ready for spinning. Many of the specimens are of fine quality, and such as would be very suitable for our manufactures, but very few of them could com- pare in money value with the French, Belgian, or Irish sam- ples shown. A few samples of yarns are exhibited, but they are not of much importance in any respect, and some of the speci- mens of Linen shown possess little excellence. The display of sail-cloth made by Baron Stieglitz, is, however, well worthy of inspection. It is made both of Hemp and Flax material, bleached and boiled, 24 and 30 inches in width, in various quali- ties, and of all numbers. The material is generally very good, the yarns well spun, carefully boiled or bleached, and the cloth well manufactured. The collection is, on the whole, of great excellence, and well worthy of the famous establishment which produced them. Some indifferent specimens of sheetings and diapers are shown, but there are others of most superior quality VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 339 in the spin of the yarn, bleach, manufacture, and finish of the goods. The damasks are generally good, and in some cases of very pretty designs." [Some of the particulars given in this chapter were kindly furnished by William Wrongham and William Warden Eenny of Dundee, gentlemen who resided long in Eussia, and have a thorough knowledge of the Flax trade there.] CHAPTER IX. VARIOUS COUNTRIES. Having now given some account of the progress and present condition of the Linen trade in the great Flax growing and Linen producing nations of continental Europe, only a few of the others will be mentioned, and that briefly, as the nature and extent of the trade, which is almost entirely of a domestic cha- racter in all of them, does not require a lengthened notice. DENMAEK, NORWAY, AND SWEDEN. These countries all manufacture Linens to a moderate extent, and the trade is no new one in Scandinavia. Flax was one of the chief articles of import into Bergen in Norway about the end of the 13th century, and since that period Linens have been manufactured to a greater or less extent in that country. In 1764, Sweden exported Flax and Hemp, canvas and Linen. Latterly the governments of Sweden and Norway have given much encouragement to the manufacture of Linens, but the trade has not been prosperous. The peasants cultivate Flax, but not extensively, and they spin and weave it, chiefly for home consumption, very little being exported. There are Linen manu- facturing establishments at Copenhagen, Vordinborg, &c., in y 2 340 MODERN LINEN. Denmark ; Gothenburg, Gefle, Hernosand, &c., in Sweden ; and Christiana, Bergen, &c., in Norway. There are also Flax spinning mills at some of these places, but none of them are very exten- sive, and much of the Flax is still spun by the hand wheel, which is yet common in these countries. The goods produced are of fair quality, and will bear comparison with similar fabrics made in other countries. The Linens manufactured throughout aU the three great divisions of Scandinavia are almost wholly for the supply of the local demand, the trade may therefore be called a domestic one. Denmark does not grow much Flax, and her Linen manufactures are of little importance. The following statement of the quantity and value of the imports into Denmark, bearing on the subject, shows the nature and extent of the trade there : — 1859. I860. Flax, . . Tons, 525 £26,070 Tons, 553 £27,576 Hemp, , . „ 2568 80,050 „ 2668 83,260 Linen Yam, . „ 304 48,486 „ 345 53 675 Linen Manufactures, , 985 92,721 ,, 1221 106,574 In 1861, the quantity of Linen manufactures imported was 1243 tons. PORTUGAL. The Linen trade of Portugal is of old standing, dating back to the time of the Caesars, or perhaps to a period long anterior to it. When, or by whom, the manufacture was first intro- duced iato the country is not known, but it may have been by the Phoenicians or Carthagenians, both of these maritime nations having traded with Spain and Portugal. In more modern times Flax is grown and Linen manufac- tured in various provinces of the kingdom, although not exten- sively in any of them. In addition to the Flax raised in the country, a considerable quantity is annually imported, spun and weaved. There are several Flax spinning mills at 'work in Portugal, but a considerable quantity of the yarn manufactured VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 341 is still spun by hand. The chief Linen manufacturing estab- lishments are at Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Lisbon, &c., and there various fabrics are made, some of which are of superior quality, both in point of material and workmanship. The goods manu- factured are almost all consumed in Portugal, and being for local use, they are made to suit the taste and wants of the people. Only a small quantity of Linens are exported, and these go to the Portuguese colonies in Africa and elsewhere. The extent of the external trade will be seen by the following statement of the imports and exports of Flaxen fibres and fabrics, for the years 1855 and 1856, and although a little progress has been made since then, the difference is not very material. IMPORTS. 1855. 1856. Flax and Hemp, Tons, 2896 Value, £110,592 Tons, 2631 Value. £82,891 Lineo Manufactures, „ 403 „ 30,024 „ 437 „ 33,847 £140,616 £116,738 Of the Flax and Hemp imported fully one-third is from Great Britain, fully one-half from Russia and Prussia, and the balance from Spain, &c. About five-sixths of the total Linen manufac- tures are from Great Britain, and about one-twentieth, chiefly sail-cloth, is from Hamburg. EXPORTS. The total value of the Flax fibres, and manufactures thereof, exported for same years were — 1855. 1856. Domestic Produce, £22,398 £21,867 Foreign Produce, 5097 6901 £27,495 £28,768 The Portuguese, by their continued prosecution of the nefarious slave trade in their African possessions, have miserably murdered myriads of the poor negroes, and brought indelible disgrace and infamy upon themselves. Were they to encourage the peaceful arts, and teach the natives to rear Flax and cotton, for which some of their territories there are admirably adapted, they would 342 MODERN LINEN. honourably enrich themselves, help to spread civilization in the dark places of the earth, and benefit mankind. SWITZERLAND. The Swiss are an industrious people, and they have long made Linens, not only for their own use, but also for export. A century ago Zurich, Basle, and especially Appenzell, manu- factured Linens, the latter extensively. At present the Linen manufacture takes an important place among their industrial pursuits, and large quantities are exported to Italy and to other countries. Much of the Flax is imported, and it is spun into yarn, and weaved in the different Cantons. The Linens made are varied in kind, and of praiseworthy quality. If the Swiss had a sea board of their own, or better means of transport, they would soon become formidable rivals to other Linen producing countries, as they are frugal and very industrious ; but the Geo- graphical position of the country is a serious obstacle in the way of their ever becoming a great Linen manufacturing people. X U E K E Y. The Turkish Empire includes some of the finest countries of Europe, and a large proportion of the central parts of Western Asia. Its territories are picturesque and beautiful, its soil rich and fertile, and its climate mild and salubrious. Under a liberal and enlightened government, the country might rank high among European nations, physiciaUy, commercially, and socially. With all its natural advantages Turkey has never attained commercial distinction, nor is it likely to become a great trading nation, because the Moslem faith is antagonistic to progress in every shape. In early times the Moors ruled the destinies of the greater part VARIOUS COUNTETES. 343 of Spain, and, pouring through the passes of the Pyrenees, pene- trated France, but they were defeated with terrible slaughter, by Charles Martel and his Franks, in 732, and driven back to Spain, whence they were ultimately expelled 760 years there- after. In 1356 Solyman the Turk, with a few warriors, crossed the Hellespont one night, and seized a castle on the European shore ; and since then they have never lost their hold. In 1453 they captured Constantinople, when Constantine Paleeologus, the last of the Caesars feU, and with him the Eastern Empire. For more than 200 years the Moslems pushed their way westward into Europe, until in 1683 John Sobieski of Poland defeated them before the walls of Vienna, and the cross once more triumphed over the crescent. Had Europe been overrun with the followers of the false prophet, either from Spain on the south or from Turkey on the east, it would have been blighted and blasted, and without a Linen trade, but Providence wiUed it otherwise. The tide of invasion was driven back, but the sick man still holds the lovely regions on both sides of the Bosphorus under his sway, and while he continues to do so their resources will not be developed, their manufacturing powers fostered, or their commerce unfolded. Turkey, in many parts, is well adapted for growing Flax, but its capabilities are little tried. The people wear Linens largely and like the fabric, but they are not encouraged to manu- facture them. A progressive government would draw wealth from the soil, and an enlightened people would enrich themselves by the sale of its products. The fatalism of the Turks makes too many of them live only for the day, and the rapacity and cupidity of the Pashas prevent or retard enterprise, the wealth acquired by labour and industry being too often made an excuse for treating its possessors with cruelty, and depriving them of what they have justly earned. Were the people secure in the pos- session of their gains, even the apathetic Turk might take courage, and benefit the world by learning to become rich. Dormant though the Linen trade be under Mahomedan rule, it is not altogether ex- tinct, and the little life which it still displays proves that, under happier circumstances, it might be revived, and become as famous as it was under Christian sway in the days of the Eastern 344 MODERN LINEN. Empire. With fostering care Turkey might supply the mills of Western Europe with Flax] if she did not clothe the in- habitants with Linens. In the Pashalick of Trebizond about 150 tons of Hemp and 50 tons of Flax are grown annually, and the lower classes manu- facture Linen shirting, sheeting, and towelling for home consump- tion. AU the beautiful Linens used in the harems of the rich are manufactured at Eizeh, to the extent of from 50,000 to 75,000 pieces annually. They are sent to Constantinople, Egypt, Bagdad, Mosul, and other Mahomedan countries and cities. 20,000 to 30,000 pieces of a coarser kind are annually consumed in this and other provinces. The finest is worth from £7 to £9 per piece of two shirts, and the coarse about 6s or 7s per piece of one shirt. Eizeh also manufactures about 1500 bales of Linen thread, and "250 bales of fishing nets annually, which are chiefly exported to Constantinople. In the province of Uscop, Hempen and Linen cloths are made of native produce. The Linens are bleached by repeated washing and exposure to the sun, and though coarse, they are durable. There are also manufactures made of silk and native Flax, and also some of silk. Flax, and English cotton twist, called " Meless," which is used for shirts and sheets, and wears well. The " Konapno," Hemp, and " Lineno," Linen cloths are also made and much used. These fabrics are manufactured by both Turks and Christians through- out the district. What is done there on a small scale might be done extensively in other parts of the country, and it would be well for Turkey if it -were so. Jute manufactures are finding their way into many new coun- tries, in some of which they are applied to strange usages. In Crete twilled Jute sacks are now employed for packing soap in, and they have quite superseded the woollen sacks of native manu- facture, which were formerly exclusively used for this purpose. It was intended that this part should be devoted solely to the Continent of Europe, as distinguished from the British Islands. It will not materially alter the arrangement to include in this chapter a short notice of the great Saxon Republic of North America, and a brief paragraph upon an Asiatic city. VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 345 This will accordingly be done. Several other countries, which are large consumers, if not producers of Linens, might with propriety have been noticed, but as the work has already ex- tended greatly beyond what in the outset was proposed, they must be excluded. It is, however, the less necessary to enlarge on this point, as the extent of their trade in Linens with the United Kingdom is shown by the Board of Trade Keturns, given in the volume. CHINA. The city of Yarkand or Yarkiang, the capital of Chinese Turkestan, pays annually to the Government 34,000 sacks of corn, 57,5U9 pieces of Linen, and 15,000 pounds of cotton, be- sides some gold, silver, oil, copper, &c. The population of the city is estimated at 200,000. It thus appears that Flax must be cultivated extensively in that country, and large quantities of Linen made in the city. It is a proper subject of inquiry by the merchants of this country, whether or not the Linens produced in the United Kingdon could be profitably introduced to this Linen wearing people. If their admission could be arranged, a wide door might be opened for their consumption, as it would appear that Linens must be largely used in that country. China has not yet imported many Linens, but as trade pro- gresses the consumption of Linen goods will, no doubt, increase. In 1860 there were imported into Shanghai 2343 pieces of Linen, valued at £3045, and 2718 pieces of canvas, valued at £6625. The importation into the other ports of China was altogether unimportant. THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. There are more Linens used in the United States, in proportion to the population, than in almost any other country in the world. 346 MODERN LINEN. For a long period a very large quantity of Flax has been grown in the United States, but the fibre is nearly aU sacrified to the seed, very little of it being saved for textile purposes. The quantity of Flax raised in the States in 1850 was 3442 tons, but in 1852 it had decreased to 1688 tons. The linseed produced in 1850 was 562,312 bushels, and in 1852, 611,927 bushels. This shows that in the latter year the plant had been grown more for the seed than in the former, but in both years linseed appears to have been the great object for which Flax was cultivated. In Ohio alone the crop of Linseed in 1862 was estima- ted at a million bushels, and in 1863 it was expected that, as grain prices being low, as much Linseed would be grown in the West as would supply the entire demand of the United States. How much this may be is unknown, but it must be very large, as between two and three million bushels are imported annually into Boston and New York from the East Indies alone. Were the fibre of the Flax grown in the United States all saved, as it ought to be, and might be- as well as the seed, it would supply the material to keep many large spinning mills going either in that country or in the United Kingdom. The price which western linseed brought in New York in Sept. 1862 was |1.85 per bushel, without bags. In 1820 there were two Flax spinning mills in Paterson, New Jersey, wholly employed spinning yarn for sail-cloth, which then sold at |25 a piece, being about double what British can- vas of better quality could then have been sold for. It was chiefly made from Irish Flax, American being of bad quality, probably owing to its being allowed to stand too long in the ground in order to mature the seed. " The machinery," says a person from Dundee, who then visited the works, and sent a de- scription of them to the Dundee Advertiser, " was in bad order, and the works were conducted in a slovenly manner. The yarn was doubled and twisted immediately after being spun, both for warp and weft, and instead of being retted or boiled, it was ex- posed to the action of steam, in a close vessel, three different times for fully a day each time. The cloth was coarse-looking but strong. Flax-dressers were paid 4s 6d per cwt., spinning girls from 9s to 10s a week, and weavers IBs 6d a piece. There were ten VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 347 spinning frames in the one mill, and thirteen in the other ; and the two works used between them about three tons of Flax weekly." In 1828 the Americans were making sail-cloth of cotton. It was said to be then preferred for fore and aft rigged vessels, be- cause they could sail from a half to three quarters of a point nearer to the wind with it than with Hemp or Lint sails ; and be- cause it did not stretch nor shrink so much as Flax canvas. The stoutest sort weighed about 1 lb. a yard, and sold for 20d. Some Flax and Hemp are stUl spun, and Linen weaved in the New England States, but the quantity is not large, the greater portion of the Linens consumed being imported. Mr Stuart, Secretary of Legation, in his report, dated Wash- ington, 25th May, 1863, says — " The manufactm-e of Linens in this country has made little progress, but Mr Kennedy, superin- tendent of the eighth Census Keport of the United States, anti- cipates future success in the manufacture of fabrics from Flax- cotton, consequent on the invention of cheap machinery for the preparation of the Flax-cotton for spinning." Judging from the little progress hitherto made in the application of Flax-cotton to any practical textile manufacture, it is very doubtful if Mr Kennedy's anticipations of success from this article will ever be realized, either in the United States or elsewhere. To cottonize Flax is an unnatural process, as it is converting a superior fibre into an interior one, a proceeding which has no merit. Want of success in such experiments is perhaps real gain. Gunny bags and gunny cloth have been articles of import into the United States for about seventy years. Some years the importation was of small extent, but at other times it rose to considerable magnitude. The cloth was used chiefly for cotton bagging, and the bags for a variety of purposes. Jute has also been imported for a long series of years, and it was begun to be manufactured there at an early period, perhaps before, but if not, certainly not long subsequent to its introduction into the manufactures of Dundee. The foUomng tables and particulars regarding the trade in these articles for the last four years is taken from Consul Lousada's report, dated Boston, 20th Feb- ruary, 1863: — 348 MODERN LINKN. Imports into the Unitbd States of the Aetioles spboimed, dtibino the Years NAMED, AND Stocks at 31st Deo. bach Year : — IMPORTS. 1859 1860 1861 1862 Jute, Manila Hemp, &.C. Ounny Bags. Gunny Cloth. Boston, Ac- At Boston. Other Pits. Total. At Boston. Other Prts. Total. Bales. 80,926 66,049 64,102 59,561 Bales. 10,988 8,480 8,737 11,071 Bales. 3,931 3,073 7,397 4,280 Bales. 14,919 11,553 16,134 15,351 Biles. 58,7.55 32,381 25,734 7,375 Bales. 16.100 32,847 26,573 10,500 Bales. 74,855 65 228 52,307 17,875 STOCKS IN BOSTON. At 3l3t Dec. Jute. Gunny Bags. Gunny Cloth. 1859 1860 1861 1862 Bales 7,350 „ 1,200 „ 2,186 Bales 6,808 „ 4,000 „ 5,350 ., 9,400 Bales 6,780 „ 8,300 „ 37,600 „ 42,300 In 1862, the imports of Jute, Manila Hemp, &c., were from the following places : — Manila, Calcutta, . Liverpool, London, Other Places, lies, 29,160 *■> 8,743 ,, 4,072 >> 120 »» 17,466 Total Bales, 59,561 From January to September 1862, the price of Jute ruled from $100 @ |115 ^ ton. Subsequently a speculative demand raised the price to $160 @, $190, duty paid. The lowest price of Manila Hemp in 1862 was 7 cents, and the highest 9J cents ^ lb. ; in 1861, 4| and 7J ; in 1860, 5| and 6i ; and in 1 859, 6i and 7 cents ^ lb. In the first eight months of 1862 gunny bags ranged from 12 to 14 cents. Afterwards the scarcity and high price of all kinds of bagging led to an active demand, partly for VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 349 consumption and partly on speculation, and in the beginning of November they touched 25 cents cash, the highest price gunny bags ever reached in Boston. The sales and re -sales within a few weeks at that period reached 10,000 bales, but after the middle of November prices fell to 21 J to 22 cents a bag. In the be- ginning of 1862 there was a speculative demand for gunny cloth, and 10,600 bales changed hands, prices having advanced from 11 to 14 cents a yard. Afterwards sales became very dull, and prices fell to 11 cents. In November they again rose to 14| to 15 cents. The lowest price of gunny cloth in 1862 was 11 cents and the highest 15 cents per yard ; lq 1861, 7^ and 11^ ; in 1860, 8^ and 17 ; and in 1859, 11 and 13 cents per yard ; and of gunny bags, in 1862, 12 and 25 cents ; in 1861, lOi- and 14 ; in 1860, 8| and 14 ; and in 1859, 9 and 12J cents per bag. In conse- quence of the war between the Federal and Confederate States, deliveries of gunny cloth for consumption in 1862 were very limited, the cloth being chiefly used for cotton bagging, &c., the exportation of which was stopped by the blockade of the Confederate ports, and the stock on hand at the end of that year was, as shown above, 42,300 bales in Boston alone. The following statement of the value of the articles enume- rated, imported into America in the years ending 30th June 1859 and 1860, is taken from official sources : — 1859. 1860. Flax, Value, £30,564 Value, £44,518 Linseed, „ 503,175 „ 573,627 Linen Manufactures, „ 1,866,453 „ 1,926,210 Other Kinds, do., „ 287,839 „ 335,366 Hemp. 3,378 tons 84,411 2,273 tons. 67,884 Jute, Coir,,&e., 22,i538 »» „ 449,561 23,279 „ „ 409,530 Gunny Bags, &o.. „ 337,268 „ 433,884 Of the Linens imported in 1860, £1,871,856 was from Great Britain. The Hemp exported from the United States in 1859 was 108 tons, value, £1,933 ; and in 1860, 186 tons, value, £1,935. Linens re-exported in 1859, value, £7,122, and in 1860, £24,871. The following table, taken from the United States Economist, shows the value of the Linens imported into New York, the great emporium of the commerce of the United States of America, for the periods specified : — 350 MODEB]* LINEN. "Value of the Linens Imported into New Toek in 1859, 1860, 1861, 1862, AND from IsT Jahuart TO 30th Novembbe 1863. 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 Entered for Home Consump- tion. Entered for Warehousing. Total Entered at the Port. Withdrawn from Ware- house. Total Thrown on the Market. DoUars. 10,173,127 6,415,345 2,142,653 6,711,360 6,630,049 Dollars 947,357 1,498,807 1,4.37,650 955,271 210,043 Dollars. 11,120,484 7,914,152 3,580,303 7,666,631 6,840,092 Dollars. 1,033,065 839,488 1,878,081 1,612,414 2,304,644 Dollars. 11,206,192 7,254,833 4,020,734 8,.'!23,774 8,934,693 This tabular statement is important, as showing the effect of the unnatural, fierce, and protracted war in that country upon the Linen trade. At first the demand for Linens fell off greatly, and the value of the importation in 1861 was less than half the value the previous year, and less than one-third that of 1859. In 1862 the stock of cotton goods became exhausted, and Linens had to be used instead, which greatly extended their consump- tion. The requirements of the army and navy meanwhile in- creased enormously, and vast quantities of Linens were used for war purposes. To supply these wants the importation of 1862 was greatly beyond that of the previous year, and almost equalled the value in 1860, when both the Federals and Confederates were consumers. The consumption continued to increase in 1863, and, judging from the first eleven months of the year, to which this statement extends, the importation will be greater than for either of the complete years specified, excepting 1859. What the future wants of the country may be it is impossible to pre- dict, but the war hitherto, by curtailing the supply of cotton, has given a mighty impulse to the Linen trade of Great Bri- tain and Ireland, especially to that branch of it, the centre of which is Dimdee. This table does not show the full effect of the war on the Linen trade, because many Linens are sent to various places in the West Indies, &c., which find their way into the Confederate States. The war has also indirectly increased the consumption of Linens in aU countries, as the Board of Trade Eeturns show. ( 351 ) PART II. THE UNITED KINGDOM. The Linen trade is a very important branch of the indus- try of the British Isles. In each of the grand divisions of this great country, England, Ireland, and Scotland, the Linen manu- facture is of ancient standing, and now of important extent. Though these countries are now politically united in one impe- rial whole, yet they were long separate kingdoms, with antago- nistic interests, and while so, this branch of the trade possessed distinct features, in each peculiar to itself alone. In some re- spects the Linen trade in the respective sub-divisions of the kingdom are now identical, but in others they still differ, and it is perhaps better for the general prosperity that they should do so. Each has struck out a path for itself, which may be prosecuted successfully without injury to the others, and each can therefore without jealousy rejoice in the prosperity of their brethren. The general weal wUl be best served by each kingdom con- tinuing to prosecute assiduously its own adopted fabrics. This will engender no rivalry, excepting the very legitimate one of each of three kingdoms trying which will cast the brightest halo around the Linen trade of the Empire. Notwithstanding the union of Scotland, England, and Ireland into one empire,thehistoryof the Linen trade in the United King- dom naturally divides itself into its component parts. It wiU therefore be better and more clearly elucidated in distinct chap- ters. The introduction of the manufacture of Linen into the several divisions of the United Kingdom dates back to a far distant period, but little is known of the trade in either until comparatively modern times. England, from its proximity to the Continent, 352 MODERN LINEN. might naturally be expected to have acquired a knowledge of the art first, and history appears to support this conclusion. Of the three kingdoms it takes the highest rank in extent, population, wealth, and general importance, and to it therefore the first chapter will be devoted. Unlike England and Scotland, which draw the greater part of the supply of the raw materials for their Linen manufacture from abroad, and pay for much of it in hard cash, Ireland produces its Linen within itself. It grows its own Flax, spins and weaves it, and exports the products, thereby drawing many millions of gold to the country annually, and thus enriching both its agricultural and manufacturing popula- tions. Some account of this trade, valuable not only to Ireland, but to the kingdom at large, will be given in the second chapter. The third chapter will relate to Scotland, and as it is intended to give a more minute account of the trade in it than in other countries, the chapter wiU contain such sub-divisions as may be necessary for the proper illustration of the subject. The last chapter in this part will contain details common to the United Kingdom, including general statistics not already given. CHAPTER 1. ENGLISH LINEN. It is well known that the Phoenicians visited England at a very remote period, and for many ages supplied the inhabitants with the productions of Eastern countries, in exchange for tin and other metals from the mines of Cornwall. They were unquestionably the first people who visited Britain for the purposes of trade, as this is positively affirmed by Strabo, and acknowledged by many other authors. After visiting aU the coasts of the Mediterranean they passed the Straits of G-ib- raltar about 1250 B.C., built Cadiz, sailed along the west coasts ENGLISH LINEN. 353 of Gaul, discovered the Cassiterides or Scilly Isles, and the south-west toast of Britain, Bochart says 904 B.C., but others think only 600 B.C. This much is certain that Herodotus, who lived 440 B.C., speaks of the Cassiterides as the place from which all the tin came, but declares he does not know where they are. The Linen of Egypt was an important article in the trade of the Phcenicians, and no doubt formed one of the commodities given in barter for the highly prized metals and minerals of England, although Strabo only enume- rates salt, earthenware, and brass trinkets, as then British imports. This Linen was much valued by all the nations of antiquity to whom it was known, and doubtless the natives of Britain, although uncivilized, would also prize it. It is fair to suppose, therefore, that Linen may have been first introduced into England by this maritime people, although there is nothing certain known on the subject. After the Phoenician commerce was destroyed, for many ages the rude and barbarous natives of this country had little inter- course with other nations, and the very existence of Linen, if ever known, seems to have been forgotten by" many of them. C^sar says that the Britons in the interior of the country were clothed with skins. Pliny and others say that the ancient Britons still continued to besmear their bodies with paint long after the people of Spain, Graul, and even Germany had aban- doned that practice and were tolerably clothed. It would appear, however, that some of the people of Britain not only wore various kinds of cloth at the time the Komans first visited the country, but that they were then well acquainted with the art of dressing, spinning, and weaving both Flax and wool, and that they prac- tised these arts much in the same manner as the people of Gaul. Not only was this the case, but they were even the in- ventors of some particular descriptions of cloth. One of these was made of fine wool, dyed of different colours, and woven in checks or squares, like the Scottish tartan of the present time. Of this the people made summer mantles and other garments. Pliny says the ancient Gauls and Britons were acquainted with the art of dyeing woollen yarn and cloth. The material chiefly used was the glastum or woad, with which in former times they had dyed their bodies ; and deep blue long continued to be 354 MODERN LINEN. the favourite colour with which the ancient Britons, and also the Caledonians, dyed their clothes. The di-ess of the Druids was white, and probably of Linen cloth. Pliny mentions that the priest, arrayed in a surplice or white vesture, climbeth up into the tree (misletoe), and with a golden hook or bill cutteth it off, and they beneath receive it in a white soldier s cassock, or coat of arms. Burnt bones have been found ia British barrows, secured by a Linen cloth. Some specimens of the Linen were of a reddish- brown colour, the filaments at first appearing like hair. Sir R. C. Hoare found in a barrow some bits of cloth so well preserved that the size of the threads could be distinguished, and shewed it to be what is now termed a Kersey cloth. The following description of the habit of the greatBritish hero- ine, Boadicea, is given by Dido and other historians. " She wore a loose robe of changeable colours over a thick plaited kirtle, the tresses of her hair hanging down to her very skirts, with a chain of gold about her "neck, and carrying in her hand a short spear or dart." What Tacitus says of the German women may also be true of the Britons — " Their dress differed little from that of the men, excepting that the women wore more Linen, but left their arms and part of their bosoms bare." The art of making, and the custom of wearing Linen, were probably brought into England by the Belgic colonies, about a century before the Roman invasion, or perhaps earlier, and at the same time with agriculture, and it kept pace with that most useful of arts in its progress northwards. There is direct evi- dence that the Belgse manufactured Linen, as well as cultivated their lands on the Continent, and there is thus good reason to conclude that they continued to do the same after they settled in this Island. Although the Belgae, the most civUized of the ancient Britons, were not altogether unacquainted with the most essential branches of the clothing art before they were subdued by the Romans, yet these arts were improved in England by that event. The Romans learned aU the iiseful and ornamental arts practised in the different countries throughout their vast empire, and readily taught them to their subjects in other countries where they were unknown, or imperfectly practised. The Roman invasion of ENGLISH LINEN. 355 England must therefore have been the means of reviving and extending the use of Linen there, as the Britons were then, or very shortly afterwards, partial to Linen, and used it for many purposes. PUny describes the different qualities of Flax respectively produced by each country, with a minuteness which shows that the manufacture of Linen was then an important branch of trade among the Romans, and that wherever their arms pene- trated Linen would soon be known. It appears from the Notitia Imperii that there was an Imperial college or manufactory of wooUen and Linen cloth for the use of the Eoman army in Bri- tain established at Venta Belgarum, now Winchester. After the Romans left England, much of the civilization which they had introduced followed in their train, and again went with them ; and the natives relapsed into at least semi-barbarism. After the retreat of the Britons into Wales and Cornwall, and the establishment of the Saxons in England as masters of the country, greater attention began to be paid to the arts of peace, and particularly to trade and commerce. The retrograde move- ment which began with the withdrawal of the Roman legions was stopped, and a gradual improvement manifested itself in the country. Macpherson in his " Annals of Commerce" says, that about a.d. 500, it appears from the chronicles of the period fine Linen, (probably imported), was possessed by the inhabitants of Britain and Ireland. The bodies of the dead, at least those of eminent rank, were wrapped in fine Linen. By the ancient laws of "Wales, aU. the officers of the household were appointed to be clothed thrice every year, the King fur- nishing the woollen and the Queen the Linen cloth for that pur- pose. The several parts of the dress of the King and nobility are emmierated, among which are sheets, stockings, shoes, and boots. The stockings were of woollen or Linen cloth wound round the legs and feet, and fastened in different ways. Before the end of the 7th century, the art of weaving had at- tained remarkable perfection in England, for in a book written by Bishop Aldhelm, about a.d 680, in praise of virginity, he speaks of " webs woven with shuttles, fiUed with threads of purple and many other colours, flying from side to side, and z2 356 MODERN LINEN. forming a variety of figures aud images in different compart- ments with admirable art." These figures were sometimes em- broidered upon the cloth with threads of gold, silver, and silk of purple and other colours, as the nature of the figures to be formed required ; and to render them the more exact, they were first drawn with colouring matter by some skilful artist. They were commonly executed by ladies of the highest rank and greatest piety, and were designed for ornaments to the churches, or for vestments to the clergy. The garments of the Anglo-Saxons were Linen and woollen, and the Flax and the fieece were spun in winter by the females of every family, from the highest to the lowest rank. From this tmiversal practice the term spinster came to be applied to an unmarried woman, and the trace of this custom still re- mains. The Saxon ladies were very skilful with their needles, particularly in embroidery and ornamental work, and celebrated events were often represented by them with great truth on tapes- tried hangings and similar works. The four princesses, daughters of King Edward the Elder, and sisters of King Athelstane, are highly celebrated by historians for their assiduity and skill in spinning, weaving, and needle- work, which was so far from spoiling the fortunes of these Koyal spinsters, that it procured them the addresses and the hands of the greatest princes then in Europe. William, of Malmsbury, mentions that Harold, King of Norway, sent to Athelstane of England a fine ship, with a gilded stern and purple sails. The celebrated Bayeaux tapestry, executed by the Queen of William the Conqueror, and her maidens, in commemora- tion of the conquest of England, is of Linen cloth, worked with wool. It was presented by Queen, Matilda to the Cathedral of Bayeaux, of which William's brother was bishop. This tapestry is 20 inches wide by 214 feet long, divided into 72 compartments, and it is one of the most wonderful specimens of industry in existence. It is now in the possession of the munici- pality of Bayeaux, by whom it is highly valued and religiously pre- served. It begins with the embassy of Harold to the Norman court, A.D. 1065, and ends with his death at the battle of Hastings, the following year. The many important transactions of these two busy years are represented in the clearest and most regular ENGLISH LINEN. 357 order in tMs piece of needlework, which contains many hundred figures of men, horses, herds, trees, castles, churches, &c., &c., all executed in their due proportions and proper colours, with inscriptions over them to throw light on the history. Though Queen Matilda directed this work, yet the greater part of it was probably performed by English women, as a contemporary writer says that the Anglo-Saxon ladies were so famous for their skill in needlework and embroidery in gold, that those elegant manufactures were called Anglicum Opus. The Anglo-Saxons of this period were far from being strangers to the use of Linen, for all persons of any consideration among them wore shirts of it next their skin. These were considered so pleasant and necessary, that a woollen shirt was then, accord- ing to Johnson's Canons, reckoned among those things which constituted penance for very great sins. Above the shirt they wore a tunic, and Alcuinus says, " those of the soldiers are com- monly made of Linen, and exactly fitted to the shape of their bodies." The Anglo-Saxons also wore breeches, either of Linen or woollen cloth, reaching below the knee, very much like the trousers of the sailors of the present time. The upper cover- ing or mantle of princesses and ladies of distinction was made of silk or fine Linen. They had their sceta or sheets, and in a foreign charter, dated 1069j lintrius is a term used for bed Linen, and elsewhere lintheamina. It would thus ap- pear that large quantities of Linens were consumed by the Anglo-Saxons, and it is probable that the manufacture had been chiefly of a domestic character. It may be, however, that part of them were imported, especially those of the finest quality. The Flax plant appears to be indigenous to Britain. Its pro- perties have been long known to the inhabitants, and it must have been raised from an early date. During the Roman, and also the Saxon period, it was grown to some extent, but the troubles consequent on the incursions and invasions of the Danes seem to have interfered with, and perhaps in a great measure to have stopped, its cultivation. It is reported that at the time of the Norman conquest very little Flax was grown. Very many manufacturers of cloth from Flanders came over with the Nor- mans and settled in England, and others followed at later periods. 358 MODEKN LINEN. These iadustrious people pursued their trade with much assi- duity, and with great advantage to their adopted country, as well as profit to themselves. The production of both woollen and Linen fabrics experienced considerable improvement soon after the Flemings arrived, and of the skill of this people an ancient historian has said that " The art of weaving seemed to be a pe- culiar gift bestowed upon them by nature." In a list of titheable articles made out in 1070, being the fourth year of William the Conqueror, neither Flax nor Hemp are enumerated. It would thus appear that their cultivation had, for a time at least, been discontinued. They must, however, have been resumed within a century thereafter, as they are both enumerated by the Council of Westminster in 1175, among the things annually reproduced as subject to tithe. WilHam the Conqueror published a proclamation for the en- couragement of trade, promising foreign merchants who fre- quented the ports of England the most perfect security for their goods and persons. King John, for the encouragement of the clothing arts, and the improvement of commerce, established in the great towns of England, guilds, or corporations of merchants, bestowing upon them, by royal charter, various privileges and immunities, for which they paid certain fines into the Exche- quer ; and the making and selling of cloth was regulated by statute. At this period the shirts of aU persons of rank and for- tune, and even of the great body of the people, were of Linen, which had then become so common that it was no longer taken notice of by historians as a singularity. As this part of dress is not much seen, it has been less affected by the tyranny of cap- rice and fashion than other parts of the clothing, and it still remains nearly what it then was. It is related in Madox's " History of the Exchequer," that fine Linen was first made in Wilts and Sussex in 1253 ; and, in order to patronize the infant manufacture, Henry III. ordered the Sheriffs of each of these counties to buy for him one thousand ells of fine Linen, and to send it to his wardrobe at Westmin- ster. Notwithstanding this royal patronage, woollen was worn in nearly all garments until the age of the Tudors, when Linen began to come into more general use. In 1272 it is recorded that Irish Linen was use! at Winchester. ENGLISH LINEN. 359 In the latter part of the 13th century the people wore woollen shirts, but now (in the 14th century), says La Flamma, we wear Linen. Table Linen was then scarce in England. The manu- facture of Linen must have been pretty generally established in Wales in the beginning of the 14th century, as its use was then common in the country. Barbour, in his Life of King Robert Bruce, says that the men of Wales, in 1314, were mostly clothed in Linen. During this century most of the fine Linen used in England was supplied by Eheims. In 1331 Edward III. resolved to establish manufactures, and for that purpose invited over weavers from Flanders to settle in England. In 1351 the king regulated the places of meeting of the foreign weavers for the sale of their cloth. Those who had come from Flanders were to meet in the churchyard of St Law- rence, Pulteney, and those from Brabant in the churchyard of St Mary Somerset. Afterwards the cloth fair was removed to West Smithfield. It is stated in " Londinopolis" that there were then weavers of divers sorts, viz., of drapery or tapery and napery, i.e. of woollen and Linen. There is a regular account extant of the imports and exports which paid duty in England in 1354, and among the former were Linen. In 1378 an Act was passed for the encouragement of foreign merchants, and Linens, canvas, &c., are enumerated among the articles then imported. From these and similar notices it would appear that few Linens had then been manu- factured in the country, the greater part of them having been imported, chiefly from Flanders and France. The principal manufacture of textile fabrics, before and for some time after this period, was woollen cloth, and considerable quantities of it were exported. In 1386 a company or guild of Linen weavers was first estab- lished in London, consisting of such as had been brought over from the Netherlands by Edward III. They were much mo- lested by the weavers' company of London, and never attained a great degree of success. The Tailors or " Fraternity of Scissors," now called " Mer- chant Tailors," dates as a chartered company in the city of London from the year 1399. Anciently they made all kinds of apparel, whether of wool or of Linen, and also the padding of 360 MODEBN LINEN. armour, hence their designation in several charters as " Linen armourers.'' Many foreign merchants in England were at this time formed into companies, such as " Merchants of the Steel Yard," " Mer- chants of the Staple," &c. The foreign trade was then on an extensive scale, and fine Linen was imported from Venice, Pisa, Genoa, Bretagne, Flanders, Holland, and other places, chiefly of Egyptian and German manufacture. The Linen cloth made in England would seem to have heen generally coarse, and only worn by the very poorest, the fine Linens for the use of the rich being imported. It appears from the roU of the king's wardrobe iu 1415, that the greatest part of the Linen then used in England, especially by those of the higher ranks, was imported, and was chiefly from Eeynes or Eennes and Champagne in France, and from Flanders and Brabant in the Netherlands. The excellence of these Linens is celebrated in many romances and poems composed shortly be- fore this period. In 1415 King Henry V. invaded France with a fleet of large vessels, and gained the battle of Agincourt. The ship in which he himself embarked carried a sail of purple silk. In 1445 the price of fine Linen for surplices and the altar, was 8d an ell in England. D'Amay says that Linen was not common in the west in the 8th centiiry ; that table Linen was very rare in England in the 13th and 14th centuries ; and that La Flamma, a writer of the 14th century, says, the Emperors Frederick Barbarossa, and Frederick 11. wore shirts of serge, not of Linen, at Milan. Sturtt observes that the manufacture of Linen in this country was not carried to any extent before the middle of the 17th cen- tury, and was in its infancy even in the times of Charles II. At that time it was imported from Flanders, and was very dear. Gems were frequently inserted in Linen, and he says of cloth of Eayne, the "Head shete of pery pight, With diamonds set and rubies bright " Anderson, in his " History of Commerce," quoting from Bicbard Hakluyt, says, in 1430 England imported from Flan- ders, " fine cloth of Ypres and of Courtray of all colours. ENGLISH LINEN. 361 much fustian, and also Linen cloth ;" Bretagne, " salt, wines, Linen, and canvas ;" Cologne, via Flanders, " thread, wool- cards, fustians, canvas and buckram ;" Brabant, " mercery, ^ha- berdashery, and grocery ;" Ireland, " hides, fish, wool. Linen cloth, and skins of wild beasts." The same author says, in 1579 " there are persons in Persia who stain- Linen cloth. It hath been an old trade in England, whereof some excellent cloths yet remain, but the art is now lost in this realm" The silk manufacture was introduced aboutthe beginning of the 15th century. At this period, according to a curious pam- phlet called the " Prologue of English Policy," crest-cloth or Linen, and canvas were imported from Brittany ; Flax, Hemp, thread, and canvas from Germany and Prussia. In an act passed in the twelfth year of the reign of King Henry VII., (1497), mention is made of the nature and extent of the for- eign commerce of the country ; Linen forms but a very small part of the exports, as it is scarcely mentioned ; nor does it hold a more prominent place among the exports of 1511. About this time Linen, even the very coarsest dowlas, was derived from Flanders. The English had then a factory at Antwerp, whence they had removed it a few years before from Bruges. In " NichoU's Illustrations" is an inventory of the goods of " John Port, late the king's servant," who died in 1524. His house consisted of " a hall, parlour, buttery, and kitchen, with two chambers, and one smaller in the floor above, a napery or Linen room, and three garrets besides a shop." In 1531 the legislature seems to have become more alive to the importance of the Linen trade, a statute having been enacted requiring that, under certain penalties, " for every sixty acres of land fit for tillage, one rood should be sown with Flax and Hemp seed," and in the register of Pulham, St Mary, fines paid for the non-fulfilment of this law are recorded. By the 5th Elizabeth, c. 5, that Queen had power by her proclamation to revive this law in such counties as she should judge proper, " for the better provision of nets for help and furtherance of fishing, and for eschewing of idleness," but no mention is made of the Linen manufacture. About 1540 a trade was opened up by England with the Mediterranean and the coast of Africa, and the first article enu- 362 MODERN LINEN. merated amongst the exports is Linen. In 1553 the trade between England and Kussia was begun, and among the exports to Archangel, and also to Narva, coarse Linen cloth is mentioned. In 1588 the first voyage from London to Benin was made, and Linens are the first of the commodities named among the exports to that country. As related in Guiciardini's picture of Antwerp, in 1560, England, Scotland, and Ireland, in common with many other countries, drew supplies of Linen from that city, which was then the great emporium of the Linen of Flanders. Mis- senden, in his " Circle of Commerce," mentions that in 1612, among the principal imports into England from Europe, Linens held a prominent place, and that during a great part ot the 16th and 17th centuries, they were largely imported. In the 17th century England imported vast quantities of Hemp, Flax, &c., from Carolina, in North America. About the middle of the 16th century the growing of Hemp and Flax met with more encouragement from the Grovernment than that of hops, yet it appears to have totally failed. Toward the end of this century (] 597), the monopoly of the " steelyard" was abolished. The foreign merchants, in revenge, managed to force the English merchants to remove their staple town on the continent from place to place, until at last they found a kind re- ception at Hamburg. To this city they exported woollen cloth, &c., and imported from the Hanse Towns, jewels, silk. Linen, tapestry, &c. In 1552 an Act was passed confirming the manufacture of dornocks, (coarse Linen diaper), and some other things to Nor- wich, and to all corporate and market towns in that county. To that and to the neighbouring counties the persecuted Flemish manufacturers fled in crowds, scared by the inhumanities of the execrable Duke D' Alva, his popish priestly bloodhounds, and savage soldiery. This act, passed by the amiable Edward VI., enabled these poor people, some twenty years afterwards, the more easily to prosecute their diligent labours in these districts ; and to their industrious pursuits, among which was the making of Linen, England owes much of her present supeiiority in manufactures, trade, and commerce. The manufacture of sail-cloth was established in England in 1590, as appears by the preamble of 1st James I , cap. 23 : — ENGLISH LINKN. 363 '' Whereas the cloth called Mildernix and Fowel Bavies, whereof sails and other furniture for the navy and shipping are made, were heretofore altogether brought out of France and other parts beyond sea, and the skill and art of making and weaving of the said cloths never known or used in England until about the thirty-second year of the late Queen Elizabeth, about what time and not before the perfect art or skill of making or weaving of the said cloths was attained to, and since practised and continued in this realm, to the great benefit and commodity thereof." In 1622 a special commission was appointed to enquire into the decline of trade in England : — " Consider also that whereas our Eastland merchants did formerly load their ships with un- dressed Hemp and Flax in great quantities, which set great numbers of our people to work in dressing the same, and con- verting them into Linen doth, which kind of trade, we under- stand, is of late almost given over by bringing in Hemp and Flax ready dressed, and that, for the most part, by strangers. How may this be redressed ? And as much treasure is yearly spent in Linen cloth imported at dear rates, and for that of the fishery so much desired by us be thoroughly undertaken, and our shipping increased, it will require a much greater production of Hemp for cordage, &c., in the fishery, which would set an infinite number of our people to work. Consider how the sowing of Flax and Hemp may be encouraged." Parliament in 1643 laid a duty on damask table Linen. In 1663 statutes were passed for the encouragement of the Linen and tapestry manufactures of England, and the discouragement of the very great importation of foreign Linens and tapestry. In 1668 England was almost wholly supphed with Linens from France. At this time the French Protestants settled'at Ipswich made Linen at 15s per ell. In 1670 " the wear of flimsey mus- lin " was introduced into England, before which time our more natural and usual wear were cambrics, Silesia canvas, and such kinds of Flaxen Linens from Flanders and Germany. Table cloths were sometimes made of veiy valuable Linen. Mrs Otter, in Ben Johnson's " Silent Women," mentions a damask tablecloth which cost £18. The good man of the house sat at the upper end of the board " with a fayre napkin layde before him on the table lyke a master." A.t the close of 3tJ4 MODERN LINEN. Henry VIII.'s reign, the breeches worn were trussed out to an enormous size with horse hair, and a law was made against this. In the pedigree of the English Grallant, related that a man who was cited for disobeying this law, gave occular demonstration to the Judge that it was a storehouse for his spare Linen, and was dismissed. Shirts were articles of great expense and elegance. They were made of '' Camericke Hollande lawn, or els of the finest cloth that may be got," and were so wrought with " needleworks of silke and so curiously stitched, with other knache besides," that their price would sometimes amount to £10. These short notices of the import and export of Linens show that the manufacture in this country had been on a very trifling scale, and on the whole not sufficient to supply the home de- mand, as the imports seem to have exceeded the exports. In- deed from the passing of the statute in 1531, already referred to, up to the year 1767 many attempts were made to extend and improve the cultivation of Flax in England, and protection was afforded to the grower of the plant in various ways. Success does not appear to have attended the efforts of the Government, and in the latter year £15,000 were proposed to be distributed among the successful cultivators of the plant. For fifteen years no candidate came forward to claim a premium, which shows that little interest was taken in the matter ; and that little Flax was grown, notwithstanding the encouragement offered by Gro- vernment. About 1798 a bounty of 4d a stone for the encourage- ment of the growth of Flax in England, was given to claimants. Andrew Yarranton in a publication issued in- 1677, entitled " Englands Improvement by Land and Sea," proposed " To outdo the Dutch without Fighting. To pay Debts without Monies," &c. His plan was to establish the Linen manufacture in England, and by this means give employment to the people, and at the same time make the country independent of foreign nations. He mentions that vast quantities of Linens are yearly brought into England, some of it used there and the rest exported to our islands and other places ; as well as threads, tapes, twines, for cordage and wrought Flax. Flax, he says, was grown in the upper parts of Germany, Saxony, and Bohemia, where victuals were cheap, and as the pul- ling, watering, dressing, spinning and winding the Flax gave much ENGLISH LINEN. 365 employment, there were no beggars there. In all the towns in Germany there were schools for little girls from six years old and upwards, where they were taught to spin, and by this early training they were enabled to produce a very fine thread more easily than if they had learned when older. The wheels were moved by the foot, and went easily with a delightful motion, and the mode of teaching the children was as follows : — Around a large room a number of benches were placed, in which saf per- haps two hundred children spinning. In the centre stood a pul- pit, in which the mistress sat with a long white wand in her hand, watching the spinners. When any one was seen idle she was tapped with the wand, hut if that did not do a small bell was rung, which brought out a woman, to whom the offender was pointed out, and who took her into another room where she was chastised. All this was done without speaking a word, and this training, the author thought, would do good in England, where the young women were so given to chatting. In an adjoining room a woman prepared and put the Flax on the distaffs, and when a maid had spun off the Flax, the bell was rung, the rod pointed to her, another distaff given, and the bob- bin with the threads removed, and put into a box with others of the same size to make cloth. As the children learned to spin finer, they were raised to higher benches, and great care was taken to sort the thread and keep it uniform, and so to make regular cloth. The thread or yarn was brought down the Elbe or Ehine in dry fats for Holland and Flanders, where it was weaved into fine Linen and bleached, and then exported. The people in these countries paid high rents for their houses and for provi- sions, hut the weaving and bleajihing of the cloth was not more than a tenth part of the labeur, which made high charges for these processes less felt on the cloth. This vast trade it was said would continue in Holland and Flanders unless the Linen trade were promoted in England, and due care taken of the sorting of the yarn there, which had not been the case. In England, a good housewife had six or eight spinners be- longing to her ; and sometimes she, her servants, and children span, the yarn being aU put together, some for warp and some for weft to one piece of cloth, which made the Linen unequal 366 MODERN LINEN. throughout. He recommended the training of the girls in spin- ning schools for three years as in Grermany, which would teach them industrious hahits, and hy the time they reached their ninth year they would, he says, earn eightpence a day, and thus enrich their father instead of heggaring him, as they did when running ahout idle. The author had, from 1665 until he wrote the book in 1677, often travelled through Warwickshire on his way to London, and observed how suitable much of the soil there was for rearing Flax. He therefore recommended the estabhshment of the manufac- ture of Linens in Warwick, Leicester, Northampton, and Oxford- shires, because these countries had then no staple trade, and the land was rich and dry, and such as Flax grows best in. Bleach- fields, he says, should be put down by the banks of rivers near the great towns, as it then was in Southwark by the help of the flow- ing of the Thames. He recommended each county to raise money to start the manufacture at first. After it was established in these counties and encouraged by a public law, they would soon be- come what Germany was to Holland and Flanders, as the yarn would be sent down the navigable rivers to the several towns to be woven, along with such of the Flax as was not spun in the counties. In this way employment would be provided for the unemploy- ed, of which there were so many in these counties, and at least two minions of money a year kept in the country, which was then sent out for Linen cloth. This, he supposed, would keep the people at home who then went beyond the seas, and it would make the country populous and rich, and greatly benefit the landlords and all classes of the community. He thus shows that bleaching had then been carried on by the side of the Thames in Southwark, and that the central counties in England had no trade, and no means of employing the popu- lation, excepting at agricultural labour and work incidental thereto ; and as this did not yield employent to all the people, many had to emigrate to other lands. The author points to some large tracts of fine land suitable for growing Flax, and in one case mentions 3000 acres, near Stratford-upon-Avon, of the value of about £3000 a year, which exhibits the rent of such land at that period. This land, he says, would bear three cwt. ENGLISH LINEN. 367 of Flax an acre, which, well dressed, would make 1400 ells of cloth, worth three shillings the ell, or when manufactured sixty pounds an acre. Three people he says are required to manufac- ture the produce of an acre of Flax, and therefore these 3000 acres alone would employ 9000 persons. Thus by growing Flax extensively all the poor in England would be employed, and the country enriched. This is a very interesting account of the Linen trade at that period in Germany, Holland, &c., and it would have been of immense advantage to England had the recommendation of the author been carried out. The description of the spinning schools is curious. A regulation at one time existed in England, something akin to the stamping of Linens in Scotland. It was called a com- mission for the sealing lace, buttons, and Linen cloths, and it appears to have been abolished by King Charles I., in the fol- lowing proclamation, made at York in 1639: — " Whereas divers grants, licenses, privileges, and commissions had been procured from him, on pretence for the common good and profit of his subjects, which since, upon experience, have been found to be prejudicial and inconvenient to his people, and in their execu- tion have been notoriously abused, he is now pleased, of his mere grace and favour, with the advice of the Privy Council, to declare these following to be utterly void and revoked." &c. In 1685, the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, by Louis XIV., drove about 600,000 Protestant artificers from France, of whom about 70,000 settled in England. There they intro- duced new manufactures and improved old ones. Linen, for which they had been long famous, being among the latter. An act was passed iu 1678 prohibiting the importation of French merchandize ; but on the accession of James II., who, for Popish ends, wished to conciliate Louis of France, this act was repealed, in consequence of which there was an inundation of French commodities. In 1686, as shewn by the Custom House books, the value of Linen imported was £398,611 14s lOd, and the average annual importations of Linen for that and the two following years was estimated at £700,000. Anderson says that in 1696 " the English, Scotch, and Irish Linen manufactures met with all due encouragement, King 368 MODERN LINEN. William and the late Queen Mary honouring them with their names, which made their fame to rise. Abundance of people of condition came into them, some of lucre, and others from love to their country." In 1698 Dupin, one of the French refugees, was instrumental in advancing the manufacture of fine Linen, thread, ropes, lace, &c. About the end of the 17th century it was doubtful if the Linen trade would prove successful in England, and it was then a question if it would be for the benefit of the country that it should, as it might interfere with what was called " our noble and ancient woollen manufacture." It was said that it required about 20 acres of land to breed wool for setting on work the same number of hands which an acre of Flax would employ, and yet in the end the woollen manufacture would be found to employ by far the greatest number of hands, and yield the most profit to the public, as well as to the manufacturers. Even in Holland, where the Linen manufacture was so prosperous, it was said the Dutch had only the easiest and most profitable part of the trade, viz , the weaving and whitening of it. Most of the yarn was spun in Germany, Prussia, &c., where the people, being poor, could spin cheaper than the people of Holland or England can do. But in countries where labour and land are cheap, as in Scotland and Ireland, the Linen manufacture had been found to be profitable to the community. In 1669 Linen yarn weighing 23,680 lbs. was imported into the port of London from Scotland. In the month of May 1730 London imported — fine Linen from Holland, 66,286 ells ; from Hamburg and Bremen, 1,232,209 ells ; Irish Linen, 179,114 yards ; and Linen Tarn from Hamburg, 73,450 lbs. On 23d October, 1738, 151,219 yards of Linen manufactured in Scot- land, and 3000 sps. of yarn were imported into London. In 1731 the quantity of all kinds of Linen imported into the port of London alone was nearly 14,000,000 eUs, the greater part of which was again exported to the plantations in America, and to the factories in Africa. In 1703 a bounty of £6 a ton was allowed on the importation of Hemp from America. This must have been discontinued, be- cause in order to obtain a cheaper and surer supply of Flax and ENGLISH LINEN. 369 Hemp, and to encourage their cultivation in the American colo- nies, the parliament granted a bounty of £8 on every ton of clean mercantile Hemp, or rough Flax, imported from the British American colonies from 24th June, 1764, to 24th June, 1771, from thence to 22d June, 1778, £6 ; and thereafter to 24th June, 1785, £4. The pre-emption of all such Flax and Hemp being offered to the commanders of the navy, and twenty days allowed for their determination, before the importer could be at liberty to sell it to a private buyer. About 1605, Sir W. Morrison says that nearly all the nations of Europe, including England, took Flax, Hemp, &c., from the Turks, and in Munn's treatise in favour of the East India trade, published in 1621, he makes the same statement. In 1717 the duty of 6d on every piece of forty ells of British made Linen exported, which had been laid on by the tonnage and poundage act, was taken off, " the said manufacture employ- ing many thousands of the poor of this kingdom." About 1720 great complaints were made by the weavers of the change of fashion in dress, caused by the French commercial treaty of 1713, and by the subsequent introduction of Indian cotton and cotton cloth. " The Weavers' True Cause" says, that instead of the women of the gentry wearing English brocades and Venetians as of late, they were now clothed with outlawed India chintz. The common traders' wives had changed their slight silk damasks for English and Dutch printed calicoes. The good country dames had superseded worsted damasks, flowered russets, and flowered calimancoes, with ordinary calicoes and printed Linens ; and the meanest of them had given up plain worsted stuffs for ordinary printed Linens, whereby these famous branches of the weaving trade had almost become ex- tinct. The weavers were stricken with, horror at the growing frenzy of English women for printed calicoes, and declared that " the weaving of printed or painted commodities puts all degrees and orders of woman kind into disorder and confusion. The lady cannot be well known from her chambermaid. But when our womenkind were clothed with silk and woollen commodities,' these mistakes were avoided, and a tolerable order observed." However fallacious such reasoning, it was powerful enough to procure an enactment in 1721, which made it penal to sell or to A A 370 MODERN LINEN. weave calico. When that enactment was no longer tenable, it was in 1736 still penal to weave calico, unless the warp was wholly of Linen, and this continued to be British law until 1784. On Sunday, oOth Dec, 1722, a woman was seized near Lon- don Wall, in the city of London, for wearing a gown faced with calico, and being carried before a magistrate, and refusing to pay the penalty inflicted by the statute, she was committed to the Compter. So says a London newspaper, published on Tues- day, 1st January, 1723. To prevent the use of calicoes from interfering with the de- mand for Linens and woollens, a statute was passed in 1721 imposing a penalty of £5 upon the weaver, and £20 upon the seller, of a piece of calico. Fifteen years afterwards this statute was so far modified that calicoes manufactured in Great Britain were allowed to be worn, " provided the warp thereof was entirely made of Linen yarn." In 1774 a statute was passed allowing printed goods wholly made of cotton, to be used upon paying a duty of 3d a yard, &c. The statute continued in force many years. In a report by Alexander Somerville of a j ourney made through the counties of York, Lincoln, Cambridge, and Norfolk, in 1773, to observe the management of Flax and Hemp there, the vaJue of the quantity raised was estimated as follows : — Flax. Hemp. Yorkshire £70,000 £10,000 Lincoln 31,800 27,800 Cambridge 8,000 2,000 Norfolk, 1,000 19,000 £110,800 £58,800 Other English counties, . . 190,000 150,000 £300,800 £208,800 In 1745, an act was passed, 18 Geo. II., c. 36, for the encouragement of the native Linen trade, by which it was enacted " that it shall not be lawful for any person in Great Britain to wear any cambric or French lawn under the penalty of £5, and the like penalty on the seller thereof." Another short ENGLISH LINEN. 371 act, 21 Geo. II. c. 26, was passed for explaining, amending, and enforcing the previous act, by farther extending the penalties to the vendors, and also to the milliners making up such fabrics. These acts, like many other which stiU cumber the statute book, must have been, in a great measure, inoperative, if indeed they were ever seriously intended to be enforced, and they ought never to have been passed. In order still farther to encourage the manufacture of sail- cloth in Great Britain, which was then in a prosperous and im- proved state, and had previously been fostered by many acts of parliament imposing duties on foreign cloth imported, &c., an act was passed in 1746, 19 Geo. II., c 27, confirming previous acts, and ordaining that every vessel built in Great Britain, and in His Majesty's plantations in America, must, at her first sail- ing, be furnished with one full and complete set of new sails made of sail-cloth manufactured in Great Britain, under the penalty of £50 : and any sailmaker in Great Britain or the plantations shall on every new sail affix in words at length, a stamp of eight inches diameter, whereon his name and place of abode shall plainly appear, under the penalty of £10. A manufacture of cambric in imitation of the French cam- bric was established at Winchelsea in 1761. In 1764, the English Linen Company was established as a corporate body, chiefly for the purpose of making cambric and lawns of the kind called French Lawns, with a joint capital stock which should not exceed £100,000 ; the goods, in order to certify them to be of English manufacture, to be sealed at each end of the piece by proper officers before they were taken out of the loom. This company may have been intended to supply the void caused by the prohibition to wear French cambric by the acts of 1745. This year, 1764, a great improvement in the spinning-wheel was invented by Mr Harrison, whereby it was said a " child may spin twice as much as a grown person can do with the com- mon wheel." The Patriotic Society for the encouragement of arts and commerce gave him a premium of £50. In 1764, Linens were exported from the following places in England, viz., as appears from a report made up at that time by Dr Busching, of Gottengen — Stafford, in Staffordshire ; Dar- lington, in Durham; Manchester and Warrington, in Lancashire. A 2 372 MODERN LINEN. In " The Progress of Commerce from 1700 to .1800" it is mentioned that Great Britaip imported Flax and Hemp, &c., and exported Linen manufactures ; that Ireland exported Linens to Portugal, and that German and Irish Linens were sent as far as to Timbuctoo ! For the establishment of a fund of £15,000 a year to encour- age the cultivation and dressing of Hemp and Flax, additional, duties were in 1767 laid on foreign canvas and lawns, to be re- paid on such as should be exported. In 1770 it was enacted that £8000 of this sum should be for England, and £7000 for Scotland. Should the funds fall short of £15,000, England to ihave 8-15ths and Scotland 7-15ths of the amount collected.. By the thirteenth Eeport of the Commissioners for Examining the Public Accounts, dated 18th March 1785, it appears that no claims had at that date been made from England, but that a few had been made from Scotland. In 1767 an additional duty of 3d was laid on every ell of dril- ling and Linen above one yard wide imported. Linens imported into England from foreign countries : — 1762 18.827,853 Yards. Duty, £134,031 14 1 1765 25,497,795 »» » 182,997 11 1770 27,101,343 It *» 221,333 8 9 1771 28,243,121 „ »» 230,951 14 2 Total quantities of Flax, Hemp, Flax seed, and Linen yarn, imported into England from 5th January 1764 to £th January 1772, being eight years : — EcmghFlax, . . , Cwts., 1,130,719 Hough Hemp, . . . „ 2,639,236 LiDseed, .... Bushels, 1,792,465 Linen Yarn, Eaw, . . . Lbs., 55,006,029 In 1773 there was great stagnation in the Linen trade throughout the United Kingdom, owing to serious over trading in 1771, both at home and abroad, the loaded state of the for- eign markets from excessive exports in 1770, 1771, and 1772, and many failures in the latter year. Mr Paine, Governor of the Bank of England, in his examination before the House of Com- mons, estimated that the importation of foreign Linens, which in 1772 had been 27,000,000 yards, had fallen in 1773 to 17,000,000 yards. ENGLISH LINEN. 373 By the Act 22 George III., cap. 40 (1782), the crime of cut- ting or destroying woollen, silk, cotton, or Linen goods, or of any utensils used in their manufacture, was made a felony without benefit of clergy. On an average of the three years, 1768 to 1770, the quantity of Flax seed imported from America was To Great Britain, . 12,436 bushels To Ireland, . . 255,851 „ 268,287 „ at 2a 3d £30,232 6a 9d. On the average of the three years from 1777 to 1779, the value of Flax seed imported from the Continent of Europe, chiefly from Holland and Eussia, was To England, .... £239,869 5 3 To Scotland 186,941 18 6 £426,811 3 9 From the period of the introduction of the cotton manufac- ture into England in the early part of the 17th century, down to the year 1773, the weft or transverse threads of the web only were of cotton, the warp, or longitudinal threads being wholly of Linen yarn, principally imported from Germany, Ireland, and Scotland. In the early stages of the manufacture, the weavers, dispersed in cottages throughout the country, provided the yarn for their webs, and carried them to the market when they were finished. About 1760, Manchester merchants began to send agents into the country, who employed weavers, and furnished them with the Linen yarn for warp, and raw cotton for weft, the latter having to be carded, and then spun vnth the common spindle and distaff by the weaver's family. The latter was per- haps an improvement on the former plan, but both were slow and tedious, and the quantity of cloth which could be so produced was necessarily of limited extent. The invention of the spin- ning Jenny by James Hargraves, in 1767, superseded the spindle and distaff, and subsequent improvements on it, and the inven- tion of the spinning frame by Kichard Arkwright, in 1770, ob- viated the necessity of using Flax yarn for warp. After this period calicoes and other fabrics were made wholly of cotton. 374 kODEEN LINEN. The introduction of the cotton manufacture into England was a severe blow to the Linen trade in that country, and since that period cotton and Linen have, in a great measure, been antagonistic to each other. The invention of machinery for spinning the cotton made the competition all the stronger, and gave cotton a great advantage over Flax. At first, cotton strong enough for warp could not be spun by machinery, and for some time calicoes were made with Linen warp and cotton weft. While this continued large quantities of Flax yarn were used, but Arkwright's invention, and improvements thereon, speedily enabled cotton spinners to produce yarn strong enough for warp, and Flax yarn was then discarded. After that period King Cotton ruled supreme, until the fratricidal war in America com- pelled him to bow his head, and give his rival Flax a moment's breathing space. This has been of immense benefit to the Linen trade, and may prove of permanent advantage to it, al- though in many markets it cannot be expected to supersede cotton, should that article go back to the prices of 1860 again. In a curious letter, signed Samuel Homespun, in the Gentle- man's Magazine of 1742, some calculations are given to show the value of one acre of ground sown with Flax seed. He goes on to say " that though the quantity of Flax an acre will pro- duce depends entirely upon the quality of the soil and cultiva- tion of it, yet the fineness of the Flax depends almost solely on the conduct of reaping, watering, and grassing it. This fact is very little known, but it is absolutely certain. Great Bri- tain produces not only the largest crop of Flax, but the toughest and finest of any in the world. Our soil is so proper for it, that unless the farmer mismanages his Flax in reaping, watering, or grassing, it is not in his power, to raise coarse Flax." On the supposition that the farmer employs suitable skill in choosing the land proper for a crop of Flax, an acre wOl pro- duce at a medium 50 stone Dutch weight of Flax. Some bad land will only produce 30 stone, but very superior he says will produce 100 stones. Suppose, he then says, the produce 50 stone Dutch weight of Flax per acre, this will produce 25 stone English of fine Flax, 12J of medium, and 12J of coarse. The 25 stone will yield 2000 spindles yarn, at 5 spindles in the fb. ; which ENGLISH LINEN. 375 wrought in the finest reed, viz., a 2400, will produce 2838 yards cambric at 10s a yard, or d61,194. The 12J stone second sort will produce 200 spindles yarn, which wrought in a 1500 reed will yield 452 yards Linen, at 2s 6d, or £56 10s. The 12J stone coarse spun into yarn, at 2 ft), a spindle, and wove in a 600 reed, will yield 1129 yards Linen, at 8d, or £32 10s, being in all £1 ,283 2s, as the produce of a single acre of Flax. If manufactured into coarser Linen, 50 stones of Flax will produce 25 stones of fine dressed Flax, 12| stone of medium, and 12^ stone of coarse ; 25 stone fine dressed Flax will yield 800 spindles of yarn, 2 spindles in the poimd, which wrought in a 2100 reed, will yield 1238 yards of Linen, at 4s 6d, or £278 lis ; 12J stone medium wiU produce 100 spindles, at 40 cuts to the pound, which wrought in a 1200 reed, will produce 266 yards of Linen, at Is 8d, or £22 3s; 12J stone coarsest will produce 60 spindles, at two pounds of Flax per spindle, which wrought, in a 400 reed, will yield 576 yards of Linen, and this made into buckram, at 7d a yard, is £16 16s, or in all £317 10s an acre. For the truth of the yield of Flax to an acre he appealed to all the Flax raisers in Yorkshire and Lancashire ; of the value of cambric he ap- pealed to the Linen drapers in London ; and of the produce of the yards from the quantities of Flax and yarn, he appealed to all the spinsters and weavers in Great Britain. In 1781, the cultivation of Flax in England was recommended on the score of increasing the population, by inducing " numbers from the Continent to settle in England, as a great national ad- vantage." In the same year, a Dorsetshire gentleman wrote the Bath Agri- cultural Society, strongly recommending the cultivation of Flax and Hemp on the rich marshy lands lying west of the Mendiss Hills, for which it was very suitable. He said the vast quantities of these plants which had been raised on the same kind of land in the Lincolnshire marches, and in the Fens of the Isle of Ely and Huntingdonshire, were a full proof of it. In these places much land, which for grazing was worth 20s to 25s per acre, had been readily let at £4 the first year, £3 the second, and £2 the third, and that the produce had been from 50 to 70 stone per acre, which, when dressed, brought from 7s to 9s a stone, or £24 an acre. Poor soils also grew Flax and Hemp well, and Spalding Moor 376 MODERN LINEN. in Lincolnshire, which although a harren sand, yet with proper care and culture produced the finest Hemp in England, and in large quantities. In the Isle of Axholme, in the same county, the ciJture and management of these fibres was the chief em- ploy of the inhabitants, and large quantities were produced. According to Leland it was the same there so long ago as in the reign of Henry VIII. The writer goes on to say that the Hemp raised in this Kingdom is not of so dry and spongy a nature as that from St Petersburg, and does not take in so much tar, but that of equal dimensions it is stronger and more durable. One peculiar ad- vantage, he says, attending the cultivation of Hemp and Flax is, that a crop of the former prepares the land for the latter, and therefore a crop of Hemp was a clear gain to the farmer. That these plants impoverish the soil is a mere vulgar notion, a pre- judice devoid of all truth, and unsupported by any authority, as these crops really meliorate and improve the soil. He farther stated that the quantity of Flax and Hemp yearly imported into this Kingdom about the year 1763 was estimated at 11,000 tons, to raise which in this country would require about 60,000 acres of land, and which could be grown at home, in the manner suggested by him, without interfering much with other crops. A cultivator of Flax, in writing to the Dundee Advertiser, in February, 1803, recommends an extended cultivation of Flax, in order to give employment to women in weeding, &c., and, as an inducement to do so, he says, " the trade in the west of Eng- land can at present get as much English Flax grown as they need, better and cheaper than St Petersburg 12-head. The extent to which the English have so successfully carried the raising the crops should encourage the folks here to do so also." Much has been said and written from time to time about the propriety of growing Flax more extensively in Britain, and it is asserted by Warnes that it would be a great saving to the far- mer, and at same time enrich the country. To attempt to grow cotton here, he says, would be fruitless, but the cultivation of Flax would be highly advantageous. He also says Flax is " a plant for which, including the seed, oil, and cake, £400,000 per week are expended with foreigners." Samuel Druce, jun., of Evesham, furnishes the following state- ENGLISH LINEN. 377 tnent of the produce and expenses of Flax grown by him in 1845, on 4 acres, 1 rood, and 24 poles of land : — EXPENSES. Ploughing, at 10s an Acre, . . . £2 4 10^ Bushels of Linseed, 51 to 65 lbs. per bushel, at 78 6d, 3 18 9 Sowing and Harrowing, do., . 10 Weeding, . , . . . 1 2 Pulling and tying up the stalks, threshing, spread- ing and turning, and preparing for soutchin ,', 303 per acre, .... 6 12 Expense of Carting, Stacking in Barn, &c., 1 15 Kent and Taxes, 50s per acre, . 11 Scutching 1,455 lb. of Flax, at 2d per lb. . 12 2 6 Do. 372 lb. of Tow, at Id per lb., . 1 11 £40 15 3 PRODUCE. 1,349 lbs. Flax, sold in Leeds, for (after deducting expenses), .... £25 10 6 lOeibs. do., sold in Evesham, . 2 13 »72 lbs. Tow, do.. 4 13 104 bush. Linseed, 54 @ 55 lbs. per bush., @ 7s 6d bushel, .... 39 Small quantities of tail Linseed, chaff, and refuse from Scutching, 1 10 £73 6 6 . • ' Profit, £32 11 3 Warnes says regarding this statement, " the cost of dressing the Flax is excessive, and the quantity of tow and consequent waste immense." The same author farther says that his late Eoyal Highness the Prince Consort at one time resolved to grow Flax upon his estates, not so much because the cultivation was in itself profit- able, as because it gave employment to the working classes, and if grown largely throughout the country would be highly advan- tageous to them, and also benefit the mercantile community, by providing the raw materials for their mills and factories. Marshall & Co. of Leeds, in writing to Warnes, says, — "We believe both the soil and climate of England are suitable for the plant. At one time the Flax grown in the east of York- shire was of as good quality as that gi'own in Belgium ; but the growth since then has fallen very much off, chiefly owinff 378 MODERN LINKN. to the farmers managing the cultivation and preparation in a slovenly manner, and partly to the landlords having a pre- judice against the crop as an exhausting one, which would not be the case if your plan was adopted of using the seed for feed- ing cattle on the farm where the Flax was grown." They say the seed should be sown thick, (3 to 3J bushels per acre) to pro- duce fine Flax. The effect of retting on running water is to produce Flax of a light yellow colour, but the same effect is produced in large ponds or lakes of fresh water. This Flax fetches a higher price in the market than when retted in stag- nant pools, &c. This firm were reported to have imported Flax to the amount of one million sterling annually. Supposing the produce of an acre to be £20, it would thus take 50,000 acres to grow the Flax required by this one firm. Warnes calculated that it would require 500,000 acres annually to produce the Flax required in the United Kingdom. Warnes also calculated that a woman could spin 20s to 30s of yarn for fine lace, lawn, cambric, &c., out of 6d worth of Flax, which shows the immense amount of labour the manu- facture of this description of goods, if largely prosecuted, would give to females throughout the country. For several years Warnes, both by precept and practice, urged the farmers of England to cultivate Flax, and he proved very satisfactorily that it was a highly profitable crop whether raised for its seed, or for its fibre, or for both. Notwithstanding his most laudable exertions, his very proper example has not been largely followed, and at the present time the quantity of Flax grown in England is insignificantly small. Many counties pro- duce none at aU ; Dorset, Somerset, Norfolk, and a few others grow small quantities, and in certain portions of Yorkshire a little more attention is paid to the cultivation, but even there the crop is not appreciated, and although the quality of what is raised is good, the quantity is very much less than it ought to be. English grown Flax is very suitable for the mills'of Leeds and other Linen manufacturing districts of the country, and it is there- fore surprising that so little has been done by those engaged in the trade to induce farmers to grow the plant. It is true, as already mentioned, that Government at different times insisted upon a ENGLISH LINEN, 379 certain quantity being grown annually, but it may well be doubted if compulsion be the best mode of accomplishing such an object. A more legitimate plan is to show farmers that it is profitable to grow it, as the pocket is an excellent incentive, and the hope of gain would stimulate them to earn it. Much of the land of England is admirably adapted for raising Flax, and to the agriculturists individually it is undoubtedly a profitable crop, and in a national point of view it is a highly ne^ cessary and proper one. Unfortunately there are no national statistics to show the quantity grown, or the districts which pro- duce it, and this is much to be regretted, as it keeps the country very much in the dark regarding what it is doing, and makes it all the more difficult to extend the growth of this truly valuable national crop. Mr Baker, the factory inspector, in his annual report, says : — " We can neither produce from abroad nor induce our farmers to grow the raw material in sufficient quantity. The same com- plaint is made in the Federal States of America, where the pro- duction has fallen off enormously. It is to Ireland at present, and even eventually to India, that the Flax spinners are looking for a supply which, if ever the time arrives, is to render the Flax trade of comparative importance with cotton." Mr Baker thinks there is yet much to be learned in the manufacture of machinery adapted for general farming purposes, and to the scutching of Flax. He thinks the gradual introduction into Ireland of the Scotch and English system of tUlage farming on a large scale, operates against an increase of Flax culture in Ireland. In his first half yearly report for 1863 he says : — " The growth of Flax appears to be decreasing everywhere whence we have hitherto been accustomed to be supplied ; and though an annual knowledge of the acreage sown is as essential to the vi- tality of the Linen trade as where cotton is to come from is to the cotton trade, the growth of Flax is exciting no very extra- ordinary attention. The changes taking place in agriculture, and the diminution of cottier farms, which are peculiarly favour- able to Flax cultivation, owing to the cheapness of home labour, and the facility with which Flax can be prepared in the first instance, make the matter more important. In England we 380 MODERN LINEN. have no statistics of Flax ; in Scotland they' have been given up : in Ireland they have been collected for years by Mr Donelly in the most satisfactory manner — a proof of what might be done elsewhere. So with regard to English wool ; we guess that there is a sheep to an acre on aU the farm lauds in England, but whether it is so or not we are totally in the dark. But for Aus- tralia, and, even with Australia, but for rags reduced to Wool again, and re-manufactured, many of our woollen mills would long ago have been at a stand-still ; and with regard to Flax, if there should be a Flax famine as there has been a cotton famine, we should again suffer extremely, with a consciousness that by a little timely forethought those sufferings might have been alleviated if not averted. A company was started in Yorkshire a few months ago, including some Flax millowners, for the pur- pose of collecting Flax in this country from the farmers, and preparing it for the trade, but the company has been broken up for want of encouragement even from the trade itself." It would thus appear that the trade is highly culpable for their indiffer- ence on so vitally important a subject. From a table of the imports and exports of Great Britain in 1800, it appears the imports bearing on the Linen trade were, — from Kussia— Flax anil Hemp ; Linen?, viz., Diapers, Drillings, and Sheetings, Poland — Some Linen. Prussia — Flax and Hemp. Germany — Flax and Hemp, Linens, viz., Camtrios, Lawna, Canvas, Hol- lands, Tablings, &c., and 3,000,000 lbs. Linen Yarn. Holland— Flax and Hemp, and a few Linens. Ireland— Some Flax, and 32,1,52,399 yards of Linen Yarn. The exports were — ^to Denmark— Scotch Linens. Kussia, Germany, and Portugal — A few Irish Linens. Madeira — Linens. New England — Linens, and Irish Linens. New \ork — Linens — Scotch, and Irish, and Russian. Pensylvania — Linens and Sailcloth ; a few Irish and Bussian Linens. Virginia and Maryland — British, Irish, Russian, and German Linens. South Caiolina, Georgia, Newfoundland, Canada, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Bermuda, Bahama, and British West India Islands — Some Linens — Irish, Russian, and German. Florida and Bay of Honduras — Irish Linens East Indies and China — Linens of all kinds and Sailcloth. New Holland — Linens— British and Russian. Africa, Sierra Leone, andCapejofGoodHope— British, Irish, and other|Linent. ENGLISH LINEN. 381 Return of the number of square yards of calicoes, muslins, Linens, and stuffs made either of cotton or Linen, printed, painted, stained, or dyed in Great Britain (except such as shall have been dyed of one colour throughout), with the amount of Excise duties collected thereon in England and Scotland, in the three years ending 5th January 1830 : — CaU England, Suotland, Number o: coes and Muslins. 115,636,321 22,863,883 138,500,204 112,498,528 25,971,724 138,470,252 102,256,792 26,105,550 Yards. Linens and Stuffs. 1,376,779 31,965 1,408,744 1,654,457 23,252 1,677,709 1,704,761 8,755 1,713,516 Amount of Duty. ^1,706,986 8 3 333,897 15 8 Tear ending 5th Jan. 1828, Eng'and, Scotland, £2,040,884 3 11 £1,665,110 12 1 .379,093 8 Do. 5th January, 1829, England, Scotland, . , . £2,044,204 1 £1,516,431 14 10 380,833 12 3 Do. 6th Januarj, 1830, 128,362,342 £1,897,265 7 I EXPORTS OF SAME— To FOBEION COUNTBIKS. TO IBELAND. Yds. of Calicoes, Muslins, Amount of Yds. of Calicoes, Muslins, Amount of Linens, and Stuffs. Drawback. Linens, and Stuffs. Drawback. 81,193,826 £1,184,379 2 7 3,268,707 £47,668 12 10 Scotland, 8,751,365 127,624 1 5 700,462 10,215 1 5 1828. 89,945,191 £1,312,003 4 3,969,169 England, 82,609,216 £1,204 815 5 4 6,197,326 Scotland, 7,440,349 108,505 1 9 1,122,479 1829. 90,049,565 £1,313,320 7 1 7,319,805 England, 81,449,096 £1,187,852 17 4 5,169,683 Scotland, 8,417,009 122,748 U 869,358 1830. 89,866,105 £1,310,600 18 3 6,039,041 ^57,883 14 3 £90,377 13 16,369 9 5 8 £106,747 3 1 £75,391 12,678 4 2 2 9 £88,069 6 11 Before the introduction of Flax spinning by power into Eng- land, the manufacture of Linens was general in many districts of the country. Since that period the trade has, in a great measure, become concentrated in a few locahties, in some of which it is prosecuted vigorously and most successfully. The invention of Flax spinning machinery by John Kendrew 382 MODERN LINEN.- and Thomas Porthouse at Darlington in 1787, will be specially- referred to in the chapter on Flax spinning. It was the begin- ning of a new era in the Linen manufacture, and mighty results have followed from the rude spinning frames first set in motion by these men. Their memory ought to be held sacred by every one interested in the trade, as their bloodless triumph of mind over matter has done more good to their fellow men than many warriors who have been ennobled for wading in the blood of the vanquished slain. For many years subsequent to 1787 Flax spinning was carried on in the vicinity of its birth. So late as 1838 there was a small work at Darlington, and another at Houghton-le-Skerne, employ- ing fifty to sixty hands each, and some others in different parts of the county, but all are silent now ; there being, according to the Factories' Eeturn of 1862, no Flax spinning miUs in Durham, and only two weaving factories, employing sixty-nine hands in all. Shortly after the invention was brought out at Darlington, machinery on the same principle was started in Leeds and in other districts in the West Eiding of Yorkshire. Within a comparatively limited period great improvements were effected on the original machinery in Leeds, and that town speedily became the head quarters of Flax spinning in England. John Marshall, a name famous in the annals of Flax-spinning, apphed himself assiduously to the prosecuuion of the new trade, and by his ability and perseverance soon carried Flax spinning to high perfection, and to a vast extent. To that gentleman Leeds is indebted for much of its present prosperity. His spinning mills continue at this day a monument of enter- prize and skill, and his family have hitherto maintained the superiority which he so long ago established. The name of the Marshalls of Leeds are houshold words in the Flax-spinning trade, and their works are the greatest in the world, whether as regards the number of spindles of yarn spun, or the value of their annual production. The celebrated Scotch Flax spin- ning firm, the Baxters of Dundee, perhaps surpass the Marshalls in the weight of material annually consumed in their works, but the yarn and cloth produced by them, being of a coarser description, is of comparatively less value in the manufactured state. ENGIilSH LINEN. 383 The great Flax mill erected by the MarshaUs is one of the most striking buildings reared by private enterprise in Leeds, and, from its unique character, the following description is given: — It is one hundred and thirty-two yards long and seventy-two yards wide (inside measure), and twenty feet high. The roof consists of seventy-two brick arches, supported on as many iron pil- lars, and secured together by strong iron work. The brick roof has a thick coating of composition, to prevent the water from com- ing through, and it is covered with earth from which has sprung up a beautiful grass sward. There are sixty-six glass domes in the roof, each forty-eight feet round, eleven feet six inches high, containing ten tons of glass, in iron window frames. The total weight of the roof is 4,000 tons. There are four steam engines, of 100 horse-power, and two of 80 horse-power each ; and one engine of 7 horse-power, which does nothing but blow hot or cold air into the room. The building covers more than two acres of ground, and it is supposed that 80,000 persons might stand in the room. This hall is occupied for spinning and weaving by power, and the whole processes incidental to the trade subsequent to heckling is performed in it, the Flax going in in bundles and the Linen out in bales. To non-practical peo- ple it is one of the most interesting sights which can be witnessed, both as regards the beautiful machinery with its many and curious motions, and the immense number of active and apparently happy male and female workers who guide its operations, and turn out the beautiful yarns and Linens, the production of which have rendered the MarshaUs of Leeds so famous. To those prac- tically acquainted with the trade this work is a sight worth see- ing, as even the most advanced would learn much both as to the construction of the machinery and its arrangement. There are several large establishments devoted to the Linen, manufacture in Leeds besides those of Messrs Marshall, but none of them will at aU compare with the one de- scribed, in extent or completeness ; indeed there is no other work in the United Kingdom of a like description with it. The goods made in Leeds comprise the better class of Linens, and they are mostly of a strong durable character, well adapted for family use. They include sheetings, damasks, towellings, drills, sackings, and a variety of other descriptions 384 MODERN LINEN. of Linens of a highly superior quality, suited both for the hoine trade and for export. Very large quantities of the finer numbers of yarn are exported, and extensive manufactures of excellent thread have long been carried on in the town and district. In 1821 there were in and around Leeds nineteen Flax spin- ning mills, with an aggregate steam power of about 700 horses, containing 36,000 spindles for spinning only, and producing about 9,000 spindles of yarn per day. The sorts chiefly spun were 1 J to 3 lb. line, and 3 to 7 or 8 lb. tow, mostly spun wet, on the long fibre cold water system. There were besides a number of twisting frames in the mills. From slow driving and hard twisting the production per spindle was only about half as much as was then taken off in Dundee, and therefore Leeds, with six times the number of spindles which Dundee possessed, only threw off from three to four times as much yarn. Of the Flax spinning works in Leeds at that period, four of them belonged to Mr Marshall, forming in extent one third of the whole, and equal- ling Dundee entirely. For a number of years after the period referred to Leeds made slow progress in Flax spinning, as there were only twenty-four engines, with an aggregate of 705 horse- pov/'er at work in 1831. Shortly thereafter the spirit of extension must have entered, be- cause in 1838 the number of Flax mills had increased to forty, four, employing 2,127 males and 4,303 females, in all 6,430 hands. In all Yorkshire at the same period there were ninety- one Flax spinning mills, employing 3,230 males and 6,414 fe- males, making together 9,644 persons. Eight years ago there were thirty-seven works in Leeds de- voted to the Linen manufacture, with an aggregate of 1831 horse-power, containing 198,076 spindles, and 140 power-looms, and employing 9,458 hands. Previous to the erection of Flax spinning mills the manu- facture was in a very distressed condition. The German and Belgian spinners were so much superior to the English, that the greater part of the Linen required for home consumption was imported from Flanders and the north of Europe. The intro- duction of machinery and the improvements made in bleaching, &c., turned the scale in favour of England, and not only enabled the manufacturers to supply the home demand, but also to ex- ENGLISH LINEN. 385 port Linens largely. Flax spinning works were also erected at an early date in Lancashire, Dorset, Durham, Salop, and other counties, and they are stiU carried on to a considerbale extent in various districts. The Linen manufacture is one of the most important branches of the trade of Barnsley. Part of the yarn manufactured is spun there, but large quantities are procured from Leeds, Barnsley being one of the best customers of that town. There are still many hand -looms at work in the town, but, as in other places, the power-loom is now fast superseding the hand- loom, and it is well adapted for the fabrics for which Barnsley has been so long famous. These are drills, strong sheetings, damasks, ticks, huckabacks, towelling, ducks, plain and fancy Hollands, and kindred descriptions of fine, heavy Linens. The trade of the district has enjoyed a considerable degree of pro- sperity throughout 1863, and good progress has been made and is still making in it. Already there are a number of po iver-loom works in full operation, some of which are of large extent, and contain several hundred looms, and the trade is still extending. Brown and bleached Linens are manufactured extensively in several other places in Yorkshire. Doncaster, Northallerton, Hull, Whitby, and other towns produce superior goods of vari- ous descriptions. Indeed Yorkshire is the great seat of the Linen manufacture in England, as Forfarshire is in Scotland, and Antrim in Ireland. Establishments abound in various parts of each of these counties for spinning and weaving, Leeds, Dundee, and Belfast being respectively the centres of the Flax manufacture in the three countries. In 1850 there were sixty Flax factories in operation in Yorkshire, containing 82,768 spindles, and 911 power-looms. Since then great progress has been made, the present condition of the trade in the county is highly satisfactory, and the prospects for the future bright and encouraging. Lancashire ranks next to Yorkshire in the extent of its Flax manufactures, the spinning of Flax having been long carried on extensively there. In 1838 there were seventy horse-power em- ployed in Flax spinning in SaUbrd. In Preston there were in the same year six mills at work, employing 181>2 hands ; in Kirk- ham, two mills, with 542 hands ; in TV igan, two mills, with 400 B B 386 MODERN LINEN. hands ; in Boston, one mill, with 261 hands ; and in other parts of the county, five mills, employing in all 286 hands. Latterly the spinning of Flax has not made much progress in Lancashire, the number of works in operation having decreased, but there are still some large spinning mills at work, and power-loom weaving is on the increase. Within the last few years some Jute spinning mills have been established in Liverpool and other places in the county, one at least of which is conducted vigorously. Norfolk has long grown Flax, but not to a very great extent. A small quantity of Hemp is also raised there, and also in a few other counties in England, but the quantity cultivated throughout the whole country is not large, and from various causes it is decreasing. Norfolk also manufactures a few Linens in one or two places, but the trade is now of little importance compared with what it was formerly. Gloucester, Hants, Devon, and several other counties have each a few small works, the bulk of the Linen made being for local consumption. In Somerset some Flax is raised yearly, and there are a num- ber of Flax mills and Linen manufactories, which produce a considerable quantity of sailcloth and other goods. In 1838 there were thirteen Flax mills in active operation, and three or four large weaving establishments, besides several smaller ones. Dorset contains many works, both for spinning and weaving, and it grows a good deal of Flax, and some Hemp, which are consumed in the local manufactures of the county. The num- ber of spinning mills in the county in 1838 was eighteen, but they were all small, and placed in various distinct locar Uties. At that period there were many weaving establish- ments in Dorset, and the sailcloth made in and around Brid- port has long been highly celebrated for excellence of mate- rial and superiority of workmanship. In the year mentioned, Mr Austin, in his report on hand-loom weaving, remarks " that 80 tons of Flax were used weekly in a circuit of 20 miles round Bridport, one-tenth of which was home growth. Besides the Flax mills there were then 420 hand-looms in the Linen trade. The manufacture was principally sailcloth. Bridport is the chief seat of it, and that year employed 206 looms upon it ; and 120 looms were employed at Beauminster and adjoining vil- lages. Very little variation had taken place in the trade for ENGLISH LINEN. 387 many years. Canvas, ducks, &c., were also woven, chiefly by women." The manufacture of sailcloth, twines, &c. , in Bridport has long been, and still is, in a very flourishing condition, and the present prospects of the trade are quite as encouraging as they have been at any previous period. Cumberland had nine Flax spinning mills in 1838, and many weaving factories. Sailcloth has long been made extensively in the county, and Cockermouth has acquired no little celebrity for the superior quality of its cloth. The sailcloth made there is really excellent, and the fame earned is well deserved. West- moreland has long had some extensive Flax spinning works. In Newcastle there are several sailcloth factories, and other Linens are also made there to a small extent. Lincolnshire raises both Flax and Hemp, and considerable quantities of what is grown in the neighbourhood of Spalding are taken for sale to a Fair, held there on 27th April yearly. Another Fair is held at same place, and for a Hke object, in December, and the bulk of the supply is purchased for account of the Yorkshire spinners, there being little Flax used in the county. There are stiU some sackings and other coarse fabrics manu- factured at Abingdon, but the trade there has decreased greatly within the last quarter of a century, and it is stiU waning. In London a few coarse Linens are made, but the quantity is un- important. A work for spinning and weaving Jute is to be ereccted there this year (1864), which may be the nucleus of other establishments of a similar kind in the future. Formerly Flax spinning occupied more attention than weav- ing in England, the chief works being devoted to that import- ant branch of the trade ; and the progress made, and excellence attained in it, has been of no ordinary character. Latterly the spindles employed have decreased, the number in 1857 being 441,759, and in 1862, 344,308, showing a diminution of 97,451 between these years. While this is the case with spin- ning, power-loom weaving has taken a gi-eat start, the number of looms having increased from 41 in 1835, to 1987 in 1857, and 2160 in 1862. Since then the number of power-looms has increased still faster, and the progress making is not likely to be soon arrested. Indeed the Linen manufacture, as already men- tioned, is in a highly satisfactory state, not only throughout B b 2 388 MODERN LINEN. Yorkshire, but also in several other parts of England, and it gives good promise of continued extension year by year. The prospects of the future of the Linen trade in England virere never brighter than now, and there is no doubt the intelligent gentle- men engaged in it throughout the various parts of the country will take full advantage of the present opportunity, and benefit the kingdom while enriching themselves. Details regarding the extent of the trade in the various coun- ties throughout the country, in the beginning of 1862, made up up by the Inspector of Factories, will be given hereafter. CoMPAEAirsTE Note or Impoet or Flax, &c., into Hull, for Tbab ending 31 st Deoekbeb. 1860. 1861. 1863. 1863. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. From Riga, . 3,813 2,840 3,958 3,902 ,, Archangel, . 103 » Petersburg, . 3,127 1,355 2,571 1,520 y Narva, . 405 163 371 127 Kevel, . 195 78 s Holland, . 4,081 2,791 2,898 3,227 ) Belgium, 5,175 3,060 2,636 2,673 > France, 856 556 1,466 830 , Piussia, 467 126 547 165 Sundries, 52 190 316 155 Total, 18,274 11,081 14,763 12,677 CHAPTER II. IRISH LINEN. The: old Irish or Celtic name for Flax was Lhin, and the term poU a lhin, yet applied to places in the country, shows that the steeping of Flax in pools was practised in Ireland at a very remote period. It is probable that Linen was first introduced IRISH LINEN. 389 into the country by the Phoenicians, but of this nothing certain lb known. The Brehon laws enjoin the Brdghaids or farmers to acquaint themselves with the method of cultivating and managing Flax ; and it is stated that Linen dyed yellow was much worn by the ancient Irish. Macpherson, in his " Annals of Comnlerce", says, " We learn from the chronicles of the period that about a.d. 500, fine Linen was possessed by the inhabitants of Britain and Ireland. The bodies of the dead, at least those of eminent rank, were wrapped in fine Linen." Previous to the conquest of Ireland by the English in 1156, it would appear, from a list of exports furnished by Geraldus Cambrensis, that there were then no Linen manufactures. Linen was woven in Ireland as early as the 11th century, but perhaps the first mention on record of Irish Linen occurs in the 13th century, it being said that in the reign of Henry III. in 1272, Irish Linen was used in Winchester. It is recorded that Ireland exported Linen about the middle of the 15th century. In the " Picture of Antwerp," published in 1560, it is said that Linen were exported to Ireland. Leland states respecting Liver- pool, that in 1545, " Yrisch merchants cum much thither, and moch yrisch yam that Manchester men do by there." About the year 1641 a considerable quantity of Flax yarn had been spun in Ireland, as Manchester then boUght large quantities of Linen yarn from the Irish, and, weaving it, re- turned the cloth to Ireland for sale. It does not appear that much improvement had taken place for some time, because in 1673 England imported from France Linen to the value of £507,207, which she would not have done if Ireland could have supplied it. Among the earliest notices extant of the Irish trade, Linen and wooUen cloths are mentioned as two of the most particular, articles of export, but no details are giveii, so far as knoWn, to show the relative extent of either. No doubt, however, the quautity, although pethaps large when com- pared with the other exports of the day, were trifling when con- trasted with the exports of the present period. It was not until the 17th century that the Linen trade attained any national im- portance in Ireland. Although Ireland exported Linen goods at a very early period. 390 MODERN LINEN. yet this manufacture cannot be regarded as her staple one, or as having contributed much to her foreign commerce, until it flourished among the Scotch colonists in Ulster towards the middle of the 17th century. As soon as they entered into it with spirit, Linen yam, instead of being exported to Manchester and other places of England to be weaved, was manufactured into cloth in Ireland. Linen then formed the chief article of its commerce, and it entirely superseded and supplanted the wool- len manufacture there. Macpherson says that about 1670, or perhaps a little later, the Linen manufacture began to be encouraged in Ireland. "It be- gan among the Scots in the north of Ireland, where it has to this day flourished more than in any other part. The vast quantities of Linen which England takes of the Irish enables them to pay for almost every kind of our product and manufacture which we supply them with. Before they made much Linen cloth, the people in the north of Ireland sent their Linen yarn to England." Sir William Temple in his " Miscellanies," published about 1681 , says — " No women are apter to spin Linen thread well than the Irish, who, labouring little in any kind with their hands, have their fingers more supple and soft than other women of the poor condition amongst us. And this may certainly be advanced and improved into a great manufacture of Linen, so as to bear down the trade both of France and Holland, and draw much of the money which goes from England to those parts upon this occasion into the hands of his Majesty's subjects of Ireland, with- out crossing any interest of trade in England, for, besides what has been said of Flax and spinning, the soil and climate are proper for whitening, both by the frequent brooks and also winds in that country." Macpherson says, " Great sums being continually carried out of England for Hemp, Flax, and Linen, which might in a great measure be supplied by Ireland, if proper encouragement were given to induce foreign protestants to settle in that kingdom, the Parliament, in 1696, passed an act for allowing Hemp, Flax, Linen, and Linen yarn, the produce or manufacture of Ireland, to be imported into England by natives of England and Ireland, without paying any duty. And the manufacture of sail-cloth being already brought to good perfection in Eng- lEISH LINEN. 391 land, all English made sail-cloth was thenceforth allowed to be exported without paying duty, either in the piece or made into sails." — 7, 8, William III., cap. 39. Experience has shown that this law laid the foundation of the great and floTuishing manu- factures of Linen and cambric in Ireland. During the reign of Charles II. the woollen manufacture made rapid progress in Ireland. This roused the jealousy of the English manufacturers, and they got an Act passed in the Bri- tish Parliament prohibiting any export of wool from Ireland, excepting to England and Wales. Not content with this, in 1698, both houses of Parliament addressed his Majesty William III. representing that in consequence of labour being cheaper in Ireland than in England, the progress of the woollen manufac- ture there was such as to prejudice that of Engla,nd, and that it would be for the public advantage were the former discouraged, and the Linen manufacture established in its stead. His Ma- jesty replied, " I shall do all that in me lies to discourage the woollen manufacture in Ireland, and encourage the Linen manu- facture, and to promote the trade of England." However illi- beral and erroneous these notions were, Government had no difficulty in getting the legislature of England to second its views, by restricting the exportation of all woollen goods from Ireland, excepting to England, where prohibitory duties were laid on their importation. In the Journals of the House of Commons, 1772 and 1774, it is recorded that in 1698 the Parliament of Great Britain re- commended to the King a kind of compromise with Ireland, whereby England should enjoy exclusively the wooUen manu- facture and Ireland the Linen. Ireland accepted the terms and abstained from the woollen manufacture, and even imposed heavy duties on the exportation of woollen cloth. The effect of this was to ruin the woollen trade. Several thousand manufao turers left the kingdom, some of the southern and western dis tricts were almost depopulated, and the whole of the kingdom reduced to the utmost poverty and distress by these improvident measures. By such unwise restrictions the woollen manufacture, which at an early period flourished in Ireland, was confined to the home consumption, and of course the trade rapidly declined. For- 392 MODEBN LI SEN. tunately for Ireland, its place was soon taken up by the Linen manufacture, which from that period until now may be said to have had a prosperous career. It is to be feared that the ostensible reason for suppressing the woollen manufacture and establishing that of Linen in its stead was not the true one. The woollen trade had been in a great measure carried on in the south and west of Ireland, which were popish districts, whilst the chief seat of the Linen manufac- ture was in protestant Ulster. Protestant Linens were upheld and encouraged, whereas Popish woollens were suppressed. Be- sides other evidence of the spirit which dictated such proceed- ings, the records of the British Parliament prove it. In an act passed in the year 1704, the preamble commences thus: " Foras- much as the Protestant interest in Ireland ought to be supported by giving the utmost encouragement to the Linen manufactures of that kingdom," &c. It is unfortunate that such unjust enact- ments should have been passed by either the British or Irish legislatures of William or of Anne. They look more like the persecuting bigotry of the sovereigns of popish countries, than the enlightened spirit of protestant lands. The Linen trade deserved all encouragement, but not at the expense of the wool- len manufacture, even though it was in the hands of papists, and it would have been far better had both been upheld and stimulated. Louis Crommelin, after the repeal of the Edict of Nantes a.d. 1699, fled from France with a number of other refugees, and settled near Lisburn. These persons being acquainted with the French mode of manufacturing Linen, introduced the system into Ireland, and by this means greatly improved the trade there. At this period curious expedients were adopted to, increase the demand for Linen, one of them being an order by the Lord-Lieutenant to wear hat bands and scarfs of Linen at funerals, a custom which still exists. The machinery then used in the Linen manufacture was of the simplest construction, and principally worked by hand, but in 1725 new machinery was invented and applied in some of the processes. In Queen Anne's reign the Irish House of Commons sent, a bill in favour of the Linen trade to Her Majesty, accompanied with an address requesting permission from the English Parlia- ment to export Linens to the British colonies. The English IRISH LINEN. 393 miuisters, after crushing the woollen trade, always appeared de- sirous to encourage and foster the Linen manufacture, in which the Irish had for competitors the French and Flemish artizans. Lord Strafford, while Lord-T,088 55,485 1740 6,627,771 „ Is 4d 441,851 18,542 111,256 1750 11,200.460 „ Is 2d 653,360 22,373 134,238 1760 13,375,456 „ Is 4d 891.697 31,042 186,254 1770 20,560,754 „ Is 6d 1,542,056 33,417 200,502 Bounties on the importation of Irish Hemp into England were established in 1779. In 1780 the Irish Parliament re- solved to give bounties on the exportation of Irish Linens to Africa, America, Spain, Portugal, Gibraltar, and Minorca; and on Irish sail cloth exported to any place excepting Great Britain. The English Board of Trade examine into this resolution, to see what effect it would have upon their own trade, and finally are of opinion that the Irish bounties " cannot possibly affect the interests of the Linen trade of this kingdom, and are, so far as bounties may in any case be expedient, wisely and providently applied by these new provisions, to promote the interest of the Irish Linen Trade." They also say that " our system of Linen bounties and Linen duties, though possibly in many cases ex- ceptionable in the great scale of commercial poUcy, has proved an essential encouragment to the Irish staple, and has also been the means of forcing forward an extensive Linen manufacture in this kingdom, though struggling under a great disadvantage as to the growth and supply of the raw material." In the Dundee Advertiser of I7th June 1808, it is said;— " The Government had it in contemplation, for the encourage- ment of the growth of Flax in Ireland, to engage to pay for such Hemp as could be ascertained to be of the growth of Ireland IRISH LINEN. 399 and which might he delivered into His Majesty's dockyards in the course of the following three years, whatever price that ar- ticle might hear in the market on the day of its arrival in the dockyard. And in case the market price should be below £60 per ton, to pay that price for it, provided such Hemp should be deemed, upon deUvery, good and merchantable, and shall be ap- proved of and received by the .officers as fit for His Majesty's service. Payment to be by bills made out at the Navy Office at ninety days' date, bearing an interest of 3d per cent, per diem, upon certificates being granted, as usual, by the officers of the yard, of the quantities of Hemp they had received. This price referred to Plymouth, but should the officers want part of the Hemp grown in Ireland delivered at Portsmouth, an additional sum of £1 10s a ton was to be paid for it ; and £2 if delivered at Chatham or Woolwich." In 1807 the quantity of plain Linen exported from Ireland to Great Britam was 40,870,283 yards, of the value of £3,405,856 188 4d sterling, besides a small quantity of drills, checks, 695 EoscommoD, 1862 tJ 371 607,691 acres, 1863 ,, 327 Sligo, . 1862 1) 191 461,753 acres, 1863 »J 256 Ttl. Connaught 1862 1,486 4,392,043 acres, 1863 )» 2,465 Increase, 1863 ULSTER. Antrim, . 1862 761,803 acres 1863 Armagh, . 1862 328,076 acres, 1863 Cavan, 1862 477,360 acres, 1863 Donegal, . 1862 1,193,443 acres ,1863 Dowm, 1862 612,495 acres, 1863 Fermanagh, 1862 457,287 acres, 1863 Londonderry, 1862 522,350 acres. 1863 Monaghan, 1862 319,757 acres. 1863 Tyrone, . 1862 806,296 acres. 1863 Total Ulster, 1862 6,478,867 acres 1863 Increase, 1863 Total Ireland, 1862 20,815,U1 acres 1863 Increase, 1863 979 Acres 13,020 21,548 16,204 24,066 6,150 10,279 19,489 24,095 30,532 44,859 2,273 4,479 19,698 25,868 14,289 20,051 24,834 32,001 146,489 207,246 60,757 150070 213,992 63,922 This table is taken from the abstract of agricultural statis- tics, Ireland ; kindly furnished by "William Donnelly, Eegistrar General. IRISH LINEN. 413 In the Review of the Linen Trade for 1863, it is estimated that the Flax crop of that year will bring in to the growers the very large sum of £4,500,000, by the time the season terminates. The benefit of such a prodigious sum, expended in the coun- try lor this valuable plant in one year, caimot be estimated. Hopes are entertained, and on good grounds, that an area of 300,000 acres will, happily, be found to be devoted to Flax in Ireland in 1864. Were proprietors and tenants throughout the length and breadth of Ireland, to enter heartUy into Flax culti- vation, this acreage would very soon be doubled. The produce would raise the degraded peasantry in the south and west from their present state of abject dependence, and give them more substantial food than potatoes morning, noon, and night ; more commodious dwellings than a pig-stye ; and more comfortable clothing than the rags which are there to be seen in all directions. The produce per acre varies with the season, the quality of the soil, and the cultivation, but the average crop will be close upon 5 cwt. of clean Flax, ready for heckling, per acre. The price of Flax varies with the supply and demand, but the Irish farmer has less competition with Flax than with any other crop he can raise, and in a series of years it will pay him very much better than grain, grass, or green crop ; it is therefore weU worthy the attention of every farmer in Ireland. The following official account of the crop of Flax in Ireland in 1820 and 1821 is reported in the Dundee Advertiser, 19th October, 1821 : - Hhds. Producing in Tods. The quantity of Flax seed aown in 1820 was . 52,416 52,416 Do. 1821 „ . 45,163 32,973 Tons deficient in 1821, 19,443 The paragraph goes on to say that the average of crop 1820 was 140 stones of Flax to the hogshead of seed, and in 1821 not more than 100, so that the quality of crop 1821 was either much shorter or finer than the previous year's. It appears from this statement that nearly three times the amount of the average im- portation of Flax from the Baltic (20,000 tons), is annually raised in Ireland, and, it is added, " were that fine country governed as it ought to be, we should have no occasion to im- port a single ton from the magnanimous Alexander." 414 MODERN LINEN. The Flax is sometimes sold in the straw, but generally the far- mers have it scutched on their own account, as they think, and per- haps truly, that they make more money out of it when they take the Flax to market themselves. There are numerous scutch- mills scattered over the Flax-growing districts of Ireland, 956 being in operation in 1853, mostly driven by water-power. To these the straw is taken, and the Flax, after being scutched, is ready for market. There are a number of market towns for the sale of Flax in Ulster, and to the nearest of these the farmer generally takes his Flax for sale. At these markets buyers at- tend, examine the various parcels on sale, and make their pur- chases. Sometimes the Flax is bought by local parties who have commissions from the spinners in Belfast and elsewhere, and sometimes the spinners send their own inspectors direct from their works to buy for them. The purchases are generally paid for in cash as soon as the weight is ascertained, and delivery made, and a considerable amount of money changes hands at some of these towns on market days. The following reports of the country Flax markets, are taken from the Belfast Trade Circular : — Flax Markets as keportbd, with estimated Quantities and Peioes, 22d liw., 1862. Mill-Scotched. Hand-Scdichbd. Total. Tons. Tons. Tona. Annagh, pr st.ofiejlb. 50 8S 9d to 133 6d 10 7s 3rl to 9s Od 60 Monaghan, do. — - — 25 7s 6d to 9s Od 25 Ballybay, do. 10 OS Odtolls Od 90 73 Odto 9s 3d 10 J Tan dragee, do. 30 93 0dtol23 Od — — — 30 Dungannon, do. — - — — — — — Cootehill. do. 6 8s 9d to lis Od 60 Prices not quoted. 65 Newry, do. Rathfriliind, do. 63 6i Od to lis ed — 63 Maglierafelt, do. — - - — — — Maghera, do. — - - — — Kilrea. do. — - — — Cookstown, do. 70 73 6d to 12s 6d 20 63 9d to 9b 3d 90 Omagh, do. — - — — Belfast, do 18 8s Od to 123 od — 13 BaUynahinch, do. — — — _ Newtonards, do. 6 93 Od to 14S Od — 6 Ballymena, do. 10 7s 4dto 93 ed 10 Ballymoney, pr. owt. of 121 lbs. 42 e.'iB 0dto97s Od _ 42 Derry & Strabane, do. 136 623 edtoOOs Od 135 Coleraine, do. 23 57 S 6dto953 Od — 23 447 205 65J IRISH LINKN. Do., do., 2l8t Dec, 18('3:— 415 MIIX-SCDTCHBD. IlANr -Scutched. Tol«l Tons. Tone. Tons. Armagh, pr St. of U lbs. SO 89 3d to lis 6d 20 63 6dto 89 Od 70 Monaghau, do. — 26 6s 6ti to 83 Od 25 Bal'ybay, Tandragee, do. do. 30 90 7s 8s 6d to 10s Od to lis Od 6d 100 63 6dto 89 Od 130 90 Cootehill, do. 10 8s edto 99 6d 60 6s ~6dto 83 ~3d 60 Castleblayney, do. 60 8s 4d to lis Od .30 6s od to 8s 4d 80 Dungannon, do. — ."JO 63 ed to 3s od £0 Aughnaclay, do. — _ _ _ 60 63 6d to 8s 3d 60 Banbridge, do. 46 7s 6d to Ids 3d — 46 Kathfriland, do. 60 7s Od to 10s Od ~ _ _ _ 60 Newry, Magherafelt, do. do. 60 7s 9dto 9s 9d — - - - 60 Maghera, do. 16 79 6dlo 93 6d 65 63 Od to 8s 6d 70 Kandalstown, Kilrea, do. do. 26 79 Odto 93 Od — 26 Cookstown, do. 130 7s Od to lis 2d 36 69 Odto 89 Od 165 g™i«5' d". 26 6s 9d to 99 6d 20 6b 9dto 7s 6d 45 Belfast, do. 45 7s 9d to 103 3d — . 45 Ballymena, do. 40 73 Od to 8s ed — _ _ _ 40 Enniskillen, do. 20 7s Od to 99 Od 50 59 Odto 7s 8d 70 JiOwtherstown, do. 60 69 Cdto 79 Od 50 Derry and Strabanne, pr cwt. of 112 lbs. 110 673 Od to 753 Od — _ _ 110 Ballyraouey, do. 60 6Ss Od to 82s 6d — _ _ _ 60 Coleraine, do. 60 62s 6d to 90S Od — _ _ _ 60 NewtownlimavE idy, do. 20 629 6d to 909 Od 635 20 935 1,470 The Flax brought into the Irish markets is generally of a bright greenish colour, called " silvery clay," but some of it is nearly as white as the Courtrai Flax. The Flax varies very much and some of it brings a correspondingly high price, but all qualities find ready buyers, because the demand generally exceeds the supply. Unless the cultivation of Flax be yet very much increased, it is probable that the demand will continue greater than the supply, as the extension of machi- nery, and consequent consumption of Flax, is increasing rapidly in Ireland every year. Hitherto the cultivation of Flax in Ireland has been almost entirely confined to the province of Ulster, but there is no good reason why it should be so. Much of the soil of Ireland is ad- mirably adapted to the growth of the plant, and it might be cultivated over a great extent of the country, much to the ad- vantage of the growers. The Linen trade in Ireland has pro- gressed very rapidly of late years, but it might have extended still faster had the supply of the raw material been more 416 MODERN LINBN. abundant. It is therefore a point of the first importance to those engaged in the trade to have a plentiful supply of Flax, and no Flax is better adapted for the productions of Ulster than what is grown in Ireland. It is the duty of the spinners and merchants of Belfast to give the farmers every encouragement and assistance in their power, to foster the cultivation of Flax throughout the country. The ready market which is found for the sale of Flax in Ireland, and the high price which it brings, offer great en- couragement to its growth. The great hindrance to its more extensive cultivation is the ignorance and prejudice of the far- mers. These are not insuperable difficulties, and those engaged in the Linen trade ought to take instant and determined action to instruct the farmers, and to undermine and root out their prejudices. The result would prove beneficial alike to grower and consumer, and tend greatly to extend this most important trade in Ireland. In the Eeview of the Irish Linen Trade for 1862, in the Trade Circular, it is stated that the diflSculty which has hitherto existed in scutching Flax by an inexpensive pro- cess, is one of the retarding circumstances to progress in the cultivation of Flax in that country. Surely the in- telligence, the skill, and the wealth of Ireland will speedily overcome this difficulty, and produce a low priced, portable, scutching machine, that will do the work cheaply, yet efficiently. The object is a worthy one, and it is possible to accomplish it, for what will genius not do in this enlightened age ? Perhaps a reward that would command the attention, and be worth the ambition of the highest talent, might call forth the needed machine. Great efforts have of late been made, both in the south and west of Ireland, to make the small farmers acquainted with the profitable nature of the Flax crop. These endeavours have in some quarters, met with much less encouragement than the im- portance of the movement deserved, and it is astonishing to find that some parties, of whom better things might have been ex- pected, have actually opposed so beneficial a measure. Such opposition can only arise from ignorance or prejudice, and it says little for the intelligence of those from whom it proceeds. Not- withstanding the luke warmness of some who profess to be IRISH LINEN. 417 friends, and the hostility of open enemies, it is gratifying to think that, in 1863, there was a material increase in the quantity of land sown with Flax seed, when compared with the extent of the crop in previous years. The enlightened noblemen and gentlemen who have been aiding in this good work deserve high commendation, as they are not only benefiting their tenants and dependents, but also adding to the industrial prosperity of Ire- land, and conferring a boon on the United Kingdom. In the prospect of an increased cultivation of Flax last sea- son the importers of seed provided a plentiful supply of various qualities. The total quantity of Flax seed imported into Ire- land for sowing purposes for 1863 was as follows : — Riga, 91,393 barrels ; Dutch, 20,000 hogsheads; American via Liverpool^ 5000 hogsheads. Home grown and English sowing seed, 10,000 bags. This quantity was sufficient for double the number of acres that were under Flax cultivation in 1862. The quantity imported into Belfast in 1862 and 1863 is given hereafter. Should the quantity for 1864 be deiicient, it will no doubt be supplemented by the time it is required. The year 1863 gave a great impulse to the Linen Trade in the three kingdoms, and' Ireland has reaped its full share of the increase. The cause is no doubt exceptional, but the hold which has been gained wiU not be soon lost, if an abundant supply of Flax can be provided at a moderate cost. It is there- fore of the greatest importance to have a sufficient stock of raw material, and neither trouble nor expense should be spared to procure it. The prosperity of the Linen Trade in Ireland in 1863 has had a centralizing effect. Many of the most eminent houses have found it for their interest to open sale rooms in Belfast, at same time conducting their operations as formerly in the locali- ties where their manufactories and bleachworks are situated. The Linen Circular, in its review of the trade for that year, says, " Belfast may emphatically be said to have become the metro- poUs of the Linen Trade." This is no doubt true in as far as regards the Linen Trade of Ireland, but it is doubtful if Leeds and Dundee would accord their assent to its being the metro- polis of the Linen Trade of the Kingdom. The value of the Irish Linen manufacture has been estimated D D 418 MODERN LINEN. at £10,000,000 annually, and^ for 1863, this may not be far from the truth, but it cannot have come up to nearly that amount in former years. There is no data, however, from which a correct account of the value can be made up, and imaginary estimates are sometimes wide of the truth. It is supposed that about one-half the value of the production is exported, and the other half retained in the United Kingdom for home consumption. To Dr Hodges, Professor of Agriculture, Queen's College, Belfast, and Chemist to the Chemico-Agricultural Society of Ulster, the trade are greatly indebted for the zeal and assiduity with which he has laboured to enlighten farmers and others on the nature and properties of the Flax plant, and the soil best adapted for its culture. The Society who have brought his talents and intelligence to bear on this important subject deserve well of their country, and so do aU who have been aiding in the encouragement of so noble a cause. The following figures show the progress of the Flax manufac- ture in the several counties where it exists in Ireland, estimated by the number of persons employed in the years specified, and in 1862 respectively:— Antrim, 1839 5,976 1862 19,028 Armagh, 618 3,582 Down, 572 5,162 Dublin, 297 810 Kildare, 205 704 Londonderry, 214 158 Louth, 589 1,348 Meath, 168 177 Monaghan, . 129 258 Tyrone, 159 1,487 Donegal, 1850 185 316 Clare, 1856 569 497 9,581 33,525 There were, in addition to the above, two factories engaged in the Jute manufacture in Antrim in 1862, with a steam power of 150 horses, having 1824 spindles, and employing 338 persons. There are no returns regarding the numbers previously employed in this branch of trade. IRISH LINEN. 4lSl ^ w n o B o h CO 1-f Tons. 6,200 2,162 829 s 1 CO E-l O •*C0 oT 1 1-1 to r-4 00 b-00 to" •h" 09 OOOOIO CS CD Ci ■^co lOi-T iH CO* oa IMCOOO a cocoes S O OrH ^3 CO(M TfT S" 00 S tH «D IC O 00 00 l>- t- CO K s in 1— 1 in CO iO CO nil t-i-i tON- r-l §8 1 in* ws'im" 1 00" CO 00 US g (NCOtD OS 00 So CO ^ § 00- i" l-H CO i III in 00 Oi CSO in i OS CO CO^rH- i-H 00 tS is of o s ilil to IS 1 oo" iH i great inconvenience, but subject them to a kind of tax, from, which the sail-makers in England are fi-eed." The Board resolved to adhere. 22d May 1793. — Secretary reports that everything was ready for issuing orders as to stamping sail-cloth, but having heard that it would likely be very unpopular, and would be opposed at all, places Tvhere the manufacture is carried on, he has thought right to ask the opinion of the Board. The, Board is, npnplussed, and defer consideration. On 11 th^^ December same year, Board finally determine that they hav6 no power to enforce the stamp- ing of sail-cloth, and cancel the resolution of 6th June, 1792. _28th May 1800. — Petition received from owners of water spinning-mills in Fifeshire, praying to have their miU spun yarn relieved from inspection by, the BoafEd's officers. 25th February 1801. — Various reports from manufacturing SCOTCH LINEN. 471 towns being read as to this, which were very contradictory, adjourned consideration of the petition sine die. 1805. — Eeports that ofiScers had seized a quantity of yarns, not reeled according to law, and that Sheriff of Fife had declared it forfeited. Appeal taken to Circuit Court at Perth, and sen- tence of ISheriff confirmed. 1806. — The Proprietors of Kirkland Mill, Fife, refused admittance to the Cupar Inspector to inspect their yarn, and officers accordingly instructed to insist on being admitted, and, if again refused, to prosecute for the penalty under 24 Geo. II., c. 24. Petition received from mill-spinners against present law, in- timating that they intend applying to Parliament for alteration, and wishing Board's concurrence Wrote to them to print their Bill and send it for consideration. The purport of the Bill was — ^relieving spinners from control and inspection of the Board's officers, and giving the power of prosecuting for bad yarn to aggrieved purchaser only. Draft of the BiU sent. In 1808. — Board resolve to resist change of law. 1811. — The opinions of various manufacturing towns in Forfar, Fife, and Perthshires, hostile to the change, public meetings being convened for the purpose at Dundee, Forfar, Kirriemuir, Brechin, Arbroath, Kirkcaldy, and Dunfermline ; answer of the spinners thereto ; and Mr Blair's own opinion on the subject before the Board. The whole matter having been taken into consideration, the Board find : — 1. That the proposed law, even though it were expedient that an alteration should be made, provides no sufficient check against fraud. 2. That the checks imposed by the present law are whole- some. 3. That there are spinning miUs in Forfarshire where yarn is regularly made up according to law without inconvenience to the owners, and whose yarn has not been- seized for years. 4. That the opinion of the great body of manufacturers in Forfar and Fifeshires is hostile to a change^ 5. That these opinions have been freely expressed at public meetings called to consider the question. 1811. — Petition from John Melville, stamp-master, Dysart, to allow duck and sheeting, made in imitation of Bussian, to pass unstamped, that they may pass for Russian. Petition re- fused. 1812. — David Lawson, of Dundee, appealed against seizure of bagging made of Hemp, because unstamped, and Sheriff de- cided in his favour. Trustees appealed to Court of Justiciary, and Sheriff's sentence reversed. 472 MODEEN LINEN. 17th February 1813. — Memorial from certain Glasgow mer- cliants against intended seizure of Linen cut up into short lengths and made up so as to resemble German and French Linen for exportation to South America, which used to be sent ex- clusively from Old Spain and Portugal. Of late years they were largely imported into Britain from Germany, and carried to these colonies by the Americans, but in consequence of the war with America, and other changes in our foreign relations, are likely to fall into the hands of British merchants. The memo- rial represented that the people in the Spanish colonies in South America would not buy the Linen if stamped with Scotch or Irish stamps, which had to be cut off, so great was their preju- dice in favour of French and German Linen. Board con- nive at this, being assured that the Linen had been originally stamped. 3d March. — Petition from Glasgow merchants asking the Board to recommend doing away with stamping Linen for exportation. 13th April. — The Board depone, on opinion of Mr Blair, that the Stamping Act is one of the wisest in the Statute Book, and give their reasons at length. 20th June. — Kemonstrance from merchants and calender- ers, Glasgow, presented. The Board adhere to resolution of 13th April, but agree to dispense with oath of calenderers. 6th July 1814. — Bill introduced for doing away with Stamp- ing Linen for exportation. The Board strongly disapprove and resolve to oppose. BiU passed 23d July, 1814. December, 1817. — It appears that a recent act of ParUament authorises national stamp to be cut off Scotch Linen exported — and that manufacturers were in the habit of cutting stamp off, even before sending the Linen to London. 21st November 1820. — ^Mr Blair draws attention of Board to a motion made in the Convention of Koyal Boroughs, to the effect that Linen stamping is useless, is a tax upon the manu- facture, and ought to be abolished. Board resolve on a series of resolutions in defence of the practice, and the policy of its con- tinuance, and send copies of these to the chief magistrate of each Eoyal Borough in Scotland. 19th December 1820. — Memorial from seventy merchants and manufacturers of Linen in Dundee, noticing resolutions in favour of the repeal of the Law for Stamping, passed at a public meeting of manufacturers, merchants, and flaxspinners, in Guild Hall of Dundee, on 30th November 1820, and urging that the meeting, though respectable, did not consist ot more than sixty people — giving their opinion that the law was beneficial to the trade, and asking the Board to resist alterations. Ordered to lie on the table. SCOTCH LINEN. 473 1821. — Feveral resolutions receivedfrom Dundee for and against the Stamp Act and tlie Stamp-masters ; also from Custom-house at Greenock, urging that were stamping abolished, there would be great risk of frauds as to the bounties, low-priced cloth being entered as of a higher value. The Board defend the stamp- masters, and argue against any change ; and unanimously resolve to adhere to the present practice. 1822. — Eeport by their Secretary to the Linen Board in Ire- land showing the good effect of public stamping. Presented and laid on table. 25th March 1823. — Letter from Committee of Privy Council on Trade, mentioning that in consequence of representations from various manufacturers in Scotland, their Lordships had under their consideration the several acts relative to the Linen manufacture ; and their Lordships being of opinion that it may be advisable to submit to Parliament, during the present session, a bill to repeal such parts of these acts as have reference to the measuring, lapping, and stamping such Linens, and affixing the name of the manufacturer to each piece, and requesting any remarks. Board send letter deprecating the repeal as " fraught with danger to all but a few capitalists of manufacturers, who are probably aiming at obtaining a monopoly of the Scotch Linen Trade." 5th May. — Secretary (in London) reports that Mr Hus- kisson had resolved to bring in a bill to repeal the laws for the stamping of Linen, or, as it is reported, to make it optional to the manufecturers to stamp themselves, or have them stamped by public stamp-masters — that a Deputation of buyers from Dundee are in London, have printed their case, and are doing what they can to defeat the bill. Also presented a letter from J. B. Miller, on the part of the Deputies of the Dundee buyers, stating that in the interview which they had with Mr Huskisson, at which Mr C. Grant was also present, they found him fixed in his purpose of bringing in the bill, and that the facts and arguments which they brought into his view in support of the long established system of public stamping made no impression whatever on him. 20th May. — Secretary (in London) reports that he and the Board's London solicitor, with one of Dundee Deputies, had waited on Mr Huskisson, "that Mr H. could not he moved from his purpose" that the bill had been brought in and read a second time, and, from a copy which he had seen, it sweeps away the whole regulations of the Acts 13th Geo, I., and 24th Geo. II. for the inspection of linseed. Linens, yarn. Linen cloth, and bleaching materials. 29th May. — As to the optional clause, giving the manufac- 474 MODERN LINEN. turer power either to stamp himself or by stamp-master, Mr Blair's opinion read that it would be wholly nugatory or ineffi- cient. Board pass series of resolutions deprecating the con- templated change, and foretelling the ruinous eflfects thereof. 8th July. — " The Secretary printed a copy of an Act of Par- liament passed on 27th June, 1823, which puts an end to the inspection of lintseed. Linen yarn, bleaching materials, and the inspection and stamping of Linen by the officers appointed by the Board, and leaves it to manufacturers, sellers, and buyers, to act as they think proper." " The Board directed the Secretary to transmit a circular to all the surveyors of lintseed, inspectors of yarn, stamp-masters, and general surveyor, informing them that they must immedi- ately cease to act, and return their commissions, stamps, and types to this office." The Trustees in their Annual Report for 1823 notice that the law requiring Linen to be stamped and inspected having been repealed, their duties ceased at midsummer 1823. For several years after the repeal of the Stamp Act, a system of inspection was in operation, but it was entirely voluntary, there being no law to enforce it. The inspectors, in most cases, were the same parties who had acted as stampers under the Act^ and they were generally well qualified, from their knowledge and experience in examining Linens, for being inspectors. Manufac- turers either took their cloth to the inspector, or, as was more generally the case, got the inspector to their own works to go over and examine the pieces ; and if he was satisfied with the quality, the cloth was stamped with the name of the inspector, which was an evidence that it was of proper workmanship, and fair quality. Such a system was liable to abuse, because, by collision between the manufacturer and inspector, inferior goods might have been stamped and sold for the genuine quality ; but, in practice, this was rarely or ever done, as the inspectors were generally men of character, and they would have been personally re- sponsible for any loss arising from such a dereliction of duty. The practice was continued for a number of years, but it ultimately died out. Merchants, by and bye, became better acquainted with the quality of the goods they were in the practice of buying, and were content to take them on their own judgment, without the intervention of inspectors. The law requiring the stamping of Linen was no doubt founded SCOTCH LINEN. 475 on apparent views of public utility, and probably in the infancy of the trade, when buyers, from want of experience, were ill able to judge of the quality of the cloth, it may have been of benefit to the trade. At the period of the passing of the Act, and for long afterwards, almost all manufacturers were simply weavers, who, with the assistance of the members of their famUy, or a few apprentices, produced a piece or two a week, which they took to the nearest market-town for sale. Such parties had less interest in keeping up the regular quality of their goods than the large producers of the present day, and proba- bly on this ground the Act may have been at the time a judicious one. It is very doubtful, however, whether any advan- tage which could have been derived from it, even at the outset of the Linen manufacture, was sufficient to compensate for the inquisitorial annoyance, expense, and loss of time to which it subjected the manufacturer, It could not have been expected that a person who had no connection with the trade, and whose emoluments depended on the quantity that he stamped, would be as scrupulous of affixing the seal of his approbatiojQ on the pieces as if his interest depended on the quality. In practice, especially after miU-spun yarns came into general use, the approbation of the stamp- master was not found to have much influence on the judgment of the merchant. If stamping was then requisite at all, the safest way for the public would have been to allow the manufac- turer to stamp his own cloth, and his credit and interest was a guarantee that no improper goods would be sent into the market as genuine. This has virtually been the case since the abolition of stamping, and the practice has been found to work well, and given satisfaction both to buyer and seller. The fewer trammels there are upon trade, and the less interference between the pro- ducer and purchaser of any article, the more will that trade prosper. " Let us alone unto ourselves" was the reply of an enhghtened manufacturer to the great Sully, when he proposed to protect and encourage trade by a Eoyal edict ; and trade and manufac- tures, let alone, have in all ages been found to prosper most. The Act was beneficial in furnishing statistics regarding the extent and progress of the trade during its continuance, and the following tables, extracted from the proceedings of the Trustees, throw much light on the Linen Trade for a long series of years :- 476 MODERN LINEN. ■ ■^looocscg i>.i--<>-*t-Oicot>i-H ^coOi-HOs-^ooii— 'osmosoo ►2 >0 OO ■*' »C) CO CO CrT !>' -tH i-T O" C"!* Ol" t'^iO"C3COOOCOCO cra^co (N io t- i-H o^co cq p M .C0CDTi(,-IOSO0D-*«0O- I— ( i-rin~-^*"o c CO »C CO lO CT5 CO ■^ b- -^ «)» «f» Hio in o o CO CO CO CD ■^ CO t- CO^tN tN b- "^ tI<" cd'"co"os" Oi t- CO OS CO c^ CO t* t- - 00 lO (M t— OS CJ t?^^ -^^ rJH^ 0_ t- co' c^* co'tjT CO CO CO (N CO C^ CM CO OS —4 h1» OS'O rH CO ^;3 iCjOS^ CO <» fcC CO OS 10 Fx) zo "^ c^ SCOTCH LINEN. 477 (0 IS '^ CO O CM so t> CD rH ^ >* -^H (N crs -^ cq O CO (M o T-H ■ iC ■-*4 (M Cq CO CO'^QOCO t-COlCt-aiCi-^'^COi-'iHt^liOOOS -1 a ;^^,-HrHi-li— ( ,-( r-, ,-^ ■ 3 O ^ CD >0 'f*! : b- O CO ■* CM CO ^ ^ CM CJi b- O CX» O t- rH t>- O ^ CD • ^"^ t> 1-- m -* Oi ^ • 00*^1— <"*u-)i^Q0<3^'^'WCN^CMl>.CTSC3it-C0b-OS • CD CJ) t> CC l£5 00 lurs iOCOCOt-^^b-CM.-OO.-HiO'* -«^CM'*OeOCO 00 bo CO* Fh ^ lO CQ (M I-H oi T-i ^"lO osi-iiOr-i-^ 1— tin i-HcqcM 00 "^rt ■M lO ^ ^ CO CM as S 1-t ^^ » ■* ■* c«w-ti ■*-*■*«■*■* -tfe-^ «4 rtl» ■* o c» t^ -^ ;«0'<*<-#-tC005-*COCMOCqCJlCOaO-Tt'-<*'C0C0CDl>.Tt- ;i-<0i0S"*OC0OC0i0C00aOC001b-CMb-C0CJSC0 o d (« c- >J^ b- O CO ' 00 .-. CO o — »o CO as o . CO CD i-H CO iO Ol »0 O (N O lO OS CO OS .-H (M CO GO (N C^ '<*< t-'^.-. i-< r-H 00 CO i-Tsq" i-T t-T «e a iH C3 g^ CO O O 00 o CMOc31^OC0CMC0Q0CD'-h(M -^-^OOiCO t> 00 05 i-l CO CO rt< 1-H rH CM O CO lO CO IC CO CO C^ -^ CO »0 IM O '-' s" § .-H i-H ^ i-Hi— li-li-(»-H.-H i-( r-( : I-H I-H -^ -a 1 to (N lO 00 CO ■inOcDcoo-* ^cocot-oco • O CO CDO -^ t- • § ^ t> 00 lO Cq C* rH . CO ifl OS ^ lO 00 O (M (N 00 m 5s CM OS 0^-<*H^»0 CM^i- O^CO^^ 00 -"st^ 00 lO t- t^ CO o ^ CM CO -^ i-H o" (M"i—'''*"co''cM''i-r-^"i-ro'* <^iD i--rc^"T-r lO" ea 00 ^ ^ coco CO (M -1 CO u 00 1-1 ^ «>I3B ■*!» ic|t»«* «■* ■* « <«iaTdo4'« lofso oi CO as CO b- :cOiOQO-<* t^ coco CD : I-H 1 co e^ -*i (N CM -^'-coco-<*<"CooocMic:icoo . OS CC CO ■^ -^ "<*H t-H O^I>-t<^C0^l> IIM'^OSCNOSOS^C^OW-^iHCMOO : Oi i>- CO »n) '«*< •* ! o ^ ■M'^oo'cq'^Ti-T *cD'ko'co"os''-rirco'ifrT-'"co'co''»o"iO' * ' '-Tt^C^COt:^^ ' CD" (N «3 O (M •^ i-ICMCMS'^'^t*'^'^'^ CTsiOrHrHCOCO CD i-H T-( as CO CD t- iM CO s "K "t't. -t «e »E i-H CO •—* (MOqOCOr-((MCDC005005000COOCOCO THCiCOOOCDOiO ft d O t- 00 CO CD O CO CO t- Cq O CO CC M -^ Oi O OS : o •* "© » C<) >0C0C0.-llftC000C0 : lo CM CM '^ CD ^ CO CO* S3 o 5 -«F» tt)te'*to «(» ■*!» (o|»c»fco wto^ldo^to 3 O CS -(J< Cq 03 CO D- 00 T-i m rt< CT) CO >-H 05 en CM CM -^ lO 00 (M CO Oi CO pa iO »0 . . ^ CM ';t< (M O ■* CO t- 'S O CO ■^*^ CO CM 00 O O b- (N C35 00 CO CD CO Crs CO CO : : l> O 00 00 O lO Os^ o .§ r^-no i-rarcq"co'*co' (-ri-rio" ©"t^^co^iyrco" ' ' t^iacP^coe^ CO* f» rH ■* o* o CD coos rHNlOt- t,.QO^,-H 00 I— i CO lO CM -It* cm" 1 a ^1 1 : a" j, i : ss § § "^J 1 till ■I ;3^ ill 6:" <4-( nr; j Phoc 4 r--iffj«TiilO«DI>;QdOJd^lN«T|HlOtpi^<»00-4)N«iTH10tdt-: ^^rt^^r-1^r^l-lr-l(^^(^^{^^c^^cq(^^(J^{^, 478 MODERN LINEN. 1 H lO O « ^ m »-( 7-\ O^ OOTH(MOOOi-(OOOT-ir-iOi-Hi-iOi-HOi-HOOO 00 s (3 CO O O 00 o i-H O Oi OJ o CO O Oi CO o ■-iH O 3^ O Ci O O'rH C«l'i>lO'^Ot-Cbw05-^'rtOC t- . . CD i-H t- to (N (M CO O i-H CD CO -^ -^ OS QO'-Hu:50COOiCOO>f5COr-(,-i-^OiOCO"^»OOOiOC^ai;^ t-"*l>-JCMT-(-*<-rt'*Ot>OiwH^ai(?QCOb-(rC"* OW5iO(MiOCDCD>-(COO(MCiCD050COCDCSCQ-*COI>CO Co"'-^"E^"co'"'-^'''-H"o"o">— ro'^-^"co"co"tN''^^-'"'0 CO CD COCab-iOOrHCOiCCOO -^ .-H I— ( OOi-I^OOO'-l 00>-Hr-r-tW.-(Oi-IOi-IO T#( CO CO .-' O CO .-H CD CD lO CO CO CO t- o urs m -^ *^ C^ OJ C- 00 b- 00 i> »n ^ ■-< CO o OCOOiCOCOOO'-H 1— ( rHNCO»>b-0>000 COt-rH>-tOi»OOias 0»0(MOS'^OC^'-H COOxHi-HOCONO OI>C0C0'^C0G0OQ0rH'<^00 05 iCCOi-fcacOCOO-^t^OsOO fH ,—1 ^ ,_( ,_( ,_(,_( ^ C5COQOTt05iCOS ^lO .-("Thb-coois^cMOcoooico :o CO-^ b-1-Ht^t-CDCOCOOS"^ -CD CD CO I-* ■-( CO Oi Oi -^ »0 r- CD (M Ol O t- ^ .-H CO :i--c^coo:it>.co(Nco *0 TtH CO CO CO t^ ©q C»C0 >0 -* 1-1 (?JXO'^COCOOl>COCO-*iOt- lO o^-oococDcocOI>■(?^oO'-l :co OThCDCiC-00^'— ii— Oi -t- •^b- 05 i-li-lOt>(MCD-!t1 i-H 05 -^ CO t-H .-1 CO 00 O i> o lo cq O Oi CO i-H CO »0 iO -* lO QO CO CO t> CQ CO ■* CDOCOCiOOOi-'CDCOCOC^OSO >-. rH eac^aaososcob-co-^oc^THOs .i-Hi— (i— Ir-iTHi— ' T-ti-(i— I I— (t-H _OOOCir-(CMO>COiOl>OscqOi l>'^W5COOiCOCOO-*'"'iOSt>-l>- i-HC^OSCO>— ICOtMOSOJt*'— lOO b-i— lOOSCOOiOt-t-'-iCO ■ r-( T— I l-H 1—1 l-H i-H OTHOb-i>ot>>-«b-oc^ COi-iCOi-( l>COb-C:iOTt-H .— < . »-l ^S?i2Si£:'^<^*^oro CD »> tH O ■<* OD ■* I— I IN b- o 00 (^•-^coc^-^aS'iactT rH.-irHlCCO'.sHlO'-COlO W l> CO lO COlCCDCOODT-iCO-'tHCO.-ICO ;0iQ0i-il0(M05-^OC0T-iC0 iCOO-^iQtN-^OSCOb-COOS to i-Hi-iOSCOr-lCOCO OS c* b- s'S^ S 3 s rt t3 5° ?? -T^ -^ ;«? |5»ocoi>lo6o30i-H(Nco-^'w5cdt^G6oso^(NffOTH»dc6t^QdoiorH rHr-IP-H^r-lrH.-HrH^rt(M(M(N(MCq ca o f-* lO ■**4 0:1 O CO 05 cq t> o '■*4 OS CO ■^ t- (N i-l -^ lO Th t-H Ci CD CD a> CO «rt o o p4 Eh 5e; S5 fH CQCOi-iCMNCO-^'-it-OSOO H*HtN in ^ (M CO Oi 0OC<)0>OeOt-Ob-QOCO COOS-^OOCD ■^oo>iO)M-^i-ir^eow5b»coooio •Tffoooococo o o 10 ^ ■."- "^^ ».-- UU i.'J S W5 t- CO CO 10 10" eo" ?o" i> ^"^ rn" oT \a '"-. "'^ 01 —< (M T-i eo Oi a CD C4 00 01 o c» c^ 1-1 CO 00 c*« CO CO 1-. XO w CD ofltet coooasGsicoooiOD^t-asGvias lOCOOlOtN r-OiMCOCDiMNOiCOOiC i-Tco" co'i-T Gfi cfS^ <:S CO "^ t^ ^ tr^ c^ iO i-l CO ■* CO «rt "-KM ONCDooeo"^ b-coooO"* rH 1-( I-i 1-f ,-H OOOO'^t^Oit-CS'-'QO ■«*C»-ii— ItMi— lrH»nCDC-iLni— iCiCOOOSr-' -i-HCOOiO". COC0CO(Nt-COC0 (M'"t>'o'oD''-ri-rio"cD I-T 00" CO i-ltN>Ot^i-HCOCO (M CO CD CO I-T G^r-T 03 CM o ^1 w <1) a ^ ,0 -t> :.2 12 5 a' ^ ,0 ; o "3 t3 9 a liliii^ilii p-hj— ti-Hi— ii— Ii-Hf-Hi— (i-H(— ((N(NG. S. D. 5 15 2 5 4 5 5 3 10 3 11 4 £72 S. D. s. B. 5 5 1, 5 5 2 3 8 3 9 4 4 3 Linen. Oct. 1801. 4/4 Tow Yds. 9/8 do 3/4 Flax 4/4 do 9/8 do. 30 por. 9/8 do. 32 „ ... German Dowlas Flax Oanaburg.., 10 11 13" 15 October, 1802. lou lot 12+ 11 12 13 14A 14i December, 1805, i^r 12i 18| 13^^ Hi 16A 18J IBft 13A 131 December, 1806. 13A 13J 14J 16| 19 141 15 Jane 1808. 14t\ 16t 14i 18i 19 21 17 Oct. 1810. 14 15 13 16J 17 19 14 October, 1819. 9i 8 lOJ 11 12 9 H 9i 9J tCow Dowlas 25i in. Yds. flax do. ,i , Tow do. 27 , Flai do. ,, , TowSheetg. 36 , ^lax do. 38 , Brown CatiVas, No. 1 Bleached do. ,, 1 Dandy do. ,,1 Twisted or best boiled Canvas Jan, 1830. Not. 1831. 4i 6 7i 8i 104 11 llj 13 5J g"2 Si 8| 9i in 12} 12i 14 July, 1832. 4J 5 4f 6 7i 11 llj 12 13J In 1851 there were eighteen firms 6ngaged in the staple trade in Arbroath, with an aggregate of 530 horse-power, and ranging M m 2 648 MODEEN LINEN. from 90 down to 8 horse-power employed by the various parties. Now there are seventeen firms engaged in Flax-spinning or power-loom weaving, employing in the aggregate 39 steam- engines (including one water-wheel), of 792 horse-power. The works contain 30,342 spindles, and 836 power-looms, and give employment to 4,620 people. Some of the firms are going on with extensions on a moderate scale, to meet the require- ments of their increasing trade. The quantity of canvas produced annually by these looms is about 420,000 pieces, in addition to which about 15,000 pieces are made by the hand-looms which are still in use. There are also about 8,000 pieces of Linen of other descriptions, such as hessians, sheetings, &c., made in the town yearly. Most of the mills have esteblishments of their own for Flax-dressing, but in addition to these there are about 80 men employed by master Flax-dressers. Altogether there may be fully 4,000 people in the town engaged in the Linen manufacture, and during the last year the trade was in a highly flourishing condition, giving full employment to all who were willing to work, and returning a fair remuneration for the labour and capital of the employers. Some of the firms in Arbroath have long held an honourable position in the trade, and are deservedly respected. As in all prosperous manufactur- ing towns, younger parties are rising up, who, by their industry and energy, are steadily and surely commanding success. The future of Arbroath is therefore very hopeful. Blaiegoweie. At an early period in last century Flax was grown in the parish to a moderate extent, and it was long continued to be cultivated. The whole of the quantity raised was spun in the parish during the winter months, and the rents of many of the smaller farmers were mostly paid with the money got for the yarn. For a long time the husbandry was of the rudest kind, but about 1780 an improvement took place, after which more land was cultivated, and better crops raised. The Flax was generally sown about the end of April, in a portion of the division for oats, and when the season was suitable, a fair crop was produced. Besides the home-grown Flax, considerable SCOTCH LINEN. 649 quantities of foreign Flax were spun, and the yarn was either woven in the parish, or sent to Dundee. The women, about 1790, used the two-handed wheel, but in early times they only span with one hand. Considerable quantities of household work were made in the town and parish, and about 50,000 yards of " yard-wides" were annually weaved. Part of these goods were bleached at a field in the parish of Rattray, but the greater portion were sold in Blairgowrie at about 8^d a yard, and sent in the green or unbleached state to London. In addition to these, some of what was called " Hessian Stuff" were also woven in the district at that time. A stamp-office was early established in the town ; and after being in existence for some time, it was discontinued for seve- ral years, but was again opened in 1785. The quantity of cloth stamped for the first eight years after its re-establishment was as follows : — 1785 17,197 Yards. 1789 165,364 Yards. 1786 50,380 „ 1790 190,682 „ 1787 128,559 „ 1791 220,371 „ 1788 130,602 „ 1792 252,485 „ This table comprises the Linen woven in Blairgowrie, what was brought from the neighbouring parishes, and also the quantity bleached at Rattray, and it shows a steady increase for these years. In 1790 there were 100 weavers, 8 Flax-dressers, and 7 lint millers in the parish. The wages of a maid-servant were then £3, and the produce of two lippies of linseed, sown in her master's ground, or an equivalent for it if he was not a farmer. Before 1798 a small building in the Haughs of Rattray, below Blairgowrie, which had previously been occupied as a lint mill, had some machinery put into it for spinning Flax. This was the nucleus of the now large establishment called Erich t Works. The Flax is taken into these works in the raw state, and the Linens sent out packed in bales ; the whole processes, heckling, spinning, bleaching, weaving, calendering, and packing being carried on therein. These works have been greatly en- larged of late years, and further extensions are now in progress. Ericht Works belong to John Adamson, and have been a pros- perous concern since he acquired the property, now a good many 550 MODEEN LINEN. years ago. In 1798 another JFlax-spinning mill, on a more extensive scale, was erected farther up and on the opposite bank of the Ericht, which, in contradistinction to its lesser and lower predecessor, was called the " Meikle Mill." It was, perhaps, large for its day, but when compared with some of the extensive mills recently erected, it is small indeed. It now also belongs to Mr Adamson, but for sometime past has ceased to be occupied as a spinning mill. On the Lornty, a picturesque tributary to the Ericht, a spinning mill was erected by the late David Grim- mond, in 1814. It is now in the occupation of his son, David, ■ and has produced its quota of yarns weekly for fifty years without yet showing many signs of decay. Since the erection of " Meikle Mill," the banks of the beautiful and romantic Ericht have been studded with spinning mills, and the rush of its waters affords employment to a large population. In 1851 there were twelve mills in the neighbourhood of Blairgowrie, having an aggregate water-power of 257 horses. At the present time there are eleven works in operation, with 319 horse-power, whereof water 289, and steam 30. The works contain 13,200 spindles, and 250 power-looms, and employ about 1,600 hands. A new mill, now in course of erection at Keithbank, will shortly add to the power, and bring the spindles up to more than 1,400. At page 71, it is stated that the late James Grrimond, of Oak- bank MiU, Blairgowrie, was one of the pioneers of Jute spin- ning. Since that portion of the work was in print it has been ascertained that he was the first spinner Mr Watt got to make trial of the fibre ; that he cut it into lengths, heckled it, span the line into 3 lb. yarn (16 lea), the quality of which was excel- lent. The Jute first used by him was of remarkable fine fibre, soft and silky, with spinning properties superior to the bulk of wliat is now imported. At the present time two or three of the mills spin Jute to the extent of 200 to 300 bales a week, the others being all upon Flax or Tow. Throughout many parts of the country the Flax-spinning mills driven by water-power have, from a variety of causes, been demolished or turned to other purposes ; but this does not apply to the district of Blairgowrie. Here the water-power is sufficient to drive moderate-sized mills steadily and profitably, but it iy not so large as to admit of great extensions, and many SCOTCH LINEN. 551 of the mills therefore remain as they were originally erected. Hitherto the works have generally prospered, and at present they have a vigorous existence, and give promise of a successful future. The proprietors are a very respectable body of spinners, most attentive to business, and well worthy of the wealth which many of them have acquired. The beauty of the scenery and the salubrity of the climate make Blairgowrie liked by the workers, to whose comfort, physically and morally, great atten- tion is paid by the millowners. They labour under the disad- vantage of having to attend the markets in Dundee once or twice a week, for the purchase of the raw material and the sale of its produce ; but this is a disadvantage shared by the spinners and manufacturers residing in other towns, and it is more than counter-balanced by the cheap motive power supplied by the Ericht. Of late hand-loom weaving has not been prosecuted largely in Blairgowrie, and it is not likely to be more actively carried on hereafter, as power-looms are everywhere supplanting them. Brechin. Flax has long been cultivated in the parish of Brechin, but it was not until after the rebellion of 1745 that much atten- tion was paid to the subject. After the introduction of the manufacture of Osnaburgs into Arbroath, the discovery of the fabric was soon heard of and its utility appreciated through- out the country, and the article became a general favourite. Among other places, Brechin went early into the trade, and for a long period Osnaburgs were the chief fabric made there. To provide material for this important mauufacture, the growth of Flax in the parish was encouraged, but the total quantity raised was never very large. From various causes the quantity of Flax grown in the parish, as in other districts of the country, gradually dwindled down, until only a few acres were raised for domestic purposes. Now the plant is little seen here, and young people would scarcely know it, though they saw its beautiful flowers waving in the wind before them. 552 MODERN LINEN. Towards the end of last century the merchants of Brechin were then, as now, much engaged in the Linen trade, and large quantities of yarn and Linen were bought and sold every mar- ket day. At that period the greater number of the women were employed in spinning, and the two-handed wheel was commonly in use, although a short time previously Flax had been wholly spun with one hand. The men were engaged in weaving, and both men and women were well paid for their labour. There was then a bleachfield in the city, which gave regular and healthy employment to a number of people of both sexes. Spinning by machinery was commenced in Brechin about the end of the last, or the beginning of the present century, and the mill first built was then considered a large one. The building is still standing, and now forms part of the premises of the East Mill Company, being occupied by them as warehouses. The spin- " uing firm issued a copper coinage of their own, and East Mill haw- hees are still in existence, having a view of the mill on one side of the coin. The original mill came into the hands of the present Company in 18i36, after which they erected a large new fire- proof mill. Since that period several considerable additions have been made to the work, and in 1858 another mill was added to it. In 1852 an extensive bleachfield was started by the Company, and the following are details of the works of this respectable firm at the present time: — The motive power is partly steam and partly water, the might of the beauti- ful river South Esk being impressed to aid in turning the machi- nery. The spinning mill is of eighty horse-power, contains 4,300 spindles, and gives employment to .400 hands, who receive in wages about £7,400 annually. The consumption of Flax is about 1,300 tons a year, the produce being 670,000 spindles of from 1 J to 5 lb. Flax yarn, and from 3 to 8 lb. tow yarn. The bleachwork requires 20 horse-power, employs 100 hands, who are paid £2,600 of wages annually, and the quantity of yarn bleached is fully 1,900 tons. The establishment is complete in all its parts, and in a prosperous condition ; and considerable attention is paid to the comfort of the hands by James Ireland, who energetically manages the entire work. There is another bleachfield in the town, belonging to the Inch Bleaching Company, who carry on an extensive business, SCOTCH LINEN. 563 employing about 100 persons, and finishing about 1,600 tons of yarn annually. The Linen stamped in Brechin in 1805, 1806, and 1807 averaged 623,163 yards yearly, for which the stamp-master's fees averaged ^£54 9s lid. In 1816, 1817, and 1818 the quan- tity and the fees averaged respectively 749,481 yards, and £78 Is 'id. A quarter of a century ago, there were thirty persons in the town and parish engaged in heckling Flax, 200 in spinning, chiefly in the large spinning-mill, which had been erected some time before, 40 to 50 in bleaching, and perhaps 1,200 to 1,500 in weaving. Another spinning-mill was at one time erected in Brechin, but it was converted into a paper-mill in 1852. In 1851 there was not a steam-engine in the town. Now there are five connected with the Linen trade, of the aggregate of 95 horse-power ; and very shortly the number will be increased. The manufactures of Brechin have changed considerably since the century began. Before then it was almost wholly Osna- burgs, but other fabrics had been early introduced, and in 1811 the stock of a manufacturer, which was sold by auction, consisted of the following goods : — 96 Pieces 27-mch plain Hemp Bagging. 36 Pieces Canras. 21 „ „ Twilled Do. 20 „ Hammock Cloth. 42 ,, 32-inch Do. Flax Tow Sheeting. 6 ,, Hemp Cotton Bagging. 4 ,, 27-inch Tow Osnaburg. 12 „ White Linen. 2 „ 39-inch Flax and Tow Sheeting. 100 sacks and bags, with yarn suitable for such goods. Flax, Hemp, tow, codilla, &c., starching berths, fire-carts, &o,, &c. At one period the greater part of the Linen made in Brechin was given out to be woven by agents acting for manufacturers resident in other towns, but in the latter part of 1885, new fabrics were introduced, and since then the trade has been chiefly in the hands of native manufacturers. A respectable flrm. Lamb and Scott, at that date erected a manufactory for these new fabrics — viz., canvas and hessians, and considerable employment was given to females in spinning the yarn. A correspondent, writing to the Dundee Advertiser on 20th November, 1835, mentions these as gratifying circumstances, but laments that the expense of conveying such heavy mate- rial to and from Dundee, the great central market, would 554 MODERN LINEN, be against the stability of the manufacture of such goods in Brechin. Time has proved that the lamentation was not without sufficient cause. Although these fabrics have been long discontinued, the firm who attempted their introduction aire still in existence, and carry on perhaps the largest manufac- turing business in Brechin at the present day. They employ fully 600 hand-looms in the town and neighbourhood, and have now in course of erection a power-loom work which will contain fully 300 looms. A small power-loom factory, of eight horse-power, was erected about ten years ago, and contains 48 looms. It belongs to J. and J. Smart, who also employ fully 140 hand-loom weavers. D. and K. Duke employ about 400 hand-looms in Brechin and through- out the district, and pay about £8,000 annually in wages. This firm are also erecting a power-loom work, which will contain 308 looms. There are other manufacturers in Brechin who carry on considerable trade. The principal fabrics now made in Brechin are bleached sheetings, dowlas, and similar goods, and for these the district has acquired an extensive and justly merited celebrity. Dunfermline. This ancient town has' long been distinguished for the manu- facture of diaper and table Linen. Tn the infancy of the trade it was the custom to weave diaper only during the summer, and checks in winter, but why such a custom should have been established it is difficult to determine. The practice was con- tinued until about 1749, when the manufacture of ticks and checks was almost relinquished, and for many years diaper was the only article made. This trade long went on satisfactorily, showing a gradual yearly increase, until in 1788 the looms em- ployed numbered about 900, and in 1792 they had increased to 1,200. For some years before the latter date the value of the goods made annually was from £50,000 to £60,000, and it was then on the increase. In the chest of the Incorporation there is preserved a very curious specimen of the weaving art. It is a man's shirt, wrought in the loom near the end of the seventeenth century, by a weaver SCOTCH LINEN. 555 named Inglis. The shirt is without seam, and was finished by the ingenious artist without assistance from the needle, the only necessary part which he could not accomplish being a button for the neck. In 1792 a mill for spinning yarn from Max, Hemp, and Tow, was erected at Brueefield, near Dunfermline, and the Flax- yarn spun in it, even in the first year of its existence, gave satisfaction. In the Statistical Account of Scotland this mUl is said to have got the second patent for spinning yam by machinery, but it was not the second erected in Scotland, several others having had precedence of it. The mill spaa for many years, but it has long been numbered among the things that were. Within the previous half century astonishing progress had been made in the art of weaving table Linen. In the early stages of the trade sometimes three persons were requisite in weaving a web of diaper, but after the introduction of the fly shuttle, and what was called a frame for raising the figure, a single weaver could work a web 2|- yards wide without the least assistance. Much taste and skiU is necessary in designing the patterns of diapers, but by thought and practice some of the tradesmen acquired considerable genius in this art, and a century ago ob- tained premiums from the Board of Trustees for their draughts. Table-cloths could then be furnished of almost any breadth, length, and quality, and coats of arms, mottos, or other devices were wrought in them if wanted ; but compared with the present state of the manufacture the cloth was coarse, and the designa at best rude and without taste, and much inferior to foreign speci- mens. They consisted chiefly of the British flag, the national Scottish arms, gentlemen's coats of arms, and sometimes flowers, birds, &c,, all very unnatural and extravagant. Afterwards more ingenuity and taste in design and execution were displayed,, and latterly rich and varied patterns were produced, equal if not superior to German goods, which had long been the favourites in Britain. The damask loom, with its Jacquard machine, is now capable of producing any figure, however comphcated, and there are several individuals in the town wholly devoted to design paint- ing, the artistic merits of whose patterns are deserving of high, praise. 556 MODERN LINEN. For a long period Dunfermline has been the chief seat of the table^Linen manufacture of Scotland, but until the introduction of the Jacquard machine in 1824, the progress made was com- paratively slow. This admirable machine, by greatly simplify- ing the weaving of even the most complex design, has given an immense impetus to the trade of the town. Through its use the appearance and quality of the goods have been much improved, and the saving of time in weaving has cheapened the cost of the fabric produced, the while adding to the comfort of the weaver. A prettier design and a better quality of table Linen at a re- duced cost has greatly extended consumption, to the vast benefit of Dunfermline. The following figures show the number of looms employed, and the value of the produce in the years specified : — Date Looms in the Parish. Looms out of the Parish. Total Looms. Value of Goods Manufactured. Capital Em- ployed in the 1749 . About 400 400 1788 . . „ 900 1792 . „ 820 380 1,200 1819 . . „ 930 70 1,000 £95,000 1818 . 1,500 150 1,650 120,000 1822 . . „ 1,800 1831 . 2,670 450 3,120 1836 July, „ 2,794 723 3,517 351,700 £826,261 1837 Aug., „ 2,983 717 3,700 370,000 The total number of people employed in the various depart- ments of the trade in July 1836 was 5,044. The weekly wages of weavers averaged 10s ; warpers, 15s ; winders, 4s ; yarn boilers and bleachers of yarn, chiefly women, 7s ; bleachers of cloth, 8s 6d ; lappers, 9s 6d ; pattern cutters, 10s ; dyers, 18s. Of the 3,517 looms then employed, 770 were on single diaper, which do not require Jacquard machines ; 1 ,880 on single damask, and 369 on double damask, which may have them ; 445 on table covers, 13 on worsted warps, 15 on Linen, fall harness, and 17 on bed quilts, all of which have them. The worsted warps and Linen full harness looms had greatly increased by 1843. The rate of wages per spindle of warp had fallen on one fabric from 7s 8Jd in 1807 to 2s 5d in 1844, and on another from 6s 3d to 2s 3d, but the weaver had much less compulsory idle time at SCOTCH LINEN. 557 the latter date, so that his weekly wages were not so much re- duced as the difference in the rates indicate. Until a recent period the Linens made in Dunfermline and its vicinity were chiefly woven by hand in the houses of the weavers, almost every master of a house being owner of his own loom, and sometimes of two or three more, which he let to journeymen and apprentices. A good many years ago the factory system was commenced, and several large hand-loom weaving shops were erected by the manufacturers, where it was thought the work could be more efficiently carried on than when distributed, as of old, among swarms of cottages. The recent introduction of power-loom establishments has again changed the mode of pro- duction, and hand-looms, whether in cottages or in large shops, are fast disappearing, and will in the course of time become ex- tinct, excepting for some descriptions of goods for which power- looms may not be adapted. At present there are four power-loom establishments in operation in Dunfermline, and others are in course of erection. Erskine Beveridge and Co., St Leonards Works, employ 709 power-looms, which are driven by steam-engines of 210 horse- power, with 220 hand-looms in the factory, and more than this number outside ; the number of hands employed by this respect- able firm being about 1,500, and the wages paid annually about £35,000. This is the most extensive establishment in the town, but, large though it be, it is proposed still farther to extend it. Some of the other works, both hand-loom and power-loom, are on a large scale. D. Dewar, Son, and Sons, of London, a firm of established reputation (whose concise and correct monthly reports on the Linen trade are highly valued), are presently erect- ing a power-loom work in the town, which when completed will be an extensive concern. It is intended to contain 580 looms, with all the necessary adjuncts for preparing and finishing the superior class of goods required in their trade. The manufac- tures of Dunfermline being mainly confined to one class of goods, the fluctuations which periodically befall every trade tell with great severity upon this town, because when depression comes it comes to all, and all classes sufier. Power-looms strike out for themselves new branches of trade, and by being kept constantly at work afibrd regular employment to the hands en- 558 MODERN LINEN. gaged ; their extension will therefore be of great advantage to the town and district. The goods manufactured in Dunfermline consist of diapers of various kinds, single and double damasks, white on brown table Linen, table-covers, floor-covers or crumb-cloths, cloutings, sheet- ings, &c. , &c. The quality of the goods made varies with the mar- ket for which they are intended, but the town has attained great celebrity for the beauty and excellence of its table Linens, and the chaste and lovely specimens shown in the Great Exhibition of 1862 added to its former fame in this department. No doubt the respectable firms who are engaged in the manufacture of the ancient town will continue to maintain the high character their productions have already acquired, and keep pace with their competitors, both home and foreign. Very little of the" yarn consumed in Dunfermline is spun in the district, there being only one mill in the place, and it is not on a large scale. The coarser sorts are got from Kirkcaldy, Dundee, &c., and the finer numbers, of which much of the manu- facture consists, chiefly from Yorkshire and Ireland. There are four bleachfields in the neighbourhood, where part of the yarn consumed is bleached, but much of the cloth is sent to the fields near Perth to be cleared and finished, after which it is returned, and made up for a market. FOEFAE. The first Statistical Account of the parish, written about 1792, states that about the year 1745 or 1746 the manufacture of Osnaburgs was commenced in Forfar by the brother of the merchant who first, from an accidental cause, discovered the fabric and began the trade in Arbroath. It says: — "From a small beginning, this branch of manufacture speedily became the staple manufacture of Forfar, and it is pleasing to add that the gentleman who first introduced it into the town acquired a comfortable independency by it, and was long spared to enjoy it among his fellow townsmen. Before that period the Flax was dressed by women, and there was no cloth made in the town, excepting a few yard-wide scrims. Then the number of incorporated weavers did not exceed forty, and SCOTCH LINEN. . 559 there were not more than sixty looms employed in the town. In consequence of the Act for encouraging weavers, the trade increased so rapidly that before 1750 there were upwards of 140 looms in Forfar, and now there are between 400 and 500. The knowledge of this art is easily acquired, and the call for hands is so great, that almost every young man betakes himself to it. He receives a part of the profit on his work from the very day his apprenticeship begins, and in a year or two he is qualified to carry on the business for himself, and able to support a wife ; and so he marries and multiplies, and this rapidly increases the population. The Osnaburg trade rapidly spread, and gave employment to vast numbers of people through- out the country, but it was a very fluctuating one, and when the demand slackened at any time, it brought many of the young and improvident into difficulties. When it is good — and for some time before this year it has been more stable and flourish- ing than has ever been known before — the profits on it, together with the Grovernment bounty, are sufficient to support the sober and industrious weavers against the influence of a falling market. Manufacturers are now giving 15s to 20s for working the piece of ten dozen yards, which a man of good abilities as a weaver can accomplish in nearly as many days ; and a man working his own web had been known to produce eighteen such pieces by his own hand in nineteen weeks. This, however, is allowed by all to be extraordinary, although it shows what sobriety and dili- gence can do." After this period, the manufacturing trade went on progressively, with occasional checks arising from various causes. Sometimes the fluctuations were both violent and sudden, and the following details of the wages paid at different times in the year from October, 1814, to October, 1815, show this clearly: — At the former date, the weaving of a 24 por. 25 inch Osnaburg, 146 yards long, as measured and stamped by the Government Inspector, the warp of 3 lb. Flax, and wefted with 7 sp. of 6 lb. Flax yarn, was 21s. In November the weav- ing rose to 28s ; in December it fell to 14s ; and by October, 1815, it had fallen as low as 6s the piece. During the years 1805, 1806, and 1807, the quantity of Linen stamped in Forfar averaged 1,765,704 yards yearly, the stamp- master's fees for which were £183 18s 6d. In the three years 560 MODEBN LINEJ<. 1816, 1817, and 1818, the average quantity stamped yearly was 2,611,776 yards, and the average yearly fees £272 Is 2d, which shows a marked increase over the former period. Twenty years ago, about 3000 individuals were employed in Forfar and neighbourhood in weaving sheetings, Osnaburgs, dowlas, and kindred fabrics. About 2000 pieces were then made weekly, of the value of from £4,000 to £5,000, or from £200,000 to £250,000 annually. After that date the trade continued to make considerable progress, and the production increased yearly. Within the last year or two, important changes have been intro- duced into the manufacturing industry of the town by the establishment of power-loom factories. Of these there are now four distinct works, with an aggregate of 77 horse-power, contaihing at present 482 looms, and giving employment to fully 600 hands. Some of these firms are- adding to the number of their power- looms, and several other Forfar manufactiirers contemplate erecting power-loom works, as they find it impossible, with hand-looms only, to compete successfully with their more enter- prising rivals. At present there are about 4500 hand-looms in and around Forfar, chiefly employed by the Forfar manufac- turers, and, including 3,000 warp and weft winders, 100 warpers, &c., the number employed in the hand-loom trade in the town and district may amount to about 7,600 people. In the course of a few more years, this branch wiU probably become a thing of the past, as the fabrics manufactured are admirably adapted for power-looms, and steam seems destined to supplant manual labour in the weaving of Linen. Some of the hand-loom manu- facturers have now small steam-engines for driving warp and weft winding machines, finishing the cloth, &c. There is one large public calender and bleachfield in the town, belonging to Charles Norrie and Sons, of Dundee, in which there is also yarn winding machinery, where the manufacturers who have not such conveniences of their own can get their winding done. This work is of 20 horses-power, em- ploys nearly 100 hands, pays about £2000 of wages annually, and it has been highly conducive to the prosperity of Forfar. Some of the new power-loom works have yarn cleaning and bleaching establishments attached to them, which is found to be a convenience to the proprietors. SCOTCH LINEN. 561 In round numbers the wages paid annually to tlie hand- loom weavers, winders, &c., in the Forfar district, amounts to ahout £85,000, and in the power-loom works to about £20,000 — making more than £100,000 in all. The class of goods made in Forfar comprise Osnaburgs, sheetings, spriggs, towelling, Ger- man dowlas, and similar Linens, mostly brown or milled, few of them being bleached. The Forfar manufacturers have long been justly celebrated for the uniform and sterling quality of their goods, and the fame which they have thus acquired is world- wide. Merit in their case has received its proper reward — many of the older manufacturers being now in easy circumstances, and enjoying the fruits of their honest industry. KlEKCALDT. This town was long noted for its shipping and commerce, and it is known that a considerable number of its vessels were taken in the harbour of Dundee when that town was stormed and sacked by General Monk. The inhabitants of Kirkcaldy, as of some other places, had in these troublous times deposited many of their valuables in that town, as a place of security, and about £5000, value of their property, was then carried away or destroyed, a particular account of which is preserved among the records of the burgh. In 1644, tradition relates that 100 ships belonged to the port ; and between that year and the Revolu- tion, 94 vessels belonging to Kirkcaldy (of which a detailed and authentic account is preserved), were lost at sea or taken by the enemy. Subsequently the town had its full share of the disasters and troubles of the period, and its customs payable to the Crown fell to less than half of what they had formerly been. When the commerce of Kirkcaldy declined, the inhabitants turned their attention to manufactures, particularly that of Linen. The description of goods first made were bed- ticks, checked and striped Linen, and a low-priced kind of plain Linen. These appear to have been imitations of the goods made in Holland and Flanders, and they were known as striped HoUandfl, Dutch checks, Dutch ticks, and Flanders checks and ticks. It is not exactly known when the manufacture of these NN 562 MODEBN LINEN. articles was first introduced, but they can be traced back to the beginning of last century, and the probability is that the manu- facture began about two hundred years ago. For a long time manufactures made little progress, and, in 1733, the whole amount of cloth stamped in Kirkcaldy was only 177,740 yards. In 1743 it had risen to 316,550 yards, the computed value of which was about £11,000 ; but in this was included the cloth made in the parishes of Abbotshall, Dysart, Leslie, &c., which were all stamped in Kirkcaldy. The local authorities showed a laudable desire to extend the trade, and, in 1739, appointed an annual market for Linen cloth, &c., to be held on the first Wednesday of July, and to be custom- free for three years. In the same year, the Council, " consider- ing how much it will be for the benefit of the town and country that a heckler of Hnt be established, they, therefore, unanimously resolve to make application to the Trustees that a heckler be settled here, with such a salary, and under such regulations, as the Trustees judge proper." Bleachers had also advantages held out to them to induce them to settle in the district. The Linens made at this time consisted of common checks, which were sold to the Glasgow merchants for exportation ; and handkerchiefs, checks, and a coarse description of ticks ; all for the home trade. The goods were conveyed by the manufacturers on horseback to the various towns of Scotland, and were mostly sold at fairs. During the commotions attending the rebellion in 1745, the trade was in a great degree suspended ; but afterward it was prosecuted with diligence, until the war of 1755 interrupted the communication with the West Indies and America, which was at that time almost the only market fur the goods of this district. The effect of this was that the value of the manufactures, which had risen to £20,000, fell in 1773 to £15,000, and next year they were of even less value. The trade became so bad, that some manufacturers thought of turning their capital into another channel. Before doing this an attempt was made by James Fergus to produce ticking for the English home trade, and thus to introduce the manufactures of the town into the internal consumption of that country. After he had discovered the tweel and provided materials, he had SCOTCH LINEN. 563 difficulty in finding weavers who could give the cloth the requi- site stiffness and smoothness ; but a weaver, by discovering " the open stroke," enabled him to produce the required fabric. This opened up a new trade, and since then ticking has been one of the staple articles in the manufactures of Kirkcaldy. Before this experiment was tried the manufacture of checks and ticks had given place, in many parts of England, to finer and more profitable articles. There was thus a door open for Mr Fergus, and the attempt proved eminently successful, and for many years the trade advanced progressively, without almost a single interruption. In 1792 the manufacturers of Kirkcaldy employed about 810 looms, of which 266 (being triple the number in 1788) were in the parish, 300 in Abbotshall, 100 in Dysart, 60 in Largo, and the others in the neighbouring parishes. In the whole district about 2000 looms were employed, the produce of which for the year ending 1st Nov. 1793, was estimated at £110,000. The average annual amount of a weaver's work was from 10 to 12 pieces of 110 yards, or about 1,200 yards, worth at Is a-yard £60. The annual produce of the looms employed by Kirkcaldy manufacturers might thus be nearly 1,000,000 yards, worth about £50,000. Reckoning 22 spindles as the average quantity of yarn to a piece, nearly 200,000 spindles were annually woven into cloth at that time. The price of checks was from 6d to Is 6d per yard ; ticks, 7d to 2s 6d ; plain Linen was cheaper, but very little of it was then made. The whole Linen made in the county of Fife for the year ending 1st November 1793, was 5,013,089 yards. The average quantity of Linen stamped yearly in Kirkcaldy during 1805, 1806, and 1807 was 1,641,403 yards, for which the stamp-master drew fees amounting to £170 19s 7d a year. In 1816, 1817 and 1818, the average quantity was 2,022,493 yards, fees £210 13s 6d. The average yards stamped in Cupar-Fife, and fees paid on same, for these years, were 967,186 yards, £100 14s lid, and 1,422,687 yards, £148 3s lid respectively. Towards the end of last century there was' a little cotton yarn used in some of the fabrics, but the greater part was made of Flax yarn, spun by the hand. At that time there were five cot- NS 2 5G4 MODERN LTNEN, ton manufactories in Kirkcaldy, called- " Spinning Jennies/' the heavy parts of which were driven by a horse-engine ; but the trade was shortly after discontinued. About 1793 three Flax mills were erected in Kinghorn, after the Darlington model, but although the yarn thrown off was of good quality, very little of it was produced. Of the whole Linen yarn manufactured, about one-seventh was spun from Flax grown in the coimtry, and six-sevenths from Flax imported, chiefly from Eiga, at the ave- rage price of £45 a ton. After the Flax was heckled, the manufacturer sent it to agents in different districts, who gave it out to be spun by the housewives and maidens through- out the country, getting a small commission on the yarn returned by them. In this way the total expense of spinning, charges included, was on the average Is 3d the spindle. Besides the yarn spun on manufacturers' account, parcels were regularly bought in the neighbourhood, and also in Montrose, Brechin, Coupar- Angus, the north of Scotland, and even in Ireland. Notwithstanding these supplies, it was with considerable diffi- culty that a sufficient command of yarn suitable for the manufac- tures of Kirkcaldy could be got previous to the introduction of mill-spun yarns, and parcels continued to be imported up to about 1832. For some years a considerable quantity of yarn had been imported from Bremen and Hamburg, amounting in one year to 441,400 lbs., which at 3 lb. to the spindle made 147,133 spindles. Of this, however, only a small quantity was used in the parish, the greater part being sent to Perth, Dun- fermline, Falkland, Auchtermuchty, and other inland towns in which coarse Linen was manufactured. Of the yarn used in making ticks and checks, about three- fourths was bleached and the remainder dyed. Most of the principal manufacturers bleached and dyed their yarn them- selves, and the others employed public bleachers and dyers. The various operations of heckling, spinning, dyeing, bleaching, winding, warping, and weaving, was computed at 5J hands to every loom, which would give a total of 4,455 hands employed in the trade. Deducting the price of materials (Flax, cot- ton, bleaching and dyeing stuffs, &c.), which, when those of the best quality were used would be about one-third of the value of SCOTCH LINEN. 565 the cloth, there remained ahout £33,000 for labour and profit. This sum divided among the whole productive hands, gives fully £7 to each. In addition to the quantity of Linen made by the manufacturers of Kirkcaldy, they purchased annually a considerable quantity in the neighbouring district. In 1792 more than £30,000 worth of cloth was purchased. Of the whole cloth so made and purchased, about three-fourths was sold in England, a small portion of which was exported to the West Indies and America. Of the remaining fourth, about one-half was sold in Grlasgow for exportation, and the other half consumed in the country. In 1793, the stagnation in trade caused by the war was severely felt in Kirkcaldy, and caused great loss and suffering to both the manufacturers and their workers. The demand feU off greatly, prices of goods declined rapidly, and heavy losses upon stocks and otherwise were incurred. On some fabrics the rate of weaving fell from 10 to 20, and, on coarse goods, as much as 40 per cent., and even at this reduction work was scarce and difficult to be had, and many weavers underwent great hard- ships. About this period females began to weave Linen, the whole having formerly been performed by men. Abbotshall, which, although a separate parish, really forms part of the town of Kirkcaldy, had then about 300 looms, the greater number of which were employed by three manufacturers on checks and bed-ticks. Two of these parties had bleachworks in the neighbourhood, chiefly employed on their own yarn. The manufacture of sail-cloth was introduced in 1811, and has been carried on to a greater or less extent ever since. Early in 1821 a trial was made in Kirkcaldy to weave Linen by machinery, and the experiment even then promised to be beneficial to the trade. The building was intended to be driven by a steam-engine, to contain 40 looms, and in October of that year 24 looms were at work in it. The following calculation of the estimated produce and expense of the work when the pro- posed 40 looms were all in operation was made at the time, and is interesting as referring to perhaps the first power-loom factory ever erected for Linen : — . 666 MODERN LINENj Frodvob op 40 Looms, Driven by a Steam-Enoine op Six Horse-poweb. 60 Pieces of White Dowlas per week, 120 yaifds each, at I83 per piece, .... £54 Expense. Interest on sunk capital, £2000, at 10 per cent., £4 Coals, &c., for steam-engine 5 Wages of 40 girls, at Ss 3d per piece of Linen, 15 15 Overseer, 2 Dressing the warps, 2 Winding the wefts 5 Oil and repairs, . . ... 2 5 36 Profit, £18 This statement shows that the weaving of a piece of Linen which cost 18s by hand could be done by the power-loom at 12s — a difference which it was then considered would be sufficient to induce others to enter into the trade on an extensive scale. In 1838 about 1100 looms were employed by the Kirkcaldy manufacturers, of which about two-fifths were in the town. The net vreekly wages then paid the weavers, taken from the Eeports of the Hand-loom Weavers' Commission, 18th August, 1838, averaged 7s 3d for ticks, 5s lid for fine sheeting, 3s to 6s 6d for dowlas, and 9s 3d for sail-cloth. The value of the Linens annually made in the town at that period was not less than £200,000. After supplying the home demand, the balance of the production was exported to America, the West Indies, Australia, &c. The expense of weaving ticks was then nearly one-third of their cost ; sheetings, one-fourth ; dowlas, one-fifth ; coarse fabrics, one-sixth ; and best sailcloth, one-eighth. In 1807, a steam-engine of six horse-power was applied to Flax-spinning in Kirkcaldy, and at that period a girl attended 24 spindles, and produced seven spindles of yarn a day. The price of mill-spinning was at first from Is to 2s a spindle, but by 1840 it had fallen to from 3d to 5d. In 1842 the mUls in the town and neighbourhood, belonging to Kirkcaldy spinners, contained 13,000 spindles, which produced 6000 spindles a day, and cost in erecting about £90,000. The late James Aytoun, for many years the father of the spinning trade, and who died at a good old age on 8th Feb- ruary, 1864, erected a mill for spinning tow in 1822. Tow SCOTCU LINEN. 567 Bpianing had previously made comparatively little progress, but he introduced important improvements, and was so successful that he put up a second mill in 1826, and a third some time after. In the end of 1832, or beginning of 1833, Mr Aytoun commenced to spin Jute, and he was among the first who did so. Since then it has been spun regularly in his works, and they are the only ones in Kirkcaldy where it has ever been used exten- sively. The great staple spun by the mills here is Flax and tow, fine yarns being required for the ticks and other superior Linens made in the parish. There are now nine firms engaged in spin- ning and weaving by power in Kirkcaldy. Their works are of 338 horse-power, contain 11,914 spindles, and 398 power-looms, and employ 1 ,462 hands. The number of power-looms will shortly be increased, as some other works are in course of erection. For many years past the Linen manufacture has, with some ups and downs, kept a steady course, but no great extension has taken place, and the statistics of the trade in 1864 do not show a marked increase over those of 1842. The class of goods now made in Kirkcaldy are ticks and checks, bucks, towelling, dowlas, sheeting, sail-cloth, floor-cloth up to eight yards in width, &c. Much of the cloth manufactured requires bleached or dyed yarn, and there are several dyeing establishments and bleach- works in the town and surrounding district for supplying the wants of the trade. Some of the bleach-works are on an ex- tensive scale, aud, besides supplying the home demand, furnish large quantities of finely bleached yarn for export. The firms engaged in the staple trade in Kirkcaldy carry on a large busi- ness, and they are generally much and deservedly respected. Kirriemuir. After the rebellion of 1745, the brown Linen manufacture was introduced into the parish. Before that period Flax had been grown for home use, but more attention was afterwards paid to its cultivation, which increased the quantity and improved the quality of the crop. Where plenty of manure could be got, the rotation was generally six years, but where this was not supplied an eight years' rotation was considered best. Two fairs were held in the town yearly, at which the Flax and yarn were sold. 5G8 MODERN LIKEN. David Sands, a famous household weaver, lived in the town about 1760. He was an ingenious man, and invented a mode of weaving double cloth for stay or corset-makers, stitched at the proper parts, which required little labour to prepare them for use; and he supplied the staymakers of Kirriemuir and other towns with his cloth. Later in life he succeeded in weaving and finish- ing in the loom three shirts without seam. Not only did he weave the cloth, but he hemmed and stitched them, wrought button-holes, put on buttons, and also put ruffles on the breasts, all in the loom. These wonderful productions of ijie loom were exhibited among his acquaintances, and then sent, one to the Board of Trustees for- Manufactures, another to the Duke of Athole, and a third to the King. Whether any of the shirts are still in existence is unknown, but their ingenious maker died shortly after having accomplished this extraordinary work, poor in purse, though rich in local fame. The manufacture of Osnaburgs, scrims, birdies, and other coarse Linens has long been carried on in the town to a con- siderable extent. The value of the cloth made from September, 1791, to September, 1792, was £38,000 sterling. This is more than had ever been manufactured before in one year, and was owing to the then flourishing condition of the trade, which had never been better than in the end of the latter year. The number of weavers in the parish at that date was 228, and a journeyman, it was said, could with ease gain Is 4d a day. The common wages of women at spinning was 8d, but to such perfection in the art had they arrived that many women could, if they chose to exert themselves, earn from Is 2d to Is 3d a day. It is reported that a weaver, on a wager, had woven a web of hirdy, 91 yards long, in 18 hours and 20 minutes, the price for weaving which was then 8s. The prosperous state of the Linen trade, and the high wages paid for spinning and weav- ing at that period, had greatly raised the price of aU kinds of labour in the town and parish. From November, 1798, to November, 1799, the quantity of Linen stamped in the town was 1,814,874 yards, and in the fol- lowing year 1,846,51G yards. During the years 1805, 1806, and 1807, the quantity stamped averaged 2,226,200 yards yearly and the fees paid the stampmaster averaged £231 17s lid. The SCOTCH LrNEN. 569 average quantity for the three years 1816, 1817, and 1818, was 2,327,123 yards, the average yearly fees for same being £242 8s 2'd. The quantity stamped in Kirriemuir during the first of these periods was greater than in any other town in Forfarshire, with the exception of Dundee, and it was more than half the quantity stamped even there. In the latter years Kirriemuir stood third in rank among the towns in the county, Dundee and Forfar alone exceeding it in the quantity stamped. This shows the importance which Kirriemuir had attained as a manufactur- ing emporium in the early part of this century. The manufac- ture went on extending, until in 1833 it was supposed that not fewer than 3000 individuals were engaged in the trade, and that the number of webs woven annually was about 52,000, con- taining 6,760,000 yards, being nearly four times the quantity stamped in 1799, and about three times as much as the average in the other years stated. The Kirriemuir manufacturers now give employment to fully 2000 weavers, of whom about 1,500 are in the town and suburbs, and the remainder in the country around. The num- ber of warp and weft winders, warpers, lappers, and others em- ployed will not fall very far short of 2000, so that the total num- ber employed in the Linen manufacture in the district approaches 4000 people. The wages paid in the various branches of the trade amount to about ^40,000 per annum. Power-loom weaving has not yet been introduced into Kirriemuir, but no doubt a very few years will see works of this kind started there, as well as in the neighbouring towns. The manufacturing trade of Kirriemuir has had its fluctuations as other places have, but, notwithstanding, the increase has been on the whole pro- gressive- and steady. This may, perhaps, be owing to the fact that the manufacturers have been all along practical tradesmen, well qualified to judge of the work when executed, and they have generally been careful, industrous men. Some of them have acquired a moderate competency, and they conduct their business in a quiet, unobtrusive manner, very much to their own comfort and profit. The description of goods now made in the district is chiefly Osnaburgs, hessians, &c. 570 MODERN LINEN. LOCHEB. A considerable part of the united parishes of Liff and Benvie adjoins to, and forras part of Dundee, and is embraced in the account of the town. Lochee, formerly a small village in the country part of the parish, is now an important manufacturing place, and although municipally connected with Dundee, it is yet so distinct and so important, as to demand a separate notice. For a very long period the manufacture of Linen had been carried on in the parish of Liff, but the trade received a considerable impulse between the years 1735 and 1740, when part of the parish, suitable for manufactures, was feued in small plots. Houses were speedily put up, and many of the new inhabitants were weavers, who prosecuted the trade diligently, although on a very small scale. The population rapidly increased, and, with its increase, the manufacture extended and iDecame established. Every hamlet had its weavers, but the chief seat of the trade in the parish was at Lochee, which had several advantages and attractions for manufacturers. Ground on a certain tenure was attainable in small portions ; a small brook furnished the neces- sary supply of water for boiling and bleaching yarn and cloth ; and it was in the vicinity of Dundee, where a ready market could be found for its manufactures. In 1791 the number of looms employed in the Lochee district were 276, and the number of apprentices and servants 104. Little household Linen was then made, nor were many Osnaburgs manufactured. The staple trade was in coarse Linens, named after their width, as yard -wide, three-quarters-wide, thin Linens, &c., the price of which was regulated according to the quantity and quality of the yarn in the piece. Very little of the yarn manufactured was spun in the district, although many women busily plied the wheel, the weavers being, for the most part, supplied in Dundee. Nearly half the cloth was bleached before being sold, and the manufac- turers had adopted the method of dry bleaching, which was to boil the cloth in water mixed with pot-ashes, wash out the lees, and then leave it on the ground to bleach by the action of the Bun and weather, without, as formerly, sprinkling water upon it. By this means much labour and expense was saved, and the cloth was said to have been equally well bleached. SCOTCH LINEN. 671 The following is a pretty accurate statement of the cloth manufactured in 1792, and the prices at which it was commonly- sold bythe manufacturers : — 3,800 pieces yard wide and three-quarters wide, at £2 lOs, £9,500 550 ,, yard wide .. .. ,,2 123 1,430 150 „ three-quarters wide, .. „ 3 Os 450 60 „ do. .. „ 4 Oa 240 300 „ Osnaburgs, .. ,, 3 Os 900 4860 pieces in all in one year, of the value of £12,520 Of this quantity, 2,830 pieces were bleached, and in that state fit for shirting and other important uses, and the profit upon them was more than upon green or unbleached cloth. There was no stamp-oflfice in the village, and the cloth had to be taken to Inchture (which then had its stamp-office and its weekly corn-market !) or to Dundee, to be stamped, and some of it was sold in these places. The want of a stamp-office in the village was much felt and complained of, and certainly it is curious to think that one should have been established at Inchture, where few Linens were made, and none in Lochee where the manufacture was large and important. . Subsequently the Dundee stampers paid periodical visits to Lochee and stamped the cloth, which saved the manufacturers much unnecessary trouble. Besides many operative manufacturers, there were then five merchant manufacturers in Lochee, who bought from the weavers much of the cloth weaved in the neighbouring country parishes. The one who bought to the greatest extent sent all his cloth to London, partly for consumption throughout Eng- land, and partly for exportation. The others disposed of their stock in Dundee, Perth, or Coupar-Angus, as they preferred a smaller profit at home to the chance of a greater one from London. The first of these merchant weavers, as mentioned in the Statistical Account of the parish, was a family of the name of Cox, who, in 1793, " still continued in the same line, much to the credit and advantage of themselves, and to whose industry and example the district is principally indebted for its present flourishing condition." The descendants of this family still continue in the same line, much to the credit and 572 MODERN LINEN. advantage of themselves and the community ; and were the writer of the Statistical Account to awake and see the gigan- tic and magnificent works of the family, he would change the designation from merchant weavers to that of merchant princes. This family can trace their uninterrupted connection with the Linen trade farther back than any other in the Dun- dee market. The following short sketch of their history is given, because, from their antiquity, the family has become venerable in the trade, and the name a household word in their own immediate district. The family now known under the firm of Cox Brothers has been connected with the Linen trade in Lochee and its vicinity for about 150 years, five generations in direct hneal descent having thus followed the calling of their fathers. The first in the series, as far as certainly known, conducted business for many years as a merchant manufacturer, or green cloth mer- chant, by buying cloth from the neighbouring weavers, and bleaching it at his premises, called Lochee-field. This per- son died in 1741, and was succeeded by his son David, who pro- secuted and extended the business until 1793, when it was re- signed to the management of his son James, the third in the succession. James Cox was of considerable enterprise and standing, having along with other merchants and county gentle- men become one of the original shareholders and partners of the Dundee Banking Company, when the association assumed that name in 1777. In 1816 the fourth generation entered upon possession of the works, which at that time had become greatly extended, the bleaching-greens covering not less than 25 acres. Three years afterwards, in the month of August 1819, at the conclusion of the bleaching season, when the warehouses were fiUed with finished cloth, the works were almost entirely con- sumed by fire, causing enormous loss to the owner. The build- ings were temporarily repaired to run out the lease, but at its expiry the establishment was given up, and the works, with many groups of weavers' cottages, were razed to the ground, and have since been converted into a portion of the home farm of the Earl of Camperdown. The proprietor then moved to the most populous part of the village of Lochee, and turned his attention to weaving the different fabrics for which the district was famous. SCOTCH LINEN. 573 It may be wortliy of notice that on his premises the first broad hessian for the Manchester market was woven in 1815, and although it was only 45 inches wide it caused great excitement, and many visits were made by the surrounding operatives in wonder and curiosity to inspest the loom and its work.* This gentleman was succeeded in 1 827 by his eldest son, who in 1841, became united along with three of his brothers in the copartnery of Cox Brothers. As h9.nd-loom weaving at this time began gradually to be superseded and displaced by power-looms, this firm, about 1845 commenced to establish weaving by steam power, and in the course of a few years after they erected on the side of the stream formerly used by their family, a new work for spinning and weaving in all its departments; which was named " The Camperdown Linen Works." The old trade of bleaching, both in yarn and cloth, is still retained, and the dyeing of yarns for Jute carpets, of which they are extensive makers, is also carried on within the works. They are perhaps the only firm in the district who take in the raw material and send out the cloth in bales from their own premises, the whole operations, spinning, bleaching, dyeing, weaving, calendering, packing, &c., &c , being performed within the gates of their extensive Works. Their principal spinning- mill is entirely fire-proof, and from its great height and coUossal proportions is a commanding object in the district. There are several engines in this building, but the giant of the structure, although nominally of 100 horse-power, actually works up to about the power of 500 horses, and that too with a smoothness, steadiness, -and regularity truly astonishing. Camperdown Linen Woi'ks are built on a regular plan, and though inter- sected by various streets within the gates, the several parts are so connected that the material in its progress goes from depart- ment to department in a systematic manner, without wast- ing either time or labour. Three years ago this firm con- structed a branch line of railway from their works to join the leading line from Dundee to England, and the year following they established a telegraphic communication between the works and their office in Dundee and elsewhere. The recent progress * The direct descendants of the weaver, son, grandson, nnd great grandson, have been continuously employed by this family, and the two last are still in their works. 674 MODERN LINEN. of this enterprising firm has been amazing, and the dimen- sions of their present establishment is so vast that the works cover 13J acres or thereby. The steam engines on the premises are estimated at 1,335 indicated horse-power, and upwards of 3,200 persons are constantly employed in the different branches of their manufactures. There are other two spinning and weaving establishments by power in the village. Pitalpine "Works, belonging to James Donald, are driven by two engines, together, of 70 horse-power, and contain 1,802 spindles and 85 power-looms, and give employ- ment to 300 hands. West Mills, belonging to Edward Parker, are driven by two engines, together of 40 horse-power. They contain 1,124 spindles and 12 power-looms, and employ 170 hands. In addition to these works a great many hand-looms are employed in the village and district around by these firms, and by other manufacturers located in Lochee. The village is now a most important place, and branching out very rapidly, and it will probably soon be imited in fact, as it is already politically, with Dundee. Montrose. In the beginning of last century, and until about 1744, Mon- trose was distinguished for its shipping. It was also famous for an annual market for Linen yarn, which was brought from all parts of the counties of Angus and Mearns, and even from Aberdeenshire and more distant places, and sold here. The yarn was either manufactured into Linen or thread in the town, or sent to other places for sale, and some of it found its way to London, Manchester, and other places in England, The first manufacture of any consequence in Montrose was sail-cloth. It was begun by a company in 1745, and carried on for many years, withi considerable success. Another company, on a larger scale, soon after followed, and subsequently a number of smaller concerns were started, some of them during the war which termi- nated with the Peace of 1783. After this Peace the article was so much overdone, that the great companies, and most of the smaller . ones, gave up the trade. Two companies set up the manu- facture of thread, and, as before with canvas, their example was soon followed by others on a smaller scale, and the trade was SCOTCH LINEN. 575 long carried on extensively and profitably by some of these con- cerns. The canvas, and much of the thread manufactured were sold in London, the balance of the latter being chiefly sent to Manchester, and, for a while, all found a ready market. Some brown sheetings and Osnaburgs were also made by manufacturers here, and a considerable trade was carried on in the commission line in Osnaburgs and yarns sent to Glasgow. Pennant, in his Tour in 1776, says — "Montrose has increased one-third since the year 1745. At that time there was not a single manufac- turer. At present the manufactures have risen to a great pitch ; for example, that of sail-cloth, or sail-duck, as it is here called, is very considerable. In one house 82,5G6 pieces have been made since 1755. Each piece is 38 yards long, and numbered from 8 to 1. No. 8 weighs 24 lb., and every piece, down to No. 1, gains 3 Hi. in the piece. The thread for this cloth is spun here, not by the common wheel, but the hands. Women are employed, who have the Flax placed round their waist, and twist a thread vnth each hand as they recede from a wheel turned by a boy at the end of a great room. Coarse cloth for Linen for the soldiery is also made here ; besides this coarse Linens, which are sent to London or Manchester to be printed ; and cottons for the same purpose are printed at Perth. Great quantities of fine Linen, lawns, and cambric, are manu- factured in this town, the last from 2s 6d to 5s a yard. Diapers and Osnaburgs make up the sum of the weavers' employ, which are exported to London, and thence to the West Indies. Much thread is brought here by the rural spinners to be cleaned and made into parcels, and much of it is coloured here. The bleaching is very considerable, and is the property of the town. It is not only used by the manufacturers, but by private fami- lies for the drying of their Linen. The men pride themselves on the beauty of their Linen, both weaving and household, and with great reason, as it is the effect of the skill and industry of their spouses, who fully emulate the character of the goodwife so admirably described by the wisest of men." In the years 1805 to 1807 the quantity of Linen stamped averaged 198,375 yards yearly, the fees which the stamp-master drew for same being £20 13s 3d. For the three years from 1816 to 1818 the quantity had increased to an average of 465,369 yards yearly, and the fees to £68 9s 6d 576 MODERN LINEN. In 1789 Montrose had 53 ships, of 3543 register tons. In May 1815, the Board of Trustees for Manufactures in Scot- land agreed to give £30 per annum for three years towards the support of a lace-school in Montrose. The Board also presented the Dowager Lady Kamsay of Balmain with a very handsome gold medal, as a mark of the approbation they entertained of her meritorious exertions in establishing so useful a manufacture in Scotland. After the introduction of Flax spinning by machi- nery, Montrose was not long in engaging in the trade, and, in 1805, the first mill was built. Others followed, but success did not in all cases attend them. On 11th July 1817, Ford's Flax spinning -mill, of four storeys and attics, with two engines of 12 and 25, together 37 horse-power, was advertised for sale. It con- tained 38 spinning frames for Flax, and 22 for tow, of 30 spindles each, being 1800 spindles in all, together with 4 threader twist- ing frames of 30 spindles each, or 120 in all, making a total of 1,920 spindles. In 1834 there were four large works in the town moved by steam, and one in the parish, on the North Esk, driven by water. There were also other two mills on the same river, in the neighbouring parish of Logie, both driven by water, and belonging to Montrose firms. The steam-power of the mills in Montrose was equal to 129 horses, producing annually 854,869 spindles, and the two in Logie 302,224 spindles. Part of the yarn was manufactured in the town and district, and part sold to manufacturers in other towns, or shipped to foreign countries. That year the Linen woven in the town and neighbourhood con- sisted of 4200 pieces bleached sheeting, 21,443 bleached dowlas, 2,225 brown sheeting, 7,106 bleached duck, 2,253 bleached can- vas, 2,716 brown canvas, 191 Navy canvas, 1,690 hessian, 204 tarpauling, 2,057 hop bagging, 32 sacking, 2,635 Osnaburg, and 241 of sundries ; making in all, 46,993 pieces. The importa- tion of Flax into Montrose same year was 2,496 tons, and 44 tons of hemp, and the shipping belonging to the port numbered 108 vessels, 11,000 tons. Since the period referred to the trade of the town has gone on steadily, and the fluctuations and vicissitudes of other towns have been less felt here, chiefly owing to the firms engaged in the business not having extended their establishments beyond the wants of the trade, nor beyond their ability to maintain the control over them, and to buy and sell when and SCOTCH LINEN. 577 where they can do it to most advantage. At the present time there are four firms engaged in Piax-spinning in Montrose. The motive power is steam, of the aggregate of 305 horse-power ; and the mills contain 27,500 spindles, and give employment to 1,855 people. In 1851 the numher of firms engaged in the trade was the same, and the power differed little from what it now is. One of the firms, Kichards and Co., have now also a steam engine of 26 horse-power, driving 122 power-looms, with all the necessary preparing and finishing machinery for their extensive production, 240 hands heing employed in this depart- ment. The quantity of Flax, Tow, &c., now consumed annu- ally is close on 5,000 tons, and the wages paid to those engaged in the Linen manufacture in the town amounts to about £50,000 yearly. There are a good many hand-loom weavers in the town and district around, and the fabrics chiefly woven by them, and in the power-looms, are ducks, sheetings, dowlas, hessians, canvas, and floor-cloth, the quality being remarkably good, and the bleach and finish of some of the fabrics of a high order. James Mudie employs about 130 to 140 hands in making floor-cloth in all widths up to 8 yards, and broad sheetings. He contemplates erecting a power-loom factory in Montrose shortly. The yarn spun in Montrose has long had a high reputation, both for superiority of material and excel- lence of spin. Messrs Aberdein spin from 8 to 70 lea, and Messrs Paton have spun as high as 30 lea dry tow, and 90 lea dry Flax. Part of the yarn spun, and not manufactured by the spinners, is sold to manufacturers throughout the county, and part of it is exported to Germany, Spain, and other coun- tries. The firms in the trade are of long standing and high respectability. T-he " District Trade" is in a very prosperous condition, iSpinncrs and manufacturers are getting a satisfactory return for their capital and labour. Operatives have steady employ- ment and good wages. Provisions are abundant and cheap. All classes are satisfied and happy contentment reigns. Never at any previous period was there more cause for gratitude than now, as the present is all that could be desired, and the pros- pects for the future are very hopeful. 00 578 MODERN LINEN. DUNDEE Dundee, the centre and great seat of the Linen manufacture in Scotland, is beautifully situated on a rising ground on the north bank of the Tay. It is a town of great antiquity, and has often taken a prominent part in national affairs. One of the earliest notices of Dundee occurs in HoUinshead's History of Scotland, where it is stated, " The Koman general Agrioola, during the reign of Domitian, near the end of the first century, defeated Karanach or Gatanach, King of the Picts in Fife, and chased him to the Tay. He got a boat, and escaped to the other side, and abode at Dundee or Alectum, whither a great many of the Pictish nobility, who had escaped from the Eomans, resorted to him." " A little later, 10,000 Danes and Norwegians, under Gildo, landed in the Tay, and Garnard, King of the Picts, who suc- ceeded Karanach, hearing of their arrival, left Dundee with his nobles, and went to meet him. He led Gildo to Dundee, and lodged him in the Castle. Shortly afterwards he was visited by Gald, the Galgacus of the Koman historians. King of the Scots, who remained certain days in Dundee. The two kings, accom- panied by Gildo, then departed to the Castle of Forfar, where they entered into a league, and held a council of war against the Romans." The town of Dundee is occasionally mentioned by ancient his- torians after the period referred to, but it is not certain that these early notices are historically true. It is not, however, the history of the place that is proposed to be given here, but only such notices regarding its early trade as have been met with. That it was a place of some commercial importance at a remote period there can be no doubt. In the charter granted to the town on 20th January, 1358, by King David Bruce, which confirms for- SCOTCH LINEN. 579 mer privileges and confers new ones, the following passage occurs : — " Wherein there is great trade of merchandise, and whereunto there is made great resort and repair of people." It may thus he inferred that at and prior to this date a considerable and profitable trade had been carried on in the town, and that it was frequented by many people, no doubt both from the neigh- bouring country, and from distant places, both for pleasure and business. Hector Boetius, the historian and Principal of King's College, Aberdeen, who was a native of Dundee, and flourished in the reign of James V., about 1526, says of the Dundee of his day, " In which the people travel very painfully about, weaving and making of cloth," which shows that the inhabitants were then a manufacturing people, and very probably they made both Linen and woollen goods. One of the first notices of Dundee as a port is when David, Earl of Huntingdon, landed in the harbour on his return frorf the Holy Land in the beginning of the 13th century. In 1341 Walter Ourry, a shipmaster belonging to Dundee, as related by Fordun, was a leading party in a strategy whereby Douglas of Liddesdale got possession of the Castle of Edinburgh, then in the possession of the English. The celebrated naval commander Andrew Wood, in 1489, defeated the English Fleet off the BeU Eock, and carried the prizes into Dundee. In the reign of James III., about 1467, as quoted by Skene in his glossary of the Begiam Magestam, an Act of Parliament was passed, which imposed a certain duty on all kinds of ships resorting to the port or harbour of Dundee, for the repair and support of the harbour works, the pier or shore, and bulwarks. In 1491 a disputed case about a ship called the Mare, of Dundee, came before the Lords Auditors of Parliament. In 1556 the wealth of the town must have been great, as it was then assessed £105 9s 3d sterling, being nearly half as much as Edinburgh,, and very much more than any other town in the country. In 1569 the Magistrates were ordered by the Eegent Murray to send tiiree vessels to join the fleet appointed to pursue BothweU, and these vessels formed the principal part of the fleet. A barque belonging to Dundee, carrying goods from Camphire, was wreckcsd' near Dunbar. The tradesmen of the town, farmers in the neigh- o o2 580 MODERN LINEN. bourhood, and others, cut a hole in the side of the vessel, took- away the whole cargo, and sold it to the country people. Among the articles carried off were ten pieces of Holland cloth. On 27th January, 1636, the Privy Council fined the wreckers from fifty merks to fifty pounds each. In 1.583 the exportation of sheep skins to Flanders was prohibited, Edinburgh, Perth, and Dundee " having done the like." In 1645 Dundee was then the second town in Scotland, having a population of 11,160, while Edinburgh had 34,440, and Glasgow and Perth 6,600 each. In 1651 the town was taken by assault by General Monk, at a vast cost of blood and treasure to the inhabitants, and to the many strangers who had then taken shelter within its walls. The vessels belonging to the port at that time amounted to one hundred, of which sixty were in the harbour, and the plunder taken in the town was shipped in them, and sent off to Leith ; but the vessels were lost in sight of the town, and none of them passed out of the Tay. After this calamity, the population decreased greatly. In the sack of the town, a store of cloth, belonging to the manufactory which bad been established at Newmills in Haddingtonsbue, was taken, and the works were shortly after closed. In 1654 the town of Dundee, as reported to Cromwell by Tucker, " was much shaken and abated of her former grandeur, but she was still, though not glorious, yet not contemptible" The Magistrates and Council applied to Parliament for assist- ance, in consequence of the damage done to the town by Monk ; and in 1669, besides some other relief granted, an Act was passed authorizing a general collection to be made throughout the king- dom for the purpose of repairing the harbour. In pursuance of this Act, a collection was made in all the churches throughout the country, by authority of the General Assembly. It thus appears that the sack of Dundee by Monk was not only a terrible calamity to the inhabitants themselves, but that it was viewed as a national misfortune. Before the assault the town was only second to Edinburgh, both in population and importance ; but afterwards it fell to the fourth rank among the towns in the country, both Glasgow and Aberdeen rising above it. In 1692 the Convention of Royal Burghs, in making up each £100 Scots of their annual expenditure, assessed Edinburgh £32 6s 8d ; SCOTCH LINEN. 581 Glasgow, £15 ; Aberdeen, £6 ; Dundee, £4 13s 4d, and the other towns in lesser sums. In 1695 a list was made up for a monthly cess to defray the expenses of the war, and Edinburgh gave £323 6s 8d sterling ; Glasgow, £150; Aberdeen, £60 10s ; and Dundee, £46 13s 4d. Although no precise accounts are known to exist regarding the early trade of Dundee, it is quite certain that the Linen manufacture was early introduced into the town, and carried on to an extent at least equal to the wants of the district ; and before the end of the seventeenth century, some of it was made for exportation. In September, 1689, James Broich, skipper, of Dundee, was proceeding in his seout to Norway, with a small parcel of goods, and a thousand pounds Scots wherewith to buy a larger vessel. In mid sea he fell in with a French privateer, who took both cargo and cash, and was to sink the vessel and put the crew in their boat, in which case they must have perished. The pri- vateer consented to let Broich go in his ship on obtaining a bond for 600 guelders, to be remitted to Dunldrk, and taking the shippers as a security for the money. On the return of Broich his case excited much commiseration, more especially as he had suffered shipwreck and capture four times before. On his peti- tion the Privy Council ordained a voluntary contribution to be made for his relief in Edinburgh, Leith, Borrowstounness, Queens- ferry, and in the counties of Fife and Forfar. In 1699 Eoderick M'Kenzie, of Prestonhall, wanted to take some victual from his land in Forfarshire to Mid-Lothian, but he was prevented by the Magistrates of Dundee, upon pretence of a late act of Privy Council. He petitioned, and the Council allowed him to transport the victual, enjoining that " he should not be troubled or robbed within the said town of Dundee, or liberties thereof, as they shall be answerable." On 23d December, 1700, the Magistrates applied to Parlia- ment by petition, craving an imposition for building and re- pairing the harbour, but it does not appear that the prayer was granted. In 1707, the Parliament, in consideration of the great suffer- ings of the town of the Dundee in the time of the troubles, and at the revolution, and of " the universal decay of trade," especially 582 MODERN LINEN. in that burgh, granted it an imposition of two pennies Scots on every pint of ale or beer made or sold in the town for twenty- four years. This was one of the last acts of the Scottish Parlia- ment. At the period of the Union (1727), 1,500,000 yards of Linens were manufactured in Dundee annually. The manufacture of sewing thread was at one time an import- ant branch of trade in Dundee. Christian Shaw, daughter of the Laird of Barganan (she was the cause of five women being burned for witchcraft in Paisley, in 1697), was the first who in- troduced the spinning of fine Linen thread into this country in the beginning of the 18th century. She acquired a remarkable dexterity in spinning fine yarn, and conceived the idea of making it into thread. She bleached the material and did all the pro- cesses herself at first. Some of her thread was taken to Bath, and sold to the lace manufacturers there at a good profit. A friend of the family happening to be in Holland, learned the secrets of the thread manufacture, which was carried on to a great extent there, particularly the art of sorting and number- ing the threads, and packing them for sale, and also the con- struction and management of the twisting and twining machines. This knowledge he comraunicated to his friends in Barganan, which greatly assisted them in the manufacture. The young women in the neighbourhood were taught to spin fine yarn, twining mills were erected, and the trade extended until it be- came a leading manufacture in the district. It was subsequently taken up in Dundee, and for a long period it gave employment to a large population here and in other places throughout the country. Soon after the Bank of Scotland was established in 1696, branches were opened in Dundee, Glasgow, and other places, but proving unsuccessful they were speedily withdrawn. In 1731 when the country was making advances in industry and wealth, a new attempt was made to establish branches in Glas- gow, Dundee, and other towns. It was found, however, that the effort was premature, and after two years' trial these branches were all recalled. In 1720 the mob took possession of two vessels loading hear in the harbour, in order to prevent the exportation of the grain, SCOTCH LINEN. 583 and also gutted the house of the merchant, George Dempster. In 1729 a similar affair took place in Dundee. The harbour in these early times was composed ot small piers formed of wood jutting out from the shore, at which vessels lay to load and discharge, with breakwaters of stone outside to keep the water smooth within. It extended from the Castlehill on the east, westward by the Butcher Eow to St Nicholas Craig. In the letter from Samuel Homespun in the CrenUeman's Magazine for 1742, referred to in page 374, some remarks are made which throw considerable light on the manufactures of Dundee at that period. He says " I shaU. now compute how much an acre of the worst Flax will produce when manufac- tured into the meanest sort of Linen ; a case that though it can scarcely happen in this country, yet for argument's sake I shall admit. " It will not be denied that of all Flax the Eiga and Peters- burg is the coarsest ; that of all Linens the fabric of the Dundee Linens is the poorest and meanest ; that Eiga and Petersburg Flax is of a sufficient quality, and is commonly used for the fabric of the Dundee Linen ; and lastly that 30 stone of Flax to an acre is a very bad crop. This 30 stone of Flax then, sup- posed to be the produce of an acre, will yield 240 spindles of yarn, at two pounds to the spindle, and this 240 spindles wrought in a 400 reed, will produce 1,152 yards of Linen, which, when whitened, and made into buckram, is worth 7d per yard, and amounts to £67 4s. " But as this supposition consists merely in speculation, and cannot be so low in fact, because the worst Flax that grows in Great Britain is of infinitely a finer quality than the Eiga and Petersburg F,lax, and as the refuse or tow of the worst British Flax is of a sufficient quality for the fabric of Dundee Linens, I shall proceed to show what sum the produce of an acre of Flax may be supposed, at a medium, to save or yield to these king- doms." This is shown by the second series of calculations in the former reference to this letter. The letter is certainly not flat- tering to the manufacturers of Dundee at that early period. After the rebellion of 1745 the Government resolved to put an end to the arbitrary system of hereditary jurisdictions, and in 1747 an Act was passed vesting them in the Crown. The Duke 584 MODERN LINEN. of Douglas was paid £1800 for his constabulary rights and pri- vileges in Dundee. The town thus freed from control began to emerge out of the gloom in which it had so long been shrouded, and a brighter day soon dawned upon her. In Brice of Exeter's " Universal Geographical Dictionary," published in London in 1759, it is said " Dundee is one of the best ports for trade in all Scotland, particularly for foreign, yet has it considerable inland business also, especially for corn and Linen cloth, which makes the country round about rich and populous, being maintained by the great quantities of goods which the merchants of Dundee buy for exportation." By this time the liberality of Parliament in granting a bounty on brown Linens for exportation was beginning to be felt. Formerly the trade could not be carried on without loss, partly from the weight of the fabrics made, and partly from the lowness of the prices got for them. Now the industry.of the inhabitants was stimulated, manufactures were established, and prosecuted with a success that operated in a most beneficial manner on the domestic habits and comforts of the people. Pennant, in his tour in 1776, says, " Dundee used to be cele- brated for the manufacture of plaiden, which was exported un- dressed and undyed to Sweden, Germany, &c., for clothing the troops in these countries, but this was superseded by the manu- facture of Osnaburgs in 1747, and it is now the staple of the county of Angus. In 1773 4,488,460 yards of Linen were stamped." The Eev. Dr Eobert Small, in his Statistical Account of Dundee, published in 1762, gives an interesting account of the manufactures of the town at that period. He says — " The principal and staple manufacture of Dundee is Linen of various kinds: — 1st, Osnaburgs, and other similar coarse fabrics of different names, for exportation, and which alone, tiU lately, were subjected to the national stamps. The quantity of these stamped between November, 1788 and 1789, amounted to 4,242,653 yards, valued at £108,782 14s 2d ; and subtracting from this a fourth part, supposed to be brought from six neigh- bouring parishes into Dundee Stamp Offices, there will remain for the quantity made in this parish, 3,181,990 yards, in value £80,587 Ss 2d. All the different sorts of canvas for shipping : SCOTCH LINEN. 585 This fabric is entirely confined to the town, and the quantity annually made may be rated at 704,000 yards, and valued at £32,000. The cloth of this kind made by some of the principal manufacturers is thought to be superior in quality to any other in Britain, and by a regulation now introduced, and for which we are chiefly indebted to Mr Graham of Fin try, of subjecting it to public stamp-masters, will probably retain its character. A process is also known by which the buyer, at a small addi- tional expense, may have it effectually secured from mildew. 3d, Sack-cloth, principally for the consumption of the neigh- bouring country : The quantity annually made may amount to 16,000 yards, and may be valued at £800. 4th, Bagging for cotton wool, in quantity 165,000 yards, and in value £5,500- 5th, Some diaper by one Company lately established. 6th, The greater part of the Linen necessary for household purposes ; but the quantity and value of this I cannot pretend to give. " Besides all these kinds of Linen, the manufacture of cotton has been lately introduced, and will probably soon become a very important branch of business. Several Companies are already engaged in it ; they employ about 400 men, women, and children in spinning cotton into yarn for woof; they are supposed to spin annually 135,000 lbs. of yarn, valued at £20,250 ; and, with warp which they buy from distant cotton- mills, most of these Companies have begun to work up their yarn into calicoes, handkerchiefs, and coarse waistcoats. One Company also spins yarn for muslin, to the annual value of £3,000. An English Company from Lambeth is also engaged in establishing an woollen manufacture, where every branch of the business, from the wool to the finished cloth, is proposed to be carried on. The looms employed in all the kinds of weaving,, and in all parts of the parish, are from 1800 to 1900. " The manufacture of coloured thread has been established in Dundee for 50 or 60 years, and was for a considerable time peculiar to it. This business is in the hands of seven different Companies or masters, who use 66 twisting mills, and employ about 1,340 spinners, and 370 servants to make the yarn into thread. The quantity annually made is computed at 269,568 lbs , and valued at £33,696. The spinners live in different parts of Scotland, where labour is cheaper than in Dundee." 586 MODEKN LINEN. " Two Companies are engaged in manufacturing cordage of all kinds for shipping, and ropes for all the various uses of the country. They employ about 30 persons, and they also carry on the whole business of ship-chandlers." In addition to these branches of trade, Dr Small mentions that leather was tanned in Dundee, the computed annual value of which was ^£14,200. About 32 persons were employed in tanning, who used £5000 of oak bark ; 12 curriers in dressing upper leather to shoes ; 150 in making boots and shoes for exportation, and 200 for home consumption. The value of the boots and shoes exported was about ^£6,923. Soap-making was an art known in Dundee in the l6th century, and the manufac- ture was at one time carried on extensively, but in 1791 the duty to Government had declined to £1,828 19s 0|d. The manufacture of glass had then been introduced three or four years, and two glass-houses, one for bottles and the other for window-glass, had been erected, employing 100 persons, and yielding a duty to Government in 1791 of £3,406. Many per- sons were engaged in the manufactmre of tobacco and snuff. A sugar-house, with three pans, employed 15 persons. There was also a foundry and salt-works. Two native banks and two branch banks, one from Edinburgh, the other from Paisley, did business in Dundee, with an estimated circulation of £160,000 ; and a Fire Insurance Office, which, although established only a few years, had then assurances current to the extent of £800,000 In 1751 the Excise duties collected in Dundee were — Malt, £811 13s l^d; Ale and Beer, £1,214 15s 3id ; Candles, £160 4s 2d ; Hides, £283 lis 8Jd; in aU, £2,470 4s 3d. In 1791 they had risen to £10,015 lis Od ; and the Custom House duties, and other items paid to Government by Dundee same year, amounted to £56,845 14s 3|d. In 1745 the tonnage cleared inwards from foreign ports was 1,280 tons ; outwards, 500 tons. No account of the inward coasting was kept, but the out- ward was 3,000 tons. In 1791 it was, inward foreign, 10,520 tons, outward, 1,276 ; inward coasting, 40,923, outward, 20,055 tons. On 5th January, 1792, 116 vessels, navigated by 698 men, and measuring 8,550^ tons, belonged to the port, of which 34 were employed in the foreign, 78 in the coasting, and 4 in the whale-fishing trade. SC ;OTCH LINEN. Goods Impoktbd from Foebion. Id 1745. In 1791. Flax from Buaeia, , . ,, None. 2,348 Tons. Do. from Holland, 74 tons. 72 „ Hmp, None. 299 „ Tow or Cedilla, ,, None. 24 ,. Clover-seed, ., 100 lbs. 51i ,. Idnaeed, . 1,906 hhds. 1,036 hhds. Fir Timber. .. 98 loadii. 1,706 loads. Fir-balks, .. 100 6,300 Deals, .. 10,500 13,100 Swedish Iron, •• 50 tons. 45 tons. Goods BEOUGHT Coastwise. Cottonwool, None, 35 Tons, Tea from London, . , ., None. 47,743 lbs. Porter, ,. None. 1,080 hhds. Coals from the Forth, .. N'o account. 28,021 tons. Sugar, in 1745 no account, but in 1756 62 tons. 583^^ ,, Goods sent Coastwise. Linen, brown and white. 1,000,000 yards. 7,842,000 yards. Thread, white and coloured, 12,644 lbs. 130,952 lbs. Sail-cloth, .. None. 280,000 yards. Cotton Sagging. .. None. 65,000 „ Barley or Big, .. 3,393 qrs. 23,917 qrs. Wheat, • • 350 qrs. 3,097 „ 587 Dr Small says " the particular cause of the increase and prosperity of Dundee is undoubtedly the bounty allowed by Parliament on Linen manufactured for exportation. By this the industry of the inhabitants was first set in motion and encouraged ; and their consequent prosperity, if it be not an evidence in favour of bounties in general, is at least a decisive one that, in some cases, they are wise and judicious, and may be productive of the greatest benefit. Whether the Linen manufacture could now be supported without the bounty, or whether the spirit of industry which is now awakened could be easily and profitably diverted into other channels, is a question on which it would be presumption in any private person to pronounce, and perhaps any experiment on the subject might be dangerous." For some years prior to 1793 the average price of 12-head 588 MODERN LINE.ST. Flax in the Dundee market was from £38 to £40 a ton, and for a considerable period it neither fell much below, nor rose much above these figures. During that time the price of 3 Bb. lint yarn fluctuated from 2s lOd to 3s 2d per spindle, according to the rate paid for spinning, which then varied from Is Od to Is lOd a spindle. The spinning of 6 lb. lint yarn then cost 2d a spindle less than 3 lbs., and for spinning 7 lb. tow yarn from Is 6d to 2s a spindle was paid. Tow was at that time of so little value, that it was barely sufficient to pay the heckling of the Flax ; but the quantity taken off was small, as the quality of the Flax was then superior to what it is now. At that time it was no uncommon thing to have 25 to 26 spindles of 3 lb. yarn from the hundred-weight of 12 head St Petersburg Flax. It must be remembered that a fine quality of Flax, if carefully handled and little broken in the scutching and preparing, has naturally little tow upon it. It is rough usage in the preparation that breaks the fibre and produces tow, the normal condition of the fibre being Flax. The descriptions of Linen chiefly made in Dundee about this period were Osnaburgs and sheetings. The warp of both was three pound lint yarn, and the weft either six pound lint or seven pound tow yarn. Osnaburgs were almost wholly Flax warp and weft, the tow yarn spun being chiefly put upon some of the qualities of sheetings then made. The sail-cloth manu- factured was wholly of Flax, and the little cotton bagging pro- duced was of hemp. After 1793 the price of Flax rose, and from 1795 to 1799 St Petersburg 12-head remained, with little fluctuation, at about £52 a ton. In 1796 the quantity of Flax and Hemp imported was 3,336 tons, of the value of £160,128. Shortly after Dr Small wrote his Statistical Account of Dun- dee, a new element of material prosperity was introduced into the town. Up to that period all the Linen yarn used in the manufacture had been spun by hand. About the year 1787-8, Flax spinning by machinery was commenced at Bervie, and, nearly contemporaneously therewith, at other localities in the country. About 1792-3, a small Flax-spinning mill, to be driven by a steam-engine of perhaps 10 horse-power, was erected by Fairweather & Marr, in Chapelshade. It was the first attempt of the kind made in Dundee, but it did not succeed. SCOTCH LINEN. 589 The next effort to establish spinning by machinery was made by the late David Birnie in Guthrie Street (afterwards the Flour Mill), to the west of the present Bell Mill, the engine being of 12 horse-power. It was also unsuccessful, and both mills ultimately ceased to spin. Tn 1798 Mr Wilkie of Auch- lishie erected a mill in Guthrie Street, where the East Mill now stands, with a steam-engine of 20 horse -power ; and about the same period mills wer§ erected on the east side of North Tay Street, of 12 horse-power ; and, in the Dens, of 6 horse-power, the five mills being in all of about 60 horse-power. William Brown, in his " Keminiscences of Flax- spinning," referring to the works in operation in Dundee for Flax-spin- ning, previous to 1800, says— "Works had been erected there in Guthrie Street, in 1793, and in the same street, where the mill called East Mill now stands, which was formed out of a tan-work in 1798 ; at North Tay Street ; at Chapel- shade, previously a cotton-work, and at Dens, under where Messrs Baxter's larger work now stands ; in all, five mills, having about 60 horse-power of steam, driving about 2,000 spindles, and spinning about 5,000 spindles per week of Flax yarns, five to six pounds per spindle. No tows were then spun, or merely small quantities on trial." The total produc- tion of mill-spun yarns in Dundee at the end of last century was therefore very trifling, but it was the commencement of a new era in the history of the Linen manufacture of the town. From this period mill-spinning is intimately connected with the other branches of the trade ; but it may not be out of place to trace consecutively the onward progress of spinning, and inci- dental references to it will afterwards suflSce. No farther progress was made in the erection of mills for spin- ning by steam-power until 1806, when James Brown of Cononsyth erected the Bell Mill in Guthrie Street. Indeed, before that year, spinning had rather retrograded, as want of success had closed the two miUs which had been first started. A new descrip- tion of spinning machines had in the meantime sprung up in various parts of the town, of a very light construction, driven by manual labour, and in some cases by real horse power. These concerns generally consisted of two or three frames of 20 to 30 spindles each, with a preparing frame of two heads. 590 MODERN LINEN. which served for both drawing and roving. Each frame was driven by a man with a crank connected with a moving board under his feet to ease the labour, which, being continuous, was very severe. The yam spun on these machines was chiefly 3 ft. Flax, the hire price for spinning being about one shilling a spindle. Horses were soon abandoned, being more costly as a moving power than men ; but the rise in the price of Flax in 1809, and the increase of works driveg by steam and water- power, put a stop to this primitive mode of mill spinning. Afterwards, some of these spinners started small steam-engines, but they, too, were ultimately relinquished, as they were unable to compete with the larger works subsequently built. The BeU Mill, formerly called West Ward Mill, was a weighty undertaking for the age. The proprietor of it was concerned in Trottick Mill, Arrott Mill, and Friockheim Mill, and as he felt much interested in Flax-spinning, he wished to have a work superior to either of these. Cotton spinning was then in a very prosperous condition, and he was almost persuaded to construct his new mill for cotton. Providence had otherwise decreed, and the miU was put up for Flax. This decision perhaps finally estab- lished the Flax manufacture in the town, and thus, to some extent, determined the destinies of Dundee as to its future trade. The plans of the mill and the machinery were prociu*ed from Leeds, then, as now, the headquarters for Flax-spinning and machine- making in England. The building was 97 feet long, 40 feet wide, four storeys and attic in height, and chiefly fire-proof. The machinery consisted of forty spinning frames or sides for Flax and tow yarns, with some twisting frames, mostly of 30 spindles a side, and ample preparing machinery for aU the spinning — the whole being driven by a steam engine of 25 horse- power. For twenty years the mill stood unmatched in the towui but now it is as far surpassed by recent erections as it then out- stripped its compeers. The building cost £7000, and the steam engine and machinery £10,000, an outlay showing some adven- ture on the part of the proprietor, but he was a shrewd and intelligent man, far in advance of his age. Spinning operations were commenced on IstMay, 1807, the yarns produced being 2, 3, and 6 lb. Flax, and 4, 6, 8, and 10 fib. tow. The 2 lb. yam was from Dutch or English Flax, and intended for sewing SCOTCH LINEN. 591 thread, then largely made in Dundee, the thread-makers twist- ing and finishing it in their o-vm premises. Ealtic Flax of good quality was required for the 3 and 6 lb. yarn, and the tow yarn was made from the tow takea from the Flax heckled at the work ; but tow-spinning was then in a very backward state, and it was not until long after* that yarn at all satisfactory to a spinner could be produced. The weekly production of yarn was 2700 spindles, and the cost of spinning was — ^wages, 5d ; coals, l|d ; oils, repairs, rent, and charges, 3d, being in all 9|^d per spindle, exclusive of interest, deterioration of machinery, &c. At present 3d a spindle covers these charges. The Flax-spinning mills in operation in the end of 1807 were the following : — West Ward Mill, Jam«s Brown, 1 steam-engine, 25 horsepower. Bast Mill, George Wilkie, .1 „ 20 „ Tay Street, David Cathro, 1 „ 12 „ Dens, Peter Uutton, .1 ,, 6 „ Total, . 4 63 In 1811, the consumption of Flax by these four mills was 1^ tons a day, or 468 yearly, and the produce 224,640 spindles of yarn. The whole capital then invested in spinning machinery did not exceed £22,000, and the whole Flax imported into Scot- land was then about 6000 tons yearly. For a part of this year the only mills in operation in Dundee were East MUl and the one in the Dens, the other two having been stopped. At a sub- sequent period they were started again. The troublous times before this period were most inauspicious to Mill-spinning On 1st March, 1811, the Advertiser contained an advertisement — "For sale, the Flax- spinning mill in West Ward, erected in 1807 by the deceased James Brown of Cononsyth, of 25 horse-power, containing 31 spinning-frames, with 900 spin- dles for Flax ; 14 spinning-frames, with 372 spindles for tow; and 4 twisting frames, containing 120 spindles for thread twisting. Apply to Brown & Co. , at the Mill." The Bell Mill is still in the family of the projector. In external appearance it remains un- changed, but the original machinery has been long removed, and the mill is now in full operation as a Jute spinning and weav- 592 SIODERN LINEN. ing concern, and it is in every way substantial and complete. On 19th June, 1812, Tay Street Mill was advertised for public sale. It had a 12 horse steam-engine, 8 frames of 30 spindles each, being 240 spindles for Flax yarn, and the like number of frames and spindles for tow yarn, making 480 spindles in all. The advertise- ment mentioned that David Cathro had put in machinery to the value of £8000 in 1809 and 1810. The upset price was £4000. A plan of the miU was to be seen on applying to Archibald Crichton, a gentleman, who (April 1864), is still alive. In same newspaper Lochty Mill, Carnoustie, was advertised to be sold or let ; and a Flax-spinning frame and preparing frame, to be driven by manual labour, were advertised for public sale in a house in Eosebank. On 13th August, 1812, the spinning-mill then going in Dens was advertised for public sale, with steam- engine, 8 new roller spinning frames, and preparing machinery to put same on either Flax or tow. Next year the spinning-mill at BuUionfield, containing 5 frames, 2 carding-engines, &c., was advertised for sale. Such advertisements show the unhealthy state of the trade, as there would not have been so many naills in the market had spinning been prosperous. The progressive increase in mill spinning by steam-power from 1807 to 1832 was as follows :— Mills in Operation in 1807, Engines 4 Horse-power, 63 Do. added „ 1813, ,, 1 .. 6 "Do. added „ 1818, »> 1 6 Do. added „ 1820, s> 1 6 Do. added „ 1821, 3 38 Do. added „ 1822, ») 7 59 Total in 1822, as in detailed statement. Engines, 17 Horse-power, 178 Mills added in 1823, . „ 3 36 Do. do. „ 1824, . ,. 1 W Do. do. „ 1825, . ») 3 64 Do. do. ,, 1826, . )j 1 20 Do. do. „ 1828, . »» 8 121 Do. do. „ 1829, . »» 2 49 Do. do. „ 1830, 1 and 2, . j» 5 201 Total in Dundee in 1832, Engines, 40 Hor se-power, 683 Do. ,, Lochee „ ,, 3 41 Do. Dighty Water „ »j 5 56 Do. do., driven by water, equal to )i — 20 Total iu Dundee and Neighbourliood in 1832 , Engines, 48 Hoi se power, 800 SCOTCH LINEN. 593 Tabls op Spinning Mills in Dundee at Mabttnmas 1822, with the Pkopbib- Tons' Names, and the Hoksb-Poweb and Spindles Employed, and the Probable Yeab in which the Mills were Started. 1. 'William Baxter and Son, 2. Bell and Balfour, 3. Henry Blyth, 4. Andrew Brown, 6. J. and W. Brown, 6. James Carmichael, 7. Chalmers and Hackney, 8. Do. Do., 9. P. Davie and W. Boyaok, 10. George Gray, 11. James Hynd, 12. Kinmond and Co. , 13. David Lawson, 14. Alexander Milne, 15. Mrs John Scott, 16. Jolin Sharp and J. Preston, 17. WiUiara Shaw, When started HofBe-Powep Spindlei Dens Mill, 1822 15 600 Chapelshade, 1821 12 600 Ward Eoad, 1820 6 300 Bell Mill, 1807 25 1,152 East MUl, 1798 20 90O Upper Dens, 1798 6 240 Tay Street (East), 1798 12 600 Do. (West), 1821 20 1,056 South Dadhope Mill, 1818 6 420 Anchor Mill, 1822 8 294 ■Ward Koad, 1822 4 210 Lower Dens, ' 1822 12 360 Ward Road, 1822 4 168 Soouringburn, 1821 6 240 North Dadhope Mill, 1813 6 288 Ward Eoad, 1822 10 288 Cnwgate, 1822 6 228 Total, 17 Engines, 178 7,944 In March 1826, there weie 166 foremen and overseers, 247 hecklers, and 1,688 preparers, spinners, and shifters, in all 2,101 hands employed in these 17 mills. Table of the Spinning Mills within 5 Miles op Dundee, and also op those IN THE Neighbourhood but more Distant prom Dundee, with the Pro- prietors' Names, and the Numbeb op Spindles at Martinmas 1822. First — Within Five Miles of Dundee. Bullion, David Stephen, . . Spindlee , 180 Lochee — East Mill, Watt and Brown, »> 240 Do. West Mill, William Anderson, 144 Bose Mill, James Smith, ,. 120 Maryfield, Roxburgh and Halley, „ 210 Strathmartine, D. Murray's Children, T> 120 Kirton, Hay and Ireland, »j 192 Baldovan, Low, Samson, and Miller, „ 180 Fountainbleau, John Scott, )) 96 Balunie, William Anderson, j» 240 Monifieth, Banks and Fairweather, . »» 264 Grange Mill of Monifieth, P, Kinmond and Co , „ 144 Windy Mill, . . . . Boyaok and Co., „ 180 Duntrune William Braid, i» 396 Baldovie, . . . . A. Ireland and Co., . „ 192 Omachie, W. Craik, i> 90 Do P. Craik, 168 3,156 p p 594 Second— /w Neighhou MODERN LTNEN. trhood, hut leyond Five Milts fiom Dundee. William Baxter ani' Son, . Spindles, 600 Robert Terapleman and Co., , 360 John Alexander, . . , 144 William Mackay. . - . , 90 James Smith, ... , 96 Thomas Pilmer, . . , 90 James Watt, ... , 420 Grimond and M'Intosli, , 144 David Grimond, . . , 240 Paton and M'Leish, . 240 Alexander Dick, . , 270 Heron, ... , 136 Gilbert Sandy, . 120 J. Taylor and Co., . , 512 John Watt, ... , 360 Total Spindles 3,822 Glamis, Carnoustie, Do., Idvies, Do., . Do., . Douglastown, Blairgowrie, Lornty, Rattray, Haughs of Rattray, Milton of Rattray, Alyth, . Ruthven, Murthall, Subsequent to 1832 the increase in Mill-spinning was more rapid than before, and Jute, in Dundee, began to take its place among the fibres spun. In 1835 the trade had become widely developed in and around Dundee, and in December that year, the horse-power (steam and water), employed in Flax-spinning, and in the course of erection, in the district of which Dundee is the centre, or which came into competition with Dundee, was as follows, viz. : — HoTse-Power Horse-Power Total. Employed. Erecting. Dundee, . . . . 928 371 1,299 Lochee, Dighty Water, &c., . 95 25 120 Arbroath and Neighbourhood, 297 33 330 Montrose and Neighbourhood, 210 40 250 Brechin and Neighbourhood, 78 — 78 Letham, .... 12 12 Bervie, .... 15 — 15 Aberdeen — Estimated to come into Corapeti tion with Dundee, 100 100 Blairgowrie and Ruthven, 120 50 170 Perth, .... 14 14 Kirkcaldy 125 16 141 Kingshorn, .... 70 70 Dysart, . . . . . 14 14 River Leven, 308 308 Cupar Fife and Neighbourhood, 67 67 St Andrews, .... 6 6 Leith and KirkhiU, . 50 535 50 2,509 3,044 SCOTCH LINEN. 5!I5 In J 851 , the moving power (steam and water), employed in Flax-spinning and power-loom weaving was as follows, viz. : — No. of Works. Hopse- Power. Horse-Powor Dundee, 40 1,830 Brought Forward, 3,691 Lochee, 3 117 Perth, 20 Arbroath, &o., 18 530 Kirkcaldy, . 160 Montrose, &o., 6 365 Kinghorn and Dyaart, . 80 Brechin, Sic, 3 92 River Leven, 400 Aberdeen, 3 460 Cupar Fife, &c., . 70 Blairgowrie, &c., 14 297 Leith, Greenock, &o., . 280 87 3,691 Total, . 4,651 The steam-power employed by the several firms in Dundee and Lochee in 1851 ranged from 205, the highest, down to the lowest, 14 horse-power. For some years subsequent to this date little progress was macie here, but the great demand occasioned by the Crimean war gave an impulse both to spinning and power- weaving. Details regarding the various spinning mills and power-loom factories in the several counties throughout the king- dom, in the beginning of 1862, will be found in the Abstract of the Factory Keturns, prepared by the Inspectors for presenta- tion to Parliament, and given afterwards. Since then marked progress has been made in Dundee, both in spinning and in power-loom weaving, but especially the latter, and some particu- lars relative to the extent of machinery now in operation will be given hereafter. It was the practice, from time immemorial, for the housewives and maidens of the surrounding district to bring the produce of their spindles and spinning-wheels into Dundee for sale on the market days. The market-place was the " Luckenbooths" and West End of the High Street, and there they assembled weekly with their stock of Linen-yarn. The manufacturers attended the market as regularly, and made their purchases ; the business being carried on very much in the same way as is still done in the Butter Market. The yarn was generally brought to mar- ket as taken oflf the reel, and the quantity exposed for sale by the several parties varied from a spindle to perhaps ten or a dozen spindles. This retail mode of procuring supplies restricted the business of the manufacturers ; and the many qualities ofifered pp2 596 MOBEUN LINEN. for sale (the yarns of the various spinners varying greatly both in quality and size), made it tedious to assort them properly, and thus difficult to produce many pieces alike, or even one piece uniform throughout. Indeed, at one period the manufacturer was simply a weaver, who bought his own yarns, wove them in his own dwelling, took his piece upon his shoulder to the stamp- office, and, when stamped, carried it in the same primitive way to the shops of the recognised buyers, going from door to door until he found one willing to give a price to his mind. As trade extended it became customary for dealers to traverse the more distant districts of the country to buy up the yarn, which they brought into the town and sold to the larger manufac- turers. Others bought Flax, had it spun by hand, and sold the yaru to the manufacturers. Some manufacturers bought Flax on their own account, and employed the women in town to spin it ; or they sent it to agents in the country, who gave it out -to the women in the district to be spun, getting a commission for the trouble on the yarn returned. These systems were all resorted to until a regular and abundant supply of mill-spun yarns were procurable, when they were discontinued ; but it is little more than thirty years since these modes of collecting sup- plies had to be resorted to, and since the traffic in yarns on the High Street altogether ceased. The class of goods made in the town, even in early times, was chiefly confined to coarse fabrics, and although the description has often changed to suit the demands of the markets for which they were intended, their prevailing character is still the same. The spinning machinery first erected in the town and neighbour- hood was adapted for heavy yarn, suitable for the quality of goods made. Perhaps it was well for the success of the attempt that it was so, as it might have been more difficult to get machinery for fine yarns started in the experimental days of mill-spinning, and serious difficulties then would have retarded the progress of the trade. The many improvements which have now been effected in machinery adapt it for spinning very varied sizes of yarn, even from material which at one time would have been thought incapable of being spun at all, and thrown aside as useless. In the early days of mill-spinning it was with difficulty that SCOTCH LINEN. 597 a sufficient number of hands could be got for preparers, spin- ners, or reelers, and it was then the practice in and around Dundee for the owners of mills, or their managers, to attend the neighbouring country fairs to engage hands, and sometimes open tent had to be kept all day as an inducement to the people to come to terms. Engagements were generally made for six or twelve months, as with farm and household servants at the present day, and arles given as earnest of the bargain. The system has been entirely changed for many years. Then work in mills was new and little understood, and the prejudices against it, and those who took employment in them, very strong. The hours of labour were long, ranging from fourteen to fifteen a day, in towns, and, in some cases, they were even longer in country mills. Indeed, in some mills the hours were altogether arbitrary, and depended upon the caprice or whim of the manager, and the cupidity of the owner. Holidays were rare, and when they were granted the time was subsequently made up by working extra hours. Now employment in mills is a regular and recognised species of labour, and the hours precisely defined by the Factory Acts. Wages are higher for the short hours of the present, than they were for the long weary hours of the early days of the trade. Six complete holidays must be allowed yearly, as well as the weekly half-holiday on Saturday, and no making up of lost time is allowed, with a slight excep- tion in the case of works driven by water-power. The lofty and well ventilated mills of the present age, where every appliance of modern skill is 'impressed for the comfort and convenience of the hands, tends to make them healthy and happy. Half a century ago it was with much difficulty that the vari- ous articles and materials required in carrying on the work, such as pressing rollers, bobbins, flyers, belts, Hsts, &c., could be got, and at best they were not well suited for the purpose. Now the stores required are supplied at a moderate cost, ready-made and of first-rate quality, by parties who make a trade of furnishing such articles. Before the introduction of coal gas the mills were lighted by whale oil lamps. As may be supposed, this mode of lighting was imperfect, troublesome, unhealthy, and dangerous. The substitution of gas did much to render employment in mills more attractive to the hands, and, by removing obstacles to the prosecution of the trade, tended to make success more certain. 598 MODERN LINEN. Indeed, without gas, Flax-spinning would not so soon have attained its present perfection. Night spinning by relays of hands was, previous to 1824, carried on to some extent in Dundee ; but it was found in prac- tice not to be profitable : and, as it was attended with many dis- advantages, it has long since been entirely discontinued. Mr Brown mentions that the machinery first put into mills was not soon superseded. At a mUl in Dundee the first set of machines, made on the spot in 1798, continued in use till 1822, when the spinning-frames were displaced, part of them being sold for same use in other works. Some of the Flax-spinning machinery in that mill continued working till 1830, at little disadvantage for some purposes. Hand-heckling was long an important branch of the Linen trade in Dundee, and the Flax-dressers, numerically, once bore a much higher proportion to the total hands employed than they have done of late years. Early in the century they in some measure controlled the trade, dictating the rate of wages, number of apprentices, &c., and enforcing their demands, however unjust, by strikes. This high-handed policy compelled employers to seek substitutes, and heckling machines were invented and introduced as competitors with the men. Now they have in a great measure supplanted them, a large pro- portion of the work being done by machinery. It is nearly sixty years since machines were erected for heckling Flax in Leeds, but it was many years later before they were started here, and for some time they made little progress, as they could not be adapted to humour strong or weak Flax like the human hand. The late John Sharp invented and patented a heckling machine, which was much approved, and, through his instrumentality, and that of others who sought the same object, difficulties were surmounted, and now the work is as well, and considerably cheaper, performed by the machine than by hand. For this result, and for the generally fallen condition of the hecklers as a class, the men have only their own, or their predecessors' ill- timed tyranny to blame. In the beginning of the century there were several smaU cotton works in town, but although they occasionally had their seasons of prosperity, they gradually declined, and the cotton spinning trade was ultimately abandoned here early in the centuryi The SCOTCH LINEN. 599 cotton work on north side of King Street was advertised to be sold on 20th November, 1801, with all its machinery, consisting of a double 20-inch carding engine, with biUy-picker, &c., about a dozen " spinning-jennies," and four looms, &c., &c. In May 1802, it is reported in the Advertiser that there was a great demand for weavers of coarse cotton cloth in Dundee, and that this was seasonable, as then the Linen trade was very dull, and weavers could, in a few days, after changing from one manufacture to another, make excellent work at either. In July, 1802, it says, " hundreds of families are now supported by the manufac- ture of coarse cottons, which still continue in great demand." After the peace of Amiens the sail-cloth manufacturers were crushed by the high price of material, and the want of demand ; and it was recommended that the cloth should be made of Hemp instead of Flax, as it had fallen 50 per cent, since the Peace, while Flax kept about double the price it had been a few years be- fore. A Fifeshire manufacturer, in recommending Hemp, said " Eussian and German Linens, and the finest foreign diapers, are of Hemp entirely, and a little extra bleaching makes them look like Flax, and I recommend an application to the Legis. lature for a drawback on the import duty of £4 4s 3d a ton on Hemp, which would be granted as soon as Hemp was shown to have been used successfully instead of Flax for Linens." In the beginning of the century, and for many years there- after, bleachfields were more numerous on the Dighty and in other districts than now, and their chief work was in bleaching home-made Linen, or what was called " customer work." Long advertisements from the various fields often appeared in the newspapers ; and the regular prices were, " for all plain Linen, yard wide and under, bleached in the best manner, wove in a 900 reed, and all under, 3d per yard ; 1000 reed, 3Jd ; 1200, 4d ; 1400, 4id; 1500, 5d ; 1600, SJd ; 1700 and upwards, 6d; tweels, 4d to 6d ; diapers, 4d to 5d ; damasks, 6d ; plain Linen, bleached half white, 2Jd ; 2-3ds white, 3d ; coarse tweels, same price ; and sheetings, &c., more than yard wide, at reasonable prices." There is now little or no " customer work" done at the fields, this branch of the trade having ceased with the manufacture of household Linen by the peasantry, farmers, and others. 600 MODERN LINEN. In the end of 1802, a seller of Dundee cotton bagging sued a purchaser in the Court of King's Bench, London, for the price. The defender pleaded that he had always been supplied with this article from Inverness, but in this instance, in consequence of not getting it from there in time, the seller had prevailed on defender's clerk to take some Dundee bagging, which proved unfit for his purpose. It was said in reply, by the pursuer's agent, that Dundee bagging was universally known to be inferior to Inverness, but if a person chose to take it instead of the other, he must do so with all its known imperfections. The defence w^s that it was not a merchantable commodity, nor fit to carry home cotton. The matter was left to the arbitration of one of the jury. The Dundee Advertiser oi 21st December, 1802, in commenting on the trial, says " that the bagging must have been made long ago, when it was notorious that an inferior article was made here. The cotton bagging made in Dundee for the previous year was equal to Inverness or any other, and the quality was daily im- proving. It was perhaps to be regretted that the stamping of this article, as well as of Linens, properly so called, had not been enforced by the Trustees, for it was unquestionable that the stamping of Linens had prevented many frauds which would have ruined the staple trade of the place. The baneful effects of such mean practices have been bitterly experienced in the article of sail-cloth, to which, unluckily, the stamps do not attach." In December, 1 802, three Waulk mills, with lofts and utensils, situate at the Dens, were advertised to be let, and it was said they would suit for a brewery or barley mill. The Dens are now used for very different purposes than making beer or barley. In the beginning of 1803 great complaints were made in Dundee and other places, that the Russian merchants managed the Flax market so that the manufacturers were entirely at their mercy ; and it was expected that this would drive the farmers to cultivate the plant more extensively, so as to make the trade less dependent on these parties. That complaint has often been made since then, not without much truth. The only means of checking such an abuse of power is the more extensive cultiva- tion of Flax in other places. Until spinners receive supphes of Flax from other countries than Eussia and Prussia,* or until the quantity raised in these countries, available for consumption SCOTCH LINEN. 601 in the United Kingdom, exceed the requirements of the trade here, the merchants there will have the control of prices ; and there is no doubt they will continue, as they have hitherto done, to turn it to the best possible account for their own advantage. The same principle guides sellers of every commodity, as prices are regulated by the supply and demand, and it is right that they should be so. On Ist April 1803, a vessel sailed from Dundee for New York with 125,583 square yards cotton bagging ; 60,466 yards Osna- burgs ; 695 yards chequered Linen ; 3,680 yards striped Linen mixed with cotton ; 13,149 ells sail-cloth ; 1,224 lbs. thread ; and 40 hhds. Dundee porter and strong ale, &c. On 27th July, 1804, " arrived the Mary Aime from Davis' Straits, brimful of blubber. Besides having all her casks fuU, nearly two large whales were stowed in bulk, and her pumps were choked with oil." The whale fishing has long formed an important branch of the trade of Dundee, and from its nature, with varying success. Sometimes two prosperous years have followed each other, but more frequently a successful, season has been succeeded by one or more bad or indifferent ones. In 1827, out of nine vessels from the port, the Achilles, Captain William Valentine, came in with 22 fish; Princess Charlotte, Captain William Adamson, with 21 ; Three Brothers, Captain William Stiven, with 20; Fairy, Captain Welsh, with 19 ; and Thomas, Captain G. Thorns, with 15 fish ; all being fuU. The other four were also well fished, the total quantity of oil being about 1,600 tons. Next year the same nine vessels brought 195 fish, about l,bOO tuns of oil, valued, with bone, &c., at £60,000 to £70,000. 1832 and 1833 were also most successful years, the nine vessels belonging to Dundee having 235 and 219 fish in these years respectively. In the latter year the produce was about 1 00 tons whalebone and 2,015 tuns oil, of the estimated value, at £250 and £20, of £65,300. In 1833 the gross produce of the year's fishing by British vessels was estimated at 15,000 tuns of oil. Since then some very fortunate years have rewarded the exer- tions of the whale-fishers, but on the whole the trade has not been so profitable as it formerly was. This year, 1864, a more valu- able fleet has gone to the fishing from this port than ever left before, the whole having steam-power to aid them. May success attend their labours I 602 MODKBN LINEN. In 1804 many complaints were made about the sail-cloth then manufactured for Government being subject to mildew, partly, it was said from having been woven in shops rather below the level of the ground, and partly by the unequal application of the large quantity of ashes with which it was beeched. It was proposed to beech it twice instead of once, with less lee each time, washing it between the beechings. Other modes were suggested, but it is doubtful if any of them proved effectual, as the starch used in weaving the cloth would mildew when it got damp, however the yarn was prepared. The Advertiser says the practice of purloining Flax, yarn, &c., entrusted to parties to heckle, wind, or weave, was common, and much complained of. In November 1804, a woman was brought before the Justices of the Peace of this district, charged with selling the materials entrusted to her, and a man with having purchased same. Under the statute 22, George II., the woman was sentenced to be imprisoned for fourteen days and publicly whipped, and the man was fined £20, and in case of non-payment, to be imprisoned and publicly whipped. He paid the fine. In July 1805, six embezzlers of Flax and Hemp, confided to them for spinning, and twelve resets, including four manufac- turers, were each fined by the Justices £20, or to be publicly whipped at the market-cross, in terms of the Act of Parliament. By a more recent Act, 7 and 8 Geo. IV., c. 29, it is declared that any person stealing, to the value of £10, any Linen, woollen, silk, or cotton goods, whilst exposed during any stage of the manufacture in any building, field, or other place, shall, upon conviction, be liable, at the discretion of the court, to be trans- ported beyond seas for life, or for any term not less than seven years, or to be imprisoned for any term not exceeding four years, and, if a male, to be once, twice, or thrice publicly or privately whipped, as the court shall think fit. The theft of Flax, yarn, &c., is but too common in the present day, but if purloiners or resets knew that they run a risk of being pubUoly whipped, under these statutes (if still in force), it would deter them from the com- mission of such crimes in future, and this would confer a boon on the trade. The Act 15, Charles II., cap. 15, is not of the sanguinary character of those referred to. It ordains that any person, SCOTCH LINKN. 603 native or foreigner, may, without paying anything, set up in any place, privileged or not, corporate or not, any branch of the Linen manufacture ; and foreigners practising the same shall, on taking the oath of allegiance, &c., be entitled to all the privileges of natural born subjects. This Act, if unrepealed, is of some importance to the many foreign gentlemen who now settle in this country with the intention of engaging in the Linen trade. Mr Brown mentions that about 1810 or 1811, an engineering establishment was commenced in Guthrie Street, which supplied at first small steam-engines for the spinning frames previously worked by hand. The size begun with was two horse-power, but soon several of four to six horses were wanted for enlarged works. When the first steam-engine of two horse-power was put into hands, being the first made in the district, it was talked of as a wonder. Now splendid engines of 100 horse-hower are turned out of the same establishment by J. & C. Carmichael, the proprietors, and even these leviathans are not the limit of the size at which engines could be furnished by them. On 5th February 1813, three per cent, consols were quoted in Advertiser at 59^ ; PTR Flax, £115 to £120, or about double consols ; oatmeal, 2s 6d per peck ; and quarten loaf, Is 5d. On 19th March same year, " In consequence of the changed aspect of the political atmosphere, some fine ships belonging to the town sailed for the Baltic. Six summers have passed without such a gratifying sight before ; the trade to the Continent having been carried on by the ruinous intervention of licenses, and of neutrals." In 1814 there was considerable discussion about abolishing the duties on the importation of Linen. Those who opposed it said "the duties had induced parties to invest an astonishing capital in mills and bleachworks, which would be lost if they were removed, and Dundee, without its manufactures, would degenerate into a paltry village." The merchants, manufacturers, and shipping in- terest were recommended to meet and establish a Chamber of Commerce to watch over the interests of the trade, and to devise means to oppose the abolition of the duties. In December 1816, the high price of provisions and the stag- nation of trade caused the meal mobs in Dundee. On 14th May 1817, the shore-dues were let by public roup to 604 MODERN LINKN. Thomas Neish for £5,605, being £245 above the ups,et price. The Advertiser, on 16th mentioned, that W. Hackney was to join him, and that Mr Hackney's grandfather had had the shore-dues and public warehouse together, fifty or sixty years before, for £100 a year. Before 1793 Bell and Balfour had the shore-dues by pri- vate bargain at £560 yearly. That year they were put up to auction for three years, and the same firm took them at £965 a year. In 1796 they were again put up to auction for other three years, and taken by William Wilson at £1,550 a year. Since 1822, excepting 1825-6, they have been collected by the Trustees, and in the year ending 31st May, 1863, the amount of shore-dues collected by the Harbour Trustees was £23,564. Among the exports from the Harbour in 1818 were " yards of plain bounty Linen, ells of sailcloth, lbs. thread, square yards of diaper, bucks, and sheeting, square yards of cotton bagging, and lbs. cotton thread and yarn." The following is a statement of the Linen stamped in Dundee in the years specified : — Yards Fees paid Yams Fees paid Stamped. Siamp-master. stamped. Stamp-master. 1773 4,488,460 1789 4,242,653 1805 3,909,948 £407 5 8 1816 7,296,007 £760 1806 4,727,1781 492 8 3 1817 7,958,0711 828 19 3 1807 4,604,167 479 12 1818 8,600,3631 895 17 5 In 1789 the estimated value of the Linen stamped in Dundee was £108,782 14s 2d, and in 1618, £302,245 12s lid. The average yearly quantity stamped in Forfarshire during the years 1805 to 1807 was 11,536,656 yards, the Stamp-master's fees for which was £1,201 14s 8d yearly on average. For the years 1816 to 1818 the yearly average was — yards, 17,485,794, fees, £1,821 8s 8d, being an increase of fully 50 per cent, in the latter years over the previous ones. The average yearly fees paid the Stamp-masters in Scotland for the]| five years ending 1780, were £1,414 14s 9d ; 1790, £1,995 Os 8d ; 1800, £2,346 3s 5d ; 1810, £2,303 16s lOd ; 1818, £3,007 lis Id respectively. On 19th October 1821, the Advertiser gave a report of the state of the staple trade of the district, and, as it is very interest- ing, it is given nearly entire. " Since the beginning of 1820 there has been little variation in the prices of the Linen manu- SCOTCH LTNEN. 605 factures of Forfarshire, the fluctuations being only from |d to Jd a yard, a steadiness new in the history of Linens. Formerly Strelitz Flaxen Osnaburgs varied from 6Jd to 9d, while tow of same description varied from 6d to 8d. Dundee 24 por. 4-4th sheetings now sell at TJd, and the variation in them is fully a Id. Owing to prodigious over-production, cotton bagging, for three years prior to 1821, had almost ceased to be named among the staple productions, but the manufacture of bagging has now resumed its place on a moderate scale. Baltic hemp bagging now sells at 9d to 9Jd, and Sunn hemp at 8d to 8^d a yard. The manufacture of bleached sheeting, dowlas, &c., in Fife and Forfar shires, in point of extent and value, now exceeds that of Osnaburgs and brown sheetings. The Linen trade has been enriched by the addition of bleached sheeting and raven-ducks ip imitation of Eussian Linen, and dowlas in imitation of Ger- man do., and the imitation Linens are now carried to those very markets of which our Continental rivals had before the monopoly. Bleached imitation Eussia sheeting may be quoted at 12d to 1.5d, ducks, 9^d to 10|d, dowlas, lOd to 10|d. Hempen and tow sackings, hessians, and various other fabrics, have also been introduced within about five years. The intro- duction and improvement of spinning machinery has been a principal agent. It has increased the quantity, improved the quality, and diminished the price of the yarns brought to mar- ket. Yarns are now spun on the average at half the price which used formerly to be paid for hand-spinning. In the early stages of the manufacture, the difficulty of procuring yarns necessarily limited the trade, and Osnaburgs and sheetings were almost the only descriptions made in this neighbourhood. Six months had formerly been allowed for spinning and manufacturing the Flax into Linen, now two months does it. The improved quality of the Linens has increased the demand for them, which bad goods never do." It is added — "Every improvement requires caution, and should not be embarked in rashly. It requires an intimate knowledge of the principles and details of machinery, and perseverance to encounter and overcome difficulties." The Advertiser of 3d February 1822, says—" Two Flax-spin- ning frames of 30 spindles each, made by Daniel Duff & Co., were yesterday morning set a working at St Eoque Mill for the 606 MODERN LINEN. first time, and in the short space of thirteen hours and a half turned off 66 spindles of yarn." In October 1822, the wages paid to spinners in mills was from 7s to 9s, and children from 2s 6d to 4s ; spinners of hemp yarn by hand from 5s to 6s, and weavers from 128 to 15s, all per week. In 1826 Flax-dressers were paid 2s per cwt., and in 1827 the rate rose to 2s 6d per cwt. In 1823, there were shipped at Dundee 82,250 pieces Osna- burgs, 12,008,580 yards, the bounty on which was £75,053 12s 6d. It was at this time estimated that about one million was laid out as fixed capital on buildings and machinery for the manufacture of Linen in Forfarshire. Quantity and ofiicial value of the Linens and sailcloth exported from Dundee for the years ending 5th January 1824 to 1827: — Year Ending. Linens Exportd. Value. Sailcloth Exptd. Value. 5th Jan. 3824 „ 1825 „ 1826 „ 1827 Yards. 2,331,127 2,873,005 2,610,234 2,852,922 £ 9. D. 71,300 16 9i 74,375 32 lOi 70,180 4 10 69,049 1 9 Ella. 18,922 69,379 58,426 2,001,496 £ S. D. 951 5 10 3,325 11 1 3,233 14 8i 41,877 17 9 The bounty on Linens having been reduced periodically, great exertions were made, previous to the days when the different instalments came off, to have all the goods possible shipped in time to secure the higher rate, and some ludicrous scenes oc- curred on these occasions. The Advertiser of Thursday, 7th July, 1826, says:— "Yes- terday being the last day that the description of Linen known by the name of canvas, No. 10, was entitled to bounty on exportation, large quantities were shipped. Clerks, packers, carters, porters, seamen, were all actively engaged in making the shipments, and it is said that an old merchant renewed his youth for the day, and wrought miracles. He had purchased largely of No. lO's at 3Jd per yard, and got them all on board in time, which entitles him to receive 2d per yard of bounty. The original cost of the Linen shipped to him, deducting the bounty, is therefore 1 Jd per yard. The bounty on the whole shipments amount to about £11,000." SCOTCH LINEN. 607 The bustle and activity among the exporters of Linens from Dundee during the week preceding the 6th July, 1828, when another per centage of the bounty came off, was unprecedented. The total quantity exported for the week from 29th December, 1827, to 5th January, 1828, was as follows : — Yards. Value. Linen 5d and under 6d per yard, . 690,422 £15,411 3 2 „ 6d and not above Is 6d, 609,726 17,660 5 Total, . 1,300,148 £33,071 8 2 Sail-cloth 11,874 ellH 511 2 8 In December, 1828, vessels sailed from Dundee for Mobile, New York, and St Domingo ; and vessels were then loading for Eio de Janeiro, Bahia, Pernambuco, New Orleans, Charleston, Savannah, New York, &c., with Linens. The direct export trade has been all but lost to Dundee since facilities were afforded by railways in carrying goods quickly to Liverpool, &c., where frequent opportunities are got for shipping them. The fifth reduction of 10 per cent, from the bounty on the export of Linen took place on 5th January, 1829. From 6th December, 1828, to 5th January, 1829, but particularly on the last day, there were upwards of 31,000 pieces shipped for foreign ports, the value of which was upwards of £78,000. The total value of Linens and sail-cloth exported from Dundee for bounties in year ending 5th January, 1829, was £308,768 3s 9d. At a meeting of merchants. Flax-spinners, and others interested in the Linen trade, held in the Town Hall, Dimdee, 27th June, 1831, it was agreed, by a majority, that no application should be made for a continuance of the Bounty on Linen. The shipments of Linen for the week ending 5th January, 1832, were very extensive, the time for the payment of bounty having expired on that day. Considerable quantities which could not be got shipped were put into bond, the Lords of the Treasury having been pleased to allow Linens entitled to bounty to be lodged in warehouses under the King's lock, on condition that such were exported within three months, and that the Crown be not subjected to any expense — ^the bounty only to be paid after the goods were duly shipped. The following details of Ihe bounty Linen exported from Dundee for the quarter ending 5th 608 MODERN LINEN. January, 1832, are taken from the Custom-House Books. The quantity for this quarter was much beyond the average, as extraordinary efforts were made to get goods off by 6th Jan., to secure the bounty, which then ceased entirely. To what Place Exported. From fid to 6d per Yard. From 6d to Is 6d per Yard. Exceeding Is ed per Yd. SaUcloth. Gibraltar Yards. 33,781 42,985 280,798 634,177 206,227 36,223 836,798 968,998 Yards. 486 873 215,112 1,260,164 1,121,640 527,039 _ 373,793 890,640 .3,361,257 Yards. 2,'i34 55,617 EUs. 36,243 46,638 9.856 2,878 40',478 382,958 Hayti St ThomaB Brazil United States, Total, 3,039,987 11,3.34,256 yards L 8,236,518 57,751 iuen, and 519,051 ells Sailcloth 519,051 The total value of Linen exported from Dundee for bounty, and the amount of bounties paid thereon, for the year ending 5th January, were as follows : — 1830 Value Exported, £277,977 Bounties, £39,043 12 8 1831 Do. 365,595 11 Do. 41,359 U 1832 Do. 596,424 Do. 46,854 7 2 Bounties ceased on 6th January, 1832. The total value of British manufactures exported from Dun- dee in the latter year was as follows : — Woollen Manufactures, £200 Sillc Do. 667 Cotton Do. 20,141 Hardware, 1,616 Linen Manufactures, 696,424 £619,048 In 1800 the price of St Petersburg 12- head Flax in Dundee rose from £52 to £73 a ton; in 1801 it averaged £71 ; in 1802, £60; 1803-4, returns defective ; 1805, iJ65 ; 1806, £62 ; 1807, £65 ; 1808, £103; 1809, £118; 1810, £85 10s ; 1811, £77; 1812, £105 ; 1813, £88 ; 1814, £80 ; 1815, £73 ; 1816, £51; 1817, £52 10s; 1818, £66 10s; 1819, £65; 1820, £54; 1821, £50. BCOTCH LINKN. 609 The average price for the seven years prior to 1815 was £94, and for seven years subsequent to the war £59, showing a fall of £35 after the conclusion of the war. This was caused partly by the fall in freights (at one time, as related by the late David Martin, he paid the extraordinary freight of £28 a ton for Flax, from Riga to Dundee), and insurance, which in 1821 did not amount to one fourth of what they were during the war, and partly to the increased value of the cur- rency, which depressed the price of Flax and all other materials. Another cause was the increased supply of Flax received from Ireland. Prior to the Eevolutionary war, Flax had been imported at £33 and £34 a ton. In 1821 it was thought that when 12-head St Petersburg Flax fell to £40 per ton, it might be considered to have attained its level ; and that £38 was the minimum price at which it could be landed here to pay all parties. In the first decade of the century, the sorts of Flax principally used in Dundee were St Petersburg 12-head, Riga Thiesen- hausen, and Dutch, and English, and the prices of all these de- scriptions were then nearly the same. In February, 1809, these Flaxes on the average advanced to £150 a ton, being the highest point they ever reached. During these years the fluctuations were sudden and violent, sometimes rising or falling £20 a ton in a few days, chiefly caused by events of war. Yarns varied as much as the raw material. The highest price paid for yarns was in the spring of 1809, when 3 lb. Flax was 7s a spindle ; 6 lb. do., lis 9d ; and 6 lb. Tow, 10s 3d. In the end of June 1826 the price of Flax fell greatly, and at that time St Petersburg 12-head was quoted at £29 to £29 10s, 9-head £24 to £24 10s ; Riga PTR £35 ; DC £28 to £30, ET £22 10s to £23 ; Libau £27 ; Archangel qualities, £27 to £35. These are, perhaps, the lowest prices which Flax ever touched in Dundee. 3 lb. Flax yarn then fell to Is lOd @ 2s ; 4 lb. do._ 2s 3d ® 2s 5d ; 6 and 7 lb. tow yarn, 2s 4d @ 3s ; 10 to 12 lb! do., 3fd to 4Jd; prices at which they had never been quoted before. The price of Jute has fluctuated greatly since its introduction into the trade, arising from scanty or superabundant supplies, or the result of speculation. The finer qualities have been sold hwe as low as £10, and as high as £35 a ton. The price of Q Q 610 MODERN LINEN. fine Jute for the twenty years preceding 1853 averaged about £16, and since then it has averaged about £26 ; the average price of all qualities since 1853 being about £22 a ton. A prices-current of the raw materials, yarns and Linens, in the Dundee market, for each year from the beginning of the cen- tury, is appended. Excepting when otherwise stated, the prices were those current about the end of October in the respective years, and as the leading articles of the period are quoted, the class of goods then made, as well as the approximate price, is shown. In the early decades of the century the prices are taken from the Market Keports of the Advertiser ; subsequently they have been made up from various sources, and with considerable care. In 1809 Flax-dressers were paid 3s 6d per cwt. for heckling Baltic Flax, yielding 50 lb. for 3 ft), yarn, and 6s per cwt. for Dutch and English Flax, yielding 60 ft), for 2 ft), yarn. In the beginning of 1819 great complaints were masle about the low wages paid for weaving. The goods then made were of two classes, sheeting and Osnaburg, and sail-cloth and bagging. Working fourteen hours a day, the quantity weaved by a man in a year, on the average, as taken from the books of many manufacturers, was — Oanaburgs, 26 pieces, 3,796 yards. Sail-cloth, 78 pieces, 3,120 yards. Sheetings, 26 „ 3,276 „ Bagging, 78 „ 4,680 „ On Osnaburgs, &c., a common hand could earn about £10 17s 8d a year, and a dexterous person about double ; and, on sail- cloth, &c., a common weaver could make about £15 2s, and a first-rate one-half as much more. The women were employed epinning'and winding. Three-pound Flax yarn, and coarse Hemp and tow yarn were chiefly spun, two spindles a week being the average quantity spun, which, at 8d a spindle, made Is 4d a week. At that time, low as wages were, manufacturers were then said to be losing on every piece, not a bale having been exported excepting on speculation for several months. The Advertiser adds — " So flourishes the staple trade of Dundee 1" Early in 1820, a Committee on the State of the Labouring Poor gave in a Keport, showing that the wages then paid for weaving, &c., in Dundee were as follows, viz. : — SCOTCH LINEN. 611 Sftil-cloth, 2 weba per week, at 43 3d each, ... Ss 6d Bagging, 2 webs do. do. ... ... 89 6d Sacking, 5 pieoea in three weeks, at 4s 6d each (per week), 7s 6d Sheeting, 1 piece in 10 days, ... ... ... lOa Od Osnaburg, 1 do,, do. ... ... ... 9s 6d Less winding, rent, &c., about 23 4Jd per piece of sheeting and Osnaburg. The women employed in mills earned about 5s a week ; best hand-spinners, when fully employed, 2s 6d ; but, on the ave- rage, from scarcity of work, &c., Is 2d a week. About 1500 women were then employed in hand-spinning in Dundee. It was said that the women were only paid 4s for spinning as much yarn as would extend from Dundee to Aberdeen in a direct line. (The distance is 65|- miles, and as a spindle, 14,400 yards, is upwards of eight miles long, the rate per mile is about three farthings, which scarcely allows sixpence for spinning a spindle.) A weaver then put the same quantity of weft in his web, in the same space of time as it took to spin it, for about double the money. On 22d May 1822, a meeting of merchants and others inte- rested in the Linen trade was held in Dundee to resuscitate the Forfarshire Chamber of Commerce, when office-bearers were elected, &c. The length of the webs given out to be weaved has often been a source of great dissatisfaction to the weavers. The price of weaving throughout the town was nearly uniform for the respec- tive fabrics, but some manufacturers warped their webs longer than others, which gave their weavers extra work, without a corresponding increase of pay. Previous to 1824, the length of webs were as follows, viz. : — 4-4th6 and 9-8ths sheetings, 126 yards, White sheetings, 115 to 116 yards, Osnabargs, 116 yards. Cotton bagging, 60 to 62 yards, Hessian sheetings, 115 yards. Three feet sacking, 60 tu 62 yards. Dandy sheetings, 96 to 98 yards. In 1833 the webs given out by various manufacturers were pub- licly measured on the Magdalen Green. The greatest differ- ences were found to be upon hessian sheetings, which varied from 123 to 150 yards ; Liverpool sacking, from 99 to 113 ; canvas, from 45 to 52; and cotton bagging from 65 to 78; but all fabrics differed considerably, showing that the weavers had good ground of complaint. That year the manufacturers met and resolved upon a uniform standard of lengths as follows : — 4-4th QQ2 612 MODERN LINEN. and D-Sfh brown sheeting, 22 por., 131 to 132 yards ; 4-4th and 9-8th imitation do., 24 and 26 por., 106 to 108 ; 4-4th and 0-8th brown or bleached sheeting, 28 to 36 por. — short lengths, 108, long do., 138 ; hessian sheetings and sand bagging, 32 to 72 inches wide, 132 to 134; mending bagging, 34 inches wide, 103 to 105 ; do. 40 inches, 66 to 68 ; Osnaburgs, 22 to 26 por., 148 to 150 ; Dowlas, 25 to 27 inches, 22 to 28 por., 148 to 150 ; do. 30 to 40 porter, 134 to 136 ; Liverpool sacking, 12 to 16 porter, 100 to 102 ; farmers' do., 14 to 16 porter, 94 to 96 ; factory fabrics, viz., sacking, cotton bagging and pimento, IJ ft), per yard, 62 to 64 ; do,, 1^ ib., 66 to 68 ; hop-pocketing, 82 to 84 ; tarpauling, 42 to 44 ; canvas, 40 to 42. This list shows the class of goods then made in Dundee, some of which have ceased to be woven here, and are now the staple fabrics of the district towns. It is curious to mark the changes which time makes upon the trade of a locality. Dundee was once famous for its bonnets, its bottles, and its buckles ; but now the Bonnethill, the Bucklemaker Wynd, and the Bottle-work are all that remain (excepting the ancient Incorporation of Bonnet- makers, whose yellow banner floats in the centre of the Nine Trades), to tell that these ancient trades once flourished here. The thread manufacture once employed many people in town^ but it, too, has been long lost. The Soap-work Lane, and the Sugar-house Wynd tell of works that were. Its great leather trade is kept in remembrance by the Tannage Court, &c., and, though long almost extinct, it is once more prosecuted vigorously, Henry Henderson & Sons having tan-works and currying premises here, perhaps unequalled in extent by those in any other town in Scotland In 1831 there were, by the census returns, 363 manufac- turers here, and 6,828 persons employed in the Linen trade, of whom 700 belonged to Lochee. The wages then paid were — flaxdressers, 10s to 12s; girls and boys, 3s to 6s; women, 58 to 8s ; weavers, 7s to lOs ; mechanics, 14s to 18s a week, the total amount paid yearly being £156,000. Since that period the wages paid to the operatives engaged in the staple industry of the town have fluctuated with the rising or falling fortunes of the trade, and with the supply and demand in the labour market. Sometimes low wages and dear provi- SCOTCH LINEN. 613 sions have caused dire distress, and sometimes high wages and cheap provisions, as at present, have afforded many comforts to- the prudent. Prosperity never benefits the improvident. The wages now paid in some of the leading departments of the trade are as follows : — Spinning-mills — preparers, 7s 3d to 8s 3d ; spinners, 8s 3d to 8s 9d ; shifters, 5s 9d to 6s ; boys, 4s 6d to 9s ; reelers and warpers, piece work, 9s to 14s ; overseers, 21a to 24s. Power-loom factories — winders, piece work, 7s to 9s ; weavers, piece work, 9s to lis ; tenters, 22s to 26s. Hand-loom factories — warpers, 15s to 16s; weavers, piece work, 5s 6d to 6s for sacking ; hessians. Is per spindle of weft put on, and Is. per piece additional. Flax-dressers, 2s 6d per cwt. Mechanics, 17s to 25s. Calenderers, 15s to 16s ; lappers, 15s to 17s. In 1832 the mills in operation in Dundee and the immediate neighbourhood (599 horse-power) consumed 15,600 tons of Flax, and produced 7,488,000 spindles of yarn. The sum then invested in machinery was estimated at ^240,000. In these mills about 3000 persons were employed, of whom 600 were under 14 years of age, 1,073 under 18, some under 12, and a few from 6 to 7, the others being 18 or more. In Thomson's History of Dundee the value of the articles im- ported into the town, and chiefly used in the manufactures, for the three years ending 31st May 1838, is stated at £3,284,585, and the value of the exports, £4,108,970, giving a surplus of £824,385, or between 25 and 26 per cent, on the imported value. In the year ending 31st May 1838, the value of the imports is stated at £782,513, and of the exports, £1,172,669, being an in- crease of nearly 50 per cent. After adding about 30 per cent, to the value of the raw material, of which the mamifactured articles consisted, for additional cost of labour, it leaves a profit of 20 per cent. According to the same authority there were in Dundee in 1846, at least 36 miUs, with a motive power on the aggregate of 1,242 horses, driving not less than 71,670 spindles. On 7th Sept. 1821 the Advertiser states that in Dundee " a power-loom is about to be used, by way of experiment, in the weaving of our staple fabric of Linens." Probably this experi- ment had not turned out well, as it was not followed up. Other experiments were subsequently made, but no power- looms were regularly worked in town for many years thereafter. 614 MODERN LINEN. In 1826, when Wm. Baxter & Son put up their second mill in Lower Dens, they proposed to put in ninety power -looms, as well as spinning machinery, but this intention was abandoned, and it was not until ten years thereafter that they carried out their early proposal of erecting a power-loom work. Towards the end of 1836, Messrs Baxter erected a power- loom factory at their Upper Dens works, and it was the first work of the kind started in Dundee. In a report of the New Factory which appeared in the Advertiser, it is mentioned that the weaving shop or shed alone is 150 feet long by 75 in width, lighted from the roof, and it is expected that from 300 to 400 people will be employed in weaving, and in the subsidiary processes. It is added — " This mode of manufacturing has for a considerable time been carried on successfully in Aberdeen, and is extending there. It has also been introduced into several manufacturing towns in ^England." Shortly after this period, Alexander Eowan erected Dudhope Works, and John Laing Dens' Eoad Factory ; and a little later A. and D. Edward and Co. erected a factory at their Logic works. For a considerable period, these four were the only power-loom factories in Dundee. Within the last few years a new era has dawned on "the trade. Many power-loom works have been put up ; others are in course of erection, and others contemplated, some of them of great mag- nitude. Judging from the changes which have taken place within the last ten years, a very few years more will see hand- looms almost entirely supplanted, as they cannot compete success- fully with power-looms, excepting for a few fabrics for wMch they still seem to be best suited. Calendering and press-packing Linens were unknown in Dun- dee during the first two decades of the century. Previous to the introduction of calenders a few of the outside sheets of the piece were beetled, i. e. beaten on a large stone with wooden mallets by two men, who then lapped up the piece, and tied it with two or more cords depending on the width of the piece. The goods were then generally shipped loose, or hand-packed and shipped. The bales were so light, compared with their bulk, that the traders had to carry a large quantity of ballast to put their vessels into sailing trim. This is not required with bales packed by hydraulic pressure, as they are compact and heavy. SCOTCH LINEN. 615 lu 1822, William Shaw, who was then erecting a small spin- ning-mill at East Port, was recommended by some of the mer- chants of the town to turn part of the premises into a calendering and press-packing establishment, there being nothing of the kind here at that period. He went to Glasgow and purchased a calen- der and a hydraulic press, and had them erected in his work, and the press was the first to be worked by steam-power. For some time the new finishing machinery was not appreciated, and for two years it was barely employed four days a week. This was discouraging, but Mr Shaw persevered, and subsequently, as the advantages of calendering became better known, work flowed in upon him. In 1819, William Sandeman had a calender at Douglasfield for finishing his bleached goods, and a packing- press, wrought by manual labour, but packing by it was a slow process, and the pressure comparatively light. Few goods are now sent ofi" without undergoing some process of calendering, as it greatly improves the appearance of the fabric, without injuring its quality. The calenders employed are heavier, make a more powerful impression, and put a better finish upon the goods than those used in the infancy of the trade. They are of four, five, or six bowls or rollers, two of which are made of paper and the others of iron. Calendering machinery is now made of the most approved construction, and ex- cellently suited for the purpose. The hydraulic packing presses are powerful constructions, and capable of exerting a pressure on the bales of from 1,000 to 2,000 tons, and upwards. The goods are beetled, sarceneted, cylindered, chested, or mangled, &c., as may be desired, the difierent style of finish given the goods being the effect of putting them through between the rol- lers in particular ways. The goods are cropped, then slightly damped, preparatory to the calendering process. Afterwards they are measured, lapped, or made up to suit the special taste of the market for which they are intended, then packed, and shipped. In most processes of calendering the goods are slightly contracted in width and extended in length. Few coarse Linens, excepting those specially finished for padding, receive any starch or [other extraneous substance, preparatory to calendering, to give them an appearance of having more body than they really possess. The firmness and consistency of Linen is chiefly owing to the 616 MODERN LINEN. quantity of fibrous material in the cloth, and this adds value to Linen goods. There are now seven public calenders here, which belong to highly respectable proprietors, and the works are large airy, and well ventilated, great attention being paid to the com- fort and well-being of the men. There are no women or children employed in any of the works. The works are under most care- ful management, every thing in and about them being maintained in admirable condition. In addition to the public calenders, many of the large manufacturing concerns have calendering and pack- ing establishments of their own, upwards of a thousand hands being employed in the calendering department of the trade. Extensions in calendering necessarily keep pace with manufac- turing progress. The staple trade of Dundee has been subject to violent perio- dical convulsions, some of which have been local in their charac- ter, and others national. In the early years of the century these changes were chiefly caused by the sudden rise or fall in the price of the raw material, which moved up or down with the varying fortunes of the combatants in the wars of the period. Flax, which in 1809, rose to £150 a ton, fell in 1810 to £80. The loss on stock, and the stagnation in trade which accom- panied and partly produced the fall, ruined nearly all the mer- chants, manufacturers and spinners, and for a time there were only two spinning-mills at work in the town. In 1812 Flax again rose greatly, but only to fall the farther the two following years, it being £45 a ton lower in 1814 than in 1812. Many failures, and contracted employment were the inevitable result. In 1815 prices again rose considerably, but next year they fell to a much lower point than they had touched at any previous time this century, and caused many bankruptcies. Each of these changes, by the compulsory stoppage of production, threw many of the operatives idle, and produced great suffering throughout the town. For a long i)eriod prior to the autumn of 1825, trade had been in a healthy state in Dundee, but, towards the end of that year, a great commercial panic occurred in London and quickly spread over the country. Many bankers failed, consols fell to 79, and trade became completely paralysed. About Christmas William Sandeman, bleacher, Douglasfield, and merchant in SCOTCH LINEN. 617 Dundee, who in 1810 had stopped for the then large sum of £60,000, again failed for a large amount, and others followed in rapid succession. Dundee had its full share of the terrible calamity, and the hardships and privations which the people then suffered were most distressing. So great was the stagna- tion in business here, that Government came to the help of the merchants, and, on getting a deposit of goods, granted Exchequer bills upon them. Many of the largest merchants took advantage of the aid so proffered, and it proved a great relief to them, and benefit to the trade. Early in 1827 the American trade revived. This gave an impulse to business, and those who had weathered the storm of 1826 speedily made up their losses again ; but even yet that calamitous year is remem- bered with sorrow by all who suffered the fiery ordeal. In 1834 bagging was in great demand for the United States, and handsome profits were realised by exporters. This stimu- lated the manufacture, which was continued on an extensive scale during 1835. In the end of that year a great fire occurred in New York, destroying property to the extent of 20,000.000 dollars, including a large quantity of bagging, and ruining nearly all the American insurance offices, some of which only paid from 20 to 50 per cent, on the claims upon them. To supply the void caused by this fire, great exertions were made to send bag- ging out in quantity, and the article was so overdone, that many goods lay over for years, and did not ultimately pay freight and charges. The losses thus sustained brought ruin upon many of the manufacturers and merchants, the first who stopped being a son of the man who failed for large amounts in 1810 and 1825. In this crisis the banks, as in 1816, opened warehouses, received goods in deposit, and made advances upon them, which did much to allay the panic and alleviate the distress. For many mouths at this trying period great hardships were en- dured by the- operatives, and it was some years before business was again in a really prosperous condition. The next serious disaster was the effect of the railway specula- tions in 1847. During the mania produce of all kinds rose to fictitious prices ; and, when the bubble burst, goods became unsaleable, and fell far below their intrinsic value. The vast losses by the fall in shares, in which all had speculated, and in 618 MODEBN LINEN. the value of merchaadise, brought so many to ruin that a generieil bankruptcy for a time seemed inevitable. Some of the previous panics had been greatly intensified in Dundee by overtrading, and by the undue extension of mills and factories, but the mis- fortunes of 1847 were chiefly owing to speculations apart from the regular trade. This town having been longer in catching the fever than others, had little time to get helplessly involved, still the ruin among merchants was wide-spread and most serious, and the distress among the working population, which was aggravated by the then high price of provisions, was extremely severe. During the Crimean War an immense demand sprang up for coarse Linens, and the manufactures of Dundee were largely con- sumed by both beligerents during the seige of Sebastopol. The profits then realised stimulated enterprise, and led to the erec- tion of extensive new works for spinning and weaving by power, and to great additions to previous ones. In this way the production was extended greatly beyond the legitimate wants of consumers, and much money was locked up in buildings and machinery which ought to have been conserved and retained in the trade. In 1857 the report of the failure of a Trust Company in America, followed by a panic there, reached this country. Suddenly the storm burst over the kingdom ; merchant princes succumbed to the tornado, and banks of good repute gave way before it. In Scotland two bank^ closed their doors, unable to stand the run which was made upon them, a thing before unknown in the history of the country, and one of them was then closed for ever. The Bank of England raised its discount to 10 per cent., but this did not check the demand for gold ; and unless the Govern- ment had interposed its authority, and permitted the Bank to violate the Bank Charter Act of 1844, it also would have been compelled to suspend. Had this not been averted, most disas- trous results would have followed. In Dundee the prices of goods fell seriously, in some cases 50 per cent., many failures occurred, and much distress was endured by the working-classes. After that period trade went on regularly, but quietly, until the second year of the war in America Cottons, which had risen to five times their cost before the war, could not be SCOTCH LINEN. 619 got in quantity, and the void was in many cases supplied by Linen, which increased the demand throughout the world. The extensive requirements of the armies in America, both Federal and Confederate, have absorbed an immense quantity of coarse and heavy Linens, and caused the pressing demand for them which has kept the mills and factories in full operation for the last two years. The immediate effect of this unparalleled acti- vity has been to add greatly to the wealth of almost every house engaged in the Linen trade here, and to the prosperity and im- portance of the whole town. Part of the wealth thus acquired has been laid out in extending old works or in building new ones. If these extensions are kept within legitimate bounds they will be profitable to the builders and beneficial to the community, but if not they will do injury to all. One marked effect of the in- creased means at the command of those engaged in the trade is, that instead of payments being made as formerly by long dated bills, they now generally in cash. This shows that the wealth is not fictitious but real. The following paragraph is taken from the Dundee Commer- cial and Shipping Gazette of 2d May 1840 : — " Direct Trade with India. — We have this week to record an important event connected with the trade of our port — the arrival of the barque Sclma, Luckie, from Calcutta direct. This is the first arrival of any vessel from the East Indies with a cargo for Dundee. The Selma is the property of Mr William Davidson, shipowner, and was built here some years ago. She has a miscellaneous cargo, consisting chiefly of Jute hemp, sugar, rice, &c. We regard this as honourable to the enterprise of our merchants, and trust it is only a beginning to a pros- perous trade with the British dominions in the East. The Selma cast anchor in Carolina Eoads on Sunday morning, 26th April, after a passage of 156 days, and was towed into Earl Grey's Dock on Wednesday, in presence of a crowd of spectators, who had assembled to witness the arrival of the East Indiaman." The following are the particulars of her cargo : — ' Selma, (258, of Dundee), Luckie, from Calcutta, with 850 bales Jute hemp, 400 bags rice, 200 bags sugar, 197 bags linseed, 40 buffalo horns, 1 box preserves, 4 cases preserved ginger, 5 canisters arrow root, 1,900 cocoa nuts, 12 coils rope, 29 pieces teak wood, 620 MODERN LINEK. 100 pieces bamboo, 7 bundles country twine, 2 boxes tea, 6, hhds. wine, and 3 boxes, 2 baskets shells, for William David- son ; 376 bales Jute hemp, for David Keith ; 100 bags rice, 25 bags black pepper, 3 bags cloves, and 1 bag nutmegs, for Geo. K. Baxter ; 135 bags rice, and 75 bags linseed, for D. and J. Moncur, &c., &c., &c."' In April 1864, twenty-four years after the arrival here of the first vessel from Calcutta with Jute, there were nine ships in the port which had arrived direct from Calcutta, the united cargoes of which were 44 276 bales of Jute, and a few hundred bales of cuttings, besides linseed, &c. Other two vessels would have been here at same time with a farther quantity of 8,560 bales, but they were unfortunately siranded or lost when almost at their destination. One vessel with 2,641 bales had come in the previous month, and seven other ships are known to be on the way, the cargoes of which amount to 41,850 bales, making a total of 97,327 bales of Jute. It is expected that several other vessels will yet come direct from Calcutta to Dundee in the course of the year. So great has been the increase of the trade since the remarks on the subject — page 65 — were written, that it is estimated the direct shipments this year will be about 110,000 bales, of the value when landed here of £400,000. The more direct any trade can be carried on between the pro- ducer and consumer, and the fewer hands the material passes through in its various transformations from the raw to the manufactured state, the cheaper will the goods be produced. This vast extension of so legitimate a branch of. trade is there- fore gratifying. Messrs Gilroy and Messrs Cox, the largest consumers, now employ their own ships in this trade, and the "East Indiamen" belonging to Dundee are already a large and valuable fleet. From a statement of the quantity of Jute consumed here, kindly ffii L-J^^ed by John Mitchell, of Arngask, it appears that in 1851 ther^'^aier^ ^rly fi'KiiSrms here who used more than 100 bales a week, the largest consumers being Gilroy Brothers, put down at 200 bales. Now, of the about forty houses in Dundee and neighbourhood who spin Jute, seven-eighths of them cut up more than 100 bales a week, and some firms, as already men- tioned, use about ten times this quantity. SCOTCH LINEN. 621 The Flax trade is chiefly in the hands of a few respectable firms, agents for houses at the various shipping ports in Russia, Prussia, &c. Sometimes the spinners contract with the agents during the winter for Flax to be shipped by their constituents on the opening of the navigation in spring, at a free-on-board price, or otherwise as may be agreed on ; and sometimes order? are given by the spinners to be executed if they can be done within certain prescribed terms. Unlimited orders are now rarely en- trusted to the foreign merchants. Large quantities of Flax, tow, &c., are annually consigned by the merchants abroad to their con- stituents here, who sell it to consumers, charging a commission for their trouble, and this is the most legitimate mode of con- ducting the business, and the most convenient to the spinner An approximation to the quantity used in the district is sup- plied by the tabular statements appended. Of late years great improvements have been made in the structure of the spinning-mills in Dundee. It was difficult to make much alteration upon the outward appearance of some of the older works, but where this was practicable it has been done. Internally much attention has been paid to ventilation, con- veniences of various kinds for the comfort of the workers have been provided, and the employment rendered as healthy as possible. The recently built mills have been constructed on the most approved principle, with every modern appliance for the physical comfort of the operative ; and the danger to health, consequent upon the nature of the employment, has been reduced to the minimum point. Some of the new works, entirely fire- proof, are most imposing structures, palatial in appearance, colossal in extent, and, in durability, magnificence, or comfort, unsurpassed by the mills in any other town in the kingdom, or of any other country in the world. Although a tabular statement of the proprietors of spinning- mills and power-loom factories, with some details of the respec- tive works, are given, a distinct notice of a few of the larger establishments, employing more than one thousand hands, and whose recently erected works are unusually imposing, will not be altogether a work of supererogation. The most extensive spinning and manufacturing concern here is that of Baxter Brothers & Co. The head of the firm is Sir 622 MODERN LIKKN. David Baxter, bart., of Kilmaron, tlie chief of the merchant princes of Dundee. Sir David has performed many generous deeds to his native town, but his crowning act of princely muni- ficence, in conjunction with his sisters, in presenting the noble Baxter Park to the people of Dundee, has raised him high in the admiration of the good and great of the land. In the be- ginriing of the century, William Baxter, the father of Sir David, was engaged in the Linen trade. He was an intelligent and much respected merchant, and during his long and honourable career he was highly esteemed by his compeers. In 1822 he_ along with his eldest son, Edward, as Wm. Baxter & Son, erected a spinning-mill, of 15 horse-power, in the lower Dens. Before this date the family had a mill at Glamis. In 1825, Baxter Brothers & Co. (other sons having been assumed as partners) put up another, and a larger work, to the northward, of 30 horse-power. Subsequently additions were made to it, and an engine of 90 horse-power substituted for the others. In 1833 the erection of Upper Dens Works was commenced, and for the last thirty years progress and improvement there have been constant. As already mentioned, the firm experimented in power-looms eo early as 1826, and in 1836 went largely into them. It is mentioned in Thomson's " History of Dundee," that in 1846 the firm had in operation in Lower Dens Mills, 1 engine of 90 horse-power, driving 3028 spindles for dry spun Flax and tow ; Upper Dens Works, 2 engines of 70 and 35 = 105 horse- power, driving 2,136 spindles on dry tow, and 5,872 of wet spinning — together, 8,008 spindles ; being a total of 11,036 spindles. Also, 2 engines of 30 horse-power coupled = 60 horse-power, driving 256 power-looms, intended to be increased to 420 ; and a calender work, with an engine of 10 horse-power, the total power being 265 horses. Since that date the increase has been continuous and rapid. They now contain 16 steam- engines, of the aggregate of 615 nominal horse-power, 20,000 spindles, and 1,200 power-looms, and employ about 4,000 hands. The material used by Messrs Baxter consists chiefly of Flax and tow, with a little Hemp. This firm is perhaps the only one here who have never, at any period, spun Jute in their works. In point of consumption of raw material they are the SCOTCH LINEN. 623 largest Linen manufacturers in the world, no firm using nearly as much weight of Flax, &c., as they do. The goods made by them consist of sail-cloth, sheetings, dowlas, ducks, &c., for the excellent quality of which they have an established reputation. In addition to the yarn spun in the works, the Messrs Bax- ter purchase largely fi€(n other spinners ; and the whole goods produced by them are calendered and made up within the work, and sent out in bales, or as may otherwise be required by their customers; the value being about a million sterling a year. There are several distinct spinning-mills in the Dens Works, but the larger one, on the north side of and fronting Princes Street, is a noble structure, of about 250 feet in length and four lofty storeys in height, besides attics. The en- gines are placed in the centre of the building, and over them is a fine statue of James Watt. Within the works there is a foundry and mechanic shops, where much of the spinning and weaving machinery used in the works are made. The ground upon which the works are erected extends to upwards of 10 acres, and it is nearly all covered with the mills, factories, warehouses, and other necessary premises required for carrying on so extensive an establishment. The buildings are most sub- stantial and the machinery of the highest class, the internal arrangements admirable, and the management of the works per- fect. This excellence has been attained by Peter Carmichael, the partner, who for many years has taken the superintendence of the works. Logic Works, belonging to A. & D. Edward & Co., situated at the west end of Scouringburn, were begun in 1828, the first steam-engine being of 30 horse-power. In 1833 the work was enlarged ; and subsequently several additions were made. In 1846 it contained two engines, of 90 and 70 = 160 horse- power, driving in all 14,068 spindles ; but it has since then been again and again extended. The mill fronting the Scour- ingburn is about 300 feet long, and is of four storeys and attiqs in height. Though not quite so lofty as one or two of the more modern structures, it was spacious for its day, being then the largest building in town, and it is still a most imposing and handsome erection. This mill forms one side of a large open quadrangular court ; the buildings on the opposite sides, which 624 MODEBN LINEN. are high and extensive, are used as heckling and preparing- rooms, and the whole are fire-proof throughout. In 184C forty power-looms were put in operation in the range formint; part of the north side of the mill court, hut as it was found impracticable to make room here for the continued in- crease, a large fire-proof power-loom fafflory was erected in 1851 on the nursery grounds immediately to the south and west of the spinning-mill. This factory is a handsome building of four storeys, and the power-looms being all placed on one open floor, partly in the main building, and in a line of parallel sheds running behind it to the south. The two upper storeys of the main building are used as winding, warping, and preparing flats. .Adjoining the power loom factory is the fire-proof calen- der lapping and packing- house. Contiguous to the works, and fronting Milnbank Eoad and Scouringburn, are the requisite warehouses for Flax, Jute, &c. The machinery now in operation consists of 17,000 spindles and GOO power-looms, with the necessary preparing, calendering, mangling, and packing machines, employing altogether about 2,500 hands. The works are driven by 5 engines of 260 horse- power. For a long time the Messrs Edward spun only Flax and tow, but latterly they have added the spinning and manufacture of Jute. Their machinery keeps pace with the times, modern im- provements being readily adopted, and the whole kept in first- rate working order. The yarns produced are dry spun Flax, tow, and Jute, and wet spun Flax and tow of all sizes. The goods manufactured are sail-cloth, duck, dowlas, shirtings of all widths, up to three yards wide, diapers, hessians, and indeed all descriptions of Linen or Jute goods, suited either for the English or foreign markets. Linen damasks of various widths and qualities are also manufactured, and this is the only establish- ments in the district where figured Linens are produced to any extent by power. The internal arrangement and adaptation of the works is excel- lent. The material of which the mamifactured article is to con- sist goes from department to department systematically, until it is despatched from the packing-house in bales, either for the English trade or for the remote markets of the world. The SCOTCH LINEN. C25 situation of the works is very good and healthy, being almost in the country, bounded on the south and west by green fields and nursery grounds. Unquestionably the largest and most imposing building set apart for spinning and weaving is that recentlyerectedbyGilroy Brothers & Co., in Locliee Eoad, and forming part of Tay Works. This building is 392 feet in length, the wings of four storeys in height, besides attics, and the centre of five storeys, the altitude to the top of the pediment being 90 feet. The masonry is built in regular courses, the centre and wings being ornamented by rustic comers, the whole building being of the most substantial character, and fire-proof throughout. In the frieze of the pedi- ment over the centre portion, the Dundee arms, on a large scale, are sculptured in stone ; and on the apex is a splendid colos- sal statue of Minerva (upwards of ten feet high), with the spindle and distaff, which aptly crowns this magnificent struc- ture. Internally every thing is in keeping with the grandeur of the exterior, and the spirited proprietors have left nothing undone which could add to the comfort of the employes within. This stately pile only forms a portion of Tay Works, which ex- tend in all nearly 1000 feet along the Lochee Eoad, with mills, power-loom weaving factory, and other erections necessary for the subsidiary branches of the establishment, behind. The works contain five steam-engines of 240 horse-power, 10,096 spindles, and 300 power-looms, and give employment to 1,700 hands ; and within a short period these figures will be con- siderably increased. In 1851 the power employed by Messrs Gilroy was only 80 horses, so that the progress since made has been very great. The classes of goods manufactured are chiefly of Jute, and comprise hessians, sacking, bagging, &c., which are calendered within the works, and sent out in bales ready packed for market. The firm have also many hand-looms, and employ in all upwards of 2000 people. Tay Works are arranged on the most approved principle, the machinery is of the best descrip- tion, and no expense is spared to keep it in first rate order. The internal economy of the work is as near perfection as it is possible to attain, and every department is conducted with, clock -like regularity. The spinning- mill at Bow Bridge Works, built by J. and R R 626 MODEEN LINEN. A. D. Grimond in 1857, is perhaps the finest structure of its kind in existence, and with its erection a new era in spinning mills was inaugurated. It only forms a portion of the proposed build- ings, but from its great elevation, and noble parts, it is a magnifi- cent instalment of the complete work. This erection, entirely fire- proof, is 190 feet in length, 110 in width on the basement floor and 62 on the others, and 71 feet in height to the easing. The four floors are respectively 18, 17, 16, and 16 feet high, and the attic has the fuU height of the roof thrown into it. The basement storey is built of rock rustic, and the others of best square rubble. The engine-room is a model of stability and elegance, lighted by plate-glass windows on two sides. The windows in the mill, are 10 feet by 6J, with circular tops, which open for ventilation, and the building is beautifully painted. The engines, two of 50 horse-power each, work together, with a large cog-wheel be- tween them, which turns the machinery, at same time acting as a fly-wheel. Economy of labour, being an important matter, has been a guiding principle, and with that view the material travels from machine to machine with the least possible amount of manual labour, not stopping in its course until it is trans- formed from the original fibre to the finished thread, warped or prepared for the loom. The boilers are in a fire-proof building apart from the mill, and were the largest here at the time they were put in. The engines and boilers were made at Bolton, and are of superior construction and finish. The mill was designed with great care, and is altogether, both externally and internally, a model work, and can hardly be sur- passed for stability, simple grandeur, si^periority of machinery, or admirable arrangement throughout. Messrs Grrimond have for some years had large hand-loom factories at Maxwelltown, &c., for the supply of goods for their home trade, having ware- houses in London, Manchester, Belfast, &c., and recently they have added power-looms, both at their Bowbridge and Maxwell- town establishments. Their works now contain five steam- engines of 132 horse-power, with 3,600 spindles, and 136 power- looms ; about 600 hands being employed in these departments. At their extensive hand-loom works they employ nearly 1000 people, making about 1,600 hands in all. The goods Messrs Grimond make are hessians, sacking, carpeting, matting, hearth SCOTCH LINEN. 627 rugs, &c. They have lately put up a calendering work, and will now be enabled to send off the goods ready packed for shipment. The several mills belonging to Oliver Gourlay Miller spin more yarn on the aggregate, with one or two exceptions, than those of any other firm in Scotland. Mr Miller is successor to the old- established firm of J. & W. Brown, who in 1846 had three mills, of 75 horse-power, containing 3,576 spindles. He is son-in-law to the junior partner of that firm, who was a practical spinner in 1809, and from whose " Keminiscences of Flaxspinning" various extracts and details are, with the kind permission of the author, given in this volume. The works were extensive when Mr Miller entered into possession of them, but he has recently ex- tended and improved the old mills, and erected a large new one. They are all contiguous, and comprise the following mills, viz. : — Arch, 2 engines of 46 horse-power, and 3,728 spindles ; East, 2 engines, 38 horse-power, and 1 ,200 spindles ; North, 1 engine, 25 horse-power, ] ,740 spindles ; Column, 2 engines, 46 horse-power, 2,606 spindles; and South Mills (old and new together), 3 engines, 105 horse-power, 5,760 spindles ; ■ — in all, 10 engines, 260 horse-power, 16,970 spindles. Mr Miller's great staples are Flax and tow, but he also spins a little Jute. The organization of the several works is complete, the machinery of the most approved construction, and it is kept quite up with the age in every modern improvement. Mr Miller has attained celebrity for the quality of his yarns, the whole of which he sells in the market, in the raw state, or bleached, creamed, or otherwise prepared, as he does not manufacture any of them into cloth. The prize medal for quality of dry spun yarn was awarded to Mr MUler at the G-reat Exhibition of 1862. St Eoque's Spinning- work and Wallace Power-Loom Work, belonging to W. E. Morison & Co., are extensive establish- ments. The spinning mills contain 3 steam-engines, with an aggregate of 92 horse-power, and 4,000 spindles ; and the power- loom works, which are at some distance from the mills, two engines, together of 100 horse-power, and 510 power-looms, with the necessary calendering machinery for finisljing the Linens made at the works. The power-loom factory has a handsome frontage of about 360 feet in length, and as it stands rk2 628 MODERN LINEN. on a rising ground, fronting the south, it has a commanding appearance. These works were recently acquired bj the firm, and are now in active operation. Together they are most suit- able for the trade, and efficiently conducted ; and they employ about 1,700 hands. Seafield Works, belonging to Thomson, Shepherd, and Briggs have risen with surprising rapidity, having been begun little more than ten years ago, and now they contain seven steam-engines of 165 horse-power, 6000 spindles and 120 power-looms. The works also contain upwards of 450 hand-looms, the total number of people employed being 2,000. The older portions of these works have been quite eclipsed by the new mill and power-loom shed, which have been built to the south of them. This miU is a splendid building, about 300 feet in length, and four storeys and attics in height, and the factory, which communicates with the mill, is of the same length and nearly square. The machinery is only in course of being put into the new erections, but when completed the productive powers of the works will be doubled. The firm spin Jute chiefly, and manufacture carpeting, cocoa- nut-matting, sacking, bagging, &c., which are calendered and made up on the premises. Several other firms have large spinning and weaving estab- lishments, which, had space admitted, it would have been desir- able to refer to specially, as the organization of these works is, in every respect, quite equal to those detailed. Indeed, the spirit of the age is so thoroughly bent on utilitarian improve- ments, that every spinning and weaving establishment in town has made wonderful progress, and the description of those given is, to some extent, applicable to all, even the most unpretending, and all are worthy of high commendation. The warehouses in which the raw material sent here for sale- is stored were, at one time, very temporary erections A most serious fire occurred about eight years ago, by which several warehouses and their contents, to the value of nearly £50,000, were destroyed or injured. This caused more attention to be paid to their construction. Subsequently several fires occurred in Flax warehouses, and the fire offices adopted a tariff specially for them, which has compelled proprietors to effect improvements upon the buildings, and thus lessen the risk of fire, but they are SCOTCH LINEN. 629 still far from being perfect. A very handsome range of ware- houses has been built by Robert Fleming, on the site of some of those destroyed, which do credit to the proprietor. Although there is apparently great risk from fire in spinning- mills, yet, for many years, there have been fewer serious fires in them than in Flax warehouses. A few months ago, the Eoyal Insurance Company, taking this fact into consideration, resolved, with that spirit of liberality for which the office has been so long proverbial, to give the spinners the advantage, and reduced the premium on this class of risks to the extent of fuUy 30 per cent. This large reduction effected a saving of several thousand pounds a year to the spinners, and they, to show their appreciation of the boon, have very generally given the Royal a full share of their insurances. Some of the spinners have their counting-rooms at their mills, but others have them in and around the " Cowgate," which is the common market-place for the Linen trade of the town ; and all attend that mart daily, much of the business being transacted on the street. As stocks of yarn and Linen are now usually kept at the mills and factories, or in the public calenders, where the goods can be inspected, extensive premises near the "market" are unnecessary, and a plain room or two generally suffice for counting-houses. A few years ago Alexander Easson erected a range of elegant offices adjoining the Eoyal Exchange, and with it forming a handsome square, far more suitable for the mer- chants meeting for business purposes than the public street, but it is not taken advantage of, as "use and wont" attaches them to the old resort, the far-famed " Cowgate." Jaffe Brothers, merchants, have recently erected in Seagate, in the vicinity of the " Cowgate," a magnificent warehouse, witli splendid counting-rooms and other conveniences for carrying on their extensive business. It would add to the architectural embellishments of the town were others to follow their spirited example, and put up equally useful and ornamental premises. The Royal Exchange is a handsome building, unfortunately built on a bad foundation, which has hitherto rendered it im- practicable to complete the elegant tower intended to have been put up, and which would have added greatly to the beauty of the structure. The reading-room in the building is a chaste and pretty apartiaent, but it would have been more con- 630 MODERN LINEN. venient had it been on the ground floor, instead of up a flight of stairs. The Chamber of Commerce, under whose auspices the Exchange is conducted, was recently Incorporated by Eoyal Charter, and it is expected that the stability thus given it wiU increase its importance and extend its usefulness. The Linens manufactured in Dundee comprise Flax, Hemp, and Jute goods, line and tow, and mixtures of them in various proportions, and formed in many ways. Several of the fabrics are made in imitation of the Linens originally produced in Germany, Kussia, Spain, and other countries. The classes of Linens made are numerous ; and as every quality is finished and lapped in a variety of ways, to suit them for the different markets of the world, their names are legion. It is not neces- sary to enumerate the various sub-divisions of each class of Linens, but the following are a few of the leading fabrics manu- factured : — Sail-cloth, brown, boiled and bleached ; Duck > Spriggs f Canvas Padding ; Sheeting, brown, creamed, checked, bleached, &c. ; Dowlas ; Diaper and Damask ; Hessian Sheet- ing ; Sacking ; Hop-pocketing ; Bagging ; Tarpauling ; Ham- mocking ; Scrims ; Carpeting ; Hearth Eugs ; Matting, &c., (fee. In the manufacture of many of these Linens the art of the bleacher and dyer is taxed to produce snowy whiteness or bril- liant hues ; and the beauty and excellence of some of the fabrics produced can scarcely be excelled. It was intended to give a tabular statement of the steam-en- gines, horse-power, spindles, power-looms, hand-looms, and per- sons employed in the Linen manufacturing establishments in Dundee and in the manufacturing towns. In consequence of many of the hand-looms being placed in the dwellings of the weavers, it was not practicable to ascertain their number, and they have been excluded from the statement. Perhaps there may be .5,000 hand-looms still in operation in Dundee, but, as the dis- taff and the spinning-wheel have been superseded by the spindle, so in like manner the power-loom is fast displacing those wrought by manual labour, and in a, few years hand-looms, in this district, will be numbered with the things that were. It will be seen by the table that there are, in May 1864, 160 steam-engines engaged in the staple trade of Dundee and Lochee, of the aggregate of 4,621 horse-power. The number of spindles are 170,552, and the power-looms, 6,709 The total number of SCOTCH LINEN. 631 hands employed, according to the table, are 36,020 ; but the figures do not, in many cases, represent those only who are em- ployed in the spinning mills and power-loom factories. Several of the houses have many hand-looms in operation, and the weavers and others employed in and about them are included, because, from the intimate union between the two classes in several of the works, it was not possible to separate them into component parts — workers at machinery and by hand. The manufacturers who employ hand-looms only are not in- cluded in the table, and the number of operatives in their em- ploy could not be correctly ascertained and are not given. Many of the hand-loom manufacturers have recently got small steam- engines to drive winding machinery, cylinders, &c., but even with these adjuncts it is with difficulty they can, in many fabrics, compete with those who have power-looms. The consumption of Flax, Tow and Codilla, Hemp, and Jute in Dundee, is at present about 70,000 tons per annum, which at an ave- rage value of £35, makes the cost of the raw material £2,450,000. The quantity of yarn now spun here weekly may be about 500,000 spindles, or 25,000,000 per annum, which at 3s per spindle, is £3,750,000. No data exists whereby an approxima- tion even of the quantity of yarns exported from Dundee can be arrived at, but it must be considerable. Neither is there any data to assist in estimating the yards of Linen manufactured here, or their value, but perhaps the total value of the yarns and Linens produced in Dundee, for home and foreign consumption, may amount to about £5,000,000, of which about one-half is exported, and the other half consumed in the United Kingdom. The wages paid to those engaged in the staple trade can only be guessed at. Perhaps, in round numbers, it may not be very wide of the mark to estimate the people directly engaged in the Linen manufacture here at 50,000, and the wages paid to them weekly at £20,000, or say £1,000,000 per annum. The total population of Dundee now considerably exceeds 100,000, and if the estimate given be correct, it shows that about 50 per cent, of the inhabitants are employed in the staple trade of the town. In addition to the hands directly employed in the Linen trade, a large number are engaged in auxiliary branches in and around the town, viz., engineers and machine-makers, flaxdres- 632 MODERN LINEN. sers, bleachers, dyers, calenderers, carters, &c., &c. ; indeed, a large proportion of the population are directly or indirectly engaged in, or supported by, the Linen trade. The amount of capital embarked in the spinning and power-loom works in Dundee and Lochee may be estimated at £2,000,000. The Flax, tow, &c., bought by spinners and others in Kussia, Prussia, &c., and the Jute imported direct from Calcutta, as well as what is purchased in London and Liverpool, are almost wholly paid for in cash. The credit system in the purchase of goods on the spot is latterly all but extinct, cash payments being now the rule and bills the exception. Many of the merchants export yarn and Linen, but especially the latter, to the various markets of the world, and it is from six to twelve or eighteen months, and sometimes even longer, before remittances are re- ceived for same. These several operations, from their magnitude, necessarily imply large means, but what the floating capital now engaged in the trade here really is, it is impossible to say, as no approximation even can, with any approach to certainty, be given. It was a fortunate circumstance for Dundee that Jute was in- troduced into its manufactures. Since then the extension of the town has been in some measure dependent on the progress made in incorporating this fibre into its staple trade. During the last two years, in consequence of the cotton famine and the American war, the demand for Linen, as already mentioned, has increased amazingly. Flax has been an important article, as genuine Linens have been largely consumed, and this branch of the trade has enjoyed universal prosperity. Its Oriental sister. Jute, has, however, been a more important fibre here, as its products are cheap yet sightly, and they have afforded a ready means for supplying the extraordinary demand for low class Linens. The consumption of this article has therefore increased enormously, and is still extending, and it may now be called the great staple of Dundee. Notwithstanding the high price of Jute for the past two years, this trade has been very remunerative, and some par- ties have realized handsome fortunes in it. The superstructure of the prosperity of Dundee may therefore be said to be founded on Jute. May the building be as stable as it is stately I May the halo which surrounds the Linen trade of Dundee long con- tinue to shine with undiminished lustre ! SCOTCH LINKN. G33 Imports into Dunbke, Fkom 1815 TO 186 3. Year. Flax. , Flax :odin». Hemp. J Hemp odilla. Tnt»l ^^^ *"d To'" t™= and Codilla, of T™'- Hemp & Flax. Hemp. TI. Tons Imprtd. 1815 1,221 966 2,187 1816 2,015 851 2,866 1817 2,989 1,735 4,724 1818 3,509 1,418 4,927 1819 3,150 321 3,471 1820 3,911 1,047 4,958 1821 6,736 716 6,452 1822 6,655 3,136 9,791 1823 4,892 3,032 7,924 1824 6.8,50 2,150 9,000 1825 ,, ,,, 11,575 2,327 13,902 1826 7,178 1,092 8,270 1827 12,789 1,260 14,049 1828 14,524 582 15,106 1829 12,601 2.753 1,204 317 16,775 16,775 1830 13,045 3,760 2,1.31 1,560 20,496 20,496 1831 11,212 3,740 1,573 1,465 17,990 17,990 1832 16,112 2,985 2,588 513 22,198 22,198 1833 15,691 4,233 2,504 552 22.980 22.980 183i 11,871 5,455 3,880 950 22,152 22,152 1835 11,963 6,521 7,434 1,208 27,130 27,130 1836 30,653 8,721 1,974 1931 43,279 ...... 43,279 1837 1838 10,503 21,217 2,934 7,620 939 1,227 861 786 15,237 30,850 1 15,-.i37 31,986 Jute. By Sea. By Rail. Total. 1,136 1839 13,012 5,720 1,174 891 20,797 2,411 23,208 1840 15,680 8,244 612 699 25,235 2,745 27,980 1841 17,497 7,364 556 277 25,694 2,661 28,355 1842 15,633 6,205 495 827 23,160 2,740 25,900 1843 18,048 7,146 612 462 26,268 4,858 31,126 1844 20,038 8,731 963 470 30,202 5,515 35,717 1845 23,402 9,033 1,110 86 33,631 8,313 41,944 1846 12,399 8,771 1,045 119 22,334 9,230 31,564 1847 13,104 9,209 1,455 84 23,852 6,966 30,818 1848 21,976 7,648 927 34 30,585 8,885 20 '8,905 39,490 1849 26,091 10,024 1,124 18 37,257 7.946 4,196 12,142 49,399 1850 31,572 8,962 996 108 41,638 6,335 7,745 14.080 55,718 1851 20,301 8,192 1,543 110 30,146 7,386 9,542 16,928 47,074 1852 20,H79 6,094 518 26,991 9,874 7,109 16,983 43,974 1853 34,052 10,820 1,979 261 47,112 8,165 7,235 15,400 62,512 1854 25,470 5,368 929 96 31,863 6,224 10,366 16,590 48,453 1855 23,018 5,112 1,418 2 29,550 12,333 13,561 25,894 55,444 1856 27,561 6,732 802 26 35,121 16,948 14,083 31,031 66,152 1857 30,351 6.926 995 28 38,300 8,158 16,184 24,342 62,642 1858 18,698 3,731 3,113 300 25,842 13,828 16,258 30,086 55 928 1859 24,615 8,141 1,382 20 34,158 21,683 1 16,722 38,405 72,563 1860 28,644 4,302 987 33,933 22,829 14,136 36,965 70,898 1861 23,801 4,455 1,192 29,448 17,924 17,792 35,716 65,164 1862 32,102 6,142 784 39,028 19,825 18,452 38,277 77,305 1863 23,474 4,536 978 28,988 32,273 14,710 46,983 75,971 634 MODERN LINEN. iscq £3 I 2325 1^ (M in CO-* S; M TtH 1 CO — I CO (M tH I>- 1— I OC oi C5S CO th win CD :>-)G ■rt< t-o CO : COOb-O . TJH iH CS O t-H t- 00 ■* : iH cq 3 I— I Ttl ICCO CO CO CO Tt< GO O- 00 CO cDO^CI^-l>-COG^^ncDlCm CO'-HOlCOCslCOcO-^'VrHXi 00 •*tH O COr-< CO'ccTrH'T-r Olio (M»n CDiH N-in CO- °D CD cs"oo''OOOOOCN OCDOs-pOCDCOOC'^ CqOCDl>-TH00b-CS01 CD ■* COCO b-CD CD"* coin (MOO mco 00 OS CDO cq CO cq oi coo ocq 5g i-H CO 00 CO b-OD o>o cqoi b-00 miniH sTo'cT COC<)tH mo oco coo fcs.Ot» om iH cob-in -*.-l CD in r-HO CO OS I-H CO b-00 CO-* O C0C3 OS CO coin cqb-Tf* I OJQOCO o:b^l:^ coco coco m o B S cat; •— o o © •2 S a Sl I SCOTCH LINKN. 635 Q "A o Ph H ;=; fc> M ■3 s mTi- b- O_00 ''t" O ■£> O rHC^CCur3Tt<-*C01OCOC0-*{NC0Q0iOb-(MC0CO rH m ■I o i I oSt^OSMOit-OOOOiiCb-^TPCMt-OiCDOi ^H r"T r^ ^^ ^^ ^^ i I b-CS-^lfl^Db-COOsOiHNW^lftfCt-COOSO OOaOOOOOOOOoS3oDQOOOOOODQDODCOOTOOOO» « •a .s 03 s « ^ I" w t^ w o es ° a P< sac 3 « ■" m -^ < V O t-< ffC O t» C*=1^0 - «?^0 O^tO^O t>^ g iH 0O_rJ<^Tti ©0-<**iHTHOOOO-*Ob-0»0<£i OS^t-^CO^ <©r-H^ C0_C0_O eococ CO COM eOCOOOi— '<3ib-mC-*iO'Tt^CO'^CO .«asaCOCqi>-COQDiOOS05CqOiH(MMiHCOCOb-b-'*tOCO p^ iH tH iH — ' i-H r-l i-H i-l rH rH i-H 1-f iH i-l iH rl ?-( r-l 1-1 1-1 -"Sit* ooiAoiOii-ib-cicoThirjoo C^lOTTiCDOSOtDOi «*raour- i"-Jw*r-'^j«si--ioy-'«#-ooiiO'^b-i>. m-^eo ■^ coco'i-rco*" teres" ffq'css CO i-Tco TirrHcr-^oo t-raTt-^iH'o'Qo'sq' b-TcTco PL| t- iO CO CO (M M CO CN eO CO iH rH rH rH r-l rH rH rH rH rH 10^-^C3u:5^.»Ob-'71t*rtl.C<110 CDO»0 ."^COl>-OSTt<(NOini05CO MCDCO "^0300iC5QOO'^i— iCOTfilOlO "^tNCO a|t-tOt>t-t-.t-.QOb*COC^ffO?1rm-lrHrH p-IfH SCOTCH LINEN. 637 00 S rH ii 1 OD ^§^ (Moo i CO o . rH . .— 1 OS CO COCO in CO ;|: t-CO i 00 1-t igi iHCO 1-IC5 ^ CD 00 T-t ^^Msg so 1-1 rH o CO OD in Th : 11 S3 to 00 90 70 9 799 1,402 i ■i P o o o EH T-( o CO S i-T CO(M 05rH OS rH Ob-OO OS tH QOOOD I— (OS »-' rn'od" g «" S 00 C-IOCO t^ OS in CO Cl (M t- OSCOt- in t-os Tticom COM OS (MO CO t-T-H OS ■* t-in O TTi TO h- in ■* o i-i QOO t-oo b-co to (MOO CO ^ in Oin ■'T CO Os"^- EH : : ji .IS o£" f.gfe pu-ojz sa " ^ • BO ^ O -f^ s g-a S o.g-0) a Eh'^ f3 {5 f? g CtJ n s Jq' !3 H ^ g s O E^ a n ■^ s St "««■■ S;£"j3i§ OCO 00 to ^ ® 09 CD S O -# Ci 00 iO T#- r-rco" co"^ CO rHlflb-b- CJi ■^rHCOinO »-< T-irHrH 00" rH Oi CO 'CO CSl r-f CO Oi >ft OOOrH toco COTti io_ rH' rH ■^-^ 00 OOb-CO o >nt COCCt-i-t I— 1 oOf-T-'^'cO'* rOCO O i-H CO I-H 00 00 00 CM to rH CO -J Irt-J rtb^tOcom CO" ■^"co" b- b-' oo 00 o" rH in rH" COb 1 COtO t-tos coco to rH CO iHrH CO eo" §3 00 S 1-i TO 00 Ci CO '00 to in CO IC (M C. CS ID CCCOi—l rH O O ■* o'iH"in"to'"ift co'^ci' CO T^,H T-H 1— I oo'co" CO OS iH-* inco to" b^CO csoim rH to 00 05 rHCq TiT 1— ( lO t- l>- CO CDMCOQOCJ W O O b-T— 1 35 '^OO" CO CO OO CO CO"'* t-l i-H 1 CO (M I-H 00 00-^ CO cooin b- rH b- to" coos 00 in to 00 b-"co £qOOtOrJ< 00 ■* rH CO 11 lO CO 00 to l>-C5 Cl O (N^tO 0_0 mTi-^'co'cO'^' SiCO X J§ 3 g coco COiO tN'co" y-l,-^ i b-CC 5;g ft oocsos t— ca 1-^ Nth in ^ ^CD— f Tt< COlO i to" rH (N O'^mO rH rH OS t^ to to CO (M Tj* rH -^ 00 t- QO' jQO" i fH" fei efef g 00 c^ S J:^ ? 2 lo Ol 05 rH CO^ ^ r-rTiTiC in. CO TO Oi SIS tot-^ 1 (NOOTPCOrH OOrH tOOt-t^O rH(M 05 ^ rH O^ CO Ol 00 rH O' 1 r-T 1-1 csin i-TiN" V 1 O »o lO b- CO to'"c4"ic'"to'"io coco ,cq Ci iH .-1 1—1 ^ to to O rH 1 !>. t-C O 1 13 Q o O g c J < I J C 1 1 a a c a 1 "a 1 1 s ^ ' SCOTCH LINEN. 639 p o o o o o o o o o W5 O I— 1 CO CO O O CD GO CO O Ol o o o HmHw rH -^Jl rH rH T~t CO «iSS o «o a> lO (D 50 CO ■^ ^ OiO COiO-* : o o • O O r- O O rH : F-H rH o I> »c « CO W CD lO 00 qO O OO O OO OO rH QOOCOO OCO CD I> CO O W O o o O-^H P-l I-t 1-t rH "SS^SS 7it^"^^ -^ '* 1/5 O CO Tf( -sH O OS O O rH ^a>^ O T-H CO IC CD O -c* -t< HMr^ p o o o o o OO o o t- O i-i rH O CO O t- O rH O O T-H O •-H 1— ( o ■* ^ h3 iO o t>. la ^D O Tt* 0'>+< -*< o lo CO r> uo ic : o OO c r- O rH rH rH o to la fo lo io ITS lO s : hm : -e^^rt^se* r^Tf fi o o o o o o o o o CO O O O CO CD ^ t> 05rt .- -^ O O osT 1— 1 rH i-H I-l rH T-H ./t -* '^i* CD ■* to " CO lO 05 \0 *0 O CO O CO -t- '^H IC lO CO >0 tH o o o .- O O rH O rH CO ic CD i-r *E c^'Ph^ SKh^ H^Nr^^I p o o o o o O O O O CI O iC iO ■* O O l> o o c- o o 0-* 1-H rH »H "^ t- CO o o o CO (M eO 'f:*! -:t< O lO CD b- O iO : o o »- -- : O r- 1-t 1-* o CD lo CO tr: s : -Ei «E::f;~e : *E:«^ P O O O CO cc O O O o t- O CO CO o o o to OS rH (M O rH o -* 1— i rH rH 1-t ,^ O O (M CO (M O O O cr •^ ir; o CO t^ CO 'I* c O O -H o o O -H w c^ CO t- CD CO CO lO CO vc c r^ "s-e 'i^ H^ A'=> o o o o o o c O ■<* CO CO ^ OS t- iC t- Ol Oi rH rH O JO OS M -* U5 ca 05 O CD Ir- O O ■^ »0 CO CO ic -^ : o o o : o o 1-^ T-l "^00 00 b- t» O >0 S -^e i hS QO o o c O O O o O CJ o o coco-^ ir r> OS OsO OiiC ,J f?^ CO o c O '* CO CO '«*' -^ lO CD CO iC '^ c OO oo OrH W 00 00 t- t^ CD iO ic »n *1 o|« 2"h« nhfiHlW rfc* do o o O OO o CO CO Tt* .- »jO o tH o CD CO 00 o O cq s "iS ■ .-t r t> 00 *o o r/ 00 t» T-t CO CO tH ■* W5 cr c oo oo m g to to -e d* '6 ^ OQ >< ']i'' o IH r- o . : 00 - fl p^ • ra rC • . * ' C3 ;03 Flax. St Petersburg— 12-head T)n 9-Tiead ^1 ■ m 1 : Pi ■a a-^^ Sni •? d o o o c 3 C =d n3 tj t3 '^ '^ 6 c ill llj , iSSS '1- g s 1 H St Petersburg- Do. Eiga — Ehyne, >^1 1 J d d 6 o °^ g.'d Ti T3 t3 g oc a :;: = -£ g CO CO -* iC CO CD l> di-3E ^ 1 § c rt E- Dowlas, , Tow Sheeting, Do. (strong), 640 MODERN LINEN. fiOOOOO oooo pooooo oooo CO o •^OiOOCOOOO OOOOOOi-HO.-i ;t-iO eoo-rj 1—1 T-l T— Tt^TH-OiOWiOOO 00000^--«i-io CO ^ : "3 • I— 1 :c6 : fiO 'o ■ O O 'o CO -;2 1— 1 CO § CO i-H i-(OC0OOOO-* coe-QoooorHi-i OO-^OWCXJCOCO COCOCOOS^OOi-* Oi — O i-H o '*^00«DTt<-*0 *oioi>ooaii>t>o t^Oii— lOt-HOcaO*-* t-CD. OOOOl— lOi-Hi-'.-l rHi-« t-a>r-iOO'^(Mi- r-( l-H OOOO oooo O'^tH'^OOOOO OCOt-QOOlCOOO C0O5 OtHONOi— I ^00 OO O I-t O i-H T-+ r-l »-l .H lO CD l> 00 05 t^ 00 O OO Oi-Hi— li— (O'-' i-Hr-l i O O o o o OOOO POOOOO OOOO O t^ (M O O O » -* Tj< IC IC «D O -^ w -«1^ O 00 «D O -"i* « -^ -^ la o lo -* »o l> : o o I-t o o o : r- iH t-aSrHi-iOli-4 oco OO OOi-iOOO ,(NOS ^ I o -SO I I «® J. o 11"^ ^ o o o ;2 : : : CO CO M< W5 ?s o CO to t-F : 60 . . . : a o ' . Hi ^ ^" ^" I ^ ^ ^ g It tI f^ ^ H ^ t^ o o a"? I & & "3^ S ^.500|| SCOTCH LINEN. (i41 fl O O O O p o o o o o o o o •^ CO ■* t- '^t CO -* CO o o o o o csi as N CO CO Oi o i> C^ CO CO *J O t- iTS -^Ji i-H ^ -^o o o o o oo o -«*i -^ o o o ooooo O O O O 1-1 ooooo fl o oo o flo o o o •CDOOO ooooo O O OOrH oo O O I-* O O O Tf t>. C« O Tf (M I »0»0C0b-00'-iOO OOOOi-H O O CO ■^ O lO CO t- 1-H o o 5D QO O OS O O O O O i-H O r-< tH O --I •OOOOO oooo Q o o o o o cqeoOcocOi-i^O iCO«DC00S(-HOO O O OO r-i -H r-H O 1-M fl o oo O O fl OO o o o C0CDOi-*OO.-iO »rt(Dt-asT-(ooo lOOb-CjO-HOO OOrHOrHOi-HOi-H i-Hr-i lO t- ^ o r- ^ -1 O rt ■o^ OOOO i-H fH rt O-H O rH WOOOiCOCflOOOSO O CO OOO O O o tH O W »-i 1-t qOOOOO oooo ■(HrHOQOQOOCXJO qOOOOO OOOO e0OOt^l>O001> ^COt-I>Oi'-li-tcOrH OS(M -i* lO >0 O fc' O O O O O O O O -^ O O O O •-' q M ^ I s >=« M o ■So Ph CO Is 3S! p?7 ■ S o SJa f-4 i ^ ^ O O O O -ip „ 1— ' '^ " I— I rt o coffOTHWcocor-i^ . P^ r^ r^ r^ O . . ^ ° ° M ■H . fa ■S.I oS5 -e o ^ ^ d o ^ a ■• 1 R " O O w OQ s s 642 MODERN LINEN. flCioooas oooo fiOOOOO oooo «0 00 CT C5 « CD lO lO {MCqCOTjI'^OOO O O CO 03 :oo O O O O «6 00 i> " 00 OOOO I- CD 00 t^ O O O OOO-J flO o o 1 «5; 'o o »5^ 1-H CO NOC0tJ OOOOr-( W5 t>CO QOO O O O Oi-t flO o 1H no :0 : : o ' ' mS o CO o o o OCCOCOiO I— I 1— I 00 o OOOi-H SS^oo^ flOOOOO ooo • eo Ta< ui -^i* 00 o fc~ « "•'t^cooot^co ^o■H^u^ Qooooo ooo CO IN C0rt'*OOC0t-CD COcOtHvOCOOOO coei5-0 »0 -^ -^ CO ift t* CO CO ■* -Tji u5 o o o ooooo t^ 00 c^ o «i O O oo iH o oooo & o • d'^ 1^ w CO 1 I . ill > § J* . . , . -p .pfl w 13 J-3 o d d d d 6 ^0 ^D ^3 ^CJ ^^ ^o 'Q S . -C3-S ■ / ■» o COOO-^WSCOCOt-p— I S o o 6 o ^ o o Jf is 8 (M I I I o o =3 9-5 00 - : II 14 lcS,a 1^ S§|_gRfi|| SCOTCH LTNENi 643 Dundee Pricks Current— From 20th to 30th Octobbr of each Year —From 1801 to 1864^Continued. 1823 1824 1825 1826 £ £ £ £ £ £ £ £ Flax. StPtBbg. 12-head Ton SO 52 49 50 45 37 38 „ 9-head,. 42 43 43 44 38 30 31 EigaPTR 56 50 42 59 52 43 52 48 43 53 49 44 48 44 39 43 41 36 37 30 32 37 Do. DC Do. KT Arcliangel j Hemp. St Petersburg Clean 40 38 39 40 41 38 Do. Half-dean 34 35 32 33 32 32 10 31 •Riga, Rhyne 43 39 40 44 45 41 Do. Com. Pass s. 37 32 D. 38 33 S. D. s. 35 D. 36 S, D. 37 24 S. D. 38 26 S. D. 34 21 S. D. S. D. OodiHa i Yarn. 3 lbs Flax— Mill Sp. Sp. 2 8 2 10 2 7 2 9 2 7} 2 9 2 2 2 5 4 lbs „ 3 2 3 5 3 1 8 2 3 3 3 2 8 2 11 6 lbs Tow 3 3 5 6 7f 6 7} 4f 5f 7&81bsTow „ 3 2 3 8 5 6i i 6 4J 4} 10&12,, „ „ Lb. 5 6 4f 5J 4 5J 4 4f Linen. Yd. Bid. Flax Shg. 9/S 34 pr. I 1 1 Oi I 8f 9 Bm. Tow „ 9/8 24 pr. 7 7A 7- 7i 7A 7f 6i 6A Do. do. Shtg, 4/4 26pr.. 8 84 7 ■ 8 7 7J 6 6| Do. Lntn. Forfar, 36 in.. 7J 8 7- 7A 7 6A0 6A Do. Sheetg. 4/4 24por... 6} 6A 6 5 6J 6 6A 5i 4/4 22por... 5} 6 6 4} 4f§. Flax Dwls. 27 in. 32 pr. 8 1- 8 7 6 6J Tow Duck 27 in. 30 por. 8 7: 8 7 5f 6 6A 6f 6A 6i 6 5A 5} Tow „ 26 „ .... 6A 6} ^ 6A 5} 5A 6t»i 24 6} 6i 6| 5^ 6 4^ 5 22 5A 5 5i 5; tt 4J 4} Em HpCotBg42in IJlb 9 9J 8 9 9 7 7i E. TowWp„42„14„ 8* 8f 8 8} B 6J 6} Ip Pimento 27 in. 1 lb 8i 7; 6} 7A 9 6 7 JpTwdSkg28iu. Hlb 11* 9 10} to 9 8f 5o. Twd. do. 27inli^lb. 10}. 8: 6 9} 9 7} Hessn. Shtg. 40 in. 18 pr. 61 7 6- 5 5} J)o. 40 in. 15 por... 5} 6 5 5 9 4} Sand Bag^g32 in SailrclothCom. Bm. No. 1 5 6} 4 5i 4 5i 3} 4 1 1 Oi 11 1 11 1 9 9} 9f Do. Bleached „ 11 3i 1 6 1 3 1 6 1 3 1 5 10 11 Do. Navy „ 1 1 7 1 8 1 6 1 7 1 6} 15 16 ss2 644 MODERN LINEN. Dundee Prices Current — From 20th to 30th October of each Year —From 1801 to ISGi—Corrtinued. Flax. St Ptsbrg. 12-head.. Ton , , 9-liead EigaPTR Do. DC Do. ET Aj-changel, Hemp. St Petersburg Clean .. Do. HaU-Clean Kiga Kbyne Do. Com. Pass Codilla 1827 Yarn. 3 lbs Flax— Mill Sp. Sp. 4 lbs „ 6 lbs Tow „ 7 & 8 lbs Tow „ 10&12,, „ „ Lb. Linens. Yd. Bid. FlaxShg. 9/8 34pr. Bn. Tow „ 9/8 24 pr. Do. do. Sbtg. 4/4 26pr.. Do. Imtn. Forfar, 36 in.. Do. Shtg. 4/4 do. 24 por. Do. do. 4/4 22 por Flax Dowlas 27 in. 32 pr. Tow Dufik 27 in. 30 por. Flax Osnaburg 24 por. ... Tow do. 26 por Do. do. 24 por Do do. 22 por E,usHpCotBg42in. l^lb R. TowWpdo. do. do.. Hp Pimento 27 in. 1 lb. Hp Twd Skg 28 in 14 lb Do. Twd. do. 27 in 1 J lb. Hesn. Shtg. 40 in. 18 por Do. do. 40 in. 15 por Sand Bagging 32 in Sail-ClothComBrn. No. I'o Do. Bleached „ 11 Do. Navy ,,11 35 30 37 32 27 40 31 44 36 24 2 2 2 2 7| 36 31 39 34 29 6J 6f 7| 6i ? tf 3J 9i 3 1838 £ s. £ s. 32 10 33 26 10 27 10 33 10 34 29 29 10 25 10 26 85 45 1 2 7 2 3 2 4 2 Si 8J 6i 6J 6A0 5i 4f 6 5f 5A0 5 4J 4A 6i 6i H 7 5J 5iH 7J n H n 5 4 9J 40 44 32 33 34 43 45 36 22 23 23 1829 £ s. £ s. 35 38 32 33 35 10 36 32 10 33 28 10 29 1830 £ a. £ s. 47 i3 47 43 39 38 S. D. S. D. 2 3 2 9 2 6 2 6 3i 3f Si 6i 6| 6^0 5^0 4i 6 5J 5J 4f 7| 6 6i ei 4f 4/ *TY 3J 8f 3* 8f 6^ 5i ^ ©XT 6f 7 7f 6| 4 H |o 1 s. D. s. 1 11 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 3J 2 3J 8i 6 6A0 oii 4^0 5* 6* 6* 4* 4^ 4 7^ 5 6: 7i & 4* *ir 3ir ei 6 5 4A 5f 5} 7 3f 9 30 10 40 42 36 24 S. D. S, D. 2 2 5 2 4 2 6 2 3 2 8 2 8 2 10 3} 4 6 6i 6 5 4V 6 6i 5J iHO 3H0 7i 5i 6i 7i 6J 4| 3^ 8| 11 4J 8i 51 ii 6i 7 4i 4 9J () SCOTCH LINEN. 645 Dundee Prices Current — From 20th to 30th October of each Year — From 1801 to 186i. —Continued. Flax. St. Petersburg 12-head Ton Do. 9-head RigaPTE Do. DC Do. ET Archangel, Hemp. St Petersburg Clean Do. Half-Clean Riga Khyne Do. Com. Pass Codilla Yarn. 3 lbs. Flax, Mill Spun Sp. 6 lbs. Tow, ,', 7 & 8 lbs. Tow,, 10&12,, „ Lb. Linens. Bid. Flax Shg., 9/8, 34 por...Yd. Bra. Tow „ 9/8,24 „ Do. do. „ 4/4,26 „ Do. Imtn. Forfar, 36 Do. Sheeting, 4/4, 24 , 4/4,22 „ Flax Dwls. 27 in., 32 , Tow Duck 27 in., 30 „ Flax Osnaburg, 24 , Tow „ 26 24 „ 22 Bus. Hp Cot. Bg. 42 in. H lb „ TowWp',, 42 „ H , Hp Pimento, 27 in. 1 lb Hp Twd. Skg. 28 in. IJ lb Do. Twd. do., 27 in. l} lb Hesn. Shtg. 40 inch 18por Do., 40 „ 15 SandBaging, 32 in Sail-Cloth, Com. Bm. No. 1 Do. Bleached, No. 1 Do. Navy, No. 1 1831 £ s. £ s. 46 48 4.5 10 41 10 37 10 None. 1 37 28 10 29 39 30 81 20 22 S. D. S. D. 2 1* 2 3 2 6 2 8 2 8 8 2 lOi 3 2 ii 5 8i 5J 61 G^ 6i 6 6i 6A 5i 4J 6 61 6 6i 5,V 5 5A 4,^ 4f StI 4^ 7: 5f 6J 6i 7J 7f 8J ef 5 5i 4J 3f 4i 9 ^ llf 1 5i 1832 ii S. £ s. None. 39 42 38 34 10 35 None. 26 10 27 21 29 25 14 15 S. D. S. D. 1 11 2 7f 2 8 3 2 10 3 4J i °s 6i «A 6;. 4 4 ■ 5 5j 4f 4A 4t% a-nr 6f H H 7J 6} H H 8f n 2 1 8 4 6J 6 ° Kll 5 54 4 6f 7 H 9 Iti 1833 None. 42 42 10 43 39 35 10 49 28 22 15 39 10 86 21 10 23 16 8. D. 2 2 8 2 7 2 2 lOJ 8 4J 4J 9 64 64 mo 5 54 6 5 4^0 4^0 4i 6 6| 6} 74 64 4| 4| 3| 9 114 1 3 9 4 5i e^ 4f 61 ill 4A 61 6f, .71 6| 5^ 44 3f 646 MODERN LINEN. Dundee Prices Cuebbnt, fbom 20th to 30th October of bach Ybar- From 1801 to 1864. — Continued, Flax. RigaPTR Ton. Do. DC St Petersburg 12-head... ,, 9-head... Libau 4 Brand Archangel 4th sort Hbmp. Riga Rhyne Do. Pass St Petersburg Clean.., Do. Half-clean Jute Yarn. 2 lbs. Flax Sp. 3^,, 5 ■. 6 „ 6 „ 7 „ do. Tow do do. com do. fine Jute Linens. Osnaburg 20 pr. Tow Yd 24 ,, do. com. 26 „ do Bm Shg. 20 pr. 35 in. Tow 24 „ 36 „ „ 30 „ 36 „ Flax Bid. Shg. 28 „ 35 „ Tow 32 „ 36 „ Flax 36 ,, 38 }, ,^ Dowlas 26 „ 25^ „ Tow 32 ,, 27 „ Flax 50 „ 30 „ „ Hessiansl5,, 40 16 „ 60 „ 18„ 40 „ Cot. Bg. \i lb. 42 TWp. Pimento 27 in. 1 lb. Hp. Saokg. 12 por. 26 in. Tow IJ „ 27 „ TWp li „ 28 „ Hp. Canvas, Brown, No. 1 Com. Boiled, 1 Sup Ny. Flax, 1 In April 1835, PTR Flax was £61 a ton, and in June 1837, £41. On 17th January 1835, the Chamber of Commerce resolved that aU goods should be sold by the yard of 36 inches, and aU yards payable. Prior to that date a dis- count of 13 yards on each piece of about 155 yards was allowed on Osnaburgs ; and about 8 per cent, discount on the yards of brown Sheetings were allowed in measure. No discount was allowed on the yards of other goods. SCOTCH LINEN. 647 Dundee Prices Cukrent, from 20th to 30th October of each Year — From 1801 to lS6i.— Continued. 1838 1839 1840 1841 Flax. £ s. £ s. £ s. £ s. £ .s. £ s. £ s. £ 8. Riga PTR Ton 42 42 10 41 10 42 44 45 41 Do. DC 37 10 88 None. 36 36 None. 10 38 45 39 10 36 10 37 None. St Petersburg 12-liead... ,, 9-head... 38 37 39 40 43 36 37 Libau 4 Brand 38 35 10 37 36 10 37 41 39 40 40 36 36 Archangel 4th sort Hemp. Riga Rhyne 35 40 41 42 41 42 Do. Pass 30 35 36 m St Petersburg Clean 31 10 38 40 40 ,, Half -clean 26 31 31 10 35 32 35 Jute 13 s. D. S. D. 14 S. D. s. D. 16 s. 17 S. D. 16 8. D. 17 B. D. Yarn. 2 lbs. Flax Sp. 1 n 1 11 1 10 2 1 9 1 10 1 9 1 10 3 „ do 1 1 1 2 2 10 8 9 2 2 1 10 1 11 2 3 1 10 I 8i 1 10 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 9J 1 H 3 2 1 1 2 2 10 11 2 2 2 3 1 11 2 2 2 4 2 3 1 1 1 3 2 9 2 2 1 1 9 2 1 2 2 2 3 34., Tow 5 do *^ It ^^ 6 do com 6 ,, do. fine 7 „ Jute (mixed) 2 1 2 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 3 LiNEN.S. Osnaburg 20 pr. Tow Yd. 2:- 2i 2J 2| 2| 2| 21 24 „ do. com. 3 8f 3 H 3 3i 3 31 26 „ do 8^ 4 3, 4 3i 4 3; 4 BmShg. 20pr. 35 in. Tow 3 3i 3. H 34 3g 3^ 3i 24 „ 36 „ do. 5 4 5 H 5 4 5 30 „ 36 „ Flax 6 6i 6 6J 6 6^ 6 H BldShg. 28 „ 35 „ Tow 6 6| 5a 6 l^ 6 6| 6 32 „ 36 „ Flax 7 7J 7: 7i 7 7i 7J 7J 36 „ 38 „ „ 8i 8| 8- 8i 8 9 8| 9 Dowlas, 26 ,,254 „ Tow 4 4 4i 3 41 3f 4 32 „ 27 „ Flax H 5J U 5 5| 5i 5J 54 5J 50 „ 30 „ „ 8i 9J 8 9i 8 8| 8 8J Hessiansl5,, 40 ,, H 3| a 31 H 3| 3| 3f 16 „ 60 5i 6 5 5f 51 6 18„ 40 „ B| 4 3g 4 3i 4i 4 Cot. Bg. li lb. 42 TWp. 6 Nominal. 6i ei 4 4i Pimento 27 in. 1 lb. Hp. 61 6^ 6i If 6| 7J 6| n It Sackg. 12por. 26in. Tow li „ 27 „ TWp H 3,;^ 3 3i 3 3J 3 3J 5t't! 5f 5i 5i 5i 5. H „ 28„ Hp 61 8 8| 8J 9J 8: 9J 8 8f 8 8i 8 8^ 7;- 8J Com. Bid. „ 1 m 11 9J 10 9i 10 9; 10 Sup. Navy Flax, „ 1 1 4 1 1 1 li 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 IJ 648 MODERN LINEN. Dundee Prices Cukrbnt— From 20th to 30th October of each Year — From 1801 to 1864. — Gontinued. 1843 1843 1844 1846 £ s. £ s. £ s. £ s. £ s. £ s. £ ». £ s. Flax. RigaPTR Ton 37 88 34 37 10 41 10 42 Do. DC 33 40 10 34 10 30 34 30 10 34 10 34 37 10 38 37. 10 38 10 St Petersburg 12--head. ... 9-head.... 34 35 30 32 35 36 41 10 "42 Libau 4 Brand 36 32 10 33 35 36 40 Archangel 4tli sort 35 35 10 32 10 33 35 10 36 42 10 43 Hemp. Riora Rlivne 41 42 Do. Pass 36 40 36 .o' 32 32 o" ""0 St Petersburg Clean Do. Half-clean .32 35 27 27 27 JlTTE 19 10 20 16 17 16 17 013 16 s. D. S. D. s. D. 3. T>. s. D. S. D. S. D. S. D. Yarn. 2 lbs. Flax Sp. 1 6 1 8 5 1 6 4i 1 5 1 7} 1 8} 3 „ „ 1 8 1 10 7 1 9 6J 1 8 1 11 2 1 3i,. Tow 1 g 1 8 g ]_ 7 9 5i 1 7 9 1 11} 11 2 1 1 9 1 11 "a »J J-\iir 5 1 g 1 10 7 1 2 2 3 " »t »» • 6 ,, „ common 1 10 2 10 2 2 1 2 3 6 ,, ,, line 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 3 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 2} 2 4 11 2 2 5 1 11 2 6 2 7 lb. Jute Linens. Osnaburg 20 pr. Tow Yd. 2A 2A H 2} 2A0 2A 2} 2A 24 do. com 2^ 3 2J 2U 2H 3 3 3A 26 do. Flax.... H 8i 3A 3i 3A0 3i 3A 3} Bn. Shg. 20 pr. 3.5 in. Tow 3A 3,^ 3 3A 3,V0 3A 3j 3^ 24 „ 36 „ „ 4A 4-^ 4 H ii i^ 4A 4} 30 „ 36 „ Flax «A 5} m 5 5 5^ 5A 5i Bd. Slig.28 „ 35 „ Tow 5i 5A H 5^ 5J- 5iV 5A 5f^ 32 „ 36 „ Flax 6H 7A 6H 7A 6H 7i 7^ 7i 36 „ 38 „ „ 8A 8,2^ 8A 8A 8A0 8A 8} 8A Dowlas 26 pr. 25} in. Tow 3,^ 3| s^ 3t% 3A 3f 3f 8JI 32 „ 27 „ Flax 5 5i 5 H 4f 5A 4^ 5 50 „ 30 „ „ 7f 7J n 73 7 7t*t 7A 7} Hessian 15 pr. 40 in. „ 3, 3| H H 3i 3} 3i 3} 16 „ 60 „ „ 5; 61 5 5J 5 5} 5A 5} 18 „ 40 „ „ 4 4} ii 4* a 4} 4^ 4} Cot. Bag. IJlb. 42 TWp 5 5J 5 5i 5 5J 5 5i Pimento 27 in. lib. Hp.. 63 7i 6| 74 6| 7} 6f 7} Sackg. 12 per. 26 in. Tow 3 34 3 3* 3 3} 3 8} li „ 27 „ TWp 5i H 5} 5} U„ 28„Hp.. 8: 9} 8i n SJ 9} 8J 9j Canvas, Brown, No. 1 ... 7' 8i 7 8 7 8 7i 8} Com. Bid. „ 1... 9: 10 9 10 9 10 9J. lOJ Sup, Navy Flax, ,, 1... 1 1 1 u 11 1- 11 1 llj 1 OJ SCOTCH LINEN. 649 Dundee Prices Cureent — From 20th to 30th October of each Year- Feom 1801 TO I86i.— Continued. Ton Flax, EigaPTR Do. DC 8t Petersburg 12-hea(l... „ 9-head... Libau 4 Brand. .». Archangel 4th sort Hemp. Kiga Ehyne Do. Pass St Petersburg Clean Do. HaH-Clean Jute Yarn. 2 lbs. Flax Sp. 3 ,, do 34 „ Tow 5 6 6 1846 do. do. , com do. , fine 71b. Jute Linens. Osnaburg 20 pr. Tow Yd. 24 do. com. ... 26 do. Flax.... Bn. Shg. 20 pr. 25 m. Tow 24 „ 36 „ „ 30 „ 36 „ Flax Bd.Shg.28 „ 35 „ Tow 31 „ 36 „ Flax 36 „ 38 ,, „ Dowlas 26 pr. 25iin. Tow 32 „ 27 „ Flax 50 „ 30 „ „ Hessian 15 pr. 40 in. „ 16 „ 60 „ „ 18 „ 40 „ „ Cot. Bg. 14 lb. 42 TWp. Pimento 27 in. 1 lb. Hp. Sackg. 12por. 26in. Tow li „ 27 „ TWp 14 ., 28 „ Hp.. Canvas, Brown, !No. 1... Cn. Bid. ,, 1... Sup.Navy Flax „ 1... £ s. £ s. 42 10 43 10 38 10 39 10 40 42 10 48 10 44 32 28 18 20 s. t). s. D. 1 5J 1 1 9J 1 11J 1 7i 1 -- 1 11 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 5 2 6 19 1 10 2J 3 1847 £ s. £ s. 43 43 10 39 10 40 47 48 41 10 42 40 10 41 10 87 31 32 22 24 10 1848 £ S. S. D. 30 10 28 29 32 10 33 30 10 34 37 31 17 10 20 650 MODERN LINEN. Dundee Prices Current, irom 20th to 30th October of bach Year — From 1801 to 1864.— Continued. Flax. KigaPTR Ton DC RT HD St Petersburg 12-liead.. 9-head . Archangel 3d Crown Zabrack No. ITow... SdCodilla.... Libau 4-Brand Memel do Hemp. St Petersburg Clean Riga Rhyne Jute Yarns. 2 lbs. Flax Sp. 3 „ do 3J„ Tow 5 „ do 6 „ do , Jute Linens. Yds. Oanbg. 20 pr. 23 in. Tow 24 „ 25 „ do. Dowls. 28 „ 25 „ do. 32 „ 27 „ Flax Bn. Shtg. 20pr. 33 in Tow 24 „ 35 „ do. 30 „ 35,, Flax Bld.Shtg28 „ 35 „ Tow 32 „ 35,, Flax 36 ,, 38 „ do. Hessian 15 ,, 40,, do. 18 „ 40 „ do. 16 ,, 60 ,, do. Hessians 40 in lOJ oz Cot. Bg. 42 in IJ lb Tow Sacking 27 in. IJ ,, Jute 29 in. IJ „ do. Woolpacks 10 lbs each... Canvas, Com. Brn. No. 1 Com. Bid. No. 1 Nvy. Bid. No. 1 SCOTCH LINEN. 651 DUNDBE PkICES OUKRENT, FROM 20tH TO 30tH OCTOBER OF EACH YeAR — From 1801 to 186i.—CC^ :osn ' M 0"b^ CO r4" CO of r-T * t-T CCOlOOWiOlfttMOOlO-rhCOOOCfllOCOCDOOOfNtOOOOOlOOO T*< t-H CO CO ;0 iO I-H CO C^ CO o t-'saoco « tH t- C^ CC OO iO -^ im co CO tH to ■* C^ N iH I-H •a iHrH!DCq^(MC. Poo 3 » a S=3 3 o <5 "si ta^bC rW so fet|§ cd o t>i S - Oh S « 'H 03 CO '^ oa ■—< 3 o r;3 1|t| iH cd *^ o 0) 02 d'O ffl C3 a 5 b ^ « I> a; iJl w P5 Ph P 5 oj " t- t, tL OJ •s-o K o S =■§ = '-at <)(iHpq^l-5> a 'fr^nS OS E •o c -S a g a s g 5 l-jl-;^^ SCOTCH LINEN. 657 c3 Ot ma > o o o o ■=•■ o c 50000QO0C ilr-HN i-H (NrH : O ONQO OOtHO NO OlO CO in OOOOQOOO ooooooocoo ' CO -"dT icTw'co « r-T 5£ COOOOO(MOlAOOOO(MOOi£5cOTHOOOiO'MOOOOfriiOO»n t^iH tH (M iH tH tH Eli j-JiMiHiHMiHCOeOrHOF-lrH^DCOeqcOiHOTfHr-trHiHiHeOiHNNlMb-e^M « O s « ^^ 3Sa ii » B S 3 ■* a, HJJ'3 IS S « b " SS a: CO u sis sag go ■a §^- -; 00 O ^ CI.CG ■S2£g§ a 6'^ O ■-a a. 02 1-5 CO : : 60 : : . • 60 : • . o 2 . ;0 ^ ; ill 1^1 T T 658 MODERN LINEN. CHAPTER IV. United Kingdom. It is of high importance for those engaged in any branch of trade or manufacture to be furnished with reliable statistical in- formation regarding the recent progress and present extent and . condition of the same. It is to be regretted that no details are made up periodically of the regular production of any of the great staples of the country. This might be done by Govern- ment at no great cost, and its value not only to the individual trade, but to the nation at large, would be inestimable. No means exist for ascertaining, with any degree of accuracy, the quantity of Linen manufactured yearly, either in England, Ireland, or Scotland. The only details made up by Government, bearing on the subject, are the importation into the Uuited King- dom of the raw material, &c., and the exportation of yam and Linen, &c., to foreign countries. These, so far as they go, are highly interesting, and their value is seen in the avidity with which the periodical returns are examined, as they are issued by the Board of Trade. These tables giye no information regard- ing the consumption of Linens in the United Kingdom, of the real extent of which, and whether on the increase or decrease, little is absolutely known. Estimates of the production in the different localities may be formed, but at best they are only a guess, and as likely to be wide of the truth as near it ; and any assumption of the yards, or value of the Linen made in the United Kingdom must be vague, and cannot be relied upon. Some details of the quantities of Flax, Hemp, Jute, &c., im- ported into the United Kingdom have been given in the section on fibres. The following is the importation into Great Britain of the articles mentioned for the years specified : — Flax. Hemp. Linen Yarn. Tons, 12,997 Tons, 18,455 Tons, 4,188 „ 6,490 „ 22,681 „ 4,203 „ 19,269 „ 31,336 „ 4,120 UNITED KINGDOM. 659 Quantity and Valdk of Flax and Hemp, and the Produce thebeoi", Im- POSTED INTO Gbkat BRITAIN IK THE Yeae ENDING 5th Januakt ISOS.— [Dun- dee J dvertiaer, 17th June 1808,) Flax and its Products, Quantities. Value. Flax Cwts. 420,769 2 17 £1,263,412 14 1 CanvoB „ 8,980 X 3 42,659 11 9 DriUingB Cwts. 621 1 19 5,281 19 5 German Plain Linen „ 23,187 12 142,981 18 10 Russian do. do „ 32,590 3 202,707 9 3 Cambric Pieces, 18,729 56,187 Damask and Diaper, Tabling and ^Tapkining, Yards, 49,806 14,200 8 8 Irish Plain Linen 40,870,283 3,405,856 18 i Holland, Flanders, and French Linen, . . Ells, 143,622 28,724 8 Silesia Lawns, Pieoes,12,511 8,132 3 Linenunrated, checked, striped, &c.. Pieces 3310, ElU, 155,861 8,044 13 6 Thread, viz. sisters, wheeled, brown, and Bruges, Lbs., 6,261 15,620 19 Yarn, yiz. Linen raw, total value of . 525,883 4 3 Total value of Flax and the produce thereof, £5,719,693 8 Hemp and its ProduC!T3. Quantities. Value. Hemp Cwts. 756,430 1 27 £1,891,076 4 4 Tow, 9,722 2 22 19,445 7 10 Cordage „ 4,800 1 10 9,600 13 6 Sailcloth 334 1 14 4,012 8 Sail 2 7.953 4 1 Total value of Hemp and the produce> thereof, £1,962,087 17 9 Total Flax £5,719,693 8 Total Hemp 1,952,087 17 9 Grand Total £7,671,781 5 9 The value of the articles enumerated imported into Great Britain from foreign countries in 1814 and 1815, was — 1814 1815 Flax, rough £949,981 £633,040 Hemp, do. 463,573 621,822 Linens 216,649 136,933 Linen Yarns, raw, 272,502 250,757 £1,902,705 £1,642,552 The value of the exports of British and Irish Linen manufac- tures for same years, was — ^^^ Linen manufactures, £1,543,436 £1,618,575 Linen Yarn do. ... None enumerated. tt2 660 MODERN LINEN. The value of foreign goods re-exported from Britain in same years was as follows : — 1814 1815 Flax, rough, £96,280 £40,032 Hemp, do 40,752 42,083 Linens 177,342 103,501 £314,374 £185,616 Total value of Linen Exports, ... £1,857,810 £1,804,191 The revenue paid to Government on the importation into England and Scotland of the goods enumerated, for the year ending 5th January 1816, was — England. Scotland. Total. Flax, £4,168 14 1 £2,594 4 11 £6,762 19 Hemp 274,677 5 3 44,159 7 318,836 12 3 Linena 77,336 8 1 2,938 17 7 80,275 5 8 £356,182 7 5 £49,692 9 6 £405,874 16 11 A statement of the Flax, Hemp, and Jute imported yearly during the century, up to 1862, is given in page 111. In that year the details of the Importation of Flax, Tow, &c., was as follows : — From Tons. Total Tons. Computed Value. Total Value. Flax, &c., Kusbia, 61,728 £3,381,818 Other Countries, 28,190 1,824,174 89,918 £5,205,992 Hemp, &c., Eussia, 30,450 £1,114,548 Other Countries, 18,638 590,326 49,088 1,704,874 Jute, &c., India, 47,067 £906,834 Other Countries, 1,122 23,800 4^,189 930,634 Other Vegetable Materials, 128 4,610 Tons, 187,323 £7,846,110 The rate at which Jute is calculated is 19s 4d per cwt. The importation in 1863 included 72,948 tons of Flax, &c. 51,908 of Hemp, &c., and 62,939 of Jute, &c.— total, 187,495 tons ; and for the first four months of 1864 it wag — Flax, &c., UNITED KINGDOM. 661 22,396 tons, Hemp, &c., 7,857, Jute, &c., 31,208. Total, 61,461 tons, against 29,129 tons in same period in 1863. An account of the Linen yarn and Linens exported from the kingdom for several years has been extracted from the " Blue Books" published periodically by the Board of Trade, showing the yards and value shipped to each country. In the monthly and yearly abstracts of the Exports which are published, only some of the countries taking large quantities of these arti cles are enumerated, the balance being put down to " other countries." This head has been sub-divided as far as can be done from the Blue Books, but, owing to the way in which they are made up, it is impossible to give the precise value sent to several of the countries of the world. These Tables shew the relative importance of each country as custom- ers of the Linen manufacturers of the kingdom. The abstract only is given for 1863, and the first four months of 1864, as the full details are not yet published. Sir F. M. Eden estimated the entii-e value of the Linen manu- facture in 1800 at £2,000,000. The annual value of the Linen manufacture of Great Britain, and the number of people em- ployed in the trade, chiefly founded on ofBeial returns published in 1806, was — Manufactures of Flax, value £»,000,000 People employed, 95,000 Do. of Hemp, „ 1,000,000 Do. 35,000 Together, £4,000,000 Tot^l, 130,000 Being about six per cent, of the total manufactures of the coun- try, and seven and one-half per cent, of the total people then employed in them. In 1848 the value of the Linen manufac- ture was estimated at £10,000,000. Setting aside one-third for raw materiSl, and another third for profits, wages of superin- tendence, tear and wear of buildings and machinery, coals, &c., it leaves the remaining third, or three and one-third millions, to be divided as wages. Supposing each individual to earn on an average £18 per annum, the total number employed would be 1.50,000, A few years ago it was estimated that the entire value of the Linen manufactures of the United Kingdom was upwards of £12,000,000, of which about one-half was exported. The quau- 662 MODERN LINEN. tity exported in 1863 was, Linen yarn, £2,535,728, Linen £5,921,308 ; together, £8,457,036. If the quantity exported be about half the quantity made, this would show the total value of the Linen manufactures for 1863 to be about £17,000,000 sterling. The value of the Flax and Jute im- ported, of the Hemp imported which is used in the Linen manufacture, and of the Flax grown in Ireland and other divi- sions of the Kingdom, in 1863, wiU not be over-stated at £10,000,000. If the raw material, as was estimated in 1843, forms only one-third part of the value of the Linen manufac- tures of the country, this would make their total value in 1863 £30,000,000. This, however, is probably ^eatly beyond the real value, and a medium amount between the sums, as esti- mated by these two modes, or, say £25,000,000, may approxi- mate to the true value. In any event, the Linen Manufacture forms one of the most important branches of the trade of the country. Its extension has of late years been marvellously rapid, and its elasticity is commensurate with its importance. According to the Report of the Inspector of Factories, the num- ber of power-looms employed on Flax manufactures in 1835 were as follows : — In England 41 looms, Ireland 100, and Scotland 1 68, being a total of 309 looms. In 1850 the num- ber had increased to 3,670 ; and in 1862, as shewn by the Re- turn made up by the Inspector of Factories, and given in to the House of Commons in 1862, the numbers had increased to 15,347. According to the same return the spindles employed in the Flax manufacture were 1,252,236. The number of persons employed in the spinning-miUs and power-loom factories engaged in the Linen trade in the different portions of the kingdom in 1839 and 1862 were as follows : — England and Wales, Scotland, , Ireland, • 1839 1862. Increase. 16,882 20,305 3,423 17,587 33,699 16,012 9,017 33,525 24,508 43,486 87,429 43,943 The distribution of the spindles, power-looms, and operatives employed in the several countries, forming the three grand divi- sions of the Kingdom, will be seen by reference to the Returns. U:vrfED KINGDOM. 6()3 Linen Bounty. The very limited extent, aud the purely domestic character of the Linen manufacture in Scotland in the beginning of last century, may be learned by considering the condition of the country at that date. The turbulent character of the people, the imperious and avaricious spirit of the nobles and feudal superiors, and the despotic sway of the King, all tended to make property insecure, and to stifle, if not to extinguish, manufacturing industry. After the union of Scotland and England, a more peaceful day dawned upon the former coun- try. The G-overnment, anxious to conciliate the inhabitants and elevate their social position, sought to do so by extending the manufactures of the country. The Linen Trade was pecu- liarly a national one in Scotland, with the germs of prosperity already in it, and it was supposed that it only required to be fostered and encouraged to make it really beneficial to the country at large. The sagacity and wisdom of such an idea is undeniable, however much the mode adopted to carry it into practice may be questioned. With the view of working out so desirable an object, laws were from time to time passed for the encouragement of the trade. The first of the Linen Acts, passed in 1727, was, after trial, found not to be sufficient to answer the purpose intended, and it was thought that the trade of the Kingdom might be stimulated, and perhaps rendered permanently progressive, by granting a bounty on the Linens exported to foreign countries. An Act having this object was accordingly passed in 1742, and the payment of a bounty on Linen exports from Great Britain was continued, with some interruptions, until it finally ceased in 1832. In the early part of last century there was little energy in the country, especially among those engaged in its trade, manufac- tures, or commerce, and it was supposed that without Govern- ment support no progress could be made. The spirit of self- 664 MODERN LINEN. reliance was then little understood, and seldom acted upon, and without adventitious aid manufactures would perhaps have re- mained stationary, or even retrograded. If pecuniary assistance from Grovernment to aid in the establishment of any trade be defensible, it is so in this instance, because, at such a dormant period, it may be doubted if the trade would otherwise have taken root and made progress. It is certain that, without the patronising and subsidizing hand of Government, the progress of the Linen trade would, at best, have been very slow. To many, therefore, the encouragement so afforded seems right and proper, as the end, they say, in such a case, justifies the means. The principle of bounties cannot, however, be defended, as it is unfair to tax the nation at large for the benefit of a section of it ; or rather to supply the foreign customer with goods below prime cost. This is virtually what the payment of all bounties on the exportation of home manufactures shipped foreign really do, and the case of Linen has no special peculiarity in its favour. The best aid the Government can give to any manu- facture is to repeal all import duties on the raw material, and let it reach the manufacturer at the lowest possible rate ; to remove restrictions of every kind from all the processes of the manufacture ; and to permit the exportation of the manufactured article free of duty and other national imposts. If the mode of manufacture, in all its operations, be left to the ingenuity, energy, and cupidity of the manufacturer, these will be sufficient to stimulate his exertions without public aid. The fears which were expressed by many that the withdrawal of a bounty on the exportation of Linen would ruin the Linen manufacture of the country have, happily, not been realized. Bounties are now a thing of the past, but the Linen trade still lives, and at the present time it flourishes more vigorously than ever it did before. Experience has proved that this manufacture, in com- mon with all others, prospers best when left to the superior skill, enterprise and industry of those engaged in it, and the history of all businesses, carried on in this country by the aid of bounties, proves that they are neither advantageous to those engaged in them, nor to the nation. In 1742 an Act of Parliament was passed (15 and 16 Geo. UNITED KINGDOM. 665 II., c. 29), laying an additional duty on foreign cambric of Is 5d for every half-piece, and 2s lOd for every whole piece imported ; and for allowing thereout a bounty of |d per yard on British and Irish Linen imder the value of 6d per yard, and Id per yard on those of the value of 6d and not exceeding Is per yard, which should be exported to Africa, America, Spain, and Por- tugal. A statute was passed in 1745, to prevent frauds from being committed in [counterfeiting the stamps put on British and Irish Linen, in order to receive the bounty allowed on their exportation, and for effectually preventing the exportation of foreign Linen under the denomination of British or Irish. Same year another Act was passed, increasing the bounties on exportation of British and Irish Linen to the colonies or foreign countries. The new rates, payable at the Custom- houses on duly certified invoices, were as follows : — Linen of value under 5d per yard a bounty of Jd per ynrd, Do. M, and under 6d ,, ,, Id ,, Do. 6d, nnd under Is 6d ,, ,, l^d ,, "W itli sundry regulations for preventing frauds. In 1749 an Act was passed continuing the bounty on low- priced Linen for three years longer. On 6th April 1754 the bounties ceased. In 1756 they were renewed. From the accounts laid before Parliament when the renewal of the bounty was under consideration, it appears that the Yards. Yards. Annual consumption of Linen in Great Britain and the colonies at that period was ... ••• ••• ••■ •■• 80,000,000 Of which imported from abroad, ... ... 32,230,767 But re-exported to foreign countries, ■.• 2,230,767 30,000,000 Imported from Ireland, ... ••■ ■■• 12,230,767 Manufactured in Scotland, ... ... ■■• 12,000,000 Manufactured in England, ... ... ■•■ 25,769,233 80,000,000 In 1770 a new Act was passed, regulating the bounties on Linen exported. Bounty paid. £383 10 S 747 17 6 4,188 10 9 8,308 16 8 13,905 7 11 23,538 13 1 23,497 10 4 36,972 18 4 666 MODERN LTNEN. Total Quantitt op Britisb and Irish Likews Expoeted In the Team npeoifled from 1743, when Bounties began, up to 1773 ; with Bounty paid on same. British. Irish. Yds. Yds. 1743 62,779 40,907 1745* 56,240 101,928 1746 175,928 695,002 1750 688,874 742,032 1754 1,382,796 843,973 1760 1,413,602 2,352,585 1765 2,095.933 1,663,670 1770t 3,216,506 2,707,482 1771J 4,411,040 3,450,224 44,738 8 10 1773 3,279,808 2,832,246 In 1778 the bounties determined, but were renewed. For a long time subsequent to this date the bounty on Linen exported, both British and Irish, continued to be paid, without much complaint from the nation, but early in this century the injustice of such payments began to be animadverted upon, and their continuance condemned. This condemnation sealed their doom, and they were at last, but not without much opposition, withdrawn in Scotland, as the following notes taken from the minutes of the Board of Trustees shew : — 15th June, 1819. — The Chamber of Commerce, Dundee, petitioned the Privy Council that the bounty on exportation of sail-cloth be continued, even although it was said, "it is and has long been the practice to make the cloth not in conformity with law, i.e., without the triple threads directed (by the Act 9, Geo. II., cap. 37) to be put at the distance of every two feet in each bolt of the first four numbers." A copy of the petition was sent to the Board of Trustees, asking their support. Board agree to recommend petition to their Lordships. 11th January, 1820. — Letter from Chamber of Commerce, Dundee, to the Board of Trustees, asking their support of a bill which Mr Maberly proposes introducing into House of Commons for renewing bounty on the exportation of Linens. 8th February, 1820. — Petition by manufacturers and others in Aberdeen, praying the Board to lend their aid to have the • This year Bounty extended to all Linens from 6d to Is 6d per yard. The rates are given in page 666. t The Bounty of IJd now extended to Sheetings and Table Linens, and a new Bounty of lid per yard allowed on British checks and stripes from 7d to Is 6d per yard. 1 No similar record from Scotland this year, but Gibson's History of Glasgow says that from that port alone there was exported 2,858,000 yardu of Scotch, and 781,000 yards of Irish Linens, in 1771. UNITED KINGDOM. 667 bounty on exportation of British and Irish Linen, which expires on 25th March, 1821, renewed. The Board are of opinion that if the aforesaid bounty be withdrawn, it would be impossible for the manufacturers in Scotland to compete with the foreign manu- facturers of the Continent, considering the superior advantages which the latter enjoy in the lightness of taxation, and cheapness both of labour and of the raw material. That, therefore, the continuance of the bounty seems to the Board to be of vital im- portance to the preservation of the manufacture, and to the many thousand persons employed in its various branches, as well as to the prosperity of the country at large. Kesolve, therefore, that the application of the manufacturers be recommended to the particular attention of the Lord Advocate. Ist March, 1821. — Letter from John Baxter, chairman of the Chamber of Commerce, Dundee, praying the Board to urge continuance of bounties. Board agree to do so, and prepare a letter accordingly to the Board of Trade. A letter to the same effect was sent to the Board by the manu- facturers of Kirkcaldy, and the Board resolved to write the Lords of the Treasury, asking renewal of the bounty on Linen. The bounty was again renewed. ' In 1823 Government proposed to abolish the bounty on all Linen under 7d a yard at once, and all above 7d at the rate of 10 per cent, per annum. This would have excluded Osnaburgs, brown sheetings, sackings, &c., which were under 7d a yard. It was represented to Government that, under ordinary circum- stances, it was impolitic to direct the national wealth of the country in particular channels by means of bounties and duties, yet great good had resulted from the departure from this sound principle in the manufacture of Linen. A periodical reduction of bounty on all qualities was asked. In 1824, the Chancellor of the Exchequer agreed to make the reduction of these bounties applicable, by a per centage, to every class of Linens. Great complaints were made at various times about the ex- porters having taken advantage of Government, by misrepresenta- tions regarding the value of their goods, and in some cases the complaints were not without sufficient cause. In May, 1824, a letter from Liverpool was laid before a meet- ing of the Forfarshire Chamber of Commerce and Manufactures, Gb'8 MOEEKN LINEN. mentifning that, as reported ia a letter received from Scotland, Osnaburgs of Flax tow, 25 inches wide, value only 5id a yard, made at Dundee, had been exported from Liverpool, claiming and receiving the bounty of l|d a yard, which had been in- voiced at only 3|d. The Chamber thought that it reflected great disgrace on some exporters of Dundee Linens, and offered to give all information to the Collectors of Customs at Liver- pool, to prevent all such frauds thereafter. In June 1826, the searchers in the Custom-House of London stopped shipments of large parcels of coarse Linens, on the plea that the exporters put a false value on their goods. G-oods valued from 6d to Is 6d a yard were entitled to a bounty of l|d a yard, and by the usage of the trade the goods in question were entitled to this bounty, but the searcher said that " through the depression of trade, though nominally worth 8d, yet in the present distress they might be bought for less than 6d, and so were entitled to a smaller rate of bounty." The exporters took their ground on the usage of the trade, and contended that^the searcher was exceeding his authority, and putting difficulties in the way of the trade, imcalled for and unjust. In a letter from London in August 1826, it was said that Osnaburgs had fallen from 6d to 4d a yard, which would have reduced the bounty from Id to ^d a yard, less 20 per cent, which had been taken off the bounty ; but by making them into No. 10 canvas prior to 5th July, they were all shipped at 2d per ell, free of any deduction. A kind of packsheet called hessians, worth from 4Jd to 4|d a yard, were also shipped as canvas, and the shippers drew 2d an ell of bounty on them also. The Linen manufacture had, for about eighty years, been propped up by a bounty of from 15 to 20 per cent, on the value of the articles exported, but the time had now come when these were to be abolished. In Ireland, the withdrawal of the bounty began on 5th January 1825, and it finally ceased on 5th January 1830. In Britain they also began to be withdrawn in 1825, but they did not wholly determine till 5th January 1832. The rates of bounty on Irish Linens exported to foreign parts, from the year 1780 to 5th July 1805, were — Plain Linen, of the breadth of 25 inches or more, and under the value of 4/^d per yard, . . . . O^^d per yard. UNITED KINGDOM. 660 Of the value of 4^d, and under 6d per yard, . Offd per yard. Of the value of 6d, and not exceeding Is 6d per yard, Ixyd ,, Checked or Striped Linen not exceeding Is 6d, and not under Gi^d per yard, O^d „ Diaper, Sheeting, and other Linen upwards of one yard in breadth, and not exceeding Is 6d the square yard in value, li^jd Sail-cloth, . 2d per ell. From 5th July 1805 to 5th January 1825— Plain Linen, of the breadth of 25 inches or more, and under the value of 5d per yard, O^d per yard. Of the value of 5d and under 6d per yard, . . . Id , , Of the value of 6d and not exceeding Is 6d per yard, . l\d. ,, Cheeked or Striped Linen not exceeding Is 6d, and not under 6,^d per yard, . . 04d ,, Diaper, Sheeting, and other Linen, upwards of one yard in breadth, and not exceeding Is 6d the square yard in value, . lid ,, Sail-cloth, . 2d per ell. Prom Jan. 5, 1825, to Jan. 5, 1826 — 9-10th3 of the rates immediately preceding. „ 1826, „ 1827— 8-lOtha of same. 1827, „ 1828— 7-lOths 1828, ,, 1829-6-10th3 1829, „ 1830— 5-lOths The bounty then ceased entirely. The bounties paid on British Linen exported prior to 1825 were the same as on Irish from 1805 to 1825. In 1825, two- tenths or 20 per cent, of the amount was withdrawn. There- after one-tenth, or 10 per cent, of the amount, ceased on 5th January each year, until 5th January 1832, when the whole remaiiiing bounty was withdrawn, and the adventitious aid which had been afforded to the manulacture for ninety years finally ceased. The amount of bounty paid on British Linens exported in 1824 was £209,516 6s ll|d, being a seventh part of the entire value of the exports, which was £1,309,616. The bounty on Irish Linen exported same year was £87,549 16s 3|d, being about a tenth part of the value of the exports, which amounted to £918,385. This is one of the most glaring instances of the system of bounties, and it was surely high time that so costly a mode of upholding any manufacture came to a close. 670 MODERN LINEN. By 1828 the amount paid in bounties on Linens exported was much reduced, as will be seen from the following statement of the imports and exports for the year ending 5th January 1829 :— IMPORTS, Flax, &c.. Hemp, &c., . Linen Yarn, . Tons, 43,809 „ 25,206 „ 1,531 EXPORTS. Official Yalne, £1,781,797 do., 424,110 do., 195,272 Total Quantity, Official Talue, Declared Value, Bounty Paid upon Amount of Bounty, Yards, 48,258,333 £2,457,815 2,456,385 Yards, 46,235,012 £166,038 7s 9d Yards, 12,029,481 £648,047 663,891 Yards, 9,905,639J £36,696 17s 8Jd Simultaneously with the abolition of the bounties, Grovemment -began the reduction of duties on Linens imported, and they were extinguished nearly at the same time. On 27th July 1832, Lord Althorpe said the abolition of the Linen bounties was a saving to the country of i£100,000 a year. Factory Laws. The introduction of what is called the Factory system eflfected a vast change in the social condition and position of many of the operatives employed in mills and manufactories throughout the country. Before that period the manufacture of textile fabrics of every description continued to be of a domestic nature. The yarn was spun and the cloth weaved in the dwellings of the operatives, or in small rooms adjoining, where at most but a few persons were congregated together for this purpose. Generally these parties had their time very much at their own disposal, and, therefore, Legislative enactments to regulate their hours of labour were altogether unnecessary. The factory system drew the women and children from the homes of their fathers, and UNITED KINGDOM. 671 assembled them in large numbers within extensive buildings specially built for the new trade. In them these people were beyond the control of their natural guardians, and under the charge of men whose interest it was to take the greatest profit oiit of their labour. This, as might naturally be supposed, speedily led to gi-eat abuses, and the Act of the first Six Robert Peel (42, Geo. III., cap. 73, passed 22d June, 1802,) checked some of the evils, but it made no provision against many others. At that period factory labour was little developed, and as the system extended itself, this act was so regularly and systematically evaded, that it became altogether inoperative with respect to its legitimate objects. Indeed so much was this the case that until within a period of about thirty years, it may be said there were no laws in the United Kingdom to regulate the hours of labour of women and children employed in factories. The next law on the subject, called The Factory Act, was 3 and 4, William IV., cap. 103, passed 29th August, 1833. Until then, notwithstanding the Act of ] 802, the hours of labour in factories were left to the private arrangement of the employer and the employed, and the latter, being the weaker power, had frequently to submit to extremely long hours. The working hours in the various factories were not then uniform, nor were regular hours kept from day to day at many of the works, some of them being worked beyond the stated hours, until a certain amount of work was performed, and this at the discretion, and not unfrequently according to the caprice, of the employer or his manager. In some country districts the evil became so clamant that the interference of the Legislature was a positive necessity, young people having been continuously employed for 15 or 16 hours a day, with scarcely an interval for meals. In towns the hours, although not so long as in the country mills, were so continuous as to be highly detrimental to health, and they were %'ery irregular, and far from uniform. Since the passing of the Factory Act, the Factory Amend- ment Act, 4 and 5 William IV., cap. 1 (20th February, 1834), the Factories' Regulation Act, 7 and 8, Vict., cap. 15 (6th June, 1844), the Rope Works Exemption Act, 9 and 10 Vic, cap. 40 (3d August, 1846), the Factory Labour Limitation Act, com- monly called the Ten Hours Act, 10 and H Vict., cap. 29 (8th 672 ' MODERN LINEJf. June, 1847), the Children's Labour Act, 16 and 17 Vict., cap. 104 (20th August, 1853), the Factory Act, 19 and 20 Vict., cap. 38 (30th June, 1856), Bleaching and Dyeing Works Act, 23 and 24 Vict., cap. 78 (6th August, 1860), and other Acts have been passed for the protection of women and children em- ployed in factories, bleaching and dyeing works, calenders, &c. , and for the regulation of the hours of labour in these works. The law as it presently stands provides that the word " Factory " shall include all premises within which any me- chanical power shall be used to work any machinery employed in any process incidental to the manufacture of cotton, wool, hair, sUk, Flax, Hemp, Jute, or tow, either separately or mixed together. That no child under 8 years of age shall be admitted into textUe factories ; that from 8 to 13 they shall work only 6| hours a day, and shall receive educational instruction at pre- scribed hours, for three hours daily at the least. That no young person imder the age of 18, and no female above the age of 18, shall be employed in any factory more than 10 hours in any one day, nor more than 60 hours- in any one week ; nor be employed before six o'clock in the morning, nor after six in the evening, excepting to recover lost time in country mills driven by water- power, and then not later than seven in the evening. The laws also regulate the meal hours, make provision for the sanitary condition of the works, and compel employers to give at least six holidays in the course of a year. By these laws provision is also made for the safety of the persons employed in factories, by making it imperative on em- ployers to fence in a sufficient manner all dangerous machinery. Penalties are imposed for all breaches of the Factory Acts, and Inspectors are appointed for the purpose of regularly visiting the works to see that the requirements of the laws are fully complied with. Enactments have of late years been made for the regulation of the labour of females and young persons in bleaching and dyeing works, but excluding those works where the open-air system of bleaching is practised as is the case in Linen yarn bleachworks. Two years ago an act was passed prohibiting the labour of women and young persons in such works between the hours of eight o'clock evening, and six in the morning, and last UNITED KINGDOM. 673 y6ar calender works employing women, children, and young persons, have been placed tmder the Factory Act, 26 and 27 Vict., cap. 38 (29th June, 1863). There cannot be a doubt that the Factory Laws have not only prevented many abuses, but they have also been productive of much good to the health and comfort of the operatives employed in Factories, and that without doing serious injury to the mill- owners. At same time the Legislature ought to interfere as little as possible between master and servant in healthful em- ployments, unless the necessity for such interference be very clearly proved. TABULAR STATEMENTS. Linen Manupaoturbs, Yarns, and Flax Exported rnoii the United Kingdom from 1831 to 1863. Linen Manufactures. Thread, Tape and Sinall Years. Linen y *«>^-" Entered by the Yarrt Wares. Yards. Declrd. Value Dech'd. Value Lbs. Declrd. Value 1831 69,283,892 £2,400,043 £61,661 1832 49,531,0.'>7 1,716,084 58,643 ii'6,'i?8 £8,705 1833 63,232,509 2,097,273 69,751 935,682 72,006 1834 67,834,305 2,357,991 85,3.55 1,.533,325 136,312 1835 77,977,089 2,893,139 99,004 2,611,215 216.635 1836 82,088,760 3,238,031 88,294 4,574,504 318,772 1837 5ti,426,333 2,063,425 64.020 8,373,100 479,307 1838 77,195,894 2,717,979 102.293 14,923,329 746,163 1839 85,256,542 3,292,220 122,747 16,314,615 818,485 1840 89,373*431 3,194,827 111,261 17,733,575 822,876 1841 90,321,761 3,200,467 147,088 25,220,290 972,466 1842 69,232,682 2,217,373 129,376 29,490,987 1,025,.551 1843 84,172,585 2,615,.566 187,657 23,358,352 898,829 1844 91,283,754 2,801,609 223,191 25 970,569 1,050,676 1845 88,401,670 2,830,784 205,586 23,288,725 1,060,566 1846 84,799,369 2,631,809 198,999 19,484,203 875,405 1847 89,329,310 2,759,094 199,757 12,688,915 649,893 1848 89,002,431 2,597,573 205,216 11,722,182 493,449 1849 111,259,183 3,209,539 284,290 17,264.033 732,065 1850 122,.342,516 3,589,439 358,243 18 220,688 881,312 1851 129.106,753 3,822,935 284,461 18,841,326 951,426 1852 l.S3,192 627 3,872,491 359,295 23,928,592 1,140, .565 1853 134,165,291 4,345,600 412,832 22,893,586 1,154,977 1854 111,648,657 3,780,894 339,149 17,696,867 944, .502 1855 118,039,721 3,823,691 294,322 18,177,484 932,981 1856 146,410,188 4,506,110 381,670 25,118,349 1,365,980 1857 13.3,687,197 4,194,742 322,138 28,847,811 1,647,953 1858 122,561,748 3,802,213 322,143 32,047,492 1,746,340' 1859 138,120,498 4,300,026 290,672 27,290,387 1,674,602 1860 143,996,773 4,434,858 339,811 31,210,612 1,801,272 1861 116,322,469 3,571,131 269,778 27 981,042 1,622,216 1862 156,871,020 4,648,270 482,834 32,584,676 1,854,866 1863 180,395,967 5,921,308 526,818 38,553,643 2,53.5,728 u u 674 MODERN LINEN. ■Tt( t- (;d - CO t-l>.CO-t-C0i-Hl0m03'*'^»Oi-l»ftr--OC'?lft SSioSorHobscaj-l^t-tDOO'gCglOOCDCqeOCgrHOO ■^COOiCC^^_ '^'^, ^^ iocacoioos 1-H i«t-(M b- lOcomcoio « .i-Hmb-iHCOCSCOCOa3eQ 00t-O00O':CC0Q0"«*oi-i(N .cqcOTt* • io-*eoooooot-M"*iDCs^ : CO o rH 1-1 00 mco in 00 CO OS CO OS Ob-OSCJliHCCTHb-MrHrHlOCO-^lOiHOOC^lOlOOOOMS^ OOb-cqO-^-^t-tNb-rHOSb-MQOCOeOt-Nb-COlOTtfCC (MlO(MOST-lCD«r-l r-i i-I Cr-^" r-T iHCO I-T M H o PU M .3 S a — o ^ =8 -M Dli .P --? - 1^ ^ ^ ta O UNITED KINGDOM. 675 •I 00 CO Ttl O (NO ^CO^Ol>-CSC010«0 ^ •*'00 l>rcO r-Tr-Twf p '=Oii-l'MO'Mt-Ciit^ r-li-liH '«al I S3 J b- I £2 CO :o m5«o ^ ■ cc ooso *>:. osi-HeorHt-(cot-cq s? W i-l fH OS b- lO ;P .^NCOCQCOi-ii-IOSOSCOOb-.OQOCO OS^^ b. 04 (S b~ T}4 Ih »0^-^QO -^CO rH^CO^CO t-H^ eg'soco (N'b^M cq b-rs^bTrHb^b^otrcocfco ^ CD tH Tt< O C r- 1 r-* er\(?3SsOSCO'*r-JOSrOlOb-QO'^eO'^CO»n ffl 00 K S.^,S ^__M rH eo^co^io -^^ffi to to^« (Trivrirrffa^cs^ffJ'o"b.^orb^c4"©>o 00 o ~ CO 00 lo '* 00 CO S '-l,°o,'^<^ *^^'^* ^ ^^^r. ■3>t3 ."5 M g bo O o d a a « 09 s 3 so .2 2c uu2 676 MODERN LINEN. 3 > CO (>- CDCOOi • COOS -eococfl ' di-i '. -■3 P OC0OOC0C^t^'MrH00l0Tt*00L--.?-HOCC»nc0b-iHOC0:0 ait-oooiMb-eooi-^eoeqcqt-Otocgc^oiot-eot^r-iQO (NCOrHOrHCDCOCOt-COCCiCOi-IOCOOCOCOCDlOTfJr-IOJCO COC0C0(NCCQ0b-'*'*COQ0i-l tJ<_'*J^t1H_CO^0O ^ t- Ix "«^ ■<* (N CD COb-iOlOO:COin!Mb-COt— iHOiO-*iC»-I-^(Nl-lOb■^t^-lr^^*l^-(Moooo t-l CO-b- 00Tf-Q0i— lb-CQ«u:3(M« — t^ (N CS^OO^C^TP t- OS^O^CO Ci_^ 00 r-4 b- CO .0-Ji— (t^COcCiOOb-OQOOOTjiGOCOOTtlCOrHCO ■rp lO CO_t-^Q0^in OS CO CD iO^ °° ^^ ""J.^ OSr-«i-HTt*COC<100QOI>. r-T ■^<^ r-T CO i-T eC OrH r-T Of M I ^2 p 5^ CO CDrH Tt^ rt^ rH »Or-i i-iiM Oi '10 t— CO iC OS f-H ■ ^1 CI lO I— ( . CO . N .1-4 ■*':::^?^3t3S5i2S'^fc:S?S2?'^"lfc-H CO CO qb-(-;OCOCMCOCDb-OlTjiO'<*'00»nQCCCb-a>cOli0^b-0 DOi oas^OG^^'^__cocococo iHmss[iocDoocoocot-io»noi CCC^CDCli-HOacOCOOTtfeDTHrHO^Mtb-dHWO^ TfOOCOlO'^THM* wt-CD(N0Jr=HO>0«(Sc»»0Q0 iMb-O Nb-r-; C0 0i_0 O ■**< CO COOSO i^ UNITED KINGDOM. 677 Op iQ ; »0(N CA oco .-1 'V5 : :t.rH o i-l mecOcOi-icccD^50iocoeocDt*ow^oooO'*ecic»C(NiOin ^O^ci t>^oo *o CO "*_^o^-* ■*_!>- ot>.coTt^oot^o^5t*(^JT^<(ffl»»oo •^ iH »M I— 1<0 rH 5*= 0.CJClt>-01WQpOiCO-r-IQ0t>-r0C<»'^CDO'-(01Q0 iUiOOiOOrt*TP''fr-i.HtOO — J-"'^i 'iHrHi-Hb-CDCOOOCO-HCOCD (N T-H lO r-i rH^rH" i-T COM ^^ ..-,"10 iO CO i- 00 CO C?'' .lOt-50 THOSCOiOCOCsOiirti-HCOiCiii^CiOOr-iOOO in?Di-IC^TtC0(M(MQ0Oi-it- (MOJ OIT CO O b-^co T-i in CM '^CiCi'^tcS' CO t^ t-;C;3CO CO tH 00 rH to OS_Cs_ oTco cot>. b-b- coo b-cC COiH ■^ iH tH -C0l>-»ft'*0iC0 'rf b^ b^co ccTr^ o' 100 bTcT coco b^t-T CO* b-li50»01«OCCOOOSOSb*»0^«OSh«H b-iH OSi-fCO-^^DeOO COCOiHiHtNiH £^■1 10 CO eoa» rt*CO ^s oco in Tp ; ■«* 00 . c3s eoeciotN'* COr-dnCOCD C0Tt-m'^osc-l05!NC5QOOOOClOC005»OS^IO §^ c ^ Q O .S 09 OS (h m ■•J^.S'S'-e WO37 1,402,206 1,265,683 2,412,608 73,088,420 12,388,346 3,678,803 4,282,358 7,910,769 2,957,995 3,344,878 6,129.275 3,079,999 5,642,097 34,128,373 For the 4 Months end' Ing 30th April. 1863 Yards. 44,390 230,341 2,605,127 391,234 1,007,261 470,601 558,023 480,021 528,558 763,487 28,270,048 3,931,851 818,699 765.7.54 3,734,705 902,889 828,924 1,276,771 733,365 1,308,747 8,273.571 180,395.967 £4,994,169 264,269 250,937 83,995 327,938 £ 5,921,308 57,924,367 1,500,211 80,695 78,049 25,222 95,919 1864 Yards 14,170 95,392 2,151,467 332,092 946,765 580,582 867,931 391,189 365,323 1,267,675 83,969,426 4,162,232 406,.300 800,228 2,294,312 654,214 883,388 1,960,914 1,413,622 1,453,105 12,621,101 67,631,428 2,091,092 154,279 77,508 38,278 113,279 £1,780,096 £2,474,436 LINEN YARN. To Hanse Towns, . Holland, Belgium, France, Spain and Canaries, Gibraltar, . Other Countries, Total, . Declared Value, For the 12 Months ending 31st December. For the 4 Months end- ing 30th April 1863 1863 Lbs. 6,411,675 3,812,507 1,173,507 1,540,111 13,443,448 2,851,567 9,320,828 Lbs. 1,641,256 1,076,985 186,939 399,310 4,215,843 818,914 2,343,290 38,553,643 £2,535,728 10,682,537 £693,799 1864 Lbs. 2,21,5,268 1,263,528 147,463 267,720 4,631,510 1,145,014 3,046,883 12,717,386 £914,981 JUTE. For the 12 Months ending 81st December. For the i Months end- ing 30th April 1863 1863 1864 Manufactures not made up, „ made up, Yarn, Total dediired value Manufrs. and Yam, Yards. 11,006,434 Lbs. 7,491,327 £.399,267 Yards 3,241,397 £3,846 Lbs. 2,725,647 £110,562 Yards. .3,929 ,033 £18,206 Lbs. 1,338,782 £139,283 UNITED KINGDOM. 679 -^ ft CO '^ 00 d o^fN ec t>. t* -i»< ao t> C60OU5O5(M'H » CO rt* 00 Ol t-1tH lO t- OJ 00 -* (MOXOliALO^C* w ?r 23 OS i-^ o rji OS eo OS 00 M 04 > CO rH 00 t- ooc- GO t>COiH C U3 ■CO lO ' to ^ CO t- cTeo" TON rHOO OO O >-< lO CO t- m OS - 00 orTrTog Cd(^ IH m iH CD •* IS "* coco OS CO CO (M CO «a iN O) CO eo : c-j_co o : Tj< ' iH^C^'cO ■ Co" t-ooeot-t MO iHO • CO tfi-Tio ■OSiH-^Oi 00 00 ta C4 N to 00 ■* to V COlO r^ ■ so OSOO *©J !>. ■ ei "* OS : w t- -t ^ S^ 00 M OS 00 IN 00 00 ■iJ< CO CO ^ lO IOCS CO CO OS CO O i-> C<1 00 0 lO (N CO CO ■* Tjt t, (N r-1 Is. « (NOOOO'^'^usOSOr-lt-t* CD r-i ua b- t- to oa (NI^- iH i-no CO CD OS ■* OS cooo (N • :iH CO 00 >-l IN CD i-l CO O CO 0:1 U3 OS . rH »-( OT OS CD CO CO OOSUSOO COCOOOOOSOO (MCOCOt- lOiQ-MOC-O eOEDOO '^OOOCOCDCg 1^ Tt4 CO 00 iH iH eg o ■ o : - V ' ^ fH in in . s •silp-6g3.s;:.|l,^|, 37 88 60 1,797 88 5,418 545 Total... 192 1 312,239 8,520 14,337 1,054 15,391 39,'562 Flax Jute Total... Grand Total... 100 5 Factori 592,981 1,824 ES IN IR 4,666 ELAND. 10,710 249 2,384 13,094 249 33.525 442 105 440 594,805 4,666 10,959 2,384 11,343 33,967 1,252,230 15,347 33,902 4,414 38,316 94,003 MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS 683 SECTION V. MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS. Having traced the Linen Trade from its origin in ancient times, and shown the important place it holds among the manu- factures of the world at the present day, this section will be de- voted to an account of the modes by which Flax was and is transformed into Linen. It is foreign to the intention of this volume to make it a hand-book to practical manufacturers ; and it is not possible, without drawings, to give non-practical people an intelligible description of complicated mechanical operations. A short popular account of spinning, weaving, and bleaching is therefore all that will be attempted. CHAPTER I. F L A x-S finning. Each fibre of Flax is, on minute examination, found to be made up of a number of small parallel filaments, bound together, the separation of which to a considerable extent is necessary in successful Flax-spinning. To effect this to a partial extent, and to separate the tow, it is heckled. In heckling, the operator takes a stripe of Flax in his hand by the one end, throws the other end spread out over the heckle, or many steel-toothed comb, and draws the stripe towards him, repeating the process so long as necessary ; after which the other end of the stripe undergoes the same operation. This process removes the coarser fibres of the towj and partially subdivides the filaments of the Flax. The same operation is then repeated on a finer heckle, the teeth of which are smaller and closer set ; and if the fibre of the Flax is required to be very fine, as it must be if intended to be spun into yarn for cambric, lawn, &c., the same process is re- peated over still finer heckles. These operations thoroughly G84 MODERN LINEN. remove the tow, and split up the fibre of the Flax into very minute hairs ; but where very small yarn is wanted, Flax of a fine, soft, silky fibre must be used, as a coarse strong quality cannot be sufficiently broken down, and yet retain sufficient strength to bear spinning, weaving, &c. Machine heckling is now practised extensively, and recent improvements have so far perfected the machines that the Flax can be heckled to a medium degree, both cheaply and well. Various machines have from time to time been patented, one of the most recent being that of Combe & Co., of Belfast, which is well approved by spinners ; but although the construction of the machines by different makers varies considerably, the Flax in all, as in hand heckhng, is drawn over toothed combs, or else the combs are drawn through the Flax, the object being to produce the largest yield and finest fibre of dressed Flax, and at same time to give the tow thrown oflE good spinning properties. After the Flax has been heckled to the desired fineness, the fibres require to be united into a continuous line or thread, be- fore they are adapted for being woven into cloth. In the case of China grass and some other Indian fibres, this is done by gumming the end of one fibre to that of another, and operators by long practice do this with a celerity truly astonishing. Flax is not well adapted for such a process, the fibres being soft, and so short that the joinings would necessarily be too frequent and the threads irregular in size. Such a mode of joining fibres together can never make either a very even, or a very strong thread, and it is never practised excepting with long and strong substances. From the most remote periods the fibres of Flax have been drawn out and twisted or spun into yarn or thread for the pur- pose of being made into a woven fabric. The earliest appliance for that pm-pose of which mention is made in either sacred or profane history is the spindle Drawings of these are still to be seen in the paintings of the tombs at Thebes, and in other places in Egypt, and several of the spindles have been found there, and are now deposited in the various museums of Europe. One found by Sir J. Wilkinson at Thebes, and now in the British Museum, had some of the Linen thread upon it, thus putting its use beyond a doubt. MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS. 685 The Egyptian spindles were about fitteen inches in length, generally of wood, with the circular head of gypsum or composi- tion, in order to increase their impetus in turning. Some were of light plaited work, made of rushes or palm leaves, stained of various colours, and furnished with a loop of the same materials for securing the thread after it was wound. They are generally in shape bulbous near the one end, whence they taper to a point on the short end like a boy's top, and lengthen out into a handle at the other. The thread was attached to the handle of the spindle, which was laid on the right thigh, and made to revolve or spin like a top, by drawing the right hand quickly over it, as it lay on the thigh. The spindle is then allowed to spin in the air, or on its narrow point on the floor, so long as the motion of the hand keeps it revolving, the fibres meanwhile being drawn from the bundle of Flax, in order to form the thread. The re- presentations of this process are beautifully distinct and clear, and render the mode of spinning in Egypt very intelligible. The distaff, a piece of wood round which the Flax to be spun was lapped, was soon added to the spindle, which made the process easier and more expeditious than by the spindle alone. The distaff was held in the spinner's left hand, while the right was engaged in drawing the fibres from the bundles of Flax, and ever and anon giving fresh impetus to the motion of the spindle. The same system of spinning had been common in Palestine, as it is related in Proverbs, that the virtuous woman layeth her hands to the spindle, and her hands hold the distaff. For thousands of years this rude mode of spinning was the only one known, and it was practised in every country where the manufacture of Linen was carried on. Until a compara- tively recent period, and until the introduction of the spinning- wheel, the same plan was in universal use in this country. The following description of the method followed here up to nearly the end of last century, is very little different from the oriental system of three or four thousand years ago, and it shows the little progress which had been made in this useful branch of industry during that long period of time. The distaff and spindle in use, until superseded by the rock (Dan. rote, distaff) and spinning-wheel, were generally of simple construction. The distaff was a piece of light wood, fifteen to 686 MODERN LINEN. twenty inches long, round which the Flax to be spun was wound, leaving a portion of the distaff clear of the Flax. This portion was stuck into the apron-string of the spinner, or into a belt fastened round her waist to receive it. The distaff slanted out from the left side of the spinner, so as to be convenient for drawing the Flax from it in forming the thread. The spindle was a round piece of wood, about a foot in length, thick at the middle, and tapering toward each end, the lower one somewhat like the point of a cone, and the upper longer and less pointed, with a ring or belt of some heavy substance round the middle. A short thread formed of the Flax was fixed in a notch in the upper end of the spindle, and the spindle was then turned smartly by the right hand pressed upon it against the right thigh, and allowed to dangle in the air, hanging by the thread from the distaff. The centrifugal motion thus given to the spindle was kept up for some time by the heavy ring upon it, which acted as a kind of balance-wheel, and kept the circular motion somewhat steady. While this whirling of the spindle was going on, the spinner was busy drawing out the fibres of the Flax from the distaff with the left hand, and forming them into an equal thread with the right. When the spindle reached the ground and stopped, or when the impetus given to it by the hand was lost, care being taken not to let it retrograde, as by that means part of the twist given the thread spun would be lost, the yarn spun was wound upon the upper part of the spindle. The same process was repeated again and again, until the spindle was fuU, from one to two yards being spun at each movement given the spindle. The yarn was then reeled off into cuts, heers, hesps, and spindles, when it was ready for the mar- ket, or for being woven into cloth. This primitive system of spinning would appear strange to either maid or matron of the present day, but it was well-known in Scotland to the grand- mothers or great-grandmothers of this generation. It was some- times practised within and sometimes without doors, as the spindle and distaff could be easily carried about, and it was no uncommon sight to see a girl herding the cows and plying her spindle busily the while. AH females were then learned to spin in their girlhood, and with care and assiduous application, but not without both, they soon became expert at it. It required a nice MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS. 687 and well-practised hand to spin very small sizes of yarn ; but as all women, in those days, prided themselves on their talent for spinning, many of them could form an astonishingly fine thread. As the demand for yarn increased, this slow and tedious mode of spinning would, doubtless, be often complained of, but it was not until the fourteenth century that any improvement was effected. An apparatus called the " Torn" was then intro- duced. It was merely a sort of frame for supporting the spindle and distaff, apart from the spinner. In 1533 a wheel for spin- ning Flax was invented by a citizen of Brunswick. At first the spindle was mounted on a frame, and driven by a belt passing over a larger wheel. This was further improved by using a treddle, worked by the foot of the spinner to efiect the movement of the wheel, by which her hands were left free to regulate the motion of the thread. Shortly there- after a more perfect apparatus, called the Saxon wheel, took the place of those of simpler construction for spinning Flax. It had on its spindle a bobbin, on which the thread was wound, and a flyer, revolving with greater rapidity than the bobbin, to give the thread the necessary twist. The Flax was loosely wrapped round a distaff or rock, which was fixed at a little dis- tance above the spindle. The treddle was moved by the foot of the spinner, and, by means of a crank shaft, gave a rotatory motion to the wheel, she, meanwhile, drawing out the fibres of the Flax in the requisite numbers to form the grist or size of the thread desired. In doing this the fibres were from time to time moistened with saliva to make them more readily com- bine. For a long period after the introduction of this wheel into Scotland it had only one spindle, but, about the year 1764, the two-handed wheel, having two spindles, was invented, and shortly after it began to be used in some districts, although its use did not become general until toward the end of the cen- tury. Indeed, the one-handed wheel had long powerful op- ponents in the spindle and distaff, so difiicult is it to root out received notions or antiquated ideas. Gradually, how- ever, the wheel supplanted the spindle and distaff, and gradually the one-handed wheel gave way to, and was superseded by the more productive two-handed instrument. The spinning-wheel, as well known to and much used by the 688 MODERN LINEN. maidens and dames in the first quarter of this century, may be thus described : — The frame of the machine stood on three feet, on the right of which, facing the spinner, was a spoked wheel, of about two feet in diameter, with the rim slightly hol- lowed outside. Eapid motion was given to the wheel by a wooden rod or crank, connecting the axle of the wheel to the treddle or footboard, and moved at will by the foot of the operator, much in the same way as a turning-lathe is moved; On the left were two pirns or spindles, one for each hand, for receiving the yarn as it was spun, driven by means of bands of gut, or cords of Flax or woollen yarn, highly-twisted, passing round the rim of the wheel and their axles. Each pirn or spindle had a flyer for twisting and guiding the thread before it was wound upon the bobbin, which was a hollow reed slipped over the axle and fitting rather closely to it. The fly went round with great rapidity, while the bobbin being kept back by the strain of the thread, turned round on the axle only as fast as it was let out by the spinner. This depended on the degree of twist intended to be given to the thread, and the expertness of the operator. The rock or distaff, with the Flax wound round it in the manner best adapted for admitting of the fila- ments being readily drawn oat by the spinner, was placed above the pirns, and both hands were employed in drawing out the fibres and forming the threads. The threads, after being car- ried through a throttle or opening in the end of the spindle, were from time to time shifted along the flyer by means of small pieces of bent wire attached to it, for the purpose of filling the bobbin regularly with the yarn as it was spun. During the operation the spinner moistened the threads regularly with saliva, the better to unite the fibres and improve the appearance of the yarn. When full the bobbins were put on a pin or wand held in the left hand, and the yarn wound off from it by the right, round a reel of ninety inches in diameter, attached to which was an indicator to show when 120 rounds,- which consti- tuted a cut, were reeled, When this quantity was told off, it was tied with a thread and another cut begun, and so on until a hesp or hank was completed, when it was removed from the reel to make way for farther reeling. Some of the wheels used by the upper classes— and in those, days all females span, from the highest of the nobility to the MANUFACTUKINO OPERATIONS. TiS;* lowest of the peasantry in both town and country — were made of fancy wood, finely polished, and had rather a handsome appearance, quite suited for either the parlour or drawing-room. The great majority were, however, made of cominon material, and, though highly useful, they were not very sightly as articles of furniture. The last improvement on the Saxon or Flax- spinning hand-wheel, was the application of Arkwright's princi- ple, by rendering the flayer automatic in spreading the yarn on the bobbin, which saved the time necessary in moving the thread from one of the small bent wires on the flyer to another, and at same time performed the operation more equally. This, though a great improvement, was not sufficient to enable the Saxon wheel to hold its own against all comers. A new and mighty rival was, by the ingenuity of man, raised up in competition, and although for a time it had many checks and made way slowly, yet, surely and steadily it held on its course, until it . triumphed over every competitor. Not only did it silence the birr of the spinning-wheel on the domestic hearth, but it totally changed the nature and character of the textile manufactures of the country, and, along with this, the social habits of the whole people. JKarly in the last century thinking minds were actively at work trying to discover some way of bringing machinery to do, or assist in doing, both the work of the hands and of the head of the spinner of yarn from fibrous substances. In 1738 Lewis Paul discovered the principle of roller-spinning, and took out a patent for a machine for this purpose. This machine was ex- perimented upon, and improved by various parties, and it is said that in 1741 or 1742 a mill, turned by two asses walking round an axis, was erected in Birmingham for spinning cotton on this plan, and ten girls employed in attending the work. Paul's invention contained the germ of a self-acting and self- regulating principle, arid the means which he used were so unlike any previous performance by the hands, that he is well entitled to the admiration of posterity for the originality of his genius. Many of those who first embarked in spinning by machinery did not prosper, but others took their place, and good progress was made, and various improvements were from time to time introduced. It was left for the genius of Kichard Arkwright to X X 690 MODERN LINEN. give a practical solution to the problem of automatic spinning ; and after he, by his talents and perseverence, had overcome the difficulty, the onward course of machine spinning was astonish- ingly rapid. The successful application of machinery to the spinning of cotton induced men to turn their attention to the spinning of Flax by like means. Accordingly, in the year 1787, John Kendrew, optician, and Thomas Porthouse, clockmaker, both of Darlington, in the county of Durham, applied for and got a royal patent for "a mill or machine, upon new principles, for spinning yarn from hemp, tow. Flax, or wool." A specification of this patent, with figures, is inserted in the Kepertory of Arts and Manufactures, vol. xvi. " The figures," says WiUiam Brown, in his Eeminiscences of Flax-spinning (a pamphlet pub- lished privately by him at Dundee in 1862, and containing much valuable information on the early history of Flax-spinning by machinery), " shew merely a spreading or driving machine, con- sisting of a cylinder three feet in diameter by ten inches broad, smooth on the surface, with some small cylinders or rollers in connection for holding and drawing the Flax and other fibrous materials put upon it for operation. Also a spinning machine or frame, having four spindles, consisting likewise of a plain cylinder, but of smaller diameter, with rollers for holding and drawing the untwisted sliver of Flax or other material passing there. Intermediate drawing machines are alluded to, but not described further than as to their being on same plan as the others. " These machines, plain in construction as they seem to have been, are to be looked upon as having given rise to all those more refined and effective ones, still much on same principle, which have gradually come into use since, and which have spread widely over Europe, almost entirely superseding the ancient modes of spinning by distaff and spinning wheel." Kendrew is supposed to have been the inventor, as he had seen cotton machinery, and probably took the idea from it ; but whether this be so or not, he was ably seconded by Porthouse, who was an expert workman. By much perseverance they, together, fitted up their machines in a small building called the " Low Mill," situated on the river Skerne, at Darlington. The MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS. 691 building had previously been occupied by Kendrew for glass grinding, and a part of it is still standing. The work, which commenced spinning, as is generally believed, in 1787, the same year in which the patent was granted, is considered, and with propriety, to be the first regular work got up for the spinning of Flax by mill machinery. After a few years the work was dis- continued, and the partners separated to commence individual concerns. Kendrews erected a work near Houghton, and Port- house procured a building near Coatham, both on the Skerne, and near Darlington. James Aytoun of Kirkcaldy, who died this year, and was in very truth the father of the Flax-spinning trade, having been a spinner for more than the threescore and ten years allotted as the measure of man's days, visited the firm in Darlington in 1792-3, and studied what they could teach, imperfect though it was. Mr Aytoun was an ardent spinner, and when not bowed down by pain or bodily infirmity, took pleasure in recounting his experience of the trade in its infant days. The following information regarding this, the first Flax-spinning mill, and other interesting details interspersed throughout the volume, were kindly and readUy furnished by him. In 1792, Mr Aytoun, at the age of seventeen, went to Manches- ter to be instructed in cotton-spinning, which was then making rapid progress. Hearing of the patent taken out by the Darlington firm for spinning Flax, and of the work which they had estab- lished there, he left Manchester and proceeded to that place, and, as already said, studied under the firm. Their spinning frames were of 36 spindles, divided into six distinct heads, each of which could be stopped. Thirty-six cannisters of small diameter were put at the back of the frame, and a soft sliver passed over an 18- inch wooden cyhnder to the front, with lever weights to carry it along. His knowledge of cotton spinning being greater than theirs, he suggested roving or twisting the sliver, which must have been a great improvement on the plan they had adopted, but it was a considerable time before it was introduced by the firm. After acquiring a knowledge of the new trade, he agreed with them for a license to work four frames of 36 spindles each, being 144 in all, for which he paid them a royalty at the rate of one pound. These frames he erected at Kinghorn, as already men- tioned in the notice of that town. All the Flax-spinning mills xx2 692 MODEEN LINEN. first erected in Scotland, including tbose in Bervie, and at Douglastown in Kinnettles, appear to have done so by virtue of licenses granted by the patentees, for each of which they were paid a royalty. The patent must therefore have been a profitable one for them. In their separate establishments the two patentees succeeded moderately well, although, from the small extent of their works, their prosperity could not be very great. Kendrew died in 1800, but Porthouse survived him some years. In 1805 the concern at Coatham appeared, to a party from this district who then visited it, to be in a thriving state. Some of the original machines from Darlington were then at work, and were plain and ancient looking when compared with others of later construction standing beside them. The grounds around the work were laid out with shrubs and flowers, and the place had an air of cleanliness and comfort about- it pleasant to behold. Port- house was a quiet, retired man, and left the management of the mill chiefly to his wife, who was an able, active woman. She attended the work daily from morning till night, going about with tools in hand, shifting pinions, and doing other little and necessary pieces of work as an ordinary manager would. Shortly after the invention of Flax-spinning at Darlington, mills were erected at Leeds and neighbourhood, and ever since that locality has been the headquarters of Flax-spiuning in England ; steam having, from the flrst, been the motive power employed. Unless steam power had been successfully applied to the pro- duction of a better class of yarns, and a more adequate supply than the distaff and spindle or the spinnirg-wheel could have provided, the Linen trade would never have attained to any great extent, nor could Britain have been able to cope success- fully, either in the home or foreign markets, with countries where provisions and wages are low, and where the raw mate- rial is largely grown, or can be procured at less cost than here. The spinning frame is the starting point from which all im- provements in the trade have rapidly advanced, and wonderful has been the progress made since the flrst frame was set up in 1787. The first Flax-spinning mills erected in this country were small, and in general they turned out unfortunate concerns. MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS. 693 The machinery was badly constructed, and the managers of the works were new to the trade, and ignorant of the right principles of spinning. Some of them were speculative, un- steady men, without experience or capital, and their downfall reacted upon, and injured the infant trade. Few efforts of skill or ingenuity have ever been completely successful at their com- mencement, as the ingenious contrivers often want some of the elements necessary for that industrious perseverance which begets success, and it is often left to the succeeding generation to reap the fruit of their predecessors' exertions. It was so with Flax- spirming ; and it was only after years of probation, and the successful introduction of various improvements, that the trade proved profitable to those engaged in it. Every species of manufacture has its day of small things, and time and a hard struggle are required to give sustaining vitality. No great branch of national industry ever started into a pros- perous existence at once, but scientific skill and steady persever- ance overcomes all difficulties. The machinery first applied to the production of textile fabrics cannot be otherwise than rude and imperfect. Enlightened experience gradually discovers and introduces more suitable appliances, until at last a high degree of perfection is attained. During the first decade of this century Flax-spinning machi- nery continued rude and imperfect, but as the trade became more developed, and its value better understood, attention was directed to the machinery and improvements began to be effected. As improvements progressed, the quality of the yam spun became better, and by and bye it was preferred to, and at last completely supplanted, hand-spun yarn. This prefer- ence, added to the elastic and expanding progress of the Linen trade, stimulated spinning enterprise, and many new mills were erected in various parts of the country. The Flax-spinning machinery was not adapted for spinning tow, and for a long time this article was of comparatively so little value that it was only used for making ropes and other miscel- laneous purposes. About the beginning of the century, experi- ments were made in tow spinning, but for some time little real progress was made, as the first trials were not very success- ful. Improvements were, however, introduced from time to 694 MODEKN LINEN. time, and after repeated experimeDts more satisfactory result's were attained, and tow-spinning became a fact. In August, 1821, the Advertiser says — " In 1814 it was considered a good day's work to spin twelve spindles of 6 lb. tow yarn on a frame of 30 spindles, but now the quantity taken off is not only largely increased, but the quality is so greatly improved that the differ- ence of price between Flaxen and tow Osnaburgs, which had formerly been Id to IJd a yard, is now only from ^d to Jd." William Brown, of Dundee, an intelligent and enterprising spinner, took the lead in efifecting these valuable improvements in tow-spinning, and he was ably seconded by the late George Moon, of EusseU MUl, in Fife, and the late James Aytoun. Although Mr Bro'WTi has retired from his favourite trade, he is still an enthusiastic spinner, and takes delight in witnessing the onward progress of mill-spinning. Mr Brown became a Flax-spinner about fifty-five years ago, and he is now the father of the trade. May he be still spared for many years, and able to recount his triumphs, glorious though bloodless, in the spin- ning cause ! The great object of the Flax-spinner, whether by hand or by machinery, is to draw out and arrange the fibres in one con- tinuous thread of uniform thickness, and with an equal twist throughout its entire length. On this depends the quality of the yarn, and the beauty and value of the cloth to be made of it. By much practice and nice manipulation many hand-spinners became adepts in the fabrication of yarn, and some of them could spin a thread of extraordinary fineness with great regu- larity. Others were unable to acquire such perfection in the art, and never became so expert as to be able to make the thread uniform throughout. The quantity which any one person could spin was necessarily small, it therefore required the united pro- duction of several spinners to form a piece of cloth. As the yarn was from these causes very unequal in size, colour, and quality, it required much sorting before being given out to the weavers, and even the greatest care was insufficient to produce a piece in perfection. Any plan by which the yarn could be produced of uniform quality was therefore a boon to the trade, and this mill-spinning, from its very nature, was calculated to do. The nice judgment MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS. G05 of the most superior hand-spinner, if practical by this process at all, could, by it, be applied and made available without limit. Superior minds felt the truth of this, grappled boldly with the subject, and finally triumphed. The victory was not won in a day or a year, but the fight was maintained until success was gained. To Kendrew and Porthouse the honour belongs of originating the application of machinery to the spinning of Flax, and their invention has been productive of mighty results. After the Flax has been heckled, it is ready for the spinning- mill. The first process in spinning is to place the Flax in hand- fuls, with the ends over-lapping each other, on a small table, whence it is made to pass between two fluted rollers (retaining rol- lers), and traverse a series of heckles, worked on an endless chain, the ingenious apparatus for which purpose is called the giU, from the name of the inventor. After passing through these heckles, it is caught by another pair of rollers (drawing rollers), whence it passes in a continuous ribbon, called a sliver, into a high tin can. The endless chain works over roUers, and the points of the heckles are made to move through the sliver with a speed a little greater than the retaining rollers, and have thus a double action. Entering the sliver immediately on its emission from the retain- ing rollers, and moving faster than it does, the heckles split down the fibres of the Flax, and allow the sliver to be extended by the drawing roller. As the Flax proceeds onward, the action of the drawing rollers makes the extending sliver move many times faster than the heckles, and by this means straightens and lays parallel those fibres which may happen to be doubled, or lie obliquely in the sliver. The drawing rollers move at a difierent speed from the retaining rollers ; they must, therefore, be fully the length of the fibre apart, or they would break it, but yet not at too great a distance, or the sliver would not follow, as it would separate at the middle part from the great attenuation there. The drawing process is repeated over and over again by plac- ing a stated number of these slivers together through the retaining rollers, whereby inequalities in any of them are equalized, and an even and uniform sliver produced. The pro- cess which succeeds these repeated drawings, whether made by the simple rollers or by the gill, is twisting the sliver into a rove or loose thread, and for this purpose an addition of a bobbin and 696 MODEEN LINEN a flyer is made to the drawing machine. The bobbin is made to revolve with such speed as wind or roll up the rove as fast as it is yielded by the last pair of rollers, and the flyer with so much additional speed as to give the sliver the desired twist while moving between the roller and bobbin. As the diameter of the bobbin is constantly increasing by the accumulation of the rove, and as the speed of the roller remains constant, it is necessary to vary the speed of the bobbin, so that, as it increases in diameter, it may diminish in speed and wind up the rove at the same rate throughout. In some roving frames the machinery to accomp- lish this is very complicated. The rove on the bobbin is ready ior the spinning-frame. In tow-spinning the tow is spread as equally as possible on an endless cloth attached to a breaker carding engine, and as the cloth revolves it carries the tow to the card, through which it passes for the purpose of separating the fibres, unravelling those which are entangled, and presenting the whole in a continuous sliver or ribbon of an equal width and density throughout its whole extent. For the better accomplishing this object several of these slivers are made to pass together through another card- ing engine, called a finisher, the teeth on the rollers of which are finer and closer set than in the breaker, and they are also de- livered by this card in a continuous sliver. The fibres compos- ing the sliver are extended by drawing them out without breaking, several slivers being made to pass over the gills or other preparing machinery together, with the view of making the size of the sliver more uniform. The fibres are combined by slightly twisting them in the drawing, so that the tortion will generate a certain compression among them, which will make them extend farther without breaking, and thus by continued drawing and twisting the sliver will be attenuated to the required point. This operation is limited by two circumstances — when the fibres end together, and which it is one of the objects of carding to prevent, and when the friction produced by twisting becomes so great that the fibres will sooner break than slide on each other. After the last drawing the sliver is twisted into a rove, and put on a bobbin as with Flax. In spinning, the bobbins with the rove are placed on pins fixed in a slightly angular position on the top of the spinning MANUFACTURING OPEUATIONS. (',97 frame, whence the rove is passed between rollers on to other rollers moving at a greater speed than the first, and thence down through the throttle of the spindle, over the arm of the flyer, and on to the spinning bobbin. The rove in this process is extended to the greatest degree of attenuation required, and at same time twisted so hard that when the operation is finished, and the thread perfectly formed, the fibres will sooner break than separate by sliding on each other. The thread is then reeled off the bobbin into cuts, heers, hanks, and spindles, a spindle being 14,400 yards in length ; or it may be formed in the warping-mill into chains ready for the loom. Early in the century, after some progress had been made in Flax preparing, the draw or elongation stood as follows : — At the spreading table by hand, 6 to 1 ; at each of the three draw- ing machines, 10 to 1 ; and at the spinning frame, 15 to 1 — making in all 90,000 to 1. A strike of Flax, therefore, mea- suring a foot in length, was drawn out or elongated to the ex- tent of 17 miles ere forming its portion in the finished thread of yarn. In systems of the present day, where additional opera- tions are in use, a strike of Flax is drawn out to the extent of several hundred miles. Wet spinning differs chiefly from this description of dry spinning in having the spinning frame furnished with a receptacle for holding water, which is heated by steam, the rove passing through the water on its why from roller to roller. The hot water still farther subdivides the fibres, which permits them to be drawn out into a finer thread than if spun dry, and the water makes the loose fibres combine better with the body of the thread than they do when dry. Economy of space and labour are two very important elements to the Flax-spinner. Formerly this was not so much considered, and the arrangement of the machinery in the older mills is in consequence not so perfect as in those of modern construction. Improvements in these respects, where practicable, have been introduced into all works, so as to make them moie convenient, and reduce the working expenses to the minimum. The most approved arrangement is, to have the carding en- gines and other preparing machinery on the ground floor ; or, if there is not room for the whole there, to put the more advanced portion, such as the drawing frames, on the second floor, The ()98 MODERN UNF.N. spinning frames are placed on the second and third floor, and the reeling and warping in the upper storey. The material to be spun is stored, in a state ready for the machinery, or batched where this is necessary, in close proximity to the first machine through which it has to pass, viz.^ — the rough Flax, to the heckling machine ; the longs of either Flax or Jute, to the spreading machine ; the Tow to the breaking engine ; and the Jute, when not heckled, to the teaser, for the purpose of being made into Tow ; and each sort of material is taken from the store to the several machines as required. After passing over the spreading table, the longs, formed into a sliver, is either allowed to faU into cans or wound round a beam, whence it is passed through the drawing machines, the first of which is placed immediately beyond the spreading ma- chine, with just enough space between them for the necessary cans and the hands required to attend the operation. The other drawing frames are placed in a line at regular distances, and the material goes over each successively, until it is finally twisted into a rove and wound on a bobbin. The bobbins, when the roving has been performed on the ground floor, are carried by an elevator, worked by machinery, to the second floor, and placed on the spinning frames, where the rove is spun into yarn or thread. The yarn is then raised by an elevator to the upper floor, reeled, and made up into bundles for the market, or warped into chains ready for the loom, or wound on bobbins or otherwise for weft. The Tow, after passing through the break- ing engine or card, is put through the finishing carding ma- chine, which is placed at a little distance behind the breaker, and from the finisher it passes over the drawing machinery, which is placed in a line behind the last carding engine, and is successively changed from a sliver to rove, and from rove to yarn, &c., as in the case of the line yarn. In this way the mate- rial passes from machine to machine until it is transformed into yarn, almost every process being performed by machinery, much of which is automatic, and with the least possible amount of manual labour. It is of vast importance to the spinner to provide an abundant supply of the most suitable material for the yarn he intends to spin, and great care should be taken to assort it properly so as to produce a uniform quality of ynrn, as its value is greatly de- MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS. GOD pendant on its uniformity. The construction of the preparing and spinning machinery, and keeping the whole in the most efficient order, is another matter of essential importance, be- cause, unless the machinery be not only of the most approved description, but kept up to the mark, it is impossible, even with the finest material, to make superior yarn. Of late years great improvements have been made on the carding engines, and those recently constructed are ponderous machines with the card cloth on a different principle from what was formerly used, and with more workers, &c., around the cylinder. These machines perform their work better, and in greatly larger quantity than the old carding engines. Many and highly important alterations and meliorations have been made in the drawing machines, and perhaps more real improvements have taken place in this de- partment than in any other. The spinning frame has also re- ceived its share of attention, and in all its parts, framework, cylinders, spindles, flyers, &c., &c., modifications and beneficial changes have been made. The conical spindle, invented by "David Cairncross, Blairgowrie, in 1825, was one of the earliest and most important of these improvements. The machinery of the present day, when compared with that in use half a century ago, shows such a wonderful advance towards perfection, that it may be doubted if improvements can go on in the same ratio, or if the progress which can be made in the future will at all com- pare with what has taken place in the past. Some machine making firms have been long celebrated for the Flax-spinning and weaving machinery they produce. Others of shorter standing, are fast rising into fame, and bid fair, at no distant period to rival their older compeers. Peter Fairbairn and Co., Leeds, and Combe and Co., Belfast, are famous for drawing and roving frames and other preparing machinery. Thomas Robinson, Leeds, for heckling machines. James F. Low, Monifieth, for carding engines and spinning frames In Dundee, Robertson and Orchar, Pearce Brothers, and Charles Parker and Son, for power-looms and for winding and other preparing machinery for weaving. John Kerr and Co., for calendering machinery, and J. Carmichael and Co., and Gour- lay Brothers and Co., for steam engines, boilers, &c. 700 MODERN LINEN. CHAPTEK II. Linen Weaving. Weaving is the art of regularly interlacing thread or filaments into cloth. It is performed by the alternation of one series ot threads over and then under another, or by the intermittent but regular crossing of the threads, as the cloth to be woven may be wanted plain or twilled. There are also various kinds of fancy weaving ; but as few Linens are so made, excepting damasks and kindred fabrics, which will be referred to, it is unnecessary to mention them. Pliny allows that the Egyptians invented the art of weaving, and Athanaeus ascribes it to Pythmias, the Egyptian. This may or may not be the case, but certainly there is no handi- craft more ancient and more universal than weaving. Eepre- sentations of both horizontal and upright looms are found in the Egyptian tombs, at some of which men are employed, and at others women. The looms appear to be of rude construction and simple in detail. The upright looms are not unlike those still in common use in this country, as the framework consists of upright posts connected by cross-beams, with a lay and other appurtenances. The weaver, in one of the paintings, sits low on the loom, and is in the act of putting in with the hand a long shuttle, having a hook on each end of it. The shuttle is not thrown, as here, which must have made the work very tedious. The horizontal loom was a square frame, on which the yarn was stretched ; and in some of them th? increasing length of the cloth is taken up by pegs in the ground, a mode stiU practised in Ethiopia. In some of the Egyptian representations of weaving the warp appears as if suspended from the top to the bottom of the loom, and the woof or weft is pushed upwards, a practice, says Herodotus, common among other nations, but not in Egypt, where it was pressed down- wards. The weaving implements of Egypt were no doubt a type of those in use among other nations of antiquity ; but it MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS 701 would seem, from the expression of Job, " My days are swifter than a weaver's shuttle," that the shuttle must then have been thrown in working, as in no other way would the expression have been appropriate. Frequent mention of the weaver occurs in the Scripture, such as Bezaleel and Aholiab being taught to wprk all manner of cunning work, and in fine Linen of the weaver, &c. The staff of Goliath's spear was like a weaver's beam. The expression of Isaiah, " My life is cut off as by the weaver," &c. These notices show not only that the Israelites, but also the neighbouring nations, were early acquainted with and practised the art of weaving. Indeed, all nations, however uncivilized, both in ancient and modern times, testify to the antiquity and universality, in some form or other, of textile industry. The natives of India, at a very remote period, were well acquainted with the arts of spinning and of weaving, as may be proved by a reference to their Vedas. In India many of the manners and customs of the inhabitants have undergone little change for a very long period, and the looms of the present day are counterparts of those in use in early times. They are exceeding rude in construction, and have few of the appliances to facilitate the process with which in this country even the simplest and most ordinary looms are provided. With little more than a few pegs stuck into the ground, and some pieces of wood crossed over them to contain the warp and the cloth, does the industrious native of India sit on the ground, under the shade of a wide-spreading tree, and weave some of those beauti- ful fabrics which are the admiration and delight of the nations of Europe. According to the representations of Ciampini and Montfau- con, the looms of the fourth and fifth centuries are, in many respects, different from the modern. The threads of warp are not strained longitudinally, but perpendicularly, the weaver standing instead of sitting. The treadles are at each side of the loom, which is insulated. There is no appearance of the lay and reed, which divides the threads, and drives the cross thread or weft close. There is a boat-fashioned shuttle. The weights appear, and the woman, besides the shuttle in one hand, has in the other a stick to rectify the threads. Isidore and others 702 MODERN LINEN. mention the insubulus about which the cloth was rolled, the reel, the slay, the threads diluted with water to render the finer sort more firm. In the Anglo-Saxon dictionaries there are the slay, lathe or lay (sice), the weaving-house (toiv hus), beam (ama), and female workers or weavers (webstres). The common hand-loom of the present day does not difiier much from those used by the Egyptians, G-reeks, Komans, and other ancient nations. In all there are the four upright posts, bound together by cross-rances or ties. In front there is gene- rally a breast-beam, with a cloth centre-beam under, but a little behind it, and the yarn-beam at the back of the frame, which can be elevated or depressed to suit the height of yarn upon it. Near the front, the lathe or lay is suspended from the top of the frame for the purpose of driving home the weft. Behind the lay are the heddles or carab, hung from pulleys at the top of the loom, and connected witl) the treddles which are placed under- neath the frame-work. The heddles are composed of as many pieces of twine, with loops or mails in the centre of each through which the threads of warp are passed, as there are threads in the warp. For plain weaving two heddle leaves are sufficient, although four, attached two and two, are used for some fabrics, for the purpose of spreading the warp more regularly, but only two treddles are required. For twilled cloth three or more treddles, with distinct heddles for each, are required, depending on the description of twill wanted, and which is known as three- feet, four-feet, eight-feet twiU, &c. Each heddle being con- nected with a treddle, the pressure of the weaver's foot raises one and depresses the other continuously and alternately, conse- quently, in plain weaving, raises half the threads of warp and depresses the other half, making an opening in the warp called tke shed, through which the shuttle with the weft passes in front of the lay. The lay is composed of two sides, called swords, connected with a heavy piece of wood below, when the shuttle is thrown from side to side by the hand ; and, when the picker shuttle is used, by a race-course, in each end of which is a recess for the shuttle. In each recess is an iron rod, on which move small pieces of wood or buffalo-hide, called pickers, to which strings are attached which meet in a handle. This the MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS. 703 weaver takes in his right hand, and, by a sharp jerk, projects the shuttle along the shuttle-race; thus he impels the shuttle with the weft from side to side alternately, the lay being drawn forward firmly by the left hand at each crossing of the shuttle, to drive the weft home. Immediately above the race-course or bottom of the lay is placed the comb-like frame called the reed, composed of a num- ber of thin pieces of cane or steel, the flat sides of which run parallel with the threads of warp, and the narrow edges face the front and back of the loom. The threads of warp are drawn through between the pieces of cane or steel in regular order, two in each space, one of which rises with the motion of the treddle alternately. By the number of splits in a given space of the reed, the fineness of the cloth is determined. Above the race-course of the lay is the cape, a piece of wood which can be moved up and down the swords, and which rests on the top of the reed to keep it in its place and perpendicular to the warp. When the lay is drawn forward the reed pushes the thread of weft, which has just been thrown across, close up to the previously thrown thread. And as the alternate treddle is moved after each thread of weft is thrown, the warp threads thus bind it, and the fabric of the cloth is formed. The picker was the invention of John Kay, of Bury, by whom it was patented in 1733. By means of it the threads of weft are passed in with more rapidity than when the shuttle is thrown from hand to hand by the weaver, and much wider cloth can be weaved by one person than by the old mode, which is limited by the stretch of the weaver's arms. The weft is wound on a small bobbin, which is placed in a hollow made for the purpose in the shuttle, and allowed to run off freely as the shuttle is passed from side to side. A new mode has recently been introduced of winding the weft on a spindle, from which it is removed and placed on another in the shuttle, thus render- ing the small bobbin unnecessary and saving time to the weaver. Before the threads of warp can be wound on the yarn beam on the loom, they must undergo a preliminary operation called warping, For convenience and the saving of room the yarn in the hank is wound upon large bobbins, which are placed on a vertical frame so constructed as to allow the bobbins to revolve 704 MODERN LINEN. easily, and to keep the threads of yarn apart from each other. The threads are made to pass tlirongh guide-pins in a heck-box, and then round a large reel or warping mill, six or eight feet in height and of a diameter varying with the length of the warp required, the reel being turned by an endless rope passing round it and a wheel turned by the warper. The heck-box moves up and down a post, the motion being regulated by a cord pass- ing over a wheel or pulley and wound round the axle of the reel, and unwound alternately, as the box moves up or down the post. By this means the warp is wound spirally and regularly on the reel, from top to bottom, or the reverse as the heck moves down or up, and the process is continued until the proper num- ber of threads of warp for the intended web are given. The heck-box is composed of two pieces, which can be raised on slides, and through the guide-pins of which the threads are passed alternately. In commencing to wind the yarn on the reel, the threads which pass through each of the two pieces of the heck are separated by raising one piece on its slide, and they are then passed the one portion over and the other under a guide-pin attached to the reel. The other piece of the heck is then raised and the threads in it passed ovei; another pin on the reel, while those in the other piece pass under same. This pro- cess is repeated each time the chain or warp is wound up or down tlie reel, by which means the whole warp is separated thread by thread, which facilitates their alternate arrange- ment in the heddles in the loom. At the bottom of the reel a few of the threads are alternately passed together in pinfuls over and under other two pins, which enables the weaver by means of an evener or very open reed, with a moveable top, in each opening of which a pinful of the yarn is placed, to spread the warp regularly in winding it upon the yarn beam of the loom. Before the warp is taken off the reel, a piece of cord is passed carefully through the yarn, close to the pins, to preserve the se- paration of the threads at both ends of the warp, which separa- tion is called the lease and without which it would be very difficult to weave the warp into cloth. The warp is marked on the reel in stated lengths, either by coloured threads or other means, to enable the weaver to know how he is progressing with the weaving of it, and to put on the weft regularly. In rolling MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS. 70.5 the warp on the yarn beam, it is begun at the end where it is divided into small pin-fulls, and terminated where it is sepa- rated into alternate thi-eads. This arrangement is necessary for the operation of drawing the threads through the heddles and reed ; and the weaver takes care to preserve the lease perfect throughout the entire weaving of the web, by passing two lease rods between the alternate threads and keeping them there. In winding the warp on the yarn beam of the loom, called beaming, a roUer with weights attached is made to pass over the yarn to m'ake it tight and hard, in order that the tension may be uniform while the weaver is working it oif, as the cloth would otherwise be irregular and unsightly. In weaving, the warp is kept extended by weights hung on the beam, and taken off gradually as the weaver proceeds, or it is let off by means of a ratched wheel and catch ; and the cloth is wound round the cloth beam as it is woven, the yarn and cloth being kept tight by a finer toothed wheel and catch on the cloth beam, wrought by a lever at the pleasure of the weavei-. To have the loom in good working order it is necessary that it be made perfectly level and square, and properly fixed in its position. The lay should be hung mid-way between the heddles or camb and the woven portion of the work, and so poised as to return to its position by its own weight as soon as the stroke is made. It should also be hung at the proper height to permit the due elevation and depression of the threads of warp by the heddles, and if not so hung it will overstrain the weaver, and not do the work so perfectly. The loops of the heddles must be hung at the proper elevation to keep the warp, when at rest, horizontal with the top of the yarn beam and breast beam ; and they are suspended over a pulley, or in such other way as per- mit them to be raised and depressed alternately. The treddles move on a pivot at one end, and are attached to, and suspended from the heddles, with such an elevation as make the tramp of the weaver raise the heddle sufiSciently to let the shuttle pass freely through the shade in the warp. In the connection be- tween the camb and treddles, spring-staves, counter-marches, &c., are generally used to ease the operation, steady the motion, and make the threads of warp pass each other the more readily, &c. In the trim of the loom even for weaving plain cloth, some YY 706 MODERN LINEN. fabrics require a difference in the arrangement from others. Heavy goods, such as sail-cloth, require more lever power in the treddles, and the lay must describe a greater arc than in weaving Osnaburgs or other light fabrics. Other appliances than those mentioned are used to give motion to the shuttle, and in some of the other minor details, but the principle is the same in all cases. Twilled fabrics are extremely various, and some of them very complex in their character, and difficult to explain to one not practically acquainted with the process. In twills the warp yarns, instead of interlacing alternately with the weft threads, cross them at regular or irregular intervals of every third, fourth, or other threads, depending on the number of heddles employed, and the way in which the threads of warp are drawn through them. The object in twills is to show more than half the warp on the surface of the cloth, and by this 'means improve its ap- pearance ; or to form diamonds, squares, or other figures upon it. The number of combinatious which may be thus formed are very numerous, and in many instances the strength and dura- bility, as well as beauty of the fabric is increased, by making the same quantity of yarn into twilled cloth than it would be if made plain. Squares, and other simple figures can be formed on the surface of the cloth, in plain weaving, by a different drawing of the threads through the heddles. If three threads be drawn through one heddle or leaf of the camb in succes- sion, and one through the other, it will form a figured surface. If coloured yarn be introduced in either warp or weft of plain cloth, or in both, many patterns can be produced, and that in a variety of ways and of various figures. But if coloured yarns be employed in the manufacture of twills, there is scarcely a limit to the patterns which may be formed. In ordinary de- scriptions of Linen little diversity of colouring is resorted to, but beautiful specimens of what can be done in this way are shown in the variety of styles, and numerous patterns of Jute carpeting which are made. Ordinary twilled sacking, drills, &c., exhibit one style of twills, while towelling, diaper, &c., show another, and a very different description, and others differ from both of these. In figure weaving, whether the draw-loom, the Jacquard, after MANUFACTUliING OPKRATIONS. 707 wards described, or other means be employed, every thing de- pends on the proper arrangement of the warp yarns, as a single thread misplaced necessarily renders the figure imperfect. The taking up of the proper threads of warp, and drawing them through the appropriate mail or heddle, must therefore be done with great care. To facilitate the operation it is necessary, in some complex patterns, to have the design drawn on paper, divided into squares, like those for G-erman embroidery work. In this way the drawing of the warp threads for each shot of weft, so as to produce the intended pattern, can readily be made by an in- telligent weaver, with a person to count off and caU out the pat- tern as the drawing proceeds. The beautiful specimens of damask made in Dunfermline, Bel- fast, and other places, are now chiefly produced by the Jacquard machine, invented by Joseph Marie Jacquard, and first shown at the National Exhibition of Industry, held at Paris in 1801. This very perfect, but simple machine, was at first received with much bad feeling by the artizans of France, many machines having been destroyed, and the inventor's life threatened. Its merits were too valuable and too apparent to be entirely kept back, even by such furious and frenzied opposition, and when it did emerge it revolutionized the trade. Previously, figures which could not be produced by combinations of twiUing and colouring, were formed by the aid of the draw-boy, and such, or other appliances, or by the cumbrous and tedious modes known in tapestry work as high and low warp, but by neither mode were they so perfectly brought out as by this beautiful invention. The value of Jacquard's most ingenious and truly admirable machine has long been universally acknowledged^ He was, beyond all doubt, a benefactor, not only to those engaged in the manufacture of textile fabrics, but to the world at large. The Chamber of Commerce at Lyons recently erected a white marble tomb over the grave of Jacquard, in the cemetery of Oullins, near that city, but a more endearing and more enduring monu- ment has been erected in the hearts of all who derive benefit from Jacquard's invention, and of all who know and can appre- ciate true genius. The Jacquard engine is fixed at the top of the loom, in a direction perpendicular to the harness, and it may be attached yt2 708 MODERN LINEN. to almost any kind of loom ; but without diagrams it is nearly impossible to give a description at all intelligible to the gene- ral reader. Each cord of the harness is distinct, with a small leaden weight attached to the lower end to keep it extended. The upper ends are attached to lifting hooks, each of which goes through an eye in a corresponding needle. This har- ness answers the purpose of the heddles or camb of the com- mon hand or power-loom, the threads of the warp being passed through an eye in the cords of the harness, each thread having its respective cord, which are raised by the treddles operated upon by the foot of the weaver. The needles lie in rows in a frame, horizontal to the warp, with their points projecting from the frame, and they are kept extended in their position by spiral springs placed in cavities at the end of the frame. In front of the points of these needles a square metallic box is placed, perforated on each side with holes exactly corresponding in number and position with the needle points. The box turns by a fourth of a revolution at each tramp of the treddle, and at the same time its side is pressed for- ward on the points of the needles, which enter it and are lifted by it, together with the lifting hooks, cords of the harness, and corresponding threads of warp, and they are held in position iintil the weaver throws a thread of weft. He then removes his foot from the treddle, when the box is drawn back from the needles, and the harness cords are allowed to drop, and with them the warp. This process, if repeated, would not produce figured patterns on the cloth ; but this is done in the following manner. In order that the whole warp be not lifted at once, it is neces- sary to prevent all the needle points from entering the holes in the box. To accomplish this a number of perforated cardboards are made to pass over it in endless succession with its revolu- tions. These cards are only perforated in certain parts, according to the design intended to be produced, and where there are no openings in them the needles are -pressed back and drop, the corcesponding lifting hook, cord, and thread of warp dropping with them, the only threads kept up being those wanted to be shown on the surface of the cloth to produce the desired pat- tern. As the perforation of the cards is the means by which MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS. 709 the harness is raised, and the absence of perforation determmes the part of the warp not to be lifted, it is necessary to have one card for every shot of weft, until the whole pattern is described. The cords are exactly fitted to the box by means of studs upon the" latter corresponding with larger holes in the former, and the whole are loosely looped together at the corners, so as to form an endless chain, one whole revolution of which completes the pattern. There are contrivances to withdraw the box and make it revolve regularly, to throw the lifting-hooks out of gearing, and to con- nect the whole with the motion of the treddles, &c., which it would be too tedious to describe. The cards are perforated by an ingenious machine, a sort of counterpart of the engine itself, which performs the operation both expeditiously and correctly. The pattern desired is first drawn on paper ruled in small squares, denoting the respective threads of warp and weft, which enables the perforator to determine the proper spots to punch out on the card, so as to raise the necessary threads of warp to produce the design. This machine is used in the manufacture of silk, cotton, woollen, and Linen, and is alike suitable to all. Patterns of endless design and of wonderful beauty can be produced by it, by the mere cbange of the cards passed over the surface of the perforated box, the particular pattern depending wholly upon them. Improvements have from time to time been eifected on this engine, and it has now been made so astonishingly perfect for the various fabrics for which it is adapted that it will be verv di£Scult to supersede it by anything more suitable. It is nearly two centuries since power-loom weaving was first thought of, the idea having originated with M. Gennes, a French naval officer, who communicated the plan to the Academy of Sciences there in 1678, and it was translated into our Philosophi- cal Transactions in June that year. It was not, however, until about the end of last century that Cartwright solved the same problem with memorable success, and since then an extensive series of improvements have been conducted by various parties, and the machines have now been brought to a high degree of perfection. Shortly after power had been successfully applied to tlie weav- 710 MODERN LINEN. ing of cotton, Linen manufacturers and others began to turn their attention to weaving Linen by power, but for a long time the difference between the nature of the two fibres presented a serious barrier to its adoption. A cotton thread is so elastic that it will stretch a long way before it breaks, and threads of silk and wool have also considerable elasticity, but a Linen thread will break if extended one thirty-sixth part of its length. It is mentioned in the proceedings of the Board of Trustees for Manufactures in Scotland that in 1788 a loom was made by Alexander Kobb, to be driven by water or other mechanical power. It appears from the proceedings of the Trustees that in 1810 Joseph Crompton, then residing in Dundee, had invented a loom to go by water or steam, but neither of these looms seem to have been brought into practical use, as no farther mention is made of either of them. The first really successful manufactory for weaving Flax goods by power was established in London in 1812 or 1813, when this country was in the very height of the struggle with Bonaparte. The factory was connected with the extensive rope- making works of Charles Turner & Co., at Limehouse. The warp yarns were starched, and went through a laborious prepa- ration, and the entire process would be reckoned very slow in the present day, but, for the period, displayed much mechanical skill and ingenuity. The yarns were chiefly spun by Neilson & Co., Kirkland Works, but towards the close of the war Messrs Turner erected a mill for spinning their own yarns. At the Peace of 1815, the demand for their goods ceased, and the spinning-mUl was stopped. The power-looms, however, were kept on, and in 18.32 they were still working, and at that time making good canvas, but not long after they were stopped. One of the partners of this establishment was the inventor of the in- genious machine for weighing sovereigns, and another was cele- brated for other inventions, so that the firm had been mechani- cally inclined. In 1821 mention is made of a power-loom being about to be used in Dundee for Linen, but if the experiment proved suc- cessful, it was not followed up. The next successful application of the power-loom to Linen fabrics was made in Kirkcaldy in 1821. Some details of the work are given in the notice of that MANUFACTURING OPKRATIOXS. 711 town. At the time these were writteu the previous existence of the London establishment was unknown to the author. Shortly after that period Maberly & Co. began to experiment upon weaving Linens by power, which, having proved successful, induced them to go into the trade. In Mr Maberl/s evidence on the Linen trade, taken in Parliament in 1824-5, he stated that he had then 200 power-looms erecting in Aberdeen for Linen weaving. He calculated that on fabrics of lOd a yard there would be a saving of upwards of 25 per cent, in weaving by power, compared with the expense of weaving the same de- scription of Linens by hand in England. The power-loom Linen weaving establishment which Mr Maberly commenced in Aberdeen in 1824, was continued in active operation during the existence of his firm. On the stop- page of Maberly and Co., Richards and Co. stepped in and took up the Linen manufacturing branches of the business, and since then the power-loom factory at Aberdeen has been continuously and successfully carried on, and, as already men- tioned, it now contains 428 looms. This establishment may be called the parent of the Linen power-loom works of the country, because, from the great talent and mechanical skill which the proprietors employed, and the strong efforts they per- severingly made to adapt machinery to Linen weaving, the ob- stacles which had previously barred its progress were obviated, and success attained. This work is therefore, perhaps, the oldest Linen weaving establishment by power in existence. A firm in Preston put up a number of power-looms for the finer class of Linens, when the demand for such goods in France was so great, but after the increase of the duties there in 1842, the trade ceased, and this, and some other factories which had been started, were closed. Messrs Baxter of Dundee, as previously mentioned, intended to have erected powerrlooms in 1826. In 1828 they actually commenced power-loom weaving, but their success was not such as to induce them to continue, and the looms and other ma- chines were laid aside. In 1836 they again, or, rather, their new firm, Baxter Brothers and Co., determined to go into Linen power-loom weaving, and built a factory to contain 216 looms. Since that period the firm have most successfully perse- 712 MODERN LINEV. vered in the trade, and they now employ more power- looms oil Linen than any other firm in the world. One of the partners, Peter Carmichael, has devoted much of his time in maturing and perfecting the looms and preparing machinery, and to his success is owing, in a great measure, the admirable suitableness of the power-looms of the present day to the weaving of Flax and Jute goods. Mr Carmichael has improved heckling ma- chines, spinning machinery, weft winding machinery, power- looms, &c., and he is the patentee of several inventions for these objects, which have been, and still are, in practical use, and highly valued. It was some time after these experimental trials before Linen power-loom weaving made much head-way, but of late years astonishing progress has been made in the various Linen manu- facturing districts in the kingdom. The trade may even yet be considered in its infancy ; but, judging from the many factories in course of erection, and the great magnitude of some of them, it bids fair to attain maturity at no distant day, and to possess a vigorous, prosperous existence. The superstructure of a power-loom is a frame-work of cast- iron, standing on a solid foundation, and made of such strength as to bear the weight of the web, and the heavy strain which the loom undergoes in working. There is the breast beam in front, over which the cloth passes in its way to the cloth beam or roller placed below, around which it is wound by the machinery as the work proceeds. The warp beam is placed behind, with a roller over it and parallel with the breast beam, to keep the yarn in a horizontal position, and the warp is kept at a proper tension by weights or other appliance attached to the yarn beam. The treddles are suspended from the top of the loom by two or more belts working on pullies if the cloth is narrow, or winks if broad — the wide cloth requiring the heddles to be himg from more points than the narrow, to, give strength to the gearing and steadiness to the motion of the heddles in the operation of weaving. The lay is put in motion by two cranks, one at each side close by the frame of the loom, that they may not interfere with the space for the warp. The shuttle is thrown by a whip -lever in the centre of the loom, moving alternately to the right and left or by two whip-levers, one at each side of the loom within the MANUFACTUIUNG OPERATIONS. 713 framing, to which the picking-cords are attached, and which move the picker with a jerk. The motion of the treddles is pro- duced by two eccentric wheels acting on two levers or treddles furnished with friction rollers, the short radius of the one wheel allowing its corresponding treddle to be raised at the time the long radius of the other depresses its treddle, and thus the treddles are raised and depressed alternately. The motion is communicated to the various parts of the loom by means of a driving shaft, to which teethed wheels, cranks, &c., are attached or connected. These move the lay, shuttle, treddles, &c., with unerring regularity, and the whole operations go on simultaneously and uniformly. The loom is thrown out of gearing by means of fast and loose pullies, one of which is con- nected with the driving shaft, and the other unconnected, the driving belt being moved by a lever from the one to the other at the pleasure of the weaver. At first the mechanism of the power-loom was very imper- fect, and so far from precision that each loom had its own par- ticular character, and was individualised, — as, she would only work a certain kind of work ; she took a stubborn fit and required to be coaxed, often for half a day at a time, before she would throw the shuttle, or take up, &c. Under these circumstances the looms could not do much work. The speed did not exceed eighty picks a minute, and a weaver was required for each loom ; indeed, with the shifting of the temples, and the rubbing of the cloth, both of which processes are now obsolete or superseded, one loom was hard work for a strong woman. Practical experience has introduced so many really benefi- cial alterations and improvements that power-looms are now in a high degree perfect and complete. Some fabrics of Linen require a very different construction of loom from those suit- able for others, but the science and skiU which have been brought to bear on the subject have overcome all difficulties, and looms are now made admirably adapted for every description of goods. So complete are they now constructed in all their parts that the weaver has little more to do than keep the shuttles supplied with weft, and repair any threads of warp which may get broken, and one weaver is quite able to attend to two looms at once, although they are now running at more than twice the speed of twenty years ago. 714 MODESN LINKN. Some of the recent improvements in the construction of the power-loom are both ingenious and useful, among which may be noted the following : — By a simple mechanism the loom is stopped when the weft in the shuttle is run out, or in its break- age from any cause. By another the loom is stopped whenever the shuttle does not get clear of the shed. The rubbing machine was invented and patented in 1845, and by this machine the work of one hundred looms can be rubbed in a superior man- ner by one person. The warp is retained at the proper ten- sion by levers and springs, &c., &c. By a self-acting process the several shuttles required in working checks and such goods are changed regularly at the proper time for producing the desired pattern. In the International Exhibition of 1862 several most complex looms for weaving Brussels carpeting were shown, in some of which the wires which form the looped surface of the cloth are inserted and again withdrawn by a novel and ingenious contrivance, which performed the work admirably. But perhaps the greatest curiosity in mechanical weaving is the electric loom of Chevalier BoneUi of Milan, from which there are good grounds for anticipating very brilliant re- sults — more especially in its application to the principle of the Jacquard looom. Preliminary to the warp or chain going into the power-loom, the yarn has to undergo the operations of winding, warping, and starching or sizing, all of which are now performed by means of machinery. In the preparing machinery great advances to perfection have been made — several patents have been taken out for im- provements in winding both warp and weft yarns. Some of which, such as those of Mr Cox of Lochee, Mr Carmichael, and Eobertson and Orchar, of Dundee, are really valuable. The introduction of the " flatterer" or parallel motion into the dressing machines, by means of which the warp threads are made of uniform length, though never patented, greatly facili- tated weaving. So many other improvements have been from time to time introduced, both in preparing machinery and in looms, that some machinery and some looms have been broken up and re-made again and again during the last twenty years. For instance the weft winding machines, which at first required the yarn to be wound from the hank on large bobbins, and then MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS. 715 removed from .these on to the weft pirns, passed through five stages of development previous to the patent taken out for it in 1853. The best weft winding machines have a separate building apparatus for each spindle, to stop the spindle when the thread breaks, one to prevent doubling or two ends going on at once, and mechanism to make the yarn run at the same speed at the thick part of the pirn as at the small, an apparatus for stopping the spindle when the pirn has received its proper quantity of yarn, &c., &c. Want of space prevents any description from being given, as was intended, of winding, warping, dressing, or beaming ma- chines, and of other machines connected with the Linen manu- facture. It is most important to have the machinery of a power- loom work of the best construction, and kept up in first- rate order. It is no less important for the success of the manufacturer that he keeps up a sufficient supply of the best and most suitable quality of yarn, which is his raw material, without which superior Linens of imiform quality cannot be produced. Having the machinery and yarn what they ought to be, the next point is to make the one transform the other into superior cloth, quickly and cheaply. To do this requires a well arranged work, so that the yarn may pass through the vari- ous processes without loss of time, or waste of labour. Pan- mure Works have been referred to — page 488 — as a model in this respect. There the railway waggon with the yarn is taken into a gateway in the centre of the work, and the yarn removed to the warehouse on the one side of the gateway, whence it is taken by an elevator as required to the floor above and wound. The warp yarn is taken down again by the elevator to the warp- ing and dressing house, and the weft yarn by other elevators to the weaving shed. After being warped and starched, the chains are beamed, drawn through the baddies and reed, all in succes- sion, and taken into the weaving shed, which forms the centre of the work. From the loom the cloth passes into the picking, damping, and calendering house, which is placed on the oppo- site side of the weaving shed from the warping house. Thence the cloth passes into the lapping house, on the opposite side of the gateway from the yarn warehouse, and is there lapped and 716 MODERN LINEN. packed into bales. These are put ou the waggon in the gate- way and sent off to the customers. In this way the yarn makes the circuit of the work, and in its course it is transformed into cloth in the shortest possible time, and with the least amount of labour, consequently at the minimum cost. It may be men- tioned that the extension of Panmure Works are now in pro- gress, and that in a few months the number of looms will be increased to about 420. The building of the Institute is nearly completed, and the erection is an ornament to the village and an honour to the proprietors. Much of the success of Linen weavina: in Dundee is due to the workpeople. They have shewn a readiness to adopt improve- ments for lessening labour and facilitating the various processes which is highly honourable to them. They have also shewn a re- markable facility for acquiring the skill and dexterity necessary to work the machines with quickness and ease, to the advantage alike of their employers and themselves. Perhaps it is the same with the people engaged in Linen power-loom operations in other places, and if so all deserve commendation. It is gratify- ing to think that the wages of the operatives are in every de- partment about double what they were in 1842, and it is to be hoped that in the future they will be as well remunerated for their labour as now. CHAPTEE III. Linen Bleaching. Bleaching is an ancient art, but it is not known by whom it was first discovered. In the writings of the old historians it is mentioned that the early inhabitants of Asia employed certain earths and alkaline plants in washing and scouring their gar- ments, and that they were acquainted with a method of making their Linen extremely white. No doubt, when the knowledge of the whitening and detersive properties of these substances was once acquired, the art would be prosecuted until a consi- MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS. 717 derable degree of proficiency liad been attained, as cleanliness is one of the handmaids of civilisation. Theophrastus, who was the son of a fuller in the Isle of Lesbos, and who wrote 300 years before the Christian era, men- tions that lime was then employed in bleaching. He relates that a ship, partly loaded with Linen and partly with lime for bleaching it, was destroyed by the accidental acCess of water to the lime. Parkes doubts this, and in his essay on bleaching, says "it is stated by Theophrastus that lime was used by the ancients in bleaching, but this has not been proved, and it is very much doubted by scientific men.'' Pliny mentions that white Linen was esteemed above the azure blue-coloured curtains of the Emperor Nero. He says the Greeks and Romans used several kinds of earths and plants in scouring Linen. Pliny also mentions that the ancient Gauls and Britons were acquainted with the art of bleaching Linen cloth, though their process seems to have been very simple and imperfect. He says, " They sometimes put certain herbs, particularly the roots of wild poppies, into the water, to make it more efiicacious in bleaching Linen. But, as this kind of cloth is very apt to contract stains and impurities in the using, so nothing is more necessary to those who wear it than the art of washing and cleansing it from time to time. To this art the Gauls and Britons were not strangers, for soap, made of the tallow or fat of animals and the ashes of certain vegetables, was not only very much used, but was even invented by the ancient Gauls." For a long period little advance seems to have been made in the art of bleaching, either in the materials employed or in the manner of their application to the yarn or cloth. In the beginning of last century the Dutch were esteemed the best bleachers in Europe. Their method was to steep the cloth in waste ley, then in new ley, which was run on the cloth hot, and in a clear, pure state. In this it was allowed to steep for eight days, then washed with black soap, and wrung by a machine. The cloth was then steeped in a wooden vessel con- taining butter-milk. A little of the milk was first poured into a vessel, then a piece of the cloth was tread in, more milk and cloth were then added alternately until the vessel was neyly full, the vessel being closed with planks firmly wedged from a 718 MODEHN LINEN. beam over it. After steeping from six or seven days to two or three weeks, according to the notion of the bleacher, the cloth was taken out, washed with black soap, wrung, then spread on the grass for two or three weeks to bleach. During the time the cloth was exposed it was regularly watered with clear water, supplied from small canals conveniently led through the bleaching-ground. The water was thrown over the cloth with a long wooden shovel, so contrived that with it the worker could throw the water to a great distance over the cloth. The operations of " bucking," i.e., pouring boiling ley over the cloth, souring in butter-tnilk, grassing or crofting, was repeated five or six times, the strength of the alkaline ley used being lessened each time, until the cloth was bleached to the whiteness required. Souring in butter-milk was the only mode then known and practised in Holland. The time occupied in whitening the goods was from six to seven months, in summer only, and goods commenced in the middle or latter part of the year had to stand over half bleached until next spring. The excel- lence of the colours produced by the Dutch was partly owing to the purity of their water, an abundant supply of which was of primary necessity to them in their bleaching operations. The mode of bleaching fine Linen practised at Picardy and St Quentin about the middle of last century differed considerably from that of the Dutch. The following description of the ope- rations there is from Postlethwayt's " Dictionary of Commerce :" " After being taken from the loom they are put to soak in clear water for a whole day. They are then taken out and thrown into a bucking tub filled with cold ley, made of wood ashes and water, which has served already. Then washed in clear water and spread out in a meadow, where they are watered with scoops called gieters out of the river. After lying some time on the ground they pass through a fresh ley poured on hot, then washed in clear water and laid again on the meadow, all which operations are repeated till the Linen has acquired the desired degree of whiteness. They next rub them with black soap to take out the grease, wash out the soap, and put them to soak in sour milk, the cream being first taken off. Being taken out.of the milk they are washed in clear water for the last time. Then dip them in water in which a little starch has been steeped MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS. 719 with smalt or Dutch lapis — next fastened on poles to dry — when near dry (three quarters and a half) they take them from the poles and heat them on marble blocks with smooth wooden mal- lets, folded into small squares and pressed. The merchants then put their numbers on them, which are written or stamped on small bits of parchment, and tied to the selvage of the piece with silks of different colours, according to the merchant's fancy, who calls that silk his livery, each merchant having his own colour which he never changes. After this they wrap them up very neatly in brown paper of Koan, weU beat, tied with small packthread which they commonly get from Holland. They are then ready for sale." The bleaching of common Linen, as practised at Anjou is similar, but less complicated, and with this addition that they are first put into wooden troughs, full of cold clear water, where with wooden mallets, which are moved by a water mill, they are so well agitated and beat that they are insensibly cleaned of all filth and harshness. The calender, from Postlethwayt's descrip- tion, would seem to be nothing more than the well-known mangle. The Board of Trustees for manufactures in Scotland, soon after their appointment, took into consideration the subject of bleaching, as it was intimately connected with the Linen manu- facture. The Trustees resolved to grant assistance to parties willing to establish bleachfields, and they made stringent regula- tions anent the use of what was then considered improper mate- rials for bleaching. The first bleachfield set up under their auspices was Dalquhorn Field, near Dumbarton, by Patrick Seton and partners. It consisted of 12 acres, and on 18th Feb- ruary, 1729, a grant of £50 an acre, being £600, was paid to the firm. On 18th March 1741, a farther sum of £300 was paid them. In 1729 grants were also made for Cameron Field, near Loch Lomond ; field of 7 acres at Gray's Green, Glasgow ; field of 6 acres at Georgie Field, near Edinburgh ; Cupar-in-Fife Field ; Aberdeen Field, &c., Ac. The Board paid for experi- ments in bleaching to James Spalding, £180, Dr Wm. CuUen, Glasgow, £21, and Dr Francis Home, £100. The Board sub- sequently, and at various times, assisted to establish bleachfields in other parts of Scotland. The first important improvement made in bleaching in this 720 MODERN LTNEN. country was the substitution of water, acidulated with sulphuric acid (in place of the butter milk previously employed), which was introduced by Dr Home about a century ago. This discovery was probably made by him in the course of his experiments at the request of the Board of Trustees. By it souring was effi- ciently performed in twelve hours instead of the days or weeks required when milk was used ; and when the sulphuric acid is properly diluted it is safe, and does no injury to the goods. The next, and perhaps the most important discovery ever made in bleaching, was the application of chlorine in the whitening of cotton and Linen goods. Some time after the application of sulphuric acid as a souring agent in bleaching, it was discovered that oxymuriatic acid possessed the property of destroying vege- table colours. This led the celebrated chemist, BerthoUet, to experiment upon the subject, and in April 1785, he read a paper on this acid before the Academy of Sciences in Paris. Doubts were at one time entertained regarding the priority of the dis- covery, but these were ultimately decided in favour of Berthol- let. Chlorine gas is produced from a combination of common salt, black oxide of manganese, sulphuric acid, and water. Dr Thomson recommends the following proportions as the most economical and advantageous, viz. : — Salt, 1 part ; manganese, 1 part ; vitriol, 2 parts ; and water, 2 parts. Scheele, a Swedish chemist, in experimenting on manganese and muriatic acid, dis- covered this new modification of that acid in 1774, and Berthol- let, who subsequently repeated the experiments of Scheele, dis- covered that the mixture was a compound of muriatic acid and oxygen, and gave it its shortened appellation, "chlorine." The acid, he thought, might be introduced with advantage into the art of bleaching, and shorten the process greatly. This discovery quite revolutionised former processes of bleaching, and from it a new era dates. In 1786 BerthoUet exhibited the experiment before Mr Watt, the person who first introduced the new method of bleaching into Great Britain. Early in 1787 Professor Copland, of Aber- deen, was shown by M. de Saussure, in Geneva, the dissolving property of this acid, and on his return home, in July that year, he repeated the experiment before some bleachers in the neigh- bourhood of Aberdeen, who at once began the application of MANUFACTUllINQ OPERATIONS. 721 the process to the bleacliing of Linen on a large scale. The party referred to, Messrs Milnes, of the firm of Gordon, Barron, and Co., commenced the use of chlorine in bleaching Linen at Aberdeen in 1787, and they were the first who began the trade in this country ; but several other parties commenced its use in the same and following year, and its extension was very rapid. Chlorine was at first only known in its gaseous state, and con- siderable difficulty was experienced in applying it to the mate- rial to be bleached. The cloth had to be exposed to its action in a close receiver, with appliances to raise and lower the cloth in water, and thus expose it to the alternate action of the gas and water, as the chlorine, which would not act on the cloth in the dry state. This plan continued to be practised until 1790, when it was ascertained that chlorine combined with a solution of pearl ashes, and in that state could be conveniently applied in bleaching. Another great discovery was made in 1798 by Mr Tennant, of Glasgow, who combined chlorine with a solution of lime, and followed up his invention by combining chlorine with dry lime, in which state it was very convenient for transport. Chloride of lime, or bleaching powder, has since then been regularly used by bleachers of Linen and cotton cloth and yarn, and it will not be easily superseded. The Board of Trustees for Scotland, in their minutes, Febru- ary, 1800, mention that bleaching by steam had been invented by Mons. Chaptel, " the celebrated French chemist." In 1817 a bleaching foreman was advertised for in Dundee, " acquainted with all the new improvements made in making and using oxigenated muriatic acid." Alexander Drimmie, an intelligent bleacher in Aberdeen, and father of Daniel Drimmie, of Panmurefield, Dundee, made some important discoveries and improvements in Linen bleaching. The following extracts from his note- book, written about 1850, refer to his substitution of soda ash for potash ley about 1820, and his invention of washing machinery about 1825 : — " Bleach- ing. — This branch of the Linen trade has improved at an extraordinary rate. Formerly fine Linen was sent to Holland to be bleached. It required a whole summer to do so, and hence was called Scotch Hollands. ■I z 722 MODERN LINEN. " The first bleachfield in Scotland was near Perth. Barrilla was nsed in part, and also pearl ashes from Enssia. Potash from America was afterwards introduced, and cost at one time about 9d per H). About 30 years ago I began bleaching mth soda ash, made from the residuum of the chlorine stills, and that can now be made at one sixteenth of potash at 9d per lb. The introduction of this alkali was quite an era in the trade. By various improvements since in the manufacture of chlorine, this alkali, now called soda ash, has superseded the use of potash, and was exported last year to the amount of £400,000 in value. " Alkali being now so cheap, the quantity used in proportion to the weight of the goods is much greater, and much time is saved. Indeed, by the use of plenty of ley, and using only chloride of soda, Linen cloth may be bleached almost without exposure, and in a few days, if the proper plan be taken. It costs more money, but saves time. All bleaching materials have been brought very low in price, and machinery has also helped to reduce the cost of bleaching." " Washing by machinery was introduced by me about 25 years ago. It saves labour, and does the work well." A calender, to give a finish to bleached Linens, was erected at Douglasfiield, in the parish of Dundee, in 1819, and since then the calendering has been applied to the finish of almost every class of Linens. Cloth bleaching was carried on largely at Douglasfield before the end of last century, and the work is stiU in active operation, W. A. M'Intyre and Co. bleaching both Linens and yarns there. Baluniefield, belonging to John M'In- tyre, is also in Dundee parish, and is a large and prosperous yarn bleachfield. Of late years further improvements have been introduced in the preparation of bleaching matierials, in the machinery em- ployed in bleaching, and in the mode of conducting the ope- rations, whereby bleaching Linen cloth • and yarn has been simplified, expedited, and cheapened. It is now a large branch of the Linen trade, and, as conducted by the bulk of the bleachers, perhaps the most healthy. Bleachfields or greens abound in aU the great Linen districts in the three kingdoms, and the bleachers are, as a class, an intelligent and respectable body of men, and many of them are excellent chemists. The MANUFACTURING OPEEATIONS. 723 trade gives employment to many thousand male and female operatives, and as many of the processes are carried on in the open air, or in lofty, well-ventilated bleaching-houses, the hands are noted for being robust and healthy. Formerly all bleach- fields required a great extent of greens for exposing the yarn or cloth, to facilitate the process and whiten the colour ; but now many goods are bleached without exposure at all, and others are grassed for only a short period, so that extensive greens are not so much required. Indeed the character of bleaching has greatly changed, recent improvements having facilitated operations, and enabled the various bleachers the better to meet the increased requirements of the extending Linen trade. BLEA.CHFIELDS IN FORFARSHIRE. 1. Aberdein, Gordon, and Co., Sunnyside, Tarn. 2. CargillandCo Dundee, . do. 3. John Carmiohael, East Mill, Baldovan, do. i. Cox Brothers Camperdown Linen Wo rks, do. 5. John F. Dickson, Fanbride, do. 6. Charles Dow&U, Kelly, . do. 7, Daniel Drimmie and Co., . Panmure, do. 8. David Duncan and Co., Waulk Mills, do. 9. East Mill Company, . Brechin, do. 10. Inch Bleaching Company, . Do., do. 11. John LowBon, Jun., Forfar, do. 12. John Lowson and Son, Do., do. 13. John M'Intyre, Baluuie, do. 14. W. A. M'Intyre and Co., . Donglas, Yarn and Cloth. 15. A. J. Murdoch & Co., Balmuir, Yarn. 16. Charles Norrie and Sons, . Forfar, do. 17. Richards and Co., . ' . Craigo, do. 18. Turnbull and Co., ClaVerhoose, . Yarn and Cloth. 19. Webster and Co., Arbroath, Yarn. In addition to the above, several firms in Dundee bleach the yarn required in their Carpet Manufactures. zz2 ( 724 ) APPENDIX. Flax. — Very little progress is making on the Continent ot Europe to increase the area of land under Flax, and no great hopes of an extended supply need be entertained from that source. In some of the English counties a little more attention is being paid to this important subject, which the high price of Flax and the low price of grain may deepen, but as yet the benefits to be derived from this is only prospective. Scotland is quite asleep, and no hopes of the resumed cultivation on an extensive scale of what was once a favourite and a very general crop are enter- tained. Ireland is this year alive to the. importance of growing Flax, and nobly has she done her part. In Ulster a greatly increased acreage has been sown with this, to the farmer, most profitable plant, and even the central, southern, and western counties are entering with spirit into the golden crop. It is calculated that upwards of 300,000 acres are now under Flax in Ireland, and as the crop is now (June) in a healthy state, it is probable that the produce may be about 80,000 tons, which, at present prices for seed and fibre, will bring to the growers nearly six milHons sterling. The India Flax Company, formed a few years ago, was most unfortunate in its first attempts to improve the culture of the fibre in India. The seed sent from Europe lost its germinating powers on the voyage, and one year's progress was thus arrested. Now the prospects are more hopeful, and in another season or two it is expected that India will produce a considerable quan. tity of good sound common Flax, fit for the trade of Dundee and neighbourhood, if not for Belfast or Leeds. A good deal of Flax continues to be grown in the United States, but much of the fibre is still unwisely sacrificed for the seed. In Canada some progress is making in the cultivation of Flax, and hopes APPENDIX. 725 are entortained that it will receive more attention as its value becomes better known, and that the country will yet produce the fibre largely, as the quality is very suitable for spinning purposes. Jute. — In Scott's Magazine, vol. Ixiv. for 1802, some interest- ing details regarding Jute and other Indian fibres are given. On 23d December 1794, Dr Koxburgh, superintendent of the East India Company's Botanical Grardens in Calcutta, laid be- fore the Grovernor- General samples of dressed and undressed Jute and other fibres, which he thought suitable for the Linen manu- facturers of Scotland, and for papermakers. He subsequently made experiments in the cultivation and preparation of Jute. On 27th May 1796, the Board of Trade wrote the Gover- nor-General, for transmission to the Court of Directors, that they had forwarded in a bale some Jute, sent them by Dr Koxburgh, as a specimen of an attempt to improve its quality by a mode of cultivation and dressing different from the practice of the natives, and requesting that the samples might be referred to manufacturers in England for trial, and their opinion com- municated to the Board in India. Along with the samples the Doctor sent drawings and descriptions of the two plants, the fibres of which are called Jute, and an account of his method of cultivation of the plants, and preparation of the fibres. He says he thought the fibres might be rendered much finer, even fit for cambric and lawn, by being sown thicker and cut earlier than usual, and steeping it in pure soft clean water weU exposed to the sun's beams, instead of in the muddy water of the tanks which the natives used, and which is always discoloured by the leaves of trees, and other putrid vegetable matters. In 1802 material for paper making must have been scarce and dear, as the above details were published by J. Sewell, 32 Cornhill, London, in what appears to be an advertisement re- commending the East India Company, captains, officers, super- cargoes, importers of rice and India bale goods, grocers, drapers, &c., to collect sugar, rice, pepper, and other bags, as they made superior paper, samples of which were exhibited. The first idea of this was communicated to Mr Sewell by an ingenious literary gentleman, long resident in India, whose attention was called to the subject from seeing an advertisement on the covers 726 APPENDIX of the European Magazine, recommending ladies not to destroy their Linen rags. Jute, it was said, was largely used in Bengal for making coarse sacking (called gunny cloth), ropes, twines, and many other purposes. It cost in Bengal about 5s a cwt., and had been sold in England at 20s to 29s a cwt. The adver- tisement goes on to say, " Jute and Sunn offer a very good material for the owners of rice ships to fill up their cargoes with, or as dunnage, or if packed in gunny bags it wiU be more convenient, without risking much capital." Sunn, which cost 7s to 8s in Bengal, sold in England at 35s. These particolars shew that some attention had been paid to Jute, and that its nature and value, as a textile fibre, was not unknown in England nearly seventy years ago. It is wonderful therefore how its introduction in quantity into the manufactures of the country is of so recent a date. That its extension has been rapid since its real value was known is shewn in the chapters on Jute. The following tables bring down the expor- tation from Calcutta to the present time, viz. : — BXPOBTS OF Jute from Calcutta. To Great Brit Total from 1st Sept. 1862 to 1 „ , „_, .„„ 31st May 1863-See Page 87 / ^*'«'' ^^^'^^ June „ . . . „ July „ . . . „ August „...,, September eat Britain. France, &c. America. Total. 573,503 2,916 5,561 381,980 16,953 22,622 29,143 84,191 699 1,979 6,415 19,631 29,037 29,143 84,191 526,412 3,615 13,955 543,982 CoMPAEATiTB Statement of Cleaeanobs and SAiUNoa of Jute from Calootia to Great Britain in the Fiaai Seven Months of Season 1863-4. Reported Clearances. Actual Shipments. Jute and CuttinRs. Jute. Cuttings. Total. September, Bales, 82,138 28,290 1,704 29,994 October, 120,796 101,204 6,596 107,800 November, 143,911 8.5,335 3,608 88,943 December, 121,9,58 157,111 10,806 167,917 January, 62,733 98,880 9,620 • 108,.500 Tebruary, 38,240 43,395 3,400 46,795 March, 49,172 39,007 5,310 44,317 April, 21,511 30,720 4,530 35,250 640,459 583,942 45,574 629,516 Owing to steam communication being now open with the principal Jute-growing districts, the new crop commences to arrive in Calcutta a month earlier than here- tofore. Shipments are therefore now calculated from 1st September to Slst August, instead of 1st October to 30th September, aS formerly. APPENDIX. 727 Stock of Jute in and Afloat to London and Liverpool, &c. 1st January 1864. Spot, . . . Afloat, . London, Bales. 75,423 117,120 Liverpool, i Bales. 14,408 29,062 &c. Dundee. Bales. 20,192 Total Bales. Tons. 89,831 12,031 166,374 22,282 Cuttings Afloat to Great Britain, 192,543 43,470 20,192 256,205 9,021 34,313 lei June 1864. Spot, . Afloat, . 156,448 77,940 90,445 29,363 39,225 246,893 146,528 33,066 19,622 Cuttings Afloat to Great Britain, 234,388 119,808 39,225 393,421 18,330 52,688 Consumption of United King- dom, including Exports, Seasons • Bales, 1857-8 300,000 1863-9 343,000 1869-60 355,000 Consumption of United King- dom, including Exoorts. Seasons Bales, 1860-1 365,000 1861-2 398,750 1862-8 471,140 Some of the figures regarding Jute are taken from the excellently got up Weekly Reports of Barber, Nephew, and Co., of London. Late accounts from Calcutta advise that a very greatly in- creased area of ground is sown with Jute this season, and that the appearance of the crops is promising. There is therefore no fear of a short supply of fibre for next season's trade. Ireland. — Abstract of Return of Flax-spinning Mills and Linen power -loom factories in Ireland, with spindles and looms in 1859, and in May 1864, and looms in 1861, compiled from information derived (save in a very few instances) from the proprietors, by the Linen Trade Committee : — 1859. 1864. Mills. 74 Spindles Employed. 560,642 641,914 Sfinninq-Mills. Spindles Unemployed. 91,230 8,860 Total Spindles. 651,872 650,774 Proposed Extension. In addition to the preceding, there are employed in twist- ing thread, ....... Five Mills are in course of erection, capable of containing 50,638 Spindles. 14,648 „ 45,000 „ 1859. 1S61. 1864. Factories. 28 35 42 POWEB-LOOM FaOTOBIES. Looms Employed. 3,124 4,609 7,929 Looms Unemployed. 509 324 258 Total Looms. 3,633 4,9.H3 8,187 Proposed Extension. 1,685 looms. 3,14fi,870 11,611,606 9,568.182 1,577,086 3,126,707 22.091,454 14,871,869 14,467,086 18,602,740 728 Al'PENDIX. The trade of Belfast is in a most flourishing condition, and extensions to old mills and factories, and the erection of new ones, are being carried on with great vigour. France. — The following table of the articles enumerated, imported into France, and taken out of bond for consupaption, for 1861, 1862, and 1863, is taken from the French Board of Trade Keturns : — 1861 1862 1863 Jute, . . . Fr., 5,369,189 3,780,339 4,208,464 Flax, . . . „ 41,636,063 35.808,071 41,585,404 Flax, Hemp, and Jute Yarn, „ 5,870,738 5,830,097 4,588,533 FImx and Hemp Tissues, . „ 13,868,025 13,483,409 11,545,629 Exports of French productions, for same j'ears and from same source : — Flax, . . Fr., Flax and Hemp Yarn, . ' ,, Flax and Hemp Tissues, . ,, These tables show a remarkable extension of the exportation of yarn in 1863, when compared with the previous two years. In 1863, the sterling value was about £880,000, being seven times the value in 1862, and eleven times the value in 1861. Of the yarn exported in 1863, it is estimated that 2,200,000 spindles were sent direct to Dundee, besides indirect shipments via Hull, &c. The total value of yarn imported into the United Kingdom from France in 1863 is estimated at £600,000, of which about two-thirds found its way, directly or indirectly, to Dundee. This is a curious illustration of the effects of the late French Treaty, and it is convincing evidence that the protection accorded to the French spinners by a large import duty on yarns spun in this country ought never to have been agreed to, and should at once be taken off. Then the competition between the spinners of France and the United Kingdom in both coun- tries would be on fair terms, but at present the advantages are manifestly all on the side of the French. Of late the Linen manufacture has been making rapid progress in the northern districts of France, and the productive powers both of spinners and manufacturers have been and still are greatly on the increase. APPENDIX. 729 Russia. — The Russian Government have promulgated a de- cree, authorising nearly every description of goods, the produce of the country, to be exported free of duty. This is a commend- able policy, and if the Emperor would follow it up by removing the prohibition against certain imports, and reducing the duties on all to reasonable rates, and by removing the many restric- tions with which the trade of the country is trammelled, he would do much to encourage legitimate commerce, and to enrich the empire. UNITED STATES. Valde of the Linens Imported into New York i'bom 1st Jajjuaby to 31st Deobmbeb 1860 TO 1863 Bntered for Homa Consumption. Entered for Warehousing. Total Entered !tt the Port. Withdrawn from Warehouse. Total Thrown on the Market. 1860. 1861. 1862. 1863. $6,415,345 2,142,653- 6,711,630 8,022,270 $1,498,807 1,437,650 955,271 3,044,742 $7,914,152 3,580,303 7,666,901 11,067,012 $839,488 1,878,081 1,612,144 2,465,564 $7,254,833 4,020,734 8,323,774 10,487,834 Value of the Linens Impobtet into New York Mat 1862 TO 1864. PROM 1st JAND. ART TO 31st 1862. 1863. 1864. $2,415,241 3,523,772 4,690,970 $365,615 1,537,538 1,614,007 $2,780,856 5.061,310 6,304,977 $877,472 673,107 1,856,893 $3,292,713 4,196,879 6,547,863 The same causes which have so vastly stimulated the progress of the Linen trade in the United Kingdom within the last two years, have been at work in the various Linen manufacturing countries in the world, and all have to a greater or less extent felt the increased demand, and shared in the golden harvest. The following extract from the admirable monthly Report of D. Dewar, Son and Sons, for July 1864, is so pertinent and so appropriate, that it may fitly conclude this volume : — " The trade of this country generally is in a very prosperous condition. For this prosperity, however, we are chiefly indebted to the operation of free trade and the maintenance of peace— so essential to the proper development of that commercial policy which has proved to be so great a blessing to the country. Never, at any time, has trade been more active than at the present moment. In every branch of business — both for the home and the foreign markets— the most buoyant feeling pre- 730 APPENDIX. vails. The recent reduction in the Bank rate has infused addi- tional life into commercial operations ; so that, up to the present time, everything appears to be progressing in a very satisfactory manner. Of this, some proof will be found in the fact that the value of the exports, for the five months ended 31st May last, amounted to £64,069,060, as compared with £50,742,670 in the corresponding period of last year, and with £47,545,238 in the preceding year. " But the question now uppermost in everybody's mind is, shall we have war or not ? At this time the interruption of peace and the extension of the Danish war, to other parts of Europe, should we become actively involved in the dispute, would be a sad calamity indeed. We are very reluctant, how- ever, to believe in such an event. No Government will venture, under existing circumstances, to plunge this country into a war involving such sacrifices as must inevitably be made to support it. It is, of course, difficult to say what efiect would* be pro- duced on our trade by a general war in Europe. That it would be followed by severe commercial depression there can be no doubt, aggravated in a high degree by the increased prices of provisions, in addition to increased taxation. During the Crimean war, when the foreign supply of corn and provisions was in no way affected, the price of wheat averaged, on several occasions, as much as 80s per quarter. It is now only 40s, but with a general war in Europe, affecting, as it undoubtedly would, all the corn-producing countries, it is no exaggeration to esti- mate the probable average price at 100s, an additional annual cost to the nation of £60,000,000 on this one item only. " The British trade with European countries is now of a very extensive character. During the last year the real value of the goods imported from northern Europe and France amounted to £70,795,575 ; but, including all Europe, the total value was £94,667,234. On the other hand, the declared value of the British goods exported to the north of Europe and France was £37,479,009 ; while to all Europe the aggregate value amounted to £59,641,568. This, of course, is exclusive of the value of foreign and colonial goods re-exported to the different European countries. It will, therefore, be. seen that the value of our exports to Europe during the last year was greater than to all APPENDIX. 731 the world in the year 1848, during which the aggregate value amounted only to £52,849,445. A war in Europe would, for the time being, affect trade to an extent equal to the total destruction of that of the year 1848 ; so that the loss which would be sustained by the destruction of trade, the enhanced cost of provisions of all kinds, and the increased public expen- diture, would scarcely be less than £200,000,000. Setting aside all other considerations, what Government will venture to incur the responsibility of entailing so great a loss as this upon the country ? " The effects of a war would of course be felt in every depart- ment of trade ; but few to a greater extent than the Linen trade. For nearly the whole of the foreign supply of the raw material we are dependent upon the north of Europe ; while, at the same time, a very large proportion of the Linens exported is for Euror pean consumption. On a former occasion we estimated the an- nual consumption of Flax in this country at 100,000 tons a year ; this has since been confirmed by the last report of the Govern- ment Inspector of Factories, and according to whom, after the most careful inquiry, the average consumption for the last seven years has been 100,400 tons. During the last year the total quantity imported was 72,948 tons ; but as the acreage under Flax in the United Kingdom during the last year was wider, and the yield heavier, the home supply has been estimated at 64,227 tons; making, in all, 137,175 tons for the past year. For so far, the account of the crop up to the present time is most favourable. There is, at least in Ireland, a still greater breadth of land under the crop, and as the yield of fibre promises to be equally as good as last year, we have little doubt the supply from our own sources wUl be fuUy 70,000 tons. " It will be seen, however, that this quantity will fall far short of the total consumption of last year. In the quantity imported there is a very considerable increase up to the present time ; according to the returns just issued, the total of the Flax re- ceived during the five months ended 31st May last, was 638,174 cwt., compared with 317,821 cwt. in the corresponding period of last year, and with 334,165 cwt. in the year preceding. We must, however, take into our consideration the steadily increas- ing- demand for Linens, which, if not interrupted by war, neces- 732 APPENDIX. sarily involves an increased demand for the raw material. Should, therefore, the present pacific relation of this countiy be inter- rupted, it will easily be seen to what an extent trade will suffer. But we are not amongst those who believe that anything serious will occur ; and the steady progress of our foreign trade at this moment, as well as the condition of the foreign markets, indicate clearly enough that there is no great fear existing in the minds of people generally, that the question of peace or war, so far as this country is concerned, admits of any other than a pacific solution only. " In any case, however, we find ourselves in considerable diffi- culty with regard to the supply of Flax. The consumption of Linens at home is extending rapidly ; it is, in fact, limited only by the supply — for the demand cannot be met ; while the value of the piece goods exported during the five months ended 31st of May last, was £3,138,863, compared with £2,270,878 during the same period of last year, and £1,722,705 in the preceding year. " With respect to the supply of Flax, we are much gratified to find that the attention of the Government is now being directed to the matter. This question is more now than ever of paramount importance, considering the increased supply of the raw material necessary for the requirements of the additional spinning mills about to be erected for supplying the excessive demand for yarns, which are sold at such unprecedentedly remunerative rates. " Mr Baker, the inspector of fadories, in his last official report to the Home Secretary, states : — ' In 1862 Messrs Dewar esti- mated the average consumption of Flax at 100,000 tons a year_ stating also that fully as much more was required.' According to the result of the most careful inquiry on the part of Mr Baker, ' the average consumption for the last seven years was 100,400 tons ;' and of the accuracy of his statement there can be little doubt. He goes on to state that, ' the entire acreage of England and Wales is 37,324,883, which, divided into farms, gives an average of 149 acres each. Adding the number of farms in Scotland and Ireland, and supposing that every farmer could be induced to grow five acres of Flax, for one year as an experi- ment, the produce of a low average rate of 4 cwt. per acre would be equivalent to 511,850 tons.' APPENDIX 733 " ' But supposing only half the land, or half the inclinations of the farmers, would admit of this growth, we should still have a production of 255,925 tons, which would he more than twice as much as Mr Dewar's estimate ; and, without interfering with the cotton trade at all, would give the odd day and a half's em- ployment to the cotton districts which, according to Mr Ash- worth's calculations, will be wanting in 1865, and perhaps in 1866 ; and would distribute to the farmers themselves between two and three millions of hard cash, which otherwise they would never touch. Moreover, of this we may be sure, that without this home growth, should there ever be a time when we cannot obtain foreign Flax, we shall then have a Flax famine, as we have lately had a cotton famine ; and whether there is ever such a time or not, the Flax-spinning spindles of the European con- tinent have, within these late years, so largely increased, that much of the Flax grown abroad will be wanted for home con- sumption ; and though we may possibly obtain some of it, the prices will be enhanced, and our own farmers had better, there- fore prepare to help us under the contingency.' " These remarks are so truthful, and they bear so fully on the present position of the trade, that we deem it right to give them all the publicity we can. They are evidently the result of careful observation and inquiry ; no practical person will dis- pute their accuracy ; and it would be fortunate indeed if those most interested would foUow the advice given ; for certain it is that something must be done to render us less dependent on the foreign supply." ( 734 ) INDEX. Aberdeen — Manufactures, 426. Yarn ani} Linen made, 938. Thread made, 539— Mills, 540. Exports, 540— BpindUs, 540. Decline of Trade, 541. Aberdein, Gordon and Co., 518, 577, 655, 723. Abernlethy, 483— Abernyte, 483. Abingdon, 66, 387. Achan's CoTetousness, 182. Adam, 120, 121. Adamson, John, 549, 654. Adie, A. and J., 656. African Company, 430. Agricola, 206, 578. Alexander the Great, 180, 191, 195 220. Alexander Sererus, 206, 223. Alexandrosky WorkB, 336 Aloe Fibre, 107. Alva, Duke of, 362. Alyth, 484. Amestris, Queen of Xerxes, 191. Amiens, 315. Amorgos, 193, 195, 196, 222. Amsterdam, 291, 293. Anderson, A. B., 67. Anderson, William, 67. Anderson's History of Commerce, 360. Anglo-Saxons, 356, 357. Anne, Queen, 392, 893. Annan, David, 508 — Annan, James, 493. Antwerp, 292, 393, 304, 362. Appendix, 724. Arachne, 190, 219. Arab Tent 123. Arbirlot, 485. Arbroath — Jute spun, 80. Osnaburgs first made, .541. Town Clerk's Account, 542. Pennant's Tour, 542. Linen Stamped, 542, .546. Sailcloth made, 542. Elders of St Vigeans, 543. Sciims and Thread made, 543 Spinning Mills, 543, 545. Yicissitudea of Trade, 544. Bleachfields, 545. Discount of Bills, 546. Dundee and Arbi-oath Railway, 545. Prices Current, 547. Power-Looms and Spindles, 548, 654. Flaxdressers, 548. Production of Linens, 548. Archangel — First Russian Port, 320. Imports and Exports, 321, 322. Character of Flax shipped, 322, 324. Brack and Classification (^ Flax, 323. Consul Renny's Report, 324. Linen made, 336. Arete, Queen of Phoeaoia, 189. Argyle, Duke of, 443. Aristophanes, 193, 223. Arkwnght, Richard, 373. Assaville, Nicholas D', 448. Athelstane, King, 356. Athena, Goddess of Weaving, &c.,190, 192. Athenian Ladies, 192, 223. Athens, 191, 194. Attica, 192. Auchterarder, 48.5 — Auchtermuchty, 485. Augustus, 206, 220. Attrelian, 207. Austria*— Made Linens early, 285. Flax and Hemp grown, 286. Dependent on itself, 286. Manufacturing Industry Artificial, 286. Imports and Exports, 287. Goods in Transit, 288. Spinning Mills, 288. Linens in Exhibition, 288. Avoch, 486. Aytoun, James, 71, 79, 510, 566, 691. Aytoun, R. and A., 655. Awnings of Linen, 206. B Babylon — Magnificence of, 136. Fabrics costly and prized, 182. Silks, 182. Flax grown, 183. Weaving Establishments, 182. Baker, Mr, Inspector of Factories, 379, 732. Baldwin, Earl of Flanders, 249. Balfour and Cumming, 654. Balfour and Meldrum, 65, 68, 72. Banff, 486. Bank of England, 430. Bank of Scotland, 433 Bannockburn, Battle of, 229, 422. Barber, Nephew, and Co., 727. Barcelona, 264. Bamsley, 385. Barry, 487. INDEX. 735 Basil, Emperor, 197. Basque Provinces, 265. Bavaria, 273. Baxter Brothers and Co., 382, 614, 621, 711. Baxter, John, 654. Bayeoux Tapestry, 356. Belfast— Linen Trade settled in, 394. Linen Hall erected, 395. Spinning MUls, 404, 406. Queen and Prince Albert's Visit, 405. Metropolis of Linen Trade, 417. Imports and Exports, 419, 420. Belg8B introduced Linen to Britain, 354. Belgium -Flax Culture, 23, 39, 298. Spinning and Weaving Factories, 299. Linens made, 299— Bleaching, 299. Imports and Exports, 300. Linens in Exhibition, 302, Benholm. 491— Bendochy, 491. Benjamin of Tudela, 173. BerUn, 275. Berrie, Alexander, 656. BerthoUet, 720. Bervie, 489, 692. Beveridge, Erskine and Co., 557. Bezaleel, 130. Bilboa, 264. Bielefield, 275, 276. Bimie, David, 689. Birsay and Harray, 491. Blair, Andrew and Co., 655. Blair-Athole, 491. Blairgowrie— Jute-Spinning, 80, 550. Spinning Mills, 239, 549. Linens Stamped, 549. Spindles and Power-looms, 550, 654. Bleaching— Greece, 193— Spain, 199. Holland, 295, 717— Belgium, 299. England, 366— Ireland, 409. Scotland, 426, 430, 447, 449, 720. With Kelp, 449— Dry Bleaching, 570. Dundee, 599, 722. Linen, 716— France, 718, 719. Grants to Bleachfields,'448, 719. Chlorine, 720— Chloride of Lime, 721. Steam, 721— Soda Ash, 721. Washing by Machinery, 721. Forfarshire, 723. Blue Books, 661. Blyth, H. and T., 656. Boadioea, 354. Board of Trustees for Scotland. Patent for Appointment, 445. Rules and Regulations, 445. Extracts — Minutes and Keports, 448. Boetius, Hector, 484, 579. Bohemia, 287. Bois-le-duc, 292. Bologna, 253, 255. Bolton and Watt, 510. Bonelli, Chevalier, 714. Borneo Company, 81. Bjrsippa, 183. Boston, 348. Boswell, St., 533. Bothwell, Earl, 579. Bounty— On Hemp and Flax Imported, 368. Object of Grantiug, 663. Acts Authorising, 663, 664, 665. Injudicious, 664, 668, 669. On Exports, 666, 670. Frauds of Merchants, 668. Abolition, 667, 669. Boyack, William, 71. Brabant, 227, 286, 290, 295. Brechin — Osnaburg Manufacture, 551 . Spinning MilU, 552. Bleachfields, 552. Linen Stamped, 553. Power-Looms, 554. Brehon Laws, .389. Bretagne, 304, 314, 315. Brice's Universal Geography, 584. Bridport, 386. British Linen Company, 238, 442. Britons — N'oticed by old Historians, 333, Clothed in Skins, 353. Painted their Bodies, 353. Span and Weaved Tartan, &c., 353. Belgae introduced Linen, 354. Romans introduced Civilization, 354. Wrapped their dead in Linen, 855. Retreat into Wales and Cornwall, 355. Brough, Thomas, 656. Brown, Andrew and Co., 656. Brown, James, 589. Brown, William, 589, 690, 694. Bruce, King David, 578. Bruce, King Robert, 359. Bruges, 249, 290. Brussels, 299, 301. Buist, Alexander J., 656. Butter Milk, 718, 720. Byssus, 130, 141, 186, 215. Cadiz, 263. Caesar mentions the Britons, 353. CairdandCo.,530. CairJ, Edward, 656. Cairnie, 491. Cairncross, David, 699. Caledonians, 422. Calendering Machines, 460, 614. Calico— With Flax Warp, 370, 374. Penalties on Weaving, 369. Cambray, 293, 306-315. Cambric, 293, 314, 315, 363, 371. Cambuslang, 492— Caputh, 492. Cargill and Co., 520, 723. Cargill, T. and J., 656. Oarimus, Emperor, 207. Carmichael, J. and Co., 60.3, 699. Carmichael, John, 723. Carmichael, Peter, 712, 714. Cassiteridis, The, 353. Catalonia, 263. Carthage — Hebrew spoken, 180. Founded by Dido, 181. Imported Flax, 181. Emporium of Trade, 181. Taken by the Romans, 181. Introduced Linen to Europe, 250. Catullus, 187, 200, 217. Ceres, 493. Chalmers, Charles and Co., 650. 736 INDEX Champagne, 304. Charlemagne, 201, 249. Charles ir., 391. Charles III. of Spain, 262. Charles IV. of Spain, 262. Charley, "William J. P., 420. Chaptel, Mons., 721. Cheffelle, Louis, 655. Chemmis, 172. China, Early Account of, 173. Flax, 173, 345. Linens, 345. China Grass— A Nettle, 95. Cultivation, 95— Preparation, 97. Not suited for Spinning, 98. Chlorine, 720, 721. Ciampini, 701. Cleopatra's Gallery, 139. Cluny, 493. Colchis— An Egyptian colony, 184. Grew Flax and Hemfi, 184, 185. Exported Linen, 184, 195. Cologne, 277. Combe and Co., 684, 699. Commercial Restrictions, 231. Companies of Merchants, 360. Comrie, 493. CoDstantine Palssologus, 343. Convoys from Leith Boads, 438. Copenhagen, 339. Copland, Professor, 720. Corinth, 196. Corsar Brothers, 654. Corsar, David and Sons, 6.54. Corslet of Amasis, 165, 213. Cos, Fabrics of, 188, 195. Cotton Bagging, 439, 467, 600, 617. Cotton Manufacture, 373, 374, 56.3, 598. Cotton Sailcloth, 347. Council of Westminster, 358. Coupar Angus, 454, 494. Courtrai, 299. Cox, James, 572. Cox Brothers, 573, 620, 656, 714, 723. Cri.il, 494. Crait, J. and H. and Co., 654. Crete, 344. Crichton, Archibald, 592. Crichton, James, 58. Crieff, 495. Crommelin, Louis, 392. Crompton, Joseph, 710. Cromwell, 580. Cronstadt, 325. Crueltiesof the Spaniards, 229, 263, 293, 362. CuUen, 496 Cumberland, 387. Cunningham, J. L., 656. CuparFife, 495. Carr, William and Co., 654. Curry, Walter, 579. Dacca— Jute grown around, 60, Cloth made, 162. Celebrated, Manufactures, ISS Daniel's Vision, 140. Darien Company, 430. Darlington, 382, 692. Davidson, William, 619. Dean Castle burned, 434. Deer, 497. r>elos, 195. Demetrius, Chlamys of, 189. Denmark, 340. Dewar, D., Son and Sons, 516, 557, 729. Dickson, John F., 546, 723. Dickson and Co., 317, 38. Din, 422. District Trade, 483, 538, 577. DompHio Trade. 481. Dnnald, James, 574, 656. Dorian Die-^s, 191. Dorset, 386. Dorsetshire Gentleman. 375. Donirlastown Mill, 512, 692. Douglas, William, 511. Dowall, Chailes, 546-723. Dnw-illy, 497. Dri'iimie, Alexander. 721. Drmmie, Daniel and Co., 523, 721, 723. Druce, Samuel, jun., 376. Druids wore Linen gnrments, 355. Duncan, D. and Co , 723. Dundee— Direct Jute Imports, 65, 619, 620 Juie introduced, 67. 69, 71 Imports, 240, .587, 613, 6.33. Exno ts, 309, 587, 601, 606, 608, 613, 635. Chamber of Commerce, 403, 601, 611, 630, 666, 667. St.rmed by Monk, 426, 580. Offered a Spinning School, 448. Bleaching with Kelp, 449. Antiquity of, 578 Second Town in Scotland, 580. Decay of Trade, 581. Manufacture of Thread, 582, 612. Could not support a Bank, 582. Harbour, 579. 580, 583. Mobs in, 582, 603. Account (fi, by S. Homespun, 583- Brice, 584 — Pennant, 584— Dr Small, 584, Hereditary Jurisdiction, 584. Various Trades. 585. Price of Flax, 587, 608, 609, 616. Mill-spinning, 589, 591, 592, 613, 630, 656. Bell Mill, 590. Capital in Spinning Mills, 591, 632. Mills for Sale, 591. Mills in Neighbourhood, .593, 654. The Luckenbooths and Hand spin- ning, .595. Difficulties of early Spinners, 596. Night Work, 598- Heckling, 598. Cotton Manufacture, 598. Bleaching Prices, 599. Kussian Merchants, 601. Whale Fishing, 601. Manufacture of Sailcloth, 602. Punishment for Theft, 602. Foreigners may he Free, 603. Engineering, 603 - Shore-dues, ('.03. Linen Stamped, 604. INDEX. 737 Wagea, 606, GIO, 611, 612, 613, 631. Bounty on Linen, 606. Length of Webs, 611. Mutability of Trade, 612. Pewer-Looms, 613. Calendeiing Machinery, 615. Convulsions in Trade, 616. Bagging aud Railway Manias, 617. Crimean and American Wars, 618. Prosperity, 619. Improvements in Mills, 621, 628. The Flax Trade, 621. Flax Warehouses, 628. The Cowgate, 629. Fabrics Manufactured, 630. Statistics of Tradf, 630, 631. Consumption of JJaw Material, 631. Production of Yarns and Cloth, 631. Benefits derived from Jute, 632. Prices Current, 6S9. Statistics of Mills and Factories, 654, 656. Dundee AdveHiser, 22, 75, 93, 306, 346, 376, 398, 413, 438, 456, 469, 513, 545, 553, 591, 599, 600, 602, 603, 604, 605, 606, 610, 613, 614, 659. Duff, Daniel, 71, 605. Duff, Thomas, 8L Duke, D. and N., 554. Dunfermline — New Diaper Loom, 449. T able Linen. 554. Specimen of Art~554. Spinning-Mill, 555. Taste in Manufactures, 555. Looms, 556 — Wages, 556. Power Loom Works, 557. Fabrics made, 558. Dunkeld, 497. Dunkirk — Flax grown, 314. Manufactures, 315 Dickson and Co's Work, 317. Dunnichen, 498— Dunnotor, 498. Dupin, Nicholas, 429. Dura Den, 507. Dutch Government u.se Jute Yarn, 75. Dutch not Flax growing, 292, 293. Dyeing— Jute, 73, 573. Egyptian, 162, 167— Phoenicinn, 178. Babylonian, 182— Grecian, 193. England, 353— Ireland, 410. Dysart, 498. E Easson, Alexander, 58, 629. Enslland Merchants, 363. East Mill Company, 552, 723. Eden, Sir F. M., 661. Edict of Nantes, 231, 305, 367, 392. Edinburgh, 424, 428, 429, 439, 449. Edinburgh Society, 435. Edward Alliin, 65. Edward, A. and D. and Co., 614, 623, 656— Edward, The Elder, 356. Edward III., 359.-3dward VI., 362. Egypt — ^Antiquity, 145. Trades Hereditary, 145. Ancient Paiotings, 146, 210. Flax Preparations, 146, 148. Spindles and Spinning, 148, 211. 3a Looms and Weaving, 149, 212. Calendeiing, 150. Quality of Linens, 150, 152, 163, 158, 164. 213. Linen used for Embalming, 15'^, 153. Linen Exported, 150. Dress of different ranks, 153, lo6, 213. Mended Mummy Cloths, 154. Embalming, 126, 155. Flax Abundant, 156— "Unions," 158. Ancient Garments, 159. Mummy Cloth all Linen, 160. Dyed Linen, 162, 164. Nets and Patterns of Linen, 165 Gold and Silver Embroidery, 166. Wire Drawing, 167. Mordants used, 167. Fringes and Carpets, 169. Twines and Paper, 170. Gnats, remedy against, 170. Papyrus Boats, 171— Sails, 171. Linen made in Temples, 172. Flax Exported, 175. Eileithyias, Grottos of, 147. Elgin, 501-Elis, 186, 221, 222. Eliza'ieth, Queen, 361, Embroidered Work, 128, 133, 159, 16fi, 182, 189, 196, 213, 356. Employment for the Unemployed, 366. Endogens, 105. England— People rude, 226. Saxon Invasion, 226. Progress in Weaving, 227. William of Normandy, 227. Visited by Phoenicians, 352. Flax indigenous, 357. Guilds establislieil, 358. Lirjen Imparts, 360, 372. Egyptian, German, and Flemish Linen, 360, 361. Flax from Carolina, 362. Uussian Tra e begun, 362. Flax Culture encouraged, 362, 36.S. Linen Manufacture encouraged, 363. Stagnation in Trade, 372. Imports and Exports, 380. Flax-Spinning, 381. Spindles and Powi r-Looma, 387. Irish Produce duty free, 39a. Woollens assigned to, 39L Pieniium on Irish Hemp, 399. Whipping the Scotch, 428. Union with Scotland, 431, Complaints of Woollen Manufac- turers, 436. English GaUant, 364. English Linen Company, 371, 429. Equivalent, The, 430, 451. Bricht, Eiver, 550. Euphrales, Eiver, 183. Ewan, John, 656. Excise Duties, 381. Exogens, 105. Ezekiel's Vision, 140. F Factory Laws — France, 313. United Kingdom, 671. 738 INDEX. Factory Returns, 420, 662, 680. rairbairn, Peter and Co., 699. Falkland, 423, 501. Fashions, Change of, 369. Fergus, John and Co., 516. Fer^usson, William and Sons, 656. Fibres of Plants, 4, 273, 683. Findlater, Earl of, 496. Finisterre, 316. Flanders, 227, 285, 290. Fraser, Douglas and Son, 654. Flatterer, The, 714. Flax— Names, 4— An Annual, 4. Description, 4. Varieties, 5, 127, 146, 255. Climate required, 6. Seed Valuable, 7. Sowing Seed, 10,33. Produce per acre, 11, 255, 374, 377. Composition of Plant, 12. Soil required, 13, 32. Rotation of Crops, 14, 33, 256. Sowing, 16, 33, 146— Manure, 16. Weeding, 17, 34. Pulling, 17, 34, 146. Steeping, 19, 23, 28, 37, 147, 148, 378. Rippling, 20, 35, Preparing — Lee's Patent, 21, 22 — Shenck's, 26-Watt's, 27. Spreading, 26, 38. Dew Rettins, 26, 323. Scutching, 29, 39, 146. Management of Cmp, 31. Courtrai System, 23, 39. Prices, Riga and London, 113. Antiquity, 126, 127, 146. Where Grown— Canaan, 127, 215— Egypt, 145, 210 - China, 173, 345 —Babylon, 183 — Colchis, 184— Greece, 186, 197, 221— Italy, 201, 253, 255, 258-Spaia, 199, 224, 260, 265-France, 201, 303, 312,314, 358 - Germany, 267, 271, 275— Austria, 286— Holland, 295, 297— Belgium, 298— Russia, 323, 326— Portugal, 340— Turkey, 344— America, .^46— England, 357— Ireland, 388— Scot- land, 242, 439. Fibre in Straw, 273. t^cotch and Irish Contrasted, 401. Progress of Cultivation, 724. Flax and its Products in Ireland, 420. Flax Seed— Food for Cattle, 7, 20, 378. Yield of Oil, 7-Imports, 8, 373. Should be Saved, 19, 20, 438. Flax Heckling, 683. Flax-Spinning, 130, 134, 187, 188, 215, 223, 243, 246, 683, 684, 692 Fleming, David H.. 656. Fleming, Robert, 629. Fleming, W. and J. and Co. , 605. Fleming, W. and K. H., 656. Flemings— Love of Liberty, 289. Enjoyed Commercial Freedom, 290. Weaving a Gift to, 358. In Scotland, 424. Fletcher, Alexander and Co., 505. Fordoun, 502— Fordyce, 502. Foifar — Osnabuigs made, 558. Fluctuations in Tra'e, 659. Linen Stamped, 559. Wages, 559, 561. Value of Linens made, 560. Hand and Power-Looms, 560. Bleachfield and Calender, 560. Fabrics made, 561— Castle, 578. Forfarshire, 385, 48S. Forgan, 502— Forres, 503. France- Imports and Exports, 80, 81, 305, 306, 307, 311, 728. Soil adapted for Flax, 303. Linens early made, 304. Popish Persecutions, 305. Yarn to Dundee, 307, 728. Exports, United Kingdom to, 308. Do., Dundee to, 309— Tariffs, 309. Acreage under Flax, 312. Spindles, 312, 313. Factories and Factory Laws, 313. Fine Flax grown largely, 314. Prosperous under Napoleon, 316, 317. Linen in Exhibition, 318. Fraternity of Scissors, 3.59. French Cambric proMbited in England, 370. Friesland, 295— Frost stops Weaving, 451. G Galgaous, 578-6alston, 503. Garments, Seamless, 129, 130, 654, 56& Gaul, 199, 200, 203, 353. Gas introduced into mills, 537. Gennes, M., 709- Gentle Shepherd, 241. Genoa, 256, 257, 264— George IV., 402. Geraldus, Cambrensis, 389. Germanic Union, 278. German Ladies, 224, 354. German Fairs, 280. Germany — Linen wove under ground, 200. Manufactures Ancient, 266. German names of Linens, 267- Linen Manufactures, 279, Fiscal Regulations, 279. Linens in Exhibition, 284. Ghent, 299, 301— Gibbon, 166. Gilchrist, Alexander, 516. Gibson, Farquharson and Co., 656. Gilroy Brothers, 65, 79, 620, 625, 656. Giovani Bolero, 305. Glasgow, Manufactures established, 428i. Exported Linen to Bristol, 430. Rope Work erected, 430. Woodrow*s Account, 432. Manufacturing Progress, 433, 504. Lapping Machines, 449. Glamis, 504— Gordon, George, 654. Gordon, Barron and Co., 721. Gordon, G. and A., 654, 655. Gordon, John and Co., 656. Gourlsy Brothers, 699. Gourock Rope Work Company, 505. Grange, 505. Great Britain — Importations from Ireland, 398-399. Imports and Exports, 658, 659, 666. Revenue from Flax, &o., 660. Consumption of Linen, 665. Greece— iieaoription, 185. INDEX. 739 Grew Flax, 186— Ladies of, 187. Employment of Women, 188 Needle Work, 189. Hemp Fabrics, 196. Manufactures, 196— Exports, 196. Imports of Linen, 197. Gieenook Spinning Company, 505. Grimond, David, 550-654. Orimond, James, 71, 550. Grimond, J. and A. D., 625, 6.56. Gunny Cloth, 69, 60, 84, 347, 348. Guthrie, J. and A., 656. H Haarlem, 291, 294, 295. Haddington, Earl of, 521. Haggart, James, 516— Halley, John, 71. Halley, William and Sons, 656. Hamburg— Imports and Exports, 60, 66 283— Founded, 249. Ham's Family made Linen, 118. Hanover— Famed for Linen, 267, 271. Napoleon and Trade, 271. "Linnen Leggen," 272. Exports, 272— Stamp Act, 272. Linen in Exhibition, 284. Hanseatic League — Formation, 228, 282. Extent of Trade, 283. Hargraves, James, 373. Harlots -Distinctive Dress, 133. Harold, King of Norway, 356. Hasselquist— Egyptian Linen, 172. Hebrew Clothing, 137. Heckling, 598, 683. Hecltling Machine, 684— Hector, 189. Helen -Industry of, 135, 187, 189. Helesp.int, Bridge over, 194. Hemp — Names, 41 — Male and Female, 41. Exbilarating Properties, 42. Thracian Garments, 42. Sowing, 43, 45, 254. Soil, 44— Pulling, 46. Steeping, 47, 254— Grassing, 47. Scutching, 48, 255 -Produce, 48. Various qualities, 44, 45, 48, 253. Imports and Exports, 110, 111, 116, 117, 660— Duty paid, 660. Henderson, Alexander, 656. Henderson, Henry and Son«, 612. Henderson, John and Sous, 656. Hendry, John, 626. Hendry, J. and W., 65.5. Henry, Thomas. 67— Henry IIL, 358. Henry IV. of France, 305. Henry VIL, 361. Henry VIII., 364— Herodian. 422. Herodotus, 149, 177, 182, ls3. 211, 353, 700— Hibiscus, Description, 107. Highlands— Manufactures tried, 462. High Priest's Garments, 129. Hiram, 132. Hodges, Professor, 11, 12, 418. Hoile, J. and Co., 666. Holland- Love of Liberty, 289. Privileges of the Flemings, 290. Cloth HaUs, 291. Dovnfall of Trade, 294. Limited Manufactures, 295. Imports and Exports, 296.1 Jute Yarns manufactured, 296, L97. Flax and Hemp grown, 297. No Statistics of Trade, 298. Hollinshead, 422, 578. Homespun, Samuel, 374, 583. Homer, 13.5, 177, 187, 189, 216. Hosea's Prophecy, 140. Housekeeping in Greece, 194. Hull Imports, 388. Huntingdon, Earl of, 579— Huntly, 508. Huntly, Marquis of, 423, 426. Idols' dress, 137— lUiad, 189. Inch Bleaching Company, 552, 723. India, Ancient trade with, 162. India Flax-Company, 724. laverary, 606— Itivirness, 506. Ireland- Legislation, 231. Linen Board appointed, 232, 393. Inspectors appointed, 232, 395. Trade settled in Ulster, 233. Flax steeped in remote times, 388. Exported Linens early, 389. Women good spinners, 390. Linen Manufacture encouraged, 390. Exports of wool prohibited, 391. Ruin of Woollen Trade, 391. Linen Trade assigned to, 391. Protpstant Linens encouraged, 392. Lii,ett Scarfs at Funerals, 392. Premiums and Grants, 394, 400. Transactions of Trustees, 394. Seals Issued, 395. Domestic nature of Trade, 395. District markets, 396. Bounty to Linen producers, 396. Exports and Imports, 397, 398, 399, 408-Bounty on Irish Hemp, 398. Boucity on Linen exported, 398 Cross Channel Trade Coasting, 399. Tour of Insp."ction, 400, 403. Two-handed Wheel, 400. Kiln-diying Flax, 401. Inferior Flax Seed, 402. Dutch Agriculturists, 403. Late Introduction of Mill-spinning, 404— First Spinning Mills, 404. Grants to Trustees withdrawn, 404, 405-Eo.val Flax Society, 405. Victoiiaand Albeit visit Belfast, 405. Spinning Mills, 406, 727. Value Linen Manufacture, 406, 418. Handspun Yarn, 406. Spindles, 406, 420, 727. Power-Looms, 407, 420, 727. Quality of Yaxa and Linen, 408. Linens in Great Exhibition, 410. Acreage of Flax grown, 411, 412. Value Flax Crop, 413. Market Keports, 414, 415. Progress of Cultivation, 415. Quality of Irish Flax, 415. Flax Seed, 417. Trade centralised, 417. Persons employed, 418. Flax and its Products, 420. Ireland, George, jun., 655. Irons, James, 656. 740 INDEX. Isiiiah— Zion'a daughters, 136. Italy— Flax grown, 201, 253. Free Cities, 248, 252. Flax Cultivation, 253, 256. Districts where grown, 256. One Power-Loom, 257. Priests, 259. Imports and Exports, 259. Ivan Vassiliewituh II., 320, Ivory, James and Co., 238, 458, 490, 512. Jacob's Gnrraents, 124. Jacquard Machine. 556, 707. Jafte Brothers, 629. James II., 367, 427. James III., 579— Jeffrey, John, 655. Jesus, Seamless Coat, 130. John, King, establishes Guilds, 358. John, Saint, 143. Joliuson, Ben, Silent Women, 363. Johnston, G. and J., 536. Joseph's Coat, 124, 126.— Josephus, 129. Jute— Long grown in India, 49. First importation of, 50. Experimental Cultivation, 50, 72.5. Viirieties and Description, 51, 83. Names, 51, 62, 53— Job, 52. Sowing, Soil, and Climate, 53. Koots, 54 — Uunner.s, 55. Reiiping, 55 -Steeping, 55. Soutohinp, 56 — Produce, 56. Grown in Dundee, 58. Stalk or Stem useful, 58. Colour, 59 — Uses in India, 59. Gunny Clolh and Ba^s, 60. Whisky made of Boots, 60. Transport to Calcutta, 61. Bazaars, 61. Public P.tckin^ Houses, 61. Size of Bales, 61— Packing, 62. Shipment from Calcutta, 6?. Bold by Biokers in England, 62. Auction Sales, 63. Intermediate Agents, 64. Direct Shipments to Dundee, 65. Selma, first direct Ship, 65. Spun on Hand-wheel, 67. Disliked by MiU-spinners, 70, 77. Bad repute of, 71, 76, 78. Carpeting, 72 — Dyeing, 73. Imports into Dundee, 76. Batching, 77. Fibres, Hard and Dry, 78. Weaved without Starch, 79. Appearance sightly, 79. Fabrics made, 79. Extending Consumption, 80. Imports into France, 80. Cotton, 82— Wool, 82. Extent of Crop, 83. Miiy be Washed or Boiled, 83, 84. Exports from Calcutta, 84, 86, 726. London Statistics, 85. Stock, 88, 727. Imports, 89, 110, 111, 115, 117, 660. Prioe«j^,89, 108, 110. Couiitries whence Imported, 11.5. Exports, 116. Ports into which Imported, 117. Manufactures Exported, 678. Consumption, 727. Jute Factories, 680, 681, 682. Jute Yarns — Largely used in Holland, 296— Exports, 678. K Kay, John, 70.3. Keith, 507— Kemback, 507. Ken.irew and Porthouse, 239, 381, 458, 489, 510, 512, 690, 695. Kenmore, 508 -Kettle, 508. Kennedy and Co., 656. Kerr, John and Co., 699. Kilharchan — Thread Manufacture, 434 Kilbride, 508-Kilchoman, 509. Killin, 509— Kilwinning, 509. Kilmarnock, Earl of, 434. Kinghorn, 510, 655-Kinloch, 511. Kinmond, Luke, and Co., 657, Kinnettles, 458, 511. Kinross— Patriotic experiment, 438, 514. Kirkcaldy— Shipping, 561. Linen Manufacture established, 561. Fluctuations in Trade, 562, 565. Linens Stamped, 562, 563. Ticking Manufacture, 562. Looms employed, 663. Power- Looms erected, 565. Spindles and Power- Looms, 567, 655. Kirkden, 514. Kirkland Works, 22, 239, 536, 710. Kirkwall and St Olda, 515. Kirriemuir — Flax Cultivation, 567. Curious articles made, 568. Linen Fabrics, 568, 569. Linens Stamped, 569. Looms, 569— Wages, 569. Kitto, Dr, 216. Konigsberg -Flax Exports, 274, 275. Convenient Shipping Port, 334. Kyd, JamesP., 654. Lace, 299, 301— Lacedemonians, 196. Laing, John, 614^Iiaing and Ewan, 656. Laird and Co., 654, Lamb and Scott, 554. Lancashire, 385— Largo. 515. Lawson, Alexander, 508. Leadbetter and Co., 11. Leather Tanning, 426. Lee's Flax Preparation, 21. Leghorn, 264 -Leeds, 378, 382, 38.3, 384. Leipsic Fair, 280, 401. Leland, 389- Leprosy, 131. Leslie, 515— Lethendy, 516. Leuohars, 516— Ley.len, 293. Libau, 331 -Lille, 315. Lime or Linden Tree — Ornamental, 103. Yields Sugar, 103, Raw Material for Mats, 103. Cut Young, 103- Steeping, 103. Uses to which Bark is applied, 104. Large production of Mats, 104. Linen— Antiquity, 1, 118, 126, 210. Countiies whence Imported, 115. Healthy to Wear, 122. INDEX. 741 First mentioned in Scriptures, 125. Wrapped around the Dead, 126, 142. Curtains of the Tabernacle, 128. Veil of the Holy of Holies, 128- Sacerdotal Garments, 129, 144, 157, 198, 214, 215, 354. An Emblem of Purity, 130, 131, 140, 144, 214. Used in the WilJernesB, 131. Books, 132~Ephods, 129, 132. Egyptian, 132— Hebrew Names. 141. Where Made — Egypt, 145, 210— Egyptian Temples, 172 — Cliina, 173, 345 — Carthage, IHl— Baby- Ionia, 183- Colchis, 184- Greece, 187, 188, 192, 193-Spain, 199. 26:^— Italy, 256 Germany, 267— Prussia, 267— Silesia and Saxony, 267, 269-Holland, 290— Belsium, 299— France, 303, 316— Russia, 336— Turkey, 344— By the Belgse, 354— Imperial College, Winches- ter, 355— England, 355— Ireland, 389— Scotland, 422. Te.\ture fine, 188, 193. German Names, 267. Imports and Exports— Belgium, 300 —France, 311— Russia, 327— Den- mark, 340— Portugal. 341- New York, 350, 729— United Kingdom, 673, 678. Found in British Barrows, 354. Exported from England, 361. Manufacture encouraged in England, 363— Quiility made in Ireland, 408. Manufaciure established in Scotland, 430— Stamped in Scotland, 476. Weaving, 700. Do., by whom Invented, 700. Linen Bleaching, 716. Linen Hall, 393, 397, 402, 405, 454, 458. Ijnen Trade Circular, 406, 407, 414, 416, 417. Lmen Yarn — Countries whence Imported, 115— Imported by Solomon, 132. Imports and Exports, 300, 311, 372, 398, 673, 678, 679. Linseed, 8 — Linseed Oil, 7, 8. Linsey Woolsey, 131. Lint Boors, 24, 451. Little Dankeld, 517-Livy, 132. Lochee — Early Linen Manufacture, 570. Linen fabrics made, 571. Ancient family hiatoryj 571. Camperdown Linen Works, 573. Other Works, 574. Lockhart, N. andN., 521. Logierait, 518 — Logic Pert, 518. Lombardy, 256— London, 368, 387. Longforgan, 519 — Lornty, 550. Loom— Egyptian, 149, 212, 225, 700. Israelitish, 130, 216. Roman, 204, 218, 225. In Prussia, 274. In England, 387, 680, 682. In Ireland, 407, 681, 682. In Scotland, 439, 680, 682. Improvements, 403. Indian, 701, 713. Hand, 702— Power, 712; Lornie and Co., 657. Low, Alexander, 657. Low, Andrew and Son, 71. Low, James F., 699. Low, Matthew, 654. Louvain, 286, 291. Lowson, Andrew, 65i. Lowson, John, Jun., 654, 72,". Lowson, John and Sod, 654, 723. Lucas, Charles and Co., 657. Lumgair, Robert, 654. Lumsden, David, 530. Lumsden, William and Son, 501. Lys, River, 23, 199. M Maberly and Co., 67, 541, 71L Macdonald, Archibald, 655. Maopherson, 355, 389, 390, 397, 443. Madox — History of Exchequer, 358. Malaga, Large Power-Loom Work, 265. Mains, 519— Malcolm, A. G., 655. Malcolm, James and Suns, 657. Malcolm, Ogilvie, and Co., 657. Manchester, 373, 389. Manilla Hemp — Indigenous to Philli- pine's Islands, 100. Description of Plant, 101. Preparaiion of Fibre, 101, Increase of Exportation, 101, Purposes adapted for, 102. Manufacturing Operatives, 6s3. Marco Polo, 173— Markinch, 62a Marshall and Co., 377, 382, 383, 384. Marshall, Sandeman, and Co., 630. Martin, David and Co., 65. Mary, Queen of Soots, 422. Matilda, Queen, 356. Mathers and Chalmers, 667. Maxwell, J. Hall, 440. M'Culloch's Dictionaiy, 83. M'Intyre, John, 722, 723. M'Intyre, W. A. and Co., 722, 723. M'Kenzie, Koderiik, 681 Mebemet Ali, 174. Meigle, 521— Melrose, 521. Memel, 274, 275. Menmuir, 522— Methven, 523. Miller, <>. G., 627. 657. Miller, William, 209. Miller, Thomas, 500. Minerva, 204, 219, 625. Mitchell, John, 620. Mithvidates, 195. Moir, John and Son, 657. Moncur, Alexander and Son, 657. Moncur, li. and J., 620. Moncur, John, 654. Monedie, 523— Monifieth, 523. Monk Stormed Dundee, 426, 561, 580. .Monkland, East, 523— Do., West, 523. Montague, Lady, 193. Montrose — Annual Linen Market, 574. Sailcloth Companies, 674. Pennant's Tour. 575. Linen - tamped, 575. Linen Manufactured, 576. Lace School, 576. 742 INDEX. Flax Min for Sale, 576. Spindles and Power- Looms, 577, 655. Goods made, 577— Wages, 577. Monzie, 524— Moon, George, 694. Moors of Spain encouraged Trade, 260. Moravia, 287 — Mordecai's Apparel, 136. Morer's Account of Crops in Scotland, 428. Morison, "W. E. and-Co., 627, 657. Morrice, John, 654. Moryson, Fynes, 423. Moscow, 320— Moulin, 524. Mudie, James, 577. MnlhoUand and Co., 404. Muoro, General, 426. Murdoch, A. J. and Co., 520, 723. Murland and Co., 404. Murray, Regent, 579. Musselburgh— Biding the Marches, 434. N Naples, 258. Napoleon, Emperor, 271, 306. Napoleon III., 317 Narva, 326. Nebuchadnezzar, 180. Needlework, 124, 129, 133, 192, 357. Neilson and Co., 710 — Neish, James, 74. Neish, Thomas, 68, 69— Nero, 182. Netherlands— Cloth Halls, 291. Revolt, 293— Trade Iniured, 294. Tariff, 295 -Trading Company, 296. Nettle, 95— Newburgh, 525. New Yoik, 350. New Zealand Plax — Discovered by Captain Cook, 98. Description, 98 — JPieparation, 99. Strength of Fibres, 99. Spun into fine yarn, 100. Cordage for Model Frigate, 100. Nicol, Ali^xander and Co., 654. NicoU, A. and J., 657— Nineveh, 183. Noah and his Family, 118, 123. Noble, G. and J. A., 80, 106, 108. Nomadic Life, 122— Norfolk, 386. Normand, James and Son, 500. Normandy, 304 — Noirie, Charles, 75. Norrie, Charles and Sons, 560, 723. North Yell and Fetlar, 527. Norwich, 362— Novgorod, 320, 322, 336. Odyssey, 180, 187. Osilvy, John and Co., 654. Osnaburgs, 451, 541, 558. Osnaburg Yarn ordered, 451. Orphir, 527- Ovid, 219. Paisley, 527— Panmure Works, 488, 715. Papal States, 257. Parker, Charles and Son, 699. Parker, Edward, 574, 657. Paterson, James, 657. Paterson,William--Bank of England, 430. Paton, J. and G., 577, 655 -P^.trse, 192. Pearce Brothers, 699 — Piedmont, 257, Penelope's Industry, 1.35, 188, 189. Pinnnni's Tour, 436, 542, 575, 5.S4. Periplus of the Erythrsan Sea, 173. Pernan, 328. Perth, 528— Peterhead, 531. Peter, H. and T., 537. Pharaoh's Daughter, 133. Philip and Mary, 320. Phoenicians — First Merchants, 176. Fleets visited Britain, 177, 353. Circumnavigated Africa, 177. First used C.invas Sails, 177. Founded Carthage, 177. Traded in Red Sea, 178. Tyrian Dye, 139, 178. Silk Manufactures, 179. Picker Lay, 703— Plutarch, 157. Plots, The, 578- Plowgates, 241. J'liny, 146, 147, 166, 200, 224, 353, 355, 700, 717— Poland, 334, 338. Popish Persecutions, 229, 263, 30.5, 362, 367, 392— Popish Woollens, 392. Port, John, Inventory of, 361. Portugal — ^Aacient Linen Trade, 200, 340. Flax grown, 340. Hand and Mill Spinning, 340. Native Consumption, 34L Imports and Exports, 341. Slave Trade, 341. Postlethwayt, 397, 435. 443, 7ia Power-Looms— In England, 387, 680, 682. In Ireland, 407, 681, 682. In Scotland, 439, 680, 682. Invention of, 457, 461, 462. Descrii^tion, 712. Personified, 713. Improvements, 714. Prain, James, 657. Premiums on Flax and Hemp, 463. Pre,ston, 385— Priam, 189. Prioce Consort, 377, 405. Printed Calicoes, 369. Protestant Linens, 392. Prussia — Linen Manufacture, 267. West Prussian Manufaclures, 270. Exports, 268 -Looms, 274. Expiry of Zolverein, 279. Linen in Exhibition, 284. Ptolemy Epiphaues. 172. Pythmias invented Weaving, 700. R Rait, James, 654. Raleigh, Sir Walter, 293. Rarasay, Lady, 576. Ramsay, James and Co., 518. Rathen, 531 -Rebecca's Veil, 123. Rebellion in Scotland, 451. Ree, H. P. and Co., 657. Reed-maker Settles in Scotland, 448. Renny, Consul, 324. Renny, William Warden, 329. Revel, 328— Rheea of Assam, 98, 106. Rheims, 304, 3.59. Richards and Co., 519, 540, 577, 655, 711, 723. Riga— Important Shipping Port, 328. Classification of Flax, 329. Exports, 329, 330. Marks of Flax, 333. Rilchie and Sirap