.■»f>J . ■- LA isn r-A) THE GIFT OF kSj^Zl2.0. 3.P.|-ffi...|...t..o.. 6896-3 (Xik. ■2.-jfXV(io )¥ti ^^Ihc^^ '-.% M/rtrtan. Baron Kikuohi, the author of this book, lectured at Cornell University on March 15th, 1910, on the subject of "Edur^ational Progress in Japan" and was the guest of President Schurroan, whom he met in London in 1878 when they were both^' students in English universities. Cornell University Library LA 1311.K47 Japanese education :lectures delivered I 3 1924 023 315 645 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924023315645 JAPANESE EDUCATION (iyc/ayri^r/^ eyCeA^iccAxy, JAPANESE EDUCATION LECTURES DELIVERED IN THE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON BY BARON DAIROKU KIKUCHI RIGAKU-HAKUSHI, LL.D. HONORARY PROFESSOR OF THE IMPERIAI, UNIVERSITY OF TOKYO PRESIDENT OF THE IMPERIAL UNIVERSITY OF KYOTO SOME TIME MINISTER OF EDUCATION IN JAPAN, AND PRESIDENT OF THE IMPERIAL UNIVERSITY OF TOKYO LONDON JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W. 1909 /o6 PREFACE This book embodies the substance of lectures delivered in the University of London, under the Martin White Benefaction, during the Easter and Summer terms, 1907 ; there were two courses : one on Japanese Educational Administration, and one on Japanese Education, especially elementary and secondary education from the pedagogic point of view. There were fifteen lectures in the latter course and nine lectures in the former, besides the inaugural lecture. In the present work, I have recast the whole and merged the two so as to avoid repetitions, but I have not made any very great alterations, except in the first two chapters of this book, which is an amplification of the inaugural and one subsequent lecture. In 1907, while I was delivering these lectures, some im- portant changes were introduced in the elementary and normal education. In the present work I have noted most of them ; they will be usually found within square brackets [ ]. I have also taken later statistics when available. These lectures being delivered under the Martin White vi PREFACE Benefaction as a part of a scheme of sociological teaching, I have tried to introduce as far as possible those points that would be interesting from sociological points of view. My thanks are due to Count Hayashi (Minister of Foreign Affairs), Baron Makino (Minister of Education), Count Komura, Count Mutsu, and the authorities of London University, among whom I must specially mention Mr P. J. Hartog. DAIROKU KIKUCHI. Tokyo, July 1908. CONTENTS CHAPTER I EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY From the Earliest Times to the Estabhshment of the Shogunate PAGE The Imperial Rescript on Education, the basis of our education — Official translation — Its message to the Japanese — Repeated references to ancestors — ' ' Fundamental character of our Empire " — Unique relation between the Imperial House ana the people — Knowledge of our history necessary to understand the spirit of our education — " Kojiki" — " Nihongi" — Compilation of national history — Heaven-illuminating- Great- Goddess — " Prosperity of the Imperial dynasty coeval with heaven and earth" — Three divine treasures — Shrine at Ise — Ni-Nigi-no-Mikoto — Coronation of Jimmu Tenno — Canonical names — Unbroken line of descent from the Emperor Jimmu to the present Emperor — Imperial Ancestors and forefathers of the people — Condition of the people in early days — Shinto — Intercourse with Corea — Introduction of the Chinese civilisation — Introduction of Buddhism — Shotoku Taishi — Reforms of Taikwa — Taihoryo — University and provincial schools — Students sent to China — The Emperor Shomu — Reverence of ancestral deities — Buddhist doctrine of impersonation — Buddhist priests, able and virtuous at first — Become corrupt and violent with the increase of power and riches — The House of Fujiwara, practical rulers of the land — Rise of the military class — Tairas and Minamotos — Yoritomo — Establishment of the feudal system , l-ig \ CHAPTER II EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY {continued) From the Establishment of the Shogunate to the Restoration Regency of Hdjo — Kamakura period — Earlier part remarkable for religious aetivity — Tendai and Shingon—Jodo sect founded by Honen — Shinshii by Shinran — fishu by Ippen — Nichiren — Zen sect — Welcomed by the military class — Self-control and peace of viii CONTENTS PAGE mind — Simplicity and frugality — Invasion of Japan by the Mongols — " T%e divine wind of Ise " — Overthrow of the Hojo — AshikagaShogunate — Nobunaga— Hideyoshi — Tokugawalyeyasu — The Tokugawa Shogunate — Precepts of lyeyasu — Policy of the Tokugawas towards the daimyos — Shutting up of the countryfrom foreign intercourse — " Wako" — Commercial relations between Japan, China, and Corea — Portuguese — Dutch — English and Spaniards— Japanese trade with Annam, Siam, Luzon, etc. — Ad- venturers — Yamada Nagamasa — Jesuit missionaries — Converts, numerous and influential — Hideyoshi issues edict against mission- aries — lyeyasu and foreigners— Jan Jeost and William Adams — Edict against Christians — Christian lords exiled or killed — Rebellion of Shimabara — Prohibition to travel abroad and to build largeships — Exclusion of all foreigners except Chinese and Dutch — Registration at a Buddhist temple — Ecclesiastical administration — The Shogunate and Imperial House — Rivalry between daimyos — ^Propagation of education and development of industry — Educa- tion of samurais — Fujiwara Seikiva -—■ Confucian philosophy — Moral educcUion freed from ecclesiastical influence — Academy for the study of the Chinese literature — Chinese classics and military exercises — Moral, mental and physical training — Medicine — Mathematics — Arts — Introduction of Occidental learning — Maeno Rydtaku and Sugita Genpaku — Reactionary movement in the eighteenth century — Education of the common people — Pilgrimages — "Story-telling"— Drama — Culminating point of the Tokugawas — Commodore Perry — Academy for European languages — Students sent abroad— Resignation of ShSgun Keiki — Restoration of Meiji 20-43 CHAPTER III EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY {continued) The Meiji Era Choshu h^n foremost in opposition to the Shogunate—" Great Righteous- ness"— Audience of the foreign representatives— The Imperial Oath of Five Articles— Abolition ofthefeudal system— Other great changes— The Corean question— Risings of the disaffected in Saga, Kumamoto, and Kagoshima—Dajogwan—The Edict of Consti- tutional Government— Popular agitation for a National Assembly —Promulgation of the Constitution— Imperial Oath at the sanctu- ary of the palace— Imperial Speech— Preamble to the Constitution —Articles of tlie ConstituHon— The Imperial Diet . . . 44-55 CONTENTS ix CHAPTER IV ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM PAGE Cabinet — Ministers of State — Matters determined by the Cabinet Council — Laws, budgets, and final accounts — Treaties and international questions — Imperial Ordinances — Petitions — BxpenMures not covered by the Budget — Recommendation for appointment of officials — Bureaus under the Cabinet — Chokunin, Sonin, and Hannin officials — Heads of departments — Departmental Ordinances — Jikwan or Vice-Minister — Other officials of a department — Department of Education — Special Education Bureau — Common Ediuation Bureau — Technical Education Bureau — Higher ^.dura- tional Council — Privy Council — Local administration — Pre- fectures — Prefectural Assembly — Sub-prefectures — Sub-prefectural Assembly — Shi, cho, and son — Komin — Shi, cho, son assemblies — Mayors, assistant mayors — Supervision and control — Disability of elementary school teachers and some others .... 56-65 CHAPTER V HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION DURING MEIJI ERA The Fifth Article of the Imperial Oath — Shoheiko, Kaiseijo, Igakujo — " Tribute youths " — Princes and students sent abroad — First girls' English school — First normal school — Establishment of the Depart- ment of Education — First Education Code — Preamble^Principle of educational equality — Revolution in education similar to the abolition of hans — Closure of the han schools — Necessary to break up the monopoly of samurais — Education necessary for individuals — Education a matter of State — Utilitarian spirit — Ueno Park — Nikko Temple — Nara Pagoda — Moral training not sufficiently emphasised — Education of women — "House" — 8 university districts — 2£6 middle school districts— ^3,760 elementary school districts — Superintendents, inspectors — Three grades of schools — Maintenance of schools — Government subsidy — The scheme too ambitious to be carried otit entirely — Increase in number of elementary schools, scholars, and teachers — Middle schools and normal schools — Discontent with the Code — New Code — Its chief provisions — Soon found insufficient — Another change in December 1880 — Change of 1883 — Reform of, 1886 — Great improvement im the training of teachers — Ordinary and higher middle schools — Girls' high schools — General remarks 66-84 X CONTENTS CHAPTER VI THE GENERAL EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM PAGE Education entirely under State control— The educational system deter- mined, not by laws, but by Imperial Ordinances — Shi, cho, son, school union, school district — Elementary school — Kindergarten — Ordinary elementary course — Higher elementary course — Four year^ compulsory education not sufficient — Middle school — Higher school^Imperial University — Special college — Technical special college — Higher normal school^Military, naval, and nautical schools — Technical schools — Girl^ high school— Female higher normal school — Normal school — Three grades of the elementary, the secondary, and the higher — Governmental schools and colleges — Prefectural schools and colleges — Sub-prefectural schools — Shi, cho,son,or union or district schools — Private schools and colleges — Three divisions of the governmental, the public, and the private . 85-91 CHAPTER VII GENERAL SUPERVISION, CONTROL, AND INSPECTION Government Schools under the direct control of the Minister — Their directors and teachers are civil officials — Guarantee of position oj civil officials — Disciplinary measures — Pension law — Class and salary — Authority of directors — Public schools — Prefectural schools under immediate control of prefects — Sub-prefectural, shi, cho, a»rfson schools under sub-prefects and mayors — Treatment of their directors and teachers — Salaries and gualifications — Establishment of public schools — School Inspection — Historical — The present condition , 92- CHAPTER VIII SCHOOLS IN GENERAL Teaching of Morals — Imperial Rescript on Edtuation — A copy dis- tributed to every school — Portraits of the Emperor and the Empress — Ceremony to be observed on three special holidays — Session, terms, holidays — Number of hours a week — School sites and buildings — Class rooms — School uniform — Discipline and punishment — Parent^ conference — Privileges granted to schools — Schooljoumeys — Pupils association — Educational expansion within last ten or fifteen years — Economy — Educational condition in igo^ . 102-114 CONTENTS xi CHAPTER IX ELEMENTARY EDUCATION I PAGE Tht object of elementary education defined— Ordinary elementary schools — Higher elementary schools — Combined schools — Length oj the courses— Subjects taught— Tables I, II, III and IV of hours and standard oJ instruction in the ordinary and in the higher elementary courses of two, three, and four years — [Changes intro- duced in 1^07— Tables V, VI, VII of hours and standard of instruction under the amended regulationsi — Supplementary courses — Teachers, regular, special, assistant, and provisional- Maximum number of classes in a school— Maximum number of children in one class — Organisation of classes — Single class schools — No co-education — Two-parts schools — Number of teachers to a class — Number of schools — Number of school children — Percentage of boys and girls — Percentage of attendance — Schools and additional subjects 115-138 CHAPTER X ELEMENTARY EDUCATION II {fOtltinued) School age — Compulsory attendance — Exemption — Permission to pursue education at home or at schools other than Government, public, or substitute private schools — Measures to carry out com- pulsory attendance — Obligations laid on shi, cho and son to establish and maintain ordinary elementary schools — School unions — Entrusting of education to other bodies — Subsidies — Sub- stitute private schools — Number and position of schools — School districts — Higher elementary schools — Kindergartens, etc. — Tuition fees — Educational expenditures of shi, cho, son, or their unions or districts — State subsidies — Elementary Education Fund — Mayors and heads of union charged with management of elementary schools — School Committee 139-148 CHAPTER XI ELEMENTARY EDUCATION III {continued) Object of elementary school teaching — Points to be attended to in the teaching — Teaching qj Morals — Directions with regard to the same — Imperial Rescript on Education — Text-books used for the teaching of Morals — Lessons in the first year of the ordinary elementary course — The same in the second year — In the third and fourth years — In the higher elementary course . . 149-163 xii CONTENTS CHAPTER XII ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IV {continued) PAGE Tht language — Difficulties peculiar to Japanese — Use of Chinese in two different ways — Kana, kata-kana, hira-gana — Mixing of kana and Chinese characters — Chinese characters to be read by the sound or by the meaning — Number of Chinese characters — Associa- tions for the adoftion of Roman letters — Limitation of Chinese characters to be taught in elementary schools — Spelling — Difference between written and spoken language — Directions as to the teach- ing of the language — Readers compiled by the Department of Edtica- tion — Contents of the first volume — Of the last volume — Of the eight volumes of higher elementary readers — Writing lessons — Arithmetic — Directions as to its teaching — Decimals and fractions — Contents of text-books — Abacus arithmetic . 164-180 CHAPTER XIII ELEMENTARY EDUCATION V (continued) Japanese History — Directions as to its teaching — History by repre- sentative men — Geography — Directions— Japanese geography in the first two years — Foreign geography in the third year — Fourth year supplementary — Science — Directions — Encouragement of nature study — Drawing — Directions — Brush versus pencil — Copy-books — Singing — Occidental music introduced— Direction^ — Gymnastics — Sewing — Sewing in a Japanese hotisehold — Direc- tions — Manual work — The object of teaching — Different kinds of work — Agriculture — Fisheries — Commerce — English — Result not satisfactory — Changes due to amendment of igoy . . . 181-193 CHAPTER XIV ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS Teachers' certificates — General certificates — Prefectural certificates — Three classes and two grades— Teacher^ certificates committee — Certificates without examination — Examination — Subjects and standard— Appointment— Temporary retirement— Retirement- Disciplinary measures— Treatment— Military sermce— Salaries —Additional salaries— Fund— Subsidy— Special commendation— P""ions 194-204 CONTENTS xiii CHAPTER XV MIDDLE SCHOOLS PAGE The object of middle schools — Higher general education — Establishment — Branch schools — Closure — Qualification for entrance — Supple- mentary course — Subjects taught — Hour table — Syllabus — Maximum number of boys in a school — In a class — Flocking of boys to TokyS — Number of teachers in a school — Admittance — Promotion — Privileges — Tuition fees~- Teacherswithcertificates — Number of middle schools — Of boys — Percentages of boys in different classes — Number of applicants for admittance and of those cuimitted — Of graduates — Of teachers, certificated and non-certificated — Questions and problems connected with middle schools — Past and future 205-215 CHAPTER XVI DETAILS OF TEACHING OF DIFFERENT SUBJECTS IN MIDDLE SCHOOLS Syllabus issued in igo2 — General instructions — Morals— Japanese Language and Chinese Literature — Foreign language — History — Geography — Mathematics 216-235 CHAPTER XVII DETAILS OF TEACHING OF DIFFERENT SUBJECTS IN MIDDLE SCHOOLS Natural sciences — Instructions — Mineral world — Plants — Physiology and hygiene — Zoology — Physics — Chemistry — Instructions — Lata and economics — Drawing — Singing — Gymnastics — General remarks 236-254 CHAPTER XVIII POSITION OF WOMEN Woman's vocation — Position in home and society, and status in the State — Good wife and wise mother — Statistics of men and women, married and unmarried — The " House " or iye — The house, unit of society, not individual — House-head and houst-member — Con- stitution of a house — House-registry — The house and the kindred — The authority of the house-head and the parents — Women in ancient days — Confucian philosophy. Buddhism and feudalism in relation to the woman — " Three obediences — Changes introduced with the Occidental civilisation — Legal power of woman under the xiv CONTENTS PA.aB new Code— Married women's property — Sexual relations and marriage— Marriage an affair of the house, and not of individuals — Wifis duties— Divorce— Women's professions— Object kept in vUui in framing the present system of femaU education ■ 255-269 CHAPTER XIX GIRLS' HIGH SCHOOLS female education in pre-Meiji eror-Progress of female education in Meiji— Object of girls' high school— Courses— Subjects taught— Table of hours— Standard of instruction— Syllabus— Morals— Saho — Household matters— Sewing — Education — Statistics- Number of schools— Number of girls— Of graduates— Of teachers —Of applicants for admission and of the admitted— Increase not keeping pace with the dematul • 270-281 CHAPTER XX NORMAL SCHOOLS Normal schools in early Meiji— Reform ofi886—Ofi8g7—Ofigoj— Two distinct regular courses — First regular course — Preparatory course — Qualifications for entrance — Second regular course for graduates of middle schools and of girls^ high schools — Short training courses — Subjects and standard— Time tables — General instructions with regard to the training of teachers — Pedagogy — Attached elementary school — Organisation of classes — Staff- Director— Teachers and assistant teachers — Dormitory super- intendents — Salaries of teachers — Number of schools and of instructors — Minimum number of pupils of normal schools in each prefecture — Numbers of pupils and graduates — Stipend — Dormitory — School journey — Privileges and obligations of graduates 282-296 CHAPTER XXI SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS Want of competent secondary teachers — Higher Normal School estab- lished — Universities and colleges — Secondary school teacher^ certificates — Certificates Committee — Certificates given separately for normal, middle, and girls' high schools, and also for different subjects — Institutions whose graduates may be granted certificates without examination — Imperial University and Higher Normal School — Recognition of public or private schools — Examination held once a year — Preliminary and final — Numbers of candidates, successful and unsuccessful, and in different subjects — Different kinds of teachers in middle schools — Provisional training institutes — Their graduates — Objections 297-307 CONTENTS XV CHAPTER XXH HIGHER NORMAL SCHOOLS PAGE Higher normal schools Jor male pupils — Courses — Entrance — Subjects and standard — Five sections of the regular course — Foreign languages — Post-graduate course — Occasional special courses — Attached schools — Pedagogical museum — Staff— Number of pro- fessors, etc. — Pupils — Stipendium — Obligations of graduates — Number of pupils in different courses and sections — Numbers of pupils, grcuiuates, applicants for admission and those admitted for igo3-igo6 — Employment of graduates — Female Higher Normal Schools — Courses — Entrance — Subjects and standard — Three sections — Occasional special courses — Attached schools — Kinder- garten — Staff— Number of professors, etc. — Pupils — Obligations of graduates — Number of pupils in different courses and sections — Numbers of pupils, grcuiuates, applicants for admission and those admitted for igo2-igo6 — Employment of graduates . 308-323 CHAPTER XXIII TEXT-BOOKS Text-books in early Meiji — Regulations of j 886 — Text-book selection committee — Text-books compiled by the Department of Education — Great profit of publishers — Abuses — Various attempts to get rid of them ineffectual — " The text -book scandal" of igo3 — New regula- tions of igo$ — Elementary school text-books to be copyrighted by the Department of Education — Printing and publishing — Advantages of the new system — Revision — Spelling reform trouble — Text-books for secondary schools — Statistics of text-book inspection . . 324-330 CHAPTER XXIV PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SCHOOL HYGIENE Physical education in pre-Meiji years — The same in early Meiji — Teaching of gymnastics — Gymnastic training school — Reform of 1886 — Military gymnastics — Reform in gymnastic teaching — Present state of teaching of gymnastics — Occidental games and sports introdiuei — Old military exercises revived — School hygiene Committee of doctors — Regulations bearing on school hygiene — — Their unpopularity and abolition — Their effect — School site — School grounds — School buildings — Desks and benches — Site of types and spaces in text-books — School medical officers — Their duties — Number of schools with medical officers — Physical measure- ments and health examination — Numbers examined in igo6 — Conscription examination figures for i8gi-i8gs and igoi-igos . 331-34S xvi CONTENTS CHAPTER XXV TECHNICAL EDUCATION PAGE Technical education — Historical sketch— Technicaleducation encourage- ment subsidy — Technical special colleges — Schools of the Class A — Schools of the Class B — Technical supplementary schools — Greater latitude allowed to technical schools — Establishment and mainten- ance — Text-books — Technological schools — Apprentice schools — Agricultural schools — Fisheries and marine products schools — Commercial schools — Navigation schools — Technical suppleTnent- ary schools — Difficulty of finding competent teachers — Teacher^ training institutions — Subsidy — Statistics 34^-355 CHAPTER XXVI HIGHER EDUCATION "Higher education" — Koto Gakko — Preparatory to the Imperial universities — Qualification/or entrance — Three sections — Subjects taught — Imperial universities — "Colleges" of Imperial uni- versities — Law — Medicine — Engitieering — Literature — Science — Agriculture — University Hall — The administration — Presi- dent — Senate — Professors — Graduates — Number of students — "Special colleges" — Establishment and maintenance — Eight by the Department of Education — Forty-two public or private — Statistics 356-372 CHAPTER XXVII SCHOOLS NOT CLASSED, PRIVATE SCHOOLS, ETC. Schools not coming under any of the above-mentioned categories — Tokyo blind and deaf-mute school — Other blind and deaf-mute schools — No provision for the education of the mentally defective — Miscellaneous schools — Private schools — Their control and super- vision — Their establishment — Qualifications of headmasters and teachers — Official missions to Europe and America — Students sent abroad to study — List of countries and subjects of study — The principal object at present of sending them — Method of their selection 373-378 CHAPTER XXVIII HOME EDUCATION Race characteristics and individual features — Globe-trotters — Old residents^- Difficulties in describing home — Marriage — Age — Marriage, how arranged — Young couple living with parents Infancy — Fairy tales — Story of Momotaro — Tales of heroes — Punishment — Games — Cards — No playing for money — Children stay with their mothers — Valete , 379-386 INDEX 387-397 JAPANESE EDUCATION CHAPTER I EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY From the Earliest Times to the Establishment of the Sh5gunate CORRIGENDA Page Line 4 36 /or Futo- . . reado- 5 10 „ „ . . II II 7 S >i Kashiwabara . , Kashihara 12 14 „ Kutara . „ Kudara 12 23 ,, Monobe . , Mononobe 12 31 „ „ . . . I 11 12 34 „ „ . . I II 15 33 II S6-gaku-In . , , Shogaku-In 20 3 „ shukken . . , , shikken (from bottom) 27 5 11 Echizen .... , Etchu 40 18 „ Kyusu , Kyuso xvi CONTENTS CHAPTER XXV TECHNICAL EDUCATION PAGE Technical education — Historical sketch — Technicaleducation encourage- ment subsidy — Technical special colleges — Schools of the Class A — Schools of the Class B— Technical supplementary schools — Greater latitude allowed to technical schools — Estailishment and mainten- ance — Text-books — Technological schools — Apprentice schools — Agricultural schools — -Fisheries and marine products schools — Commercial schools— ^Navigation schools — Technical supplement- ary schools — Difficulty of finding competent teachers — Teacher^ training instituiions — Subsidy — Statistics 346-355 CHAPTER XXVI HIGHER EDUCATION "Higher education" — Koto Gakko — Preparatory to the Imperial universities — Qualifcationfor entrance — Three sections — Subjects taught — Imperial universities — ^^ Colleges" of Imperial uni- versities — Law — Medicine — Engineering — Literature — Science — Agriculture — University Hall — The administration — Presi- ■s--K£^c^mUl^^tSSuit6er-aiWKlMKftnM&ieA.:Bk,^ -■ — ^ -- JAPANESE EDUCATION CHAPTER I EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY From the Earliest Times to the Establishment of the Shogunate The Imperial Rescrift on Education, the basis of our education — Official translation — Its message to the Japanese — Repeated references to ancestors — ^^Fundamental character of our Empire " — Unique relation between the Imperial House and the people — Knowledge of our history necessary to understand the spirit of our education — " Kojiki " — ' ' Nihongi " — compila- tion of national history — Heaven- Illuminating- Great- Goddess — ' 'Prosperity of the Imperial dynasty coeval with heaven and earth " — Three divine treasures — Shrine at Ise — Ni-Nigi-no-Mikoto — Coronation of Jimmu Tennd — Canonical names — Unbroken line of descent from- the Emperor Jimmu to the present Emperor — Imperial Ancestors and forefathers of the people — Condition of the people in early days^— Shinto — Intercourse with Corea — Introduction of the Chinese civilisation — Introduction of Buddhism — Shotoku Taishi — Reforms of Taikwa — Taihoryo — University and pro- vincial schools — Students sent to China — The Emperor Shomu — Reverence for ancestral deities — Buddhist doctrine of impersonation — Buddhist priests, able and virtuous at first — Become corrupt and violent with the increase of power and riches — The House of Fujiwara, practical rulers of the land- Rise of the military class — Tairas and Minamotos — Yoritomo — Establish- ment of the feudal system. It seems to me to be fitting to begin this lecture with the reading of the Imperial Rescript on Education, for it forms the basis of our moral education, and I shall have occasion to refer to it very often in course of my lectures. When I accepted the invitation of the University of London to give a course of lectures on A 2 EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY [chap. Japanese education, I recognised at once the necessity for a good English translation of the Rescript ; so I looked about for one, but I was sorry to find that none of those already made was quite satisfactory ; some were absolutely erroneous, while others were paraphrases, rather than translations, conveying sometimes more, sometimes less, than the original. I mention this because some of you may have seen these translations and notice that they are different from the one that I am going to read. I therefore attempted a new transla- tion myself, which was afterwards discussed and revised at conferences of several gentlemen invited by Mr (now Baron) Makino, the Minister of Education, for the purpose ; several English and American gentlemen were also consulted before a final draft was made. This translation may be regarded as official, Mr Makino having presented it to His Majesty the Emperor. It runs as follows : IMPERIAL RESCRIPT ON EDUCATION Know ve, Our subjects : Our Imperial Ancestors have founded Our Empire on a basis broad and everlasting, and have deeply and firmly implanted virtue ; Our subjects ever united in loyalty and filial piety have from generation to generation illustrated the beauty thereof This is the glory of the fundamental character of Our Empire, and herein also lies the source of Our education. Ye, Our subjects, be filial to your parents, affectionate to your brothers and sisters ; as husbands and wives be harmonious, as friends true; bear your- selves in modesty and moderation ; extend your benevolence to all ; pursue learning and cultivate arts, and thereby develop intellectual faculties and I.] IMPERIAL RESCRIPT 3 perfect moral powers ; furthermore, advance public good and promote common interests ; always respect the Constitution and observe the laws ; should emergency arise, offer yourselves courage- ously to the State ; and thus guard and maintain the prosperity of Our Imperial Throne coeval with heaven and earth. So shall ye not only be Our good and faithful subjects, but render illustrious the best traditions of your forefathers. The Way here set forth is indeed the teaching bequeathed by Our Imperial Ancestors, to be observed alike by Their Descendants and the subjects, infallible for all ages and true in all places. It is Our wish to lay it to heart in all reverence, in common with you, Our subjects, that we may all attain to the same virtue. v The 30th day of the loth month of the 23rd year of Meiji. (The 30th of October, 1890). (Imperial Sign Manual. Imperial Seal). I fear that, however we may translate it, the transla- tion will scarcely convey to you the same message that the original does to a Japanese ; in fact, it may be said that our whole moral and civic education consists in so imbuing our children with the spirit of the Rescript that it forms a part of our national life. Leaving the detailed discussion of the Rescript for the present, I want to call your attention to a point which you will no doubt have already noticed, namely, the repeated mention of the Imperial Ancestors and our forefathers. This reference is characteristic of our nationality, indeed it is so stated explicitly in the Rescript itself — "Our Imperial Ancestors have founded Our Empire. . . . This is the glory of the fundamental character of Our Empire, and herein also lies the source of Our education" The term 4 EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY [chap. here translated, "the fundamental character of Our Empire," has been a very difficult word to find a good equivalent for ; the original literally means the body of the State or country, and perhaps my original transla- tion, "the national constitution," gives the sense pretty nearly, but the word constitution, being used below in the sense of the constitutional law, has been abandoned, and the phrase, "the fundamental character of Our Empire," substituted, which perhaps gives the meaning of the original as closely as possible, though not a literal translation. However, to return to the substance, this fundamental character may be briefly said to consist in the unique relation between the Imperial House and the people, which is not simply a relation between the present Emperor and the people, but one which has existed between the two for generations, through more than twenty centuries ; this is the reason why there is such repeated reference to the Imperial Ancestors and the forefathers of the people not only in this Rescript on Education, but also in many other Rescripts and Imperial Speeches, notably in the Preamble to the Con- stitution and in the Imperial Speech on the occasion of its promulgation. In order, then, to appreciate properly the spirit of our education, whose source lies, accord- ing to the Rescript, in the fundamental character of our Empire, it is necessary to know something of Japanese history; and I therefore propose in this and subsequent lectures to give a sketch of the development of the Japanese nation, with special reference to its literature and learning, and to its religious, moral, and intellectual training, brief and incomplete as it must be to be comprised within the limits of the present lectures. The oldest Japanese historical work now extant is the "Kojiki," or "The Records of Ancient Matters," com- piled by Futo-no-Yasumaro, and completed in a.d. 712. According to the preface, the Emperor Tenmu, seeing the necessity of collecting the old historical accounts, which had been until then only handed down orally and I] OLDEST JAPANESE RECORDS 5 were beginning to be forgotten or lost, and of pre- serving them in writing, ordered a certain Hieda-no-Are, who is said to have possessed a wonderful memory, to learn these traditions ; the author, by the order of the Emperor Gemmyo, took them down from the words of Hieda. Eight years later, in 720, another work, called the " Nihongi" or " Nihonshoki " (" Chronicles of Japan "), was completed. This also was compiled by Imperial order by Prince Toneri, third son of the Emperor Tenmu and a great Chinese scholar, with the assistance of Futo- no-Yasumaro (the author of the " Kojiki "). It is, unlike the "Kojiki," written in Chinese, and was compiled from various materials available at the time. Besides these two, there is another record, called the " Kujiki," which claims to have been compiled under the direction of the famous Shotoku Taishi in a.d. 620. But this original work is said to have been destroyed by fire at the time of the downfall of the House of Soga : the authenticity of the " Kujiki " as a whole is, therefore, a matter of dis- pute, although some remains of the original probably were left and served as material for the " Nihongi." With respect to the Imperial orders for the com- pilation of these works, it may be remarked that the compilation of the authentic history of the Empire used to be regarded as an essential part of the functions of the State. Thus at the beginning of the present reign, a bureau for the compilation of the national history was established under the direct presidency of the Prime Minister, Sanjo, and much valuable material was collected. Although the bureau was subsequently, after many vicissitudes, abolished, and the compilation of the history has now been definitively abandoned, the work of collecting materials was resumed by the "Committee for the Compilation of Materials for the History of Japanese Empire," appointed for the purpose in the College of Literature of the Imperial University of Tokyo, which is now issuing by subscription collections of most valuable materials for the "History of Japan" in two different forms, the one being a 6 EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY [chap. collection of old manuscripts, documents, etc., the other a sort of daily acta giving under each day of each month of each year the event or events that happened on that day, with extracts from books, docu- ments, diaries, letters, etc., bearing on those events. Both the "Kojiki"and the "Nihongi," begin with the mythological account of the separation of heaven and earth, and end, the former with the reign of the Empress Suiko (a.d. 628), the latter with that of the Empress Jito (697). It will be beyond the province of the present lecture to go into an account of these early days, except in so far as it has a bearing on the formation of the national character and the moral education of the successive generations. We must then begin with the Goddess Ama-Terasu- O - Mi - Kami (literally Heaven - Illuminating - Great- August-Deity), who ruled in the Taka-Ma-ga-Hara (literally Plain -of- High- Heaven), and sent down her grandson, Ni-Nigi-no-Mikoto, to rule over Toyo-Ashi- Wara-no-Mizu-Ho-no-Kuni (literally Luxuriant-Reed- Plain-Land-of-Fresh-Rice-Ears), that is, Japan, saying to him: "This Land is the region over which my descendants shall be the Lords. Do thou, my august grandchild, proceed thither and govern it. Go 1 The prosperity of thy dynasty shall be coeval with heaven and earth." I call your attention to these last words, for they are words continually recurring in Japanese literature as in the Imperial Rescript I have just read, and ever- present to the mind of every true Japanese. She also gave him a Jewel, a Sword, and a Mirror, which still form the three Divine Treasures of the Japanese Empire. Of the Mirror, she said : " Regard this Mirror exactly as if it were my august Spirit, and reverence it as if reverencing me." This Mirror is now enshrined in the Temple at Ise, whereto tens of thousands of worshippers resort every year. Ni-Nigi-no-Mikoto is said to have settled on the mountain Takachiho, in the province of Hyuga in Kyushu, whence his great-grandsons, Itsuse- on-Mikoto and Kamu-Yamato-Iware-Hiko-no-Mikoto I.] UNBROKEN LINE OF DESCENT 7 set forth on the expedition to subjugate the whole land. After several years of fighting, during which the elder, Itsuse, was killed, Iware-Hiko-no-Mikoto succeeded in subduing the district about Yamato, and established his capital at Kashiwabara in that province. This event took place, according to the "Chronicles," in B.C. 660; thus was the Empire of Japan established by Iware- Hiko-no-Mikoto, now known by the canonical name of Jimmu Tenno (literally Emperor of Divine Valour). The Okurina, or canonical name, is the name given to an Emperor after his death or abdication, generally signifying some characteristic by which he was dis- tinguished ; this custom was introduced from China in the reign of the Emperor Kwammu in the eighth century, when a scholar named Mifune selected by the Imperial order the canonical names for all the Emperors down to his immediate predecessor. It is considered dis- respectful to call an Emperor by his name. All the former Emperors are called by their canonical names, while the reigning Emperor is simply styled the Tenno (literally Heavenly Augustness). I may remark, by the way, that an Empress regnant was also styled Tenno, there being no distinction of the sex. The title of Tenno is not given to the ruler of any other nation, who is called Kotei (literally August Emperor) ; colloquially, our Emperor is known as Tenshi Sama, or the Son of Heaven. According to some historians, the date of 660 for the coronation of the first Emperor is too early by some centuries ; in fact, the chronology of the first ten centuries of our history must be regarded as doubtful. It is not necessary, however, to enter into a discussion of this subject, neither need we consider the question how far these traditions are to be believed, or in what sense they are to be taken. From the first Emperor, Jimmu, there has been an unbroken line of descent to the present Emperor. This unique character of our Imperial dynasty, together with the fact that all Japanese (with the insignificant exception of the subjugated aborigines and naturalised 8 EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY [chap. Coreans and Chinese) are regarded as either descended from the Imperial family or from those who came over with it from the Taka-Ma-ga-Hara, may be said to con- stitute the fundamental character of our nationality, as distinguished from other nations. Our nation is, as it were, one family, of which the Emperor is the head or patriarch, and this relation has subsisted from the first foundation of our Empire down to the present time. Never, during the whole long period of our history, has there been a single instance of a subject presuming to attempt to place himself on the throne, and never have we been conquered by a foreign invader. This relation between the Imperial House and the people, I repeat, is the most important factor in the development of our national character, and, as stated in the Rescript, is the basis of our education. Let me quote here also the words of the Preamble to the Con- stitution, which was promulgated in 1889 as a free gift from the Emperor to his people : — " Having, by virtue of the glories of Our Ancestors, ascended the throne of a lineal succession unbroken for ages eternal ; desiring to promote the welfare of, and give development to, the moral and intellectual faculties of Our beloved subjects, the very same that have been favoured with the benevolent care and affectionate vigilance of Our Ancestors ; and hoping to maintain the prosperity and progress of the State, in concert with Our people and with their support, We hereby promulgate. ..." Again the words of the Imperial Speech on the same occasion are full of the same spirit : — "The Imperial Founder of Our House and Our other Imperial Ancestors, by the help and support of the forefathers of Our subjects, laid the foundation of Our Empire upon a basis which is to last for ever. That this brilliant achievement embellishes the annals of Our country, is due to the glorious virtues of Our Sacred Imperial Ancestors, and to the loyalty and bravery of Our subjects, their love of their country «■] EARLY DAYS IN JAPAN 9 and their public spirit. Considering that Our subjects are the descendants of the loyal and good subjects of Our Imperial Ancestors, We doubt not but that Our subjects will be guided by Our views, and will sympathise with all Our endeavours, and that harmoni- ously co-operating together they will share with Us Our hope of making manifest the glory of Our country, both at home and abroad, and of securing for ever the stability of the work bequeathed to Us by Our Ancestors." From the Emperor Jimmu we may pass rapidly over several centuries, during which the greater part of the country was gradually brought under subjugation by the successive Emperors and Princes, for in those early ages the supreme military authority was never entrusted to a subject. Very little is known about the condition of the people in those days ; the art of husbandry was known to them as well as weaving and dyeing ; fishing and hunting also furnished them with food ; hooks, cormorants, and weirs serving them for the purpose of fishing, while for hunting, their chief implements were bows and arrows and snares. Houses were made of wood, posts being driven in the ground and the different parts bound together with vines of wistaria and other creepers, while a rude thatch covered the whole. In a modern Shintd shrine, many of these features survive in rudimentary forms, its architecture differing from that of ordinary Japanese houses. Roads were bad and travelling very difficult. Boats propelled by oars were used. As weapons, bows and arrows, spears and swords of iron were used. Rude pots were made for domestic purposes ; and, in short, industrial arts were tolerably developed. Letters were unknown, but songs and forms of prayer of the early days have been fortunately preserved. Music and dancing were known, the flute and koto (a stringed instrument, a form of which is still in common use) being used. A prominent characteristic of the people seems to have been their love of cleanliness, for purification had to be performed to EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY [chap. after any act that was considered in the least unclean : in the modern Shinto ritual, purification plays an im- portant part on all occasions, and the habit of cleanli- ness continues still to be a national characteristic. The religious ideas of those days, the so-called Shintoism, must have been of a primitive nature ; so far as they can be gathered from what have been transmitted to us in the " Kojiki " and the " Nihongi," the worship of ancestors stands prominently forth, mixed to a certain extent with Nature worship. Already in the fifth and sixth centuries, there were great temples at Ise, Izumo, Atsuta, etc., shrines of Imperial Ancestors and of great men ; they were believed to be protectors and guardians of the land, and on important State occasions they were consulted, or their protection was specially prayed for. Not only Government offices but various arts and crafts were all hereditary in different families or houses ; each house or family was derived from and worshipped a common ancestor, and was subject to the authority of a house-head ; gradually, as the members of a house multiplied and spread over the country, they divided up into smaller houses, each worshipping its own particular ancestor and having its own house-head, but also all worshipping the same common ancestor and subject to the authority of the central house - head. Thus the whole nation was made up of these great and small houses, united in the worship of common ancestors. The Imperial House was the greatest of all the houses, embracing them all, and thus the Imperial Ancestor, The - Heaven - Illuminating - Great-Goddess, whose shrine is in Ise, was worshipped by the whole nation. This worship of ancestors has persisted down to the present day without change ; it has a close con- nection with the relation between the Imperial House and the people, and has been an important factor in the development of our national character. The intercourse with Corea seems to have been going on from the earliest times. In the third century, the Dowager Empress Jingu, during her regency after I] CHINESE LITERATURE tt the death of her consort, the Emperor Chuai, invaded and conquered Corea, and a local Japanese Government was established in Mimana, in Southern Corea ; the inter- course with the continent became more intimate ; and not only Coreans but Chinese came over into Japan, bringing with them many arts and industries unknown before. The greatest event of all was the introduction of Chinese literature. According to the "Chronicles," a Corean scholar named Wani brought the " Rongo " (the analects of Confucius) and Senjimon (a Chinese poem consisting of one thousand different characters). The date assigned to this event, A.D. 285, is very doubtful. This is the first recorded instance of the introduction of Chinese books into Japan. Prince Waka-iratsuko, the son of the Emperor Ojin, learned Chinese from Wani and others, and became Chinese scholar enough to detect want of respect in a letter sent to the Japanese Court by a Corean Prince. We had, as I said before, no letters of our own, and when the Chinese literature was introduced, we began to use Chinese characters to put down Japanese words in writing. This was by no means a simple process, for, as you are aware, Chinese characters are ideographs, and Stand not for sounds but for words. However, as these Chinese words are mostly monosyllabic, the Chinese ideographs were employed by the Japanese to represent sounds, and in this way old Japanese songs and forms of prayer were put down in writing and so preserved to us. The "Kojiki," or "The Records of Ancient Matters," is, as stated before, written in this way with Chinese characters or ideographs, standing not for what they mean, but for the corresponding sounds. The "Nihongi," or "The Chronicles of Japan," on the other hand, is written in Chinese, except in those parts where it was necessary not merely to record events but to put down actual Japanese words, and so Chinese characters were employed, as in the "Kojiki," merely to represent sounds of these Japanese words. This shows that the Chinese literature had come to be cultivated at the 12 EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY [chap. court. Scholars were invited from Corea, learned in Chinese classics, in medicine, in astrology, etc. ; and new ofSces, such as record-keepers, treasurers, physicians, were made, and mostly filled by naturalised Coreans and their descendants. Almanacs in the Chinese style were adopted, so that from the middle of the sixth century the historical records become tolerably trustworthy. During the fifth century Buddhism had spread in China and thence penetrated into Corea, whence some Buddhist images were early introduced into Japan, but the people of Japan called them Corean gods, and were not inclined to their worship. In a.d. 552, a Prince of Kutara, one of the petty states of Corea, sent to the Japanese court a bronze image of Shakyamuni with some Buddhist Sutras or holy books, extolling the excellence of his teaching. This may be regarded as the beginning of the introduction of Buddhism into Japan. The Emperor Kimmei was greatly struck with the new religion, and was not disinclined to accept it. But the court at that time was divided into two factions ; one of them, the Conservative party, headed by the House of Monobe, was strongly opposed to the intro- duction of "alien gods," which they declared would assuredly anger the old gods of the land ; while the other party, headed by the House of Soga, was as strongly in favour of the new religion. Previously to this, the great court nobles had usurped a great deal of the political power, and this dispute was a political struggle between the two great Houses of Soga and Monobe, as well as a religious conflict. The struggle lasted for years, but the Buddhist or progressive party finally got the upper hand, Moriya, the last head of the Monobe House, being killed in 587. The introduction of Buddhism was largely due to the influence of Prince Toyotomimi, better known by his canonical name of Shotoku Taishi (Prince Imperial of Sacred Virtues), who acted as regent from 593 to 621 during the first part of the reign of the Empress Suiko, 1] INTRODUCTION OF BUDDHISM 13 the first of the Empresses regnant. He was a profound Chinese scholar, deeply versed in Buddhist philosophy. His commentaries on several Sutras are still extant and admired by scholars. He, with Umako, the head of the Soga House, greatly encouraged the building of Buddhist temples, of which he himself built several large and magnificent ones. Such are the Horyuji in Nara, the Kondo or Golden Hall of which remains to this day as a fine example of the oldest Japanese Buddhist architecture, and still contains three Buddhist images — examples of the oldest Japanese art, having engraved on their backs an account of the origin of the temple and the making of the images them- selves — the Shitennoji in Osaka, and many others. It is said that in 624, three years after the death of Shotoku Taishi, there were 46 Buddhist temples, with 816 priests and 569 nuns. The Prince is indeed a prominent figure in the history of Japanese civilisation, for it was not Buddhism alone that he introduced into Japan. He had the wisdom to perceive the superiority of the Chinese civilisation, and in fact he sought, through the introduc- tion of Chinese civilisation, of Confucian ethics, and, above all, of Buddhism, to improve the social and moral status of the people. With this purpose he made many reforms in the Government, and for the moral guidance of the people he promulgated what is known as the " Jushichi Kempo," or " Fundamental Law of Seventeen Articles." This was not law in the modern sense of the term, but rather moral instruction. It is, moreover, to be carefully borne in mind that his zeal for Buddhism did not interfere with his reverence for, and worship of, the ancient gods of the land. Thus in 604 an Imperial Rescript was issued, specially enjoining reverence to them, and the Prince at the head of court dignitaries held a great festival in honour of these gods. The Prince was much beloved by the people, for whose welfare and improvement he had been so solicitous, and his name is revered to the present day. The Chinese civilisation and Buddhism which were 14 EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY [chap. at first introduced indirectly through Corea now began to be introduced directly from China ; several embassies were at successive times sent to China, and these were always accompanied by a number of students and priests, who returned home after many years' study in China. The Japanese of those days were very eager to study the new and superior civilisation with which they were brought into contact, and to introduce it for the better- ment of their own political, social, and moral conditions. The time had now become ripe for the introduction of great reforms in administration and general organisation, the old system and methods not being fitted to the new and more complex state of society brought about by the introduction of the new civilisation, and much abuse, moreover, having crept in. The first great reform was made in the reign of Kotoku, under the regency of the Prince Imperial Naka - no - Oye, who, assisted by Kamatari, the founder of the great House of Fujiwara, destroyed the House of Soga, and afterwards became the Emperor Tenji (i.e., of Heavenly Wisdom, a name well deserved) ; this reformation is known as the Reformation of the Taikwa era (645-654). It may serve to show the importance attached to the House system, that the first act of this reformation was in reference to the method of House-registry. From this time dates a series of reforms — in the method of taxation, in local administra- tion, in military organisation, in the educational system, in church organisation, and so on. And, finally, in the reign of Emperor Mommu was issued the " Taihoryo," or " The Code of the Taiho era," a.d. 701, which contains in a codified form laws relating to every branch of administration, civil, military, judicial, educational, and religious. I cannot enter into a description or even an enumeration of the contents of this Code, but I shall give a brief account of the provisions made for the education of the sons of ofiicials, who were the only ones to receive civil education, those who wished to become Buddhist priests receiving their education in temples and monasteries. I] SEVENTH-CENTURY EDUCATION 15 According to the Education section of the Taiho Code, a university was established in the capital and a school in each province. The university was placed under the jurisdiction of a special bureau. Its object was to educate chiefly children of those who had been raised to the fifth or higher (official) rank ; those of lower rank were sometimes allowed to attend by a special permission, but children of common people were not admitted. There were professors to give instruction in Classics or Philosophy and History, in Law, in Literature, in Music, in Caligraphy, and in Mathematics, all except those in Law being exclusively Chinese. The number of scholars was limited to four hundred ; they received their education free, and were even provided with food, the expenses of the university being defrayed out of the income from the land and supplies of rice specially appropriated for the purpose. There were elaborate rules for examinations, according to the results of which scholars were promoted, and after the final examination, appointed to different Government offices. Provincial schools were placed under the direction of governors of respective provinces and were likewise maintained out of Government income ; only children of district-governors were allowed to attend them. Instruction given in these schools was, of course, lower than that in the university, although of the same kind, pupils of exceptional abilities being promoted to the latter. Besides these schools, maintained by the Govern- ment, there were several others of a semi - private character, such as the Kwangaku-In (which, being founded by the powerful House of Fujiwara for its members, was at one time more prosperous than the university itself), the Junna-In, the So-gaku-In, etc. Students were sent to China in the retinue of ambassadors, some of them staying in China for a great many years to complete their studies. The send- ing of embassies and students to China continued till the end of the ninth century, when it was deliberately discontinued. i6 EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY [chap. The Emperor Shomu (724-748) was a great devotee of Buddhism. He caused to be erected (741) in each province two temples or monasteries supported at Government expense, one for priests and one for nuns. They were to pray continually to Buddha for the pro- tection of the land. These temples formed provincial centres for the spreading of Buddhism, which was preached by able priests in charge of them. They also served as schools for teaching those who wished to become priests, and there was always a large number of them, for not only were priests exempt from all duties imposed upon the people, such, for example, as military service, which was otherwise universal in those days, but to become a priest was the only way in which an able man of common birth could rise to power and influence. Thus the rank of priests was recruited from great and able men, who zealously spread Buddhism among the people. The court was wholly devoted to Buddhism ; several of the emperors abdicated the throne to spend the rest of their lives in monasteries. It must, however, be always borne in mind that with all this zeal for Buddhism, the reverence for and worship of the ancestral gods of the land were, as I have already said, never neglected. Thus the Emperor Shomu, when about to erect what was to be the national Buddhist cathedral, the head of the provincial temples, mentioned before, sent a priest to the shrine of the Heaven-Illuminating-Great-Goddess in Ise, to ask her will, who returned, saying that the Goddess was pro- pitious, for Rushana-Butsu, whose image was to be placed in the temple, was none other than herself. The Emperor, still doubtful, again sent a court noble, who returned with the same answer. Thus was built the great temple of Todaiji in Nara, the capital of the Empire at this period, where visitors still wonder at the great image, Daibutsu, and at the grandeur of the scale on which this national cathedral was established. The same Emperor also despatched messengers to the shrines in Ise and at Usa, when Coreans sent insulting embassies ; t] BUDDHISM AND SHINTO 17 and on one occasion, when the country was desolated by a plague, he went himself to Ise to pray personally for deliverance, and sent messengers to other important shrines to ask for their protection. These are a few particular instances of the important fact that the worship of ancestors, and belief in them as protectors of the land, were so firmly implanted in the mind of the Japanese people that had Buddhism come into conflict with them, it could not have spread as it did. In order then to reconcile their religion with the spirit of ancestor worship which they could not hope to overcome, the Buddhist priests maintained that the ancient gods of the lands {i.e., the Ancestors of the Imperial House and great men) were but different impersonations of Buddha, who appeared to lead the people of Japan to the ultimate goal of Buddhism. There being many able men and learned philosophers among them eager for the propagation of their faith, this doctrine of impersonation was gradually elaborated, and so they succeeded in establishing them- selves as ministers to Shinto gods, side by side with the Shintd priests, in many of the Shinto shrines. Thus Buddhism, which, if not actually opposed to ancestor worship, does not hold it essentially, had to modify itself so as not to come into conflict with the deep-rooted belief of the people, and adapting itself to the national practice became a great upholder of ancestor worship. In this way Buddhism spread among the people ; many of the temples became very rich, possessing vast lands and enjoying many privileges. At first, the majority of priests were men of ability and learning, of sanctity and virtue ; not only were they spiritual leaders of the people, but they were great material benefactors, helping the poor, the sick, and the infirm, building bridges and roads and draining marshes themselves, and encouraging the rich to do the same. But gradually as they waxed in power and riches, they became corrupt and violent ; some of the larger temples had a body of armed men — a so-called "sacerdotal army" — with which they often opposed the temporal authorities. 18 EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY [chap. In the meantime, the great House of Fujiwara, had risen to power. Its founder, Kamatari, had helped the Emperor Tenji both in putting down the powerful House of Soga, thereby restoring the authority of Government again into Imperial hands for a time, and also in his administrative reforms. The House of Fujiwara thus gradually established itself in power and authority, owing largely to the abilities of Kamatari and his immediate successors ; empresses came to be chosen from daughters of the House, and so powerful was it that none but the issue 'of these could ascend the throne. All the high Government offices were filled by the members of this House, to the almost entire exclusion of those of other noble houses ; the Fujiwaras became for a time the practical rulers of the Empire. The court gave itself up to refinement and ease ; arts and literature flourished, but all kinds of abuses and maladministration became rampant in every branch of government. Governors of provinces stayed in the capital, preferring easy and pleasant life near the court to the hard and rough work in the country, which was relegated to their deputies ; there were generals who were neither willing nor able to perform military duties. Thus the real work came to be done by subordinates and officials of low rank, while the nobles, sunk in self- indulgence and luxury, became weak and effeminate. Then it was that the military class first came into exis- tence ; these men were at first willing to serve in minor offices about the court or to undertake military expeditions into, and maintain order in, distant provinces, which, under the circumstances, were very often insubordinate and disorderly, or even to serve as the personal guards of court nobles. The two Houses of Taira and Minamoto, both of which were descended from Emperors, became leaders of this class ; it was but natural that they should come to know their power, and that, once conscious of it, they should not long remain content with occupying subordinate positions. At first the Tairas got hold of the power, but only for a short time, for they soon followed I] YORITOMO AND FEUDALISM 19 in the footsteps of the Fujiwaras, and became luxurious, self-indulgent, and effeminate. The House of Minamoto, which had been almost entirely destroyed by its rival, the Taira, arose under its able leader, Yoritomo, and in its turn destroyed the house of Taira entirely. Here I may mention, as showing the reverence in which the Imperial House has always been held through all its vicissitudes, that in the rising of Yoritomo an Imperial Rescript given to him to rise and destroy the Tairas and deliver the court from their arrogance played a highly important part. This struggle between the Tairas and Minamotos occupied the latter half of the twelfth century. Yoritomo, wise enough to perceive the mistake of the Tairas, established himself in Kamakura, in the centre of the Kwanto provinces, where his followers were most numerous, instead of in Kyoto, the seat of the Imperial Court. He left the court very much to itself, preserving all the outward forms of government, with high offices, which became all but nominal, filled by members of noble houses of the old court, while he elaborated a scheme of military, civil, and local adminis- tration, by which all the real power. of government passed into his own hands. He was made Rokujuroku- ka-koku So-tsuihoshi (Superintendent of Police for Sixty-six Provinces) in 1190, which facilitated his efforts to restore and maintain order throughout the whole country, and his appointment to the office of Sei-i Tai-shogun (Generalissimo of Forces for Subduing Barbarians) in 1192 set the cachet of Imperial sanction to his supreme military authority ; he had established the relation of lord and vassal between himself and his immediate followers, but he afterwards extended this to others throughout the whole country ; he put them in posts of authority, civil and judicial, as well as military, and he gave them lands to be held by them and their descendants. This was the beginning of the feudal system in Japan, which lasted for nearly seven centuries, till the restoration of Meiji (1868). CHAPTER II EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY {continued) From the Establishment of the Shogunate to the Restoration Regency of Hojo — Kamakura period — Earlier part remarkable for religious actiuity — Tendai and Skingon—Jodo sect founded by Honen — Shinshii, by Shinran—Jishu by Ippen — Nichiren — Zen sect — Welcomed by the military class — Self-control and peace of mind — Simplicity and frugality — Invasion of fapan by the Mongols — " The divine wind of Ise" — Overthrow of the Hojo Askikaga Shogunate — Nobunaga — Hideyoshi — Tokugawa lyeyasu — The Tokugawa Shogunate — Precepts of lyeyasu — Policy of the Tokugawas towards the daimyos — Shutting up of the country from foreign intercourse — " Wako" — Commercial relations between Japan, China, and Corea — Portuguese — Dutch — English and Spaniards — /apanese trade with Annam, Siam, Luzon, etc. — Adventurers — Yamada Nagamasa— Jesuit missionaries — Converts, numerous and influential — Hideyoshi issues edict against missionaries — lyeyasu andforeigners—janjoostand William Adams — Edict against Christians — Christian lords exiled or killed — Rebellion of Shima- bara — Prohibition to travel abroad and to build large ships — Exclusion of all foreigners except Chinese and Dutch — Registration at a Buddhist temple — Ecclesiastical administration — The Shogunate and the Imperial House Rivalry between daimyos — Propagation of education and developnent of industry — Education of samurais — Fujiwara Seikwa — Confucian philo- sophy — Moral education freed from ecclesiastical influence — Academy for the study of the Chinese literature — Chinese classics and military exercises — Moral, mental, and physical training — Medicine — McUhematics — Arts Introduction of occidental learning — Maeno Ryotaku and Sugita Genpaku — Reactionary movement in the eighteenth century — Education of the common people— Pilgrimages— " Story-telling" — Dramor— Culminating point of the Tokugawas — Commodore Perry — Academy for European languages Students sent abroad— Resignation of ShSgun Keiki— Restoration of Meiji, After the death of Yoritomo in iigg, the authority passed into the hands of the House of Hojo, the heads of which were able men, and under the title of shukken or regents held the real power of government till 1333, although they continued to uphold as nominal heads 20 CHAP. 11.] THE KAMAKURA PERIOD 21 of the military government successive shdguns, whom they caused to be appointed, after the death of two sons of Yoritomo, from among Imperial Princes or members of the House of Fujiwara. Yoritomo always paid the highest respect to the Imperial; House, and had adroitness enough. to keep on good terms with the court ; but this could not continue under the Hojos, who often came into collision with the court, and were finally overthrown by discontented military men who espoused the cause of the court and rose against the regency. This period is known in Japanese history as the Kamakura period. The earlier part of the Kamakura period is remarkable for activity in the religious world, for it saw the founda- tion of several new sects of Buddhism in Japan and the introduction of the Zen sect from China. Up to this period the two prominent sects had been the Tendai and Shingon, founded respectively by Saicho (better known by the canonical name of Dengyo, 767-822) and Kukai (or Kobo, 774-835) ; but their doctrines had never satisfied the bulk of the people, their tenets being lofty and recondite, somewhat above the understanding of the common people ; moreover, the mass of the priests had, as already mentioned, become corrupt and violent, and time was ripe for a religious reformation. Towards the end of the twelfth century, Genku (or Honen, 1133- 1212) who preached the doctrine of salvation by faith, whereas former sects taught the doctrine of salvation by work, founded the Jodo sect. Subsequently, Shinran (i 173-1262), a disciple of Honen, still further simplified the doctrine, and founded a branch sect known as Ikkoshu, or now more commonly Shinshu ; this sect has spread very widely among the common people. The priests of this sect were distinguished from others by not fasting (fasting in Japan means abstaining from fish as well as from meat) and by not observing celibacy. Another off-shoot from the Jodo sect called the Jishu was founded by a priest called Ippen, but it never flourished like the other two. A fourth sect that was founded about 22 EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY [chap. this time was the Hokke or Nichiren-shu, after its founder Nichiren (1222- 1283). Each of the different sects of Buddhism bases its doctrine more especially upon one or other of the Sutras, thus choosing its own method of salvation, or arriving at the beatific state, from the many taught by Shakyamuni, but not necessarily excluding those of the other sects. The Nichiren sect differs from others in this respect, for it was a militant creed, not tolerant of others. Nichiren himself set an example of attacking other sects ; he ascribed famine and other calamities, which happened to occur at this time, to the prevalence of the Jodo sect, and predicted all sort of further calamities, including foreign invasion, unless his creed was substituted ; he was on this account subjected to a persecution through- out his life, notwithstanding which his followers increased rapidly in number. These three sects, the Jodo, Shinshu, and Hokke, continue to the present day to be the three most flourishing sects of Buddhism in Japan. And last but not least, I must mention the Zen sect, with its three branches of Rinzai, Sodo, and Obaku (the last of which, however, was not introduced until a much later date). This sect originated in India with an immediate disciple of Shakyamuni ; although it was first introduced into Japan at an early date, it was not till a priest named Eisai, who had studied the doctrines of the Rinzai branch of the Zen sect in China, came home in 1191, and began to preach them in Hakata, and afterwards in Kyoto and Kamakura ; a little later, in 1228, the priest Dogen came home from China and introduced the teachings of the S6d5 branch of the Zen sect. Both of them were warmly welcomed by the military class, with whose spirit the Zen doctrines are very much in sympathy, and among whom it has always found many ardent and distinguished followers. Although they have been never so numerous as those of the more popular sects, yet, owing to the fact of their being largely members of the military or ruling u.] KUBLAI KHAN'S FIRST INVASION 23 class, the Zen sect has exercised a very great influence in the formation of the national spirit. Now the essence of the teaching of the Zen sect may briefly be said to consist in arriving by means of a certain form of pure and abstract contemplation at a state of absolute indifference or self-annihilation of thought, perception, and will. The practice of its followers in Japan was to strive by a method of contemplation to arrive at ia habitual state of mind that would enable them to meet with indifference any turn of fortune, to be cool and calm in the midst of difficulties and danger. Such a power of perfect self-control and imperturbable peace of mind must indeed be always a very great advantage, but to samurais of those days living a life of continual danger and hardship, they were invaluable. More- over, it was not necessary for its votaries to possess any profound book-learning, although the Zen priests, as a rule, were learned men ; its teaching was also in accord with that simplicity and frugality, which were character- istic of the samurais, and this simplicity had also a great influence on the taste and art of the Japanese people. I may mention that at the present time there are many earnest-minded young men who practise this Zen con- templation in the temples of the Zen sect, among them being young military and naval officers. Another memorable event which took place during the regency of the Hojos was the invasion of Japan by the Chinese or Mongols. Kublai Khan, having overthrown the Sung dynasty and made himself master of China, sent several embassies to Japan to urge it to accept his suzerainty, but in Japan such a proposal was regarded as insulting, and met with contemptuous silence ; and when Kublai kept on sending ambassadors, they were sometimes put to death. At last, in 1274, having estab- lished himself completely in China, he sent an army of 15,000 men on 900 ships, reinforced by 8,000 Coreans, who acted as guides, to attack the coast of Kyushu. It utterly routed the Japanese army assembled tp 24 EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY [chap. oppose them, by its superior tactics ; but it was unable to follow up its advantages, and had to sail home. Several years of respite, during which again several fruitless embassies were sent by Kublai, were spent by the Japanese in preparing for a second invasion ; among other things they built a line of fortresses along the coast for a distance of over lOO miles in order to prevent the landing of the enemy, for they had learned by experience that it would be difficult to withstand them when they were once landed. So when, in 1 28 1, an army reputed to consist of over 100,000 men on 1,500 ships, reinforced by some 40,000 Coreans on goo ships, arrived at the coast of Kyushu, they could not effect a landing for more than seventy days, at the end of which a typhoon, of the kind prevalent towards the end of summer in those regions, arose and destroyed the whole of the ships, and what were spared by wind and waves were destroyed by the Japanese. It is said that out of the vast host that sailed from China, only three men escaped to carry the tale of the disaster back to their country. Thus ended this invasion, the greatest danger we have had from a foreign foe, down to recent times. The typhoon is often referred to as "the divine wind of Ise," the popular belief being that the wind was sent by the Imperial Ancestor, the Heaven- lUuminating-Great-Goddess, whose shrine is at Ise, in response to the prayers offered by the Emperor and the whole nation. After several unsuccessful attempts on the part of the court to destroy the power of the Hojos, military men all over the country arose against them, and their down- fall was consummated in 1333. The court made a fatal mistake in trying to keep the military chiefs, to whose assistance the restoration was due, in a subordinate position, and to revert to the form of government that prevailed before Yoritomo ; the consequence was that Takauji, head of the House of Ashikaga, put himself at the head of discontented military men, and after a time set up a rival dynasty and had himself appointed I.] BEGINNING OF THE SHOGUNATE 25 Sei-i Tai-shogun. For more than fifty years there were two Imperial Courts, known as the southern and northern, until finally the Ashikagas were victorious. It is to be noted that neither Takauji nor his successors, powerful though they were, had the slightest thought of putting themselves on the throne. Takauji perceived the disadvantage of fighting against the Imperial standard and of being styled "choteki" (Imperial enemy), and so made it a fight between two rival dynasties. The Shogunate of Ashikaga lasted for more than two hundred years, until 1573, when it was overthrown by Nobunaga. But even when the power of the Ashikagas was at its zenith, there were many turbulent chiefs who often defied their authority, and the country was never wholly tranquil ; and when the central power gradually waned, military chiefs arose in all parts of the country, and were continually fighting against each other for self-aggrandisement. Among them there appeared three great men. The first was Nobunaga, who, from being a petty lord in the province of Owari, brought the whole of Central Japan under his power. After he was attacked and killed by one of his generals, another of his generals, Hideyoshi, better known by his subsequent title of Taiko, succeeded to power, and established his authority over the whole country. After his death in 1598, lyeyasu, the head of the House of Tokugawa, who had been gradually strengthening himself, patiently biding his time and waiting for his opportunity under Nobunaga and Hideyoshi, became Sei-i Tai-shogun in 1603, and established his Government in Yedo. By the defeat and death of Hideyori, the son of Hideyoshi, in 161 5, the authority of lyeyasu became undisputed. He and his successors for fifteen generations were real rulers of the country, which enjoyed most profound peace for two centuries and a half, during which the feudal system received its most perfect development, and the Bushido, or "The Way of Samurai," was fully elaborated, lyeyasu was a remarkable man, What are known as 26 EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY [chap, "The Precepts of lyeyasu" are, I think, worth quoting here as showing rules of conduct which he himself followed : — " Life is like unto a long journey with a heavy load. Let thy steps be slow and steady, that thou stumble not. Persuade thyself that privations are the natural lot of mortals and there will be no room for discontent, neither for despair. When ambitious desires arise in thy heart, recall the days of extremity thou hast passed through. Forbearance is the root of quietness and assurance for ever. Look upon wrath as thy enemy. If thou knowest only what it is to conquer, and knowest not what it is to be defeated, woe unto thee ! it will fare ill with thee. Find fault with thyself rather than with others. Better the less than the more." ^ Many of the great military chiefs of those days left such precepts, moral or practical, for the benefit of their sons and followers, or of people in general ; and some of them, e.g., that of Imagawa, have served as a sort of moral text-books in later days. Besides the above precepts, lyeyasu is said to have left what is called "The hundred Articles," and although it is doubtful whether they were actually due to him, they embody the principles according to which the government of the Tokugawas was carried out.^ The first three shoguns of the House of Tokugawa, being men of great capacity and assisted by many followers of devoted loyalty and the highest ability, succeeded in thoroughly consolidating their authority and in completing the organisation of government. They could not dispossess great feudal lords of their territories, even those who had not been always friendly to them ; but they took great care to hold all lands and positions that were important strategically or politically, in their own possession, either directly or through their own trusty followers, whose lands they distributed ^ The above translation is due to Professor Wadagaki of the Imperial University of Tokyo. ^ Mentioned in Hearn's "Japan, an Interpretation" as "lyeyasu's "■] POLICY OF TOKUGAWA SHOGUNS 27 among those of great feudal lords, so as to intercept their mutual communications. Take as an example the case of Maeda ; as this was a powerful house, whose territories extended over two provinces of Kaga and Noto, and a part of Echizen, and whose annual revenue exceeded 1,000,000 koku of rice (i koku is equivalent to a little more than 5 bushels), a cadet of the Tokugawa House was made the lord of Echizen, to block the route south towards Kyoto, and several faithful followers of Tokugawa were made daimyos in the province of Echigo on the north ; as there was the Japan Sea to the west and a range of high m.ountains to the east, Maeda was completely hemmed in, A similar policy was pursued towards all such as were likely to be a cause of trouble to the Shogunate. Another device for keeping the daimyos or feudal lords completely under their power was that of requiring every daimyo to sojourn in Yedo, at fixed intervals and during a fixed period, while their wives and children were obliged to reside in Yedo, during their absence, thus serving as hostages. In this way, while the daimyos enjoyed almost complete autonomy within their territories in almost every matter, whether military, financial, administrative, judicial, edu- cational, or industrial, the Shogunate seldom inter- fering except in extreme cases, yet they were kept from acquiring too dangerous an independence. The result was, as already stated, a complete tranquillity during two centuries and a half of the Tokugawa Shogunate. Another remarkable policy of the Tokugawas was the complete shutting up of the country from foreign intercourse. Although official relations between Japan, China, and Corea were often interrupted, the people on neighbouring coasts carried on trade with each other. People of the south-western coasts of Japan were very enterprising navigators, and during some two hundred years, from the latter half of the fourteenth century to the sixteenth century, some of them made chronic raids on the littoral provinces of China and Corea, so that the Wako, as they came to be called in China, were a terror to 28 EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY [chap. their inhabitants ; the Governments of China and Corea on several occasions sent fruitless remonstrances to the Japanese Government, which was too busy for most of the time with domestic troubles to attend to these complaints, even if it was willing to do so. Trade, how- ever, continued to flourish between these countries. In 1 54 1, i.e., towards the close of the Ashikaga Shogunate, Portuguese merchantmen appeared for the first time in Kyushu ; the Portuguese thenceforth entered into commercial relations with the lords of those pro- vinces, who welcomed them chiefly for the fire-arms, which they were eager not only to purchase but to learn to manufacture. The Portuguese held the monopoly of trade with Japan for some time, but early in the seven- teenth century the Dutch appeared upon the scene, as also the Spaniards and the English, the latter of whom were, however, soon ousted by the Dutch. During the latter part of the sixteenth and the earlier part of the seventeenth century, the Japanese extended their trade as far south as Annam, Luzon, Siam, or even further, possessing strongly-constructed vessels, some of which were three-masted ships, measuring as much as 150 feet long by 54 feet wide. It may be interesting to note that the chief goods exported were copper, bronze utensils, lacquered articles, paper articles, such as umbrellas, fans, and screens, sulphur, camphor, dyed textiles, etc., while the chief imports were silk cocoons, thread and fabrics, woollen stuffs, sugar, drugs and incense, vermilion, mercury, glass ware, wine, books, etc. But it was not for trade alone that the Japanese went abroad ; there were adventurers, of whom Yamada Nagamasa was a notable example. This man, finding there was no vent for his adventurous spirit in Japan, where order had been established under the Tokugawa shoguns, went to Siam early in the seventeenth century. He organised a force of the Japanese settlers in that country, helped the King of Siam in his internal troubles, and also in fighting the Spaniards, whom he routed. The feat won him great fame and admiration, as the military prestige of "•] THE JESUIT MISSIONARIES 29 the Spaniards was very great at this time, and the King of Siam gave him his daughter in marriage. Unfortunately, troubles excited by the interference of the Jesuit missionaries in internal politics caused the third shogun, lyemitsu, to interdict all travelling abroad, and to forbid the building of large ships (1635). Jesuit missionaries had come very soon after the first coming of the Portuguese merchantmen, Francis Xavier arriving at Nagasaki in 1548. He and other missionaries were well received by the lords of Kyushu, and the new religion soon spread not only in Kyushu, but also in the neigh- bourhood of Kydto, and later even in the north-eastern parts of Japan. Several powerful lords and great men became converts, Otomo Sorin being among the earliest ; Ouchi Yoshitaka, the powerful lord of Nagato or Choshu and neighbouring provinces, and even the shogun Yoshiteru himself, are said to have been among the converts. In 1581, Omura and Arima, lords in the province of Hizen, sent envoys to Rome with letters and presents to the Pope. Among the converts may also be mentioned Konishi Yukinaga, a general of Hideyoshi, who distinguished himself in the Corean invasion, and was afterwards one of the most active opponents of the Tokugawas. Thus Christianity made rapid progress, notwithstanding some opposition on the part of Buddhist priests, receiving no serious check, until Hideyoshi, angered, it is said, by the arrogance and intolerance of the missionaries, issued an order to stop the propagandism of the new religion, to expel the missionaries, and to demolish the churches ; the order was, however, not very rigorously carried out, Hideyoshi being occupied with the invasion of Corea. Tokugawa lyeyasu, who succeeded Hideyoshi in authority, greatly encouraged foreign commerce. He was friendly to foreigners, and among others treated a Dutchman named Jan Joost and an English pilot named William Adams, who had arrived in 1600 in a Dutch ship, with great consideration, giving them land and residence in Yedo (now Tokyo), where the streets they 30 EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY [chap. lived in are still known as Yayosu Street and Anjin or Pilot Street respectively. He learned about the world outside from them. He had, however, reasons not to be friendly to the Jesuit missionaries and their converts, for they were a source of trouble everywhere on account of their intolerance of, and quarrelsome attitude towards, those of other faiths, and was therefore well inclined to listen to the representations of the Dutch, who persuaded him that they were intriguing to get possession of the land and were dangerous to the State. Accordingly, in 1611, he issued an order expelling the missionaries and forbidding people to profess Christianity on pain of death or exile. Strong measures were taken this time to enforce the order, several of the feudal lords who were ardent Christians being either put to death or exiled (to Spanish Possessions in Luzon). Although in other parts of the country these measures were attended with success, in the provinces of Hizen and Bungo in Kyushu, where Christian converts were most numerous and most zealous, and more especially in Shimabara and neighbouring districts, the most cruel persecutions were of no avail. Thither now flocked not Christians only but also malcontents and turbulent spirits, of whom there was a large number at this time, followers of lords who had fought unsuccessfully against the Tokugawas ; and finally, in 1637, they broke out in open rebellion to the number of 33,000. But though at first the rebels had some success, they were put down early in the next year. This was the real deathblow to Christianity in Japan ; still stronger steps were taken to suppress it entirely. Already in the year before the rebellion of Shimabara, the order prohibiting all travelling abroad and building of large ships under penalty of death had been issued, with a view to cut off all intercourse with foreign countries, and thereby facilitate the suppression of Christianity. Only the Dutch and the Chinese were allowed to come and trade, as neither of them enter- tained any idea of religious propagandism, and the Dutch were looked upon as disposed to assist the n] PROSCRIPTION OF CHRISTIANITY 31 Japanese against the Portuguese and Spaniards ; even these, however, were not allowed to trade freely as here- tofore, but were limited to the single port of Nagasaki, the Dutch especially being confined to its suburb called Dejima. Many severe laws were made against Christians ; and henceforth everybody was required to be registered at a Buddhist temple, every child being so registered at its birth ; a man had for certain purposes to be provided with a certificate from the temple ; no one could be buried except according to the Buddhist ritual by Buddhist priests ; thus Buddhist temples became a sort of registry offices which a man could not choose or change at will. In Kyushu, moreover, people were required to trample upon a picture or image of Christ, in order to testify that they were not Christians, a custom which lasted to the end of the Tokugawa Shogunate. By these and other stringent measures, Christianity was entirely stamped out, at least publicly. At the time of Restoration of 1868, two centuries after, there were, however, found some who still secretly believed in Christianity. By the law of registration Buddhism was made practically the national religion, every Japanese subject being bound to belong to one sect or another from the time of his birth, and so it continued to be down to the Restoration. The Shogunate, however, took good care that priests should not obtain such great power as they had before the days of Nobunaga and Hideyoshi. It was forbidden to build new temples and shrines without special permission, and lands for the support of existing ones were definitely fixed, so that they could not get possession of vast domains. A system of rigid ecclesi- astical organisation was established ; in each sect there were certain official priests, heads of the sect, who were responsible for priests of that sect, and the whole was placed under strict administrative surveillance of a high civil officer. The ability with which the Shogunate brought the priests under complete subordination to its authority, not only without their opposition, but with 32 EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY [chap. their entire concurrence, and while seeming to protect and favour them, is on a par with the masterly action by which, as I have explained above, the great feudal lords were brought under perfect control. One word as to the relation of the Shogunate to the Imperial Court. During the troublous times of the latter days of the Ashikaga Shogunate, when the authority of the shoguns themselves was often set at nought, and their income was precarious, fighting going on in every part of the country, sometimes even in the very streets of Kyoto, the court was in great straits, and had difficulty in obtaining the wherewithal to support its dignity. Some of the more ambitious military lords made presents to the court, for which they were rewarded with court ranks and honorary official titles. These could only be given by the court, usually at the request of the shoguns in the case of military men, and were much coveted. So much even in those days of the great decadence of the court prestige was the Imperial House and everything connected with it honoured and reverenced. Indeed, the feeling of reverence and veneration with which Japanese people have always regarded the Imperial House is something peculiar. The sh5guns and military men, even while paying no heed to the authority or wishes of Emperors, still never lost this feeling. Many circumstances could be cited to prove this fact. Nobunaga and Hideyoshi had been careful to show the utmost respect for the court, and Tokugawas were too wise not to know the importance of treating the court with every mark of respect, while at the same time they took good care to hold all the real power in their hands. Such in brief was the policy of the founders of the Tokugawa Shogunate. So well was it conceived and so thoroughly carried out, that the country enjoyed most complete and uninterrupted tranquillity for nearly two centuries and a half of that Shdgunate. Nor was this a period of stagnation and decline, such as n] EARLY SEATS OF LEARNING 33 might happen to a nation removed from all foreign intercourse and external stimulus. Their absence was compensated for by a strong spirit of rivalry between different daimyos, skilfully fostered by the Shogunate. The daimyos and their counsellors were ever strenuous in their endeavours to maintain and increase the power and honour of their respective hans (or clans), on the one hand, by promoting the education and training of their retainers and by stimulating their spirit, and on the other by encouraging industrial arts and crafts tending to the increase of wealth within their respective territories. The propagation of education and the development of industry were two great products of this period. Of the latter, it is not for me to speak here, but I must say something about the former, especially about the education and training of the samurais, or men of military class, for it was this which enabled them to assimilate the occidental knowledge and adopt Occidental methods, when brought face to face with them at the close of this period. Up to the beginning of the Tokugawa Shogunate, Buddhist temples were almost the only places where people could obtain any learning. Even sons of military lords were mostly taught in these temples. And they continued to be schools for common people for some time after. A trace of this fact has remained in the name Terakoya, or " House for the Children of the Temple," given to elementary schools up to the beginning of the present era. It must also be remarked that from the thirteenth to the sixteenth century, most of the great generals and lords were assisted by the counsels of priests, the majority being of the Zen sect. In those days there were indeed no learned scholars who were not Buddhist priests, the only others being court nobles, and even these had usually little more than a smattering of the knowledge of the Chinese. Towards the close of the six- teenth century, a man named Fujiwara Seikwa, who had been a Buddhist priest but had renounced Buddhism, was the first to teach Confucian moral philosophy as inter- c 34 EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY [chap- preted by Shushi (I call him by the name familiar to the Japanese), a Chinese philosopher of the twelfth century, and distinct from the Buddhist teaching. lyeyasu was a great admirer of Seikwa, and the teachings of the Shushi school of Confucian philosophy formed the basis of the teaching of the Chinese classics, that is, of the education of the military class, so that from this time forth our moral teaching was emancipated from all ecclesiastical influences. Other schools of Confucian philosophy arose, but none of them were quite so influential as the Shushi school, which was placed by lyeyasu under the direction of Hayashi Razan, one of the most distinguished disciples of Seikwa, and his descendants, and thus may be regarded as the official school. lyeyasu and his immediate successors were, how- ever, too busy with the work of consolidation to do very much for the advancement of learning and education, but Tsunayoshi, the fifth shogun (1680- 1709), was a great Chinese scholar, and gave a great impulse to the study of Chinese literature. He himself gave a series of expository lectures on the Chinese classics, which were attended by daimyos as well as his own immediate retainers. An academy was opened for the first time in Yedo, where learned scholars gave expository and com- mentatory lectures on the Chinese classics ; this academy, known as Shoheiko, continued till the beginning of the present era of Meiji to be a sort of university for the study of Chinese literature. This example was followed by the daimyos, who established schools in their terri- tories for the study of Chinese. Provisions were also made both by the Shogunate and by the daimyos for the training of their retainers in military arts, such as archery, fencing, the use of spears, riding, jujutsu, swimming, etc. The education of the samurais in those days consisted almost entirely in the study of Chinese literature (including therein books written in Chinese by Japanese authors) and training in military arts. The former was cultivated not so much for literary purposes II.] CHINESE CLASSES 35 as for the humanities ; its system of moral philosophy was studied for practical guidance, that the pupils might thereby be better fitted for the task of regulating their own individual conduct, of properly managing the affairs of their house, that is to say, adjusting their family rela- tions, of taking share in the good government of their lord's territory, and, if need be, of helping their lord in the wider sphere of national administration. History in the same way was studied, not for historical facts merely, but chiefly for the lessons to be derived from it of how states rose, prospered, declined, and fell, of how great men of olden days dealt with different problems of government, and so on ; it is to be remarked that Chinese scholars and Japanese after them, conceived the work of historian in the same vein. Pedagogically speaking, there was a great waste of time. Boys not older than five or six years of age were made to learn the philosophical works of Confucius and other Chinese classical works. At first they simply learned them by rote, but as they grew older, they were taught to understand them, partly by means of lectures which were sometimes expository, but as often consisted in moral sermons on the texts, and partly by their own thinking. Time, however, was no object in those old days, and the mental culture and moral training they gained in this way were very valuable indeed. Those who could not or would not acquire mental culture, at least obtained a certain amount of moral training, and for the rest, they went in for military exercises, which were very much encouraged, and in which they also gained a great deal of discipline and moral training; for in those old days teaching in military arts did not stop at merely making pupils expert in them, it included inuring of the body to hardship and privations, and the cultivation of endurance, tenacity of purpose, readiness of resources, coolness in danger, and like qualities deemed essential for a samurai; masters considered themselves and were regarded by others not as mere instructors in these arts, but as responsible for the mental and moral 36 EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY [chap. training of their pupils, especially in the above-mentioned qualities and in a strict habit of obedience to superiors. As one example of the methods they pursued for the purpose, I may mention the kangeiko, which it was customary to hold in every school of military art; it consisted in young men and even small boys assembling in the school and practising in the early morning hours, almost before it was light, without any fire, during ten, fifteen, or even thirty days in the coldest season of the year; social opinion was hard upon any who shirked the test. I may remark, by the way, that this custom has recently been revived in many schools in connection with fencing and jujutsu. I have always thought that there is a great similarity between the education of the samurais in old Japan, with its Chinese literature and military exercises, and the classical education of English public schools, with its classics and its boating, cricket, football, and athletic sports. The advantages and dis- advantages of the two seem to me to be very much alike ; much the same thing could be said for and against both. If any one showed a special proficiency either in literature or military arts, he was allowed, or often ordered, to proceed to study with noted masters at schools belonging to the shogun's government, or to other daimyos, or at private schools. The shogun's govern- ment generally allowed such pupils to enter its schools or academy, while a daimyo who was fortunate enough to have a great master among his retainers was proud of the fact, and not averse to the retainers of other daimyos coming to receive instruction from him. Then, again there were some masters, unwilling or unable to serve a daimyo, who opened private schools, which would sometimes be very largely attended for the sake of their teaching. Other studies besides Chinese were often taken up by different individuals, either according to their taste or by order of their lord. For instance, those who wished to be doctors had to study medicine (Chinese system) II] WESTERN LEARNING 37 with some doctor, for there was no school at which medicine was taught. Mathematics was cultivated by a few; it was originally introduced from China, but Seki, a contemporary of Newton, who was a mathe- matician of great original power, invented a system of algebra, which gave him immense power in his further investigations. The results obtained by Seki and his disciples by their investigations in metrical geometry, algebra, the theory of series, etc., were of very high order. In natural sciences also some progress was made, and when Siebold came to Japan to study our flora and fauna, he found some enthusiastic pupils. There were many other branches of learning pursued with success. Fine arts, industrial arts, and even games, such as go and Japanese (or rather Chinese) chess, were encouraged with good results. Towards the latter part of the Tokugawa Shogunate, occidental learning began to be introduced. Already in the beginning of the eighteenth century, the eighth shogun, Yoshimune (1716-1745), gave great encourage- ment to the introduction of occidental knowledge. In 1720 the importation of foreign books, which had hitherto been altogether forbidden, was permitted with the exception of books relating to religion. In 1744 an astronomical observatory was established in Yedo. The Dutch were ordered to report on what was taking place in the world outside. They were also encouraged to bring presents to the shoguns of the productions of different countries, and it is stated that in 1737 they were rewarded with 100,000 lbs. of copper in return for a number of horses which they had presented to the shogun. The death of Yoshimune was a great blow to these progressive measures, but the path of progress once opened could not be closed again. I must here mention specially two doctors, Maeno Ryotaku (1723- 1803) and Sugita Genpaku (1733-1817); the former had succeeded in learning the Dutch alphabet and some two or three hundred words of Dutch with great difficulty, and having got hold of a Dutch book on 38 EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY [chap. anatomy, they compared the figures in it with the body of an executed criminal, which was dissected, and were greatly struck by their correctness as compared with the statements in Chinese books. They then proceeded with a few kindred spirits to read the book and to translate it into Chinese (the language of scholars in those days). It was to them almost like deciphering hieroglyphics, but after four years of hard work they succeeded in the task, and the first book on anatomy of the occidental school was published in 1774. Such was the spirit which animated some, at least, of the old samurais in their eager search for knowledge. Those who studied Dutch, and especially the Dutch system of medicine, gradually increased. Works on medicine and surgery, on chemistry and physics, on botany and materia medica, on geography, on European tactics and gunnery, etc., were translated or compiled, and eagerly studied. It must be stated, however, that these studies were confined to a comparatively small minority, and were not altogether without danger to those who pursued them. On the one hand from the constituted authorities, who saw in their restlessness a source of political trouble, for there were among them several who perceived from the knowledge they had obtained by reading Dutch books grave danger in the defence- less condition of the Empire, especially in the north, against maritime attack, and made representations to the authorities about them, and on the other from the Conservatives, who thought all such innovations a desecration of the sacred land. About the middle of the eighteenth century, there arose a remarkable intellectual revolutionary move- ment, of which the introduction of the occidental learn- ing above mentioned may be considered as a part. It was somewhat similar to the Aufkldrung in Europe at about the same period. It appeared in almost every branch of intellectual activity, in literature, in the arts, in religion, and in politics. There was a general restless- ness and reaction against old authorities. The study n] EDUCATION UNDER THE SHOGUNATE 39 of pure classical Japanese literature, in opposition to the predominating influence of Chinese literature and philo- sophy, was revived, and led to the rise of Neo-Shinto, under such leaders as Motoori and Hirata. Ancient Japanese history was studied, and, as the real nature of the fundamental constitution of the Empire began to be better known, the rule of the Shogunate came to be recognised by some as an usurpation of the power of government, which properly belonged to the Imperial House, and to be secretly resented as an act of dis- loyalty and unrighteousness. Such thinkers were not many, but they were earnest, and their number was continually growing. I must now say a few words about the education of the common people ^ under the Shogunate. There were no provisions made specially for their education, either by the shogun's government or by the daimyos, or by their own communities in cities, towns, and villages, where they enjoyed no little self-government in local matters under their mayors or headmen ; but almost everywhere throughout the country, where there was congregated a sufficient population to support them, there were private schools, where elementary teaching was given in reading, writing, and arithmetic. As even for the most ordinary purposes of life, Chinese characters were used as ideographs, a certain amount of knowledge of them was necessary even for ordinary people, and lessons in the writing of them formed an important part of the curriculum of those schools. The pupils learned to know those characters by learning how to write them, and thus reading was an adjunct to writing. The text- books or copy-books from which they learned to write ' By " common people " I mean those belonging to the three out of the four classes into which the nation was divided. These classes were ( l ) the samurais or the military class, who were the rulers of the land ; (2) the farmers and peasants, tillers of the land, some of whom owned a large extent of land and were sometimes allowed as a special, privilege to have a family name and wear two swords ; (3) the artisans and labourers ; (4) the merchants and tradespeople who were theoretically classed last, as they did not produce anything, but some of whom having, comparatively speaking, great wealth, were naturally treated with some respect, even obtaining the privilege of having a family name and of wearing two swords. 40 EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY [chap. and read contained sentences in which Chinese char- acters were mixed with letters of the Japanese alphabet. They were usually moral maxims, so that here again we have moral teaching forming an essential part of education. There were various other text -books, by means of which a knowledge of Chinese characters as well as some elementary facts in geography and history, or facts necessary in different arts, crafts, and trades, were taught. Fees for tuition were very low, and thus the facilities of common education were within the reach of even poor people. The spread of education among the people dates chiefly from the middle of the eighteenth century. The eighth shogun, Yoshimune, of whom I have already spoken as encouraging the importation of foreign knowledge, also gave a great impetus to the improvement of the education of the masses ; and about this period there were several eminent educationalists, such as Muro Kyusu and Kaibara Ekken. With all of them, it was always the moral betterment of the people that was held to be the main object of education. There was no religious teach- ing in any of their systems, except that the reverence for ancestors, for ancient gods, and for Buddhist gods was inculcated, just in the same way as the veneration for Confucius and other great philosophers, and for the good, the wise, and great men in general. The custom of going on pilgrimages to shrines and temples scattered throughout the country was a great educative factor ; in every village there was a club, members of which by paying small subscriptions were entitled to be taken on those pilgrimages under the direction and care of an experienced leader, and it was not men only who went on those pilgrimages, mothers, wives, and maidens taking part in them ; in some parts of the country young men and women were not considered eligible for marriage unless they had been to the shrine at Ise. Just as, for the samurais, sojourn during a certain period in Yedo in the retinue of their lords w^s an educative opportunity, n.] PILGRIMAGES 41 so for the common people these pilgrimages were bene- ficial in widening their ideas and sympathies. So much were they regarded as desirable, that apprentices often went on pilgrimages without a penny, leaving their masters without asking their permission, and begging their way to and back; they would be recognised as going to Ise or Kompira, and so on, and people would give them food and shelter, and on their return, if they could show that they had been to these shrines, their running away would be pardoned, and they would be taken back by their masters. I may add that the custom of pilgrimage to Ise, Kompira, Fuji Mountain, and the Honganji temple in Kyoto, etc., is still prevalent to-day. Another educative factor was a certain species of entertainment called "story-telling," very popular in some parts of the country, notably in Tokyo, in which professional story - tellers gave accounts of historical events in a graphic, if not very accurate, manner ; in this way the deeds of the brave, the loyal, the wise and the good became a matter of common knowledge. Then there was the drama, which also served to show to people in general an elevated, often exaggerated standard of morals, of loyalty in man, of chastity in woman, and of self-sacrifice in performance of duty, that was demanded of all. The Shogunate of lyenari, the eleventh shogun (1786-1837), may be regarded as the culminating point of the House of Tokugawa ; but the corruption and demoralisation which grew out of long continued peace and prosperity, and against which some of the shogun's ministers, like Matsudaira Sadanobu, strove in vain, were already sapping its foundations, and there was, as I have stated before, a vague under-current of rest- lessness. The coming of Commodore Perry in 1853, by introducing the complications of foreign relations, greatly embarrassed the Shogunate and hastened its downfall. The country was thoroughly roused ; rest- less and enterprising spirits secretly left their hans for fe9.r of compromising their lords, and became renins, or 42 EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY [chap. "wave-men," men free and fearless as waves; they were wild and unruly men, bound by no consideration save that of serving their country, who had, in fact, by renouncing nominally at all events their fealty to their feudal lords, set themselves free from the trammels which had bound them, in order the better to serve the country according to their own ideas. The fifteen years after the first coming of Commodore Perry was indeed a stirring time for Japan. The shogun's government, perceiving that we had much to learn from the Western nations, established a school or academy, where European languages — Dutch, English, German, French, and Russian — were taught, not only to the direct retainers of the shogun, but also to those of daimyos, and even to common people. This academy, which had developed out of an institution ori- ginally established for the translation of foreign books, was first opened in 1857, and is the germ out of which has grown the present Imperial University of Tokyo. Such a step was not unopposed ; the Conservatives were indignant and regarded those who encouraged or pursued such studies as traitors : my own grandfather, Dr Mitsukuri Genpo, who was a doctor of the Dutch school of medicine and a professor of Dutch in this academy in the 'sixties, received letters with threats of assassination from some of these wave - men. The methods of teaching in the academy were, like all teaching in those days, individual, i.e., each pupil was taught separately during some quarter of an hour or more by a teacher; there was a necessity for a large staff of teachers, but as such a large number could not be found, the pupil, after he had advanced a little, was made to help in the teaching. I remember that I entered this academy at the age of seven to learn English, and after I had been there for a year or so and got through my alphabet and conversation-book, I was set to teach them to new pupils, mostly a good deal older than myself, some even grown up, while I got my own lessons in the afternoon. The shogun's government also sent students abroad for study ; the first "3 THE SHOGUN KEIKI RESIGNS 43 party was sent to Holland, and the next to Russia ; a third came to England in the winter of 1866 (among this party were Count Hayashi, now Minister of Foreign Affairs, and myself), and a fourth to France. Some of the greater daimyos, such as Satsuma and Choshu, also sent students abroad. Meanwhile a great agitation was going on to over- throw the Shogunate, one great article of indictment against it being that it had concluded treaties with foreign nations without the sanction, and even against the express wishes of the Imperial Court. Finally the opponents of the Shogunate were successful, and in the last month of 1867, Keiki, the fifteenth of the Tokugawa shoguns, requested and obtained the permission of the Emperor to resign his Shogunate, and although some of his too zealous retainers fought against the Imperial forces, they were put down without very great difficulty, and the whole country was, after seven hundred years of the Shogunate, brought under the immediate rule of the Emperor. Japan has reasons to remember this action of Keiki ; he had been raised in 1866 to the Shogunate from the Mito branch of Tokugawa, a cadet branch which had always been noted for its respect for the Imperial House, even against the interests of the House of Toku- gawa. Being imbued with this spirit he recognised the justice of the demands for the restoration of the authority of government into Imperial hands, and rather than plunge the country into civil war, which would indeed have been disastrous for Japan, resigned his Shogunate and with it all the administrative powers which had been entrusted to the shogun. He went into retirement and was succeeded in the headship of the House of Tokugawa by a young scion of another branch of Tokugawa, the present Prince Tokugawa lyesato, the President of the House of Peers. The Emperor has recently honoured Keiki by conferring on him the title of Prince, the highest in the Japanese nobility. Thus quietly was accomplished the great event of Ishin, or " Renewal," known to the Western world as the Restoration of Meiji. CHAPTER III EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY {continued) The Meiji Era Choshu hanjbremosi in opposition to the Shogunate — " Great Righteousness" — Audience of the foreign representatives — The Imperial Oath of Five Articles — Abolition of the feudal system — Other great changes — The Corean question — Risings of the disaffected in Saga, Kumantoto, and Kagoshima — Dajog- wan — The Edict of Constitutional Government — Popular agitation for a National Assembly— Promulgation of the Constitution — Imperial Oath at the sanctuary of the palace— Imperial Speech — Preamble to the Constitution — Articles of the Constitution — The Imperial Diet. With 1868 begins the new era, that of Meiji, or "The Enlightened Government," the accession of the present Emperor to the throne having taken place in the beginning of the previous year and the resignation of the shogun Keiki at the end of the same year. The han of Choshu had been foremost in opposition to the Shogunate : they were declared rebels as early as 1864, and forces were sent against them, but they did not effect much, and the result was a great loss of prestige for the Shogunate. The great hans of Satsuma, Tosa, and Hizen, and others joined them, and the result was the final overthrow of the Shogunate. The cry of the assailants of the Shogunate was " Reverence for the Sovereign," "Restoration of the Imperial rule," "Great Righteousness " (against the usurpation of the authority by the Shogunate), and, with at least a large section of them, "The Exclusion of Barbarians." The leaders of the movement knew very well that the last was neither practicable nor desirable, and one of the first acts of the new Government was to grant the foreign representatives an audience with the Emperor, an act without precedent 44 CHAP, in.] THE IMPERIAL OATH 45 in our history, which so incensed the Conservatives, virho had really believed in the exclusion of the foreigners under the new regime, that otle of them attacked the British representative. Sir Harry Parkes, in a street in Kyoto, as he was proceeding to the palace ; he was, fortunately, prevented from killing him by the bravery of two Tosa samurais. Goto and Nakae, the former of whom was afterwards one of the leaders of the movement for the calling of the National Assembly. On the fourteenth day of the third month of the first year of Meiji (6th April 1868), the Emperor summoned the Imperial princes and high officials of his court, and i n the Shishinden, or the * * Thron e Room " of the old palace in Kyoto, he swore the memorable oath known as "The Imperial Oath of Five Articles," setting forth the policy that was to be followed hereafter by him. The five articles and the term of the oath are as follows : ^ — (I.) Deliberative Assemblies shall be established, and all measures of government shall be decided by public opinion. (II.) All classes, high and low, shall unite in vigorously carrying out the plan of government. (III.) Officials, civil and military, and all common people shall, as far as possible, be allowed to fulfil their just desires, so that there may not be any discontent among them. (IV.) Uncivilised customs of former times shall be broken through, and everything shall be based upon just and equitable principles of nature. (V.) Knowledge shall be sought for throughout the world, so that the welfare of the Empire may be promoted. " Desiring to carry out a reform without parallel in the annals of Our country. We Ourselves here take the initiative and swear to the Deities of Heaven and Earth to adopt these fundamental principles of national govern- • I have followed the translation of the five articles by Professor N. Hozumi of the Imperial University of Tokyo as the most literal. 46 EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY [chap. ment, so as to establish thereby the security and prosperity of the people. We call upon you all to make combined and strenuous efforts to carry them out." In accordance with the oath, great changes followed in rapid succession. The greatest of all, and the most fundamental, was the abolition of the feudal system. In 1869, the great daimyos of Satsuma, Choshu, Hizen, and Tosa, acting on the recommendations of their dis- tinguished retainers, great men who were the real leaders of the time, the elder Saigo, Okubo, Kido, Okuma, and others, memorialised the Throne that it was "just and proper" — in accordance with " the great righteousness" — that all the people and lands of the Empire should come under the direct control of the Emperor. The other daimyos followed their example. Thereupon all the daimyos were summoned to a conference, and in consequence of the recommendation of this assembly, all the fiefs hitherto held by them were restored to the Emperor, the daimyos receiving one-tenth of the revenue of their former fiefs. Thus, just as the shogun had surrendered into the Imperial hands the power of administration over the whole Empire, so the daimyos also of their own free will, and because they deemed it righteous and just, gave up their lands and power, even of life and death over their retainers and the people within their territories. They and the court nobles who had formed a class by themselves were now classed together under the name of Kwazoku, or ' ' flower families," which remains their designation to the present day. The samurais or former retainers of daimyos likewise received pensions, and were classed as Shizoku, or "samurai families," as distinguished from the Heimin, or the "common people," a distinc- tion which, although it still exists in name, now confers no legal or social privilege or honour. But although feudal fiefs were thus restored to the ■central Government, they were retained as administra- ni.) ABOLITION OF THE HANS 47 tive divisions, and the former daimyos remained as governors with their old retainers as officials under them, so that in reality the hans retained much of their old autonomous power. Such a state of things could scarcely be expected to work satisfactorily, or to content those who had worked so zealously for the restoration of the authority of government into Imperial hands. Consequently, on the fourteenth day of the seventh month of the third year of Meiji (29th August 1 871), the hans, or the old feudal divisions, of which there were 263 at the time, were finally abolished. The old daimyos were relieved of their governorships, and the formal political relation between them and their retainers was dissolved, although the moral and social relations have continued even down to the present day, and will probably continue for another generation or two in many cases. The pensions of the Kwazoku and Shizoku were afterwards commuted at several years' purchase into national bonds bearing interest varying from 5 per cent, to 7 per cent. The whole country was divided anew into 3 Fu and 72 Ken, 75 prefectures in all, for the distinction between a fu and a ken need not be noticed for our purpose. Thus peacefully, by the free will of the military lords and their retainers, was effected the abolition of the feudal system. Among other important measures of reform, which I may mention here, travelling was made entirely free, post and telegraph services were initiated, railways began to be constructed and lighthouses to be built, banks were established, and in various ways industry and commerce were encouraged. Old court dresses were replaced by uniforms in the foreign style. The wearing of swords was forbidden, a measure which gave rise to great discontent among the Conservative samurais, for the sword was regarded, according to their old idea, as the soul of the samurai, but it was perhaps the more important change, since it was desirable to make manifest the equality of all classes before the law. The laws themselves were revised. A new system of taxation was 48 EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY [chap. introduced. The calendar was changed from the lunar to the Gregorian, the third day of the twelfth month of the fifth year of Meiji being made the first day of the first month of the sixth year of Meiji (ist January 1873). The Army and Navy were entirely reorganised, and a system of conscription was introduced, this being a return to the old days, before the usurpation of the governmental authority by the military class, when everybody was liable to military service, as I have already stated. Education was by no means neglected among all these changes ; in fact, the first care of the new central Government was to reopen schools established by the Shogunate which had been closed at the beginning of the new regime. Foreign teachers were engaged ; and students were sent abroad, not only by the central Government, but by many of the larger hans. But I propose to speak later on more specially of the history of education in the Meiji era ; for the present let us go on with the general account. Of course, it was not to be expected that these and other great reforms of the first years of Meiji could be carried out without difficulty or opposition ; one may rather be surprised that they were carried out at all. One cannot sufficiently admire, nor can the Japanese nation feel sufficiently grateful for, the wisdom of the Emperor, who, young as he was (he was only fifteen at the time of his succession to the throne in 1867), listened to the wise and able counsels of his devoted counsellors and supported them with his confidence in them ; or the self-sacrificing patriotism of the daimyos, who gave up their feudal territories and power, which they had held for more than two centuries and a half, all for the sake of the Empire and because they thought it righteous and just; or the devotion, energy, and foresight ofthe great court nobles, like Sanjo and Iwakura, and of distinguished samurais, like Saigo, Okubo, Kido, Okuma, Ito, etc. In October of 1873, those men who had hitherto worked so hard together for the sake of the Empire came to an open rupture over the Corean question. At Ill] LOCAL RISINGS 49 the Great Council of statesmen, held in the presence of the Emperor, the peace party headed by Iwakura and Okubo, and including among others Ito, Okuma, and Oki, prevailed, and Saigo, Soyeshima, Itagaki, Goto, and Eto resigned their position in the Government. Several risings of the disaffected took place, the principal of which were those in Saga (1874), Kumamoto (1876), Hagi (1876), and Kagoshima (1877). It is to be remarked that these towns are respectively in the provinces of Hizen, Higo, Choshu and Satsuma, whose daimyos had been most prominent in the Restoration, and that leaders in the first and third were respectively Eto and Maebara, both of whom had held the highest offices in the Government, while the Satsuma rebellion was headed by the renowned Saigo himself. These risings were, of course, not directed against the Emperor but against those at the head of the Government ; they were put down without much difficulty, except the last, which caused a good deal of trouble. The days were, happily, past when the supreme place in the Emperor's Council could be won by an appeal to arms ; even among those who resigned at the same time as the men we have spoken of, others like Itagaki and Goto tried more peaceful methods of making their counsels heard. In the early years of Meiji, the organisation of the central administration was changed several times ; in 1869, the Dajogwan (the Great Government Office) was established, which continued to be the seat of the supreme central power under the Emperor until 1885, when the present cabinet system was introduced ; there were continual changes in the internal organisation of the Dajogwan, especially in the early days, into which we need not enter. It will be sufficient to mention that it was presided over by a Dajodaijin, assisted by two Vice-Presidents ; below them were the Sangi, or "Councillors," who were sometimes at the same time heads of government departments, and sometimes distinct from them. There were deliberative bodies, under different names and with different constitutions, D 50 EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY [chap. at different times. By the Imperial Edict of 14th April 1875, known as the Edict of Constitutional Government, a Senate was organised for legislative purposes, the members of which were appointed by the Emperor, The Taishin-In (the Supreme Court of Justice), was instituted ; and until the people should be sufficiently educated to participate themselves in legislation, meet- ings of prefects were to be summoned to discuss measures of government submitted to them as representatives of the people, for they were considered likely to know the needs of the people better than the officials of the central Government through their more intimate relations with them. In 1876 the Senate received an Imperial Rescript, ordering it to make a draft of the National Constitution, which they were to present to the Emperor, but nothing came of this. In 1878 prefectural assemblies, composed of members elected by the people and having the power of discussing matters connected with each prefecture, were summoned for the first time. In the meantime, as early as 1874, ™^n ^i^^ Itagaki, Goto, and Soyeshima, on their retirement from the Government, advocated the immediate summoning of a national assembly to be composed of members elected by the people. They and others like them were earnest in trying to awaken the general public to a sense of the importance and necessity of a national assembly ; political associations were organised, meetings were held, and deputations from various parts of the country came up to Tokyo to petition the Government to summon the national assembly at once. Although the Government, being of the opinion that the people in general were not yet ready for a share in the national legislation, tried to repress these demonstrations by issuing stringent regulations about public meetings and the press, the agitation continued to increase. The Emperor, therefore, issued a proclamation on 12th October, 1881, in which he declared that he would call a national assembly in 1890, and that he would himself determine its organisa- tion and power, and make the result public in due ni-l TEXT OF THE IMPERIAL OATH 51 course of time. In 1882, Hirobumi Ito, now Prince Ito, was sent to Europe on a special mission to investigate the constitutions of different states, and to examine their practical working. On his return, a commission was appointed to make a draft of the Constitution and sub- sidiary laws under his presidency. This draft was sub- mitted to the Privy Council, first organised in 1888, and finally received the approval of the Emperor. On nth February 1889, which, according to the "Chronicles," was the 254gth anniversary of the coronation of the first Emperor, Jimmu, a day kept as an annual national holiday, the Emperor proceeded in state to worship at the sanctuary situated within the palace precincts, and there swore the following oath, which, as well as the Imperial Speech on the same occasion and the Preamble to the Constitution, I shall quote in extenso, as it well illustrates the spirit of reverence for ancestors and the peculiar relation between the Imperial House and the people, which constitutes the fundamental character of our nation- ality, and on which great emphasis is laid in our educa- tion, as I have stated at the beginning of these lectures. "IMPERIAL OATH AT THE, SANCTUARY OF THE IMPERIAL PALACE ^ " We, the Successor to the prosperous Throne of Our Predecessors, do humbly and solemnly swear to the Imperial Founder of Our House and to Our other Imperial Ancestors that, in pursuance of a great policy co-extensive with the Heavens and with the earth. We shall maintain and secure from decline the ancient form of government. "In consideration of the progressive tendency of the course of human affairs, and in parallel with the advance of civilisation. We deem it expedient, in order to give clearness and distinctness to the instructions bequeathed by the Imperial Founder of Our House and by Our other Imperial Ancestors, to establish fundamental laws formulated into express provisions of law, so that, on ' In this and in the Imperial Speech and the Preamble, which follow, I have followed the authorised translation, although there are several passages which I should have preferred to render somewhat differently. 52 EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY [chap. the one hand, Our Imperial posterity may possess an express guide for the course they are to follow, and that, on the other, Our subjects shall thereby be enabled to enjoy a wider range of action in giving us their support, and that the observance of Our laws shall continue to the remotest ages of time. We shall thereby give greater firmness to the stability of Our country, and promote the welfare of all the people within the boundaries of Our dominions ; and We now establish the Imperial House Law and the Constitution. These Laws come to only an exposition of grand precepts for the conduct of the Government, bequeathed by the Imperial Founder of Our House and by Our other Imperial Ancestors. That We have been so fortunate in Our reign, in keeping with the tendency of the times, as to accomplish this work. We owe to the glorious Spirits of the Imperial Founder of Our House and of Our other Imperial Ancestors. "We now reverently make Our prayer to Them and to Our Illustrious Father, and implore the help of Their Sacred Spirits, and make to Them solemn oath never at this time nor in the future to fail to be an example to Our subjects in the observance of the Laws hereby established. " May the Heavenly Spirits witness this Our solemn Oath." On his return to the palace, in the presence of the Imperial princes, ministers of state, privy councillors, prefects, and other high officials, peers, presidents of prefectural assemblies, and of the representatives of foreign countries, he handed the original copy of the Constitution to the Minister President and delivered the following speech : — "Whereas We make it the joy and glory of Our heart to behold the prosperity of Our country, and the welfare of Our subjects. We do hereby, in virtue of the supreme power We inherit from Our Imperial Ancestors, promulgate the present immutable funda- mental law, for the sake of Our present subjects and their descendants. "The Imperial Founder of Our House and Our other Imperial Ancestors, by the help and support of III.] THE CONSTITUTION 53 the forefathers of Our subjects, laid the foundation of Our Empire upon a basis, which is to last forever. That this brilliant achievement embellishes the annals of Our country, is due to the glorious virtues of Our Sacred Imperial Ancestors, and to the loyalty and bravery of Our subjects, their love of their country and their public spirit. Considering that Our subjects are the descendants of the loyal and good subjects of Our Imperial Ancestors, We doubt not but that Our subjects will be guided by Our views, and will sympathise with all Our endeavours, and that harmoni- ously co-operating together, they will share with Us Our hope of making manifest the glory of Our country, both at home and abroad, and of securing forever the stability of the work bequeathed to Us by Our Ancestors." I append here a part of the Preamble to the Constitution : — "Having, by virtue of the glories of Our Ancestors ascended the throne of a lineal succession unbroken for ages eternal ; desiring to promote the welfare of, and to give development to the moral and intellectual faculties of Our beloved subjects, the very same that have been favoured with the benevolent care and affec- tionate vigilance of Our Ancestors ; and hoping to maintain the prosperity of the State, in concert with Our people and with their support. We hereby pro- mulgate in pursuance of Our Imperial Rescript of the i2th day of the loth month of the 14th year of Meiji, a fundamental law of State, to exhibit the principles, by which We are to be guided in Our conduct, and to point out to what Our descendants and Our subjects and their descendants are forever to conform. On this auspicious occasion, amnesty was granted to all political offenders, and largess distributed to the aged, according to the old custom. There was a great rejoicing throughout the Empire, the eleventh and the succeeding days being observed as a grand festival. I may remark that this was the first time that the shouts 54 EPITOME OF JAPANESE HISTORY [chap. of Banzai (meaning ten thousand years), which has now become so universal, were raised, the students of the Imperial University and scholars of other schools stationed outside the palace gates saluting the Emperor for the first time with loud shouts of " Banzai ! Banzai ! Ban-Banzai ! " The Constitution consists of seventy-six articles in seven chapters, relating respectively to the Emperor, the Rights and Duties of Subjects, the Imperial Diet, the Ministers of State and the Privy Council, the Judicature, Finance, and Supplementary rules. Accord- ing to the Constitution^ all laws must receive the con- sent of the two Houses of the Diet, either of which has also the right of initiative. The revenue and expenditure of the State require the consent of the Diet by means of the Annual Budget, the two Houses having equal rights, except that the Budget must be first submitted to the House of Representatives ; final accounts of the State must also be submitted to the Diet. It would be beyond the scope of the present lectures to go into the details of the articles of the Constitution, but I must say a few words about the Diet. The Imperial Diet consists of two houses, the House of Peers and the House of Representatives. The former consists of the Imperial Princes, of the members of the two highest orders of nobility, of the representatives of the three other orders of nobility, elected by their peers in a certain proportion, of a certain number of members nominated by the Emperor in consideration of their experience and knowledge, and of representatives, co-opted respectively by the 15 largest tax-payers in each prefecture ; the number of members fluctuates slightly, but is now over 360. The members of the House of Representatives are elected by the people every four years by a ballot; male subjects of the Empire over thirty years of age are eligible for membership. An elector must be over twenty-five years of age (in Japan, any one over twenty is a major), have resided for a year or more in the electoral district, and I"] CONSTITUTION OF DIET 55 paid a direct State tax of not less than ten yen (twenty shillings) a year. At the last election, which took place in March 1904, the number of registered electors was 757,788, of whom 656,163 voted. The number of members in the present House is 379. I have now brought my account of the history of our Empire down to the promulgation of the Con- stitution in 1889, and shall stop here. CHAPTER IV ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM Cabittet — Ministers of State — Matters determined by the Cabinet Council — Laws, budgets and final accounts — Treaties and intemcUional questions — Imperial Ordinances — Petitions — Expenditures tiot covered by the Budget — Recom- mendation for appointment of officials — Bureaus under the Cabinet — ChokuniB, Sonin and Hannin officials — Heads of departments — Depart- mental Ordinances — Jikwan, or Vice-Minister — Other officials of a depart- ment — Department of Education — Special Education Bureau — Common Education Bureau — Technical Education Bureau — Higher EducatiomU Council — Privy Council — Local administration — Prefectures — Prefectural Assembly — Sub-prefectures — Sub-prefectural Assembly — Shi, cho andson — Komin — Shi, ch5, son assemblies — Mayors, assistant mayors — Supervision and control — Disability of elementary school teachers and some others. Before I pass on to the proper subject matter of these lectures, it is necessary to explain briefly the general executive administrative system of Japan. At the head of the whole administrative system is the Cabinet, composed of the Ministers of State and presided over by the Minister President. All the Ministers are appointed by the Emperor ; the choice of the Minister President is determined by various political reasons, into which we cannot enter here, and the other Ministers are appointed on his advice. Principal matters to be determined by the Cabinet Council are: — (i.) Projects of Laws, and of budgets and final accounts. (ii.) Treaties and important international questions. (iii.) Imperial Ordinances relating to official organ- isation or for carrying out of laws. (iv.) Disputes between Departments of State as to their respective jurisdiction. 56 CHAP. IV.] THE CONTROL OF THE CABINET 57 (v,) Petitions from the people, sent down by the Emperor or transmitted from the Diet. (vi.) Expenditures not covered by the Budget. (vii.) Recommendations for the appointment of the State officials of Chokunin class and of prefects. Measures of great importance relating to the higher administration of matters coming under the direct juris- diction of the respective departments are also to be laid before the Cabinet Council. Under the direct control of the Cabinet are several bureaus, viz. : the Bureau of Decorations, dealing with awards of orders, medals, and other public rewards ; the Legislative Bureau, dealing with drafting of projects of laws and of Imperial Ordinances ; the Pensions Bureau ; the Statistical Bureau ; and the Official Gazette Bureau. Also attached to the Cabinet is the State Higher Civil Service Examination Commission, which examines candidates for all higher State Civil Service, excepting the Diplomatic Service, for which examinations are held under a different commission in the Department of Foreign Affairs. State officials are divided into three classes, according to their mode of appointment, namely — (a) the Chokunin, who are appointed by the Emperor on the recommendation of the Cabinet, as stated above ; (iJ) the Sonin, who are appointed by the Emperor on the recommendation of the head of a department ; and {c) the Hannin, who are appointed by the head of a department or sometimes even a lower authority ; the two former are often classed together as high officials. Above these three there are Shinnin officials, who are appointed directly by the Emperor himself ; such are the Cabinet Ministers, Privy Councillors, and a few others. A Minister of State is usually at the same time head of a department of State, of which there are nine, viz. : Foreign Affairs, Interior, Finance, War, Navy, Justice, Education, Agriculture and Commerce, and Communica- tions, in the order in which they stand officially. The 58 ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM [chap. head of a department is directly responsible to the Emperor for the affairs of his department. He proposes to the Cabinet the projects of new laws and Imperial Ordinances and amendments or abolition of the old ; he has the power of issuing departmental ordinances which are binding upon all, and of giving orders and instruc- tions to the prefects and the chief of the Metropolitan Police, in connection with the affairs of his own depart- ment. In the business of the department, he is assisted by a Jikwan, literally "the next official," usually translated as Vice-Minister ; being in charge of the business of the department, a Vice-Minister does not necessarily change with the Minister, but sometimes because he is so much identified with the policy of the Minister (for he has a right to speak in the Diet for or against any measure connected with the department, with the consent or rather by the order of the Minister, and generally acts for the Minister in the committees, sometimes for personal or other reasons) it is at present more usual for a Vice-Minister to retire with the Minister than to remain under the next Minister. Below the Vice-Minister, there are directors of bureaus, secretaries and councillors in all the departments, besides some officials who are peculiar to certain departments, such, for example, as inspectors of schools in the Department of Education. It will not be out of place to give a more detailed account of the organisation of the Department of Educa- tion here ; it will serve to show in a general way what are the matters engaging the attention of the depart- ment. The whole educational affairs of the Empire are under the department ; there are three bureaus, viz. : the Bureaus of Special Education, of Common Education, and of Technical Education. The following is the official programme of affairs under the bureaus : — The Special Education Bureau is in charge of affairs relating to (i) the Imperial Universities, and the Kdto Gakko, or " Higher schools " (colleges preparatory to the Imperial Universities); (3)the Semmon Gakko, or "Special colleges"; IV.] ORGANISATION 59 (3) miscellaneous schools of the same grade ; (4) students and teachers sent abroad by the Government; (5) libraries and museums; (6) the Astronomical Observatory, the Meteorological Observatory and stations ; ( 7 ) the encouragement of sciences and arts and their investiga- tions ; (8) the Geodetical Commission and the Earth- quake Investigation Commission ; (9) the Imperial Academy; (10) scientific, literary and other learned societies; (11) degrees and similar honorary titles; (12) examinations for licences for the practice of medicine and of pharmacy. The Common Education Bureau is in charge of affairs relating to (i) normal education ; (2) middle schools ; (3) elementary schools and kindergartens ; (4) girls' high schools ; (5) schools for the blind and for deaf-mutes; (6) miscellaneous schools of similar kind and grade ; (7) educational museums ; (8) popular education and educational societies ; (9) school attendance of children of school age. The Technical Education Bureau is in charge of affairs relating to (i) industrial (or technological) educa- tion ; (2) agricultural education ( including forestry, veterinary medicine, silk-worm rearing, etc.) ; (3) com- mercial education ; (4) public and private navigation schools ; (5) apprentices' schools and technical supple- mentary schools ; (6) miscellaneous schools of similar kind and grade ; (7) government subsidy to technical schools ; (8) the training of teachers for technical schools. Besides these three bureaus, there are five sections of the Minister's Cabinet, dealing respectively with official staff business, documents, accounts, text- books, buildings, school hygiene, etc. For the transac- tion of the business each bureau is presided over by a director; besides three directors of bureaus, there are one private secretary, two secretaries, three councillors, two text -book inspectors, five compilers and three architects. There are also five inspectors of schools [which have now (1908) been increased to eleven]. Attached to the department is the Higher Educational Council, composed of the following members : — 6o ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM [chap. Director of the Peers School ; Director of the Imperial Museum. Director of the Bureau of Local Administration of the Department of the Interior. An officer of the Army and one of the Navy Department, con- nected with education, nominated by respective Ministers. Directors of the Bureaus of the Department of Education, and two of the school inspectors nominated by the Minister. Directors of the Bureaus of Agriculture and of Commerce and Industry of the Department of Agriculture and Commerce. Presidents of the Imperial Universities, and one each of the Directors of different colleges (equivalent to Dean of Faculty) of the same ; nominated by the Minister. One of the Directors of the Higher Normal Schools, nominated by the Minister j Director of Female Higher Normal School; Director of Sapporo Agricultural College; one of the Directors of Commercial Colleges, nominated by the Minister ; one of the Directors of Technological Colleges, nominated by the Minister ; one of the Directors of Higher Schools, nominated by the Minister ; one of the Directors of Special Medical Colleges, nominated by the Minister ; Director of Tokyo Foreign Languages School ; Director of Tokyo Fine Arts School ; Director of Tokyo Academy of Music. Director of the Imperial Library. The master in charge of the Middle School attached to one of the Higher Normal Schools, nominated by the Minister; the master in charge of Girls' High School attached to the Female Higher Normal School. Director of the Navigation School. Two of the prefectural officials in charge of educational affairs, nominated by the Minister. Two Directors of Public Normal Schools, nominated by the Minister out of four co-opted candidates. Two Directors of Public Middle Schools, nominated by the Minister out of four co-opted candidates. One Director of Girls' Public High Schools, nominated by the Minister out of two co-opted candidates. Three Directors of Public Technical Schools, nominated by the Minister out of six co-opted candidates. Four Directors of private schools, nominated by the Minister. President of the Imperial Academy, and Presidents of two sections of the same. Those specially nominated by the Minister for their pre-eminent knowledge or experience not to exceed seven altogether. Temporary members may be nominated by the Minister for any particular subject under discussion. IV.] THE PRIVY COUNCIL 6i The President and Vice-President of the Council are nominated by the Minister. All the more important matters coming under the cognisance of the department are to be submitted to the Council and their decision, although not binding, as the Council is simply an advisory body, is almost invariably respected. Side by side with the Cabinet stands the Privy Council, which is the highest advisory body to the Emperor, and deliberates^ upon important matters of State, when called upon by him. Among matters upon which the Privy Council is consulted, are (i.) Articles of Imperial House Law, according to its provisions, (ii.) Projects of amendments of the articles of the Constitution, or of laws and ordinances subsidiary thereto, and disputes about the same, (iii.) Declaration of the state of siege according to Article 14 of the Constitution ; Imperial Ordinances of Articles 8 and 70 of the same, i.e., what are usually known as Emergency Ordinances, issued when the Diet is not sitting, and having the authority of laws, until declared void by the Diet, and Imperial Ordinances having punitive provisions, (iv.) Treaties and international agreements, (v.) Amendments of the organisation and regula- tions of the Privy Council itself. Besides these, which are expressly mentioned in the organisation of the Council, the Emperor has given a special order that the Council shall be always consulted on ordinances relating to the fundamentals of educa- tion, showing what importance His Majesty attaches to educational matters. It will be necessary for the understanding of the follow- ing lectures to know something of our system of local administration. For the purpose of local administration 62 ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM [chap. the Empire is divided into three Fu and forty-three Ken, exclusive of the Hokkaido (Yeso) and Taiwan (Formosa). The distinction between a fu and a ken is a matter of name only, except in very few points which need not be specialised here ; and the Hokkaido is, as far as educa- tion is concerned, very much like a prefecture, that for our present purpose we may treat them all as coming under one head. For the sake of convenience, then, I shall include them all under the name oi prefectures and call their chief officers prefects. The prefect, who is appointed by the Emperor on the recommendation of the Cabinet, as stated above, has to carry out, under the direction and supervision of the Ministers of State, the laws and ordinances, and to preserve .order and peace in his prefecture ; he has to supervise the action of sub-prefects and mayors within his jurisdiction; he has the power of issuing prefectural ordinances bind- ing within the prefecture. The prefectures, while thus forming divisions of the State local administration, are also at the same time the largest self-governing bodies. In each prefecture there is a prefectural assembly, composed of members elected by the people every four years. The number of members is thirty in a prefecture with a population under 700,000, increasing by one for every 50,000 above this up to 1,000,000, and by one for every 70,000 above 1,000,000. The qualification for elector is to be a kdmin of a shi, cko, or son (city, town, or village), within the prefecture, having paid for one year or more a direct state tax of three yen (six shillings) a year or more. For a member this amount must be ten yen (twenty shillings) or more. This assembly votes the revenue and expenditure of the prefecture every year, but without the power of initiative, which rests with the prefect, levying rates for the purpose within certain limits prescribed by laws and ordinances ; it receives reports of final accounts ; it disposes of the properties of the prefecture ; it may contract debts, subject to the approval of the Ministers of State ; and it has the right to state its views to the prefects and to the Ministers IV.] PREFECTS 63 of State concerning measures to be taken for the welfare of the prefecture. The decision of the assembly may, however, be sent back by the prefect for reconsideration, or in extreme cases, even be cancelled or reversed by order of a Minister of State. The assembly must be convoked by the prefect at least once a year. Besides the assembly, there is a prefectural council, consisting of the prefect, who acts as the chairman, two high govern- ment prefectural officials, and six or eight members elected by the assembly from among their members. This council takes part on behalf of the assembly in the administration of the affairs of the prefecture (as distinguished from the affairs of the State). The prefect thus has a double capacity, being, on the one hand, a State official charged with a part of State administration, and on the other, the head of the prefectural administra- tion and its representative. Each prefecture exclusive of the shi, or "cities," is subdivided into gun, which for convenience I shall translate sub-prefectures. K gun, or "sub-prefecture," is a prefecture on a small scale, having over it a guncko, or "sub-prefect," appointed by the Emperor on the recommendation of the Minister of Interior, and a sub-prefectural assembly composed of members elected by the people. The qualifications for an elector are the same as for the prefectural assembly, while property qualification for a member is five yen (ten shillings) direct State tax. The assembly has a similar power, and is subject to a similar control and supervision. By the side of sub-prefectures are the shi (cities or towns), and under sub-prefectures are the cho and son (villages). Cko and son have no difference that we need notice. They are usually referred to as cho-son, and as these names are not very hard to remember, I shall keep the names shi, cho, and son untranslated. The shi, cho, and son are corporate bodies with complete self - governing powers. All male subjects of the Empire, enjoying public rights, over twenty-five years of age and having a separate hearth, who have resided 64 ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM [chap. for more than two years previous within the shi, cho, or son, having discharged obligations due, and paid land or other direct State tax of over two ^«« (four shillings) a year, con- stitute the komin, or "public people," of the shi, cho, or son, and have the right and obligation of electing and being elected members of the assembly and other honorary officers of the corporations, unless expressly disqualified by laws. The assembly has the power of making necessary rules and regulations ; of deciding upon all undertakings of the corporation ; of voting the Budget and of approving or disapproving of expenditures not covered by the Budget ; of receiving the report of final accounts ; of fixing the rates and other dues ; of deal- ing with all matters concerned with the property of the corporation ; of contracting debts and other obligations, subject of course to the supervision of the State. In a shi the administration is carried on by a shi-cho, or "mayor," who is appointed for a term of six years, out of three candidates elected by the assembly, by the Minister of the Interior, subject to the approval of the Emperor ; by assistant mayors (three in Tokyo, two in Kyoto and Osaka, one in other sht) elected by the assembly. In a cho or son the administration is carried on by a cho -cho or son -cho (mayor), elected by the assembly for a term of four years, subject to the approval of the prefect, and an assistant mayor. The mayors of shi, cho, or son have also to discharge the administrative affairs of the State, as well as those of the prefecture, which are entrusted to them by laws and ordinances. It is to be noticed that in matters of general adminis- tration a shi is under the supervision, in the first instance, of the prefect, and in the second instance, of the Minister of the Interior; while cho and son are under the supervision, in the first instance, of the sub- prefect, in the second instance, of the prefect, and in the third instance, of the Minister of the Interior. This holds in educational matters, except that it is the Minister of Education, or the Ministers of Education and of the Interior conjointly, instead of the Minister IV.] EXCLUSION OF TEACHERS 65 of the Interior alone, who has the final supervision in this case. There is one thing which may be mentioned here specially as having connection with the subject of the present lectures. It is, that the teachers of elementary schools are excluded from being members of the assemblies, whether prefectural, sub-prefectural, shi, cho, or son. The same exception is also made of Shinto and Buddhist priests, police officers, State officials of the prefecture or sub-prefecture concerned, and salaried officers of the corporations concerned. CHAPTER V HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION DURING MEIJI ERA The Fifth Article of the Imperial Oath — Shoheiko, Kaiseijo, Igakujo — " Tribute- youths " — Princes and students sent abroad^First girls' English school- First normal school — Establishment of the Department of Education — First Education Code — Preamble — Principle of educational equality — Revolution in edtication similar to the abolition of bans — Closure of the ban schools — Necessary to break up the monopoly of samurais — Education necessary for individuals — Education a matter of State — Utilitarian spirit — Ueno Park — Nikko Temple — Nara Pagoda — Moral training not sufficiently emphasised — Education of women — '■'House" — 8 university districts — zj6 middle school districts — S3i7(>° elementary school districts — Superintendents, inspectors — Three grades of schools — Maintenance oj schools — Govern- ment subsidy — The scheme too ambitious to be carried out entirely — Increase in number of elementary schools, scholars, and teachers — Middle schools and normal schools— Discontent with the Code — New Code — Its chief provisions — Soon found insufficient — Another change in December 1880 — Change of 188s — Reform of 1886— Great improvement in the training of teachers — Ordinary and higher middle schools — Girls' high schools — General remarks. I PROCEED now to sketch briefly the history of education from the beginning of Meiji era to the present time. It was explicitly enunciated in the fifth article of the memorable Imperial Oath of 1868 that knowledge was to be sought for throughout the world. This is the keynote of the educational changes that followed. In the first year of Meiji (1868), already, while everything was still in an unsettled condition, and fighting between the Imperial forces and followers of Tokugawa was going on in some parts of the country, the schools established by the Shogunate in Tokyo, such as the Shoheiko, where Japanese and Chinese literatures were taught, the Kaiseijo, where European languages and 66 CHAP, v.] CHANGES AT THE RESTORATION 67 sciences were taught, and the Igakujo, where medicine in foreign style was taught, were reopened, all classes of people being admitted. Schools were also opened or reopened in Nagasaki, Kyoto and Osaka by the central Government. Foreign teachers were engaged for those schools where foreign studies were prosecuted. In 1870 the hans were ordered to send a certain number of their most promising youths to enter the Kaiseijo at their expense. They were called Koshinsei, or "tribute- youths," and it is to be noted that several of the most prominent men of the present day in different walks of life were among these tribute-youths. I may mention Baron [now Count] Komura, the present Minister for Foreign Affairs. Imperial princes were sent abroad to study, as also numerous students of samurai class. Early in 1872 a girl's school was opened in Tokyo, where, besides ordinary subjects of common education, English was taught by an American lady teacher. In June of the same year, the first normal school was opened in Tokyo, where methods of instruc- tion in elementary schools were taught by an American teacher through the medium of an interpreter. In order to illustrate the spirit of those days, I may mention in this connection that the Minister of Educa- tion gave instructions to the American teacher that he was not to think of adapting his teaching to the Japanese', but was to teach just as he would at home. In consequence of this, spelling books, wall diagrams, etc., were made entirely after an American model, the only difference being the substitution of the Japanese alphabet for the American. But although the central Government had itself established various schools and encouraged the hans to follow its example, there had been no organised national educational system. With the abolition of the hans, it became necessary to have an office in the central Government, that should be in charge of the educa- tional affairs of the whole country ; for this purpose, in September 187 1, the Department of Education was first 68 SKETCH OF EDUCATION [chap. established, and in September of the next year, the first Education Code was promulgated. It was accom- panied by a sort of Preamble, which is worth quoting in full. It runs as follows : — "The only way in which an individual can raise himself, manage his property and prosper in his business and so accomplish his career, is by cultivating his morals, improving his intellect, and becoming pro- ficient in arts ; the cultivation of morals, the improve- ment of intellect and proficiency in arts cannot be attained except through learning. This is the reason, why schools are established ; from language, writing and reckoning for daily use, to knowledge necessary for officials, farmers, merchants, and artisans and crafts- men of every description, to laws, politics, astronomy, medicine, etc., in fact for all vocations of men, there is none that is not to be acquired by learning. Every man only after learning diligently each according to his capacity will be able to increase his property and prosper in his business. Hence knowledge may be regarded as the capital for raising one's self ; who then can do without learning? Those who wander about homeless, suffer from hunger, break up their houses, and ruin themselves, come to such pass, because they are without learning. Although long time has elapsed since there have been schools, through their being improperly administered, people have made a mistake of thinking that learning is a matter for those above samurai rank, and as for farmers, artisans and merchants, as also for women, they have no idea of what learning is and think of it as something beyond their sphere. Even among those above samurai rank, it is said that their learning is for the sake of the State, and not realising that it is the basis on which they are to raise themselves, they run into mere sentence-reciting and phrase-making, and fall into ways of empty theorising and vain talking, so that although their discourses sound profound, they cannot be carried out in practice. All this is due to a long continued bad custom, and this is why enlightenment is not more widely propagated, and so many people fall into poverty, bankruptcy and loss of the house. Men must, therefore, acquire learn- ing, and in learning must not mistake its true purport. v.] THE EDUCATION CODE 69 Now a system of education has been determined at the Department of Education, and various regulations will be published in due course. It is intended that hence- forth universally (without any distinction of class or sex), in a village there shall be no house without learn- ing, and in a house no individual without learning. Fathers or elder brothers must take note of this intention, and bringing up their children or younger brothers with warm feeling of love must not fail to let them acquire learning. (As for higher learning, that depends upon the capacity of individuals, but it shall be regarded as a neglect of duty on the part of fathers or elder brothers, should they fail to send young children to elementary schools without distinction of sex.) "Owing to the long continued bad habit of regard- ing learning as a matter for those above samurai rank, there are not a few who consider that since their learn- ing is for the sake of the State, they need not learn unless they are supplied by the State not only with expenses necessary for study, but also with food and clothing, and so by neglecting learning spoil their whole life. This is a great mistake ; henceforth such vicious custom must be done away with, and people in general leaving all else aside must make every effort to apply themselves to learning." Before passing on to the contents of the Code itself, I have some remarks to make with respect to this Preamble. I have translated it in full and as literally as possible, as it explains the principle of the new educational system, wherein lies the importance of the Code, rather than in the system itself. This principle may be called "the principle of educational equality" ; it was that education was to be universal ; its advantages were not to be monopolised by any one class ; every- body must receive elementary education at least, with- out distinction of class, occupation, or sex, and as for higher education, equal opportunity was to be given to all according to their capacity. In fact, the new system was to effect a revolution in education, something equivalent to the abolition of the hans in the political world, a break away from the old feudal conditions; 70 SKETCH OF EDUCATION [chap. and with this view a most drastic measure was adopted with respect to the carrying out of thei Code. With the abolition of the hans, the maintenance and control of schools established and maintained by them had devolved upon the central Government ; now at the same time as the promulgation of the new Code, all these han schools were abolished, except those in which foreign teachers were engaged. The reason given was that those schools did not fall in with the new system, and must be replaced by schools established according to the new scheme. Although hans had been abolished the year before and samurais had legally lost most of their privileges, yet in practice they held themselves and were looked upon by others as a superior class, and continued to monopolise to a large extent the professions which they alone had hitherto been entitled to pursue, namely, civil and military services and learning. They also practically monopolised the advantages of education in the han schools, and it was no doubt felt by leading men of those days that it would be impossible to attain the object of the new Code and carry out the principle of equal educational opportunities for all, with anything short of the entire reconstruction of schools : and perhaps they were right. Some of the han schools were, how- ever, continued by former daimyos, who came forward and supported out of their private means those schools which they had formerly established and maintained for their retainers as lords of hans. There is another point which is insisted upon in this Preamble, namely, that education is to be obtained by each individual for his own sake, as necessary for maintaining or bettering his position. This must not be regarded as meaning that education was not a matter of the State ; on the contrary, the State interfered to the point of abolishing old schools and making very minute regulations for the new schools and for the management of educational matters ; propagation of education was felt to be an urgent State necessity. Rather was it to disabuse people, more especially samurais, from the v.] UTILITARIANISM THREATENED 71 mistaken idea of relying upon the State not merely for providing educational faculties, but also for pro- viding them with food and clothing while receiving education. Thus, while stipends given to students from hans both at home and abroad were stopped, at the same time regulations for granting stipends to poor and meritorious scholars of all classes and for sending students abroad were embodied in the new educational system. Another point which must be noticed is that the spirit of the new system seems to be essentially utilitarian and no sufficient emphasis to have been laid on moral education and culture. Utilitarianism (I use the term in a narrow sense) was indeed to a certain extent the spirit of those days. I have been told that at one time it was decided to cut down fine trees of Ueno Park in Tokyo for timber and lay out the grounds in tea and mulberry gardens, and that this act of vandalism was only prevented by the remonstrances of the Italian Minister. It is said that the fine Cryptomeria avenue of many miles, leading to the Nikko Temple, was saved by the British Minister in the same way. I have also heard that the beautiful five-storied pagoda of Kofukuji Temple in Nara, more than a thousand years old, was sold for some two hundred yen to a private individual, who proposed to burn it down as the cheapest way of getting at the gold used as ornaments, and was only prevented by the remonstrances of Nara people against the danger of fire spreading to other buildings. These stories well illustrate the spirit of the time. That sufficient emphasis was not laid on moral training and culture is true ; but this is not because moral teaching was considered unimportant, but is due to the fact, that formerly, as I have explained, there was no distinct line drawn between moral training and intellectual teaching, the two being combined together ; it was only later on that the necessity of distinct moral teaching under altered conditions of things came to be clearly perceived. 72 SKETCH OF EDUCATION [chap. Something of the position and education of women in former days may be gathered from the fact that women's education is specially insisted upon here; this and the fact that the first girls' school for teach- ing the English language was opened in the beginning of this year is noteworthy as showing the spirit of the new Government with respect to female education. The words "fathers or elder brothers" and repetition of the word "house" may have struck you; this has reference to the family or house system in which the head of a house was responsible for the bringing up of the members of the house, the head being usually father or elder brother (women did not have legal status till later on) ; I shall speak more in detail about the house system afterwards (chap, xviii.). In the present Imperial Ordinance on elementary education, the word hogoska, or "protector," is used, but even now the above words are used in common parlance to designate parents or persons in loco parentis. Let us now return to the Code of Education itself and briefly mention some of its chief provisions. According to the Code, the whole country, exclusive of the Hokkaido and Loochoo Islands, was to be divided into 8 university districts, in each of which there was to be a university : each university district was to be divided into 32 middle school districts, in each of which there was to be a middle (or secondary) school, so that there would be altogether 256 middle schools in the whole country : each middle school district was to be divided into 210 elementary school districts, each with an elementary school, so that there would be 53,760 elementary schools in all. Details of division into middle school districts and elementary school districts were left to the discretion of the prefects. In each middle school district there were to be from 10 to 12 or 13 education superintendents, appointed by prefects from among the more prominent and popular residents of the districts ; each superintendent was to be in charge of from 20 to 30 elementary v.] CLASSIFICATION OF SCHOOLS 73 school districts, their duties being to encourage the school attendance of children of school age, to take proper measures for the establishment, maintenance, and protection of schools, each within his own district, and also to take counsel together about what con- cerned the whole middle school district. In each university district there was to be a Government inspector's office, with whom local authorities were to consult on matters of education. There were three grades of schools, the Elementary, the Middle, and the University. Among schools of the elementary grade, were "ordinary" or regular schools, the girls' schools (or schools with special provisions for teaching of sewing), village schools (with some subjects omitted, usually night schools), poor (or charity) schools, private schools (kept by individuals with a licence) and infant schools (_or kindergartens). The regular school course was to extend from six to fourteen years of age, and was divided into two courses of four years each. The middle school course extended over six years, namely, from fourteen to twenty years of age, and was also divided into two courses of three years each. It was allowed to schools to make some departure from the regular course, all such schools being called irregular middle schools. Among schools of this grade were included supplementary (or continuation) schools, foreign languages schools, and technical schools, which were to be established in various parts of the country for teaching agriculture, commerce, and arts and crafts. Besides these, there were to be normal schools for training of elementary school teachers. There were, also regulations about the subjects to be taught and their standard, about qualifications for teachers and about examinations, about private schools, about students to be sent abroad, etc. As to the main- tenance of schools, it was specially pointed out that "inasmuch as education was the basis on which people were to raise themselves, they must bear the 74 SKETCH OF EDUCATION [chap. expenses of education themselves, especially as it would be impossible for the Government to supply all, it being intended that henceforth everybody was to receive education ; but as it was an urgent necessity of the present day to open the intellect of the people, it could not be left to the people entirely, and therefore Government would give a subsidy, but at the same time the old abuse must be abolished. Moreover, as the Government subsidy is given with the object of making people receive educa- tion as widely as possible, there must be no partiality in giving help, such, for instance, as enabling samurais to attend schools, while not allowing farmers, merchants, or artisans to do so, or supplying the rich with food and clothing while the poor were not even able to attend schools, or spending hundreds on one man and thereby preventing many from receiving education." The Government subsidy for education could not be spent except for the following objects : — (i) Salaries of, and expenses connected with, foreign teachers, " it being necessary in order to advance knowledge and arts to employ foreign teachers and yet impossible to make the scholars defray the whole cost " ; (2) the cost of buildings, and books and instruments in universities ; (3) the same in middle schools ; (4) bursaries given to poor and meritorious scholars and to students sent abroad by the Government ; (5) subsidy given to school districts for the maintenance of elementary schools. The range of tuition fees was also fixed for different grades of schools which could also be modified according to the means of individuals. It was expressly stated that each district was responsible for the establishment and maintenance of its school, and that the subsidies were given to respective districts ; each district could for this purpose impose rates yearly, or receive contribu- tions from the rich or spend funds which it might happen to possess. The grand scheme of educational organisation set forth in this first Education Code could not, unfortun- ately, be carried out in its entirety. The truth is that it was too ambitious a scheme to be carried out v.] FOUNDATION OF TOKYO UNIVERSITY 75 practically and in such a hurry as its authors contem- plated ; it is said to have been modelled on French and Dutch systems, and did not take into sufficient consideration the actual condition of the country, nor the lack of men and means to execute it. Thus it was not until 1877 that the first university was established in Tokyo. Many other provisions could not be carried out for various reasons ; for instance, 53,760 elementary schools would be about i to every 600 of the entire population, and it was soon found that such an elementary school district was too small to support a school, so that it was necessary to allow several districts to combine for the purpose. However, great encourage- ment was given to the establishment of elementary schools, for we find that in 1873 the amount of annual Government subsidy to be given for this purpose (No. 5 of the above) was declared to be over 293,000 yen, or 90 yen for every 10,000 inhabitants. This sum was increased to 700,000 yen a year in 1875 and 1876; in 1877 this sum was reduced, in consequence of general retrenchment after the great Satsuma rebellion, to 425,000 yen ; also several Government normal and English language schools were abolished, but per contra 50,000 yen subsidy was given to local or pre- fectural normal schools. This year saw also the foundation of Tokyo University, the old Kaiseijo and Medical School being so incorporated, the faculties being Law, Medicine, Literature and Philosophy, and Science. The next year saw the establishment of the school for the training of teachers of gymnastics, which existed until 1885. The number of elementary schools had already, in 1873, the year after the promulgation of the Education Code, reached 12,558 (7,995 public, 4,563 private), with 1, 145,802 pupils, of whom 879, 170 were boys and 266,632 girls. The next year (1874) the number had increased to 20,017 (of which 17,696 were public and 2,321 private), with 1,714,768 pupils (1,297,240 boys and 417,528 girls). In 1879 the number of schools had again increased to 76 SKETCH OF EDUCATION [chap. 28,025 (26,710 public and 1,315 private), with 2,315,070 pupils (1,717,422 boys and 597,648 girls) and 71,046 teachers (68,696 male and 2,350 female). In 1873, the percentage of school attendance was about 28 per cent. ; it had increased to 41 per cent, in 1879 (boys 58 per cent., girls 23 per cent.). The middle schools had likewise increased from 20 (3 public and 17 private), with 1,767 pupils (1,747 boys and 20 girls) and 125 teachers in 1873, to 784 (107 public and 677 private), with 40,029 pupils (37,281 boys and 2,748 girls) and 1,743 teachers (of whom 52 were female). The number of normal schools in 1874 was 53, of which 7 were governmental and the rest public, with 4,998 male and 74 female pupils and 235 teachers. In 1879, this had increased to 89, of which 2 were governmental and 87 public, 66 for men, 15 for women, and 8 for both, with 6,726 pupils (5,942 men and 784 women) and 693 teachers (644 male and 49 female). The number of graduates in the latter year was 1,991 (1,919 men and 72 women) ; also 37 of the normal schools had elementary schools attached. The subsidy given to the public or prefectural normal schools was 70,000 yen in 1879. In 1875 a course for the training of teachers of middle schools was initiated in the Government Normal School in Tokyo. These numbers are sufficient to show how earnest the authorities were in their endeavours to promote the elementary and secondary education, and how eager the people were to procure the advantages of education for their children. But it was in many cases hard to find ways and means for the establishment and main- tenance of schools, and too often local authorities and superintendents in their zeal overstepped the bounds of legitimate encouragement or bearable pressure, and sometimes used methods of coercion, which might have been submitted to in the first years of Meiji, but could scarcely be tolerated when men began to talk about people's rights and to agitate about national assembly, and prefectural assemblies were summoned. Some were v.] PROMULGATION OF NEW CODE 77 of the opinion that the Government interfered too much in education as in other matters, and that people should be left more to themselves. Some insisted that, like the Bureau of Education in Washington, our Department of Education should content itself with collecting statistics and inspection of schools. These were the effects of the writings of Rousseau, Montesquieu, Mill, Spencer, etc., which were read in foreign languages schools, just as Chinese classics were read in days before Meiji. More- over, many of the provisions of the Code having been taken bodily from foreign regulations were found to be unsuitable for Japan; neither was there any allowance made for difference of conditions in different parts of the country. The result was that many of the regulations were not, indeed could not, be carried out. So, in September 1879, the old Code was abolished and a new Code promulgated. According to this, the subjects taught in elementary schools were much simplified ; they were reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, history, and morals ; to which might be added drawing, singing, and exercises (gymnastics), also physics, physiology and natural history, with sewing for girls. Regulations for teaching in various schools were all determined in the old Code, but in the new they were omitted, although those for public elementary schools had to be sanctioned by the Minister of Education, while private elementary schools had merely to report to prefects. The school age was from six to fourteen as before, but whereas, in the old, attendance was required during the whole period, in the new, children were only required to receive instruction for at least sixteen months during this period. Arbitrary school districts were abolished, and it was left to each cho or son, or to a union of two or more cho-son, to establish schools within its bounds ; the system of a common teacher going round villages which could not afford to maintain an independent school was initiated ; where there was a private school, it might serve in lieu of the public school. Instead of superintendents 78 SKETCH OF EDUCATION [chap. appointed by the prefects, there were to be school com- mittees elected by the people. As to the maintenance of elementary schools, they might be supported wholly or partly out of local taxes voted by prefectural assemblies, or out of cho-son rates. Such were the chief provisions of the new Code ; it was evidently meant to correct mistakes made in the old, to impose one system even to details on the whole country. But it was soon found that people in general were not yet sufficiently alive to the importance of elementary education, and it was greatly feared that unless some measures were taken at once, popular educa- tion, which had advanced with such rapid strides, would retrograde, and all be thrown into confusion. Conse- quently, in December 1880, some alterations were made in the articles of the Code. The subjects to be taught in elementary schools were still further simplified by allow- ing geography and history to be omitted according to circumstances ; morals, which was last in the list of subjects, was now put first. This, as well as the fact that the moral character of the teacher is first mentioned among necessary qualifications, is significant, as show- ing that it was found necessary to lay emphasis on the teaching of morals in schools. Regulations for elementary schools were to be framed by prefects in accordance with general instructions issued by the Minister of Education, taking into account particular conditions of the prefectures concerned, and to receive the sanction of the Minister. The general instructions issued in accordance with this provision were, however, pretty minute, so that again uniformity was introduced into elementary education ; there was, however, this difference, that whereas in the first Code, in accordance with the principle that every man, without distinction of class, was to have equal educational advantages and equal opportunities to get on in life, it was deemed neces- sary to give every one such education in an elementary school as would have been given to samurais or those who would go on to higher education, it was now seen v.] MUSIC TEACHING INTRODUCED 79 that as far as elementary education went, teaching ought to be simple and practical for everybody. Parents and guardians (note the change from "fathers and elder brothers " of earlier days) were placed under an obligation to make children attend school for at least sixteen weeks every year during the school age until they shall have finished the first three years' course, and even after that, unless they could give satisfactory reason for not doing so. Government subsidies hitherto given for the main- tenance of elementary schools and normal schools were stopped. Members of school committees were to be appointed by prefects out of double or treble the number of candidates elected by the people. Agricultural, industrial, and commercial schools are now first specially mentioned, although a few existed before this time. This amended second Code was in operation until 1886, with some amendments in 1885. We may say that during this period the whole educational organisa- tion was gradually brought into order, and practical teaching was very much improved, owing chiefly to better taught and better trained teachers. Graduates from the Government Gymnastic Training School were sent to normal schools, and thus gymnastics were intro- duced into elementary schools. A somewhat similar thing happened with singing. A music master was invited from America, and in collaboration with Japanese musicians a system of musical teaching suitable for Japanese children was elaborated, and a training school for teachers of music (principally vocal) was established by the Government in 1880, so that singing in foreign style began to be taught in some schools about 1884. In 1885, the Government having fixed a limit to the amount of local rates that might be levied on land in addition to the State land tax, and in view of the financial condition of the country, certain changes were made necessary. The school committees which were not doing much work in most localities were abolished, and it was made a rule to levy tuition fees, which had hitherto been left to the choice of each district, and in 8o SKETCH OF EDUCATION [chap. poorer districts, where tuition fees could not be levied, it was allowed to maintain in place of a school proper what was called a "schoolroom." Towards the end of 1885 a great change was intro- duced in the form of the central Government, the Dajogwan being replaced by the present Cabinet system, and many reforms were made in general administration. Viscount Mori, who was Minister of Education in the first Cabinet (with Count [now Prince] Ito as Minister President), introduced many changes in the educational system. Instead of one Education Code, several Imperial Ordinances relating respectively to schools in general, elementary schools, normal schools, middle schools, and the Imperial University, were promulgated early in the following year. According to the Elementary School Ordinance of 1886, the elementary school course was divided into two, the ordinary and the higher, each of four years. Parents and guardians were placed under the obliga- tion to make children receive education, at least till they have finished the ordinary course. The division of school districts, rules for enforcing school attendance, regulations of teachers' salaries, etc, were to be deter- mined by prefects according to circumstances in respec- tive prefectures. Tuition fees were to be levied for school maintenance, only the deficit being made up from the rates. It was, however, allowed to establish special schools for children of the poor who could not pay fees, and to maintain them out of rates. The course for such schools was to extend over not more than three years, instruction to be given daily for not less than two nor more than three hours. Salaries of teachers for these schools could be subsidised from prefectures. The subjects taught in elementary schools were about the same as before, viz,, in the ordinary course — morals, reading, composition, writing, arithmetic, and gymnastics, to which might be added drawing and singing ; and in the higher course — morals, reading, composition, writing, arithmetic, geography, history, v.] VISCOUNT MORI'S REFORMS 8i science, drawing, singing, gymnastics, and (for girls) sewing, to which might be added one or more of English language, agriculture, commerce, and manual work. A supplementary course of six to twelve months could be added. Such were the principal provisions of the new Ordinance. In some respects it was a step backwards, necessitated, no doubt, by the financial con- dition of the country. But Viscount Mori, seeing that it was of the utmost importance for the national education to obtain better trained teachers, introduced many reforms into the normal education. He initiated the system which with some modifications is in force to-day. Great stress was laid on discipline and moral and physical training, and he issued repeated detailed instructions to prefects and directors of normal schools. Semi-military discipline was introduced into normal schools with this object, a retired general being appointed to the post of the director of the Government Higher Normal School in Tokyo, designed to train teachers for prefectural normal schools, of which there was to be one in each prefecture. All students were supported by the Government in the higher normal, and by prefectures in prefectural normal schools. They were under obligation to serve as teachers for several years after their graduation. There is no doubt that great improvement in elementary teaching followed these changes, not merely in the form but in the spirit of the training of teachers. The system of inspection of schools was revived, five inspectors being appointed in the Department of Educa- tion. They travelled about the country, and became the medium of communication between the department and the prefectures. Middle schools were divided into two classes — the Ordinary and the Higher. Ordinary middle schools were confined to one in each prefecture. This was a somewhat radical measure necessitating the closure of several existing schools. Middle schools were mostly very imperfect, and as the country was deemed not F 82 SKETCH OF EDUCATION [chap. to be in a financial state justifying outlay to bring all those schools into proper condition, it was considered better that each prefecture should confine itself to one school and improve that one, rather than maintain many imperfect schools. The higher middle schools were to admit the graduates of ordinary middle schools, and give them, on the one hand, such liberal education as to make them better fitted to enter practical life ; and on the other, to prepare them to enter the Imperial University. It was found that everybody wanted to take the preparatory course, and the general liberal culture course never came into existence. There were five higher middle schools established throughout the Empire, some supported entirely by the central Govern- ment, some partly by the central Government, and partly by contributions from several prefectures. This did not work very well, and was changed soon after, the Government supporting all five higher middle schools. To these higher middle schools were at first attached the three upper years of the ordinary middle school course as preparatory to the regular course, and it was found that the graduates of prefectural middle schools could with difficulty enter the lowest class of the pre- paratory course^ so low was the standard of teaching in the ordinary middle schools. Gradually, however, as , the prefectural middle schools improved in their teach- ing, these preparatory years were cut off, and graduates entered the regular course (preparatory to the university) at once. The Ordinance for middle schools was amended in 1891 and again in 1899. By the former amendment the limit of one to each prefecture was removed, and the number of middle schools has since rapidly increased. In 1890 the Elementary School Ordinance was revised and again in 1900. In 1897 the Normal School Ordinance was revised ; in addition to these changes, improvements were made in the status of teachers. I shall not enter into these changes now, but will give in subsequent lectures an account of the system now in force. v.] SOURCES OF INSPIRATION 83 Until 1899 Girls' High Schools were mentioned in the Middle School Ordinance as "a sort of middle school," but in that year a separate Imperial Ordinance on Girls' High Schools was issued, thus recognising them as of sufficient importance to be treated separately. Of higher education and technical education I shall treat on another occasion. Having thus brought the brief account of changes in the educational organisation during the Meiji era to a close, let me make a few general remarks. The early days of Meiji were days of radical changes, and being not yet very far removed from the feudal days, when the officials were all-powerful, many things were possible which could not be attempted in later times. The statesmen of those days, animated by pure spirit of patriotism, saw the importance of giving education to the people, but they could not know very well how to set about it, nor even if they did, had they instruments, personal or material, to work with ; they worked accord- ing to their best lights and with what instruments they could find. So they tried at first to introduce one uniform system throughout the whole country, and that system copied bodily from a foreign system, and they or their agents sometimes had recourse to methods not com- patible with the new era. Notwithstanding this, they accomplished the great task of initiating a new system of education. And in educational matters, as in others, we were eager to learn ; foreign teachers were engaged ; officials and students were sent abroad to study systems and methods of education in Europe and America ; books, pamphlets, papers, and reports were carefully studied and discussed. Many experiments were tried, and many were failures and mistakes, but we learned from them and profited by them. Gradually came a better and truer perception of the educational needs and possibilities of our country, and of educational methods adapted to our countrymen. And we are still learning and investigating ; there are many questions which we have to solve, many improvements which we 84 SKETCH OF EDUCATION [chap. v. have to attempt ; we shall not take any one country as our model, we have tried and we are trying to find out good and bad points of different systems, that we might know how to introduce and adapt the good to our use and avoid the bad. CHAPTER VI GENERAL EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM Education entirely under State control — The educational system determined, not by laws, but by Imperial Ordinances — Shi, cho, son, school union, school district — Elementary school — Kindergarten — Ordinary elementary course — Higher elementary course — Four years' compulsory education not sufficient — Middle school — Higher school — Imperial University — Special college — Technical special college — Higher normal school — Military, naval, and nautical schools — Technical schools — Girls' high school — Female higher normal school — Normal school — Three grades of the elementary, the secondary, and the higher — Governmental schools and colleges — Prefectural schools and colleges — Sub-prefectural schools — Shi, cho, son, or union or district schools — Private schools and colleges — Three divisions of the governmental, the public, and the private. Education is considered one of the most important functions of the State, and is therefore entirely under the State control ; the administration of affairs connected with it is under the Minister of Education, who directly or indirectly is in charge of the whole educational system of the Empire. It is to be observed that the educational system of Japan is not determined by laws, which have to pass through the Diet, but by Imperial Ordinances, which are issued by the Emperor on the recommendation of the Cabinet after being submitted to the Privy Council. There are, however, certain matters connected with educational administration which have to be sanctioned by laws. The law called "The General Regulations for Local Educational Matters " contains provisions relating to the formation of school union of cho and souy the division of a shi, cho, son, or a school union into school districts, such unions and districts having the same rights and obligations in educational matters as 85 86 GENERAL EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM [ch^p. ski, cho or, son ; appointment of school committee in pre- fectures, sub - prefectures, shi, cho, son unions and districts ; formation of school funds, etc. There are also laws relating to finances of education, to pensions of teachers, etc. But, as I have stated above, the main points of the educational system itself are determined by the Imperial Ordinances, of which the principal ones are those on Elementary Schools, on Normal Education, on Middle Schools, on Girls' High Schools, on Semmon Gakkd, or " Special Colleges," on Technical Schools and Colleges, on Koto Gakkd, or " Higher Schools," preparatory to the Imperial University, on Imperial Universities, and on Private Schools. Let us then begin with a brief outline of the whole educational system as determined by these ordinances. At the base of the system lies the Elementary School. Below this there is the Kindergarten ; this, however, does not form a part of the national educational system. The kindergarten is still a question with us, some educationalists contending that it is prejudicial to the development of children, while others contend that there can be no such prejudice if it is properly conducted ; we are all agreed in this, that there should be no systematic teaching, not even of letters of the alphabet, in the kindergartens, that children should simply be made to play with gifts and take part in games, to sing songs, etc. ; we are careful that the rooms in a kindergarten shall not be called class rooms but nursery rooms, that those in charge of children shall not be called teachers but hobo, which may perhaps be best translated as nurse-mothers ; with all this care, too often kindergartens are made into a sort of elementary schools, the fault partly lying with the parents, many of whom demand some such teaching. Coming back to elementary schools, the course is divided into Ordinary and Higher. The ordinary elementary school course extends over four years, and is compulsory for all children who have completed their vi.] DURATION OF TERM 87 sixth year. A supplementary course of not more than two years may be provided for those children whose parents cannot afford to let them go on to the higher elementary schools, but at the same time are desirous of giving them a little further education. After passing through four years' ordinary elementary course, a child enters the higher elementary school, which may have a course extending over two, three, or four years. Here also a supplementary course of not more than two years may be provided for those whose regular education stops at this stage. In elementary schools boys and girls are usually taught in the same schools, and often in the same classes, there being only a slight difference in the subjects taught and in the manner of teaching them. But beyond this the education of a boy and a girl becomes distinct, both as regards the schools and subjects. There has been for a long time a consensus of opinion among educationalists that four years of com- pulsory education is not sufficient, and that it would be desirable to lengthen the term by two years to begin with, and finally make it eight years altogether ; the difficulty in the way is whether shi, chd, and son can bear the additional burden that would be laid upon them by this change, and whether poor parents can afford to send their children to school so long. The present Minister of Education seems to be of the opinion that time has now come when this must be done, for he submitted to the Higher Educational Council in December (1906) a scheme for the lengthening of the period of compulsory education to six years. As the Council was almost unanimous in favour of the proposal, we shall, in a not distant future, have an ordinary elementary course of six years compulsory and free. [The change was actually made in 1907; from April 1908, the ordinary elementary course will be six years, and higher elementary course two years, which may be lengthened to three years.] After two years in the higher elementary school [after finishing six years of the ordinary elementary 88 GENERAL EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM [chap* course, according to the new regulations], a boy may enter a Middle School. A middle school has a course of five years, and may have a supplementary course of not more than one year. Thus a boy who has gone on without any interruption or break in his course of educa- tion will have finished his middle school education, which is the highest general education, before he is eighteen years old. After passing through the middle school, a boy intending to pursue the university course enters what we call "Higher School," where there is a preparatory course, or rather several preparatory courses, for the university, extending over three years. After finishing the preparatory course, he enters one of the Colleges of the Imperial Universities, having an under- graduate course of three or four years and a post- graduate course. Or instead of going on to the Imperial University, a boy, after he has finished the middle school, may enter at once a Special College or a Technical Special College. This "college" must be carefully distinguished from the "colleges" of the Imperial University: the two have a quite different designation in Japanese, although it has been customary to translate both as "colleges." Or he may enter the Higher Normal School. There are besides a few schools and colleges, outside the jurisdiction of the Department of Education, to which the entrance qualification is the diploma of graduation of a middle school. I may mention the Military and Naval Schools, Nautical School for the training of officers of the merchant marine, etc. Instead, however, of leaving the higher elementary school after two years and entering a middle school, a boy may, after finishing a four years' course in a higher elementary school, enter one of the Technical Schools, i.e., schools for teaching industrial arts (manufactures, engineering, and technical arts), agri- culture, commerce, navigation, etc. The course in VI.] GIRLS' SCHOOLS 89 these schools is generally of three years, so that a boy will finish his education about the same time as the boy who has taken middle school course will have finished it. A boy may also enter these schools after two years at a middle school, under certain conditions. There are also some technical schools of a lower grade to which a boy, having finished the ordinary elementary course, may be admitted. Moreover, technical supplementary courses may be provided, instead of general supplementary courses, for boys who have finished the ordinary or the higher elementary course. So much for boys. A girl's education runs in a somewhat parallel line. Thus, after two years in a higher elementary school, she may enter a Girls' High School. The usual length of a girls' high school course is four years, but it may be lengthened by one year : formerly it could be shortened by a year, but this was abrogated in 1907. A supplementary course of not more than two years may be added. In the Girls' High School, attached to the Female Higher Normal School in Tokyo, the course is five years, with a supplementary "special" course of three years. There is no provision made either by the central or local Government for girls desiring to receive a higher education than the supplementary course of the Girls' High School, except the Female Higher Normal School, just mentioned, and the Musical Academy. But several colleges have been established by private individuals. There are, besides, technical or industrial schools for girls of different grades, just as for boys. Normal Schools both for men and women form a separate class by themselves. The graduates of normal schools are eligible for entrance into the higher normal schools equally with the graduates of middle schools and girls' high schools. We have thus several grades of schools and colleges. 90 GENERAL EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM [chap. First, we have elementary schools with kindergartens and other schools of the same grade, including some technical schools. Next, we have the secondary schools, including middle schools, girls' high schools, technical schools, and normal schools. Above this we have special colleges, including colleges for law, medicine, science, literature, fine arts, etc., and technical special colleges for technology and engineering, agriculture and forestry, marine products, commerce, etc., besides higher normal schools and higher schools preparatory to the Imperial Universities, and, lastly, we have the Imperial Universities. We may roughly distinguish them into three, the elementary, the secondary, and the higher. We may also classify schools and colleges according to their establishment and maintenance as follows : — First, we have those established and maintained by the central Government. Most of these are under the Minister of Education, but there are a few exceptions ; of these, the principal are those belonging to the Army and the Navy, for the education of officers. There are two belonging to the Department of Communications, one for the education of the officers of the merchant marine, and the other for that of post and telegraph officials, and an institution for the study of marine products, belonging to the Department of Agriculture and Commerce. Those belonging to the Department of Education are: — Two Imperial universities (Tokyo and Kyoto); two higher normal schools (Tokyo and Hiroshima), and a female higher normal school (Tokyo) ; seven higher schools preparatory to the universities (Tokyo, Sendai, Kydto, Kanazawa, Kumamoto, Okayama, and Kagoshima) ; five colleges of medicine (Chiba, Sendai, Okayama, Kanazawa, and Nagasaki) ; a foreign languages school (Tokyo) ; an academy of fine arts (Tokyo) ; an academy of music (Tokyo) ; two colleges of agriculture and forestry (Morioka) ; four colleges of VI.] PREFECTURAL SCHOOLS 91 commerce (Tokyo, Kobe, Nagasaki, and Yamaguchi) ; six colleges of technology and engineering (Tokyo, Osaka, Kyoto, Nagoya, Kumamoto, and Sendai) ; a school for blind and deaf mutes (Tokyo) ; some of which have several subsidiary or attached schools. [There are besides now (1908) in course of establish- ment two Imperial universities (Kyushu and North- Eastern), a female higher normal school (Nara), a higher school (Nagoya), a college of medicine (Niigata), a college of agriculture and forestry (Nagoshima), a college of commerce (Otaru), three colleges of technology and engineering (Yonezawa, Nagano, and Akita). The school for blind and deaf mutes will be separated into two independent institutions. The College of Agriculture and Forestry in Sapporo now forms a part of the North-Eastern University.] Secondly, there are schools and colleges established and maintained by prefectures, among which are three medical colleges (Kyoto, Osaka, and Nagoya), normal schools, middle schools, girls' high schools, technical schools, etc. Thirdly, there are those established and maintained by sub-prefectures, the number of which is not very large. Fourthly, there are those established and maintained by shi, cho, son, or their unions or districts. These are mostly elementary schools and technical schools of the elementary grade, with a few middle schools, girls' high schools, technical schools of the secondary grade, etc. Osaka shi maintains a college of commerce. Fifthly, we have those established by private individuals or legal persons. These are of all kinds and grades, from so-called universities (officially classed as special colleges) to elementary schools. The second, third, and fourth may be classed together as public. The first are sometimes distin- guished into Mombusho (Department of Education) schools and others. We thus laave three great divisions of the governmental, the public, and the private, ranking according to establishment and maintenance. CHAPTER VII GENERAL SUPERVISION, CONTROL, AND INSPECTION Govsmment Schools under the direct control of the Minister— Their directors aTid teachers are civil officials — Guarantee of position of civil officials — Disciplinary measures — Pension law — Class and salary — Authority of directors — Public schools ; prefectural schools under immediate control of prefects — Sub-prefectural, shi, cho, and son schools under sub-prefects and mayors — Treatment of their directors and teachers — Salaries and qualifica- tions — Establishment of public schools — School inspection — Historical— The present condition. The division of schools and colleges into the govern- mental, the public, and the private, mentioned in the last chapter, holds likewise with respect to their super- vision and control. The Government schools are under the direct control of the Minister of Education (I speak of the Mombusho schools and colleges ; similar remarks hold good with respect to those of other departments) ; major matters are determined by him, while minor matters are left to the directors, subject in certain cases to his approval. The directors and the staff are Government officials, and are of chokunin, sonin, or hannin class ; their numbers and qualifications are determined by Imperial Ordin- ances. They are, like all State civil officials, guaranteed their position according to an Imperial Ordinance, and subjected to the same discipline ; they have a right to receive pensions according to the pension law, and they receive the same honorary treatment at the Imperial Court. The guarantee of the position of State civil officials is as follows : — An official cannot be made to lose his office except as the consequence of a criminal sentence 92 CHAP. VII.] DISCIPLINARY MEASURES 93 of a court of justice, or of a decision of the Oificial Dis- ciplinary Court, or under the following circumstances : — (i.) Being unable to perform his duties owing to bodily- injury, illness, or debility of body or mind ; (ii.) giving in his resignation on account of inability to perform his duties owing to personal injury or illness, or for his own convenience ; (iii.) redundancy due to a change in the organisation of the office or institution ; (iv.) the abolition of office or institution. An official may be ordered temporary retirement under the following circum- stances : — (i.) While he is under examination in the Official Disciplinary Court ; (ii.) while he is under prose- cution for a criminal offence ; (iii.) when he has become superfluous owing to a change in the organisation of the office or institution ; (iv.) when the convenience of the office or institution makes it necessary. In the last two cases the period of retirement is two years for higher officials and one year for hannin officials, at the end of which they lose their office. Those in temporary retirement are subject to the same conditions as other officials in all respects except that they do not perform any duties and receive only one-third of their salary. With regard to the disciplinary measures mentioned, officials are subject to them, when they contravene the obligations or neglect the duties of their office or are guilty of such conduct as is injurious to the credit and dignity of the office, whether it be in discharge of their duties or not. The disciplinary punishment is dismissal, reduction of the salary for a certain term, or reprimand ; the first two cannot be imposed except by the decision of the Disciplinary Court, which, in the case of higher officials, is composed of a member of Privy Council (President of the court) and six members, officials of chokunin class. I shall also briefly state the chief points of the pension law, as they are almost the same for the directors and teachers of public schools or colleges. An official who has served for more than fifteen years is entitled to a pension for life under the following circumstances : — 94 GENERAL SUPERVISION [chap. (i.) When he is allowed to retire, being over sixty years of age ; (ii.) when he is allowed to retire owing to personal injury or illness ; (iii.) when he retires owing to the office or institution being abolished, or to a change in its organisation, or at the termination of the period of temporary retirement. He is also entitled to a pension, even if he has not served for fifteen years, (i.) if he retires owing to the loss of the use of one limb or more, or something equivalent, due to a bodily injury received in performance of his duties in the service of the State ; (ii.) if he retires owing to the loss of the use of one limb or more, or something equiva- lent, due to a disease contracted by being engaged in performance of his duties in service of the State, in spite of sensations injurious to health. The amount of pension is one-fourth the amount of the annual salary he was receiving at the time of his retirement with the addition of one-two-hundred-and-fortieth of the same for every full year he has served above fifteen years up to forty years. For those who have not served fifteen years, the amount is one-fourth, but the amount may be increased according to the circumstances of the case by not more than seven-tenths of the minimum amount. If an official who has served for more than fifteen years dies while in service, or if he dies in performance of his duties to the State, even if he has not served for fifteen years, or if a person in receipt of pension dies, his widow is entitled to a pension equal in amount to one-third of what he would have received or was receiving, which may, however, be increased up to two- thirds if the death has been due to the performance of his duties to the State. If he leaves no widow, or if the widow marries or dies, the orphan who succeeds or has succeeded to his house-headship (for house-headship see chapter xviii.), or his eldest son if he was not a house- head, receives the pension during his minority, and after him the sons in their order, and then the daughters in their order, each during his or her minority. If an vn.] SALARIES OF OFFICIALS 95 official who has not served for fifteen years dies, his family receives an amount of money equal to one- hundredth of his annual salary for every full year he has served. In consideration of these, an official has to pay to the State treasury an amount equal to one'- hundredth of his salary. The class and salaries of directors and teachers are determined by the Minister within the range fixed by the Imperial Ordinance. Leaving the Imperial Universities out, for they are specially distinguished in many respects, directors of (government schools and colleges may be either oichokunin or sonin class, — actually they are mostly of the former class. The salaries range from 3,000 yen to 1,800 yen (;^300 to ;^i8o), with the exception of the director of the Blind and Deaf Mute School, who may receive a lower salary. Teachers or professors are of sonin class generally, but a limited number may be raised to chokunin class. Salaries range from 2,500 yen to 600 yen (;;^a50 to £(xi). Assistant teachers are of hannin class ; salaries ranging from 1,200 yen to 400 yen (;^i20 to ;^4o). These salaries may seem small to you ; indeed they are small even according to the Japanese standard. The fact is that they were fixed some time ago, when the cost of living was much lower than it is now, and they have not been revised. I append the salaries of some officials for comparison : — Minister President, 9,600 yen (;^96o) ; Minister of State, 6,000 yen (;^6oo) ; Vice- Minister, 4,000 yen (;^40o) ; Director of Bureau, 3,000 yen (;^30o) ; Secretaries, 800 to 2, 500 yen (;^8o to ;^25o) ; President of Imperial University, 4,000 or 4,500 yen (;^400 or ;^45q) ; University Professor, 800 to 2,000 yen (;^8o to ;^20o) ; besides 400 to 1,200 yen attached to a chair {£ip to ;^i2o). As to the authority of the director, once he is appointed, a great deal is left to him, practically more than appears in the regulations ; thus, for example, although the appointment of a professor or a teacher is on the recommendation of the Cabinet or of the Minister, 96 GENERAL SUPERVISION [chap. the initial recommendation comes from the director, so also the appointment of a hannin official by the Minister is on the recommendation of the director, and similarly in the case of promotion ; in fact, his power of initial recommendation is recognised. The following minor matters of business are entrusted to the director : — (i) Allotment of work to teachers and distribution of work among officials ; (2) prescribing rules for proper carrying out of regulations ; (3) appointment and dismissal of employees with salaries of not more than 20 yen a month ; (4) sending a member of the staff to a place in Japan ; (5) granting leave of absence, and shortening the period of mourning, of a member of the staff ; (6) discontinuing the service of a temporary teacher or lecturer (whose appointment requires the sanction of the Minister), or reducing his honorarium ; (7) interchanging items of expenditure within a certain limit ; (8) giving special holidays in case of urgent necessity, when there is no time to ask for the Minister's permission. Nos. (6) and (8) have to be reported to the Minister afterwards. I may remark that the Presidents of Imperial Universities have a much greater authority both by regulation and as a matter of fact. Of the public schools, those maintained by prefectures are under the immediate control of prefects, while those maintained by sub-prefectures, shi, cko, and son, are respectively under the control in the first instance of sub-prefects and mayors, and in the second instance of the prefects; all are under the supervision of the Minister. Cho and son schools are almost all elementary schools or of the elementary grade, and shi schools mostly so ; of these I shall speak specially in relation to elementary education. Of the prefectural schools only three are of the higher grade, while the rest are normal schools, middle schools, girls' high schools, and technical schools of the secondary grade. With the exception of the directors of normal schools, who are State officials like those of Government schools, as I shall explain in the lecture on normal education, vn.] TEACHERS' PAY 97 the directors and teachers of public schools are not civil officials of State, but they are entitled to receive a treat- ment, similar in many respects to officials of sonin or hannin class ; the former are limited to those of colleges or schools of higher grade, while in secondary schools the director and not more than three teachers in each school may be and generally are of sonin class, all others receiving treatment of hannin officials. Those who receive hannin treatment are appointed by prefects ; those of sonin treatment are appointed by the Emperor on the recommendation of the Minister. There is no fixed limit to the salaries of directors and teachers of schools and colleges of higher and secondary grades, but actually they are below 3,000 yen for those of the higher grade and below 1,600 yen for those of the secondary grade ; taking the teachers of the secondary grade only, I believe, the average throughout the country is somewhere between 40 and 45 yen (;^4 to ;^4. los.) per month, although there is a tendency for this average to increase from year to year, as people become more and more alive to the importance of getting and keeping good teachers. Of teachers of elementary schools, I shall speak somewhat in detail when I come to elementary education. Teachers of schools of higher grade, being appointed on the recommendation of the Minister, their qualifica- tions are judged by him in each individual case, while teachers of middle schools, girls' high schools, and normal schools must have secondary teachers' certificates, which are awarded by the Minister on graduation from certain schools and colleges, or on passing special examinations held for the purpose, and of which I shall speak more in detail afterwards. The number of those with certificates, however, is as yet not sufficient, and it is allowed to prefects to employ as provisional teachers those who have not received certificates. There is at present no regulation about the qualifications of teachers of technical schools ; these being of later introduction than other schools, provisions for training teachers for G g8 GENERAL SUPERVISION [chap. them are few as yet, so that it would be difficult to insist upon hard and fast rules, and it has, therefore, been left to the discretion of prefects. Some simple rules are, how- ever, likely to be issued in the not very distant future. Of the qualifications of teachers of elementary schools I shall speak later on. Directors and teachers of public schools are entitled to receive pensions, under very much the same con- ditions as the civil officials of the State ; but teachers of elementary schools do not have to pay anything to the State treasury like civil officials. Moreover, the amount of the pension is greater in proportion to the salary in the case of those who have served consecutively for more than fifteen years, being in the maximum case two-thirds of the amount of the annual salary. By a law, which passed the last Diet (March 1908), a similar advantage has been given to those of all public schools, who have served consecutively for at least fifteen years, the maximum in their case being one-half. For the establishing of prefectural schools in general, the prefect has to obtain the permission of the Minister. He has to state the object of the school, the proposed site, subjects to be taught and the standard of teaching, mode of examination, rules of entrance and graduation, holidays, tuition fees, commandments to be issued to pupils, disciplinary rules, dormitory rules (if any), number of teachers, amount of their salaries, and com- mandments to be issued to the director and teachers, the plan of buildings, the amount and items of income and expenditure, text-books to be used, machines and instruments to be provided, approximate number of pupils to be admitted, curriculum vitae of the director, the qualifications of teachers, etc., and to satisfy the Minister on those points, before such permission is granted. Any change in the above has to be reported or submitted for approval. For the closing of schools, also, permission has to be obtained. For the establishment of public schools, other than prefectural, the permission of prefects has to be obtained in a similar way. To private schools vn.] INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS 99 a great deal of freedom is allowed, as I shall show afterwards. For middle schools and girls' high schools, whether public or private, there are special rules, which I shall explain afterwards. The importance of school inspection has been theoretically recognised from the very beginning of the new educational organisation. According to the first Education Code, there was to be a Government inspector's office in each of the eight university districts, and in each office there were to be several inspectors under a head inspector, with whom local authorities were to consult on matters of education. Unfortunately, this scheme was, as I have stated before, not practically carried out, but after some changes, a central bureau of inspection was established in 1874 in the educational department with a certain number of inspectors, charged specially with inspecting schools throughout the country and reporting thereon to the Minister. In 1877 this bureau was abolished, but directors of other bureaus and secretaries were sent round occasionally, not so much to inspect schools as to observe generally the condition of education in different parts of the country. It must be remarked that in those days there was very little means of rapid communication, and travelling occupied a great deal of time, so that there was a great deal of difference between the state of education in different parts of the country, and often almost ludicrous misunderstanding of the purpose of the central Government on the part of local authorities became evi- dent. Thus even those occasional visits of the officials of the department did much good in clearing up such matters. In 1886 inspectors were again revived, and five of them were appointed, each charged with one of the five educational divisions into which the country was divided ; they also acted at first as intermediaries between local authorities and the central Government. Their number was subsequently increased to seven. But rn 1893, in consequence of a general retrenchment in the Government expenditure, the inspectors were again loo GENERAL SUPERVISION [chap. abolished, and the school inspection was carried on by secretaries and councillors. In 1897 five inspectors were again appointed, and at the same time two sub- inspectors were appointed in each prefecture to inspect elementary schools within that prefecture. In 1899, besides these, an inspector was appointed in each pre- fecture. Unfortunately, the pressure of business in the prefectural office being very great, the prefectural inspectors were made to attend to the management of matters relating to education ; and because, on the one hand, it was very convenient for the despatch of business to have them help in this way, and on the other, inspec- tion has always been unpopular, in 1905, they were changed into administrative officials. In 1899, at the same time as the appointment of prefectural inspectors, sub-inspectors for elementary schools for sub-prefectures were appointed. Besides these, since 1886, it has been made one of the duties of directors of prefectural normal schools to inspect elementary schools within the pre- fecture, chiefly to observe the result of the training given in normal schools. The number of inspectors in the Department of Educa- tion being so inadequate, even with the help of prefectural and sub-prefectural sub-inspectors, the department has tried to supplement the inspection by sending pro- fessors and teachers of different schools, colleges, and universities to inspect schools and colleges specially with regard to instruction in particular subjects. As matters stand at present, there are five inspectors in the Department of Education. In each prefec- ture there is one secretary specially charged with the management of educational business of the pre- fecture, who goes round the schools of the prefecture whenever he can spare time from office work. Under him are two sub-inspectors, who go round regularly to inspect elementary schools. They are in close con- tact with sub-prefectural sub-inspectors, who inspect elementary schools in their respective sub-prefectures. Each of the five inspectors in the Department of Education VII.] INSPECTORS' DUTIES loi has one of the five districts into which the country is divided for this purpose in his charge, and they change the districts every two years. They are to inspect the districts with respect to the following matters : — (i) The condition of educational administration ; (2) the con- dition of school education ; (3) the condition of school finance ; (4) the way in which teachers and others con- cerned with education are discharging their duties ; (s) various measures taken to improve education and to propagate arts and learning ; (6) other matters on which they shall have received special instructions. Should an inspector find anything during his visit in contravention of laws or ordinances or decisions of the Government, he has the authority to speak about the matter to the person concerned, as also on any subject on which he has been specially authorised to speak. On other matters he makes a verbal and a written report on his return, and as the result of his report, orders are sent when deemed necessary to the prefect, instructing him to take proper action on the matter. There is a great need of some organ to inspect the actual teaching in secondary and higher schools. As people seem to be awakening to the need of proper inspection of schools, we hope to effect improvements in this respect soon. [Estimates for an increase from five to eleven inspectors in the department passed the Diet in March 1908.] CHAPTER VIII SCHOOLS IN GENERAL Tecuhingof morals— Imperial Rescript on Education — A copy distributed to every school — Portraits of the Emperor and the Empress — Ceremony to be observed on three special holidays — Session, terms, holid&ys— Number of hours a week — -School sites and buildings — Class-rooms — School uniform — Discipline and punishment — Parents' conference — Privileges granted to schools — School Journeys — Pupils' association — Edzicational expansion within last ten or fifteen years — Economy — Educational condition in igo//.. The teaching of morals always forms an important part of our education, more especially in schools of elementary and secondary grades and in normal schools, and that not merely in the lessons on morals but on every available occasion. I shall speak of the teaching of morals in detail in another lecture ; it is based, as I have already mentioned, upon the Imperial Rescript on Education, issued in 1890, and which I have quoted at the beginning of this book. A copy of this Rescript is distributed from the Department of Education to every school in the Empire, whether governmental, public, or private, of any grade whatsoever ; those given to govern- mental schools are actually signed by the Emperor. The two cardinal virtues upon which emphasis is laid are Loyalty to the Emperor, with which is identified patriotism to the country, and Filial Piety ; to foster this photographic portraits of the Emperor and the Empress are distributed from the Imperial Household to every governmental school, to every normal school, to every public middle school, girls' high school and technical school, and to every public higher elementary school : these and the copy of the Rescript must be kept in a special place and carefully guarded. On public 102 CHAP. VIII.] SPECIAL ANNIVERSARIES 103 occasions they are brought out and hung up in the hall or the room where the function takes place, and the same respect is paid to them as if Their Majesties were present in person. There have been several instances when the director or a teacher has saved them at the risk of his life from flames, when the school building was burnt down by fire ; such is the respect in which they are held. There can be no doubt that such acts are likely to make a profound impression on the minds of children. I have just mentioned public occasions ; these are such as the Graduation Day, the Memorial Day, and the three special holidays, namely. New Year's Day, the Kigen-setsu, or the "Anniversary of the Corona- tion of Jimmu Tenno," the first Emperor of Japan (nth February), and the Tencko-setsu, or the " Emperor's Birthday" (3rd November). For those three days the Department of Education has issued regulations for elementary sfchools, which I translate below, as a similar ceremony is observed in all school functions : — "On the Kigen-setsu, the Tencho-setsu and the First of January, teachers and children shall assemble in the school and there shall go through the following : first, they shall sing together the Kimigayo (national anthem) ; next, they shall make the profoundest obeisance before the portraits of their majesties (this consists in lowering their head and bending their body); next, the director shall read aloud the Imperial Rescript on Education ; next, the director shall take the Rescript as his text and explain its meaning ; next, teachers and children shall sing one of the songs fit for the day or the occasion. " In schools, which do not have portraits distributed from the Imperial Household or special copies of them approved by the prefect, the second of the above is to be omitted ; in schools, where singing is not taught, the first and last may be omitted." As to these songs, there are several specially selected by the department, butany other that have been examined and approved by the Minister may be sung. I04 SCHOOLS IN GENERAL [chap. In middle schools, girls' high schools, normal schools, etc., similar functions are performed ; the reading of the Imperial Rescript always forms a part of the ceremony. I may remark that on those days, as also on other fete days, schools and public offices, as well as private houses display the national flag. For almost all schools, certainly for all of the ele- mentary and secondary grades, the school year begins on the ist of April and ends on the 31st of March next year ; it is usually divided into three terms, the first term extending from April to the summer holidays, the second from September to the end of the year, and the third from January to the end of March. In several schools and colleges of the higher grade, and in universities, the session begins in September and ends in July next year, and is divided into three terms as in other schools. Holidays are as follows : — (i) Fete days and festivals : these are the 1st of January ; the Genshi-Sai (3rd January) ; the Festival of Komei Tennd, father and predecessor of the Emperor (30th January); the Kigen-setsu (nth February); the Shunki-Kdrei-Sai, or "Spring Festival of the Imperial Ancestors" (the day of the vernal equinox); the Festival of Jimmu Tenno (3rd April); the Shiiki-Kdrei-Sai, or "the Autumn Festival of the Imperial Ancestors" (the day of the autumnal equinox) ; the Kanname-Sai (17th October); the Tencko-setsu, or the "Emperor's Birthday" (3rd November); and the Niiname-Sai, or the "Harvest Festival " (23rd November). Besides these it is becoming usual to celebrate the Empress's Birthday (28th May) in girls' schools. (2) Sundays. (3) Summer holidays. (4) Winter holidays. (5) Holidays at the end of the school year. (6) Such other holidays as may be deter- mined by the director in Government schools and by prefects in public schools. The third, fourth, and fifth are determined in Government schools by the Minister, and in public schools by prefects. As a rule, in higher schools, summer holidays begin about the loth July and end about the loth September ; winter holidays begin vni.] HOURS OF STU£)Y 105 about 25th December and end about 7th January ; the spring holidays begin about 25th March and end about 7th April. In schools of lower grade summer holidays are shorter; in the Imperial Ordinance on elementary schools, it is laid down that the number of holidays in one year must not exceed ninety days, exclusive of Sundays ; for middle and girls' high schools, the minimum number of working days is fixed at 200 days a year, not including days for examina- tions and school journeys. The number of hours a week for lessons differ according to the grade and nature of schools. In an ordinary elementary school it increases from 21 in the first year to 27 in the fourth or last year ; in a higher elementary school it is 28 for boys in the first and second years, and 30 in the third and fourth years, and 30 for girls all through, owing to girls having 3 hours of sewing lessons extra. In middle and girls' high schools the hours are from 28 to 30, while in technical schools in which there is good deal of practical work the hours are longer. Again, although we speak of an hour's lesson, it is not actually an hour. In elementary schools it is usual to have three-quarters of an hour or even less for small children for a lesson followed by a quarter of an hour's interval, which is spent in the playground if weather permits, the children marching out together with the teacher to the playground and dispersing there to play as they please. In middle and girls' high schools, an hour means usually 50 minutes lesson and 10 minutes in the playground. Great care is exercised in the selection of sites for schools, that it may be fit from the points of view of morals, of pedagogy, and of hygiene. Hence in applica- tion for permission to establish a school, it is requisite to state the topography of the site chosen, the condition of the neighbourhood, accompanied by necessary maps and plans, and analysis of the drinking water. There must be proper extent of exercise ground for gymnastics io6 SCHOOLS IN GENERAL [chap. and military drill (where it forms a part of the curriculum) and play. Suitable buildings must be provided, of which it is specified in the present regulations that they must be solid and simple. There used to be specifications with regard to the floor space and height of rooms, lighting, ventilation, etc., essential points of which are still followed in practice. In normal schools, dormitories form a necessary part of school buildings ; in middle schools, girls' high schools, and others of secondary and higher grades, they are not regarded as essential, but a great number of them have dormitory accommodation for some of the pupils. In dormitories it is usual to have day-rooms and sleeping-rooms, from six to eight or ten occupying the same rooms ; tables and chairs for day-rooms and bedsteads for sleeping-rooms are usual, although mats and Japanese style of living are becoming common, especially in girls' schools. The pupils eat together in a large eating-room ; they wash and bathe, not in separate rooms but in common. There are reading - rooms and rooms for meetings, conversation, etc., besides one or more rooms, either built specially, or at least reserved, for the sick. Schdol buildings of course differ according to the grade and nature of the school ; it is usual to have a room for each class (not a room for each teacher), separate rooms for physics and chemistry (often com- bined), for history and geography, for singing, and a large hall capable of accommodating not only the whole school but visitors, having at one end a raised platform and a sort of alcove for the Emperor and Empress's portraits and the copy of the Imperial Rescript. There is also a covered gymnasium for rainy days and a day- scholars' room, the two being often combined. The size of a school-room differs in different schools, but it is usually made large enough to accommodate the maximum number of pupils allowed in a class of the particular grade of the school ; the capacity of a school- room is calculated at the rate of not less than 120 cubic feet to each pupil in secondary schools. There is a viii.] SCHOOL UNIFORMS 107 teacher's table on a raised dais at one end of the room with one or two blackboards behind. Before this are ranged children's desks and benches, the height of which was regulated according to the average height of children in the class; I say "was regulated" because the regulations about this have been abolished, although they are still practically followed. It is customary now to have a separate desk and chair, often made in one piece, for each pupil or for each pair of pupils, a space being left between each so that the teacher can easily go round and look at each pupil's work and pupils can go up to the teacher's table or the blackboard. I must say here that Japan is a poor country which has had so many things to do, in trying to bring itself up to the level of the Western nations in so many different directions, that we have been obliged to be very economical. Thus our school buildings are very plain, mostly of wood, without any attempt at ornamentation ; we have sometimes found that where money has been spent on decorations, etc., there was too little left for the essentials, so the regulation says that school buildings must be solid and simple : we have been obliged to be very economical not to lose efficiency ; even so, we have not enough money to spend on education. In most schools above the elementary grade, male pupils wear school uniforms, so that they can be easily distinguished ; the uniforms are jacket and trousers of blue felt or kokura (a particular kind of cotton cloth) and cloth cap with a brass insignia of the school in front. In normal schools and also in many other schools, teachers also wear uniforms of the same kind. Within the last ten or twelve years, a custom has been intro- duced among school -girls of wearing a kind of skirt called hakama (usually worn by men only) which is worn over the ordinary dress, and is very convenient by allowing free motion, so that it has been now universally adopted in all schools above the elementary ; female teachers also wear them, and lately other ladies have taken to wearing them occasionally. io8 SCHOOLS IN GENERAL [chap. The director of a school is responsible for the maintenance of discipline among pupils ; for this purpose he has the power to punish an offender. No corporal punishment, however, can be imposed, in fact it has never been found necessary. The forms of punishment are reprimand, detention after school (for day pupils), prohibition to go out of school grounds (for dormitory pupils), kinshin (this is putting the delinquent in a state of " respectful attention or introspection " and may and does generally involve the last mentioned punishment as well), suspension, and expulsion. For slight offences a teacher (in an elementary school) is allowed to make a pupil stand in a corner of a room. Imposition of a task, merely as punishment, is unknown ; although an idle or backward pupil may be given a certain task to make up for his backwardness, that would not be meant to be a punishment. In most cases children would feel the disgrace of the punishment more than anything else, so that a public reprimand is a very severe punishment indeed. In maintaining discipline a director is of course assisted by teachers, each in his own sphere ; it is usual to nominate one of the teachers to take special charge of a class, so that he is responsible for that class, not only with respfect to its discipline, but also to its work ; he acts, so to speak, as tutor to pupils in that class, he speaks to their parents about them, when it is desirable to communicate with them. In all schools higher than elementary, there are usually, besides teachers, one or more officers called Seitokan, or "pupil- inspectors," who are responsible for maintenance of discipline and order outside class-rooms, on public occasions, and in dormitories. For major punishment it is usual to hold a council of principal teachers, more especially of those who are in charge of classes, although the decision rests of course with the director. I spoke just now of communication with parents. In most schools of elementary and secondary grades directors and teachers hold conferences with parents once a term, or so, in order to make known to them VIII.] PARENTS SEE THE PUPILS WORK 109 what the school authorities wish parents to attend to at home, both in general and individual cases, and to hear from them what they wish the school to do, and exchange views on those points. On those occasions it is usual to exhibit the results of pupils' work in order to give parents opportunities of comparing their own children's work with those of their class- mates. These conferences are becoming more and more popular and universal, and there can be no doubt that they are of the utmost importance by bringing about a good understanding, and thereby ensuring co- operation between school and home, which is so essential for the proper education of children. That these meetings are getting to be largely attended by mothers is a very healthy sign. I was told by the director of an elementary school established specially for the poor in Tokyo, that mothers came to these conferences, and were very attentive to his advice. Besides teachers who take special charge of classes, there are in schools of secondary and higher grades teachers who take special charge of different subjects, to advise directors, each on matters concerning his subject, such as choice of text-books, details of syllabuses, etc. The entire educational system of the country being under the Minister of Education, no school can be opened without his permission, direct or indirect. He has the power to order closing of any school that he thinks injurious to education, although, as a matter of fact, this power has seldom been exercised. But before proceeding to such an extreme measure, he has great power in the granting, withholding, or taking away of various privileges. Of these, one considered most important is that of temporary exemption from the military service, and qualification to serve as one year volunteer. You are aware that we have a system of conscription, all male able-bodied adults being liable to active military service during three years, with several years in the reserves and landwehr. But those who are receiving education in certain schools or colleges no SCHOOLS IN GENERAL [chap. are temporarily exempted from service until they leave the school or reach the age of twenty - eight. Moreover, graduates of such schools have the right to serve as a volunteer for one year, receiving special treatment and education, and being promoted to be non-commissioned of&cer (in the reserves), at the end of the year, and even to be a commissioned officer (in the reserves) after a little further service. The schools so exempted are all Government schools and colleges, prefectural, normal, and middle schools, and such other schools and colleges, public or private, as shall be recognised by the Minister of Education as of a standard equal to or higher than those. It may seem strange to include middle schools among those whose pupils have temporary exemption, for regulation ages for middle schools are from over twelve to over seventeen, but formerly there used to be a large number above twenty {i.e., adults according to our law) among them, though such are not quite so numerous now. Another privilege, which it is in the power of the Minister to grant, is that of qualification for civil service of hannin class. By the Imperial Ordinance on civil service all graduates of Government and public middle schools, and of all such schools and colleges as shall be recognised by the Minister of Education as of standard equal to or higher than those, are qualified to be appointed civil officials of hannin class. There are some others, such as recognition of private medical colleges, so as to qualify their graduates to practise as doctors, or of different colleges so as to qualify their graduates to become secondary school teachers. Schools which have obtained those privileges are naturally subject to a stricter supervision than others, for the Minister has to see that their standard is maintained. A little time ago I spoke of school journeys. It is an almost universal custom for schools to have excursions or journeys. Two objects seem to have been mixed vm.] THE WELCOME TO VISITORS in up, or I should perhaps say combined, in these. One is merely a holiday outing, for pleasure or at most for exercise, arid the other is instruction by actual visit to places of historical, geographical, or practical interest, and by explanations from teachers and others on the spot. Even little children in ordinary elementary schools have excursions. In middle schools boys go from one day to four or five days' journeys. Where there is teaching in military drill in middle and higher schools, boys sometimes go out for mimic manoeuvres. Properly conducted, these journeys and excursions, etc., are very useful for moral, intellectual, and physical training, but they are also liable to abuse. I may also mention here that when the Emperor, the Empress, or the Prince Imperial, or other members of the Imperial House visit any part of the country, or it may be a special guest of the country, like Prince Arthur of Connaught when he came on the Garter Mission, school children turn out in a body under their teachers' leadership, and, lining some conspicuous part of the route along which the visitor passes, greet him with respectful salutations. During the late war school children were kept busy sending off out-going soldiers or welcoming the home-coming with shouts of Banzai. Who can measure the good moral effects thus pro- duced, both on the soldiers and on the children? I venture to say that Admiral Togo never had a better welcome than was given to him by 3,000 children of elementary schools of the district of Tokyo in which he resided, going through military evolutions before him in Hibiya Park. Some schools, especially middle schools, use their summer holidays to give their pupils lessons in swimming, establishing summer stations by the sea- side for the purpose. In almost all schools above the elementary grade there are associations of boys or girls corresponding to the athletic, cricket, football, and boating clubs, debating society, magazine club, etc., amalgamated 112 SCHOOLS IN GENERAL [chap. into one, there being usually several sections each corre- sponding to one of those clubs. Generally the director of the school is the president and teachers are honorary members. Pupils elect committees of their own, and carry on the business of the association, always, how- ever, under the supervision of teachers, one or two teachers acting as advisers in each section. I shall speak of sports in a separate lecture, but I may here remark that English cricket has not taken hold of our boys, though the American game of baseball is widely played. Boating for boys, lawn tennis for boys and girls, basket ball for girls are favourite sports. Fencing and jujutsu are specially encouraged for boys. There are athletic sports meetings generally once a year, sometimes twice. Boys and girls have magazines edited by themselves under the supervision of teachers. Debating clubs are not so common, but speech-making almost always forms one of the sections. In some middle schools, and in schools where English is taught to a sufficient degree, it is usual, if English teachers are at all competent and zealous, to have an English section, to give recitations, dialogues, or even dramatic representations m English. Besides the association of the present pupils, it is also usual for former pupils to form associations, to meet on certain occasions, and these sometimes have magazines of their own. For the last ten or fifteen years our country has known expansion in all directions, and education has been no exception. To take a few statistics, the percentage of school attendance has increased from 59 per cent, (boys 75, girls 41) in 1893 to 82 per cent, (boys 91, girls 72) in 1900, and 96 per cent, (boys 98, girls 95) in 1906. The actual number of children attending elementary schools was 3.337.560 (boys 2,266,025, girls 1,071,535) in 1893, 4.683,598 in 1900, and 5,514,735 in 1906. The number of schools has not increased at the same rate, being 23,960 in 1893, 27,022 in 1900, and 27,269 in 1904. This is largely due to the fact that sma}l and very VIII.] SUPPLY STILL BELOW DEMAND 113 imperfect schools have been amalgamated together. Thus, while in 1893 there were only 1,604 schools with both ordinary and higher elementary courses, there were 4,367 in 1900, and 8,787 in 1906. In secondary education, while in 1893 there were only 74 middle schools with 19,563 boys, and 28 girls' high schools with 3,020 girls, the numbers had increased to 193 middle schools together with 24 branch schools with 77,563 boys and 51 girls' high schools with 11,678 girls in 1900, and 269 middle schools with 10 branch schools with 108,057 boys and 113 girls' high schools with 35,546 girls in 1906. In technical education there were 288 public schools of all grades with 25,725 pupils in 1900, and 4,538 schools with 222,867 pupils in 1906. The total expenditure by prefectures, sub-prefectures, ski, cho, and son, was 35,400,172 yen (about ;^3, 540,000) in 1893, and 44,429,558 yen in igoo, 35.256,053 yen in 1904, and 44,855,568 yen in 1906, the decrease in 1904 being due to the stopping of all new buildings, etc., on account of the war. The above is exclusive of central Government schools. With all this increase in the number of schools and in the expenditure for educational purposes the supply of educational opportunities has not been equal to the demand. The result is that it has become difficult to obtain admission to almost every school. In elementary schools the number of children in a class has been increased to the maximum allowed, and in some cases, I have been told, even beyond it. Taking middle schools and girls' high schools throughout the country, only a little over 60 per cent, of the total applicants were admitted, while in normal schools this number was as small as 19 per cent. With all Government schools it is the same, and even among private schools good ones are obliged to refuse a large percentage of applicants for admission. With local rates already very heavy, and State tax no less heavy, how to meet this demand is one of the most difficult and pressing H ii6 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap. ix. The course of an ordinary elementary school or ordinary elementary course extends over four years, children entering it at the beginning of the first school year after they have completed their sixth year of age : that of a higher elementary school, which they enter after finishing the ordinary elementary course, or the higher elementary course may extend over two, three, or four years. The subjects taught in the ordinary elementary course are morals, the (Japanese) language, arithmetic, and gymnastics, to which may be added, according to local circumstances, drawing, singing, and manual work, and sewing for girls ; those additional subjects may be made voluntary, that is, it may be left to parents to decide whether children shall study them or not. Subjects taught in the higher elementary course are morals, the (Japanese) language, arithmetic, Japanese history, geography, science, drawing, singing, and gymnastics, with sewing for girls. There are several modifications and additions, which may be made according to local circumstances and the length of the course ; thus in the two years' course, either science or singing, or both, may be omitted, while manual work may be added ; in the three or four years' course, singing may be omitted and manual work may be added for girls, while one or more of the three, namely, manual work, agriculture, and commerce, must be added for boys, each boy taking one of the three ; in the four years' course, the English language may be added : in all cases, the additional subjects may be made voluntary. The length of the course in higher elementary schools and the modification and addition of subjects are deter- mined by the shi, cho, or son in shi-cho-son schools, and by the proprietor in a private school, subject in either case to the approval of the prefect. Hours to be allotted to each subject and the standard to be attained in each school year in the ordinary elementary course will be seen from the annexed table, I. The director may, according to 3 s W H 3 " a-9 I ■s^ S ' ? "S a K B 3 y 13 pi 4' e -Q (U U V ■•:! S •-( »^ '5 . St) 'Ua-° - "S o e B ui tn in OU fH S sjnoH JO 'o^ J3 H O'S 0} ki o S .2 « -S g- O «TJ S cil ^ o A S H « c bo w S " " S c s ^ «1 3. a as eS-2 o3 « " S p S u d c « g u o B ■ e . a ■ si Bl O ■ b . .5 o S B "3 o ^ o o o B V clj tn H to C.2 •go. J3 ■:(aaM B I I I jn Q £-0 " g .18 1 o'l B o > " o o a ■ a S a o 11^ g o'o" . C O S B "■ in S a>Bra w olQjB.SItn OU cn H S CO H ■}[33Al B sanoji JO -o^ I I I CQ B O T3 jj o Q >- O » S B " 2 S a 5? 'S 2'-5l -•a E g <« 3 o a .-Ob bod Ul c-S " 5 CL O « 2 .£ en ,^ s O •jpaM B sanoH jo 'o^j J3 3 CO .iB a J3 B Sf bo ^ .S B S bo 'S 2 B * Q c3 to ^ „• B "4 SCHOOLS IN GENERAL [chap. vni. problems we have to deal with. The fact is that we have been almost always, since the beginning of the Meiji era, dealing with this problem of how to secure educational efficiency with but little means at our dis- posal. We have no grand foundations such as you have in your public schools and universities, we have no millionaires to give munificent sums for educational purposes. We have, therefore, as I have already stated, to be very economical. The problem has been almost always to secure the utmost educational efficiency with the least expenditure, and at present we are face to face with this problem in a most pressing and difficult form. The following table will give an idea of the general educational condition of the country for the year 1906: — Elementary schools Schools. Teachers. Pupils. Graduates. 27,269 116,070 5.514,735 1,037,484 Blind and mute schools . 31 168 1.5.36 140 Normal schools . 67 1,112 18,928 7,537 Higher normal schools . 2 120 938 192 Female higher normal school. I 43 357 121 Temporary training schools . 4 37 91 Middle schools 281 S.338 108,531 15,636 Girls' high schools 114 1.770 35,876 8,619 Higher schools 7 279 4.534 1,359 Imperial universities 2 436 6,397 1,229 Special colleges . 50 1.537 25,573 3,935 Technical schools and colleges 4.537 S.032 222,953 37,312 Technical teachers' schools . 3 137 53 Schools not classed Total .... 2,093 7,619 142,695 37,563 34.461 139.561 6,083,281 1,151,180 CHAPTER IX ELEMENTARY EDUCATION I The object oj elementary education defined — Ordinq.ry elementary schools — Higher elementary schools — Combined schools — Length of the courses — • Stibjects taught — Tables I, II, III, and IV of hours and standard of instruction in the ordinary and in the higher elementary courses of two, three, and four years — \Changes introduced in igof — Tables V, VI,VIIoj hours and standard of instruction under the amended regulations'\ — Supple- mentary courses — Teachers, regular, special, assistant and provisional — Maximum number of classes in a school — Maximum number of children in one class — Organisation of classes — Single class schools — No co-education — Two-parts schools — Number of teachers to a class — Number of schools — Number of school children — Percentage of boys and girls — Percentage of attendance — Schools and additional subjects. The object of elementary education is defined in the first article of the Imperial Ordinance on Elementary Education, issued in August 1900, which with amend- ments made in 1903 [and in 1907] is now in force; it runs as follows : — "Elementary schools are designed to give children the rudiments of moral education and of civic education, together with such general knowledge and skill as are necessary for life, while due attention is paid to their bodily development." By the term translated above as civic education, is meant education specially adapted to make the child a good subject of the Emperor and a useful member of the community. Elementary schools are divided into ordinary elementary schools and higher elementary schools ; the two may be combined in one school ; such schools I shall hereafter call for shortness combined schools. "5 ii6 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap. ix. The course of an ordinary elementary school or ordinary elementary course extends over four years, children entering it at the beginning of the first school year after they have completed their sixth year of age : that of a higher elementary school, which they enter after finishing the ordinary elementary course, or the higher elementary course may extend over two, three, or four years. The subjects taught in the ordinary elementary course are morals, the (Japanese) language, arithmetic, and gymnastics, to which may be added, according to local circumstances, drawing, singing, and manual work, and sewing for girls ; those additional subjects may be made voluntary, that is, it may be left to parents to decide whether children shall study them or not. Subjects taught in the higher elementary course are morals, the (Japanese) language, arithmetic, Japanese history, geography, science, drawing, singing, and gymnastics, with sewing for girls. There are several modifications and additions, which may be made according to local circumstances and the length of the course ; thus in the two years' course, either science or singing, or both, may be omitted, while manual work may be added ; in the three or four years' course, singing may be omitted and manual work may be added for girls, while one or more of the three, namely, manual work, agriculture, and commerce, must be added for boys, each boy taking one of the three ; in the four years' course, the English language may be added : in all cases, the additional subjects may be made voluntary. The length of the course in higher elementary schools and the modification and addition of subjects are deter- mined by the shi, ckd, or son in shi-chd-son schools, and by the proprietor in a private school, subject in either case to the approval of the prefect. Hours to be allotted to each subject and the standard to be attained in each school year in the ordinary elementary course will be seen from the annexed table, I. The director may, according to 3 B (d H □tinued ; heir nu- rotation, subtrac- plication thmetic : nd sub- 3 i, ■g 3 ■2 ■B r, me, CO mais, t ation, ition, , multi divisio s ari ition a .g a 2 8 a « le sa dec mer add tion and bacu add 1 (D u _. cs o ja ja J3 a. OU H H H S sjnofj JO 'of^i •a i b-o TO . t-i Li- "■g B ^ O G « cj s; u n C4 M 3 n] «S Keg's; .3 3 3 2.S c J3 O U U J3 d 3 O Sa . ac cH.2 o s.a s B.a •o -a "• 3^ >,.2 d .2 •O 1^ a ■h bS ■I o o o o si o 6 cd «t o E .S eg OU t/3 H 'liaSM B sjnojj JO "o^ I I I i1 3 is g S 3 w « 0) • si'ssg'. r fll 0) O +:i (ir ^ "SdS J3 a 3 O » 3 S^ •a V 3 3 3 O i^ S.SS.E E ^ § <" o > " S a 3 OJ — oxi SB ES nl o OU S CS to ' V ■« ^3 3 ° o o-E ■o 3 u ^ V 3 «J 0) 3 .X w 3 3"^ Ciflj 4J j3 to H •^IsaM B sjnoH JO 'Ofij tg bp'S • ^S ■a So 3 '- u 3t3 E d d ,Sd d .a a Qj - d S a M S S^ o 3 3'S 3 O S •- O 3 bo 3 CO l-a a B g d'. 3 S.2 O U .S a' '-J b5 " c's: 3 •a > d d J3 .a ^ IS S m Qj O w .« •« 4) S ti5 •jpaM B smoH JO 'O!.! 3 in a J3 a J? .3 S Q M tn •3 ii8 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap. ix. local circumstances (as, e.g., where children get a good deal of exercise otherwise), decrease the hours of gymnastics by one ; when one or more of drawing, singing, manual work, and sewing are added, the hours required are to be taken from other subjects, as the director thinks fit, provided it be not more than four hours a week. The hours to be allotted to each subject and the standard to be attained in each school year in the higher elementary course will be seen from the annexed taibles, II, III, and IV. When one or more of science, singing, manual work, agriculture, and commerce are omitted, the hours allotted to them may be distributed among other subjects as the director thinks fit. When English, or manual work for boys in the first and second years or for girls is added, the hours not to exceed two are to be taken from other subjects as the director thinks fit. Where there are circumstances which make it difiicult to adhere to these regulations, the mayor or the head of a union or the proprietor (of a private school) may, with the permission of the prefect, alter the number of hours, provided the total number of hours a week shall be not more than 28 nor less than 18 in the ordinary elementary course, and not more than 30 nor less than 24 in the higher elementary course. Where two-parts teaching is practised, the hours for each part shall be over 18 in general, but may be reduced to 12 for younger children in the ordinary* elementary course. For 20 days before and after the summer and winter holidays, the hours may be reduced, the director making proper distribution of hours for different subjects. When children of different school years are made into one class, the standard to be attained may be made uniform for the whole class or for a part of the class, irrespective of the standard of each school year. [In 1907 a great change was introduced into the organisation of elementary education. The ordinary II.— Table of Hours and Standard of Instruction in the Higher Elementary Course of Two Years. Subjects. No. of Hours a week. First Year. No, of Hours a week. Second Year. Morals . The (Japanese) Language. Arithmetic Japanese His- tory. Geography Science . Drawing{g^,^ Singing . Gymnastics Sewing . Manual Work . To'^i {is: )M n Essentials Chinese characters, most necessary in daily use, and com- mon sentences : reading, writing, and composition. Integers, decimals, concrete numbers. (Abacus arithmetic : addition and sub- traction. ) Outlines of Japanese history. Outlines of Japanese geography. Plants, animals, min- erals, and natural phenomena. Simple objects Easy singing . Common gymnastics Games. For Boys — Military gymnastics Management of the needle. Sewing of ordinary pieces of clothing. Simple work . 28 30 { u 28 30 per- Essentials, The same, tinned. Fractions, centage. (Abacus arithmetic : addition, subtrac- tion, multiplica- tion, and divi- sion. ) The same, con- tinued. The same, con- tinued. The same, con- tinued. The same, con- tinued. The same, con- tinued. The same, con- tinued. Sewing of ordinary pieces of clothing, cutting, mending. Simple work. III.— Table of Hours and Standard of Instruction in the Higher Elementary Course of Three Years. i g . s Subjects. First Year. jj Second Year. ^ 6" Third Year. Morals 2 Essentials 2 Essentials . 2 Essentials. The (Japan- lO Chinese charac- 10 The same, con- 9 The same, con- ese) Lan- ters most ne- tinued. tinued. guage. cessary in daily use, and com- mon senten- ces : reading, writing, and composition. Arithmetic . 4 Integers, deci- mals, concrete numbers. (Abacus arith- metic : addi- tion and sub- traction.) Outlines of Jap- 4 1 r Fractions, per- centage. (Abacus arith- metic : addi- tion, subtrac- tion, multipli- cation and di- vision. ) The same, con- 4 Fractions, per- centage, pro- portion. (Abacus arith- metic: the same, con- tinued. Supplementary Japanese anese history. tinued. to the same. History. H Outlines of Jap- -3- The same, con- ■31 Outlines of for- Geography. anese geogra- tinued. eign geogra- phy. *. J I phy. Science 2 Plants, animals, minerals, and mineral phe- nomena. 2 The same, con- tinued. 2 Ordinary physi- cal and chemi- cal phenomena: elements and compounds: construction & action of sim- ple machines ; elements of hu- man physiology Drawing- and hygiene. Boys Girls . x} Simple objects . {1} Simple objects . Objects. Singing . 2 Easy singing . 2 The same, con- tinued. 2 The same, con- tinued. Gymnastics 3 Common gym- nastics. Games. For boys — Military gym- nastics. 3 The same, con- tinued. 3 The same, con- tinued. Sewing 3 Management of the needle. Sewing of ordin- ary pieces of clothing. 3 Sewing of ordin- ary pieces of clothing, cut- ting, and mending. 4 The same, con- tinued. Manual Work. — Simple work. — Simple work . 3 Simple work. Agriculture 3 Outlines of agri- culture. Outlines of fish- eries and mar- Commerce . — 3 ine products. Outlines of com- merce. Total- Boys 28 2S 30 30 Girls . 30 30 o U H O o n! V a. bo '.I a c b a, 0) ?* aSbb to ■o ° a o S .2 .a S S s « 1- e^S i2 2 «J ^ SUBS STOOH lo -ON X! H OS C O u) • the geo- and ena; com- ction mple t.- o a -3 B gw S 2 M S o_ - 1^ 3.a >. g £ § B 9 ° S ■*" ■SO- " a Suppleraen same. Outlines of ■S 2 ---a "ti O oi ■a 1 rdinary chemic elemen pounds and ac a 1 B 2 >> O w sjnoH JO "ON '■o a"-.g •■ S-o H « S J3 ^ CO SS a . a 3 o j2 (O.S g.gT3 s > SS j3 H '3[aaM "6 smoHJO -ON m a) a ts 2 S flJ *- a S ^" *.2 ii-S S "3 S b— ' a oj o .abS '■^ " S " en U w u •S S S g a 1 S CS 4-i •-< " .« 1> g i» s 3 ra fe^ S ° d o o^ m K m H a tn C O o o 01 0) C J3 in 3 S a 'Stj . rt (3 rt .Sg S ""B gs§ smoH JO 'ON 3 to d 3 in !30i) a S&£ ^ « -d •Q •d TJ •a •a (U V 0) 0) (U 3 3 3 s 3 ti m c _d c s a fl o .^ > .^ '3 '3 «-• 5 d c c c a 3 ^ o o o o o O s o a u o , Tg" =■§> 6 (4 1 cd 9. f^ « U) w CO 0) ifi V V u 0) V •U S C A ja ■a ja .a XJ CO . H H H H H H ,— '— , '}{33M V « M M CO -*• CO CO CO 1 O sjnoH }0 'ofi 1 coco ••o . a XI 13 TI 2S . 13 H g g c o o'SS' S3S.S ° 3 S § •a o (J u u .t! [5 2 ^ 1 1 ■s tn C 5 1 s S" a J3 J3 x: 3 J3 o S3 H H H oo o H '^^asM 'e « H (M CO ■* CO CO CO 1 o o sanoH Jo -ojvt — V— I coco f^J. T3 ¥ . T3 •a 0) '■3 bflti u lI 3 b c c 3 1 -S o u °5l o o c .s 1 t C § c o S" 'S'g oT iT o c c g M" § 8 1 Cfi lU "H. E J3 1 m M h tn h E- •>ia3M B M H « CO CO 1 1 1 1 00 o sjnoH JO -0^ — V- 1 1 1 I « CO qj <+- V4 m ^ O O 11 w ,y "5 .y ill m| >< W 1 s 1 1 1 ■=i V >^ C3 M 1 1 % a. E S •a a c S B o cd rt C O U s in iw UOtH IS in B5 ■ypaxi -e M w C4 CO CO 1 I i 1 00 O sjnoH JO 'ON i 1 1 1 « CO ui to ' P S 1 < a CI mo Subject bi3 C (5 ho c •5) G .Si 1 1 1 1 S i o U CHAP. IX.] COURSES OF INSTRUCTION 123 elementary course, which is, as I have explained, com- pulsory, was lengthened to six years, instead of four : the higher elementary course is to be of two years, but may be lengthened by one year, so that the maximum length of the elementary education will be nine years. The subjects taught and standard of instruction are very much the same as if the first two years of the higher elementary course of four years had been shifted to the ordinary elementary course, with some slight alterations, which will be best seen from the annexed tables V, VI and VII]. Besides those regular courses, there are supple- mentary courses, the ordinary elementary supplementary course for those who have finished the ordinary ele- mentary course, and the higher elementary supple- mentary course for those who have finished the higher elementary course. Both these courses are not to exceed two years. The opening and closing of those courses, as well as the subjects to be taught, are determined by the shi, cko, or son in shi-cko-son schools and by the proprietor in a private school, subject in either case to the approval of the prefect. It is, however, specially laid down that stress shall be laid on such matters as have their bearing upon local industries. The details of teaching of each subject, I propose to give in subsequent lectures. Elementary school teachers must have certificates qualifying them to become such. About the regulations respecting them, as also about their training and their position, I shall speak in separate lectures. Here I shall simply state that there are five grades of elementary school teachers, namely : (i.) regular teachers, or those who have certificates to teach in any elementary school ; (ii.) regular ordinary elementary school teachers, or those who have certificates to teach in the ordinary elementary school only ; (iii.) special teachers, or those who have certificates to teach one or more of the special subjects of the elementary course, viz., drawing, singing, gymnastics, sewing, English, agriculture, commerce, o "S "S i! ■ "Co 01 .s H .ia3-s„-a-ss £(£< sjnoH JO -OM sjnoH JO 'ON "" C F. 3 C3 " 3SS:5° =■ b.ac'-M -2 ; a >,6 s " 2 0^ a - ■■ §.9 Hill lis sjnOH JO 'ON sjnoH JO 'ON sjnoH JO -ON SJnoH JO "ON J3 U H c ■n XJ 5) y 3 (d H §" Hiss's? *t3 w O ui 5 <" 2 w n " H vO .S K O bo's g'5 £3 m d bo J!? > o S S S o Q.C .. c bo.o .S M s t3 ^ *;; e o •« g a-9 a c .9 rt .2 Si e -a is -a -a a ■3 S "I . M 60 S SI 2 s a, i1ili|i"|1li'g"ig| ^ i-» ^ +3 5 hnU o o o aj H H O ,^ " S O " B ^ ■c^ d <*-. '^ 5 a I rt o ao.S (W 4) g O U r 4> to ■S Sag CO." « S 2 cja v~ c o B Bi aS't paO W u 6 2 S i.§ o.S o G oi 3i>5 ja - " Ofc. H S en CO a °SJ . MS SrS ■=■315 ■; S'O " ? ju u '^j (1) C - 1/1 S (/5 "SETS & sag 01 r! O "■ : o o ■2 O a i O* ON 0) C4 fi ii fei XI (1) "3. R H w UJ C w5 o.H ^r> '^ ■2-S 11) a H o O O > Pi < m ►J W X M K O K s H »-< '^ o a c« C o o c am o TJ bo V o ^ 0) CO u ^ - a sa nl 4) C i n P u OJ g g 0) dag. 'SEC art-: ^ « . o " «-2 a •S S&S3 MS Ht?5 •sEg 3x1" a b tS ji s^ tJ o .S • a "'a s O M o B - O. IsbS :-S b a. ■o g ■as rt_a, HI " .a 6b ffiS SO oj a J-O u 2S25"«33 « SftSS- OO 0- I Hi •38g| 13 S M >o si'Sg ■= Oh,-. J" tf d u C C cdj:] O 0! C S •SIb . u ri V 3 «> f: c i! o.3.a <„ Tl - O jn 3 « erf S 9 S >> J3 09 ^ V) ■SoaO OJ'q, ° 8 S bo o >. " a S S g a ri, in a ?i tn H H El o bo M a I'l 11 ■si 11 ^H ff Ji a I S'E 3 o g bo II c 'bo a C m .S S. "& a a ■a S fH C •a 3 5 •>- 6b" S i2 'bob o S s& aa bog! .3(3 o ^ s g" ^ ■o a fl S u Tl o a M.S a a t^V. o ^ "S II s &-2-° e SS2 a a. a a a_ bi.9 & > tig □ u '■3 -a »^^, bo *. bo l«s ■§> 1 Q 03 o M -3 o -a |CQO a .s a "3) o a rtCQCmo U r d S I30 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap. them. There is another reason ; that is, that the number of certificated teachers being small, the number of pro- visional teachers would be still further increased, and prefectural normal schools would have to be still further enlarged. For those reasons, I am afraid, there will be a great difficulty in reducing the number for the present. For the increase in the expenditure for educa- tional purposes in general, I refer you to another place, and only remark here that for elementary schools alone it has increased from 17,154,691 yen (about ;^i, 716,000) in 1898 to 32,835,036 yen (;^3,284,ooo) in 1906. The rule as to the organisation of classes in a school is that children of the same school year should form a class or classes by themselves, but where the number of children is small, those of different school years may be put together to form a class. There are some schools in which all the children are taught together in one class, their number being less than the limit for one class mentioned above. Such a school is called a "single- class school," while others are called "many -class schools " in contra-distinction to them. These "single- class " schools were very largely encouraged as the easiest way of extending the advantages of education to children of villages in remote and poor districts, and a great deal of attention has been bestowed upon the best method of teaching in such a school. Thus, for instance, in the normal schools of each prefecture, there must be a provision for the practice of single-class teaching in the elementary schools attached to them. In 1906, there were 5,181 single-class ordinary ele- mentary schools out of the total of 16,961, and 220 combined elementary schools out of the total of 8,787, where children in the ordinary course formed a single class ; 56 single class higher elementary schools out of the total of 1,521, and 1,889 combined schools, where children in the higher course formed a single class. As to many-class schools, there are various ways of combining children of different school years, according to particular conditions in each school, so that the organisation of classes in a school ig left to the discre-. IX.] CLASS DIVISION ACCORDING TO SEX 131 tion of local authorities, within the limit of regulations. They must always be reported to the prefect. In the organisation difference of sexes has to be taken into account in the first place. In the regulations of 1900 the following direction is given with respect to the distinction between sexes. " Having regard to the different characteristics of the sexes, and to the difference in their future life, instruction must be given proper to each." The following regulations about the organisa- tion of classes are in accordance with this principle of distinction between sexes. In ordinary elementary schools, when the number of girls in any one year is sufficient to form a class, they shall be enrolled in one class separate from boys. In the first and second years, however, this rule may be disregarded. In higher elementary schools, when the number of girls in the whole school is sufficient to form a class, a separate class shall be formed with girls alone. You will see from this as well as from the fact that beyond the elementary education boys and girls are not taught in the same schools, that we have decided against co-education. [By the amendment of igo8 it was left free to local authorities to enforce the above rules about the separa- tion of boys and girls in elementary schools, or not.] Children in regular and supplementary courses are not allowed to be taught together in the same classes unless there are exceptional circumstances which make such a course necessary or specially desirable. In teaching of morals, gymnastics, singing, sewing, manual work, agriculture, commerce, and English, children of different classes may be taken together in one class, provided, however, that the number does not exceed seventy in the case of the last five subjects. For some time past the system of "half-day schools " has engaged the attention of our educationalists, some of whom think not only that it is to be preferred to "single-class school" system for remote and poor districts, but that it might even be introduced in place of many schools, in which, although there may be many classes, some of them are not under very competent 132 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chab. teachers, since, by dividing children into two parts, each part may receive education during less hours, but being taught by more competent teachers the effect of the latter education will be greater and better than that of the former. As the result of discussion, the following regulation was introduced in 1903 : — ' ' The whole or a part of the children attending a school may be divided into two parts and taught at different times, as, for instance, one part in the forenoon and the other in the afternoon, under circumstances cited below, namely : (i) when it is impossible to provide one regular teacher to each class ; (2) when the school building is not large enough to accommodate all the children at the same time ; (3) when there is special necessity in connection with school attendance or the teaching of children." This system seems to be well adapted to the actual circumstances in our country, where the increase of school accommodation and the supply of trained teachers cannot keep pace with the annual increase of school children. We are still investigating how we may obtain the best results with this system. As regards teachers, it is the rule that there shall be one regular teacher to each class, but, unfortunately, this cannot be carried out in practice. We have always been in want of a sufficient number of competent teachers since we started on the present system of education in 1872, and we have been so pressed by the increased demand that for some time to come yet we shall not be able to realise this rule of one regular teacher to each class. Perhaps we should, for the present, be well content if we could comply with the following require- ments of the regulations of 1900, namely : — "Should it be found impossible to provide one regular teacher to each class, there may be one regular teacher and one assistant teacher to each couple of classes, the assisting teacher receiving the directions of the regular teacher in the teaching." But, unfortunately, even this has been found not IX.] ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 133 always possible, and it has been found necessary to allow the employment of provisional teachers without certificates to take the place of assistant teachers with certificates. Thus, in igo6, out of the total of 116,070 teachers in elementary schools 20,076 were provisional teachers who had no certificates. In schools where the two-parts system is practised, the rule is one regular teacher to two classes, one in each part. In schools with more than six classes one regular or assistant teacher may be employed to help the teaching work of the director of the school. Special teachers may be employed to teach special subjects, namely, drawing, singing, gymnastics, sewing, manual work, agriculture, commerce, and English. I shall now give some statistics, taken from the Report of the Department of Education for 1906-1907, relating to elementary schools. Number of Schools (1906-7). » ^ hS "q Sjs o.e MO "■S 1 1 !l 1 ■S V > m II < Attached fectural schools. t 1 t M f S 1 Ordinary Elementary schools 16,822 139 — — 16,961 17,701 18,160 18,619 19.167 Combined schools 8,61s 104 3 6S 8,787 8,147 7.567 7,242 6,644' Higlier j Elementary schools Total i>SiS 6 — — I>S2I ^.559 i,S66 1,602 1.639^ 26,952 249 3 65 27,269 27,407 27,383 27.463 27.450 The decrease in the number of elementary schools in 1 904- 1 905 and 1 906- 1 907, as also the slightness of increase in the preceding years, is due partly to decrease of private schools and imperfect branch schools, but chiefly to the amalgamation of ordinary and higher elementary schools tnto combined schools, and the establishment of new combined schools. "8 n » o ij o o u CO o n P S5 lO -^in »o ts A m \D Cft 00 CO « H o % 1 8" '^fi ^" s -<*- O^ f 9^ CO "1 M iri\0 M CO M ts CO H 0\ i; f ^ " M 0\ 0\Tl- M CO S- "5" S Ti- M lO O \0 "1 ■* »o •3 s oTvg g: fy e2 M 00 00 lO ■* u? on »o ■0- w tached )refect. ormal hools. •S 2- ^ vo ' n ' 00 n ^oZa ■21-3 »■ M o\ s, tach Hig orm hoo; 8, 1-^ 1 hT <2» g £43 -* coCn m !>. m o •SS CO M-OO" CO fil ^ § . C4 IN ui OO 1 II ^ a^: a 8 S-& ■" 1 to »o '^"^- • a a S S o a . ti o, . SW g^ (2 >>b> ■'-> >, ' ss-ls- lliili (So'^gSu a a ^ a 0\ 00 C4 ts C4 ^ VO \d* o" M SO M ON CO O ts 00 tN ■^ M lO W ft O H CO ^" OS 00 COM ts to On ^s ts M s ts M H ^ ^8 if? H lO H 00 00 M 00 "^ H H vO 00 M & M «^ COOO fl «:*- 00 « o H ts ^s \0 1 oo I lO to 00 ts "1 ts 1 ct 1 »0 CO ts \o SO ts ■* \0 CO \o 0\ H vg tstg M ■* 00 « M ■^■■^- • a a B B V V 11 o, a. entary Cours mentary Su tary Course lentary Su ^ 8^ "8 g • inary inary Cour herE her Cour •a -a bobo 65 XX S5 ts f i 00 O i € M M Tf n CD 1 i M « o n n «o CO to M H lO oo CO ? ^ R « K> S M H H R so 5 so \D 00 M U) H H O O^ ■* ^ CO ^ R v8 « ^ 8. •8 SO IN O H SO CO o\ in 00 •«J- oo C4 M M M • • • • 0) rt § a f2 U jj fr u 2 s & s Jj g H ^ & w c ?. bh " S A ts >e_ CI lO « w 0. V) 00 i f? 2- ? ^ &■ S; ^ ^ M H H t«* M CO « m" VO in ON H ^ H N M s Tt- O^ ■* %© ■* K O « CO o 1 tn s 00 & 0\ in VO g in t> m OS CO S2 00 M CO o" cf CO ■"i^ 00* M ■* H c< H s V> CO Sv s g. ^ V? "§ 3 ^ M n CO o 00_ H CO CO ^ $ a- m" CO M m" ^ H VO \o \D o ■* t^ M H Ov in T 00 00 H CO CO VO 0) CO Cn •£> M H ■^ « H q\ H tN 0^ & % 0) M CO Er m" CO H ■^ 8^ M • M Cs CO ^ o 00 o >g ^ ™ ON ■S> P4 Attached to Higher Normal schools. u 2- M lO H 1 1 1 ^ b o «J m i I ff s ? 1 S5 CO a. in CO ON p ^ z <-) in o 0\ tN. CO N ts t-. H VO 15 ^^ ^n "1 in v> bs !^ in CO en m" CO »n vo" CO in in CO •t* u ■* n H H H *> • 1 1- 1 a 1 i 1 1 ■ 1 1 i ■ 1 , "s ■ 'o 1 • 1 • o . o 1 ■ ■3 1 o 1. 1 1 "o t. 1 o H M ■ s - s ■ 'o ' 1- is r MS is s • S S3 l; .2 S h II II •u s W| r-* ll •s •g t-S II II II ri O S.2 '■s" ta '3 to ta ■d bg 6 S 5 s o iS 6 S \ 136 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap. The great decrease in the number of children in 1903-1904 as compared with 1902-1903 is to be accounted for by a change in the legal method of reckoning age, by which a large number of those who would otherwise have entered schools were excluded. The number of schools in 1906-1907, in which there were supplementary courses, was 1,672 ordinary ele- mentary and 273 higher elementary schools, which is a decrease of 202 in the ordinary elementary and of 18 in the higher elementary schools as compared with 1905- 1906, the tendency being rather to introduce a regular higher elementary course, especially of two years, as preparation for the lengthening of the ordinary ele- mentary course to six years. Out of 4,151,540 children in the ordinary elementary course, 2,149,402 were boys and 2,002,138 girls, i.e., 52 per cent, boys and 48 per cent, girls. Of 28,846 children in the ordinary elementary supplementary course, 16,080 or 56 per cent, were boys and 12,766 or 44 per cent, were girls. Taking the two courses together, 52 per cent, were boys and 48 per cent, girls, which is a decided improvement on 66 per cent. boyS and 34 per cent, girls of 1893. This ratio changes very much, when we come to the higher elementary course, there being 907,326 boys to 421,279 girls in the regular course, or 69 per cent, boys and only 31 per cent, girls, while in the supplementary course this ratio is reversed, there being 4,289 girls to 1,455 boys, or 75 per cent, girls and 25 per cent. boys. If we take all the courses together, we have 56 per cent, boys and 44 per cent, girls, while the ratio was 68 per cent, boys to 32 per cent, girls in 1893, and 77 per cent, boys to 23 per cent, girls in 1873. These figures show that people in general have come to perceive the importance of the education of girls as well as boys, more especially during the last few years. The same thing may also be seen from the increase in the percentage of school attendance as shown in the following table: — IX.] TECHNICAL SCHOOLS FOR GIRLS 137 Boys . Giris . 1893. 74.8 40.6 1900. 90.6 71-9 1902. 95.8 87.0 1904. 97.2 91-5 1906. 98.2 94.8 Average . 58.7 81.7 91.6 94-4 96.3 But even now, when we come to the higher elementary course, the number of girls is lamentably small in comparison with that of boys. There are, I think, two reasons for this : the first is that people have yet to be made to see that the ordinary elementary course is just as insufficient for girls as for boys. The second is that above eleven or twelve years of age, girls become useful at home, much more so than boys of the same age, and so parents keep them at home to help in the housework. Why there are so many more girls than boys in the higher elementary supplementary course is explained by the fact that boys enter middle schools or technical schools, while corresponding schools for girls are much fewer. The following are of interest, with respect to the additional subjects of elementary schools : Ordinary Elementary Schools Subject or Subjects added. Shi-chd-son schools. Private schools. In the Regular Course. In the Supplementary Course. In the Regular Course. In the Supplementary Course. Sewing Sewing and Manual Work Manual Work .... 9,194 1,017 939 393 3 2 106 3 14 138 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap. ix. Higher Elementary Schools. Subject or Subjects added. Shi-cho-soK ! schools. Private schools. In the Regular Course. In the Dplementary Course. In the Regular Course. In the pplementary Course. A s, Manual Work .... 703 4 7 — Manual Work and English 21 — 2 — Agriculture .... 4,398 27 I — Agriculture and English . 52 — — — Commerce 294 3 II — Commerce and English 26 — I — Manual Work and Agriculture . 421 — — — The same with English 21 — — — Manual Work and Commerce . 36 — — — The same with English 21 — — — Agriculture and Commerce III — — — The same with English 9 — — — Manual Work, Agriculture, and Commerce .... 30 1 English 367 6 52 — CHAPTER X ELEMENTARY EDUCATION II — {continued) School age — Compulsory attendance — Exemption — Permission to pursue education at hom£ or at schools other than Government, public, or substitute private schools — Measures to carry out compulsory attendance — Obligations laid on shi, cho and son to establish and maintain ordinary elementary schools — School unions — Entrusting of education to other bodies — Subsidies — Substitute private schools — Number and position of schools — School districts — Higher elementary schools — Kindergartens, etc. — Tuition fees — Educational expenditures of shi, cho, son, or their unions or districts — State subsidies — Elementary education fund — Mayors and heads of union charged with management of elementary schools — School Committee. All children who have completed their sixth year and have not completed their fourteenth year are said to be of "the school age." Parents and guardians are under an obligation to send children to school, from the beginning of the first school year (ist April) after they have attained the school age, until they shall have finished the ordinary elementary course, unless they are specially exempted. Mental or bodily infirmities or poverty, recognised by the mayor of the shi, cho, or son within whose bounds they reside, constitute valid reasons for exemption from, or postponement of, the obligation. Those hiring for service children of school age who have not finished the ordinary elementary course must not thereby prevent their school attendance. The schools which children attend must be those maintained by the Government, prefectures, or shi, cho, or son, or private schools recognised as substitutes, as explained below. Special permission may be given to pursue education at home or elsewhere by the mayors of shi, cho, or son, who may cause such children to be 139 I40 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap. examined as to their progress if he thinks it necessary, and cancel such permission. Thus a private school which is not a substitute school can only admit those who have obtained such special permission. This will explain why there are so few private elementary schools, viz., 249 out of a total of 27,269 (in 1906), of which some 50 were substitute schools : it is noteworthy that out of this number 166, or two-thirds, were in Tokyo, about 40 being substitute schools. Lately there have been established a few private schools, with the object of giving those children who intend to go on to higher schools education more fitted for such than the usual elementary course. This introduces the question of preparatory schools for secondary education, which our educationalists will have to consider seriously in a near future. Shi and private persons have also established schools specially for the children of the very poor, who would otherwise not receive any education, providing them with school books and materials, etc. In order to carry out the compulsory attendance, the mayor of a shi, chd, or son has to make out, before the last day of December each year, a school census register of children residing within its bounds who will have to begin attendance in April next, to which he must not fail to add any who may come into residence before 31st of March ; if any children who are still within the period of obligatory attendance come into residence, he must add them also to the list for the respective years on which their attendance became obligatory, and he must strike out the names of those who have changed their residence or died. He must notify the parent or guardian of the fact of his child coming within the period of the obligatory attendance and the date when the attendance of the child at the school is expected. If there is more than one school which the child may enter, he may indicate at the same time which one he shall attend ; but the parent or guardian may also state his choice to the mayor. Claims for exemption or X.] ABSENCES FROM SCHOOL 141, postponement must be made at this time to the mayor, a medical certificate being required except for poverty. All postponements hold only for one year, i.e., till the beginning of the next school year. The mayor must also notify to each school director of the children who are to enter his school. The director of a school must keep a correct list of children of each school year, and a clear account of their attendance or non-attendance. Should a child not appear at the school within seven days of the day appointed for entrance, he must notify the mayor of the fact ; or should a child already entered be absent for seven days continuously without proper reasons given, he must communicate with the parent or guardian, and, should no notice be taken of the com- munication for another seven days, he must notify the mayor. The mayor on receiving the above notification must call upon the parent or guardian to make the child attend the school. If this injunction, repeated more than once, be still of no effect, then he must report the matter to the sub-prefect or the prefect, as the case may be. The sub-prefect or the prefect will then send an injunction to the parent or guardian, and there the matter ends. As a matter of fact, things do not come to this extremity, being generally arranged somehow by exertions of the school committee. There is a provision against admitting children who have not yet arrived at the period of obligatory attend- ance. The director of a school has the power of suspending the attendance of children affected or suspected of being affected with contagious or infec- tious diseases, and children of such bad character and conduct as are prejudicial to the education of other children. Since the last ten years or so, these regulations for enforcing attendance have been carried out with zeal, so that the percentage of attendance, especially of girls, has increased rapidly, as can be seen from the table in the last chapter. As to the actual daily attendance of 142 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap. children on the school list, the percentage is about 88 in ordinary, and 94 in higher elementary schools. As the obligation is laid on the protectors of children to make them attend schools, so on each shi, cho, and son is laid the obligation to establish and maintain one or more ordinary elementary schools, enough to accom- modate all children whose attendance is obligatory residing within its bounds. It may, however, happen that a cho or son is too poor to establish and maintain a school by itself, or that it has not a sufficient number of children (30 is considered to be such a number) to constitute a school ; or that a school cannot be built within a convenient distance of all children's homes, say, thirty minutes' walk for the youngest children, or that a school is inconveniently situated for a part of the school children. In such cases, there are several ways of making a cho or son fulfil its obligation. The sub- prefect of the sub-prefecture within which it lies may cause such cho or son to form a school union with other cho or son for the establishment of one or more schools, or to entrust the elementary education of the whole or a part of its school children to one or more adjoining cho or son or school unions. For the formation and dis- solution of school unions, the sub-prefect must consult the cho and son concerned, and obtain the sanction of the prefect, as also for the entrusting of the elementary education and its discontinuance. In all that concerns education, a school union is to be regarded as the same as a cho or son, so that many of the remarks made above will apply to the union, and some of the duties of the mayor fall upon the head of the union. It may happen that a cho or son, too poor to establish and maintain a school of its own, is nevertheless unable to form a union with another ; or that a school union is too poor to establish and maintain a school, or a member of a school union is too poor to support its quota of the expenses of the union ; or that a chd, son, or their union is too poor to bear the expenses of entrusting the educa- tion of its school children to another. In all such cases, X.] PRIVATE SCHOOLS AS SUBSTITUTES 143 sub-prefect must, after consulting the sub - prefectural council and receiving the direction of the prefect, see that a subsidy be given from the sub-prefecture for the purpose. It may further happen, that the resources of the sub- prefecture is inadequate to give such subsidy ; or that a shi is too poor to establish and maintain a proper number of schools. In such cases, the prefect must, after con- sulting the prefectural council and receiving the direction of the Minister of Education, see that a subsidy shall be given for the purpose from the prefecture. Finally, should the prefect see that none of the above methods to make shi, cko, or son fulfil its educational obligations is possible, he may absolve it from its obliga- tions. Under certain special conditions, the prefect may allow a shi to defer the fulfilment of a part of its educa- tional obligations, and allow a private school to be used as substitute in the meantime : similarly for a chd or son. A term of four years is fixed for such substitution, being, however, renewable. Those substitute schools usually receive a certain amount of subsidy from the shi, chd, or son concerned, and are in many matters subject to regulations for shi-cho-son schools as distinguished from private schools. [By the amendment of 1907, the use of private schools as substitute schools was abolished, all existing permission being in force till the end of the term.] The number and position of ordinary elementary schools to be established and maintained by a shi are determined by the prefect after consulting the shi ; while for chd, son, and unions, they are determined by the sub-prefect after consultation with the bodies concerned and with the sanction of the prefect. Where there are two or more ordinary elementary schools to be established and maintained by a shi, the prefect may, after consulting the parties concerned, give directions that a certain district or districts (whether such districts be already existing administrative divisions or specially made ad hoc) shall use and maintain a certain 144 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap particular school or schools. Similarly, for cho, son, and unions ; there may be more than one school, or more than one body to entrust the education to, or there may be one or more schools and one or more bodies to entrust education to ; in all such cases, the sub-prefect may, after consulting the parties concerned and obtaining the sanction of the prefect, cause certain district or districts (whether already existing adminis- trative division or a special division ad hoc) to use and maintain a certain particular school or schools, or in the case of the entrusting of education, to use and contribute to the maintenance of a particular school belonging to another body. A shi, cho, or son, or a district of the same, may establish and maintain a higher elementary school, subject to the approval of the prefect ; it cannot be closed without his sanction. Cho and son may form a union for the establishment and maintenance of a higher elementary school, the formation and dissolution of which must be approved by the prefect. Kindergartens, schools for deaf-mutes and for blind, and other like schools are subject to the same regulations as to their establishment and maintenance as higher elementary schools. They may be attached to an elementary school. A private elementary school, kindergarten, deaf-mute, or blind school may be established with the permission of the prefect ; their closure must be reported to the prefect. Tuition fees must not be levied for the ordinary ele- mentary course : this is in accordance with the principle of obligatory attendance, but it has been found difficult to carry out this rule in some parts of the country, notably in Tokyo, where formerly it formed a large part of the income for the maintenance of schools, and hence exceptions are allowed, subject to the approval of the prefect, to levy fees not exceeding 20 sen (about 5d.) a month in a shi and 10 sen in a cho or son, except under special circumstances. In 1906, the number of schools X.] SCHOOL FEES 145 in which fees were levied for the ordinary elementary course was 1,336, or 5 per cent, of the whole (a decrease of 31 compared with the year before) ; and, moreover, out of 524,067 children attending those schools, 51,386 had the whole or a part of the fees remitted. The highest fees was 30 sen (about 7id.) and the lowest i sen per month. In higher elementary schools, fees may be levied, but the limit is fixed at 60 sen (is. 3d.) a month in shi and 30 sen a month in cho, son and unions, which limit may, however, in special circumstances be ex- ceeded with the permission of the prefect. In igo6, the schools in which fees were levied for the higher elementary course were 7,587, or 74 per cent, of the whole : the highest fee was i yen (or 100 sen, about 2S.) and the lowest 1 sen. Out of 1,234,061 children attending those schools, 39,218 had their fees wholly or partly remitted. Tuition fees must be uniform in any one school (it may differ in a combined school for the ordinary and higher courses, of course), but may be wholly or partly remitted for children of the poor, or when there is more than one child from the same family. For children not residing within the bounds of the particular locality maintaining the school or entrusting the educa- tion to that school, tuition fees may be increased within the limits above mentioned. Tuition fees may be levied in supplementary courses, the amount being fixed by the mayor (or the head of the union). Private schools are not subject to these restrictions. The expenditures that shi, chd, son, or their unions or districts have to make in connection with elemen- tary education are the original cost of establishment (such as land, buildings, fittings, and equipment), the maintenance (teachers' salaries, wages, books, charts, instruments and other appliances for teaching, furni- tures, stationery, tools, etc., fuel and light, repairs, rent of land and buildings, etc.), and the expenses of K 146 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap. administration. Although there are in some cases incomes derived from tuition fees, interest on school funds, voluntary contributions (chiefly for new schools), subsidies from sub - prefectures, prefectures and the State, they are, on the whole, but a small fraction of the total expenditure. Rates have therefore to be imposed for the purpose ; sometimes, shi, cho, and son contract debts for the establishment of new schools. I give below some figures relating to the expenditure and income of shi, cho, and son, in connection with elementary schools, for the year 1906-1907 and some preceding years ; the year 1 904-1905 is exceptional on account of the war. Expenditure 1906-1907. Teachers' salaries .... 18,819,903 Travelling expenses .... 363.767 Fees and wages .... 1,352,274 Childrens' expenses .... 72,182 Rent ...... 323.819 Books, charts, instruments and materials 895,830 Furniture and tools .... 902,727 Fuel, lights, etc. .... 1,599,136 New buildings and equipment S.85S.470 Repairs ... 975.763 Miscellaneous .... 1,674,165 Total 32,835,036 The totals for some preceding years were respectively : — 1899-1900. 1900-1901. 1901-1902. 1902-1903. 1904-1905. 20,059,256 25. 103,945 29,815.717 31,502,605 24.4SS.498 Income 1906-1907. YEN. Tuition fees ...... 4,326,234 Voluntary contributions .... 1,171,494 Interest on funds ..... 571,832 Miscellaneous ...... 573,347 Subsidy from sub-prefectures . . . . 10,613 Subsidy from prefectures .... 19,487 Subsidy (indirect) from the State . . . 3,033 Subsidy (indirect) from the " Elementary Education Fund" ...... 13.536 Special Subsidy from the State . . , 5,660 Total ..... 6,695,236 X.] SCHOOLS' INCOMES 147 In the above table, among the items of income, there are two, or rather three, different subsidies from the State which require some explanation. The first item is the subsidy given by the State to prefectures for additional salaries given to teachers for continuous or special service (as I shall explain afterwards) ; the total amount is 1,000,000 yen annually, and is dis- tributed among prefectures, in a certain proportion to the number of children of the school age and of those attending schools. The second is the subsidy given by the State out of the interest of "the Elementary Education Fund" of 10,000,000 yen, set aside for the purpose out of the indemnity paid by China after the war of 1 894- 1 895 ; it is distributed among prefectures in proportion to the number of children of the school age, and each prefecture must establish an Education fund with this State subsidy, to which it may add out of its own finance. Out of this fund a prefecture may lend to shi, chd, son, and unions for the establishment of ordinary elementary schools, or even of higher elementary schools under special circumstances, a sum not greater than seven-tenths of the whole amount necessary, to be repaid by instalments within ten years, with interest at 5 per cent. Also, a prefecture may spend a sum not greater than three-tenths of the annual State subsidy in encouragement of teachers and in other expenses connected with elementary education. The Minister of Education may cause more than their ordinary quotas to be given to prefectures whose schools have suffered from extraordinary disasters, the surplus being deducted from their quotas for the succeeding years. I am sorry to add that "the Elementary Education Fund " has been spent in the late war in accordance with an article in the law establishing that fund, and has not yet been replaced, so that the subsidy from that fund is now in abeyance. For the present year, an extraordinary subsidy of 250,000 yen has been voted by the Diet in its place ; the third item is out of this amount. 148 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap.x. As I have stated before, mayors of shi, cho, and son and heads of school unions have to discharge duties connected with the educational administrative affairs of the State within their jurisdiction, and they are charged with the management of shi-cho-son elementary schools. Prefects may order the heads of school districts to assist mayors or heads of unions in discharging those duties ; expenses incurred in so doing are to be borne by the shi-cho-son or unions, but may by the decisions of shi- cho-son or union assemblies be made to be borne by the districts. In each shi, cho, son, and union there must be a school committee ; a district may also have a school committee, if deemed expedient. The composition of the committee is determined by the bodies concerned, but there must always be a certain number of male teachers of public elementary schools, who are nominated and dismissed by the mayor or the head of the union. The number of members is to be not more than ten, but may be increased to fifteen in Tokyo ; the term of members elected from the komin is four years. The duties of the committee are to assist and advise the mayor, the council (in a sht), or the head of a union or district in affairs relating to the following : (i.) injunc- tions of school attendance ; (ii.) permission to pursue education at home or elsewhere ; (iii.) exemption from, and postponement of attendance ; (iv.) school equip- ment ; (v.) preparation of school budgets ; (vi.) tuition fees ; (vii.) school funds ; (viii.) addition or omission of subjects of instruction ; (ix.) length of the course ; (x.) establishing or abolishing of supplementary courses ; (xi.) substitute private schools. The school committees are at present doing very good work in promoting the spread of elementary education, their assistance being specially useful in the matters of school attendance. CHAPTER XI ELEMENTARY EDUCATION III (continued) Object oj elementary school tecuhing — Points to be attended to in the teaching — Teaching of Morals — Directions with regard to the same — Imperial Rescript on Education — Text-books used for the teaching of Morals — Lessons in the first year of the ordinary elementary course — The same in the second year — In the third and fourth years— In the higher elementary course. I PROPOSE now to give a somewhat detailed account of the teaching of each subject in elementary schools. The object of the elementary school teaching as defined in the Imperial Ordinance I have already explained. It is further stated in the regulations (departmental ordinance) relating to elementary educa- tion, that having that object in view, special attention must always be paid in teaching of any subject to such matters as have bearing on moral education and civic education ; that in imparting knowledge and skill to children, such matters as are most necessary to life should be chosen and so taught by repeated exercises and study that children may be able to apply them freely and intelligently ; that in order to insure sound and healthy development of the body, instruction in every subject must be made to conform to the degree of development, both mental and physical ; that having regard to the different characteristics of the sexes and to the difference in their future life, instruction must be given proper to each ; that in teaching each subject, the true object of that teaching must be kept in view and the proper method followed ; and that advantage must be derived from mutual relations between different subjects. These points are always carefully borne in 149 I50 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap. mind in the training of teachers, in compilation of text-books, etc. First, as to the teaching of Morals. In the regulations referred to, the following directions are given with regard to Morals: — "The teaching of Morals must be based on the Imperial Rescript on Education, and its aim should be to cultivate the moral nature of children and to guide them in practice of virtues. " In the ordinary elementary course, easy precepts appropriate for practice concerning such virtues as filial piety and obedience to elders, affection and friendship, frugality and industry, modesty, fidelity, courage, etc., should be given, and then some of the duties towards the State and society, with a view to elevate their moral character, strengthen their will, increase their spirit of enterprise, make them value public virtues and foster the spirit of loyalty and patriotism. " In the higher elementary course, the above must be further extended and the training given made still more solid. " In the teaching of girls, special stress must be laid on the virtues of chastity and modesty. "Encouragement and admonition should be given by means of wise sayings and proverbs and by tales of good deeds, so that children may lay them to heart." I have given the Imperial Rescript on Education at the very beginning of these lectures, for it is the basis of our national education, and I have given an historical sketch of our national development that the spirit of the Rescript may be intelligible to you. I shall now give an account of how the moral teaching based on the Rescript is given in elementary schools. The text-books for the teaching of Morals in ele- mentary schools have been compiled by a special commission, appointed in the Department of Education for the purpose. This commission consisted of the President, Baron Hiroyuki Kato, for a long time President of the Imperial University of Tokyo. Mr Sawayanagi, then the Director of the Bureau of General XI.] TEXT-BOOKS 151 Education ; T. Inouye, Professor of Oriental Philo- sophy ; R. Nakajima, Professor of Ethics ; Y. Motora, Professor of Psychology ; Directors of the Tokyo Higher Normal School and of the Female Higher Normal School ; Chief of the Section of Text-books of the Department of Education, and one or two more members, assisted by several able young scholars. As the teaching of Morals in all elementary schools are made with these text-books, I cannot do better than give you an account of them. There are two sets, one for teachers and one for children. One volume for each year, so that there are eight volumes in the set for the teachers, but in the set for children, there are only seven, there being none for the first year. In its place there is a series of pictures to be shown to the whole class together. In children's books only short sentences to be read are given with pictures, while in those for teachers we have first the object of each lesson, next, an outline of the explanation that he should give, then points to be attended to in the lesson, and lastly, questions that should be asked of the children. The nurhber of hours to be given to each lesson is also stated, and sometimes remarks on extraneous matters which it would be well for the teacher to know in connection with the subject of the lesson are added. I shall give here a list of the contents to show what matters are treated, and also a translation of some of them in order that the method of their treatment may be seen. Take, then, the first year of the ordinary elementary course. A picture is shown to children illustrating children entering the school. The theme of the lesson is "The School." In the text-book for teachers it is stated that the object of the lesson is to let the children understand that the object of the school is to educate them to be good men. The abstract of the explanatory talk is as follows : " You have now first entered the school. For what 152 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap. have your parents made you enter the school ? It is to make you good men. You all want to become good men, of course ; then you must not neglect to come to school regularly. The school is by no means a place where you are to be cramped and uncomfortable. Teacher will tell you interesting tales, he will teach you amusing games. In the school there are many interesting things which you have never seen, and there is a nice large playground. Here you can study and play together with many friends. You will, therefore, think it a great pleasure to come to school daily. Yes, school is indeed a pleasant place ; you must not neglect to come to this pleasant school." The following are mentioned as things to be attended to : — "(i) As children on first coming to the school will be anxious to know what sort of a place a school is and what sort of things teachers will tell them, the teacher must make use of this curiosity, and by repeatedly telling them that the school is a place to make them good men, let them comprehend this fact. (2) The teacher must always bear himself correctly, yet keep an air of warmth and kindness, must be easy in his speech, but not fall into vulgarity, so as not to let children lose the feeling of respect for him. (3) If a teacher is too strict in dealing with children, they will regard him with a feeling of fear ; therefore, by taking a proper mean of strictness and kindness, they must be made to be affectionate and friendly. (4) At the beginning of the school life, children should be shown and be made to practise how to go into and out of a class-room, how to sit down, how to stand up, how to treat their books and other school materials, how to hang up their hats, how to make bows, in fact, how to conduct themselves in the school. (5) The teacher should take children all round the school, to the entrance, to passages, to the place for clogs, to the playground, etc., pointing out at each place the principal points they have to bear in mind, as simply and clearly as possible. It is worse than useless to give them many regulations. They should simply be made to know what they have to do from day to day, and for that, XL] LESSONS PRESCRIBED 153 it is well to take them round the school and explain on the spot." Finally, it may be remarked that from time to time it will be well to have meetings to get better acquainted with parents and guardians, and on such occasions to tell them what lessons have been impressed upon the children, that they also may understand what the school is doing. That is the first lesson, over which they might spend about 4 hours. Then follow lessons on such subjects as The Teacher (3 hours) ; Attitude (3 hours) ; Order (3 hours) ; Punctuality (3 hours) ; Be studious (2 hours) ; Class - room and Playground (2 hours) ; Play (3 hours). So far the lessons have been on what children have to do in the school ; now comes the first lesson on their home relations, on Father and Mother (2 hours). In the text-book, it is said that the object of the lesson is to let children appreciate how much they owe to their parents. The talk is to be somewhat to the following effect : — "This is the picture of a sick child; at her head is the father, the mother is trying to make her take some nourishment. The child has been sick for some days and her parents have been anxious about her and tended her, not even sleeping at night. Children, what do you think of this child being so kindly nursed in her illness by her father and mother? You also have a father and mother ; or if, unfortunately, you have lost them, there is somebody who has fostered you in their place. You also have been tended kindly like this child by them ; think of that and never forget the great debt of gratitude you owe them. Children, your father and mother are also kind to you and take care of you when you are well. Are not your clothes gifts of your parents? Your food? Who sends you to school, that you may learn ? You are happy, because you have such people to take care of you. How miser- able you would be if you had no one to do so ! Have you ever seen a young sparrow fallen out of its nest? On the ground, out of the nest, not yet able to Ry, no 154 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap. one to feed it, if it cries ever so hard ; a child without some one to take care of it is just like that young sparrow ; there can be nothing more pitiable than such. Think of the kind care taken of you by your father and mother, and never forget the great debt of love and gratitude you owe them." As points to be attended to in this lesson may be mentioned the following : — "(i) Grandfathers and grandmothers deeply love their grandchildren ; this should be told them, that they may remember the love and gratitude they owe them. (2) Children without either father, mother, or grandparents should be told what they owe to those who take care of them in their stead." Sample of questions to be asked are : — (i) "When you were ill, how did your father and mother take care of you ? " (2) "When you are well, how do your parents take care of you ? " (3) "Why is a young sparrow fallen out of its nest to be pitied ? " (4) " To whom do you owe your happiness ?" After this comes Filial Piety (3 hours) ; Brothers and Sisters (2 hours) ; Happiness of Home (2 hours) ; Friends (3 hours) ; His Majesty the Tenno (3 hours). This is the first and only lesson in the first year on the duties of a subject; "the object of the lesson is to let children know about His Majesty the Tenno." The talk should be somewhat as follows : — " The palace in which His Majesty the Tenno usually lives is in Tokyo ; this picture represents His Majesty the Tenno going out of his palace ; that is the palace seen in the distance ; His Majesty is in that carriage ; people by the roadside are making the profoundest obeisance. His Majesty is named Mutsuhito, and is a son of the Emperor Komei and succeeded to the throne at the age of sixteen and is now fifty -three (Meiji 37th year). His Majesty the Tennd is the XI.] A SIMPLE LESSON 155 personage who rules over us ; he loves his people most deeply. You are fortunate in being brought up under his warm and benevolent rule." The points to be attended to, are : — " (i) Both words and attitude of the teacher during this lesson should be grave and weighty and very respectful. (I ought here to remark that we have a special form of speech to show respect, which is capable of various gradations, and the use of honorifics in a proper manner is by no means easy). (2) During this lesson some explanation of the Kimi-ga-yo (the National Anthem) should be given. (3) This lesson should be made so as to have a connection with the celebration of the Tenchosetsu (Emperor's Birthday, this lesson is timed to fall near that day), and children should be told as fully as they can understand about His Majesty the Tenno." As samples of questions to be asked are mentioned : — (i) "What manner of personage is His Majesty the Tenno?" (2) " Where is his palace?" (3) " Whose son is he? At what age did he succeed to the throne?" (4) " How old is His Majesty this year?" Then follow lessons on Body (3 hours) ; Be active (2 hours) ; Manners (4 hours — this includes practical lessons) ; Don't quarrel (^ hours) ; Don't tell a false- hood (2 hours — this is something in the style of ^sop's fable of the " Boy and the Wolf") ; Don't try to conceal your fault (2 hours) ; Don't be in the way of other people at work (2 hours) ; One's own and other people's things (3 hours) ; Living things (2 hours) ; Neighbours (2 hours) ; Don't do anything likely to hurt other people (2 hours) ; and lastly, a resum^ of the whole year's lessons entitled "Good Children" (4 hours). In the second year, as children will now be able to read easy sentences, a book is given them to read. There is also some difference in the manner in which the lessons are conveyed. Instead of detached precepts, 156 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap. they are told in a series of short tales ; to each lesson, from two to three hours are to be given. Their titles are: — Parents and Children, Mother, Father, Help Your- self, The Teacher, Old People, Brothers and Sisters, Food, Cleanliness, Honesty, Regularity, Manner of Speaking, Promise, Other People's Faults, Bad Advice, Friends, Take care of Things, Things picked up. Living Things, The Flag of the Rising Sun, Regulations, His Majesty the Tenno, Courage, Don't do anything likely to hurt other people, and Good Children. You will have noticed that several of the lessons are the same as in the first year, but of course they are treated somewhat differently, as children will have advanced in intelligence. Take as an example the lesson on His Majesty the Tenno. In the children's book it is simply mentioned that His Majesty the Tenno is present at the manoeuvres of the Army and Navy, to see how soldiers and sailors behave themselves (note that all boys are prospective soldiers or sailors), and that we must all remember how much we owe to him. In the teacher's book the abstract of explanation is given as follows : — " You will no doubt remember what I told you about what sort of personage is His Majesty ihe Tenno ; now I shall tell you something more. We under- stand that His Majesty the Tenno is always busy from morning till night with affairs of the State. His Majesty the Tenno goes about different parts of the country to see personally how people are getting on. He orders the manoeuvres of the Army and Navy to see the conduct and bearing of soldiers and sailors, ever anxious to advance the military affairs of our country. He has been known on those occasions to address even privates, and ask them questions. His Majesty the Tenno is always so diligent in trying to promote the welfare of our country. We, his subjects, must reverence his illustrious virtues." I must also say a few words about the lesson on The Flag of the Rising Sun ; the children's text-book has XI.] ILLUSTRATIONS FROM HISTORY 157 this short sentence: "The Flag of the Rising Sun is the emblem of Nippon. Is it not a fine flag?" In the teacher's text-book is given an explanation of the flag, how it waves from every house on all national holidays (I should mention that this lesson is meant to be given near the Kigen-setsu, the anniversary of the coronation of the first Emperor Jimmu), how it gladdens the heart of our countrymen abroad to see this flag. A song is added, the words and tune of which were selected from a large number sent in for competition. Above the third year examples are taken from historical personages to illustrate various virtues. The subjects of the lessons for the third year are : — Her Majesty the Kogo (or Empress) ; Loyalty (the story of Tanimura) ; Ancestors (story of Shogun Yoshimune) ; Filial Piety, Diligence, Learning, Self-help (the last four illustrated from the Life of Ninimiya) ; Perseverance (Nelson) ; Honesty (Washington and the Cherry Tree) ; Don't do what your heart tells you not to do ; Don't boast (the wrestling of Taema-no-Kehaya and Nomi- no-Sukune); Be magnanimous (Kaibara Ekken); Health (the same) ; Frugality (Tokugawa Mitsukuni, the Prince of Mito) ; Charity (Suzuki Imaemon) ; Be kind to servants (Tanabe Shinsai) ; Forget not a debt of gratitude (Hirano Kishiro) ; Friendship (Ito Kampo and Nangu Taishu) ; Don't be envious (Kusaka ahd Takasugi) ; Manners ; Things entrusted to you ; Neigh- bours ; Public Good, Revision of the Year's Lessons. I propose to give you an account of the third lesson, namely that on Ancestors, the abstract of explanation to be given as follows : — " Tokugawa Yoshimune was a descendant of lyeyasu and succeeded to the Shogunate. He was noted for his deep reverence and veneration of his ancestors, especially of lyeyasu ; and when it was the day for him to worship at the shrine of lyeyasu in the castle, nothing prevented him. One year, on the anniversary of lyeyasu's birth- day, he gave a grand entertainment to his hereditary retainers and said : ' To-day is lyeyasu's birthday ; it T58 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap. is owing to lyeyasu that we have enjoyed peace to this day. Ought we not to be truly thankful? Great also were the exploits of your ancestors. We ought to rejoice that all classes enjoy peace through the exploits of our ancestors. Let us celebrate the day ! ' Now, children, it is owing to our ancestors that we are here to-day well and happy. We must reverence our ancestors and ever obey their will and work for the prosperity of our houses. Should we by our idleness and indulgence lose the property of our houses, or by bad deeds sully the good name of our houses, surely that would show great want of filial piety towards our ancestors. So we must be very careful." During the third year, as you will see from the above list, personal virtues are emphasised, but in the fourth year a greater stress is laid on civic virtues, since this is the last year that many of the children will attend school, and they must, therefore, be taught their duties as subjects tof the Empire. The subjects of lessons in the fourth year are : — The Great Japanese Empire (the object of the lesson being to let children know some- thing of "the Fundamental Character of our Empire," an account of the establishment of the Empire and the relation between the Imperial House and the people is given) ; Patriotism (Kublai's Invasion) ; Loyalty to the Emperor (Kusunoki Masashige); Filial Piety, Brothers and Sisters ; Co-operation ; Industry ; Value of Time ; Tenacity of Purpose (Jenner) ; Bravery (Socrates) ; About the Body ; Cultivate Knowledge (Hachiman Taro) ; Avoid Superstition ; Manners ; Respect other People's Honour ; Benevolence ; Public Good ; Military Service ; Taxes ; Education ; Election ; Observe the Laws and Ordinances ; Man is the Lord of Creation ; The Duties of a Man and of a Woman ; Good Japanese. Perhaps, it would be interesting to you to know what is said about the duties of a man and a woman ; the following is the abstract of the explanation that the teacher is to give : — " Children, your fathers are engaged in sotne pursuit, XI.] "THE GOOD JAPANESE" 159 and some are engaged besides in the affairs of the shi, chd, or son {i.e., in the affairs of the community) ; your mothers are engaged in tending your grandfathers arid grandmothers, in bringing up children, in looking after the food and clothing of the household. So the duties of father and mother are different. When he is grown up, the man must become the head of a house and pursue his calling, the woman become a wife and take charge of the house, so husband and wife must help each other and make a home ; the occupations of the two are not the same. Moral precepts must, of course, be observed by both, but men should be specially active, women specially gentle, both must observe good manners. It is essential that both man and woman should cultivate knowledge, each such as will enable him or her to fulfil the duties of his or her proper sphere. Man is stronger than woman, but that is no reason that he should look down upon woman ; it is a great mistake to suppose that woman is inferior to man ; they are both lords of creation and there is no reason to despise woman, but their duties are different, and each must not forget his or her proper sphere." In the last lesson, the Good Japanese (by the way, I ought to have remarked before that in the children's books no title is given for any of the lessons), to which five hours are supposed to be given, a general review of the moral teaching is gone through, and a concise ex- planation of the Imperial Rescript on Education within the capacity of the children of that age is then to be given, although, of course, the whole teaching has really been nothing else than the exposition of the Rescript, which, moreover, children have listened to on all public occasions and are therefore quite familiar with. In the first two years of the higher elementary course lessons are given on the same lines as in the last two years of the ordinary course, but in the third and fourth years a somewhat systematic teaching is attempted, as children are regarded now as old enough for such. I give below the titles of the lessons, with occasional short notes of the subjects. In the first year, His Majesty the Tennd (this tells i6o ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap. how he works day and night for the State, regardless of his own pleasure or comfort, as, for instance, during the China war of 1894-1895, when he occupied a small room of some 20 mats or 40 square yards in the head-quarters at Hiroshima day and night, and would not hear of any addition being made for his comfort while his soldiers and sailors were engaged in hard struggles on land and sea and the country had to bear such large expenditure) ; Prince Yoshihisa of Kitashir- akawa (who died in Formosa during the same war) ; Raise yourself (story of Hideyoshi) ; Be diligent in the performance of your duties (the same, continued) ; Reverence the Imperial House (the same, continued) ; Spirit of enterprise (the same, continued) ; Honesty, the basis of success ; Benevolence and Bravery (story of Kato Kiyomasa, telling how in the Corean invasion of 1 592-1 598, he was gentle and kind to the two Princes of Corea, whom he had taken prisoners, how he allowed the Queen of Corea to escape unhurt, how he kept strict discipline among his troops, and would not allow them to maltreat the Coreans, and yet how he was the bravest of all the generals of Hideyoshi) ; Generosity (Kiyomasa, continued) ; Truth and Singleness of Heart (the same, continued) ; Tenacity of Purpose (story of Uesugi Yozan, the Prince of Yamagata) ; Thrift (the same, continued) ; Productive Industry (the same, continued) ; Filial Piety (the same, continued) ; Manners ; Habits ; How to form Good Habits (this story may be interesting : about a hundred and fifty years ago, there was a scholar named Taki Kakutai in the province of Nagato, who had a wise wife. One day she dropped a ball of red thread from her sleeves, which, being long, serve as pockets, and being questioned about it by her husband, blushed and replied : " Sir, I am a stupid woman many a time ; I do wrong and repent myself of it afterwards ; wishing to make my wrong doing as little as possible, I have determined to keep a white and a red ball in my sleeves, and whenever evil thought arises in my mind, I wind red thread on the red thread ball, and when good XI.] NAKAE'S HIGH REPUTE i6i thought arises, I wind white thread on the white thread ball. For the first year or two the red thread ball alone kept increasing in size, but by continually looking after myself, I have lately been able to make the two of about the same size, but am ashamed that the white should not be larger." This is one way, what children must do is to be continually keeping watch on themselves) ; Self-help and Independence (Benjamin Franklin) ; Regularity (the same, continued) ; Public Good (the same, continued) ; Industry (the same, continued) ; Perseverance (Columbus and America) ; Pity Living Things (story of Florence Nightingale) ; Kindness (the same, continued) ; Charity (the same, continued) ; Festivals and fete-days ; Resume. In the second year, Home ; Master and Servant (story of Nakae Toju) ; Virtuous Life (the same, con- tinued ; the latter part of this story may be interesting : One day a samurai coming into the village where Nakae had lived and was buried, asked a peasant where the tomb was ; the peasant saying that a stranger might not be able to find it, undertook to guide him to it, and as he passed his own house on the way went in and changed his clothing. The samurai thought that this was out of respect for him. When they came to the tomb, the peasant opened the door of the enclosure and telling him to enter and pay his reverence knelt outside ; then the samurai knew that the change of dress was not out of respect for him but for Nakae, and asked him if he was a relation of Nakae: "No," said the peasant, " I am no relation, but there is not a man in this village who is not indebted to Toju Sensei ; my parents told me that it was due to the Master that we know the Way of Man, we must not think of it slightly, we must always respect him." The samurai was deeply impressed by the peasant's words and went away after paying profound reverence. "Children," adds the text- book, "should be made to understand the influence of a good life ") ; Friends ; Magnanimity ; Superstition ; Courage (story of Takataya Kahei, who traded to islands in the extreme north some hundred years ago, was taken i62 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap. prisoner by the Russians, but having learnt Russian language succeeded in bringing the misunderstanding between Japanese and Russian Governments to an amicable settlement); Self-help and Independence; Perseverance (story of Maeno Rankwa or Ryotaku, for which see chap, ii.) ; Study (story of Abraham Lincoln); Honesty (the same, continued) ;. Sympathy (the same, continued) ; Freedom (story of the Abolition of Slavery in America) ; Benevolence ; His Majesty the Tenno (telling of the great deeds of the present Emperor, such as the Imperial Oath of Five Articles, the first Education Code of 1872, the Imperial Rescript on Education of 1890, Conscription Law of 1873, the Imperial Rescript to soldiers and sailors of 1882 ; the Constitution, the war of 1894-1895, Treaty revision); the Komin ; Public Hygiene ; Public Good ; Productive Industry ; Invention ; Profession ; Chance (a lesson against speculation, gambling, etc.); Good Japanese (a resume of moral lessons, as many children leave the elementary education to enter middle schools, girls' high schools, etc.). As I said before, in the third and fourth years, a somewhat systematic teaching is given ; in the third year are taught duties in relation to home, to society, and as an individual. In the fourth year is continued the last, and finally one's duties to the State are taught. Thus, we have in the third year lessons in relation to Home and Family, Filial Piety, Brothers and Sisters, Ancestors, Relations, Master and Servant ; in relation to Society — on Society, Friends, Neighbours, Other People's Persons, Other People's Property, Other People's Freedom, Other People's Honour, Gratitude, Honesty, Promise, Magnanimity, Kindness, Charity, Righteousness and Benevolence, the Public, Order of Society, Progress of Society, Foreigners ; in relation to Self — on Self, One's own Person. In the fourth year, we have lessons in relation to Self — on Knowledge, Courage, Perseverance, Self-inspec- tion and Self-discipline, Moderation, Modesty, Dignity, XI.] PRECEPTS 163 Speech, Dress, Labour, Profession, Competition, Credit, Money, Discipline, Self-help and Independence, Applica- tion of Scientific Principles, Culture of Morals, Develop- ment and Progress of Self, Intercourse, Treatment of Animals ; and in relation to the State — on the Great Japanese Empire, Loyalty to Sovereign and Patriotism to the Country, Duties of a Subject, Self-governing Bodies, Election, Representatives ; and lastly, as a resume of the whole moral teaching, the Good Japanese. An exposition of the Imperial Rescript on Education is to be given at the end of the second year in the lesson entitled "Good Japanese," and again at the end of the fourth year in the lesson of the same title. I think the list of lessons and some examples that I have translated will give you sufficient idea of the matter and method of the teaching of morals in elementary schools, but besides these formal lessons, teachers are instructed to seize, and good teachers do seize, every possible opportunity of instilling these precepts into the minds of children. CHAPTER XII ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IV — {continued) The Language — Difficulties peculiar to Japanese — Use of Chinese in two different ways — Kana, kata-kana, hira-gana — Mixing ofkana and Chinese characters — -Chinese characters to be read by the sound or by the meaning — Number of Chinese characters — Associations for the adoption of Roman letters — Limita- tion of Chinese characters to be taught in elementary schools — Spelling — Difference between written and spoken language — Directions as to the teaching of the language — Readers compiled by the Department of Education — Contents of the first volume — Of the last volume — Of the eight volumes of higher elementary readers — Writing lessons — Arithmetic — Directions as to its teaching — Decimals and fractions — Contents of text-books — Abacus arithmetic. Secondly, as to the teaching of the Language. Before I speak about the teaching of the language, it will be necessary to say a few words about our language and its peculiarities which give rise to great difficulties in its teaching. We had no letters until the introduction of Chinese civilisation in the seventh century. The Japanese and Chinese languages being radically different, the Chinese characters could not be used at once, and it was by a gradual process that the letters of our present alphabet were evolved. The Chinese, as you know, use ideo- graphs to represent words, as, for instance, for sun, jg for moon, X. for fire, etc. These characters then have the sounds of the Chinese words, which are mostly monosyllabic. Now, these being signs, on the intro- duction of Chinese literature into Japan, they were made use of in two different ways. One was to use them simply as signs of sounds, and the other was to use them as signs of words, as in the original, but calling 164 cHAP.xii.] CHINESE IDEOGRAPHS 165 them by their Japanese equivalents. Gradually in using them as sounds, there came to be introduced a certain fixed method, so that certain characters were constantly used for particular Japanese sounds. The ways of writing those sound characters were gradually modified, so that they came to be often quite different from the original forms, and there were different ways of modification, which have given rise to two different sets of characters for the Japanese alphabet. These letters of the Japanese alphabet are known as kana (which means "borrowed name," as they were origin- ally "borrowed" from the Japanese to be used not in their original significance but as signs of Japanese sounds). One modification gave rise to hira-gana and another to kata-kana. Unfortunately for us, the two different uses of Chinese characters were not kept distinct, so that in one and same written or printed text, some Chinese characters are to be regarded as words and others as sounds. This mixing up of Chinese characters used as words among the kana or Japanese alphabet derived from Chinese characters, has continued down to the present day, and in fact that is the ordinary form of the modern Japanese written and printed matters. I may further remark that our pronunciation of the sounds of Chinese characters has been corrupted, while the Chinese also have changed their pronunciation in the course of ages, so that at present the Chinese pronunciation and ours of the same characters are quite different. Another thing has to be mentioned, namely, that we have adopted into our language all the Chinese words (with our own modified or corrupted pronunciation). There can be no doubt that our language was immensely enriched in vocabulary by this introduction of Chinese words at the time when our own language was primitive. More- over, as our own words do not seem to lend themselves well to the formation of new and compound words, we have taken Chinese ideographs to form such words, generally using two, sometimes more, characters to i66 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap. form one new word ; the number of those new words, recently made to meet the requirements of the newly introduced Occidental civilisation, is very large and is still on the increase, as we are continually wanting new words. There are not a few who think it would be much better if we should make up our mind to introduce European words, ipstead of coining new words with Chinese characters ; but, unfortunately, they are at present in the minority. It should be remarked that we do not now generally use Chinese characters to represent mere sounds, as our kana have been well developed. But when Chinese characters are used, they may be read in two different ways, either by their sound, in which case we are using Chinese words, or by their meaning, in which case we have pure Japanese words. To illustrate what I have been saying, allow me to take an example : here is the first article of the Constitu- tion, as it is ordinarily written : — Those marked with dots are letters of our alphabet (the Kata-kana), and the rest are Chinese characters, which in this case are to be read by their sounds. These sounds form Chinese words introduced into our language, all except the one marked with a star, which is read not by the sound but by the pure Japanese word, having the meaning denoted by that ideograph. There are 47,216 different Chinese characters in the Koki Jiten (the latest authoritative Chinese dictionary), of which some 3,000 are commonly used. A Japanese scholar would probably know some 6,000 of them. What is called a "high" set of types of Chinese characters at the Tokyo Type Foundry consists of about 9,500 characters. To know a Chinese character involves a knowledge of its sounds, of which there may be several, and of its meaning, of which also there may be several (in the same way as with English XII.] THE USE OF THE KANA 167 words), You must know besides how to write it, which is a quite different thing from knowing it by sight, just as you might know an English word by sight and yet make mistakes in spelling it, which is by no means an easy matter, as some of the characters are exceedingly complicated. Moreover, there are several styles of writing the same characters, of which an ordinary educated man should know at least three, the formal or regular, semi-cursive and cursive. You will probably now have got some idea of how enormously the labour and difficulty of learning our language is increased by the admixture of Chinese ideographs ; you will perhaps wonder why we have not done away with them altogether : all I can say is that it is very hard to sweep away usages of many centuries all at once. It might possibly have been done at the beginning of the Meiji era, if the statesmen of those days had seen fit, for those were days of radical reforms ; but they had been educated in the old days when the only study considered worth cultivating was the study of Chinese classics and history, and education meant knowledge of Chinese ; they could not dream of such a thing as the expulsion of Chinese ideographs, except a few like Mori (afterwards Viscount, Minister of Education in the first Ito Cabinet), who went to the other extreme of proposing to adopt the English language with all its irregularities omitted. In fact these Chinese characters were so thoroughly naturalised that they had ceased to be regarded as strangers, and Chinese literature now forms almost an integral part of Japanese literature. Some twenty years ago, there were formed two associations, one for the exclusive use of Japanese kana, and the other for the introduction of Roman letters ; although they did some good work in calling the attention of people to this question, they were still so far in advance of their times that they gradually declined and died natural deaths ; they could not overcome the inertia of the large majority who, having been brought up to a knowledge of Chinese, had i68 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap. forgotten or did not comprehend the trouble and difficulty of acquiring that knowledge. Quite recently, an association has been formed again, with the object of introducing Roman letters, doing away with Chinese ideographs and the kana ; this association has among its members many eminent men and has a great future before it, although the work it proposes to do is by no means an easy one. In the meantime, to those who were engaged in education, especially elementary education, the difficulty that a child has to encounter in learning Chinese characters was an ever present and pressing question ; with so many subjects to be learnt, it was impossible to spend the enormous time that would be necessary on the mere learning of ideographs. The Department of Education, therefore, endeavoured in many ways to reduce the number of Chinese characters to be learnt in elementary schools, and in the regulations of 1900, is given a list of about 1250 Chinese ideographs that might be introduced in the readers for elementary schools. In the new readers compiled by the Depart- ment and now used in all the elementary schools of Japan, the number of Chinese ideographs is less than this ; but in text-books on history, geography, etc., are introduced many more. When we come to secondary education, the difficulty is increased still further, for besides the study of Chinese (classic), many more Chinese ideographs are introduced in text -books on other subjects. So much for the difficulty arising from the admixture of Chinese ideographs in the Japanese text. Next comes the difficulty of spelling : in the first place, when the sounds of some Chinese ideographs are reproduced with kana, they have retained their old spelling, which is not the same as their actual present pronunciation. So also with pure Japanese words, the spelling of which is not the same as their present pro- nunciation. But I need not explain this further, for you have greater trouble in this respect than we have. XII.] DIFFERENCES OF GRAMMAR 169 In the regulations of 1900, the Department of Educa- tion made the spelling of Chinese words in kana to be used in the readers for elementary schools conform to the actual pronunciation, but this has introduced another confusion, for while the words from the Chinese are spelt as pronounced, pure Japanese words retain their old spelling, and children have difficulty of know- ing which are pure Japanese words and which Chinese. This question has recently attracted the attention of the general public, and has been made the subject of a parliamentary discussion. Then there is the difficulty of the difference of styles or rather of grammars between spoken and written language ; I do not mean, difference such as would naturally arise in any language between the two, but one of grammar. Again, in the written language, the epistolary style differs from the ordinary in many important respects ; the old or classical Japanese again differs in grammar from the modern in many very important respects. At present, we may say that there are two styles differing grammatically, taught in elementary schools : the spoken language and the ordinary style of written language. Then in both written and spoken languages, we have different anodes of expression, according as we address our superiors, equals, or inferiors, which children have to learn, but which is by no means easy to acquire. A movement is now going on towards the unification of the written and spoken languages, or rather the use of the style of spoken language in writing, but there are great difficulties in the way of such a reform. The old or classical style is now not used except on special occasions or in special compositions. Meanwhile, all these things have to be taken into account in the teaching of the language. I now pass on to the teaching of the language in elementary schools. First, as to the name of this subject, "The Language" ; formerly, it was referred to as reading, writing, and composition, but it was altered I70 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap. to the present name, in order to emphasise the fact that these must not be treated as separate subjects but as parts of one subject and in close connection with one another. Moreover, conversation or the art of speaking correctly was introduced. In the regulations of 1900, the following instructions are given with regard to the teaching of the language : — "The essential in the teaching of the language is to make children know words in common use, and such (Chinese) characters and sentences as are most necessary in daily use, to enable them to express their thoughts correctly and distinctly, taking care at the same time to develop their intellectual and moral capacities. In the ordinary elementary schools, instruction should commence with correct articulation, and reading, writing, and joining together, so as to form words and easy sentences, of kana ; after some progress has been made, characters most necessary in daily use (Chinese ideographs) and easy sentences in ordinary style should be taught and word exercises should be practised. In the higher elementary schools, more advanced parts of the same should be taught. Although different hours may be allotted to reading, writing, and composition, great attention must be paid to treat them as mutually related. Sentences in readers must be easy and at the same time examples of good Japanese, and should be such as to interest and refine the mind of the children. The matter should be taken from Morals, History, Geography, Science, and such other topics as are useful in daily life, and must be such as are rich in interest for children. Readers for girls specially should contain matters relating to household affairs. The subjects of composi- tion should be topics in the readers or in other subjects of instruction or such matters as children meet with daily or as are useful in life ; the style should be easy and clear. The writing of the Chinese ideographs in writing lessons should be either in kaisho (formal or regular style) ox gyosho (semi-cursive style). Care must be taken to make the children understand the meaning of words and sentences clearly and accurately. They should be made to apply characters already learnt to write ordinary names of persons and places, to write single words, short phrases and sentences to dictation, XII.] EXAMPLES FROM FIRST READER 171 or to paraphrase them, so as to get thoroughly well practised in the use of kana and of words and phrases. Exercises in words should always be attended to, while teaching other subjects ; children should, whenever they write, be made to write correctly and neatly." These instructions as to the teaching of the language show tolerably well the methods of teaching followed in elementary schools. At present all elementary schools of Japan use the readers compiled by the Department of Education. For the ordinary elementary course there are eight readers, two for each school year, and similarly eight for the higher elementary course. 1 cannot do better than give you a list of the lessons in one or two of them, and show you one or two examples of these lessons. The first volume of the reader begins with lessons in kata-kana and their proper pronunciation ; great care is taken in the arrangement of these letters, so that in lessons on pronunciation, there may be facilities in correcting wrong pronunciations peculiar to several parts of the country. Then follow words and phrases, and at the end of the volume, which contains fifty-eight pages, are introduced ten Chinese ideographs of numbers from one to ten. In the second volume, are continued lessons in kata-kana, and short stories are introduced, In the third volume, the lessons in kata-kana are con- tinued and the hira-gana are gradually introduced. Following are the contents of the volume : — The Dande- lion ; Cherry ; Rape-flower ; Swallow ; The Swallow and Sparrow ; Rain ; Brook ; Bamboo Sprouts ; The Kashi and the Bamboo (a Japanese paraphrase of the fable of " The Oak and the Reed " — so far, a few hira-gana letters have been given at the end of each lesson, but the next lesson is entirely in hira-gana) ; Plum-fruit ; Fire-fly ; Washing (verse, in hira-gana) ; The Four Quarters — E., W., S., N. ; The Sun and Rainbow ; Cicada (verse, the last two in hira-gana) ; The Morning Glory ; Sea ; The Crow and the Bivalve (in hira-gana) ; Grapes ~ Clock (in hira-gana). 172 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap. I need not go through each volume, but shall give the contents of vol. viii. or the last of the ordinary elementary course readers : — Post ; Newspaper ; The Charity of O. Fumi ; Saving ; Industry ; Porcelain and Lacquer ; Enlistment (conscription) of Takewo ; Soldier ; Red Cross ; An Old Man's Tale (history of the Tokugawa Shogunate) ; The Restoration of Meiji and After ; Our Empire ; The Tale of a Hokkaidd (Yezo) Emigrant ; The Productions of our Country ; The Diet ; The Earth. Between these lessons are given some letters (as specimens of epistolary style) and receipt forms, etc. The number of Chinese ideographs introduced are lo in vol. i., none in vol. ii., 13 in vol. iii., 60 in vol. iv., 88 in vol. v., 73 in vol. vi., 107 in vol. vii., 149 in vol. viii. — making 500 in all. Besides these, there is a tolerably large number introduced (with kana by their side), which are not to be learnt like others, but placed before children that they may be known by sight, being such as they are likely to meet with in common life. I cannot explain to you precisely how it is sought that the difficulties of the language that I have told you about shall be overcome, but the result of four years' education with an average child in an average school is such that it is able to read, though perhaps not with very great facility, what is written in either form of kana, and also to write in it simple things that it may wish to say. The trouble, however, is that as almost everything is written with admixture of Chinese ideographs, and as children learn only 500 of them, they cannot read most ordinary prints. This is still the case, after they have passed through the higher elementary course, and in a less degree even with those who have received a secondary education. This is the reason why in news- papers and others written for popular reading, there are generally put by the side of Chinese ideographs their Japanese sounds or meanings in kana. I have no doubt that such a state of things cannot last very long in this busy world, and that the Chinese ideographs XII.] READING COURSE 173 commonly used must become less and less, even if we do not come at once to use Roman letters. In the readers for the higher elementary course are continued exercises in reading of sentences in kana and Chinese characters, of which there are introduced 152 in the first two volumes, 202 in the next two, 6gi in last four — 1,045 altogether. The sentences become more complex, and various signs in common use are intro- duced. As to the contents, they are taken as before from matters connected with Morals, History, Geography, Science, Industry, and Citizenship. Here is the Table of Contents, with short explanations of some of them : — Vol. i., 1 and 2, The White Hare of Inaba — a legend of the mythological age. 3, Spring Scene. 4, Yasukuni Temple — shrine of those who have died for the country, a sort of Japanese Pantheon. 5 and 6, An Admirable Mother. 7, Poisonous Plants. 8, Hakone Mountain. 9, Travelling in Old Days. 10 and 11, George Stephenson. 12, Subjugation of Kawakami Takeru by Prince Yamatodake. 13, Copper Mines of Ashio. 14, What is under Ground? 15, Summer Holidays — in verse. 16, Empress Kusakano-Hata- Hime. 17, Wuriu Iwa — story of a charitable woman. 18 and 19, Fuji Mountain. 20, Exercises — to encourage exercises. Vol. ii., I, Field on an Autumn Day. 2, Distribu- tion of Seeds. 3, Icho (Gingko Biloba). 4, Abe-no- Nakamaru. 5, Life -boat. 6, Sea. 7, Urashima — Japanese Rip Van . Winkle. 8, Murasaki Shikibu — a famous authoress. 9, Saisho Atsuko — a poetess who died a few years ago. 10, The Castle of Nagoya. 11, Our Army. 12, The Regimental Flag. 13, Useless Things turned into Use. 14, Paper - making. 15, Minamoto-no-Tametomo — noted for his bravery and skill in archery. 16 and 17, Battle of Ichinotani. 18, The Ainu. 19, Two Travellers and the Bear. 20, The Escape of Emperor Godaigo from Kasagi — in verse. Vol. iii., I, The Shrine at Ise. 2, Kusunoki Masatsura and His Mother. 3, Honey Bees. 4, The Technical and Agricultural Works of Insects. 5, Story of a Prince saved by a Fly and a Spider. 6, Worms. 7, Nara — the ancient capital. 8, Torii Tsuneemon — 174 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap. who saved his master's castle at the sacrifice of his life. 9, Reward of Kindness — an American story. lo, Alluvial and Igneous Rocks, ii, Glass. 12, Anecdotes of Hideyoshi. 13, Suma and Akashi. 14, A Summer's Day. 15, Story of a Boy nursed by a Shark — an American story. 16 and 17, Protective Colouring of Animals. 18, Tiger. 19, Wind. 20, Weather Fore- cast and Storm Warning. 21, A Sea-country's Son — in verse. 22, Our Navy. Vol. iv., I, The Siege of Osaka. 2, Nikko. 3, Injurious Insects. 4, Useful Insects and Protected Birds. 5 and 6, White Sparrow — a foreign story. 7, O-oka Tadasuke — a famous wise judge. 8, Whale Fishery. 9, Distant Sea Fishery — in verse. 10, Ino Chukei — who made a survey of Japan, on which maps of some parts of Japan are based even in the present day. 11, Mount Aso. 12, Volcanoes. 13, Different Forms of Water. 14, Invention of Steam Engine. 15, Savage Aborigines of Formosa. 16, Byakko Tai — a body of Aizu youths, who died for their lord in the war of Restoration of Meiji. 17, North China Affair of 1900. 18, A Letter of Inquiry about entering a Girls' High School, and Reply. 19, Fable of an Old Man and His Ass. 20, Shi, cho, and son. Vol. v., I, A fickle Man — in verse. 2, Division of Labour. 3, The Admonition of the Stomach — a Roman fable. 4, About Money. 5, About Price. 6, The Long Wall of China. 7 and 8, The Meeting of Komon — a passage from Chinese history, g, Shokatsu Komei — a famous wise minister of China. 10, Elephant. 11, Elephant hunting. 1 2, A Letter from an Emigrant to Hawaii. 13, Corals. 14, Newton. 15, Lion. 16, A Mother's Love — in verse. 17, Care of the Skin — a lesson in cleanliness. 18, Soap. 19, Vladivostock. 20, Peter the Great. Vol. vi., I, Relation of Animals and Plants. 2, Agriculture in our Country. 3, Funatsu Denjibei — who did a great deal for the improvement of agricultural methods during recent years. 4, Invention of Jinrikisha. 5, Napoleon's Russian Expedition. 6, The Sun and Moon. 7, The Telescope and the Microscope. 8, The Pyramids — in verse. 9 and 10, Stanley's Search for Livingstone. 11, Tropical Plants. 12, 13, and 14, Columbus. 15, Niagara Falls. 16, Earthquakes. 17 XII.] READING COURSE 175 and 18, Wasuregatami — a story of the Ansei earth- quake, in verse. 19, A Letter — giving an account of letters used by the blind. 20, The Foreign Intercourse. Vol. vii., I, The Letters — an account of different characters used. 2, The Origin of Type Printing in Our Country. 3, Coal Gas. 4, Balloon. 5 and 6, Story of a Girl who travelled in a Balloon. 7, Changes in the Earth's Crust. 8, Mighty Man, Mighty Nation— in verse. 9, Evolution of Animals. 10, Bacteria. 1 1 and 12, Story of a Boy-nurse. 13, Importation of Fire- arms into Japan. 14 and 15, Story of a Dishonest Trader — ^an American story. 16, About Capital. 17, Matsui Yuken — an itinerant tradesman. 18, Lake Biwa — in verse. 19, Lake Biwa Canal. 20, Suez Canal. Vol. viii., I, Atoji Kamon and Aoki Hosai. 2, Chikamatsu Monzaemon — a famous dramatic author. 3, Haiku — a special form of verse in seventeen syllables. 4, Motoori Norinaga— a Japanese classical scholar. 5, Bakin — a famous novelist. 6, The Song of Encourage- ment of Learning — a paraphrase into Japanese verse of a famous Chinese song. 7 and 8, Benzo, the Boy Clerk. 9, Yoshida Shoin — a famous scholar of the time just before the Meiji Restoration, a strong advocate of the introduction of Occidental civilisation. 10, Introduction of European Learning into Japan. 1 1, Fukuzawa Yukichi — the famous educationalist of Meiji era. 12 and 13, Applications of Electricity. 14, The Constitution and the Imperial House Law. 15, Inoue Kowashi and Boissonade — M. Boissonade was adviser to the Depart- ment of Justice and compiled the first draft of the new Code ; Inoue was Minister of Education in 1893-1894. 16, Law about Relations. 17, Success in Life — in verse. 18, 19 and 20, Our Government System. The above list of contents will show you better than I can explain the nature of the education that we try to give our children. As you observe, there are tales and stories, meant to give moral lessons to children ; others are meant to give them economic ideas, a knowledge of geography and history, of industrial arts, of scientific facts, of our standing as a nation, and so on. Materials have been chosen in a quite cosmopolitan spirit, indeed some conservative critics protest that there is too much 176 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap. of cosmopolitan spirit, both in regard to these readers and the text-books for Morals. A few words about the writing lessons. Our usual way of writing is with the so-called Indian ink and brush ; therefore children have to learn to write with them, but although in writing lessons which begin with the latter half of the first year of the ordinary elementary course, the brush is used, in other lessons children use pencils, these being much more easily handled than the brush. Next, as to the teaching of Arithmetic. The regulations of 1900 give the following directions regarding the teaching of arithmetic : — " The chief object to be aimed at in the teaching of arithmetic is to give phildren readiness and skill in calculation, to give them a varied knowledge necessary in daily life, and at the same time to train them to be exact and clear in their thinking. In the ordinary elementary course, numeration and notation, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division must be taught, beginning with numbers not greater than 10 and gradu- ally increasing up to 100. Then decimals are to be introduced, with easy addition, subtraction, multiplica- tion and division ; then the weights and measures and coinage of our country, and the method of counting time must be taught. In the higher elementary course the above must be extended, after which fractions and percentage are to be taught ; then, if the length of the course allows, proportion is to be taught, and according to local circumstances, elements of book-keeping may be added. Arithmetic should be taught by the '* written method " {i.e. the Occidental method) ; according to local circumstances, arithmetic by abacus (the old method) may be taught in addition. In teaching arithmetic, children must be made to understand clearly and accurately, and to be ready in calculation, so as to be able to apply it freely ; they should also be made able to explain the method and rationale of calculations. They must also be made proficient in mental arithmetic. Examples in arithmetic should be chosen with reference to what have been taught in other subjects, and to the XII.] ELEMENTARY COURSE 177 local conditions, and should be such as are closely- related to daily life." Perhaps you will have noticed that decimals are introduced very early, and that fractions are put off till very late and not much importance is attached to them. It has been found that children have no great difficulty in comprehending decimals, and fortunately for us our weights and measures are almost entirely based upon the decimal system, so that there is no need to teach fractions for daily practical calculations. Thus the difficulties of fractions can be postponed till children are a little older. The following List of Contents of the text-books compiled by the Department of Education will show approximately the order and progress of teaching of arithmetic in elementary schools. The Ordinary Elementary Course First year — L Numbers not exceeding 10. Numeration (we have two ways of counting or rather two sets of names of numbers less than 10, both equally common). Arabic figures ; addition and subtraction ; o as the difference between two equal numbers. IL Numbers up to 19 — the same as above (the names of numbers are easy, as we simply say ten-one, ten-two, etc.). IIL Numbers up to 20 — the same ; elementary notions of doubling, trebling, etc., and of dividing into equal parts. Second year — L Numbers less than 100. Numeration (our way of counting is simple, we say two-ten for 20, three-ten for 30, etc., and two-ten-one for 21, three-ten-three for 33, and so on up to nine - ten - nine for 99) ; signs + — = . Multiplication : multiplication table up to M 178 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap. nine times nine ; the sign x . Division ; the sign -h. Third year — I. Numbers less than i,cxx5. Up to this point all the operations are to be performed mentally ; now for the first time, addition and subtrac- tion on paper are to be taught as well as mental arithmetic. II. Numbers less than 10,000 (we have a special name for ten thousand, man ; instead of counting by thousands up to a million, we count by man up to man times man or hundred millions, which we call oku ; the numeration is simple enough, being through- out on the same principle as already explained). Addition and subtraction on paper ; multiplication on paper ; division on paper ; mental arithmetic. In this year are introduced for the first time questions involving applications of calculations. Fourth year — I. Integers in general ; written and mental arithmetical operations. II. Decimals ; notation, numeration, simple calculations. III. General; weights and measures; time; repetition of, and exercises on, the whole previous work. The Higher Elementary Course First year — I. Addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of integers and decimals ; weights and measures, including coinage in decimal system. II. Weights and measures not in decimal system. III. Metric system ; important foreign weights and measures, xn.] THE ABACUS 179 Second year — I. Measure ; multiple ; fractions. II. Relation of decimals and fractions. Thirdyear — I. The greatest common measure ; the least common multiple ; fractions. II. Percentage. III. Proportion ; inverse proportion ; proportional parts. Fourth year — I. Proportion in general. Repetition of, and exercises on, the whole arithmetic. A few words must be added with regard to the teaching of arithmetic by abacus. The abacus was in universal use before the introduction of the Western arithmetic, all arithmetical calculations even to the extraction of cube roots being performed with it ; even now large numbers of people, including all small trades- men, use it in their daily business. It is, therefore, natural that local authorities insist upon its being taught in elementary schools. Our abacus is a very convenient instrument in some respects, and it was fitted to the old way of book-keeping. It consists of beads of wood (in the form of two cones joined at the base and truncated at their vertices) strung on fine sticks of bamboo set into a frame. The frame is divided transversely into two compartments by a thin piece of wood. Op each stick there is one bead in the upper compartment and five in the lower, the upper bead counting as 5 and each of the lower beads as i, so that there are 10 on each stick. For addition and subtraction the calcula- tions are very simple requiring but little head work, and very quick in the hands of experts. The usual way in old days in offices was for one man to read aloud out of books (in which numbers were written in Chinese ideographs) as fast as he can, and for one or more to do the sums on the abacus. With the modern i8o ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap. xn. system of keeping books with Arabic figures, there is no need for this. As to multiplication and division, the method is ingenious and quick, but it is not to be compared with the modern method. However, as its teaching in addition to the written arithmetic is left to local option, as I have said before, it is still taught in the majority of schools. CHAPTER XIII ELEMENTARY EDUCATION V {continued) Japanese history — Directions as to its teaching — History by representative men- Geography — Directions— Japanese geography in thejirst two years — Foreign geography in the third year — Fourth year supplementary — Science — Directions — Encouragement of nature study — Drawing — Directions — Brush versus pencil — Copy-books — Singing — Occidental music introduced — Directions — Gytnnastics — Sewing — Sewing in a Japanese household- Directions — Manual work — The object of teaching — Different kinds of work — Agriculture — Fisheries — Commerce — English — Result not satisfactory — Changes due to amendment of igoj. We shall take the teaching of Japanese History next. In the ordinary elementary course, some knowledge of the history of our country is imparted by means of lessons in the readers, and this is still continued in the higher elementary course ; but in the latter, a more formal and systematic instruction is given besides, by means of text-books on history. The following are the directions in the regulations of igoo with regard to the teaching of Japanese history : — "The essential aim of teaching Japanese History is to make children comprehend 'the Fundamental character of the Empire' and to foster in them the national spirit. Children should be taught the outlines of the Establishment of the Empire, the ' Continuity ' of the Imperial dynasty, the illustrious works of successive Emperors, deeds of the loyal, the good and the wise, the origin and progress of civilisation, relations with foreign countries, etc., so as to acquire a general knowledge of what the Empire has passed through from its establishment to the present. Drawings, pictures, specimens, etc., should be shown as much as possible, so that the children may be able to form i8i i82 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap. a vivid conception of the actual state of the old times. It is above all important to keep in touch with the teaching of the Morals." This subject is one of those for which the text-books must, according to the present Imperial Ordinance, be those copyrighted by the Department of Education. The reason for this is seen from the first and last paragraphs just quoted : children are to be taught through history to know what constitutes our nationality, and to appreciate the beauty of loyalty and patriotism and the privilege of being a Japanese subject. The subject, therefore, is of utmost importance, and must be in close relation with the teaching of morals, so that choice of text -books cannot be left to free option of local authorities. The text-books compiled by the depart- ment consist of two volumes for the first two years of the higher elementary course ; the history of Japan is given by reference to individuals who may be represent- ing successive periods, or where that is impossible, to the principal events of those periods, as, for instance, Ama - Terasu - O - Mi - Kami, Jimmu Tenno, Yamato- Takeru-no-Mikoto, Jingu Kogo, Nintoku Tenno, the Houses of Monobe and Soga, Shotoku Taishi, Tenji Tenno and Fujiwara-no-Kamatari, Shomu Tenno, and so on, down to the coming of foreign vessels and "the Expulsion of Barbarians," " Restoration of the Imperial Rule and the Renewal of Meiji," Formosa Expedition and Satsuma Rebellion, the Promulgation of the Con- stitution, and the China War. (No doubt the next edition will contain the Anglo-Japanese alliance and the Russian War.) These two volumes are followed and supplemented by two more volumes for use in schools with a four years' course, and by one more volume for those of a three years' course. We come now to the teaching of Geography. According to the directions given in the regulations of 1900 : — "The essential object in the teaching of Geography xni.] GEOGRAPHICAL COURSE 183 is to give children a general knowledge of the condition of the Earth's surface and of the life of its inhabitants, and to make them understand in a general way how our country stands in the world, and to instil into their mind the love of the country. The general physical features of the country, the climate, the division, chief cities, productions, means of communication, etc., are to be taught in the geography of Japan, as well as thp form, motion, etc., of the earth. Then according to the length of the course, physical features, climate and division of continents, means of communication ; chief cities, productions, etc., of countries important in their relations with our country ; the political and economic conditions of our country, its position vis-a- vis foreign countries, etc. are to be taught. In teach- ing geography, observation of actual things should be made the basis as much as possible, globes, maps, specimens, photographs, etc., should be shown, so that children may acquire real knowledge. Care must be taken to keep up continual connection with the teaching of history and science." There is no systematic teaching of geography in the ordinary elementary course. The first two years of the higher elementary course are devoted to the geography of Japan and a general account of the Earth, its shape and motions, latitude and longitude, climate, division into land and water, principal countries of the world, etc. In the third year outlines of foreign geography are taught, beginning with Asia, which is treated rather fully, especially the extreme east ; then Australasia, Europe, Africa, and America. In the text - book, compiled by the Department of Education, the volume for the third year contains chapters on Asia, divided into sections on General Discussion, Corea, China, Asiatic Russia, Asiatic Turkey and Arabia, Iran Districts, India, Indo-China and Malay Archipelago ; on Australasia ; on Europe, divided into sections on General Discussion, Russia, Sweden and Norway, Denmark, Germany, Austria - Hungary, Switzerland, France, Belgium, Holland, England, Spain and i84 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap. Portugal, Italy and Balkan Peninsula ; on Africa ; on North America, with sections on General Discus- sion, Canada, the United States, Mexico, Central America, and West Indies; and on South America. In the fourth year supplementary teaching is given. What it is like will be seen from the contents of the fourth volume of the text -book. They are General Discussion (containing an account of the height of the land and depth of the sea, distribution of land and water, atmosphere, relations of life and nature, relations of man to the physical world, etc.); mountain ranges and volcanoes, with earthquakes and mineral springs ; rivers and lakes ; sea-coast ; ocean currents with tides ; climates ; fauna and flora ; races of men, population and languages ; government with arma- ment ; education and religion ; industry ; commerce ; and communications. School excursions and journeys are taken advantage of whenever possible, to teach geography practically. The next subject is Science. This also is not a separate subject in the ordinary elementary course, but many of the lessons in the readers have reference to nature and natural phenomena, so that children get some knowledge of nature from them, and teachers are encouraged to interest them in nature study as much as possible. In the higher elementary course, for the first two years, children are to study and observe plants, animals, minerals and natural phenomena ; in the third year simple physical and chemical facts, such as are likely to be useful in their daily life, and their explanation are given, and also some lessons in very elementary human physiology, with especial reference to hygiene ; in the fourth year children are taught in addition to the above, the mutual relations of plants, animals, and minerals to one another and to mankind. The following are the directions with regard to the science teaching in the regulations of 1900 : — XIII.] PRACTICAL TRAINING 185 "The object of teaching science is to let children know something of common natural objects and pheno- mena, and to make them understand their relations to one another and to mankind, at the same time training them in habits of accurate observation and fostering love of nature. Instruction should be given chiefly with reference to such matters as come under daily observation of children. They should be made to know the names, forms, uses, and general outline of the development and life of more important plants and animals. Then, if the length of the course allows, ordinary physical and chemical phenomena, principal elements arid compounds, construction and action of simple instruments, and elements of human physiology and hygiene should be explained to them, as well as the relations of animals, plants and minerals to one another and to mankind. In teaching science, care should be taken to introduce matters intimately con- nected with agriculture, marine productions, industry and daily household life. Especially in teaching about plants, animals, etc., principal objects manufactured from them, outline of the manufacturing processes and their uses should be explained. Actual observation should be made the basis of teaching. Specimens, models, drawings, etc., should be used and simple experiments made, in order to give a clear understand- ing of the subject." School journeys are taken advantage of, as in geography, to give practical points to the teaching. Recently, a great deal of encouragement has been given to the construction of school gardens, where plants necessary for demonstration are cultivated, and children themselves made to cultivate them as much as possible. Rearing of poultry, of silkworms, bees, etc., is practised in some schools. But on the whole, the teaching of science has to be improved a great deal yet. It is difficult, because so much depends upon the proper adaptation of the general principles to local conditions by the teacher. Some time ago, a committee composed of experts in sciences and education was appointed in the Department of Education to report on the best method of teaching science in elementary schools, and 1 86 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap. is still at work. [The committee has produced a handbook of science teaching for the use of teachers, which has just been published by the Department of Education,] The use of a text-book for children in science is not allowed, as it is considered to be impossible to frame such as are adapted to different local conditions through- out the Empire, and they would be a hindrance to real nature study. With regard to Drawing, the directions in the regulations of igoo are as follows : — "The object to be aimed at in the teaching of draw- ing is to cultivate in children the faculty of perceiving clearly and drawing correctly ordinary objects, and to foster the sense of the beautiful. When drawing is added to the curriculum of the ordinary elementary schools, children must begin with drawing simple forms and proceed to simple objects. They should at the same time be made to design various forms with straight and curved lines. In the higher elementary course, children, if they are beginning then, should begin in the same way and gradually advance to drawing more complex objects from real objects and from copy-books, and to more advanced designing. Geometrical drawing may be added according to local circumstances. The objects drawn should be such as are shown to children in teaching of other subjects or such as they are familiar with. Care should be taken to teach children to be cleanly in their habits, and to be close in their observation." The Japanese use the brush very much more than the Occidentals ; until the introduction of pen and pencil within recent years, the brush was the only instrument for writing as well as for drawing. A pen cannot be used on ordinary Japanese paper, and although the pen is now used in offices which have adopted Occidental business methods, and by students taking notes, etc., the use of the brush as a writing instrument is still nearly universal. In drawing also it is the same. With the Occidental xiu] COPY-BOOKS 187 method of education, drawing in pencil on foreign drawing-paper was introduced into elementary schools ; however, there were not wanting those who warmly advocated the retention of drawing with the brush even in elementary schools. For practical purposes, pencil drawing seems to be better fitted, while in artistic capacity, the brush seems to be superior, but the dis- pute between the two is not settled at present, and I cannot enter into the discussion oi-'the relative merits of the two. The question being undecided, it is left to local authorities to decide which method shall be taught in schools. In the ordinary elementary course drawing is not one of the regular subjects, but may be added from the second year, according to local circumstances. In the higher course boys have two hours drawing and girls one hour, as the latter have three hours sewing, which boys have not. A good deal of teaching is by copy-books, but a better class of teachers is introducing more and more drawing from real objects and practice in drawing from memory and making of different designs both in form and colour. The Department of Education has issued copy-books for use in elementary schools ; there are two sets for each class, one for brush and the other for pencil draw- ing. Moreover, separate copy-books are necessary for boys and girls, as the number of hours allotted to drawing is, as just stated, twice as many for boys as for girls. Again, there are two different sets in the first two years, according as children have had instruction in drawing in the ordinary elementary course, or not. Plenty of time is left free for designing, drawing from real objects, and from memory. For geometrical drawing, which may be added in the fourth year, according to local circumstances, a book of drawing and one of directions, both for the use of teachers, have been compiled, it being deemed unneces- sary for children to have a copy-book ; the number of i88 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap. geometrical constructions given is not large, it being intended to interest children by a number of applica- tions, rather than to weary them with a great many rules, of which they do not see the use. Some simple exercises in projection are added. Next, as to the teaching of Singing. We have in Japan several kinds of music, both instrumental and vocal ; but none of them seemed to be fitted for teaching in schools. So, when it was found necessary for educational purposes that music, and especially singing, should be taught in schools, it was decided to introduce Occidental music. For the purpose of singing in schools, such foreign melodies as were thought to be most adapted for Japanese voice and ear were chosen, and Japanese words proper for children set to those tunes. Teachers were trained to teach in normal schools, and then the graduates of normal schools began to teach singing in elementary schools ; at first there was some opposition, those tunes were strange to Japanese ears, and besides as the teachers were not very well trained themselves, the result of teach- ing could not be very pleasing in any way ; however, by persistent efforts, better results have been obtained, and now you will hear children singing in Occidental fashion in every village. According to the regulations of 1900 : — " The object of teaching singing is to enable children to sing simple tunes, and at the same time to cultivate the sense of the Beautiful, and to foster the moral susceptibilities of children. In the ordinary elementary course when singing is added to the curriculum, children should be taught easy single part singing without use of notes. In the higher elementary course, notes may be used, when a little advanced. Words and tunes should be easy and elegant, and such as are calculated to make the minds of children lively and to elevate their tone." xin.] SEWING 189 Of Gymnastics I shall speak, when I come to speak of physical education in general. Next, as to the teaching of Sewing. In Japanese households, all the ordinary pieces of clothing of its members are usually made at home by the mistress or under her directions. She must, there- fore, know how to cut pieces of silk, cotton, or woollen stuff for them, as well as to sew. This is the case, not only with new clothing, but old clothing must be taken to pieces, washed, mended, and sewn together again. Hence lessons in sewing and cutting constitute an important part of a girl's education, and very often not content with the amount of teaching given in elementary schools, parents send their daughters to get sewing lessons or to supplementary courses, where sewing forms a large part of the teaching. According to the regulations : — "In sewing lessons, girls must be taught to be proficient in cutting and sewing of ordinary pieces of clothing, and trained to be frugal and thrifty. When sewing is added to the curriculum of the ordinary elementary course, the lesson should begin with the management of the needle, and then advance from the sewing of easier pieces by degrees to other ordinary pieces of clothing. In the higher elementary course the teaching should proceed in a similar way, going on to the sewing, cutting, and mending of all ordinary pieces of clothing. Materials used in sewing lessons should be such as are commonly used. Girls must be taught the use of different instruments, the kind and nature of materials, methods of preserving and washing clothes." It should be remarked that our garments are much simpler than the European, and the instruments used are few and simple. Hence with lessons given in ele- mentary schools and some practice under maternal directions, girls will be able to manage ordinary house- hold sewing to an appreciable degree. In Manual Work children are taught to make igo ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap. simple objects with different materials, such as paper, string, clay, straw, wood, bamboo, metal, etc., to obtain common practical knowledge about kinds and properties of those materials, to know the construction and use of various instruments, to appreciate the practical value of what they have learnt in lessons on drawing, arithmetic, and science, and to exercise their inventive faculties. These, however, are to form only a part of the educational value of this subject. By it children are to be trained in habits of accurate observation, attention to details, method and order, economy and utilisation, perseverance, industry, and self-control. Their sense of the Beautiful is to be cultivated, and they should be taught to love labour. In fact, this subject is to be made to serve as a valuable adjunct to the teaching of morals and of arithmetic, drawing and science. A great deal of attention has been directed to this subject. Special summer courses for teachers have been opened in the Tokyo Higher Normal School and also in several prefectures. The number of schools where this subject is taught is increasing. It has been very popular with children, wherever it has been taught properly. A manual on the subject for the use of teachers has been issued by the Department of Education. It gives a series of lessons distributed over eight years of the elementary course. For the ordinary elementary course and the first two years of the higher elementary course this subject may be added at the option of the local authorities, while for the last two years of the higher elementary course it is one of the three alternative subjects which must be added. At present there are very few schools where it is taught throughout the whole course, so that teachers have to choose out of the exercises given in the manual those suited to the circumstances of the particular schools or classes. The easiest exercises given are cardboard exercises, being lessons in simple geometrical forms and colours for the first^year. Then comes bean-and-bamboo work or xm] THE BAMBOO IN WOODWORK 191 making outlines of objects, flat or solid, with very fine bamboo sticks jointed by means of hard boiled beans. Clay work is modelling in clay, which is continued to higher classes. Paper work is rather well developed with us, consisting of paper folding, cutting and twist- ing, all of practical utility, especially the last, by which strong cords can be made. Himomusubi is making of ornamental knots with cords and strings, also of practical utility in Japan. There is also cardboard work, making of cardboard cases, and such like work. Book-binding, or rather the art of binding paper so as to keep them together in a neat form, is another rather useful work. For girls, making outline patterns with coloured threads is a help to sewing lessons, and may be ex- tended to embroidery. In the upper classes of the higher elementary schools are given bamboo work or making of various useful objects with bamboo (in Japan there is almost no limit to the variety of things that we can make with bamboo), wood-work or carpentry, metal-work and casting. Agriculture is another of the three alternative subjects that must be added in the third and fourth years of the higher elementary course. Peasantry forming a large proportion of the population, it has been thought advisable that they should get some knowledge in elementary schools of the principles of agriculture, such as the nature of different soils, irrigation and drainage, ploughing, sowing, manures, agricultural implements, sericulture, domestic animals, etc. A manual for the use of teachers has been issued by the Department of Education, in which are treated such subjects as the selection of seeds, cultivation of rice and barley (two staples of Japanese farmers), useful and injurious insects, breeding of cattle and poultry, care of fruit- trees, mulberry and silkworms, manures, agricultural economy, etc. According to local circumstances, fisheries, includ- ing marine productions, may replace or be added to 192 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION [chap. agriculture. This would be the case in villages where inhabitants are chiefly fishermen. In such a locality, it is proper that children should be taught about the sea and its productions, and methods of making them commercial articles. The last of the three alternative subjects is Com- merce. This would naturally be added in schools of shi, or larger chd or son, where many of the parents are tradesrnen. The children are to be taught in such matters as buying and selling, money market, means of transportation, insurance, etc., with special reference to the locality of the school, and also in the elements of commercial book-keeping. The directions of 1900 say that special stress must be laid on teaching children the necessity of diligence and quickness, and above all of obtaining and preserving credit and confidence. Lastly, we come to the English Language. English being, as it were, the common language of the East, it has been considered proper to allow English to be taught in elementary schools where local authorities think it fit to do so. Children are taught to read easy books and to converse on simple subjects. I shall speak more about the teaching of English generally when we come to secondary educa- tion ; here I shall simply remark that owing chiefly to want of good teachers and the large number of children in one class, the result of teaching English for four years in the higher elementary course is not as satis- factory as can be desired. But, on the whole, there seems to be some improvement, so that there are hopes for the future. [Owing to the amendment of 1907, there are changes in the subjects taught and the standard of instruction in them, but for the present it will not be a very great mistake if we suppose that the first two years of the former higher elementary course have been shifted xin.] MANUAL WORK 193 on and added to the ordinary elementary course. Of course there are some slight differences, as, for instance, making drawing and sewing obligatory from the third year of the ordinary elementary course. Manual work has been given a somewhat greater importance, as it is now not alternative with agriculture and commerce. (See also Tables VI and VII of chap. IX)]. CHAPTER XIV ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS Teacher^ certificates — General certificates — Prefectural certificates — Three classes and two grades — Teacher^ certificates committee — Certificates with- out examination — Examination — Subjects and standard — Appointment — Temporary retirement — Retirement — Disciplinary measures — Treatment — Military service — Salaries — Additional salaries — Fund — Subsidy — Special commendation — Pensions, A TEACHER in an elementary school (with the exception of provisional teachers) must be in possession of a teacher's certificate. There are two kinds of certificates, namely, general certificates and prefectural certificates. The former are granted by the Minister of Education and are valid throughout the country, while the latter are granted by prefects and are valid only within the prefecture in which they have been issued. General certificates are granted by the Minister of Education on application from prefects or directors of Government schools concerned to (i.) those who have served ten years or more as regular teachers in ski-cho-son elementary schools and are deemed to have obtained satisfactory results in their teaching ; (ii.) the graduates of higher normal schools, and of the female higher normal school who have served three years or more as regular teachers in ski-cho-son elementary schools ; and (iii.) the graduates of Government schools who have received in them education specially fitting them to become teachers in a certain subject or subjects, and have served three years or more as regular teachers in shi-cho-son elementary schools. Prefectural certificates are granted to the graduates 194 CHAP. XIV.] TEACHERS' CERTIFICATES 195 of normal schools or of such other schools as have been approved by the Minister of Education, and to those who have passed the tests for teachers' certificates. There are three classes of certificates, those for regular teachers, those for assistant teachers, and those for special teachers. There are two grades of regular teachers' certificates, namely, those qualifying the possessors to be regular teachers in elementary schools in general, and those qualifying for the ordinary elementary schools only. Similarly, there are two grades of assistant teachers' certificates. For the purpose of investigating the qualifications of those who are not graduates of normal schools or of schools approved by the Minister of Education, a Teachers' Certificates Committee is appointed in each prefecture, consisting of the chief of the second (or education) bureau of the prefectural office, who is chair- man ex officio, and a certain number of permanent and temporary members appointed by the prefect : the committee investigates all applications for teachers' certificates. No applications can be received from (i.) those who have been sentenced to imprisonment or a greater penalty, excepting those who have been punished for political offences and been restored to public rights ; (ii.) those who have been fined or subjected to police surveillance for an offence against credit or morality ; (iii.) those who have been adjudged bankrupt or insolvent and have not yet discharged their financial obligations; and (iv.) those who have been deprived of their certificates as disciplinary measures within the last three years. Certificates may be granted without special examina- tion, if their papers be found satisfactory, to the follow- ing : (i.) those possessing secondary teachers' certifi- cates ; (ii.) those possessing elementary school teachers' certificates of other prefectures ; (iii.) graduates of Government schools who have received in them an education specially fitting them to become teachers in ig6 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS [chap. a certain subject or subjects ; (iv.) graduates of middle schools or of schools designated by the Minister of Education as of equal or higher standard of teaching ; (v.) graduates of girls' high schools ; (vi.) those whom the prefect has reasons to believe to be specially competent to teach (subject in the last case to the approval of the Minister of Education). Those who have not any of the above qualifications must be examined as to their competence ; for this purpose, an examination must be held at least once a year. The subjects and standard of examination for a regular teacher's certificate are the same for the male candidates as for the male students of normal schools and for the female candidates as for the female students of normal schools ; but one or more of the following subjects may be dispensed with, namely, drawing, music, manual work, agricultural, commerce, and English language, and for female candidates gymnastics also. The subjects and standard for an ordinary elementary school regular teacher's certificate are the same as in the shorter course of normal schools, but one or more of the three, Chinese, drawing and music, may be omitted ; also mathematics may be limited to arithmetic, and history to Japanese history only ; for female candidates, gymnastics also may be omitted and sewing added. Subjects and standard of examination for an assistant teacher's certificate are as follows : — Morals (essentials) ; Pedagogy (method of teaching) ; the Language (common style, reading of readers for elementary schools, com- position and writing) ; Arithmetic (integers, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of decimals and fractions, proportion, percentage) ; History (out- lines of Japanese history) ; Geography (outlines of Japanese and foreign geography) ; Science (outlines of natural sciences, physics, and chemistry) ; Drawing (freehand drawing and easy geometrical drawing) ; Singing ; Gymnastics (common gymnastics and first steps of military gymnastics) ; Sewing (cutting, sewing XIV.] TEACHERS' CERTIFICATES 197 and mending of ordinary pieces of clothing) ; Manual Work ; Agriculture ; and Commerce (outlines of the last three). Of those, sewing is for female candidates only, and the last three for men only ; and one or more of these, as well as singing and gymnastics, may be dis- pensed with, as also gymnastics for women. Subjects and standard for an ordinary elementary school assistant teacher's certificate are as follows : Morals (essentials) ; Pedagogy (method of teaching) ; the Language (reading of elementary school readers, composition and writing); Arithmetic (integers, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of decimals and fractions, simple proportion) ; History and Geography (outlines of Japanese history and geography) ; Science (easy natural sciences, physics, and chemistry) ; Draw- ing (easy freehand) ; Singing and Gymnastics (common gymnastics). One or more of science, drawing and singing, may be dispensed with, as also gymnastics for women. A special teacher's certificate is given for one or more of the following subjects, namely. Drawing, Music, Gymnastics, Sewing, Manual Work, Agriculture, Com- merce and English Language, the standard of exam- ination being that of the teaching in normal schools ; the examination must include the method of teaching those subjects to children. Moreover, examiners must be satisfied that candidates possess ordinary knowledge of morals, the language, and arithmetic. The committee is to examine, if it thinks it necessary, candidates to whom certificates may be granted without examination, in any or all of the subjects ; it may, if it deems proper, dispense with examination in some subjects for those candidates possessing certificates which have become invalid or who have passed tiirough a special short course for teachers. From the above it will be seen that the standard for certificates of assistant teachers, or even of regular teachers, is not very high, and hence every encourage- ment is given by the Department of Education to igS ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS [chap. increase the number of normal schools and number of pupils in them, for it is chiefly to the graduates of those that we must look for giving good elementary education. [As a consequence of changes in the normal educa- tion made in 1907, some changes were also introduced in the standard of examination for certificates ; for instance, drawing and music may not be dispensed with, nor gymnastics for female candidates, in the examination for regular teacher's certificate, and so on ; but the most important change was in the regulations for the examination for the ordinary elementary school regular teacher's certificate, in which, owing to the abolition of the shorter course in normal schools, the subjects and standard of examination are now specified. I do not think it necessary to give them here ; the subjects are nearly the same as for the assistant teacher's certificate, and the standard only slightly higher.] The appointment of teachers and directors of shi-cho- son elementary schools is made by the prefect on the recommendation of the mayor in a shi and of the sub- prefect in a cho or son. Prefects have the power of ordering temporary retirement {kyuskoku) of those regular teachers of shi-cho-son schools (i) who are prevented from discharging their duties on account of sickness or personal injury ; (2), who have become superfluous on account of changes in the organisation of the school ; (3), who are to enter Government or prefectural schools to receive training for secondary school teachers ; or (4), who are charged with criminal offence. Those regular teachers who enter active service by conscrip- tion or are summoned in time of war or emergency, go ipso facto into temporary retirement. Temporary retire- ment is for one year in (i) and (2), and lasts till the termination of the judicial proceedings in the case (4) ; for those who have entered schools or military service, the term is during the continuance of such and for three months after. Those in temporary retirement do not generally receive salary, but the prefect may, with the XIV.] TEACHERS' ENGAGEMENTS 199 consent of the shi, chd, son union or district, grant them the whole or a part of their salary ; in all other matters, they have the same rights and obligations as those in active service. Prefects have the power of ordering the retirement of those regular teachers of shi-chd-son schools (i) who are unable to discharge their duties on account of physical or mental infirmity ; (2) who being unable to discharge their duties owing to sickness or personal injury, or for some reasons of their own, wish to retire ; or (3) who having been originally appointed to fill the place of those who entered into temporary retirement, have become superfluous on account of their restoration to their former service. The regular teachers (i) whose school has been closed, or (2) whose term of temporary retirement has expired, go ipso facto into retirement. Those who have been deprived of their certificates or whose certificates have lost their validity lose their office. When the reason for temporary or permanent retire- ment is sickness, personal injury, physical or mental infirmity, the prefect has to ask the opinion of the physician advisory to the local pension bureau. When the prefect wishes to order temporary or permanent retirement of regular teachers of shi-chd-son schools for reasons other than those enumerated above, he may, under the direction of the Minister of Educa- tion, take special measures. The retirement of assistant teachers is left to be regulated by prefects on about the same lines as for regular teachers. Appointment, retirement, and disciplinary punish- ment of provisional teachers are made in a shi by the mayor, and in a chd or son by the sub-prefect; they must be reported at once to the prefect, who has also the power to order the dismissal of a provisional teacher whom he may think unfit. Regulations about their salaries, travelling expenses, etc., are made by the prefect. 200 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS [chap. The appointment or change of teachers and director of a private elementary school must be reported at once to the prefect. If a director or a teacher of shi-cho-son schools is deemed guilty of transgressing the obligations or neglecting the duties of his profession, or of such conduct as disgraces it, whether in the course of his profession or not, the prefect after demanding a written account of the act or conduct, shall, if he thinks it proper, inflict disciplinary punishment upon him : these are reprimand, reduction of salary (of not more than one- third during a period of from one month to a year), or dismissal, according to the gravity of the offence. A teacher so dismissed cannot become teacher again for two years, unless specially remitted by the prefect with the sanction of the Minister of Education. In case of a very grave offence, he may further be deprived of his certificate. If the offence be made the subject of judicial pro- cedure, disciplinary measure cannot be taken while it is pending. The certificate of a teacher loses its validity : (i) if he is sentenced to imprisonment or a greater punishment ; (2) if he is sentenced to a fine or police supervision for an offence against credit or morality ; or (3) if he is declared bankrupt or insolvent. Should a teacher in private schools be guilty of a similar offence, the prefect has the power to suspend him from the teacher's profession for a term of from one month to two years, which may afterwards be reduced with the sanction of the Minister of Education by the prefect. Those who have been dismissed or suspended or deprived of their certificates have the right of appealing to the Minister of Education. As I have already stated, teachers of shi-cho-son schools are not State officials, but they receive treat- ment due to State officials of hannin class. Graduates of Government or public normal schools actually engaged in teaching in Government or public elementary XIV.] SALARIES OF TEACHERS 201 schools being between seventeen and twenty -eight years of age, are enlisted in an active military service of six weeks on the ist of June next after their appoint- ment, and are enrolled in the landwehr at the conclusion of that service ; they are thereby exempted from ordinary service of three years or volunteer service of one year, but if between the above ages they cease from teaching in an elementary school, they have to enter ordinary active military service. Regular teachers in the higher elementary schools receive salaries ranging from 7.5 yen to lo yen (15s. to ;^i) a month ; the maximum may in special cases be increased to 100 yen ; minimum for women is 8 yen. [By the change of 1907, the minimum was increased to 12 and 10 yen respectively for men and women.] In the ordinary elementary schools, regular teachers receive salaries rising from 8 yen for men and 6 yen for women [increased to 10 and 8 respectively in 1907]. Special teachers' salaries differ according to the number of hours they are actually teaching. Assistant teachers' salaries range from 20 yen to 7 and 5 yen respectively for men and women in the higher elementary schools, and to 5 and 4 yen respectively in the ordinary elementary schools. [The minimum was increased to 9 and 7 yen in the higher, and 7 and 6 yen in the ordinary elementary schools respectively for men and women.] Appended below is the table for 1906-1907, showing the number of teachers in public elementary schools with reference to their salaries. From this table it will be seen that although there has been a steady increase in the average of the salaries of elementary school teachers, it is still very small. This is universally recognised ; the only difficulty is the practical one of how to get the means of increasing them, for the rates on which such an increase would fall are already pretty heavy. Several ways of improving the condition of teachers have been attempted. One that has now been in practice for many years is the system of giving additional salaries 262 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS [chap. Amount of Monthly Salaries. Under 5 yen 5 yen 6 „ 7 p. 8 „ 10 ,, 11 >i 12 » 13 .. 14 ., 15 to 19 yen 20 ,, 24 ,, 25 .. 29 ,, 30 .. 34 .. 35 .. 37 .. 40 yen 4S .. 50 60 65 Maximum Minimum Average Ordinary Elementary school. Total yen 1904-5 — Maximum Minimum Average 4 186 38s 2,624 3,676 5. 535 6,221 7,593 14.544 S.660 463 35° 177 79 27 47.54° 3 37 1.497 3.039 3.683 2,870 2,197 1,316 888 473 299 243 65 6 15.202 55 7 14-739 44 27 103 18S 415 188 125 74 63 41 34 35 19 Higher Elementary school. 16,552 20 4 8.902 4 8.516 .i3S7 27 I 8.872 24 I 8.344 68 198 615 944 1,510 8.995 7.779 1,492 1,068 525 239 107 52 37 9 3 23.659 4 62 106 162 285 266 295 273 252 310 42 65 8 20.079 6S 8 19.868 2,057 24 6 12.219 5 12.281 67 60 167 24B 642 473 380 242 204 140 153 263 181 IS 4 3 3.243 55 I 10.639 55 I 10.039 1902-3- -Maximura Minimum Average 75 8 14,538 20 4 8.505 8.377 65 8 20.160 23 6 12-759 2i 10,272 to teachers who have served satisfactorily for more than five years continuously in public schools of any one prefecture. This addition is fixed at 24 yen a year for regular teachers and i8 yen a year for assistant teachers. For every additional five years beyond the first five, an addition of 18 and 12 yen respectively for regular and assistant teachers may be made. In count- ing the continuity of service, military service is to be XIV.] SPECIAL ALLOWANCES 205 regarded as no interruption, if a teacher's duties are resumed within three months after its termination ; neither is the retirement caused by a change in the organisation or by the closing of a school, if he is appointed again within two months. The additional salary is forfeited if the recipient receives a disciplinary punishment, or is deemed to be otherwise unsatisfactory. Regular teachers who teach in a single-class school also receive special additional salaries up to 24 yen a year. A prefect may, if he thinks it necessary, give an additional salary of not more than 18 yen a year to teachers engaged in teaching in many-class schools in remote districts. For the purpose of meeting those expenses, each prefecture has to establish a fund called ^^ Shi-cho-son . Elementary School Teachers' Additional Salaries Fund." An annual subsidy is given by the State, the amount of which is to be determined annually by the Budget, but which has been fixed at 1,000,000 yen (;^ 100,000) a year for many years. This subsidy is distributed to the prefectures in a certain proportion to the numbers of children of school age and of those actually attending schools. Besides the salaries, teachers who teach for more than thirty hours a week receive a special allowance. A director or a teacher who is specially distinguished for his work often receives rewards of money. Recently the Minister of Education has given certificates of merit, accompanied by a sum of money (usually about ;^i5) to a number of elementary school teachers deemed" worthy of special commendation on account of their long service or special diligence and excellence. A teacher has to stay the night in a school to take care of it, and on such occasion is granted an allowance for food. A teacher who has contracted sickness or received injury in the discharge of his duties is allowed doctor's expenses. Travelling expenses of teachers travelling by order are paid at about the same rate as for hannin officials. Ski, chd, and son are encouraged to provide, if possible, dwelling-houses for teachers. 204 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS [ch.xiv. The pensions of public school teachers, elementary and higher, are determined by laws on very much the same lines as those of State civil officials [but by laws passed in 1907 and 1908 the maximum amount of pension is larger for teachers, being as much as one- half the actual salary for such elementary teachers as have served continuously for forty years, while for civil officials the maximum amount is one-third of the actual salary]. But elementary school teachers are not required to pay in one per cent, of their salary to the State, as is the case with civil officials and other public school teachers. An assistant teacher is entitled to receive a life pension of one-fourth of the salary last received if he retires on account of sickness contracted or injury received in discharge of his duties. Each prefecture has to establish an " Elementary School Teachers' Pensions Fund," to which shi, cko, and son have to pay in annually a sum equal to one per cent, of the salaries of regular teachers. The State also contributes annually to this fund a subsidy equal to one-half of the sum paid in by shi, ckd, and son two years before. If the interest on the pension fund and the State subsidy together are not sufficient to pay the pensions, the prefecture has to make up the deficiency. CHAPTER XV MIDDLE SCHOOLS The object of middle schools — Higher general education — Establishment — Branch schools — Closure — Qualification for entrance — Supplementary course — Subjects taught — Hour table — Syllabus — Maximum, number of boys in a school — In a class — Flocking of boys to Tokyo- — Number of teachers in a school — Admittance — Promotion — Privileges — Tuition fees — Teachers with certificates — Number of middle schools — Of boys — Percentages of boys in different classes — Number of applicants for c^mittance and of those admitted — Of graduates — Of teachers, certificated and non-certificated — Questions and problems connected with middle schools — Past and future. After a boy has finished a two years' course in a higher elementary school, he may leave the elementary school and enter a middle school ; in fact, that is the regular course, if he proposes to proceed to higher education. The object of middle schools is stated in the Imperial Ordinance on middle schools to be "to give a higher general education necessary for men," that is, a general education or liberal culture necessary for those who are to be of middle or higher social standing. This defini- tion requires further explanation, for there are different degrees of "higher general education or liberal culture " ; in fact, the chief problem in the secondary education is to determine what shall be considered such necessary or sufficient general education. We have been trying to solve this problem and we cannot yet be said to have solved it definitely. I proceed to explain what are the present regulations and organisation of our middle schools. As I have already explained in chap, v., the first Imperial Ordinance on middle schools was issued 305 2o6 MIDDLE SCHOOLS [chap. in 1886. Up to that time middle schools were of different standards, some being very imperfect. By that ordinance, middle school was limited to one in each prefecture, but that one was much improved, and education given in middle schools throughout the country was made approximately uniform in subjects taught and the standard of teaching. In 1891 the restriction of number to one in each prefecture was removed, and the number rapidly increased. In 1899 the Imperial Ordinance on middle schools which is now in force was issued, supplemented by the depart- mental ordinance, containing detailed regulations. All middle schools must conform to these regulations, so that they are uniform within a certain range. When any school passes beyond this range they are not classified as middle schools, and lose privileges belong- ing to them. Each prefecture is placed under an obligation to establish and maintain one or more middle schools, the Minister of Education having the power to order the establishment of new middle schools when he deems it necessary. Actually there is no need for the exercise of such an authority. On the contrary, it has been deemed advisable in some instances to restrain pre- fectures in view of necessity for establishing schools of other kinds, especially technical schools, and con- sideration for the resources of prefectures. Middle schools may also be established by sub - prefectures, shi, cho, son, or a union of them formed for the purpose, when such establishment shall be considered to be not prejudicial to the elementary education in them. They may also be established' by private individuals. Actually (in 1906) the large majority of middle schools (over 200) were maintained by the prefectures, four by sub-prefectures, two by shi, one by cho, and some fifty by private individuals. Middle schools cannot be established by any body or person without express permission of the Minister of Education. The site of a public middle school is determined by the prefect, and xv.] SELECTION OF SITES 207 must receive the approval of the Minister. Application for the establishment of a middle school must be accom- panied by a statement of the name, number of boys to be admitted, date of the opening, an estimate of expenditure and the mode of its maintenance ; any subsequent change in the first three of the above and change in those who are responsible for the main- tenance must receive previous approval of the Minister. Moreover, in the case of public schools, the prefect must ask for the sanction of the site selected, and in private schools the site must be stated. In either case it is necessary not merely to state the site, but also to give the area of the grounds, nature of the soil, the extent of the exercise grounds and the condition of the neighbourhood, with plans and maps and an analysis of the drinking water. It is expressly stated in the regulations that the grounds and the site must be such as are not likely to be injurious to the morals and the health of the boys. A branch school may be established for the con- venience of boys who live at too great a distance from the main school to go to it daily, and yet are too young or otherwise find it inconvenient to leave their home. Hence such branch schools are not to have any class higher than the third year. Formerly it was allowed to attach more than one branch school to one main school, but this is no longer allowed, as it gave rise to much abuse ; in fact, the establish- ment of branch schools is not encouraged, and their number has decreased to only ten in 1906, most of the former branch schools having been made inde- pendent schools. For the establishment of a branch school, the permission of the Minister of Education must be obtained in the same way as for a middle school. For the closure of a middle school or of a branch school also, it is necessary to ask for the permission of the Minister, stating the reasons for the closing, and the method of disposal of boys actually attending the school. 2o8 MIDDLE SCHOOLS [chap. A middle school course extends over five years. A boy over twelve years of age who has finished two years in a higher elementary school [or the ordinary elementary course, according to the amendment of 1907] is qualified to enter a middle school. If he has not been at a higher elementary school, he has to be examined as to his qualification before being admitted. A supple- mentary course of not more than one year may be added, to which graduates of middle schools may be admitted. Subjects taught in middle schools are Morals, the (Japanese) Language and Chinese Literature, Foreign Language (some one of the three, English, German, and French), History, Geography, Mathematics, Natural Sciences, Physics and Chemistry, Law and Economics, Drawing, Singing, and Gymnastics. Of these, Sing- ing and Law and Economics may be omitted for the present. The number of hours a week allotted to each subject in successive years are as follows : — Subjects ist year znd year 3RD year 4TH year sth year Morals . . . i i i i i The Language and Chinese Literature .7 7 7 6 6 Foreign Language .6 6 7 7 7 History and Geography 33333 Mathematics . . 4 4 4 4 4 Natural Sciences .3 3 3 /^j Physics and Chemistry — — — /3 ^ Law and Economics . — — — — 2 Drawing . . . i i i i — Singing . . . i i i _ _ Gymnastics ... 3 3 3 3 3 Total ... 38 28 39 30 30 In schools where law and economics is omitted, its hours may be distributed among foreign language, and history, and geography. Where singing is omitted, its hours may be given to drawing. One hour for 1 (ist and and terms). 2 (jj^ term). XV.] LIMITS IN NUMBERS OP PUPILS 2o§ drawing may be added in the fifth year at the boys' request. Hours not exceeding three may be added to gymnastics. The subjects of the supplementary course are to be chosen from among the subjects above mentioned. Each subject may be made optional. In the regulations issued in 1901, directions are given relative to the teaching of each subject. And in addition to this, a somewhat detailed syllabus of each subject and things to be attended to in teaching has been issued in 1902 for the guidance of directors and teachers. The instructions contained in the latter are not obligatory, but they are followed in almost all middle schools, and text-books are compiled generally in accordance with them. I shall give an account of the details of teaching contained in the directions and the syllabus later on. By the regulations the maximum number of boys in a middle school is fixed at 400, which under special circumstances may be increased to 600. The number in a branch school must not exceed 300. Those in the supplementary course are not included in the above number, but they must not exceed the number of the graduates. The reason for the limitation of the number of boys in a school is that it becomes very difficult for the director to give proper attention to a very large number of boys, and to keep intimate connection between teaching of different subjects, and of the same subjects by different teachers which is insisted upon as so necessary. But there were many schools before this regulation was issued in which the number of boys was much larger, and it could not be reduced at once, so that there are even to-day several with over 600 boys and a large number with more than 400. The number of boys in a class is fixed as less than 50. This is recognised to be far too large a number, and fortunately in most public schools the number of boys is less, seldom over 40, especially in upper classes. o Sib MlDt)Lfi SCliOOLS [chap. Although it is desirable to reduce this number, so great is the application for admittance, that it seems for the present impossible to establish enough new schools to make this possible. There is another regulation which may seem some- what strange, namely, that the number of second year and higher classes in a school must not exceed the number of first year classes. The reason for this is to prevent boys flocking to private schools in Tokyo. It was found that boys failing to get promotion in country schools came up to Tokyo and entered schools there, so that some private schools had a large number of higher classes and one or even no first year class. The flocking of young boys to Tokyo under no proper protection or guardianship was felt to be a source of great danger in the education of future generations, and this rule was framed to discourage such a course. In morals, singing, and gymnastics, boys of different classes or years may be taught together in a class. In each school there must be teachers at the rate of two to each class for five classes, and one and a half for each additional class. For each class there must be at least one teacher who devotes his entire time to teaching in that school. Boys are to be admitted only within thirty days from the beginning of the school year, but they may also be admitted within ten days from the beginning of a term to fill any vacancy. Those who have not passed through the first two years of the higher elementary schools [or finished the ordinary elementary course, according to the new regulations of 1907], must be examined in the language, arithmetic, Japanese history, and geography. As a matter of fact, there is scarcely any such now. On the contrary, the number of applicants for entrance who have finished them is so large that in many schools it is necessary to hold competitive examination for admittance, the subjects of which are the language and arithmetic, and the standard XV.] TUITION FEES 211 that of the second year of the higher elementary course. The consequence is that it is difficult for boys who have only just finished the two years of the higher elementary course to enter such schools in competition against older boys who have passed through higher classes. Hence, although boys who enter middle schools in regular course of education at over full twelve years of age (under full thirteen), should finish the middle school course at under full eighteen, the average age of boys in the fifth year or the highest class on ist October 1905 was under eighteen in only 17 schools, and over nineteen in 65 schools. The average age of graduates instead of being under eighteen is over nineteen. Promotion at the end of each school year and graduation are determined by the ordinary marks and the results of examinations at the end of the terms and of the school year. No promotion can be made unless the boy has passed through the year's course. Some years ago there used to be a large number who left after only a year or two at the school, but the number of those has decreased, it having been made clear to the parents that for such as could not go through the whole course, it would be better to go on and finish the higher elementary course. Besides the privileges mentioned in chap, viii., graduates of middle schools have many privileges. For example, candidates for higher civil service examinations, for barristers' examinations, for doctors' examinations, etc., must possess the diploma of graduation of a middle school, as also those for entrance into special colleges. Tuition fees are to be levied in middle schools. Here the rule is to levy fees, but for special pupils either the whole or a part of the fee may be remitted. Pupils who are distinguished as specially worthy by their excellence in conduct and study, receive the title oi tokutaisei, or "pupils who receive special treatment." These are, as a rule, exempted from payment of fees» 212 MIDDLE SCHOOLS [chap. The amount of fees differs in different schools. In a private school it is about 3 yen (6s.) a month, but in public schools it is lower, being usually ij to 2 yen a month. Teachers in middle schools must be in possession of certificates qualifying them to become such. These certificates are granted by the Minister of Education to graduates of certain designated schools, and to those who have passed examinations held in the Department of Education for the purpose. The regulations concern- ing the certificates and the training of secondary school teachers I propose to give in a separate chapter. Here I shall simply say that it has been found impossible to enforce the above rule that every middle school teacher must be in possession of a certificate, for the want of a sufficient number of such properly qualified persons, and it has been necessary to permit the employ- ment of those without certificates as provisional teachers, but the proportion of the certificated to non-certificated teachers has been steadily increasing, as will be seen from the table below. I shall now give some statistics relating to middle schools. On the removal of the restriction of the number of middle schools to one in each prefecture in 1891, the number of middle schools increased very rapidly, so that in 1893 there were already 74, of which 59 were public (number of prefectures is 47). Number of Middle Schools. 1893 1900 1901 1902 1904 1906 Public . 105 159 182 200 215 219 Branch . 33 24 2S 21 II 7 Private . 30 34 33 35 38 50 Branch . • ... I I 2 3 Total 135 193 ziS 235 253 269 Branch 33 24 26 22 13 10 The above table shows that the number of public XV.] COURSE UNFINISHED 213 middle schools increased very rapidly up to 1901, after which increase is not so marked. This is due in a large measure to the encouragement given by the Minister of Education to the establishment of technical schools of the secondary grade, rather than middle schools; indeed, where the number of middle school boys was near 30 in 10,000 of population, the establish- ment of middle schools was positively discouraged, and that of technical schools urged instead. On I St October 1905 the number of schools was 271, of boys 107,092, and of classes 2,870, which gives an average of 37 boys to a class. The following shows the increase in the number of boys during the years 1900-1906 : — 1900 1902 1904 1906 Public schools . . 64,050 79,052 84,151 88,828 Private schools . . 13,943 1S1643 16,654 I9>i9i Total . . . 77,993 94,695 100,805 108,019 (Besides foreigners) i i 48 38 Percentage of boys in different school years to the total number of boys in the schools are interesting as showing decrease in those who leave without finishing the course : — 1ST YEAR 2ND YEAR 3RD YEAR 4TH YEAR STH YEAR 1892 . • ■ 39 27 16 10 8 1902 ... 29 24 20 15 12 1904 ... 27 22 20 17 14 1906 ... 27 23 i8 17 IS The following shows the increase in the number of applicants for admission, and of those admitted during the years 1902-1906 : — Applicants Admitted 1902 1904 1906 49,334 44,561 54,791 28,338 26,934 29,597 Percentage of the admitted . 57-4 60.4 214 MIDDLE SCHOOLS [chap. The following are the number of graduates during the years 1902-1906 : — 1902 1904 1906 Public schools .... 7,476 9,901 11,713 Private schools .... 2,588 2,749 2,974 Total 10,064 12,650 14,678 The number of teachers are as follows : — Public Schools 1902 1904 1906 With certificates .... 2,252 2,511 3,068 Without certificates .... 1,646 1,501 1,260 Foreigners 2i 33 35 Total 3.919 4,045 4.363 Private Schools With certificates .... 368 423 601 Without certificates . . . . 355 329 354 Foreigners 11 20 20 Total _731 772 975 Our present system of middle school education has been arrived at only after many changes. The question of secondary general education seems to be one of special difficulty ; here we have to determine what subjects out of very many advocated by different persons shall be chosen, for important as they may be, it is, of course, impossible to take them all in, unless we pro- pose to give only a smattering of them ; neither is it easy to fix the proper standard for each subject, or the relative importance of different subjects as measured by the hours of instruction, or when is the proper time to introduce them. These questions must be taken together with the question as to the length of the course of middle school education and qualifications for the entrance, etc. Again, some people contend that it is a mistake to make the middle school course so uniform, and that a greater freedom should be given to each school ; to this the reply has been that there is no restraint to establishing and maintaining such schools, the only point being that they are not " middle schools," that the State gives certain privileges to middle schools XV.] VALUE OF MIDDLE SCHOOLS 215 on the condition that certain subjects are taught and a certain $tandard is maintained. Some think that there should be two kinds of middle schools, one for those who propose to enter higher schools, and for whom, therefore, a middle school course is to be regarded as a preparatory course, and the other for those to whom the middle school course is the end of school education ; others argue that it is a mistake to separate those two, that people do not always know for certain whether they are going on to higher education or not, that it would therefore cause great waste of time in many cases, that in the present state of popular feeling, if such schools were established, everybody would flock to the first kind. Some twelve years ago, there being a provision in the Imperial Ordinance of that day, an attempt was made to establish middle schools in which English was made a voluntary subject and elements of knowledge relating to agriculture, commerce, and technology, should form an important part of the curriculum, some- what in the same way that these subjects are introduced into the last two years of the higher elementary course. This attempt ended in a failure, and, moreover, such schools being made unnecessary by the establishment of technical schools of the secondary grade, this pro- vision was omitted in the Imperial Ordinance of 1899. These and many other questions cannot be said to have been finally disposed of; we have been obliged to change so rapidly to keep pace with general national development that it is impossible to say what changes might not occur in a not very distant future. For instance, the question of connection between middle schools and the Imperial Universities, which is at present maintained by a three years' preparatory course, seems to require some sort of revision. There are many other minor questions which must yet be solved. Looking back, however, at the middle schools, as they have been developed within recent years, there has been a decided improvement in the education given in them, and we have every reason to hope that there will be a still further improvement in the future. CHAPTER XVI DETAILS OF TEACHING OF DIFFERENT SUBJECTS IN MIDDLE SCHOOLS Syllabus issued in 1902 — General instructions — Morals— Japanese language and Chinese literature — Foreign language — History — Geography — Mathematics, I SHALL now give some account of the details of teaching of different subjects in middle schools. As I have stated, a syllabus was issued in 1902 for the guidance of directors and teachers of middle schools. These, together with the directions set forth in the regulations, will give some idea of the teaching in our middle schools. The syllabus begins with following general instructions : — (i) In middle schools instruction and culture must go together, in order that the object of higher general education may be attained. (2) The object of teaching each subject must not be lost sight of, and the connection between different subjects must be maintained so as to secure harmonious co-operation of the whole teaching. (3) Confusing details must be avoided and empty forms disregarded, so that pupils may get real and correct understanding of the subjects, and be able to apply their knowledge readily. (4) Text-books should be used whenever possible ; care must, however, be taken to make right use of them and not to be hampered by them. (5) Teaching should be uniform, so as not to be minute in the earlier part of the year and hurried towards the end. 3l6 CHAP. XVI.] TEACHING OF MORALS 217 (6) Although it is impossible to fix the number of working days, they should not be less than seventy-five days in each of the first two terms, and not less than fifty-five days in the third term. (7) Instruments, specimens, drawings, etc., used need not be of fine make or costly beyond the requirements of teaching. Teachers should endeavour to avail them- selves of articles of daily use, or of their own make as much as possible. Those that are common to several subjects should be used in common as far as possible ; it is not necessary to provide them separately for each subject. (8) Where there are libraries, museums, factories, experimental stations, and the like, they should be made use of as much as possible. We now pass on to the teaching of Morals. First, the directions in the regulations are as follows : — "The teaching of Morals must be based on the precepts of the Imperial Rescript. Its object is to foster the growth of moral ideas and sentiments, and to give boys culture and character necessary for men of middle and higher social standing, and to encourage and promote the practice of virtues. The teaching should begin with explaining the essential points of morals in connection with the daily life by means of good words, or maxims and examples of good deeds, to be followed by a little more systematic exposition of the duties to self, to family, to society, and to the State. Elements of Ethics may also be taught." The syllabus gives the following instructions : — First and Second Years — One hour a week Essential Points of Morals Teaching should be on ordinary and familiar matters in connection with the daily conduct, by means of good words, or maxims and examples of good deeds. The chief points are enumerated below, but they need not be 2i8 TEACHING DIFFERENT SUBJECTS [chap. followed exactly, nor is it necessary to follow a systematic order ; rathet should it be made to suit the capacities of boys and various occasions, and, above all, it should be practical. Things to be kept in mind as pupils — The rules and regulations of the school ; conduct towards schoo authorities ; duties of pupils, etc. Things to be kept in mind relative to health — Necessity of exercise ; temperance in eating and drinking ; cleanliness of body, clothing, dwelling, etc. Things to be kept in mind relative to study — Tenacity of purpose ; industry in study ; perseverance under difficulties, etc. Things to be kept in mind relative to friendship — Respect for truth and righteousness ; kindliness and affection ; mutual help, etc. Things to be kept in mind relative to bearing and action — Value of time ; order ; courtesy, etc. Things to be kept in mind relative to home — Filial piety towards parents ; aflfection towards brothers and sisters, etc. Things to be kept in mind relative to the State — Reverence for "the fundamental character of the Empire"; observance of laws ; sacrifice for the public good ; courage and loyalty, etc. Things to be kept in mind relative to society — Deference to superiors (in standing and age) ; public virtues ; responsibilities due to social position and profession, etc. Things to be kept in mind relative to culture of virtues — Exposition of the principal virtues and mode of their observance ; danger of temptation ; steadfastness in moral conduct, etc. XVI.] TEACHING OF MORALS 219 Third and Fourth Years — Om hour a week Essential Points of Morals Obligations to Self- Body.— Health; life. Mind. — Intellect ; emotion ; will. Independence. — Occupation ; property. Personality. Obligations to family — Parents ; brothers and sisters ; sons and daughters ; husband and wife ; relations ; ancestors and " house" ; servants. Obligations to Society — Individual. — Personality of others ; person, property and honour of others ; confidence and promise, gratitude, friendship ; relations of elder and younger, of social superior and inferior, of master and servant, etc. Public. — Co-operation ; order and progress of society. Corporate body (to which one belongs). Obligations to the State — The nationality or "the fundamental character of the Empire." The Imperial House. — Loyalty ; the Founder and other Ancestors of the Imperial House, the Throne. The State. — The Constitution and laws ; patriotism ; military service ; taxation ; education ; public duties ; public rights ; international relations. Obligations to Humanity. Obligations to Nature — Animals ; natural objects ; the True, the Good, and the Beautiful. The above enumerated are chiefly objects of obliga- tions, and these obligations are to be explained as fully as possible ; thus under the head of obligations to one'is mind are to be taught such matters as the culture of the intellect, moderation of passions, cultivation of senti- ments, discipline of the will, development of common sense, etc. ; and under the head of the personality of others, respect for their rights, thoughts, beliefs, feel- ings, expectations and hopes, etc. In connection with obligations should be explained virtues, so that the relations of virtues to obligations and to one another 220 TEACHING DIFFERENT SUBJECTS [chap. may be understood ; good words and maxims and examples of good and noble deeds should be taught to impress those virtues more vividly on the mind. Fifth Year — One hour a week Elements of Ethics Essential factors of conduct, conscience, ideals, obligations, virtues, modes of cultivating virtues, relations between ethical and natural laws. Essential Points of Morals General survey and review of matters taught during the preceding years. In the teaching of Morals, the following should be carefully borne in mind : (i) Maxims and examples of good deeds introduced into lessons need not be very many, but they should be apt and fitted to the conditions of modern life and pupils' surroundings ; examples of an extraordinary or violent kind should be avoided, or, if introduced, boys should be warned not to make a false application. (2) In explanation of duties, it should be remembered that the future position and occupations of boys are varied, and attention should be paid to all-round applications. (3) Third and fourth years are the period of changes in the bodily and mental conditions of boys, and they are more liable to fall into temptations then ; special care should therefore be taken at this age to strengthen their good resolutions and to form good habits. (4) The elements of Ethics taught should not be too high ; differences of theories should be avoided, and only common notions taught, so as not to distract the boys' minds. (5) Should any occasion arise, when a moral may very aptly be pointed, or on fete-days or anniversaries, boys of the whole school or a part of them should be called together and a suitable lesson given. The next subject is The (Japanese) Language and Chinese Literature, I have already explained some XVI.] STUDY OF CHINESE 221 of the difficulties we have in teaching our language ; in the secondary education, we have this difficulty increased still more, for here we have to teach not merely Chinese ideographs, but the whole Chinese literature. Formerly, Chinese literature formed a separate subject by itself, but some time ago it was made a part of the study of the Japanese language ; that is to say, Chinese literature is to be taught not for its own sake, but because it is necessary to the proper study of our own language. This is not a mere matter of division ; it makes a differ- ence in the teaching whether we teach Chinese literature for itself or simply as an auxiliary to the study of Japanese. Yet this fact will in itself be sufficient to show you how intimate is the relation between our own literature and the Chinese. I am afraid that it will be impossible to do away with the study of Chinese for some time to come in our middle schools. I must remark that the Chinese we study is not a modern language, any more than the Greek of English schools is a modern language ; with us, the Chinese is the old classical Chinese, different from the modern Chinese, but to be understood, when written down, by an educated Chinese : its structure is entirely different from that of the Japanese language, hence in Japan we often add punctuation marks, marks of inversion and okuri-gana (which it would take too long to explain, to make it intelligible to ordinary educated people). Our own language has, like all living languages, gradually changed from the olden days to the present. It is usual to distinguish our literature into five periods, namely — (i) the Archaic {^joko bun), from the oldest times down to the establishment of the capital in Kyoto (about 1, 100 years ago) ; (2) the Ancient or Heian period, from the establishment of the capital in Kyoto down to the beginning of the Kamakura Shogunate ; (3) Mediaeval period, from the beginning of the Kamakura Shogunate down to that of the Yedo or Tokugawa Shogunate ; (4) Modern period down to the Meiji Restora- 222 TEACHING DIFFERENT SUBJECTS [chap. tion ; and (5) the Meiji or the present period. These periods, which coincide with the chief historical eras, are distinguished each by a literature characteristic of the period, both in its form and spirit. The form is so different, that a boy who has finished the middle school course would not be able to understand the Genji Monogatari, a famous classical novel by a court lady called Murasaki Shikibu, which is held up as the model of the classical Japanese of the Heian period : it is more different from the modern Japanese than the English of Chaucer from the modern English, the difference being in almost everything that constitutes the form of a literature, in words, phrases, and con- struction, hot to speak of the spirit. Again, the Occidental civilisation which has been so largely intro- duced in the Meiji, i.e., the present era, has necessitated a literature suited to its requirements, so that the present period has a distinct literature not only in spirit, which was to be expected, but also in form, from that before the Restoration. It must be remarked that our language seems at present to be in a state of transition ; we have broken away from old traditions, and various writes seem to be consciously or unconsciously searching for a new style suitable to the age ; no one can say what the outcome of all this groping about will be. Indeed, this is the case, not in literature alone but in almost every branch of intellectual activity. In the teaching of Japanese in middle schools it has been decided not to go back to older periods than the Mediaeval. The teaching is generally by means of secondary school readers, of which there are two sets, one for Japanese and the other for Chinese ; some readers have been compiled in which both are combined. According to the syllabus, five hours a week are allotted every year to the reading of Japanese and Chinese pieces in the readers ; it should be under- stood that reading includes articulation, pronunciation, intonation, recitation, paraphrasing, etc. The materials of reading are to be in the ratio of about eight-tenths XVI.] CHINESE IDEOGRAPHS 223 Japanese to two-tenths Chinese in the first year, seventh- tenths Japanese to three-tenths Chinese in the second and third years, six -tenths Japanese to four- tenths Chinese in the fourth and fifth years. Of the Japanese, in the first year, only pieces from the writers of the present period are to be taken, with letters (the style of which is peculiar and different from either ordinary written or spoken Janguage) and verbatim reports of speeches and conversation to serve as models of spoken language. In the second year may be added writings of modern period, most nearly like those of the present days ; in the third, fourth, and fifth years, besides taking more difficult pieces of those two periods, those of the Mediaeval period may be added, the proportion of older pieces being gradually increased. Verses in the new style and odes in the old style are also to be taken. In grammar, to which and composition together one hour a week is allotted in the syllabus, the spelling of pure Japanese words and of words derived from the Chinese, parts of speech, rules of syntax, forms and usages peculiar to older periods, outlines of the changes of the Japanese language, etc., should be taught. In composition are included also writing from dicta- tion, with particular attention to the spelling and to the formation of Chinese ideographs, writing out the general sense of a piece read aloud, paraphrasing from the written to the spoken, and from the spoken to the written style, translating from Chinese into Japanese and vice versa, composition of narrative, descriptive or argumentative pieces, etc., beginning with "easy ones and proceeding to more difficult. Com- position lessons should be given once a fortnight and boys should be required to do one composition every month at home. Writing of Chinese ideographs in formal, semi-cursive and cursive styles is to be taught one hour a week in the first three years. During the third term of the fifth year, three hours a week should be taken from reading to teach the boys an outline of the history of Japanese literature. 224 TEACHING DIFFERENT SUBJECTS [chap. Finally, the following points are to be attended to in teaching : — (i) Teachers should not stop at boys merely under- standing the meaning of words and sentences in the readers ; they should be explained and illustrated with maps, pictures, specimens, etc., if necessary, so that they may fully comprehend the matter. (2) References to old matters or quotations should be explained to boys at once, so that they may not be troubled with unnecessary (and useless) difficulties. (3) Boys are most liable to fall into mistakes in the use of verbs, in grammar ; therefore special attention must be paid to this point and exercises must be frequent. (4) No fixed rules can be given as to the style, or the method of teaching, of composition, but generally care should be taken that it shall not be too difficult or unfitted for common use ; it should be practical. (5) Attention should be paid to those Chinese ideo- graphs which are very like each other, and therefore very liable to be confounded, so that boys may be able to distinguish them accurately. The knowledge of Chinese possessed by an educated Japanese is diminishing, for while in former days almost the whole learning consisted in the study of the Chinese literature, and even up to quite recent times a very large amount of time was taken up with it, now the hours given to it in middle schools are comparatively few, as can be seen from the above syllabus. This is inevitable where there are so many other important subjects that must be learned. There are, however, not wanting those who regret this, considering that the culture given by the study of Chinese literature is of supreme importance. The question is somewhat like that of the classical studies in England. We come now to the teaching of Foreign Language. The foreign language taught in middle schools must be one of the three, English, German, or French, each boy taking only one. There are at present only two schools where German is taught exclusively, six XVI.] THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH 225 in which a boy may choose either English or German, and one in which a boy may choose English or French. In all other schools English is taught exclusively. The syllabus, therefore, treats chiefly of the teaching of English, of which I give the substance below. Boys, or at least a large majority of them, begin English first after entering middle schools. Thus, in the first year they begin with pronunciation and spelling. Readers used should be about tl^e standard of Nos. i and 2 of the National Readers (American), or Swinton's or Longman's Readers. In the second year the standard should be about that of the 2nd and 3rd of the same Readers ; in the third year of the 3rd and 4th ; in the fourth year of the 4th ; and in the fifth year of the 5th or of Longman's 6th. All this while, reading, para- phrasing into Japanese, conversation and dictation must go together, as also composition in higher classes. Grammar is not to be taught as such until the third year, although its subject matter is to be taught as early as possible in connection with reading, etc. Writing is to be taught in the first year, about an hour a week. The following points to be attended to in the teaching of English : — (i) Care should be taken not to advance faster than boys can follow. The aim should be to practise boys well. (2) Pronunciation, spelling, and writing, though not specially mentioned except in the first year, must be always practised in connection with reading, conversa- tion, composition, and dictation. (3) Pronunciation must be very strictly attended to and corrected at the beginning of English teaching, special attention being paid to such sounds as do not occur in our language. (4) In making boys understand the meaning of English words, their equivalents in Japanese may be given, or they may be shown by means of actual objects or pictures ; or in advanced classes they may be explained in English. (5) In paraphrasing into Japanese correct language should be used, fitting as closely as possible into the p 226 TEACHING DIFFERENT SUBJECTS [chap. original. During such lessons differences in senti- ments, customs, rules, etc., should be pointed out. (6) Reading should be practised repeatedly with pieces of which boys, already understand the meaning, and they should be made to recite occasionally, so that they may practise pronunciation, accent, intonation, pause, etc., until they are able to bring out the full meaning of a sentence by reading. (7) Dictation pieces shotild be taken out of readers or should be such that they can easily understand the meaning, so that the boys' ears may be accustomed to distinguish sounds, and they may at the same time get practice in spelling and writing. (8) Conversation should at first be about matters in the readers ; after they have advanced a little the subjects may be taken from matters of daily life ; boys must thus be made to understand English apart from the readers, and to express their thoughts. (9) In teaching grammar care must be taken not to burden the boys' minds with many complex rules ; rather they should get practice in the application. (10) Boys should be taught at suitable seasons how to use dictionaries, and they should gradually be made to use other than English-Japanese. Such are the instructions of the syllabus. It might be expected that with six or seven hours a week during five years, a boy ought to be tolerably well grounded in English by the time he heis passed through the middle school course, but I must confess that the result is not as satisfactory as we could wish. There are various reasons for this : one is to be found in the nature of our own language. Our sounds, both consonantal and vowel, are very simple ; we have no /, V, or t/i ; we say cki instead of ti, tsu instead of tu, j'i instead oi di, he instead olfe ; our r is not the same as yours, neither is our j, and so on. Our vowel sounds are likewise very simple ; we distinguish only five, namely, a, i, «, e, (sounded as in Italian) long and short. Thus when we introduced Chinese words, we made a more or less accurate transcription of their Chinese sounds with kana^ but in course of time we have simplified these XVI.] TEACHING ENGLISH 227 sounds, and pronounce exactly alike what are spelt differently, and formerly pronounced differently. So in teaching English it is difficult to make boys distinguish by ear and mouth the many different vowel sounds you have. Then there are the accents ; we may be said to have no accents, what we have are not very important ; so the boys have great trouble with the accents which in English are so important. Again, the structure of our sentences are totally different from that of European languages ; not only is the order of words in a sentence usually inverted, so that, for example, your prepositions are postpositions with us, but we have no construction like the relative sentence ; so the difficulty in para- phrasing an English sentence into Japanese is very great indeed. Another and very powerful reason must certainly be the want of good teachers. With enormous increase of schools teaching English, it was found impossible to find competent teachers enough. The Department of Education has tried to remedy this state of things in many ways, one of which is to open a short course in English during the summer holidays for the teachers of English in secondary schools. However, we are gradually getting better teachers in English as well as in other subjects. Recently encouragement was given to engage foreign teachers, but it is difficult to find good teachers at such low salaries as these schools can afford ; there were in 1905 only forty-one schools in which foreign teachers were engaged, but the number is increasing. There is great deal of discussion and investigation going on as to the best method of teaching English. Various methods are being tried. This is certainly a good sign, for with these things going on there is some hope that an improvement will take place ; in fact, although the present result of the teaching of English is far from being satisfactory, it is the opinion of almost all who are competent to judge that there has been a great advance made, which is likely to continue. In History, according to the syllabus, i hour a 328 TEACHING DIFFERENT SUBJECTS [chap. week in the first year and 2 hours a week in the second year are to be devoted to Japanese History, coming down from the ancient times to about the middle of Heian period during the first year and thence to the present in the second year ; in the fifth year, after boys have matured somewhat in age, knowledge, and thought, I hour a week is again to be given to a review of Japanese History, with special reference to the funda- mental principles of our country, changes in the administration, customs, society, relations with Corea, China, and other foreign countries, introduction of different forms of civilisation from abroad, etc. In the third year, the history of the East, chiefly of the Chinese Empire, is to be taught 2 hours a week ; and the history of the world is to be taught 2 hours a week in the fourth year, and i hour a week in the fifth year ; it may perhaps interest you and give you an idea of how we teach history if I give the detailed syllabus under this head : Ancient History — Egypt, Hebrew, Phoenicia; Babylonia, Assyria; Persia, Work of Darius and Xerxes ; Greece, Greek Civilisation ; Athens, Sparta, Thebes, Relations with Persia ; Regions about Black Sea, Macedonia, Work of Alexander ; Phoenician Colonies, Rome up to the Conquest of Italy ; Punic Wars ; Orient after Alexander's death (Greece, Macedonia, Egypt, Syria, Parthia, Bactria) ; Decline of the Roman Republic ; Eastern Expansion of the Romans, Work of Caesar ; First Period of the Roman Empire ; Rome and Parthia and Persia ; Institu- tions and National Characteristics of Rome ; Christianity. Mediaeval History — Migration of Germanic Races ; Eastern Rome, and Persia and Slavonic Tribes ; Saracens ; Eastern and Western Europe in Middle Ages, Work of Charlemagne ; Normans ; Holy Roman Empire ; The Authority of Popes ; Institutions and Social Conditions of Western Europe ; Crusade and Eastern States ; England and France ; Condition of Eastern Europe, Irruption of the Mongols ; Renaissance, Invention of Print- ing, Changes in Military Organisation, Geographical Dis- coveries, Marco Polo and Japan ; Centralisation of Political Power in Western European States, Rise of Parliament, XVI.] SYLLABUS OF HISTORY 229 Confederation of Cities ; Corruption of Church and attempts at Reform ; Invasion of the Ottoman Turks ; Reformation, France and Spain ; League of Schmalkalden. Modern History — Colonisation Policies of Spain and Portugal ; Counter-reforma- tion ; Independence of Holland ; England under Tudors ; Religious Struggles in France ; Thirty Years' War ; Con- solidation of the State-power in France, Policy of Aggrandise- ment, War of Spanish Succession ; EngUsh Revolutions ; Portugal, Spain, Holland, and England in the Pacific and Indian Oceans ; Rise and Decline of Different States in Northern and Eastern Europe during this Period ; Wars of Northern Europe ; Poland and neighbouring Countries, Rise of Prussia ; War of Austrian Succession ; Seven Years' War ; Colonisation Policies of England and France ; Foreign Relations and Colonial Exploitation of Russia ; Independ- ence of the United States of America ; General Tendencies and Civilisation of Europe in the eighteenth century. Recent History — French Revolution ; Partitions of Poland ; Change in the Political State of the Powers ; Work of Napoleon I. ; English Colonial Expansion ; War of European Independence ; Congress of Vienna ; Conditions of European States after the War ; Independence of American States and of Greece ; Revolu- tion of July and its Influence ; Party Government in England ; Oriental Question ; Revolution of February and its Influence ; Western and Eastern Europe (Napoleon III. and Crimean War) ; Russia, England, and France in Asia ; Unity of Italy, Attempts at German Unity ; Economic Conditions of the United States of America and the Civil War ; Mexico and France ; Schleswig-Holstein Question, Austro-Prussian War ; Franco-German War, Unity of Germany ; Russia and Balkan Peninsula, the Egyptian Question ; England, Spain, Holland, France, Germany, and America in the Pacific, Change in the National Policy of the United States and the Pacific, Colonisation of Southern Africa, Panslavism ; Civilisation and the Trend of Thought in the Nineteenth Century (political, religious, social and economical pro- gress) ; Position of Japan in the World and its International Relations. Things to be attended to in the teaching of history are as follows : — (i) It should be made the aim of history teaching 230 TEACHING DIFFERENT SUBJECTS [chap. to make boys obtain clear notions concerning the evolu- tion of and changes in society, rise, decline, and fall of States ; and, therefore, discussion or teaching of details must be avoided. (2) In teaching about the works of great men, their character, deeds, and the state of society of the time should be made clear, with a view to the cultivation of moral sentiments in boys. (3) Well-known poetical or prose pieces, that are helpful in exposition of historical facts, should be made use of in order to interest boys. (4) Facts that have special relations to the locality of the school should be treated rather fully. (5) In the teaching of foreign history, special attention should be paid to what bears relation to our country, (6) Comparative chronological tables showing con- temporary events of our country and others should be made use of. Maps, real objects, pictures, specimens, etc., must be used to make boys obtain a real and vivid knowledge. (7) Proper names need not be necessarily the same as stated in the above syllabus. (8) Things that are required in the teaching of history are roughly the following : — Table of successive Emperors, comparative chronological tables, genealogicaljtables of sovereigns and of great houses, historical maps of Japan, those of the East, those of the West, to be used as wall diagrams ; photographs and pictures of noted castles, battlefields and other places of historical interest, portraits of great historical personages, autographs of great men, historical documents (real or copied) ; real objects, models or pictures serving to show changes in the manners, customs, industrial arts, and degrees of civilisation. In connection with No. 7 of the above, I should remark that we have had some trouble with foreign names. As students came back from studying in England, Germany, France, etc., or as they read books written in those languages, they naturally adopted in speaking of persons, places, etc. , the proper names used in the respective languages, so that we heard the same persons and places mentioned under different names. This was sometimes very confusing in common life. XVI.] TEXT-BOOK NOMENCLATURE 231 but when it came to teaching in schools, if boys were told one name in the history class, and another in geography, and yet another in some other lesson, the matter could scarcely be left to the process of natural selection. So, in 1902, a committee of professors and teachers of history and geography was appointed in the Department of Education to settle upon uniform nomenclature to be used in schools, and the nomen- clature in their report is now adopted in almost all text-books, although the report has not yet been officially adopted. The above instructions were issued before the publication of this report, and hence this clause. With regard to the autographs and historical docu- ments mentioned in No. 8, several lithograph facsimile sets of important autographs and documents have been lately published. In many schools there is a special room set apart for the teaching of history and geography, either separately or two together, and in those rooms it is usual to hang up the wall diagrams and exhibit historical and geographical objects, specimens, etc. Others have not this advantage, and those can be shown only during the lessons. Next comes Geography, According to the syllabus two hours are to be allotted to Geography in the first year, during which introductory lessons and Japanese geography are to be finished. And if time allows, geography of the world begun with Asia in general and Corea. One hour a week is allotted to this subject in the second, third, and fourth years, in which the whole of political geography is to be finished, and in the fifth year, which is to be devoted to physical geography. Instructions as to points to be attended to in the teaching of geography are similar in spirit to those for history, and also to those for the teaching of geography in elementary schools, such as to remember to keep in touch as much as possible with facts already 232 TEACHING DIFFERENT SUBJECTS [chap. known to boys; to make comparative and connected study, taking our own country as the standard of com- parison and the centre of connection ; to attach greater importance to those countries which have important relations with us ; not to cumber boys' minds with details or complex masses of facts and numbers ; to try to connect places with historical events ; to interest boys by references to well-known pieces of poetry or prose ; to make use of maps, pictures, photographs, specimens, tables, etc. ; to show actual weather maps, earthquake charts, etc. ; and not to be out of date in those tables, etc. In Mathematics, 4 hours a week in the first year and 2 hours a week in the second year are allotted to Arithmetic; 2 hours a week in the second, third, and fourth years to Algebra; 2 hours a week in the third, fourth, and fifth years to Geometry; and 2 hours a week in the fifth year to Trigonometry. I give below the syllabus of the subjects : — Arithmetic — In the first year : Introductory (numeration, notation, decimals) ; Integers and Decimals (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division); Concrete Numbers (time, metric system, shaku- kan or the original Japanese system, our coinage system, foreign weights and measures, and coinage. N.B. — English and other non-decimal systems may be given after or with the fractions) ; Properties of Integers (divisibility, prime numbers, measures, G.C.M., L.C.M.) ; Fractions (chief properties of fractions, reducing to the lowest terms, reducing to common denominator, turning decimals into fractions, fractions into decimals, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division effractions) ; Ratio and Proportion. In the second year : Ratio and Proportion continued (chain rule, proportional division, mixtures) ; Rate (general, percentage, interest and other calculations of daily use) ; Powers and Roots (square and square root, cube and cube root, mensuration). Algebra — In the second year : Introduction (definition of signs, algebraic expression, associative law, extension of definitions, negative XVI.] SYLLABUS OF MATHEMATICS 233 number) ; Integral Expressions (addition, subtraction, multi- plication, and division) ; Equations (simple equations with one unknown quantity). In the third year : Equations continued (simultaneous simple equations) ; Integral Expressions (distributive law, factors, H.C.F., L.C.M.) ; Fractional Expressions (fundamental properties of fractions, reducing to the lowest terms, reducing to a common denominator, addition, subtraction, multiplica- tion, and division) ; Equations (equations with one unknown quantity reducible to simple equations, quadratic equations with one unknown, equations with one unknown reducible to quadratic equations, simultaneous equations containing quad- ratics, interpretation of solutions). In the fourth year : Irrational Expressions (extension of the defini- tion of indices, irrational quantity, approximate values) ; Ratio and Proportion (case of abstract numbers, of quantities, commensurable and incommensurable, surds) ; Series (A.P., G.P.) ; Permutations and Combinations ; Binomial Theorem (positive integral index) ; Logarithms (fundamental properties of logarithms, logarithmic tables). Geometry — In the third year : Introduction ; Straight Lines (angles, parallels, triangles, parallelograms) ; Circle (fundamental properties ; angles at the centre, chord, angles in a segment, tangent, two circles, loci). In the fourth year : Circle continued (inscribed and circumscribed figures) ; Areas (equality of areas of rectilineal figures) ; Pro- portion (definition of equality of ratios, general theorems deducible from the definition) ; Applications of Proportion (proportional lines, similar figures). In the fifth year : Applications of Proportion (areas, loci) ; Planes (straight lines and planes, solid angles) ; Polyhedra (prism, pyramid, regular polyhedra) ; Solids with Curved Surface (sphere, cylinder, cone). Trigonometry — In the fifth year : Measurement of Angles (sexagesimal method) ; Circular Functions (circular functions of acute angles, mutual relations of circular functions, circular functions of comple- mentary angles, of some special angles, tables of circular functions); Solution of Right-angled Triangles; Circular Functions (general definitions of circular functions, mutual relations of circular functions, changes in the signs and magnitudes of circular functions, circular functions of negative angles, of supplementary angles) ; Formulae for the Sum of Angles (circular functions of the sum and difference of two 234 TEACHING DIFFERENT SUBJECTS [chap- angles, formulas for the products of circular functions, formute for their sum and difference) ; Relations between the Sides and the Circular Functions of the Angles of a Triangle ; Use of Logarithmic Tables ; Solution of Triangles ; Measure- ments of Heights and Distances, and Practical Exercises. Points to be attended to are as follows : — (i) The language used in the enunciations and demon- stration of laws and propositions should be correct and exact, that boys may obtain correct and exact compre- hension of them. (2) In arithmetic, it is not sufficient to teach rules simply ; boys must be made to practise and to acquire proficiency in correct and rapid calculation. (3) Boys should be made to apply tests of correctness, so as to gain self-confidence. (4) Examples chosen for arithmetical exercises should be such as have intimate relation to ordinary affairs of life and business ; in examples on percentage and other like calculations, especially, care should be taken to explain the matter to boys. (5) In algebra, linear equations should not be taught all together ; easier ones should be given as early as possible, in order to stimulate the interest of boys in Algebra. (6) In teaching geometry, great importance should be laid on the strictness of reasoning. For example, in teaching proportion, the difficulty must not be passed over with incomplete explanation, or slurred over with inexact reasoning ; if boys are not advanced enough it is better to assume the whole for a time, and return to the subject later on. (7) Problems (of construction) should be given at places suitable for demonstration. (8) It is preferable to give explanations of different forms of theorems and their mutual relations after boys are a little advanced, rather than at the beginning. (9) In trigonometry, measurements of heights and distances, with practical exercises, should be given as early as possible, so as to make the subject interesting. (10) It is better to make use of the true values of the circular functions first, and afterwards to use logarithmic values. (11) Instruments to be used in mathematical teaching are about as follows : — XVI.] APPARATUS FOR TEACHING 235 Sun-dial, clock, compass (magnetic), metric scales, scales show- ing the three systems (the metric, Japanese, and English), balance and weights, metric weights, balance used for weigh- ing heavy weights, measures for liquids, measures for corn and like substances, metric system measures, foreign measures, compasses for drawing circles on the blackboard, straight edge for drawing straight lines on the blackboard, models of verniers, theodolite, tape-measure, chain, surveying rods, etc. Pictures of Japanese and foreign coins, geo- metrical models. Of course, the subject matter of mathematical teaching cannot differ very much, but the method of treatment and relative importance attached to several parts of the subject vary a good deal in different countries. We began with adopting American methods (of those days) in the earlier days of Meiji, but we have been changing since then, gradually adapting the teaching to our needs, and so finding a system of our own. This is especially the case in arithmetical teaching, in which, perhaps, there is more room for difference than in others. The general outline and spirit of the teaching will, I trust, be seen from the above. CHAPTER XVII DETAILS OF TEACHING OF DIFFERENT SUBJECTS IN MIDDLE SCHOOLS Natural sciences — Instructions — Mineral world — Plants — Physiology and hygiene — Zoology — Physics — Chemistry — Instructions — Law and economics — Drawing — Singing — Gymnastics — General remaris. In Natural Sciences, the first year is devoted to the mineral world, the second year to plants ; in the third year the first and second terms are given to the outlines of physiology and hygiene, while in the third term zoology is begun, which is continued on to the fourth year and occupies the whole of that year. The follow- ing instructions are given :• — (i) In natural sciences, instruction in school-rooms should be accompanied by field observations, and instruction given in such a manner that in after life boys will think of the natural world whenever the name of natural science is mentioned (and not of pictures in books, or of bottled and dried specimens). (2) In giving instructions in natural sciences, power of observation and of description based on actual objects should be assiduously cultivated, and the habit of form- ing one's judgment by appeals to actual objects and things should be fostered ; and to aid in this object boys should be required to give simple sketches of specimens, showing their most important characteristics. (3) Although minerals, plants, and animals are taught separately, an eye should be kept always on the mutual relations of the three kingdoms, and a clear idea of the unity of nature should be imparted to boys. (4) Of the objects which have special relations to human life, the reasons of their beneficial or injurious nature should be explained, and the importance of practical application of this kind of knowledge insisted upon. (5) As the scenery of a district depends largely upon 236 cHAP.xviiJ DIFFERENT SUBJECTS 23; the minerals, rocks, plants, and animals which go to make it up, the kinds, distribution, and ecology of these objects in the district around the school should be explained actually on the spot, and thus the love of Nature, and with it of one's home, should be fostered. Again, the characteristics of the sceneries of tropical, temperate, and frigid zones should also be explained, that boys may understand the pleasure of travelling in foreign and distant lands. (6) Plants and animals for study should be taken as far as possible from among those common in Japan, but remarkable or important forms found in every part of the world should not be neglected, (7) In anatomy and histology dissections of animals should be made ; simple or easily comprehensible histo- logical structures should be explained with microscopic preparations. The structure of human viscera should be made clear by dissection of animals, especially of mammals ; circulation in capillaries should be shown by the demonstration of the frog's web. (8) Although it may not be possible to arrange all the plants for study according to their appropriate seasons, this should be done as far as possible. (9) In physiology and hygiene mutual interdepend- ence of different organ systems should be kept in mind, and it should be made clear that each system is not an independent entity. (10) In teaching physiology and hygiene, facts within boys' daily experience, and easily observable in their own body, should be constantly referred to, and know- ledge given inductively as much as possible, and close relation of those facts to boys themselves clearly indicated. (11) Whenever appropriate occasion arises, pheno- mena of daily observation should be explained in order to rouse the interest of boys ; as, for instance, blushing or becoming pale under the head of circulation, and sneezing, hiccoughing, gaping, or coughing, under that of respiration. (12) In hygiene, facts very near to our daily life should be taught. (13) Instruments and appliances needed for teaching of natural sciences are approximately as follows : — Common to all : compound microscope, magnifying lenses, dis- secting instruments (needles, scalpels, scissors, dissecting 238 TEACHING IN MIDDLE SCHOOLS [chap. dishes, forceps, etc.), microtome, razors, strops, steriliser, alcohol lamps, test-tubes, various bottles, preserving re- agents and other materials. N.B. — Microscopes that give a magnification of 50-400 diameters by different combinations of objectives and eye-pieces will be found most convenient. In connection with the teaching of minerals : hammer, collecting bag, blowpipe and its accessories, scales of hardness, balance, spiral balance, goniometer, streak-plate, aneroid barometer, thermometer, sun-dial, magnetic compass, terrestrial globe, important common minerals, specimens showing crystals and their aggregates, common rocks, rocks containing fossils, articles showing the use of minerals and rocks, specimens showing weathering, crystal models, models or charts show- ing ore deposits, interior of mines, sedimentary strata, volcanoes, etc., landscape charts, charts showing rainfalls, winds, isotherms, etc. In connection with the teaching of botany : collecting can, press, common physiological instruments. Dried specimens of important common plants, of plants of the district about the school, timber specimens, specimens showing annual rings and other structures of the trunk, vegetable fibres and articles manufactured with them, dried useful fruits and seeds, medicinal plants, useful plants producing fibres and dye-stuffs, manufactured starch, poisonous plants, insects useful in fertilisation of agricultural plants and fruit trees, important histological preparations, preparations of minute plant organisms. N.B. — In general, dried specimens should be confined to those of which it is difficult to obtain living specimens, or which retain something of their natural colours as dried specimens ; of useful plants, not only flowers, branches, and leaves, but parts that are useful should be included, as, e.g., roots of plants from whose roots starch is prepared, or the bark of plants from which fibres are taken, etc. Alcohol or formalin specimens : fleshy fruits, fleshy plants, insectivorous plants, parasitic plants, poisonous fungi, edible fungi. N.B. — Alcoholic or formalin specimens are to be used in practical demonstrations, and are to be of such plants as are difficult to obtain in their season, or might easily be missed from the shortness of their season, or would show typical structure of large fruits, or would, if dried, shrink and lose their natural form. Living specimens : important forest trees, medicinal plants, useful plants producing fibres and dye-stuflFs, poisonous plants, plants remarkable for colour, size, or shape of their flowers or fruits, or for their shape or ecological relations, specimens showing grafting and laying. School gardens should be arranged to XVII.] SPECIMENS 239 illustrate not only simple classifications, but also facts in physiology and ecology ; in physiological beds, sensitive plants, climbing plants, etc., may be planted, while in ecological beds, insectivorous and parasitic plants and the like should find their place. Models and charts should also be utilised. Where there are botanical gardens or experi- mental (agricultural or horticultural) stations in the neighbour- hood, they should be taken advantage of in order to make up for deficiencies of the school equipment. In connection with physiology and hygiene : ophthalmoscope, camera obscura, plane mirrors, instruments for testing the sense of touch, thermometer for taking body temperature, emergency case, human skeleton, papier-mach6 mannikin, models of eye and ear, more important histological prepara- tions, microscopical preparations of disease germs, parasites of human body. In connection with zoology : insect-net, dredge, trawl, dipper, collecting-box for insects, setting boards, injection syringe, dissecting saw, bone forceps. Representative animals of important classes and orders, their skeletons ; specimens or models showing their anatomy, growth, or metamorphosis ; specimens showing protective colouring, seasonal polymor- phism, sexual dimorphism, parasitism, symbiosis, useful or beneficial animals, injurious animals ; specimens showing the fauna of the district about the school, articles made from animal substances, microscopical preparations of principal tissues, preparations of microscopic animals ; specimens, models, or charts of some fossil animals. Best specimens are living animals, but as they are not always available, it becomes necessary to provide stuffed or alcoholic specimens ; these should show as well as possible the living conditions of animals ; shrunken alcoholic specimens, from which nothing can be learned of the live animals, are worse than useless. Charts are often more useful than some specimens, and should be widely used. In places where zoological gardens or fisheries experimental stations are accessible, they should be utilised to make up for the deficiencies of the school equipment. The following is the syllabus of teaching, I, — Mineral World: Two hours a week in the first year. Rock Crystal and Sandstone — Rock crystal sphere (quartz), natural form of quartz (crystal form) ; sharpness of edges as distinctive of crystal forms, mode of growth of crystals, aggregates of crystals ; quartz as veins, 240 TEACHING IN MIDDLE SCHOOLS [chap. etc. (mode of occurrence), hardness of quartz ; determination of hardness ; quartz in granite, quartz sand, sands of river- beds and sea - beaches ; strata of sand, clay, and gravel (elastic sedimentary rocks), form of strata ; sandstone, shells in beach-sand, shells in sandstone (fossils) ; quartzite. Coal- Source of motive power of locomotives, steamers, etc. ; uses of coal, colour and brittleness, smell of burning coal, etc. ; coal-mines, coal-seams and their deformations (folding, faults, etc.) ; coal-fields of Kyushu, Hokkaido, etc. ; origin of coal ; the "umoregi" of Sendai (a nearly unaltered fossil wood in tertiary strata) ; tufa ; granite. Clay, Clay-slate — Tiles, bricks, porcelain ; their materials and modes of manufacture ; clays in the bottom of rivers, lakes, etc. ; characters of clay, Kaolin, fossil shells in clay, clay-slate used as writing slates and as " inkstones " ; differences of clay-slate and clay. Lime — Lime used in Japanese mortar, stones that give lime on heating, limekilns, occurrence of limestones, origin of stalactites, reaction of hydrochloric acid and limestone, action of water on limestone, limestone caves, calcite as material of limestone rocks, cleavage and double refraction, marble, limestone mountains of Akasaka in Mino province, lithographic slate, coral reefs. Petroleum — Occurrence and working, pumping and flowing wells ; colour, smell, specific gravity, and volatility ; petroleum refinery ; lamp-oil, machine-oil, paraffin ; the " Fire-wells " (natural gas holes) of Echigo province, natural gas in oil-fields. Sulphur — Sulphur on " tsukegi" (wood-splinters with crude sulphur on one edge for lighting kitchen fire) ; colour and lustre ; smell of burning sulphur, etc. ; gases from volcanoes and their smell ; sulphur deposited in solfataras and craters ; occurrence of sulphur ; volcanoes, rocks eaten up by volcanic fumes, volcano rocks, volcanic ashes ; forms of lava and their way of solidify- ing ; dykes of eruptive rocks, lava streams. Silver, Copper, Lead, Iron, etc. — Uses of these metals and their alloys ; ores, mines ; appearance of argentite ; galena, often containing a good quantity of XVII.] THE MINERAL WORLD 241 silver ; copper pyrite, its colour, lustre, colour of powder (streak), smell when roasted ; galena, its colour, lustre, cleavage, etc. ; lead-globules produced from galena by the blow-pipe test ; magnetite, its colour and magnetic properties ; production of ores in general ; veins and beds. Gold- Uses of gold, malleability, colour, lustre, and specific gravity, gold sand, gold quartz, gold-fields of Hokkaido, Sado, etc Ornamental Stones — Essential characters of precious stones ; diamond ; topaz and rock crystal as found in Japan, malachite, agate, marble, serpentine, amber, etc. ; uses. Rocks — Limestone, sandstone, conglomerate (stratified rocks) ; andesite and granite (massive rocks) ; origin of rocks (sedimentary and eruptive rocks) ; ancient topography of land, as traced by the occurrence of various rocks ; fossils in rocks ; marine shells often found in rocks on very high mountains ; extra- ordinary forms of extinct animals and their ages ; distinctive characters of rocks, thin sUces of rocks seen under micro- scope ; clay-slate, marble, etc. ; building stones, stone walls, gravels and stones used in road-making ; millstones. The Earth- Structure of the earth's crust (rocks and soils) ; strata, folding, faults, dykes, laccolites, etc. ; weathering ; erosion and deposition ; changes to be observed in stones of walls and pavement ; sceneries determined by geology ; useful products derived from earth - crust ; geological events (volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, land slides, etc.) ; atmosphere and meteorology ; seasons ; day and night ; earth and sun and moon ; eclipses ; the moon (surface and motion) ; planets and solar system ; other heavenly bodies. The syllabus is meant simply to show the aim and sphere of instruction, and need not be strictly adhered to ; changes should be made as occasion or convenience requires. The main point is, that as far as possible objects used in teaching should be of common daily occurrence, that rocks and minerals should be repre- sentative, and that their morphology, character, occur- rence, origin, changes, applications and mutual geological relations should be given, so that a correct general notion of the whole mineral kingdom may be imparted. Q 342 TEACHING IN MIDDLE SCHOOLS [chap. II. — Plants : Two hours a week in the second year. Morphology — Chief organs of plant bodies with their various modifications. Anatomy — General outline of the fundamental structures of plants (cells, vessels, tissues, principal cell-contents, structures of roots, stems, leaves, etc.) ; use of hand-lenses and microscope. Physiology — Outlines of nutrition, assimilation, absorption, transpiration, respiration, growth, movement, irritability, reproduction ; comparison of those functions with those in human and animal bodies. Ecology — Relation of plant life with the environment : influence of the environment on the form, structure, function, and distribution of plants. Classification — Principles of classification ; a simple natural system of plant classification ; Dicotyledons, and some examples of their important orders ; Monocotyledons, and some examples of their important orders ; Conifers ; essential characters of Pteridophyta, Bryophyta, and Thallophyta ; some accounts of lower plants, causing fermentation, putrefaction, and infectious diseases ; common plants found in the district about the school. Distribution — Distribution of plants growing in the district about the school ; ecological distribution ; plant societies ; alpine plants, strand plants, sand plants, hygrophite plants, etc. ; general ideas of characteristic floras of the world, and that of the flora of Japan. Economical Use — Influence of plants on the economy of nature, relation of plants with human life ; more important Japanese and foreign plants, used as timber, food, medicine, also for industrial purposes, gardening, etc., with the properties of the parts so used. The above-mentioned topics need not be taught in the order given, they may be discussed together or separated according to convenience ; especially if proper subjects are chosen in accordance with seasons xvn.] THE HUMAN BODY 243 (as, for example, opening of buds, cherry-blossoms, rape- flowers in the spring, and fruits, reddening of leaves, falling of leaves in the autumn), and if, according to the nature of each subject, all or several of the above- mentioned headings are taught inductively, the advan- tages derived from awakening the interest of boys in assisting their power of comprehension will certainly be great. in. — Physiology and Hygiene: Two hours a week in the first and second terms of the third year. Introduction — Human body, an organism ; meaning of physiology and hygiene, their value in human life ; hygiene and morals ; principal functions of human body, organ systems ; cells as units making up human body, as in plants. Skeleton System — The skeleton (skull, trunk bones, limb bones), joints, structure of bones, cartilage, functions of the skeleton. Hygiene of the system. Muscular System — Structure of muscles ; tendons and ligaments ; relations of muscles and bones ; functions of the system ; standing upright and various motions (walking, running, jumping, etc.) ; important muscles (biceps, deltoid, gluteus, maximus, gastrocnemius, etc.) ; Hygiene of the system. Digestive System — Parts of the digestive system and their functions in digestion ; different kinds of food, outlines of alimentary principles of ordinary food-stuflfs, their nutritive values and degrees^of digestibility. Hygiene of the system. Circulatory System — Blood ; structure of the heart ; arteries, veins, capillaries ; heart- beat, pulse and its number ; functions of the system ; lymphatic vessels and glands. Hygiene of the system. Respiratory System — Structure of lungs and bronchial tubes ; respiratory movements ; functions of the system ; vocal organs. Hygiene of the system. The Ski a — Structure of the skin ; connective tissues ; fats ; functions of the skin ; hair and nail. Hygiene of the skin. 244 TEACHING IN MIDDLE SCHOOLS [chap. The Kidneys- Structure and function of the kidneys. Hygiene. The Nervous System — Structure and functions of the brain, of the spinal chord, of a nerve ; sympathetic nerves. Hygiene. The Sense Organs — Structure and function of the eye, of the ear, of the olfactory organ, of the taste organ, of the tactile organ. Hygiene (specially about the prevention of myopy). Matters relating to the body as a whole — Body temperature, fever; metabolic changes, growth, fatness, and leanness ; co-ordination of the whole body. Hygiene : cleanliness, exercises, and rest, awaking and sleeping, hours of study, things to be borne in mind in travelling, emergency aids, things to be borne in mind in sickness, etc. Public Hygiene. In instruction of organ systems, diseases to which the system is most liable should be made known to the boys. IV. Zoology: Two hours a week in the third term of the third year, two hours a week in the first and second terms, and one hour a week in the third term of the fourth year. Classification — Objects and methods of classification; principal characters of various animal phyla ; Vertebrates (mammalia, aves, reptilia, amphibia, pisces, main features of each class) ; Anthropoda (myriapoda, arachnida, insecta, main features of each order, Crustacea) ; MoUusca (lamellibranchiata, gastropoda, cephal- opoda) ; Vermes ; Echinodermata ; Coelentrata ; Porifera ; Protozoa. In teaching classifications, important representatives should be shown, explanations should not go beyond giving characteristics of classes or important orders, and names of smaller divisions should be omitted. The object aimed at should be to give the boys a general idea of animals in the animal kingdom ; the order given above need not be adhered to. XVII.] THE ANIMAL KINGDOM 245 Habits- Such as can be easily observed by boys, or are of special interest as natural phenomena, or are of importance in relation to mankind. Anatomy and Histology — The anatomy of vertebrates should be given with special reference to the structure of the human body, and its gradual simplifica- tion as we go down in the vertebrate scale ; among inverte- brates, the structure of one or two representatives should be given, while in regard to others, only remarkable features or external characters should be pointed out. In histology, instruction need not go beyond the fact that the animal body is made up of cells ; it is not necessary to explain the minute structure of each organ. Reproduction, Development, and Growth — No spontaneous generation in the world of living ; asexual repro- duction, sexual reproduction ; egg, main features of its development ; metamorphosis of insects, specially of the silkworm. The development of eggs should be explained with reference to those of the frog, sea-urchin, or amphioxus. Ecology — Parasitism, symbiosis, protective and other colouring. Distribution — Dispersal of animals ; some noteworthy facts in the distribution of animals on the earth. Changes in the Animal kingdom — Fossils ; animals of past ages different from those of the present days ; some noteworthy fossil animals. Relations of the Animal and Plant kingdoms : Practical Applications — Precautions against parasites, against animals carrying disease germs ; injurious and beneficial animals in agriculture and forestry, biological relations of the two and their practical applications ; domestic animals, artificial selection ; manures ; utilisation of marine products in our country, specially in the district about the school ; materials of food ; of clothing ; of medicine, perfumery, and dyeing ; of ornamental articles ; etc. The topics enumerated above may be given in their appropriate places in teaching the classification, or some of them may be given with the classification, and others as separate subjects. 246 TEACHING IN MIDDLE SCHOOLS [chap. In the third term of the fourth year, facts taught since the first year should be summarised and such topics as the delicate interdependence of the natural world, struggle for existence, natural and artificial selections, outline of the theory of evolution, should be touched upon, and boys should be made to comprehend the relations of man to nature as far as possible. The above instructions and syllabus will be sufficient to give you some idea of the teaching of natural science in our middle schools. Neither time nor equipment is sufficient at present to allow of boys doing practical work ; but in some schools teachers try to make them help in the cultivation of gardens, which are kept in all schools to furnish materials for botanical studies, as mentioned incidentally in the instructions, and in the keeping of laboratory aquaria and of animals, silkworms, etc. The great difficulty here more than in other subjects perhaps is the want of a sufficient number of competent teachers, for the teacher has to make a complete study of the natural history of the district about the school, and in many other ways to apply his knowledge to particular conditions, before he can hope to teach at all efficiently. The next subject is Physics and Chemistry. In all the schools there is a separate class-room for the subject, and sometimes one for physics and one for chemistry. Here, again, there is no provision made for practical work by the boys themselves, except in one or two schools. Physics is taught during the fifth year for 4 hours a week ; the syllabus is as follows : — Dynamics — Unit of length, area, volume, and time ; rest and motion ; velocity, and how to measure it ; acceleration ; composition and resolution of motion ; circular motion ; inertia ; force ; mass; unit of mass; density; absolute unit of force ; gravita- tion unit of force ; momentum ; action and reaction ; com- position and resolution of forces acting on a material point ; gravitation ; falling bodies ; projectiles ; composition and resolution of forces acting on a rigid body ; moment of force ; XVII.] PHYSICS 247 centre of gravity ; stability of bodies ; balance ; lever, wheel and axle, pulley, etc. ; friction ; work ; unit of work j two kinds of energy ; conservation of energy ; simple pendulum ; simple equivalent pendulum ; clock ; measurement of g ; universal attraction. Properties of matter — Molecule ; molecular force ; three states of matter ; elasticity ; Hook's law ; capillary phenomena ; surface tension ; diffusion ; osmosis ; absorption ; hydrostatic pressure ; Pascal's principle ; hydraulic press ; pressure produced by gravity ; water level, levels ; Archimedes' principle ; floating bodies ; specific gravity, and how to measure it ; hydrometer ; velocity of efflux ; atmospheric pressure ; Toricelli's experi- ment ; barometer ; measurement of heights of mountains by the use of barometer ; buoyant force of the atmosphere ; Boyle's law; air-pump; water -pump; conservation of matter. Sound — Vibration ; period ; number of vibrations ; amplitude ; wave motion ; velocity of propagation ; wave length ; phase ; transverse waves ; longitudinal waves ; production and transmission of sound ; velocity ; reflection ; interference ; intensity ; pitch ; timbre ; fundamental tone ; harmonics ; number of vibrations of vocal and musical sounds ; phono- graph ; beat ; resonance ; vibrations of strings, plates, membranes, rods, and columns of air. Heat- Temperature ; different kinds of thermometers ; expansion of solids ; change of density with expansion ; co-efficient of expansion ; expansion of liquids ; of water ; of gases ; Charles' law ; relation between Boyle's law and Charles' law ; absolute temperature ; quantity of heat and its unit ; heat capacity ; specific heat ; measurement of specific heat ; heat, a form of energy ; mechanical equivalent of heat ; Joule's experiment ; steam engine ; fusion and solidification ; heat of fusion ; freezing mixture ; evaporation ; ebulli- tion ; heat of evaporation ; liquefaction ; humidity and hygro- meter ; distillation ; conduction ; safety lamp ; convection ; radiation. Light- Luminous bodies ; rectilinear propagation of light ; shadow ; velocity ; transparency, translucency, and opaqueness ; 248 TEACHING IN MIDDLE SCHOOLS [chap. intensity, photometer ; laws of reflection ; diffused light ; plane mirror, image ; spherical mirrors, focal distance ; laws of refraction ; index of refraction ; successive refraction ; total reflection ; lens, focal distance and image ; camera obscura ; spectacles ; microscope ; telescope ; magic lantern ; prism ; dispersion of light ; spectrum ; spectro- scope ; different kinds of spectrum ; Fraunhofer's lines ; different kinds of radiation ; relation between radiation and absorption ; spectrum analysis ; rainbow ; colours of objects ; phosphorescence ; wave theory of light ; wave length ; interference ; polarisation ; double refraction. Magnetism — Two poles of a magnet ; compass ; mutual action of two poles ; magnetic induction ; Coulomb's law ; magnetic field and lines offeree ; how to make a magnet ; terrestrial magnetism ; dechnation ; inclination ; horizontal component ; isomag- netics and variation of terrestrial magnetism. Statical Electricity — Electricity by friction ; conduction ; two kinds of electricity ; Coulomb's law ; unit of electricity ; electroscope ; distribu- tion of electricity ; action of points ; induction ; electro- phorus ; Wimshurst's machine ; potential ; electric capacity ; Leyden jar and condenser ; hghtning, lightning conductor. Current Electricity — Electric battery ; poles ; current ; circuit ; electro-motive force ; different kinds of battery ; Oersted's experiment ; Ampere's law ; magnetic field produced by electric current ; solenoid ; mutual action of currents ; electro-magfnet ; electric bell ; telegraph ; galvanometer ; astatic needle ; resistance ; Ohm's law ; units of electric quantities ; division of currents ; arrangement of cells in battery ; electro-magnetic induction ; mutual induction ; Lenz's law ; self-induction ; Rumkorff s coil ; electric spark ; Geissler's tubes ; Crooke's tubes ; Roentgen's experiment ; telephone ; microphone ; dynamos and motors ; Joule's law j electric lamp ; thermo-electric current ; energy of electric current ; electrolysis ; Faraday's law ; electroplating and electrotyping ; secondary battery. Metric system, more especially C.G.S. system, must be taught as well as the shaku-kan, or the Japanese system. Wave theory of light, polarisation and double refraction, should be limited to simple outlines. Chemistry is taught during the fourth year, 3 hours xvn.] PHYSICS 249 a week in the first and second terms, and 4 hours a week in the third term. The syllabus is as follows :— Common Gases — Air, oxygen, and nitrogen ; combustion and oxidation ; chemical change ; compounds, simple substances, and elements ; con- stancy of mass ; water and hydrogen ; law of definite proportion ; carbonic acid gas ; circulation of carbon ; indestructibility of elements ; carbonic oxide ; law of multiple proportions ; hydrogen chloride and chlorine ; ammonia and ammonium chloride ; general properties of gases ; law of gaseous reactions ; molecular weight ; atomic weight ; symbols ; molecular formula ; empirical formula ; valency ; radical ; rational formula ; atomic molecular hypothesis. Oxygen and its compounds — Oxygen and ozone ; oxides ; hydroxides and peroxides ; classifica- tion of oxides ; acids, bases, and salts ; non-metallic ele- ments and metallic elements. Halogens and their compounds — Chlorine, bromine, iodine, and fluorine ; halides ; halogen oxides, haloid acids and their salts ; solution ; saturation and crystallisation ; electrolysis and its law. Sulphur and its compounds — Sulphur ; sulphides ; oxides of sulphur ; sulphur acids and their salts. Solution — Osmotic pressure of solutions ; change in vapour pressure, boiling point and freezing point ; characteristics of the aqueous solutions of electrolytes ; electrolytic dissociation ; strength of acids and bases ; heat of neutralisation ; heat of reaction. Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Arsenic, and their com- pounds — Nitrogen, phosphorus, and arsenic ; their hydrogen com- pounds ; halides ; oxides, acids, and salts ; circulation of nitrogen. Active mass — Velocity of chemical change ; active mass ; reversible change ; chemical equilibrium. Carbon, Silicon, Boron, and their compounds — Carbon ; charcoal and coal ; coal gas and water gas ; methane, 2SO TEACHING IN MIDDLE SCHOOLS [chap. ethylene, and acetylene ; flame ; oxides and sulphides of carbon ; carbonic acid and its salts ; cyanogen and cyanogen compounds ; complex salts ; silicon, silicic acid and its salts ; boron, boric acid and its salts. Metals and their compounds — Sodium, potassium, and their compounds ; ammonium compounds ; calcium and its compounds ; magnesium, zinc, and their compounds ; iron, nickel, cobalt, manganese, chromium, aluminium, and their compounds ; tin, lead, bismuth, anti- mony, and their compounds ; copper, silver, mercury, gold, platinum, and their compounds ; alloys ; metallurgy. Periodic Law — Comparison of elements arranged according to their atomic weights ; comparison of atomic weights with physical and chemical properties. Organic compounds in general — Special properties of organic compounds ; their composition ; isomers ; constitutional formula. Aliphatic compounds — Chain hydrocarbons ; petroleum ; alcohols ; halogen derivatives ; ethers ; aldehydes and ketones ; acids ; esters ; waxes ; oils and fats ; soap ; amines and amido - compounds ; carbohydrates. Aromatic compounds — Coal tar ; benzene and its homologies ; nitro and amino com- pounds ; phenols ; acids ; naphthalene and anthracene ; alizarine, indigo, and aniline colours ; terpenes and camphors ; pyridine, quinoline, and alkaloids ; albumines. Fermentation and Putrefaction — Fermentation ; enzymes and ferments ; putrefaction ; disinfectants and antiseptics. Some of the more important applications to industry, such as the manufacture and applications of sulphuric acid, alkalies, bleachingpowder, fertilisers, glass, porcelain, mortars, cements, alloys, etc., or the metallurgy of commoner metals, photo- graphy, dyeing, brewing, etc., should be taught at suitable times. The following instructions are given with regard to the teaching: — (i) In teaching physics and chemistry, as many XVII.] IMPORTANCE OF EXPERIMENTS 251 experiments as the equipment of the school allows should be performed, and specimens shown ; illustra- tions and examples should be from common daily experience as much as possible. (2) As density is easily mistaken by beginners for specific gravity, and mass for weight, particular attention should be given to make the differences clear. (3) As the two great laws of the conservation of rnatter and the conservation of energy form the founda- tion of physics, it is important that attention should be paid to these laws in teaching various divisions of physics. (4) Chemical laws and theories should be taught in relation to facts already well known to boys, and practical applications of those laws and theories should be given throughout and theoretical discussions avoided ; in particular, items under the subject of "solutions" are rich in facts relating to daily life, and these should be fully explained with appropriate examples and illustrations. (5) Easy and simple exercises in calculation should be given from time to time in order to make the knowledge acquired by boys more exact. (6) Experiments to be shown before the class should be carefully prepared and tried beforehand, so that there might be no failure during the lesson. (7) Pieces of apparatus, reagents and other materials needed for experiments, should be well arranged in the class-room beforehand. (8) It should be borne in mind that the experiments are to be shown to the whole class at the same time, and care must be taken to avoid the mistake of only the teacher and a few boys near him observing the experiments, while other boys cannot see them at all ; for instance, experiments for showing the movements of gold leaves in a gold-leaf electroscope or of the needle of a galvanometer would take too long to be shown to boys separately, and arrangements should be made to darken the room and to let in a sunbeam by means of a heliostat, which may be utilised to throw the shadow of the movements on a screen by a combination of two achromatic lenses of long (about I metre) and short (about 20-30 centimetres) focal lengths. (9) Where there are workshops and factories in the 2S2 TEACHING IN MIDDLE SCHOOLS [chap. neighbourhood, boys should be taken over them and explanations given on the spot of the actual processes of mechanical and chemical industries. (lo) It is desirable that teaching in physics and chemistry should be given by the same teacher, so that the two may be mutually connected and supplementary ; connection with other subjects, especially natural science and mathematics, should also not be lost sight of. (ii) Technical terms used should be: for physics, those of the Dictionary of physical terms (in Japanese, English, French, and German), published by the Tokyo Mathematico-physical Society ; and in chemistry, those in the Vocabulary of chemical terms, edited by Professors Takamatsu and Sakurai. No. 12 gives a list of physical and chemical instru- ments and apparatus necessary in middle schools, but I do not think it need be given here. No. ii refers to somewhat the same difficulty as I have mentioned in the teaching of history and geography, only here the difficulty is greater perhaps, as almost everybody felt at liberty to coin new words as equivalent of foreign technical terms. I may state that the syllabus has done a very good service in settling this question for many subjects. The next subject is Law and Economics. The object of teaching this subject is to let boys understand something of our system of Government, of legislation, administration, justice, local self-government, nature and outlines of laws concerning property, civil rights, family succession, etc., and elements of economic principles, of production, exchange, distribution, con- sumption, and finance. It will not be interesting to mention the details of the syllabus, as it has especial reference to our own laws, etc., but I give the follow- ing instructions as to the points to be attended to in teaching : — (i) Care must be taken not to run into discussion of theories and opinions ; the subject must be taught XVII.] DRAWING AND GEOMETRY 253 with reference to matters of daily life, so as to develop civic and economic ideas of boys. (2) In teaching the organisation and functions of the general government and administrative system, explana- tions should be given of the rights and obligations of a subject, which boys should know with reference to their future social position and professions, as also adminis- trative measures connected with police system, taxation, fees, conscription, treaties, house-registers, etc. (3) Under heads of private law, not only matters of civil law, but notions of commercial matters (as, e.g., the nature and kinds of mercantile companies, etc.) should be treated of. (4) In economics, at the same time as chief economic phenomena, boys should also be told something of the actual economic conditions of our country. (5) Under Finance, not only finance of the State, but also of shi, cho, son, and other local bodies should be explained, so as to supplement the knowledge of those bodies, acquired under the head of the local adminis- trative system. (6) Law and economics must be taught in connection with each other, and so as to be mutually supplementary ; moreover, intimate connection with other subjects, more especially with morals, history, and geography, must be kept in mind. (7) In all cases, care must be taken not to teach boys isolated facts, without order or system. In Drawing, freehand drawing and elements of geometrical drawing are to be given ; of the latter, some easy geometrical constructions are to be taught in the second year, before boys begin geometry. In the fourth year, some more difficult constructions in plane and solid geometry are to be given ; if drawing is added in the fifth year, elements of perspective may be taught. In freehand drawing, boys should be made to draw from actual objects as much as possible, and also to practise designing. Here, again, as in elementary schools, the question of pencil and brush is left open. Of Singing, I do not think it necessary to say much, 254 TEACHING IN MIDDLE SCHOOLS [ch.xvii. as not much importance is attached to its teaching at present. With regard to Gymnastics, I shall have occasion to speak in a separate place. You will probably have gathered from the syllabus, and the instructions as to points to be borne in mind in teaching different subjects, that a great deal of importance is attached to making the instruction practical. At the same time, culture is not to be neglected; you will see from many "should nots" mentioned in the instructions what are weak points in our teaching, and how we try to eliminate them. On the whole, our standard of teaching is not very high — lower than those of German gymnasia or of English public schools — so that boys who enter Imperial univer- sities have to pass through a preparatory course of three years after leaving middle schools, although at the same time it must be remembered that our Imperial universities are professional institutions, and demand a pretty high standard of knowledge as qualification for entrance. CHAPTER XVIII POSITION OF WOMEN Woman's vocation — Position in home and society, and status in the State — Good wife and wise mother — Statistics of men and women, married and un- married — The " House " or iye — The house, unit of society, not individual — House-head and house-member — Constitution of a house — House registry — The house and the kindred — The authority of the house-head and the parents — Women in ancient days — Confucian philosophy. Buddhism and feudalism in relation to the woman — " Three obediences" — Changes intro- duced with the Occidental civilisation — Legal power of woman under the new Code — Married woman's property — Sexual relations and marriage — Marriage an affair of the house, and not of individuals — Wif^s duties — Divorce — Womeri s professions — Object kept in view in framing the present system of female education. The object of education being to prepare boys and girls, young men and women for their future life, it becomes necessary, when we come to the question of female education, to consider what is the vocation of woman in life, what is her position in home and society, and her status in the State. These differ in different countries; in chap. XL, I have given a translation of the lesson about " the duties of a man and a woman," which, although, of course, a very crude outline, voices pretty correctly the general sentiments of the Japanese people on the matter. It is our belief that the vocation of woman is to be wife and mother; we demand it of our women that they shall be "good wives and wise mothers," as a duty that they have to perform as Japanese subjects, just as we demand of men that they shall perform their duties in various professions and trades and in general as Japanese subjects. According to the latest Statistical Report, out of the total population of 46,732,000, there were 23,601,000 men 25s 256 POSITION OF WOMEN [chap. and 23, 131,000 women, giving 102.03 men to 100 women. Taking those of ages between twenty-five and fifty, on 31st December 1903 there were '6,708,000 married and 2,866,000 unmarried men, and 6,456,000 married and 2,714,000 unmarried women ; the table does not give the number of widowers and widows, but I have taken the above age limits, as it was probable that those who marry would marry below fifty and there would not be very many widowers and widows at those ages. The above figures give us less than 30 per cent, of men and women without consorts, the proportion of men to women being about 104.4 to 100. These figures are very rough, as we have not yet had our census taken in the proper way, but it is sufiicient to show that perhaps as much as three-fourths of the whole population marry. Our female education, then, is based upon the assump- tion that women marry, and that its object is to fit girls to become "good wives and wise mothers." The question naturally arises, what constitutes a good wife and wise mother, and the answer to this question requires a knowledge of the position of the wife and mother in the household and the standing of woman in society and her status in the State. In order to understand the position of the wife and mother in the household, it is necessary to know some- thing of the general relations of the members of a family to one another, and that takes us to the discussion of family, or rather "house" or iye as we call it The "house," or iye, is an ancient institution, dating back to the very beginning of our people ; the house, not individual, has been the basis of our society. For instance, the loyalty that a retainer in feudal days owed to his lord daimyo, was in the first place to the " iye" or the honourable house to which the lord belonged, rather than to the individual lord who claimed allegiance as the representative of the house. There is a tale told of the consort of the fifth of the Tokugawa shoguns, that she assassinated her husband, and then, of course, xviii.] THE HEAD OF THE HOUSE 257 killed herself, because he was going to commit an act which would be most injurious to the House of Tokugawa and which there was no other means of preventing. This tale has been proved to be untrue by the modern historical criticism, but that such a tale should have been told, not in the condemnation of the act, but rather in praise of the wife who was willing to sacrifice not only herself but her husband for the sake of the house, shows what place the house holds in the estimation of the Japanese. There are other instances in which heads of houses were obliged to resign the headship for the good of the house. Nor was this confined to noble houses ; it was the same for the humble as for the mighty. In the houses of merchants who in feudal days were officially considered to be of the lowest pro- fession, it was the same — individuals had to sacrifice themselves, or were made to do so, for the sake of the house. I may remark here, by the way, that this spirit of self-sacrifice was the keynote of the moral teaching in the old feudal days, and is so still ; an individual must be ready to sacrifice himself for the sake of the house, and himself and the house, in fact everything, for the lord, or at the present day for the Emperor and the State. That is the ideal to which we try to educate our boys and girls. It would be difficult to understand many social phenomena in Japan, unless we bear this in mind. The house was, and is still, as I have said before, the unit of society, not the individual. Before the days of the new civil code, it was, in fact, a corporate body ; only the house-head could in general hold public office or private property, all other members of the house being dependent upon him ; a house-member could not hold a separate property of his own ; all he acquired, he acquired for the house, all he possessed or enjoyed, he did so by the permission of the house-head and not as a right. These things have to be considered when we come to speak of woman's position in those days ; her inferiority consisted in the fact that then she could 2S8 POSITION OF WOMEN [chap. not become a house-head. The house is still recognised in the new civil law, as indeed it had to be ; but there have been great changes introduced. The "House," in the sense in which it is employed in the Japanese law, does not mean a household, much less a dwelling- place, but a group of persons, usually but not necessarily bearing the same surname, and subject to the authority of its head, or koshu. A house may consist of the head alone, or of the head and one or more house-members ; the house-members consist of the relatives of the head or of his predecessors, or sometimes also of the relatives of house-members who are not related to the present or preceding house-head by any tie of kinship, but who have entered the house with the consent of the head ; such, for instance, as the relatives of the house-head's adopted son or of his daughter-in-law. The house- membership is now constituted in accordance with the following rules : — (i) A child enters the house of its father. (2) A child whose father is not known enters the house of its mother. (3) A natural born child recognised by its father, who is a house-member, or a natural born child of a female member of a house, enters the house of its father or mother, only when the house-head's consent is obtained. (4) A wife enters the house of her husband, except when a female house-head contracts marriage, in which case the husband enters the house of his wife. (5) A relative of the house-head who is in another house, or a relative of a house-member who has become such by adoption or marriage, enters the house, if the consent of the heads, both of the house he (or she) is leaving, and of the house he (or she) is entering, is obtained. A person who cannot enter any house, such as a child whose parents cannot be ascertained, establishes a new house and becomes a house-head. A house- member may, with the consent of the house-head, establish a new house, becoming its head. xvin.] THE HOUSE-HEAD'S AUTHORITY 259 A house thus constituted is entered in the house- registry, or koseki, which is kept in every district through- out the Empire. It will be seen that a house-member- ship and kinship are two different things ; a house may include persons who are not the kindred of its head, and may exclude even the nearest kindred who by adoption or marriage, or otherwise, may have entered another house. A person has thus two capacities — one as a member of the legal house, and the other as a member of the wider group of kindred. For instance, he may be a house-member and a son ; if he is a house-head's son, he is under the house-head's authority and under parent's authority of one and the same person, but if he is a house-member's son, he is under authority of two different persons, the house-head and the parent. It may sometimes happen that the house-head is a minor and his (or her) father or mother a house-member. In such a case the house -head is under the parental authority of the latter, while at the same time the latter is subject to the authority of the former as the house- head. Under the Japanese law, more weight is attached to the house than to the kinship. There are, however, some exceptions to this under the actual law ; for instance, in the duty of support and maintenance, and in the right of succession to a house-member's property, both of which are new, and were introduced by the new civil law and not bound by the limit of the house. In most other cases, the house takes precedence of the kindred, and a man's rights and duties, capacities and incapacities, are usually determined by his position as a member of the house, and not by his position as a member of the kindred. Parental authority is limited by the conception of the house, and is recognised only so far as the parent and the child are in the same house : if a son is not in the same house as his father or mother, he does not stand under the parental authority of either. The consent of a house-head is always necessary for marriage, adoption, divorce, or dissolution of adoption of a house-member, but the consent of parents is only 26o POSITION OF WOMEN [chap. required when the offspring is in the same house with them. The authority of a house-head includes, besides, the right of determining the residence of house-members, of expelling them from the house or forbidding their return to it on certain grounds specified by law, and of succeeding to the house-member's property in default of other heirs. The parental authority includes the custody and education of children who are minors, the right of correction, the right of determining their place of abode, business, or profession, of managing their property, or of performing several legal acts on their behalf, subject in certain cases to the approval of a family council. It is to be remarked that on the whole the new code has greatly curtailed the authority of the house-head and transferred many of the rights formerly included under the power of the house-head to parental authority, leaving him only such rights as are necessary to the preservation and proper management of the house. From all this you will gather something of the im- portance of the house in the present Japanese society, and of its still greater importance in the former days, before the introduction of the Occidental civilisation. I shall now say something about the legal status and social condition of women. We may recognise two great changes which they have undergone. The first change came with the introduction of the Chinese civilisation and Buddhism in the fifth century, although their full effect was not felt till a much later period. The second with the introduction of the Occidental civilisation. In the earliest period of our history, women seem to have occupied a higher position than in later times. The first Imperial Ancestor and the central figure of national worship is a goddess, Ama-Terasu-0-Mi-Kami, and there were several empresses who ruled the Empire. The Empress dowager Jingo Kogo is said to have invaded Corea at the head of her army and succeeded in completely subjugating it. XVIII.] THE POSITION OF WOMAN 261 The introduction of the Chinese civilisation with the Confucian system of moral philosophy, and of Buddhism, and later pn the establishment of Feudalism, were pre- judicial to this high position of women. Chinese philosophers seem not to have had much respect for women ; while Buddhism regards women as sinful creatures, a temptation and snare, an obstacle to peace and holiness. In our feudal system, in the code of Bushido, there was no such reverence for women as in the Western chivalry. As Professor Chamberlain has remarked : "A Japanese knight performed his valiant deeds for no such fanciful rewards as a lady's smile. He performed them out of loyalty to his lord, or filial piety towards the memory of his father "—I should like to say "his fathers," i.e., for the honour of his house. Professor Yamagawa, late President of the Tokyo Imperial University, in his address to students on the Commemoration Day, after pointing out many points of resemblance between a bushi and an English gentle- man, remarks that one of the striking differences is the extraordinary reverence for women, which is so pro- minent in the Western code and wanting in the Bushido. A bushi looked upon women as gentle and weak creatures who must be protected, but there was no such reverence for women as in the code of gentlemen — reverence, that is, for women as women — for the duty of filial piety is just as great towards mother as towards father ; as much respect was paid to the mother as to the father, as much to the wife of the lord as to the lord himself ; except in so far as the latter was the head of the house, and thereby had a special title to obedience. Under the feudal system it was natural that a woman could not become the head of a house, for she could not discharge duties required of such, the first of which was military service. The rule of ' ' Three obediences " for women — obedience while at home to her parents ; obedience when married to her husband ; obedience when old (z.e., widowed) to her son (i.e., the head of the house) — was a necessary consequence 262 POSITION OF WOMEN [chap. of this disability. Men as well as women were subject to the authority of the house-head, but whereas a man could become the head of a house, a woman could not, and therefore she had to obey during her whole life. The obedience, when widowed, to her son was nothing strange, considering that when a man, the head of a house, became inkyo, that is, resigned his house-head- ship, as happened very commonly, he also was legally under the authority of his son, who succeeded him in his house-headship. As a matter of fact, the position of woman, even in the feudal days, was not very low ; she owed obedience as a house-member legally to the house-head, but she received all respect due to her as mother and wife. With the introduction of the Occidental civilisation came a great change. As early as 1873, only five years after the Restoration, there was enacted the following law with regard to divorce : — "Whereas it has frequently happened that a wife asked divorce from her husband on account of unavoid- able circunistances, to which the latter unreasonably withheld his consent for many years, thereby causing her to lose the opportunity of a second marriage, and whereas this is an ihjury to her right of freedom, it shall henceforth be allowed to the wife to bring an action against her husband, with the assistance of her father, brother, or other relative." According to the new code, the legal status of women is raised very much higher ; it is based upon the principle of equality of sexes, and makes no dis- tinction between man and woman in their enjoyment and exercise of private rights, so long as a woman remains single. She may become the head of a house, in which case all house - members, whether male or female, including her husband if she is married, come under her authority as house -head and are legally dependent upon her. She may exercise parental authority over her own children, if her husband is XVIII.] A WOMAN'S RIGHTS 263 dead. She may adopt children alone if she is single or a widow ; when married, her consent is necessary for the adoption of a child. She may make any con- tract, or acquire or dispose of property in her own name : in short, she may be a party to any legal transaction as long as she remains single. When she is married, her state of coverture obliges her to obtain the consent of her husband in doing certain acts, which may involve grave consequences upon their conjugal life ; such as contracting debts, acquisition or loss of immovable or valuable movable properties, instituting legal proceed- ings, accepting or renouncing succession, entering into contract of personal service, etc. Even in regard to those, when she does those acts without her husband's consent, they are not void but voidable, that is, liable to be annulled by her husband. With her husband's consent she may also engage in business, in which case she is considered as an independent person with respect to that business. She may also do those acts without her husband's consent, not only when circum- stances are such that she cannot obtain it, but when the interests of husband and wife conflict. With regard to property, persons about to marry are allowed to make any contract with regard to their conjugal property, which will be binding upon them, and can be set up against a third party if registered before the registration of marriage. If no such contract be made between them, the fundamental rule is that the property belong- ing to the wife, or the husband who enters his wife's house, at the time of the marriage, or subsequently acquired in her or his name, shall be her or his separate property. It will be seen from the above that where there is a discrimination against a ^wife, it is rather a discrimination against a house-member. With regard to sexual relations and marriage, also, great changes have been introduced. The Japanese in historical ages have never practised polygamy ; it is true that the introduction of mistresses into the family has 264 POSITION OF WOMEN [chap. been an open institution, especially among the upper and richer classes ; the teachings of Confucius and Chinese moral philosophers were not unfavourable to it, and the importance attached to the continuity of the house was given as a reason for its practice in many cases. Both Shintoism and Confucianism insisted upon this importance of the continuity of the house and of the ancestral worship: "There are," says Mencius, "three things which are unfilial, and to have no posterity is the greatest of them." (The other two were the encouragement of parents in unrighteousness, and failure to support parents in poverty and old age.) To be without posterity is the greatest offence, because it was an offence against the whole line of ancestors who are thereby left without any one to perform the family worship. However, its practice was not confined to those cases which justified it, according to the ethics of those days on this ground, and there is no doubt that it occasioned much unhappiness in the family ; hence its practice was not very widespread, even among the higher and richer classes. Among the middle and lower classes it was not at all common ; indeed I may remark that among the lower classes there was a remarkable equality between husband and wife ; for instance, while the wife of a samurai never addressed her husband by his name, it was usual for an artisan's wife to do so. At present, the social opinion tends to condemn this practice, and new ideas of morality with regard to sexual relations are springing up along with the higher education of women. Marriage itself was regarded as one of the most important acts not to be lightly entered into, for it was admission of an important member into the house. Formerly (I speak of the Tokugawa period), among the samurais it was only the eldest son, presumptive heir to the house-headship, who married : the younger sons could not usually marry. The lot of younger sons of samurais in those days was not an enviable one ; they were vulgarly called "hiyameshi-kui," eaters of cold xviii.] MARRIAGE 265 boiled rice, for they were supposed not to be allowed to eat boiled rice with the elders of the house when first served up warm, but after it had been served to parents and the eldest son, and left over for the next meal and grown cold. Hence, those younger sons often applied themselves more diligently than the eldest sons to the study of the Chinese literature, which constituted the whole of literary training in those days, or to the practice of feats of arms, such as fencing, use of spears, archery, etc., so that they might, in virtue of their excellence in them, be adopted into a family without a son, and thereby secure the prospect of becoming a house-head. This was very commonly the case ; some- times, but very rarely, if one of them proved himself of extraordinary merit, their lord made an independent house for him ; sometimes they ran away, and in such cases often opened terakoya, or private schools, in remote villages. Marriage then was an affair of the house and not of individuals. A woman in marrying entered her husband's house as a house - member, and became subject to the authority of the house-head, as she had been subject at home to the authority of the head of her own house. In the present days, although there have been changes both in the limit of the house-head's authority and in the extent of women's rights, as I have explained above, the marrying into the house of her husband is still true ; marriage is not legally valid until her name has been entered among her husband's house-registry by the district registrar, although the marriage ceremony is quite a separate affair from this registering. In former days, the bride was received into her husband's house and lived with the elders, receiving from her mother-in-law instructions in house- hold matters, and especially in the kafu^ or manners, customs, usages, rules, and traditions of the house, and attending to those under her directions ; and so she remained, till most likely the old couple retired from the house-headship, when it became her duty to take 266 POSITION OF WOMEN [chap. the supreme control of the household duties, to tend the old parents, to look after children, and so on. With richer merchant and farmer classes it was nearly the same ; among artisans and lower classes .generally, new couples often started new hearths, the question of the house not being considered of such great import- ance among them. Social conditions cannot change so rapidly as legal enactments or political system, especially in what concerns women : the inner family life has not changed so very much, even in recent times, although the advance in the education of women, which has made immense strides within the last ten or fifteen years, is bringing about gradual changes in many respects. The custom of a separate domicile for the young couple is not even now very prevalent. Nowadays younger sons need not remain hiyameshi-kui until they are adopted into another house ; they may marry with the consent of the house-head and of the parents, if they can support themselves and their families ; they may establish new houses and become house-heads themselves. Yet it is customary for at least one of the young couples, usually the eldest, to remain with the old couple. The duties of a wife also remain much the same : man goes outside to work to earn his living, to fulfil his duties to the State ; it is the wife's part to help him, for the common interests of the house, and as her share of duty to the State, by sympathy and encouragement, by relieving him of anxieties at home, managing household affairs, looking after household economy, and, above all, tending the old people and bringing up their children in a fit and proper manner. She is the centre of household activity ; she attends to the food and clothing of the whole house- hold ; in the morning she sees her children off properly provided and prepared for school, in the afternoon they come back to her with their joys and troubles, their successes and failures. This is true not only of the middle and lower classes, but of the higher classes ; where there are servants kept, she has to superintend xvin-i DIVORCE 267 their work and see that it is properly done. I shall have another occasion to speak of the home life. Law or rule of divorce was formerly based upon the Chinese doctrine of the seven grounds for divorce, namely— (i) sterility, (2) lewdness, (3) disobedience to father-in-law or mother-in-law^ (4) loquacity, (5) larceny, (6) jealousy, (7) bad disease. These were regarded as just grounds for divorce, but a wife could be divorced at her husband's pleasure, on such reason or pretext as that she was not conformable to the kafu, i.e., customs, rules, etc., of the house ; although there always was social opinion in those matters which censured arbitrary measures on his part, yet it had no direct power. Still, divorce was not common among the upper classes, but it was rather common among the lower classes, who en- tered lightly into marriage and were as lightly divorced. A wife could not obtain divorce against her husband's will. As I stated before, this was partly remedied by law in the early years of Meiji, and the new code has made an entire revolution in this respect. According to it, there are two kinds of divorce, consensual and judicial, the former being effected by the mutual agreement of the parties concerned, while the latter is granted by law, on grounds specified. These are bigamy, adultery, sentence for an offence of a grave nature, such as forgery, theft, etc. ; such cruel treat- ment or gross insult as makes cohabitation unbearable, desertion with evil intent, cruel treatment or gross insult of, or by, a lineal ascendant, uncertainty for three years or more of the life or death of the consort, are principal grounds for judicial divorce. In either kind, divorce is now a bilateral act instead of being unilateral, as in former days. It is true that in some respects the law is ahead of the people, and that at present there are many divorces of the first kind. Such is the outline of the legal status of woman, secured to her by the new civil code. It is true that 268 POSITION OF WOMEN [chap. she has not many public rights. She cannot vote for members of representative assemblies, except for the member of a shi, cho, or son assembly under certain special conditions. She can also vote for the member of the Chamber of Commerce, which is, in Japan, a legally constituted body. As to the profession of women, there is no legal restriction to a large number of them. She may practise as a doctor of medicine on passing the same examinations as men ; she may become a teacher in an elementary school or in a higher school. Recently, some women have been appointed civil officials of hannin class in the postal and railway services, and so on, but on the whole women who pursue those profes- sions are not very many (except teachers of schools). As already stated, we hold that women are born to matrimony, that their natural vocation is to become wives and mothers. Our ideal of womanhood is "good wife and wise mother." We consider home to be the woman's sphere. ' ' Man works outside and woman helps at home," is our maxim. We are not without examples of great women who performed with ability what is usually regarded as man's work, but they are comparatively few, and they are not those who are most respected, while examples of good wives and wise mothers who encouraged, comforted, and helped their husbands and sons are innumerable. I am speaking, of course, of remarkable cases that are mentioned in history and held up as models for future generations, and not of the vast number whose lives and works are lost in oblivion, who have wasted ' ' their sweetness on the desert air." With the change in the social condition of the people and the introduction of complex Occidental civilisation, our idea of a woman's sphere is widening ; the spirit, I trust, remains the same, but the form must change. Our ideal of woman's vocation is the same, and the essentials of good wife and wise mother cannot change, but the outward manifestation will xviii.] GOOD WIVES AND WISE MOTHERS 269 change. At times like the present in Japan, when on many points old and new ideas are clashing, where we still have mothers imbued with the thoughts and sentiments of the old feudal days, and daughters often with advanced modern ideas derived from the West, there is a very great danger for society. The young, impatient of what they consider unreasonable restraints imposed upon them by the old, are apt to break away from all control, and work harm not only to themselves but to society. The only means to prevent such unhappy catastrophes consists in giving such an education to the rising generation of women as will enable them to advance in line with men under the new conditions of things, and, at the same time, to appreciate all that is valuable and worthy to be preserved in the old ideals. Such has been the object kept in view in framing the present system of female education — in a word, to fit girls to be good wives and wise mothers, proper helpmates and worthy com- panions of the men of Meiji, and noble mothers to bring up future generations of Japanese. CHAPTER XIX girls' high schools Female edueation in pre-Meiji era — Progress of female edtuation in Meiji— Object of girls' high school — Courses — Subjtcts taught — Table of hours — Standard of instruction — Syllabus — Morals — Saho — Household matters- Sewing — Education — Statistics — Number of schools — Number of girls — Of graduates — Of teachers — Of applicants for admission and of the admitted- Increase not keeping pace with the demand. You will have inferred from the words in the preamble to the First Education Code of 1872 (chap. VI), that the education of women in the pre-Meiji period was rather defective. A girl's education generally stopped at the elementary stage, even for the daughters of samurais ; that is, they were taught to write, which included reading, in somewhat the same way as boys ; besides, they were taught sewing at school and at home. They were also taught to sing and play on samisen or koto, the latter being mostly confined to those above the higher middle class, and sometimes to dance (our dancing is a sort of posturing to music). They were also taught various household matters at home, and sometimes chanoyu (or tea ceremony), art of arranging flowers, painting, and other accomplish- ments (in those above the middle class). There were some, especially among the samurai class, who received a much higher education, in classical Japanese, in composing verses in the classic style, and even in Chinese literature. It is a remarkable fact that two of the best writers in pure classical Japanese were both women of the Heian period. But on the whole, the general education of women in the old days was not very high. 270 CHAP. XIX.] THE EMPRESS'S VERSE 271 As I have stated, the Meiji Governnient established a girls' school in 187 1, which was afterwards amal- gamated with the Female Normal School in Tokyo. The Empress, who is looked up to by the whole nation as the model of womanly virtues, has been a great patron of female education ; she was present at the opening ceremony of the above-mentioned Female Normal School in 1875 ; the next year she specially sent the following verse, composed by herself, to the school : — " Migaka zu ba, Tama mo Kagami mo Nani ka sen, Manabi no michi mo Kaku koso ari kere," which, literally translated, means: "If we polish not a gem or a mirror, what good will it be? With the way of learning, it is the same." This has been set to music, and is sung in girls' schools on all appropriate occasions as women's educational song. Her Majesty has since on several occasions honoured the school with her presence ; the school has since become the Female Higher Normal School. Notwithstanding the encouragement given to female education, it is only quite recently that people in general have begun to perceive its importance. In 1873, out of a total of 1, 145,800 attending elementary schools, 879,200, or 77 per cent., were boys, and only 266,600, or 23 per cent., were girls. In 1883, the total number had increased to 3,238,000, but the ratio was 68 per cent, boys to 32 per cent, girls, showing that while education had spread pretty rapidly during those ten years, girls' education was still very much neglected. The statistics of 1893 show no very great advance either in the number (3,338,000) or in the ratio of boys to girls (68 to 32, or, if we take the ordinary elementary course only, 66 to 34). In 1906 the total number of boys and girls had increased to 5,515,000, showing the enormous strides that have been made in elementary education in the ten 272 GIRLS' HIGH SCHOOLS [chap. years after the China War ; the ratio of boys to girls shows the same satisfactory progress, being 52 to 48 in the ordinary and 68 to 32 in the higher elementary course, or 56 to 44 taking the whole elementary course. If we take secondary education into consideration, we observe the same thing. Provisions for the edu- cation of girls after they have finished the elementary course were very few, and what there were were not of very high order, being confined chiefly to the teaching of reading and arithmetic, etc., only a little advanced beyond the standard of the elementary course, with special attention paid to sewing. In 1883, there were 7 girls' high schools (all public), with 350 girls. It should be remarked, however, that these were not the only provisions, for there were schools, not classed as high schools, which gave some sort of secondary education to girls. In 1893 the number had increased to 28 (of which 8 were public), with 3,020 girls. In those days there was no separate Imperial Ordinance for girls' high schools ; they were merely mentioned in that on middle schools as a sort of middle school, there were no regulations even about the subjects to be taught and their standard up to 1895. The first Imperial Ordinance on Girls' High Schools, which is now in force, was issued in 1899, and the revised regulations in 1901. Provisions in the Ordinance and in the regulations about the establishment, closure, organisation, admittance, promotion, graduation, terms, holidays, qualifications, and number of teachers, etc., are similar to those of middle schools. There is one distinction which is worth mentioning, that is, that marks are to be given, not by examinations, but as the result of ordinary daily work, except in a few specified subjects, the reason being that girls are very emotional, and excitement caused by examinations is prejudicial to their moral and physical development ; for the same reason, in many schools the order of pupils is not made known to them, but simply whether they are promoted or not. [I note that in the revised regulations issued in May 1908, XIX.] GIRLS' HIGH SCHOOLS 273 examination is permitted generally, although the rule is still that marks shall be given by daily work.] The object of girls' high schools is stated in the Imperial Ordinance to be "to give higher general education necessary for women," i.e., general education and culture necessary for those who are to be of middle or higher social standing, A girls' high school course extends over four years, which may, however, be lengthened or shortened by one year. The vast majority of schools have a course of four years. [By an amendment of the Imperial Ordinance made in 1907, the three years' course was abolished.] A general supplementary course of not more than two years, or a special supplementary course of two or three years may be established for those who have finished the regular course and desire to receive further educa- tion. A special course in handiwork of two to four years may also be established for those who do not wish to receive general education. The subjects taught in the regular course are Morals, the (Japanese) Language, Foreign Language (either English or French), History, Geography, Mathematics, Science, Drawing, Household Matters, Sewing, Music, and Gymnastics. Foreign language may be omitted in a school, or made optional ; it is to be omitted in a school with a three years' course ; actually there is no school where French is taught, except in the Peeresses' School. Those subjects whose study offers special difficulty for some girls may be omitted by them. In addition to the subjects above mentioned, one or both of education and manual work may be added, except in a three years' course. [According to the amended regulations of 1908, drawing and singing may be omitted with the sanction of the Minister of Education ; and not simply education and manual work, but generally any subjects which might be deemed necessary by the local authorities may be added as optional subjects with the sanction of the Minister. I may state that the new regulations leave greater freedom in general to local authorities.] 274 GIRLS' HIGH SCHOOLS [chap. The number of hours a week allotted to each subject will be seen from the following tables : — SUBJECTS. 1ST YEAR, 2ND YEAR, 3RD YEAR, 4TH YEAR Morals . 2 2 2 2 The Language Foreign language History \ Geography/ Mathematics 6 3 3 2 6 3 3 2 5 3 2 2 5 3 3 2 Science 2 2 2 I Drawing Household matter I 5 I I 2 I 2 Sewing . Music . 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 Gymnastics . 3 3 3 3 Total 28 28 28 28 When education is added, two hours may be taken for it from the teaching of the foreign language in the fourth year ; where manual work is added, two hours may be taken from sewing in the second and higher years ; where foreign language is omitted, the hours may be distributed suitably among other subjects. When the course is lengthened by one year the hours are to be as follows : — SUBJECTS. 1ST YEAR. 2ND YEAR. 3RD YEAR, 4TH YEAR. STH YEAR Morals . 2 2 2 2 2 The Language Foreign language History 1 Geography/ " Mathematics . 6 3 3 2 6 3 3 2 6 3 3 2 5 3 2 2 5 3 2 2 Science . 2 2 2 2 ... Drawing Household matters I I I I 2 I 4 Sewing . Music . 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 Gymnastics . 3 3 3 3 3 Total 28 28 28 28 28 Where education is added, two hours may be taken XIX.] AMENDED REGULATIONS OF 1908 275 for it from the teaching of foreign language in the fifth year ; where manual work is added, two hours may be taken from sewing in the second and higher years ; where foreign language is omitted, the hours may be suitably distributed among other subjects. I omit the time-table for the three years' course. When local circumstances make it desirable to introduce any change in the above tables, the sanction of the Minister of Education must be obtained, but in no case is it allowed to have more lessons than thirty hours a week. [The amended regulations of igo8 contain some important changes, not in the distribution of hours in the above tables, but in provisions for different cases of omission and addition of subjects, as follows : When foreign language, drawing, or music is omitted, hours are to be distributed suitably among other subjects ; hours for sewing may be increased up to six hours a week. When other subjects are added, the total number of hours may be increased by not more than six hours, but the increase for subjects which are not practical work must not exceed two hours. Distribution of hours may be made, when considered desirable, according to the local circumstances, with the sanction of the Minister of Education, but in no case shall the hours for any subject be increased by more than two hours a week. Whatever changes may be made, the hours of instruc- tion must not be increased more than six hours a week. ] Subjects of the general supplementary course are to be chosen from among the subjects of the regular course ; any of the subjects may be made voluntary. Subjects and standard of teaching of special supple- mentary course are to be determined by the local authorities, subject to the approval of the Minister. Subjects of the special course for handiwork are, besides the special subjects of the handiwork. Morals, the Language, Mathematics, Science, Drawing, House- hold Matters, Sewing, Music, and Gymnastics, of which mathematics, science, and drawing may be either omitted 276 GIRLS' HIGH SCHOOLS [chap. or made voluntary, and music also for those to whom it offers special difficulty. The special subjects of handi- work are such as painting (Japanese style), embroidery, artificial flower - making, and the like, and are to be determined in each case by the local authorities, subject to the approval of the Minister. The number of hours of instruction in the general or special supplementary, or the special handiwork course must not exceed thirty hours a week. [By the new regulations of 1908, the maximum number of hours under special circumstances may be increased to thirty-four hours. Moreover, in the special handiwork course the subjects that must be taught besides the handiwork subjects are limited to Morals, the Language, and Gymnastics.] The standard of instruction in each subject is set forth in the regulations ; and in addition to it a detailed syllabus of teaching in each subject has been issued in 1903 for the general guidance of directors and teachers. This syllabus is in most respects quite similar to the one issued the year before for the middle schools, and which I have explained in chapters XVI and XVII, except that in almost all subjects the standard is lower. Even where syllabuses have the same wording, giving the same items and directions, there must be a difference of the standard due to the number of hours given to that subject, and, moreover, there must be a difference arising from the difference of sex. For example, in the Morals, nearly the same virtues and obligations are given in the syllabuses, but in girls' high schools they must be treated from the point of view of the woman, and examples should be taken from the deeds of women rather than from those of men. I shall not go into details of each subject, but only mention points where the difference is noteworthy. In Morals, besides the essential points of morals, whose heads are similar to those for boys of middle XIX.] HOUSEHOLD MATTERS 277 schools, one hour a week in the first two years is given to Saho, or deportment and manners. Does it seem strange to you that manners should form a part of moral teaching? In the system of Chinese philosophy Rei (ceremony) has been regarded as an important factor in the art of government, and good manners, courtesy, and dignity have been counted among the indispensable attributes of the samurai and the upper classes. Especially has it been considered essential for a lady to be possessed of good manners, to behave properly at all times, and to know and do what is fit and proper on all occasions. This subject must be considered in conjunction with "the household matters" in the last two years, which is in a sense a continuation of the same subject. In the syllabus, under the heading Sahd, are items as follows : — Things to be borne in mind in relation to, and practical lessons in, sitting and standing ; advancing and retiring ; interview ; ofTering and accepting of things. Things to be borne in mind in relation to sleeping and eating ; dress ; visit ; reception ; communication (correspondence, etc.) ; presents ; entertainments ; public meetings ; occasions of joy or sorrow ; congratulations and condolence ; mourn- ing, etc. And in the directions with regard to its teaching it is stated that in teaching sahd stress must not be laid on old customs and ceremonial rules, rather it must be adapted to the modern conditions of living, dressing, and eating, to "standing manners" (European style of living), as well as to manners on mats (Japanese style). Practical lessons in saho should be limited to teaching of simple methods and manners of ordinary life. I must mention the details of the syllabus of teaching in the Household Matters, for it is a very essential part of girls' education, and there is nothing like it in the middle school syllabus. 278 GIRLS' HIGH SCHOOLS [chap. Third year — Two hours a week. Introduction — Woman's work in the household ; importance of forming a good kafii, or customs and usages of the house. Clothing, food, and habitation — Clothing : choice of materials ; making, preservation, washing. Food : constituents, nature ; ordinary food (rice, wheat, barley, millet, boiled rice, bread, food made of wheat, etc., like vermicelli, macaroni, etc.,ya, beans, bean curds, miso, shoyu sauce, cakes, fruits, vegetables, fish, fowl, eggs, beef, pork, milk, oil, salt, etc.) ; food articles of special taste ; drinking water, means of getting good water, infection by water; menu ; utensils and implements for eating and cooking ; cooking, with practical lessons (boiling, roasting, steaming, soups, preserves, raw food) ; storing. Habitation : choice ; site, building ; direction of the frontage, light, warmth, ventilation, position of rooms, ornamentation ; gate and fencing, gardens, well ; cleansing, sweeping, care- taking ; furniture and utensils. Fourth year — Two hours a week. Care of the old and of children — Care of the old : attention to be paid with respect to clothing, food, and habitation ; assistance in sitting and standing ; mental comfort. Care of children : lactation ; teething ; food ; clothing ; habita- tion ; bathing ; exercise ; sleep ; sickness. Speech and action or demeanour ; conversation (stories) ; play and toys ; school attendance. Nursing, and prevention of infectious diseases — Attention to be paid with respect to clothing, food, and habita- tion ; nursing ; medicine ; dangerous cases ; measures to be taken in emergencies ; infectious diseases and their prevention ; mode of cleansing ; disinfection. Management and economy — Things to be borne in mind by the mistress of a house ; diligence, economy, order, preparedness, minute attention, cleanliness ; servants, their choice and how to treat them, distribution of work, wages ; property, estimate of income and expendi- XIX.] LESSONS IN PRACTICAL COOKERY 279 ture, necessary expenses and waste, savings, insurance ; household book-keeping, items of income and expenditure, method of book-keeping, arrangement of books. The following are the directions with regard to the teaching of the subject : — (i) In teaching household matters, mere theories must be avoided, and teaching well adapted to practical purposes. As much use as possible should be made of what girls have learnt in other subjects. (2) About ten lessons are to be given in practical cookery in the third year, but they may, if necessary, be also given in the fourth year. (3) Household book-keeping should be taught with examples as nearly real as possible. Besides general instruction in household matters, sewing is taught for four hours a week throughout. This includes lessons in the use of the sewing machine. The object of teaching education is to give the girls general ideas on education, so as to fit them the better for the functions of motherhood. According to the syllabus, after introductory lessons on elements of psychology, more especially with reference to the development of a child's mind, under the head of edu- cation proper, the following items are mentioned : — Home education : fostering and protection of child's body, play and handiwork, story-telling and explanations, command, reward, and punishment. Kindergarten : methods. School education : instruction and training, home education and school education, home education and the State. Manual work in girls' high schools includes such works as knitting, making of silk or cotton strings, of purses and bags, embroidery, artificial flower-making, etc., all of which are of practical use, the chief object being, however, rather to cultivate dexterity of fingers and habits of close attention. I shall now give some statistics relating to girls' high schools. 280 Number of Schools — Public Schools . Private Schools . Total . Number of Girls — In Public Schools In Private Schools Total . GIRLS' HIGH SCHOOLS 1898 1902 25 8 72 7 J^ 21 [chap. 1904 1906 85 9 94 97 16 113 6,060 19,185 25,495 30.786 2,106 2,019 2,696 4,760 8,166 21,204 28,191 35.546 Number of Graduates— In Public Schools . • 535 4.039 5.975 7.329 In Private Schools . . 361 725 850 1,203 Total . Number of Teachers in Public Schools with Certificates — Male 39 Female 114 Without Certificates- Male 35 Female 81 „ Foreigner . Total in Public Schools 269 In Private Schools with Certificates- Male II Female 35 Without Certificates- Male 40 Female 34 „ Foreigner ... Total in Private Schools 120 Total number of Teachers . 389 182 347 191 331 I 263 475 204 356 2 8g6 4,764 6,825 8,532 390 575 190 374 I 1,052 1,300 1.53° 20 16 38 24 46 84 26 31 44 36 47 71 2 2 3 108 142 240 1,160 1,442 1,770 11,021 15.470 23,327 7,363 10,222 12,865 67 66 55 Number of applicants for admission Number of those admitted Percentage of the admitted It will be seen from the above that although the number of schools has increased at a rapid rate, yet XIX.] THE PEERESSES' SCHOOL 281 it has been insufficient to keep pace with the demand for admission. This has been the case with every kind of educational institution, and will continue to be so for some time to come yet. I should say that the above numbers are exclusive of the High School attached to the Female Higher Normal School, and that established by the Imperial household and usually known as Peeresses' School. CHAPTER XX NORMAL SCHOOLS Normal schools in early Meiji — Reform of 1886— Oj tSgj — Of igoy — Two distinct regular courses — First regular course — PrefarcUory course — Quali- fcaiionsfor entrance — Second regular course for graduates of middle schools and of girls' high schools — Short training courses — Subjects and standard — Time tables — General instructions with regard to the training of teachers — Pedagogy — Attached elementary school — Organisation of classes — Staff- Director — Teachers and assistant teachers — Dormitory superintendents — Salaries of teachers — Number of schools and of instructors — Minimum number of pupils of normal schools in each prefecture — Numbers of pupils and graduates — Stipend — Dormitory — School journey — Privileges and obligations of graduates. From the beginning of the introduction of the new system of education, the training of teachers has engaged the attention of the Government. Thus as early as the 5th year of Meiji (1872), a normal school was established in Tokyo by the Government, where an American teacher was engaged to teach the method of teaching in elementary schools : subsequently normal schools were opened in Osaka, Miyagi (Sendai), Aichi (Nagoya), Hiroshima, Nagasaki and Niigata by the Government. Besides these Government institutions, several were established by the prefectures, so that we find in 1874, 53 normal schools, of which 7 were governmental and the rest prefectural, with 5,072 pupils, of whom 74 were female. Many of those schools were very imperfect, being of very short course, and only just giving pupils some idea of the method of class teaching : as I have remarked before, in the old days all elementary teaching was individual, so that class teaching, which was now introduced, was something 282 CHAP. XX.] TRAINING IN NORMAL SCHOOLS 283 quite new. In 1883 we find 80 normal schools, of which only 2 were governmental, the rest having been transferred to prefectures, with 6,569 pupils, of whom 805 were female, turning out 1,888 graduates. In 1886, along with other reforms in education, a great reform was introduced into normal schools. The 2 govern- mental normal schools in Tokyo were anialgamated into one and made a Higher Normal School, with male and female sections, to train teachers for normal schools. Each prefecture was placed under an obligation to main- tain one and only one normal school, but the standard was raised uniformly : the length of the course was made uniform, all the pupils were to be supported at the public expense, and they were placed under the obliga- tion to serve as teachers for a certain period after their graduation ; in fact the training system was established which remains very much the same to-day. The great change was more in the spirit and method of training : a semi - military discipline was introduced in all the schools, and pupils were taught to look upon their future profession as forming an important part of the functions of the State, which they must fulfil as a duty that they owed to the State. The first article of the Imperial Ordinance on Normal Schools of 1886 runs as follows: "Normal schools are designed to train teachers. The pupils must be trained to cultivate the spirit of Obedience, Sympathy, and Dignity." It is not too much to say that the reforms made by Viscount Mori in the normal school system have been largely instrumental in the improvement of elementary education since that time. In 1897 the restriction of one normal school to each prefecture was removed, and since then the Govern- ment has encouraged the establishment of at least two schools, one each for male and female pupils, and of more when possible ; in 1905 there were 66 normal schools, of which 28 were for male pupils only, 16 for female only, and 22 had both male and female pupils. [Somewhat important changes were made in 1907 in 284 NORMAL SCHOOLS [chap. the organisation of normal schools, and I think it will be more convenient in this chapter to describe the new system only, making references to the old where the change seems to call for such remarks, and not to follow my original lectures and mention changes that have been made, as I have done in other chapters.] There are now two distinct regular courses. The first regular course extends over four years, both for male and female pupils, with one year's preparatory course. This course is about the same as before for male pupils, its length and qualification for entrance being about the same, while for female pupils the course originally of three years only has been lengthened by one year, and the standard of graduation thus very much raised and made approximately the same as for male graduates. The qualifications for entrance into the preparatory course are that candidates shall be of sound constitution and good moral character, and shall have finished the higher elementary course of two years (of the new elementary education scheme, equivalent to four years higher elementary course before the change of 1907, see Table VI of chap. IX), or shall be above fourteen years of age and shall have attained the same standard of knowledge ; pupils may also be admitted directly into the regular course, the standard of attain- ment being that of the three years' higher elementary course (see Table VII of chap. IX). The preparatory course may be wanting, but its establishment is strongly advocated by the Department of Education, as for the present there will not be many elementary schools with three years' course necessary to qualify candidates for direct entrance into the regular course. Formerly the standard of knowledge for entrance into normal schools was rather vague, being "possession of ordinary elementary school assistant teacher's certificate, or of attainments equal to or greater than such " ; the new regulation is a great improvement, as it fits in normal schools into the general educational system. The second regular course is a course newly estab- XX.] NORMAL SCHOOLS 285 lished to qualify graduates of middle schools or of girls' high schools to become elementary school teachers. It extends over one year for graduates of middle schools and of girls' high schools with a five years' course, and for two years for graduates of girls' high schools with a four years' course. The qualifications for entrance into this course are sound constitution and good moral character, and the standard of knowledge equal to, or greater than, the graduation of middle schools or girls' high schools with corresponding age limits. This course may be wanting for the present, but its establishment is encouraged by the Government as a means of getting efficient teachers economically* Besides the two regular courses and the preparatory course, short courses of one or two years or more may be opened occasionally to qualify pupils for ordinary elementary school teachers and kindergarten nurse- mothers. Before 1907 there was a shorter course of two years and four months, to qualify pupils for ordinary elementary school regular teachers, but this has been abolished in the new scheme. Subjects to be taught to male pupils in the first regular course are : — Morals, Pedagogy, the (Japanese) Language and Chinese Literature, English language (optional). History, Geography, Mathematics, Natural Science, Physics and Chemistry, Law and Economics, Writing, Drawing, Manual work and Gymnastics. To these must be added one or both of Agriculture and Commerce, each pupil taking only one of the two. The subjects to be taught to female pupils in the first regular course are : — Morals, Pedagogy, the (Japanese) Language and Chinese Literature, History, Geography, Mathematics, Natural Science, Physics and Chemistry, Household matters, Sewing, Writing, Draw- ing, Manual work, Music, and Gymnastics. English may be added as an optional subject. The subjects to be taught in the preparatory course are : — Morals, the (Japanese) Language and Chinese 286 NORMAL SCHOOLS [chap. Literature, Mathematics, Writing, Drawing, Music, and Gymnastics, with Sewing for female pupils. There have been some changes in the subjects to be taught, the most important of which are that Manual work is made obligatory on all. Law and Economics have been newly added, and English made optional on all male pupils, and that several new subjects have been added and the standard raised for female pupils. The subjects to be taught to male pupils in the second regular course are : — Morals, Pedagogy, the (Japanese) Language and Chinese Literature, Mathe- matics, Natural Science, Physics and Chemistry, Law and Economics (to be omitted for those who have studied the subject in middle schools), Drawing, Manual work, Music, and Gymnastics. The subjects to be taught to female pupils in the second regular course are : — Morals, Pedagogy, the (Japanese) Language and Chinese Literature, Mathe- matics, Natural Science, Physics and Chemistry, Sew- ing, Drawing, Manual work. Music and Gymnastics. For two years' course History and Geography are to be added, also English may be added as an optional subject. The number of hours a week allotted to different subjects in successive years for different courses will be seen from the table on the following page : — The following general directions are given with respect to the training of teachers in normal schools : — "The teaching in normal schools must be based upon the Imperial Ordinance on Normal Schools and special attention must be paid to the following points : — (i) To be filled with the spirit of Loyalty and Patriotism is specially important for teachers, and hence pupils should be made to realise the grandeur and obligations of loyalty and filial piety, and to be inspired with sentiments proper to our nationality. (2) The discipline of mind and cultivation of virtues are specially important for teachers, and hence pupils XX.] NORMAL SCHOOLS 287 Subjects. Male Pupils. Female Pupils. 6^ 1 1 First Regular Course. 1 1 •0 a Oh First Regular Course. Second Regular Course. is E 1 ■0 a ■H 1 1 u >* >< •s 1 § (I. 1 a 1 •a g 1 a Morals 2 2 I I I 2 2 2 I I 2 I 2 2 Pedagogy prac- » tice . . ) — — 2 4 |3 l9 7 8 }- - ■^ 4 |3 I 9 }4 {i 7 6 The Language, and Chinese 10 6 4 3 2 2 9 6 4 3 2 s 3 3 literature. English language — 3 3 3 2 - — (3) (3) (3) (2) (3) (3) — History — 2 2 2 — — - 2 2 2 — 2 — — Geography . - 2 2 I - — — 'id 2 I - 2 — - Mathematics 6 4 3 3 2 2 S 3 3 2 2 4 3 3 Natural Science . Physics and Che- — 3 2 2 I 3 4 (3 1 {: 2 2 2 I 2 4 2 3 3 mistry. Law and Econo- — — — — 2 2 -^ — — — — — — — mics. Household mat- — — — — — — — — — 2 2 — — — ters. Sewing - — — — — — 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 Writing . 3 2 I I — — 3 2 I I — — — — Drawing •A > 3 3 3 3 r2 }' 3 3 2 3 2 3 Manual work — Music . 2 2 2 2 I 2 2 2 2 2 I 2 I 2 Gymnastics 6 S S S 3 3 4 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 Agriculture or Commerce. Total, . _ 2 2 2 " 31 31 (34) 31 (34) 31 (34) 32 (34) 31 (34) 31 (34) 34 31 34 34 34 34 34 288 NORMAL SCHOOLS [chap. should be made to pay special attention to those points in their daily life. (3) To observe discipline, to keep order and regu- larity, and to maintain dignity worthy of one who is to be a master and model is specially important for teachers, and hence pupils must be trained in habits of strict obedience to commands and instructions of superiors, and of correctness in their behaviour and speech. (4) The instruction given must be fitted to the requirements of those who are going to be teachers, and should be in conformity with directions given in the regulations for teaching in elementary schools. (5) In teaching, attention must be paid to the method of teaching, so that pupils may comprehend the method while receiving instruction on a subject. (6) The way of acquiring knowledge should not be solely by instruction, and hence pupils must be trained in habits of cultivating their knowledge and improving their skill by individual efforts." It seems to me to be unnecessary to state the details of teaching in each subject, directions with respect to which are given in the new regulations. I have given a detailed syllabus of different subjects for middle schools ; the standard of teaching in normal schools is about the same, a little lower in some subjects and a little higher in others, but differing in this important respect, that while in middle schools individual culture is the sole object held in view, in normal schools the fact that pupils are being trained to be teachers in elementary schools has to be always borne carefully in mind, as explicitly stated in Nos. 4 and 5 of the above directions, so that not only the method of teaching a subject, but in some cases the subject matter itself, as taught in elementary schools, have to be given. For this reason graduates of middle schools have to go through a year's training in normal schools to qualify to become teachers in elementary schools. The only subject that needs to be noticed here perhaps is Pedagogy or Education, with practice in actual teach- ing. Under this subject, pupils are to be taught general XX.] ASSOCIATED KINDERGARTENS 289 knowledge concerning education, and in particular the purport and methods of elementary education ; items to be given are elements of psychology and logic, theory of education, principles of teaching methods, outlines of modern educational history, educational laws and regulations, school management, school hygiene, and so on. Practice in teaching is carried on in the ele- mentary school which must be attached to every normal school; pupils are made to teach children in turns, while the teacher in charge of the particular subject of teaching, the headmaster of the elementary school, and the elementary school teacher in charge of the class are present with pupils, not engaged in teaching, but to supervise and criticise the lessons, and sometimes take the class themselves to show model teaching. As I have remarked incidentally above, each normal school must have an elementary school attached to it; there must be both ordinary and higher elementary courses. There must be a class organised as in a single-class ordinary elementary school (with children of all school years from the first to the sixth), a class or classes composed of children of several school years, and a class or classes composed of children of the same school year only, the object being that pupils may get practice in teaching of different kinds ; in a normal school with female pupils only, single-class teaching may be omitted. Two parts system should be practised. Where there are female pupils, kindergartens should also be attached, if possible ; actually most normal schools with female pupils have attached kindergartens. Tuition fees may be levied or not, as the prefect may determine ; in other respects, the attached elementary schools are subject to very much the same regulations as other elementary schools, except that being pre- fectural establishments, and hence under the direct control of the prefect, there are some necessary differ- ences in their supervision and management. T 290 NORMAL SCHOOLS [chap. Male and female pupils in one school are organised in two distinct sections ; in each section a class is made up of pupils of the same school year, the number in each class must not exceed forty. Morals, sewing, music, and gymnastics may be taught together to pupils of different school years; as also English, law and economics, agriculture and commerce, provided the number does not exceed forty. The official staff of a normal school consists of a director, kyo-yu or teachers, yo-;^^J-_y« or assistant teachers, shakan or dormitory superintendents, kundo or teachers in attached elementary school, and clerks. The normal school of a prefecture being, as it were, the fountain head of elementary education in that prefecture, great importance is attached to its being properly conducted in accordance with the national scheme of education ; on this account, although a normal school is established and maintained by the prefecture, yet its director is a Government official (like that of a governmental school), appointed by the Emperor on the recommendation of the Minister of Education, and of sonin class. He is, like all local administrative officials, subject to the supervision and control of the Prefect in the first instance, and of the Minister in the second instance. He is not only in charge of his own school, exercising direct supervision and control over the staff, and being responsible for the efficiency and good working of the school, but he Jias to inspect elementary schools in the prefecture, in order to see that the elementary education is being carried out in a proper manner, not only by the graduates of his school, but in general. Teachers {kyo-yu) and assistant teachers (Jo-kyo-yu) are in charge of the education of pupils, not merely in each subject, but in general ; they must be in possession of certificates of secondary school teachers, about which I shall speak on another occasion. They are appointed by the Prefect, and receive the treatment due to civil officials of hannin class, but three teachers in each school XX.] DORMITORIES 291 may be specially promoted to receive the treatment of civil officials of sonin class, in which case they receive their appointment from the Emperor on the recom- mendation of the Minister of Education. Owing to the want of a sufficient number of those with certificates, prefects are allowed for the present to employ those without certificates as provisional teachers. The number of teachers and assistant teachers are determined a,s follows : — In a school with four classes (which is the minimum) there must be eleven teachers and assistant teachers, and in schools with more than four classes the number must be increased by not less than one and a half for each class exceeding four ; in a school with female pupils only, the minimum may be diminished by one. In schools where both agriculture and commerce have been added, the number must be increased by one if the number of classes in the first regular course is not more than twelve, by two if more. Among the teachers there is generally one who is specially in charge of affairs connected with instruction in general ; formerly this was officially recognised, and although now there is no official recognition, the custom has persisted in most schools to the present day. Normal schools must have dormitories, all pupils being obliged to live in them ; hence it is necessary to have some one in special charge of dormitories. The shakan or dormitory superintendents are appointed from among teachers and assistant teachers. They are not only in charge of discipline in general, but from the nature of their duties come into close contact with pupils, and hence great importance is attached to their proper choice. The number must be more than three male for male pupils and more than two female for female pupils, of which number one at least must be a teacher. It is usual to appoint the teacher of gymnastics one of the superintendents. The number of elementary school teachers must be one to each class, to which may be added special teachers. One of the teachers in the male school {kyo- yu) must act as headmaster of the school. 292 NORMAL SCHOOLS [chap. The director being a Government official is subject to the same obligations and enjoys the same privileges as a State civil official ; his salary is paid from the appropriation of the Department of Education, and is fixed at from 800 yen to 2,000 yen (;^8o to jC^oo) per annum, the average being 1,100 yen. Salaries of teachers who receive the treatment of the officials of sonm class range from 600 yen (400 yen for female teacher) to 1,800 yen per annum. For those who receive hannin treatment, salary ranges from 35 yen (25 yen for female) to 75 yen per month for teachers, and from 15 yen to 50 yen per month for assistant teachers and elementary school teachers. Additional allowances are made to those who are appointed dormitory super- intendents or headmasters of attached elementary schools, or to those who have received the highest salary for more than five years and have proved themselves specially meritorious (in the last up to one-third of the highest salary). I may remark that at present most of the directors and teachers of normal schools are graduates of the Higher Normal Schools, male and female, in Tokyo. The following are the numbers of normal schools and of instructors during the years 1902-1906 : — 1902 1904 1906 Normal Schools 57 64 67 Kyo-yu (teachers) axiA jo-kyo-yu (assis- tant teachers — Male 758 777 833 Female 71 98 114 Total 829 875 947 Other Instructors — Male 178 196 147 Male foreigners .... 2 i — Female 22 32 18 Total 202 229 165 Total number of Instructors — Male 936 973 980 Male foreigners .... 2 i — Female 93 130 132 Grand Total .... 1,031 1,104 1,112 XX.] NORMAL SCHOOLS 293 In order to secure a sufficient number of competent elementary school teachers, an Imperial Ordinance was issued in 1897, according to which each prefecture is bound to make provision to obtain at least a certain number of graduates of normal schools every year. This number is obtained by taking one-twentieth of the number of classes that would be obtained by taking two-thirds of the total number of children of school age at seventy to a class. Seventy to a class is the maximum number allowed to be in a class of the ordinary ele- mentary schools, and it was calculated that two-thirds of the total number of children of school age would be those attending schools, and that each graduate would serve on the average twenty years, so that the above number ought, according to this calculation, to be sufficient to maintain a constant supply of elementary school teachers who are graduates of normal schools. As a matter of fact, however, although the number of graduates for the last few years has been greater than this number, for the present the deficiency in the number of certificated teachers of elementary school teachers does not seem to decrease appreciably. For the year 1906 this number was 1x7,939,498 /70/ 20 = 3,752, while the actual number of graduates was 3,938 in the regular course and 259 in the shorter course. The minimum number of normal school pupils in each prefecture is thus fixed by the Imperial Ordinance, but the proportion of male to female pupils is left to the Prefect to settle according to the local circumstances ; only when there is to be no female pupil at all, the per- mission of the Minister of Education is necessary. In 1906 there were eight prefectures in which there were no provisions for female pupils in normal schools. Of those, Hokkaido (Yeso) and Okinawa (Liukiu Islands) are exceptional in many other respects, and the other six are mostly backward in educational matters generally. The following are the numbers of pupils and graduates of normal schools for the years 1902-1906 : — 294 NORMAL SCHOOLS Pupils 1902 Regular course — Male 11,640 Female 2,533 Total .... 14,173 Shorter course . . . . 816 Preparatory course — Male 344 Female — Total of the three courses — Male 12,800 Female 2,533 Grand total of pupils . 15,333 Graduates Regular course — Male 2,270 Female 525 Total .... 2,795 Shorter course . 562 Total of the two — Male ..... 2,832 Female 525 Grand total of graduates 3,357 4,111 4,197 From these figures it will be seen that there is a decrease in the shorter and comparatively unsatisfactory course (which is abolished in the new system, and was limited to male pupils and only allowed where there was no female section, in the old system), and an increase in the number of female pupils. It may also be inferred that but for the Russian war there would have been a much greater increase in 1904 and 1906. As the object of normal schools is to train teachers for elementary schools, and as this obligation to serve as elementary school teachers after their graduation must be imposed upon pupils, not only is no tuition fee levied, but a certain sum is given to them to defray 1 [chap. 1904 igo6 12,097 11,922 3.469 3.993 I5,?66 15,915 553 301 256 174 — 72 12,906 12,397 3.469 4,06s 16,375 16,462 2,708 2,756 l,oi9 1,182 3,727 3,938 384 259 3.092 3,015 1,019 1,182 XX.] ROUTINE IN SCHOOLS 295 the cost of food and clothing and incidental expenses. Text-books even are lent to them. They have to live in dormitories attached to the schools. Here they have day-rooms to work in and bedrooms for the night, there being generally from six to eight in a room. Recreation rooms, general reading-room, etc., are provided, besides dining-room, sick-room, bath-room, and other usual conveniences. At one time severity and simplicity was the order, but recently there has been a change in this respect and some relaxation has been intro- duced, students being allowed or encouraged to decorate their rooms, to hold pleasant social gatherings, and so on, especially in the case of female pupils. As there are so many applicants for admission that only 20 to 25 per cent, of them are admitted, a regulation was made in 1897 to allow prefects to admit a certain number of pupils who do not receive any stipend, or only a part of the full stipend, but are in other respects to be the same as other pupils, subject to the approval of the Minister of Education. Pupils are usually taken on a school journey each year at the expense of the school to places of historical, geographical, practical or other interest generally within the prefecture, but sometimes to distant places, especially on special occasions as the National Exposition, Grand Review, etc., as much as the school economy will allow. These are very useful and important educationally, as they are accompanied by teachers who take this oppor- tunity of showing them many things actually which otherwise they would not have a chance of seeing. The graduates of the regular courses receive pre- fectural certificates, qualifying them to become regular teachers within the prefecture. The graduates of the former shorter course received certificates for ordinary elementary school teachers. The graduates are entitled to one year's volunteer military service instead of three years' compulsory service. If they become regular teachers in elementary schools, they have the privilege 296 NORMAL SCHOOLS [chap.xx. of six weeks' active service, as stated before. They are also qualified to become civil officials of hannin class. But by the agreement into which they enter at the time of their admission, they are bound immediately after their graduation to serve as elementary school teachers in the respective prefectures during a certain period, as follows : — ist period, and period. Male graduates of the first regular course . 3 years 4 years Female „ „ ,, « ■ 2 » 3 ., Male graduates of the first regular course who have not received any stipend ■ 3 » — Female graduates of the first regular course who have not received any stipend . . 2 „ i „ Graduates of the second regular course . . 2 „ — During the first period they have to serve in the particular schools designated by the prefects, while during the second they are free to serve in any ele- mentary schools or in other educational occupations (not private) within the respective prefecture, or with the permission of the prefect anywhere within the Empire. Under special circumstances, prefects may allow them to serve in elementary schools established abroad for Japanese children, such service to count the same as service above-mentioned. (This has chiefly reference to schools in Manchuria and Corea.) When a pupil is expelled as a disciplinary measure, or when graduates cannot or will not serve during the above period without proper and sufficient reasons, or when they are dismissed as a disciplinary measure, or are deprived of their certificates in accordance with the regulations, they have to refund the whole or a part of the expenses of their instruction, and of the stipend that they have received. CHAPTER XXI SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS Want of competent secondary teachers — Higher Normal School established- Universities and colleges — Secondary school teacher^ certificates — Certifi- cates Committee — Certificates given separately for normal, middle, and girW high schools, and also for different subjects — Institutions whose graduates may be granted certificates without examination — Imperial University and Higher Normal School— Recognition of public or private schools — Examines tion held once a year — Preliminary and final — Numbers of candidates, successful and unsuccessful, and in different subjects — Different kinds of teachers in middle schools — Provisional training institutes — Their gradu- ates — Objections. The want of good and efficient teachers for secondary schools has been as great in proportion as, or even greater than, that of elementary school teachers. As early as 1875 the Government perceived the necessity of training schools for secondary school teachers, and established a course for that purpose in the Government Normal School in Tokyo, which till that time had only courses for elementary school teachers. The standard of the course was, however, not very high, nor were there provisions for many pupils. In 1886, as I have stated before, the two normal schools in Tokyo for male and female pupils were amalgamated into one, with male and female sections, and called the Higher Normal School. Its object was to take the graduates of pre- fectural normal schools, to be selected by prefects, and train them to become teachers in normal schools. A retired general was made director, and pupils were placed under a semi-military discipHne ; they were lodged in dormitories, and received a certain sum of money for food, clothing, and other expenses. They had to serve 297 298 SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS [chap. after graduation for a certain number of years as teachers in normal schools designated by the Minister. This measure led to a great improvement in elementary teach- ing by providing properly qualified teachers for normal schools. But there was no special provision made for teachers in middle schools or girls' high schools. Some of the graduates of the University, of which there was only one in Tokyo, became teachers, especially those in science and literature ; but they were not very many, the total number of University graduates up to 1886, being less than 1,000, of whom only about 200 were of science and literature, and even of those, a large number was employed in Government schools, so that the number of University graduates who became teachers in middle schools was very small indeed. The deficiency had to be made up with those who had received education somehow ; no doubt there were some good teachers among them, but the majority was very incompetent. It is not to be wondered at that middle schools of those days were very unsatisfactory; when in 1886 "higher schools " were established to prepare graduates of middle schools for the University, it was found that they could not be admitted even to this preparatory course at once, and a sub-preparatory course of three years had to be provided to fit the graduates of middle schools for the University preparatory course. It was no doubt owing to such facts as these, as well as the state of finance of prefectures, that the Government took a rather strong measure of restricting the number of middle schools to only one in each prefecture. Gradually, however, better teachers became available, graduates of the University who became middle school teachers increased, though still not very many; there were also better qualified teachers who had passed the examination for secondary teachers' certificates. Middle schools improved very much, and finally the sub- preparatory course was abolished in higher schools. An alteration was again made in the organisation XXI.] TEACHERS INSUFFICIENT 299 of the Higher Normal School ; it was again divided into two, one for the male and the other for female pupils, and graduates not only of prefectural normal schools but also of middle schools were now admitted, not by recommendation of prefects only, but also by competitive examination. The graduates were declared qualified to become teachers in middle schools and girls' high schools as well as in normal schools. Besides the University and higher normal schools, there were several other Government schools or colleges, whose graduates could receive certificates of secondary school teachers in special subjects. Later on, several private colleges opened courses for secondary school teachers in special subjects, the graduates of which were granted special privileges with regard to the certificates. But owing to the very rapid increase in the number of middle schools and girls' high schools and of technical secondary schools, in which also teachers in general subjects are wanted, these were still insufficient to supply the necessary number of teachers. A second Higher Normal School was opened in Hiro- shima in 1903, and to meet urgent needs provisional training institutes, with special short courses of two years in several subjects, were opened in five places, graduates of which are said to be doing good work; some of those have been now discontinued, while others are still working. And finally, there is in course of establishment a second Female Higher Normal School in Nara. With all this, the number of teachers without certificates, though gradually decreasing, is still large, as may be seen from the statistics that I have given in connection with middle schools, girls' high schools, and normal schools. I proceed now to explain the system of granting certificates for secondary school teachers. Teachers of middle schools, girls' high schools, and normal schools must be in possession of certificates qualifying them to become such. These certificates 300 SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS [chap. are given by the Minister of Education to the graduates of institutions established by the Government for the special purpose of training teachers for secondary schools : these are the Higher Normal Schools (Tokyo and Hiroshima), Female Higher Normal Schools (Tokyo and Nara, the latter not yet opened), several provisional training institutes above mentioned, the normal courses in| the Fine Arts Academy (Tokyo) and in the Musical Academy (Tokyo). They are also granted to persons recommended as competent by the committee appointed in the Department of Education for the purpose of investigating all applications for certificates. This committee consists of a president, a certain number of permanent members, and a certain number of occasional members; they are appointed by the Cabinet on the recommendation of the Minister of Education ; the actual president was president of the Tokyo Imperial University at the time of his appointment, which shows the importance attached to the committee. The committee is charged with testing the qualifica- tion of applicants as to their intellectual, moral, and physical capacities. No application can be received from those who have been sentenced to imprisonment or a higher penalty, except those who have been punished for political offences and restored to their public rights ; or from those who have been fined or subjected to police surveillance for an offence against credit or morality, or from those who have been declared bankrupt or insolvent, and have not yet completely discharged their obligations ; if any one possessing a certificate come under one of the above categories, his certificate becomes ipso facto invalid. Moreover, the Minister has the power to deprive any one of his certificate who shall have committed improper acts or grave offences unworthy of a teacher. Certificates for secondary school teachers are given separately for the normal school, the middle school, and the girls' high school, and for different subjects. XXL] GRANT OF CERTIFICATES 301 The subjects for which certificates are granted are Morals, Education, the (Japanese) Language and Chinese Litera- ture, English Language, French Language, German Language, History, Geography, Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry, Natural Science, Law and Economics, Writing (chiefly of Chinese characters), Drawing, House- hold matters and Sewing, Gymnastics, Music, Book- keeping, Agriculture, Commerce, Manual work and Handiwork (for girls). In some of the above-mentioned subjects, certificates may be granted for a part of it ; thus, for instance, in History, Japanese and Oriental History and Occidental History may be taken separately; in Mathematics, Arithmetic, Algebra, and Geometry must be taken together, but Trigonometry, Analytical Geometry, and Calculus may be taken independently, and Physics and Chemistry may be treated as separate subjects ; Natural Science may be separated into Zoology and Physiology, Botany, and Minerals ; Drawing into drawing with brush (Japanese style) and drawing with pencil ; Household matters and Sewing may be taken separately. The scarcity of competent teachers has been so great, that it was thought advisable to secure com- petence even in a part of a subject by testing candidates in it and giving a certificate for it. Certificates are granted without special examination or after examination. Those to whom certificates may be granted without examination are : — (i) Graduates of schools and institutions desig- nated by the Minister. (ii) Graduates of a normal school, middle school, or girls' high school, who have passed satisfactorily through a not less than three years' course in a public or private institu- tion specially recognised for the purpose by the Minister. (iii) Graduates of a normal school, middle school, or girls' high school, or of a school recog- nised as of equal or higher standard, who 302 SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS [chap. have graduated at a foreign university or like institution, (iv) Those who, having passed through a normal school, middle school or girls' high school, or a school comparable with those, in a foreign country, have further graduated at a foreign university or like institution, (v) Those who are possessed of certificates for schools of equal or higher standard. The last has reference to the fact that certificates are granted separately for the normal school, the middle school, and the girls' high school, and that the standard of examination for the last is somewhat lower than for the other two. Under class (i.) come the graduates of the Imperial Universities, technical colleges (with respect to such subjects as chemistry for graduates of chemical section of technological colleges, natural science, and agriculture for those of agricultural colleges, etc.), the Foreign Languages College, the Musical Academy, and the like, being almost all governmental institutions. It may be thought that the Imperial Universities might be classed with "institutions established for the special purpose of training teachers for secondary education " ; indeed some contend that the words "the purposes of the State" in the Article i of the Imperial Ordinance on Imperial Universities defining their object include, among others, the teaching in secondary schools. As to the comparative merits of the graduates of the Higher Normal Schools and of the Imperial Universities as secondary school teachers, the former having been taught pedagogy and having some practical experience in teaching, are certainly superior in methods of teaching and general knowledge of many subjects. They are usually immediately successful as teachers, especially in lower classes ; moreover, they have devoted them- selves to secondary education, and have no other ambition than to succeed as such ; but on the other XXI.] GRADUATES AS TEACHERS 303 hand their proficiency in any one subject is naturally not so great as that of the University graduates, and they do not usually have sufficient foundation of know- ledge to make up for this deficiency by their own efforts in course of time. The consequence is that in the present condition of things in Japan, they do not seem able to last very long. On the other hand, University graduates, although they have higher knowledge of a subject, are inferior in the art of imparting it to young boys and girls, especially in the beginning of their career as teachers, and, moreover, being specialists, are apt to forget that they are not in schools to give instruction in a special subject, but to help in the work of general education. Besides, they are not always content to remain secondary teachers : per contra, having received good general and special education, and having a better ground-work, especially a better knowledge of foreign language or languages, they are less likely to be left behind in the progress of the times ; hence if they devote themselves really to secondary education, as more and more of them are beginning to do, with experience and self-triaining they become most excellent teachers. The ideal would be to give one or two years thorough training in the theory and practice of pedagogy to University graduates : but our present state does not admit of such a course ; we have to take such materials as we can get, and as a matter of fact, when we consider the state of secondary education ten or fifteen years ago and compare it with the present condition, we have reasons to be thankful that we have got on so well, and to be hopeful for better things in the future. However, to come back to the subject of certificates, when any public or private institution wishes to obtain recognition of the Minister of Education to have its graduates placed under the class (ii.) of the above, the manager of a public school or the proprietor of a private school must apply to the Minister of Education for such a recognition, and must satisfy him on following points : — (i) That the standard of teaching in the subject 304 SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS [chap. or subjects in which it is desired to obtain the privilege, is equal to, or higher than, that of the same in the Higher Normal School, and is accompanied by the teaching of suitable subsidiary subjects ; (a) that there is a proper teaching staff and equipment necessary for teaching; (3) that there is a sure prospect of the maintenance of the course ; (4) that not more than two years have elapsed since there have been graduates in the subjects, and that they have shown satisfactory results ; (5) that the methods of instruction and of school management are satisfactory. The Minister can and does send one or more members of the Certificates' Committee, school inspectors, or any other officials to the final examination of such institu- tions, with power to look over the questions and answers, and to order any change in the questions or in the method of examination, if in their opinion they are not suitable. In July of 1905 there were five private and one public schools which have received this recogni- tion. The system is not working very satisfactorily. As to foreign universities, etc., mentioned in (iii.) and (iv.), there is no fixed rule, each case being investigated by itself. Examinations for certificates are held at least once a year. In most subjects there is a preliminary examina- tion held at local centres for the purpose of sifting out those who are likely to have no chance of succeeding in the final examination. The latter is held in Tokyo ; its standard is somewhat indefinite, being stated to be such that those who have passed shall be competent to teach the subject in a secondary school, but as the majority of examiners are the same from year to year, there is no sudden variation in the standard, and it can generally be judged from the papers set. The examination must in all cases include the method of teaching of the subject. The number of candidates for certificates is as follows : — XXI.] CANDIDATES PERCENTAGES 30s Candidates without examination . Candidates without examination (foreigners) .... Candidates examined . Candidates examined (foreigner) . 1900. i.°7S 6 3,222 1902. 378 3 4,776 I 1904. 480 2 4,S43 1906. 776 4,322 Total 4,303 5,158 5,025 5,098 586 301 426 668 5 3 2 — 38s 479 412 385 — I — — Of these, certificates were granted to : — Without examination Without examination (foreigners) . After examination .... After examination (foreigner) Total 976 784 840 1,053 SO that the percentage of successful candidates was : — For those without examination . 55 80 89 86 For those examined ... 12 10 9 9 The number of candidates given above are those for different subjects, so that one candidate is counted for as many as the subjects he has applied for. It might be interesting to know the relative numbers of candidates for different subjects, which differ very little from year to year within short limits; in 1906 they were : — Per cent, of Per cent, of Subjects. Total Candidates. Successful Candidates Mathematics . 17-5 6.5 Japanese Language and Chinese Literature 12.3 10.6 Morals and Education 1 1.4 16.S Foreign Languages g.8 13-3 History . 9-3 8.3 Natural Science 8.7 5-9 Household Matters anc I Sewing 6.4 4.3 Gymnastics . 6.2 184 Geography 4-7 3-3 Drawing 3-5 2.5 Law and Economy 2.9 2.5 Physics and Chemistry . 2.6 2.9 Other Subjects 4-7 5.0 I have no statistics to show of what kinds are the u 3o6 SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS [chap. teachers in normal schools and girls* high schools, but as I have said before, the vast majority of teachers in normal schools are graduates of higher normal schools. With regard to middle schools, the following numbers showing the proportion of teachers of different kinds on ist October 1905, which I happen to possess, may be interesting : — Out of the total number (5,227) of teachers in middle schools, 3,255, or 62 per cent., were in possession of certificates, the remaining 1,972, or 38 per cent., did not possess certificates and were provisional teachers. (These numbers differ from what I have given in chap. XV ; the difference is to be explained partly by difference in the date, but chiefly by the fact that in the report of the Department of Education, from which the latter was taken, teachers that come from another school or office to help are not counted.) Of the 3,225 certificated teachers, 283, or 5 per cent, of the whole, were graduates of the Literature College of the Imperial University of Tokyo, 75, or 2 per cent, of the Science College, 5 of the Engineering College, 14 of the Law College, 9 of the Agricultural College of the same University, making a total of 386 graduates of the Imperial University of Toky5, or 8 per cent, of the whole. Four hundred and eighty, or 9 per cent., were graduates of the Higher Normal School of Tokyo, 29, or i per cent, of the Sapporo Agricultural College, and the remaining 2,360, or 43 per cent, of the whole, were of various kinds, mostly those who have been granted certificates after examination. Out of 1,972 uncertificated, some 75 were graduates of the University, or Hakushi (doctors). Before I pass on to give an account of the Higher Normal Schools, I shall here say a few words about the Provisional Training Institutes which I have mentioned. Five of these were established in 1902 in order to make up for the deficiency in the number of proper teachers in middle schools and girls' high schools ; they were attached to already existing institu- XXI.] PROVISIONAL TRAINING INSTITUTES 30; tions. Thus the first institute with courses in the (Japanese) Language and Chinese Literature and in Natural Science was attached to the Imperial University of Tokyo ; the second, with a course in Physics and Chemistry, to the First Higher School (Tokyo) ; the third, with a course in Mathematics, to the Second Higher School (Sendai) ; the fourth, with a course in English, to the Third Higher School (Kyoto) ; and the fifth, with a course also in English, to the Foreign Languages College (Tokyo). The qualification for entrance was graduation from a normal or middle school, and the length of the courses was two years. There were in all 370 candidates, of whom 180 were admitted ; in 1904, 152 of this first batch were graduated, and a new batch of 172, selected out of 532 applicants, was admitted. After this second batch was graduated in 1906, the fourth and fifth institutes were closed, as also the course in the (Japanese) Language and Chinese Literature in the first institute, but a new one for females with a three years' course in English was opened and attached to the Female Higher Normal School ; the number of pupils in those courses now amounts to 96 altogether. To these training institutes, objections have been made that two years' study after graduation from a normal or middle school is not a sufficient training to become teachers in those schools. There can be no doubt of the truth of this objection, but the point was, whether they would not make better teachers than some of those actually teaching, of course provisionally with- out certificates ; there had been a similar course some twelve years ago attached to the Science College of the Tokyd University, and the graduates of that course were doing very good work as teachers. The result seems to have justified the course, for some of the graduates have shown a great deal of ability and, so far as can be judged within so short a time, are likely to become excellent teachers ; that they are better than the teachers they were meant to supplant admits of no doubt. CHAPTER XXII HIGHER NORMAL SCHOOLS Higher normal schools for male pupils — Courses — Entrance — Subjects and standard — Five sections of the regular course — Foreign languages — Post- graduate course — Occasional special courses — Attached schools — Pedagogical museum — Staff^Number of professors, etc. — Pupils — Stipendium— Obliga- tions of graduates — Number of pupils in different courses and sections — Numbers of pupils, graduates, applicants for admission and those admitted for ig02-igob — Employment of graduates — Female Higher Normal Schools — Courses — Entrance — Subjects and standard — Three sections — Occasional special courses — Attached schools — Kindergarten — Staff^Number of pro- fessors, etc. — Pupils — Obligations of graduates — Number of pupils in different courses and sections — Numbers of pupils, graduates, applicants for admission and those admitted for igo2-zgo6 — Employment of graduates. Higher Normal Schools are defined in the Imperial Ordinance as institutions for the training of teachers for normal schools, middle schools, and girls' high schools ; Female Higher Normal Schools for female normal schools and girls' high schools. There are two higher normal schools, one in Tokyo and another in Hiroshima, the latter only opened in 1902 ; and two female higher normal schools, one in Tokyo, and another in course of establishment in Nara. All are established and maintained by the Government, and are under the direct control of the Minister of Education. In major matters the regulations are the same for the two male higher normal schools, but in minor points differences are not only allowed but even encouraged by some Ministers ; female higher normal schools are somewhat lower in the standard, and also different in other respects. I shall first give an account of the male higher 308 CHAP. XXII.] MALE HIGHER SCHOOLS 309 normal schools. There are three courses : a preparatory course of one year, the regular course of three years — or rather courses, for there are several sections — and a postgraduate course of one or two years. Besides these, there are occasional special short courses for various subjects to meet pressing demands for secondary school teachers. Also a few pupils are admitted to what is called elective course to study some select subjects out of the regular courses. Pupils are admitted into the preliminary course either by the recommendation of prefects from among the graduates of normal schools, of governmental and public middle schools, or of private middle schools recognised by the Minister as worthy of the privilege of temporary exemption from the military service (see chap. VIII), who are of sound constitution and ex- cellent moral character and of distinguished abilities, or by competitive examination among the graduates of the same schools of sound constitution and good moral character. For entrance into occasional special courses, qualifications are determined each time, but generally pupils must be of sound constitution and good moral character, and are admitted after examina- tion of the standard of graduation of middle schools. The subjects and standard in the preliminary course will be seen from the following table : — Subjects. No^ week"" °'=''''''- Morals . . . . i Essential points of morals. The (Japanese) Language 3 Reading, paraphrase, composition, grammar. Chinese Literature . 3 Reading, paraphrase. English Language . 10 Reading, paraphrase, grammar, composition, and conversation, dictation. Mathematics ... 4 Arithmetic, algebra, geometry, tri- gonometry. Logic .... 2 Deduction, induction, methodology. Drawing ... 2 Freehand, perspective, blackboard drawing practice, water-colour. Music .... 2 Singing, theory. Gymnastics ... 3 Common and military. 3IO HIGHER NORMAL SCHOOLS [chap. From which it will be seen that the preliminary course is mostly a repetition of what pupils have learnt in normal or middle schools. The regular course is divided into five sections : the section of the (Japanese) Language and Chinese Litera- ture, of English Language, of Geography and History, of Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry, and of Natural Science. The choice of sections is left to the pupils, but the maximum number that can be admitted in a section is fixed by the equipment of the school. The subjects and number of hours a week allotted to them in several sections are as follows : — I. — SECTION OF THE (JAPANESE) LANGUAGE AND CHINESE LITERATURE. 3RD YEAR. ist and 2Dd terms. Subjects. 1ST YEAR. 2ND YEAR Ethics .... 2 2 Psychology . 2 — and Education . — 3 The (Japanese) LanguagQ 6 7 Chinese Literature 6 7 English Language 5 3 History, Japanese . 3 — and Oriental — 3 Outlines of Philosophy . — Philology and Phonetics — — Gymnastics . 3 3 Total 27 28 27 n. — SECTION OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Ethics .... Psychology . and Education . The (Japanese) Language and Chinese Literature English Language History of the world Outlines of Philosophy . Philology and Phonetics Gymnastics . 3 "5 2 2 15 3 '3 2 3 Total 27 28 27 xxii.] HIGHER NORMAL SCHOOLS 3" III. — SECTION OF GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY. Subjects. Ethics Psychology . . . . and Education . Geography . . . . History Law and Economy The (Japanese) Language Chinese Literature English Language Gymnastics . Total 1ST YEAR. 2ND YEAR. 2 2 2 — 3RD YEAR, ist and 2nd terms. and 3 S 5 4 4 (with practical lesson once a week in the 2nd and 3rd years). 8 8 9 — 3 4 3 5 3 28 3 3 28 26 IV. — SECTION OF MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY. Ethics .... Psychology . and Education . Mathematics (subsection i) Mathematics (subsection ii) Physics . Chemistry (subsection i) Chemistry (subsection ii) Astronomy and Meteorology English Language Drawing and Manual Wprk . Gymnastics . . . . Total (subsection i) Total (subsection ii) - 3 S 6 3 - 6 6 6 (with exercise lessons twice a week in the 2nd and 3rd years). 3 4 S (with laboratory work once a week in the ist and twice a week in the 2nd and 3rd years). 4 4 4 (with laboratory work once a week in the ist, twice a week in the 2nd, and three times a week in 3rd year). 4 I — (with laboratory work once a week in the ist year). S 3 — 2 2 2 3 3 2 26 23 21 (with laboratory work). 26 23 ^ (with laboratory lessons). work and exercise 312 HIGHER NORMAL SCHOOLS [chap. v.— SECTION OF NATURAL SCIENCE. 2RD YEAR, Subjects. istyear. 2NDYEAR. ,st fnd and terms. Ethics I I 1 Psychology .... 2 — — and Education ... — 3 5 Botany 4 4 4 (with laboratory work twice a week in the ist and 3rd, and once a week in the 2nd year). Zoology 2 4 4 (with laboratory work once a week in the ist, and twice a week in the 2nd and 3rd years). Physiology and Hygiene .3 — — (with laboratory work once a week in the ist year). Mineralogy and Geology .2 2 4 (with laboratory work once a week throughout). Agriculture . . — 3 3 (with practical work once a week in the 2nd and 3rd years). English Language . . 5 3 — Drawing . 2 — — Gymnastics .... 3 3 2 Total _24 _23 23_ (with laboratory and practical work). The whole of the third term in all the sections is devoted to practice in teaching in attached elementary and middle schools. Section IV (subsection i) is for those who choose Physics and Chemistry for principal subjects, while subsection ii is for those who choose Mathematics and Physics for principal subjects. The above tables of hours are those of Tokyo Higher Normal School ; those of Hiroshima are slightly different ; moreover, they may differ from time to time in one school, but they will show approximately the teaching in male higher normal schools. Pupils in all the sections may take in addition to the xxii.] STUDY OF ENGLISH 313 prescribed subjects one or both of German language and music; in the section of English language, they may take French instead of German. It will be seen that most of the subjects are common to different sections, only a few special subjects being added in each section or studied more thoroughly than in other sections. There has often been a desire towards specialisation on the part of pupils and of teachers or professors, as they are entitled, but the Department of Education has always endeavoured to check this, taking heed of the needs of the present time, and relying on the universities for the supply of specialists. The number of hours given to English language has been much increased of late, for the reason that in order to keep up with general advance it is necessary for graduates to be able to read English books freely ; the addition of German language as a voluntary subject is a quite recent innovation based upon a similar idea. In the Post-graduate course, students pursue studies in one or more subjects of the regular courses under the direction of respective professors. Graduates of other higher institutions or those who have been engaged in teaching for many years may be admitted into the post- graduate course, if the director thinks fit, at their own expense. Students present theses on the subjects of their study, and if found satisfactory, receive diplomas of graduation, otherwise they only receive certificates of attendance. The subjects of occasional special courses, the length of the courses (which is usually two or three years), number and qualifications of those to be admitted, etc., are determined by the director with the approval of the Minister, each time such a course is opened. Within the last ten years, there have been courses in mathematics, English language, morals and education, physics and chemistry, geography and history, morals and gymnastics, the (Japanese) language and Chinese 314 HIGHER NORMAL SCHOOLS [chap. literature, agriculture and geology, botany and zoology, manual work, literary subjects with gym- nastics, drawing and manual work, etc. Attached to each higher normal school are a middle school and an elementary school, where pupils get practice in teaching under the supervision of pro- fessors of each subject and of experienced teachers in charge of classes. The middle school does not differ in organisation from other middle schools ; boys are taken partly from the attached elementary school and partly from outside, so that the results of teaching in elementary schools may be compared. In the ele- mentary school there are three sections : the first section is meant for those boys who propose to enter middle schools, and consists only of boys, there being six classes, corresponding to the four years of the ordinary and two years of the higher elementary course [or to the six years of the new ordinary elementary course] ; the organisation of the second section is like that of combined schools of the country, boys and girls are taken and some of the classes are made up of children of different school years ; the third section consists of a single class, and is meant to serve as a model of single class teaching. In these schools, and especially in the elementary school, the methods of teaching, arrange- ments of details of teaching, etc., are investigated, so that they serve not merely as practice schools for pupils, but also as a sort of laboratory for the investigation of pedagogical questions ; for this reason a certain amount of freedom is left to the schools in application of the regulations of elementary and middle schools. Attached to Tokyo Higher Normal School is a Pedagogical Museum, where various school appliances, charts, specimens and other objects of pedagogical interest are exhibited, with a library of books specially on education, open to the public daily. It occupies at present a part of the former temple of Confucius, which xxii.] THE TEACHING STAFFS 315 formed a part of the Academy of Chinese Literature (sefe chap. II); the central hall is still kept for the wooden statues of that philosopher and his disciples. The staff of a higher normal school consists of a director, professors and assistant professors, teachers and assistant teachers for the attached middle school, and teachers for the attached elementary school. They are all Government officials, and their numbers are determined by an Imperial Ordinance ; their appoint- ment varies according to their official rank. The director and professors are appointed by the Emperor, on the recommendation of the Cabinet or of the Minister of Education (according as they are of chokunin or sonin class), the teachers of middle schools by the Emperor on the recommendation of the Minister, and others are appointed by the Minister. Really, all recommendations originate from the director. Should it be impossible for the time to find a suitable professor or teacher, the director may, with the permission of the Minister, appoint a lecturer to take his place pro tern. ; this has been the case very often in almost every institution, professors in one institution being often engaged as lecturers in another. The director may, with the permission of the Minister, engage foreigners as professors or teachers ; their number is indeterminate, and would in most cases depend upon the appropriation granted. For making a contract with them for a certain number of years the consent of the Imperial Diet is necessary. The Minister appoints from among professors one to take special charge of the attached middle school and act as its headmaster, one to take charge in the same way of the attached elementary school, another to take charge of the Pedagogical Museum (in Tokyo), and a number to act as pupil inspectors. The number of the teaching staff determined by the Imperial Ordinance and the actual number in 1906 are as follows : — 3i6 HIGHER NORMAL SCHOOLS [chap. Tokyo Hiroshima Professors . Assistant Professors Foreign Professors Lecturers, etc. . Ordinance SI 9 Actual 39 6 3 21 Ordinance 39 6 Actual 2 9 Middle School Teachers . Assistant Teachers . Foreign Teachers Lecturers, etc. . lo 8 I 8 8 5 6 2 4 2 4 Elementary School Teachers . 19 19 8 8 2V.B. — Hiroshima Higher Normal School was not quite com- pleted in 1906, so that the numbers must be regarded as of a temporary nature. The pupils of the higher normal schools having the obligation of serving the State after their gradua- tion, not only receive free tuition, but are lodged free of charge in the dormitories, which, however, is more for the sake of discipline, and in addition receive a certain sum for food and clothing ; this sum, which was origin- ally just about sufficient for the purpose, is, with the present high price of everything, not adequate ; it is rather to be regarded as a stipendium to help the pupils. So great is the application for admittance that even this is not very necessary. Thus at present there are pupils who receive the full stipendium, those who only receive a part, and those who do not receive any. The numbers are indeterminate and depend upon different circumstances, and are determined from year to year by the Minister. The stipendium for the post-graduate students is 15 yen (30S.) a month ; for others, full stipendium is about 7 yen (14s.) a month, and part stipendium about 4 yen a month. Those, however, do not represent the whole of the help given to the pupils, for a great deal of dormitory expenses, such as for heating, lighting, services, etc., is borne by the school. The obligations of graduates are (i) for those who have received full stipendium, to engage in some educa- tional work for seven years after graduation, during XXII.] POST-GRADUATE OBLIGATIONS 317 the first three of which they have to serve in accordance with the directions of the Minister of Education ; (2) for those who have received part stipendium, these terms are respectively five and two years ; (3) those who have received no stipendium have to engage in some educa- tional work for three years after graduation. They are, however, allowed to enter the post-graduate course or the Imperial University to pursue further studies, during which time those obligations are in abeyance. Pupils in the occasional special courses also receive free tuition and usually stipendium besides. The graduates have the same obligations as those who have received part stipendium in the regular course. Pupils in the elective course pay fees ; they are allowed to select certain subjects out of the subjects of the regular course, but they must always take psychology and education, in addition to any subject or subjects they may select. On 31st May 1906, the number of pupils in Tokyo was as follows : — 1ST YEAR. 2ND YEAR. 3RD YEAR. TOTAL. Preliminary Course . . — — — "3 Regular Courses — The (Japanese) Language and Chinese Literature Section ... 20 22 22 64 English Language Section 22 22 22 66 Geography and History Section .... 24 19 '9 02 Mathematics, Physics, and Chemistry Section . . 26 23 21 70 Natural Science Section . 17 '7 '4 ^8 Total . . .109 103 98 310 Post-graduate Course . . 44 3 47 Special Courses — Literary Subjects and Gymnastics ... 45 — "" 45 Drawing and Manual Work . . . • 24 _— _— _^ Total ... 69 - - ^9 Elective Students . • 3 7 28 Grand Total . • 225 124 _i25 567 3i8 HIGHER NORMAL SCHOOLS [chap. The following are from the Reports of the Depart- ment of Education : — Tokyo Higher Normal School. Pupils Graduates .... Graduates of the Regular Courses Applicants for admission Applicants for admission to the Preliminary Course Those admitted . Those admitted to the Preliminary Course .... Hiroshima Higher Normal School. igo2 1^3 1904 1905 1906 623 670 600 529 567 142 172 151 187 99 49 89 89 114 93 1,061 2,013 1,067 1,385 1,550 709 1,019 i>oo9 1,286 1,073 204 214 154 179 244 125 118 112 375 375 102 102 205 302 167 176 167 112 112 176 108 399 87 177 177 106 403 93 18s 163 126 Pupils Graduates of the Regular Course Applicants for admission Applicants for admission to the Preliminary Course Those admitted . Those admitted to the Preliminary Course 102 112 108 106 104 Large fluctuations in the numbers for Tokyo are due to the occasional special courses. The following shows how the graduates of Tokyo Higher Normal School were employed a year after they graduated : — Teaching in the Higher Normal and Female Higher Normal schools Teaching in Normal schools . „ „ Middle schools „ „ Girl's High schools „ „ other schools In the Post-graduate Course . Abroad for study Engaged by foreign Governments Dead Others 1903 1904 1905 1906 6 — 4 4 40 40 31 45 75 88 65 80 16 II 20 17 — 16 II 15 2 14 15 14 — I 2 2 — I I I 4 2 9 I now come to the Female Higher Normal Schools, of which the one in Nara is only in course of establishment at present, so that I shall confine myself to that in Tokyo. The regular or main couirse of the Female Higher Normal School extends over four years and is divided into three sections : the Literary section, the Scientific section, and the Handiwork section. There is a post- xxn.] QUALIFICATIONS FOR ENTRANCE 519 graduate course of one or two years. Occasional special courses have been opened to meet urgent demands for teachers in girls' high schools and female normal schools. Also a few pupils are admitted to the elective course. The qualifications for entrance into the regular course are sound constitution and good moral character, graduation from female normal school or girls' high school of four years' course or equivalent attainments, age not less than seventeen nor more than twenty-two, and not being married. They are admitted after com- petitive examination, from among candidates recom- mended by prefects or generally. The subjects and standard in different sections will be seen from the following tables : — Subjects. ist year. 2ND YEAK. 3RD YEAR. 4TH YEAR, ist term. I. — Literary Section — Ethics .... 2 2 2 2 Education .... 3 3 3 6 The (Japanese) Language 5 s 4 4 Chinese Literature . 3 3 4 2 English Language . 4 4 4 3 History .... 4 4 4 4 Geography 2 2 2 2 Music .... 2 2 2 2 Gymnastics 3 3 3 3 Total .... 28 28 28 28 ^^H «^^ ^^^ ^^^ 11. — Scientific Section — Ethics .... 2 2 2 2 Education .... 3 3 3 6 EngUsh Language 3 3 3 3 Mathematics . 4 3 3 3 Physics .... 3 2 2 i_ :_ -. Chemistry . Natural science Music Gymnastics Total . 3rd, and 4th years). — 3 3 2 (laboratory work once a week in 2nd, 3rd, and 4th years). 6464 (laboratory work once a week in ist, 3rd, and 4th years, and twice a week in 2nd year). 222 2 ■ 26 _25_ 27 (besides laboratory work). 35 320 HIGHER NORMAL SCHOOLS [chap. 4.TH Y£AR 1ST YEAR. 2ND YEAR. 3RD YEAR. ^ ^ ^^ III. — Handiwork Section — Ethics .... 2 2 2 2 Education . English Language 4 2 Physics and Chemistry Household matters . Sewing and Handiwork Drawing and Designing Music Gymnastics Total . 3336 3 3 3 3 — 2 4 4 10 10 10 10 5552 222 2 3 3 3 3 32 32 32 32 The second and third terms of the fourth year are devoted to practice in teaching in attached schools. Music may be omitted for those to whom its study offers special difficulty. The handiwork consists princi- pally of knitting and embroidery. The post-graduate course is similar to that of the male school. The subjects of the occasional special courses ; the length of the courses (usually two years) ; number and qualification of those to be admitted, etc., are determined by the director with the approval of the Minister each time such a course is opened. Courses have been held within recent years on such subjects as household matters, the (Japanese) language and Chinese litera- ture, geography and history, the (Japanese) language and gymnastics, kindergarten management, mathe- matics, physics, and chemistry. The schools attached are the Girls' High School and the Elementary School ; of the Girls' High School I have spoken in chap. XIX. The Elementary School is organised in a manner similar to that attached to the male higher normal schools. I was interested in the remarks made by one of the professors of the latter, about the effect of education of a girl in the second section of the elementary school attached to the Male XXII.] STUDENTS' PROCLIVITIES 321 Higher Normal School in Tokyo, and that of a boy in the second section of the elementary school attached to the Female Higher Normal School, He thought that the former became rather hoydenish, playing like a boy almost, which he considered not at all a bad thing, while the boy became rather gentle and quiet, perhaps effeminate, playing like a girl. Therefore, he was of the opinion that parents should consider well the individual characters of boys and girls in sending them to either of those schools, and it is to be inferred, others of the same types. I mention this as a casual remark which might be interesting to those who are studying the question of co-education. Besides those schools, there is a kindergarten attached, where pupils get practice in kindergarten methods, and where these methods and their effects are investigated. The staff consists of a director, professors and assistant professors, teachers and assistant teachers for the girls' high school, teachers for the elementary school, nurse- mothers for the kindergarten. Their treatment, appoint- ment, salary, etc., are the same as those of the male school. The number determined by the Imperial Ordi- nance and the actual number in 1906 are as follows : — Professors Assistant Professors Foreign Professor Lecturers, etc. . Girls' High School— Teachers . Assistant Teachers Lecturers, etc. . Elementary School — Teachers . Kindergarten — Nurse-mothers . Ordinance. Actual. 26 26 8 6 — I — 10 12 10 II 7 — 2 19 19 7 7 322 HIGHER NORMAL SCHOOLS [chap. Stipendia and other rules are the same as for the pupils of the male school. The obligations of graduates are : (i) for those who have received full stipendium, to engage in some educa- tional work for five years after graduation, during the first two of which they have to serve in accord- ance with the directions of the Minister ; (2) for those who have received part stipendium, these terms are respectively three and two years ; (3) those who have received no stipendium have to engage in some educa- tional work for two years after graduation ; (4) those of the occasional special courses who have received stipendium have the same obligations as those who have received part stipendium in the regular course. On 31st May 1907 the number of pupils were as follows : — Regular Course. ist year. 2ND year. 3RD year. 4TH year, total. Literary Section . 27 23 22 19 91 Scientific Section . 24 24 24 26 98 Handiwork Section . 25 22 24 23 94 Total ... 76 69 70 68 283 Post-graduate Course 3 — — — 3 Special Courses. Household Matters . — 27 — — 27 The (Japanese) Language and Gymnastics . . 25 — — — 25 Geography and History. . . 25 — — — 25 Kindergarten Methods (practice) . . 10 — — — 10 Total. . . 60 27 — —87 Elective Course . — — — — — Grand Total . 139 96 70 68 373 The following are from the reports of the Department of Education : — XXII.] PUPILS IN SCHOOLS 323 Pupils .... Graduates Graduates of the Regular Course Applicants for Admission Applicants for Admission to the Regular Course . Those admitted . Those admitted to the Regular Course 1902. 1903. 344 103 367 los 64 540 402 126 75 62 705 565 107 75 1904. 354 87 66 1,012 669 127 75 1905. 361 73 919 819 107 75 1906. 357 131 68 1,039 809 113 75 The large fluctuations in numbers are due mainly to the special courses, the numbers for which are quite indeterminate. For the regular course seventy-five are taken every year, out of which a little over sixty-five on the average graduate. The following table shows how the graduates of the school were employed a year after their graduation : — 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906 Teaching in Normal Schools . 21 19 14 23 Teaching in Girls' High Schools 68 63 67 64 Teaching in other Schools 7 7 3 7 In the Post-graduate Course . — — I — Not Holding a Definite Position 7 14 2 4 Dead 2 — — — CHAPTER XXIII TEXT-BOOKS Text-books in early Meiji — Regulations of i8S6 — Text-book selection committee — Text-books compiled by the Department of Ediuation — Great profit of publishers — Abuses — Various attempts to get rid of the}n ineffectual — " The text-book scandal" of igoj — New regulations of igo3 — Elementary school text-books to be copyrighted by the Department of EduccUion — Print- ing and publishing — Advantages of the new system — Revision — Spelling reform trouble — Text-books for secondary schools — Statistics of text-book inspection. The subject of text-books for elementary and secondary schools has engaged the attention of the educational authorities from the very beginning of the new educa- tional system, there being both pedagogical and adminis- trative difficulties. I shall give a brief account of the treatment of this question, before stating the actual regulations. In the early years of Meiji, there was a great want of text-books, for those that were in use before the Restoration were scarcely fit for use under new condi- tions. The Department of Education, therefore, has many text-books as well as books of reference and books for general information, either specially written or in most cases translated. At the same time, text-books, charts, diagrams, etc., for use in elementary schools were compiled by the teachers of the Government Normal School in Tokyo. Many books were also translated or written and published by private persons. The Depart- ment of Education used to publish occasionally lists of books that might be used as text-books, and some- times of those that might not be so used. In the 324 CHAP, xxiii.] TEXT-BOOKS 32s report of the Department for 1875, it is stated that there were one hundred and thirty-nine different text- books in use in schools at that time, of which forty- were published by the Department of Education, two by other Government departments, and ninety-seven by private persons, and that in the great majority of schools, the books of the Department of Education were used. In 1875 the Department of Education allowed all its text-books to be published freely by anybody. The consequence of this very liberal policy was, however, not what was expected. A large number of books published were full of mistakes, misprints, omissions, additions, supposed improvements and emendations, which gave rise to a great deal of confusion and trouble. So, in 1877, an order was issued that thenceforth any alteration in the text-books issued by the Department must receive the approval of the Minister before publication. Text-books, however, continued to be in an un- satisfactory state, so much so that in 1880 we find the Department issuing an order to prefects to prohibit the use as text-books of such books as were likely to be injurious to morals or to disturb the public order or to be otherwise deleterious to education. But with attention paid more and more to these matters, together with gradual improvement in the practical working of the whole educational system, text-books also improved. In 1885 the Department published a list of nine hundred and twenty-five books that might be used as text-books in different schools, of which over three hundred were those published by the Department. In i886, along with other reforms in educational matters generally^ a regular system of text-book inspec- tion was introduced. Text -books in normal schools were to be determined by the Minister himself, while those to be used in elementary schools and middle schools had to be chosen from among those which had been previously examined and approved by 326 TEXT-BOOKS [chap. the Minister of Education. Text -books in middle schools were to be chosen by the directors of respective schools with the approval of prefects. For elementary- schools, the choice was to be made in each prefecture by a committee specially nominated for the purpose and composed of the director and teachers of the normal school of that prefecture, education officials of the prefectural bureau, teachers of elementary schools, and some others. Books so chosen were to be used in all elementary schools throughout that prefecture for a term of four years, at the end of which a revision might be made if deemed advisable, but those children who began with one series of text-books were to go on with the same series till the end of their four years' ordinary elementary course. This system of selection of text-books continued in force up to 1903, although during that time there were several changes made in the composition of the committee as a means of remedying abuses that arose as stated below. At the same time (1886), the Department of Educa- tion itself began the compilation of a set of readers and other text-books for elementary schools, which, being far superior to those in use hitherto, raised the general standard of text-books very much higher than what it had been up to that time. The Department had likewise text -books for use in normal and middle schools prepared by those specially fitted for the task by their knowledge and experience, some of which continue to be used even up to the present day. It can be easily seen that text-books for elementary schools, if once chosen for a prefecture, continuing to be used for four years for certain in all the schools of that prefecture, would be a source of a very great profit to the publishers whose books were so adopted. This naturally gave rise to a very keen competition among publishers of text-books ; although this com- petition was beneficial in that the text -books were very much improved as far as their contents were concerned, otherwise the system gave rise to many XXIII.] PUBLISHERS AND TEXT-BOOKS 327 great and serious abuses. The publishers having secured a monopoly in prefectures, gradually lowered the quality of the paper, printing, and binding, so as to secure a greater profit. They often neglected to keep the necessary supply of books, especially in remoter districts, transport to which was expensive, so that children had often to be without text-books for some time at the beginning of a session or term. These, however, were not the only abuses, nor were they the worst. The publishers began to tamper with members of the text-books selection committees, using all sorts of illegal and immoral means. Their agents forced presents, even of money, upon them. Whether really accepted or not, agents reported them so to their principals, thereby damaging the reputation of members of the committees with or without cause ; all sorts of influence were brought to bear upon them, every means of temptation and even of coercion was resorted to. Representations were made in both houses of the Imperial Diet that text-books should be compiled and published by the State. How to deal with the elementary school text-book question was one of the problems with succes- sive Ministers of Education. Changes were made in the composition of the committee, several punitive clauses were inserted in the regulations, all to no effect, for rumours true or otherwise, but in either case having a very bad effect on education, continued to be spread. Finally, in 1903, a large number of the members of committees of different prefectures and others besides were brought to trial on charge of corruption ; some were found guilty, others were acquitted. But this event made some decisive steps necessary, and facilitated the introduction of the State text-books system, which had been regarded by the Department of Education as the only solution of the question, but which could not be carried out for various reasons, and by the Imperial Ordinance of April 1903, the present regulations regard- ing elementary school text-books were adopted, which I proceed to explain briefly. 328 TEXT-BOOKS [chap. According to them, all text-books to be used in elementary schools must be those whose copyrights belong to the Department of Education — that is to say, books either compiled by the official compilers in the Department, or by private persons at the request of the Department, but in all cases copyrighted by the Department, so that no private persons shall have any interest in it from a business point of view. However, with the exception of text-books for Morals, Japanese History, Geography, and the Readers, the Minister of Education may give permission to have text-books whose copyright does not belong to the Department, but which have been examined and approved of by the Department, used in elementary schools. The above four were excepted, as they form an essential part of the moral and civic education imparted in elementary schools, so that it was thought advisable to reserve their compilation for the State. There was another reason, namely, that they were by their importance and number most likely to give rise to abuses. At present, besides these four, text-books on arithmetic and writing, and drawing copy-books are also excepted. With respect to gymnastics, sewing, manual work, and singing in the ordinary elementary schools, children must not be made to use text-books. Text-books need not be used for arithmetic, nor writing and drawing copy-books, if the director of the school thinks it better not to do so. Where there are more than one set of text-books to choose from, the choice is to be made by the prefect for each prefecture. A series of text-books once chosen must not be changed for four years, and then only from the lowest class, so that a child goes on to the end of his course with books of the same series. As to the printing and publishing of those text- books, the simplest way would have been for the Department to undertake it. As, however, this could not be done utider the circumstances, great pains have been taken in allowing them to be published by private firms to make sure that the quality of paper, printing. XXIII.] NEW TEXT-BOOKS 329 and binding shall be kept up to the standard determined by the Department, that the price of books shall never, under any circumstances, be above a certain fixed sum, and last but not least, that the supply shall be regular and evenly distributed throughout the country, so that the children in the remotest parts of the country may not be unable to obtain books at the beginning of terms, as happened very frequently under the old system. Text-books published in accordance with the above reform came into use from the beginning of the school year 1904-1905. Although it was with great difficulty that this change could be effected, as there was scarcely a year between the promulgation of the Imperial Ordi- nance and the beginning of the year, it was felt that the iron must be struck while it was hot ; otherwise publishers whose monopoly had been thus abolished would do their best to prevent the carrying out of the reform — in fact they did their utmost to prevent it, but they did not succeed. The advantages of the new books, or rather of the new system, which became at once evident, was the great reduction in the price of books, being in some cases as great as 70 per cent, of the former price {i.e., the price of new books was sometimes less than a third of that of similar books under the old system), a very much superior quality of paper, printing, and binding, and regularity of supply, notwithstanding that the transportation was in an awkward condition on account of the war. Of the contents of those books I have spoken in my lectures on elementary education ; but here I may remark that not only the official compilers in the Department are charged with the task of revising them continually so as to improve them and keep them up to date, but teachers in normal schools and those actually using them in their classes are ordered to send any suggestions that may occur to them with the same end in view. A committee has been appointed by the Minister of Education specially for the purpose 330 TEXT-BOOKS [chap. XXIII. of a complete revision, so that in April 1908, when according to regulations new series may be introduced, there may be a thoroughly revised and improved series of text-books ready. [This has not been effected owing to objections to the reformed spelling proposed to be adopted in the new readers and text-books. A com- mittee was appointed in May 1908 to discuss and settle upon the spelling to be adopted in them.] Text -books for normal, middle, and girls' high schools remain subject to the same rules as before ; that is, they must be those that have been previously examined by text -book inspectors of the Department of Education and approved of by the Minister. With this restriction, the choice is left to the director of each school, subject to the approval of the prefect. In certain cases, books which have not yet been examined may be used provisionally with the permission of the Minister, until they shall have been examined. The following numbers will give some idea of the present state of text-book inspection, that is, for 1906 and the four preceding years : — Text-books for SI "dm So 2:s t M M i H H Presented for examina- tion within the year . 49 184 67 83 383 328 352 394 594 Left over from the pre- ceding year . 30 4'i 20 26 121 81 154 372 220 Approved SO 176 64 87 377 270 357 485 356 Disapproved 8 6 2 16 12 32 64 74 Rejected 2 2 2 2 8 6 36 63 14 Left over to the foUow- mg year . 19 45 21 18 103 121 81 154 372 CHAPTER XXIV PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SCHOOL HYGIENE Physical education in pre- Meiji years — The same in early Meiji — Teaching of gymnastics^Gymnastic training school — Reform of 1886 — Military gymnastics — Reform in gymnastic teaching — Present state of teaching of gymnastics — Occidental games and sports introduced — Old military exercises revived — School hygiene — Committee of dpctors — Regulations bearing on school hygiene — Their unpopularity and abolition — Their effect — School site — School grounds — School buildings — Desks and benches — Size of types and spaces in text-books — School medical officers — Their duties — Number of schools with medical officers — Physical measurements and health examination — Numbers examined in igo6 — Conscription examination figures for i8gi-i8gs and i^oi-igos- As I have stated in chap. II, the literary education of the samurai or ruling class consisted almost entirely in the reading of books in Chinese, mainly works on philosophy and history. This study of the Chinese literature in which they spent the whole of their youth gave them very good mental culture and moral training. A large portion of their time was also spent in practising military arts of archery, riding, fencing, the use of spears, jujutsu, etc., which it was considered necessary for them to acquire as a part of their equip- ment as samurai. They thus obtained excellent physical training. As for the other classes of people, including merchants, farmers, and artisans, their education was mostly of an elementary character, neither was there any provision made for their physical education, but they had plenty of exercise in their daily vocation, except, perhaps, in the case of wealthy merchants. Women received very little mental education and still less or rather no physical education ; indeed it was 331 332 PHYSICAL EDUCATION [chap. deemed unwomanly to take any kind of active exercise, especially in those of middle and higher classes. After the Restoration young men advanced beyond the elementary stage in education were occupied with the study of Occidental languages, learning and science, in addition to, or sometimes to the exclusion of the Chinese literature, just as they had formerly been with that of the latter exclusively ; but the physical side was altogether neglected. There was no longer any need for practising old military arts, and although in the curriculum of schools gymnastics was mentioned among subjects to be taught, there was scarcely any provision made for its teaching, in fact there was no one to teach it ; neither were there any games or sports such as baseball, lawn tennis, or boating, now so widely and enthusiastically pursued by our young men and women, introduced as yet. Thus boys and girls, young men and women, while subjected to much harder mental work than formerly, had scarcely any physical exercise. The consequence was that the physique of educated youths suffered very greatly ; short sight and pale con- sumptive features came at one time to be regarded as characteristic of students. Such a state of things could scarcely be allowed to go on long. There was a strong feeling that something must be done to remedy this one-sided education. The Department of Education having put in gymnastics among subjects to be taught in schools, could not ignore the fact that there was no one com- petent to teach it, and therefore as early as 1878, the Government had established a training school for teachers of gymnastics, where an American teacher was engaged. A system of gymnastics, based mainly on the German model, and considered suitable for Japanese boys and girls, was taught to pupils who had been specially admitted for the purpose of becoming teachers of gymnastics, and also at the same time to pupils of the Government Normal School in Tokyo. Those on XXIV.] GYMNASTIC TRAINING 333 graduation went out to teach gymnastics to pupils of prefectural normal schools, and thence gymnastics spread to elementary schools. Just as in old days, samurais being soldiers by birth learned military arts, so now that everybody was liable to military service, it was deemed proper that military gymnastics and drill should be taught in schools. Partly from this considera- tion, but also for the reason that it was useful as moral and intellectual as well as physical training, in 1880 military gymnastics and drill were introduced into some classes of schools, and made a part of gymnastic teaching for older boys. In 1886, among other great reforms in education, a much greater importance was attached to the teaching of gymnastics in schools of every grade and of all kinds. And so it has continued to the present day. From three to as much as six hours a week are now allotted to it, according to the kind of schools. Teachers are now trained in teaching of gymnastics in normal schools and higher normal schools ; in the latter there have been several occasional special courses for gymnastics, either by itself, or in conjunction with some other subject. Teachers of military gymnastics and drill are mostly retired officers and non-commissioned officers. The system of common of school gymnastics was until quite recently very much the same as when first introduced, based on the German model. But in the educational circles there have been many discussions as to its deficiencies and methods of improving it; a few years ago, an experienced teacher of gymnastics was sent abroad to inspect and report on the teach- ing of gymnastics in Europe and America. About the same time also a graduate of the Female Higher Normal School was sent abroad to study gymnastics. In 1904 a committee was appointed in the Department of Education, consisting of several doctors of medicine, teachers of gymnastics just mentioned, and several other experts, who reported towards the end of 1905 ; in this report the Swedish system of gymnastics with some 334 PHYSICAL EDUCATION [chap. modifications is recommended. The recommendations of the report, or at least of the greater part of it, will no doubt be adopted in due course. Gymnastics as taught in schools at present are as follows : — Elementary Schools. — In the ordinary course, three to four hours a week, common or school gymnastics, consisting of free gymnastics and dumb-bell exercises ; and games. [Above the fifth year in the new system, military drill for boys.] In the higher course, three hours a week, common or school gymnastics, consisting of free gymnastics, dumb-bell and bar-bell exercises ; games, and military drill for boys. The games are races and other competitive sports, ball games, gymnastic sports, and for girls practice in marching, etc. (corre- sponding to boys' drill), and square dances. The drill for boys consists of individual and section drills. Swimming is practised in summer in some schools. Middle Schools. — Three hours a week, common or school gymnastics consisting of free gymnastics, dumb-bell, bar-bell and Indian club exercises ; military gymnastics consisting of horizontal bar, shelf, wooden horse and parallel bar exercises ; military drill consist- ing of individual, section and company drills, and blank firing and mimic fighting ; fencing and jujutsu, which, however, do not form a part of the regular curriculum, and are voluntary, as also swimming in summer in most schools. Normal Schools. — Six hours a week, much the same as in middle schools, but with instruction in methods of teaching and in games, such as are taught in elementary schools. Girl's High Schools and Female Normal Schools. — Three hours a week, common or school gymnastics consisting of free gymnastics, dumb-bell, Jixiv.] ATHLETICS 335 bar-bell, wooden ring, and bean bag exercises ; games including marching practice, square dances, gymnastic sports, races, etc. In higher schdols, special colleges, and technical schools of all grades, gymnastics still form an important part of the curriculum. In medical colleges, military drill is practised in the first year only. In all schools, swings, swinging timbers, fixed timbers, and the like, are provided for the free use of pupils. The games in elementary and other schools are chosen so as to develop mental and physical alert- ness, accuracy of eyes and hands, readiness and esprit de corps; it is usual to hold inter-class matches and other competitions. At the same time that the authorities of the Depart- ment of Education were engaged in advancing the physical training of children by means of gymnastic teaching as a part of the school curriculum, students of the University of Tokyo, encouraged and assisted by professors and others, who, as I remarked before, saw that something must be done to check physical deterioration of students before it was too late, began to introduce English and American games. Cricket has never got hold of our youths, but the American game of baseball, which seems to be more suited to the temperament of our boys than cricket, has been introduced very largely, and it is now practised through- out the country ; boating is also very much practised where possible ; lawn tennis is very popular with boys and girls ; football is beginning to be practised in some schools. The University of Tokyo has held an annual regatta and athletic sports meetings now for more than twenty years. The example of university students has been followed in this as in almost every case where it could be followed, and now every school or college in the country has its athletic sports meeting, and, where possible, its regatta, even elementary schools with little boys and girls holding such gatherings; 336 SCHOOL HYGIENE [chap. sometimes instead of single schools, there are athletic sports meetings of a number of elementary schools in the same school district. I should remark with respect to these elementary school meetings,^ that they consist in a large measure in practice of such gymnastic sports as have been taught to children in their gymnastic lessons, in which I may remark, by the way, they take very great interest. As I have stated before, every school has its school excursions, which are primarily undertaken for the purpose of instruction in geography, history and science ; but physical training is very often combined with it, or sometimes it is made the chief object, the physical training consisting in long distance walking or marching, hill climbing, etc. Girls' schools are also doing the same sort of thing, as far as possible. At the same time as the introduction of new games and sports of the West, our own old military exercises, or at least such of them as are fitted for the new times, have been revived, such are the fencing, jicjutsu, archery, swimming, etc. At present, these exercises, especially fencing and j'ujutsu, are very widely practised by the boys, and afford excellent training for the body ; in some boys' schools one or other is made almost com- pulsory, but great care has to be taken, as they are rather violent exercises, and therefore not fitted for every boy. While, on the one hand, endeavours were being made to improve the physique of our younger generation officially by means of gymnastic teaching and unoffici- ally by encouragement of every form of proper exercises, general ideas on sanitation and hygiene advanced, and school hygiene began to draw the practical attention of educational authorities and experts ; but in this they were still ahead of the public, even of the comparatively enlightened public, and thus had to contend against a good deal of opposition. In 1891 a doctor of medicine who had studied the matter as a specialty was first XXIV.] SCHOOL HYGIENE 337 engaged by the Department of Education to inspect the sanitary conditions of schools and school children and to report thereon. In consequence of his report and of the recognition of the importance of school hygiene, a committee consisting of nine members and a secretary, all doctors of medicine, mostly professors in the medical college of the University of Tokyo, was appointed to advise the Department in framing and revising regula- tions connected with school hygiene. In 1900 the affairs relating to school hygiene were considered of sufficient importance to be placed under a section of the Minister's Cabinet of the Department of Education specially created for the purpose, and with the above- mentioned doctor at its head ; in 1903 the committee was dissolved and the newly created section of school hygiene was incorporated with another section, a measure necessitated by the general decision of the Cabinet, but to be regretted on educational grounds. The Department has, however, endeavoured to see that school hygiene itself shall not suffer a set-back in consequence of this step. I proceed to mention the principal regulations bear- ing on this subject. I should remark that several of the regulations regarding school buildings, etc., were abolished in 1904 ; they had been issued rather for general guidance, and were not meant to be followed strictly and rigidly in all cases, a great deal being left to the discretion of local authorities, but owing to the too great and often indiscreet zeal of officials charged with carrying them out, they became very unpopular in soine quarters, and they were finally abolished, but they had served a very good purpose, for they had caused great improvements in school buildings, etc., and established a standard which will be maintained notwithstanding the abolition of the regulations. I think, therefore, that it will not be useless to mention a few of their principal points, especially as a large number of school buildings has been and will be built in accordance with them. 338 SCHOOL HYGIENE [chap. Regarding the site of a school, great importance is attached to its proper selection from different points of view, such as that there shall be nothing in its neigh- bourhood likely to have injurious effects on the morals, or by noise, dust, smoke, etc., to distract the attention or to be a source of danger ; not the least among these are sanitary considerations, and it is mentioned that the site must be salubrious, having a plentiful supply of good drinking water, free from miasma, gases, dust, in fact from everything that is likely to be injurious to health. As I have stated before, an application for permission to build a school of a certain kind must be accompanied not only by maps and plans of school grounds and buildings, but by an account of the general condition of the neighbourhood and a medical analysis of the drinking water. School grounds must be of an area suitable to the purpose of the school and the number of pupils it is proposed to admit, having a plentiful supply of good water and a proper drainage system. The following, though not now in force, may be regarded as the standard to be kept in view : — The exercise grounds must be square, or as nearly so as possible ; its area was for an ordinary elementary school to be at the rate of loo tsubo^ for loo children or under, increasing by I tsubo for each child over loo, and for a higher ele- mentary school to be 150 tsubo for the first 100, and I J tsubo for every additional child ; in a middle school, it was to be over 2,000 tsubo. It was found impossible to obtain so large an area in cities and towns, but in the country a larger area than prescribed has often been attached to schools. As to school buildings, in an elementary school, a school-room was to be between 3 and 4 ken (6 to 8 yards) in width and between 4 and 5 ken (8 to 10 yards) in length ; in all cases the floor space was to be not • A tsubo is I ken square or very nearly 36 square feet, so that 100 tsubo are equivalent to about ^th of an acre; ISO tsubo, mentioned below, are equivalent to about 4th of an acre ; 2,000 tsubo to about i| acres. XXIV.] SCHOOL HYGIENE 339 less than a tsubo to four children (i square yard to a child). The ceiling was to be at least 9 feet above the floor; the height of the floor above the ground was to be more than 2 feet and the space below was to be provided with openings for air on all sides. The window area was to be not less than ^th of the floor space, the lower edge to be about 2| feet above the floor and the upper edge not less than 8^ feet above the floor and as near the ceiling as possible ; no window must be placed in front of the children's seats. Wall colour was to be grey, light yellow, or some such neutral tint. Stove or some other heating arrangement was to be made according to local circumstances. It was desirable to have two entrances to each room. Rooms were to be only on one side, usually the south side, of passages, which were to be not less than 6 feet in width. If possible, there was to be only one floor, but when there was an upper storey, there must be two staircases, stairs being at least 4^ feet wide, and steps 0.8 to i foot wide and 0.5 to 0.6 foot high ; it was desirable to provide a landing in the middle. There were also regulations about the number, size, and construction of latrines. For middle schools, it was provided that the dimensions of a school-room should be at the rate of not less than 120 cubic feet for each boy, the day- room in the dormitory at the rate of not less than 324 cubic feet, and sleeping - room of not less than 480 cubic feet, or where two were combined,' of not less than 567 cubic feet. The different rooms that were necessary were enumerated, such as ordinary school- rooms, special room for physics and chemistry, for natural science, and for drawing, hall, library, instru- ment and specimen rooms, etc. Some schools have special rooms for geography and history teaching. The rules for girls' high schools and normal schools were about the same as those for middle schools. There is no need for me to descant upon the import- ance of having desks and chairs or benches of proper 340 SCHOOL HYGIENE [chap. form and size, in order to make children maintain a correct position during the lessons, and keep them from stooping or inclining to one side or other, and so on, A table of height and width of desks and chairs or benches suitable for children of different height was issued, and what may be regarded as the best forms pointed out ; though no longer in force as a regulation, it is still followed in most cases as a useful standard to go by. Instructions as to the size of types to be used, and spaces to be left between letters, words, and lines, maximum lengths of lines and maximum number of lines in a page, for text - books for elementary and secondary schools were issued for the use of publishers. This was based on hygienic considerations, and was intended to check the increase of myopy. It was issued on the recommendation of the above-mentioned com- mittee, as were all the above regulations. This regula- tion is still in force, and is enforced by the inspection of text-books. In 1898 an Imperial Ordinance was issued by which it was enacted that every public school shall have a school medical officer, excepting the schools established by cho or son of less than 5,000 inhabitants under special circumstances, i.e., when it is found impossible to find a proper medical officer, or when it is too poor to defray the expenses of one. The school medical officer is engaged by the prefect, and acts as adviser to the prefect or to mayors of shi, cho, or son, on sanitary matters. He has to visit the school and inspect its sanitary conditions at least once a month ; he must certainly do so at the beginning of every term and at the end of the school year ; he has to enter in the in- spection book his observations on the following items : — (i) Ventilation; (2) lighting; (3) desks and benches; (4) distances of the front and back rows of pupils from the blackboard ; (5) presence or absence of stoves, and the distance of the stove, if any, from the nearest xxrv.] THE DOCTOR'S REPORT 341 pupil ; (6) temperature of the room ; (7) books, charts, and blackboards from the sanitary point of view ; (8) the mode of carrying out of school cleansing ; (9) state of the drinking water ; (10) any other matters that he may consider necessary from sanitary considerations. Should he find, on the occasion of his visit, any pupil sick, he has to advise the director whether he should order his non-attendance or make him receive suitable medical treatment. It is to be remarked that their duty as school doctors is concerned with hygienic matters, and that they do not treat a pupil's disease as such. They are to make the annual or semi-annual measure- ment and medical examination of pupils, of which I shall speak presently, and draw up a proper report of the result ; they are also required to examine the health of candidates for admission or of those who wish to leave, when requested to do so by the director. Should an epidemic break out in the school grounds or in the neighbourhood, he must visit the school as often as necessary, and take proper steps for its prevention and disinfection, and, if he thinks it proper, advise the director and managers to close the school wholly or partly ; or in case an epidemic has broken out near the home of a day pupil, give his opinion whether he should be stopped from attending the school or not ; in fact, it is his duty to advise the director and managers of the school to take any step he may think proper in the interest of hygiene. There are also regulations specifying the qualifications of school medical officers, for they must be those with a good knowledge of sanitation besides ordinary medical knowledge. I may say, roughly, that the doctors who have obtained licence by passing the ordinary medical examination are excluded. The Department of Education has issued instructions for the cleansing of school grounds and buildings — daily cleansing and periodical cleansing which must take place at least once a year during summer or other holidays, and is actually practised in most schools more 342 SCHOOL HYGIENE [chap. frequently. There must also be great cleansing after the grounds have been immersed in water by flood. The medical officer is responsible to see that the cleansing is properly executed. I may state that this cleansing is nothing peculiar to schools, every private person does the same, but in the absence of this instruc- tion it was formerly neglected in some schools. I append below a table of numbers of different public schools with medical officers, and of such officers with their fees for the year 1906 and for the year 1901 for comparison : — 1906 1901 <- 't« u. Public Schools. a ber liical cers. ^^" Is ber dical cers. u ' p Num Me Offi fc 3 §1 iin s Elementary schools 9.644 9.699 110,638 7.817 7,918 94.0JS Normal schools 67 78 8,110 S4 68 6,664 Middle schools 225 242 18,129 203 214 15,048 Girls' High schools 94 98 4,884 57 60 3.196 Special colleges I I 10 2 2 40 Technical schools 328 333 8,824 155 IS9 S.760 Others Total 19 19 89 3 3 62 10,378 10,470 150,684 8,291 8,424 124,785 The number of schools with medical officers is increasing satisfactorily. It should, however, be mentioned that in the number of medical officers given above, the same person is counted for as many schools as he attends to, so that the actual number of persons acting as medical officers is much smaller, being 5,424 in 1906 and 4,221 in 1901. Fees also must seem very small ; they cannot be said to be very large even according to our standard, but the fact is that many of the doctors offer their services gratuitously or almost gratuitously, some from purely disinterested motives, some partly from consideration of the honour and credit that they get from such an appointment. Although physical measurements and health examina- XXIV.] MEDICAL EXAMINATION 343 tion of pupils were begun in the gymnastic training school mentioned above, and in the Government normal schools for male and female pupils in Tokyo as early as 1870, and extended to some other schools, not being based upon proper principles their results cannot be easily utilised to-day. In 1897 the Department of Education first issued instructions for the physical examination of school pupils throughout the country. These instructions were framed after consultation with the doctors' committee above mentioned, and based upon scientific principles, but they were at first some- what too complex for the present conditions, and were therefore a little simplified afterwards. According to the present regulations, a medical examination of school pupils is to be made in all schools under the direction of medical officers in the April of each year, and also on special occasions if the director of a school deems it advisable. In schools without a regular medical officer the examination may be conducted by a doctor specially engaged for the occasion, or may be omitted altogether. The examination consists of the following eleven heads : — (i) The height; (2) the weight ; (3) circumference round the chest ordinary, and difference when expanded and contracted ; (4) the spine (scoliosis and kyphosis); (5) the constitution, whether strong, medium, or weak ; (6) eye- sight; (7) diseases of the eye ; (8) hearing ; (9) diseases of the ear; (10) teeth ; (11) diseases in general. The metric system is to be used for measurements, centimetre as the unit of length, and kilogram as the unit of weight. In elementary schools, difference in the circumference of the chest when expanded and con- tracted, the eyesight, and hearing are to be omitted. The diseases to be noticed specially are scrofula, insufficient nourishment, anaemia, kakke (or beri-beri), consumption, megrim, epistaxis, neurasthenia, and chronic diseases. The results of the examination are reported to the Department according to a fixed scheme given in the regulations. These are collected and collated at the 344 SCHOOL HYGIENE [chap. Department and published give below the number of 1906: — in Schools and institutions under the direct control of the Department Elementary schools attached to the Higher Normal schools Elementary schools Middle schools Girls' High schools Normal schools Technical schools . Special colleges Total in the annual reports. I those who were examined Number of pupils examined Male Female Total 15,438 622 16,060 758 577 1,335 498,535 370,479 869,014 95,290 ... 95,290 27,191 27,191 11,963 4,018 15,981 28,115 447 28,562 1,631 43 1.674 651,730 403,377 1,055,107 We have thus an account of the physical condition of over one million pupils ranging from seven (over full six years) to somewhere up to twenty-eight, by far the greater number being below twenty, and nearly eight hundred thousand below fifteen. Taking this with the bodily examination of young men for conscription, we must have a tolerably good account of our young people. Although these records do not go sufficiently far back to enable us to compare the physique of the present boys and girls with that of twenty or twenty-five years ago, yet to those who have watched with interest, the improvement in the physique of our youths is at once evident, especially in higher schools. With girls in high schools, the increase in height and weight is remarkable. The majority of girls are taller than their mothers. From the figures given me by the Minister of War, I find that in five years, from 1891 to 1895, slightly over 1,823,000 young men were examined for conscrip- tion, out of whom 10 per cent, were above 5.4 feet, 70 per cent, between 5.4 and 5 feet, and 20 per cent, below 5 feet. For five years, from 1901 to 1905, the number examined was a little over 2,011,000, out of XXIV.] SCHOOL HYGIENE 345 whom 13.5 per cent, were above 5.4 feet, 71.5 per cent, between 5.4 and 5 feet, and only 15 per cent, below 5 feet. These figures seemed to point to a decided increase in the stature of the Japanese ; but I have not examined them very carefully, or rather have no material for further study, and whether there are any special reasons that will account for these figures I cannot tell, but they are certainly very remarkable. CHAPTER XXV TKCHNICAL EDUCATION Technical Education — Historical sketch — Technical education encouragement subsidy — Technical special colleges — Schools of the Class A — Schools of the Class B — Technical supplementary schools — Greater latitude allowed to technical schools — Establishment and maintenance — Text-books — Techno- logical schools — Apprentice schools — Agricultural schools — Fisheries and marine products schools — Commercial schools — Navigation schools — Technical supplementary schools — Difficulty of finding cotnpetent teachers — Teacher^ training institutions — Subsidy — Statistics. Although the main subject of this course of lectures was to be the general education, yet an account of Japanese education would be incomplete without some observations on higher and special education, and on technical education. I propose, therefore, to give a brief sketch of these, beginning with the last. Under the term "Technical Education," we include education of all grades in Agriculture (including under this name agriculture proper, agricultural chemistry, sericulture, cattle rearing, veterinary medicine and surgery, forestry, fisheries and marine products, etc.), Engineering and Technology in all its branches, Commerce and Navigation, etc. The first technical institution in Japan was estab- lished in 1871 under the Department of Public Works (not in existence now), for the purpose of educating engineers who were required in connection with the work of that department. This college was organised entirely under a British staff, and continued so until 1886. About the same time as this, a technological 346 CHAP. XXV.] TECHNICAL EDUCATION 347 department was started in Kaiseijo, an institution which afterwards developed into the University of Tokyo. Both of these did excellent work, and most of the eminent engineers, architects, and chemists of the present day were trained in one or other of the two. These were incorporated into one in 1886, and now form the Engineering College of the Imperial University of Tokyo. In 1872 an agricultural college was started in Hok- kaido (Yeso) by the Colonisation Bureau (not in exist- ence now), under an American staff; this college now forms the Agricultural College of the new North- eastern Imperial University. The first commercial school was established in 1875 by a body of private individuals. This institution has now developed into the Tokyo Higher Commercial School or College, whose graduates occupy at the present day the foremost positions in the commercial world of Japan. In 1 88 1 a workmen's school was opened in Tokyo under the Department of Education. This has had a great success, and is now doing most excellent work as the Tokyo Higher Technological School or College. In 1874 an agricultural school was opened in Tokyo, and a school of forestry in 1877. These two were afterwards incorporated into one, and now form the Agricultural College of the Imperial University of Tokyo. Although a beginning of the technical education, more especially in its higher branches, had thus been made, it is only within quite recent years, perhaps within the last ten years, that great impulse has been given to the technical education in all its graduations. In 1893 a sum of money (;^ 15,000) was voted by the Diet to be distributed as grants to local governments in encourage- ment of the technical education. This amount has been increased from time to time, and is for the current year (1908-1909) 365,000 yen (;;^36,5oo), of which 325,000 yen are to be distributed to local authorities, and the rest to 348 TECHNICAL EDUCATION [chap. be spent in the training of teachers for technical schools, of which I shall speak presently. The Imperial Ordinance on Technical Education now in force was issued in 1899, amended in 1902, and again in 1903. Leaving out the highest grade of the technical education, which is given in the Colleges of Engineer- ing and Agriculture of the Imperial Universities, and belonging, for the purpose of administration, to the University education, we have four grades of technical schools : — (i.) technical special colleges, to which gradu- ates of middle schools and girls' high schools are to be admitted ; (ii.) technical schools of Class A, to which are admitted children above fourteen years of age who have finished the higher elementary course [of four years before the amendment of 1907 and of two years after the amendment], or show proficiency of equal or higher degree ; (iii.) technical schools of Class B, admitting children above twelve years of age who have received the ordinary elementary education ; (iv.) technical supplementary schools. To colleges and to schools of Class A may be attached a preparatory course of less than two years, or supplementary course of less than two years, or special or elective course. The length of the regular or main course is usually three years, sometimes four, and where there are special reasons, even five years. Schools of Class B have a course of not more than three years, while supplementary schools from their very nature have no fixed limit. Technical special colleges are almost all govern- mental, there being only one commercial college, main- tained by the city of Osaka, and one private agricultural and one private commercial college of this grade. Among schools of Class A there is a great variety of standard, some being excellent institutions with pre- paratory and supplementary courses, and an equipment worthy even of a college, while others are only slightly better than some schools of Class B. In general, it has been found necessary and advisable to allow much XXV.] TECHNICAL SCHOOLS 349 greater latitude in many respects to technical schools, than in the case of schools and colleges other than technical. This is partly due to the nature of the subject matter of teaching, but also to the necessity of giving a great deal of encouragement to technical education. Education in the old days meant simply book learning, and although under the new system there have been great changes in the curriculum, people are long in comprehending the importance and significance of technical education, and every encouragement has to be given to induce local authorities to establish technical schools, and when they are established, to induce parents, whose children would certainly be much better for entering those technical schools rather than middle schools, to send them to such schools. And thus the Department has had to deal with them in a somewhat different way from what it has done with others. Regulations as to the establishment and maintenance of technical schools are much the same as for other schools. Thus a prefecture may establish and maintain technical schools, except technical supplementary schools, which are to be maintained by smaller self-governing bodies and cannot be established as independent schools by prefectures although they may be attached to technical schools of higher grade. The Minister of Education has the power to order prefectures to establish and maintain technical schools, which he may consider necessary according to local circumstances ; as a matter of fact, it has never been actually exercised. Subpre- fectures, ski, cko, son or school unions may establish and maintain technical schools, provided it shall not have a prejudicial effect on the elementary education in their regions : they may make school districts for the purpose as in the case of elementary schools. Private persons and chambers of commerce may establish technical schools. In all cases, the permission of the Minister of Education must be obtained for the estab- lishment, except for that of technical supplementary schools, for which it is to be obtained from prefects. Text -books to be used in technical schools are 350 TECHNICAL EDUCATION [chap. determined by the director of each school with the approval of the prefect, or by the proprietors in case of private schools. Coming to particulars of different kinds of technical schools, let us take the engineering or technological schools first. There are nine technological colleges established, or in course of establishment, by the Department ; each of them is intended to have some peculiarities, either in the subject matter taught or in its method of teaching, corresponding to the locality in which it is situated. The one in Tokyo, which is the oldest and best equipped, has sections for textiles, ceramics, applied chemistry, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, deco- rative and other designing, and architecture. It has over 500 regular students. To this college is attached an apprentice school, having sections of weaving, carpentry and wood-work, and metal-work, with about 150 boys, and a technical supplementary school (evening) which is very largely attended by young workmen. One in Osaka has sections of mechanical engineer- ing, applied chemistry, dyeing, ceramics, brewing, metallurgy, tiaval architecture, and marine engines ; the number of pupils is a little less than 500. One in Kyoto has sections of textile technology and design- ing, Kyoto being the centre of silk textile industry ; the number of pupils is about 250. Nagoya College has only lately been established ; it has sections of civil engineering, architecture, and textile technology, prominence being given here to cotton cloth rather than to silk, as in Kyoto. One in Kumamoto has sections of civil and mechanical engineering and metallurgy ; this college is of older foundation than those of Kyoto or Nagoya, but has only been recently made into an independent college. A sixth one in Sendai is the latest established, and has sections of civil, mechanical, and electrical engineering and mining and metallurgy. A seventh is in course of XXV.] AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES 351 establishment in Yonezawa (chiefly for textile industry), another in Nagano (for sericulture and filature), and another in Akita (for mining and metallurgy). Appli- cations for admission to those colleges are every year far in excess of the numbers that can be admitted, in some cases four or five times over, and their graduates are snapped up by different factories, workshops, etc. ; so that the establishment of new colleges has always been an imperative necessity ; the only difficulty is to find the means and men. Quite recently a private gentleman, Mr Yasukawa, has endowed a technological college to be established in Fukuoka. Of technological schools of Class A there were (at the end of 1906) 30, of which 25 were established and maintained by prefectures, 2 by sub-prefectures, 2 by shi, and i by a private person. The sections that may be established in those schools are civil engineer- ing, metal-works (including machines, machine tools, and engines), ship - building, electrical engineering, wood-work, mining and metallurgy, textile technology, ceramics, lacquer-work, designing and decorative arts. Of those, the subject most largely taught is the textiles, including designing ; some of the other subjects more commonly taught are lacquer-work, metal-work, wood- work, and ceramics. There were 57 schools of Class B, which in this case are called specially ' ' apprentice schools " ; again a large number of these are schools of textile industry ; there is one of ship-building. It is interesting to remark that while there is no school of technology of Class A for girls, 21 out of those 57 are girls' schools. Next, as to agricultural colleges, we have one in Morioka opened in 1902, and another in course of estab- lishment in Kagoshima. Besides agriculture proper, forestry and veterinary medicine and sutigery are taught. There is an agricultural college in Tokyo, established by the Agricultural Society of Japan. There were (at the end of 1906) 69 schools of Class A, 3S2 TECHNICAL EDUCATION [chap. of which 52 were prefectural, 12 sub - prefectural, 2 established by cho or son, and 3 private. Of those, some have agriculture and forestry sections, a few are devoted exclusively to forestry or sericulture, which latter is taught in almost all schools of this class. Of the agricultural schools of Class B there were 72, 44 being established by sub-prefectures, 25 by chd or son, and 3 private ; I believe there is only one school for girls. Of fisheries and marine products schools there were II, 6 of the Class A and 5 of the Class B. There is a fisheries and marine products college under the Department of Agriculture and Commerce. As to commercial colleges, there are at present 4 governmental, soon to be increased to 5 ; they are situated in Tokyo, Kobe, Nagasaki, and Yamaguchi, and the fifth is to be in Otaru. The one in Tokyo has over 1,200 pupils, and turns out about 200 graduates every year ; the last two are of quite recent establish- ment. There is also a commercial college established and maintained by the city of Osaka, and a private one in Tokyo. There were (at the end of 1906) 52 commercial schools of the Class A, of which 15 were prefectural, 21 shi, 3 chd-son, and 13 private ; and 14 of the Class B, of which 4 were shi, 8 chd-son, and 2 private. There is a Navigation College under the Depart- ment of Communications, where officers for the mercantile navy are trained. The pupils are enrolled in the Imperial Navy, and the graduates serve as reserve to be called out in the case of war. Of navigation schools there were 8, all of the Class A, 5 prefectural and 3 chd-son ; these are like any other school under the control of the Department of Education. Great encouragement has been given recently to the establishment of technical supplementary schools, which has resulted in a great increase in their number. Thus in 1901 the number was only 221 ; it increased by leaps XXV.] SUBSIDIES 353 and bounds to 629 in 1902, 1,348 in 1903, 1,683 »" 1904, 2,282 in 1905 ; and according to the latest statistics that I have, that is, on 31st December 1906, the number was 3,285. The recent change in the length of the ordinary elementary course may cause some diminution, or at all events check the increase ; but there is no doubt that this movement has done immense good in spread- ing education among the lower classes. The majority of those supplementary schools are agricultural ; that is, they teach elements of knowledge useful in agriculture, as well as supplement the general knowledge taught in elementary schools. The greatest difficulty in technical education, especially in lower grades and in the practical part, has been to find good and efficient teachers. Although in Japan this difficulty has not been confined to any particular branch, ever since the introduction of the new system of education it has been peculiarly difficult in technical education. The Department has tried to get over this difficulty by devoting a part of the money voted for the encouragement of technical education to the training of teachers. As, however, it was not enough to make the establishment of a special institu- tion possible, the training institutions have been attached to the Agricultural College of Tokyo Imperial University for agriculture, to Tokyo Technological College for technology, and to Tokyo Commercial College for commerce. The subsidy that may be granted to a public school out of the technical education encouragement appropria- tion must not exceed the amount voted by the local authorities for the school ; as a matter of fact, it is never so large, the applications for subsidy being far in excess of the sum that can be granted. The amount for each school is determined by the Department, need of such a school in that special part of the country, its curriculum, number of pupils proposed to be admitted, z 354 TECHNICAL EDUCATION [chap.xxv. etc., being taken into consideration, as well as the amount that the local authorities are going to spend upon it. Once granted, the amount remains fixed for five years, unless there arise some special reasons for the reconsideration of the decision, which is not very often. I give some statistics taken from the Report for 1906-1907 : — i^^. Admitted. 1,159 241 658 206 231 79 532 127 355 89 1,929 429 709 121 Other governmental colleges were as yet incomplete, so that I omit the numbers for them here. Teachiag Staff. Pupils. Graduates. T6ky5 Technological College . 69 615 153 Osaka Technological College . 44 49S 131 Kyoto Technological College . 26 233 52 Kumamoto Techno- logical College 17 240 39 Morioka Agricultural College . 29 237 62 Tokyo Commercial College . 60 1,202 199 Kobe Commercial College . 30 5 14 — 1 ■s 1 1 e2 OHOSMtNts* COMOSCOCOCOMTt- 0%vb inOO OS CO t>\D J^t^«"^ hoo osoo \c co ■* « \o ui 01 o co\o 00 COi'J^^miOO « tJ -^ M i^vo to cT oo" H oo" cK H H „ „ 2- CO 10 CO 0" M 1 1 ou CO« ■<*TOM 00 vO "~, OS H "1 00 «« COO) 00 1 H H • ■4: ^ ' H l^ -&I ■^ H 00" VO" ■* MM 1 CO M M 00 OS H 00 O 00 w OS H ts. CO 1 VO H t% 00 M C] VD 00 H M Tj- w m CO coso CO '^ CO "1 OS H OT ■ M tsco 00 »n 1 00 01 cots O M « lO 1 vOVO CO w MCO N H CO O^ cn M to CO tN MVO_ en r^" lOWllOO) ■*oo coo OS COOO 00 "1 C> ** a M H Technological schools (Class A) . Apprentice schools (Class B) 5i rCoUeges . •p ^ J Schools of Class A ^^1 Schools of Class 5 ^ 3 V Total Fisheries and marine products schools .... oUeges chobls of Class A chools of Class B Total schools of Class A Technological . Agricultural . Fisheries and marin< products Commercial .Navigation OS On OS 0\ OS H H H H H 1 = r = : 't^!^ g -siootiosto •aDjam '^ -juaraaiddns -moo SP IBamirax % CHAPTER XXVI HIGHER EDUCATION " Higher education " — AWo Gaikd — Preparatory to the Imperial universities — Qualification for entrance — Three sections — Subjects taught — Imperial universities — ' ' Colleges " of Imperial universities — Law — Medicine — Engineering — Literature — Science — Agriculture — University Hall — The administration — President — Senate — Professors — Graduates — Number of students — "Special Colleges" — Establishment and maintenance — Eight by the Department of Education — Forty-two public or private — Statistics. By the Higher Education, I mean here all education above middle schools for men and girls' high schools for women, leaving out, however, what were already treated of under normal and technical education, and also special education in the Army and Navy, and in some other Government departments. I have remarked several times already that boys leaving middle schools and going on to Imperial universities have to pass through a preparatory course at the so-called Koto Gakkd, or "Higher Schools." Previously to the reform of 1886 the University of Tokyo, which was the only university at the time, had a preparatory school attached to it, to which boys were admitted after a competitive examination, and where boys received a general education for three years. In 1886 this was made an independent institution under the name of Koto Chiigakko, or "Higher Middle School," and four new schools of the same kind were established in different parts of the country. These higher middle schools, as their name indicated, were meant primarily to be a school for giving a higher general education, and only incidentally preparatory 356 CHAP. XXVI.] HIGHER EDUCATION 357 schools for universities ; but there were so many demands made on the part of different faculties of the University, that no general course satisfactory to all could be arranged, and as all the boys who entered were those who wanted to proceed to the University, they became preparatory schools with different courses for those who proposed to enter different faculties, or colleges as they are called, of the University. In 1894 an attempt was made to make them colleges for giving special education under the present name of Koto Gakkd, or "Higher Schools," the preparatory courses being allowed, as it were, on sufferance ; accordingly, a course in law was opened in Kyoto and a course in engineering in Kumamoto. But the attempt was a failure, and the higher schools have continued to the present day to be, in fact, preparatory schools for different colleges of the universities. Later, "Special Colleges " were established by a separate Imperial Ordi- nance, being similar to what those higher schools were intended to be and were not. The higher schools are, therefore, to-day preparatory schools for the Imperial universities. The qualification for entrance is the graduation from a middle school ; those who have not done so can qualify by passing an examination in the subjects of the middle school curriculum of the same standard as in middle schools. There are three sections, the course in all extending over three years. The first section is for those who wish to enter the College of Law or Literature ; the second for those who wish to enter the College of Science, Engineering, or Agriculture, or the section of pharmacy in the College of Medicine ; the third for those who wish to enter the College of Medicine. The subjects taught in the first section are morals, the (Japanese) language and Chinese literature, foreign languages, history, logic, and psychology, general principles of law, elements of economics and gym- nastics. There are some variations in the course 358 HIGHER EDUCATION [chap. according to the particular sections in the colleges that they wish to enter ; foreign languages must be two of the three, English, German, and French; Latin may be taken as a voluntary subject by those intending to enter the College of Law. The subjects in the second section are morals, the (Japanese) language, foreign languages, mathematics, physics, chemistry, geology and mineralogy, drawing and gymnastics. There are many variations in the third year, both in the subjects and in the number of hours a week given to different subjects, accord- ing to what special course they propose to take up in the University; thus, for example, those who propose to take up botany, zoology, geology, agriculture, or pharmacy will not take any mathematics in the third year, but will study zoology and botany instead, while those who propose to be engineering students will have a great deal of drawing practice, and also begin the elements of theory and practice of surveying, and so on. The foreign languages must be English, and one of the two, German and French. The subjects in the third section are morals, the (Japanese) language, foreign languages, Latin, mathe- matics, physics, chemistry, zoology and botany, and gymnastics. The foreign languages must be German, and one of the two, English and French. A great deal of importance is attached to proficiency in foreign languages, as many as eight or nine hours a week being given to it ; for those in the third section, thirteen hours a week are given to the German language. As medical students in the universities do not have any study of general physics and chemistry, or of zoology and botany, they have a good deal of laboratory work in these. It will be seen that some of the subjects that would be studied by students in England after they have entered the universities are taught to the pupils in the preparatory courses, so that when they enter the University they may be at liberty to devote themselves to the study of their specialties. As young XXVI.] COLLEGES OF UNIVERSITIES 359 men have to decide what section in the higher schools they will enter, or in most cases what specialty they will take up in the University, before they enter the higher schools, they are forced to make a decision about their future career before they are old enough : this is one of the weak points of the present system. The University faculties, or at least a majority of professors, insist upon students being well grounded in at least two foreign languages before they can be admitted into the universities ; this demand has been found very difficult to satisfy, for although they do go through a course of study in two foreign languages in the higher schools, they cannot be said to be well grounded in either, whence some contend that it would be better to give them a thorough course in one rather than a smattering of two languages. The question of higher schools, or rather of how to main- tain the connection between middle schools and the universities, is one of the problems in our educational system which we have been discussing and investigating and cannot be said to have solved satisfactorily as yet. There are at present eight higher schools (Tokyo, Sendai, Kyoto, Kanasawa, Kumamoto, Okayama, Kagoshima, and Nagoya). They admit about 1,500 pupils a year in the aggregate, and as there are about 5,ooQ applicants, it is necessary to hold com- petitive entrance examinations. A tuition fee of 30 yen a year (£3) is levied, for which they are supplied with all the materials required for practical work in laboratories as well. Those who have finished the higher school courses are admitted into the respective colleges of the Imperial universities, for which they have prepared before any other candidates for admission. Even here it sometimes happens that they cannot be admitted at once, for students often flock to one particular section (or subject), and there is not sufficient accommodation in that section to admit them all ; they may either enter some other section which is not quite so crowded, or they may wait for one year, when they are admitted before others. 360 HIGHER EDUCATION [chap. All higher schools are established and maintained by the central Government, local governments and private individuals not being allowed to do so. The reason for this is that the higher schools are not final or inde- pendent schools, but preparatory to the universities, and therefore care must be taken to restrict the number of graduates from them to what can be admitted into the universities. Moreover, the cost of maintaining a higher school properly is greater than a local govern- ment can afford, while as for private individuals, tuition fees that could be demanded from ordinary students would not be sufficient for its maintenance. There are two Imperial universities at present, viz., in Tokyo and Kyoto. There will be two more in the course of a few years, one in the north-east and one in Kyushu. In fact, the Agricultural College of the former and the Medical College of the latter are already in existence. The Imperial University of Tokyo consists of six colleges, namely, of Law, Medicine, Engineering, Literature, Science, and Agriculture. That of Kyoto has four colleges, jiamely, of Law, Medicine, Litera- ture, Science, and Engineering, the two last forming one college here. Besides these four, the College of Medicine in Fukuoka, in the northern part of Kyushu, which will become the College of Medicine in the Imperial University of Kyushu when that is organised, is for the present attached to the Kyoto University. I need not point out that these " colleges " are different from colleges of Cambridge or Oxford. They are rather what are called faculties here, although they have somewhat greater administrative independence than faculties. In each college there are several courses, or sections. I shall now give some particulars regarding the colleges in the University of Tokyo. In the Law College there are now (since September igo8) three sections of Law, Politics, and Economics, the length of course in each being four years. Subjects in each section are divided into compulsory and elective. XXVI.] LAW AND MEDICINE 361 The compulsory subjects in the Law section are constitu- tion, civil law, commercial law, law of civil procedure, criminal law, law of criminal procedure, administra- tive law, public international law, private international law, history of Japanese laws and constitution, Roman law, English, French, or German law, jurisprudence and political economy ; while elective subjects are comparative history of laws and constitutions, law of bankruptcy and public law, of which one at least must be taken. In the section of Politics the com- pulsory subjects are constitution, public law, political sciences in general {Staatswissenschaft), politics, history of political science, political history, diplomatic history, administrative law, administration {Verwaliungslehre), public international law, political economy, finance, statistics, civil law, commercial law, criminal law (general), jurisprudence, history of Japanese laws and constitution, and social politics ; while elective subjects are sociology, comparative history of laws and con- stitutions, public international law (special questions), private international law, criminal law (special), economic history, agricultural economy, industrial policy and social politics, commercial policy, trans- portation and communication, colonial policy and money and banking, of which five at least must be taken. In the section of Economics the compulsory subjects are political economy, history of political economy, economic history, economic geography, money and banking, agricultural economy, forest economy, industrial policy and social politics, com- mercial policy, transportation and communication, colonial policy, insurance, finance, applied finance, statistics, constitution, civil law and commercial law; while elective subjects are sociology, politics, political history, administrative law, public international law, private international law, and criminal law, of which five at least must be taken. In the College of Medicine there are two sections, of Medicine and Pharmacy. The length of course in the 362 HIGHER EDUCATION [chap. former is four years, and in the latter three years. The following list of chairs will give some idea of the work of the faculty, namely, three in Anatomy, two in Physio- logy, one in Medical Chemistry, two in Pathology and Pathological Anatomy, one in Pharmacology, four in Medicine, one in Gynaecology and Obstetrics, one in Paediatrics, three in Surgery, one in Orthopedic Surgery, one in Ophthalmology, one in Dermatology and Syphilis, one in Psychiatry, two in Hygiene, one in Forensic Medicine, one in Otology, Rhinology and Laryngology, one in Dentistry, three in Pharmacy, and one in Pharmaceutical Technology. There are two examinations, one at the end of the second academic year in Anatomy, Physiology, Medical Chemistry, Pharmacology and general Pathology ; the second examination takes place at the end of the fourth academic year, or rather in the term after the close of four academic years, all students having to pass examinations in Pathological Anatomy, Medicine, Surgery, Gynaecology and Obstetrics, Ophthalmology, and in one subject out of each of the two groups, namely, a first group of Hygiene, Forensic Medicine and Psychiatry, and a second group of Paediatrics, Dermatology and Syphilis, Otology, Rhinology and Laryngology, the subject for each student to be deter- mined by lot before the summer vacation at the end of the fourth academic year. Attached to the College of Medicine is a hospital containing 508 beds for free patients and 103 beds for paying patients, divided into wards for different diseases. Free patients are used for clinical purposes. Besides these, out-patients are treated daily. Besides this hospital, professors of the college are in charge of some hospitals belonging to the city, etc. There is a special course for nurses and midwives. In the College of Engineering, there are nine sections of Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Naval Architecture, Technology of Arms, Electrical Engineer- ing, Architecture, Applied Chemistry, Technology of XXVI.] COLLEGES OF SCIENCE 363 Explosives, and Metallurgy and Mining. Instructions in these include both the highest theoretical teaching and practical work, the latter being pursued at the college, and also at some establishments or institutions of industry relating to the respective studies. The course in all extends over three years. Before graduation, a student has to present a graduation design and essay on some special subject in the section. In the College of Literature there are three sec- tions, namely, section of Philosophy, subdivided into philosophy and history of philosophy, Chinese philo- sophy, Indian philosophy, psychology, ethics, science of religion, cesthetics, pedagogics and sociology ; section of History, subdivided into Japanese history, Chinese history, and Occidental history ; and section of Litera- ture, subdivided into Japanese literature, Chinese litera- ture, Sanskrit literature, English literature, German literature, French literature, and philology. The course in each extends over three years. In the College of Science there are six sections of Mathematics, Astronomy, Physics (subdivided after the first year into theoretical physics and experimental physics). Chemistry, Biology (subdivided in the third year into zoology and botany), and Geology and Mineralogy (subdivided after the first year into geology and mineralogy) — the course in all extends over three years. Attached to the college are an Astronomical Observatory, a Seismological Observatory (the Uni- versity of Tokyo being unique in having a Chair of Seismologfy), the Botanical Gardens (situated about a mile from the University, within which is the Botanical Institute), a Marine Biological Station (at Misaki, at the entrance of the Bay of Tokyo), and an Anthropo- logical Museum, under the charge of a special professor of Anthropology, besides Museums of Zoology, Geology, and Mineralogy. In the College of Agriculture there are sections of Agriculture, Agricultural Chemistry, Forestry and Veterinary Medicine, the course in each extending 364 HIGHER EDUCATION [chap. over three years. The College grounds are situated in Komaba, in a suburb of Tokyo, at some distance from the rest of the University ; attached to the College are, besides farms, paddy fields and a small forest in the College grounds, a veterinary hospital, an orchard in Omori (not far from Tokyo), where the soil is fitted for the purpose, and five forests, of which two are small and situated not very far from the College, one in the prefecture of Chiba, across the Bay of Tokyo, of nearly 5,500 acres in area, one in the island of Yeso, of 57>5oo acres, and one in Formosa, of about 144,000 acres. The instruction given is both theoretical and practical. In all the colleges those students who wish to pursue further studies and make original research are allowed to enter ^^ Daigakuin," or the post-graduate University Hall, in which they are freely supplied with materials and instruments without any fee, some- times travelling expenses being allowed to deserving students when deemed necessary ; recently several scholarships have been founded to be given to promising post-graduate students. The students in the University Hall are bound to pursue their studies in the University under the direction of professors during first two years, after which they may do so anywhere quite independently. At the end of five years they are to present a thesis on the subject of their study to the faculty and receive the degree of Hakushi (Doctor) if the thesis be satisfactory ; in all cases they cease to be a member of the University Hall at the end of five years. Some students not deemed quite good enough to enter University Hall are nevertheless allowed to remain in the colleges and pursue post- graduate studies. Tuition fees charged for undergraduate courses are 35 yen per annum (;^3, los.), for which they not only receive tuition but are supplied with materials and instruments necessary for study ; they are also allowed travelling expenses, or a part of them, when deemed XXVI.] SUPPORT BY GOVERNMENT 365 necessary for their study ; honour students are exempted from paying tuition fees, while poor and deserving students get scholarships given by the University, or by different Departments of Government, on condition of securing their service after graduation, or by private persons conditionally or unconditionally. The Imperial University of Kyoto is in most respects similar to that of Tokyo, so that I shall not enter here into a separate description of it. The Imperial Universities are established and maintained by the central Government. The appropria- tion for Tokyo University was fixed at the session of 1907 of the Imperial Diet at 1,300,000 yen (;^i30,ooo) per annum, exclusive of tuition fees and other incomes not derived from the Treasury, while that of Kyoto is 1,000,000 yen ; before that, the appropriation varied yearly, which was very inconvenient. At the head of the University is the president, appointed by the Emperor on the recommendation of the Cabinet ; the present president of Tokyo University enjoys the honour of being treated as personally appointed by the Emperor, which puts him in the same category as the cabinet ministers, privy councillors, and a few others. Under him, at the head of each college, is a director, appointed from among the professors of that college by the Minister of Education. In the University is a Senate, presided over by the president and composed of the directors of colleges and a professor from each college co-opted by his colleagues ; the Senate is the supreme deliberative body in the University, to which all matters relating to the general interests of the University have to be submitted. In each college there is a Faculty meeting, presided over by the director, to which all matters concerning the affairs of the college have to be submitted : it must be stated that the Senate and Faculty meetings are deliberative or advisory bodies, and that the final responsibility of action rests with the directors, the president, or the Minister of Education, as the case 366 HIGHER EDUCATION [chap. may be. Professors and assistant professors are appointed by the Emperor on the recommendation of the Cabinet or of the Minister of Education, according as he is to be of chokunin or sonin class ; in either case it is explicitly stated in the Imperial Ordinance that the initiative must come from the president with respect to the appointment, promotion, raising or lower- ing of salaries, or of the official rank of professors and assistant professors (this is a special power confined to the president of the University, for in no other case is the power of initiative in appointment of chokunin or sonin class officially allowed except to Cabinet Ministers) ; as a matter of fact, the Faculty is usually consulted by the president in such cases. The president has also power to appoint lecturers. It is quite proper and natural that the president of the Imperial University should have much greater independent administrative power than the directors of other Government colleges or schools, or heads of administrative offices. For making contracts for engagement of foreign professors, the consent of the Diet is necessary, as in case of all contracts binding the State for a number of years ; the details and the choice of particular individuals are left to the president, subject to the approval of the Minister. I may mention here that at the establishment of the University in 1877 there were only a few Japanese professors, but since then the services of foreign professors have been gradually dispensed with, their places being taken by Japanese ; there are at present in Tokyo University four foreign professors in the Law College, for English, French, and German laws and for political economy ; one in the Engineering College for naval architecture ; four in the Literature College for English, French, and German literatures and for philosophy ; and one in the College of Agriculture for forestry. The graduates of colleges are entitled to call them- selves " Gakushi" in the respective subjects, this not being a degree officially. If they present a thesis as the XXVI.] DEGREES 367 result of their post-graduate studies which are satisfactory to the Faculty and the Senate, they receive the degree of ^^ Hakushi" from the Minister of Education ; this degree is also granted to any one who presents a thesis satis- factory to the same bodies, or to any one recommended by the vote of the meeting of Hakushi. The graduates of the Imperial universities enjoy many privileges : thus those of law colleges are exempted from examination for becoming judges, or barristers, and from preliminary examination for higher civil service, etc. ; those of medical colleges are exempted from examination for licence for medical practice, and so on. They are welcomed in mercantile corporations and firms, en- gineering works and other professions, where expert knowledge is of value, so that it is no wonder that young men try to enter higher schools as preparatory to the universities, even those who would do much better to enter special colleges or special technical colleges. I append a list of the number of students in the Tokyo University in September 1907 : — Post-graduate Courses. Law 449 Medicine 103 Engineering 97 Literature 84 Science 32 Agriculture 27 Total 792 Law College. Law 1,174 Politics 724 Elective or irregular .... 7° Total 1-898 70 1,968 Medical College. Medicine 592 Pharmacy 47 Elective or irregular .... 75 Total 639 75 _7i4 Carry forward . 3,474 368 HIGHER EDUCATION [chap. Engineering College. Civil Engineering . Mechanical Engineering Marine Engines Naval Architecture . Brought forward . ii8 lOI 37 115 3.474 Technology of Arms Electrical Engineering . Architecture .... 17 97 45 Applied Chemistry . Technology of Explosives Mining and Metal urgy . Elective or irregular 54 5 75 I Total Literature College, Philosophy History . Literature Post-graduate . Elective or irregular Total Science College, Mathematics . Astronomy Physics .... „ , Theoretical „ , Experimental Chemistry Biology .... „ .Zoology . „ , Botany Geology and Mineralogy Geology .... Mineralogy Post-graduate . Elective or irregular Total. Agricultural College Agriculture Agricultural Chemistry . Forestry .... Veterinary Medicine Elective or irregular Attached course of special college grade in Agriculture . The same in Forestry The same in Veterinary Surgery Total Grand total 664 156 96 173 60 48s 17 5 27 9 13 25 23 3 3 7 12 I 12 157 99 77 65 46 287 665 34 34 519 164 95 116 82 296 4.130 483 \ XXVI.] SPECIAL COLLEGES 369 These numbers are exclusive of the pupils in the agricultural teachers training course, and of those who attended occasional courses in state medicine, as well as those in training for nurses and midwives. I have no time, neither is it essential in the present course of lectures, to enter into further details with regard to the universities. Those who will not or cannot enter the universities may enter special colleges or technical special colleges ; of the latter I have spoken in the last chapter, I shall now speak about the former. Special colleges, as well as technical special colleges, may be established and maintained by prefectures, shi, or private persons with the permission of the Minister of Education. Candidates for admission must be graduates of middle schools or of girls' high schools, or those who have shown themselves, by examination or otherwise, to be possessed of equal or higher attainments than those, except in the case of special colleges of fine arts or music, for which special allowances may be made by the Minister of Education. The regular course must be longer than three years, and there may be preparatory, post-graduate, and irregular courses besides. The length of the courses, subjects to be taught, and their standard are to be determined in Government schools by the Minister, in public schools by the managers, and in private schools by the proprietors, subject in the two latter cases to the approval of the Minister. Teachers in special colleges must be those with degrees (Hakushi), graduates of Imperial universities (Gakushi), or those designated or approved of by the Minister. Of the special colleges there are eight established and maintained by the Department of Education. Of these, five are colleges of medicine (Chiba, Sendai, Okayama, Kanasawa, and Nagasaki), having a course of four years somewhat on the lines similar to the colleges of medicine in the Imperial universities, but necessarily of a lower standard, since the students 2 A 370 HIGHER EDUCATION [chap. come directly from middle schools, and therefore are not so well grounded in preparatory subjects as the students of Imperial universities who have passed through a three years' preparatory course. Students of these colleges get clinical teaching in the prefectural hospitals which are attached to them, and are in the charge of the professors of the colleges. The gradu- ates are licensed to practise medicine without a further examination. All of them, except that in Okayama, have a school of pharmacy of a three years' course attached to them. Each of them is capable of admitting about one hundred and twenty-five each year, for which there are from three to five times the number of candi- dates, while in the school of pharmacy the total number of students is from forty to seventy. There is a sixth college in course of establishment in Niigata. The other governmental special colleges are the Foreign Languages School, where there are three years' courses in English, French, German, Russian, Italian, Spanish, Chinese (modern Chinese, somewhat different from the classical Chinese), and Corean languages ; Fine Arts Academy, with courses in painting (in old Japanese and foreign styles), designing, sculpture and carving, and applied fine arts of metal-carving, casting, and lacquer-work, and with preparatory, post-graduate, and elective courses; and Musical Academy, where vocal and instrumental music, mostly Occidental, is taught to both male and female pupils, and having preparatory, post-graduate, and normal courses, besides the regular course. I take the following from the Report of the Depart- ment of Education for 1906-1907 : — XXVI.] MEDICAL COLLEGES 371 Professors and other Pupils. Graduates. teachers. Chiba Medical College (with attached school of pharmacy) Sendai Medical College (with attached school of pharmacy) Okayama Medical College Kanasawa Medical College (with attached school of pharmacy) Nagasaki Medical College (with attached school of pharmacy) Foreign Languages Aca demy Fine Arts Academy - Musical Academy . 20 17 14 27 20 54 49 35 588 498 478 550 566 1,048 410 514 »3i 78 90 "3 79 522 106 56 Percentage of those admitted out of total ap- plicants for ad- mission. 22.1 26.7 25.8 33-0 36.9 36.8 58.9 31.8 There are three medical colleges established and maintained by prefectures, namely in Kyoto, Osaka, and Nagoya ; they are similar to the Government medical colleges in organisation and standard of teach- ing. There are also two private medical colleges, one in Tokyo and one in Kumaraoto, of nearly the same standard. Besides those there were thirty-seven private colleges, making forty-two in all, of which twenty-eight were in Tokyo, seven in Kyoto, three in Osaka, and one each in Miye, Aichi (Nagoya), Miyagi (Sendai), and Kumamoto ; five were medical, as mentioned above, nine law, three law and literature, nine literature, and sixteen theological. Of those, about a half style them- selves "Daigaku," a name translated as university. As far as the number of academical years required before graduation is concerned, some of them are nearly equal to that of colleges of Imperial universities, but they can scarcely be called universities in the proper sense of the term, as they have generally only one faculty of law (including economics), or of literature, or of 372 HIGHER EDUCATION [chap, xxvt theology, or at best two faculties of law and literature ; moreover, their students are mostly those who have been unable to enter the Imperial universities for some reason or other. It is due to some of them, however, to say, that where there is such a want of Government and public institutions for higher education that only a half, a third, or a quarter of applicants can be admitted, they have done good work in giving higher education of some kind. The following is from the Report of the Educational Department for 1906- 1907 : — Public and private colleges. Colleges. Teachers. Pupils. Graduates. Medicine 5 136 2,189 275 Law, or Law and Literature 12 722 16,230 1,971 Literature 9 211 1,445 269 Theology 16 232 1,057 172 Total for 1906 42 1.301 20,921 2,687 „ 1905 . 42 1,469 20,580 2,38s „ 1904 . 41 1,288 19,780 1,823 ., 1903 . 31 1,116 15,515 2,044 Among students of law, 2,274 were foreigners, mostly Chinese. The large number of teachers in private colleges is due to the fact that those colleges have a large number of teachers who come and deliver a few lectures on different subjects. There is only one women's college, the so-called Women's University in Tokyo. CHAPTER XXVri SCHOOLS NOT CLASSED, PRIVATE SCHOOLS, ETC. Schools not coming under any of the above-mentioned categories— Tokyo Blind and Deaf-mute School— Other blind and deaf-mute schools — Nop-ovision for the education of the mentally defective — Miscellaneous schools — Private schools — Their control and supervision — Their establishment — Qualifica- tions of headmasters and teachers — Official missions to Europe and America — Students sent abroad to study — List of countries and subjects of study — The principal object at present of sending them — Method of their selection. I HAVE now run through the whole course of educa- tion in Japan, from elementary schools to colleges and Imperial universities, but there are some schools which do not belong properly to any of the categories that I have mentioned. I must now make a few remarks concerning them. We have been so busy with providing education for normal children that the education of the defectives, physical and mental, has been rather neglected so far. As I have stated already, there is a school for the blind and deaf-mute in Tokyo, maintained by the Department of Education ; this school was originally founded by an association of charitable persons, and has since been transferred to the Department of Education. It is divided into two sections, for the blind and for the deaf-mute ; in each section there are two courses, the ordinary and the crafts. In the ordinary course, which is of five years, are taught the (Japanese) language, arithmetic, and gymnastics ; in the crafts course, music, acupuncture (a method of treating diseases by thrusting a special kind of needles into the body, largely practised by the old or Chinese School of Medicine even down to the present day), or massage is taught to the blind, 373 374 SCHOOLS NOT CLASSED [chap. while deaf-mutes are taught painting, carving, wood- work, or sewing. The blind are taught the language by means of a system of dots adapted to the Japanese from the method of Braille by a teacher in this school ; the art of articulation has been taught to deaf-mute pupils with some amount of success. In 1906 there were 88 blind and 200 deaf-mute pupils in the school. In course of a year or two this school will be separated into two distinct institutions for the blind and for the deaf-mute, a grant for the purpose having passed the Diet in the last session. In 1906 there was a blind and deaf-mute school established and maintained by the shi of Kyoto, and 29 private institutions, with 632 blind and 612 mute pupils altogether ; the number of private institutions has increased quite rapidly within the last five years. I may state here that blind and deaf-mute schools are officially classed with elementary schools, as also kindergartens. There is at present no special school or asylum for the mentally defective ; their education in separate classes is being carried on experimentally by some educationalists in a few schools. Besides these, there are what are called " Miscel- laneous schools " officially ; of these, some are of the elementary grade, chiefly teaching sewing to girls, besides a little elementary teaching, others are of the secondary grade, though not quite satisfying the require- ments of middle schools or girls' high schools, and others again are of various grades and kinds. According to the Report for 1906-1907 there were 738 public schools of this category, with 26,756 pupils, of which 665 were of the elementary grade, 4 somewhat similar to girls' high schools, and 69 miscellaneous ; the number of private schools was 1,355, with 106,536 pupils, of which 181 were of the elementary grade, 94 similar to middle schools, 97 to girls' high schools, and 983 miscellaneous. xxvii] PRIVATE SCHOOLS 375 With respect to Private Schooxs, I have already stated in relation to different classes of schools points of difference, if any, in the treatment of private schools as distinguished from the Government or public schools. There is but little to be added with regard to private schools in general. As I have stated several times already, education is regarded as a matter of the State ; the State therefore has to see that the education given shall be such as is not injurious to the welfare of the State, and for this purpose exercises supervision and control over all matters of education ; no school can be estab- lished without the permission of the Minister of Educa- tion or of those to whom the authority may be delegated. Private schools are subject to the supervision and control of prefects, in the first instance, and can be established with their permission, except in those cases where this authority is specially reserved to the Minister by the Imperial Ordinance, as, e.g., middle schools, girls' high schools, colleges, and technical schools of higher grade. In each school there must be a headmaster, or some one representing the school and responsible for it, sanctioned by the proper authority. The following are disqualified from becoming headmaster or teacher in a private school : (i.) those who have been convicted of a grave offence, excepting political offenders who had been restored to their rights ; (ii.) those convicted of light offences of certain kinds; (iii.) bankrupts who have not discharged their obligations ; (iv.) those who have been dismissed from public office under ofiicial dis- cipline within the last two years ; (v.) those who have been deprived of teachers' certificates within the last two years ; and (vi.) those whose character is regarded as improper. Teachers of private schools not possessed of teachers' certificates must give a satisfactory proof of their qualifications and be approved by prefects in schools of the elementary grade, and by the Minister in schools of higher grades ; they may be examined if necessary. Any institution which shall be deemed as doing the work of a school shall be required to conform 376 SCHOOLS NOT CLASSED [chap. to the regulations of private schools. Such are some of the regulations under which private schools are placed. There is one thing which I shall mention here, as it has had a very great influence on our present develop- ment. When in the sixth and succeeding centuries we were introducing Chinese civilisation, we sent students and oflicials to China to study its system of administra- tion, its literature, its philosophy, its Buddhism, its arts, and so on ; just in the same way, when we realised how much we had to learn from the West, we began to send students to study in Europe and America, and officials to investigate methods and systems connected with their respective departments. Among the earliest and the most successful of the latter I may mention the mission of Mr, now Baron, Maeshima in 1870 to study the postal service, which was successfully introduced by him on his return ; since then there have been many such missions, resulting in the establishment or improvement of various branches of administration. But the greatest of these, perhaps, was the mission of Marquis Ito to study the working of constitutional methods in various countries of Europe : the members of this mission took a prominent part in the drafting of the present Constitution of Japan. But besides these official missions, students have been sent out by different departments of the Govern- ment, more specially by the Department of Education. The number of the last was formerly not very large, but lately the average number of students abroad at any one time has been about 120, although the number during and since the war has been somewhat reduced ; at the close of the year 1906-1907 the students actu- ally studying abroad were 85 male and 2 female. It may be of interest to you to mention what, and to what countries, they were sent to study. The follow- ing is the list: — Germany, 12 (pharmacology, hygiene and bacteriology, anatomy and histology, pathology and pathological anatomy, forestry, medicine, psychi- xxvn.] STUDENTS SENT ABROAD 377 atry, obstetrics and gynaecology, pedagogy, German language) ; France, 3 (French language and piano) ; Germany and France, 1 1 (civil code ethics, public, law, statistics, medicine, anatomy, pathological anatomy, obstetrics and gynaecology, horticulture, veterinary medicine); Germany and England, 10 (political economy, inorganic chemistry, commerce, chemistry, science teaching, fisheries, commerce and commercial history) ; Germany and America, 8 (educational administration, applied electricity, mining and metallurgy, chemical technology, agricultural education) ; England and America, 6 (metal works, English language and litera- ture, commerce) ; Germany, France, and America, 5 (civil and commercial codes, agricultural chemistry and manufactures, live-stocks, fisheries) ; Germany, England, and America, 1 1 (political economy, machines and machine tools, wood-working machinery, gas- and oil-engines, cotton-weaving, ethical teaching, commerce, ship-building, mining and metallurgy, modern history); England, France, and Germany, 6 (political economy, civil and commercial codes, commercial code, dyeing, Sanskrit, philology) ; England, America, Germany, and France, 2 (marine engines, fisheries) ; America, Germany, and Switzerland, 2 (electro - chemistry, drawing and manual work in common education) ; Germany and China, 2 (Chinese language, Chinese literature) ; Ger- many and Switzerland, i (surgery and dermatology); Germany and Holland, i (botany); Germany and Austria-Hungary, i (psychiatry) ; America and France, I (civil engineering); France and Italy, i (design- ing); Austria - Hungary, i (geography); England, France, and Italy, i (architectural decorations) ; America and Switzerland, i (gymnastics); China, i (Oriental history). At present the principal object in sending those students abroad consists in giving those who are to become professors, assistant professors, or teachers in various Government institutions an opportunity of completing their education at foreign universities, 378 SCHOOLS NOT CLASSED [chap, xxvii. polytechnicums, etc. This is done by giving them a sort of travelling scholarship ; they are laid under the obligation of serving in positions designated by the Minister of Education for a certain number of years, usually double the number of years that they have held the scholarship, on their return. The method of selecting them is for the presidents of universities and directors of other institutions to send in a list of candidates every year to the Minister, out of which he chooses, considering the requirements of different institutions as well as the capacities of individual candidates. Several years ago one of these scholar- ships was tentatively thrown open to public competi- tion, but although the result was not unsatis&ctory, various circumstances have prevented a repetition of the experiment. CHAPTER XXVIII HOME EDUCATION Race characteristics and individual features — Globe-trotters — Old residents — Difficulties in describing home — Marriage- — Age — Marriage, how arranged — Young couple living with parents — Infancy — Fairy tales — Story of Momotaro — Tales of heroes — Punishment — Games — Cards — No playing for money — Children stay with their mothers — Valete. Before I finish my lectures, I think I ought to tell you something about our home, and the education of the child at home. Here I feel most acutely a difficulty which I have felt throughout the course, and I can perhaps best illustrate it by an analogy. When I was in England before, I used often to be told that some other Japanese was so like me that he must be my brother, and that of men who, according to our ideas, were not in the least like me ; these good people see only the general characteristics of a Japanese and not individual differences. So to a Japanese who is not familiar with Europeans they all look alike, and it would be difficult for them to distinguish individuals. The fact is that a casual observer, not intimate with individuals of a strange race, would first notice the common salient features of the race and not distinguish individual points of difference, which come more prominently into notice as one gets to know many individuals more intimately ; just so to those who are not very familiar with horses, all horses look alike except for the colour or size. Much ridicule is cast upon descriptions of a country by "globe-trotters"; but a globe-trotter, if he is a keen observer, will seize upon those salient points which distinguish a nation from others, but which become 379 38o HOME EDUCATION [chap. gradually lost, or at least faint, to those who have become familiar with them and grown more apt to notice individual differences. Of course, the trouble is that a globe-trotter will mistake what he sees in some particular cases to be general ; but if he will describe what he sees in general, he is quite likely to be correct. On the other hand, there are people who are described as "old residents," who have indeed lived long in a country but mixed very little with the people of that country, except with a particular set, with whom they are thrown into contact in course of their business or profession, and generalise from them about the people, priding them- selves upon their long and intimate knowledge of the people, but knowing really little or nothing of its literature, of the inner spirit of the nation, of its ideals and aspirations ; these people give more false notions about a country than the much-derided globe-trotters. Especially is this true of a people like ours who are shy of admitting strangers even of our own nationality into family circles. I have been asked several times about books on Japan, especially about Hearn's books. I will here say that he, by his sympathy with the Japanese people, seems often to have obtained an insight into the Japanese mind, deeper, perhaps, than even that of an ordinary Japanese. For instance, in his sketches in '■'■ Kokoro" which I myself like the best of all his books that I have read, he has given some fine examples of the working of Japanese hearts and minds, in fact of the Japanese kokoro. Well, to come to my own difficulties. I am afraid to me the differences are more prominent than the similarities or generalities. In describing a home, there are differences according to the station in life ; just now there are differences according as the family is con- servative and keeps to old customs and manners, or is progressive and inclined to adopt new ideas and methods. I shall try to take an average family in the middle or upper middle station and describe what home education is like in such a family. I can only give a XXVIII.] MARRIAGE 381 few general notions ; to go into details would take much longer time than I have at my command. I must also ask you to recall something of what I have said about the "house" and wife and mother in my lectures on female education (chaps, XVIII and XIX). Let us, then, begin with marriage. Our people used to marry very young — men at seventeen or eighteen and women at fifteen or sixteen, sometimes as early as fourteen. You will remember I told you that in the old feudal days it was only the eldest sons who married, and they married young in order that their parents might be easy in their minds in having posterity to continue the lineage. The young couple lived with their parents, and the young wife was instructed by her mother-in-law in all the duties of a wife, and in the kafu or traditions, usages and customs of the house. To-day, although the minimum age-limit fixed by the civil code is seventeen for the male and fifteen for the female, in actual usage marriage takes place at a much older age ; this, I believe, is due partly to the fact that the education of young men and women is carried on to a much later age, and partly to the recognition of the fact that an early marriage is not a good thing from various points of view. I should say that for men the age is now on the average well above twenty, and for women about nineteen or twenty, and there is a tendency for the age to become still greater. The marriage is usually arranged by parents. The procedure would be somewhat as follows : parents who wish to marry their sons or daughters make their wish known among their friends ; in many cases there are match-making friends, who would let parents know of eligible parties, or parents themselves may know of such. In any case, enquiries would follow proposals made on either side ; if the parents are satisfied, then the young people are told about it and asked their thoughts on the matter. I may say that negotiations between the parties are carried on by friends who act as go-betweens and make the wishes and demands of one 382 HOME EDUCATION [chap. known to the other. A meeting is arranged between the parties, or between the young people at all events, at a friend's house, at a tea-house, at a theatre or picnic, and so on ; as a rule they have no other means of know- ing each other beyond what is told them by the parents. However, the young people are not forced against their will — that is, if the parents are wise ; if they have no objection, the marriage is settled, all the preliminaries being arranged by the go-betweens, who also ofEiciate at the marriage ceremony. In old days it was not uncommon for parents to betroth their children while quite young and incapable of forming or expressing any opinion on the matter, but latterly the custom has gone out. Sometimes, however, parents with a daughter and without a son would adopt a promising young man with the view of ultimately marrying him to their daughter, but now- a-days even in such a case the daughter has always the freedom of choice. Of the training of girls in household matters I have spoken ; I also told you that the care of the aged forms a part of the teaching ; in fact, old people look to their daughter-in-law to look after them in their old age, just as they have done for their parents in their young days. The young couple live with their parents ; if there are more than one, it is generally the eldest who does so. When a child is born to them, the grand- mother initiates the young wife in the practical duties of motherhood ; grandparents are said to love the child more than they did their own children, and there is an old proverb that a child brought up (exclusively) by its grandmother is worth 300 cash the less, express- ing the popular belief that such a child is apt to be spoiled. Chinese philosophers, who were followed so assidu-' ously as guides to daily conduct in the old days, assert that the education of a child should begin with the pregnancy, that a woman about to become a mother should be most particular in her deportment and xxviii.] TALES FOR THE YOUNG 383 carriage, and should not see, hear, or taste anything that is not strictly correct; I do not know that this teaching has any practical effect at present, but in a good family she would certainly be made to obey the modern hygienic rules. It is usual for the mother to give milk to the child ; sometimes, especially among the lower classes, she does so too long. If the mother has no milk, a wet-nurse is hired, which is often the case in upper classes even when the mother has milk ; but a good wet-nurse is usually very hard to get, and they are apt to be very presuming ; this was the case especially in the old days when there was no thought of feeding children on cow's milk. The custom of feeding children on cow's milk is coming in very largely now; in such cases, if the family can afford it, a young girl is sometimes hired to look after the child, to carry it about and keep it quiet, under the mother's direction. A good mother keeps her children very much with her from infancy to boyhood or girlhood. When it grows a little older, the mother or grand- mother would tell the children tales that have been told to generation after generation of children, and have never failed to interest them : such are the stories of "The Little Peachling," "The Kachi-kachi Yama," "The Old Man who made Withered Trees Blossom," " The Fight between the Monkey and the Crab," "The Tongue-cut Sparrow," etc. Some of those are to be found in Mitford's "Tales of Old Japan," which I can recommend as a good collection of our most typical stories; they will also be found among books called "Iwaya's Fairy Tales," that I have seen among the exhibits at South Kensington.^ I think I shall try to give you the story of "The Little Peachling," which is perhaps the most popular of all. "In the days of old," so the tale begins, "there lived an old man and an old woman, his wife. One ' These books, if I understood correctly, are now deposited in the Board of Education library in Cannon Row, Westminster. 384 HOME EDUCATION [chap. day the old man went to the mountain to gather wood for fuel, and the old woman to the river to wash clothes ; and as she was washing, * Donburako ! Donburako ! ' came a big peach floating down the stream. So she managed to pick it up ; but she would not eat it by herself, she took it home, and when the old man came home from the mountain, they cut open the peach. And lo ! out of the peach sprang forth a little child ; and the old people were exceedingly glad, for they had longed for a child. As the child came out of a peach, they called him Momotaro {momo is a peach and taro a common name suffix for the first-born). Momotaro grew up strong and good. When he had grown up to be a big boy, he said to the old woman, ' Make me some millet dumplings, for I am going to the Ogres' Island to get treasures for you.' So the old woman made him millet dumplings, and he set out with a bag of dumplings tied to his waist for the Ogres' Island. And as he was travelling, along came a dog and said to him, ' Oh ! Mr Momo- taro ! Mr Momotaro ! what is it you have at your waist?' ' These,' replied Momotaro, 'are the best millet dumplings in Nippon, with which I am going to get treasures from the Ogres' Island.' 'Well,' said the dog, ' give me a dumpling and I will follow you. ' And so Momotaro gave him a dumpling and the dog went with him. Presently there came a pheasant and a monkey, with each of which the above conversation was repeated verbatim. So Momotaro came to the Ogres' Island, where the pheasant by flying and the monkey by climbing over the wall got inside and opened the gates for Momotaro and the dog, who rushed in. The ogres were overcome, and surrendered all their treasures to Momotaro, who returned home with them to the old couple ; and he gave all the treasures to them and lived with them happy ever after." Besides those tales, the child as it grows older would be told stories of ancient and modern heroes, such as Raiko, who at the Emperor's command destroyed ogre- XXVIII.] HOME TRAINING 385 like robbers who lived in Oye-yama, General Yoshitsune and his faithful vassal Benkei, Kato Kiyomasa, Honda Heihachiro, Oishi Yoshiwo, and the forty-seven ronins of Ako, Sakura Sogoro, the peasant who at the sacrifice of his life and those of his wife and children saved his fellow-peasants from oppressive taxation. These tales would vary in different parts of the country, and if any tales could be told of its own ancestors, so much the better. From its infancy, a child is taught to reverence and obey its parents and grandparents, and to respect its superiors. It is taken to the shrines of tutelary deities, and to Buddhist temples if the family be Buddhist, but in every family it would certainly be taken to the ancestors' tombs, and take part in festivals held in their honour. A Japanese child is never struck in punishment ; I have sometimes seen a child put into a closet for punish- ment, and a severe punishment is the application of moxa. In the old Japanese pharmacopoea, moxa, a small piece of a certain dried herb, is applied to some part of the body and burnt, it being supposed to be a very efficacious remedy for some diseases, and there are people who believe in it even to the present day ; and so sometimes in extreme cases moxa is applied to a disobedient child, but the custom is now dying out, partly perhaps because, while in old days every family almost always had moxa ready as a part of the family dispensary, now it is not to be found in many houses. As a general rule, the reprimand and displeasure of parents seem to be a sufficient deterrent. There are many games, both indoor and outdoor, suited to different ages. I cannot describe the games here, but a very common one is that of cards, which is different from cards played here. For little children there is a set of moral maxims or proverbs, each beginning with a letter of the Japanese alphabet; on one set of cards are pictures illustrating these maxims, while on the other they are printed. A reader takes the latter set 2 B 386 HOME EDUCATION [chap.xxviii and reads them out, while the players try to pick up the corresponding cards which are spread out before them : the player who gets most cards wins. For older children, instead of the maxims, a well-known set of one hundred odes are taken (each such ode consists of thirty-one syllables, divided into sets of J5ve, seven, five, seven, seven, first seventeen constituting the upper phrase, and the rest the lower phrase), and on one set of cards are written or printed the first phrases of the odes, which are read out by the reader, while the players try to pick up those of the other set with lower phrases of the same odes on them. To winners are given cakes and sometimes little presents as prizes, but there is never playing for money in a Japanese family. There are certain days set apart for festivals, such as Dolls' Feast for girls on the 3rd of March, and the Feast of Carps for boys on the 5th of May, etc. As I have stated already, children are very much with their mothers, and they are very seldom sent away from home till they are at least fourteen or fifteen, almost never before twelve. In fact, our system does not require that they should be sent away, for they are at elementary schools till they are over twelve. After that, if they want to enter middle schools or girls high schools, and there is not one in their neighbour- hood, they have to go away from home, but in such case they often stay at home till they are over fourteen and finish the higher elementary course. Ladies and Gentlemen, — I have now run through my course of lectures ; it has been a very interesting experience for me, and may I venture to hope that it has not been altogether uninteresting to you ? I thank you most heartily for the kind attention with which you have listened to me : I shall carry away a most pleasant memory of my stay in England with me to my native country. Good-bye, my friends. INDEX Abacus, use of, 179 Adams, William, at Yedo, 29 Administration, system of, 56 - 61 ; local, 61-65 ; reforms in, 80 Agricultural College at Hokkaido, 347; Tokyo, 347, 351; sections, 363 ; situation, 364 ; number of students, 368; statistics on, 354, 3SS Agriculture, teaching of, 191 Aichi (Nagoya), normal school opened at, 282 Akita, technological college at, 351 Algebra, teaching of, 232 Ama - Terasn - - Mi - Kami, the goddess, 6, 260 Ancestors, the worship of, 3, 10, 17, IS7. 264 "Ancestors, Imperial, Spring Festival of the," 104 ; " Autumn Festival of the," 104 Annam, 28 Anthropological Museum, Tokyo, 363 Apprentice Schools, number of, 351 ; statistics on, 355 Arima, 29 Arithmetic, regulations for the teach- of, 176-179, 232; by abacus, 179 Army, reorganisation of, 48 Ashikaga Shogunate, 24 ; over- thrown, 25 Assembly, national, demand for a, 50 , prefectural, 62 ; number of members, 62 ; qualifications, 62 ; duties, 62 Astronomical Observatory at Tokyo, 363 ; at Yedo, 37 Athletic sports, 335 Atsuta, temple at, 10 Attendance of schools, percentage of, 112 of, 373; Bamboo work, 191 Bango, 30 Banzai, the shout of, 54 387 Baseball, the American game introduction into Japan, 335 Bean-and-bamboo work, 190 Blind and Deaf-mute School, course, 373 Book-binding, 191 Botanical Gardens, Tokyo, 363 Boys, their course of education, 87- 89; number of, in elementary schools, 136, 271 ; in middle schools, 209, 213 ; examination for admittance, 210; privileges, 211 Brush, use of the, in writing, 176, 1S6 Buddhism, introduction of, into Japan, 12 ; spread, 16 ; characteristics, 17 ; character of the priests, 17, 21 ; number of sects, 21 ; law of registration, 31 ; temples or schools, '3) 33 ; view of women, 261 Buildings, school, regulations for, 106, 337 Bushido, or " The Way of Samurai," 25 ; view of women, 261 Cabinet, the, 56, 80; jurisdiction, 56 ; bureaus, 57 Calendar, change of the, 48 Cardboard exercises, 190 Certificates for teachers of secondary schools, system of granting, 299- 304; subjects, 301, 305; without examination, 301 ; examinations, 304; number of candidates, 304 Chamberlain, Professor, on the deeds of a Japanese knight, 261 Chanoyu, or tea ceremony, 270 Chemistry, syllabus for teaching, 248- 250 ; instructions, 250-252 Chiba, forest at, 364 ; medical college at, 269, 371 Children, custom of feeding, 383 ; typical stories, 383-385 ; punish- ments, 385 ; games, 385 388 INDEX China, relations with Japan, 27 Chinese literature, introduction of, into Japan, 11, 34, 164; use of ideographs, 11, 164, 223; number of characters, 166, 172 ; proposed expulsion, 167 ; structure, 221 ; their invasions of Japan, 23, 24 ; destroyed by a typhoon, 24; view of women, 261 Cho or Son, administration, 63, 64 ; obligation to establish and maintain 1 a school, 142-144; expenditure, 145, 146 ; income, 146 Chokunin, the State officials, 57 Ch5shu, 46, 49 ; the han of, opposi- tion to the Shogunate, 44 Christianity, progress of, in Japan, 29 ; suppression, 30 ; laws against, 31 Chiiai, Emperor, 11 Civil service of hannin class, qualification for, 1 10 Classes in a school, maximum number, 126 ; number of children to each, 126, 293 ; organisation, 130; division according to sex, 131 ; number of teachers to each, 132 Clay work, 191 Cleanliness, characteristic of, 9 Cleansing schools, instructions for, 341 Colleges, classification of, 90 , commercial, 352 , medical, 371, 372 , private, 371, 372 , special, 58, 369 ; number of medical officers, 342 ; examination, 344 Combined schools, 115 Commerce, the teaching of, 192 Commercial colleges, number of, 352 statistics on, 354, 3SS School, T5ky6, 347 " Common people," education of the, 39 Confucian moral philosophy, the teaching of, 33 Connaught, Prince Arthur of, his visit to Japan, ill Conscription, system of, 48, 109 ; result of examination, 344 Constitution, establishment of, SI-S3 > preamble, 8, 53 ; articles, 54 Constitutional Government, Edict of 187s. SO Cookery, practical, lessons in, 279 Copy-books, 187 Corea, invasion of, 10, 260 ; relations with Japan, 1 1 , 27 Corean question, 48 Council, prefectural, 63 Cow's milk, feeding children on, 383 Daibutsu, the image, 16 Daigakuin, meaning of the word, 364, 371 Daimyos, their spirit of rivalry, 33 ; surrender their fiefs, 46 ; patriotism, 48 Dajogwan (the Great Government Office) established, 49; replaced by the Cabinet, 80 Deaf-mutes, teaching the, 374 Dengyo, 21 Diet, Imperial, 54 Directors of Government schools, class and salaries, 95 ; authority, 95 ; supervision, 96 ; of public schools, 97 ; pensions, 98 ; con- ferences with parents, 108 ; of normal schools, their duties, 290 ; salary, 292 Divorce, law of, 262, 267 Dogen, the priest, introduces the Sodo sect, 22 Drawing, regulations for the teaching of, 186, 253 Dutch trade, with Japan, 28, 30; works, the study of, 38 Ecclesiastical organisation, system of, 31 Echizen, 27 Economics, teaching of, 252 Education of the "common people," 39 ; Bureau, Special, 58 ; Common, S9 ; Technical, 59, 346 Code, the first, 68 ; Preamble, 68-72; provisions, 72; classifica- tion of schools, 72 ; regulations, 73 ; abolished, 77 ; promulgation of the new, 77 ; changes in the system, 80 , Department of, 58, 67 ; com- mittee of investigation, applica- tions for certificates, 300 ; text- books, 324 ; system of inspection, 325 ; copyrighted, 328 , Government, subsidy for, 74 , higher, 356 , Imperial Rescript on, 2 ; trans- lations of, 2 ; of 1890, 102 , Minister of, powers of the, 109 ; privileges granted by, 109 INDEX 389 Education, physical, 331 , system of, 33, 67 ; reform, 14 ; changes in, 80 ; Imperial Ordi- nances for, 86 ; system of, for boys, 87-89 ; for girls, 89 ; table of, 114 "Educational Matters, Local, the General Regulations for," 85 Eisai, the priest, introduces the Rinzai sect, 22 Ekken, ICaibara, 40 "Elementary Education Fund," 147 Elementary Schools, or Terakoya, 33, 72 ; course, 73, 80, 86-88, 116, 123 ; amount of annual subsidy, 75 ; number, 75, 133, 136; subjects taught, 77, 78, 80, 1 16, 137, 138 ; teaching of gymnastics, 79, 334 ; singing, 79, 188; Ordinance of 1886, 80 ; revision of, 82 ; number of children, 112, 134, 136, 137 ; division into higher and ordinary, 115; Tables of Hours, 117, 119- 122, 124, 127 - 129 ; grades of teachers, 123 ; number of classes, 126 ; number of children in a class, 126 ; expenditure, 130 ; number of teachers, 133, 13S, 293 ; age, 139 ; regulations for compulsory attend- ance, 139-141; tuition fees, 144; teaching of morals, 150; text- books, 151, 326 ; lessons during the first year, 151-155, 159; the second year, 155-157, 161 ; the third year, 157, 162 ; the fourth year, 158, 162 ; the last lesson, the Good Japanese, 159, 163 ; difficulties of learning Chinese, 168, 172 ; regula- tions for teaching the language, 170; writing lessons, 176; arith- metic, 176-179; history, 181; geography, 182-184 ; science, 1S4- 186; drawing, 186; copy-books, 187 ; sewing, 189 ; manual work, 189-191 ; agriculture, 191 ; com- merce, 192 ; English, 192 ; teachers' certificates, 194; attached to normal schools, 289 ; regulations of 1903, 327 ; inspection, 330 ; area of exercise grounds, 338 ; size of schoolroom, 338 ; number of medical officers, 342; medical examination, 343, 344 Emperors, canonical names for, 7 Engineering colleges, Tokyo, sections, 362 ; number of students, 368 or technological schools, 350 English language, teaching the, 192, 225-227, 313 Ethics, elements of, 220 Eto, 49 Excursions for schools, III, 336 Expenditure on schools, 113, 130 Fasting in Japan, meaning of the term, 21 Fees, school, 145, 211, 212 Female Higher Normal School, 89, 299; course, 318; qualifications for entrance, 319 ; subjects and standards, 319; post-graduate course, 320; schools attached, 320 ; staff, 321 ; stipendium and obliga- tions of graduates, 322 ; number of pupils, 322 Normal School, Tokyo, 271 ; teaching of gymnastics, 334 Fencing, revival of, 336 Feudal system, commencement, 19; abolition of, 46 ; position of women under the, 261 Fine Arts Academy, 370, 371 Fisheries and marine products schools, 352 ; statistics on, 355 Flag of the Rising Sun, 156 Foreign Languages Academy, 370, 371 ; teaching, 224, 358 Forestry, school of, at Tokyo, 347 Formosa, forest at, 364 Fuji Mountain, pilgrimage to, 41 Fujiwara, House of, founded, 14; rulers of the Empire, 18 Fukuoka, College of Medicine at, 360; endowment of a technological college at, 351 Futo-no-Yasumaro, compiled the " Kojiki," 4 Gakushi, 366 Games for children, 385; English and American, introduction of, into Japan, 335 Gemmyo, Emperor, 5 Genji Menogatari, novel, 222 Genku, or Honen, founder of the Jodo sect, 21 Genpaku, Sugita, 37 ; his study of Dutch, 37 Genpo, Dr Mitsukuri, 42 Genshi-Sai, the, 104 Geography, regulations for the teach- ing, 182-184 ; syllabus, 231 Geometry, teaching of, 233 German system of gymnastics, 332 Girls, their course of education, 89 ; number of, in schools, 136, 271 ; secondary education, 272 ; height, 344 390 INDEX Girls' High Schools. See High school, at Tokyo, 67, 271 Goto, 45, 49 Graduates of colleges, number of, 354. 3SS » °^ ^^ Imperial Uni- versities, their privileges, 367 ; number, 367 ; of normal schools, military service, 295 Graduation Day, 103 Grammar, diflferences of, 169 Gun, or " sub-prefecture," 63 Gymnastics, teaching of, 79, 332-335 liAGi rebellion, 49 Hakama, or skirt, 107 Hakushi, degree of, 364, 367 " Half-day schools," system of, 131 Hannin, the State officials, 57 Hans (or clans), 33, 41 ; abolition of, 47, 67 Hayashi, Count, in England, 43 Hearn, his books on Japan, 26 note, 380 Heimin, or the "common people," 46 Hideyori, 25 Hideyoshi, or Taik5, 25 ; order against the Jesuit missionaries, 29 Hieda-no-Are, 5 High Schools for girls, Imperial Ordinances on, 83, 272 ; course, 89, 273 ; subjects taught, 273, 275 ; hours of work, 274, 276 ; amended regulations of 1908, 275 ; teaching of morals, 276 ; Saho, 277 ; house- hold matters, 277-279 ; practical cooking, 279; sewing, 279 ; manual work, 279 ; statistics on, 280 ; system of certificates for teachers, 299-302 ; inspection of text-books, 330; teaching gymnastics, 334; number of medical officers, 342 ; medical examination, 344 Higher education, meaning of the term, 356 Educational Council, 59-61 Schools, 58, 88, 356; quaU- fication for entrance, 357 ; sections, 357 ; subjects, 357 ; number of schools, 359; pupils, 359; tuition fee, 359 ; cost of maintaining, 360 Normal Schools, 88, 297, 299, 308 ; course, 309 ; subjects and standards, 309 ; sections, 310- 312 ; post-graduate course, 313 ; occasional special courses, 313 ; attached schools, 314 ; Ped^ogical Museum, 314 ; teaching staff, 315 ; stipendium for post-graduates, 316 ; obligations, 316 ; number of pupils, 3«7 Higo, 49 Himomusubi work, 191 Hira-gana, 165 Hirata, 39 Hiroshima, higher normal school opened at, 282, 299, 308 History, Japanese, regulations for teaching, l8i ; syllabus, 227-231 "Hiyameshi-Kui," meaning of the term, 264 Hizen, 29, 30, 46, 49 Hogosha, or " protector," 72 Hojo, House of, 20 ; downfall of, 24 Hokkaido Island, 72 ; Agricultural College at, 347 ; Normal School, 293 Hokke, or Nichiren-shu sect, 22 Holidays of schools, 104 Honen, 21 Honganji temple, pilgrimage to, 41 Horyuji, Buddhist temple, 13 Hours of study in schools, 105 , Tables of, 117, 119-122, 124, 127-129 "House," or iye, 256; authority of the house-head, 10, 257, 259 ; meaning of the term, 258 ; rules for house members, 258 Household matters, the teaching of, 277, 382 House-registry, reform in the method of, 14 Hozumi, Professor N. , his translation of the five articles, 45 note Hygiene, teaching, 243, 336 Hyuga, province of, 6 Ideographs, Chinese, 164, 223. See Chinese Igakujo school, 67 Ikkoshfl, a branch sect, founded, 21 Inkyo, meaning of the word, 262 Inouye, T., Professor of Oriental Philosophy, 151 Inspectors of schools, 99 ; number of, 59, 99-101 ; duties, loi Ippen, founder of the Jishii sect, 21 Ise, temple at, 10 ; pilgrimage to, 41 " Ise, the divine wind of," 24 Ishin, or " Renewal," 43 Itagaki, 49 Ito, Prince, 48 ; his study of con- stitutional methods in Europe, 51, 376 ; introduces changes in the educational system, 80 INDEX 391 Itsuse-on-Mikoto, 6 Iwakura, 48 " Iwaya's Fairy Tales," 383 lyemitsu, 29 lyesato. Prince Tokugawa, President of the House of Peers, 43 lyeyasu, head of the House of Toku- gawa, 25 ; his precepts, 26 ; " The Hundred Articles," 26 ; encourage- ment of foreign commerce, 29 ; measures against the Jesuits, 30 Izumo, temple at, 10 Japan, historical works, 4, 5 ; rela- tions between the Imperial House and the people, 4, 8, 32 ; condition of the people in early days, 9 ; characteristic of cleanliness, 9 ; religious views, 10 ; relations with Corea, 10, 27 ; introduction of Chinese literature, 1 1 ; use of characters, 11, 165 - 168 ; intro- duction of Buddhism, 12; embassies to China, 14, 15 ; reforms, 14 ; commencement of the feudal system, 19 ; fasting, 21 ; invasion of, by the Chinese, 23, 24 ; relations with China, 27 ; with Portugal, 28 ; ex- ports, 28 ; spread of Christianity, 29 ; law of registration, 3 1 ; system of ecclesiastical organisation, 31 ; spirit of rivalry between the daimyos, 33 ; system of education, 33i 67 ; introduction of occidental learning, 37 ; education of the "common people," 39 ; classes, 39 note ; custom of pilgrimages, 40 ; "story-telling," 41, 383-385 ; estab- lishmentof an academy for European languages, 42 ; restoration of Meiji, 43, 44 ; abolition of the feudal system, 46 ; measures of reform, 47, 80 ; Dajogwan established, 49 ; Constitution, 50-54 ; Imperial Diet, 54 ; administrative system, 56-65 ; spirit of utilitarianism, 71 ; diffi- culties of the language, 164 ; population, 255 ; spirit of self- sacrifice, 257 ; law of divorce, 262, 267 ; sexual relations, 263 ; marriage, 264, 381 ; introduction of English and American games into, 335; revival of sports, 336; official missions to Europe and America, 376 Japan, Emperor of, his Imperial speech on the Constitution, 8, 52 ; accession, 44 ; receives the foreign representatives in audience, 44 ; takes the oath, "The Imperial Oath of Five Articles," 45, 51 ; his wisdom, 48; his photograph given to schools, 102 ; example of how he works, 160 Japan, Empress of, present at the opening of the Female Normal School, 271 ; her verse, 271 " Japanese Empire, Committee for the Compilation of Materials for the History of," 5 Jesuit missionaries, influence of, 29 ; converts, 29 ; measures against, 30 Jikwan, Vice-Minister, 58 Jimmu, Emperor, anniversary of his coronation, 51, 103, 104 Jingu, Dowager Empress, invasion of Corea, 10 Jishu sect, 21 Jito, Empress, 6 J5d5 sect, 21 Jo-kyo-yu, or assistant teachers, 290 Joost, Jan, at Yedo, 29 Journeys for schools, III Jujutsu, revival of, 336 Junna-In school, 15 "Jushichi Kempo,"or "Fundamental Law of Seventeen Articles," 13 Kafu, meaning of the term, 265, 267 Kaga, 27 Kagoshima rebellion, 49 ; Agricultural College at, 351; Higher School at, 359 Kahei, Takataya, story of, 161 Kaiseijo school, 66 ; technological department at, 347 Kakutai, Taki, story of, 1 60 Kamakura, 19 ; period, 21 Kamatari, founder of the House of Fujiwara, 14, 18 Kamu - Yamato - Iware - Hiko - no - Mi - koto, 6 ; establishes his capital at Kashiwahara, 7 Kana, or alphabet, 165 Kanasawa, Higher School at, 359 ; Medical College at, 369, 371 Kangeiko, meaning of the term, 36 Kanname-Sai, the, 104 Kashiwabara, 7 Kata-kana, 165 Kato, Baron Hiroyuki, President of the Imperial University of Tokyo, 150 Keiki, the fifteenth Tokugawa Sh5gnn, resignation, 43 ; title of Prince con- ferred, 43 392 INDEX Kido, 46, 48 A^igen-seis«,a-nmvets3.iy, 103, 104,157 Kimigayo, or national anthem, 103, Kimmei, Emperor, 12 Kindergarten schools, 86, 321 Kinshin, meaning of the word, 108 Kjyomasa, Kato, story of, 160 Kobe, Commercial College at, 352 Kobo, 21 Kofukuji Temple, 71 Kogo, Jingo, Empress Dowager, her invasion of Corea, 260 "Kojiki," or "The Records of Ancient Matters," 4, 6, 11 Kdki /{ten, Chinese dictionary, 166 Kokura, or blue felt, 107 Komaba, Agricultural College at, 364 Kompira, pilgrimage to the shrine of, 41 Komura, Count, a "tribute-youth," 67 Kondo, or Golden Hall, 13 Koseki, or house-registry, 259 Koshinsei, or "tribute-youths," 67 Koshu, or head, 258 Koto Chugakko, or "Higher Middle School," 356 GakkS, or "Higher Schools," 58, 356 Kublai Khan, his invasions of Japan, 23, 24 "Kujiki," 5 Kiikai, or Kobo, founder of the Shin- gon sect, 21 Kumamoto, rebellion, 49 ; Higher School at, 359 ; private medical college at, 371 ; Technological College at, 350 ; statistics on, 354 Kundo, or teachers in attached schools, 290 Kutara, Prince of, 12 Kwammu, Emperor of China, 7 Kwangaku-In school, 15 Kwanto, 19 Kwamku, or " flower families," 46 Kyoto, the seat of the Imperial Court, 19 ; school opened at, 67 ; blind and deaf-mute school at, 374 ; Higher School at, 359 ; Medical College at, 371 ; Technological College at, 350 ; statistics on, 354 ; University at, 360, 365 ; number of colleges, 360 ; amount of appro- priation, 365 KyS-yu, or teachers, 290 Kyushu, 6, 28 ; attacks on the coast of, 23, 24 ; Imperial University at, 360 Kyusu, Muro, 40 Langdage, English, teaching the, 192, 225-227, 313 , Foreign, teaching, 224 , Japanese, difficulties of the, 164 ; use of Chinese characters, 165-168; association for the intro- duction of Roman letters, 167, 168; difficulties of teaching, 168, 172; spelling, 168 ; grammars, 169 ; regulations for teaching, 170 ; ex- amples of lessons in readers, 171- 175 ; difficulties of teaching in secondary education, 221 ; five periods, 221 ; state of transition, 222 ; syllabus, 222-224 Languages, European, establishment of a school or academy, 42 Law College, TokyQ, subjects taught in the Law section, 360; politics, 361 ; economics, 361 ; number of students, 367 , teaching of, 252 Lessons in Elementary Schools, 151- 163 Literature, College of, T5kyo sections, 363 ; number of students, 368 Loochoo Island, 72 Luzon, 28 Maebara, 49 Maeda, case of, 27 Maeshima, Baron, sent to study the postal service, 376 Makino, Baron, Minister of Educa- tion, 2 Man, duties of a, 158 Manual work, teaching of, 189-191, 279 " Many class " schools, 130 Marine Biological Station, Misaki, 363 Marriage, importance of, 264-266, 381 Mathematics, syllabus for teaching, 232-235 Medical Colleges, 361, 371, 372 ; subjects taught, 362 ; examinations, 362 ; hospital, 362 ; number of students, 367 Medical officer, of schools, his duties, 340 Medicine, the study of, 36 Meiji, restoration of, 43, 44 Memorial Day, J 03 Men, number of, 255 ; height, 344 Middle Schools, 72 ; course, 73, 88, 208 ; number, 76, 212 ; divided into two classes, 81 ; amendments of INDEX 393 Middle Schools {continued) — the Ordinance, 82 ; object, 205 ; Imperial Ordinance on, 205 ; estab- lishment, 206; sites, 206; branch schools, 207 ; subjects taught, 208, 301 ; maximum number of boys, 209, 213 ; examination for admit- tance, 210; tuition fees, 211; present system, 214; general in- struction, 216 ; regulations for teaching morals, 217-220; elements of Ethics, 220 ; the Japanese Language and Chinese Literature, 220-224 ; Foreign Language, 224 ; English, 225-227 ; History, 227- 231 ; Geography, 231 ; Mathe- matics, 232-235 ; Natural Sciences, 236 - 246 ; Physics, 246 - 248 ; Chemistry, 248 - 252 ; Law and Economics, 252 ; Drawing, 253 ; Singing, 253 ; provision for teachers, 298 ; insufficiency, 298 ; system of granting certificates, 299-302, 306 ; merits, 302 ; inspection of text- books, 330 J teaching gymnastics, 334 ; area of exercise grounds, 338 ; dimensions of school-room, 339 ; number of medical officers, 342 ; medical examination, 344 Mifune, his selection of canonical names for emperors, 7 Military service, temporary exemption from, 109 and Naval Schools, 88 Mimana, II Minamoto, House of, 18 Minerals, teaching, 239-241 Misaki, Marine Biological Station at, 363 Miscellaneous schools, 374 Missionaries, Jesuit, influence of, 29. See Jesuit Mitford's "Tales of Old Japan,'' 383 Miyagi (Sendai), normal school opened at, 282 Momiusic schools, 91, 92 Mommu, Emperor, 14 Monobe, House, opposed to the intro- duction of Buddhism, 12 Morals, teaching of, 102, 150, 217- 220, 276 ; text-books, 151 Mori, Viscount, MuEiister of Educa- tion, 80 ; his refo/ms in the system, 80, 81, 283 ; proposal to adopt the English language, 167 Morioka Agricultural College, 351 ; statistics on, 354 Moriya, last head of the Monobe House, 12 Motoori, 39 Motora, Y., Professor of Psychology, 151 Moxa, application of, 385 Musical Academy, 370, 371 Nagamasa, Yamada, in Siam, 28 Nagano, Technological College at, 3SI Nagasaki, 29, 31 ; Commercial College at, 352 ; statistics on, 354 ; Medical College at, 369, 371 ; Normal School at, 67, 282 Nagato, or Choshu, 29 Nagoya College, 350 ; Higher School at, 359 ; Medical College at, 371 Naka-no-Oye, Prince Imperial, first reform under, 14 Nakae, 45 Nakajima, R., Professor of Ethics, 151 Nara, Female Higher Normal School at, 299, 308 ; temple of TSdaiji in, 16 Natural sciences, instructions for teaching, 236-246 ; syllabus, 239 Nautical School, 88 Navigation Colleges, 352 ; number of, 352 ; statistics on, 355 Navy, reorganisation of, 48 Neo-Shinto, rise of, 39 Ni-Nigi-no-Mikoto, 6 Nichiren, founder of the Hokkesect, 22 " Nihongi," or " Nikonshoki " ("Chronicles of Japan"), 5, 6, 11 Niigata, Medical College at, 370 ; Normal School at, 282 Niiname ■ Sai, or the " Harvest Festival," 104 Nikko Temple, 71 Nobunaga, 25 Normal Schools, 67, 89 ; number of, 76, 252, 292 ; introduction of semi- military discipline, 81 ; revision of the Ordinance, 82 ; changes in, 198 ; reforms, 283 ; course, 284 ; subjects taught, 285 ; hours of work, 286 ; directions for the train- ing of teachers, 286-289, 294 ; Pedagogy or Education, 288 ; official staff, 290 ; number of teachers, 291, 292; dormitories, 291 ; salaries, 292 ; pupils and graduates, 293 ; treatment, 295 ; privileges, 295 ; system of certifi- cates for teachers, 299-302 ; merits, 302 ; inspection of text-books, 330 ; teaching gymnastics, 334 ; number 394 INDEX Normal Schools {cantinued) — of medical officers, 342 ; medical examination, 344 Noto, 27 "Oath, The Imperial, of Five ^ Articles," 45 Obaku sect, 22 Okayama, Higher School at, 359 ; Medical College at, 369, 371 Okinawa (Liukia Islands), Normal School, 293 Okubo, 46, 48 Okuma, 46, 48 Okurina, or canonical name of an emperor, 7 Omori Orchard, 364 Omura, 29 Osaka, Commercial College at, 348, 350, 352 ; Medical College at, 371 ; Normal School, 67, 282 ; Techno- logical College, statistics on, 354 Otaru, Commercial College at, 352 Owari, 25 Paper work, 191 Parents, relations with directors and teachers, 108 Parkes, Sir Harry, attack on, 45 "Peachling, The Little," 383 Pedagogical Museum at the Tokyo Higher Normal School, 314 Peeresses' School, 281 Peers, House of, 54 Pension law for officials, 93-95 " Pensions Fund, Elementary School Teachers'," establishment of, 204 Pensions of teachers, 204 Perry, Commodore, 41 Physical education, 331 Physics, syllabus for teaching, 246- 248 ; instructions, 250-252 Physiology, teaching, 243 Pilgrimages, custom of, 40 Plants, teaching, 242 Portugal, trade with Japan, 28 Prefects, their power overteachers, 198 Prefectural schools, 91 ; regvilations for, 98 Prefectures, duties, 62 ; assembly, number of members, 62 ; council, 63 ; subprefecture, 63 ; the shi, cho, and son powers, 63 President of Tokyo University, 365 ; duties, 366 Private colleges, number of, 371, 372 schools, 91, 140, 375 ; super- vision and control, 375 ; qualifica- tions of teachers, 37s Private schools as substitutes, abolished, 143 Privy Council, jurisdiction, 6l Professors, number of, in T5kyo Uni- versity, 366 Provisional Training Institutes, 299, 306 Public schools, 91, 96 Punishments for children, 385 Pupils, number of, 317, 318, 322, 354, 3S5 Rankv^a, Maeno, or Ryotaku, story of, 162 Kazan, Hayashi, 34 Reform, measures of, 47 Registration, law of, 3 1 Rei (ceremony), an important factor in the art of government, 277 Representatives, house of, 54 Rinzai sect, 22 " Rongo " (the analects of Confucius), II Ronins, or "wave-men," 41 Rushana-Butsu, image, 16 Ryotaku, Maeno, 37 ; his study of Dutch, 37 Sadanobu, Matsudaira, 41 Saga, rebellion, 49 SahS, or deportment and manners, 277 Saicho, or Dengyo, founder of the Tendai sect, 21 Saigo, 46, 48 Sakurai, Professor, vocabulary of chemical terms, edited by, 252 Salaries of officials, amount of, 95 ; of teachers, 201-203, 292 Samurais, or men of military class, 33, 39 "Of' ; system of education, 34-36; physical training, 331; gymnastics, 333 Sanjo, Prime Minister, 5, 48 ; President of the Natural History Bureau, 5 Satsuma, 46 ; rebellion, 49 Sawayanagi, Mr, Director of the Bureau of General Education, 151 Schools, 15, 67, 90, 92 ; classifica- tion, 72, 90 ; revival of the system of inspection, 81, 99 ; number of inspectors, 81 ; regulations for officials, 92 ; disciplinary measures, 93 ; pension law, 93-95 ; salaries, 95 ; teaching of morals, 102 ; photographs of the Emperor and INDEX 395 Schools {ccntintied) — Empress, given to, 102 ; holidays, 103, 104; terms, 104; hours of study, IDS ; sites, 105, 338 ; build- ings, 106, 337 ; size of a school- room, 106, 338 ; uniforms, 107 ; punishments, 108 ; temporary ex- emption from military service, 1 10 ; excursions and journeys, iii, 336 ; lessons in swimming, in; sports, 112; percentage of attendance, 112, 137; expenditure, 113, 145, 146; organisation of classes, 130; distinction between sexes, 131 ; "half-day,'' 131 ; the two-parts system, 132 ; regulations for the number of teadiers, 132, 135 ; number of schools, 133, 136 ; regulations for compulsory attend- ance, 139-141 ; number of children, 134, 136; age, 139, 271 ; fees, 145 ; income, 146 ; Committee, 148 ; number of members, 148 ; their duties, 148; number of boys, 271 ; of girls, 271 ; hygiene, 336; area of grounds, 338 ; duties of the medical officer, 340 ; cleansing, 341 ; medical examination, 342 Science, regulations for the teaching of, 184-186, 236-246 ; syllabus, 239 , College of, Tokyo, sections, 363 ; number of students, 368 Secondary schools, number of pupils, 113; system of granting certificates to teachers, 299 Seikwa, Fujiwara, his teaching of Confucian moral philosophy, 33 Seismological Observatory, Tokyo, 363 Seitokan, or "pupil-inspectors," 108 Seki, his teaching of mathematics, 37 Self-sacrifice, the spirit of, 257 Semtnon Gakko, or " Special Colleges," 58 Sendai, Higher School at, 359 ; Medical College at, 369, 371 ; Technological College at, 350 Senjimon, a Chinese poem, 11 Sewing, instruction in, l8g, 279 Sexes, distinction of, in schools, 131 Shakan, or dormitory superintendents, 290 ; duties, 291 ; salaries, 292 Shakyamuni, bronze image of, 12 Ski (cities or towns), 63 ; self-govern- ing powers, 63 ; obligation to establish and maintain a school, 142-144 ; expenditure, 145, 146 ; income, 146 Shi-chd, or mayor, 64 " Shi • cho ■ son, Elementary School Teachers' Additional Salaries Fund," 203 Shikibu, Murasaki, her novel Genji Monogatari, 222 Shimabara, rebellion of, 30 Shingon sect, 21 Shinnin officials, 57 Shinran, founder of the Ikkoshii branch sect, 21 Shintoism, 10 Shishinden, or the "Throne Room," 45 Shitennoji, Buddhist temple, 13 Shizoku, or " Samurai families," 46 Shoheiko school, 66 Shorau, Emperor, devotion to Buddhism, 16 ; erects the temple of Todaiji, 16 Shaki-Korei-Sai, or "The Autumn Festival of the Imperial Ancestors," 104 Shukken, or regents, 20 Shunki - Korei - Sai, or ' ' Spring Festival of the Imperial Ancestors," 104 Shushi school of Confucian philo- sophy, 34 Siam, 28 Singing, introduction of, into ele- mentary schools, 79 ; regulations for the teaching of, 188, 253 " Single-class " schools, 130 Sites, selection of, for schools, 105, 206, 338 Sodo sect, 22 Soga, House of, 18 ; in favour of the introduction of Buddhism, 12 So-gaku-In school, 15 Sordn, the State officials, 57 Sorin, Otomo, 29 Special colleges, 88, 369 ; number of, 369 Spelling, difficulty of, 168 Sports, 112 State, ministers of, 57 Story-tellers, professional, 41 Students, number of, at Tokyo University, 367 ; number studying abroad, 376 Suiko, Emperor, 6, 12 Swedish system of gymnastics, 333 Svrimming, lessons in, ill "Taihoryo," or "The Code of the Taiho era," 14 Taiko, or Hideyoshi, 25 396 INDEX Taikwa era, reformation, 14 Taira, House of, 18 Taishi, Prince Sh5toku, compiles the " Kujihi," 5 ; his influence on the introduction of Buddhism, 12 ; reforms, 13; "JushichiKempo," 13 Taishin-In (the Supreme Court of Justice) instituted, 50 Taka-Ma-ga-IIara, 6 Takachiho mountain, 6 Takamatsu, Professor, vocabulary of chemical terms, edited by, 252 Takauji, head of the House of Ashikaga, 24 Tales for children, 383-385 Taxation, new system of, 47 Teachers of elementary schools, ex- cluded from being members of assemblies, 65; salaries, 95, 201- 203, 292 ; qualifications, 97 ; pensions, 98, 204 ; uniforms, 107 ; conferences with parents, 108 ; grades of, 123 ; number of, 135, 214; employment of provisional, 133 ; certificates, 194, 212 ; com- mittee, 195 ; subjects and standard of examination, 196-198 ; appoint- ments, 198 ; retirement, 199 ; dis- ciplinary punishment, 200 ; military service, 201 in normal schools, instructions for the training, 286-289, 294 '< salaries, 292 ; number, 291, 292 ; privileges, 295 in private schools, qualifications, 375 in secondary schools, system of granting certificates, 299 - 302 ; subjects, 301 ; number of certifi- cated, 306 ; statistics on, 354, 355 Technical education, 346 ; colleges, 346 ; amount of grant, 347 ; four grades of schools, 348 ; course, 348 ; standard, 348 ; regulations for the eitablishment and maintenance, 349 ; text-books, 349 schools, 88 ; number of pupils, 113 ; number of medical officers, 342 ; medical examination, 344 special college, 88 supplementary schools, 352 ; number of, 353 ; subsidies, 353 ; statistics on, 355 Technological colleges, statistics on, 354, 3SS schools, 350 ; number of, 350 ; individual peculiarities, 350 Temples, Buddhist, number of, 13 Tencho - setsu, or the " Emperor's Birthday," 103, 104 Tendai sect, 2 1 Tenji, Emperor, 14, 18 Tenmu, Emperor, 4 Tenno, the title, 7 , Jimmu, first Emperor of Japan, 7 ; date of his coronation, 7 ; anniversary, 103, 104 , Komei, Festival of, 104 Tenshi Sama, or the Son of Heaven, 7 Terakoya, or " House for the Children of the Temple," 33 Text-books, number of, 324 ; system of selection, 325, 330 ; competition among publishers, 326 ; abuses, 327 ; regulations of the Imperial Ordinance of 1903, 327-329 ; re- duction in the price, 329 ; revision, 329 ; spelling to be adopted, 330 Todaji, temple of, 16 Togo, Admiral, his reception by school children, 1 1 1 T5ju, Nahae, story of, 161 Tokugawa Shogunate, 25 ; character of their administration, 26 Tokutaisei, title of, 21 1 Tokyo, Blind and Deaf-mute School at, 373 ; Girls' School, 67 ; Higher Normal School, 297, 308 ; Peda- gogical Mxiseum at, 314 ; Higher School, 359 ; Normal School, 67, 282 ; Private Medical College, 371 ; Technological School, 347 ; Agri- cultural School and School of Forestry, 347 ; statistics on, 354 ; University, 42, 75, 347, 360 ; intro- duction of English and American games, 335 ; athletic sports, 335 ; Engineering College, 347, 350, 362 ; Commercial School, 347, 352 ; number of colleges, 360 ; Law College, 360 ; Medicine, 361 ; Literature, 363 ; Science, 363 ; Agriculture, 363 ; students, 364, 367 ; tuition fees, 364 ; amount of appropriation, 365 ; President, 365 ; director, 365 ; Senate and Faculty, 365 ; professors, 366 ; graduates' degrees, 366 ; privileges, 367 ; Women's University, 372 Toneri, Prince, compiles the " Ni- honji," s Toyo - Ashi-Wara-no-Nuzu-Ho-no- Kuni, 6 Toyotomimi, Prince, influence on the introduction of Buddhism, 12 INDEX 397 Training Institutes, Provisional, 299, 306 Tr^onometry, teachir^ of, 233 Tsunayoshi, his influence on the study of Chinese literature, 34 Tuition fees, 144, 211 Ueno Park, 71 Umako, head of the Soga House, 13 Uniforms for schools, 107 Universities, 15, 58, 72, 75, 90 ; terms, 104 ; number of graduates, 298 ; system for granting certifi- cates for teachers, 302 ; merits of the graduates as teachers, 303 ; number of, 360 Utilitarianism, the spirit of, 7 1 Wadagaki, Professor, his translation of "The Precepts of lyeyasu," 26 note Waka-iratsuko, Prince, learns Chinese, n Wako, the, 27 Wani, a Corean scholar in Japan, 1 1 Woman, duties of a, 158 Women, their education, 72, 271 ; vocation, 255, 268 ; number, 256 ; position in the household, 256, 260 ; changes in the condition, 260- 263 ; under the feudal system, 261 ; the rule of "Three Obediences," 261 ; under the new code, 262 ; changes in the sexual relations, 263 ; marriage, 264 - 266, 381 ; duties of the wife, 266, 383 ; law of divorce, 267 ; professions, 268 ; in the pre-Meiji period, 270 Women's University, Tokyo, 372 Workmen's School, Tokyo, 347 Writing lessons, 176 Xavibr, Francis, at Nagasaki, 29 Yamagawa, Professor, late President of the Tokyo University, his address to students, 261 Yamaguchi, Commercial College at, 352 Yamato, 7 Yasukawa, Mr, endowment of a technological college at Fukuoka, 3SI Yedo, 27 ; lectures at, on the Chinese classics, 34 ; astronomical observa- tory at, 37 Yeso, island of, forest, 364 Yonezawa, Technological College at, 3SI Yoritomo, leader of the House of Mimamoto, 19 ; at Kamakura, 19 ; scheme of administration, 19 ; his supreme military authority, 19 ; death, 20 Yoshihisa, Prince, of Kitashirakawa, 160 Yoshimune, Tokugawa, his influence on the introduction of Occidental knowledge, 37 ; on education, 40 ; his reverence for his ancestors, 157 Yoshitaka, Ouchi, 29 Yoshiteru, 29 Yozan, Uesugi, Prince of Yamagata, story of, 160 Ynkinaga, Konishi, 29 Zen sect, 22 ; influence on the military class, 22 ; characteristics, 23 Zoology, teaching, 244-246 PRINTED AT THE EDINBURGH PRESS, 9 AND II YODNG STREET. iMuim