7( STANDARD SCHOOL BOOKS ^^^ PUBLISHED ET A"I)AM AND CHARLES BLACK, EDINBURGH. CLASS-BOOKS USED AT THE HIGH SCHOOL. ■p UDIMENTS OP THE LATIN" LANGUAGE. By W. M. Gunn, ■'■'' LL.D., one of the Masters of the Scliool. 12mo. Price 2s., bound. HIGH SCHOOL VOCABULARY. By Samuel Lindsay, A.M. Price Is., bound. Jhe y^NTHON Library. COLLECTED BY CHARLES ANTHON. f Professor of &reelr and Latin in Columbia College. Purchased hy Cornell University, 1868. A.M., late Rector of tlie Circus Place ScliooT, Edin"burgli. Price Ss. (id., Douna. THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE. By John Kitto, D.D., from the Patriarchal Age to the Present Time ; containing Introdnc- tory Chapters on the Geography and Natural History of the Country, and on the Customs and Institutions of the Hebrews. With Questions for Examination, "by AtEX. Reid, A.M., late Rector of Circus Place School. Price 33. 6d. ; or with Map of Palestine, 4s., bound. rPHE HISTORY OF ROME. By Rev. W. M. Hetherington, J- LL.D. 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" A most commendable and attractive School Collection." — Scotsman. CHEAP ETYMOLOGICAL WORKS FDR SCHOOLS, BY THE REV. JOHN OSWALD. ASWALD'S ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF THE '-' ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Seyenth Edition. 18mo. Price 63., bound ; or witliout Appendix, 4s. OSWALD'S ETYMOLOGICAL MANUAL. Thirteenth Edi- tion. Price Is. ASWALD'S OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Sixth V-' Edition. Price Id. ASWALD'S ETYMOLOGICAL PRIMER. Part I. Four- \J teenth Edition. Price Id. OSWALD'S ETYMOLOGICAL PRIMER. Part II. Fifth Edition. Price 6d. ILLUSTRATED DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. In One Volume 8vo, price 10s. 6d., lUnstrated by 33G Engravings on Wood, Maps, Plans, &c., A CYCLOP-ffiDIA OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE. By JOHN KITTO. B.D., E.S.A., Antlior of tie "Pictorial Bible," &c. This Work is stadionsly accommodated to the ivants of the great body of the religious public. To Parents, to Sunday School Teachers, to Mission- aries, and to all engaged, either statedly or occasionally, in the important business of Biblical Education, the volume is confidently recommended as the most valuable compendiunr of Bible KnoTirledge for the People which has ever appeared in this country. Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031288602 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR GREEK LANGUAGE DR. LV'SCHMITZ, F.R.S.E., RECTOR OF THE HIGH SCHOOL OF EDINBURGH. EDINBURGH: ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, NORTH BRIDGE. MDCCCLUI. PREFACE. 1 he present Grammar has been drawn up wilh a view to .supply certain deficiencies which occur in the Greek Grammars commonly used in Scotland, but which it is not necessary here to specify. As the study of Greek always begins and must begin with that of the Attic dialect , it has been deemed expedient in this . elementary work to limit the attention of the learner to it, and not to bewilder him with a -number of other dialectic forms , which at first he does not require to know, and with which he may after- wards make himself acquainted, without difficulty, partly by reading the different Greek authors and partly by stu- dying the more voluminous grammatical works of Butt- mann, Thiersch, Matlhiae, Rost, Kruger, Kiihner, and others. The plan I have followed in putting the materials toge- ther is , so far as the nature of the subject permits , the same as that which I have adopted in my Latin Gram- mar. As, however, no boy ever enters upon the study of Greek without having previously acquired some know- ledge of Latin and without being familiar with the ordinary grammatical terminology, it would have been a mere waste of time and space to repeat all those definitions and ex- planations with which a boy must be supposed to be ac- quainted from his knov/ledge of English and Latin. It ap- IV Preface. peared to me to be of far greater importance to explain those things which are peculiar to the Greek language, such as the doctrine of the Accents , the nature of the Middle Voice, the Optative, the Aorist, the import of the numerous particles, and other points of Greek Syntax, which in our common Grammars are scarcely treated of at all. Accordingly wherever the Greek language agrees with the Latin , the facts are briefly stated ; but where the former presents anything peculiar , I have endeavoured to explain it as far as the nature and the objects of an ele- mentary book seemed to require. In the chapter- on irre- gular verbs , it has not been my aim to multiply their num- ber, as is but too often done, but, on the contrary, to re- duce the list as much as possible , and by elassifieation to bring those which have the same irregularities under common heads. This Will, I believe , considerably facili- tate the progress of the beginner , and is less terrifying to his imagination than the sight of an interminable list of irregularities. In the tables of Declensions and Conjugations the stems or roots have been, as much as possible, distin- guished from the terminations and the connecting vowels. In the execution of my task I have derived great assis- tance from K. W. Kriiger's Greek Grammar for beginners (published at Berlin in 1847), which is , on the whole , one of the best elementary treatises on the Greek language, though its phraseology and arrangement are strangely at variance with what we might expect in an elementary work. Edinburgh, Oct. 1852. L. Schmitz. CONTENTS. Introduction. I. WORDS AND FORMS OF WORDS. Page. Chapt. I. The Alphabet and pronunciation of the letters 1 II. Breathings and otlier signs used in writing 4 III. Division of words into sjllahles, and quan- tity of syllables 6 IV. The Accents 7 v. Proclitics and Enclitics 11 VI. Commutation of Consonants 14 VII. Contraction of vowels 19 Vni. The hiatus and .the means of avoiding it . 20 IX. Gender of Substantives 22 X. Declension in general ....... 24 XI. First Declension 20 XII. Second Declension 30 Xm. Third Declension 34 XIV. Contracted nouns of the third Declension . 41 XV. Gender of nouns of the third Declension . 40 XVI. Irregularities in Declension 48 XVII. Terminations and Declension of Adjectives 51 XVIII. Comparison of Adjectives 50 XIX. Numerals 59 XX. Pronouns 63 XXI. The verb in general -OS XXir. Verbs in m 70 XXIII. The Augment 72 XXIV. The Tei-rainations 77 XXV, Formation of tenses from one another . . 81 XXVI. Peculiarities of pure verbs 86 XXVII. Peculiarities of liquid verbs 87 XXVIir. Accentuation of verbs 88 XXIX. Conjugation of pure uncontracted verbs . 90 XXX. Conjugation of verbs whose stem ends in a mute ...,,..,... 96 VI Contents. Chapt. XXXI. XXXII. XXXIII. XXXIV. XXXV. '? XXXVI. XXXVI f. XXXVIII. XXXIX. XL. XLI. )> XLII. XLIII. XLIV. ?? XLV. XLVI. XLVII. ,, XLVIII. ,^ XLIX. ., L. LI. LII. >j LIII. LIV. LV. ») LVI. )j LVII. LVIII. Pag-e. Conjugation Of liquid verbs .... 105 Contracted verbs in £<», dca and oca . . 109 Regular verbs in ftt 114 Conjugation of regular verbs in fw . . 118 Irregular vetbs in fit 123 General view of the anomalies of Greek verbs 131 List of irregular and defective verbs . 142 Adverbs 154 Prepositions 157 Conjunctions and Particles 167 Derivation of words 173 Formation of compound words . . . 176 II. SYNTAX. The Article 179 Adjectives used substantively .... 183 Agreement between adjectives and sub- stantives, — between the relative and its antecedent. — Apposition . . . 184 Subject and Predicate 187 The Nominative and Vocative .... 190 The Accusative 191 The Genitive 194 The Dative 204 Use of the degrees of comparison . . 208 Use of Pronouns , . . 210 Use of the active, passive and middle voices ^ . . . 213 The tenses of verbs 218 The moods in independent sentences . 222 The moods in dependent sentences, and succession of tenses '. 224 The Infinitive 229 The Participles and verbal Adjectives . 231 INTRODUCTION. Ihe Greek language is one of the great family of languages commonly called the Indo - Germanic , which comprises the Old Indian, Persian, Greek, Latin, Slavonic, German and Celtic. It was spoken by the ancient Greeks not only in Greece proper but in all their colonies on the coasts of the Mediterranean and the Euxine , and in after- times even in Egypt, Syria and other parts of the East. But the language spoken over this vast extent of country, as might be expected, was not the same everywhere, nor was it the same at all periods of Greek history ; not only did strong dialectic differences exist in the larger divi- sions or provinces of Greece , but there is evidence that even separate towns and cities in the same province had their dialectic -peculiarities. Those dialects , moreover, existed not only as popular modes of speaking among the uneducated classes , as is the case in the countries of mo- dern Europe, where, notwithstanding the great variety of dialects in the same country, all men of education speak and write the same literary language ; but the best educa- ted men and authors generally spoke and wrote, both verse and prose , in the dialect of the district in which they lived. The dialects in which literary compositions have come down to us are 1. the Doric, a rough and broad Highland dialect, which from the mountains of Thessaly spread south- ward and was subsequently spoken in all the countries and islands occupied by Dorian settlements. 2. The Aeolic, ap- parently a mixture of Doric and the ancient Pelasgian, was spoken in the plains of Thessaly , in Boeolia , the Aeolian colonies in Asia Minor, in many of the islands of the Aegean, and other parts of Greece. It was probably the dialect spoken more extensively than any other. 3. The viii Introduction. Ionic , was originally spoken in the north of Peloponnesus, Attica, and the Ionian colonies in Asia Minor; it was the softest of all the Greek dialects, being partial to the accu- mulation of vowels and averse to combinations of conso- nants which were harsh or difficult to pronounce. The lo- nians in Attica developed a peculiar dialect of their own, called the Ailic, -which, on the one hand, avoided the harsh and broad sounds of the Doric, and, on the other, the ex- treme softness of the pur-e Ionic. The cultivation of this Altic dialect was carried farther than that of any other by the number and the genius of the Attic poets, philosophers and orators who by their immortal works made the lang-uag-e of the Athenians the most perfect in the world. This pree- minence of the Attic dialect was felt and acknowledged by the Greeks themselves, for in later times many authors who belonged to difTerent countries, and whose works are still extant, set the highest value upon using the pure Attic idiom in their writings. After the conquests of Alexander the Great, the Greek language began to be spoken in Egypt and many eastern countries , but it was acquired chiefly through the ear and without careful attention to the rules regulating the diction of the Athenians. Those foreigners, moreover, often mixed up with their Greek words , forms and phrases borrowed or imitated from their different ver- nacular tongues, and a language was thus gradually form- ed which is generally designated by the name of ffelle- tiislic Greek, in which besides many other works the books of the New Testament are composed. The Greek language , it must further be observed , has never become a dead language like many others spoken in ancient times, for the modern Greek, though mixed to some extent with Slavonian, Turkish and Italian words and expressions , is still essentially Greek , and , in many respects strongly resembles the ancient Aeolic dialect, which , as was remarked above , was very extensively spoken in ancient Greece. EEEATA. For " 5." in page 2, read " 6.'" For " so," in page 3, read " not." For •• ai-e thrown," in page 34. read •' are thi-own out. I. WORDS AND FORMS OF WORDS. CHAPTER I. THE ALPHABET AND PRONUNCIATION OF THE LETTERS. §. 1. The Greek alphabet co nsists of the following twenty - four letters : Capitals Small letters. Pronunciation, Name. A a a Alpha , "Alfa B ^QV 6 b Beta, B^TK r y or f S Gamma, Fafina J 8 d Delta, Aiha E e e E - psilon , "E '^dov Z r z Zeta, Zrjra H v e Eta, ^Hra @ «■ orO th Theta, Orj-ca I t i lola, IwTa K jt k Kappa, Kanna A ;i 1 Lambda, Aa^§8a M f^ m My, Mv N V n Ny, Nv S 1 X Xi , Ei 6 0- micron, "O fttxpoc n JT or ar P Pi , m p Q r Rho,'Pc3 E or C G or g s Sigma, Siy^a T z t Taa, r«i; T V y(u) Y - psilon, "Ti/ztio'v f ph Phi, 0r X % eh Chi,xr W ^ ps Psi, ^i SI CO 6 0-mega,'i2 jtsya. 1 2 Words and Forms of Words. Note 1. The capitals are the most ancient characters, and originally none but capitals were employed; afterwards the small letters were introduced, but the capitiils still continued to be used, if not exclusively, at least principally. Note 2. Of the two signs S and C , the former is the older one, and the latter did not come into use till after the time of Alexander the Great. The letter a is used at the beginning, and s at the end of words. But this s must not be confounded with 5, called Stigma or Sti, which is used for ffr, and is also employed as a figure for the number 6. §. 2. Of the vowels s and o are short, o^ and a long, and the three remaining or, i and v arc anceps, i. e. , they may he either long or short. §. 3. All consonants may bo divided into two classes, according- to the facility with which they are pronounced, namely: 1. liquids: I, (i, v, and q, lo which may bo added the sibilant a; 2. mules: j3, rt, 90, y, k, j;, d, r, &. §. 4. According lo the organs with which Ihey are pro- nounced, they are divided into three classes, viz. 1. labials: ^, n, cp, and fi, 2. palatals: y, k, %, 3. Unguals: d, t, &, I, v, q, a. §.5. All the mutes are again subdivided into three classes according lo the degree of breathing with which Ihoy arc pronounced, namely: 1. tenues: te, k, t, 2. mediae: §, y, 3, 3. aspirates: gp, i, &. Note. All the divisions menticined in the last three §§ ure of great importance i'.i the laws regulating the commutation of consonants' in influction and in the formation of words, as we shall see hereafter. §. 6. The letters f , |, and 1/; cannot be classed with llio single consonants, for they are double consonants, f being Alphabet and its Pronunciation. 3 equal to g3 or dg, | to yg, xg or '^g, and i/; to jSg, ng or , rjv , cov, together with vt are termed spurious diphthongs. % Note 3. The pronunciation of the Greek letters has been the subject of much dispute; especially that of the vowels. But modern invesligalions have made it clear that the following pronunciation cannot be very far from that used by the ancient Greeks themselves: a like u in are 8 like e in net 7) like e in mere, or a in sand I like i in in like in *o '"'^ V like u in ruse, or rather the French tu (0 like oa in moan. Note 4. The diphthongs ei and iv were in all probability pronounced like the English i in mine and eu in such words as euphony; ai was probably sounded like the English ai in nail, 01 like the German 0, Kv like the English ou in house, and ov like the English 00 in noal. The pronunciation of the spurious diphthongs can only be conjectured, though a, ■>], and a are generally pronounced in mo,dern times like the simple a, ri, and oj.. Note 5. The consonants (3, y, 8, n, v., t, qp, &, X, (^, V, Q and a were pronounced like the corresponding English letters; but y when followed by another y, by )t or j; is soiinded 1* 4 Words and Forms of \\ ords. like n. % had no doubt a giitlimil souiul like ch in tlic Scotch word loch; J, though a combination of d and s is pronounced lilie z in Zephyr. The letters i, and '^ have tlie sounds of ps .or ks (x) respectively. CHAPTER II. BREATHINGS AND OTHER SIGNS USED IN WRITING. §. 8. Every vowel begintiing a word is marked by eilher of two breathing signs. The sign of the soft breathing (spirilus lenis) is ', and that of the rough breathing (spiri- ius asper) corresponding to our k, is ' , as ano, ix, pro- nounce apo and ek; o, vno, pronounce ho, hupo. Note 1. When a word begins with a diphthong, the breathing sign is put %n the second vowel as ctvxog, ovtog, al'qco. When a word begins with a capital vowel , the breathing signs are not marked above it, but by the side of it, as 'Avr]Q,"OiM7jQog. When Ai, Hi, and Sli stand itir a, y, ip (see §. 7, n. 1), the breathing is likewise marked before the first vowel, a.s"AiSr]g, 'SliSrj. Note 2. The vowel v when beginning a word always has the rough breathing, as ■ujto, vnsg, vfivog. §. 9. Every word beginning with a q has the rough breathing over it , or when the 9 is a capital teller, by the side of it ; in Latin h is used as its representative , as ^tj- T039, rhetor; 'Piavog , Rhianus. Note. When in the middle of a word two g concur, the first is generally marked with the spiritus lenis, and the second with the asper, as IIv^Qog, 'A^Qiavog, Pyrrhus, Arrianus; but some editors consider the breathings in this case unnecessary, and write, for example, UvqQog, 'AqQMVog. g. 10. The sign of the spiritus lenis , when put over a vowel preceded by a consonant is a sign 'of contraction Ccrasis), and is called coronjs, as raya&a, rovqyov, for ta aya&ci, xo CQyov. Breathings and other Signs. • 5 §. 11. The sign of the spiritus lenis after the last lellcr of a word is called the ciposirophe and indicates that a vowel has been cut off, as in ifiov for inl ifiov; xar' ova^ for %ata ovciq. §. 12. If two vowels generally forming a diphthong are to be pronounced separately, this is indicated by the dicere- sis (■■). being put over the second vowel, as aiinvog, aidQi^s- Note. When the vowel marked by the diasresis has at the same time the accent, it is customary to, put the acute between the two pohits of_the ditei;esis, t^nd the cirourpflex above them, as vr]it7iq, Tiqavvai. §. 13. The emphatic syllabte of every word is marked by the accent, either the acute (') or the circumflex (~). A syllable which has no accent is supposed to have the grave ('). The circumflex, being originally a combina- tion of the acute and the grave (") occurs only on na- turally long syllables and diphthongs. E. g. loyog, av- ^Qconog, amog; Ccofia, rmv. Note. In the case Of diphthongs the accents, like the breathy ings, are put on the second vowel, as iKBLVos, iiavato; in the case of capital vowels, the accents are placed before them, and if the same vowel is to be marlced by both breathing and accent, the acute is placed after the breathing, but the circum- flex above it, as"0(iijpog, OvTOq. §. 14. When the last syllahle of a word has the acute, and there is no pause after it (a colon, semicolon, comma, or sign of interrogation) , the acute accent is changed into the grave, as avrog scp-rj. §. \5. In regard to punctuation the Greek language has the same signs for the full stop and comma as the Latin and English; but a colon or semicolon consists of a point nearth,e upper end of the lagt letter as ccvvog i'qyrj' alia; and the sign of Interrogation is the same as a semicolon in English (;). A sign of exclamation; does not exist; but when it, is needed theEnglisIi sign(!) is generally employed* A\'ords and Forms of Words. CHAPTER 111. DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLL.^BLES AND OU.\NTITY OF SYLLABLES. §. 16. In words of more llian one syllable llio correct pronunciation depen<'« upon Uie rii;ht manner of connecting: the consonants willi llie preecdini;- or following \owel; and the rule is. tlial a single consonant between two vowels must in pronmicial'on be joined to the latter, as ko-yog, 6Qi-ncc~vov, 6a -fid. §. 17. Two or three consonants between two vowels are drawn to tlio second vowel only when Uiey are so easily pronounced together , Uiat Uiey may form the begin- ning of a word, as a-ftvog, K-xjuT), ds-tsiiog, ^-GrQEipov. Note 1. A mute followed by (i or v, however, is drawn with these liquids to the following vowel, even if the mute it- self joined to ft or v cannot form the beginning of a word, provided a mute of the same class can, as qjK-.rj')), Sr]-yiios, ^d-cpvi?, because tliere are words beginning with &v, v.v, and nv. Note 2. Three consonants are joined to tlie following vowel even if the first two and tlie last two of them may begin a word, as i-tt&loq, i-x9q6g, because there are words beginning with e9 as well as witli &}., and others beginning wilh x^ as well as witli '9'p. §. 18. Compound words are divided according to tlie elements of which Uiey are composed; as Kvvog-ovQO, GVfi-nkixB), co's-TtE^. But when the final vowel of tlie first word is elided, tlie consonant is joined to tlie next, as SaSs-tnq^ijg, v - fiyifii , u-itaysiv. §. 19. The quantity of a syllable depends partly tipon the nature of its vowel , and partly upon its position. The vowels rj and co, and all diphthongs are naturally long; and the vowels £ and o are naturally short. The remaining vowels a , i and v are doubtful , that is , they may be either Tlio AcoonlH. 7 lontf or Hlioi't. Every vowdl, iiiorcdvor, is long which lian iirinrii IVcim contraction, rh ukcov for aixiov, Ix&vg for NoTH. Wu miiHt, however, oiirefiilly distinguish belwoon (KiiUnicrKin iLiid ullBlon, Urn rurmer ciinHlstlng In two vowels holng uriltod iiilii uiki, and the latter in simply throwing "iit ouB (d' iho vowcIh, ill whii'h caHn the iilliftr retains its urinimil riunntlly, an In vnayBtv for vjcodyeiv. §. 20. A. iiiiliirally HJmrt uh well as a doubtful vowi'l limy bccoiiui long liy 'dn posithn , lliat ih by bninf,' l'ollowc' counting cucli UH two conHonaiilH, as Tajtj, Tpareefa, t!i(/og; rvmai, ydlctittog, rimav. g. 21. A short vowid followcul by a muto and a li(|iiid {inula rum lii/uidd) riMmiiiiH gcniiirnlly short, as tinvov, NOTH. It must however bo observed that S, y, 8, when Tollowdd liy i, fi iir v innUii the preceding Bliiirt vowel long, as In ^{^Xoi, nUy(x.H, i'xtSvtt. When a muto is followed by ii Utliiid ill niinipouinl wordH, tni tliat llie mutu hrlnngs to the one word, and liui lii|nid to the other, the preceding short vowel is generally treated as long, o. g. , iuksimiv. It is Sdll'-eviiirnt, that a vowel naturally hmg, remains long whether ll lie followed by (uiii or two oonsoimiUs, and of what- ever imtiiro those consonants arc. CHAPTER IV. THE ACCENTS. §. 22. Every (!r(M'k word has its own accent, lliat is, 11 bus Ev , to, fimv; ny, noi, itov , nag, and others. §. 30. The acute can never be put further back than the antepenultima, and the ciroumDex never further back than the penultima ; but the acute can stand on the antepenultima and the circumflex on the penultima only when the last syl- lable of the word is short. If therefore a proparoxytonon or a properispomenon by inflection receives a long- final syllable or an additional syllable, the accent must be shifted or changed, as av&QCOTtog becomes av&Qconov , av&Qwncp, av&Q(anoig , av&Qmnovg; Gafia becomes (JojftKrog, Otuftart, (Scojiara; nsiQci, nsiQug, ndqa. Note 1. The terminations ci and oi (except in the optative mood) are accounted short in reference to accent, and there- fore admit of the acute being on the antepenultima, and the cir- cumflex on the pemiltima, as av&qmxoi,, nolixai,, vijaoi, jid- XciL^aL, TVTtTOiiai, TiaiSsvaai, itqonaXai; hai naiSs'voi, itai- Ssvaai, because they are optatives. But the following words are liliewise paroxytona andnot properispomena ofxot, at home (bat ol-KOi , the houses) oi'fiOL , r]xoi. Note 2. The ca in what is commonly called the Attic declen- sion , is accounted short in regard to accent, so that the acute may be on the antepenultima, as noXicoi, avciystov, Svgsqcog, 'to- Iswv, &c. §. 31. When the last syflable of a word is long only by position, the circumflex may be on the penultima, as ^At|, but the acute cannot stand on the antepenultima, but mast be shifted to the penultima, as vvKxotpvXa^. %. 32. When the penultima is naturally long and ac- cented, and the last syllable of the word is short, the penultima always has the circumflex, as ccofia, Tsliog, '^v'^og, yvvaixeg, fialvg, q)£vyE. Note 1. The accentuation of the words (B()o;, K^ipK and others shows, that their last syllab'e is long; and that of a'jtgos, vipog, I'aog and oihers shows that their penultima is not long by nature. Note 2. The compound words ehs, 'oi'ta, (Sgneg , ij'^ts, rijvSs and others, as welt as raij;i and ei'9s, are only apparent -exceptions. See Chap. V. §. 36. 5. Proclitics and Enclitics. H §. 33. Where every Greek word has its accent, must, on tlie whole be learned from observation , and especially from a correct pronunciation. But the following rules may be laid down for the guidance of the beginner. 1. A word in its inflections generally retains the ac- cent on the syllable, to which it originally belongs, provided the last syllable permits it. 2. Verbal substantives in (log have the accent on the ■last syllable, oi'jctCfio'j , oOT^cr.tCfios. 3. Adjectives ending in x6g, vog, rog, riog have the accent on these terminations. 4. Neuter substantives in |hk have the accent as far back as their last syllable permits, as (?c5fta, noirj^a, 5. Compound substantives and adjectives generally have the accent as far back as the last syllable per- mits, as arifiog (from ttfiij), 7taQo3og (from odog). 6. AH comparatives and superlatives have their ac- cents as far back as the last syllable permits. 7. All vSrbs. generally have their accent upon their -stem, or in other words, as far back as the last syllable permits. Note. Other general rules as well as exceptions to the above will be given in the remarks of the Declensions and Conjugations.. CHAPTER V. PROCLITICS AND ENCLITICS. §. 34. There is a number of little words , mostly mono- syllabic, whose importance is so slight,, that they may be looked upon as a mere part of either the following or the 12 Words and Forms of Words. preceding word. In conseqaence of (his they generally lose thoir own accent. When such a word attaches itself to the following word, it is termed a proclitic, and when to the preceding an enclitic. §. 33. Proclitics, or as some grammarians call Ihcm, atona or words without accent, are: 1. The nominatives of the article, o, tj, oi, ai; 2. The prepositions sv , ig or slg, i'§ or ix, coj; 3. The negative ov%, ov or ov^, and 4. The conjunctions el and lag. Note. These proclitics however have an accent of their ovi-n, when they stand at the end of a sentence or are used as substantives, as TO fisv iia!.6v, t69b ov (ov ovyj', which always has its own accent) ; to ii, the if; to tv. %. 36. The following is a list of the enclitics : 1. Certain forms of the personal pronouns: ^ov , (loi, (le; GOV, Got, as; ov, ol, e, filv, viv , and GtpiGiv. 2. All the forms of Ihe indefinite pronoun r/g,. ti. 3. The present indicative of the verbs £^fii, lam, and cprjixi, I say, with the exception of the monosyl- labic forms si and q)rjg. 4. The indefinite adverbs nov , nri, not, ncog, nco, note, no&iv, ito&t; these must be distinguished from the interrogalives nov, nij, not, nag, itozs, TtS&av , which are never enclitic. 5. The particles yi, ts, rot, vvv , niQ, xiv or kb, and de. Note. Even the long vowels occurring in these enclitics are mostly tieated as short in reference to accent, as the voice in pro- nunciation does not dwell upon them. §. 37. As enclitics throw their accent back upon the preceding word with which they thus form, as , it were, only one word , only on certain conditions , the following rules must be observed : Proclitics and Enclitics. 13 1. When an enclitic follows an oxytonon , the enclitic loses its accent, and the preceding -word instcSad of the grave has the acute, as kciIov ti, Ktxlov iari. 2. An enclitic following a perispomenon simply loses its accent without any furUier change, as q)ildi Gi, iqw GOV, opra riva, mv rivcov. 3. Monosyllabic enclitics following a paroxytonon simply lose their accent, but dissyllabic enclitics retain it, as Xoyog rig, Xoyog jiov; but Xoyov rivci, Xoyog rivmv. 4. Enclitics following a proparoxytonon or properi- spomenon, throw their own accent, in the form of the acute, on the last syllable of the preceding word, as (JMfic! (lov , ffwfior Tivog , ccv9^a)nog rig , av&Qxo- Ttog eifit. 5. When an enclitic is pre'ceded by a proclitic or an- other enclitic, it tlirows its accent, in the form of the acute, upon it, as EtTtg, ov cprjfii; sl'nsQ rig ae (loi tprfil nors. Note 1. All enclitics retaia their own accent 1) when they be- gin a sentence ; 2) when the preceding word ends in a vowel which is apostrophised, as coqjog rour' sljii; 3) when they are em- phatic, as is the case with the personal pronouns, when they arr governed by some preposition , and with the verb f ^(it, when it is not a mere copnla , but a real verb expressing existence. Note 2. The demonstrative enclitic di, which attaches itself to demonstrative pronouns and adverbs , always causes the accent to advance to the penultima, as toiogSs , zoiijSs (from Tofog, rotTj); roaogSs, rocif^s (from roaog, roerj); zriXwogSs from TTjXiiiogi iv&dSs from ^v&a. Note 3. Certain dissyllabic prepositions having the accent ou the last syllable, withdraw it to the penultima, when they are placed after the case they govern , as riviov ntQi tovto Xeyug; 14 Words and Forms of Words. CHAPTER VI. COMMUTATION OF CONSONANTS. §. 38. As it frequently happens in declension and con- jugation, that a suffix beginning with a consonant has to be added to a stem ending in a consonant, and that thus there arises a concurrence of consonants which it is either disagreeable or physically impossible to pronounce to- gether, it is necessary, before preceding to the declen^ sions, to know the rules by which such inconveniences are removed. §. 39. Euphony being one of the great objects aimed at by the Greeks in their language, they avoided the concur- rence of consonants which in other languages are consi- dered unobjectionable. Thus they do not allow a t sound {S, r,9) to be followed by a p sound (^, n, q>), nor a. p sound to be foUowe'd by a A sound (y, k, %). Note. The preposition em alone appears in compound words before any other consonant without either undergoing or producing any change upon the following consonant. §. 40. For the same reason the Greeks avoided the doubling of consonants ; the aspirates are never doubled ; of the mediae only y , which however was softened in pro- nunciation, yy being pronounced like ng. The only con- sonants which are found doubled, are the liquids (i, ft, V , q), r , a, %, and n. Note. Instead of ^y we frequently find go , as a^qrtv or aq- arjv. &a^Q£iv and 'd-ccQasiv. For aa (unless it has arisen from the composition of two words) the Athenians more commonly used TT, as &dXaaaa and ^dlatza. §. 41. The concurrence of two consonants difficult or impossible to pronounce is avoided partly by assimilation and partly by other changes which are based upon simple linguistic principles, as for example, that consonants pro- nounced by the same organs or with the same kind of breathing are interchangeable. Commutation of Consonants. 15 §. 42. One t sound (d , r, &) before another is, in in- lleclion , reg-ularly changed into , as : civva&fjvai for ccvvr&ijvcii from avvzm, sQSKS&ijvai, for iQeid&ijvai from iQeCda , Ttsia&'^vai. for neiS'&rjvai from mi&a. Note. la the perfect active ending in xa , at sound is thrown out before v. , as itsi^co , perf. jCEitsma for ninsiQ'V.a. §. 43. Ap sound or a A: sound (j3, n, qi and y, k, ^) before a t sound (S , r , &) must be changed into one of the same breathing as the latter. Thus we have XQiTCtog for tQi^rag from xqi^a, ■nl£%%''^vai for nXsti&iivai from nXsxoo, yqa^drjv for yqa(p8riv from yqaqxo. Note. This rule may also be seen from tKe following tabu- lar view: 1. ^T and qpT become nr 2. itS and q>S become §S 3. 11& and ^•3' become cp9' 4. yr and %t: become kx 5. 118 and xS become yS 6. X'9' and yS' become x9'. §. 44. A tenuis followed by the spiritus asper, is changed into its kindred aspirate, that is, « is changed into qp, x into %, and r into ■9', as ofqpopftij (a compound of ajrd or ait , and o^fiij) ; avd' vnccrov (for ai/r/ or avt vnarov) ; Koffl'' •^fidiv , for Kara or xar 'ij^cav ; dsxrjfiSQog (from dista or ^£x' and rjjieQci. Note. This rule as is clear from the examples given applies both to compound words, and to those which are only in juxta- position. If the tenuis thus changed into the aspirate is preceded by another tenuis , the latter also becomes an aspirate , as vvx^V- fiSQOv , from vvkz and ^(is'gor; vvx^' oXriv for vmz olrjv. §. 45. As aspirates can never be doubled, whenever such a case occurs , the first is changed into its kindred tenuis, as Bci'AXog, Sanqxo , UiT&avg, for Bcq^og, Saqxpa, niQ&Evg. 16 Words and Forms of Words. §. 46. When two successive syllables begin with an aspirate, the first is changed into its kindred tenuis, as TCsqjtXv^xa , YAyprM, %i&i\qaKu for qisqiLXTjxa, i^xoma, and ^s&'^Qcty.a; TQi'/pg for Q^ixog. Note. This rule must be observed especially in declension and conjugation iti the case of stems containing two aspirates, as &qiXj &QSq), from which we have rqij^og, Tqi^"'?, tqix'Sh' &c. , TQSqica, Tpogjjf; but when by inflection the second aspirate disappears, the first is restored to its place, as ■S'gtl^r, &Qsip(o, ^^ifijia; ixv9rjv for l9v9rjv , from 9vco ; ^axvs (ior &a%vs) , but %'da- acov. The same 'law is observable in some verbs ending in pt, which have a reduplication at the beginning, as Ti'S'Tjftt. The only exception to this ru'e occurs in the imperative of the first aorist passive, where tlio latter of tvvo aspirates is changed into the tenuis, as st^vqpfl-jjrt, amd'qzi,, tor %qv or ip is changed into fi, as in GvfiTcokeiiia for evvnoXeiJiioa , Gvfi- ^akloa !oT Gw^akloi}, ev^qitavka (ov evvspavim , evjA.ij/rj%co for avvtlitjiiii. §. 54. The letter v, when followed by y, u, i and |, is changed into y, as iyyiXam, iyxicpalov, iy%ia, iy^ia^ for ivyslaa , ivxitpalov , si/^iw , iv^io). §. 55. The letter v, when followed by a liquid, assimi- lates itself to it; hence avlkiyco, Gvfiiiivm, Gv^Qea), for Swlsyo), Gwiiivm, GvvQica. §. 56. The letter v, whqn followed by , knixto , tcccEXCO , from dito , ixi and Kazd and tx ov , neut. ov c, neut. ov 3* Declens. indefinite og i , that is , in which the a is pure , end in the genitive in ag , and in the dative in a; all other noilns in « make their genitive in ijj and the dative in ij; but %. the accusative and vocative the a re- mains. E. g. : SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nom. Tifir/, honour Norn, rificci, honours Gen. iiftrjg Gen. tiiiiSv Bat. Tifi^ Dat. rijiais Ace. ri/irfv Ace. TL/idg Voc. Tifiij Voc'. rifiaC DUAL. Nom. Ace. Voc. iifia Gen. Dat. ti.fx,aCv. SINGULAR. I;LURAL. Nom. vCv.ri, victory Nom. viv.ai, victories Gen. r/xTjff Gen. vi%cSv JDat. vCv.7) Dat. vCituiq Ace. viKrjv Ace. vinag Voc. vCliTj Voc. VlKCCl DUAL. Nom. Ace. Voc. ji/xa Gen. Dat. vitiaiv. First Declension. 27 SINGULAR. Norn, aocpia, wisdom Gen. Gotpiag Dat. aoqiCa Ace. eocptav Voc. aocpCa PLURAL. Nom. aotpiai, different kinds of wisdom. Gen. co(pi£v Dat. aotpCaig Aec. aotplas Voe. aotpiat DUAL. Nom. Ace. Voc. aocpCa. Gen. Dat. aotpCaiv. SINGULAR. Nom. nstQcc, experience Gen. msigag Dat. Tisiqa Ace. nsiQav foe. nsiQa PLURAL. Nom. sieiQai, experiences Gen. neiqav Dat. icBCqaig Ace. nsiQUs Voc. neiqat Nom. Ace. Voc. nsipa Gen. Dat. ^eCqaiv. SINGULAR. Nom. Movaa, a Muse Gen. Movarjs Dat. MovO'Tj Aec. Movaav Voc. Movaa PLURAL. Nom. Moveai, Muses Gen. MovacSv Dat. Moiiaaig Aec. Movaag Voc. Movaai DU.AL. Nom. Ace. foe. Movaa Gen. Dat. Movaaiv. SINGULAR. Nom. noXitrjs, citizen Gen. noXhov Dat. KoXCtTj Ace. moXCtriv Voc. TCoXtta PLURAL. Nom- noXizai , citizens Gen. noXiTiSv Dat. noXhaiq Ace. noXhag Voc. TioXtxat, DUAL.. Nom. Ace. Voc. noXCra Gen. Dat. noXCtaiv. 28 Words and Forms of Words. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nom. vsavlaq, a youth Norn, vsaviai^, youllis Gen. vsaviov Gen. vsaviiSv J)at. vsavCu Dat. viaviaig Ace. vsaviav Ace. vsavCas l^oc. vsavCa Voc. vsavCai DUAL. Nom. Ace. Voc. vsavCa Gen. Dat. vsaviaiv. SmGULAR. PLURAL. Nom. 'AzqiiSrig, a son of Atreus Nom. 'AtQCiSca, sons of Atreus Gen. 'ArqsiSov Gen. 'Ar^siScSv Bat. 'AtQsiSri Dat. 'Az^iCSais Ace. 'Arqsid'rjV Ace. 'AigB^Sag Voc. 'AtQsiSri Voc. 'Axqstdai Nom. Ace. Voc. 'ArqeCSa Gen. Dat. 'Ar^sCSaiv. §. 80. The following- substantives thoug-h the a is not pure in the nominative yet make their genitive and dative in org and u: a Aaia , -war-shout ; Av^QOfiiSa, riXcc, ^lo- Ti'jua, AriSa, and (Piioft^j^a. A&rjva and fivci (a mina) have like-wise org and a , being in the nominative contracted for A&7jvaa and (ivaa. §. 81. Substantives in 1^ generally terminate in the vocative in a; this is the case. especially -with those ending in Tfjg, and with those derived from verbs, in -which the termination rjs is simply added to the stem of the verb, and lastly -with the names of nations in rjg, as noXirrjg, Ttolira; SQycifrig, iqyaTa; TtaiSorQi^rig, naiSoTQi^a; J7ep(j»;g, IZipcia. But all other words, especially the numerous patronymics in drjg, make their vocative in ij, as 'ArQstdrjg, 'At^siSrj; 'AiStfig, AiSij. Note 1. "When -words of this declension have the accent on the termination , it is in all genitives and datives invariably the circumnex, as in Ttfuf. Comp. §. 29, 1. First Declension. 29 Note 2. The termination mv of tlie genitive plural is pro- perly a contraction for dtov , for which reason it always has the circumflex. But the words dcpvr], anchovy; irTjctat, ete- siau winds; jjpTj'sTTjs , a usurer, and j;iow7;s, a wild boar — retain the acute on the penultima in the genitive plural; whereas dcfivijs, incapable, and ;|;p)jffTOS, useftil, naturally have the cir- cumflex dtfvmv and xqtigtAv. The word Seanozrig alone forms a real exception in the vo- cative, withdrawing its accent to the antepeuultima SeaTCOxa. Note 3. Feminine adjectives and participles ending in a or 7] retain in the genitive plural the accent on the same syllable which is accented in the nominative , provided the last syllable permits it, hence a|ta, gen. plur. a^ioiv; naiSevo- (isvrj , gen. plur. mxiSsvoiisvtov ^ dya^TJ, gen. plur. dya9cov. Note 4. Substantives ending in cc, gen. ijs, always have the u short; hut the a is generally long, when the genitive is as, especially when the word has the acute on the ultima or penultima, as in &id, ^ftsga. Note 5. The following nouns in or, gen. as, however, have the cc short: 1) designations of females of three and more syllables, as ■rpdXrqia, a female dancer; 'EqstQia, an Eretrian woman; 2) those words in qa, which have in the penultima a long T) or a diphthong except av, as yiqivQa, fioiQcc, Td- vay^a; 3) words of three or more syljables ending in eia and oia, except those abstract substantives in sia derived from verbs in svm , and words of only two syllables , as dvoiu, dXri^sia, mtpslsia, ^ccaikBia, a queen, hut ^aaiXsia, royalty and- XsCa, &c. Note 6. In the case of adjectives in os, the a in the no- minative of the feminine is long; but in the case of all other adjectives and participles the a of the feminine is short. Note 7. The a in the nom.. , ace. and voc. of the Dual is invariably long; in the vocative of words in a, the quantity is the same as in the nominative ; the vocative in a of words in as is long, but short in the case of those ending in tjs, whence itoXira. Note 8. TJie accusative in av always has the same quan- tity as the nominative ; and the termination as throughout the first declension is long. 30 Words and Forms of Words. C B A P T E R XII. SECOND DECLENSION. I §. 82. The second declension has in the nominative only two terminations, og and ov, the former of which generally marks the masculine , and the latter the neuter g-ender. Both end in the genitive in ov. E. g. : SINGULAR. Nom. loyos, word Gen. Xoyov Dai. loycp Ace. Xoyov f^oc. Xoys Nom. Xoyoi , words Gen. Xoyav Dat. Xoyois ■Ace. Xoyovg Voc. XoyoL Nom. Ace. Voc. Xoyco Gen. Dat. Xoyoi-v. SINGULAR. ^Nom. avS'^anog , man Gen. av&Qmnov Dat. av&qco7Cco Aec. avd'^oanov Voc. Sv&Qmne PLURAL. Nom. av&QOtTCOi, men Gen. dvQ'Qcomov Dat. dv^QcoTtoig Ace. KV^QCOTtOVe Voc. avd'qoinot Nom. Ace. Voc. dv&^coitm Gen. Dat^ dv^qmiioiv. SINGULAR. Nom. {prjyog, beech tree Gen. iprjyov Dai. -t &co-a TtaiS - i TtaiS - a PIURAI,. Nom. xi-ss, wood- ■8'm-sff, jackals naiS-sg, chll- worms dren Gen. m-dov &(6-cov itaC8-cav Dat. v.i-aC(v) &a>- 01(11} Tiai-aC(v') Ace. xi'-ag ■S'ra-as' natS-ag Voc. Ki-ss 9m -£q TcatS-sg. , DUAL. Nom.Acc. Voe. Kt-s &al - s naiS - s Gen. Bat. Hi-oiv 9(a-otv naiS-oiv yiyas, giant yCyavz-og yiyavx - 1 yiyavz - cc ylyav yiyavz - sg , giants yiydvz-iov yiya-ai yiyavx-ag yiyavz -sg yiyavz - e yiydvt - oiv Note. Respecting the accent of the monosyllabic words among these specimens, see below Rem. 1 on accent; and re- specting the throwing out of S in naiai and of vz in yCyaai, see §. 50 and §. 57. The accusative «tV will be explained below in Rem. 1 on separate cases. Nom. v-oqa^, raven Gen. yioqaii-og Dat. v.6qav,-i Ace. Mo'paK-o; Voe. Koqa^ SIHGUL AR. 'Aqaip , an Arab oVti | , onyx "AoaB-og ovvv-og Agap-i ovvY-i- "A O " "A . " ? Agaiji vv§ Nom. Mo'goot-as, ravens Gen. Kogdii-cav Dat. «05k|i(v) Ace. nogaK - ag Voe. itogajt-ES "Aqa^-sg,kc3\)s 'Agd^-cov "Agail)L(y) "Aga^-ag "Aga^-sg oruj; - ss, onyxes ovvx-cov ovv^t(v} ovv% - ag ovvx - SS 38 Words and Forms of Words. DUAL. Norn. Ace. Foe. noqccK-s "Aqa^-t ovvx-s Gen. Dat. KOQaii-oiv 'Aqd^-oiv ovvx-olv. Remarks on separate cases. Rem. 1. The aecusaiive singular sometimes ends in v in- stead of a. This Is the case in words terminating in the nomi- native in IS, vg, avg, and oiig, the s of the nominative heing changed into v ; thus from Kt's , Tcolig , Sgvg , yQuvg , |3oi's, we have the accusatives kiv , rcoliv, S^vv, yqavv , povv. When the stem of words of tliis class ends in a vowel , the accusative always has v instead of a; but if the stem ends in a consonant, and the last syllable is not accented, they may have a, though in Attic prose the v is nearly always pre- ferred, as k'Qi.g, ace. i'qiv and less commonly iqiSa. If, on the other hand, the last syllable is accented, the accusative in- variably ends in a, as IXnig, ace. iXniSa^ novg (jcoSog), ace. TtoSoi. Evslnig, however, though derived from ^Xttlg, has, in consequence of its accent , iviXt^v. Rem. 2. The vocative plural i^ always like the nomina- tive; in the Singular it is like the nominative in all words of the first class, that is, in those in which the nominative pre- sents the pure stem, as well as in those words the stem of which ends m^,7C,cp,y,ii,x, and generally also in those of which the stem ends m 8 , t, f-. "Words of the second class, in which the short vowel of the stem is lengthened in the nominative , the vocative has the short vowel of the stem ; hence Saijjbov , pjjTOp and Xijiiv are the vocatives of 8ai[t,cav, ^TJrcoQ and Xtfirjv. The pure stem in fact is the same as the vocative , in all words whose stem ends in a liquid or a vowel, as 'PaSdiiav&vg , stem 'PaSdfiav9v, voc. 'PaSdjiav&v ; zctXag, stem rdXav, voc. rdXav^ ipqdtcoQ, cp^dtOQ. The following cases, however, must be noticed as exceptions a) Nouns in rjg, which make their genit. in tog (contracted into o^s) and whose stem ends in s , add in the vocative ff to the stem, as 2!cotiqdr7jg , stem ZimiiQaTt, voc. 2!c6- KquTsg. b) The words 'AnoXXmv , TLoauSmv and acozri^, though their nominative represents the pure stem, shorten the vowel in the vocative, a.s "AnoXXov , TLoaeiSov , ecSts^. c) Words ending in ig,,vg, and svg , together with nccig, ypKuj, and ^ovg form the vocative simply by throwing off the g of the nominative, as IldQig (gen. nd^iSog}, Third Declension. 39 voc. TIccQi ; T'^d-vg , voc. Tr]d-v ; ^KtftZsv's , voc. ^kol- Isv; nolig, vo«. aroii; tccci, yqtcv, pov. Kig however has the voc. Kt'g. d) Feminine nouns in oj and ca's raalie their vocative in oi, as Santpto, Zinjrgjot'; ^oo's, tJoi. e) A few proper names in ag, gen. avrog, wliich , should have the vocative like the nominative, have only a long a, as UoXv^eciiag , vooat. IZOio^afia; "Azlag, vocat. Rem. 3. Tlie dative plural ends invariably iri ci or oty, appended to the stem, and the changes which the stem under- goes before the a, are the same as usual, that is, S, c, &, and V are thrown out ; p , te , 9) are changed with the a into i/>, and y, li, X into |. "When vt is thrown but before a, the preceding vowel is lengthened, into ov, and s into si. As dXriQ'ijg, stem aA7j'9'£'s, dat; pi. a^jj'9'S-fft; wtft's, stem HTSr, dal.pl, KTfCt; Ttovg, stem jro'^, dat. pi. Ttoal; ti&sCg, stem riWsvv, dat. pi. ri'&sfet ; iEojv, stem ia'ojT, dat. pi. Isovei. Respecting the v, called v iflpsixua'rmo'j', in the termination atv, see §. 59, note 4. , The following are exceptions: a) Adjectives in sig, whose stem ends in evt, maiie the. dative plural in saiv instead of ti,Bi.v , as cptavijsig, stem (pavi^evr, dat. pi. qxav^saiv. b) Words which have in the nom. sing, a diphthong, and whose stem ends in a vowel, retain the diphthong in the dat. pi., ygatJs, §ovg, paqil8vs, dat. pi. yqavai, ^ovaC, ^aeiXsvai. c) Many syncopated words (see below §. 95) ending in the nominat. singul. in i]q, form the dat. plur. by adding aaiv to the stem of the genitive , as avj/p , narriq , ya- ci-criq, liTjzrjQ , &vydTTjQ, dat.pl. dvSqdaiv, narqaaiv, yccazqdoiv, firitqdeiv ^ Q'vyarqdai.v. Remarks on accent. Rem. 1. The learner must be referred first to the general rules stated in §. 29, notes 1 and 2. To these however it must be added, that luonosyllabic words of the third declension ge- nerally throw the accent in all genitives and datives upon the termination, as novg, nodog, noSi, noSdv, noaCv , noSoiv. But the following words form exceptions: 40 Words and Forms of Words, a) All monosyllabic participles ; tliey retain the accent on the penultima, as ardg, ctavzog, atavTi, attivTcov, araai, etavxoiv; cov, ovTog , ovxi, ovtcov , ovei, ovtoiv. b) All monosyllabic words , which have become monosyl- labic by contraction, .having originally two syllables, as lag , gen. Jjpoj , dat. Tjjt. c) The interrogative T^s (who) , as rCvos , tlvi , rivav, rial, zivoiv; the indefinite pronoun t^s (some one) follows the rule and is enclitic, as zivog, tivi, zi- vdv &c. d) The genit. and dat. plur. of was, as iidvTtov , nSaiVi also the compounds ol elg (one), as ovSsig, gen. plur. ovSsvcov; firjSeig, gen. plur. jiriSsvoav. e) The genitives of the Plural and Dual of the words Jiaig, cpcog, ovg, Tgcog, qxpg, and 5c£s- Rem. 2. Some vocatives withdraw the accent to the first syllable, as avi^ , iiuze^ , acSzsQ , &vyazsq , "AicoXXov , Iloaei- Sov, 'AydiiSjivov , ScoKquzsg, and others. Rem. 3. The terminations a, ag, s, eg (in the Plural) in the third declension never have the accent, except in the case of the indefinite rig, which has xivd, zivdg, rivsg, zive. Remarks on the quantUy of the terminations. . Rem. 1. The terminations a, ag (ace. plur.), t and v are short, with the following exceptions: a) The accusative in a of words in svg is generally long. See below §. 92 , note 2. b) All monosyllabic nominatives are long, except z(g, both when an interrogative and when an indefinite pronoun. c) In words of two or more syllables, the termination of the nominative generally has the same quantity as the penultima in the genitive, so that S-toQa^ (^lOQaxog), OQVig {oqvl9og), tiokkv^ (KOKiivyog) , have their a, t, and V long by nature in the nominative also. d) The genitives ending in avog, ivog and wos have the penultima long, except (ts'Aas and zdXag, which make [tilavog and zdXavog. Contracted Nouns of the third Declension. 41 CHAPTER XIV. CONTRACTED NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. §. 89. Many nouns the stem of 'which ends in j or o, generally contract these vowels with those of the inflectional terminations ; but in these contractions , the general rules laid down in §. 62, are not always adhered to. One of the chief deviations from them is , that the contracted form of the accusative plural is always like the contracted form of the nominative. Note. This is the case even in words which do not con- tract the nominative plural , and in which the contracted form of the accusative is the same as the nominative would be , if it were contracted. §. 90. Nouns in r/g and sg', gen. eog, contracted ougj the feminines in ra or cog, gen. oog, contr. ovg; and the neuter substantives in og, gen. sog, contr. ovg, contract in all cases where two vowels meet, as SINGULAR. Nom.(ri) TQi-^QTig , trireme (to) ts^jjos , wall iv^VX'^j echo Gen. t^i7JQSog,TQi.7]i}Ovg zsC^sog, xs£%ovs '>jxo'>g,rixovs Sat. HQiTjQe'C, TQirJQSi rsixs'i, Tsi%si, i'IX°'-} '^X"'' Ace. TQirJQSa, xqitJq'^ reixog — ■^JJok, '^X"' Voc. zqiriqsg — t:sL%og — ij;i;of — Nom. iqiriOBsg , rqiri^sig Gen. TQiQScav, rQiriQiSv Sat. TQiTJQsai^v) — Ace. tqiriqiag, tqi^QSig Voc. TQiiJQSsg, TqirJQSig ■csixsa, rSLXT] rsi%itov, tsixfSv Ts£%sai(v') — ■cBixsa, rsCxtl Tfixsa, TB^XV rixoi follows the second deolens. N.A.y.TQi,7jQie,Tqn]Qr] rsCxss, rsCxn ^j;a) foil, the G. S. TQiTjqeoiv, TQiriqoiv TU%ioiv,tHxotv seed. decl. Note 1. The nouns in ijs and 6s belonging to this class are in reality adjectives, and their neuter in sg is declined like Tstxog. 42 Words and Forms of Words. Note 2. Nouns in m and cog form the Plural and Dual, if they have these numbers , regularly according to the second de- clension. Their accent in the accusat. sing, is irregular; hut alSojg and the Ionic jjco'g make the accusat. regular, alSa and ■^ci. Note 3. The termination sa in the Plural of neuters was contracted by the Attics into a, whenever 6a was preceded by another vowel, as jjgs'oj, plur. jjfjtsa, XQsa^ vyisg, vyiiu, vyia; but the adjectives in ss nevertheless sometimes have the contraction r], as vyirj, svqiva and sv as ■^ (pQ'iv , the dia- phragm ; ^ xi'l'" ) the goose (d xr'iv , the gander) , and ■>j aSrjv or aSi^v, the gland; though this word is found also as a masculine. b) yaarrjQ, belly, is feminine, andEoig, gen.TJQOg, spring, is neuter. c) The following in mg are neuter, to vScog, gen. v'Sa- Tos, water; and av.m^, gen. OMaro's, dirt, and a few others. d) Of those itl cog, alScag, modesty, and 9Pras, (S^n. i^vog), dolphin; fpfi^s (gen. spiiivog), prop, and a few others. "Ogvig, xCyiiig, and ots are both masculine and feminine. b) Some of those in vg , gen. -uos , are masculine , as /3o'- TgtJS , grape ; l%9vg , fish ; ftos , mouse ; a'taxvg , corn- ear, and KiivSvg, a doublet; also jisksKvg (gen-, ftas), axe; ■t-^zvg (£sXog (ad- vantage) is used only in the nom. and as the subject of an in- finitive in the construction of the accusative with the infinitive. §. 102. Some words are altogether indeclinable, such as the infinitives of verbs when used as substantives , as TO yQdipeiv, to-C yQucpeiv, rw yqacpsiv &c. In like manner all words which, without being substantives are used as such , as TO vvv, to noiw, to ^nsi/ca, several foreign words and proper names, and the names of the letters of the al- phabet. §. 103. The following list contains the irregular substan- tives of most common occurrence : aXg, salt, is found in prose generally in the plural only, as aXtg &c. avrjq , 6, man , gen. avSqog , ccvSq^, uvSqu, avtQ ; plur. av- Sgeg, ccvSqiuv, avSgdaiv, avSqag^ dual kvSqi, ixvSqoiv. 'AitoXXcav , see §. 94, 2, note. "Aqrig, gen. "Aqsetg (^'Aqsog); dat. "Aqsi.; ace. "Aqi^v and '^pjj, voc. 'AQsg. ydXa, TO, milk, gen. ydXaiitog, Asi, ydXanxii dat. plur. ydXai,i. yccatTjQ, 6, see §. 95. yovv, TO, knee, forms its cases from the stem yovat, as yo- . vatog , yovara , yovaaiv. yqavg, see §. 93, note 2. yvVTj, 7/, woman , gen. yvvai%6g, dat. yvvaiyii, ace. yvvatiicni voc. yvvttii plur. nom. yvvainEg, yvvamav, dat. yvvai^iv, ace. yvvaiiias; dual gen. yvvaitiotv. SaKQVov , -see §. 100. .dijftjjTijp , gen. dijfiTjTQog , dat. ArjiirjTQi, ace. z^jffiTjTga, voc. JjrjlirjTeQ. SoQV, TO, spear, forms its cases from the stem Soqcct, gen. SoQCCTog, &o. lap, TO, spring, gen. iJQog, iat, rjQi, but also i'aQOg and sapt. Zsvg, gen. ^idg, dat. ^li, ace. 2}ia, voc. Zev. &Qt^, 71, hair, gen. iqixog &c. ; dat. plur. &Qi^iv ; see §. 46, not. %vydtriq, see §. 95. 4 50 Words and Forms of Words. x^Si'g, ^, a key, gen. ■xlsiSos, dat. v.Xsidi, ace. %kstV or ■nXetSa; plur. nom. y^XstSts and ace. wAstdas, both conti-acted into M^Eij. 5ti!(0j/ , d and r) , a dog , forms its cases from the stem v.vv, gen. Kwo's , dat. Kui't' &c. ; but makes its vocative 'nvov. fiaqtve, 6 and ^, a witness, represents fidqrvq, g and g being convertible; hence gen. iidqzvqog, dat. ftaprugt &c. ; dat. plur. (laQTvatv. fiTirrtq, see §. 95. vavg, ri, a ship, gen. vscog, dat. rjji;', ace. vavv; gen. dual vsoiv; plur. nom. rrytg, gen. vecov, dat. vavoCv , ace. I'ttus. W|, ■^j night, gen. vvHtug, dat. vvxrC &c.; dat. plur. vijI^v. ots, ^, tt sheep, gen. o^ds, oil, olv; plur. ores and olg, oleov, olalv , olag and of§. ovaq, see §. 101, note. ovsiQOg , 6, a dieam, is regular, ovsifjov , ovtCqco, but may also form its cases from a neuter stem SvBiQaz, gen. uvii- ^atog , dat. ovsi^aTi, plur. ovBiqaxa, ovsiQdxcov, dveiQaaiv. OQvlg, 6 and ^, a bird, gen. OQvtd'og &c. ; ace. ogviv and liqvi&a, voc. o'pvt. The plural is regular ogvi&eg ifec. ; but we also have the forms S^vug, gfcn. oqvbcov, ace. oqveig and OQv'g. ovg, TO, the ear, gen. (orog, dat. (ort S'Siaa, tv(p&iv, svrog. vg., vaa, vv — Ssixvvg, Seitivvaa, Silkvov, vvxog. log, via, OS — xszvqxag, xsxvipvta, XBXVcpog, oxog. cig, maa, 6g — iaxcig, eaxaaa, saxog, mxog. Note 1. Some adjectives have the same terminations as participles, e. g. ituov, siiovaa, £v.6v (willing) ; a'Kcov, dy.ovaa, axov (unwilling); nag, maaa, nav, and anag, UTcaaa, Sxdv (all). Note 2. The participles ehdiiig in to's and 6g, make their genit. in o'tog, as xsrvipoxogj all the others make their genit. in vxog, as xvtctodv, xvTCxovxog; SiSovg, SiSovxag; zvipag, zvtpavrog} laxdg, taxdvxog; xv, (leydXrj, iiiydkca D. [isydXoig, (isydXaig, [isydlois A. (isyav, (LsydXTjv, /isya A. fieydXovs, (icydXag, [isydXa DUAL. Nom. Act. iiBydXco, fiiydXa, [isydXca Gen. Oat, iisydXoiv, p,iydXaiv, iisydXoiv. 3. IIqSos or nqaOg, gentle, occurs only in the masc. and neuter singular ; the whole of the fern, and neu- ter plural , and sometimes the masc. also, are form- ed from TtQccvs- SINGULAR. PLURAL. '"' N. TigSog, Tc^mia, XQciov N. tcquoi or Ti^asig , neut, XQasa G. jrpaofl, KQas^ag, ngdov G. icqdmv or TCQaiav, neut. itqaiiav D.itqdcp,'itqas{a, nQam D. jCQaoig ov nqasaiv^neut. nqaeaiv A.TCQaov, nqaiiav,nqdov A.n^dovgovJtQcCsig,^ neut. xqasa 4. Sag or Gmog, safe. Of the former of these forms, there occur o and t} tfrag, tov and rijvCcov, and Tovg Gag. The other cases are g'cnerally formed from (ftoOj. 5. The words akX'^kcav, ajigxa and q)Q0v6og are de- fective. The last occurs only in the tiom. iXxaxog, though we also find cpLXaCrsQog, (piXaCxaxog. Note 4. The following adjectives regularly change o into ai: fisaog, Stjiios, svSiog, riav%og, i'aog, jragajtijjctos, as jisaaixsqog, usaaixcixog; otpiaixeqog , oipiaCxaxog &c. "Hav- Xog, however also has rjavxmxsQog, and i'Siog also has ISita- teQOg and iSidxatog. The adverb ■jcqmi forms its comparative and superlative from the adjective it^fotog, Ttqaiaixi^ov and nqcoiaCtaxa. Note 5. Some' adjectives in og, change the os into ig or Eg before the terminations xi^og and xaxog, as XdXog, XaXi- cxsQog, XaXiaxaxogi acp^ovog, dqid'ovsaxtqog , d(p&ovsaxa- TOj (though more commonly dcpQ'oveoxSQog , d(p9ovc6xaxog') i aK^axog , aKQccrsaxsQog , atiqaxsaxaxos; i^pcofisVos , i^qosfts- viarsqog, i^Qoa[isvcGxaxogi aafisvog, da^sviaxeqog, ricjisW- axaxog. - Comparison of Adjectives. 57 §. 118. Adjectives in rjs and vg form the comparative and superlative by adding- reQog and rarqg to the nomina- tive of the neuter singular, as Gaqji^g, BaipiGrsQog, Gaqji- CTcaog; o|vs, o^vreQOg, o^vtarog. §. 119. Adjectives in «g add reQog and rarog after tlirowing out the t, as xagleig, xciQiiGreQog , laqiiGxavog. §.120. In most other adjectives , the terminations sffw- qog, sGruTog, more rarely iGxsQog, iGrarog, are appended to Ihe stem as it appears in the oblique cases , as Gojg, fit-K^OtCCTOg iXaxt-dxog oXiyiatog iXaxiaTog rJKiata (adv.) nXiiatog fisyiatog Qoiatog , dXyaivozarog aXyiatog. Note. There are a few other comparatives and superlatives, which are not traceable to an adjective in the positive, but must be referred to otlier words , as TCQotcQog and nqarog from 7Cq6 ; S8vrsQog from Svo ; IVjjcreos from £| ; TcXrjeiahsgog and nXrjaiahaTog from stlijct'oi' ; KQOVQyiccLTSQog from V^ovQyov^ and varsqog and vazarog, which cannot be traced to any stem. §. 123. From adjectives in the comparative and super- lative, adverbs are formed by changing the- terminations TSQog and xcttog into teQcag and rata ; the comparatives in av change onv into ov and tavog into lara, as: fii^aiog, fis^awriQcog , ^e^aiotava ; iSacpi^g , 9. &', 10. '', 11. to;', 12. Lp', 13. ^7, 14. cS', 15. le'. 16. ts-, 17. tr, 18. irf. 19. if, 20. »'> 30. X', 40. K' 50. ", 60. r, 70. 0, 80-. ^', 90. \, 100. Qr 200. e\. 300. T, 400. CARDINAL NUMERALS. eIs, (w'a, EV, one Svo TQSig, TqCa riaaaqtg, zsaaaqa Ttivts ?!' ' sitra OKTCO ivvia Sma svSeiia StoSsiia TQstg, rqCa iial Si-Aa or x^iqv.aCSsv.a riaaaqsg, a, kccI Ssxa, or TSBaa^cciiaiSsiia TCSvrsKaCScyiK i%v.aiSsv.a £nxav.aCSsii.a oiixcotiaLSiKa ivvsaimcLSciia TQiaHOVTCC Tsaeaqdnovta icswrjuovta ipSojirj'Kovra oySorjnovta ivsvrj^ovra suardv , SiaKoeioi; ai, a Tgiaxo'ctot, at, a zsTQCiKoawi or rsaauQa- ridaioi, at, a ORDINAL NUMERALS. TtQcStog, rj, ov, the first Ssvregog , a, ov TQiTog, rj, ov rhaqzog, rj, ov jtf'ftjrios , rj , ov §'}«ros, rj, ov s^Soflog, rj, ov oySoog, rj, ov h'axog or ^VfcuTOS Ssv-azog , rj, ov ivSsiiatog , rj, ov Sa>S£%atog , rj, ov TQigiiaiSstiarog , rj, ov reaaaqatiaiSsyiccTog , rj, ov TCEVte^aiSiiiccTog , rj, ov siiv,ai,Siv,atog , rj, ov 87CTaiiaLSstiatog , rj, ov OMTOJUatdEKKTOg , rj , OV ivvsaKaiStKccrog , rj, ov sl%oat6g, rj, ov TQiaKoarog, rj, ov TseaaQccKOBTog , rj, ov nsvtrjtioaTog , rj, ov t^rjtiOBtog, rj, ov s^Sofirj-Aoatog , rj, ov oySorjUoatog , rj, ov ivsvrjKoatog , rj , ov IxaToero's , rj , ov Siaiioai-oaTug , rj, ov TQiaitoaioexog , ij, ov Tcr^aKoaioazog , ij, ov Numerals. 61 CARBINAL NUMERALS. ORDINAL NUMERALS. 500. 600. 700. 800. 900. q) , aivxdKoatoi , ai, a nevraxoaioatog , ri, ov x', t^anoewi , at, a s^uKoaioaroe , tj, 6v ■ip', STCzaxoBioi, at, a ssTTaxoffiocrds , i], 6v to', OMraitdffiot, at, a dxTajtootoCTo's, V, ov TS, ivaxdotot or ivvay,6- ivattoaioarog or ivvaKO- otot, at, a aioatog, t], 6v 1000. ^a, j;fltot, at, a %i,Xioaz6g, rj, 6v 2000. p, Sigxilioi, at, a SigxiXioazog, tj, 6v 3000. ^y, TQLgx^^i'Oi, at, u ZQigxtXioatog , if, 6v 4000. S, TjrQKKtsjj^iioi, at, a rSTQanigxi-lioarog, rj, 6v 5000. s, jTEvraiitsjjtltot, at, a iisvzav.ig%ilioOT6g , tj, ov 6000. ^S, l|a5tisj;titot, at, a l|axts;i;titOffTds, if, 6v 7000. ^S, IjttKitts^t^toi , at, a £jtraxts;|;tltO()rds , if, dv 8000. ri, 6v,zayi.igx(Xioi , at, a djtTajttsjjiitoffTOS , I'l, 6v 9000. ^■9' , irajttsjjt'Atot or ivva- ivaiitgxiXi.oar6g or svva- «tsj;t'itot, at, a KiBxt-Xioarog , if, dv 10,000. t, ftu'ptot, at, a fiVQioazog , ij , 6v 20,000. K, SigjivQioi, ai, a Sigfivqioarog , if, 6v 30,000. X, TQigiivQioi., at, a z^ig/iVQioBTog , ij , 6v 40,000. j^ , TSTpaKigft'dgtot, at, a TST9aKtsfi:u9to(rTds, if, dv 50,000. V , jTEi/raxtsfirptot, at, a nivtfXKtgfiv^ioarog, ij, 6v 60,000. ^1, s^aiiigfivQioi , at, a slajttsfiuptocrds , if, 6v 70,000. o, litTaxtsfidgtot, at, a lirrajitsffugtoffrds, rf, dv 80,000. n , dxTaxtSftdptot, at, a dxTaxtgft'uptoCTdg, if, 6v 90,000. Q, ivatngfivQioi or ivva- ivaKigfivQwarog or ivva- Mtsfivptot, at, a KigfivQioxitos , if, dv 100,000. 6, ^ExaKigftugtot, at, a S£v.cciiigiJt,VQioar6g,rj, 6v. Note 1. In the case of the numbers 13 and 14, it is more common to use the declinable forms ZQSig Kal SsKcc and ziaea^sg ■nai Sitia, than the indeelinable t^ignccLSsiia , rsaaaQcniaiSsiia. Note 2. In combinations the smaller number may precede the larger one, but then they must always be connected by xat; when the smaller number follows the larger, the con- necting xat may either be used or omitted , as nevrs^ xat si- Koai, Ssaa Kal ekktovi bitt slv.oai reivrs or si'jioai Kal tcbvts, £%az6v 8sv.a or s-auzov ■nal Sina. Note 3. Instead of ovxd and ivvm followed by xat and one of the tens , it- is very common to find Svotv and svog (fttas) 8i(ov or anoSitov , „two" or ,,one being wanting", the participle Sitov agreeing with the substantive to which it refers, as InXsvas vccvai fttag (or Svoiv^ SsovBciig Ttevzi'inovza , he sailed with 49 (or 48) ships. The same system of subtraction is sometimes adopted even with . ordinal numerals , as svog Siovzi ZQiaiioaz(p hei,, in the 29"" year. 62 Words and Forms of Words. Note 4. In the case of the ordinal numerals, from 13 to 19, the Attics preferred employing the two parts separate, as rqixog Kal SiKarog, rsraQvog Kal ffsKavog, instead of rgig- KaiSfiiarog , TsaBaQaKai.SsY.atog &c. In the higher compotmd numerals, the smaller preceding the larger may be the cardi- nal number instead of the ordinal , as slg (pla or iV) v.al si- Koarog, the twenty first; stg «kI Tptajtoeroj, the thirty first. §. 127. The distributive numerals of the Latins are ex- pressed in Greek by prefixing 6vv to the cardinal numerals, or by using the preposition Kccra or avd with the accusa- tive, as (SvvSvo, jcata dvo or ava dvo, hint, two and two, or two each time; cvvxqsig, Kara r^sig or ava rgsLg, iemi, three each time. §. 128. Multiplicative numeral adverbs are ana^, once; dig, twice; XQig, thrice; but from four Upwards , the ter- mination ciKig is appended to the stem of the numeral , as ret Qcixig, four times; nevraxig, five times; i^axig, six times ; inraxig , oxraxig , ivaxig oi ivvaxig , dsxaxig, slxo- Gaxig , ixctrovtaxig , )iihaxig , [ivQiaxcg &c. Note 1; From some indefinite numerals and adjectives, ad- verbs are formed by the same suffix, as oXiyding, noXldiiig, TiXsovccKLg , offaKts &c. Note 2. Other numeral adverbs are fiovaxy, singly, alone; SljcV ^^^ ^^X'^i twofold, apart; Tgij;^, rSTqaxfj and s^ax'^, nollaxrj, navraxii, &c.; Snclrj, doubly; TgtwA^, trebly; TSiQanXii &c. Note 3. Numeral adjectives answering to those ending in English in fold , are anXovg, simple; SmXovg, double or two- fold; rqi'KXovg, treble or thi-eefold; tsrqanlovg , &c. itoXXa- pXovg. Comp. §. 85, which explains their declension. From these adjectives others are formed by changing aXovg into nXd- oiog, as Si7tXdai.og, TgiTiXdaiog , xsTQanXdaiog (twice, three times, four times as many); noXXanXdeiog, many times as many. Note 4. From the ordinal numerals (except jrpcoTog) are formed adjectives of three terminations atog, aCa, aiov , de- noting the number of days that a thing is or has been, as vsiAQol JTEftsTTafot, dead bodies that have been lying five days; SsvTSqaiog dcptKSro , he arrived on the second day. Note 5. Numeral substantives in dg (gen. dSog") are formed of almost all numbers, denoting the number as a unit, as (to- Pronouns. 63 vds, a unit; Svag, Tpieis (triad) , TSVQag, xsfimig (jcaiinrds or Ttsvzdg) , l|ag , i§So[idg , oySodg , ivvedg , Sstidg (decad), svSeiids, siiidg, T^taxdg &o., sv.movtdg, ztiidg, nvQidg. CHAPTER XX. PRONOUNS. §. 129. The declension of the personal or subsiantive pronouns is as peculiar in Greek as in Lal'n ; it is as fol- lows: — SINGULAR. 1^' person. Nom. iyoi, 1 Gen. ifiov and fiov Dat. ifioi and fiot' Ace. i/is and /is 2° person. av, thou aov COL ce a* person. is wanting (ov) 01 (') Nom. fiiistg, we Gen. TJfuSv Dat. tjiiiv Ace. TJiidg VJiHS, VfltOV vjidg you G(pf tg, C(pmv avtcov Dat. qfiiv avtoig, v/iCv avtoig, 6(piat.v avtoig Ace. T/fiag avtovg, v[iag avxovg, a^ag avtovg. But instead of Bq)cSv avrtSv &c. , we also find a regular plu- ral of savtov, as savtcov, cavTotg, eavrovg. Note 2. Reflective pronouus usually refer to the subject of the clause 'in which they occur , whereas the ordinary personal pronouns refer to another person or thin^, as naiSsveo iiiav- To'j', I educate myself, but naiSsvca as, I educate thee. It must be observed that savtov frequently has a reciprocal signi- fication, in the sense of aXXrjXiav , and is also used instead of the reflective pronoun of the second person. §. 131. The Greek language possesses what may be termed a reciprocal pronoun , which from its meaning oc- curs only in the oblique cases of the plural and dual , as Gen. dXXj'iXmv, mv, mv, one another G. D. dXXrjXoiv, aiv, oiv Dat. dXXrjXoig, ccig, oij Ace. dXXTJXco, a, co. Ace. dXXrjXovg, as, a. §. 132. The possessive pronouns of the singular are connected in form with the -genitive singular, and those of the plural with the nominative plural of the personal pronouns, and their declension is regular like that of or- dinary adjectives in og, i; (a), ov: ifiog, 7J, ov, my ■nfistSQOg., -a, ov, our aog, BTj, GOV, thy v[iitSQog, a, ov , your (o's, 'ti,ov), his aqiSTSQog, a, ov, their. Note. The possessive pronoim of the third person, dg, ^, ov, does not occur-in ordinary prose, but its place is sup- plied by the genit. of avrog , or by the genit. of the reflective pronoun. Pronouns. 65' §. 133. There are three dembnslrative pronouns , oSs, i^ds, Todf, this one here; ovtog, avti^, rovro, this or thai one (pointing backwards, or to the person addressed), and ixsivog, 7j, 0, that one (pointing to a remote object). The declension of Zds, ijfie, zode is precisely like that of the article, the enclitic tfe being added in every case. See §.78 with note 3. Exeivog is declined regularly like adjectives in oj, Tj, ov, except that the neuter sing, ends in o instead of ov. See §. 84. The declension of ovrog is somewhat irregular :; SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nom. ovtog, avtrj, rovro Nom.ovtoi, avrai, ravra Gen. rovrov,ravrrig,rO'6zov Gen. rovttov , rovraiv, rovtmv Sat. rovtca , ravry , rovrip Dat. rovroiq, ravr.aiq , tovzoig Ace. zovroVfTavrrjV, rovro Ace. rovroys , zavrag , ravra, DUAL. Nom. Ace. TOi/ro) (zavra) zovrca Gen. Oat. zovroiv , ravraiv, rovroiv. Note 1. The demonstratives roiovtog, roiavcT], zoiovro (talis), such ; roaovrog, rooavZrj, roaovro (tantits), so great, and. ZTjliiiovrog , TTjimKUTTj, rrjXiiiovzo (tantus), so great, are de- clined like ovtog, except that the r which occurs in the oblique cases of outos, is dropped in these compounds, as TOtouTOf, zoiavrT]g, roiovrmv &c. Instead of the lieuters roiovto, ro- ^ aovro, and rrjliiiovto, moreover, the forms roiovtov, rqaov- zov , and zTiXntovrov are more commonly used. Note 2. For the purpose of increasing the demonstrative power of demonstrative prononns, the demonstrative i may be added to all their cases. This i is. always long, lias the accent, and absorbs a preceding short vowel, as ovxooC, rov- TcavC, zovri, zavzC, 6SC, avrrji , ovzoU , htsiviovl fic. Note 3. It should be observed that the article top origi- nally had demonstrative power. ,§.134. The pronoun avzog, avrri, avxo (self), and the relative og, ^ , o , are regularly declined , except that their neuter singular ends in o instead of ov. See §. 84. Note. When the article is put before kotos,- it means "the same", as 6 avrog, r] avzq, ro avro; 6 avrdg av&Qtonog, the same man, but awrog 6 'av&QCO^og , the man himself. When the form of the article preceding avrog ends in a vowel, it maybe united with avrog into one word by means of the crasis, and in this case the neuter is either avro or avrov, as ravro or zavrov; ravrtS, r avrov, ravry &c. 5 66 Words and Porms Of Words. §. 135. The'inteirag'aUve pronoun x(g, wJio, rl, what, as well as the indeikvite enclitic rig, some one, and rl, something, follow the third declension with some irregu- larities in accentuation, as: — INTEnROGATIVE INDEFINITE SINGULAR. Norn. Ti's (m. & f.), who, ri, what Norn, tig (m. & f.), rl, some one, something Gen. tivos — rtVog Gen. rivoe — rivos Dai. rtvi — rCvi Dai. tivi — zivC Ace. rivu — zC Ace. ti,vd — rl PlUBAl. , Nom. Tivcg (m. & f.) , riva Nom. rivig (m. &f.), Ttvd Gen. tlvtav — . tCvcov Gen. zivtov — tivrnv Dat. Ttct(r) — ziei{y) Dat. tit!i(v') — rLai(v') Ace. tCvas — zCva Ace. zivds t~ zivd DUAL. Nom. Ace. zCvs (all genders) Ncm. Ace. zivs (all genders) Gen. Dat. zCvoiv (all genders) Gen. Dat. zivoiv (all genders). Note. Respecting the accentuation of these pronouns, see §. 28, and §. 36, 2. Instead of the genitive and dative of either pronoun, we also find the forms zov and zm , which re- tain their accent > when they stand for the interrogative, but are enclitics , when they take the place of the indefinite. In- stead of the neuter plural ZLvd we also find the form aztct, which always retains its accent. §.336. The indefinite relative o'sttg, -^ig, on, being compounded of og, ■^, o, and the indefinite_wg, rl, is de- clined in both parts, as genit. ovrivog, ijtfwi/oj, arivi, Tjrivi, &c., and the two words, though written as one, are treated, as if they were quite distinct in reference to accent. Note. Instead of ovrivog we often find orov , for (privi, or a , for- oavrivcov and olariaiv , orcov and o'roiaiv , while for anvcc, drra or ciaaa is frequently employed. §. 137. All other pronominal adjectives are regular ad- jectives of three terminations o?, ■»; (k), ov. Many of Ihem proceeding from the same stem differ in their meaning and form correlatives as presented in the following series; Pronouns. 67 =^2oa-o a^^'-pB- Q tLO ^'^u) ->aio O ■-« > 5-3 - 3 - ^ a it it » o s o ° ° B. a 5 e- ? :? o» S o is " i>" 3 S a -a ^ ■ !?.a g *5 » ^ o> ? » ;a^ o 000 ?*■ O "^ w ai w Oft ffi2^'*i" o "^ t*2«H.«^'^ei — ^a PI- CB S 3 .*», P* H C M 53 o OjS-O'O * £ B*S'S5 "" s;5-3 6S,' > P-S, ■ B-5- 3 s M 5" r* 1 © S ■ !» ?, ►-^ S-o-:= > 3 -n . 68 Words and Forms of Words. CHAPTER XXI. THE VERB IN GENERAL. §. 138. As far as form is concerned, the Greek verb has only two voices, the active and the passive; but the form does not always correspond with the meaning , for some passive forms have an active meaning;, and certain active forms have a passive meaning. §. 139. A nmTiber of passive forms are employed in Greek in a sense which stands , as it were , in the middle between the active and the passive, and are therefore called the middle voice, so that the Greek language has three voices , the active , the passive and the middle. The last in- dicates that the subject performing an action does it for or to himself, as inoiijcfaii'rjv , I made for myself, or I caused (some one) to make for nie. §. 140. The forms peculiar to the middle voice are two aorists with passive forms , and a future with passive form, which however sometimes has also a passive mean- ing. The present, imperfect, perfect and pluperfect of tlie middle voice are always the same as in the passive. Note. "Whether any of these last four tenses have an active or a passive meaning, must be gathered from the context of the passage in which they occur. §. 141. In tenses the Greek language is richer than the Latin, for besides those of the Latin language, the Greek has the aorisi, which is chiefly used in historical narrative (like the historical perfect of the Latins) , and se- veral tenses, moreover, have Iwo or even three forms, which sometimes also differ in meaning. Thus some verbs have two aorists in all the voices , two perfects and two pluperfects in the active, and three futures in the passive. KoTE. The second future and the second aorist cannot be formed in certain classes of verbs , and are therefore of com- paratively rare occurrence. The second future o6curs chiefly in liquid verbs. See below §. 201. The Verb in general. 69 §. 142. The six tenses of the Greek verb am divided into two classes, the chief or leading tenses, comprising the present, perfects and futures, and the secondary or histo- rical lenses, viz. the imperfect, the pluperfects and the aorists. §. Ii3. The Greek language has five moods, the indi- calive, the subjunctive, the optative, the imperative, and the infinitive. The first of them may be termed the objective and the remaining four the subjective moods. The optative derives its name from the fact, that when unaccompained by the particle av, it generally expresses a wish or desire, as TvjtTOifti, I wi^ or should like to beat. Note 1. All participles as well as the verbal adjectives ending in to's and rsog axe in form adjectives. Note 2. The subjective mood and participles can be formed only from the chief or leading tenses and from the aorists, the imperfect and pluperfect existing only in the indicative mood. No future, however, has either a subjunctive or an imperative. §. 144. The number of verbs , like that of nouns , is threefold, singular, dual, and plural. The dual however has no first person in the active voice nor in the aorists of the passive which are active in form ; and in these cases the place of the first person of the dual is supplied by the passive. Note. No Greek verb, so far as vc can judge from the extdnt writings has all its voices, moods, and tenses complete. §. 145. All Greek verbs are divided into two classes, viz. those of which the first person of the present indica- tive ends in w, and those in which the same form ter- minates in jit. The former class which is by far the more numerous , is generally termed Verbs in co , and the latter verbs in fii. These two classes of verbs constitute two distinct conjugations. Note 1. The conjugation of verbs in /it differs from that of those in . §. 146. That pari of a verb which remains after the re- moval of all terminations and the chatiges occasioned .by them is called the stem of the verb ; and the last letter of the stem constitutes the character of a verb. According as the last letter of the stem is a vowel (or diphthong;), a li- quid, or a mule, the verbs are called ^ra, liquida and mula. §. 147. Pure verbs (verba pura) arc those of which the stem ends in a vowel or diphthong; those ending in the present in urn, im, or 6a admit of contractions in the present and imperfect of all voices and moods , and are hence called contracted verbs; no other pure verbs are contracted. §. 148. Mule verbs (verba muUi) are those of which the stem ends in a mute, ^, n, ip, y , k, %, S, i, %; and liquid verbs (verba liquida') are those of which the stem ends in a liquid, A, (i., v, q. Note 1. The pure stem of a verb does not always appear in the present tense in Greek any more than in Latin. In many cases the present, after throwing off the termination a>, pre- sents either an increased or strengthened, or a weakened stem. Thus verbs in nxto have a stem in p, n, or gj; verbs in fra have a stem ending in S , t, or •9', and verbs in eaca or zta, have a stem ending in y, x, or ;i;. The altered stem which occurs in the present is retained only in the imperfect; in all the other tenses the pure stem appears. Thus the pure stem of rvnzta is zvit, of KOfii^oo KO/iiS, and of n^uaaco n^ay. Note 2. Which of the three mutes in each of the three classes constitutes the character of verbs whose stem is modiiied Verbs in m. 71 iu the present tense, is In many cases a matter of indifference, but must be known to form the second perfect , the second fu- ture, and the second aorist, for the terminations of these tenses begin witli a vowel , and are added to the pure stem of the verb. BXaittco and v.qvnzto have the stems (iXa^ and v.^v^; ^dnrco, &a7cr(o , ^dnzco , qltctco , and GKcenTco have ^acp , tacp , Qaq>, ^i has the stem it^ay , tp^Caaa has qpQiK; whereas, by way of exception, iidaaia, TiXdeaco, ^qdaoai, SQEcao), Tcziaaa, and ^XCaaoa have a stem ending in ^, as iiaS , nKaS, fi^aS &c. AU verbs ending iu fa) and expressing a sound have a stem ending in y, as ■nqd^ca, atevd^oa, dlaXdSoo, and also erajia, GXi^co and OTij^tJoj. ■ Others in Jco have a stem ending in yy, as KXd^to, aainClta, uXayy, aaXniyy. . Note 3. The stem of many liquid verbs is likewise in- creased or strengthened in the present, especially by doubling the X in those of which the stem ends in Xi,\ by the insertion of t, as in those in aCvta, sivco, ulqco and etgco, and by lengthening the vowels i and v in the verbs ending in t'vto, vvttj and vqw ; e. g. axiXXto from the stem arsX , cpaCvm from cpdv, v-xtCvm from-jtrsv, aiqco from 'ap, OTtsCqta from am^, KQivto from tiqiv, dfivvio from tJ/iifi'. Note 4. Pure verbs in which the m of the present is pre- ceded by a short vowel, retain this short vowel generally in the present and imperfect alone, whereas in all other forms tlie short vowels £ and a are lengthened' into ij and o into o) , as ■noiim and zi/idai , fut. noirjaai and ztfit'iBto ; and iiia&oai, fut. But those in am, in which the a is preceded by s, t or p, liave a long of as eoe be naturally long, the augmerjt, of course, produces no change upon tliem, as in iv.srsva, iv.h- xsvov ; vlaKrsco , vXaiitsi. The vowels rj and ca likewise re- main unchanged, as ■^§cc(o, tj^jjko;; m&i^co, {o9iSs- Note 2. The following verbs beginning with s augment this vowel to bl: — Mco, permit; i^i^m, accustom; tXCeaio, roll; sXkco and £l»i)a), drag; iqydSo[ia.i, labour; egnco and Egjrujto, creep ; satidm, receive hospitably. In like manner E;i;a), I have, and STioiiai , I follow , make their imperfects clxov , st%6firiv and ttTcoiirjv. Comp. ?»j^i, aiQico and ^9(o in the list of irregular verbs. Note 3. The diphthongs ai, cc, and oi, have their lirst vowels augmented and the i is subscribed , as alzia , jjTOVv, a^Sm, ■gSov^ oCksio , tp-nrjiici. Note 4. The diphthongs ei and ev are generally not aug- mented at all , as il'y.oi , siy.ov ; Bvqiaitco , svgrj'iia ; Bvj^Ofiai,, ■ sv^dfiTlv. But sometimes sv is' augmented to Tjv, and the Et in sCKa^co is sometimes augmented to rj. Note 5. Verbs beginning with so augment tlie o , as soq- TCfJo , Ico'gTaJoj' ; ^oiKa, kciv-siv. Note 6. . Some verbs beginning with a vowel have the syl- labic augment s, as m^sa, im&Ovv^ covsofiai, ioovovfirjv ^ on^ita, iovQrjKCi. The same is the case with the aorists and perfects of ayvvjit, and ocUoKOiJiat, , .aS'Saia, idyrjv, i'aya; sdlcov f idX(OKa , and the perfect s'oiiia. The verbs dvoiym and ogdio have both the syllabic and the temporal augment combined, as dviaiyov, dveco^a; 'stagiav , sdqaiux. §. 152. Some of the verbs beginning with or, s, or o have, in the perfects and pluperfects, a pecuHar kind of reduplication; called the Attic , though it is by no means confined .to the Attic dialect. It consists in the first two letters of the verb being repeated before the temporal aug- ment, as ayetQa, ayqysQKa; ctlsCcpm, ali^iti,(pa; ilavvai 74 Words and Forms of Words. Note. 1. In some verbs the second aorist has a similar re- duplication as Tjyccyov from aym ; r/vsyKa and TJvsyxov from ivsK^tpe^m). In these aorists the temporal augment appears in tlie reduplication itself, and not after it, and moreover, occurs only in the indicative, aorists not being augmented in the other moods, as dyayio, ayayiiv &c. Note 2. If in verbs of this kind the second syllable of the stem has a diplithong, it is generally shortened, st becoming I, and in liquid Verbs e, and ov being changed into o, as aXsiqxo , dhjlicpa , dXijlt^jiai ; iysLQCo, iyrjysQKa, iyrjysQiicci ; aKoiico, dtirjKoa. 'EgsiSto alone is an exception, making Jgry- QCLKcc and iQijQSiafiai. / Note 3. In the pluperfect of these reduplicated verbs, tlie vowel of the reduplication also is sometimes augmented , as movca, diirjiioa, ijkjjmo'sh'; but this is rarely done in otlier verbs than duoiito. B. The Augment in verbs beginning with a consonant. §. 153. ■ Verbs beg'inning' with, a consonant have Ihe syl- labic aug-ment s prefixed to them in Ihe imperfects and in the indicative of the aorists, as rwtrm, s-rvmov, i-rvn- TOftijv, k'-rvijja, i-rvTpaiiTjv. Note. The verbs povXofiai., Svvaficti , and [iskXa often strengthen their syllabic? augment by the temporal one as ■^^ov- J.o'fuji', TjSvvazo, TjjislXov, but the simple augment is better. Instead of ixQV'" we sometimes find x^TjV, without any augment. §. 154. Verbs beginning' with q double this, consonant after the augment, and this augment also suffices for the perfects, pluperfects, and the third future, as ^ima, imp. s^QVTtxov, aor. e^Qiipa, perf. i'^Qitpa, plup. e6Q[(pciv. §. 155. Verbs beginning witli two consonants (including 5, I and 1^), unless they are a mute followed by a liquid, have the simple syllabic augment not only in the imperfects and aorists , but in the perfects , pluperfects and the third future, as Jijrs'co, sf^njxa, i^ijtrjXEiv, e^T^rrniai, s^ricri(Mp> ; g)&£iQiaprjtm. The same double augment sometimes occurs in verbs which are properly not compounded with prepositions, as SiaLtdco, iScyrrjaa and SLiqxrjaa; and dwxovia, dsSiriyidvrjita. §. 159. Verbs compounded with any other words, have Ihe aug:ment and reduplication at the beginning,, as a&v- jisa, fj&vfiovv; oixodojiico, (OKoSoiirjGa, (pv,oSofir]xcc; (jco- q>qovm, iGmg>^ovovv, iamgiQOvrjGa , eeGaxp^ovrjxa. Note 1. Verbs compounded with Svg followed by a conso- nant or a long vowel have the augment at the beginning , as ^•usrv;i;E'(» , iSvgrvxovv, SsSvgrvx'ri'''-ci> but when $vg is fol- lowed by a short vowel, the temporal augment comes in after 9vg, as Svgaqsartco , dvsrjQeatovv. Note 2. Verbs compounded with sv, generally augment the sv to rju,. according to §. 151, ii.4.; butwhen sv is followed by a short vowel, this vowel may be augmented, as svsqystso), svrjQyetovv ; but we also iind svsQyhovv, without any augment. §. 160. Both the augment and the reduplication are em- ployed in all the three voices of a verb. The reduplication, both the common and the Attic as well as the augment when supplying the place of a redupUcation , are retained also in all the moods ; but the augment in the imperfects and the aorists is limited to the indicative, so tl;at the aofists in the subjunctive, optative, imperative, infinitive,' and participle have no augment. Verbs. ~- The Terminations. 77 CHAPTER XXIV. THE TERMINATIONS. §. J.61. Most of the terminations employed to form the different parts of a verb begin with consonants, which if tlie stem ends in a consonant, produce the changes pointed out in §. 42 and fol. The consonant most commonly be- ginning the termination is (J, and before this a tlie conso- nants S, T, & are thrown put, while j3, n, , make their aorists slna, T]vsy%a, and £j;£a. Note 3. According to §. 57 anivSea makes its futiTre GTlELOm. §. 162. The terminations of the first perfect and pluper- fect active, begin with an aspirated vowel (or and dv) in all verbs the stem of which ends in (3, n, qj, or y, k, %, and accordingly, the consonant preceding the vowel must always be an aspirate , as jcAsko, nhtlEyju ; tpt/So), ■tixQi.qia, hiXQiipaiv. In all other verbs the termination ol these tenses is jca and kuv. before which S, r, and & are thrown out, as Ivm, liXvxct, ilsXvxscv; ayyiXla, i^yyelxa, riyyilxstv; nsi&a, nsTtsir.a; KOfil^m, Ksxojiixci. Note. If the stem of a verb ends in (p or %, it remains, of course, unchanged before the aspirated a and stv, as yqaijico, yiy^acpa; Tivxto, rhsvjra, iysyqacpsiv. §. 163. The first aorist and the first future of the passive have terminations beginning, with -9', and the verbal ad- jectives have terminations beginning with.r. According to 78 Words and Forms of Words. §. 42, the consonants 6, r, & are changed before- r and 9 into a; jS and rt into qo, and y and k into j^ (see §§. 43 and 44) , as nsi&a, insls&rjv, nna&iqaoiictt ; neiinm, iniiKp&riv, nsjKp&rjSojiai , liyco, ikij(&riv, Xsx&i^aofiat; nei&ai, nei- CTOj, nsiGxiog. Before r, the consonants jS and cp are changed into nr, and y and ;( into k, as tql^a, rqmxog, TQinriog; r£vxo>, wuJtrdj. See §. 43. S- 164. The greatest changes occur in the perfect and pluperfect passive , the terminations jiai , (Sai , rat , 6&ov, fis&a, e^e, vrai &e. being appended directly to the stem of the verb , which accordingly undergoes the changes re- quired by the concurrence of its final consonant with the initial consonant of the termination. They have been pointed out in chap, VI. Thus we have yqatpa, ysyqaiifnat, iysyQUji- fiijv , yeyQaijtat , ysyqanxai ; nlsxa , nenlsyfiai , ninls^ai, ninlsKtai; nsl&a, 7ti7t£i6(iat , nhcuOai, nineiS-tai (fee. Note 1. "When the (i of the termination of the perfect and pluperfect are preceded by yy or ftp., the second y or ft are thrown out, as iXsyxm, iXijlsyjxcii. for iXr/leyxiiai, or ilrj- XsyyiiccL; xocftTcrta, xixaftftort, for KiKafijiiiai or ^stuxfiiiiiai. Note 2. When any of the terminations beginning with e& is preceded by a stem ending in a liquid or mute, the a is thrown out (see §. 58); hence tpaCvco makes iiicpav&s instead of jrs- cpava^'s; %Xiv.oa, nsTtksx^s for nsTtlsxa^s ; nsi&ca, ninsLa&e for TTETtftfl'ffS-E or ■JtBTtiL^S'i; §QlZO>, pPgE^'^s for pt'PpE^fff.S's; : rQi^co, thQLcp^e for titqi^a&a. It will be observed in these examples that the mute preceding the termination, after the throwing out of the ff undergoes its regular change before 9. Note 3. The terminatioas vrai and vzo, in the third person plural of the perfect and pluperfect passive cannot be employed, when the stem ends in a consonant. The lonians evaded the difficulty by changing the v into a, but in the Attic dialect a paraphrase of 8Cei and TJaav, with the participle of the per- fect passive was employed instead, as tsrvjiiisvoi (at, a), eiaiv , Tjcav. §. 165. The following table exhibits the terminations of the Greek verb in its principal and historical tenses , both in the active and the passive voice : — Verbs. The Terminations. 79 A. PRINCIPAl TENSES. r' person. wanting .a (Sing, jioit i ^ Dual (ic&ov e tov xs ecu e&ov e9s 3V. vzai(v') zai a9ov vTat Vipers. B. HISTORICAL TENSES. 2'^p. i* pers. v(aav) wanting (lev (iriv (^He&ov) ft£'9'0f s xov ts ao ad-ov IMPERATIVES. Sing, wanting £(0») ■ceo Dual wanting zov rmv Plur. wanting ■cs (zataav') vrcov wanting ao wanting a&ov wanting a9s to VZO a9ia a9eov aQ-a>v §. 166. In many cases the terminations are not added directly to the stem , but a connecting vowel is employed to unite the stem and termination , with the latter of which it is sometimes contracted into a long vowel 6r a diphthong. Note 1. a is employed as connecting- vowel in the first aorist active and middle, and in the indicative of the perfect active. In the first person sing, of the aorist and perfect , the a seems to be the termination itself, but the a stands for a(i or avj and in the third person singular it is changed into s. In the imperative the a gives way to o in the second person singular, as Ivto, Xv-G-o-v. Note 2. tt is regularly the connecting vowel in the two pluperfects of the active, as ezsrvcp-ti-v. Note 3. The indicative of the present, future, imperfect and the second aorist, both active and middle, have sometimes E and sometimes o as connecting vowel. In the singular of the present and future active, the connecting vowel is contained in the terminations, as zv7tz-m, zvitz-ug, zvitz-si. Note 4. The vz in the third person plural before a is thrown out, and the preceding vowel lengthened according to §, 57, as zvTCz-ovzai , zvitzovai ; zszvcpavzei , zszvcpaai. §■ 167. All subjunctives have for their connecting vowel an 0), wherever the indicative has o, and rj wherever the indicative has s, as Ivofisv, kveofisv; Ivsrs, Ivrjts. , 80 Words and Forms of Words; Note. Wherever the indicative. has ei, the subjunctive has Tj, as Ivsi, Xvsig, i.vT], i.vris. Instead of the ovatv in the third plural of tlie indicative, the subjunctive has coct, as TvTctovai, zvnxtoei^ Xvovai, Xvtoai,, so also XsXmaei,, Is- Imcoci. §. 168. The peculiarity of the optative consists in i being added to the connecting vowels o and or, as Ivoifii, kvoi- liTjv; kvGctifM, XviSaijifjv. It also appears in the optative terminations slrjv and ottjv. §. 169. The (J of the terminations Cai and Go in the se- cond person singular of passive forms is dropped when preceded by a connecting vowel , as Xvoiao becomes Xvoio ; XvaaiGo , IvGaio ; and in the indicatives , imperatives and subjunctives of verbs in a, the connecting vowel is, more- over , contracted with the termination , as IvsGai becomes kvrj; Ivrjaai becomes Ivy; ilveao, iXvov; ilvaccGo, ilvGia; XvsGo, Ivov. Note. In ancient Attic it was very common to contract eaai into ft instead of rj; and in the case of some verbs this con- tinued at all times to be the rule, thus ^ovXofial, oiofiai, and utl>oiiai always have the second person singular §ovlei., oi'ei, and oi/jst, whereas ^ovXr) and oI'tj are used only as subjunctives. §.*170. The following are the terminations of the infini- tives of verbs in to : — a) Active. 1. The present ends in si,v, as fiivEiv, Xvsiv. 2. The future ends in Gsiv, and in hquid verbs in elv, as XvGiiv, yQuipuv; [isveiv. 3. The second aorist ends in elv, as §alELv, il&sTv. 4. The first aorist ends in gul, and in hquid verbs in ai , as IvGcci , ayyElkai. 5. The perfect ends in svai or Ksvai, as TEXvgiivai, nenaidevKEvoci. h) Passive. All infinitives end in 6'9-a(,. preceded in the present, tlie futures and second aorist middle by Formation of Tenses from one another. 81 the connecting vowel s, and in the first aorist middle by the connecting vowel a, as Ivee&ai, kvasa&ai, Xv&'^tSsa&cet, , IsX'uaaa&ai, ^uXid&ai, Ivaaa&at. In the perfect alone the ending , ^niiea; yiJCLtpaif yQaipa, ^'yQaipa; Koxxm, Kotpo), ^Koipa; rdaaco, zd^co, ^Tala; (0, yiyqcKp-a; nsC&a, nsitEi-Ka; KOjil^m, xSKOjii-xa. Note. Some verbs change the s of their monosyllabic stem in the perfect into o , as nifjrro) , y,sy.Xocp-a ; nsfmca , iti- srofiqp-a; xQEnco and rqsqxo, TSt.qoip-(x; atqsqxn, k'oTQOip-a; Xiyetj sl'iox-a- §. 176. The first pluperfect active is formed from the perfect by changing a into hv, and xa into xEiv, and by prefixing the augment to the Tedupllcation , as Xilvxa, i-lElv-xsiv; i^T^TTjxa, ^fijt^-xetv ; oqcoqvxu, coQmQvx-Eiv. Comp..§. 157. §. 177. The first aorist passive is formed from the pure stem by adding the termination- -Stjv, and prefixing the augment , which however is employed only in the indica- tive, as ivco, ilv-&fiv; yquipm, eyqa(p-&inv; noim, iTCOirj- &tiv;, xofii^m, ixonla-^&riv; nijinco, Ensii-&riv, yQuq)-&'riaoiicci. Comp. §. 163. 6* 84 Words and Forms of AVords. §. 179. The perfect and pluperfecl passive are formed by the lerminations fiat and (irjv being added to the pure stem without any connecting; vowel, the perfect receiving, hke the perfect active the augment or reduplication, and the pluperfect generally tlie augment in addition to the reduplication, as Xvm, Xikv-iiat, ilskv - (irjv; ypdtqpo), yiyQafi-i^ai, lyEyqa^i- ^irfv. Comp. §. 164. Note 1. The verbs TpEjroj, rgicpto, CTpf'qpm change, in the perfect and pluperfect, the f of their stem into a, as zetftati- liui, hszQdjiiiTjV} iarqaii^ai, iarqa^i^jiv. Note 2. The subjunctive and optative of the perfect pas- sive are generally expressed by a periphiasis with tl\ii and the participle of the perfect passive , as XiXvfiivoq (jj , ov) to ; Xc- Xvfisvog (rj, ov) iCijv. In a few cases however, as e.g., that of the verbs calico , XTao(tai and iii[ivjjaii£vyu; tpqlsam, nicpqlKa. Note 1. When the stem of a verb contains a short a, it is changed into a, if preceded by a ^ or another vowel; in all other cases into 7) ; and £ and i are changed into o and oi, as Q-al (Q'dXl.to) , ri^Tila; tek (zUtm'), ■cizov.a; Xin (Xsinai), XsXoma. But a long a remains unchanged, as Ttfdaeai, ni- ngaya; %gdito, v.i%Qaya. As liquid verbs whose present eon- tains u, have for their pure stem only «, the second perfect takes instead, as htsCvco, I'jtroj'a. The second perfect is altogether partial to the vowel o, whence such forms as olSa, i'oiiia, k'^QCoya (tcom.^^yvvfii), and il'w&a (from ^'■9'(b). Note 2. The second perfect is of comparatively rare oc- currence, and is formed only from primitive verbs. §. 184r The second pluperfect is formed from the second perfect, by changing the « into siv, and by prefixing the augment to the reduplication, as iitE, Xiv-nalvio, aaCvto, oQyaivoa, nenaivat. §. 191. In regard to all other tenses, which are formed from the pure stem , it must be observed that monosyllabic stems containing e preceded by a consonant , change the e into a, as (SriUoa, 'dsraXKcc, e'srixliiai , eatdl&riv, iera- i.r]v, CiraAroj. 88 Words and Forms of Words. The verbs Kqlvm, kUv(0, relva, xreivm and nlvvco, moreover, drop their v before a consonant, as xixQiKU, KiKQijiai, ixQi&fjv, xQiTOs ; rkuKa, ritajiai, itd&rjv, tatog. Note. In, the perfect and pluperfect, the v of the stem is generally changed before (t into ff, as '^Spvco , jiSva^ai; ari- ixaivco, asarjfiaaiicii, iaBar]ii,(ie[iriv. In like manner thp Attics formed the perfect passive from tpaCva , XviiaCvto , [iiaCvm, vipaCvm, nsgaivco, maCvat, Xiicrvvto, and o^vvm. In late writers the v is sometimes dropped and the preceding vowel lengthened, without the insertion of a. §. 192. The second aorist active and middle of h'quid verbs is of rare occurrence, and in the passive too the first aorist is much" more commonly u^ed tlian the second. Note. The second aorists active most commonly employed are c^alov and. l^^alofiriv (from pdllto}; ciiavov (from kcclvio); inzaqov (from TCtdQVVficu). CHAPTER XXVIII. ACCENTUATION OF VERBS. §. 193. Verbs generally have the accent as far back as the last syllable permits , as XsC^tca , leiits , naidevs , ^QOggjeQe. Note 1. Only apparent exceptions are the Attic and Dorib futures (§. 174, notes 4 and 5), the future of liquid verbs (§. 189), the' present and imperfect of contracted verbs, the subjunctive of passive aorists, which have the accent on the terminations because they are contracted (^naiSsv^d and v.onto, for TtaiSiv^ico and xonrEo) , and some cases of the temporal augment, as K^ogijyoj' from tiqosaym. Note 2. Monosyllabic forms of verbs with a vowel long by nature have the circumflex , as a%£ (but dit6a%ia) ; but qjjj'g- (from cprjfiC) and the impersonal XSH form exceptions. §. 194. In the indicative, however, the accent is never put further back than the augment, as naQe6%ov, not naQsS'jipv.' The. following imperatives also are exceptions to the ge- neral rule sijti, evqi, iX&s, Ids , and la^i; but in compo- sition the rule is observed, as ansK&s, unola^s &e. Accentuation of Verbs. 89 The second person singular of the imperative of the second aorist has the circumflex on the termination ov , as ka^ov, avaXa^ov; but sometimes the accent is put on the penultima. Note. Verbs in fii compounded with a preposition , whose imperat. of the second aorist middle is monosyllabic (as 9ov), have the accent "on the preposition only when it has two syl- lables , as 0tsqi&ov (from TCS^iTC&tjfii.) , but 7CQog&ov. In like manner naQsxai and i(pe7C0[iai have na^axov and inianov, §. 195. The terminations oi and at in the optative are treated as long in reference to accent, whence, e. g. , nai- 3sv6ai is the third person sing, of the optative of the first aorist active , while naiSEvtSat is' the infinitive of the same tense, and nalSevHai, the imperat. of the first aorist middle. §. 196. The infinitives of the first aorist active and of the perfect passive always have the accent on the penul- tima , as naiSevdai. , yslaeai; nenaiSeve&at , lelvS&ai,. The infinitive of the second aorist middle , and all in- finitives ending in vat have the accent on the penultima, as evii^ccXie&ai , XElvxivai, Xv&ijvfii, ri&ivcci, &eivai. The infinitive of the second aorist active always has the circumflex on the termination, as ^aksiv, ik&stv. §. 197. The participle of the perfect passive always has the accent on the penultima, as lekviisvos, Islvfiivri, Xe- Xvnivov; ysyqa^nLtvog , svr], ivov. ] §. 198. The participle of the second aorist active and all participles' ending in toff and ug, and, in the case of verbs in fit, also those ending in ag, ODg and vg, have the acute on the last syllable in the masculine and neuter, and in the feminine the circumflex on^ the penultima , e. g. ^aXdu, ovaa, 6v; XsXvKtog, via, 6g; Xv9stg, ei6a, iv; Ti&svg, EiSa, iv; tarag. Sea, av; Sidovg, didovSa, didov; Semvvg, Setxvvaa, Sukvvv. Note. It must be observed that participles like adjectives Vetain in all cases the accent on the syllable on which it is in the nominative, provided the last syllable permits it. 90 Words and Forms of Words. £» p- ffj -t: O^ V) GJ 3 ^ -^ .S « OJ — ' be c han rese ct. o Cl,^ GJ H^ t- c Si lu a ►* CI , QJ ^ »J CO a a> ^-l u -C2 o C3 H - .iS ^ >< p. X < o though etimes s or has i w o o pi a .- S (3 ;> w p 3 o _ "? =" en w H "* -n M > P^ Oh verb g an aori H < b O o n the es Ion econd < < s$Z o C3 1st o & o aj u §. 199. We select as a s idical vowel v , it being S' Iv , this verb cannot hav Ed s >> .J o o P. 'P ^ o <-^ r< H ;k r. (S a is H •s s > (>l (U ^ '^ e4 , o ?k > 9k 3 a v^ 5 i o f* 1 to 5i 1 3 1 3 t» 3^X. V ^ "? \^ ^ J cu -i w *Cg tu "ly ;; s $> ;3 'B B -ii '^ '^ ^ "i <-« *-.; r< Oii a > » a a % f CA bo c K" "; H) ?* £ o o o J. o o o o o o -?-?>-? ^ P-i i-5. »<<<<-<; f-< r^ ^-< «^ .-i a > H ;k ?> 5> ^ 3 CA B5 S:- boo o 2 5 V ^' 1 '■§ P- S- 3 V s S-3 n 1 1 1 P . *^ •P '5 ■s -P'P ^;i"?> Cfl <-* r^ c< r^ "i ^ «-^ »^ 1 to ?. c (U .S tn < — • o o c CO r be o H to o 1 f C/ H _fl VA O LU (^ .3 ? i 1 1 m C3 p ?. i '? '5 ■i ■i -p4 '?>^i r^ <-< r< r< r< »y r< t^ r< i-< r< I^ Ktu Kfu tC) n 1 (5 c Kl bo a CO Conjugation of pure uncontracted Verbs. 91 C_ E Cil O) CJJ i u. » S X p~°. i p p ' '?? «» W) «J to ? i-< r< *^ 1 •-< , /-N 3 cu . 1 s — ® •5 p s s; •-i to 4 ;^ «^ ;4 ^ o jr «j «, ti ooo 1 ooooo 1 1 1 ' 1 1 1 1 1 tutoto tUtOtUtOttJ «^ r< *-< rii c^ *^ «^ r< • cututo totocototu R & & V f fv & 1 Wmj O (U O -^ r^ »-< r^ f-< •^ "Hu •**« "^ *«i> a ^ 1 = 2. GQ O o a aV a a a a a « J. ^uj *-W Uj to 0. ;^ :§§ bi > E $k z; S **i a h 13 to s *& •^ ft w a s > a t^ 1 3 1 6 ^ 3 to 1 u 3 ft Oh a ;^ V' VA ^ ^ t' /-^ ■a a -a a -a t3 ^ to f to to r 1 to to I-l ^ 'p p -P P -p p c ^ "! "i -< '■^ "!-* "2 o ist/~\ S-i ?t g » a ej H ^— ' ^— ' > ;^ ;> ;» g 2 a ft S 13 Uk 3- O) - 1 ST l-s i=- 2 «j a 1 O H a a a to a B S 3 8 e.. to to 1 ? to to to to to 1 to to to to 1 1 to to to 1 ! . 1 o "^ p 5 'i P "?> 'i 'P -p-p P "P P 'P-P-P '-^ "i '^ "i »■< «-«; »-^ "i *< '■i "i "i r^ <-« "i «-i f-^ H w > /-^ > H a & a.S 8 3 B-3 H 3 SKSK O to to to to to to to to -3; 3 'P-P P 'P'P -p-p-p CO -^ «-< '^ -« r< «■<'■««-: a -0 a V « "« . rJ3 -P "■ 6 R ft > ^s— ' C* tu » ;> ;k to P " Cil VA V3 a.(i a en a. w a a (U a -a a a a H <) U s" a 1 s t* UJ to V 1 to to to to to 1 1 1 to to to 1 to to to to to. P P i ' 'P'p ■P-P P -E.- S S 4 1 ^a a -i ':"T"f 'T'f t'T'T Q "i r< r< r< r< »■< oi »^ Km KMjKwj "tg "fu "iu •*«* ■"«* tb "ri C tb rt u e ■^ c :3 s cc ^ in a 'S, !j 1^ • !^ ;s fc "S 1*, ^ I s- p a 3 ■ ^ p v o-w -P P u -tf '-i > -i i i w 000 > p-p-p "i r< »-« m CO ■< 1 i Cl. ? f-f -p-p-p '-^ r^ -^ — i a !. "P'P'P Conjugation of pure uncontracted Verbs. 93 'S.I o 3. (fe* <3 13 (u 3 IS *>* a uj-A to to o o 3 < r-e T-< r< r-« r< << n^, Mm n(u n{y •sg vttv "SU S 8 a. IS O » r' a > CO O a. o E o J to '-ua a. i W «^ H K J,- to 3 1 g ^ ^ p "i Fd > H- I ^ s -1 V v» l« ' P^Sr- ^^ 1 . 'p p "i "i > o ^ ?* a ft B- o * Uj ^ db uj o s a. o |A .no ,0 Oi-'^ g § 1 1 •J o la O to O to g o to » u P. O B- -i=.-R- s-*fc- P7 s- ? ~c- ■^ d^ ^ ^ c^ cfei (ft) * ^ ^ C^ ^ i c ^ ;> ?^ ;3 p p ?> ^ P 4 r-e "i ^ "I — i "i r-* »■* ^ "i»^ > 'S 'B-'sn d> 1^ d? C TJ *cu t3 1 PT3 (0 N ja , ki (b o o d? OJ » ;& fo n^ o S-d^ * o :a. I- ^a.to to,|- t s s" oi > f «? V =?-'= la a-'? » -^ g s S to to to K t^ ^ cfe d? h< ' 'p p p~p p -p -p ;:> pi ^CT "B-'C- s-~B-'E- B"B-'B- P P S> nf r-e <<< r^ <-4 —^ ^ *ri 0) ^ a en o s:- 1— 1 o to ft o ft ft i! ft ft ft ft o ?r w «, 8 a a. o i a.to iS S-to a ft j ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ o -i 0) 1 ■p B ■P ••O CO tu*^ to to to to to to B-S'P P'P § I 1 -p. p-p-p-p »-^ X ..< .^ ^ ^ r^i ^ r< -4 «-< c^ <-.: r< (Hi —• i (u (O (o U (o to 1 ncu n^, ntU nfU ntU ryi r< *< «^ -<*<*< «^ «^ s 'i fab S '= -S s ^ a S a a, *^ *N *lt C ,a ^ » o ft o ft ft ft 1? o c- o B- o (fate >■ 3 o S h to o o to b to to to to P 'P 'P P -s a "t »-e r^ -< o o C3 ^ •^ s ft O ft ft ■T ''-' d? o o a ° ?i S s. - a,S to to B to to to to -P 's P P-P'S r-ir.4r.ir* 96 Words and Forms of Words. o o M ;^ a.o s '§ " ■< i *=■ 0. 1^ > a p ■(? z: to a ^ to B I ^ ^i td o a > » ^ a '= 3 S3 u a a 1 <^ 1 ^ ^ 1 ^ ^ d? ^ to 1 to to 1 to to to ^^ a-a s-a a-a^a -a 04 to to to to to to to V E 'P P -P P 4 P ' a " "i .^ .^ oi c-^ f-<. o u 5S & s a ^ > tf? U; o «k H o o o a a a a a a a a a 0. O to to to a to to to P to to to to to -p p p-p-p t-< T^ ^ «: "i "i .-< "i «-< »-< c-^ f-i w r* o s & a J H .4 * o o c^ (u a u 2 a Z *<^ s* S Q 2: a. g a. to to a. to ft Q ^ a S-. B--3 s- s:- a p 3 3 to to to 1 1 1 to 1 to to to to to ,p^ p ^?)^?i';> p ■p'p-p-p-i •* (/) --^ <-^ "i -^ r-i r-.i r^ f.; .-<; O CI) c m -j o c o i- ;::=2 & Vs"—* o & s a M a 1 3 o a. 8 a.to to a.S s> •^ -a a a -a 3-B-B a a H to f f V f to to to to to -- to S to p-p4 p P P S'P'P O ^ ^ ■P »^ r-^ «-< «-^ r^ r< «-< -^ <-« C r< r< r-< "«j"t«'W^W^'%u'^"*g'^ 1 z ^ . b'a ■g '^ c Ch CC a Ph cu ^ «0 'K 5 ^ ■^ s s ee — Cisri '« CJ ^ CO Oi t- ™ o rt ^■% o CL, fco « S XI .s u •-* t-l 13 5J o B ^ ^ Cm O CO CO < '^ « O o »- 3 o o fc 2 to 2 Js! O a HI en tc ■c •- " 2 Q Z H —1 JS o 6d 5 X s id CD H to W CO o 5- J H a, O CQ ■O.I S a o > fa O Z o = s o U O O) — a, « <^ n< ■^ p Cw < ss o o ,- w %1 C3 CO _^ 1 CO (D to C z o OJ u CJ 'Z ^ ^ « 5 ■«... QJ T= « o ^ ^ r^ O) o ^ Cj ^ ^ ^ «— « (y \ ^ H H o Conjugation of verbs whose stem ends in a mute. 97 ^ c^ 73 bo a) IT Oh "^ n o .~ o< 3 != 01 to CJ C3 O a C I'n ■^ > B s en a > > •^4 rO a en CD , . CJ C2 c ff ft n CM ,r! T3 - p -a o ^ C3 <-! en ttf ^ s d ,o ~ — • *. > w c: J=3 ■^ o o _ H '.S .a o "t^ CJ c > en ,= o ;p; ■> Oi •t:; !< H (U « s O Q o O < c ri) fcH- T-i C! C3 c Ci. fa ^"^ S 52 u ::^ flS CJ en C o ^ .ti m Is CQ a* J ^ bD "3 ^ j= S =2 li •.p o 6J 1^ a e. - S c; 1 1 a 3 o o H 1 1 1 tf V^ t^ Vs b, g g V3 ?*. ' H B'O > ^ & "= 1^ < a s 3 t» Va ^ S 1 lU-cj, 1 S-S tq ta ka V" i a** R H S R R R o § s 'p P -p P "p p '^ t^ V= (^ 5 S »a > & s » o s- ^ M) 54 a. a. l^ ba a. w S 'h i i - 1 i-i ^ J» Jj << o o o 1 ? ? o o o H (1. >!. >i. k>- ^ »Ia V» bs Pi O R R K B R R R R ~P'9~P ■P P 'P'p-P ►» V^ (^ ^ t' £ t:> ^ [^ 5> '^ H » » O f 1 o o P •-9 3 S-. s-, 1 ST sr S ST 3 V tJ t* w (1. ' ' ' W W (a a t5 ti fe K R R R R p ";i'?i"?> 'P~P P'P'P en V* V^ ts ^i w Vs K» h" ' .i, to t- e= "£ c- 5 a 77- ^ —; 1 'i' P ' O (U O >— 1 » «:> > O U 4U o o ^ Cfi «^ t!> v> W ! 1 ^ t^ w 1 [ I (i A »!> ^•1 g 1 R R 1 K ti K ' R B R RR ?J.V ' Ei^p^p ~p-S 'p-p'P P *^ ^ vS ta ta t.-w k^ Rti,"(«'>tg ^ty "WJ -55 .5 •ha 1 1 « 1 Words and Forms of Words. Oh O f ?'? 8-8-8- ??? tu tu Uj fr^ V^ V* tH en -3-0 ?l tu > r i tl, > -< ■■0. 3 " 1 8.8.- S P P o £ to V-S > o ft ft ft OOO , OOOOO 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 III 1 1 1 1 1 CUWLU CUUjUjtUtU ^ SUBJUNCTIVE. ^ & ^ £ o o 2 cu — Oi vj tj ^ JS to buujcu Ui Ui lij fJii tit 6 l-H (U — 1 ft S «. ^ o tg o e >^ t^ i'' 5 S K K A "m '*tu ''w ■^ 1 o =3 '-1 « -a ft ft * O 1— 1 o o 'u (u -^ „ o. E >i a. >^ e BBw aBBBiB &•&■&., 8-8,8,8,8, ■E> P P 'B'P~P"P'P *ty ^Mj -ty cu (u w uj uj i> 1 J ■ js o e; "I* -0^4 ft ~5 s f* ?» fk ^T " o ?=■ tw to a tUtUtO COMJHjlUtO ''w "^tu '*S •*'u •*tu*%o '^ "to M « (1. s' :^ 1 1 1— 1 B S w K ^ K P P P >= K k> ^(i) *tu -ig (^ ^ t< bD C CO si ■ Conjugation of verbs whose stem ends in a mute. 99 1 o ooo ooooo s» a & nL iilii g 8 B e g 1 -s p s -SI g 1 — 1 o 1— ' .^•^ a » » g •«ou '* WHu "tg '^ ti o r^ r, P ft t' H en "3 " p5 'a a 7 B < •?-§ ^,g ft P'P bi > H ,ft B B to tb ■s- ts K "?> p v^ v^ bi € ft 1 ^ A ■ (^ 1 VJ ^i 1 K> K" ty 'Uj tJ o 'B B'B a 'a P OJ ■ ft ■3--^ ■^--^ ^•^^ ^' t^ ,M T^ S -? P "P P ?) o -=i ?. CJ '— w W t^ M 1^ »^ Vs Vi ft " 1 ft ft ft fti a O Vi n '^ i- i? -- 1 w.S Vi UJ § § B § B 3 a a ? ? « " ° •^-■^^ ■^•^■^-■^-^ R S.« 'P"p ■p "P P p '? ^?) -p-p — o v^ v> t^ t^ 5 5 V* t* w ti ^ « > g 3 S--PS III 3 o Cm ^ S ■5-^^ ■^■S--S--3--^ R R:« < s "?^? ■p ~p-p p '?! 'P -p"P — *j K" t^ Vi kJ >^ V^ »^ >i v^ M o 'o g « ft ft ft ft o fh w o sr UJ cu V ft o > ■a^ B'B i- a 1 O tu to a, -to O ty ^•^-■§-.1 •^-■^■^-■^-■^ S R K I K ^ R s ^ P s p 1 ~P P ^ '?> p P P P 1 p'P'P p o (^ ^ IJ f V t* V V "f V f V> t' (^ (^ t^ a wHM Ktcsy •^Uj "«J •><*} -d, Ri SaiRiBii, i^tU '*tO '«tg •^ty Rli m '^ 'J to 15 c s HB s S CO p S >-< t5" ^ E^' o O X ^ n ?? p »j 11 >^ 3 * 1 P f 1 O-dj i- V" S K 'P P w (^ ..,■ o ft ' — 1 a.o g o ^Ji .la Ja > O O O |.a ^ l^ a R R R P~P'P > V> (i ta <— 1 <-. ^ < I § ^ S S; S- i V. .:. K S K -p-p-p Vi W ta 5 ° ° R K R -p^p-p Conjngalioii of verbs whose stem ends in a mute. 101 I o 3 «i 3 I V3 to *■ 3 , 5* a o 3 I 3 3*> o & » B S. to to a, IS f ^ 1^ t> w^ ?> & a 3, to to a, to e* '3 S- s-~3 B- 3 1 r I 1 I I V3 V> H* Vs ta Va K K K K S fi K ^ »a ka H >» tyoT -§-: tu 3 4 O S> A a ^ 3- to to a. to ?* «i .►= H e B K (^ (° K> 3 p t" }a Ja B K fi t> a- to & 8 to a.io & V o -° S to m ^O O CO *0 MJ *«) "O »i O I I I I I I I I I V>t*V*taV3kiVal*lJ 111111(11 •Hy "lU "^w •^tu "HU "^ou '*tu '*tu "^ 3 - i-f i<^ w 3."'? "3 a,? 102 Words and Forms of Words. o > > I— I CD ■< u ST- Ol A w S ^ a" -S'S ft 8-8-4 P P P ^ t> t' g 1 s at p 1 8. > g > << H P< O 1 » f> a ,S.o t? ,i. to ^«S ,=t to & oopoooooo tot)tot>iototototo 8. 8s &. 8. a 4- &• &. 8- ft u, UJ Ui uu ^ <^ (^ &.&.8- p p p ta Va vs > H U '3 'SK'Sft '8- 8-8. t3 .M S -O a a a S S -p p P'p p-p-p p 3. H e (J.K.555S6P ■< (U ^MJ^MJ tu^tu ty ty'to V 2 "Ui "Ui"VJ"Uj"UJ"Uj"Uj'^W i^t K ei Is C "a 3 d t 1 - 3-.* ts^S-to to 3-to ft to ^to ^to to ^to ^to t> ^to ^to & 8- e- 8- e- &- &. &. &- tb 'S £3 S a (^ 1' n „^ ft'o. Iff -r-rg ^(U ^Cu *HU tb CO Conjugation of verbs whose stem ends in a mule, 103 1 tS K 4l K p s> V « P ^ ^ i o t^ ti ^ » -ST a a 1 > v> 1 O 1-H o S cu 3 •^ o 1 •^.'^ 1 *','' 1 ^ a- C & c^ p p p p U) «u ^ la K> VI H> Va >i b. t> ta ka >a ^ ^^^ d t~i 1 .&'g->3 .S-'S •^ C ^< ^ ^ <^ ^ ^ '?'f-2 ' 8^8^i&.8^ K kS ;^ ^ ;^ ;^ ^ ^ ^ (a V> V3 (A K b^ f. lU z:z ^ ^ o M ^2 Ji •a^ ■g s ==> O ^ t(j cu ^ Am rt QJ O ^ - lo m d. >^ e B «D g l-H ..- , F:-"P s-p 5^ 3- -^ =^ > tn ^ a_^ *r V3 Qj d? ^ (^ ^ i MM _. "Su •**« •*« "*« **«) >^ K «Hj«(y S »a ti « b bb ib bb a M 2 3 a a a. en cc CO "< ti § E^ • t.' O a o ^ <( ^ Si P a IS 'p « J3 w ^.> o I— ( nS-^ o ^-^ > K- o ?, 3 O H o o 5 'f 1 -| ■^•^-^Clh ?>' p "P u ^ Vi >a p s t" f bb 104 Words and Forms of Words. o > Q ^ pa CJl o o 'ft *o ■S-P s ?? o< g g H .A > B %i (fe H * to E to a "7 ^|- K g u ft a ft 3 U ?r ft B cfa 1 > B 3 Sx ^ to to % i i5 t 3 1 *" o 8 1 ^ ^ 1 1 2 1 ti? 1 (fetf? 1 djxJ? B ' 'P I 1 to to 1 to to ti g § 13 "B o to o to B-3 B-B f a^ui 'i' 1 1 - ;^ (^ P S-d? « o S" o 04 S ;■ 03 ,a.o (^ -3- S ~2 -3- 2 S »i i i (L> *^ .* o o o E-t E- B B § 3 B B B B § a* P- ■g(--^-&--S--?-^^^-^ t* ^ s .03 O rg 1 ^ (a Va ba fa ^ g^g'g ^ H o CO •.s 1 5> f'l - (fo o o ife «) a « 8 S a 3 SK Sr-'S S- S-~3 S- 3 a. fS 1 s ■^■^-■^^■^■^-■g--^^ s V^ s -a 3 B ~B B'B-K B a H ■^•g-^§--^-^-g--^-^ s t^ s ^ PS p P'p p p'P'P s~?"? y td ta •f Va fa fa ta fa fa •f "? V ^^ o •^^•^;U -i «LU .vty f*s|, ^tjj ht{j r^ ri(^ 'SU "(U g en 1 1 fcb a CO g tp =2 •w' Cm '^ c^ ^ 1=1 fc^ g 'P Conjugalion of liquid verbs. 105 tD^ to 2 3 = » ^ i 3 C -g g &.B to « £ e •i S eS bo' ^ r. .. -^ "^ ;4 -^ a g 5 a is Org §.^ I «U. S "Q, S ^■;< S ^S .k" ^K Sttp!l« Bw BlU .'p"^ ..(« "W .-tU &.&.?' £. s- ; s-f^ b F-^ tfc, *, .4. ^ ^ 'S,.5?^P ijj X 01 0) "«; tf S w H < la < hapt. 5 mple t e from u « « ° P S s g case v^ c =2 -o SCO C-. •-; W "- 5- = s --< ^ £ ^ O - KB 6D g ■ 6a -a to M a. o & S & ■^ o ?r «J tu ft ooolooooo 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 - ujujcu Ui vi tm oj m aSa-^ d d d OJ UJ Uj "B-B-a 1 > g 3 a J- a K 3 gs--'* 4U (U (U . 3 Ed J; > --s o 3 o g 1 1 o 1 1 1 ,1 i -■3 1 it ft ^g ? 1:1:1:' 11: l:|:fc -a -a -a "a-a-a-a-s =° 1 1 CO Q ft( <« s a cu ^ r4 c4 r4 tt, ty ty to i ■Conjugation of liquid verbs. 107 S.5. -3 a SI- (1) ;^ m o ,d \-v o rv 3 >- «r t3 4? g ai if* o 6 >< , o t- « CO -j^ to CB O Oi „ "^ 2 S , ^ c 5; ■■S 3 k ^ ,o ^ <0 i > CO CO ■< 1 , & r ? ^ «^ Cfl - o ° t» S" o . o § ^^ 1 o i - 7* a r? ty g to" ■5 - ty & S.fi 1:^ 1:1-1"" hi- B. -B -s- 1 -B L _^ B . B , B tfe B g la g S i ^ s <^ -R- S 55 5 1; "B i J. a r 1: -B H t> o v^ f^ § ST -=l ? s 1: -B - -§• S'S--^ » «• ?■ > -3- o to O to H O .4- o 2- '5 e- -5 „|^ -a 1: "B «• § =i"-3 > a. S 3 1 g S "i " ■s ^ -tu MJ p7 ^H pa ^. 1:^^ E»« g -r "3 u O B ^ o ! 1 ;> p ■^ •a a. B a. a. -o •A -a -a a 3 a 5^ o o 'SI- r^ *^ -^ ty tu tu r< ^ <-^ ~uj at iu "to (A) 1: -B 3 K •sa i~s CQ ^ 1 u 1 1 ^ £ s X N « !■. J^ o (^ •^ ^ s; t^ h "•i 10? ^V,;.rd; and Fonns of Word*. < -^ ^ < ^^ ~-C =* :; ~ =? — ^ < ^ > 5 ^ ^; t =* :--t;-<;-<-<-<^:-< — -.-" 31 > ^, ?^ ?* ?^ ^ ^ :-^T^-^r-<-^T-^--^ ^^-_^ -^^^ ('()iiti'u('-t(Ml Voi'hs ill iui, «w, and ow- loy Hi K o ■•' Oh m > e li .t ,f 3. w O >^ cb cb tb o 2 C/i .-^ S 's e to o lb 3. ill III ? ? T 3.3.3.5 . 1 . . • ^-'T' 1 i> !=. S -^ .(Aj «J O "J O 3>3. a£=; ■O'O'O ^O'O'O'O'O •■o'o'o cb ^ ^ 1 cb "te d> cfc d^i cte cfei cb 2 S 2 1 to tl to tl lo to to to 3- 3. 3. 3. 5, 3, a. 3- 3. 3. 3. 1:2. w H u •i aa si u 9i ^ -^ '"' a| e <_ •- o "S :-'; li o ,^ •> 3 a o o d •J o XI iJ hH H e o a" QJ u -a t-H 4m a. O o P > t/i • t> 07 s HH 0^ I—* 2 ^i ^ P i^ ^- f: h tJ ^ W> VI 07 « -3 & d •n V P" 0) d -3 CJ in Vi 0,1 1- a; 15 :3 o ^t? 3-e ft -?^ s 2 J 'itili lii III ^rt ,iit g2S.sV 2-^ >^&a.SS-2 ° ^B- 3. s o 3 S:-S:-3s-S .ooo ooooo<,?r^ w-ii-i a.S.a.a.S. S.a.a. S.S.a.3.a. a, '"a, §.§,*. w H m rn g > P< w > ft II. I 2 Il-bg"-i3' 3IJ 'B.g'S g I .3. a. § a.'S 3- 's- « k' S i' S-*' S-s'a- I I I if V § ," *! e e a. S S 5 s- - e s 5 s S:"S"aR"3 000 O0000(p^a- ty'tutw^w 'B'B-B'B^a 'a^a^a 1 'a .a-a-a^a £~S~§" a'i's a S-3-3-3-3- 3-5-3- §-3-5-3- 3- 3- ^3-3-3-3- o ft ft ft S B- li'|g§-^-i^^' a. a. a.'3~'3- s sJ„r e s 8 3-3-i-i^i. ftftft .-"OR.3- a, S- 2 w ft -^-g, ,. i «i i i J, "°< sT w ■?r S g§ ¥ S g-§.. . "S ft S ft .3-..I 3 '^itsl-2ii-§ ^^-^ '^ fi?aftft.-.-oP^° "-.„•- "Ui -ty -cu *-«j ^Hj -«J "W -tu i 'tu to -ty -tu -(ii p'^ O '■■^ su to tu " tu «J ooooo 000 ooooog ^* OOOO S§ ^.S= § ^ Sag 513 O >5 Contracted Verbs in ico, aw, and ow. Ill 3 s !» °^ « *i =? 'P^ «> cfe 3.=*- te s & g I I I ^ ^ d^ & e> - I „ ^r o O ^a ^•^ to .N to I § 5» 3- a S o =- a.a.s. 2 e (^ (^ <^ 3) tt la to QD 3. a. a. 111 d? 1^ ^ » » ;^ OS:-™ V. ^i a. a,. o o O ip jj ife d? cfe p p, o to to dj o a. a. a. 2 ^ & a S> ^■'ar o R- S «< » V w a. tj - *« ^Mj o m o *o O^O'O o 1 ife 1^ ij? d? a V ;& f.'l '1 a. ^3 "o ^ ty »A 3 ^ ?* S ' ^ ' > c^ Ui'-O^UJ 1 1 1 V> b> 5 ;-i ° ft & Si • -l-s £ S o 'S g s > «J fe *^ • Ui o ^ =r K.s a O ^S to uT i? 3 ,. S ^ ^ ?k i-O-A (U a ■5 to 5^ tn a. a. a..S a o 3 8 S S P a.s ^ 1 ft ft ? -"« ?k ^-^rel ?> M .~ V V f V ft ?n ^ t a 1 1 sT*" ? ? ? c O vti tu (U'''U O HI O *i s^a'3 a ??ft '8-s-a p„ >3-^S-~S- 1 S- S- 3- S-^S- S ^e •fT^S- ^ Vi Va 1 v» l^ va V3 va .i i" *- s t" t» k' '»WS^"MJ "WW^tu "HO "M) Va "Hy tj «tt o o p o R fi K K ft ft S 1 s ,» . S 2 2 ,g ft '3 'S ^ O) g Ui o g p » P 60 •1 o s ft o ts.S .g-s^rl o t^ o . «F s ? 1 „-,.-«) K ^ i ft o "w-a » 1 ft ft ft ^-« ■ii 23 s ^ o ft M - O «; »j '? V =?->;• ft Ui^Ui O Ui O 2 §J 8 >5"s V. ? o 1 o a ^^^ -to lu ■'to "to to 1 -a -a >A >d ^»t p g K^l'S" -tg' -Ui '*« o o o o 1 O O O O O K 1 ST o O •A 1 iD ^^^ ' RRRSK ? uj :£ M «j M o V i^ fe ^ ntyntU'^Cg " WW »^ "Hg •^W .15, bb 1 M =?''="'_: C s a iS£>^-a-^ ^2a.§ o Mj mj'o «j w^js «j o 3 Sft R-^S s* pr^3 sr^3 o S o o I I I I 1 J I I I I I I I I I I r I [III 'o o'o oo o o o o ^o'o o O^O'O o o o o^o'o o ioi3\oiDtoio>Dtoto iDtotitotoo'o'o'o toioteto S. a. a, a. a. S. a. a. 3, a. a. a. a. a. a, a, a. a. a.a.a.s. .ago r-, SoO'^S »000?S6 3, > H 'I Lg 3- a. a. a.,§ I '3 <§ p a. a. |.'a 1 |o.|,v= ^ ^ l.°ilttl.%i i'^ga.its.^s IffI *«ife3 ^ ^ 222222225 222 2 2 222222^ e 1 a.a.a.a.a.a.a.a.a. ;^ ;^ :^ ^ :!. :d. 3. :^ :3. :^ :^ o 3 3 •«) "^ •««!)•<« "w "*u -sw) "^ •«, 5^ ^ '1-~|>"|:6 g *1,|<^ O * .a. ^a g 2- a. a. §->§ '3 ?s 2 a.t~ 2 s-S-S *^ 3- 2 S- 5 8'3 a. -s-^s-w s s •^^^'^sS-.-s-ees-.-s 3- e «-» a. s ft*- , ^ .-s-s ••4**4^^-a-i ^iiilii « T- tititiiii -js S3 js^i^a "3 5t"eg, tcsq^&ss, ccvoSog. 8* 116 Words and Forms ofVVords. The imperative eliding in 9t. is found also in some second aorists of verbs not ending in fit as in §-q9'i (from ^aCvm), yvm&i (from yiyvmav.ta), and' also in the perfects 'iaxa&i (from fffTTjfii), SiSi&i (from SsSia), and I'aQ'i (from olSa). §. 207. In the indicatives of the present, in the imper- fects and second aorists, the terminations are appended to the stem without the intervention of a connecting- vowel ; but the vowel of the stem is lengthened in the singular of the present, the imperfect, and the second aorist active, viz. £ and a are lengthened into f}, o into a, and v into v. Note. The a in the termination aai when preceded by s, «, or 0, is thrown out regularly in the subjunctive passive and in the subjunctive of the second aorist middle, and the vowels are then contracted (comp. §. 169), but in the present indicative the a is never thrown out, as rl&ieai, taxaaai, deSoaai. The a in the termination oo preceded by e, a, or u, is thrown out only in the second aorist middle; but in the pre- sent imperative and the imperfect it is not customary to throw out the a when preceded by s, as ^&sao, i'^ov; S'sco, 9ov; i'Soao, k'Sov; Soao, Sov; but htd'sao, tC&sao and tataao re- main unaltered. §. 208. In the subjunctives of the present and the second aorist the vowels of the stem , s, a, and o are contracted with the termination, and the contraction receives the accent. §. 209. In the optatives of the present and the second aorist, the i peculiar to the optative is placed between the vowel of the stem and the termination, and has the accent. Note. 1. In the plural of the optative active the shortened form is always preferred; but in the second aorist the full forms, with the exception of the third pers. plur. ,. are more commonly used, Note 2. .Some verbs infii have certain peculiarities, which require to be noticed separately: — a) The verbs ri^rjiii, I'-rifii and. SiSafii make their first aorist active ^9rjiia, iJkc!, and tScona; comp. §. 161, n. 2. But of these aorists. the indicative alone is used. The singular of the indicative of the second aorists k'^rjv, Tiv , and tSmv is not used. at all. Kegular Verbs in fit, 117 t) The perfects and pluperfects of fffTTjfii have an aspirated augment, as J'crijKa, IfftTj'jtEU' or siarijKeiv, i'oTafiai, iatdii,rjv. Instead of the full forms of tcri^Ka in the dual and plural of the indicative and throughout the other moods, there exist- shorter forms, as sararov, ieraiisv , lazars , iatdaiv , for iaTTjKcitov , setijiiaiisv, IcTijKojTE , ia-crjyiaai-v ; Pluperf. serdiriv a?id 'iaraaav tor BetrjKttTTjv, sGTTJxsaav^ Subj. lattSitisv , satcoaiv tor IcT/jitcofisv, £at7]iiB>ai.v; Opt. saTcdiqv; Imperat. ^otC'S'i, satdzco, Saratov; Inf. iazdvai; Partic. letms, coca, OS, gen. iarwrog. c) A future sarrj^m or sOT»;|o(XDfi is sometimes formed from the perfect sfftTjKof. d) The vowel of the stems of SiStoiii and ?OTi;fn remains short in the perfect and pluperfect passive, as' SeSo- (lai, iSiSofiriv; sata^iai, iardfiriv. These same verbs together with tiS'T^jii, and ^rj/ii have the vowel short also in the passive aorists and futures, as itsd"r]V, i^Tivai, iata&riv, iS69rjv, irs'S'Tj'oofiat , So&Tjaofiai, &o. In all other cases the vowel of .the stem is length- ened as in pure contracted verbs ; but the perfect of rC^Tifti and ?()fn have si instead of )j, as xs&BiKa, -cs- §. 210. As the stems of verbs in ftt end in the vowels B , a, , V , they might have formed verbs in sea, aco, om, and vm, and there are certain forms of verbs inftt, which actually presuppose the existence of such verbs. Note 1. Attic writers generally form the singular of the imperfect active otzC&rnii,, Prjtii, and SCScofii, in this nianner, as izC9stg, iti&iL are more frequent than JriJB-jjs, hi'd-rj; and iSCSovv , iSiSovg , iSiSov are used almost exclusively for iSi- Sav, tag, co. Note 2. Verbs in ■ufit not only form the subjunctive and optative from a present in vco , but also other parts of the pre- sent and imperfect. But in the passive and middle the sub- junctive and optative alone are derived from forms in va>. Note 3. The verb tctrnii, I cause to stand, or I place, has the intransitive meaning, "I stand", in the perfect, plu- perfect, and second aorist active, as 'darrjiia, I stand; itat-q- Kiiv , I stood; ^Vrrjr, I stepped. 118 Words and Forms of Words. CHAPTER XXXIV. CONJUGATION OF REGULAR VERBS IN fit. §. 211. The verbs chosen as examples are Ti&yi(ii (stem &s), I put; I'arTjfu (stem ctk), I place; Sldcofii (stem do), I give ; ddxvvjii (stem dsm and dsmvv) , I show. ACTIVE VOICE. PRESENT. Indicative. Sing. •nT-S'jj-fii l-CTIJ-ftt St-Soo-iil Sei-nvv-liL xl-&ri-g ?-CTlJ-S $i-Sm-s SsUvv-g %C-&ri-) S'ffEJ'. CTMSV. Soiev. Conjugation of regular Verbs i)i jii. 119 Imperative. Siii.a Dual Plur. (ti'-'S'S-ti) zi-Q's-zav zi-9s-zs (yi-Q'i-tio- eav) ri-&s-vte>v. Infinitive. Participles. Tt-&si:ea ti-&iv, &iv- TOS (?-ota-S'i) I'-atTj i-atd-Tco V-eza-zov i-aza-zcov t-Gza-zB (i-Bzd-zmeav) i-axd-vzmv (Si-So-9i) SC-Sov Si-S6-zca Si-So-zov 8i-S6-zcav SC-So-zs (Si-So-zeoaav) Si-do-vzoov (Su'iivv-d'i') SeiKvv Seiiivv-zco Sgiv.vv-zov SsL%vv-ztov SsiKvvzs (SsiKvv-zxo- aav) Ssi'Kvv-vzeov. \ i-azd-vai I Si-So-vai \ SsiKvv-vai ■ i-azag, avzog t-azaaa i-azdv, dvzos Si-Sovg, 6v- zos Si-Sovea Si-Sdv, dvzos SsfKvvs , vv- Ssiv-vvaa SsiKVVV , vv- TOS. Sing. i-Ti-&rjV (i-TL-&1^S) i-zi-9sie 0-zC-&ri) i-zi-9si. Dual — l-Tt-9'a-Toi' Plur. i-zi-^e-iisv i-zi-Q^s-ze i-zi-9s-aav IMPERFECT i-azTj-v i^-ezij-s ?-ffT7J i-aza-zov t-azd-zj]v t-azS-iiev i-cza-zs t-eza-Gcev (l-SC-Sa-v) Sow (l-SC-da>-s) Sovs Sov i-8i-So~zov l-9i-S6-zijv i-Si-So-zs i-diSo-aav iSsixvv-v i-Ssixvv-s i-Ssi^xvi} i-Sshvv-zov i-SsLKvv-zrjv i-StinvV'lisv l-Ssiiivv-zs i-Ssinvv-aav SECOMD AOmsT. Indicative. Sing. (¥-&7i-v) Dual ^ — 1-9S-Z0V i-&£-Z7jV Plur. i'-9t-iiev E-^B'-ZE E-aZTj-V i'-ffTJJ-S i-azT] S-az7j-rov E-azi\-zriv E-azjj-liEV H-azri-ZE s-azj}-6av (S-Sca-v) (e-Sco) k'-So-zov irSo-XTjv ^'-So-flEV §-So-zs k'-So-cav wanting. 120 Words and Forms of Words. Subjunctive. Optative. Imperative. &S-TB1 &i-tov, &c Infinitive. Participles. &h's &siaa ACTIVE VOICE (continued). SECOHD AORIST. S(0 atto azij-q oty, &c. arairjv atairjg atcciri, &c. ffrij-rco trrq-TOJ', & I axTJ-vai Bzdg Gxaaa atav d'§, &c. Soirjv So^rig Soirj, &c. S6-zm So-xQv , I Sov-vai Sovg Sovaa Sov &c. wanting. wanting. wanting. I wanting. wanting The remaining tenses are regularly formed from the stems ■S'E , arcc , So, and dsiii , as : Perf. ri-9-ei.-v.a Plpf. ST:i-&siv,siv Ful. &i^-aa> Aor.I.k'-&r]-iitt s-ex7i-v.a £- or st-arrj- ■KUV Brij-Btt) Si-Sto-Ka iSs-Sco-yiiiv Sco-aca k'-Sco-na Si-Seijfd iSs-Sstxtiv k'-Ssi.ta Note. As to the first aorists of rt'S'jjfit. ^arrnii,, and 8C- ■■••, ending in na, see §. 209. n. 2. a. PASSIVE VOICE. Indicative. Sing. ■ti-S'i-fiai, ti-&s- aai Dual ri-&e-fieS'ov xC-&s-a&ov xC-&£-a&ov Plur. Ti-&s-iis&a xi-9's-a9B xi-d'S-vtai i-axa-(iat. i'-cxa-aai (i'-axa) I'-axa-xai. i'-axd-iis&ov I'-Bxa-c&ov t^BXa-B^'OV i-Bxd-ii£9ci l'-Bxa~B9s i'-Bxa-vxai Si-So-fiai Si-So-Bai SC-So-xai Si-So-fJbS&ov Si-So-Bd-ov Sl-So-b^ov Si-S6-^s9'a S(-So-B»e Si-do-vxai SsCiivv-fvai Siiv.vv-Bai 9siKvv-xat Ssmvv-fii&ov Semvv-B&ov SSLKVV-B&OV Ssi'XVV-llS^Cl: 8si%vv-B&£ Conjugation of regular Verbs in ftt. 121 Plur. Subjunctive. Sing. Tt-O'oo-uai zi-&ij 1 zi-^TJ-tai Dual Ti-9(o-(Ls9ov xi-&7J-e9ov Ti-9ri-ad'ov Plur. Ti-&(o-iis9a zi-9cS~vrav Optative. Sing. zi-&sC-(i,iiv Zl-d'SV-O tl-8'Sf-TO Dual Ti,-9si-[is&'ov zi-&si-a&ov Ti.-&si-a&riv ZL-&'ti-iii9a zi-&ei:-a9e ZL-&st-'vro Imperative. Sing. — z/-&s-ao or zi-9ov • Ti-9's-a9 •« U( H LI S 3 'S « £ i ^ rn B 1 .^ l/l t-l -tu •)-> •— 4 g <•«> ^^ ^ J3 O > ■ H <** i . sl s E? Is -eg m M p _ "tJl L.^ (lA PS a o E? H g „ "c > > fe £ to H ft ?=■ en »- ^s- •ii! J' &>» ttu L^ t.^ L^ <^ !?■ ST p 1 § o ^ 4 ^ S *^ ^ 3 ^ CO 60 ft, •§ ft, a, is; ^■^.- 124 Words aad Forms of Words. 2 f i I t la > > > ^ ^ H I. -£■ 9 .£ I g. &.S &.0 hJ « w o t 1 S ■="-■ *. ri := ■n o. "EL eJ, ■S s Oh S o Cl4 . P 9 01 .= JiJ fii fc « ^ to Rife to rn s « .1 i> u a. = 3 „ '?&•'*„ a, . '3 I I - ••«' "8 ft s ft, ^ B a S o H --?•--;>= . r^Ofti'i slag S'^S a.OfV'a.vppifl g 'i^fc -3 S I i! « s- c i .• ^.: ^O^t5 .-^fci: III Irregular Verbs in fii. 125 o ^ . ^1 ^ § S ° I ^ — H to >= V "S Oh"^ — P< K J- "W Kli Siu ""X g ■- 'Z £ ^ -s- !•- '^ rt ■ o . ^ -e O ^ U To ?i ^ = cfi C •-' Ei -w -^ 1= g 5 3 " 1 1 1 > ^ „^^i, ^ — __ ■■ ^»>*uKwS;w ^2 "^^m •§ ^ ! g ■ ''S ,r- S g i a 2 p W R»l to *--Bt3°2« S^c5 s j-s la «,a gg'fu^fiS t.'So S i^ti tiH v>>^ iiiicc^P" > ^ . '"■^ -"•"" -""^ bb .2 .S" « ^ ill i . Hl^. — ^It^^^ i J.S g R„ gFS.Sl ?-s to -3 - Jg^ 5f s- ?■ ?"T ?■ T ?■ "-s-'-s-i-s:- =^ S S " s rt o »s cfl :=: s l* H s, .£ °^ w = 3 ^ =3 gj 0) Q, 2^1 C!J t- »,5J ^ '1' eo >> » «^ o 3- a. §. - tS ?. U) va ti SL >i to '-S'-SJ'S-- I '•S^S^3'-g-''3 y^S ^^ u ?» > ^ ( "o -o -«. -«J ^ (- a. ts f 1^ 3- ^ a »f ^t-fcl to IS e •B «5 •J. u tS w^m '^•»«J' .%Mj*\tg 3 "ST- &D "^ ib i 1 7^ !3 r- v o cS J-J Tl a O o s > QJ o ,i3 ^ o i^- a -S ?^ 0) J3 O) o£ H a. 3 ^§ ("T 126 Words and Forms of Words. 1^ H -3.3.5.3.2 3 "I -3 ^':s"£'^ !>i«i>j,si = = 2 g ^- ^ Q =^ o a pit .-I CO Irregular Verbs in ftt. 127 TS g m ^ M ^ Ei'^ rt 'a .L_. to S a 'qj t3 •-3 "3 S s-§ - S > ' "a, -a "1 " -~ 1) CO S P •-] P; o « Ot tg- ■ -'l en p2 "rt — a Cd !> ■-' ty w a a. V 1= "g a >3*c3 » a S-8-&. a .0 -^ a b: KujKwSw s > \3 u "-8 C -2 -to &. 3 Oh ■5 1 J=! a. d 5 &■ B ;« > ■^ CO a t3 'S S 3 S u S r p e^ OJ cij ^ v K" tf *f '^ & 1 f f T3 P^ 1-H ^=2 s ^■ a -a- B' ■a-B' 'B 1 B-i O S o (J CO u C5 . 8~&.&-8-&.&.&. E- 8-&. ■g > a Ed 1 Cl-I « ~ a A ■a a. a bo 1 »• til 1 5 ■3 *S Cti •^ OJ '%j a B 1 3 S &.8-&- w 6 . 3 01 <0 to c CO &-.2 si- g e 1 ,0 60 c4 a ^-1 A fc i 0) (O p -.^ CO a « '? '¥ 1 to to CO s fi N (N ca 2.2 la 5 B-B- si- 1 ^ B Bl4 i > 2 !« &.&.&.&. 8- H a) !z; .S f^ OJ 128 Words and Forms of Words. 52 x » CJ 1^ tS «1 f-t » ■ o 5 ^ tJ o > •^ !- \ S I = P. Oif? 1 to o a o P >i «i »Ji s s K ^r^^. si * 5i-„ I I I I I g 5-3 ^ 9~ § h a cu a o to ZJ bn a C 1 . -S' o Fi CS !* n ;^ e> o B- cb*> =L10 13 i=4 -i j^ '.', s s »: ft "li, SlU-W .3-9 ■t B-e fr.S > ^ S ,== i 5 a./^a ^ o 0.- .3 5 g " g si-?! I i^' tS S m 5 S - ^ - - „ -J L_l ^ .r *m" (-ft ci . -^ >■ E-" »^ ?*j ?»i *■»» **i '^ a s. o :« X i*:i °^ a ^ .^ > CO n -CI ■ri T3 > iS V) CB X. ^S o d,o o,&. Irregular Verbs iu fii. 129 Ml= o O ^ f? ^ ID o s CA o bo ^ ^ g c g g .£; C =L 1 § s S CO CS ■ 1 !e. cu o H o -a c > ■S * 2 S si b4 8 '5° 0) *cfi a to -a c t- « s - -ill > s i § ■5 C8 CO ^ > 1 3 1 3 1 bU S lis'! ft CS o to % 1 t to 1 ^ 6 O ^ " &■ a, a\ O ♦J « "P- sp — •-R- tR- "ptp- O Ci, 1 :2 cj ^ <" ^ a i 2 c o t3 > »P "3 nil ^w a, '3 = = S § i 1 to c 6b "p- i a. ■2 -»- fcD 05' S s a CS S. S 2 ^ ^8 c 3 » w c s S .o E-i 'S i s .13 H o e > ^ 8 1 o 1 £ 8 3 .8 . o O 8 8 M Z 2 * (^ -H g (N ^ U H _ 3, to to *. to to a. to & -a H H " S a ^ ^ ^ ■s S . K 60 i-p- '■R-' ►^ .i-, ^S" i i. >> cc o E ■^ JS c "m S o 130 Words and Forms of Words. ^ en w >. '^ ^- tn ^-^ a, ». s^-^g s * S. -S 2 1 JK --^% Mi I .1 .s ^ oj § -5 s- „ . -cl o,'% bo M «o a, CS s S to - -,^ -S a Sdj ci^ S c! o] ^S ^:j ^ a, frt " . . r^ uj ui , -^ ^ o 1111 i- ^^ i 1^^- a m tt) ^g » o~ .. 2 £,„.<» «!, ° '" >a •- ° * g~3 S i^ u' ~ s lo 7 ^ s-5w ""e^ S=s S S^ 3 ^ C O) g ., m O bAsA S-. 1 U a> ■5 • iH 00 S "S^ i~o l~j i';e V I . I li ."= -■= J^ '-^ -^ o o . S o s 2 ^^ ri 'B '^ a" CO o (li J= ^ „ Ti S 03 1 .2 a ee 03 tv W ^ ,a >> g- o eS .^ piS 0) i-i si 1 . QJ o ^ „ & t-i 1 O id o +* <» 53 to -ti-< eS ^1 1 1-^ 6* _2 S 2| 4) ■ ^S? Lm h _g . ej 2 -J^ «.S M ■« w .„ a) H m H-cu J3 o 3 0«S3( H a S K-^ X! X Pi w H !3o tH O b sj c o PI 5« =« a *^ CO O J= «i > rt .S I" en — c en 'r; TS ? C! O a) — S5 en O -=S tn te 0) •^ en Q) a S 3 11 a en o 03 C Tl "S >..S aj j-i u a) TS CO >2 6/: c cS 9 r«i to a 3-, Si s a to Ti r- ::: a S I Sag ^ -3 3 §-■2 Atjl g* •-* ■0.0 "a ca-C- o s=- fjr a, a. & & -2.*2 c- 1^ w «a- a. a. S; S^~"j "Hi tu S uT f",! s=;s E ?> tJ '^ o X. o 1*1 -^ =J o •s ■• s -p ii) a. '3- " S ce u ii i XI c £ g 1 C 3 1 ■■ •§ ^■Q' B B B g B , .:. ^ "w S<-* a. a. a. & 'o-a S C x'b corSr a. a. o o S Oh - s be g i 11 •e-a oj e °^ u 2 '■" a g =S o o = bS^ § M a. a. a. ft s^o-o ? j^^b ta.^ a. a o o (M General view of the Anomalies of Greek verbs. 133 ii S 2? B B (u g a I—,. :?- C 13 » c « S -• 1 " IHHiri =t § ^ mil §-111.^11 > S s" e— ( ^ ?> O ai ' ^ 2 5i a 3 ft .3" s a *-a c ■s " P. s 3 tSei S =^'? S to S'^.a °2/-s-»§ w *B" 3 50^ 'W 3- to ^-pB-i- ' •- »-S.8 =1 S C p P to vSS(J?ife'B-^ ..Ti'^ a. " _S ;3 fc- O' 'P- S- to a- to *, >< g s^? "'='2 ""a «i«i. 8 B ^ 1 s I '3 o a 3 ..Ti'^ a. " _S ;3 &- O' 'P- S- to a- g *, >< a a-o.-S^ !,S.to^5 ° '53 S .3- S S;^?^"^^,^'^ -v^^^j — _i ^T «ij ^rf r» r-^ "t) "'^ -"^ n - I 3a a. S > s o & fa m Q? ed >> 1 at 03 1 " s i " » " " .T'S """b"|S' 3 3 S S-g o< e p 3" S g 5- 1 ^ 1 a; s CO B M CO Id BJ Pi a" 1 g .2 fi 03 (ii^ «-,<.Q, "S w -a a oa.«o-o 8'« b» 134 Words and Forms of Words. C O CO. s. a <^ a. p< ;» a S s X Sa BBBB BB S "''S 3 Bc-S &, yj ^ttj -ui -ou 't« i^ r^ "S ?^ 't^ t^ 'MJ "«J ^ ft.;. ft^A Rw ^ S tJ Hi QOTMi'^ty >^*..* S T^ w oi a- * to ^ ^ J- 3- £ S S s S2J^^ 5^ ^K-^ >Zs 2.?^ ftg. K«j fttu ntu Stu RUJ "MJ f^t^ "?■$?■ P- 3 t-s j^ r. ra t^W "tw K«jSi« "(Wto « S «^ ^ ^ 3 - S 2 g -^^ S c ? =^ CO ^3 S S - B.S"*^ • -a a-a,B 5Sv, « BS. SaoSi S- >a g i :2 a.1 as 1- g-^ s - "" ^-B -B-K- a 4 oS p Si c Bga General view of the Anomalies of Greek verbs. 135 -s - dll^.li ilsiisi||l||i|| SsS S^ "I^S £r?i-"a *&'?> a s & s-5 S"a 3 en ra a.5> "^.3 psS 5r §-'='='^'fesvi;£ i3 _ o a §- __ |-|»l "I g§|a J 1^1 I '§§- I a a a. a. > ts -OB as V^S'^ fe ■- ^ .— aj CO —I HJ 1 — I E a<|f^go 2o --^ H d ^3. e g ^ s II l-ili ^.§i iia i i il I * .3 ? S rt S s s.-s-"« w -a <^ Q -a 136 Words and Forms of Words. rH — CO w ^ It .2 s -s ■ ^ ^ ^88 3 S 3>8|§"'iS,3--.-«^« « 3 iSi (m — ^ CO '-^ . tu & 20?> B- s s- » * a.— S ^B- g rt§^ !^ 8 s-8. ?. w n,a.a. »o K o S ;» !i;a j^fiijS, c S S, a ^ " .2. S s " S -a . u 2 o ^ to §^ « •"■ w c- - - S s S «^ a8j8 ...'3^ ^ ,;C-a.a.8 a.3 3.^6d=« ° ='*' 0,0,-3 3^3 3 -S-g-a.-§ « -S g — «5 -i^ii ?. ?. n g^ a, a. a.»o ^ s* „ S .; .... . S ^ h3 u .a b: en 1 §= 3 ll AJJJ a ■" 3 3 MA .■s »8 S & •B ^ & e-, «0 § O s .:« S O CO s, stei NT. It. o s o a P c« u u u ? r w '-' tf3 1^3 ., r. (M 3 3 s »£ <^ •-" ^ o to _g '3 "3 ■3 "SI. :a J3 3 t3 ■5 s a a (U <: o « H cd !« a ti " E-i S g OJO 3^ a. so K w H O tm 1 SOAJS 3^ a. «s g ^^ »§• General view of the Anomalies of Greek verbs. 137 11 § I I I i.lg.1 .| 1-1 1 Si i I III 1 1| -III,!:' ' rrl' '4M| " ^'if II: ST 'ST — 1 ■A •A a, El 1- 1 ^1 ■•a t— 1 a. a. o •VO ^ tQ, ^o ^ 03 ^ a) 'S is E-l =- MM " X CO O «3 i_j ^ -o . CO 5 ■ '— _ a ■? S a. J" ? a. _o o s p a. a. 3 a. »o -a 138 Words and Forms of Words. 2^:3 rs -r* ;^^ is O- ci H ■^ .'^ Cu "-* U -» 5 -'^ •d 1 car Q/^ '£5 -uj 1 i Or 1 B lll B 3. 3 B 1 to 1 S '/J a *o ?: Q' N K Q/ a. a. fc- to ?i «; s N -a- ,to -5? .2 (« -tu ^^ M w^ »< X •so ^M* nyj '^ lUfe "(,;, IJ •tU ^^— /"^O "W '*'U ''Hj "W "wj K (? to to,j3i «ty "Hu '*tg "tg 'wi 4 -oTj o C3 Oj _a> o* CO 03 C2 to to tn '^ to CO CO m CO (/J 'C to ■ — ' o a t^ '8 J '3 -li 'S , a, Q, 3. 3,-B «o 8 .^ '- cu CO H cu to 0^ r- '/J ^ s 0} ^- i> 3, ch ;: 8l-i , ■ 0. ■« 1 ^'^ ■3 a 2^ "3 '^ ••a,«-a/ to •S -i2 c ^ « i; 0. 3, s B ~ •B 3/B ■w^ (- g-g i 71 '— General view of Ihe Anomalies of Greek verbs. 139 3. b a S a a ta g-S: s- ST ^ 8 1 - *> s to B a ?> o ,»' ji a. T< 'O •= ^<= f^ >«_«*o-o a ^ a -si-^g I- e ts K e«o 'Bvto a S x^ o to « t) to o? ■" > ^ ^ ^4 «o X 2^ c? §^ to •^-a ^ i =-: Or >* te r- .-"^« 'NJW •^^.-^iit to «§ = (•^ . X c . - 3 -a 5! " '~ § S 2" ■1 g-^ ^ S c §: »• S 5-65? 3 "a ^S"? 'a •fi ^0 to ^*< t^ ej «a,->so *«r ^■o 8 - to ;^ a K«o 3 s- 140 Words and Forms of Words. Note. It will be observed that some of the verbs here enumerated also have other irregularities Ijesides those noticed in the general statenjent. §. 228. There are some other irregularities ■which are of less common occurrence, as the metathesis, when a vowel followed by a liquid changes its place with the li- quid, and the syncope, when a short vowel between two consonants is thrown out. Note 1. Examples of metathesis occur in the perfects and the first aorist passive of the verbs ^dXha, iiaXm , ndfiva, reiivB) , and t!tv7ja%a> , for the stems are <^E/L', v.aX , v.an , rtfi, ^av , but for the purpose of forming the above tenses they are changed into ^Xa, v.Xa , Kfia, tfis, and -O'va; e. g. i^Xrj- d-Tjv, ^ipXriKa, ^i^Xrjfiai Sic. Note 2. A syncope occurs most frequently in the second florists , and the vowel most easily thrown out is s, as lyyeo- (iriv (from lysiqm , stem iysQ^, rjvsyKov (from the stem svsii), iTirofirjV, and the fut. TiT-rjaoncu from nho[iai., §. 229. One of the common anomalies in meaning con- sists in the future • middle having a passive signification. This is the case most commonly with pure verbs, as Wft^- GOficct,, I shall be honoured ; ccSix'^Gofiat,, I shall be wronged ; iccoojiai, I shall be suffered ; «aXoviJi,ai (xaXicSonai), I shall be called; ovudiov^ai,, I shall be reproached. Note 1. In some verbs both the future middle and the future passive are employed in a passive sense, as acpsXijaoiiai and mq>£Xr]S'r]aofiai, I shall be benefited; BrsQijcofiai and ffrfgrj- .^njaofiai, I shall be deprived; , ZIV.XCO , ipQOvxC^co , jjroptcB. §. 231. There are many verbs of which the second per- fect is used in a passive sense, as ayvvjii, I break, i'aya, I am broken; avoiym, I open, avicoyce, I stand open; 6'A- Ivfii., I destroy, olaXa, I am undone; nrjyvvfii, I fix, nhi'Tiya , I stick fast; Q'^yvvjit, I tear, aQQCoya, I am burst; Tijxco, I melt, riTTjxa, I am melted; qxxiva, I show, ni- cprjVK, I appear, and others. §. 232. Middle or deponent verbs generally have the middle form in the future and aorist; but some assume the passive form in these tenses. Note 1- "Eqccfiat, I love, makes the future ^Qua&'qaofiai; but the following have both the middle and the passive form in the future: alSioiiai, ax&ofiai, SiaXsyofiai , siiiiisXofhai,, TiQo&vfisofiai , Siavoioiiai , sXaaaoofiai. Note 2. The following have the passive form in the aorist : SvvajiciL, inCaxa^at, Igcfiai, dXdofiai, ax&o(icii, ^ovXoiiai,, 142 Words and Forms of Words. (Jf'ofiat, r}8o(iai,, oi'ofiai, ci^ofiai, qiavvd^ofiai. , Sialiyoyi,ai, ETttftfAofiat , iv&vfieojiai , nQO&vfieofiai, ivvoiofiai, Siavoso- ftat, dmovosoiiai , ^vavxioo^ai , svla^iofiai, qnXotifisoiiai. Note 3. The following have botli the middle and the pas- sive forms in the aorist: ayafiai, cctSsoixai, ccy,iUdofi,ai , dq- veofiai., p^vxaofiai, yCyvoiiai, iiSfi,q>onai, , di.oq)VQO^ai, dno- Xoysofiai, xoLvoXoysofiai. , nqovosoiiai. Note 4. Middle verbs' used in a reflective or passive sense have the passive form in the aorist, as, setidofiaL, £vio%BOfiai, Sbaitdofiai, svcpQaLVOfiai, , XE^Tiofiai, dvidofiai, XvTtsojjtai, opyt'Jo jxat ', wopsofiai , nsi^ojiaij itoXLTSvofiaL , arpdlXoiiai, CTQScpoiica , oQiidoiioci , noQSVofiai , ixeiyojiai , Sanavdoiiai , dnoQSO^ai, and others. Some of them have a different meanin5 according as they have a passive or a middle aorist, as sijiev- a&rjv, I deceived myself ; iipevadiirjv , I told a falsehood; iaco- &7]v , I saved myself; iacoadjirjv , I saved for myself; iKOfil- aO'rjv , I travelled; inoiiiodiirjv , I acquired for myself. Others again have both forms of the aorist without any difference in meaning, aionXL^sB&ai , oQ^iL^sa^aL, dvdyse&ai, 7csiqaa9ai, TiovsiO&ai. , fiaXavJ^se&fxi. Note 5. Some perfects -of deponent verbs have both an active and a passive meaning , as ■^ya)vie9'cii , from dyuivC^o- jiai; 'fjTida9ai,, from ahidojitu; ^E^ide&ai,, from ^id'Qofiuai; SfScoQ-fjad-ai,, from S'ra^EOfiat; so also slqyde&ai, iaxsqid'ai., fjvx&ai, iiyrje&ai, KSitf^a&at-, ijisiivrja9ai , ■A.sj^aqCa&ai , ico- vfja&cii., dnoXsXoyrja^ui &c, CHAPTER XXXVII. LIST OF IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. §. 233. The following list contains mainly those verbs and forms which occur in Atlic writers. Stems without terminations are mentioned because their existence must be presupposed for the purpose of forming' certain tenses. Poetical words are marked by an asterisk. 'Ayafiai*, 1 admire, fut. aydsoiiai., aor. iiyde&riv and riya- odiiriv. dysiQco, I collect, another form for iysiQCo, has the Att. re- duplic, and a syncope in the second aorist r]y9o'fi?ji»-, part. dyQajiSvos- See §. 228. note 2. List of irregular and defective Verbs. 143 ayvvfi.1., I break, see §§. 226, and 231. ay(o, I lead, 2 aor. TJyayov, rai-ely 1 aor. ijla, perf. rixa, fut. pass, dx^jjaojiai aud a^Oftat. alSsofiai-, I reverence, fut. atSiaotuxi, 1 aor. pass. ^^£- tiiviio, I commend, has tj in the perf. pass., otherwise regu- larly s, isalveaia, rjviea, ■^vsd-rjv , aivs&ijao^ai , but perf. pass, rjvrifiai. It occurs generally only in compounds, as inaivsa , fut. InaLviao^ai and Ittaiviaca. ttiQSm, I talce, see §. 227. 2 aor. sllov has the st only in the indicative, subj. sla, inf. iXsiv, part. sXiav. aiqca, I raise, contracted for asi'gto; fut. agoj; 1 aor. mid. TJqdjiiiVi otherwise regular, perf. jj^hk, 1 aor. pass. rJQ^rjv. ala&dvo fiai, I perceive, see §. 222. alaxvvca , I put to shame, perf. rjexviiiiai, otherwise regu- lar; the fut. of the passive middle is alaxwovfiat and aC- Bxvv9i]B0iiaL. KKajjt'So)*, I humble. 2 aor. rjiuxxov, fut. d-xaxijaoy, 1 aor. ■^Kclxrjaa. axEOficft, I heal, retains the f, as ccKsaoiiUi, r'liiiBdfiriv, rjvJc^Tjv , but otherwise regular. • a«ou'(o, I hear, fut. dv.ovaofiai, I aor. TJiiovca, perf. dv.jj- v.oa, pluperf. ■^kjjv.o'sii' or d-Krjy.osiv , 1 aor. pass, tjkou'- e&riv, perf. pass. T]v.ovay,ui. dyiQodofi-ai, I listen to, retains the a, as dy.QO'dao^ai, ^xgoa- CCSflTJV. dXSTJG-Ka , I nourish , fut. dXiTJam- «if|(o*, I ward off. See §. 220. dkim, I grind, fut. dXiam or dXm, 1 aor; TjXiaa, perf. air/'- Xsna, perf. pass. dXijXsaiiai or aiijiffiat. dXiBv.Ofiai, I am taken prisoner, see §. 224. The forms aXmaofJiai, idXcoiia or ^Xama, aud idXmv or TJXav, inf. uilravat, and part, aiou's have all passive meaning. aXXojiai, I leap, fut. dXovfiai,, aor. 'qXd[ir]v. diiaqravm, I err, see §. 222. afipii'ffKoi, I make an abortion, fut. uii^Xdaco, 2 aor. Tjfir- §Xoov. See §. 224. dfnc£X(i> and dfimaxvoviiai, , see lj;(a. avaiiffxa, I consume, see §. 224. dvSdvco, I please, 2 aor. sdSov , perl.iaScc, fut. dSriam. dvoCya or dvoiyvv fii, I open, see §. 226. oL'vv(t.i. dnsx^dvoiiai, I am hated, see §. 222. 144 Words and Forms of Words. dqsBKco, I please, see §. 224. avaivai, I dry, is regular, but has no aiigm. in the imperf. avaivov. av^ca or av^dvco, I increase, see §. 222. aX^ofiai, I am vexed, fut. dx&eaoficn or cLx&B(s9T^aofJi,ai, 1 aor. rix&ia&riv; comp. §.220. BaCvia, I go, fut, ^jfaoftai, 2 aor. H^riv (imper. Prj9i,'), perf. (3 a /lira, I throw, fut. §aXcS, 2 aor. i'^aXov, perf. (3«(3/l7jKa, perf. pass, ^i^lrjfiai, I aor. pass, i^krjd-rjv , 1 fut. pass. piij'&Tjoofiat , 3 fat. pe/Siifcofiat. Comp. §. 228. note 1. (3i/3(i(o'(j«ea , I eat, see §. 225. Pto'co, I live, fut. ^loiaofiai., I aor. i^iaaa, 2 aor. ipt'tai/ (subj. ptra, opt. ^itprjv , inf. ^icSvai, part, ^loug, ouaa), perf. (Sf^t'cuMa. ^Xaardvco, I bud, perf. (Js/JXacrijxK and i^XddTTjiia. See §. 222. (Jo'oMfo, I feed, fut; ^offXTjffm. See §. 220. (3 o«'Ao fiat, I am desirous,, fut. pouAr/ffOftat ; 1 aor. i^ovlTj- &r]V and ri§ovXij&'riv.. See §. 220. (Swe'o), I stop up, inf. aor. ^vaai, perf. pass, ^i^vafiai, aor. rafism, I marry, applied to a man; the middle yafiovfiau is said of the woman. See §. 221. yfiao, I laugh, fut, yeXdaofiai, aor. lyslaffK, perf. pass. ysyeXaBfiat, aor. pass. sysXdG&rjv^ fut. pass. yEiaC'B'jfoofiai. yriQdav,a), I grow old, see §. 224. The Attics for yriQciaai, said yriqavai, and part, yrj^dg. yCyvofiai or y Cvoiiai, I come into being, fut. ysvijaofiuL, 2 aor. iysvoiirjv (at a late period iyevt]9r]v) , perf. yiyova and ysyevrjiiai , which forms supply the place of a perfect to tC/ii, I am. 'Eyuvdfiriv has an active meaning, I begat. y iyvcoay.(o or yivci av.(o, I come to know, see §. 225. The 2 aor. i'yvcov , subj. yvio , yvaig, opt. yvoltjv or yj'oj'r;!', imper. yvm&i, yviozto, inf. yvmvai, part. yrpiJs, ovaa. /Idv.vm, I bite, see §. 222. ^ap'B'aj'O), I slumber, see §. 222. Sii — (stem) I fear, fut. SsLOoiiKi, aor. h'Ssiaa, perf 6iSoiKa and SsSicc in the sense of a present; SsSicc has the plur. SeSijisv, SsSiTS, Ssdiaaiv; imperat. ScSi&i, subjunct. Ss- Sico, opt. SsSLsirjv, inf. SeSiivai, part. SsSiCog. List of irregular and defective Verbs. 145 SitKVViii, I show, see §. 211. S^ftm, I build, 1 aor. sSsi[ia, perf, SeSfiriKa. Sim, 1 bind, fut. djj'cco, a.ov. ^Srjaa, perf. SiSsiia, perf. pass. SeSsiiat. and ScSsofiai, aor. iSi&rjv, fut. df'S'TjffOfiat, 3 fut. ds^jjcojitoii. Si 10, I am wanting, fut. dfijffo), aor. iSeijaa, perf. SsSsi]v.a; this verb is most commonly used impersonally, dse", there is a necessity. Ssojiai, I want or desire, contracts Sisrai i-nto Ssirai , but tfs'17 or Shi remain uncontr. , fut. SsTjaoftai, perf. SeSerjiiai, aor. iSs7J9riv. SiSdaiiia , I teach , fut. SiSd^o} , aor. iSiSa^a , perf. ds^t- daj;a, perf. pass. SsSiSayfiai, aor. iSiSdx^rjv. S iSgda Km, I run, generally in composition, see §. 225. The second aorist ^Squv has the imper. SgdS'i, subjunct. tfgra, Sqas &c., opt. Sqairjv, inf. Sqcivai,, part. d^goSs. doxEoi, I seem, see §. 221; perf. pass. SiSoKtai., it has Seemed, part. SiSoyfiivos. SqccfiS IV, see Tge'jtia. Svvafiai, I am able, iraperf. sSvvdfiriv or rjSvvdiirjv, fut. SvvTJaoiiai , perf. SeSvvr]iJ,ai,, 1 aor. pass. iSvvrj&TjV, tjSv- VTj'S'Tjj', or £Svvda9rjv , 1 aor. mid. fSvvrjadfirjv. Svvto, I go into, occurs only in the pres. and imperf. act., the other forms are supplied by diSto. Svco, 1 put on, is regular, but shortens the v in the 1 aor. pass.; 2 aor-. $Svv , eSvg, cSv &c. , subj. Svca , inf. Svvai. imper. Sv&i , part. Svg , SvBcc. jdvea and k'Svaa are tran- sitive; but SsSvua and t'dui' are intransitive "I went into", or "put on myself", which in the other tenses is expressed by the middle Svofiai.. 'EyeiQ CO, I wake, is regular, perf. iyrjySQtia, syrjyeQiiai, aor. pass. T/y£'e'9'7]v ; but 2 perf. syQrjyoQa, I am awake, and 2 aor. T^ygdjii^v; comp. dySL^ca. sS—, see ia&iio in §. 227. c^ojiai, I seat myself, commonly in the compound Kd9sSo- ftai, fut. Kcc&eSoviiccL. i9 — only in the perf. li'io&a, lam accustomed, synonym. with sl'd'tB/icci. i&elco or &sl(o, see §. 220. iCk — , only in the perf. k'oiKa, I resemble, plup. ecoKiiv; another Attic form is eIku, fut. sl%co. si. — , see aiQSco. ilavvcojl drive, fut. (ildsio') sla, ildg , imperf. iKv.a, Sevyvviii, I join, see §. 226. fs'o), I boil, fut. ^sGca, aor. i'^aaa. Jaivi'ti/ii., I gird, see §. 226. Hkbi, I am come, the subj., opt. and the imperf. 9jkov have the meaning of aorists; fut. ^^(o, rjiiai, I sit, see §. 217. 0£o), I run, imperf. ^9bov, fut. &BVBoyi,ai, or -ov[icci; tlie rest is formed from tqi^co. ^lyydvco, I touch, see §. 223. &Xixm, I squash, fut. &ldaco, aor. k'&Xaaa, perf. pass, xi- &Xaaii,ai., aor. iO'laB^riv. &vrjaKco, I die, see §. 224; is used also as a passive to ■xtiLVO) , I kill. The perfect xs&VTjKa has several shortened forms, of which however only the intinitive and participle are commonly used by Attic writers , as t£S-vd[isv , ts&vats, TS&vaai, pluperf. ixs&vaaav; oft.ts9vairiv, imp. zsQ'Vci&i, inf. TS&vavai, part. Ts9vic6g, coaa, 6s, and from this a future rs&vrj^co or te^viij^oiiai. &Qavco, r break, perf. pass. Ti&Qccviicct and ri^qavBieai, aor. i9Qava9i^v. &Qc6aiim, I leap,, fut. &OQOVfiai., 2 aor. s&oqov, perf. te- &OQa. 18 — the stem from which we have olSa, slSov, &c. ; see §. 218. t^m, v,a9i^(o, I seat myself, fut. ita&Ko, aor. iw&iaa or iv.a^'iaa, fut. mid. v.a^i^T]ao(i,ai. We also find the mid. e^ofiai, and in prose Ka9eSoiiai. , I sit, fut. Ka&sSoviJkai^ the inf., part., and imperfect of wbicl) often have the mean- ing of an aorist. tfifii, I send, see §. 212. lv.vioyi,ai, I come, (in prose mostly compounded with the prepos. dno, £| and iui) fut. t^ofiat, 2 aor. tjtd^jjj', perf. Tyficci, adj. iiitog. fXacxoftat, I propitiate, see §. 224. Ka&iSoiaaL, %a&iSa>, see Jtoo. v,a.lm, I burn, Attic v.aia uncontracted, fut. xatJffm, 1 aor. iKavaa, perf. HsWuxa, perf. pass, usiiavfiai, , aor. iiiav- &riv, fut. xavd'Tjaoiicci, An un-Attic 2 aor. is iKdrjv, 1 aor. mid. STisidii'qv. 10* 148 Words and Forms of Words. KuXeio, I call, fut. KaXiaa, coutr. xaXa^ aor. indXeaa, perf. MEM^jj^a, perf. pass. MEniTjfiort (I am called), 1 fut. xivj'S'jf- eoiiai, 3 fut. xexlTj'oofiat. Comp. §. 229. ■ndlJbva, I grow weary, see §. 222. The part. perf. K£K(i»;- K(6g, is shortened into Ke-iifiTJais. «£tfi.«t, I lie down, see §. 216, y.e^dvvviii, I mix, see §. 226. ■ns^SaCvco, I gain, fut. v.s^Sav£, aor. inB^Sava. ■nixdva, I reaeh, fut. 5itj;T;ff£0, 2 aor. iKi^ov , pass, iiiixr]v, subj. xi'jjci), opt. Kixsirjv, inf. mx^vai, part. KL^iig. «iaJ(o, I clang, make a noise, fut. «A«yitXau<)£(r'9'at. «iaoj, I break, fut. xAaoia, perf. pass, KExteff/iat, aor. J«ia- ■AXsica, I shut, perf. pass. KsiiXeiaixaL and K£«i£tfiat, aor. iiiXiia&rji , fut. xAEiff'S'T/ffOfiai , 3 fut. KSKXeiaoiiciL. There is also an Attic form xXya, perf. Ms'jtijHa, perf. pass. x£- KXyiiai, aor. sii.X7]o97jv, xXsmco, I steal, fut. 'x.Xsipm or %Xi'\j>Ofiat , perf. KExXo^pa, •perf, pass. jtEM^Eftfiat , aor. iiiXdm^v, rarely ivXscp&rjv . kXivco, I incline, perf. act. KstiXiiici , perf. pass. KSKXifiaL, aor. i-AXi&rjv, iyiXCvriv (I laid myself down), fut. (xara)- «l^'9'7JffOfta^ , ■xataKXLvrjBOiiai , or KarKKi^^'oi)/:^o:^. KO^oum, I mutilate; the act. reg. , perf, pass. KsiioXoviiai., aor. jKoio'U'S'Tjj' or iyioXova9Tjv. KOQSvvv^i, I satisfy, see §. .226. xpajoj, I crow, perf, «£xpaya with the meaning of a pres., pluperf. iy-suQaysiv , imperat, ■nEKQax&i, fut. M£xpc|Qftai, 2 aor, I'xgayoj', ■KQSliccvvviii, I suspend, see §, 226. xpozjo), I knock, perf, pass, ■xsn^ovfiai , but KexQOvarui, and aor. £«90«'ff'9'7;r.' KQVTCtco, I hide, regular, but aor. pass, iv.^vcp&rjv , i-nQV- (pifjv , or i-jiQvpriv. -/traoftat, I acquire, regular, but v.£v.xrnt,ai signifies both, I possess, and I am possessed; aor, pass, iv.xri&rjv , 3 fut. KSKTi'iaofiai, and iKziiaofitci- , I shall possess. y.Tsivco, I kill, fut. kteVo, aor. sv.tsi.va, i'lircivov; 2 perf. ktiTova in dnstiTOva ; TE'S'rTjKOi and t&avov are used as its perf. and aor. pass. List of irregular and defective Verbs. 149 KvlivSco and KvlivSem, I roll, fut. Kvliato , aor. invXlaa, perf. pass. KemXiaiJiai , aor. iiivX£B9rjV. Kvvico, I kiss, fut. xvaco. Aayxdvco, I obtain bj lot, see §. 223. Xafi^dva, I take, see §. 223; the imperat of 2 aor. is Xa^i. Xav&dv CO, I am -concealed, see §. 223. There is also a simpler form XtJ&b) ; the middle Xav&civo(i,ai , or imXav9ci' vofiai, I forget. Xiya, I gather, occurs only in compounds, perf. sl'Xoxa, pass. li'Xsyiiai, and also XiXsyiiai, aor. sXsyTjv or sXix^fj'"- — I" the sense of "I speak", Xiya is regular, but instead of the perf. XsXBxa, the best writers have ffgjjxo! (from I'pco). Xsinco, 1 leave, is regular, but perf. XsXoiita, and 2 aor. SXlTCOV. Xovco, I wash, generally loses its connecting vowels o and B in the pres. and imperf. as Xovfi,ai , Xovrai, , Xova&ai , tXov, k'XovfiEV ; fut. Xovaa , aor. iXovaa , perf. pass. XsXoviiai and leXova/iaL, aor. iXov&TjV and iXoiia&rjv. IvfiaCvofiai., I destroy, perf. pass. XsXvfiaaiioci. Ma£vofi,ai, I am mad, fiit. (lavov^tai , aor. i/J-dvi^v, perf. [leiirjva (I am mad); 1 aor. act. Jfujj'o;, I made mad. fjiav^dvco, I learn, see §. 223. Iidxo fiai, I fight, see §. 220. (isiQO fiat*, 1 obtain, 2 aor. ^niioQov, perf. k'ltjiOQcc, pei-f. pass. eVfiaqtccL , it is fated; part, stiiaqjisvog, [iiXXa, 1 am about to do, see §. 220. fiiXsi, it is a care, see §. 220. The middle [i^Xofiai, I lay to heart , occurs in imiiiXofiai, ; tlie form imiisXsdjiai, is very often found. (ieva, I remain , see §. 220. firiKcco iiai, I bleat, 2 aor. k'fiaxov, perf. (i£^Jj«a, part, fif- fMjKojff, (ii^rjTivttt and iisiimvia , fiEfijjMo'g. (iCyvvfiL (liiayco} , I mix , see §. 226. fiifiVTjaTico, I remind, see §. 226. The perf. pass, n^^ivri- (lat,, I remember, 3 fut. ii,s[iiVt]aoiiai , I shall remember, fiuxaofiat, I roar, fut. (tuxTf eofiat , 2 aor. k'livxov. Ndaam, I stop up, fut. ralo) , perf. pass, vivaa^i or r^- vifico, I attribute, see §. 220. vEfi), I heap, fut. fTjCfi), aor. t'vTjea, perf. vevrjaiiai and ve- vriiiai, aor. ivi]ad'7]V and ivij9r]v. — iV^o, I- spin, is regular; 150 Words and Forms of Words. Niio, I swim, has fut. vsvaofiai, or vevaoviiai, aor. i'vsv* ea, perf. vsvevxa^ and rsoftat* signifies I return, as well as, I shall return. vi^(0, I wash, occurs only in the pres. and imperf., the other tenses being supplied from vlTtzm. Ssto, I cut or polish, fut. |sco3, perf. pass. k%iaiiai. ^vQCo, ^VQSta or ^vqaca , I shave , middle ^vqojiai , aor. I|t)- qdy.rjv , perf. s^vqrjliat. "OSco, I emit a smell, see §. 220. oi'yco, olyvvfii, see §. 226. In prose it occurs mostly in the compounds SwCyto , dvoCyco aud dvoCyvvfii , imperf. uv- icpyov , aor. dvscp^a , inf. dvoi^ai , aor. pass. dvemx^V") ai'Ot;i;'9'^5'o;t ; perf. dveajrcCf 2 perf. dvsmya, 1 am open, for which the Attics say avsmyiiai. olSa, I know, see §. 218. oiofiai and oljiat, I think, imperf. mofiTjV a.ni ^liriv, fut. olrjCOjiai, aor. ^rj&tjv. ol%oiiai, lam gone, fut. ol%rieofitu, perf. aj^Tjfiai, oi'xtoiicc and cofj;?)Hc; (p^6[irjv lias generally the sense of an aorist. o I — see (piqco. oXia&aivta and oXia&dvto, I slip,- see §. 222. oXlviLi, I destroy, see §. 226, occurs in prose only in com- position; the 2 perf. and the middle signify "I am undone." o^wfii, I swear, see §. 226. The third pers. sing, of the perf. pass, is oiicofiotai and oixcoiioatai, and in-the plur, d^ci[i,ovxai, part. oiKOfioaiiavog , aor. (6n6&riv and tofto- e&riv, fut. oiioa&TjGoiiai,. ofioqywiii, I wipe off, see §. 226. ovlvTHii, I benefit, fut. ovrjaai, aor. (ovrjaa; pres. pass. ovC- vccfiai, fut. (JrTjffofiai , aor. covrj^rjv , or mvjjiirjv to which the inflnit. is ovaa&ai, and the opt. ovaCyktjV. on — see oqdto. OQaa, I see, see §. 227, imperf. idqcov; aor. stSov, subj. i'Sto. o Qvviii*, I excite, fut. ogaai, 1 aor. copca, perf. -pass. ogffl^Sfiat , imperat. oqao, inf. oqS'cci, part. oQfisvog. 6e(pQaivo(iai, I smell, fut. 6aq>Qijao[i,cu , aor. coGtpQojJiriv and maqiQdiirjV. ovrd^to or ouram, I wound, third pers. sing, of 2 aor. outa, plur. oinav, perf. part. pass, ovta^ivos or ovTaGjisvog. ocpsCXm, 1 owe, see §. 220. The second aor. afiXov has the meaning of the Lat. utinam, would that. List of irregular and defective Verbs. 151 6q>lia-idvia, I owe, am guilty of, fut. oqpAr/'ffto, 2 aor. (aq>lov, perf. a(plriv,a, perf. part. pass. to^XTjfievog. liaise), I sport, fut. n;at|oftat and Tiai^ovfiai, 1 aor. i'mxi- ea, perf. ninafna, perf. pass. TtETtaLafiai and niitaiyikai. TcaCm, I strike, fut. itaCaco and jratTjffto , aor> i'^aiaa, perf. jrs'jratxa, aor. pass, inaie&iqv; the place of the perf. and aor. pass, are generally supplied by icsitXiri'/fktu. and litXijyriv, from 7ti.rjaaeo. ^daxfo-, I suffer, see §. 227. jiaTacffoj, I strike, takes its passive from nX'^aaco. ■nei&m, I persuade, in the passive "I believe" or "I obey" fut. Tcsiaofiai, perf. niTiticfiai; fut. TcsiaQ'rjaofiai , I shall be persuaded, the perf. ni-itoi^a, I trust. TtSfiTcm, I send, regular, but perf. srEscofiqpa, part. perf. pass. 7isics(iii,svog. ■nieaa or srEiTco, I digest, fut. niilxa, perf. pass. neTfBy,- fiai, aor. insq>9rjv. JciTdvvvil,l, I spread, see §. 226. Ttitoiiai, I fly, fut. nstrieofiai, and Attic nrr'iao^ai, aor. sjrrojttijj' and ijiTiifiriv, perf. nsnoTtniiu. nrjyvvni, I fasten, see §. 226; the perf. itsnriya signifies 1 am fixed. TCiiiJilrjiii, I fill; in the pres. and imperf. it follows Pffr7)fti; but the other tenses are formed from 7cXt]9 — , fut. niijaco, perf. ninXrjiia, perf. pass. TCExlijaiiai- , aor. inXrja^Tjv, fut. sr/lijC'd'Tjsofi.oft. 5r ^fijrpTjfii, I burn, conjug. like jrt/tjriTjfit ; but fut. TC^rjao) (from jiQtj&y, perf. ninQij-na, perf.. pass. TCSTCqrjafiai , aor. iTiqija&rjV, fut. irgjjcS'jjffOfiort and nrEJtgjjoo/wKi. nivco, I drink, see §. 227. mitqdaiKo, I sell, see §. 225. niTCTco, I fall, fut. nsaoviiai, aor. tniaov, perf. nsntcotia. arisKta, I twist, regular, aor. pass. iiilsji%"rjv , inXdy/rjV of TtlBca, I sail, fut. wXsvaoiiai and nXsvaovjiai, perf. ma- nrlEDjia, perf. pass. nenXeva^ai, aor. tJriEu'c'S'Tjj'. nXijaaa), I strike, fut. 3rX.jf|ro, perf. jtsro^T/ya, perf. pass. nsnXjjyfiai, aor. STiXrjx&'^v, or more commonly ijtXrjyTjv and in compounds inXdyrjv; 2 fut; wZTjyryffOftort , in compounds 7tXayi]ao!iaLi 3 fut. TtiTtXri^Ofiai. It V SCO, I blow, fut. nvsvisofiai and nvsvaovfiai , aor. tnvsv- aa, perf. niitvsvua, perf. pass. nsTtvBvaiiat , aor, invsv- a&rjv and invcvd'Tiv. 152 Words and Forms of Words. 7Co9sco, I long for, fut. no^^aojiai. or 7io97]svya), I flee, fut. qpsu'lo^ai and cpevlovjiai , 2 aor. I'gju- yOK, perf. Ttsipsvya, perf. pass, ^scpvyficci, (prjlii, I say, see §. 215. cp&dvco, I come before or anticipate, see §. 222. The se- cond aor. S(p9i^v makes the subj. q)&(S, opt. (p^airjv , inf. tp&ijvai,, part. ipQ'ds. 154 Words and Forms of Words. (pS'siQio, 1 destroy, regular, but 2 aor. pfiss. itp&aQrjv, perf. act. k'cp9aQV,a, fut. pass. cp9aqT]ffo^cii, and cp&SQOVfiai.. qivco, I bring forth, regular, fut. tpvaco and cpvaofiai; perf. Tiscpvua, I am naturally or by nature; also 2 aor. i'tpvv, subj. q>V€o, inf. cpvvai, part, qpti's. XaiQto, I rejoice, fut. ^ateTjcoj, late writers jjapjf <70ju.o!t , 2 aor. ixdQ'rjv in an active sense, perf, jtfjja^TjKC, pass. m£- Xccqrjjiai or jifjiapftat. ;i;o:ia(», I let loose, fut. %ai.dam , aor. pass. ^xaXda&riv. XavSdvm, I grasp or contain, 2 aor. i%tiSov, perf. KExav^c. j; a c « 0) , I gape , fut. xavOv^iai (from xaCvco) , 2 aor. ixavov, perf. Kf'iijTjra, I stand with open mouth. jje'o), I pour, fut. x^^ (some writers have %gvaco), fut. mid. XSOfiai, aor. i'x^'^t subj. j;£(0, inf. ;|;fat, imperat. Jifoj', ;i;fciT(» &c. ; perf, KSj;'U)ta, perf. pass, jtfjjufiai, aor, ij;r- 'S'Tjj', fut. ;;i)'8'9j(>Ofto;t. Xo'to, (and ;i;o}Vj'Dfw) , I dam in, perf. pass, ksxcoiicil, aor. ;{ 9 a fio; I , I use, inf. x9V''^''"-j fut. XQV'^ofiai,, aor. fjjgJj- adiiTjV,- perf. 5is;i;9ijfi.o!i. , aor. pass. ixQija&i^v. XQ'iJt it is necessary, subj. ;{9^, opt. xqsiri, inf, j;p^rat, part. TO jjpeto'v, imperf. ixqr^v and XQV'" ^ ^^^- ZP'f''*'* X-Qiio, I anoint, regular, but perf. pass. «£;(;9KJfici and «£- Xqifiai,, aor. ^xqCa&riv. Xqo]vvv[ii (and jjgro'Jo), I stain or colour, see §. 226. ??«(», I rub, inf. ipjjv, fut. tpTjaco; but the Attics preferred the verb iptJX'"' rpvx'"^ I cool, inf. aor. tpv^ai, perf. pass, ^ipvyiictt, 1 and 2 aor. STpvx^rjv , iipvxv", or iipvyrjv. 51 «•££», I push, see §. 221. c6vso[iai,, I buy, 1 aor. pass, icovrj^r/v, perf. i(0V7i]iai has both active and passive meaning, but the aor. only a passive one; in an active sense, Attic writers prefer n^Ca^ai., which see. CHAPTER XXXVIII. ' ADVERBS. §. 234. Adverbs are employed in Greek not only to qualify adjectives, verbs, and other adverbs, as in Latin, Adverbs, 155 but also lo qualify substantives, as 6 ivrog av&qmnog, the inner man; r] naqavrlx tiSov^^ the momentary pleasure; iv Tw TOTE xQOvco, at that time, §. 235. All adverbs are either primitive, as vvv , now; uA , always ; tors , then ; or derived from adjectives by the termination cag, as aya&ag, well; Goqjcog, wisely; akrj&mg, truly (see §§. 116, 123, 128) ; or lastly they consist of certain cases or forms of nouns, as zuvxri, in this rnanner, or in this way; xcopt'Sj apart, separately; vvKxog, by night; xotv^, in common or commonly; (icikquv, a great wky, far. Note 1. Many adjectives employ their neut. sing, as ad- ver'bs, as zcixv, quickly, or even with the article to KccQTe^ov, bravely. Comparatives commonly employ the neuter sing, as adverbs, as aacpeareqov, more distinctly; dlrj&sOTiQOv , more truly; Si-iiatotiQOv , more justly. Superlatives are more com- monly used as adverbs in the neut. plur., than in the singular, as Ta nQiaxa, but also to nQmtov ; psltiBTa, in the best man- ner; luiXiata, most (see §. 123). Respecting the manner of deriving adverbs from other words, see g. 260. Note 2. , Adverbs like all other indeclinable words and in- finitives may be used as substantives by having the neuter ar- ticle or a preposition prefixed to them, as z6 vvv, the present time; to ivTav9a, the place there; slg as(, for ever; slg ixTta^, for once; to niQav , the other side; za ccvto, the upper parts. §. 236. Adverbs generally govern the same case as their kindred adjectives, and adverbs of place are mostly construed with the genitive, as s^a t'^g noXecog, outside the city; nXfjaiov vfjg KQifjvrjg, near the well. §. 237. The Greek language has two negative adverbs oi5 (ova, ovx) and ft^, the general difference between which is, that ov expresses an objective or absolute nega- tion, while iirj expresses only a subjective or relative ne- gation , as ovK k'x(o , I have not, absolutely ; fiij I'jjra, I think I have not, it is my subjective or personal opinion that I have not. This point will be elucidated in the following paragraphs. Note. It must be remarked that whatever is said in regard to ov and fir;, holds good also of all their compounds and de- rivatives, as ovSsiSj f''?^«'s; OUTS , . /ijjTS ; ovSs, (iijds. Sec. 156 Words and Forms of Words. §. 238. Ov is used in independent sentences expressed by the indicative , and in the apodosis of hypothetical sen- tences, both with and without the particle av. Mri, on the other hand, is used in connection with imperatives and subjunctives taking the place of imperatives, and with both the optative and indicative when they express a wish. §. 239. Dependent sentences , if the dependence is only formal or ideal, especially after the conjunctions ot( and Wff, require the neg^ative ov , unless the negation is only subjective. §. 240. If the protasis of an hypothetical sentence con- tains a negative , it is invariably ft?/. Note. This is generally the case also when a negative is added to a participle or an infinitive, because they are mostly equivalent to a conditional clause with d , as o fti) MaftiaV, he who does not exert himself, or if any one does not exert him- self; TO ft?} yfjfiai %av.6v , not to marry is an evil, or, if a man does not marry, it is an evil. §. 241. Clauses denoting intention introduced by "va, oig , or OJtwg require ftij. §. 242. In clauses introduced by wg or raffts and de- noting a consequence require ft?;, if the verb be in the subjunctive or infinitive; but if the verb be in the indica- tive or optative, they have ov, as coGrs firj SiSovai, so as not lo give; costs ovk a^ioi eIgiv, so that they are not worthy. §. 243. Negatives are generally placed before the word to which they belong. §. 244. Both negative.s are frequently doubled in Greek without neutraUsing each other, or making the sentence af- firmative; this fact which is common to all languages, arises from the natural desire to be emphatic in denying a thing. Other languages have banished the repetition of negatives from spoken discourse as well as from their Prepositions. 157 writings, but in the Greek authors it occurs most frequently ; and in some instances the negative is repealed even three or four times, as ovk i'ariv ovdiv, there is nothing; g^lkqcc qjV6i,s ovSsv (liya ovdinoxs ovSiva ovts ISiar-rjv ovts noXiv SqS, a little nature does nothing great to any one, either to a private person or to a state. Note 1. In like manner the negative is repeated after verbs which are themselves of a negative nature, as to forbid, to prevent , to deny , , under the cloak; vno Aatisdaifiovioig slaiv, they are under (subject to) the Lacedaemonians; vn' ijiavT^ iTtoiTjadfiriv , I made (him) subject to me. Pl^iih the accusative v%6 signifies under with verbs of mo- tion, and extension under something which is higher; in re- ference to time it is like the Latin sub equivalent to about, as ava%caqiVv vno to Tfijjog, to retreat under the wall, so as to be under cover of it; vtco tovtov tov jjgo'j'oi', about that time. It also denotes subjection with verbs of motion, and with those of rest, the extension of power over others, as Svvavxai Ttolsig i(p' Kvrous jrotstaS'at, they can make cities subject to themselves; oi vti' avtovg, those over whom their power extends. §. 252. Prepositions when compounded with other words generally retain their primary meanings, but sometimes they modify them , or assume a new one which they do not possess when used by themselves. Prepositions of two syllables , ending in a short vowel generally drop this vowel if the next word begins with a vowel. The follo- wing deserve to be specially noticed : — ■ Iv generally retains its meaning in, as in svoiKsi^v, to dwell in ; ifijicvsLV , to remain in ; but sometimes it stands for slg, as in ifiPtiXlsiv for sg^dXXsiv , to throw into; i[i7Ci7tt£LV, to fall into. avv indicates union or cooperation, aviiJioQSvsa9ai , to travel with, or together with; avXXeystv, to collect; av[i7iqdTtBi.v, to cooperate, evvsmsiv , to assent, or agree. fiSTOj denotes participation or change, as, ii,cti%£iv , io take part in ; [leraSMvai , to give a share in ; fis&iexavaL , to transplace, change the place of a thing; fiixavostv, to change one's mind. 166 Words and Farms ot Words. ^uvti denotes opposition or compensation, as dvTtXeysiv, lo speak against, or oppose; avTiSiSovai , to give in return. Jcpo' signifies forward, smd accordingly denotes publicitj , su- periority, preference, and time, as icqo^alvHV , to go for- ward; nqoaysiv, to lead onwards; n^oy^acpiiv , to make known by writing, .to publish; ■nqoazaxsvsi.v, to be presi- dent; n^oaiqsia^ai , to prefer; nQOuntiv , to foretell, arjro generally denotes separation or removal, as ait£(j%ta9'aL, to go away; anot{%'sa&ai , to put away; dnoy,av&aveiv, to unlearn; — otnaitiLV, to demand what is due, anoStSovai, to give what is due, or to pay; ctTcoXafi^avtiv , to receive what is due. s-ii generally retains its original meaning otit of, as in i^iivai, to go out; in-^dllliv , to cast out; but it also implies per- fection , completion , and thoroughness , as in l^onli^ia9ai, to arm one's self thoroughly or completely; i-nXoyi^sed'cti, to calculate accurately. avd generally implies motion upwards, e. g. , motion from the seacoast towards the interior of a country, as dva^aC- VBiv, to go up; ttv£%uv, to rise up. — It -also signifies, back or again, as in dvaxm'^nv , to go back or return; dvaiid- Xse&ai, to fight again, renew the fight. %axd, the opposite of aw, generally signifies motion down- wards, as from the interior of a country towards the coast, or from the open sea towards the land. It is also employed in forming compounds to express the return of exiles, as in ■nardysiv , %axiivai, v.cit£qxsa&ai, , v.d9oSog. From its pri- mary meaning wc may easily derive that of completeness, as nataTti'ii^Ttqdvcci, , to burn completely, to bui'n down to the last. In many verbs it signifies against, which is in reality donm upon, as in KaxriyoQSiv , to accuse. Bid signifies through and across (Lat. trans), as Sicqxta&ai, to go through; Sidyiiv , to lead through or across; Sia- PaivsLv, to go through or across. Connected with this is the idea of division and separation , as in SuBTaB^aL , to stand asunder, SiadiSovciL, to distribute; Siavifisiv, to divide. With words referring to time it denotes completion, as in SLccfiSviiv, to remain throughout, until the end; SuczsXtiv, to continue to the end. vnsQ signifies bwer, implying greater height, excess and dis- regard, as vittqexiLV , to overtop; vniQpaivsiv , to go over; vTCsqiiiBSiV , to hate excessively, vns^aocpog , over-wise; vTcsQoqdv , to overlook, or disregard; vnsqqtQovsiv, to be haughty, or overbearing. Conjunctions and Particles. 167 dp,(pl retains its primary meaning of on both sides, or on all sides. jcsqC generally has its primary meaning of all around, on all sides, as i;i nsQisQxsa&ai , to go round; Tieqi^Xsnsiv, to look around; but it sometimes implies distinction or ne- glect, as in KfetpiSTTTOg, loolied at from all sides, emi- nent; ns^iOQccv, to overlook. auQcc implies proximity, naqstvai, to be there or near; tcciq- CQXsa&ai, to come near; na^aKalsiv , to call to a place; naQaKa9'rje9'ai, , to sit by or near; Tcaquvai, to pass by; xa^anlsiv , to sail along the coast. In a figurative sense it implies a violation of obligations, or to do a thing in a wrong way, as in naqa^aCvsiv , to transgress; TiUQaanov- Ssiv , to act contrary to u. treaty; naqaTtqsa^ivsiv , to vio- late one's duties as an ambassador. TCQog implies either motion towards a place or addition, as TCQOsisvai,, to go to; TiQogdysiv, to lead tip to; nQogri^s- vai, to put to, or add; nqosano^dXlsiv , to lose in ad- dition. £W^ signifies upon, to, or against, as iTCLTi^svai, to put upon; i7iSQxia9ai. , to go to or towards; imerqarBvciv , to march against. It also denotes succession either in space or time, as iTtirdtTSiv , to arrange behind; imaTccrrig , one who stands behind (sometimes one who stands before, or at the head); inXyovog, a descendant. Sometimes it de-, notes, like jrgo's, addition, as iitnx.xS.a&ai, to acquire in ad- dition. vTco sometimes retaius its primary, meaning of under, as iu vnoysioq, subterraneous, but it frequently implies secrecy, stealthiness , or slowness, as in vnoxcoQEiv, to proceed in secrecy; vxaysiv, to move off slowly; also approximation, as in vJlolevnog, whitish, nearly white. CHAPTER XL. CONJDNCTIONS AND PARTICLES. If 253. We include under the name of conjunctions a number of particles for which' the English lang-uag-e often has no equivalents , but which are of very frequent occur- rence in Greek, where scarcely any sentence begins with- 168 Words and Forms of Words. out some little word or particle to indicate the log'ical rela- tion in which one clause or sentence stands to another, or to point out the function of a particular word in a sentence. §.254. Conjunctions are divided into nine classes i — 1. Copulative conjunctions, as Kai, re, ovts, ft^rs. 2. Disjunctive conjunctions, as ■?; (or), el'rs, ovdi, (irjdi. 3. Adversative conjunctions, as aXXa, araq, fiiv, 6i, fiivroi, Kttkoi, KttinBQ, Ofnag, av. 4. Comparative conjunctions, as wg and aGnsq (as), ^' (than). 5. Hypothetical conjunctions, as si, iav {rp/ or av). 6. Temporal eonjunctions , as oxs, onore, inei, inndri, s'gts, 'stag, dxQi, jJ^^XQi, nqiv. 7. Final conjunctions, as tW, caj, onmg, iirj. 8. Consecutive and inferential conjunctions , as mg, aOra, aQa, aqa, (Jij, wtvvv, ovv. 9. Causal conjunctions, as are, ag, ori, insC, ots, onots, yccQ. §. 235. The particles which we here include among the conjunctions are_: ys, Sri, ''^'"'i ^'^^fl'^, Srinov, Srptov&sv, civ, el'&s, ftijv, 7j, fiK, vri, vcci, jtij, (ttov, noreqov, norsQcc. The following list of conjunctions and particles contains only those which may present difficulties to a beginner, and such remarks and explanations as are most necessary ; for further information the Dictionary and the Syntax must "be consulted. cell a (but), opposes what is said tiefore, and substitutes something else in its place ; whence it is generally used after a negative either expressed or implied. All ov signifies and not, or atid not rather. In the midst of a sentence and after hypothetical clauses , alia may be rendered by yei or at least. 'All' t] signifies except after a negative or a question implying a negative, as ovii $eTi ra Tigdyficircc fia&siv all' rj s« tcSv ovofidtcov , it is impossible to be- come acquainted with things , except through ineans of words. Conjunctions and Parlicles. 169 a i, I CDS in the phrase aUms re itat (both otherwise and) is generally rendered by especially, particularly, and is mostly followed by a hypothetical clause or one expressing time. av, when put after a relative pronoun or a conjunction form- ed from such a pronoun, answers to the English ever in whoever, whatever, whenever, wherever, the £v rendering the meaning of the pronoun or conjunction general and in- definite. In this case civ is always followed by the subjiinc- tive. "Av is also joined to the verb of every apodosis of a hypothetical sentence, whether the protasis be expressed or not; in like manner it appears in connection with an infini- tive, if this mood can be resolved into an apodosis of a hypothetical sentence. aqa intimates that the clause in which it occurs contains a natural consequence or inference from the preceding one; il may be rendered by Ihen, therefore, accordingly. aQcc is employed only in direct questions to which a negative answer is expected, so that jt resembles the Latin mm. The dga, however, intimates in addition that the question is the result of what precedes. yaj Introduces both a reason for and an expla'nation of what is contained in the preceding sentence, so that it is rendered either by for or namely. Kal yciQ answers to the Latin eienim or namque, and dXXa ydq to at enim or sed enim, y s may sometimes be translated by at least , but its force is in many cases best rendered by making the word to which ys is attached emphatic. It is generally placed after the word to which it belongs, but sometimes it appears between the article or a preposition and its noun , as of ys aya&oC, aud avv ye (rots) dya&oig. Ss may generally be rendered by but, especially when it is preceded by [lev (indeed); but very frequently it is merely a particle connecting two clauses, where we may either use and, or leave it altogether untranslated. When preceded by fisV, the two are equivalent to indeed — but, but this kind of antithesis is much more frequently expressed in Greek than in English; sometimes we may render it by on the one hand, and on the other. Si] is in meaning akin to rjSrj, and when referring to time may be rendered by Just, as vvv St], just now, and v.ai- §7] is equivalent to ^'d7j,just. When introducing clauses, it denotes inference, so that it is equivalent to the inferen- tial now or therefore. 170 Words and Forms of Words. lav, 7]V ox av (not to be confounded with the particle av) is a conjunction composed of li. and av , and signilies if. The verb with this conjunction is always in the subjunctive. 7), (truly) urges the truth of something, and occurs most com- monly in connection with ju.r/j' in oaths, as -jj fufv. fj equivalent to the English or in' all its meanings (the Latin aut, vel, ve , or an). When doubled ^' — r/', it signifies eipiei or. After comparatives and other words implying difference it signifies than or but. xat has the general meanings and and also. When more than two words are enumerated the Jtat does not, like the Eng- lish and, stand before the last only, but generally before every word of the- series. KaC — Kai or te — «0!^ signifies both — and, on the one hand — and on the other. When one substantive has two adjectives, which in English are put together without any conjunction, the Greeks usually insert Kcci, as Sia noXXcov Kal Ssivcov nqayfidxioy, through many terrible things. After the expressions d avto^ (the same) , laoq (like), oftoios (like), TtccQaTcXjjaios (similar), and their adverbs, where we use as, the Greeks employ «at, as 6 uvrog v.ai av, the same as thou. A very common meaning of «at is also, and v.aX Si signifies and also, when something is men- tioned only by the way. In a combination of a r.elative and a demonstrative clause in which things are compared, xor^' is used either in the relative clause alone, or in both, as Sp- nff fiot (xo;!.) za xiov avSqmv aco[iara ravra Ttdaxtiv, aitiq Kdl rd xmv iv tfj yfi q>voy,£V(ov , the bodies of men seem to me to experience the same things, as the bodies of the things which grow in the earth. Sometimes y-al intro- duces a , thing of more or less weight or importance than that which precedes, and in this case, it is to be rendered by even. fio£ is a particle employed in oaths, and is joined to the ac- cusative of the name of the divinity by whom a person swears, as fid tovg &sovg, by the gods. It must be ob- served, however, that (ia is used only when a person de- nies a thing, that is, in negative oaths, affirmative oaths requiring vrj or vai (id. \iBV signifies indeed, and therefore requires Si (but) after it, frequently however no Si follows, when it can be easily supplied by the mind. The place of Si is sometimes sup- plied by other adversative conjunctions such as (livtoi, and more rarely by toCvvv , dXXd, ff-J/V, ov iitjv dXXd. Mlv ovv is equivalent to immo, rather; ndvv fisv ovv, certainly. Conjunctions and Particles. 171 fiivtoi in conflnnatory answers Is equivalent to the English certainly'; in questions it may be rendered by pray; and when preceded by fifV, it answers to the English but. We may here remark that the weakest adversative conjunction is 8s, the next in strength fisvtoi, and the strongest dlXd. lidXQ'' is used as a preposition with the genit. in the sense of until, as far as, referring both to place and time; but as a conjunction it signifies until or as long as. /iif as an adverb has been explained in §. 237, foil.; as a conjunction it answers to the Latin ne, English lest. In questions it is often equivalent to / hope not, I suppose not. ftij v signifies certainly , in truth , but is most commonly used as an adversative particle, generally in combination with others. liTjds, see ovSs. {i,C()i;7rrco, or modify its vowel as in cpsvyco (stem cpvy), axd- jSoj (stem ffTtjS). But a much greater number of verbs are derived from nouns or verbs by the endings cca, em, o'w, va, svm, ova, a^ca, i^a, isxa, ava, atvm, vvm. Examples may be gathered from the chapters on verbs. §. 258. Substantives are derived from verbal stems, ad- jectives and other substantives : — a) Substantives denoting persons performing- the action implied in the stem are derived from verbs by iTjeans of the suffixes ag, tjg, vrjg; og; rjQ, wq , svg, as tpev- Gtrjg, a liar; KQirrjg a judge; jivgonaXi^g , a dealer in ointments; TQOcpog, feeder or keeper; Gcovi^q, saviour; QrjtaQ, orator; yQcccpsvg, writer. All these words par- lake of the nature of an active participle , and some of them are real participles , as a^xcov , sc ruler. b) Substantives not denoting persons , but abstract ideas or things , are derived from verbs by the endings a, £ia , da , rj , (i-rj; og, (log ; Gig , fto; , as %«^a , §Xa§yi, cocpiksicc, &vGia, g>'rjjJ,rj, Xoyog, SsGfiog, GyA^ig, TtQay- jict. All of these words denote modifications of the idea expressed by an infinitive. c) Substantives are derived from adjectives by the end- ings a, rj, la, (£)ia, (o)ta, og, rrjg, Gvvtj, as e'x'd'QK, Qiq^ri, Gocpta, alri&sia, avOLCc, @i%ai6xrig, 8i%(xwGvvrj. 174 Words and Forms of Words. Note. Substantives in rrjg derived from adjectives, are fern, and make their genit. rrjtog, (Lat. tatis).- They must not be confounded with the masc. in trig, D^n. rov, whicli are generally derived from verbs. d) Substantives denoting- both persons and things are de- rived from other substantives by a variety of endings. Note 1. From names of persons are derived patronymics in CSrjg and dSrjs, the latter being employed in names be- longing to the- first declension, and the former in all the others, (if the stem of these last ends in « or o, it is contracted with the I of the ending into ev and oi) , as Bogsag, BoqsdSrjgi AlaKog, Alav.LS7jg; Kinqo'^, Ke^qoJciSrjg ; JIr]i.tvg, IlrjXei- drjg; ArjTco, ArjxotSrjg, The masc. patronymics in iStjg and ddrjg have feminines in I's (gen. iSog) and as (gen. atfos), as TavxaUg, a daughter of Tantalus, andBogfag, a daugh- ter of Boreas. Note 2. From names of gods and hei-oes are derived nouns in Lov, aiov, and eiov to indicate their temples or sanctuaries, as AcpQoSCaiov, a temple of Aphrodite; 'A^rjvaiov , a temple of Athena ; ©rjaeiov , a temple of Theseiis. Note 3. From names of towns and countries are formed the names of their iiihabitants (ethnic names) by the endings irrig, dzrjs, rjrijg , cotrjg, log, aiog , and evg, as 'A^SrjQt- trjg, TeysdxTjg, Aiyivrjrrjg, 'HnsiQoitrig , Kogiv^iog, 'AS'tj- vaiog , AioXcvg , 'Eqsr^LSvs. 'ixaXiarai and SikbIlcotch arc Greeks settled in Italy and Sicily; but 'Iraf.ol and SiiisXoC the original inhabitants of those countries. Some places out of Greece make their ethnic names by the endings rjvog, avog,- ivog, vvog, as Kv^i'XTjvdg, Uaqicivog, BiQ'vvos, Tagav- zivog. Note 4. Many' of the masculine nouns in Tjff of the first declension, and in og of the second form feminines in Cg, gen. CSog, as IlEQarjg, a Persian, IIsQcig, a Persian woman; ^vfiiiaxog, an ally, ^v/ijia^^g, a female ally. Some feminine substantives are formed from masculines by the terminations XQtg , tQicc, rsLQCc, iia, aiva, and BSa, as avXrjTrig, avXr]- XQ^g; xoLTjrrjg, noitjtqia; acorrjg, omrsiQa; paaiXs-og, ^aaC- Xsid; &egd7ta)V, ^iqditaLva; ava^, avaaacc; KiXi^, KCXiaaa. Note 5. Names of persons are derived from names of things by the terminations Bvg and trig , as yqdfifia , fQUiifia- Tfw's; q>vXj] , (pyXkrig^ oiKOg , olyihrig; Sfifiog, Srinotrjg; OTiXov , onXi'rrjg, jtoXig, TfoXitTjg. Derivation of Words. 175 Note 6. Names of places containing that whicli is implied in the primitive are derived by means of tlie termination civ, gen. lovos (or. smv , gen. scoi/og), as avSqaiv , r. liall for men ; TtaQ&evciv, a room for maidens; iitncov , a horse stable; <>£toi', Kou^Etoj'. e) Diminutives are derived from all kinds of substantives by the terminations, tov, iSiov, aQwv, vSqwv, isxog, LoxTi, aSiov, and t'g, as natSlov (nctig), oMSiov (ol- Kog) , nccidaQiov (nalg) , ^£lv6^i,ov (jiiXog) , ccv&qoi- niaxog, av&Qtomaxrj (av&Qmnog) , xogdeiov (KOQfj), &EQa7tc!LvCg {&eQELv, to yQaipat, TO Kola^ea&ui, TO K^xea&ai,, rov aQ%£G&ai., tw aQx^d^ai. Note 1. The infinitive however in tliis case is not quali- fied by a neuter adjective, but by an adverb* nor does it govern a genitive like ordinary substantives, but retains its case as a verb. An infinitive used substantively may dispense with the article only in the norain. and ace, but never when it is dependent on a preposition, as Jk tov Bv nda%SLV , but not e| iv ndsxsLV. Note 2. The article sometimes raises a whole clause to the rank of a substantive, as to yva&c eavrov navtccxov sffTi xqriaLiiov , the (maxim) know thyself is useful under all circumstances. §. 271. Every Greek proper name may have the article, if it is supposed to be known to the hearer or reader, as 6 AqiGtayoQag, rj Santpa, ai A&ijvai,, ij KoQiV'9og, rj AfpLioi, t} AcoiaviK-t] , rj Sala^iig. §. 272. When a common noun stands in apposition to a proper name , the apposition generally has the article , as ScaKqmrig o q)i,X6aocpos. Note 1. When the name of person is accompanied by an apposition, the latter always has the article provided it is a real apposition and not a mere predicate. The apposition may~ stand either before the name or after it, according as it is more or less emphatic, as Is^sviaq 6 'Aq-ndg aTcenXcvasv, Xe- nias the Arcadian sailed away; KvQOg stcI tov dSslipov 'Aq- ta^SQ^rjv iatqatsvsto, Cyrus marched against his brother Artaxerxes. In the case of names of rivers , the name itself with the article almost invariably precedes the word notafiog (ri- ver), which has itself no article, as 6 Evq}qdtris notujiog, 182 Syntax. the river Euphrates. Similar exceptions occur also with other names. Note 2. When a personal pronoun is accompanied by an apposition, the latter has the article only if it would have it under other circumstances also, as '^fisig oi "Eklrjvss , we Greeks. Sometimes the personal pronoun is not expressed, but implied in the verb, as jfgoj'fiS'fl'o; o[ Kqrjreg, we Cretans employ. §. 273. When a substantive having the article is accom- panied by an attributive adjective or participle , the article is always placed directly before the adjective or participle, as aya&og -avriQ , or avriQ o ayci&og, or o avtjQ o aya- &6g; but we can never say o avtjQ uya&og, or aya&og o avviQ in any other sense bat that of a sentence "the man is good", where aya&og is not attributive , but a predicate. Note. Whether the substantive or adjective should stand first, depends upon the emphasis, the more emphatic word always being placed first. The rule above stated applies also to adverbs of time, place and ineasure which, like adjectives, are joined to substantives, o svtog uvS'QcaTtos, t] ■jtdXiv oSog, TO vvv ysvog, to avfiy.a'^LV.ov to iiisivrj, the allies there; ^ ufisXila Tj ayav, the excessive carelessness. As an adjective may stand between the article and its sub- stantive, so also every word or combination of words", which partakes of the character jof an adjective may be placed be- tween them, as 6 'A&rivaia>v Si^jiog, the demos of the Athe- nians, or the Athenian .demos ; ra tjjs Tcolemg itQdyy.axa, the affairs of the state, or the state affairs; to toJ bvxi ipsvSog, that which is really a falsehood; r} tcuq' iXiciSag Jjaga, the unexpected joy. §. 274. An adjective standing in the relation of predicate to a noun, cannot have the article. It is placed either be- fore the noun or after it, according as it is more or less emphatic, as o avtjQ aya&og, or aya&og o avriq, the man is good, or the man being good* Note 1. Some adjectives used predicatively must be ren- dered in English by a substantive, as ^iari rj oSdg, or ^ oSog itseri, the middle of the road {media via); whereas rj fisarj 6S6g signifies the middle road, 1. e. , one between two others. When JtaSj aTCag, and evfinag are in this manner The Article. 183 joined to a substantive, tiiey signify, in the singular, whole, and in the plural all, as Sia sraj/rds tov ^Cov, through the whole life. But when roag, anas and av/vnag are preceded by the article, totality is implied, as d Tcag agi'S'fto's , the sum total; )} aviiitaaa aQSTTJ, virtue in its totality. If, on the other hand, nag and a'nag are joined to a substantive without the article, they signify, nothing but, mere, and, in the singular, every one, as naea avaqx^", every anarchy; anavza Kaiio, nothing but, mere, or pure evils. When ojOTos occupies the predicative position to a substan- tive, it signifies self, as avtog 6 avij^ , or o dvr}^ avxog., the man himself; but d avzdg signifies ike same. Note 2. Substantives joined by the demonstrative pronouns oSc, ovtog, insivog, or hy ajiqua, diicpoTiQog and s^dnqog, take the article which is either placed between these words and their substantives, or before the _ substantive followed by them, as oSs 6 voiJs, or o vovg o9ij ixttvog 6 ronog, or 6 To'n:os iKitvog. "EKuarog (every one) may be joined to a substantive either with or without the article, as sxaffTJj no- ■Xig , or IjtocTTj ^ noXtg. Note 3. A word standing in the relation of a predicate may be inserted between the article and the participle to which it belongs, as oi tfijftot xaXovfisvoi, the so called demi, or what are called the demi; ■q xaXovjievrj dq^'^, what is called the government, the so-called government. CHAPTER XLIV. ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY. §. 275. The masculine of an adjective, not joined to a substantive, denotes a male person , the feminine a female, and the masculine plural persons in general , as o 6oq)6g, the wise man; 6oq>6g, a wise man; oi Gocpol, the wise (men); i] eoqxoTatri, the wisest woman. • Note. Many adjectives, especially in the feminine, are used substantively by an ellipsis, some noun being understood, as d axgaros, (supply olros) , unmixed, pure wine; r/ noXsiiia (supply X'"9") tl"^ enemy's country; 7j sU'S'St'o; (supply, oiJog), i the straight way; ^ Ss^id and dqiOTSqd (supply, j;*!.?), the 184 Syntax. right, and left hand; f) fiovciKij (supply TCX'''V)t ^'i^ musical art, music; ^ ifii] (supply yvio/jirj), my opinion; 9j varsQaCa and ij TgiTij (supply ^(isga), the next, and the third day. §. 276. The neuter of adjectives implying' place or time is frequently used substantively , without any substantive having to be supplied, as to (iseov, the middle point; t« aaQTSQu, strong points or positions; tck ftvwwpotjthe higher points or districts ; iv rovta , at this time ; ^v co , at which time , or while ; in rovtov , from that time ; fi£T« rovto, after this ; ftetot ravra , after these things. Note. A neuter adjective thus used substantively is some- times employed as predicate to a masculine or feminine sub- ject, as d &v[i6s ov ^vfiqioqov , passion is not an advanta- geous thing; yvv^ Sva-^viov iexi, v.al jimqov, a woman is a thing difficult to control and cruel; iqcotig Kccitov nsya, love affairs are a great evil. When such a neuter adjective refers to a person, it denotes a being, as to &SiOV , the di- vine being, the deity; to cpiXovfisvov , the being or person beloved. Sometimes it denotes an assemblage of persons, as TO iTiiimov , the cavalry; to oTtXtriiidv, the heavy armed soldiers; to vavtmov, the naval force; to aqxov,.X\i(s ruling body; to moh'oV, the community. CHAPTER XLV. AGREEMENT BETWEEN ADJECTIVES AND SUBSTANTIVES, - BETWEEN THE RELATIVE AND ITS ANTECEDENT. — APPOSITION. §. 277. A substantive may have for its attribute another substantive, in which case the two almost coalesce into one compound. . This is most frequently the case with the words ttvviq and av&Qanog, when another substantive is added to describe rank, age, occupation, nationality &c. Both are always in the some case, as avriq TVQavvog, a tyrant; nqBO^vxrig ccvriQ , an old man ; av&QomoL nolXtai , citizens ; avSqss SixttOtai, judges. Agreement between Adjectives and Substantives, &c. 185 §. 278. The most common attributes of a substantive are adjectives , participles , adverbs , or prepositions with their cases, as ta novrjQa Ki^dr}, ccvrjQ (laxoiisvos , tj ava odog , va ne^l xov JtoAfftov nqay^axa. §. 279. When an adjective is the attribute of a substan- tive, it agrees with it in gend«r, number, and case, as in Latin. Note. As an exception to this general principle it must be observed, that Attic writers frequently join masculine ad- jectives, participles and pronouns to feminine substantives in the dual, as tea %Bt^i, the two hands; zovtco rco [isydXto nolle, these two great towns. When two or more substantives have the same attribu- tive adjective, the latter is repeated only, if it be parti- cularly emphatic. Difference of gender and number does not render repetition necessary, as jj ccvTrj aqsti] noXhov Ts SnovSaiov nal avSqag GnovSaiov , the same virtue be- longs to a zealous citizen and to a zealous man; tov aya- &0V avSqa xal yvvaina evdaifiova elvai (prjfu . I maintain that a good man and woman are happy. Note.. Sometimes an adjective without the article, and be- longing as an attribute to two or more substantives denoting persons, is in the plural, as aaicp^ovcav iatl xal ccvSgog yutl yvvaiKOS, it is the part of both a wise man and (a wise) wom4n. §. 280. When an adjective is the predicate to two or more names of persons in the plural and of different gen- der, the adjective lakes the masculine form, as oi iavr}- (livot Kal ai imvri^ivtci ovdev ■^ttov ilev&SQOi sIgl tmv TtQiaiievav, the bought men and women are in no way less free than their purchasers. Note. Sometimes the adjective agrees only with the nearest substantive, especially when they denote inanimate things; and if it is used predicatively , it may be in the neuter plural. §. 281. Adjectives and participles when not direct 'attributes of a substantive, but only referring to it, fre- quently take the plural masculine gender, though the 186 Syntax. substantive may be feminine or neuter, provided it is a collective term implying human being-s, as to 6xqaTSv(i,a inoQl^eto Sixov , Komovtsg rovg ^ovg xdl ovovg , the army procured provisions by killing' the oxen and asses. In like manner the name of a town or country is often followed by an adjective or participle in the plural referring to the inhabitants , as GsjiKSTOxXiig qisvysi ig KsQXvqav av ccv- rav svaqy eTTjg, Themislocles flees to Corcyra being their (its) benefactor. Note. The words nag, ovSelg, og av or oarig av, owing to their meaning, may be employed to refer to a plural, and other words in the plural may refer to them, though their form is singular. §. 282. Relative pronouns agree with the nouns to which they refer in gender and number, their ease being depen-! dent upon the nature of the clause in which they occur. This rule is the same as in Latin. §. 283. A relative pronoun, which should be in the ac- cusative , when referring to a genitive or dative in the pre- ceding clause, frequently takes the ease qf.its antecedent. This is called attraction or assimilation, as rig rj mfpilsia toig &soig xvynftvzi ov6a ccno rmv donQmv mv (for d) nccQ Tjiimv laji^KvovSiv; what advantage have the gods from the presents which they receive from us ? Note 1. This assimilation is particularly common when the relative refers to the genitive or dative of a demonstrative pronoun which is not expressed, as Sia tavxa v.al (supply toiJtcoj') mv slxov, &itixv%ov, for this reason they lost ei^en those things which they had; avv olg sl%sv ijsi nqog x6 xsl- %os, with those whom he had (with him), he advanced to the wall. Note. 2. In Greek as in Latin the clause containing the relative often precedes that containing its antecedent; in this case the antecedent is always emphatic; and if it is not em- phatic, it is not expressed, as a tioislv ata%q6v, xavxa v6- fiiSs iiTjSs Xsyiiv Blvai «aioV; ov oi &sol rpiXoveiv , dxco- &v'ijaKSi viog. Note 3. When to one relative clause another is added, by a copulative or adversative conjunction, the relative is gene- Subject and Predicate. 187 rally not repeated in the second, but it is either omitted or its place is taken by a demonstrative, or if necessary, by a personal pronoun, as So'Xii roig nqlXoig av^qiaTtois to [irj- dsv -qSv TtSv roiovtiov ^i]Sh /iSTEjjst avt^v (for Mai o's fi^ [I'STixst avvcSv), ouK a^iov Elvai j^v, most men think, that he fo whom none of such things is agreeable, and who has no share in them, is not worthy to live; oliiioc tioXv (isi^cov ^ vfisrsQu Tjjs e/U/iyS) ol' ye oiv.(a ytlv xq-qa&i yij ts -Aal ovQcevip, ■nXivai 8h vfitv liaiv (for xcti otg kXivcU ilaiv) vTcoeat ysvoivr' dv gvvct.1 inl ttis yiJS- §. 284. A substantive standing to anotlier in the relation of apposition , agrees witli it in case , and if possible , also in gender. As to the use of the article with the noun stand- ing in apposition, see §. 272. Note. Sometimes the Greeks prefer the relation of appo- sition, where we in English employ a partitive genitive, as IvTiai at (ihv jf^T/ffrat uaiv, al Ss v.av,ai, where according to our mode of speakiu" we should expect iuMrrar, a partitive genitive governed by ai (isv. CHAPTER XLVI. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. §. 285. The subject of every sentence is in the nomina- tive case, except in the construction of the accusative with the infinitive, where it appears in the accusative. The subject may be a substantive , a personal pronoun , or any other word, or even a whole clause used substantively. §.286. When a personal pronoun is the subject of a sentence , and is not gmphatic , it is not expressed , but is implied in the termination of the verb ; wh'en , however , it is emphatic , or is contrasted with other words , it must be expressed. NUTE 1. The second person singular is also employed in an indefinite sense, like the English you, referring to any hearer or reader, as slSes av, you (or any one) might have' seen. 188 Synlax. Note 2. Sometimes a sentence apparently has no subject. This Is the case especially with \vhat are called impersonal verbs, to many of which, however, the Greeks supplied, and sometimes also expressed, 6 9e6g or Zfug as the subject, as VEi, it rains; vl anaids irsl^vrrjearfiv, the two brothers (i. e. each of them) died childless; cog slSifrjv aXXi^lovg iq yvvri xal o A^qu- ddvujg, 7jG7t(xGcivT0 akXt^lovg , when the woman and Abra- dates saw each other* they embraced each other. Note. In good prose it is customary to employ the first person plural instead of the dual, even in the passive voice, which has a distinct form for the dual, as via &£aacd^i9a. Poets even put the verb in the singular, when the subject is in the dual, and there is altogether considerable uncertainty in re- gard to the dual. Thus wlien two subjects have the verb in the plural, an adjective or participle may be added in the dual, and the predicate or a participle in the plural may be joined to a verb in the dual, as naqsO/isv tog iniSsi^ovzi Tial SiSd^ovTS , idv rig i&sXi^ (lav&dvsiv, we (two) are here intending to show and teach, if any one be. willing to learn; syElaaaTriv afKpai ^Xstliavzas s^s akXijXm, both laughed look- ing at each other. §. 291. When there are more than two subjects, the verb is generally in the plural ; but very often the verb agrees only with the one nearest. This rule is the same as in Latin. §. 292. When the several subjects are of different per- sons , the verb either agrees only with the one nearest to it, or it takes the plural of the first person, if there be a 190 Syntax. first person among."them, or the second person, if there be among them a second, but not a first. This rule also is the same as in Latin and English. §. 293. "When both the subject and predicate are nouns of different number , the verb often agrees with the predi- cate, especially if it is the more important of the two, as navTa tavta Kaxovgyiai eiGiv, all these things are evil deeds; at xoQTjyCat Ixavov (ifjueeov iaxtv, the choragiae are a sufficient proof. CHAPTER XL VII. THE NOMINATIVE AND VOCATIVE. §. 294. The nominative is never governed by any other word, but marks the subject of a clause or sentence, as in all other languages. Note 1. This may also be expressed thus: the subject of every clause or sentence is in the nominative. In the con- struction of the accusative with the infinitive, both the subject and its predicate, if it be a noun, are in the accusative; and if a clause is expressed by the genitive absolute, both the subject and the predicate are in the genitive. Note 2. Besides the verb sliii and its synonymes which serve to connect the subject and predicate, there is a number of verbs whose meaning is only a modification of that of ilfil, and which for this reason have a predicate in the nominative agreeing with the subject, e. g., xvy%dvca tov, I happen to be; Kazeatrjv, I was constituted or appointed; and the pas- sives KccXovjim, I am called; ovofid^ojiai, I am named; Is- yofiat, I am said or called; KrjQvaaoiiai., I am proclaimed; cciQOviiai,, I am chosen; ^uqorovovfiai, , I am elected; (fal- vofidi, 'I appear; vofii^oiiai, , I am held or believed; and lastly v-lAca and movca^ I am called or considered; Sov,£0} and EotMo;, I seem. §. 295. The vocative expresses the person addressed, and the address is often strengthened by prefixing the interjection w, as iiv&QOiiTCsl man! to (ptXe, friend! ea iiv- Sqss ^A&rjvaioi , ye men of Athens ! The Accusative. 191 Note. It is not uncommon to find the nominative, where tlie laws of Grammar require the vocative ; but this is the case more especially in poetry and arises from the tendency to make the vocative like the nominative. CHAPTER XLVIII. THE ACCUSATIVE. §. 296. Transitive verbs , whether they be in form active or deponent (middle) have their object in the accusative as in other languages. Note. This rule, simple as it is, sometimes presems con- siderable diffleulties, because a verb may be a transitive in one language, -while in another it governs a dative or a ge- nitive, or requires a preposition. The most common verbs of this kind will be considered hereafter. §. 397. Verbs of every kind, intransitive as well as transitive are frequently construed with the accusative of a noim of the same or a kindred meaning , as iiii%r)v fiais- G&tti , to fight a battle ; SovlEiav dovlsvuv , to be in servi- tude; fij jSfov ^didtov, he leads the most pleasant life; vnvov xoifjiaGd'cxi , to have a sleep. Note 1. , On the same analogy, the accusative of neuter adjectives used substantively, most commonly in the plural, is employed, where iu English we use an adverb or a preposi- tion with a noun, as aitavxa SovXsvBi,v, to be a slave in all things, or in every respect; to Sikchov lajivsi fi'Sya, justice is very powerful. Note 2. Instead of the accusative of the same or a kin- dred noun, the Greeks sometimes use an accusative to express the thing to which the action refers, as viv.&v /idxrjv, to conquer' in battle ; &vsiv 'Hqdv.XsLa , to offer sacrifices at the festival of the Heraclea — on the analogy of viv.7iv viv.av and ^v^ata &VSIV. So also 'OXvfiTfia vikccv, to gain a victory at the Olympic" games. §. 298.. Many verbs, which are in reality intransitive, may acquire a transitive meaning, and as such require an 192 Syntax. object ill the accusative, as nXim, I sail, but &ciltii0sav nXim; I navigate the sea, or sail on the sea; aTtEvSa, I am zealous, but Cnsvdm w, I do a thing zealously; Siyav to be silent, but GiySv ri, to suppress a thing by being silent about it; ^ivuv to remain, but also to await. Many verbs, moreover, which are originally intransitive, may be- come transitive by being compounded with a preposition, as naqa§aCvaiv, to transgress, from ^aiva, I go. Note. The verbs ofivviii, I swear, and iniogKem, I swear falsely, are sometimes used transitively in the sense of "I swear by", as Ojivvjii Toug •9'eovs, I swear by the gods; ijrtogMf CO tovs &£ovs, I swear falsely by the gods. §. 299. Many verbs signifying to speak well or ill of a person, to act well or ill towards him , to benefit, to injure, and to repay, govern an objective accusative of the per- son , to which sometimes an accusative of- the thing said or done is added, as ev noia rovg tpiXovg, I do good to my friends ; rovg q>tkovg sve^yetsi, he does good to his friends ; svloyijaai ^ovlofia&a rovg narsQag -, we will speak well of our fathers ; aipslstrs r^iag, you benefit us ; xaxovv rovg ix&Qovg, to injure the enemy; admsiv rovg noXhag, to wrong the citizens; i%&Qovg aiivvsG&ai, to repay or punish the enemy;. 6 noXXa xaxa d^av rovg aXXovg, he who does much harm to others ; ra fiiyiaru coipsXsiv rovg av&QC07tovg, to benefit men in the highest degree. Note. The middle lotSoQSta&ai, to rail at, governs only the 'dative of the person ; and Xvfi,aivsa&ccC tt-vi is not of' fre- quent occurrence; but liifitpofiai with the accusal, signifies to blame a person, while with the dative of the person, and the accusative of the thing it signifies object -a thing to any one, to cast it in his teeth, or reproach him with it, to make re- proaches to one, §. 300. The following verbs must be specially noticed as governing an accusative of a person in Greek, while in English they are joined \yith prepositions, as (p&aveiv; to be beforehand with a person ; KQvnreiv , to liide from ; Xav&avsLv, to be concealed from; ivXa^sia&ai, , to be cau- tious against; (pvXcirrse^ai , to be on one's guard against; The Accusative. 193 Qa^^eiv, to place confidence in; vtla^ves&ai , to be asha- med of a person. This list might be greatly increased, the verbs here given being only those of common occurrence. §. 301. The number of verbs governing two accusa- tives , the one of the person and the other of the thing , is very great ; and to those already mentioned in §. 299 , we here add those of asking, teaching, taking away, and clothing, such as aixuv, to demand; dgnqarzea^ai , to exact from; iQonSv, k'Qsa&ai, to ask; KQvnxuv, to hide from; SidaSr.uv, to teach; aiiqiievvvvcti, ivS^etv, to put on (a garment); ixSveiv, to put off. E. g. akeiv rovg ^■Eovg rcc aya&a, to demand the good things from the gods ; SaxQurrjg TOvg iavroij iniQviiovvtag ovu htqaxTEto %q'^' flora, Socrates did not exact money from those who de- sired his instructions, KQvmeig fts rovro, you conceal this from me. §. 302. Verbs of every kind and adjectives may be join- ed by an accusative to denote the object in reference to which something is predicated of the subject; this accu- sative is called the accusative of reference or limitation, as '/icc9aQog al rov vovv, thou art pure in mind; vocSa rrjv '^v%iqv , I am sick in my soul; KaXog iart to Gmjia, he is handsome in body; nodag axvg, swift of foot; HvQOg iji/ rrjv narQida, he was a Syrian by birth, or in reference to his native countr-y; ZcoKqattig xo ovoiia, Socrates by name. Note. It used to be customary to explain such accusatives by supplying the preposition Katd , which sometimes is em- ployed in similar expressions; but there is no need for assuming suoh an ellipsis. The accusative of reference appears most commonly in the form' of neuter pronouns or adjectives, as Tt, xl, o,xL, zovto, ovSev, {irjSsv, -rcdvxa, e. g., tC av j;9?;ct- jiog il; in what respect art thou liseful ? ov% olSa o,zt, aoi XQcSfioii,, I know not what use I shall make of yoij. The words fii^jtog, iJLtys&'og, ^d&os, iv^og, and vipog also are used in the accusative, where we say in length, in reference to length, as Setia nodag k'xsi to §a9og, it has ten feet in depth. §. 303. The accusative, without being governed by any other word , is employed to express duration of time and 13 194 Syntax:. extent ot space , in answer to the questions how far ? how long? as anixsi CraSlovg E^SojirJKovTa , it is seventy stadia distant; ovdslg Xav&avEi 3to^i;v x^o.vov, no one is con- cealed for a length of time ; so also ra noXXcc Ka&evdst,, he sleeps the greater part (of his life) ; to tcqwxov , the first time, or in the first place; to 8evtsqov, the second time, &c.; TO fiiyiGtov, most of all; to ivavriov, on the contrary; Tt in the sense of tvhy ? for what reason ? Note. As to the prepositions governing the accusative, see Chapt. XXXIX, CHAPTER XLIX. THE GENITIVE. §. 304. The Genitive in Greek resembles in many re- spects the Latin ablative; hence it denotes time when, as vvxtog or rfjg vv%r6s , in the night or by night ; (rfjg) tj^i- Qcig, in the daytime, by day; ^sifiavog, in winter; &iQOvg, in summer. Note. The genitives of substantives denoting time , either with or without tlie addition of s-ndaTOv , sometimes answer to English adverbs, as tov iviavrov or sytdavov rov iviav- Tov, annually, or every year; rov iiTjvog,^ or s-ndatov rov ju./jj'o's, every month, or monthly. It must, however, be ob- served that in this sense, the substantive always has the ar- ticle. Comp. §. 267, note 2. When, on the other hand, such substantives are accompanied by a numeral, they denote the time within which any thing is done, as irmv fivQicav, within 10,000 years. §. 303. The Greek language employs the genitive abso- lute in the same manner and under the same conditions as the Latins use the ablative absolute, as &sov diSovrog ov- Ssv Isyvsi QL^st.v, to keep apart; eiQyetv, to separa.te; eyjiv, to keep away from; Xvuv, to loosen; iie&ks&at,, to let loose; ilsvQ'sqovv , to liberate; Gxsqlai^uv, to deprive; The Genitive. 197 yvjivovv, ,to strip; nct^aqEvsiv , to be clear of; cpsldeti&ac, to spare; arpuStiv, not to spare; Siacpiquv , to differ; stai- XvEiv , to hinder. E. g. ij v^0og ov noXv Sii^si tTJg fptd- qov, the island is not far away from the main land; t%H Tovg TtoXsjiLOvg rijs nQOodov, he keeps the enemy from advancing-; r] ipvxri wv tSco^cttog yvfivovtai,, the soul is stripped of the body; ccfiaQxrjfidrav Kct&cxQSVHv , to be free from errors ; cpsCdeG&cti avS^mv svysvav, to spare noble men. Note 1. This class of verbs comprises many compounded with dno, and also those denoting to depose, to cease, and to begin, as tdv Niiiiav iiaqslvaav Trjg d^xVSj tl'cy de- posed Nicias from his office ; xavsa9cci or Xi'iysi-v novcov , to cease the labours; aqx^iv Igyou dSC%ov, to begin an unjust action. Note 2. Verbs of depriving or taking away admit of a two- fold construction, having either two accusatives (comp. §. 301), or the genitive of the person with the accusat. of the tiling, as trjv &£dv tous Grscpuvovg asGvXrJKaaiv, they have robbed the goddess of her crowns; tap aXXmv aipaiqovvzai xqri- fiara, they deprive the others of money, or they take money from the others, §. 313. Verbs denoting thought or reflection, remem- bering, forgetting, desire, care, and neglect have their object in the genitive. Those of most frequent occurrence are: iv&vjiH09ai, to consider; [u^vi^SxsG&cii. , to remem- ber; jivrjiiovevEiv , to remember; ajivrjfiovsiv , to forget; STtiXav&avsG&ai , to forget; jiiXsiv , to cause care or an- xiety; iitifisleis&cci , to take care of; (pQOVTL^eiv , to think about; xrjdee&cti, to take care of; nqovoEiv , to provide for; ohyfOQELV , to disregard; afiElsiv, to neglect. E. g. tov SvfiqpeQOvtog SMiielEiS&ai, , to take care of what is useful; (liliVfjGo Trjg KOivfjg zv%7ig , remember the common fate ; rmv ovo^arcav iniXav&oivoiiai., I forget the names; tpvxrjg inijjLEXov trig davrov, take care of thy soul; t^j orper^j afuXsiv, to neglect virtue. Note. Ev&viieta9at and the verbs of remembering and forgetting are sometimes construed with an accusative, ge- nerally of the thing, as ivE&vfiovvzo ra? Ifftqsopas, they meditated on the calamities ; zo avto [it[ivria9ai, to remember the same thing; tecs T'u;s;o;s rag liuiids iTtsXd&ovTo , they for- 198 Syntax. got the ■ unfortunate occurrences. Hence the actives avafiiiivr]' o%siv and vTcoiiiiivrjaKeiv have a twofold construction, being joined either with two accusatives, or the ace. of the person, and the genit. of the thing, as fi^ fi' dva^vrjarjg kcckcov, do not remind me of evils; dvafivrjaca vfiag rovg klvSvvovs , 1 shall remind you of the dangers. §. 314. Several verbs denoting to touch, seize, join, cling to, govern the genitive, as tpavstv, to touch; &i,yyci- veiv , to seize ; anxsa^ai, , to touch ; Xa^§civsG&ai , to take hold of; s%ea&ai, to join or cling to; nsiQaSd-ai,, to try. E. g., ri&ovg SiKaiov cpavlog ov ipavei Xoyog, a bad report does not touch (affect) a just character; anxsG&ai xwv nqa- yiidrcav , to touch (take part) in the affairs; ila^eio T'^g %siQog avTOv , he seized his hand ; vdjimv t'xBG&ai , to ad- here , cling to the laws. §. 315. Verbs of hearing, especially aotovstv and axQoS- G&at., have their personal object in the genitive, and the thing heard in the accusative , as dKOvuv rcov ysqavtiqav &if.e, be willing to hear (listen to) the elder persons; ccxova Tovg koyovg , I hear the words. Note. Sometimes, however, these verbs are found with the genitive of the thing heard , as ovog Iv^ag aKovfi , the ass listens to the lyre; ofiiXog Xoyov aKQOatai, the crowd listens to the word. Uvv&ccvsa&ai zi Ttvos signifies to inquire of a person about something. §. 316. Verbs implying superiority or inferiority govern a genitive because they contain the idea of a comparative. Such verbs are aQ%uv, to rule; nsQisivai, to excel, sur- pass , nsQLyiyvsG&ai , to overcome ; vnsqi%si,v , to excel ; XsLTCOfiai, 1 am surpassed; vixajiai, I am conquered; rjt- TCdjUKt, I am worsted; 'ijyov^ai, I lead; b^zco, I rule over; PccGileva, I am king over; SeGTto^ca, I am master over, as aQ^siv uv&QCOTtcov , nsQulvai xmv ifQ'Qav, iKQdxrjGa xav Ttolsjilav, he .conquered the enemy. Comp. §. 324. Note. The verb Kgaxstv is also joined with the accusa- tive, when it signifies not merely "to be stronger than", or "overcome another", but "to get complete possession of", or "to subdue completely.' The Genitive. 199 §. 317. Several verbs implying to strive after and to attain, and their opposites, have a genitive for their object. The'foUowing deserve to be specially noticed : — ^roxd^s- G&cci , to aim at ; zvyxavsiv , to hit, to obtain ; aiictQtdveiv, to miss, to fail; ylixsa&cci , to strive after; OQeyeS&ai,, to strive after, long for; i^av, to desire, long for; agjdXXsa&cti, to fail in; tpevSESQ'ai. , to be mistaken in; Xayidveiv, to reach, obtain ; i^iy,v£ia&ai and icpLKVslG&ai, to reach ; avri- noiEiG&ai., to rival; (iBzuTtoistd&ai, , to acquire; ajKptG^rj- teiv, to rival; icpisa&ai, to long for; im&vjietv , to desire; ulrj^ovo^Eiv , to inherit; arv^Eiv, to fail in obtaining; aito-- TvyyjuvEiv, to lose. E. g. 'itv%s cptlov, he has obtained a friend; zomov ijjiciqtov, I have missed this, failed in this; GcpaXelg rfjg alrj&elag, mistaken in, not having discovered the truth; Ttftijg slafpv, I obtained honour; fiecQlmv sipi- KBGd'cii,, to attain moderate success; x^g cpiXiag ixlrjQOvo- (iTJSsv, he inherited the friendship. Note. Tvyxdvsiv in tlie sense of "to happen , of course governs no case, but is followed by the participle of another verb. §. 318. Verbs implying the idea of taking a part or a share in, and of enjoying, govern the genitive. The follow- ing are of most conmion occurrence : — fiEzalaii^aveiv, to take part in; (larixsiv, to have a part in; jiksaudioi), I have a share in ; iistc(6id6vai , to give a share in ; koivco- vffv, to partake ; rtpos??xsf (jitot), -I am concerned in ; isriav, to feast, or treat; ysviiv, to cause a person to taste; ano- lavEiv, to enjoy. E. g. ovSifiiag avT(S jtQogrjKSi aQsrrjs, he is ct)ncerned in no virtue ; dnolavojisv tmv dav aya- &av, we enjoy thy good things; ■^ ifJiij;?/ tov &ciov iisri- Xet, the soul partakes of the divine nature; rav aya&mv jjisraSidoiisv roig aXlotg, we give to the others a share in the good things. Comp. above §. 310. §. 319. Verbs implying fulness, emptiness, want, plenty, require a genitive of the things of which there is a want, plenty &e. Such verbs are: Ssi, there is needof; dEia&ai, to require, beg for; (SnavitEiv , to be in want of, or short of; cmo^Eiv, to be in want; xevovv, to empty; nkriqovv, 200 Syulax. niimXavctt, , to fill ; yi^uv , to be full ; Evitoqslv , to be rich in, have abundance of. E. g. aya&og ov6svog vofiov Sshcti, the good man requires no law; 6vv &£Otg ov^svog an;6piJ(J0fi£v , wilh the (favour of the) gods we shall be in want of nothing; c/rvxiag yifieiv, to be full of, or over- whelmed by misfortune. Note. To this rule belong the phrases aoXXov Sit, much is wanting, far from; oXiyov or fitKpot! Ssi, little is wanting, nearly ; and also moXXov Ssco , I am far from ; oXCyov or fit- ■Aqov dito, I nearly (did something), — all of which expressions are followed by the infinitive , as ravTcc as noXXov Ssl XsXtj- &ivai , this is far from liaving -escaped your notice ; ov noX- Xov Sea xaQiv f%uv tt^ Kazriyoqq) , I am not far from being grateful to my accuser. §. 320. Verbs of valuing, estimating, buying and selling govern a genitive expressing the value or price of a thing, as dqaxfirig ayoQa^iiv w, to buy a thing for a drachma; TtleiGtov rovTO xifum^ai, I value this most highly; zav novcov TCmlovSiv 7i(ttv navra ta aya&a ot &soi, the gods sell us all good things for labour ; nQias&ai fiiya ^itcqov, to purchase a great thing for a small price. §. 321, Many verbs expressing feelings , and the modes of manifesting them, are joined by the genitive of the thing, to which the feeling refers, or which is the cause of it, as aycc^ai avrov tijj avdQsUig, I admire him for his valour; T^j Toiftijj avxov ov '9'ci;fiK Jo) , I do not admire him for his daring; xav aSt%ri{jLarmv QQyi^sS&ai, to be angry on account of the acts of injustice ; eoipiag ip&ovELv, to envy a person on account of his wisdom; evdaLnovC^eiv riva rivog, to declare a person happy for some reason. Note 1. In all cases of this kind the genitive formerly used to be explained by supplying the preposition svsKa; but there is no necessity for assuming such an ellipsis, the geni- tive denoting the cause of the feeling, or the source from which it arises. Note 2. "Aya^iai and 9ttv(La^co are also found with the genitive of tlie person, but in this ease no genit. or accus. of the thing is added, as ayafiaC aov, I admire you; ov &av- (Kx'Sco zmv s9sX6vc(av , I do not admire those who are willing. The Genitive. 201 Note 3. Judicial terms, as to prosecute (Sitatisiv), to be accused (cpsvytLv), to condemn {St-Ka^iiv or v.atayi.yvtaaKStv'), and the like, are likewise construed with the genitive denoting the- crime or cause , for which the judicial action takes place, as SiioiiSLv MorxTjyogt'as , to prosecute for slander; qiBvyeiv (puvot) , to be accused of murder; dmajfn; ajjapKJTiKg , to condemn for ingratitude. The genit. 9avdtov with verbs of this kind is in reality a genitive of. price, as 9avdtov Tt/ia- a&ai, to be condemned to death, to be found worthy of death, §. 322. Many verbs compounded ■with the prepositions arto, £x, 7*^0 and vneQ are joined with a genitive which is in reality dependent upon these prepositions , as ano- XQSitH fia xovrov , he turns me away from this ; aQxhs ^^~ 0r^vai,, to go out of office; i^aQraB&ai rcov iXnlSav, to_ be in a state of suspense ; Tj&og nqoKqivELV ^Qfjjiaxmv , to judge from character rather than from money. Note.. Several verbs compounded with Kara (against) have a genitive dependent upon this preposition, especially those verbs which imply speaking against or judging unfavorably of a person , as v,ara tij TQiry rjiiiqa would signify "in the course of the third day." Note. The preposition iv must be added to the dative, when the noun is not accompanied by an adjective, as iv vvAxC , in the niglit ; tliough with names of festivals the iv may be omitted, as &sG[i,ocpogioig , at the Thesmophoria. §. 329. The verbs elvai, yiyvsG&ai, vnaQ^nv, xvyyja- vHV (with a participle) are joined with a dative denoting the incidental possession of a thing, whereas with the ge- nitive the fiTst two denote property (comp. §. 307) , as itokXa xaxa sGriv av&QCOTtoig, men have many misfortunes ; loyog idrlv latQog av&Qconoig , reason is a physician to men; tavra vnciQfsi avrm, these things are in his posses- sion, or at his disposal. .§. 330. The dative is employed with all kinds of verbs and adjectives to denote the person for whose use , advan- tage or disadvantage anything is or is done, as avra go-' or Xoytp , in words, ostensibly. As to the prepositions governing the dative, see Chapter XXXIX. CHAPTER LI. USE OF THE DEGREES OF COMPARISON. §. 339. The degrees of cornparison are , on the whole, employed in-the same manner, and have the same mean- ing in Greek as in Latin ; but there are some points which must be specially noticed. 1. The Greek positive sometimes, especially when followed by tag or mars with the infinitive has the meaning of a comparative , and must be rendered in English by too with the positive; e. g. oXi'yoi, ia^ihv cog iyxQattLg stvai av- rcSv, we are too few to overcome them; to vSoiq ifivxQdv iaxLv wars Xovacca&ai, the water is too cold to bathe in. 2. The comparative is followed either by the genitive or the conjunction rj. See §. 324. Note, The comparatives nXsov , i'Xatrov , and (ifiToj' are joined as adverbs to substantives, when they are followed by numerals with 77 or in the genitive, as coqiiiXsro fiia&og nXeov rj XQLmv (Mrjvmv, more than three months' pay was owing; dni- ^avov ovv. ^Xarxov zcov si'v.oaiv, not fewer than twenty died, Use of the Degrees of Comparison. 209 3. Wheu two qualities belonging to the same object are com- pared with each other, both adjectives (or adverbs) are in the comparative, as dvayKociov rjv avvro(ttoxsqov r; aacpsOTBQOV SiaXex^vcci, it was necessary to speak more briefly than accurately; ^avitia-csQOi ^ dvSQSioTCQoi tl- aiv, they are more mad than courageous. 4. H Kara with the accusative after a comparative signifies "than in proportion to ', guam pro, as 'AXtn^iaSrjg taig iroi'9"u^i:'ci!ts fJ■s^fo(yu' ^ xara rr/v VTraqx^VO'^''' ovaiav ixq'^TO, the passions in which Alcibiades indulged were greater in proportion to his property, i. e , wei-e too great for his property. H (oars (more rarely 7] tos or ij alone) after a comparative and followed by an infinitive, may be rendered by too — to, as ftii^ov ij mats , too great lo^ majus guam ut; p,dla (po^ovfiai [iij ri fiei^ov r/' mate qiegsiv Svvaa^ai Kcmov tj noXii, Itifi^g,' I am much afraid lest some misfortune should happen to the state too great to bear. 5. Wheu a comparative is joined with the genitive of a re- flective pronoim, it denotes that a quality is attributed to a person or thing with the iutimatlon, that it exists now ill higher degree than at any other time, or ordinarily, as tavTOV cocpaziQOS iariv, he is wiser than himself, i. e., he is wiser now than he generally is; &a^QciXi(o- rsQoi slaiv savtmv , tliey are bolder now than ever. 6. When a comparative is used without a genitive or rj fol- lowing it, it is generally easy to supply the deficiency from the context; sometiines, however, the comparative in this case must be rendered in English by too with the positive, as noHol iiEi^oaiv kgyoig inixuqovaiv , many persons attempt too great things; afisivov iari, wki'tI vno &iiov pigX^B^di, it is better for every one to be governed by a divine being. As to the dative with comparatives see §. 337. 7. The superlative, like the comparative, is sometimes joined with the genitive of a reflective pronoun, to indicate Jhat a person, if compared with himself at any other period of his life, or in any other circumstances, now possesses a quality in the highest degree, as o^vzara cc^rog cc-izov og^, he .sees more distinctly than ever, or than under any other circumstances. 8. The force of the superlative is sotnetimes strengthened by the addition of tog , on , or ij (Latin guam) , ag aqiazog, the very best, the best possible; on ^dXioza, as much as possible; ^ aqldzov, literally "in what way it is best, in the very best way. These particles sometimes are joined 14 210 Syntax. to expressions, implying possibility, shch as Svvdnai and olov Tf, e. g., iiBiqdaofiai log cev Syvcofiai ^iXtiazog mv xai. fijr Ktti d7C0&VT]ax8iv, I shall endeavour to live and die as the best possible man; o5s oto'v te ^BKriarog, the best possible. CHAPTER Lll. USE OF PRONOUNS. §. 340. The nominative of a personal pronoun is ex- pressed with verbs only when it is emphatic or to be set forth as opposed to some other person, as ovx iyco Ge ano- XTEvei, akX o T-^g nolscog vofiog, it is not I that will kill you, but the law of -(lie state. Comp. §. 278. Note. Avtog is often employed as the nominative of the third person, where we use the emphatic he; so also is the plural avtoi in the sense of they ; but in the oblique cases, both of the singular and plural, avrog simply represents the personal pronoun of the third person, without any emphasis, as i'dmiisv avrotg to tvvq, he gave them the fire,- ovx f""'" QciKag avxov; hast thou not seen him? §. 341. The reflective forms of the personal pronouns (in the oblique cases) always refer to the subject of the sentence in which they occur; but the simple personal forms refer to another person or thing-, as natSevm ificcv- xov , I educate myself; TtaiSevstg Geamov, thou educatest thyself; natSevu iavxav , he educates himself; Ttaidsvo^sv tjjiccg avTovg, we educate ourselves; •: — but mxidsvco Gs, I educate thee; 7taid£vs.ig ifis, thou educatest me. Note. The personal pronoun of the third person (ov, ol, £ &c.) is employed in a reflective sense only in dependent clauses, such as the accusative with the infinitive, as liyerai 'AnoXXiov SKSstqai Maqavav, i^iiovrd oi mi^l eoifCag, A.pollo is said to have flayed Marsyas, who disputed with him about wisdom. The genit. avxov also is sometimes used as a reflective pronoun instead oflaiJTO'u, if no ambiguity can arise, and if the clause in which it occurs can be regarded as (he statement of another, e. g. , the writer, as Kvqog Bvyxalsi sCg vfiv savTOv aiirjV'^v toi;s d^iarovg xmv tisqI avtov (nzd, Use of Pronouns. 211 Cyrus summoned into his tent the seven noblest of those about him(self). §. 342. The reciprocal pronoun aXlijktov always im- plies reciprocity , answering to the English one another, each other, as o ■S^avatos ieri dialvstg tijg ipvxfjs Jtort totJ aafiavog an aXli^kav, death is the separation of the soul and body frooi each other. Note. In the construction of the accusative with the in- finitive aXkrilovs also occurs as the subject of the infinitive. When the genitive aXX^Xaiv is governed by a substantive, it must be translated hy mutual, as XvaizsXsi -^iJ.iv'^. aXXijXcov SiiiciLoavvr] , mutual justice benefits us. ' §. 343. Instead of the possessiye pronouns the Greeks also employ the -genitive of the personal and reflective pronouns, as 6 viog (lov, my son; o narrJQ gov, thy fa- tlier; tot iQi^fima avrov or avrrjg, his or her property; o ijiavTov rQOTtog , my own character. Note 1. The difference between personal and reflective pro- nouns stated in §.' 341 must be observed here also. The real possessive pronoun' may have the article or not, but with this difference that, e. g. , ' ffiog viog signifies a- son of mine, but d iftos viog, or d 7)105 Q ^fo's, my son, who is supposed to be known to the hearer or reader. Respecting the dative of the personal pronoun instead of the possessive see §. 330, n. 2. Note 2, The genitives of personal pronouns when used instead of pos^essives, either precede the article, or stand after the substantive without the article, as ifiov 6 vidg, or vlos fiov. The same is the case with amov, iyiavtov, &c. Note 3. 'Hp-mv (ifimv, aqicSv) avzcav are not often used in a possessive sense, but instead of them, the Greeks preferred r'liiEtsQog ^vfistiQog, ecpctiQOs) ccvtiSv, which accordingly signify not only our own, your own, their own; but also simply, our, your, their. §. 344. Avtog, as was seen above (§. 340. n.), is near- ly allied to the personal pronoun, and in this sense it is never placed in an emphatic position. But when joined to a substantive it signifies self, and is emphatic, as avrog &ci- venog, or o &avatog a.'dtog, death itself; avtov rov paSiXia aitonTEivai i§ovXsro , he wished to kill the king himself. 14* . 212 Syntax. Note. In the same sense mtog is joined to personal pro- nouns eitlier expressed or understood, as Jjftsfff avtol, we ourselves; amog t'cpr] , he liimself said it; d BqaaiSag x-jj &saaaXcov yrj lial avtoig tpilog rjv, Brasidas was a friend to the country of the Thessalians and to-(the meu) themselves. As to avTOg with the article see §. 274, n. 1, Kal avrog, unless corresponding with a following XKt, signifies, I too, thou too, he too; even I, even thou, even he, or he himself also, as aotpoUg oftiXiov v,a.l avtog iii^rjai/i eoqiog , if thoii hast in- tercourse with wise men, thou thyself also, or thou too, wilt turn out a wise man. §. 343. The demonstrative pronouns ods, ovrog and ixsivog almost completely answer to the Latin hie , iste and ille ; the first pointing to the speaker himself or something near .to or connected with him ; the second to the person spoken to or something connected with him , and the third to a person or thing spoken of, or at a, distance, as oSe ixvrjQ , this man here ; ovrog o avrjQ , the man there (near you , or of whom you are speaking) ; ixeivog ccv&Qomog, that man (whom we are speaking of, or who is at a dis- tance). Note 1. What is' here said of oSs and ovtog, holds good also of the adverbial forms tjiSb, caSs, and xamrj and ovrta or ovtag. Instead of rotog and rdaog, it is customary in good prose to say zoiovrog or ToidaSs^ and roaovzog or toadaSs. Note 2. When referring to subjects spoken of in a dis- course, ovtog frequently points to what has been mentioned before, and dSs to that which follows. The same difference is observable in the use of toiovrog and roidads, and in that of TotrouTOs and roadaSe. Kal ravra, especially when fol- lowed by a participle, signifies and that too, although, as elaiv o? xQriaift,(otsQov vofiL^ovai xQ-rifiara tj aSelipovg, v,al rauTa Tmv fisv dq)Qdva>v ovxiov , xov Si (p^ovL[i,ov. §. 346. The indefinite pronoun tig denotes an indefinite quality, whence it sometimes implies that the object meant agrees with the name given to it, in some measure only, orpET^ Tig , a kind of virtue, intimating that the term aQtxri does not altogether and completely suit the idea to be ex- pressed. Use of the Active, Passive and Middle Voices. 213 Note. Generally tig in the singulai- signifies some one, a person, and in the plural tt.vis, certain (unknown, or indefinite) persons. §. 347. The interrog^ative pronouns rtg, norsQog, jroiog, and rtoffog are employed in direct questions , and oGvig, onoteQog, bnoiog, and oJtoffoj in indirect or dependent questions. Note 1. What is here said of interrogative pronouns ap- plies also to adverhs formed from them, as noi, onoi; ^y, ojrij; 7c69cv, 6x69£v; tcots, onots; ncog, oncag , the simple forms being used in direct, and the compound forms in in- direct questions. Note 2. The simple or direct interrogatives are often em- ployed in Greek in a manner which we can express only by circumlocution, as toi)s xl noiovvtag axceQiazovg anov,alov- aiv ; what must men do to call them ungrateful ? jiaxov^sd'cc, Zva rifijiv xC yevrjtai} what are we going to fight for? Some- times even two interrogatives of this kind occur in the same claluse, as ztvag vno rivtov svQOifisv dv iisiSm svSQyszrjiii- vovg i] naiSag vno yovtcov; whom can we find that is more benefited by any one, than children are by their parents? Note 3. As to the use and agreement of relative pronouns see §§. 290, 291. CHAPTER LIII. USE OF THE ACTIVE, PASSIVE AND MIDDLE VOICES. §. 348. The active form of a verb generally also has an active meaning. Note 1. The few cases in which a second aorist or per- fect active has a passive meaning, as in edlatv , idlayia, have been noticed in the list of irregular verbs. Note 2. Some transitive verbs are used without any ob- ject, which is, in fact Implied in the verb itself, as t'xii-y io have property; SiSovai, to give presents. Some intransitive verbs, on the other hand, have a second meaning which is transitive; but these and similar points must be learned by observation and from the Dictionary. 214 Syntax. §.349. Many verbs, especially those implying motion, have both a transitive and intransitive meaning. Thus sXavvsiv signifies both to ride and to drive; oQfiav, to urge on, and to advance, while OQ/iaa&ai means to set out. "E^SLV joined with an adverb always has an intransitive meaning, answering to the English to be with an adjective, civayKCcCag s%u, it is necessary. The same is the case with the com- pounds cmsxsiv , to be distant from; Siivuv, to be separate from;, ccvrsx^i-v , to be opposed to; JtpoEjisu' and vjisqBx^'''''^ to be above, &c., where the prepositions are in reality adverbs. Many other verbs also which are originally transitive, be- come Intransitive by being compounded with a preposition, as aysiv and vTcdyscv, ^dXlsiv and fista^dlleiv^ while others become transitive by a preposition being pretixed to them. Some second perfects of transitive verbs have an intransitive meaning, as, e. g. , those of ayvvfii, iysLQCo, [laivco, oi'yco; oXlviii , nsi&co , iti'iyvvyii , QT^yvvjii, , aijTCia , t9j«(o , q)aivco. §. 350. Neuter or intransitive verbs which are akin to passives in meaning-, are sometimes construed like pas- sive verbs, the agent being expressed by vtco with the genitive , as oc vno Tcoi" &Eciv neifievoi. vofioi. , the laws established by the gods; scpvysv vtco tov 67jiiov , he fled (was compelled to flee) by the people ; nolla ^Ka&EV vn avrov, he suffered much from him; ani&avev vn -avTOV, he was killed by him. §. 351. The noun which with an active verb is the sub- ject is expressed in the passive voice hjvTCoinQog, naqa, or ek) with the genitive or by the dative without a prepo- sition, as 6 TtarrjQ (piltt rovg nalSag, and ot ntdSsg (pilovv- ■cai VTto (TCQog , ix) rcov naxiqcov , or ot Ttaideg tpilovvtai rm naxQi, the children are loved by the father; (ilyiG-cat dcoQSccl didoinaiTtaq vjicov, the greatest presents are given by you. Note 1. What is the object in the active, becomes the subject in the passive voice; and this general principle is some- times extended even to verbs which in the active have their object in the genitive or dative, as iga t^s yvvaiKOg «ai. av- TSQ&tav, be loves his wife and is loved in return; ot'XE'ri aTCSilov^ai, .dXX' ■ijSri dneiXcS aXXoig, I am no longer threa- tened, but I now threaten others ; d 'ipEvarrjg ov marsvetttL, a liar is-not trusted. '< Use of the Active , Passive and Middle Voices. 215 Note 2. Verbs which in the active govern two accusatives, when changed into the passive, retain the accus. of the thing, which in many cases is a simple accus. of reference or limi- tation, as ScSaBiiSzai, inLBT'^iirjv , he is taught science; dcpai- ^s&sls ^■^v cpjjTj'i', deprived of the office. §. 352. The passive is frequently used in a reflective sense, i. e. in sentences in which the object and subject are the same person or thing, as I collect myself, I save my- self, he turns himself. Note 1. Many verbs of this kind might be taken for middle or deponent verbs, were it not that their aorist passive shows that they are real passives. Passives of this kind are : d^Qoi- fsff'&at, to collect one's self; arqsrpEa&ixi , to turn one's self; CTtsiQSa&ai , to scatter one's self; OQiiaa&at, to set one's self a going; invsLa&ai, to move one's self; KOiiC^sa&ai, to convey one's self (to travel); itOQSvea&ai., to cause one's self to go (to march); S7C£i'ysB9ai, to hui-ry one's self on; (psqsa&ai, to bear one's self (to rush on); nsQaLOva&ai, to convey one's self across (to go across); nlavaaS'aL, to wander about; eoiSea^at., to safe one's self. So also the compounds tiqos- v%s d&dvarog '^ficov ovSsCg , ovz',sl' za> ^vn^alri, yivoix' av svSaCfietv , neither is any one of us immortal, nor- would he be happy, if he were. The optative, moreover, implies past time in dependent sentences introduced by the conjunctions tos, or ozi , and in dependent questions, as Sie&Qoriaav, tog (or oil) x^iifiaxa noXXd i'SoLsv, they gave out that they saw (had seen) many treasures; 6 ktjqv^ Jjuj^utts, x(g t^v tue- xrigiccv Kaza9i(ri, the herald put the question, who had put down the sign of a suppliant. Note (5. The participle of the aorist generally implies an action which preceded that expressed by the finite verb , and The Tenses of Verbs. 221 must be rendered in English by the past participle, or para- phrased with the conjunction after, as 6 tpaiXos Kotl ■O'ci'tov ■noXd^sxul , the wicked man is punished even after he has died. Note 7. The infinitive of the aorist generally implies past time; but frequently denotes .no special time at all, only in- dicating the commencement o£ an action , as ;|;c(is3toi' to noisiv (conceived as going on), to ^i nsXtvaai, (a mere point of time) qoiSiov, to do a thing is difficult, but to order it is easy"; q)afi\v (otpsXrlBai , we think we have benefited. Note 8. There is no difference of meaning whatever be^ tween first and second aorists. §. 362. The future has the same meaning in Greek as in Latin and Eng-lish , implying- the future commencement of an action. Note 1. The future is in form nearly allied to the aorist, and so it is in meaning, since like the aorist it denotes the (future) commencement of an action. Note 2. The indicative of the future is used after rela- tives implying i?itention, where the Latin requires the sub- junctive, as aazQceiias STtefitlts, ot Ttj'fs ccQ^ovai zmv ivoi- %ovvttav , he sent satraps to rule over the inhabitants. In like manner relatives with the future indicative imply possibi- lity, in which case it is synonymous with the optative with cev, as ovii Sativ ovSs slg

o§'^9slg I'a^'i., know that you would have dreaded all things. Note 2. Questions addressed by the speaker to himself in the subjunctive (see §. 367, n. 2.), if they become formally dependent, remain UQchanged, provided the leading verb be in a leading tense; but if it be in an historical tense, the verb of the 'question is usually (not always") chancred into the Optative, e. g., ajirixavta, TiotSQ Ej;t» vao i] fisarm, I am uncertain whether I shall keep these things, or throw them- away; KXsa^xoq k^ovXsvero , si jiffurot^K zivag ■!] Ttavreg i'oLSv,' Clearchus deliberated, wliether they should send some persons, or whether they should all go. ■ §. 372. Final clauses, that is, those expressing inten- tion or purpose and introduced by the conjunctions iV«, cog , o'rtcog (in order that) or tva (ii^ , cog ftij , onmg fwj (in order that not), are really dependent, and follow the g-e^ neral principle staled in §. 370. E. g., tqv xaxov dei xo- Xa^siv, IV afidviov ^, it is necessary to punish the bad man, that he may improve; KvQog msto cpiXmv SsTs&at, cog GvvEQyovg s%Ok, Cyrus thought he needed friends, that he might have assistants. Note 1. The conjunctions tva, cog, and enmg are also joined with the future indicative where we might have expect- ed the subjunctive, as nslsi avtm, onmg sv nqd^sig, he is anxious that you shottld do well. It must also be observed that even after historical tenses these conjunctions may be join- ed with the subjunctive or the future indicative , if that which is intended, be not merely contingent' or possible, but probable or certain. Note 2. Both dg and encog, when denoting intention, are sometimes accompanied by av , and then , like all other relati- ves with av , they can have no other mood but the subjunctive, as (og av iid&rig, aiiovaov, listen, tliat you may learn. Note 3. Both oircog and Sitag fuj are sometimes used elliptioally without there being a leading clause, as oncog dvilQ iasi, where we have to supply some such word as 15 226 Syntax. I expect, or I liope; so also o'ncog ravta fjirjdelg av^Qanmy Ttfvastai, 1 hope no ninn will huiir of this. Note 4. After verbs of fearing lest is expressed in Greek by the conjunction firj (Lat. ne), and lesl not by jir) ov. The word expressing fear is sometimes left to be aupplii'd by the mind, as iirj uyQOLiiorsQov rj to aXii^lg slmtv, I am afraid lest it should be rather rude to speak the truth. ,§. 373. Ilypothelical or conditional sentences always con- sist of two parts; the protasis beginning with the con- junction el contains the supposition or condition, and the apodosis in which the particle av is generally joined to the verb, contains the inference or conclusion. In Greek, as in other languages, the protasis is frequently not expressed, but left to be supplied by the mind ; the nature of the sea- lence, however, is always discernible by Ihe av joined to the verb, e. g., rrjv e[fA,aQjiivrjv ovd av slg ixcpvyoi, no one would escape from his fate, (supply, if he were to try ever so hard). §. 374. The following are the principal kinds of hypo- thetic;! 1 sentences: — a) When a supposition is assumed as true for the sake of argument, without the writer or speaker himself expressing his opinion as to its real truth in any way, and when the apodosis contains Ihe natural and ne- cessary inference, the verbs of both protasis and apo- dosis are in the indicative, and the latter has no av, e. g., el &eo( Tj dgwoiv alaxQov, ova slal &eol, if the gods do anything base, then they are no gods; £1 "j^Qfj yu^elv , y^Qri ix yevvalav yafieiv , if it is ne- cessary to take a wife, one must take her from a noble family. Note. If, however, the inference or conclusion' is rejjnrded as merely contingent and dependent upon circumstances, the verb of the 'apodosis is in the optative with av, e. g., eltovzo ayvostg, n&v av dyvorjaeiag, if you are ignorant of this, you may possibly be ignorant of every thing. Somelime.s the supposition is not only assumed to be true for the sake el' argument, but is really true, so that the el of tlie protasis is The Moods in dependent Sentences, &c. 227 equivalent in meaning to since, as si xovz' ovrcas ^'zst, ovv, aQV^ao^ai, since this is so, I shall not refuse. b) When a supposilion is put with the intimation that it is not true , and that consequently the inference also cannot be true, both the protasis and the apodosis have the verb in the indicative of an historical tense , with Ixv joined to the verb of the apodosis , as nolXov av a^cov rjv to nlovretv , si xal ialQSi.v avta (Svv^v , to be rich would be a valuable thing , if it were at the same time connected with happiness (which it is not) ; si iyat rjdr) 'rinrjxo'rj tjjv inidsi^iv , ov(ihv av ixatlvi Gs avxiKu jiala sidsvcci Tr)v ccl-rj&si.civ, if I had already heard the proof, nothing would prevent your knowing the truth" very speedily. Note 1. As to whether the imperfect or the aorist is to be used in either or in both parts of such a hypothetical sentence, depends upon the meaning, for if an action is to be described as going on or repeated, the imperfect is used, but if the action is to lie represented as a mere point, the aorist is re- quired. The pluperfect in these cases answers to the Latin pluperfect subjunctive. Note 2. Sometimes .the imperfect or the indicative of the aorist is joined with av, without there being a'ny protasis; in this case the dv intimates that the action was occasionally re- peated, as SKsXsvBEv av, at times he ordered; dvTTjQcorcov av, t occasionally asked, or I would ask; Inaiasv av , he would strike, or he sometimes struck. c) When a supposition is put in such a manner as to in- timate that it is a mere conception , or that it is un- certain , and that accordingly the inference also is un- certain, the verbs of both the protasis and apodosis are in the optative, the verb of the, apodosis being joined with av, e. g., dvvaioav, si §ovloio, you-could, if you would ; odjc av (pdQrp:og siy^ , si nqdaaoLg %u- lag, you would not to be endured, if you did well. Note. Sometimes, when the inference is regarded not as uncertain or contingent, but as certain and undoubted, the verb of the apodosis is in the indicative without dv , as to Isysiv sv Ssivo'v iariv, si (psQOi. ZLvd ^Id^riv. 15* 228 Syntax. d) When a suppositipn is put in such a manner as to in- timate that in point of fact it is possible , the protasis ' is introduced by iav (civ or ■j/r) with the verb in the subjunctive ; and the verb of the apodosis is in the present or future of the indicative , if the inference is reg'arded as certain, but if it is conceived' as only probable or possible , the verb is in the optative -with av , e. g., navr k'dTiv i^svQsiv , iav fiij tov novov (fEvyri tig , all things can be discovered , if a person does not shun the labour; iccv k'%cajisv ;(p?jjM,ci!rcf , S'lq- fisv cpikovg, if we have money , We shall have friends ; iav rtg yiyvmSKTj w mv Set xai xavxa no^l^ES&ai 8v- vrjTai , ccyci'd'og dv si'rj nqo^xafrig , if any one knows what is needed and can provide it , he will probably be a good ruler. Note. When tlie protasis implies an action repeated in past time, the si (equivalent to whenever) is joined with the optative, and the verb of the apodosis is in the indicative of an historical tense either with or without av, e. g., Kv0os ei' Tiva oQcpri Ssivov ovza oliiovofiov , ovSiva dv ncoTcots atpsi- Xsro (zi), dlX' dA itqogsSCSov , whenever Cyras saw a per- son who was very economical, he never took anything from him, but always gave him something. §. 375. The particle dv, when added to a relative pro- noun or a conjunction derived from a relative, renders it indefinite, and at the same lime implies the idea of a con- dition or a supposition. All such relatives and conjunctioijs joined with dv have the verb in the subjunctive , if the leading clause contains a present or a future; but if the leading clause contains an historical tense, the relatives and conjunctions are commonly joined with the optative without cfV , e. g., KOSiiov q)v},d<33ova ovxiv av rd^rj 7c6- Xig, they observe the order which the state may have estab- lished ; 04 avd'QWTCOi tovtoig /xccXiGra i&ikovSi nEi&EG&ai, oig av 7\yav%ai liqatLGxovs slvai, men ar^ most willing to obey those whoni they believe to be the strongest ; Kv~ qog ovgxivag o^mrj (lahsxa xa %aXa diaxovxag , xovxovg ndsccig xifiaig iysQaiQSv, Cyrus used to distinguish with the greatest, honours those whom he saw most zealous in The Infinitive. 229 what was noble ; otav cnsvdTj rig avrog , «al b &a6g avv- dmetai, whenever a person is himself industrious, God also assists him. Note 1. Both these constructions may imply either the in- definiteyiess of one action or a repetition of the same; in the iatter case ors, ojeots,. and iwft may be. rendered by when- ever, as- ore i'^m tov Ssivov ysvoivro, nolXol xov KXiaq^ov anslaiiiov , whenever they came to be out of danger, many deserted Clearchus; nsqitfisvo^sv Jkcutots sag dvoix&siri to. Sea[iar7]qi.ov • iTtsiSij Sh avoi%%'eCij, rjmi.sv ticcqcc tov 2!(a»Qiivt] , we waited each lime till the prison was opened, and whenever it was opened, we went to Socrates, Note 2. The conjunction nQ(v {nqCv av) follows the same principle after negative sentences; but aftfer affirmative ones it is joined with the infinitive, as fitiSeva fClov itoiov nqlv dv E^STaafjs , make no one your friend, until you have exa- mined; TCQiv rrjv ocQXV''' oq&cos vno^ia&ai fidxaiov riyovfiat, Jispi- zrjg rsistiTijg ovrivovv Xoyov noista&ai, before the beginning Is rightly set forth, I consider it useless to speak about the end. CHAPTER LVII. THE INFINraVE. §. 376. As the infinitive expresses simply the idea con- tained in a verb, without connecting it with a subject, it is sometimes used absolutely, that is, witliout its being go- verned by any other word, as in the expressions oXl/yov OT (iiKQOv Ssiv, little being wanting, or, nearly; ixav slvai, so far as a person is willing or, acts without com- pulsion ; tog ehteiv or wj enog slTtstv , so to speak ; cog avvTOjimg Einstv , to speak briefly , or, in short. Note. These absolute infinitives are comihonly explained by supplying caars or cog, which in some cases is actually added. , §. 377. In Greek , as in Latin , the infinitive (either with or without the article) may be the subject or the object of 230 Syntax. a sentence; but while in Latin the subject of.an infinili've is aiways in the accusative, the Greek has the subject some- times in the nominative and sometimes in the accusative. a) The nominative with the infinitive is used when the g-overning verb and the infinitive have the same sub- ject, as ovx i'cprj avrog GTQarfjyeiv , he refused to command himself; (paGi vivsg 6(pug ivxi&ivai tij ipvjf^y imari^firiv , some say that they themselves put know- ledge into their souls. b) The accusative with the infinitive is used when the governing verb and the infinitive have diiTerent sub- jects,, as fio;['9'£fv cvayxij (iorl) rovg ^iXovrag svrv- Ijiiv , it is necessary-'that those wishing to be happy should work hard ; ^yov\x,ai avxov oi'xsG&ai , I believe that he is gone. Note 1. In the former of these cases the subject of the infinitive is generally a pronoun , which is expressed only when it is emphatic, in all other cases it is omitted; but if it has a declinable predicate, this latter must be in the nominative, as vQiu^s SovXog slvai Sia §Cov, consider that you are a slave for life; £% zov Jtpo'irfpos Xiysiv 6 Sicokcov te%vei-, the prosecutor has the advantage from the circumstance of his speak- ing first. Note 2. When a predicate joined to the infinitive refers to a genitive or dative in the leading clause, it may, likewise be in the genitive or dative by a species of attraction or assi- milation, as Ttavrl ■n.^oqrjv.si aQ%ovxi tpQavifim slvai, it is becoming in every ruler to be wise; ovk a(f&ovCu rdv jrjo- ^vfiovfiivav ras aqietcov yiyvsa&ai , we ought not to envy those who are anxious to become as good as possible. But instead of the genitive or dative, the accusative of both the subject and predicate may be joined with the infinitive , as xtov avxcov Eaxiv avxovg rs Tcdvxa xa KK«a SQyd^ea&ai vfil xovg xoiovxovg snaiVSLv , it is the part of the same persons , to do every thing wicked themselves, and to praise those who act like them; ipvx'^ ou« iyxmqsL v,av.rjv y£vo\i£vriv sv xi 9£Qa- mvsLV, it .is not possible for a mind which is bad to admi- nister anything rightly. §. 378. As the Greek language has no gerund , the in- finitive (either with or without the article) is employed to 232 Syntax. Note 1. iaivojji,ai. is also joined with the infinitive, but it then implies only an opinion based upon appearances, as ifaCvBTaC cot cpiKoao(pov dv^Qog stvai, it seems or appears to you to be the part of a philosopher. Both Tvy'^avBiv and qjaivsa&ai sometimes join a predicate to a subject without" any participle, as dnoKQiaig r} aiamri, tvy%dv£i, Iiis silence hap- pens to be an answer. Note 2. The expressions tpavi^oq anddiJXos slfiC (I am manifest) following the analogy of cpaivofiai, are likewise join- ed with a participle, as cpaveqol slew dymvi^ofiBvoi Ttdvtss, all are seen contending; dfjXos iativ tv noirjecov , it is evi- dent that he will benefit. But these adjectives may be used both personally, and impersonally in the neuter, followed by the conjunction on, as cpavsgoi iajisv on itiiQcoft.s^a , or qxxveqov son on xeiqdfis&a , it is evident that we are en- deavouring. Note 3. "EoiKa, 1 resemble or I seem, is joined with the nominative as well as with the dative of a participle , but also with the infinitive, as sotKars ■^Sofisvoi, you seem to rejoice; ^otnag olofisvmj you resemble one who believes, you seem to believe; somsv ilvai, he seems to be. note 4. Exeiv with a past participle implies possession .acquired by the action indicated by the participle, as i^gna- Mcog s'xei, he has or possesses by robbery, or, he has robbed and now possesses ; yijjJtas ix^ig , you have or possess by mar- riage. §. 380. The nominative of a participle is joined with verbs denoting certain points in the progress of an action, such as o;p5;ofiost, I begin, nctvojiai a.nd XTjyto , I cease or leave off; e. g., aQXOiiui a6iKcov, I am beginning to do wrong; Ttccvofiai yqu(pmv, I cease writing. Note 1. It must, however, be observed that dgxsa&cct. is joined with a participle only when a new phase of the same action is implied; but with the infinitive, when the action is_ conceived as opposed to another; e. g. , dqx6iis9a TiagaKi- XsvofiivoL, we begin (what we are doing) by encouraging; but aploftat sTtaivstv, I shall begin to praise (and uot to do anything else). The active aQx (I begin) is generally joined with the infinitive. The active Tiavco (I cause to cease) naturally has the participle like its object in the accusative, as Tois Tcivrjrag STtavea dSi,v,ov[isvovs , I put an end to the poor being wronged^ Tlie Pai'liciplcs and verbal Adjcclivcs. 233 Note 2. ^larsXaS, I continue to, or, I do continually, is likewise joined with a pai'liciple, though sometimes it appears without it, in which case row is to be supplied, as 2co-,iQcirrjs caopQOvcSv SiSTsXsi, Socrates was coiitiuually, or, always wise; ij (So^a dsl SiaxaXsi, the glory always remains.' i&dvco, I am before hand with, and oi^ofiat, I' am gone, are also joined with a participle, as cpQ'dvco avxov xavra TtQiittoiv, I do this before him; o/'j;erai dtticov, he is gone. §. 381. Verbs denoting effort, falig-uc, joy, anger, shame, &c. are joined with participles. of other verbs, as av£%ov TCas^mv, be'ar your suffering; fir} nafivs fiav&ccvcov, do not grow weary in learning; iqSsxai xo (pag oqcov, he re- joices at seeing the light; oQyi^sxai, adixovjiEvog , he is angry at being wronged; ov% ai0ivvofii,Dii fiav&dvcov , I am not ashamed to learn. §. 382. Verbs denoting mental or physical perception are joined wilh a participle of another verb; when the verbs are active, the participle is in the accusative , and when passive, in the nominative, as rjG&Ojiriv avxov sv 7tshe was naturally in a good condition; oqu avtov Ivnrjv s'lovxa, I see him oppressed with grief; olda ccvrov fiiSovvta rovg c/v^QCOTtovg, I know that he hates men ; aq)&7jii£v ovrsg a&Xiot , we were seen in our misfortune; (lEiiv-^jis&a iX&ovvsg , we remember that we have come. Note 1. The same is the case with -verbs of showing, fmding, catching, and the like, as 8eC%vvbl avxuv dya&ov ovxa, he shows himself to be a good man; Ssi%&r'iBsxai xovxo TCSitoirjiLcog , he will be shown to have done this; v-kimtav iipsvQs9r] , he was found stealing. Note 2. The verb avvoiSa (I know with, am conscious) may be -construed in three different ways: it may either be treated as a transitive verb having its object and a participle in the accusative, or it may be joined by the nominative of a participle referring to the subject of avvoi-Sa, or lastly when joined to a dative, its participle may be in the same case, as avviats TtoXXovg dvaaxdxovs ysyevrniivovg , you know that many men have been transplanted; ot av ^vvsiSwaiv iavxotg sv t) BKrjKoTsg , those who are conscious of having well drilled (themselves); ^vvoiSd fioi ovSsv s^rijiaQxr]V.6xi , 1 know that I have not erred in anything. 15** 234 Syntax. Note 3. ft must be observed that nearly all the verbs of this class may also be joined with the infinitive, or with the conjunctions cog and on. §. 383. Participles are sometimes accompanied by ad- verbs to express the idea of time or manner implied in them still more emphatically. Thus we find slra, ensna, to'te, ovTcog, and others introducing the finite verb after participles, as SKOitsi, fir] vvv qyvyovrsg tlxa alajisv, take care lost we having now escaped should afterwards be taken; oi ^mygciipoi. £% noXlmv Gvvayovxsg ra %al\iGxa oStms oXvc Kctla adfiaxa noiovGiv, painters g-alhcring the , most beautiful parts from many objects thus produce entire beautiful bodies. Note 1. The adverb ev&vg is often followed by a par- ticiple, as sv9vg Tcaig lov, from his very infancy; svQvg idovvsg, the moment they saw it. Note 2. Participles often imply the cause of the action indicated by the leading verb, and this meaning is sometimes strengthened, by the addition of ats or mg being joined to the participle, with this difference that cits represents the cause as contained in the nature of the thing, while mg implies that it exists in the mind as a supposition or opinion, c. g., iQcog, ats avTog mv jioWpiijog, stcI naaav xuXjiav k'Iei, Love be- cause he himself is a monarcli, will lead to every kind of da- ring; ot piaa&svTig cog dq)aiQE&£vrsg iiiGovaLv , those who are forced, hate because they have been robbed. §. 384. The Greek language employs the genitive abso- lute in the same manner and in the same circumstances, in which the Latins use the ablative absolute, to denote time, cause , and other circumstances , as i^iov ^avtog ov% aQ^si yvvri , so long as I live a woman shall not reign; KvdQmv ovxcav SQKOg idxlv aScpalig, while there are men, there is a safe protection; ovxb {uxqov ovxe fiiya ovdsv tav Ssovtav noiovvrav vfiav, naxag e%Ei xa nQuyfiarct, so long as you do- none of the things needful, either great, or small , our afTairs are in a bad condition ; ola nccQovxog ijiov liyets, such things as you say in my presence; nol- lav KUKwv ovxav ctv&QCOTCOig (liyiGxov isxi xovxo, although men are subject to many evilg, this is the greatest. The Farticiples and verbal Adjcelivcs. 235 Note 1. The particles mentioned in §. 383 as sometimes joined to participles are also found with the participles in the construction of the genitive absolute and modify their meaning in the same manner, as iQcoxa mg Sfiov xa d).rj9rj iQOvvrog, ask me becanse I mean to tell you the truth ; are drj'&ovg zoig Aav,BSai{iovioLg yiysvrjiMsvrjg . trig roiavTrjg cufiqpopas, Tiolv 7cev9og r/v , as the Spartans were (naturally) unac- customed to such a calamity , there was great grief. Note 2. Wlien a king's reign is expressed by" the genitive absolute to indicate the tim^ at which anything happened, the preposition iiii is freq^uently added to the genitive, as iTil Kvqov ^aaUsvovrog , in the reign of Cyrus , or simply sjtl KVQOV. Note 3. The participles of impersonal verbs are not used in the genitive absolute , but their absolute case is the accusa- tive of the neuter singular, as Seov , it being necessary; itQog- rj-KOV , it being becoming; i'^ov , it being permitted or lawful. §. 385. The. verbal adjectives In wg and riog are in reality participles answering to the Latin participles in tus and ndus. Those in toj sometimes also have the meaning of a Latin participle perfect .passive in tus, but more com- nlonly they imply the idea of possibility, as ffTpsTttoj, one who is turned, or, one who can be turned; acpvlccKtoig EfuninzEiv , to attack men off their guard; anavra yiyvixai aXwzd, all things are taken. §. 386. The verbal adjectives in riog, answering to the 'Latin gerundive and implying necessity, are generally join- ed with slvcti, wPiich, however, is sometimes left to be supplied. They are used cither personally as the predicate to a subject , or impersonally in the neuter gender (either singular or plural). The person who has to perform the action is in the former case always in the dative , and in the latter generally; e. g., xifiTjxiog ccvtjq xovxoig, the man must be honoured by these persons ; mivx axovaricc fioi, I must hear all things ; ravva navxa noirjxiov [loi , I have to do all these things; roLg Xoyoig nQogeaxsov rov vovv istiv , one must attend to the reasonings ; aqsxriv ifsiv nei- Qaxeov , we must endeavour to have virtue. 236 Syntax. Note. It is clear from these examples that verbal adjec- tives govera the same case as the verbs from wliich they are formed. It must further be observed, that they are generally used personally, when the subject is emphatic as TLfiijrsog dvrjQ, the man must be honoured; and impersonally,' when the action itself is the principal thing, as tifirizsov (^ffri) Toy civSQa, we must honour the man. The End. 3 1924 031 288 602 olin,anx SCHOOL ATLAS ANB GEOGRAPHIES. BLACK'S SCHOOL ATLAS OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY : an entirely Now Collection of Maps, drawn ty AV. Hughes, 'P.R.G.S., \ ; Professor of Geograpliy in. the College for Civil Engineers. Royal 4to J ; or 8vo. Price 10s. 6d., half-bound. " The best Atlas of Modern Geogrraphy that has yet fallen in oar way ; it ia at once a J ) duty and a pleasure to reoommend it," — English Journal of Education, AUTLINES OF ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. By Prof. Pillans, V/ with Introductory Explanations of the System of the World, and of \ ^ the most approTed Methods of Studying and Teaching Geography. Eor \ > the use of the more advanced Pupils of the High School of Edinburgh, and > ; of the Students of the Universities. With Map, 4s. 6d., hound. OUTLINES OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. By Ed. Hughes, < E.U.G.S., Descriptive of the Inorganic Matter of the Glohe, and the < 1 Distrihutiou of Organised Beings ; designed for the Use of Schools. A J I Second Edition, greatly enlarged. With 8 Coloured Maps. Price Ss. 6d. 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