WEALTH 
 
 FROM 
 THE SOIL 
 
 C.CDO^^SFIELD 
 
ALBERT R. MANN 
 LIBRARY 
 
 New York State Colleges 
 
 OF 
 
 Agriculture and Home Economics 
 
 Cornell Universitv 
 
Cornell University Library 
 S 501.B7W 
 
 Wealth from the soil. 
 
 3 1924 000 290 043 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tliis book is in 
 tlie Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000290043 
 
WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
By the Same Author 
 
 MAKING THE FARM PAY 
 
 $1.00 
 
WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 v^^^C*^' BY 
 
 C. C.^ JpOWSFIELD 
 
 Author of 
 
 "Making the Farm Pay" 
 
 CHICAGO 
 
 FORBES & COMPANY 
 
 1914 
 
COPYRIGHT, 1914, BY 
 FORBES AND COMPANY 
 
PREFACE 
 
 There are substantial and impelling reasons for the pub- 
 lication of a book like "Wealth From the Soil." This vol- 
 ume was written to serve as a stimulus to the agricultural 
 interests of America, but more particularly as an aid to 
 the many town people who wish to become farmers and 
 land owners. 
 
 It is feasible for city men and women to take land and 
 engage in farming. If they apply to agriculture those prin- 
 ciples which make for success in commercial affairs they 
 will succeed on the land. Specific knowledge of farming 
 will be acquired in due time, and every family that moves 
 from the city to the country is helping to solve the greatest 
 of our sociological and economic questions. 
 
 When I wrote the bpok entitled "Making the Farm Pay," 
 I saw the urgent need of a direct and inspirational appeal 
 to farmers to place themselves in line with commercial prog- 
 ress. That work is successful beyond expectations and is 
 performing a useful service, but it had not been long from 
 the press when I discovered that town people were buying it 
 quite extensively and showing fully as much interest in agri- 
 cultural questions as the farmers themselves. Dwellers in 
 cities are not only buying farm literature but they are read- 
 ing it and studying it in the public libraries as never before. 
 This is because they are dissatisfied with their present 
 environments and desire a radical change from the con- 
 ditions of life now confronting the average family in a city. 
 There are many such persons who realize that they would 
 be better off on farms and in fact that their sole chance of 
 reaching a state of independence rests in their acquirement 
 of land. 
 
 Thousands, therefore, are turning to rural life and thou- 
 sands more like them are yearning for land ownership and 
 homes in the country. These city people realize that they 
 would increase their own prosperity and lessen the cost of 
 
 5 
 
6 PREFACE 
 
 living for many others if they could, in considerable num- 
 bers, engage in the agricultural vocation and become estab- 
 lished on land owned by themselves. Persons of average 
 intelligence understand the direct relationship of agricul- 
 ture to the economic and social problems of the day. The 
 extent to which city residents are thinking along this line 
 and wishing for information of a practical character to as- 
 sist them in making the turn "back to the soil" is my justi- 
 fication for putting out this volume. 
 
 Some months after my first book was issued the officials 
 of the New York Public Library reported that "Making 
 the Farm Pay" was among the six non-fiction books most 
 called for by readers. This was in New York City, a com- 
 munity which is hardly considered agricultural, and there- 
 fore the word was received with astonishment that a farm 
 book was being so generally read by city people. In dis- 
 cussing the matter with Hon. Henry E. Legler, the Chicago 
 librarian, I was informed that he had noticed a similar 
 interest here. Several of the large book stores have re- 
 ported that their sales of this farm book were chiefly to 
 city people. 
 
 These facts gave me the suggestion for this volume, one 
 object of which is to show how city families or amateurs 
 can best proceed to acquire land and engage successfully in 
 agriculture. It is believed that in this work there is suffi- 
 cient technical information to make it of value to all read- 
 ers. In a sentence, this is a book for all farmers, but more 
 especially for those who hear the call of the soil and are 
 trying to come abreast with modern conditions, make agri- 
 culture pay and gain the benefits of life in the country. 
 
 I am under great obligations to the editorial profession, 
 not merely for liberal praise of "Making the Farm Pay," 
 but for keen appreciation of the ideas which I have pre- 
 sented on the subject of commercial farming. Mr. John C. 
 Eastman, owner of the Chicago Daily Journal, is giving 
 special encouragement to my efforts toward rural life bet- 
 terment. C. C. BOWSFIELD. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 City Men Turning to the Soil 9 
 
 How and Where to Engage in Farming 15 
 
 Farm Planning and Management 24 
 
 Importance of Having Reliable Help 32 
 
 Social Aspect of Farm Life 36 
 
 Keep the Young Folks Interested 40 
 
 Promise of a Revolution in Marketing 49 
 
 Prosperity Increased by Farming 58 
 
 Profits Joined to Soil Improvement 70 
 
 Use of Lime Highly Important yd 
 
 Parcel Post Advantages 85 
 
 Importance of Farm Bookkeeping 89 
 
 Progressive Dairy Management 94 
 
 Beef Raising on Ordinary Farms 100 
 
 Sheep Raising on a New Basis 117 
 
 Quick Money Making in Pork 121 
 
 Butter Production on the Farm. 131 
 
 Com One of the Most Valuable Staples 137 
 
 Preparation of Land for Wheat 143 
 
 Great Value of Alfalfa and Other Legumes 147 
 
 Money-Making Garden Crops 159 
 
 Successful Poultry Management 187 
 
 Ducks, Geese and Turkeys Profitable 226 
 
 7 
 
8 CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Production of Honey 245 
 
 Commercial Apple Growing 252 
 
 Cherry Growing Is Profitable 259 
 
 Profits in Small Fruits 263 
 
 Flowers for Pleasure and Profit 275 
 
 Field and Garden Pests 294 
 
WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 City Men Turning to the Soil 
 
 City men can make farming pay, and they should heed the 
 call of the soil. In view of the social and economic ques- 
 tions involved, a shift of population from town to country 
 is greatly to be desired. The rising tide of sentiment ob- 
 served in all cities in favor of land ownership deserves en- 
 couragement. It has its beginning in both national and 
 individual necessity. 
 
 For many years the towns have been growing at the ex- 
 pense of the country. People born and bred in the farming 
 districts have been deserting the land, so that in numerous 
 rural communities, and even in whole states, the migra- 
 tion has resulted in a decrease of farm population. Sen- 
 timent now appears to be ripe for reversing this situation. 
 Not only are many of our large cities excessively crowded, 
 so that conditions are almost unbearable, but agriculture has 
 become highly attractive, and is strongly appealing to urban 
 residents. The high level of prices for all farm products, 
 improved transportation facilities, and a general increase of 
 the advantages of rural life make farming both pleasant and 
 profitable. At least, the possibilities are there to a greater 
 extent than ever before, and it remains for practical men 
 and women to work out a substantial success. 
 
 With these facts in mind, and after carefully considering 
 opportunities and general conditions in town and country, 
 thousands of city people are eager to acquire land and 
 become farmers. Naturally there are difficulties to be sur- 
 mounted. It is much harder than it was twenty-five years 
 
 9 
 
10 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 ago to secure land. A great deal more capital is involved, 
 and yet when a start is made more can be accomplished 
 than formerly, owing to high prices and improved railroad 
 and mail accommodations. 
 
 We must grasp the fact that agriculture has become a 
 commercial proposition. It is no longer a purely pastoral 
 vocation. Ability in selling and buying, knowledge of ship- 
 ping methods and skill in managing details are among the 
 foremost essentials of successful farming. A point has been 
 reached in farm management where it needs the application 
 of modem trade methods, and as the business demands 
 industry and intelligence an attractive opportunity is pre- 
 sented to practical city men, for a farm managed on correct 
 principles pays well. 
 
 How to acquire land, where to locate and what methods 
 of agriculture to follow in order to bring good results are 
 the main questions considered in these pages. After secur- 
 ing the right kind of a home to make the family comfort- 
 able, wise marketing becomes a leading question. It profits 
 a man little to raise good crops unless he has the facilities 
 and knows how to ship and sell to advantage. This calls for 
 a special kind of training and skill in which the city man ex- 
 cels. It is easy for him to understand business problems. 
 He has learned the knack of buying and selling. The very 
 fact of his city experience enables him to perceive the im- 
 portance of mixed farming, and it will be an aid to success. 
 He will seek to make things pay, as all business men are 
 supposed to do, and this will lead to the production of a 
 variety of commodities that will afford an income every 
 week or every month the year through. Skill in the man- 
 agement of labor will enable the city bred farmer to get 
 results. He will divide the work properly and give due at- 
 tention to the details which count. 
 
 Farming must be a family affair just as much as it 
 ever has been, but the modern way is not to make a drudge 
 of any person, either adult or minor. The work of a farm 
 demands system and departments. Each person who is re- 
 
CITY MEN TURNING TO THE SOIL H 
 
 quired to perform any of the labor should have it so shaped 
 that it will stimulate energy, sense of responsibility and love 
 for the calling. 
 
 To appeal to. young people and keep them in the country 
 there must be progress, variety and animation in farming, 
 as well as a bright and wholesome atmosphere in the com- 
 munity. The agricultural vocation must be made satisfying, 
 stimulating and successful. New conditions have put a 
 different light on the rural situation. The aspirations of 
 young men and women must be considered, for in a large 
 sense youth is the hope of the nation. The time has come 
 when the lure of the country may appear greater than that 
 of the city, and when we take advantage of this revolution 
 of feeling, and aim to make rural life broader and sweeter, 
 there will be less difficulty in keeping boys and girls on the 
 farm. Railroads, telephones and motor vehicles now assist 
 in making rural life enjoyable while aiding to put agricul- 
 ture on a paying basis. It remains for individuals to make 
 of it the business vocation toward which it is plainly tend- 
 ing. I do not hesitate to proclaim that modern commer- 
 cial agriculture will be the best system the world has ever 
 known. 
 
 It is possible that consumers may see lower prices for 
 the necessaries of life, but this is to be brought about by 
 taking advantage of the rapidly improving transportation 
 facilities, and the parcel post, to bring producer and con- 
 sumer together. It is not to come by cutting down farm 
 profit and allowing the present wasteful system of market- 
 ing and distribution to continue. It must be plain to every 
 thinking person that agricultural prosperity is assured and 
 that just so fast as business methods are applied to rural 
 industries just so fast will the acreage production increase 
 and marketing improve. In this way commodity prices may 
 become lessened to housekeepers. 
 
 Not only are conditions right for making the farm pay, 
 but capitalists are more disposed than ever before to lend 
 assistance to persons of good character and habits of in- 
 
12 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 dustry who wish to move from the cities and take land. If 
 the head of a family possesses a few hundred dollars, and 
 is known to be a person of reliability, the farm project in 
 nine cases out of ten can be financed in short order. Fami- 
 lies of small means should buy from ten to forty acres, 
 or rent an equipped farm. In buying it is best to take a 
 place that has a dwelling and other improvements, unless the 
 family have sufficient capital to build and improve accord- 
 ing to taste and judgment. A debt is justified in buying 
 land and a home, but the cash payment should be as large 
 as possible. The next payment ought to come at the end 
 of the second year. 
 
 Considering earning power and all other advantages land 
 at the present time is cheap. Desirable farms are available 
 within easy reach of the best markets at between $ioo and 
 $200 an acre. The further one locates from a station the 
 cheaper land can be bought. Every state has its peculiar 
 advantages. Farms with buildings can be purchased at 
 from $25 to $50 an acre in many parts of the country, in- 
 cluding Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, the Dakotas, Mon- 
 tana, Idaho, Wyoming, and several of the southern states. 
 Even New England has many cheap farms, although sur- 
 rounded by large markets. This may be explained by the 
 exodus in recent years of young people to western states 
 and to the cities. While it is true that there is much cheap 
 land in the newer sections of Michigan, Wisconsin and 
 Minnesota, the older parts of those states show agriculture 
 in an advanced stage of development, and in these localities 
 farm prices are about the same as in Ohio, Indiana and 
 Illinois. 
 
 As between the North and South it is worth while to 
 consider a few plain facts. The cost of starting is less 
 where the summers are long and the winters moderate than 
 in the extreme northern localities. It is also true that cities 
 in the South are growing fast and transportation facilities 
 developing proportionately, making good markets. An 
 easy living and domestic comforts are assured there, and 
 
CITY MEN TURNING TO THE SOIL 13 
 
 yet the money making opportunities are as great in the 
 North, because of the larger cities, denser population and 
 higher level of prices for those articles which progressive 
 farmers will naturally produce. It is not difficult to present 
 an argument in favor of the high priced land surrounding 
 all large cities, both North and South. One gets such ship- 
 ping and marketing facilities near the great centers of pop- 
 ulation that it is possible to earn a satisfactory return on 
 high-priced farms. This view of the case will only appeal 
 to those who have capital or those who wish to occupy very 
 small tracts. The man who prefers a farm of eighty to 
 one hundred and sixty acres will find it to his interest to 
 locate in one of the newer states or at least some distance 
 out from a large city. It is almost literally true that there 
 is no longer a frontier in this country, for all over the West 
 and South the railroad development keeps the farmer in 
 touch with civilization, and gives him the advantage of 
 good markets. 
 
 In the purchase of a farm there are more things to be 
 taken into consideration than in any other form of invest- 
 ment. Personal inclinations must be consulted as to location 
 of buildings, fences, and the natural adaptability of the soil. 
 The farm may be well adapted to dairying or stock raising 
 and yet be a total failure when it comes to grain production. 
 The soil may be liable to wash or overflow in times of flood, 
 thus making the growing of a com or wheat crop a thing 
 of chance. The farm may be well located as to markets 
 for farm produce, the soil may be comparatively fertile and 
 yet if the land is such that a good drainage outlet cannot be 
 had, its value will be seriously lowered on the market. The 
 questions of drainage, fertility of the soil, chance for a 
 good water supply, conditions of neighborhood as to church, 
 school and social development, are factors which must be 
 considered in the purchase of a farm. The mere factor 
 of location is about all that matters in the selection of a 
 site for any other business. 
 
 The value of a good farm water supply cannot be over- 
 
14 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 looked. This must be handy for family use and yet con- 
 veniently located for the stock. A well that goes dry in every 
 drouth is a very unreliable source of water for the stock. A 
 "dug" well into which all the impurities of three hundred 
 feet around the residence are continually seeping is a menace 
 to the health of the family. Of course, this sort of a well is 
 not to be considered a permanent improvement and yet we 
 have seen farms where a good water supply could not be 
 secured. Other improvements such as buildings and fences 
 must be considered. Perhaps they are not arranged to suit 
 and the changing about and reconstruction will amount to 
 more than any benefits to be derived from the improvement. 
 
 No matter how fertile or productive the fields, if we do 
 not like our location as to school, church, or markets, the 
 place will be a disappointment. However, there is a wide 
 field to choose from in the purchase of a farm and some- 
 where there must be a piece of land exactly suited to our 
 needs. We may find a number of acres that are worth more 
 to us than anyone else since they so nearly meet with our 
 ideal in location and natural adaptability to our special line 
 of crops, so we can really afford to pay a little more than 
 actual market value to procure them. Satisfaction is the main 
 thing to be considered in buying a farm — satisfaction with 
 the location and natural purpose of the land. 
 
 I wish to emphasize the importance of shaping the farm 
 program in accordance with distance from market and ap- 
 parent requirements of nearby towns and cities. When 
 close to a station one can produce all kinds of crops which 
 require quick marketing, but when further away it is neces- 
 sary to raise things which have better keeping qualities. A 
 family need not hesitate to locate five or six miles from a 
 shipping point, for a trip once a week is not a hardship, and 
 this will suffice for marketing poultry, meat animals, large 
 fruits, vegetables, etc. The ideal arrangement is a place 
 close enough to an inland city so that private customers may 
 be supplied with farm commodities at regular intervals. 
 Any surplus can be shipped to the larger markets. 
 
How and Where to Engage in Farming 
 
 It is clear that thousands of city people have made up 
 their minds to engage in farming at no distant day^ This 
 is understood to be a good time for making a start. It is 
 easily seen that prices for nearly all agricultural products 
 are on a profitable basis and that land is cheaper than it 
 ever will be again. With these conditions before them 
 city people are becoming eager to secure farms and homes in 
 the country. The sentiment is just about as strong in 
 provincial towns as in large cities. The back-to-the-soil 
 movement is based on necessity as well as on sentiment, for 
 there are many capable people in the crowded cities who are 
 not prosperous and who feel that they could secure greater 
 comfort and independence as farmers. 
 
 The question then is, how and where to locate. The man 
 with small capital, say $500 to $1,000, can follow any one of 
 several plans. He may become a renter for a few years, or 
 purchase 10 or 20 acres within an hour's ride of the city, 
 so that he can remain at work on a salary for such a period 
 as seems necessary. Then again he may buy cheap land 
 somewhere. With a small tract and only a few hundred 
 dollars to begin with the work need not be hurried. ' A suit- 
 able dwelling can be put up and perhaps a poultry business 
 started. This branch of the enterprise can be carried on 
 by the family and as a matter of fact may be made highly 
 profitable by any energetic woman who has the right view- 
 point of the pioneer wife. 
 
 By such an arrangement, which is the simplest and easiest 
 for town people, serious mistakes will be avoided and there 
 can be no heavy losses. If the poultry plant can be made 
 profitable by the end of a year or two years the head of the 
 family will then be justified in quitting his city employment 
 and adding horses and machinery to his possessions, so that 
 
 15 
 
16 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 gardening may be carried on in a proper way and extensively 
 enough to assure something of an income. In this part 
 of the project also the wife and children will be of great 
 help, and they should be made partners in the enterprise, or 
 at least given a substantial share of the profits. This is the 
 most direct and most feasible way of starting on a farm 
 where there is little capital for equipping the place with 
 cattle, horses, hogs, poultry, fruit trees and suitable build- 
 ings. Any family of good reputation that can raise a thou- 
 sand dollars will have no trouble in getting comfortably 
 started on a little farm near town. Usually the suburban 
 service on railroads extends out thirty or forty miles from 
 the larger cities and a man may travel back and forth with- 
 out serious loss of time or any great expense. A small debt 
 will have to be assumed, because the land should be so lo- 
 cated and of such a quality that ten acres would be worth 
 about $2,000. Such a debt is perfectly justifiable and can 
 be cleared off in two* or three years either from the saving 
 on salary or the earnings from the land. 
 
 A man of good character who has saved a few hundred 
 dollars, say three to five hundred, is able to start as a renter 
 without going in debt. He will find suitable farms of fifty 
 to one hundred acres, fully equipped with buildings and 
 sometimes with dairy animals, horses and machinery. One 
 system is for a renter to own a half interest in the live stock, 
 but this rule is flexible. It is possible to find places with 
 good buildings and in a high state of cultivation where it is 
 not necessary to buy a large equipment, and this makes the 
 task of starting an easy one for the city man with a scant 
 four or five hundred dollars. He may be required to pay 
 down a cash rental of $50 to $100, but many owners will 
 let him take possession and wait for from two to four 
 months for the first payment. I would prefer the cash 
 rental to the plan of crop sharing. 
 
 Five dollars an acre is the average rental for cultivated 
 land where the place has comfortable buildings. This would 
 be a gross sum of $250 for 50 acres and $500 for 100 acres. 
 
HOW AND WHERE TO ENGAGE IN FARMING 17 
 
 Any wideawake family can easily meet this sum from the 
 earnings of a small dairy or a couple of acres of garden. 
 In nine cases out of ten it is better than sharing, but after 
 all a city man moving into the country with a determination 
 to both learn and earn will not be much the worse for any 
 of the ordinary renting or sharing experiences. If he wishes 
 to take a place of one hundred acres or more and share the 
 income with the owner of the land, the latter furnishing 
 the entire equipment, and the tenant performing the labor 
 and furnishing seed, fodder and other items of expense, 
 there may be a fair profit at the end of the year for both 
 sides. At any rate, there is valuable experience for the be- 
 ginner and he will be able to tell definitely at the end of two 
 or three years which plan of renting suits him best. Leases 
 ought to run for not less than three years. The reasons 
 for this are self-evident. A tenant is obliged from month 
 to month or year to year to make little improvements on the 
 farm in connection with the buildings, garden and poultry 
 plant, and he should stay long enough on the place to get 
 some benefit from his organization work and efforts toward 
 betterment. 
 
 Where the city amateur decides to rent the farm his best 
 plan is to go far enough from town so that he will be able 
 to secure land at a moderate rental. It frequently happens 
 that farms located close to a city or railway station com- 
 mand a large rental by reason of this favorable location, 
 whereas the place may be no better for money making than 
 one that is located two or three miles further back. It is 
 well to be within an hour's drive of a station if the farmer 
 is disposed to diversify his production. In all the older 
 states it is possible to secure these favorable locations at 
 rerttals not exceeding five dollars an aCre. 
 
 The family having a taste for frontier life or wishing to 
 get into another climate will have much to choose from in 
 all parts of the continent. As I have heretofore remarked 
 every locality has its peculiar advantages. I have known 
 many eastern families to become prosperous and happy in 
 
18 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 the West, and on the other hand I have seen a number of 
 excellent people return East after giving a frontier com- 
 munity a trial for five or six years. Therefore, it is not 
 my intention to boost or boom any particular section, but I 
 hope to discuss the whole question of farming in such a way 
 that people will get a comprehensive idea on the matter of 
 location. 
 
 The advantage of holding a city position for the first year 
 or two will decide the matter for a great many. These peo- 
 ple will take little farms close to town, and in so doing they 
 will keep in touch with the comforts of life as they have 
 been used to them and with business methods as they un- 
 derstand them. The renter goes a step further and under- 
 takes an enterprise which is quite foreign to any of his 
 previous experiences, but even in his case a failure cannot 
 be a very disastrous one, because the investment is small. 
 If he wastes his time and any part of the money which he 
 has employed it will be owing to a lack of capacity or bad 
 luck far beyond the ordinary. 
 
 The average city man who is accustomed to hustle for 
 his living will be all right on a modern farm. He need not 
 work more than ten hours a day. Perhaps as wise a stroke 
 as he could make at the outset would be to establish the ten- 
 hour day for himself and his hired help, as well as the mem- 
 bers of his family. Whenever I consider the farming sub- 
 ject one of the first points to come to mind is the dislike en- 
 tertained by young people for the drudgery pertaining to the 
 dairy, the cornfield, the garden, and agricultural labor gener- 
 ally. Another thing which flashes before me is the barren so- 
 cial life which is all too common in the farming districts. 
 There is not enough recreation and there is not enough atten- 
 tion given to the ethical or cultural side of the farm home. 
 This accounts in part for the great exodus from the farming 
 districts. The backward condition of many agricultural sec- 
 tions is wholly due to the loss of the young men and women, 
 who have rushed away to the cities hoping to have an 
 easier and happier life. The proper place for the farmer's 
 
HOW AND WHERE TO ENGAGE IN FARMING 19 
 
 sons and daughters, as a general proposition, is in the agri- 
 cultural vocation, which they might be able by education 
 and progressive ideas to broaden and brighten and make 
 more profitable, but farm methods must be changed before 
 they can be expected to settle down contentedly in the coun- 
 try. 
 
 As these suggestions are written to apply to different lo- 
 calities they cannot be as specific as they might be in in- 
 dividual cases. Land ownership is highly desirable for 
 any family of limited means. The importance of a home 
 in the country, with land enough to afford a living income, 
 becomes more and more apparent every year. Therefore, 
 I say, buy if you can, and only rent when you cannot buy. 
 I repeat that there need be no great fear of an ordinary debt 
 in the case of providing a nice farm home for the family. 
 It will be a matter of pride and satisfaction to work up to 
 an independent position as a land owner and farmer. If 
 good sense and industry are applied the earnings from the 
 soil will be sufficient to maintain the home in comfort and 
 pay off any debt that has been necessary. 
 
 If it is to be a small farm proposition, get as close as 
 possible to one of the big markets. Places are to be found 
 within two or three miles of a good suburban station in al- 
 most any section of the country. If your taste runs toward 
 a large farm and you have an ambition to try a new locality 
 in the West or South there are plenty of fine opportunities 
 in states where land can be bought at $15 to $25 an acre 
 without improvements and $25 to $75 an acre with buildings. 
 With a farm of 100 acres or more the owner need not be 
 so particular about the distance from a railway station, and 
 two to four miles out will do very well, but ever and always 
 it is necessary to keep in mind the importance of having 
 good markets within a reasonable shipping distance. On 
 this point success or failure is apt to turn. Modern farm- 
 ing on good sized tracts, say from 80 to 160 acres, naturally 
 contemplates live stock and field crops. The beginner should 
 try to work into horses, cattle, sheep and hogs on the one 
 
20 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 hand, and grain or hay crops on the other. Poultry and 
 fruit are usually profitable features in any locality, although 
 there may be some points in the extreme North where or- 
 chards do not thrive. There are other localities, perhaps 
 near a good live stock market, where one will be stimulated 
 to raise beef cattle specially. In other cases there may be 
 a special need for dairies. When one is choosing a location 
 all these points about marketing must be looked into. 
 
 It is of the utmost importance to farmers in buying or 
 leasing land that the contracts, deeds, agreements, descrip- 
 tions, etc., be clear and specific. The making of slipshod 
 leases and other agreements has caused untold loss and 
 misery. I would advise all parties interested in such deal- 
 ings to secure the services of reliable attorneys and have all 
 papers drawn right in the first place. 
 
 It is probably true that in leasing a farm there are more 
 loopholes than in any other kind of real estate dealing. A 
 tenant has both rights and obligations. It is possible for 
 a careless person to do great damage to buildings, soil, wells, 
 drains, fences, trees, etc., not to speak of live stock. He 
 may work this damage either through thoughtlessness or 
 malice. Nevertheless, I am convinced that the tenant usu- 
 ally gives more than he receives. In the very nature of 
 things he must be making improvements, which ordinarily 
 will outweigh the wear and tear around the premises, and 
 as a rule owners of property are sharp or, at least, careful 
 about the kind of agreements they make with tenants. For 
 all these and other reasons it is vitally necessary that a city 
 man or any beginner consider his steps carefully and make 
 every move with due caution. It is bad policy for either 
 side to make a lease for a single year. Changes on a farm 
 are bad, both for landlord and tenant, provided there is or- 
 dinary honesty and intelligence on both sides. 
 
 It naturally takes a few years to give a tenant familiarity 
 with the various kinds of soil and the needs of different 
 fields. It requires time to give him any return for such im- 
 provements as he may be able to make in fruit trees, build- 
 
HOW AND WHERE TO ENGAGE IN FARMING 21 
 
 ings and live stock. There is always much to learn about 
 machinery, horses, cows and hogs. The handling of ma- 
 chinery is an important matter, no matter by whom it is 
 owned, for these expensive farm implements or utensils 
 are designed to facilitate and cheapen labor. If well han- 
 dled they get results quickly and economically. If poorly 
 managed they retard work and cause manifold losses, to 
 say nothing of the wear and tear as they are used from day 
 to day. 
 
 Just at this point I wish to put in another word of cau- 
 tion to amateurs, whether they are taking a large place or a 
 small one. Buy prudently, and do not load up with a greater 
 variety of machinery than is needed for effective work. 
 Have a fair understanding of the merits of any machine 
 that you invest in. Do not buy everything that an ambitious 
 dealer wishes to sell to you. It is always possible for an 
 amateur to obtain the judgment of experts in regard to the 
 particular qualities of farm machines and, furthermore, I 
 can conscientiously say that the majority of implement man- 
 ufacturers and dealers would rather give a farmer a square 
 deal than to impose upon his credulity and inexperience. 
 Every agent knows that he cannot afford to sell bad utensils, 
 and he tries to carry the best goods on the market. The 
 principal dai\gers are in buying too much machinery and in 
 paying too much for second-hand implements. It is nearly 
 always possible to find farm machinery that has been used 
 a little and which can be bought at about fifty per cent of 
 the original value. The amateur will be safe along this line 
 if he makes up his mind in advance to buy cautiously. It 
 is usually foolish to invest in an article simply because it is 
 cheap or stylish. Make sure in the first place that you need 
 it and then make equally sure that it is designed for dur- 
 ability rather than for show. There are accidental break- 
 ages and rapid wear and tear on the best of farms, and it 
 is the part of prudence for anyone setting up in the business 
 to get machinery that he knows will be useful and that he 
 is pretty sure will be durable. 
 
22 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 Aim to be above the average in the kind of farming that 
 is carried on. The profits on a farm are for the most part 
 made out of yields that are above the average. The average 
 crops, whether of beets, alfalfa, spuds, wheat or oats, pay 
 for all expenses of cultivation, usually pay the taxes and 
 some interest on the land and the value of the live stock. 
 The profits come from crops above the average. It costs 
 something more to grow a hundred bushel crop of spuds 
 than a fifty bushel crop, but it does not begin to cost twice 
 as much. The interest on or the rent of the land is the 
 same ; the cost of improvements and cultivation is the same; 
 it costs but little more to plow well than to plow badly; 
 there is some additional cost in the better preparation of 
 the seed-bed, in the purchase of better seed, or the better se- 
 lection of the seed grown. The increased crops are mainly 
 the result of brain work. Sound thinking alone will not 
 produce the extra fifteen or twenty bushels of grain, but 
 sound thinking plus well-directed work will. It costs less 
 to do clear thinking than it does to hire help. In other 
 words, one man's help well directed is cheaper and more ef- 
 ficient than the work of two men poorly directed. 
 
 I am strongly in favor of the amortization plan for farm 
 borrowers. By this method the sum paid annually by the 
 borrower is such as to meet all interest charges and wipe 
 out the debt at the end of its term. The advantages of this 
 method are that the debt is discharged by easy regular pay- 
 ments, and the borrower is not called upon in any one year 
 to raise a considerable sum of money to discharge the capi- 
 tal of his debt. Under this system he must set aside from 
 each year's profits or income a proper proportion to meet his 
 indebtedness. This frees him from the temptation of using 
 money that should go toward paying his debt in one year 
 for other purposes, because of an optimistic belief that next 
 year's crops or income will make it easier to pay twice that 
 amount. 
 
 The following amortization table, showing the exact effect 
 of paying a fixed sum each year, is taken from a government 
 
HOW AND WHERE TO ENGAGE IN FARMING 23 
 
 publication. Farmers' Bulletin No. 593, entitled, "How to 
 Use Farm Credit" : 
 
 Amount of loan $1,000 
 
 Length of term, years i5 
 
 Rate of interest, per cent !!!!.'!.'!!! 6 
 
 Annual payments !...!.'!!!!!.'.!! $100 
 
 [These figures apply proportionately to a loan of any amount.] 
 
 Total Amount of 
 
 Annual annual Interest at Paid on principal 
 
 periods. payment. 6 per cent, principal still unpaid. 
 
 I $100.00 $60.00 $40.00 $960.00 
 
 2 100.00 57.60 42.40 917.60 
 
 3 100.00 SS.06 44.94 872.66 
 
 4 100.00 52.36 47.64 825.02 
 
 S 100.00 49.50 50.50 774.52 
 
 6 100.00 46.47 53.53 720.99 
 
 7 100.00 43.26 56.74 664.25 
 
 8 100.00 39.85 60.15 604.10 
 
 9 100.00 36.25 63.75 540.3s 
 
 10 100.00 32.43 67.58 472.77 
 
 II 100.00 28.37 71.63 401.13 
 
 12 100.00 24.07 75.93 325.20 
 
 13 100.00 19.51 80.49 244.71 
 
 14 100.00 14.68 85.32 159.40 
 
 15 100.00 9.56 90.44 68.96 
 
 16 73.10 4.14 68.96 
 
 Total $1,573-10 $573-10 $1,000.00 
 
 This method gives a banker or other money loaner the 
 same security that he would have under any other system, 
 and the gradual reduction of the debt is better for both 
 sides than having large parts of the principal to pay at 
 fixed times. 
 
 A majority of bankers today are eager to assist the cause 
 of agriculture, and I am confident, after making many in- 
 quiries on the subject, that people of established reputation, 
 as regards industry and capacity, can readily find such 
 financial aid as they require for the development of any 
 reasonable farming project. 
 
Farm Planning and Management 
 
 In all earnestness and sincerity I recommend the voca- 
 tion of farming. The call of the soil is no idle dream nor 
 speculative fancy. Agriculture is becoming so highly profit- 
 able that it oflfers an opportunity for success to tens of 
 thousands of city people. The world needs farmers as 
 never before. The demand is for practical business methods, 
 and men and women of city training are able to apply qual- 
 ities and habits which will make agriculture a commercial 
 proposition and a financial success. 
 
 Rural homes will prove a blessing to these town people, 
 and the exodus to the country will tend to lessen the 
 crowded condition of large centers of population. Those 
 who have uncertain employment in the cities and who 
 experience hard times in getting along under the unavoid- 
 ably high expense of living will be placed in a position of 
 comfort and independence on the land. All may not pros- 
 per, but the industrious and capable will be pretty sure to 
 gain reward commensurate with their efforts and ability. 
 Health and wealth belong with modern farming. 
 
 This is the dawn of a new and better era. It is the golden 
 era of business farming, when diversified crops and judi- 
 cious marketing are to make agriculture pay. As a result 
 the nation will be stronger, and individuals who contribute 
 to this new order of things will gain in prosperity. Cour- 
 age and spirit will win the battle for city men and women 
 who are in the new movement for land occupancy. There- 
 fore I say: Get land and get it now! It will never be 
 cheaper. It is a good investment. It is a guarantee of a 
 comfortable home. It opens the door of opportunity. 
 
 Make the farm methods modem. Introduce a business 
 system. Be energetic, wideawake, thorough. Work to win. 
 Command success. Plan such a variety of duties that farm 
 life will not be irksome. Give the family a share in crops 
 and stock. Have happiness first, and prosperity is sure. No 
 
 24 
 
FARM PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT 25 
 
 financial success counts unless the boys and girls love their 
 home and vocation. But give variety to their work, fix 
 reasonable hours, show the beauty of rural life, make them 
 see that agriculture is not only a noble calling but that it is 
 one of the best for profit and enjoyment, and a great 
 majority of them will stick to farming, knowing that in its 
 possibilities there is nothing better. 
 
 Don't get into a rut. Do good farming and make your 
 place beautiful. Study market demands and raise the 
 money-making things. Put character and skill into the 
 business side of the project as well as zeal and energy into 
 the productive side. Sell honestly, but sell so as to have 
 a fair profit. Produce intelligently. If cows are kept, have 
 only those which come up to a standard in productive capac- 
 ity and earnings. Keep chickens that belong to a vigorous, 
 egg-producing strain. Learn how to feed live stock eco- 
 nomically. Keep animals clean and thrifty. If pork is 
 worth $8 per hundredweight in market it must be produced 
 for $4. If beef is $9 in market, raise it for $5. Keep the 
 orchard right and fill up the odd spaces with flowers and 
 vegetables. Have no idle, weedy corners. Make each 
 article yield a cash return, and see that this income from 
 different products grows a little from year to year. Cut out 
 waste. Sell or use surplus material, or remnants, just as 
 merchants do. Make the odds and ends and little things 
 pay. Do business. Make things go. Get results. Be 
 hopeful and happy. Have the farm a cheerful place. Then 
 life will be worth living. 
 
 A diversified farm in the nature of things may be smaller 
 than a grain farm. This is an advantage at the outset, as it 
 takes less capital for land and equipment. I am familiar 
 with tracts of 30 to 40 acres which carry about 20 head of 
 cattle, several horses, 30 to 50 hogs, 500 to 1,000 chickens 
 and fruit and truck patches. By intensive work and skillful 
 management nearly all the feed needed is raised on these 
 little farms. The earning capacity of places so conducted 
 is almost beyond belief, reaching as high as $5,000 a year. 
 
26 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 It calls for business farming of the best type, but that is 
 what our whole national situation demands. 
 
 The case is cited of an 8o-acre farm which was in a good 
 location, but that was being operated without profit. The 
 owner stated that his land was valued at $150 to $175 an 
 acre, would rent for $5 an acre cash, and that it had been 
 cropped with corn and oats for many years until the aver- 
 age yields were about 35 bushels of corn per acre or 20 
 bushels of oats. 
 
 In 1908 the actual yields were 24 bushels of corn and 12 
 bushels of oats per acre. The total income of the whole 
 farm, estimating crops at average prices, was less than $450 
 for the year, from which it will be readily seen that the 
 labor and capital invested are not very handsomely re- 
 warded. In fact, if the labor on the farm were hired the 
 farm would be run at a considerable loss. Valuing the farm 
 at $12,000, the interest alone at 5 per cent is $600. 
 
 This farm was chosen for illustration because it is typical 
 of large farming areas in parts of the Middle States and be- 
 cause the price of the land has outgrown the system of 
 farming in vogue. 
 
 In the future management of this farm three propositions 
 are open to the owner: (i) Continue the old method of 
 farming and lose money; (2) rent the land out at $5 per 
 acre cash and permit the land to be further robbed of soil 
 fertility and impoverished; and (3) change his plans fo 
 meet the new conditions and farm rationally and profitably. 
 
 To successfully handle an 80-acre farm of heavy soil on 
 which com, oats, and hay are grown, about four work ani- 
 mals will be needed. These may be brood mares, and it 
 may safely be assumed that each mare will produce on an 
 average a colt every other year. To supply the family with 
 milk and butter, two cows will be needed. The farmer will 
 probably raise two or three hogs for pork and will keep 
 a few chickens. It is assumed that the permanent pasture 
 for two cows and two colts during the season, and possibly 
 two or three hogs, together with the buildings, garden, and 
 
FARM PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT 27 
 
 orchard, will require about 8 acres (ordinarily a cow re- 
 quires two acres of pasture each season), thus leaving 72 
 acres of the farm which can be put into cultivated crops. 
 
 These 72 acres will be divided into three fields of 24 acres 
 each without division fences, and a three-year rotation of 
 crops will be observed as follows : 
 
 One 24-acre field will be planted with corn, using selected 
 seed and fertilizing the field with all the barnyard manure 
 available, and in addition applying about 400 pounds of 
 steamed bone meal per acre. As this land still produces 
 a luxuriant crop of clover no lime will be added at present 
 other than that contained in the bone meal. The corn crop 
 will be cultivated, not necessarily the regulation three times 
 and then laid by, but as often as may be necessary to keep 
 the upper two or three inches of soil loose, mellow, and 
 free from weeds. The corn will be planted on a clover sod 
 which has been plowed down in the fall and left rough 
 through the winter. 
 
 The second 24-acre field will be planted to oats, or pos- 
 siljly winter wheat, as winter wheat is again coming into 
 favor with farmers generally. The oats will be put in on 
 com ground which has been thoroughly disked and put into 
 fine condition for this crop. No fertilizer will be used on 
 the oats. Selected seed of the Swedish Select variety or of 
 some other variety that does well in the neighborhood will 
 be sown. With the oats and ahead of the drill a mixture of 
 about 10 pounds of common red clover and 12 pounds of 
 timothy will be sown. 
 
 The third 24-acre field will be in hay, the timothy and 
 clover mixture seeded with the oats the preceding year. 
 
 The gross returns may be expected to be about as follows : 
 
 Com, 1,440 bushels, at 50 cents a bushel $ 720 
 
 Oats, 150 bushels, at 40 cents a bushel 60 
 
 Hay, 48 tons, at $8 a ton ^ 384 
 
 Colts, 2, at $50 each 100 
 
 Calves, 2, at $5 each 10 
 
 Total gross income $1,274 
 
28 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 From the $1,274 gross income should be deducted the 
 cost of about five tons of steamed bone meal at $25 a ton, 
 leaving a balance of $1,149 ^s the gross returns, out of 
 which must come the expenses of labor, living, interest on 
 investment, etc. 
 
 In this outline plan it is seen that by the introduction of 
 hay, a large part of which is clover, into the rotation, thus 
 augmenting the humus and nitrogen content of the soil, and 
 by the addition of 400 pounds to the acre of steamed bone 
 meal on each crop of corn, it may be expected that the yields 
 will be doubled and the income raised from less than $450 
 to $1,149 ^ year, with all expense charges remaining prac- 
 tically the same as before, and in addition $125 paid out 
 for steamed bone meal to help maintain the fertility of the 
 farm. These results would not be secured the first year. 
 The fertilizer corn crop would first show the results of the 
 system and not until the third year could the above results 
 be expected. 
 
 The nearly 12 tons of grain fed, together with the 24 acres 
 of oat straw and 24 acres of corn stover fed or used as bed- 
 ding on the place, will make more than 100 tons of manurial 
 material to be used on the corn. This, with the plowed- 
 under clover stubble, will keep the farm fairly well supplied 
 with humus. The bone meal used on the corn, with that 
 furnished by the manure, will more than supply the phos- 
 phoric acid removed by all the crops, and soil fertility will 
 be maintained. 
 
 In the above plan, should the farmer desire to feed about 
 three hogs for pork, he should let them run on pasture, and 
 can estimate that it will require about 15 bushels of corn 
 each to bring them to a weight of 200 pounds at 10 
 months. 
 
 The income of $1,149 P^r annum by the system of farm- 
 ing outlined will pay only 5 per cent interest on a $15,000 
 investment and leave but $399 to pay taxes, running ex- 
 penses, labor, etc., so further changes will be made. 
 
 With good cows and good management dairy farming is 
 
FARM PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT 29 
 
 one of the most profitable types of stock farming but with 
 poor cows and ordinary management there is no money in 
 dairying. 
 
 It is not profitable to pasture cows on high-priced land 
 and sell milk for less than 20 cents a gallon ; it requires too 
 much land for pasture, about two acres for each cow kept. 
 
 Feeding silage to dairy cows the year around has been 
 found to be as satisfactory as regards milk yield and butter 
 production as soiling in summer and silage in winter, and 
 more convenient. By either of these methods many more 
 cows can be kept on a farm of given size and more profit 
 made than by the pasture system. 
 
 The most frequent sources of loss in the dairy business 
 are poor cows, low crop yield, and inadequate rations. 
 Home-grown feeds usually need to be supplemented with 
 such feeds as cotton-seed meal, gluten feed, or oil meal in 
 compounding rations for dairy cows which shall result in 
 maximum milk and butter production. 
 
 With purchased feeds and the manure handled properly 
 and put back on the land, dairy farming is one of the most 
 certain methods known for building up a farm to a high 
 state of productivity, and this branch of agriculture com- 
 bines nicely with hogs, poultry and fruit. 
 
 It is assumed that if a man is going into dairying he will 
 read up the business and make a thorough study of all the 
 details of good cows, effective rations, proper herd man- 
 agement, suitable cropping systems, efficient methods of 
 caring for and applying manure, and other like factors of 
 importance. It is assumed that he will keep a herd of well- 
 bred grade dairy cows, each of which will produce 6,000 
 pounds of milk or make 280 pounds of butter a year. 
 
 Since it is difficult to buy cows of this type whenever 
 wanted, it is assumed that heifers will be raised for the 
 purpose and that on the average there will be about one- 
 fourth as many heifer yearlings and one-fourth as many 
 heifer calves as there are milch cows, or in all one-half as 
 many young stock as there are cows in the herd. 
 
30 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 The gross returns that may be expected from a dairy 
 farm on which 23 good cows are kept are estimated about 
 as follows: 
 
 280 pounds of butter from each of 23 cows, at 25 cents. $1,610 
 
 100,000 pounds of skim milk, at 20 cents per hundredweight. . . 200 
 
 16 calves, at $S each 80 
 
 2 colts, at $50 each 100 
 
 Total gross income $i,990 
 
 From this gross income must be deducted $136 for cotton- 
 seed meal or oil meal, leaving $1,854 as a gross return for 
 the 80-acre dairy farm. 
 
 If milk were sold instead of butter and 4 cents a quart 
 received, the returns would be about as follows : 
 
 61,000 quarts of milk, at 4 cents $2,440 
 
 16 calves, at $S each 80 
 
 2 colts, at $50 each 100 
 
 Total gross income $2,620 
 
 Deducting from this gross income $136 for concentrated 
 feed, as before, leaves $2,484 to pay the expenses, interest, 
 and labor of the farm. The calves that are kept will about 
 offset the decreased value of the herd from year to year. 
 
 While these returns for the dairy farm appear larger than 
 for any other type of farming they are not so in reality, be- 
 cause it requires more labor on this type of farm than on 
 any of the types previously considered. It will require the 
 labor of the owner and one other man the year around, and 
 during the growing season at least, or about seven months 
 of the year, a second man will have to be employed. The 
 cost of this extra labor to the owner will be at least $40 a 
 month, including board, for each hired man, or about $760. 
 This would reduce the gross income from the farm when 
 butter is made from $1,854 to $1,094, and when milk is 
 sold, from $2,484 to $1,724. At 5 cents a quart the gross 
 income after deducting these same items would be $2,334. 
 By carrying 50 hogs and 500 chickens such a farm will 
 clean up an additional $1,000. 
 
FARM PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT 31 
 
 A further item necessary to take into consideration in the 
 dairy t3rpe of farming is the considerable increase in invest- 
 ment necessary. Each cow in the herd of the character here 
 planned for costs at least $75. The cows, with the bull and 
 young stock, represent an investment of at least $2,000. To 
 this must be added a suitable stable and two 90-ton silos. 
 
 An examination of the figures shows the returns for the 
 different kinds of farming on a tract of 80 acres to vary 
 from $450 as now managed to $4,000 per annum in the case 
 of mixed farming, indicating a wide variation in the returns 
 possible from the same farm by different systems. These 
 illustrations emphasize the importance of studying closely 
 the organization of a farm and the plan on which it is op- 
 erated. 
 
 Irrigation is a subject that deserves careful consideration. 
 A simple plan of artificial watering and draining might be 
 worked out by almost any gardener. Where a truck patch 
 amounts to several acres it is sometimes very important to 
 be able to drain it so that the work of gathering the crop 
 or weeding the ground may go on. In an erratic climate 
 there is too much water at times, and perhaps a little later 
 on a drouth is blighting the crops. Both irrigation and 
 drainage are feasible, but each farm has its own peculiar 
 needs and difficulties, and such problems will have to be 
 worked out in due time as the owners proceed with their 
 work of improvement. 
 
 A system of artificial heating is necessary for orchards 
 in northern localities. A thrifty orchard is well worth 
 $2,500 an acre as an investment, as it will return 10 to 20 
 per cent annually on this figure. Therefore, in estabUshing 
 an orchard it is best to invest about $25 in oil-burning pots 
 for each acre under trees. This is a small amount, and it 
 may save a valuable fruit crop on cold nights when the 
 trees are budding. 
 
Importance of Having Reliable Help 
 
 City men who are about to become farmers should settle 
 the hired help question as soon as they are located. This 
 may mean the difference between success and failure, for 
 unless the owner knows something of farming and has a 
 capable family to assist with encouragement and energy he 
 will soon tire of the perplexities and labor and begin to 
 think of making another change. 
 
 Even on a farm of 20 to 50 acres help is needed, and af- 
 fairs can be so shaped as to distribute the work through- 
 out the year. It is a ruinous policy to lay a man off at the 
 beginning of winter. He may be idle for months, and he 
 is not apt to return to farm life. The best investment any 
 farmer can make is capital used in fitting up a comfortable 
 dwelling for a man and his wife and arranging for the 
 services of both. If necessary, they should become members 
 of the family, at least until a house can be made ready for 
 them. 
 
 Trained and reliable help is of vital importance on any 
 farm. There should be poultry and live stock enough to 
 make a man's work profitable all winter, and as the smallest 
 of farms contemplates a few cows an industrious couple 
 will earn their wages in all seasons. By all means, see that 
 the place is so arranged that the man will not be useless 
 during winter. One reason why the best men quit farming 
 as a vocation is that they do not have work the year through 
 and are not provided with houses so that they may marry 
 and settle down. 
 
 It should be frankly conceded that any laboring man who 
 has a family to support must have work all the year in order 
 to sustain himself and his family. It is hardly fair to use 
 a laborer to help plow and fit the ground and harvest the 
 
 32 
 
IMPORTANCE OF HAVING RELIABLE HELP 33 
 
 crops and then dismiss him during the winter months when 
 there is little chance for him to find work elsewhere. When 
 the labor question is mentioned on the farm the housemaid 
 is properly under consideration as well as the hired man. 
 It is difficult to get kitchen help on the farm, but it is equally 
 difficult to get such help in the city, where high wages are 
 paid for a servant even fairly competent, but if the farmer 
 has houses for his hired men and engages those who have 
 wives he will not only be getting steady help for the place 
 but in nine cases out of ten the wife can be hired to assist 
 in the household and the dairy. 
 
 A city man who is trained to the ways of business will 
 naturally seek methods of earning an income in winter. This 
 is best accomplished by keeping a dairy, poultry, hogs and 
 beef animals. Butter production can also be made a re- 
 munerative feature. There is always a lot of work on a 
 farm, but if it is managed systematically it will not become 
 drudgery to anyone. An inexperienced farmer may have to 
 rely upon his hired men to assist him in managing his farm 
 and to settle many important questions. It would be ex- 
 ceedingly difficult for him to employ a man suitable for this 
 work or in whom he would have confidence unless he kept 
 him steadily and provided a comfortable home for him. The 
 fact is that even those born and brought up on the farm do 
 not realize how many practical things they have learned by 
 living and working upon the soil. There is the utmost 
 economy and wisdom in starting with first-class help. 
 
 In the West particularly, the problem of obtaining reliable 
 farm help has become a serious one. A spirit of unrest 
 prevails and the farm hand seems to be just as seriously af- 
 fected as any other class of workmen. In the first place, the 
 average farmer hires one or more men for six to eight 
 months. Then when the season of the year approaches 
 when it is most difficult to find employment the man is dis- 
 charged. What does he usually do? He generally gets a 
 little work, but by the time spring arrives he has probably 
 spent what little he had saved during the working season 
 
34 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 and is undoubtedly in debt. This continues for a few years, 
 and by the time the man is 25 years old he is either a rover 
 and unsettled in his habits, or has allied himself with some 
 factory or other work where he gets a steady job. The bet- 
 ter class of farm hands who want a home soon see that 
 there is little to encourage them on the farm. They want 
 steady employment, so that they may be able to get married 
 and settle down. 
 
 A manufacturing concern in getting ready for business 
 frequently builds a number of dwellings which it leases to 
 married workmen at a low rental. It does this because the 
 married employe is more reliable than the single man. A 
 great many of them require that at least half of their em- 
 ployes be married. If times should happen to be dull the 
 married men are kept at work, and if the force must be 
 cut down the single men are the ones that suffer. 
 
 It seems to me it is time for farmers to wake up. They 
 have been letting the factory, the railroads and other cor- 
 porations pick up all the bright farmer boys, and these are 
 now badly needed in the country. We can give our better 
 class of young men a chance to marry and settle down and 
 become steady, useful, reliable citizens. In a few years 
 they become farm owners. 
 
 At present it is difiScult for a married man to find work on 
 a farm. It should be just the reverse. Farm owners should 
 be looking for married men and offering steady work. In 
 Europe the married men have preference over the single 
 men on the farm. It is no uncommon thing to hear of the 
 excellent type of farm hands available there. Many of them 
 remain on one farm from year to year until they can own 
 one themselves. 
 
 The average young man capable of filling satisfactorily 
 the position of helper on a farm has much the same ambi- 
 tion that his employer once had, principal among which 
 is the desire to have a home of his own. As a single man 
 he has none, but must live under objectionable conditions in 
 his employer's house. If he is working with the object of 
 
IMPORTANCE OF HAVING RELIABLE HELP 35 
 
 some time owning a home he soon tires of these conditions 
 and goes where he thinks he will in a shorter time be able 
 to marry and live in his own house, or at least a rented 
 house, which he can call a home of his own. The lure of 
 the city has the effect of leading him on, but he drifts in 
 time entirely away from all thought of the life and inde- 
 pendence of a farmer until youth and perhaps middle age 
 are passed, and he finds himself again longing for the farm 
 that has passed out of his reach. When farm owners wake 
 up to the advantage of providing a house for the hired man 
 and his wife and children, there will be less complaint of 
 scarcity of good farm labor. 
 
 The much-talked of question of farm labor and the hired 
 man was satisfactorily settled in one case by making the 
 man in a certain sense a partner in the business, with a per- 
 sonal interest in the profits from the farm. The man had 
 been on the place one year and proved trustworthy and con- 
 scientious. When it came time for a bargain for the second 
 year the owner offered an advance in the regular wage, 
 which would have amounted to $40 in the year, or a bonus 
 at the end of the year of 10 per cent of the profits. This 
 was in addition to the ordinary rate of wages. The man 
 accepted the latter plan, and it has worked out to the ad- 
 vantage of the owner and also to the advantage of the man. 
 
 A few of the things a man has to know before he can 
 make a success of farming and with which an intelligent 
 hired man is familiar, are as follows : He must know how 
 to manage the soil ; he must know when it is in a condition 
 for plowing and for the different tillage operations; he 
 must know the value and use of manure and fertilizers ; he 
 must know how deep to cover different kinds of seed, and 
 the season for different farm operations. 
 
 One of the things which it is highly important for the 
 successful farmer to know is what constitutes a fair day's 
 work on the farm. If he is ignorant of this he will be im- 
 posed upon by many hired laborers he is compelled to em- 
 ploy. The right man is really a jewel above price. 
 
Social Aspect of Farm Life 
 
 Farmers in years past and under conditions which no 
 longer exist were too much isolated from their neighbors. 
 There is no longer a good reason for social inactivity in the 
 country. 
 
 ' The men and women of the farming communities who 
 are working as friends and neighbors must believe in one 
 another and maintain a kind of friendship which will hold 
 them together through all sorts of vicissitudes which are 
 almost sure to come. It is not enough to merely greet neigh- 
 boring farmers with an occasional wave of the hand when 
 you pass them on the road, nor is it right to neglect all pos- 
 sibilities for business friendship except when there is a big 
 job of threshing or silage cutting to be done. There are 
 still some farmers who keep themselves wedged in by the 
 line fence and are not willing to exchange help or go in on 
 any sort of a community proposition, but happily they are 
 becoming fewer. A whole lot of difHculties will be elimi- 
 nated when there is more of this wholesome neighborly 
 friendship, and business afifairs will begin to adjust them- 
 selves a good deal more easily. It is only necessary, for 
 proof of these things, to go into a community where good 
 fellowship reigns and breathe the atmosphere of trust and 
 prosperity which goes with that sort of condition. 
 
 Near Vermilion, Ohio, the people in one of the school 
 districts are using the schoolhouses as a social center. Once 
 a month the farmers and their families gather there to en- 
 joy themselves and listen to an entertainment. This usually 
 consists of a talk along agricultural or rural life lines and 
 music. The entertainment may be by local persons or by 
 outside parties who are invited. After the program, re- 
 freshments of sandwiches, cake and cofifee, which have been 
 brought in baskets, are served. In these little gatherings 
 
 36 
 
SOCIAL ASPECT OF FARM LIFE 37 
 
 people are exhibiting the wholesome and much desired 
 spirit of "getting together," of co-operation. They are ob- 
 taining more and better use of their schoolhouse; they have 
 a good time ; they become acquainted ; they talk over their 
 problem ; they learn from each other ; they take a deeper in- 
 terest in school affairs; they make bigger and better men 
 and women of themselves. Their example might be fol- 
 lowed with profit in many other communities. 
 
 Occasions must be created, plans must be made to bring 
 people together in a wholesale manner so as to facilitate 
 this interchange of community acquaintance. Especially is 
 it necessary for rural children to know many more children. 
 The one-room district school has proved its value in making 
 the children of the neighborhood acquainted with one an- 
 other. One of the large reasons for the consolidated and 
 centralized school is the increased size of territorial unit, 
 with more children to know one another and mingle to- 
 gether. Inter-visiting of district schools, in which one 
 school plays host to a half dozen other schools, with some 
 regularity, using plays and games, children's readiest means 
 of getting acquainted, is a successful means of extending 
 acquaintance under good auspices. 
 
 There is no reason why the farm home-makers should not 
 enjoy just as many festive occasions as do their city sis- 
 ters. Perhaps the nature of the entertainment may differ, 
 but the recreation and amusement may be of equal quality. 
 There are numerous clubs and societies which may be made 
 to admit both old and young of our farms, and they may 
 be made profitable as well as a means of social enjoyment. 
 
 Take for instance a reading club. Several families may 
 subscribe for a number of different magazines, weeklies, 
 monthlies, or semi-monthly publications, meet once a month 
 to read aloud and discuss such articles as are of general in- 
 terest, and to exchange copies of the periodicals. When 
 the papers have been read in turn, they may be kept by 
 each separate family or, far better still, be given to the 
 school library; where their usefulness will be manifold. 
 
38 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 Then why not a mending club ? Here the women of each 
 neighborhood may entertain the members of the club in turn, 
 each serving light refreshments if desired. A good idea 
 would be to have some one member read aloud while others 
 sew, thus adding general information to the work. Every 
 woman dislikes the weekly mending — it is not a pleasing 
 task — but the work is soon forgotten in congenial society, 
 and the dreaded darning and patching are complete before 
 fully realized. If the women did not wish to sew for otie 
 another they could sew for some overburdened shut-in, 
 taking their own refreshments and making the day one of 
 pleasure, with no extra work to the hostess. There are al- 
 ways carpet rags to sew, rugs to braid, garments to be 
 made or mending to do. There is always pretty apt to be 
 some poor family even in the best of neighborhoods who 
 will need assistance in a great many ways, or a brood of 
 little children suddenly left motherless, so that there is lit- 
 tle chance for lack of work to keep the women busy. There 
 is always "something to do for somebody else," and in do- 
 ing for others we enrich our own lives and bring to our- 
 selves as well as to. others the best and purest kind of hap- 
 piness. 
 
 Special days and holidays may be made the means for 
 neighborhood gatherings in the schoolhouse; here may be 
 held a Historical Party on Washington or Lincoln's birth- 
 day ; a Valentine party, in which the young people take the 
 leading part, with a program of songs, recitations and sto- 
 ries, 'and a "box supper" for all. In March we have St. 
 Patrick's Day — appropriate for a neighborhood party, which 
 will require little preparation, though the room may be 
 made gay with green boughs of evergreen and flags. In 
 April comes Arbor Day, when all families of the neighbor- 
 hood should gather at the schoolhouse for exercises appro- 
 priate to the day, and the planting of trees and shrubs. In 
 May we have the May Day with its May-pole dance — out of 
 doors if the weather be favorable; June brings Flag Day 
 which should never be neglected — a picnic in the woods 
 
SOCIAL ASPECT OF FARM LIFE 39 
 
 would be a nice means of celebration ; with July comes In- 
 dependence Day, which is usually celebrated in some appro- 
 priate way in the villages and towns, and which brings a 
 pleasant change to the whole family. August may be de- 
 voted to a special celebration known as a "Farmers' Picnic" 
 with entries of vegetables, fruits, flowers, domestic articles, 
 as cakes, pies, jellies, jams, etc., with small prizes offered 
 by the farmers to encourage the exhibitors of their own 
 neighborhood ; September bringis the county fairs, which all 
 farmers are interested in ; October should have its Harvest 
 Home Festival, and with the coming of November, we have 
 Thanksgiving to break the monotony, while December 
 brings the gayest festival of all — Christmas. 
 
 It is pleasant to picture the family in the country home, 
 seated around the table, playing games, eating apples, pop- 
 ping com or cracking nuts, but even these enjoyable occa- 
 sions grow monotonous if indulged in too often. Give the 
 young people sufficient recreation, break the monotony, and 
 there will be less danger of their leaving the farm. Above 
 all provide good reading matter for the boys and girls; 
 indulge them to the extent of an occasional new game, even 
 if it necessitates a sacrifice on your part, parents, for the 
 means more than justifies the end. 
 
 One of the greatest blessings of the rural district is the 
 Sunday school which can be held in the schoolhouse. This 
 not only provides a pleasant break in a day which unfortu- 
 nately is frequently a very long one on the farm, but it 
 brings the families of the community together in an atmos- 
 phere which tends to bring out the best in each individual. 
 There is always someone in the neighborhood who can play 
 the school organ and another who can lead in the simple 
 singing. A book and magazine club is an excellent feature 
 of rural life. Social gatherings should be regular and fre- 
 quent. 
 
Keep the Young Folks Interested 
 
 Keeping the young folks on the farm is a problem with 
 most farmers, especially if they have been born and bred 
 in the rural districts, for city life to them is made up of 
 one dazzling round of pleasure, good clothes and plenty 
 of money. This was particularly true some few years ago, 
 and the city was the goal of practically every young man 
 and woman on the farm. Happily, that day has almost 
 passed and thousands of young men and boys are looking 
 forward to the day when they can be high-grade farmers, 
 though the city annually gets its share of country youths. 
 Special talent for a profession must always be considered, 
 and farming is being brought more and more each day to 
 this requirement. The trained farmer stands just as high 
 today in his profession as does the college-bred man who 
 makes a living by his brains alone. It is true, all boys 
 can not be farmers, for other lines of endeavor would 
 suffer and progress come to a standstill. Many of our 
 greatest men were born on farms and spent their boyhood 
 there ; they are not ashamed of the fact, but generally look 
 back to those days with the keenest satisfaction. It was 
 there they formed a first opinion of the great possibilities in 
 life ; there they learned some of that self-reliance and dili- 
 gence which have been the mainstays in their life work. 
 
 If it is true that the farmer of the future must "know 
 something," then it is obvious that the boy must be edu- 
 cated. The first class country school may do its part in 
 directing the youthful thought into the right channels, but 
 a still greater part is to be taken by the boy's own parents. 
 Some boys stand in a nearer relation to their father than 
 others; they respect every wish, listen to every word of 
 advice, and strive to help with the farm work to the limit 
 of their strength. In other cases it may be the mother 
 
 40 
 
KEEP THE YOUNG FOLKS INTERESTED 41 
 
 who can do the best guiding of the youthful spirit. But 
 father's word is usually law and he occupies an important 
 position in teaching his son the value of industry as well 
 as setting an example in moral rectitude. To lay down 
 an unfailing rule for the parents' guide in bringing out the 
 best in their boy's life and ambition is as impossible as to 
 say how many steps you will take tomorrow or next week ; 
 the subject is too vast to be considered lightly. 
 
 The boy should be led to see and understand his real 
 importance, if it can be done in the proper spirit. He will 
 take pleasure in doing certain work when he thinks that 
 men usually do that kind of work and it is not too irksome. 
 Make him feel that you can't do without him, that he is 
 really necessary for the world's progress, that some day 
 he will be a man and perhaps a fanner. Give him a small 
 truck patch or other small crop ; let him have what it raises, 
 for that will surely stimulate his ambition. His little whims 
 must be respected, as he is only a boy and needs wholesome 
 instruction. You cannot force him to accept all your views 
 on such matters as selecting seed corn, time to wean pigs, 
 and hundreds of such questions, though he may try hard 
 to understand ; he must grow to it. And while this youth- 
 ful tree is "young and green" it is an easy matter to stunt 
 its development just as it is putting forth leaf and bud. 
 When he does well tell him so; he likes to be encouraged, 
 if he feels sure you are not telling him that just for the 
 sake of getting him to work. 
 
 If a boy shows a special aptitude for a certain line of 
 work, let him perfect himself along that line. If he shows 
 a love for good stock, let him take charge of the dairy to a 
 large extent, consult him in buying new cattle, encourage 
 him to study the different breeds. The knowledge that his 
 opinion is of importance will lead him to broaden himself 
 in that line. Or, if the boy is handy with tools and enjoys 
 working about buildings, making repairs, etc., let him have 
 that particular line as his main care. There are always 
 fences to be repaired or put up, sheds to fix, new chicken 
 
42 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 houses to plan or some carpenter work around the house. 
 
 If gardening is a boy's hobby, he certainly can be put to 
 a good use, not merely in taking care of the vegetable 
 patch. Encourage him to improve the appearance of the 
 dooryard. See that he is put in touch with books and 
 magazines that will assist and enthuse. In fact, there is 
 hardly a line of work on the farm that can't be specialized 
 and once a boy is given the kind of work he likes, as his 
 first interest, it won't be very difficult to keep him interested 
 in the various lines that make up the daily round. 
 
 A considerable quantity of pin money can be made from 
 flowers, especially if the farm is located near a summer 
 resort. Almost any boy or girl could carry out the plan 
 outlined in the following description of what one small girl 
 and her mother accomplished in one summer: 
 
 "We had quantities of pansies, sweet peas and asters, so 
 decided to see what we could do in the way of selling our 
 flowers at a summer resort four miles away. Mother 
 picked and bunched the flowers the afternoon before, and 
 I would take them over and sell them to the guests at the 
 hotel and those living in the cottages around the lake. 
 Sweet peas sold the best, and 20 or 25 stems were tied in 
 a bunch. Six or seven asters made a nice-^ized bunch and 
 were popular also. Two or three leaves of rose-scented 
 geraniums tied in with a dozen or 15 pansies sold quite 
 readily. While we had other kinds of flowers these three 
 sold the best. I received five cents each for the little 
 bouquets. The summer resort season is short, and we 
 started rather late, but the first year we sold $12 worth. 
 I made two trips a week and sold from 50 cents to $1.25 
 each trip. This does not seem so much now, but it was a 
 good deal then, when money was scarce. I had enough to 
 make my visit and some left over towards buying a new 
 suit of clothes out of my half of the $12; The next two 
 years we sold nearly $20 each year. After that I had 
 grown large enough so that my time was worth more to 
 work at home. I was always rather timid about offering 
 
KEEP THE YOUNG FOLKS INTERESTED 43 
 
 my flowers, and I have no doubt I could have sold more if 
 I had been more forward." Of course there is not always a 
 summer resort available, but usually some market can be 
 found if searched for. If near a fair-sized town, arrange- 
 ments can probably be made to have them sold at a grocery 
 store, allowing the grocer a commission for those that he 
 sells. It may take two or three years before people buy 
 very readily, but it will be surprising how much may be 
 sold when people know fresh flowers are always to be had 
 during the summer months. The grocer may feel that the 
 profits are not large enough to be worth bothering with, 
 but he can be reminded that a chance customer, attracted 
 by the flowers, may become a permanent buyer of groceries 
 later. This argument, together with the fact that there is 
 no risk of loss, will usually attract favorable attention. A 
 ID-cent store or a popular drygoods store might also be good 
 places to try. In a small town or village where there is no 
 regular florist some business may be done furnishing 
 flowers for funerals or other occasions if people are in- 
 formed that flowers are for sale. In the smaller places 
 people are so used to having flowers given to them it may 
 be a little slow to get them into the notion of paying out 
 money for flowers, but if one has good taste in arranging 
 the money will come in time. 
 
 For the summer resort trade probably pansies, asters and 
 sweet peas, with possibly daisies and bachelor's buttons, 
 are enough to grow. For very early spring flowers pansy 
 seed should be sown in August and the young plants win- 
 tered over with a little protection of coarse hay. Quite 
 early flowers may be had from young pansy plants that 
 have been started in the house or hotbed the latter part of 
 the winter. For summer and fall flowers the best results 
 will be had from seed sown outdoors as soon as the ground 
 can be worked in the spring. Pansies bloom best during 
 the cooler weather of spring and fall. 
 
 The county fairs often offer a good opportunity to 
 make money from flowers. At many of the fairs there is 
 
44 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 not much competition in the flower department, and a 
 showing of well-grown flowers is almost sure to take several 
 premiums. If possible, flowers should be cut the afternoon 
 or evening before being used or sold and the stems placed 
 well down into water and set overnight in the cellar or 
 other cool place. During the night the flower stems fill 
 up with water and they will keep much better after being 
 sold than if put' into a warm room as soon as picked. 
 
 Home grown muskmelons will also find a ready market. 
 Turn over an acre, or even half an acre and let the planting, 
 hoeing and weeding be the summer's work. The return 
 will be highly satisfactory, and fall will find the youngsters 
 anxiously awaiting the coming spring when they will plan 
 to enlarge their patch. 
 
 When young folks start gardening some older, more 
 experienced person should have the actual supervision for 
 the first season, at least, in order to advise as to the time 
 of planting, quantity of seed to be put in, etc., and it will 
 be found far more interesting if there are two or three 
 boys and girls to take up this work. A two-acre tract will 
 be sufficient for this purpose, and a good scheme is to plant 
 one acre to potatoes, half an acre to lettuce, radishes, beets 
 and carrots, and half an acre to onions. If there is time 
 to put out a second crop, I would suggest a quarter acre of 
 celery, a quarter acre of beets, an acre of late cabbage and 
 half an acre of onions. 
 
 The care of chickens is generally a large task for the 
 farmer's wife, but it will prove an interesting pastime for 
 the children. Let them begin with the general care of the 
 whole flock, then turn over a setting of eggs and let them 
 care for the chicks after they are hatched, and reap the 
 profits when they are sold as "frys." One flock can be 
 increased to several with another season until every portion 
 of the poultry work is taken care of by the children. 
 
 Hon. James Wilson, who was for many years secretary 
 of agriculture, takes a great interest in teaching boys and 
 girls how to make land pay. He would like to see more 
 
KEEP THE YOUNG FOLKS INTERESTED 45 
 
 young people studying agriculture than there are at present, 
 and he thinks that if boys and girls now living in town had 
 a chance to cultivate a garden and gain a little profit in 
 this way they would learn a great deal that is practical 
 and soon come to love farm life. 
 
 Mr. Wilson tells of an experiment that he observed where 
 two town boys worked a small tract of land. The land 
 was plowed and harrowed at comparatively small expense. 
 Not one foot of it was permitted to go unused. Not a 
 vacant corner was left for weeds to grow in. During the 
 plowing the boys spread manure ahead of the plow and 
 got the soil well mixed with it. 
 
 When the ground was ready they marked it off into thirty 
 beds of diflferent sizes, the size being regulated by the 
 character of each vegetable they wished to raise. Each 
 bed was raised about four inches from the level of the 
 ground and was surrounded by a small walkway and a 
 drainage ditch. The ditch could be used for two purposes 
 — ^to carry off surplus water during heavy rains or to hold 
 water during periods of drought, acting as an irrigating ditch. 
 
 In the planting the boys started their first crops with 
 lettuce, onions, radishes, early peas and early potatoes. 
 They constantly watched the moistness of the soil, did their 
 own weeding and their own bug-killing. As soon as the 
 vegetables began to head and take on form they went from 
 house to house in the community announcing that a week 
 later they would be prepared to deliver fresh vegetables 
 every morning to anyone desiring them. They quoted the 
 same prices as local grocers were charging. The day before 
 the first sale was made the boys stood financially with the 
 half-acre like this : 
 
 Cash invested $24.85 
 
 Indebtedness incurred 18.10 
 
 Total investment, not counting own labor. $42.95 
 
 They had learned by study and inquiry, while doing the 
 early work, what vegetables should be pulled in the cool 
 
46 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 of the night, and what just after the dawn. They knew 
 which would wilt quickly and which would keep their fresh- 
 ness long. They rose that first morning of the sale at 2 
 o'clock, and under the stars went to the half-acre. They 
 had built a little shanty in one corner and here they had 
 tubs of cool water, trimming knives, dirt scrapers, different 
 colored tissue paper, and cheap ribbon bands. 
 
 They drew the vegetables in their proper order, carefully 
 examining each for perfectness. If they found a defective 
 one, it was thrown into a bucket to be kept for chicken 
 feed, or if not fit for that, to be mashed up and worked 
 back into the ground as fertilizer. Every individual piece 
 was washed and trimmed and given a thorough cooling 
 and hardening in the water. Then the vegetables were 
 wrapped in bundles of suitable sizes and tied with the rib- 
 bons. Onions, radishes, lettuce, were treated in the same 
 manner. 
 
 They were then placed in baskets, loaded on a handcart 
 which they had constructed and with which they went from 
 house to house. They first supplied those who had agreed 
 to purchase. The terms were strictly cash, no credit, and 
 this was absolutely right. When they finished with these 
 families they went to others. The new and novel appear- 
 ance of the fresh vegetables, so clean, so tastefully put up, 
 attracted many. Before 9 o'clock they had completely sold 
 out and had nearly $10. 
 
 Through the early summer months the boys kept quietly 
 at their work. They were not content with one crop. They 
 found that as soon as one garden plot was used up a second 
 crop of similar nature or a crop of something new could 
 be made to grow on it. Their vegetables kept up the high- 
 est standard of freshness and cleanliness the community 
 had ever known, and the partners soon had more customers 
 than they could supply. 
 
 Oct. I they covered the land with manure and left it to 
 rest during the long winter months. Then they sat down 
 to examine their financial standing. It was as follows : 
 
KEEP THE YOUNG FOLKS INTERESTED 47 
 
 Investment and all expenses $ 75.58 
 
 Total cash receipts 219.35 
 
 Profit over expenses 143-47 
 
 Each partner's share 71-73 
 
 This is not an enormous profit, but a fine one added to 
 the health and knowledge the boys gained. This was in 
 1910. In 191 1 they increased their land area to one acre 
 and cleared up more than $400 during the season. They 
 worked three acres in 1912, which paid them $950 net. 
 
 There is not a waste piece of fertile land in the United 
 States that any boy can not work out with the same results 
 if he is looking for work and profit. 
 
 The energy which has carried farm boys to the froftt 
 rank in the business and financial circles of the world was 
 fostered by the small commercial enterprises and childhood 
 ventures permitted to them on the farm. When a boy has 
 carefully fed and watched over a pig day after day until 
 the time to market, he is not likely to fail in appreciating 
 the value of the money which comes from its sale. It is not 
 enough that he simply be assigned to the job of carrying 
 feed, or doing the work as a chore. There must be a per- 
 sonal interest. He must feel that success depends to a 
 large extent upon his care and faithfulness, and that due 
 credit will be given him for the results. He must be taken 
 into confidence. If every father could sound the depths 
 of his son's nature he would find a hunger for confidence 
 and trust. To let your son know you believe in him, and to 
 trust important work to his hands, is to stiffen his back- 
 bone and to make him happy in his work. Give the young- 
 ster a pig or a calf or a colt, or give the girl a setting of 
 choice eggs or a garden plot. Teach them all you know 
 about making a success with these things, and encourage 
 them to learn more. The crop that will come from such 
 procedure cannot be measured in bushels or carloads, but 
 it will be of infinitely more value than corn or alfalfa. 
 Substantial men and women will grow up, the pride of 
 their homes and their communities. 
 
48 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 Teaching, sewing, housework, poultry raising and bee 
 keeping are all admirable occupations for girls, but tastes 
 differ and to that list should be added small fruit culture. 
 It is healthful, pleasant, remunerative business, and girls 
 are especially fitted for the work. They are enthusiastic, 
 painstaking, careful as to details, and have a strong love 
 for the beautiful, all of which characteristics are essential 
 to make a success of fruit growing. A good practical busi- 
 ness education will be acquired by the purchasing of sup- 
 plies, marketing fruit and plants, and the necessary book- 
 keeping. 
 
 The bright, energetic, enthusiastic girl will derive much 
 pleasure and profit from the business. She can obtain as 
 much land as she desires from father, for a small rental fee, 
 and as strawberries are the best all around berry, yielding 
 the quickest returns, it will be best to start with as large an 
 acreage as is permitted by other conditions. She should 
 divide her plot in such a manner that one section can be 
 kept for commercial plant growing, as there is as much 
 profit in that branch of the business as in the fruit, and 
 the work can be done early in the season. Raspberries pay 
 quite well and should be cultivated. 
 
 Location and soils must determine to a large extent what 
 other fruits will yield sufficient to warrant their planting. 
 Chickens can be carried very successfully with small^ fruits 
 of all kinds, and are especially valuable, furnishing an 
 income throughout the year. The children of farm parents 
 can also conduct a partnership in such projects. 
 
 Every farm household should have a canning outfit as a 
 means of enlarging profits and eliminating waste. The value 
 of fruit and vegetable crops may be doubled by a canning 
 process which is easily managed by the average family. 
 
 It should also be the aim to build up money making 
 features, one after another, in a practical way, without 
 undertaking more than can be properly handled. These 
 projects may include the development of pet stock, mush- 
 room growing, squab breeding, etc. 
 
Promise of a Revolution in Marketing 
 
 An economic revolution is promised in America as a result 
 of better farming and better marketing. By cutting out 
 wasteful methods of distribution the cost of living can be 
 reduced without lessening the price of commodities at the 
 farm. Farmers are not receiving 50 per cent of the price 
 paid by consumers for milk and various kinds of fruit and 
 vegetables. Grain and live stock are handled more eco- 
 nomically, and producers receive a fairer percentage of 
 the final price paid by consumers than in the case of the 
 other articles named. 
 
 Transportation rates are low, considering the vast im- 
 portance of modem shipping facilities to farmers. In the 
 matter of marketing milk, one of the foremost commodi- 
 ties, it is a singular and striking fact that producers and 
 transportation companies combined do not receive one-half 
 of the retail price. Farmers in the Chicago dairy district 
 are paid on the average about three cents a quart for nlilk, 
 and the railroads get less than half a cent for transporta- 
 tion. The retail price in Chicago is eight cents a quart, 
 and the city's daily supply is 250,000 gallons. Dealers 
 therefore receive upwards of four cents a quart or $40,000 
 a day, for distribution. When the labor and expense of 
 producing milk are considered, this marketing system ap- 
 pears not only unfair but absurd. What is true of the 
 Chicago district is equally true of many other localities, 
 and the ridiculous unfairness shown in the milk trade is 
 equally apparent in connection with many other articles. 
 
 Greater business knowledge in the rural district will 
 rectify some of these faults, and hence we may expect that 
 city men who take farms will become a potent factor in 
 placing agriculture on a better basis. If we could have 
 more small farmers, to correspond to the financial means 
 of land owners, the immediate efifect would be intensive 
 
 49 
 
so WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 cultivation and greater acreage production, with the widest 
 possible diversity. Then an improved marketing system 
 would bring a higher level of wholesale prices for all prod- 
 ucts. While these expectations are simple and reasonable, 
 they indicate a social and economic revolution of national 
 importance, for it is entirely feasible to reduce the retail 
 price of nearly all farm products, and thus cut the cost of 
 living, without lessening the earnings or profits of those 
 who till the soil. The saving will come through the elimi- 
 nation of waste, both on the farm and in the city, which 
 includes reform in the middleman's method of marketing. 
 Every move that is made along these lines tends to protect 
 city families from a further advance in the price of food. 
 
 In some lines of trade the wasteful expenditure involved 
 in distributing goods is a most serious factor in the cost of 
 living. This is, especially true of the sale and distribution 
 of perishable farm products such as fruits, vegetables, eggs 
 and milk. The farmer gets about one-third of what the 
 ultimate consumer has to pay for such goods and the bal- 
 ance is swallowed up in costs of distribution and in profits 
 of the series of middlemen through whose hands farm prod- 
 uce goes in its journey from the farm to the dinner table. 
 In many other cases, however, the cost of selling and dis- 
 tributing goods is relatively very small and what is needed 
 today is some general improvement in the system of han- 
 dling those articles of every daiy consumption which are 
 now loaded down with unnecessary costs and profits. 
 
 There are many good things that result from co-operative 
 selling and shipping associations. It helps the farmers to 
 get next to the business, for their manager is willing to 
 give them detailed reports of what has been done. It famil- 
 iarizes them with grades of stock and the diiiferent prices 
 that are paid. It acts also as a stimulus to better fitting 
 for the markets, as it shows what conditions on the same 
 class of stock mean in market prices. Farmers are able to 
 tell by receipts when is the best time to fit certain classes of 
 stock for the market. It shows whether a 300-pound hog 
 
PROMISE OF A REVOLUTION IN MARKETING 51 
 
 is better for one season of the year than another, and 
 whether the heavy beef steer is suited for a certain season. 
 He has been told much about the differences by shippers, 
 but has always been more or less skeptical. In many cases 
 where competitive buying and shipping were going on he 
 had good reasons to doubt. These associations also bring 
 the farmers together and benefits of a social nature are 
 derived from them. New ideas and fields of operations 
 result from their meeting together time after time. 
 
 A combination, as we would call it, of dairy farmers in 
 the vicinity of Turin, Italy, has been able to carry on the 
 dairying business so efficiently and economically that the 
 cost of good milk in that city at the retail stores is four 
 cents a quart and the cost of distributing it is one cent a 
 quart. As land is dearer and grain is higher in price in 
 northern Italy than they are in New York state it is ap- 
 parent that something could be done to reduce the price of 
 milk in American cities were producers able to control the 
 sources of supply and distribute the milk without compe- 
 tition. Where half a dozen milk dealers cover the same 
 section of a city with their delivery wagons the cost is 
 necessarily high and the great waste of effort renders the 
 service less efficient. 
 
 Paris, France, is also served by a large company which 
 maintains more than a hundred stations for the sale of milk 
 in the city and has collection stations throughout the coun- 
 try. This company sells milk at its city stores for six 
 cents a quart in summer and seven cents in winter. Milk 
 delivered at residences in small quantities costs a trifle more. 
 This Parisian enterprise has been of great value to the milk 
 producers who now receive about three times as much for 
 their milk at the country collecting stations as they did 
 before the co-operative society was formed, and yet this 
 greatly increased profit which the farmer receives has not 
 increased the price of milk as distributed in the city. One 
 of the Co-operative societies composed of dairy farmers in 
 France has 80,000 members in four small provinces. 
 
52 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 A system of marketing, based on co-operative rather than 
 independent action, has been developed in some localities 
 and at the present time is attracting much attention in 
 others. Up to the present co-operative activities have been 
 confined almost exclusively to the fields of production, 
 transportation and first sales. It is difficult for the pro- 
 ducer to go beyond the first change of ownership unless 
 he has a co-operating consuming public. Now that the 
 consumer really feels the stress of high prices and has 
 come to realize and appreciate some of the factors which 
 enter into them, it is clear that the task of solving the 
 problem of cheaper food products lies with him as much as 
 with the producer. 
 
 Co-operation among growers solves the problems of the 
 package by making it uniform and standard, it guarantees 
 the pack by employing competent inspectors, and insures 
 uniformity of grade. Co-operative action enables the co- 
 operators to act as an independent individual and since 
 they employ a uniform package, a standard pack, and 
 uniform grades a given product of a community can be 
 shipped in carload lots at a lower rate than is possible by 
 local freight or express, thus effecting a decided saving. 
 A uniform package and a standard pack and grade give a 
 product a standing in the market which enables it to be sold 
 for what it really is, because the guaranty of the association 
 is behind it. 
 
 A careful analysis of trade conditions indicates that from 
 33 to 36 per cent of the price which the consumer pays for 
 a perishable product reaches the producer. This must 
 cover the cost as well as the risk of growing, and must 
 also provide the profit on the "know how" and the money 
 invested. 
 
 A product, after it has reached the city and before it is 
 ultimately delivered to the consumer, may go through, any 
 or all of the following agencies designed to promote trade: 
 After reaching the commission merchant or receiver, it may 
 be purchased by a jobber or handler, or go to a broker, by 
 
PROMISE OF A REVOLUTION IN MARKETING 53 
 
 whom it is sold to a retailer, from whom it goes to the 
 consumer. The receiver, jobber, broker or retailer may, 
 however, place the prodiict in a warehouse or in cold stor- 
 age. The factors, therefore, which may enter into the 
 ultimate cost of the product to the consumer are : 
 
 (i) Cost of transportation, including freight or express, 
 terminal or switching charges and drayage; (2) commis- 
 sion; (3) jobber's or dealer's profit; (4) storage charges; 
 (5) distributor's profit. 
 
 The cost of growing, packing and hauling to the ship- 
 ping point is never taken into account in determining the 
 cost of the product to the consumer, except in so far as 
 the return made by the commission merchant, jobber or 
 dealer affects this price. The farmer has an investment in 
 land, labor and product which is never considered in modern 
 trade because he is never a party to any transaction, unless, 
 perchance, he is able to sell his product f. o. b. shipping 
 point, and even then he does not fix the price, but simply 
 accepts or rejects the price ofifered. The question of the 
 cost of production plus a fair profit is not taken into account 
 in agricultural transactions as in other productive enter- 
 prises. In fact, farmers themselves, with few exceptions, 
 have no idea of the cost of producing many of the crops 
 they offer for sale. 
 
 Co-operation which involves financial risk and financial 
 responsibility has seldom proved successful when based on 
 fraternal agreement alone. To succeed in any business 
 enterprise which requires the concerted action of individ- 
 uals of different training and different temperaments, there 
 must be a common bond of union of sufficient importance 
 to give them a common interest. This can be secured in 
 the business world only through a money consideration. 
 In order, therefore, that co-operative action involving the 
 growing, handling, transportation and sale of perishable 
 products may be successful it must carry a financial obli- 
 gation sufiScient to command the interest of the co-operators. 
 It is true that in an association of this character the par- 
 
54 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 ticipants place at stake the return of their labor in the 
 form of the crop produced, but in order to insure the 
 patronage and the loyalty which is necessary to the sta- 
 bility of any co-operative action a membership requirement 
 must be made sufficiently large to prevent a member with- 
 drawing from the association for slight cause. A method 
 which has been successfully used in some of the associa- 
 tions is to require a cash membership fee sufficient to raise 
 the required capital for conducting the business of the 
 association. 
 
 The amount of capital stock will vary with the character 
 of the association, whether it be a growing and distributing 
 organization or a growing, distributing and purchasing or- 
 ganization. In order to purchase supplies for its members 
 the organization will require a much larger capital than will 
 be necessary for a growers' and distributers' association 
 only. The minimum capital for a growers' and distribu- 
 ters' organization would be in the neighborhood of $2,000, 
 while the stock necessary to add the purchasing and han- 
 dling feature must be from $10,000 to $50,000. The cash 
 membership fee should in few instances be less than $25. 
 If the requirements of the association demand larger cap- 
 ital the membership fee must be increased proportionately. 
 In addition to the cash membership requirement a bond 
 should be given in the form of a promissory note executed 
 by each member in favor of the association, this bond to 
 be held in trust as long as the member remains in good 
 standing, to serve as a guaranty for faithful adherence to 
 the constitution and by-laws of the association. If the 
 organization be a producing and distributing one only, this 
 bond will never need to be used except for the purpose of 
 personal guaranty. If, however, the organization purchases 
 supplies for its members, these personal bonds may be used 
 by the association as collateral to guarantee short-time loans 
 which from time to time may be needed to cover the ex- 
 penses of purchasing fertilizer, packages or other consu- 
 mable supplies. 
 
PROMISE OF A REVOLUTION IN MARKETING 55 
 
 The association should in no instance lend money to its 
 patrons or members for permanent improvements. Its 
 business should be confined to providing consumable sup- 
 plies. By this method the community represented by the 
 association becomes security for the loan which is needed, 
 and by this method so-called dynamic money or short-time 
 loans can be secured for the benefit of persons who at the 
 present time can secure money only with the greatest diffi- 
 culty and at the highest rate. 
 
 Besides the benefits to be derived from co-operative 
 growing, marketing and purchasing, there might also be 
 included banking and co-operative insurance, which is 
 already an important factor in many rural communities. 
 The bond which has already been mentioned in connection 
 with the obligation of members can be used as the basis of 
 the reserve or guaranty fund for the insurance feature. 
 In a community where the co-operative insurance plan is 
 already in operation the other features needed by the society 
 might be gathered about it, as the parent society. Where 
 co-operative growing and marketing organizations exist, 
 they can be extended to include the purchase, loan and 
 insurance features. In most instances it will probably be 
 wisest to inaugurate one feature of this comprehensive 
 plan and develop it to a high state of perfection before 
 adding the others. 
 
 The business of the association should be handled by a 
 manager under the direction of a board of directors who 
 really direct. Important transactions should be governed 
 by the concerted judgment of the board of directors and 
 the manager, rather than be left to the judgment of the 
 manager alone. An association which does not maintain a 
 board of directors of, say, three persons who really manage 
 the business should never find fault if that business is not 
 well transacted. The officer of the association upon whom 
 responsibility devolves should be paid a liberal compensa- 
 tion for the services rendered. The business ability, fore- 
 sight and energy of the business manager, under the control 
 
56 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 of a board of directors, determine the success or failure of 
 any co-operative enterprise as surely as the business ability 
 of the head of any firm determines the success or failure 
 of that firm. The, business manager employed should, 
 therefore, be the best man obtainable, and the salary com- 
 pensation should be adequate to command his entire thought 
 and energy. 
 
 Since high-grade talent must be secured in connection 
 with the successful development of the co-operative market- 
 ing system, most organizations have found it advantageous 
 to extend the activities of the institution to the purchase 
 of consumable supplies — in dairy districts, to the purchase 
 of grain and feed; in fruit and truck areas, to the pur- 
 chase of packages, fertilizers, implements, etc. The object 
 is to provide profitable continuous employment for a com- 
 petent manager, rather than to attempt to operate on an 
 intermittent plan. Competent executives can not be had 
 except on a permanent basis. It is evident, therefore, that 
 unless the activities are extended few associations will be 
 able to afford high-grade management. All officers han- 
 dling moneys for the association should be bonded and 
 made responsible in every possible way. 
 
 The activities of co-operative associations should be ex- 
 tended to cover all important money products of the com- 
 munity, and the territory included should be the extent of 
 the zone or district^ as determined by some natural bound- 
 ary, rather than by arbitrary or community lines. Products 
 which are grown in restricted areas are more easily han- 
 dled by local exchanges than commodities having a general 
 distribution. With products such as Irish potatoes, cereals 
 and forage crops, state-wide or district organizations can 
 be made more effective than small local units. The local 
 unit is necessary, but it should be affiliated with and receive 
 its general direction from a central organization, through 
 which the total production of a large area is handled. This 
 will overcome any competition which might arise between 
 small co-operative units. It would prevent the use of 
 
PROMISE OF A REVOLUTION IN MARKETING 57 
 
 methods which, the writer is sorry to say, have heen em- 
 ployed by unscrupulous dealers in attempting to disrupt 
 co-operative organizations. Rivalry and competition are 
 not co-operation. Nothing pleases the unscrupulous dealer 
 better than to stimulate competition where there should be 
 co-operation. 
 
 Up to the present, co-operation in the United States has 
 made a steady, although at times a spasmodic growth. 
 Progress has been substantial and is now past the experi- 
 mental stage. No one who has made even a superficial 
 study of co-operation along agricultural lines can deny that 
 from now on the co-operative growing, handling and dis- 
 tribution of food products is the most important problem 
 before the American people. It took a long time to arrive 
 at this conclusion. The whole country is thoroughly awake, 
 so that from now on the development of co-operative 
 enterprises will undoubtedly be rapid. 
 
 Heretofore co-operation has been confined largely to the 
 marketing of crops, the distribution being almost entirely 
 neglected. The high price of living has forced upon the 
 consumer the necessity of working with the producer so 
 that the movement has been greatly strengthened. There 
 may be numerous instances of failure among co-operators, 
 but this is true of the evolution of any industry or move- 
 ment. Failure has just as effective lessons as success. The 
 weakness of co-operation can be traced back to a lack of 
 loyalty on the part of those who are members of a co-opera- 
 tive organization. If, for example, stockholders in a co- 
 operative farmers' grain elevator are not willing to stand 
 back of their local organization, the enterprise will fail. 
 If those who make up a co-operative grape growers' asso- 
 ciation will not be governed absolutely by the constitution 
 and by-laws, there is no hope for success. Consequently, the 
 matter rests entirely with the man who grows the stuff. We 
 might just as well face the situation as it is. If the pro- 
 ducers were absolutely loyal to their co-operative organiza- 
 tions, the opposition would amount to nothing. 
 
Prosperity Increased by Farming 
 
 Nothing could be more unfortunate for the American 
 people than the great exodus of young men and women 
 from farms to cities. The rapid upbuilding of our towns 
 in the last twenty-five years has been largely at the expense 
 of the farming population. 
 
 When we consider that by this unnatural and unwise 
 tendency of recent years the country districts have been 
 robbed of their best talent, while the cities have been un- 
 reasonably crowded, the situation seems deplorable. It is 
 true that for those who are phenomenally successful in 
 business the large town has numerous advantages over the 
 country. A few may prosper and attain dazzling wealth, 
 but the majority remain at the foot of the ladder and fail 
 to secure the comforts of life which would be theirs on a 
 farm. 
 
 I am confident that this great mistake of deserting the 
 farms is soon to be rectified. An awakening has come. 
 City dwellers have begun to appreciate the bad results of 
 the widespread migration from the agricultural regions to 
 the crowded towns. They see the advantages of rural 
 homes and land ownership. The tide is turning and people 
 will flock from town to country; and they will gain in 
 health, wealth and freedom of spirit. They will come to 
 know real independence. 
 
 This entire question affects the nation as well as individ- 
 uals. If better systems of farming and marketing are 
 established, agriculture as a vocation will pay sufficiently 
 to attract capital and persons of business training. In- 
 creased production and the elimination of waste will not 
 merely benefit individual land owners but will so increase 
 our foreign exports as to greatly add to the nation's wealth. 
 
 Country life is by all means the best for young people, 
 
 58 
 
PROSPERITY INCREASED BY FARMING 59 
 
 and farming on its present basis makes a safer and more 
 enjoyable business than any of the common vocations that 
 can readily be taken up in town. A study of farm advan- 
 tages shows that it is no longer necessary to lead an irk- 
 some existence in the country. Agriculture is profitable, or 
 can be made so by intelligent efforts, and there is no reason 
 why young men and women can not have delightful homes 
 and all ordinary social enjoyment. But in spite of appar- 
 ent advantages of rural life the exodus from the country 
 was marked between 1900 and 19 10. 
 
 Not far from one-tenth of the total population, in 1910, 
 resided in the three cities, New York, Chicago and Phila- 
 delphia. The number of people in those cities in 1910 was 
 8,501,174, compared with 6,429,474 in 1900, when their 
 proportion to the total population was 8.5 per cent, and 
 with 3,662,115 in 1890, when their proportion of the total 
 was only 5.8 per cent. Each of the several groups of com- 
 munities classed as urban comprised a larger percentage of 
 the population of the country in 1910 than in 1900, and 
 with two exceptions each class in 1900 comprised a larger 
 percentage of the total population than in 1890, the excep- 
 tions being due to the passage of cities from a lower to a 
 higher class in the course of the intervening decade. Cities 
 of over 100,000 inhabitants together contained in 1910 22.1 
 per cent of the population, as compared with 15.4 per cent 
 in 1890. Cities of medium size — ^that is, those having from 
 25,000 to 100,000 inhabitants — contained 8.9 per cent of 
 the population in 1910, as compared with 6.9 per cent in 
 1890. Somewhat less change is shown in the proportion 
 of the population residing in smaller urban communities 
 having from 2,500 to 25,000 inhabitants, which had 15.3 
 per cent of the population in 1910, as compared with 13.8 
 per cent in 1890. 
 
 Touching the distribution of the urban population in 
 geographic divisions, it appears that the middle Atlantic 
 division has a larger proportion of its population living in 
 cities of 100,000 inhabitants or more than any other, its 
 
60 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 proportion being 44.5 per cent. Next in order is the Pacific 
 division, in which a little more than one-third of the inhab- 
 itants live in cities of that size. In the New England 
 division the proportion of the population living in such cities 
 is a little less than one-fourth, and in the east north central 
 division the proportion is a little more than one-fourth. 
 In the other five divisions the proportion found in such 
 cities is very much smaller. In three of the four divisions 
 just mentioned as having a large part of the population in 
 cities of 100,000 or more, there is no other class of cities 
 having anything approaching the same proportion but in 
 New England 25 per cent of the population is found in 
 cities of from 25,000 to 100,000 inhabitants, as compared 
 with 24.5 per cent in cities of more than 100,000. In the 
 western south central and mountain divisions also a greater 
 proportion of the population is found in cities of from 
 25,000 to 100,000 inhabitants than in the larger cities. 
 
 It is not only an individual mistake but a national mis- 
 fortune that so many ambitious and capable persons have 
 forsaken the country to become dwellers in the large cities. 
 The independence and safety of farm life appeal to the 
 average city man more than to the farmer himself. The 
 question whether farming pays much or little is not con- 
 sidered when men and women are looking for absolutely 
 sound investments. The land is always there. It can 
 neither be stolen nor burned. With a rapidly developing 
 population, the time is not far ofif when every acre of un- 
 occupied land in the United States will be wanted, at more 
 than is asked for it today. 
 
 A truth which can easily be demonstrated is that farm 
 land is too cheap. It almost invariably goes at the mini- 
 mum value. This is a passing condition. In fact, the . 
 whole nation comprehends today that the era of unreason- 
 ably cheap farms is near the end. Real estate of this class, 
 through our improved methods of farming, will soon take 
 on the importance that is given to it in Europe. 
 
 Farms in America may be divided into three classes. 
 
PROSPERITY INCREASED BY FARMING 61 
 
 One class consists of highly specialized farms, where the 
 farming is not only of the most intensive character but is 
 of large magnitude. Highly successful farms of this class 
 are found only in those localities that possess distinct ad- 
 vantages in the matter of markets for perishable farm 
 products or very distinct advantages in the matter of soil 
 and climate. 
 
 Another class consists of farms producing products of 
 exceptional quality. They are mainly farms on which very 
 high-priced live stock are produced. These farms are scat- 
 tered more or less through the country and are not numer- 
 ous anywhere. There is, in fact, not room for a large 
 number of such farms in any section. 
 
 The third class consists of farms that are organized on 
 the basis of standard field crops and the ordinary types of 
 live stock farming, but which are both very large and 
 very well managed. It is this latter class of farms which 
 appears most commonly in the Middle West, where there 
 is not room for very many highly specialized farms. In 
 New England fruit and truck farms, as well as farms 
 devoted to the production of the highest class of breeding 
 stock, stand out prominently among profitable farms. 
 
 With persons of large capital any one of these plans 
 may be carried out in a fairly satisfactory way, but in 
 most cases it would be folly to depend on a single interest. 
 Those who must have a steady income need a diversity 
 that will at once distribute labor evenly through the year, 
 reduce the risk of loss and provide regular cash receipts. 
 This principle applies as well to large farms as to small 
 ones. The diversified farm should have features on this 
 order: Large and small fruits, potatoes, beans, onions, cab- 
 bage and other vegetables, flowers, apiary, poultry, dairy, 
 beef, hogs, sheep, horses. 
 
 In a season of overproduction for some of these com- 
 modities, or if bad luck attends, the great variety of prod- 
 ucts will pull the owner through. Success is thus assured 
 where otherwise there would be failure. For instance, 
 
62 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 potatoes, onion and tomatoes are usually paying crops, 
 but not always. It is better to have a proportion of beans, 
 cabbage and sweet corn on the place than to depend wholly 
 on the others. There is latitude for a still larger variety of 
 vegetables. These are merely given in a suggestive way. 
 Rotate and cultivate thoroughly, and fertilize as the soil 
 demands. 
 
 The money-making possibilities of a farm planned in 
 this way are large, and at least a living income is sure. 
 With successful crops of small fruit and vegetables added 
 to the profits from poultry, cattle and other live stock, the 
 income ought to reach $4,cxx), or $2,500 after meeting the 
 family's expenses and paying for labor. It would take 
 careful organization and good management to get these 
 profits, but it is not unreasonable to expect them after one 
 year of preparation. 
 
 ' It is encouraging to note that farms in the United States 
 are gaining in number and value, but decreasing in size. 
 In 1910 there were in this country 6,361,502 farms, con- 
 taining a total of 878,798,000 acres, of which 478,452,000 
 acres are improved. The land in farms represents some- 
 what less than one-half — 46.2 per cent — of the total land 
 area of the country, while the improved land represents 
 somewhat over one-half, or 54.4 per cent, of the total acre- 
 age of land in farms. Improved land thus represents 
 almost exactly one-fourth of the total land area of the 
 country. The average size of a farm is 138.1 acres, of 
 which, on the average, 75.2 acres are improved. 
 
 Since 1910 there has been a marked decrease in the 
 average size of farms, and this tendency indicates a greater 
 number of families in the country and better cultivation 
 of the soil. 
 
 The total value of farm property reaches the enormous 
 sum of $40,991,000,000, of which over two-thirds repre- 
 sents the value of land, about one-sixth the value of build- 
 ings and about another one-sixth the combined value of 
 implements and machinery and of live stock. The average 
 
PROSPERITY INCREASED BY FARMING 63 
 
 value of all farm property reporting is $6,444. The aver- 
 age value of all farm property per acre of land in farms 
 is $46.64, and the average value of land itself per acre 
 $32.40. 
 
 It is a significant fact that, whereas the total population 
 increased 21 per cent since 1900, the urban population in- 
 creased 34.8 per cent and the rural population only 11.2 
 per cent. The number and acreage of farms increased 
 much less rapidly than the total population, but more nearly 
 kept pace with the rural population movement. The num- 
 ber of farms increased 10.9 per cent, while rural population 
 increased 11.2 per cent. The total farm acreage increased 
 only 4.8 per cent* This, however, is less significant than 
 the increase in acreage of improved farm land, which 
 amounted to 15.4 per cent, showing a greater percentage of 
 increase than the number of farms or rural population, 
 but still falling apparently behind the increase in total 
 population. It should be noted that "rural population" is a 
 much broader term than "agricultural population." "Rural" 
 as here used includes the entire population outside of in- 
 corporated places (or New England "towns") having 2,500 
 or more inhabitants. 
 
 The average size of a farm decreased from 146.2 acres 
 in 1900 to 138.1 acres in 1910, but the average acreage of 
 improved land per farm was somewhat greater in the latter 
 year than in the earlier. It is possible that the reported 
 increase in the proportion of land improved, from 49.4 
 per cent in 1900 to 54.4 in 1910, is partly due to differences 
 of interpretation as to what constitutes improved land. 
 
 The total value of farm property a little more than dou- 
 bled during the decade 1900 to 19 10. The greater part of 
 this extraordinary increase has been in farm land, the 
 value of which increased no less than 118.1 per cent, and 
 this in turn was largely due to the advance in the price of 
 land, the average value per acre being more than twice as 
 high in 1910 as in 1900— $32.40 as compared with $15.57. 
 There have, however, been remarkable increases, also, in 
 
64 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 the value of farm buildings and equipment, the value of 
 buildings having increased 77.8 per cent, that of implements 
 and machinery 68.7 per cent and that of live stock 60.1 
 per cent. The increase in the value of buildings and of 
 implements and machinery is due in large part to actual 
 additions to and improvements in the equipment of farms, 
 although it is doubtless due in part, also, to the increased 
 prices of commodities in general. The increase in the 
 value of farm land per acre is in some part attributable to 
 the large increase in acreage of improved land, and to other 
 improvements, such as more and better fences, drains and 
 the like, but is due in much greater part to the higher prices 
 of farm products and other causes which makes the land as 
 land more valuable. The increase in the aggregate value 
 of live stock is almost wholly due to higher values per head. 
 
 The wealth hidden in the fertile bosom of 25 acres of 
 land is virtually beyond calculation. Suppose one acre is 
 used for the dwelling and lawn and another is devoted to 
 greenhouses and hotbeds. Devote another plot of two acres 
 to a good poultry plant. We have now occupied only four 
 of the 25 acres. Think of what can be done with one whole 
 acre under glass, or try to estimate the amount of business 
 a first-class poultryman could do with a chicken and duck 
 plant covering two acres. 
 
 One to ten cows, two or three mares, a few sheep, a 
 strictly modern hog house well filled and well cared for, a 
 field of corn, another of wheat, a couple of acres of alfalfa, 
 a patch of rape for the pigs, and a variety of vegetables 
 and sniall fruits, will make up an excellent farm program. 
 These include the things that a growing family has need 
 of, and the market demand for such products is practically 
 unlimited. Such a little farm, with mail brought to the 
 door, church and school close at hand, with good markets 
 and town privileges within easy reach, will lift a man to 
 the pinnacle of independence. 
 
 I find in my own experience that a place of 40 acres 
 can be made to raise enough feed for three horses, 12 cows, 
 
PROSPERITY INCREASED BY FARMING 65 
 
 some young stock, 25 or 30 hogs, 200 hens and a few sheep 
 thrown in. Sheep eat so many weeds that a horse or cow 
 refuses that the same pasture will keep them and not de- 
 prive the other stock, as they keep down and kill out many 
 noxious weeds. There is generally some rough land on a 
 farm, so I would set apart ten acres for a permanent pas- 
 ture. Seed this to Kentucky bluegrass and white clover, 
 sowing about two bushels of grass and fifteen or twenty 
 pounds of clover to the acre. Sow without breaking the 
 ground, and let the stock tramp the seed in. From April 
 I to May 15 is a good time to sow; even as late as June 
 will do, if the season is wet. If not wanted for a pasture 
 a hilly piece of land will produce good crops of alfalfa. 
 
 Even on small farms there should be three to five acres 
 set in orchard and small fruits. By building poultry yards 
 the fowls will not be able to injure growing crops. 
 
 Ten acres carefully managed could be made to produce 
 as much as 40 of the average land does now. If by using 
 fertilizers, and plowing and cultivating better, farmers can 
 raise as much on 10 acres as they have been doing on 40 
 acres, there is a great saving of work, time, seed and money, 
 and the quality of the crop is vastly superior. After the 
 first few years there would be less fertilizer to buy, for 
 by selling no feed off the farm but feeding all to stock the 
 fertility would be kept up. 
 
 But people must make up their minds that a large acre- 
 age of one product will not be profitable. Extensive plant- 
 ings of potatoes following unusually high prices result in 
 overproduction the following year. Spasmodic growers 
 are not equipped for such work and are inexperienced in 
 the marketing of this special commodity. The growers who 
 maintain a modest crop of 10 acres year after year and 
 equip themselves for it are making the best returns today. 
 The proposition of climbing onto high markets and getting 
 off ahead of low ones is a thing which a good many are 
 attempting with poor success. Such things as strawberries 
 and cabbage pay enormously at times, but to depend solely 
 
66 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 on these crops would be a mistake and might prove ruinous. 
 There is a strong argument in favor of little farms in 
 the land waste which is so common in America. A farmer 
 who is really industrious and intelligent will be able to do 
 better work on a place of 40 acres than on a quarter sec- 
 tion. The chances are he will clean up more money every 
 year on the small place than on the larger one, and the 
 necessary methods will turn him into a successful business 
 man. If not industrious and intelligent, he will not be apt 
 to succeed on any kind of a farm. 
 
 Wasted opportunities, wasted land, wasted labor, wasted 
 markets are the great faults of American farming. Agri- 
 culture is a science and farming is a profession which 
 those engaged in it must prepare for by study and careful 
 training. Every farmer in the United States ought to 
 study business methods and learn the value of labor dis- 
 tribution and direction as merchants and manufacturers 
 understand it. He needs to study market needs, selling 
 methods and acreage profits. 
 
 Each feature in the farm programme should be planned 
 so that, it will pay without interfering too much with the 
 development of other features. A farm should not be run 
 on a single idea, but should have a distinct programme to 
 make the best use of family talent and the labor employed. 
 When this is the case there will be no abandoned farms, 
 no absentee proprietors and no difficulties in the produc- 
 tion, transportation and distribution of food products. The 
 United States will have a superabundance of all the prod- 
 ucts of the soil and will be able to export every kind of 
 foodstuff to other countries. 
 
 The amount of waste in animal production reaches very 
 large totals. For example, it is estimated that 15 per cent, 
 or $45,000,000, of the annual value of our egg crop is lost 
 on account of improper methods of handling. Of this 
 amount one-third, or $15,000,000, is due to "blood rings." 
 These are dead embryos, and an embryo can only develop 
 in a fertile egg. Hens which do not run with male birds do 
 
PROSPERITY INCREASED BY FARMING 67 
 
 not lay fertile eggs, but they lay just as many eggs as if 
 the males were with them. The presence of male birds, 
 and that alone, causes all the blood rings in the eggs of 
 commerce. Practically all of these eggs are produced on 
 farms, and farmers can, therefore, add $is,cx30,ooo to their 
 income annually and to the national food supply by elimi- 
 nating fertile eggs from trade. 
 
 A much more important waste is the unnecessary loss of 
 young animals. Take pigs for example. When a sow 
 farrows from 5 to 10 pigs, the owner does not grieve if 
 three or four of them die. Probably 30 per cent of all 
 pigs die shortly after birth from various causes. If the 
 litter does not number more than 10, the sow can readily 
 raise them all. Why, then, allow four or five pigs to die 
 from lack of attention or suitable quarters? Most little 
 pigs die because they become chilled at or soon after birth. 
 Sows should therefore have dry quarters for farrowing, 
 sheltered from winds, with plenty of bedding. This does 
 not mean expensive quarters, but dry and protected ones. 
 Such shelters can be built at very little expense. 
 
 Although the domestic animals of the United States are 
 doubtless quite as healthy as those of any other country, 
 the waste from disease and parasites is enormous. Atten- 
 tion has frequently been directed to the condemnation of 
 carcasses and parts of carcasses in federally inspected 
 abattoirs. Large as is this direct loss in our meat supply, 
 it is insignificant when compared with the actual losses on 
 farms. Hog cholera, Texas fever, tuberculosis, infectious 
 abortion, scabies and other parasites cause losses amounting 
 to hundreds of millions of dollars annually, not only directly 
 in the death of animals, but indirectly in diminished vitality 
 and feeding value of those which do not succumb. The 
 eradication of these diseases and parasites is commanding 
 the extensive use of public funds. Their prevention is a 
 matter of sanitation, largely in the hands of the average 
 farmer. 
 
 The correspondent of a Philadelphia newspaper who was 
 
68 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 raised on a farm in Delaware, tells of great quantities of 
 tomatoes, egg-plants, strawberries and other fruits and per- 
 ishable vegetables rotting in the fields because the returns 
 from the produce shipped to the city markets are not suffi- 
 cient to pay farmers for the cost of handling. If such a 
 state of affairs develops within a hundred miles of a city 
 of a million and a half population, it will readily be under- 
 stood that the farm wastage on lands more distant from 
 markets must be of enormous aggregate value. 
 
 About a year ago, at a grange convention in the Far West, 
 a Texas onion farmer told of tons of onions rotting in his 
 fields because his shipments to Eastern cities did not pay 
 the freight and commission charges. And following this 
 statement an official of one of the big railroad systems made 
 the startling estimate that food products to the value of 
 $1,500,000,000 annually go to waste in the United States 
 because they cannot be marketed at the right time or be 
 preserved properly until there is a market demand for them. 
 
 In all the talk about the high cost of living and how to 
 bring this cost down to the normal, little attention seems 
 to be given to the devising of methods to prevent the enor- 
 mous annual wastage of foods. All the foods exported 
 from the United States during 1913 did not aggregate a 
 billion and a half dollars in value, and yet a well-informed 
 railroad official tells us that this amount in farm commodi- 
 ties annually goes to waste. Evidently the biggest of the 
 unsolved farm problems pertains to conservation and dis- 
 tribution of foods that have been toilsomely raised. 
 
 Less than 40 per cent of our arable lands are reasonably 
 well cultivated, and less than 12 per cent of this aggregate 
 are yielding maximum returns. It is not singular that we 
 should find ourselves in our present plight. Recklessness 
 and waste have been incident to our conquest of a continent, 
 and we have had our minds too exclusively directed to the 
 establishment of industrial supremacy in the keen race for 
 competition with foreign nations. We have been so bent 
 on building up great industrial centers by every natural 
 
PROSPERITY INCREASED BY FARMING 69 
 
 and artificial device that we have had little time to think 
 of the very foundations of our industrial existence. It has 
 been assumed that we have had a natural monopoly in 
 agriculture; that it could take care of itself, and for the 
 most part we have cheerfully left it to do so. 
 
 We have given but scant attention to the individual 
 farmer and practically none at all to the problem of rural 
 life. The result has been a story of increasing farm ten- 
 ancy and absentee ownership; of soils depleted and ex- 
 ploited; of inadequate business methods; of chaotic mar- 
 keting and distribution ; of inferior roads ; of lack of super- 
 vision of public health and sanitation; of isolated and ill- 
 organized social activities, and of inferior intellectual 
 provision. 
 
 There should be intelligent sympathy and co-operation 
 among the farmers of a community. Co-operation in 
 America has usually been carried on for the economic gain 
 to be made out of it. Probably this gain must be con- 
 sidered a desirable and a prominent feature. Business 
 ventures are normally run for gain and it seems useless to 
 insist that some other, though higher, motive be substituted. 
 It does not, however, follow that the economic motive must 
 be the sole end and aim of a group of farmers acting to- 
 gether in a co-operative capacity. Indeed, in Europe where 
 co-operation is well past the experimental stage, and where 
 it controls a large portion of the business done by farmers, 
 a vast amount of community work is carried on around the 
 co-operative company as a center. This work often takes 
 the form of village improvements, such as street and park 
 beautification, or perhaps recreation and entertainment in 
 the form of theatricals promoted and guaranteed by a credit 
 society. In some instances nurses are provided for the 
 sick through a common fund. In short, the co-operative 
 company becomes a motive force in community enterprise. 
 
Profits Joined to Soil Improvement 
 
 In almost every farming scheme where big profits are 
 sought from special crops one of the most satisfactory 
 results is the soil betterment which is due to thorough 
 cultivation and fertilization. 
 
 Ordinarily the crops on a large farm are not sufificiently 
 diversified and do not receive enough cultivation to put 
 the land in good condition. When the plan is changed to 
 mixed farming and a variety of special crops are produced 
 in a rotative scheme the soil and the owner's bank account 
 are at once benefited. 
 
 While discussing soil improvement I wish to drive home 
 the fact that fully 50 per cent of barnyard manure is wasted 
 on the majority of American farms. It is a rare thing to 
 find a cattle barn that has a cement tank or any kind of a 
 receptacle for the urine. This is an improvident state of 
 affairs, for the liquid manure is of high fertilizing value. 
 It should be held in a reservoir adjoining the barn and 
 pumped out as needed. The best time and place for its 
 use is when crops are growing in the field. An ordinary 
 pump and sprinkling cart are all the machinery needed to 
 conserve this valuable product, which is now almost wholly 
 wasted. City men in starting as farmers should start right, 
 and one of the first steps is to plan for taking the best 
 possible care of barnyard fertilizers. The waste now ap- 
 parent in the matter of cattle urine is almost equaled by 
 the careless use of the solids. It is simply foolish and 
 wasteful to throw barnyard manure in a haphazard way 
 around the premises or to scatter it over the fields in the 
 fall. Such a custom permits the evaporation of the best 
 chemical constituents — the very things which are needed 
 to restore soil fertility and give us satisfactory crops. 
 
 So far as possible manure ought to be plowed into the 
 ground in the fall. When this can't be done it should be 
 
 70 
 
PROFITS JOINED TO SOIL IMPROVEMENT 71 
 
 Stacked in the barnyard, protected from rain, or stored in 
 a shed in such a way as to prevent evaporation. This is 
 no less true, of small farms than large ones. 
 
 In cases where people operate tracts of from ten to fifty 
 acres, for miscellaneous production, it is doubly important 
 for soil fertility that the principles of mixed farming be 
 applied. Every farmer should understand that he can not 
 continuously grow any crop on the same ground and secure 
 maximum results. Many try to do this, but they do it to 
 their own loss and the depletion of the soil. 
 
 One of the great objects of crop rotation is to bring about 
 and maintain an equilibrium of soil constituents and con- 
 ditions. The best rotation is the one in which the method 
 of culture and action of the plant each year leave the soil 
 in the best condition for the following crop. Beets do 
 best after alfalfa, corn or small grains. 
 
 A good scheme of rotation is, first, ^ wheat; then beets; 
 then clover for two years, the last crop being plowed under ; 
 then potatoes, wheat and beets in the order mentioned. 
 By this method, and a judicious use of stable manure, the 
 fertility of the soil can be maintained and even increased. 
 Beets do well after small grain crops, because these, being 
 harvested early, leave the ground ready for late autumn 
 plowing, an important point in successful farming. 
 
 Well rotted barnyard manure offers a ready means for 
 fertilizing the soil, and one which every farmer can employ. 
 By its use, humus is added to the soil as well as small per- 
 centages of potash, phosphoric acid and nitrogen. There is 
 a great difference of opinion as to the best time and method 
 for applying it to land. In general, however, it should be 
 applied, in a well-rotted condition, in the autumn before 
 the ground is plowed. The quantity per acre depends, of 
 course, on the fertility of the soil. With poor soils it is 
 best to apply the manure for several years in succession, 
 rather than to apply enough at once to bring it up to the 
 required state of fertility. 
 
 Additional nitrogen may be supplied in the form in which 
 
y2 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 it exists in ground bone, or from the refuse of slaughter 
 houses in the form of dried blood and tankage, or as cotton 
 seed meal or oil cake, or as nitrate of soda, sulphate of 
 ammonia, etc. 
 
 The real farm profits come from diversified agriculture. 
 There should be pork, beef, milk, fruit, vegetables and 
 other things. Further, producing grain, hay, etc., and then 
 selling the crops as harvested not only fails to be profitable 
 in a financial sense, but, farming without manure, it is 
 exceedingly detrimental to the fertility of the soil. The 
 general farmer who grows and fattens a variety of stock 
 with his products, not only makes more money as a rule, 
 but by the proper application of the manure produced, 
 keeps up the fertility of his soil. Good farming is the 
 production of fine crops and at the same time leaving the 
 soil better than it was before the crops were grown. 
 
 A farmer recently remarked that he had made a good 
 profit growing corn. He had forty acres planted in corn 
 which yielded an average of fifty bushels to the acre, or 
 2,000 bushels. This corn was sold for fifty cents a bushel 
 and brought $1,000. Since the farmer did all the work, 
 he deceived himself into believing that he made a profit of 
 $1,000. The farmer took no account of fertility removed 
 from the soil, the value of his time, interest on investment 
 and taxes. 
 
 Scientists show that 2,000 bushels of corn will deplete the 
 soil of fertility to the value of $343. The forty acres on 
 which that corn was grown is valued at $100 per acre, or 
 $4,000. Six per cent on an investment of $4,000 is $240. 
 Taxes on the land amounted to $80. To have determined 
 his actual profits the farmer should have figured fertility 
 removed, taxes and interest on investment at a total of 
 $663. From this it is seen that the farmer received $337 
 for the work of himself and team for a season, a wage, if 
 one considers the value of the work done by the team, much 
 less than he would have received had he hired out by the 
 day. 
 
PROFITS JOINED TO SOIL IMPROVEMENT 73 
 
 Had there been five acres of fruit on his forty acres, 
 thirty hogs, ten head of young steers, a poultry plant of 
 1,000 ducks and chickens, and three mares, his labor would 
 have been distributed and made profitable all through the 
 year and the products would have reached $4,000 or more 
 instead of $2,000. In addition to this, his land would 
 have been richer by $500 worth of manure. 
 
 The color of a soil is of little value in itself, yet it is often 
 an indication of things which are important. A black soil 
 owes its color to the presence of organic matter. This 
 means that the soil is well supplied with nitrogen. In some 
 black soils, however, there is an excess of noxious salts, as 
 in the case of "black alkali" soils. The black color is 
 caused by the humus being dissolved in the solution of these 
 noxious salts. The humus, which has been in solution, 
 accumulates at the surface as the solution rises by capil- 
 larity and the water evaporates. 
 
 The white color of "white alkali" is caused by the accu- 
 mulation of less noxious salts, which do not dissolve the 
 humus but are white themselves. Other soils that have 
 had a heavy growth of timber are white in color. This is 
 brought about by organic acids, which form in the decay 
 of leaves. Soils which have a large portion of iron oxide 
 are red in color. Yellow soils are usually fertile. Brown 
 soils owe their color to a mixture of red iron compound 
 and organic matter. Greenish and bluish soils are usually 
 an indication of improper aeration. 
 
 Plant food consists of ten essential elements: Carbon, 
 hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, calcium, 
 magnesium, potassium and iron. Chlorine, silicon and 
 sodium are usually found, but are not essential to plant 
 growth. The growing plant gets these essential elements 
 from the air and from the soil. Among the materials which 
 it gets from the soil, those which are of the most impor- 
 tance from the fertility standpoint, are nitrogen, phosphorus 
 and potassium. 
 
 The nitrogen supplied as plant food gives rapidity to the 
 
74 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 growth of the plant, and makes its leaves a dark green 
 color. If nitrogen is lacking in the soil, the growth will be 
 stilted and the plant will be pale. This nitrogen is sup- 
 plied to the plant in the form of nitrates, which are simply 
 salts in the soil, which will dissolve or melt in water just 
 as the common table salt dissolves in water. 
 
 Phosphorus is taken up by the plant in the form of phos- 
 phates, which again are soluble salts. Phosphorus gives 
 to the plant the power of reproducing itself in large num- 
 bers — that is, if a corn crop is grown on a field where 
 available phosphoric acid is found, the number of kernels 
 which will be filled on the ears will be much greater and 
 they will be much better filled than the number of kernels 
 on the ears grown on the same soil where phosphoric acid 
 is not in ample supply. An abundance of phosphoric acid 
 in the soil hastens the maturity of the fruit, so that it 
 escapes the early frosts in the sections where the period of 
 growth is short. 
 
 Potash, the third great necessary element, is found in 
 large quantities in the average soil. However, the potash 
 is largely united with an insoluble compound, so that the 
 plants cannot make use of it. Potash supplies strength 
 of stfaw to the grain plant and is closely connected with the 
 color of orchard fruit. Its largest duty, however, is to assist 
 in the laying down of the starch in the fruit of the plant 
 —that is, potash increases the size and flavor of the fruit. 
 
 A fourth element, which, although it is not taken up very 
 largely by the plant, but is found to be essential to the growth 
 of many types of plants, is calcium. When this, element 
 is combined with oxygen, we call it lime. When it is com- 
 bined with carbon and oxygen, we call it lime rock, or 
 limestone. This element is the direct opposite of acid in 
 its action; therefore, neutralizes the acid and even gives 
 to the soil an alkali reaction. All of this means that lime 
 sweetens the soil. All of these four elements, therefore, it 
 will be seen, are essential to the best production of crops 
 by the soil, and all with most careful consideration. 
 
PROFITS JOINED TO SOIL IMPROVEMENT 75 
 
 One of the unseen elements of the atmosphere is nitrogen 
 and this in available form is indispensable to vigorous plant 
 growth. There is plenty of nitrogen in the air, for nearly 
 seventy-nine per cent of the atmosphere is nitrogen, but it 
 is not available for the use of growing plants. Only after 
 the nitrogen of the air is reduced to nitrates by being com- 
 bined with a metallic base such as soda, potash, lime or 
 magnesia, can it be dissolved in water and enter into living 
 plants and build them up. Now one of the ways in which 
 this can be done is by the bacteria that work on the roots of 
 legumes. Alfalfa is one of the best legumes for this pur- 
 pose and the longer it grows in an orchard or anywhere 
 else the richer the soil will become in nitrates. So far as 
 the benefit to an orchard is concerned, the alfalfa may 
 remain indefinitely. All old alfalfa fields are enormously 
 rich in nitrates. This is the reason why potatoes do so well 
 on such fields. No one need plow up alfalfa in an orchard 
 for fear the trees will be injured, for the longer it remains 
 the richer the ground will become in available nitrogen. 
 One great objection to alfalfa in an orchard however is the 
 harbor it affords to all kinds of insects, especially the 
 codling moth. There are many other plant growths which 
 are of special value in building up the soil and which enable 
 an ordinary farmer to enrich his land while earning liberal 
 profits. Soy beans and cowpeas are among the best of these. 
 Generally speaking, the soy bean requires about the same 
 temperature as corn. It is perhaps even better adapted to 
 a warm climate. The soil requirements of soy beans are 
 much the same as those of corn. They will make a satis- 
 factory growth on poorer soil than corn, provided inocu- 
 lation is present, but will not make nearly as good a growth 
 on poor soil as cowpeas. Soy beans make their best develop- 
 ment on fairly fertile loams or clays. The Mammoth vari- 
 ety also succeeds well on sandy soils. On rich soils all vari- 
 eties are apt to make a large plant growth and a compara- 
 tively small yield of seed, and on the poorer soils a small 
 plant growth with a relatively large seed yield. 
 
Use of Lime Highly Important 
 
 Commercial lime goes under so many different names that 
 the farmer often has a hard time knowing just what he 
 is buying when he looks at the label. The actual calcium 
 is what the value of the lime to the farmer should be based 
 upon. Ordinary ground limestone contains about 40 per 
 cent of calcium, whereas quicklime contains 70 per cent. 
 Thus it will be seen that a ton of quicklime will be of much 
 more value to the farmer than will a ton of ground 
 limestone. 
 
 The greatest difficulty comes in buying slacked lime and 
 quicklime. Quicklime contains much more calcium than 
 either air or water slaked lime, yet slaked lime is some- 
 times sold at a much higher price under some fancy name. 
 Quicklime is sometimes called burned lime, caustic lime, 
 lump lime, building lime, stone lime, and calcium oxide; 
 whereas water-slaked lime is sometimes known as hydrated 
 lime, calcium hydrate, and occasionally as caustic lime. 
 
 Because of the various names some unscrupulous manu- 
 facturers have taken advantage of the fact to charge high 
 prices for forms of lime which were worth nO more than 
 one-third of what they were asking for them. One instance 
 in particular was noted in which a man was buying quick- 
 lime at $4.50 per ton, and by simply adding water to it 
 and slaking it, he sold it under the name of hydrated lime 
 at $11 per ton. Thus he was not only getting $5.50 more 
 per ton for the lime than he paid for it, but he was getting 
 $11 a ton for all of the water that he had added. Things 
 of this sort should be exposed wherever found, and the 
 farmer should not pay fancy prices for ordinary slaked 
 lime merely because it has been given some fancy name. 
 Always buy of a reliable dealer. 
 
 Lime has long been considered one of the essentials in 
 
 76 
 
USE OF LIME HIGHLY IMPORTANT 77 
 
 crop production. The beneficial effect of liming has been 
 demonstrated in Alabama, Alaska, New Hampshire, Massa- 
 chusetts, New York, Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, 
 Oregon, Illinois, and other parts of the United States, but 
 much of the arable soil of the United States has never been 
 limed, and indeed many large areas are not in need of it. 
 The work of the experiment stations, stimulated at the 
 outset by that of Rhode Island, has now shown conclusively 
 that soils which respond profitably to liming, either on 
 account of their acid condition or of a deficiency of lime 
 in other respects, are very widely distributed. 
 
 Authorities seem to agree that lime is necessary to the 
 plant, and if it be wholly lacking in soils, even though an 
 abundance of all the other essential elements is present, the 
 plant can not develop normally. The plant can not grow if 
 any one of the essential elements of plant food is lacking. 
 Lime has been found to be especially deficient in soils 
 derived from granite. It is also often true of soils derived 
 from mica-schist, sandstone, and from certain conglomer- 
 ates, slates, and shales. Fortunately, however, many soils 
 are well provided with lime by nature, and it is seldom 
 or never necessary for those who cultivate them to resort 
 to liming. It would be just as irrational to apply lime 
 where it is not needed as to omit it where it is required, and 
 hence arises the necessity of ascertaining the needs of 
 particular soils in this respect. 
 
 The method usually resorted to for ascertaining the 
 amount of lime in soils is to treat them with some strong 
 mineral acid (usually hydrochloric) and determine the 
 amount of lime which is thus dissolved. Some writers state 
 that if only one-half of i per cent is thus shown to be 
 present, immediate resort to liming is desirable; others 
 set the amount higher, and some seem to prefer to have 
 present as much as i per cent. It is possible that a soil may 
 contain considerable quantities of lime thus removable by 
 acid and yet in actual practice show much benefit from 
 liming. As a matter of fact, soils of limestone origin some- 
 
78 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 times show benefit from liming because sufficient carbonate 
 of lime is not present in the soil. 
 
 This is due to the continual removal of carbonate of lime 
 by crops and by leaching. Often some carbonate remains, 
 but it is too much inclosed by other materials to be suffi- 
 ciently active to prevent acidity and to insure the proper 
 changes in the organic matter. 
 
 The fact that beets of all kinds make a ready response 
 to liming on soils which are deficient in carbonate of lime 
 may be utilized as the basis for a practical and reliable 
 method of testing the lime requirements of the soil. For 
 this purpose lay out two plats of land, each about 12 by 30 
 feet, manure each of the plats with like amounts of a fer- 
 tilizer containing potash, phosphoric acid, and nitrogen, and 
 apply lime to one of the plats at the rate of from i to 2j4 
 tons per acre (40 pounds per plat would be approximately 
 2^ tons per acre). A comparison of the growth and yields 
 on the two »plats will furnish a safe means of judging 
 whether the soil will respond profitably to applications of 
 lime. 
 
 If the crop is helped but slightly by liming, most varieties 
 of plants will not be in immediate need of lime. If the crop 
 is greatly helped or is increased several times, it is likely 
 that the soil is too much in need of lime to make complete 
 success with most varieties of plants possible. 
 
 Lime is said to take the place of potash in certain chemical 
 compounds which exist in soils, thus liberating the potash 
 and placing it at the disposal of plants. In this particular, 
 gypsum (land plaster or calcium sulphate) is believed to act 
 more energetically than carbonate of lime, air-slaked or 
 water-slaked (hydrated) lime. 
 
 When soluble phosphates are applied to soils deficient in 
 lime and magnesia the phosphoric acid combines with the 
 iron and alumina of the soil to form compounds which 
 are not readily utilized by plants. If, however, the soil is 
 fairly well supplied with lime and magnesia, this transfor- 
 mation is retarded, so that the plant is afforded an opportu- 
 
USE OF LIME HIGHLY IMPORTANT 79 
 
 nity to utilize much of the phosphoric acid before it be- 
 comes unassimilable. If a soil containing a certain inert 
 phosphate of iron is heavily limed, it is believed that this 
 phosphate will be changed into a form which the plant can 
 utilize. Lime may therefore not only aid in keeping recent 
 applications of phosphoric acid in assimilable condition for 
 a long time, but it may, if applied in sufficient quantity, help 
 to unlock stores of phosphoric acid, in certain soils, which 
 plants would otherwise be unable to use. Hilgard has 
 abundantly demonstrated the great value of gypsum (land 
 plaster) in renovating "alkali" soils. 
 
 The frequency with which liming should be practiced 
 depends upon several conditions; for example, upon the 
 character of the soil, the quantity of lime employed in each 
 application, the number of years involved in a rotation, the 
 plants to be grown and their order of succession. Formerly, 
 in England, large quantities of lime were applied at some- 
 what rare intervals, but there and elsewhere at the present 
 time the preferable practice seems to be to use small 
 amounts and apply it more frequently. As a general rule 
 it may be stated that from half a ton to one and a half 
 tons of lime per acre applied every five to six years is 
 sufficient. There may exist extreme soils requiring either 
 more or less than these amounts. If soils which are quite 
 acid and have not previously been limed are to be seeded, 
 with the intention of allowing them to remain in grass for 
 several years, as much as two or three tons of lime per 
 acre may sometimes be advisable. Only very extreme cases 
 would call for larger applications. If in a rotation covering 
 a considerable number of years two crops especially bene- 
 fited by lime are introduced at about equidistant intervals 
 of time, it may be advisable to lime twice in the course of 
 the rotation, each time just prior to their introduction. In 
 renovating acid pastures and meadows it is usually prefer- 
 able to apply a fair amount of lime upon the furrows when 
 they are first plowed, so that this may be thoroughly mixed 
 with the soil by subsequent plowing and harrowing, and 
 
80 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 just prior to seeding to grass make another generous appli- 
 cation. By such treatment, provided the other essential fer- 
 tilizing ingredients are employed, a good stand of clover, 
 Kentucky bluegrass, timothy, and other grasses may be 
 obtained where in many instances they were formerly par- 
 tial or total failures ?ind where only redtop, Rhode Island 
 bent, and grasses having similar soil adaptability could 
 be grown. Where land is kept in grass for a number of 
 consecutive years, top-dressing with lime or, preferably, 
 wood ashes may possibly be advisable in some instances, 
 particularly if ordinary commercial fertilizers are employed 
 in lieu of stable manure. If home-mixed dressings con- 
 taining basic slag meal or liberal amounts of bone are used 
 with nitrate of soda or nitrate of potash, the need of liming 
 is much less than under many other circumstances. 
 
 Lime in the form of carbonate of lime, as in marl, wood 
 ashes, etc., can usually be applied with safety in the spring 
 or at any other season of the year, but autumn is always 
 the safest time to apply caustic or slaked lime. The latter 
 form upon further exposure to the air changes gradually 
 into the mild carbonate of lime, but usually a considerable 
 quantity has not reached that stage when applied, and it 
 may in consequence act too energetically. This is particu- 
 larly true if the soil is light and sandy, and if plants which 
 are but little helped by lime are employed. On very acid 
 soils, particularly such as contain much humus, there is 
 little or no danger from applying reasonable quantities of 
 lime in the spring. If caustic or slaked lime is applied in 
 excessive amounts it may not only injure plants directly, 
 but also indirectly by rendering the texture of the soil un- 
 favorable ; it may also make the soil temporarily so alkaline 
 as to interfere with the activity of the organisms which 
 transform ammonia into readily assimilable nitrates. In- 
 jury thus arising can not ordinarily be of long duration, for 
 the reason that the carbonic acid of the soil changes the 
 caustic lime rapidly into carbonate of lime, and thus the 
 alkalinity of the soil is soon reduced. 
 
USE OF LIME HIGHLY IMPORTANT 81 
 
 Gypsum, or land plaster, is a combination of lime with 
 sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) and water. Upon heating, 
 gypsum loses its water and is changed into plaster of 
 Paris or calcined plaster, which is used in making casts and 
 for many other industrial purposes. 
 
 In case a soil is seriously deficient in lime, gypsum may 
 act as a direct manure ; usually, however, its beneficial effect 
 upon soils is attributed to its indirect action in liberating 
 potash and possibly other substances which were locked 
 up in the soil in such combinations that plants could not 
 make use of them. Gypsum may be helpful to a limited 
 extent on clayey soils by flocculating the fine particles, on 
 account of which the soil is less likely to become "water- 
 logged" and to cake, and hence interfere with the operations 
 of tillage. In the last-mentioned respect water-slaked lime 
 or the carbonate is said to be much more efficacious than 
 gypsum, though as a liberator of potash, gypsum is claimed 
 to lead. Some so-called marls contain considerable quanti- 
 ties of phosphoric acid and potash in such forms as to 
 greatly enhance their fertilizing value. 
 
 Phosphate of lime is found as bone, guano, apatite, and 
 in the form of the well-known South Carolina, Florida, and 
 Tennessee phosphate rock. The better classes of phosphate 
 rock contain but small quantities of carbonate of lime, while 
 others contain large amounts. The latter are unfitted on 
 this account for superphosphate manufacture. Both classes 
 of phosphate when ground finely have been found to be 
 more or less effective upon acid soils, particular attention 
 having been devoted to their employment on acid muck or 
 peat soils. These phosphates not only seem to materially 
 reduce the acid character of such soils, but after having 
 been in contact with them for some time the assimilability 
 of the phosphoric acid seems to materially increase. The 
 lower-grade phosphates containing considerable quantities 
 of carbonate of lime are particularly effective upon acid 
 soils. 
 
 In employing undissolved phosphate rock upon acid soils. 
 
82 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 certain authorities recommend following the application of 
 the phosphate at an interval of some months, or, if possible, 
 a year, with a dressing of lime. This seems to be a reason- 
 able recommendation provided the plants to be grown are 
 not -injured by soil acidity. 
 
 Superphosphates, which are prepared by treating phos- 
 phate rock, bone, and boneblack with sulphuric acid, gen- 
 erally have about one-third of their lime combined with 
 phosphoric acid and two-thirds with sulphuric acid. The 
 lime combined with sulphuric acid is nothing more nor less 
 than gypsum (land plaster). For this and other reasons 
 superphosphates may not work as well on acid muck or peat 
 soils as ordinary undissolved phosphate rock or ground 
 bone, and if, as is sometimes the case, a slight excess of 
 sulphuric acid is present, they may even have a temporary 
 injurious action upon upland soils which are deficient in 
 carbonate of lime. 
 
 Many kinds of lime are available for agricultural use, 
 among which are caustic or burnt lime, or quicklime, which 
 should contain at least 90 per cent of actual lime and is the 
 most concentrated form of this material; gypsum, or land 
 plaster, in which the lime is in the form of the mild sul- 
 phate; ground limestone and chalk, in which the lime is 
 in the form of the mild carbonate; dififerent kinds of marl, 
 containing varying proportions of sand and clay and from 
 5 to 95 per cent of carbonate of lime; wood ashes, which 
 contain from 30 to 35 per cent of lime in the form 
 of carbonate; limekiln ashes, containing about 40 per 
 cent of lime, and waste lime from gas houses and sugar 
 manufactories. 
 
 It is impossible to state definitely for all locations and 
 conditions what kind of lime is cheapest to use. Caustic 
 or quicklime is the most concentrated and consequently the 
 most economical to handle. On account of its caustic prop- 
 erties it is more vigorous in its action than the milder sul- 
 phate (gypsum) or carbonates (limestone, chalk, wood 
 ashes, marl, etc.). There may be special reasons, however. 
 
USE OF LIME HIGHLY IMPORTANT 83 
 
 why some of the latter may be preferable. For instance, 
 gypsum, on account of its peculiar composition, has been 
 found to be a specially valuable corrective of black alkali. 
 
 It has been shown that carbonate of lime and such other 
 compounds of lime as are changed into the carbonate by 
 decomposition within the soil all tend to favor the produc- 
 tion of potato scab, provided the germs of the disease are 
 already in the soil or are introduced into it on the seed 
 tubers. This seems to be due to the fact that the lime 
 makes the soil alkaline or to some influence which the com- 
 bined carbonic acid of the carbonate of lime exerts upon 
 the development of the fungus. In view of this unfavor- 
 able action of lime, caution should be observed in liming 
 potato fields. 
 
 Many writers seem to agree that liming is capable of 
 lessening materially the injury to turnips, cabbages, etc., 
 caused by the disease known as "finger-and-toe" and "club 
 root." English writers assert that by resort to liming, 
 excellent crops of turnips have been produced where with- 
 out it the crop was a failure, owing to the attacks of the 
 disease. 
 
 The effect of dififerent compounds of lime has been tested, 
 with not entirely conclusive results, on various other dis- 
 eases, including cranberry and sweet potato diseases, and a 
 root disease of alfalfa {Rhizoctonia medicaginis) . Slaked 
 lime was found to be effective in reducing soil rot of 
 sweet potatoes, and quicklime in checking or preventing 
 the root disease of alfalfa. 
 
 If manure and lime are mixed and at once plowed under, 
 the earth will probably arrest most of the ammonia that 
 may be formed ; but if the mixture of manure and lime is 
 exposed to the air, there will be considerable escape of 
 ammonia into the atmosphere. 
 
 In the case of wood ashes, the lime is first in the form 
 of oxide or quicklime, which reverts to the carbonate form 
 on exposure to the atmosphere, so that fresh ashes would 
 have the same effect as quicklime in liberating ammonia. 
 
84 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 Ground limestone would have less tendency in this direc- 
 tion, but the safest plan is to apply all kinds of lime or 
 limestone separately from manure or fertilizers. 
 
 Many important changes are produced in the soil by or- 
 ganisms so small that they can only be observed by the aid 
 of the most powerful microscopes. Some of the changes 
 of this character in which lime plays an important part 
 are the following: 
 
 (i) The change of ammonia and of nitrogen in organic 
 matter, such as blood, meat, fish, tankage, plants, etc., into 
 nitrates, the form in which it is chiefly assimilated by most 
 cultivated plants. This is known as the process of nitri- 
 fication and is promoted by the presence of lime in soils. 
 
 (2) The decomposition of organic matter in muck and 
 other soils. In this process the production of carbonic acid 
 is much accelerated by the use of lime. This carbonic acid 
 in turn so acts upon the inert plant food of the soil as to 
 make it more quickly available to plants. The indirect 
 result, therefore, is to help the plant to draw more potash, 
 phosphoric acid, etc., from the soil than would otherwise 
 be possible. 
 
 The following are some of the plants which, in experi- 
 ments on acid soil at the Rhode Island Agricultural Experi- 
 ment Station, have shown marked benefit from, the use of 
 lime: Spinach, lettuce (all kinds), beets (all kinds), okra 
 (gumbo), salsify (vegetable oyster), celery, onion, pars- 
 nip, cauliflower, cucumber, eggplant, cantaloupe, aspara- 
 gus, kohl-rabi, cabbage, dandelion, Swedish turnip, pepper, 
 peanut, English or flat turnip, upland cress (pepper grass), 
 martynia, rhubarb, common pea, pumpkin, summer squash 
 (scalloped), golden wax bean, red valentine bean, horticul- 
 tural pole bean, bush Lima bean, lentil, Hubbard squash, 
 saltbush, hemp, tobacco, sorghum, alfalfa, tlover (red, 
 white, crimson, and alsike), barley, emmer, wheat, oats, 
 timothy, Kentucky bluegrass. Tobacco not only made a bet- 
 ter growth when limed, but the ash was much lighter in 
 color. 
 
Parcel Post Advantages 
 
 Since the development of the parcel post system, strong 
 light-weight containers for shipping in small lots eggs, poul- 
 try, butter, cheese, etc., by mail are now available at small 
 cost. Various devices for these cartons are made and 
 advertised. They cost but little and carry the eggs per- 
 fectly, either by mail, express or freight. Manufacturers 
 and merchants pay the closest attention to the kind of con- 
 tainer they use, but too many farmers are careless in this 
 respect. Investigate the different styles, send for samples, 
 booklets and prices, and use such as are best adapted to 
 your market. 
 
 Heavier parcels weighing from 20 to 50 pounds for ship- 
 ment within the first and second zones, approximately 150 
 miles, may now be packed in boxes and crates similar to 
 those generally used when shipping these products by ex- 
 press; the whole parcel, including contents and container, 
 must not exceed 50 pounds in weight. These large parcels 
 will be handled outside of mail bags. But packages of these 
 articles weighing 20 pounds or less are to be required to 
 be securely packed as heretofore in such manner as to be 
 safely handled in bags with other mail matter. Under these 
 new regulations the postmaster-general thinks the farmers 
 and truckers will be able to ship their products by parcel 
 post in a less expensive manner than has up to this time 
 been possible under the old regulations. 
 
 Consumers will gain equally with the farmers, as they 
 can tell exactly the quality and the first price of the prod- 
 ucts purchased. They will save in the cost of food supplies. 
 With a regular patronage, farmers will know what to raise 
 and can regulate the help question and other matters of 
 expense. This all tends to lessen the cost of production 
 
 85 
 
86 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 and will prove a mutual advantage. The unnecessary waste 
 of distribution will be stopped. Proper marketing has al- 
 ways been a difficulty on the farm, and because of this there 
 has been a neglect of mixed farming, with consequent high 
 prices for general produce. With such a method as is now 
 being tried, farmers may receive liberal prices for all staple 
 products and at the same time the cost to consumers can 
 be reduced. 
 
 The farm woman is generally better qualified to handle 
 such a direct trade than her husband, father, or brother. 
 She is naturally neat, and has keen instinct to know what 
 customers want. The farm trade will be mostly in some 
 form of food, and the woman knows what housewives 
 want. If a farmer is wise, he will consider that the business 
 of selling food direct requires the help of the women, and 
 will give them a fair share of the proceeds. 
 
 The direct trade customer in town will not leave the 
 grocer or butcher unless he knows he can get high quality 
 food for less than he now pays. Think for a moment and 
 you will see there is no reason why he should. The best 
 policy is not to see how much you can beat him, but how 
 much quality and good measure you can crowd into his 
 package. Of course a sensible farmer will take it as a 
 compliment when it is said that his wife and daughter or 
 mother are qualified to handle and sell food to his city 
 trade. 
 
 Here are some of the things which women have sold to 
 good advantage through parcel post : Maple sugar, sausage 
 and small cuts of pork, lard, dressed poultry, eggs, cream, 
 butter, fruit, canned goods, apples, mincemeat, nuts, etc. 
 Some gardeners have done well mailing lettuce and celery, 
 but potatoes and common vegetables are too heavy and 
 bulky to pay for mail shipment. A few people are mailing 
 fancy apples by the dozen or peck with fair profit, but this 
 will pay only in high-class markets. Probably the best arti- 
 cles with which to start a farm trade of this sort are sau- 
 sage, butter, eggs, fruit, and dressed poultry. Last Thanks- 
 
PARCEL POST ADVANTAGES 87 
 
 giving tons of fat turkeys were mailed in this way and they 
 gave good satisfaction. It will pay to begin with to buy 
 some of the ready-made packages for shipping. Appear- 
 ance counts for much in this trade. 
 
 On some articles you can make definite prices, but such 
 figures change and it will probably pay best to make prices 
 by letter. Look around first and see what the farm will 
 furnish. Quite likely several women can combine to handle 
 this trade. It will pay to have a little card printed with a 
 list of just the farm produce you can sell, and mail that to 
 customers. One sale will lead to another. There will be 
 considerable correspondence, and here the older children 
 can help. This letter writing with outsiders will broaden 
 life, give new thoughts and a feeling of responsibility as 
 the trade develops, as it surely will if you keep at it 
 patiently. New crops will be suggested as the business 
 expands, and rural life will take on a new aspect as the 
 farm slowly comes to be a definite and positive part of 
 the business world. 
 
 The direct marketing of cream is a new move among 
 farmers. This is made possible by the parcel post. The 
 plan is expected to result in larger financial returns to dairy 
 owners and may serve to reduce prices to city housekeepers. 
 Direct selling of special commodities was not considered 
 practicable before the development of the parcel post. The 
 new postal system is proving a boon to thousands of farmers 
 and their city customers. 
 
 Those who have made experiments along the line of 
 direct marketing claim that the parcel post is fully adapted 
 to the transportation of cream from producer to consumer. 
 It is the dream of dairy farmers to get milk prices raised 
 to 5 cents a quart or 20 cents a gallon. The average for a 
 number of years has been about 12 cents a gallon. At this 
 rate farmers have barely lived. The majority are dissat- 
 isfied, although the wholesale rate for milk has been ad- 
 vanced to about IS cents a gallon, a fraction over 3 cents 
 a quart. Those who feel that they have prospered in the 
 
88 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 dairy business are a small minority, for it is easily demon- 
 strated that it costs 12 cents a gallon or more to produce 
 milk, especially if the product is to be handled in the sani- 
 tary condition which is now required in all cities. In a 
 few cases dairy owners have established direct marketing 
 for milk, and in a limited way this plan can be worked. 
 
 It is feasible at this time for a large number of farmers 
 to furnish cream on the basis of 32 cents a quart or $1.28 
 a gallon in the provincial towns all over the country. This 
 will prove ^0 be the common rate, although some of the 
 clubs and wealthy families in cities are paying 40 to 50 
 cents a quart, or from $1.50 to $2 a gallon. The expense 
 of marketing a dairy output is almost entirely eliminated 
 where the product is turned into cream and sent by parcel 
 post. There are many other advantages and big gains to 
 farmers who are turning to the new system. 
 
 A wagon load of milk when reduced to the basis of cream 
 can be transported to the buying station with a horse and 
 buggy, thus enabling the road team to begin work in the 
 field an hour or two earlier than has been customary. This 
 results in saving the expense of horseflesh and hired help. 
 It is also a most decided advantage to have an abundance 
 of warm skimmed milk for the young stock on the farm. 
 Six gallons of milk worth $1.20 at the rate of 20 cents a 
 gallon are made worth $1.28 in cream, and five gallons of 
 the warm skimmed milk are gained for the calves, pigs, and 
 chickens. There is no chance to dispute these figures, for 
 the business is actually being done on this basis in several 
 dairy districts. In some cases there is a still larger profit, 
 but I am aiming to make conservative statements that are 
 backed up by facts. Commercial cream will pass in any 
 market where it is produced at the ratio of one gallon of 
 cream to six gallons of milk. If handled in a tasty and 
 sanitary way, this product fresh from the farm will be in 
 great demand and will hold a permanent trade. 
 
Importance of Farm Bookkeeping 
 
 While all intelligent persons realize the importance of 
 farm bookkeeping, it is really a difficult and rather im- 
 practicable matter for the average farmer to set up what 
 might be termed a general and complete system of account- 
 ing. The best way and the vital thing will be to start on 
 a modest and simple plan that will not be irksome or com- 
 plicated. Each year may see an improvement in this re- 
 spect, for the plainest kind of bookkeeping if regularly 
 cared for will lead to systematic work and business methods. 
 Some suggestions of value may be found herein for the 
 farmers who are desirous of keeping accounts but do not 
 know how to start. The systems of cost accounting used 
 by large concerns involve many estimates but do not give 
 more accurate results than do well-kept farmers' accounts. 
 
 The first question which the practical farmer asks about 
 a set of accounts is, "How much time will it take?" The 
 time required is one of the chief objections made to most 
 kinds of farm cost accounting. The farmers who have 
 used this particular system during the past year answer 
 the question of time by estimates ranging from two to ten 
 niinutes a day. The average seems to be about five minutes 
 for the daily entries. To this must be added a number 
 of hours of work at the end of the year to close the ac- 
 counts. This time will vary with the type of farming, the 
 complexity of the business, and the degree of accuracy 
 and completeness with which the accounts have been kept. 
 
 No bookkeeping knowledge is necessary. In all the co- 
 operative work done so far, bookkeeping training as some- 
 times given in commercial schools has seemed a detriment 
 rather than a help. Those trained in commercial book- 
 keeping have a tendency to insert technicalities and com- 
 plexity of entry which would be all right for a business 
 
 89 
 
90 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 house, but which are entirely out of place for a practical 
 farmer who wishes to do cost accounting. It is not neces- 
 sary to know the difference between a daybook and a 
 journal or to know how to get a trial balance in order 
 to keep good farm cost accounts. 
 
 The market price at the farm, or the price at the selling 
 place minus the cost of hauling, should govern the esti- 
 mation of values. Values should neither be overrated nor 
 underrated, as in either case one is fooling only one's self. 
 An inventory fairly taken according to one's best judg- 
 ment will be the most useful and accurate for future 
 reference. 
 
 The table given below is a suggestion regarding the 
 classification and summarization after two inventories are 
 completed : 
 
 Item. Mar. i, 1912. Mar. i, 1913. 
 
 Farm, 200 acres (including buildings) $ 8,000 $ 8,000 
 
 Cows: 
 
 20 head at $60 1,200 
 
 15 head at $70. . .' 1,050 
 
 Horses, 6 900 8so 
 
 Machinery 783 800 
 
 Feed and supplies 1,100 850 
 
 Growing crops (cost of labor and materials). no 125 
 
 Cash 97 437 
 
 Bills receivable 75 95 
 
 Total resources $12,265 $12,207 
 
 Mortgages and bills payable 3,125 2,300 
 
 Net worth $ 9,140 $ 9,907 
 
 Gain for the year 767 
 
 $ 9,907 $ 9,907 
 
 If preferred, the inventories may be kept on pages by 
 themselves in the financial record book and the entering 
 of inventory values to the individual accounts may be 
 deferred until both inventories are complete and the ac- 
 counts are being closed at the end of the year. The method 
 of entering these amounts is given under "Closing the 
 accounts at the end of the year." 
 
IMPORTANCE OF FARM BOOKKEEPING 91 
 
 No other account will give so much information for the 
 time and labor expended as the annual inventory. By 
 comparing the net worth as shown by the current inven- 
 tory with the net worth shown by that of the previous year, 
 the farmer can tell whether he has made a gain or loss and 
 how much, after paying from farm receipts what he has 
 expended for the living expenses of the family. 
 
 If money has been added to or taken from the busines.? 
 by gifts or by transfer from some other business that is 
 not included in the inventory, these items would have to 
 be known in order to tell the gain or loss. Usually the 
 farmer lists all his property in the inventory, so that there 
 is no chance for such an error. He may have only a small 
 amount of cash on hand, as the gain may all be invested 
 in a new team, additional cows, or extra feed. On th< 
 other hand, the cash on hand may be much larger than the 
 year before, thus making the farmer feel more prosper- 
 ous, whereas the number of head of stock or the quantity 
 of feed on hand may be so much less that he has actually 
 farmed at a loss that year. 
 
 Whenever money is paid out, the farmer turns to the 
 account in the book to which this money should be charged 
 and enters it on the left hand page. When money is 
 received, the amount is credited to the proper account by 
 entering it on the right hand page under that heading. 
 These are the only entries made. Amounts are charged 
 or credited directly to the accounts to which they belong. 
 
 Farm accounts are of little use unless studied and con- 
 clusions drawn which will enable one to make his business 
 more profitable in the future. It is just as important to 
 study the different items of cost and returns in an account 
 as it is to know whether or not it pays. From such a study 
 it is often possible to learn how to reduce the cost of pro- 
 duction or increase the returns so as to make a losing 
 enterprise pay and to make a profitable one more profitable. 
 In studying the results of a year's business, one must keep 
 constantly in mind that these are the results of a single 
 
92 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 year. Weather conditions, crop conditions, market condi- 
 tions for the year as compared with an average year, must 
 be considered. For instance, potatoes in 19 12 showed, 
 large losses on many farms because of the low prices and 
 the quantities lost by rot. However, by studying the 
 potato account to find the cost of producing an acre, then, 
 by considering both an average yield and price for the local- 
 ity, one could draw the conclusion that ordinarily it would 
 or would not be a profitable business to raise potatoes 
 on most of the farms where potatoes are raised. The fol- 
 lowing is a sample account with potatoes in a 14-acre field : 
 
 Charges 
 1913. Item. Amount. 
 
 June 3. Seed, 160 bushels, at 45 cents $ 72.00 
 
 4. Corrosive sublimate, 3 ounces 30 
 
 10. Seed 43^4 bushels, at 55 cents 24.06 
 
 11. Corrosive sublimate, 6 ounces 60 
 
 July 12. Paris green, 6 pounds 1.32 
 
 15. Lead arsenate, 160 pounds 1440 
 
 Use of land, S per cent on $ioa per acre 70.00 
 
 Man labor, 796 hours, at 19.02 cents 151.40 
 
 Horse labor, 839 hours, at 10.46 cents 87.76 
 
 Equipment labor, 839 hours, at 3.5 cents 29.36 
 
 Manure, 60 per cent of 1910 application 12.00 
 
 Manure, 100 per cent of 191 1 application 30.00 
 
 Total charges $493.20 
 
 Gain 388.62 
 
 Grand total $881.82 
 
 Credits 
 1913. Item. Amount. 
 
 Oct. S. Sold, 226 bushels, at 60.18 cents $136.00 
 
 20. Sold, Sio bushels, at 62 cents 316.20 
 
 Nov. I. Sold, 241 bushels, at $1,083 — 261.02 
 
 Saved for seed, 135 bushels, at $1 135.00 
 
 Saved for home use, 16 bushels, at 60 cents 9.60 
 
 Residual manure, 60 per cent of 191 1 18.00 
 
 Residual manure, 30 per cent of 1910 6.00 
 
 Total credits $881.82 
 
IMPORTANCE OF FARM BOOKKEEPING 93 
 
 Financial Statement of the Chicken Flock 
 
 This table gives an illustration of one simple method of 
 telling what a flock of 200 chickens is paying: 
 
 Eggs and Feed 
 
 Poultry and Xiabor Profit 
 
 January $ 74.00 $ 34.44 $ 39.56 
 
 February 80.60 26.00 S4-6o 
 
 March 84.50 21.55 62.95 
 
 April 92.00 18.46 7354 
 
 May 78.90 24.15 54.75 
 
 June 58.00 24.80 33.20 
 
 July 47.60 20.00 27.60 
 
 August S7-00 21.20 35-8o 
 
 September 61.80 22.00 39-8o 
 
 October 88.40 33-30 S5-io 
 
 November 64.60 31.20 33.40 
 
 December 71.70 32.60 39-10 
 
 $859.10 $309.70 $54940 
 
 Illustration of Egg Account for, Week 
 
 12 Birds in Pen 
 
 Pen No. i Pen No. 9 
 
 2 " "10. 
 
 3 " " II. 
 
 4 " "12. 
 
 5 " "13- 
 
 14. 
 
 7 " " IS. 
 
 " 8. 
 
 Total 
 
 Total value of food 
 
 Net profit for week. 
 
 Trap nests will prove the merit of each hen. This helps 
 to build up a good flock, and the total or individual profits 
 are shown. 
 
Progressive Dairy Management 
 
 Farmers all over this continent are going in for better 
 dairy stock than they have been accustomed to. The result 
 will be more profitable farming in all departments. The 
 dairy makes a natural foundation for the farming scheme 
 whether the tract of land be large or small. 
 
 The interest shown by farmers in state and national 
 exhibitions of dairy stock and methods proves that they 
 have caught the vision of a new order of agriculture. When 
 they get improved types of cows, they will be progressive 
 enough to feed them properly and produce the milk accord- 
 ing to sanitary and scientific methods. Men who get 
 imbued with the right spirit in one branch of farming are 
 pretty sure to show zeal and ability in all their operations. 
 I believe that the dairy of the future will pay in accordance 
 with the efficiency of management. 
 
 In the selection or breeding of dairy cattle, care and 
 expert management are needed to bring success. On these 
 points great improvement is already noted, and there is 
 much promise for the future. Another tendency of the 
 times which deserves encouragement is the adoption of 
 a system of mixed husbandry in connection with dairy 
 farms. The aim of this is to build up the fertility of the 
 soil and increase the farm earnings. A thorough system 
 of mixed farming will, in the opinion of many persons, 
 reduce the cost of living, for it is reasonable to expect 
 that facilities for shipping and marketing will keep pace 
 with production. Through this better system of agricul- 
 ture which is being developed, farmers are sure to make 
 more money than in the past. The increased earning 
 capacity of their dairies will be supplemented by more 
 productive land and a continual line of commodities which 
 pay liberal profits. 
 
 94 
 
PROGRESSIVE DAIRY MANAGEMENT 95 
 
 The farmer needs to know what each of his dairy animals 
 is costing and what the net profits are. A wise use of feeds, 
 elimination of inferior cattle, thorough account keeping 
 and judicious marketing are what government authorities 
 and leading business men are urging as vital necessities. 
 The promise today is that the response to their appeal will 
 be the ushering in of a new agricultural era. 
 
 I have worked out the following examples of what may 
 be called a balanced ration for a dairy. By this system of 
 feeding, the owner is able to get high profits from his 
 cows, because the balanced ration is effective and economi- 
 cal. Fifty pounds of the right kind of feed will bring 
 greater results than 75 pounds of provender that is not 
 properly selected, and the cost per pound is about the 
 same in one case as the other. The properly fed cow 
 shows increased earnings without adding to expenses, and 
 this is greatly in the owner's favor. These illustrations 
 of correct feeding are applicable to the average cow of 
 about 1,000 to 1,200 pounds, yielding 30 to 40 pounds of 
 milk that tests as much as 3.6 per cent: 
 
 Example No. i 
 Kind of feed. Pounds. 
 
 Corn silage 30 
 
 Alfalfa or clover 10 
 
 Straw 5 
 
 Cottonseed meal 2 
 
 Bran 2 
 
 Ground grain 3 
 
 52 
 Example No. 2 
 
 Corn fodder 30 
 
 Hay or straw 10 
 
 Sugar beet pulp or roots 10 
 
 Ground oats or corn S 
 
 Bran and linseed meal 3 
 
 Gluten 2 
 
 60 
 
96 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 Example No. 3 
 
 Com silage or roots 35 
 
 Clover or alfalfa 15 
 
 Bran 4 
 
 Gluten meal 2 
 
 Ground oats or corn 4 
 
 60 
 Example No. 4 
 
 Clover or alfalfa 25 
 
 Roots 20 
 
 Ground corn or oats 10 
 
 Gluten and cottonseed meal 3 
 
 si 
 
 Corn fodder and timothy lack protein, which is essen- 
 tial to the dairy's success. Protein is most cheaply obtained 
 from clover, alfalfa, cowpea hay, bran, and cottonseed 
 meal. Carbohydrates are best obtained from pasture, corn 
 fodder, corn, timothy, and roots. An extra large cow 
 of vigorous constitution may require 10 pounds more than 
 is shown in the above tables. This should be roughage. A 
 small animal or a small feeder will do with less. A warm 
 mash made from the concentrates- is an excellent thing 
 morning or evening. In the pasturage season the whole 
 ration may be cut down or eliminated entirely if the 
 grazing is choice. 
 
 Cows in full milk require some concentrated feed in 
 addition to hay and silage, as they cannot consume enough 
 of these feeds to keep up a large flow of milk and maintain 
 body weight. The amount of silage to feed a cow will 
 depend upon the capacity of the animal to consume feed. 
 She should be fed as much as she will clean up without 
 waste when consumed along with her hay and grain. 
 Raise or lower the amount until the proper quantity is 
 ascertained. Generally speaking, a good cow should be 
 fed just short of the limit of her appetite. If she refuses 
 any of her feed, it should be reduced at once. The small 
 breeds will ,eat 40 pounds per day ; the large breeds, 60 or 
 more ; and the medium-sized ones amounts varying between. 
 
PROGRESSIVE DAIRY MANAGEMENT 97 
 
 Ironclad directions for feeding cows cannot be given. 
 In general, however, they should be supplied with all the 
 roughage they will clean up with grain in proportion to 
 butter fat produced. The hay will ordinarily range be- 
 tween 8 and 12 pounds per cow per day when fed in 
 connection with silage. For Holsteins, i pound of con- 
 centrates for each 4 pounds of milk produced will prove 
 about right; for Jerseys, i pound for each 3 pounds of 
 milk or less will come nearer meeting the requirements. 
 The following rations will be found good for a large 
 cow which is falling off in her milk and yielding about 20 
 pounds of 3.6 per cent product: 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Silage 40 
 
 Clover, cowpea, or alfalfa hay S 
 
 Grain mixture 5 
 
 For a 900-pound cow yielding 30 pounds of 5 per cent 
 milk : 
 
 Silage 30 
 
 Clover, cowpea, or alfalfa hay 10 
 
 Grain mixture 11 
 
 For the same cow yielding 15 pounds of 5 per cent milk: 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Silage 30 
 
 Clover, cowpea, or alfalfa hay 8 
 
 Grain mixture S 
 
 A good grain mixture to be used in a ration which in- 
 cludes silage and some sort of leguminous hay is com- 
 posed of: 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Corn chop 4 
 
 Wheat bran 2 
 
 Linseed meal or cottonseed meal i 
 
 In case the hay used is not of this kind, some of the corn 
 chop may be replaced by linseed or cottonseed meal. In 
 many instances brewers' dried grains or crushed oats may 
 be profitably substituted for the bran, and oftentimes gluten 
 
98 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 products can be used to advantage in place of bran or oil 
 meals. 
 
 The time to feed silage is directly after milking or sev- 
 eral hours before milking. If fed immediately before milk- 
 ing, the silage odors may pass through the cow's body into 
 the milk. Besides, the milk may receive some taints directly 
 from the stable air. On the other hand, if feeding is done 
 subsequent to milking, the volatile silage odors will have 
 been thrown off before the next milking hour. Silage is 
 usually fed twice a day. 
 
 Calves may be fed silage as soon as they are old enough 
 to eat it. It is perhaps of greater importance that the 
 silage be free from mold or decay when given to calves 
 than when given to mature stock. They may be given all 
 the silage they will eat up clean at all times. Yearling 
 calves will consume about one-half as much as mature 
 stock; that is, from 15 to 20 or more pounds a day. When 
 supplemented with some good leguminous hay, little, if 
 any, grain will be required to keep the calves in a thrifty, 
 growing condition. 
 
 One of the most trying seasons of the year for the dairy 
 cow is the latter part of summer and early fall. At this 
 season the pastures are often short or dried up, and in 
 such cases it is a common mistake of dairymen to let 
 their cows drop ofl in flow of milk through lack of feed. 
 Later they find it impossible to restore the milk flow, no 
 matter how the cows are fed. Good dairy practice de- 
 mands that the milk flow be maintained at a high level 
 all the time from parturition to drying off. It becomes 
 necessary, therefore, to supply some feed to take the place 
 of the grass. The easiest way to do this is by means of 
 silage. Silage is cheaper and decidedly more convenient to 
 use than soiling crops. 
 
 The amounts to feed will depend upon the condition of 
 the pastures, varying all the way from 10 pounds to a full 
 winter feed of 50 pounds. It should be remembered in this 
 connection that silage contains a low percentage of protein. 
 
PROGRESSIVE DAIRY MANAGEMENT 99 
 
 SO that the greater the amount of silage fed the greater 
 must be the amount of protein in the supplementary feeds 
 to properly balance the ration. 
 
 Recent studies in all lines of agriculture have been toward 
 a more exact knowledge with which to support or replace 
 opinions based on impressions. To this end the state of 
 Minnesota, in co-operation with the United States govern- 
 ment, has been for a number of years gathering statistics 
 from farmers first hand in regard to the cost of doing all 
 manner of farm work. Among other items, the cost of 
 keeping a cow was studied in relation to her returns. The 
 cost varied from year to year, but the total of $58 reported 
 as the average may be accepted. The cash feeds given 
 in the following table ought to be raised from $3 to $10. 
 Other items could be trimmed a little. Here is the cost : 
 
 Farm feeds $21.50 
 
 Cash feeds 3-00 
 
 Labor 18.65 
 
 Shelter 2.4S 
 
 Herd bull 2.25 
 
 Depreciation 2.70 
 
 Depreciation equipment 1.40 
 
 General expenses 3.40 
 
 Cash sundries 4° 
 
 Interest on investment 2.25 
 
 Total $58.00 
 
 The earnings of the average cow would be about as 
 follows : 
 
 1,200 gallons milk $168.00 
 
 Value of calf lo-oo 
 
 Value of manure. 7.00 
 
 Total $185.00 
 
 Net profit $127.00 
 
 Raising the estimate of cost and lowering the estimate of 
 earnings so as to cut off %27 from the profits, we find the 
 cow easily returning a net income of $100 a year. This is 
 a conservative view, but it allows for a large income on a 
 farm capable of maintaining 50 to 100 cows. 
 
Beef Raising on Ordinary Farms 
 
 In taking up the general discussion of beef raising, I 
 wish to impress upon every farmer the fact that he can 
 afford to make meat cattle a prominent feature in his opera- 
 tions. In fact, he cannot afford to neglect this interest. New 
 questions which have been raised in this connection are: 
 
 What is the cost of producing beef on the ordinary farm ? 
 
 Are prices to be maintained on the present high level in 
 face of free trade? 
 
 Can farmers in the United States compete with those of 
 South America and make a profit on cattle? 
 
 Are farmers in this country making any distinct effort 
 toward beef production, either as a result of favorable 
 prices or because of the need of conserving soil fertility? 
 
 A number of experts are debating the question whether 
 beef can be produced for 3 cents a pound or not. This is 
 equivalent to a weight of 1,000 pounds at a total expense 
 of $30. 
 
 Perhaps a majority of farmers will agree that $50, or 5 
 cents a pound, is nearer" the correct estimate. Right here 
 comes in one of the big facts of modern scientific cattle 
 raising. In the old, haphazard methods it required at least 
 two years, and often three, to secure a weight of 1,000 
 pounds. Progressive farmers today are aiming to do it in 
 one year, and this has been accomplished more than once. 
 The difference in cost is readily seen. A farmer who takes 
 two or three years to gain his 1,000 pounds will make 
 much less profit than the one who does it in a year. 
 
 The ability to produce baby beef on the basis of 1,000 
 pounds in twelve months is one of the most significant facts 
 in this discussion of cost. The market value of the feed 
 consumed is only one of several items. A farm represents 
 capital, especially when improved in a prbper manner for 
 
 100 
 
BEEF RAISING ON ORDINARY FARMS 101 
 
 handling live stock, and each animal produced must stand 
 for its proportion of this capital, as well as the expense of 
 maintenance and labor. It must bear its proportion of the 
 cost of a suitable sire and dam. The value of the pasture 
 occupied is to have its pro rata division, just as specifically 
 as the value of labor and management. There is no other 
 way to place farming on a business basis. When the full 
 records and estimates are made up, it will be found that 5 
 cents a pound is about the cost of beef production on the 
 average farm. This figure is not excessive or unfavorable, 
 as choice beef commands 8j4 to 9 cents, allowing a profit 
 of fully 3 cents a pound after paying the expense of 
 marketing. 
 
 Everything in the situation is encouraging to farmers, 
 but there is no prospect of a material decline in retail prices 
 for the benefit of city consumers. Excessive expenses in 
 connection with slaughtering and selling represent the dif- 
 ference between the 9 cents farmers receive and the exor- 
 bitant rates pa!id by consumers, ranging from 15 to 30 
 cents. Evidently the day of cheap meats has passed, but 
 still the more widespread production, coupled with foreign 
 competition, must operate to prevent a further advance. 
 More economical selling methods are the crying need of the 
 day, so far as city people are concerned. 
 
 Three cents a pound profit on the live weight of an ani- 
 mal makes beef production a good proposition for farmers. 
 It is not to be expected that all will secure thousand-pound 
 baby beeves, but the producer who gets 8cx) pounds will 
 have a net profit of $24 on each head. 
 
 Yearlings bought for feeders ought to return a profit of 
 $15 to $20 at twelve months. The average profit will be 
 less than for stock bred on the place. Those who have 
 capital to buy 50 or 100 two-year-old feeders and fit them 
 up as top-notchers, do well to earn a profit of $20 per head, 
 although $25 or $30 is not uncommon. But instead of buy- 
 ing feeders, every farmer should raise them, for he thus 
 gets two profits instead of one. 
 
102 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 The gain in soil fertility from this kind of farming is 
 hardly less than the cash profits, and no successful person 
 ignores this fact. It is claimed in connection with the 
 European cattle industry that many farmers feed live stock 
 wholly for soil betterment and not for cash profits. As 
 there is no system except mixed farming by which the 
 average land owner can make money, it is vitally important 
 that soil fertility be kept up. 
 
 For many years the low cost of raising cattle on the 
 large ranges of the west operated against small farmers. 
 Range competition could not be met, and the ordinary land 
 owner ceased to produce beef. Then his soil depreciated. 
 Now that the big live stock farmers of the frontier have 
 almost passed away, the cattle supply has run short and 
 prices are high. The small farmer has his opportunity 
 again, and there is a decided movement toward beef pro- 
 duction all over the country. The new conditions are by 
 far the best American farmers have ever known, and it is 
 easily seen that they can hold their own against the most 
 threatening of foreign competition. Free trade will not 
 hurt cattle raising in the United States, because there is a 
 . world shortage. The 6,ooo,ckx) farms in this country will 
 have to get into the industry on a larger scale than is now 
 promised, although the tendency in that direction is plain 
 enough, before the supply begins to catch up with the de- 
 mand. Farmers here can compete with Argentina because, 
 for one reason, we must raise cattle to enable us to success- 
 fully carry on mixed farming. 
 
 The special encouragement to farmers here comes from 
 high prices of beef and the improved methods of breeding 
 and feeding, which enable them to place 1,000-pound year- 
 lings on the market at a cost which leaves a substantial 
 profit. The range cattle of the west or of Argentina cannot 
 beat this baby beef. 
 
 The whole live stock situation, so far as it concerns the 
 grower of farm cattle, is a strong argument in favor of 
 better breeding and the production of a better quality of 
 
BEEF RAISING ON ORDINARY FARMS 103 
 
 cattle, because farm-grown cattle cost too much to enable 
 them to go in on the same basis with the rangers. 
 
 The solution of the problem is that cattle for farm feed- 
 ing on the farm scale of cost must be farm grown and of 
 the best possible breeding. They must be given good care 
 from start to finish, because the most profitable gains in 
 the weight and quality of any beef animal come in the 
 first few months of its existence. 
 
 It will be found that the market demand will compel 
 greater attention to quality and feed, because this is the 
 road to economical production, and economical production 
 is essential to success. Competition from other beef-grow- 
 ing countries may also be expected to increase, for none of 
 them are standing still. Those whose interests compel 
 them to take a large view of the subject feel confident 
 that changes are going on which will, in a comparatively 
 short time, practically eliminate the grass steer from the 
 slaughter market, ever3rthing being fed somewhere, either 
 on the ranges or in the present feeding districts. This 
 demand for quality will be better for both the ranges and 
 the farms. The ranges will not furnish as many cattle 
 as heretofore, but they will be better, and the absence of 
 glut will make prices of all cattle steadier. 
 
 The farm has advantages in the production of cattle that 
 range conditions can never afford, but the work is attended 
 with greater cost. The range has advantages which the 
 farm cannot hope hope for, and they are all in the direc- 
 tion of the production of cheap cattle. The farm must 
 avail itself of its advantages and produce only the kinds 
 with which the ranges cannot compete. 
 
 The opportunity in the way of beef production is tempt- 
 ing to modern farmers. The United States Department of 
 Agriculture has issued an estimate, based upon information 
 received from the field and State agents and correspondents, 
 to the effect that there is a relative shortage of approx- 
 imately 18,259,000 head of meat animals in the United 
 States to preserve the ratio between the number of such 
 
104 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 animals and population existing at the time of the 1910 
 census. In other words, estimating the population in 19 14 
 at 98,646,000, it is found that in order to maintain the 
 ratio of meat animals known to have existed in 1910, we 
 should require more of these animals than now exist by 
 8,536,000 head of beef cattle, 6,509,000 head of sheep, 
 and 3,214,000 head of swine. There appears to have been 
 an actual decrease of food animals since 1910 of 7,305,000 
 head, while the estimated value shows a total increase of 
 some $395,487,000 because of the higher prices, farm 
 values having increased from $19.07 to $31.13 per head for 
 beef cattle and from $9.17 to $10.40 for swine, while sheep 
 have fallen in average farm value from $4.12 to $4.04. 
 
 These striking figures give ample reason for the advance 
 in meat prices and also for the greater demand for poultry 
 and eggs at any given price level in comparison with con- 
 ditions prevailing only a few years ago. They show the 
 apparent necessity of opening our ports to the free importa- 
 tion of the world's production ; yet, in this connection there 
 arises the interesting consideration that if, as is indicated 
 by the government statement, the production of meat 
 animals is not profitable, even at the generally rising prices 
 of the past few years, it would seem that to force a lower 
 level to an equality with the world's markets will still 
 further discourage production and make us more and more 
 dependent upon importations, until such time as improve- 
 ments and economics of distribution can be made to carry 
 back to producers a large proportion of the retail prices, 
 or until a general decline in the cost of production or in 
 the profits arising from other departments of agriculture 
 make prevailing prices relatively more profitable. 
 
 In the raising of beef cattle it is necessary to have clearly 
 defined standards before the mind. A standard is a mental 
 picture of what the breeder desires. Without such a 
 standard all breeding will be without an object and will 
 generally attain to nothing of importance. 
 
 The country is full of cattle-breeders who have no 
 
BEEF RAISING ON ORDINARY FARMS 105 
 
 standard. They buy and sell any kind of cows and breed 
 to any kind' of a bull that happens to be handy. They have 
 done more to pull down standards than to bring them up. 
 They have had standards brought before them but have not 
 adopted any. If their children go on breeding as the 
 fathers are breeding they will not make any progress in a 
 thousand years of effort. 
 
 The standard of the breeder of fancy cattle is not the 
 same as the standard of the breeder of animals for the 
 butcher. Each must have a standard of his own. The 
 breeder of animals to be sold at a high price for breeding 
 purposes must have a standard before his eyes that has 
 already been set by the cattle judges. The nearer his 
 animals come to that standard the higher will be the price 
 they will bring. 
 
 All the animals that sell at high prices at the great 
 auction sales are those that come close to the ideal standard 
 of perfection established by the judges. Most of the high- 
 priced animals have taken prizes at the great shows. Some 
 beef bulls have been held at $10,000, because, in the great 
 competitive contests they won first place. 
 
 The breeder of fancy stock must therefore have this 
 kind of a standard before him, and for that reason he 
 should make himself familiar with the great prize winners 
 in the cattle rings. The standard may be faulty, but if so, 
 he has no recourse but to follow it. Every departure from 
 the accepted standard will mean a lessened chance to sell 
 his animals at high prices. 
 
 Most of our common farmers who are breeding cattle 
 are not raising animals to sell as breeders, but animals 
 which shall go to the butcher when fitted for it. They do 
 not care as much about the rules of the show ring as they 
 care about the standards that are found in the great stock- 
 yards in which animals are purchased for slaughter. 
 
 If they study the standards of those yards they will find 
 that the buyers do not care anything for markings or colors. 
 They do not care whether an animal is a grade or pure- 
 
106 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 bred so long as he has the right kind of meat on him and 
 that meat placed to the best advantage. More than once 
 a grade steer in the stockyards has brought a higher price 
 than the pure-bred by his side. 
 
 The farmer who breeds cattle out of which to make 
 meat needs to work as near to some one beef breed as 
 possible. The higher his grades are, the more they will 
 be sought after by the cattle buyers, and consequently, the 
 higher the price that will be paid for them. A buyer of 
 cattle who has grown old in the business says that he picks 
 out his steers largely on the degree to which they approach 
 some of the established beef breeds, for those breeds are all 
 beef producers. 
 
 AIM TO HAVE STANDARD CATTLE 
 
 Having established a uniform herd of vigorous cows 
 of good beefing quality, one has made a long step forward 
 toward the production of high-class steers for the market. 
 Important as are the cows in determining the quality of 
 the offspring, it is even more important that the herd be 
 headed by a thoroughly good bull; good not only in con- 
 formation, vigor and disposition, but in breeding as well. 
 It is not enough to know that he has a recorded pedigree, 
 or even that both his sire and dam were good individuals. 
 The generations before these have a powerful influence, 
 and one looking for a herd bull cannot be too careful to 
 assure himself that for several generations his parentage 
 have been good individuals and the cows copious milkers. 
 With a herd of good cows so headed the stockman has the 
 foundation laid for producing steers of the highest quality. 
 
 Owners of comparatively small herds, especially those 
 who milk their cows, as a rule prefer to have their calves 
 come in the fall, while ranchmen and others who prefer 
 to winter cheaply and allow the calves to run with their 
 dams, select the spring as the proper season for the calf 
 crop. In the autumn the cow is in fine physical condition 
 after her season's grazing, and therefore yields a vigorous 
 
BEEF RAISING ON ORDINARY FARMS 107 
 
 offspring. Then, with good stabling and feed, and a pains- 
 taking herdsman, the calf gets a fine start in life under 
 the direct eye and personal supervision af the owner. This 
 on high-priced land counts for much, as every pound of 
 food given should return a corresponding gain in weight. 
 Animals produced and grown for beef should be liberally 
 fed from birth until finished, so as to reduce to a reason- 
 able minimum the time of growing into the size and 
 condition for which the markets pay the highest price, and 
 this at the season of the year when values are at their 
 height. In practice, the most prosperous cattle feeders 
 who raise their own steers, market from March to July. 
 
 Beef production offers opportunity for profitable returns 
 and conservation of fertility without the heavy outlay for 
 labor and equipment necessary for success in dairying and 
 some other of the more intensive lines of agriculture. This 
 does not mean that there is no work connected with raising 
 and feeding beef cattle, but that there is less work and less 
 disagreeable work than in some other lines. 
 
 The growing of beef cattle on the average farm, rather 
 than grain growing and marketing, offers the land-owner 
 an opportunity to secure good returns from his farm with- 
 out the employment of much outside labor. Moreover, a 
 better class of men can be obtained for the beef cattle farm 
 than for the straight grain farm, for the former offers 
 steady, all the year employment, and attracts the better 
 grade of men who are looking for steady work. This 
 higher efficiency of help aids also in the production of 
 crops and the care of other stock aside from beef cattle. 
 
 It is best to use home grown rations to the greatest 
 extent possible. Use millstuffs, of course, but do so with 
 a view of enlarging the feed capacity of the farm. It 
 should also be the aim to fit beef for market at an earlier 
 age than has been customary. Baby beef is highly profit- 
 able when grown to a weight of i,ooo pounds at twelve to 
 fifteen months. Up to this age it costs less per pound to 
 produce the meat than at two or three years, and its quality 
 
108 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 is such as to command top-notch prices. If ever a farmer 
 can produce beef at three cents a pound it will be by 
 growing and fattening his own young stock and bringing 
 the animals to a weight of about i,ooo pounds before 
 they are eighteen months of age. 
 
 Holsteins, Guernseys and Ayrshires are distinctively 
 leaders in dairying, and still they are readily adapted to 
 general purpose projects. The Durham is another fine 
 producer of both beef and milk. Every farmer is coming 
 to see he should raise both cows and beef animals, to the 
 full capacity of his land. He can stop a lot of waste in 
 this way and gain a large addition to his income. While 
 it has to be admitted that there are fair profits and a cash 
 income from a dairy, the modern farmer is working away 
 from the single crop or the single interest of any kind. It 
 is now claimed that diversity is what American agriculture 
 needs, and on most farms this will include dairying, beef 
 raising, pork production, horticulture and various other 
 things. It is thought the most decided and immediate gains 
 will come from the breeding of a superior type of cattle 
 and working out schemes of feeding which will meet the 
 views of experts and scientists. Meat production is 
 naturally stimulated by the high prices, and is going to 
 receive a great deal of attention from farmers in the next 
 few years. 
 
 SELECT THE BEST FEEDERS 
 
 In nothing is the importance of a right start more vital 
 than in the fattening of live stock, and particularly cattle 
 for market. Many elements contribute to success, but 
 unless the start is right, skill and care count for but little^ 
 and failure is stamped upon the undertaking from the very 
 outset, unless indeed fortunate circumstances, such as a 
 combination of high priced beef and low priced feed, should 
 intervene. It is of the greatest moment, therefore, that 
 the feeder should select the right kind of cattle for 
 fattening. 
 
BEEF RAISING ON ORDINARY FARMS 109 
 
 Young animals bred or bought at home are not only- 
 healthier and cheaper, but make a finer quality of beef, 
 reaching i,ooo pounds quicker, by a month or six weeks, 
 than those brought a distance of 800 to 1,500 miles. Here 
 is another item of profit that is too important to be over- 
 looked. 
 
 The whole argument in favor of baby beef production 
 is clinched by the fact that beef is grown at less cost per 
 pound during the first year than afterward. It is the 
 opinion of many experts that it is much easier to reap the 
 big profits in meat production if cattle are finished for 
 market within eighteen months than if they are carried 
 along until two or three years old. Time is saved if an 
 animal can be brought to 1,000 pounds in fifteen months 
 by following a system of careful selection and scientific 
 feeding, for under the old methods they were not expected 
 to attain this weight under two years. A 3-year-old, 
 weighing 1,400 pounds, is not considered bad, but it is 
 easily seen that the real profits are in reaching 1,000 pounds 
 at fifteen months or less. That last 400 pounds costs as 
 much to produce as the first 1,000, and then the money is 
 turned over speedily and the farmer is doing as much 
 business in a year and a half as he has been accustomed 
 to do in three years. 
 
 Success in growing baby beef depends on the feed supply 
 and in keeping up a steady rate of increase. In sections 
 where grain is easily and cheaply raised and roughage is 
 scarce the fattening of young cattle can be made more 
 profitable than in sections where grain is scarce and high 
 and coarse feeds plentiful. A baby beef feeder should be 
 able to raise all his own feed, and his calves should come 
 from his own herd of high-type cows. If the calf is 
 allowed to become thin it cannot be fattened or properly 
 finished in the time aimed at. Baby beef must be started 
 from the moment the animal is able to take its first meal 
 and must be forced every moment from that day until it is 
 sent to the market. 
 
no WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 Sunshine and plenty of fresh air are among the 
 essentials, because they help digestion wonderfully. The 
 farmer who has an abundance of skimmed milk, alfalfa 
 and corn may produce baby beef at a large profit. Calves 
 can be raised in part on the milk until they are six months 
 of age, provided they have grain, hay and silage. Expe- 
 rienced feeders say they can make 400 pounds of baby 
 beef at six months, or before the animal has ever had a 
 pound of commercial feed. Up to six months it is not best 
 to give cottonseed meal. Then it becomes a regular part 
 of the diet. It goes without saying that a farmer will find 
 an advantage in such roots as beets, carrots and rutabagas. 
 Sugar beet pulp is excellent in this class of feeding as well 
 as in handling dairy cows. 
 
 As much fine fodder as calves will eat may be given, but 
 it should not be forced upon them. They should have a 
 good variety in order to make the ration palatable. Their 
 appetites must be kept on edge all the time and not be 
 allowed to fall off, because if the animals become overfed 
 it is almost impossible to bring them back to a keen condi- 
 tion. Cowpea hay is an excellent food for young calves, 
 because it is rich in protein, and it may be mixed with a 
 little clover or timothy. 
 
 Good results are also obtained from corn and cob meal. 
 Each calf should have its own separate place in which to 
 eat and drink, if such an arrangement can be made, and 
 if any individual in the herd is not thriving the demands 
 of its appetite should be studied. If the food is all put in 
 one common trough the stronger ones will crowd the weak 
 from their places and some animals will get more than 
 they need, while' others will not get enough. This always 
 produces a lot of uneven stock and generally spoils the 
 sale to the extent of wiping out the profits that would come 
 from a well-balanced lot. 
 
 Calves intended for baby beef should be allowed to 
 suckle their dams as long as possible in order to keep what 
 is known as calf fat — ^that is, the natural fat which is on 
 
BEEF RAISING ON ORDINARY FARMS HI 
 
 their bodies when born — and they must be taught to eat 
 ground corn almost from the first. It is not to be forgotten 
 that cottonseed meal is too strong for the digestive organs 
 of calves, but it will serve a good part in the ration after 
 six months. 
 
 Calves do better when housed apart from their dams 
 and let out to suck three times daily for the first month 
 and twice daily afterward. When allowed to run with the 
 dam constantly they not only worry and drag her down 
 unnecessarily, but depend upon the udder long after they 
 should commence to take food from the trough. 
 
 In almost every herd there are good cows that are tough 
 or otherwise troublesome to milk. It is the custom of some 
 to put two calves on these, allowing them to suck twice a 
 day for five months, when they are weaned, and a third 
 calf put on. Three very good calves can be raised on a 
 cow in one season with very little labor. 
 
 Many successful beef cattle raisers, more especially in the 
 older provinces, rear their calves at the pail. Opinion 
 appears to be divided as to whether the calf should be 
 removed at once after birth or allowed to suck for a few 
 days or longer. Those who favor the former plan claim 
 that it gives less trouble, as the cow does not fret so long, 
 and the calf that has never sucked is more easily taught 
 to drink. Either plan is satisfactory if wisely managed, 
 but for the production of baby beef the natural way of 
 feeding is best. 
 
 No calf intended for beef should be deprived of new 
 milk in the whole state for at least two vveeks. It does 
 not answer so well to give the milk of another cow unless 
 she, too, is newly calved, as the milk of a cow long calved 
 is very likely to cause digestive derangement in a very 
 young animal. Many of the most successful feeders con- 
 tinue feeding whole milk for four, or even five weeks, be- 
 lieving that it pays in weight made. It is an easy matter to 
 overfeed a young calf, causing indigestion and perhaps a 
 pronounced unthrifty condition. Three pints morning 
 
112 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 and night and two pints at noon for a few days is quite 
 enough, and this should be gradually increased to from 
 four to five quarts twice daily at the end of four weeks. 
 It is a comparatively simple matter to care for calves that 
 are allowed to suck. A copious milker will rear two calves, 
 leaving one cow to supply milk for other purposes. 
 
 The change from whole to skim milk should be made 
 gradually ; not more than one pint of the whole milk should 
 be substituted by skim at first, and this may be increased 
 day by day until in two weeks the change to skim milk will 
 have been completed. As the whole milk is taken out the 
 deficiency should be made up by adding a small quantity 
 of flaxseed jelly. To make this for one calf allow a dessert- 
 spoonful of flaxseed to simmer (not boil) in a pint of water 
 for several hours on the back of the stove, when it will 
 become a jelly. This quantity is fed twice a day, and 
 week by week increased, until when the calf is 3j^ months 
 old it is receiving the jelly of half a cup of flaxseed twice 
 daily. Some feeders use well cooked porridge made from 
 oatmeal and fine shorts, along with the flaxseed jelly and 
 milk, but in using these one has to exercise great care to 
 see that the food is agreeing with the calf. At the first 
 signs of poor appetite or scours a return should be made 
 to new milk for a few days, and after a complete recovery 
 the return to the mixture should be gradually made. Each 
 calf should be fed by itself out of a clean tin or galvanized 
 iron pail, which should be kept thoroughly sweet and clean 
 by washing. 
 
 Any carelessness in feeding or housing will show more 
 quickly in this class of animals than in any other, and a 
 little slackness is pretty sure to destroy profits. The 
 youngsters must be guarded and pampered from first to 
 last. If this can be done in a systematic, intelligent way 
 their growth will be surprisingly rapid and the quality of 
 the beef will be such as to command the highest market 
 price. 
 
 Without expending a great amount of capital the aver- 
 
BEEF RAISING ON ORDINARY FARMS 113 
 
 age farmer can make a success of baby beef production 
 by using any of the large types of grade cows, but the sire 
 should be the best beef animal that it is possible to obtain. 
 There is easily a difference of 5cx) pounds between the 
 scrub calf and the high grade beef animal at the age of 
 15 months. Not only that, but the quality of the finely 
 finished baby beef of good type is so much higher than 
 that of the scrub that it represents the difference between 
 failure and success. 
 
 There are few crops that offer the farmer a greater 
 opportunity to increase his profit in feeding operations 
 than soy beans and cowpeas. The success of hve stock 
 husbandry depends to a large extent upon the production 
 of home-grown rations. For proof of this statement, count 
 the men you know or have heard of that have made a 
 success of feeding stock on purchased feeds. If such a 
 system were profitable a few men surely would have found 
 it out. From this reasoning we may safely conclude that it 
 is good economy for most feeders to grow as much of the 
 feed consumed on the farm as possible. 
 
 The practice of feeding what is grown without regard 
 for the needs of the stock fed is altogether too common. 
 It has brought about a one-sided feeding system in which 
 too much corn and other carbonaceous foods and not 
 enough nitrogenous (blood and muscle forming) foods 
 are used. This system is uneconomical and any crops that 
 may be used to improve it. should be utilized to the best 
 advantage. Soy beans and cowpeas are not recommended 
 to take the place of clover and alfalfa on the farm. Neither 
 crop can successfully compete with clover in the production 
 of hay on soils that produce good clover. But on- thin, 
 sandy and clay soils that will not produce clover and when 
 clover fails, these crops may be grown as hay crops to good 
 advantage. 
 
 The value of cowpea hay is well recognized in the south 
 where it has been used extensively for many years. It is 
 relished by all kinds of farm stock. The North Carolina 
 
114 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 Station found that for feeding work horses, well cured 
 cowpea hay was equal, pound for pound, to wheat bran. 
 When the hay contains a fair amount of peas it makes an 
 excellent ration for wintering horses, mules and cattle. 
 The value of soy bean hay is not so well recognized as 
 cowpea hay, because it has not been used so long and 
 extensively. It is safe to state, however, that there is very 
 little difference in the value of the hay from the two crops. 
 Both hays have a higher feeding value than clover and 
 rank very favorably with alfalfa hay for the production 
 of milk. 
 
 MAKING AND FEEDING SILAGE 
 
 Silage during the last three decades has come into general 
 use throughout the United States, especially in those re- 
 gions where the dairy industry has reached its greatest 
 development. Silage is universally recognized as a good 
 and cheap feed, and particularly so for cattle and sheep. 
 
 Silage is the best and cheapest form in which a succulent 
 feed can be provided for animal use. An acre of grain can 
 be placed in the silo at a cost not exceeding that of shock- 
 ing, husking, grinding, and shredding. Crops can be put 
 in the silo during weather that cannot be used in making 
 hay or curing fodder, which is an important consideration 
 in some localities. A given amount of corn in the form 
 of silage will produce more milk than the same amount 
 when shocked and dried. There is less waste in feeding 
 silage than in feeding fodder. Good silage properly fed 
 is all consumed, and in addition very palatable. Like other 
 succulent feeds it has a beneficial effect upon the digestive 
 organs, and more stock can be kept on a given area of land 
 when it is the basis of the ration. 
 
 On account of the smaller cost for labor, silage can be 
 used for supplementing pastures more economically than 
 can soiling crops, unless only a small amount of supple- 
 mentary feed is required. Converting the corn crop into 
 silage clears -the land sooner than if the corn crop is 
 shocked and husked, and because of these advantages. 
 
BfifiF liAISlNd ON OiiDINARY FARMS il^ 
 
 silage, in the general opinion of dairy farmers, has in- 
 creased milk production per cow and has increased the 
 profits per acre. In all parts of the United States where 
 the silo has come into general use the principal silage crop 
 is corn. One reason for this is that ordinarily corn will 
 produce more food material to the acre than any other 
 crop which can be grown. It is more easily harvested and 
 put into the silo than any of the hay crops, such as clover, 
 cowpeas, or alfalfa. Furthermore, corn makes an excel- 
 lent quality of silage. The legumes, such as clover and 
 alfalfa, are liable to rot unless special care is taken to 
 pack the silage thoroughly and force the air out. The 
 only objection which has been raised concerning corn silage 
 is the fact that it contains insufficient protein fully to meet 
 the requirements of animals to which it may be fed. The 
 best variety of corn to plant is that which will mature and 
 yield the largest amount of grain to the acre, since the 
 grain is the most valuable part of the corn plant. The 
 variety commonly raised in any particular locality for grain 
 will also be the most satisfactory to grow for silage. 
 
 Cowpeas, alfalfa, and soy beans can be successfully made 
 into silage by exercising precaution. They should be cut 
 at the same time as for haymaking. However, it is ordi- 
 narily preferable, as with clover, to make them into hay 
 rather than silage. The fermentations which take place in 
 silage made of legumes cause a greater loss of nutritive 
 material than with corn silage. Corn husks and pea vines 
 from canning factories, beet pulp, and other by-products 
 are also used in certain localities for filling the silo. 
 
 Corn for the silo can be cut either by hand or by machine. 
 Hand cutting is practiced on farms where the amount of 
 corn to be harvested is so small as to make the expense 
 of purchasing a corn harvester too great to justify its use. 
 Hand cutting is slow and laborious, and there are probably 
 few localities now where the purchase of a harvester would 
 not be a profitable investment. 
 
 There are on the market several makes of silage cutters 
 
116 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 that will give satisfaction. The capacity of the machine 
 to be purchased is an important consideration which should 
 not be overlooked. Many persons make the mistake of 
 getting a cutter which is too small, thus making the opera- 
 tion of filling the silo very slow and interfering with the 
 continuous employment of the entire force of men. It 
 is better to get a machine large enough, so that every 
 one will be able to keep busy all the time. The larger 
 cutters are equipped with self-feeders, a labor-saving device 
 which the smaller sizes lack. 
 
 The usual length of cutting varies from one-half to one 
 inch. The latter is considered a little too long, since pieces 
 of this length will neither pack so closely in the silo nor 
 be so completely consumed when fed as will the shorter 
 lengths. On the other hand, the longer the pieces the 
 more rapidly can the corn be run through the cutter. 
 
 In case the corn has become too dry or ripe before it is 
 put into the silo, water should be added to supply the 
 deficiency of moisture necessary to make the silage pack 
 properly. Unless it is well, packed, the silage will "fire- 
 fang" or deteriorate through the growth of mold. Enough 
 water should be added to restore the moisture content of 
 the corn to what it would be if cut at the proper stage. The 
 water may be added by running directly into the silo by 
 means of a hose or by running through the blower. It is 
 claimed that by running it into the. blower the water is 
 more thoroughly mixed with the cut corn. 
 
 The high utility of silage in the summer has been so 
 thoroughly demonstrated within the last few years as to 
 need little argument in its favor. Dairymen and other 
 live stock feeders who have become thoroughly accustomed 
 to the use of silage now almost invariably plan to put 
 enough corn into the silo to last until the next crop is 
 ready for use. Where one silo does not provide room 
 enough, two should be provided to enable the storing up 
 of a supply of good summer feed, so as not to be dependent 
 upon pastures. 
 
Sheep Raising on a New Basis 
 
 Owing to the high price of meat animals, sheep raising 
 has been placed on a new basis. Sheep are being raised for 
 the mutton rather than for wool. It is still true, however, 
 that the annual fleece is worth about as much as it costs to 
 feed the ewe, so that the lamb is almost clear gain, and 
 finally the mutton goes to market one hundred per cent 
 profit. Sheep are the easiest of all animals to feed and 
 house. 
 
 Like the hog, the sheep has its peculiar ailments, which 
 sometimes result in loss as well as discourageinent. Unlike 
 the ailments of the hog, however, those of the sheep are 
 ordinarily not contagious, and the means necessary to pre- 
 vention are the same as should be adopted for the most 
 economical production, even in health. 
 
 A strong, vigorous sheep does not necessarily need to be 
 a large one; in fact, a majority of the strongest sheep are 
 of medium size. 
 
 Sheep are excellent farm gleaners, weed-killers and fer- 
 tilizers. Every sheep owner should keep a pure-bred ram, 
 but every man is not qualified to keep pure-bred stock. 
 
 Nothing need be wasted on the farm where sheep are 
 kept; tufts of grass, weeds and aftermaths and odd bits 
 of feed can be utilized and converted into wool and mutton. 
 No man ever lost money keeping a few sheep, unless there 
 was something wrong with his management, or unless they 
 were killed by dogs. 
 
 In many cases farmers who are encouraged to start in 
 the sheep industry do not care to employ the capital neces- 
 sary to carry on a feeding business, but they will establish 
 flocks and produce mutton from the ground up. This plan 
 has certain advantages. If an owner who is convenient to 
 any of the leading markets will aim to produce an extra 
 fine lot of lambs for the better class of trade there will be 
 
 117 
 
118 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 no difficulty in selling them at fully twice the stock yards 
 quotations. There is a distinct market for lambs at 30 to 
 40 pounds, and I have known them to bring as much profit 
 when less than 50 pounds in weight as they would bring at 
 100 pounds. This may depend on having private custom- 
 ers. The amount of grain required up to weaning time in 
 the pasturage season is trifling, even when given all they 
 will stand. 
 
 If they are to be crowded forward for marketing in May 
 or June, at an age of three months, and a weight of 30 
 pounds or more, they must be fed accordingly. This is a 
 hothouse lamb business. There is money in it, but few 
 farmers are prepared to carry it on. 
 
 I do not consider it as profitable to raise sheep for wool 
 as for mutton, but the two are so closely connected that they 
 can hardly be considered separately. It is possible to grow 
 a good, heavy fleece on a mutton carcass, and the sheep with 
 which this can be done is altogether the most desirable for 
 the average farmer to raise. It is a poor individual that 
 will not grow wool enough to pay for its keeping, leaving 
 the mutton as profit, and with a good, big, heavy shearing 
 sheep, it is possible to realize a profit on the wool, making 
 in this way the two sources of profit. 
 
 While the expense of maintaining a flock of sheep is light, 
 the addition to the income from a few lambs and the annual 
 fleece is attractive. The sheep raiser who puts his depend- 
 ence in any of the general purpose breeds and goes ahead 
 to produce as valuable a mutton carcass and as good a fleece 
 of wool as possible is pretty sure to come out all right. 
 
 Vicious dogs roaming at will through the country have 
 driven a great many farmers out of sheep raising. An 
 authentic case is reported from Michigan, where a flock of 
 more than 200 sheep were run to death in one night by two 
 cur dogs. Dog-proof sheepfolds can be built of woven 
 wire at small expense. 
 
 There has been a scare on the farming community for 
 several years, owing to free trade, and farmers have been 
 
SHEEP RAISING ON A NEW BASIS 119 
 
 led to place too much importance on wool. Except on the 
 range, where land is cheap, wool should be regarded as in- 
 cidental — a side line to help defray the cost of handling and 
 increase the profits. Keeping sheep for wool and the in- 
 crease is a doubtful proposition where land is high, but 
 there is little room for doubt on the point of mutton pro- 
 duction. Sheep are raised in England on high-priced land, 
 but they are raised as meat animals and not as wool pro- 
 ducers. Many land owners who are studying how to get 
 in line with the new order of things and pocket some of the 
 big profits which are going should get a flock of sheep 
 merely as one feature of progressive farming. I would not 
 advise any farmer to make this the entire industry of his 
 place, to the exclusion of cattle, hogs, horses and grain, but 
 sheep ought to have a place on the program, and they should 
 be protected and cared for as their nature demands. I con- 
 sider it a result of the high price of meat generally that the 
 value of sheep has increased somewhat in the last two years. 
 
 The consumption of mutton per capita in the United 
 States is increasing every year, though the amount used is 
 much less in proportion to other meat in Europe. There are 
 reasons for expecting a continuation of good prices for 
 mutton and lamb, and the demand for wool also may be ex- 
 pected to increase. 
 
 Nowhere in the country is there a big supply of sheep. 
 Production has been waning for a number of years, and 
 middle western states, where land values have risen fast, 
 are particularly short of mutton stock. When the wool 
 grower standardizes his clip to balance the high grade of 
 product which the foreign producers present to London and 
 Boston buyers, then will he need have less fear of his market 
 proving a bad one for him, and the endeavor of the national 
 wool growers' association to efifect a higher standardizing 
 of American wool will mean a more staple market for it in 
 the east. 
 
 If the wool is to be fairly uniform in structure and 
 length, the individuals in the flock must be similar in breed- 
 
120 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 ing. By using pure-bred rams of the same breed for a 
 series of years, any flock can be graded up so that the 
 type of wool will be sufficiently uniform in the particulars 
 mentioned to satisfy the demands of the market, provided 
 proper attention is paid to the fleeces of the rams purchased 
 and of the ewes reserved for breeding. The ewes should 
 be alike in fleece characteristics. 
 
 The prevailing blood in the farm flocks of the middle 
 west is of the English Down mutton breeds, such as Shrop- 
 shire, Oxford and Hampshire. Any of these, under favor- 
 able conditions, produces wool which will meet with ready 
 demand. So far as the wool product is concerned, the use 
 of rams of dififerent breeds is not only unnecessary but un- 
 desirable, as it lessens its uniformity. 
 
 If the animal is in poor health, the effect on the growth 
 of the wool is similar to insufficient feed. Sheep sometimes 
 shed or slip their wool as a result of a feverish condition. 
 Any severe illness extending over sufficient time to reduce 
 the animal in flesh will almost invariably cause a weak place 
 in the wool. In the production of good strong wool the 
 health of the animal is of vital importance. 
 
 While lack of uniformity in breeding, improper feeding, 
 and disease contribute to the criticism made against the 
 wools produced in farm flocks by far the greatest amount 
 of fault is found because of the foreign substances they 
 contain. Some of these substances get into the wool while 
 it is on the sheep, while others gain entrance through faulty 
 methods of shearing and packing. If there is a great deal 
 of foreign material in wool, it is impossible to remove all of 
 it through the process of scouring. If it is left in, the result 
 is a fabric with noticeable defects; if it is removed, it is 
 by treating with a weak solution of sulphuric acid and heat- 
 ing (a process known as carbonizing), which may weaken 
 the wool fibers. This not only lowers the value of the wool 
 for manufacturing purposes but also adds to its cost to the 
 manufacturer because he has to spend upon it the extra 
 labor of carbonizing. 
 
Quick Money Making in Pork 
 
 For quick money making, with small investment and easy 
 work, no branch of farm industry surpasses pork raising. 
 No feature can fit better into a little farm programme, and no 
 line of production is safer and more profitable on a large 
 place. 
 
 Hogpens may be of the most inexpensive kind, but they 
 must be kept clean. They need to be proof against drafts 
 and storms. Clean premises also are essential in guarding 
 against disease. Two to five acres of alfalfa or rape and 
 an acre or two of artichokes will provide practically all the 
 fodder required by a head of 50 to 100 pigs from weaning 
 till fattening time. 
 
 If a supply of skimmed milk or whey is available it will 
 pay to use it, and a light ration of corn or peas once a day 
 will be a help. The rape and artichokes may be depended 
 on to bring the animals on at a fair rate of growth all sum- 
 mer. Liberal feeding of corn for three or four weeks be- 
 fore marketing will assist weight and quality of flesh. 
 
 There is a distinct public demand for the meat of light- 
 weight hogs ranging from 200 to 300 pounds. The most 
 profitable pork is that grown in eight to ten months, or 
 from April to December, so that most of the growth is ob- 
 tained from field forage. 
 
 Perhaps as good a plan as any is to market the majority 
 of the hogs late in the fall and carry over the remainder 
 until they are sixteen to eighteen months old. The bacon 
 market calls for the larger animal, and prices are apt to be 
 higher in winter and spring than in the fall. 
 
 Whether on range or in pen, hogs should have a medicinal 
 ration made up as follows : One pound each of wood char- 
 coal, sulphur, salt, baking soda and sulphide of antimony. 
 Pulverize and mix thoroughly. Use a tablespoonful daily 
 for each pig from the time they are old enough to run in 
 
 121 
 
122 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 the field. Add a tablespoonful of bone-meal for each ani- 
 mal and mix the whole lot with enough moistened meal or 
 bran to make a palatable mess. Clean water and shade are 
 essentials. Dipping also is advisable. In cases of sickness 
 keep those affected away from the sound ones and take 
 prompt action to prevent the spread of disease. The ani- 
 mals should be carefully guarded against vermin, and if 
 lice appear there must be a thorough overhauling of the 
 premises and the application of reliable vermin destroyers. 
 
 All the breeds of hogs have their advocates. For general 
 purposes nothing is better than to use dams of Chester 
 White, Tamworth or Duroc type, crossed with males of the 
 Poland-China or Berkshire variety. This kind of breeding 
 will give large litters and good sized animals. 
 
 In this country the most popular breed has been the 
 Poland-China. This breed has many good characteristics. 
 It is a rapid grower, makes good use of food supplied and 
 can be kept ready for market at any time, either as a sucker, 
 porker or baconer. The litters are rather small, however, 
 and for this reason, as well as to get a more rangy ani- 
 mal for general purposes, farmers are disposed to cross the 
 breeds. 
 
 The selection of the male is of great importance, as he 
 directly influences every pig one may have to fatten, and 
 it depends on his breeding very largely whether or not the 
 pigs can make profitable use of the food given them. As 
 in the case of all sires, the male should be pure bred, of 
 approved strain, both with regard to capacity to put on 
 flesh rapidly and to influence the sow in the production of 
 large litters. 
 
 The dam need not necessarily be pure bred, provided she 
 is of a good type. She should be selected from a prolific 
 mother, as fecundity is hereditary. The teats should num- 
 ber at least twelve, fully developed, set well apart, even in 
 size, and the front teats well forward on the body. The 
 niunber of teats does not indicate always the number of pigs 
 she is likely to have. 
 
QUICK MONEY MAKING IN PORK 123 
 
 In any section where corn and alfalfa can be grown suc- 
 cessfully, and where other forage crops produce average 
 yields, the keeping of pigs should be a source of profit. The 
 advantage of this phase of live stock farming might be 
 briefly summarized as follows : 
 
 1. The initial investment is small as compared with other 
 lines of live stock farming. 
 
 2. It is easy to "get in" or "get out" of the swine busi- 
 ness. 
 
 3. Requires small expenditure for labor and is less ex- 
 acting and confining than dairying or garden farming. 
 
 4. Enables utilization of farm, kitchen, orchard, garden, 
 seed, mill and other waste products, without subjecting them 
 to expensive methods of preparation. 
 
 5. Breeding animals are prolific (deliver large litters), 
 thus enabling rapid and steady improvement by selection 
 and systematic mating. 
 
 6. The animals mature at an early age; require short 
 growing and fattening periods ; can be readily marketed at 
 any age or weight. 
 
 7. Necessary colony houses, fences and equipment can 
 be provided at small cost without need of expensive labor. 
 
 8. Manure voided worth $3.50 per ton. Soil fertility is 
 improved. Rooting improves clay soils and soddy orchards ; 
 while pigs scavenger and work over coarse barnyard ma- 
 nure and improve its texture and content. 
 
 g. There exists steady demand for meat or lard prod- 
 ucts ; meats may be cured or placed in cold storage. 
 
 10. Establishes a market for home grown feeds, thus 
 giving the farmer the grower's and feeder's profit. 
 
 11. It is much easier and far more economical to market 
 a ton of pork than five tons of corn, its equivalent. 
 
 12. Swine in the barnyard make dairying or beef pro- 
 duction more profitable, and the industry serves as a side 
 line to more extensive enterprises. 
 
 Hogs are easily affected by extremes of heat and cold, 
 and the character of their shelter will therefore depend on 
 
124 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 the locality. If the locality is one of severe winters, warm 
 quarters are a necessity. In erecting a piggery in the north- 
 ern latitudes four things should be especially considered — 
 (l) light, (2) ventilation, (3) warmth, and (4) cleanliness. 
 Ease of cleaning and dryness must be regarded. A well- 
 drained location should be chosen; one that will give the 
 hogs a good climb to reach it will provide needed exercise. 
 The house should be on a north and south line, so that both 
 sides may receive direct sunlight during a part of the day. 
 
 Under any circumstances the house should be well con- 
 structed and warm. If boarded up inside with good matched 
 siding, such a house will be comfortable in zero weather, 
 and sows may farrow there with safety. Concrete or brick 
 floors are expensive, but if the initial expense can be in- 
 curred and the floors are well laid they will pay good in- 
 terest in the saving of manure and the dryness of the house. 
 Animals should not be compelled to sleep directly on such 
 floors, for rheumatism and colds are likely to result. The 
 best floor for a sleeping or farrowing pen is one of wood 
 on concrete, the wood being 2 by 4-inch timbers, laid one- 
 fourth to three-eighths inch apart to allow drainage. If not 
 constructed in this way concrete and brick floors should be 
 kept well littered. A clay or ordinary earth floor is excel- 
 lent and by some preferred to any other. It is the warmest 
 floor, but not so easily kept clean as one of brick or concrete. 
 If a house is constructed with earth floors care must be 
 taken that the floors are well drained, both underground 
 and on the surface. 
 
 The greatest necessity for a good house is at farrowing 
 time, for it is then that more pigs die than at any other. 
 If the sow farrows in a damp or cold place or in drafts, 
 serious results to the sow or the pigs or to both will follow. 
 At this time the sow is seriously weakened, and she is very 
 susceptible to exposure, while newly born pigs are easily 
 stunted or killed by chilling. Rheumatic ailments are com- 
 mon with pigs, and are often caused by damp, chilly sleep- 
 ing places. 
 
QUICK MONEY MAKING IN PORK 125 
 
 The portable house is coming into general favor, espe- 
 cially in disease-infected districts. It is of various forms, 
 and should be large enough for five or six grown hogs, with 
 enough height to allow a man to stand erect ; 6 by 6 feet, 
 6 by 8 feet, or 8 by 8 feet are good sizes. Such houses 
 should be strongly constructed of good lumber, with per- 
 fectly tight siding and roof. They may be made with or 
 without floors. If lined inside with the same materials as 
 outside, such a house will be warm enough for a sow and 
 pigs in zero weather; and on extremely cold nights a lan- 
 tern hung in the house will provide additional warmth. 
 
 A leading advantage of a portable house over the piggery 
 system of several pens and a large number of hogs under 
 one roof is its ease of management in times of epidemic. 
 Only a few animals can be kept in one pen, and the isola- 
 tion of the diseased animals when an outbreak begins is thus 
 rendered comparatively easy. When cholera breaks out in 
 a crowded piggery every animal in the building is exposed, 
 and the farmer, though he may isolate the unaffected ani- 
 mals at once, does not know how soon the second outbreak 
 will occur ; he has no check whatever on the epidemic. But 
 with portable hog houses each house is itself a cholera 
 check, and only infection directly from diseased animals can 
 spread the disease. 
 
 The pen and yard for the boar should be separate from 
 the rest of the herd and out of sight of it. The pen should 
 be so strong that the boar cannot tear it down or go through 
 it, and a tightly fenced pasture of one-half to one acre in 
 area should adjoin. A sow about to farrow, if she is to 
 farrow in the piggery, can have the run of the alley for ex- 
 ercise. If she has a house to herself, a small yard should 
 adjoin. 
 
 No man should attempt to raise hogs without adequate 
 fencing of yards and pastures. An animal of any kind, but 
 especially a hog, can make itself an intolerable nuisance if 
 not confined within proper bounds. For pastures woven 
 wire is the best fencing material, all things considered. 
 
126 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 When hogs are run on annual forage crops, such as rape, 
 rye, wheat, oats, or sorghum, temporary fences are almost 
 absolutely necessary. They should be light, strong, and 
 portable. 
 
 The sow is unable to secure enough sustenance from corn 
 alone to build up the bodies of her young. For a litter of 
 nine pigs it is not possible for her to eat enough corn to 
 furnish sufficient calcium to build their bones, much less to 
 store up a supply in her own body for nourishing them 
 later on. Alfalfa and clover are especially adapted to the 
 brood sow because they furnish considerable protein and 
 mineral nutrients having an especially large proportion of 
 calcium and phosphorus, which are the elements most 
 needed. Furthermore, these hays are bulky in character 
 and tend to satisfy cravings of appetite without the disad- 
 vantage of overfattening. 
 
 If the hogs do not eat enough hay from the rack it is ad- 
 visable to chop it and mix it with the grain, thus compelling 
 them to eat it. Skim milk, of course, is exceedingly valu- 
 able, but ordinarily there is not enough of it to figure as a 
 very large factor in pork production. There is no one royal 
 way in hog feeding, but one must watch his markets and put 
 his interest into the work, fitting his methods to the par- 
 ticular situations he has to meet. 
 
 CONTROL OF HOG CHOLERA 
 
 During the last two years untold millions of dollars have 
 been lost through hog cholera. This tremendous waste has 
 aroused the farmers, the agricultural scientists and others 
 to the necessity of doing more than ever before to stamp 
 out the disease. The federal government in co-operation 
 with agricultural colleges, state experiment stations and the 
 states themselves, as well as localities, has inaugurated a 
 series of experiments with hog cholera serum to determine 
 if it is possible by proper regulation and proper administra- 
 tion of serum to completely eradicate the disease from any 
 given territory. The results of this work are exceedingly 
 
QUICK MONEY MAKING IN PORK 127 
 
 promising, but not yet conclusive. The disposition is to con- 
 tinue the effort. It is hoped that in the end cholera maj' 
 be completely eradicated from any locality or any state, 
 much as Texas fever among cattle has been stamped out 
 in the South. 
 
 It must be understood that hogs are subject to a great 
 many diseases. Ordinarily, when a hog becomes sick the 
 owner at once concludes he has cholera. Now cholera is 
 a specific germ disease, and acts upon the intestinal tract 
 of the hogs much as does typhoid fever in the human being. 
 Ulceration of the intestines results and finally death fol- 
 lows. Up to date it has not been possible to isolate the hog 
 cholera germ, consequently the manufacture of an antitoxin 
 has been extremely difficult. Hog cholera serum, however, 
 when properly made and properly administered, has greatly 
 reduced the mortality and it is upon this that scientists and 
 practical hog raisers base their hope of relief. 
 
 Until recently the manufacture of serum was confined 
 largely to state plants, those operated by agricultural col- 
 leges and the federal government. The demand for it was 
 so great that it was impossible to fill orders, consequently 
 a great many commercial serum plants were established. In 
 some cases, at least, the serum was not properly made, and 
 as a result the disease was increased rather than decreased. 
 Now all plants manufacturing serum for interstate ship- 
 ment must secure a federal license, after the plant has been 
 carefully inspected by a representative of the department 
 of agriculture. Unfortunately for a great many of these 
 concerns they could not pass inspection. In fact, aside from 
 the federal plants, a number of those operated by the vari- 
 ous states, and possibly a dozen commercial institutions, no 
 other concerns have a federal license. It has been recom- 
 mended, and the recommendation is a good one, that no 
 serum is to be used except from a. plant which has a proper 
 federal license. 
 
 The use of hog cholera serum seems to be the only effect- 
 ive method of combating the disease. The serum must be 
 
128 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 prepared right in order to protect hogs. That goes without 
 saying. Farmers must get their serum from the state col- 
 lege or from some commercial plant which has a federal 
 license. It is disastrous to attempt anything else. 
 
 Anti-hog cholera serum is used principally as a prevent- 
 ive. It may cure a large number of hogs at the early stages 
 of the disease. It is of particular value, however, for hogs 
 that are not visibly sick. 
 
 Then farmers should make careful preparation before be- 
 ginning the inoculation. Hogs that are sick should be sepa- 
 rated from those that are well and marked, so as to distin- 
 guish them. 
 
 Serum is administered by injecting deeply under the skin 
 with a hypodermic syringe. Before making the injection 
 care must be taken to see that the syringes and needles are 
 not only absolutely clean, but that they have been previ- 
 ously boiled in water for ten or fifteen minutes. This kills 
 all the germs and renders them absolutely sterile. It is a 
 good idea to see that the needle and syringe are kept per- 
 fectly clean and do not become soiled during use. Lay 
 them on a plank upon which a clean towel has previously 
 been placed. Before using the serum, pour into some re- 
 ceptacle with a cover, both the receptacle and cover having 
 been sterilized by boiling in water. The glass should be 
 allowed to cool before the serum is taken from it. 
 
 The serum is injected directly into the tissue on the inner 
 side of the thigh, or, still better, into the loose tissues be- 
 tween the forelegs and the body. The needle is injected 
 into the skin to a depth of from J/^ to i inch, depending 
 upon the size of the hog. Before the injection is made, the 
 skin of the hog over the part selected for injection should 
 be thoroughly cleansed by washing with soap and water. 
 Then the surface must be scrubbed with some reliable dis- 
 infectant. 
 
 Care should be used in estimating the weight of hogs, be- 
 cause the amount of serum required depends upon the size 
 of the hog. The dose is commonly given on the package 
 
QUICK MONEY MAKING IN PORK 129 
 
 in which the serum comes. Overestimate rather than under- 
 estimate and thereby be sure of giving an ample dose of 
 serum. After the injections are made the hogs must be 
 turned into a clean yard, free from mud holes and in- 
 fectious dust. They should be kept in this inclosure for 
 several days after the injection, so that the wound will 
 heal properly. During the time give them some easily di- 
 gested food. 
 
 There are three methods of applying anti-hog cholera 
 serum, and each has its value in its place. The first is the 
 serum alone method, the next is the serum virus method, 
 and the third is the double method, or a combination of the 
 serum alone and the serum virus method; that is a treat- 
 ment of serum alone is given and in ten or fifteen days the 
 serum virus method is used. This method is especially 
 recommended for high priced hogs, show animals, etc. 
 
 If hog cholera breaks out on a farm separate the sick 
 from the apparently healthy animals. Burn all carcasses 
 of dead animals on the day of their death. Do not leave 
 them unburned, for this will endanger all other farmers 
 in the neighborhood. The prevailing practice of rushing 
 sick hogs to market must be discouraged. Treatment with 
 the serum should be tried instead. If after observing all 
 these precautions hog cholera appears on your farm, notify 
 the state veterinarian or the state agricultural college, se- 
 cure the serum treatment and go ahead. 
 
 The destruction of the germs of the disease is essential 
 to success in eradicating hog cholera. Fire is the most 
 efficient means, and where it is applicable should be em- 
 ployed. Fresh air-slaked lime stands next in value as a 
 general disinfecting agent. Next in order is the "compound 
 cresol solution," made according to the formula of the 
 United States pharmacopoeia, and used in a 3% watery 
 solution. All these agents can be used to good advantage. 
 Lime should be used freely on the floors of hog houses and 
 over the grounds of the breeding pens and feed lots. The 
 litter and dung should be scraped into piles, mixed with 
 
130 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 fresh air-slaked lime, a little water added, and after stand- 
 ing two or three days, scattered on the fields. Whitewash 
 the inside of hog houses, or spray thoroughly with 33% 
 solution of compound cresol solution. 
 
 External parasites are a menace to the health of hogs. To 
 rid them and their quarters of these pests, a spray of crude 
 oil or kerosene emulsion is particularly recommended. 
 
 When the herd is infested with worms it is well to use 
 santonin six grains, calomel four grains per 100 pounds 
 weight of hog. Feed in a thin slop, after the hogs have 
 had no feed for a day or two. A good mixture to keep 
 before the hogs to prevent worms is : Sal soda three pounds, 
 glauber's salts three pounds, copperas three pounds, com- 
 mon salt three pounds, sulphur one pound, charcoal four 
 pounds. Mix thoroughly and keep in a trough in a con- 
 venient place. 
 
 From the time rye, wheat, clover or alfalfa starts in the 
 spring until the last pasturing goes in the fall, hogs should 
 be kept out in the fields. Rape planted in rows makes pas- 
 ture throughout the season and it can scarcely be equaled 
 as a forage for hogs. It cannot be urged too strongly to 
 keep hogs on the plowed fields rather than on permanent 
 pasture. This applies from the standpoint of health, labor 
 and soil fertility. A good three-year rotation for hogs is : 
 Corn and cowpeas, soy beans and rape. 
 
 The usual symptoms are, first listlessness, loss of appe- 
 tite, disinclination to move, weakness, high fever, gumming 
 of the eyelids, arched backs, and in some herds diarrhoea. If 
 the sick animals are examined closely red or purplish 
 blotches may be seen on the skin of the abdomen inside the 
 legs, and around the ears and neck. As a rule the progress 
 of the infection is so rapid that the hog is not greatly emaci- 
 ated before death, but usually dies in a few days in acute 
 outbreaks. On the other hand in the more sub-acute or 
 chronic hog cholera the pigs become very much emaciated. 
 
Butter Production on the Farm 
 
 With the rapid improvement in marketing facilities there 
 ought to be a greater production of choice butter on Ameri- 
 can farms. This is a money-making product and belongs 
 in the line of scientific and intensive farming. Every 
 farmer and farm housewife ought to understand butter 
 making, and a great many of them should take it up as a 
 business project and make it a prominent feature in their 
 daily programme. 
 
 The demand for choice dairy butter is practically unlim- 
 ited and prices are on such a level that the product can be 
 made to yield a high profit and bring a regular weekly in- 
 come to the farm. In the universal desire to place agricul- 
 ture on a commercial plane and have the cash rolling in at 
 all times of the year, no commodity is better than butter. 
 At the same time it would be folly for farmers to engage 
 in the production of butter unless they were determined and 
 prepared to supply an article of the highest grade which 
 would hold the patronage of a line of customers requiring 
 the best goods and willing to pay the highest prices. 
 
 Perhaps the first attempt at churning will not be a won- 
 derful success but it will only take a few times before the 
 difficulties will be overcome, and you will find that it is 
 just as easy to make a superior article as it is an inferior 
 one. It certainly will be money in the pocket to put out a 
 high grade article, for A No. i country roll can always 
 command as high a price as creamery butter. Some farm- 
 ers have adopted the plan of establishing a set price that 
 will be maintained throughout the year, and while this 
 scheme may be a saving in time in watching the markets, 
 it will not be found as profitaljle as sales based on the weekly 
 creamery market. Conditions so vary from year to year 
 that it is difficult to strike an average that will be fair to 
 
 131 
 
132 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 both buyer and seller, and for this reason I greatly prefer 
 the weekly price. 
 
 There is no one thing in dairying of more importance 
 than cleanliness, or keeping utensils in which milk is kept 
 clean. The cream separator is too often neglected on some 
 dairy farms. It should be thoroughly washed every time 
 it is used. I use a brush on every part of my separator, 
 using 5% solution of borax. Then I rinse in hot water. 
 Wiping with an ordinary clean cloth contaminates utensils 
 with innumerable bacteria. Bacterial contamination in milk 
 is increased by running it through a separator bowl which 
 has been used and only flushed. Improper cleaning is also 
 detrimental to a separator on account of the rust that ac- 
 cumulates in dirty and damp places. Running milk through 
 a dirty separator is like running it through a dirty strainer. 
 When properly cleaned a separator is a clarifier, but if not 
 kept clean is a source of filth and contamination. 
 
 The cows must be clean at milking time. If coated with 
 dust and straw, to say nothing of manure, the milk is bound 
 to be unclean. Cows cannot be kept clean unless the stables 
 are kept clean. Where the cows are kept in the stable 
 much of the time, the stable should be cleaned before each 
 milking. 
 
 Milk absorbs odors as readily as a sponge does water, 
 and any manure left in the barn at milking time is certain 
 to give a more or less perceptible manure flavor. But the 
 limit of filthiness is reached when stables and cows are so 
 dirty that some of the manure will actually drop into the 
 milk during milking. 
 
 Milk should be drawn so clean as to make straining prac- 
 tically unnecessary. This operation is frequently done under 
 the delusion that so long as it removes all visible dirt, the 
 milk has been entirely purified. The real harm, however, 
 that comes from hairs and dust particles dropping into the 
 milk is not so much in the hairs and dust particles them- 
 selves, as in the millions of bacteria which they carry with 
 them. These bacteria are so small that no method of 
 
BUTTER PRODUCTION ON THE FARM 133 
 
 straining will remove them. Straining cannot even remove 
 all of the dirt, because some of it will go into solution. 
 
 The only kind of bacteria that the butter maker wants in 
 his milk and cream is that which is responsible for the sour- 
 ing of these products. And the souring organisms are found 
 exclusively only in clean places. Unclean places always 
 contain bacteria which produce bad flavors in butter. 
 
 Now a word as to the treatment of the cream before 
 churning. Its richness should be about 30%. A very rich 
 or a very thin cream churns with difficulty. A centrifugal 
 cream separator is the ideal creaming device for getting the 
 cream in the best condition for churning as well as getting^ 
 all of the cream out of the milk. No farmer with four or 
 more cows can afford to cream his milk with anything but 
 a centrifugal cream separator. The saving of butter fat 
 alone will quickly pay for the separator. 
 
 Practically every farmer today has a separator, and in 
 this case the milk and cream are separated at once by run- 
 ning through the separator, but in case you are without this 
 most convenient and economical contrivance allow the milk 
 to stand for 18 to 24 hours in shallow pans, holding about 
 three inches of milk each, and then skim. Allow the cream 
 to ripen or become acid, asagreatdealof the quality of the 
 butter depends on the acidity. A good time to churn is just 
 after the cream has turned, and one or two experiments 
 will enable you to know just when it is at the right point 
 of acidity. The temperature must be maintained at an even 
 point, and 60 degrees will be found the most satisfactory 
 point for turning out good butter. Keep the temperature 
 of the churn room also at 60 degrees as nearly as possible, 
 for should it be at a much higher point than that of the 
 cream, salvy butter is likely to result. Avoid overchurn- 
 ing. Just the moment that the butter crystals have formed 
 remove from the churn, wash thoroughly to remove the 
 buttermilk, and then work. Salt is added at this stage, and 
 incorporated in the butter while it is being worked. Be 
 sure always to thoroughly remove all buttermilk, and then 
 
134 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 to thoroughly work in the salt. Use a good quality of salt, 
 for economy in this particular is apt to result in poor butter, 
 inasmuch as it is likely to give it a bitter taste, and not apt 
 to work into the butter readily, which will tend to give it 
 a mottled appearance. The majority of farmers work the 
 butter up into molds at once after adding the salt and work- 
 ing, but good results are also obtained by working in the 
 salt lightly, allowing the product to stand over night, and 
 completing the operation the next morning. 
 
 Souring or ripening the cream has the following advan- 
 tages : It produces the ideal flavor in butter, it makes cream 
 churn more easily, it obviates difficulties from frothing or 
 foaming in churning, it permits a higher churning tempera- 
 ture and it increases the keeping quality of the butter. 
 Cream from milk, produced under perfectly clean condi- 
 tions, will usually develop a clean, sour flavor when soured 
 at a temperature of about 70 degrees. A much higher tem- 
 perature will not produce quite so fine a flavor and will also 
 injure the body of the butter. At temperatures much be- 
 low 70 degrees cream will sour slowly and very slow sour- 
 ing is usually accompanied with the production of more or 
 less undesirable flavors. 
 
 The flavor of the butter is improved by souring the cream 
 with clean-flavored sour skim milk. As soon as the skim 
 milk has curdled it is thoroughly broken up with some kind 
 of a stirrer and then added to the cream at the rate of from 
 five to 20 pounds per 100 pounds of cream. Of course, 
 where cream is soured with skim milk it must be left richer 
 as it comes from the separator, because the skim milk will 
 reduce its fat content. The best flavored sour skim milk 
 for ripening cream is obtained by pasteurizing the skim 
 milk and then inoculating it with pure cultures of souring 
 organisms (starters), which are now extensively manufac- 
 tured and made use of by most of our creameries. 
 
 Cream when it enters the churn should have about 0.55% 
 acid. When this amount of acid has been reached, the 
 cream will have perceptibly thickened so that it will pour 
 
BUTTER PRODUCTION ON THE FARM 135 
 
 like syrup from a dipper. Special acid tests for determin- 
 ing the acidity of the cream are available and should be used 
 whenever possible. 
 
 One of the important points in souring cream is to pre- 
 vent oversouring, which is the cause of much rancid butter. 
 Better churn cream too sweet than too sour. 
 
 To secure the best results in churning, the temperature 
 must be such that the cream will chum in from 30 to 45 
 minutes. A reliable thermometer should also be used in 
 determining the temperature of the cream. If cream is 
 churned in less than 30 minutes there is usually a large loss 
 of butter fat ; if churned in more than 45 minutes, the re- 
 sult is a waste of time and labor and a less satisfactory con- 
 dition of the butter for subsequent handling. The churn- 
 ing temperature of cream varies with the breed of cows, 
 the stage of lactation and with the character of feeds fed. 
 Cream, as a rule, cannot be churned at the same tempera- 
 ture the year round. 
 
 The best churns are those with no inside fixtures, like 
 the common barrel chums. Before adding the cream, the 
 chum should be rinsed first with scalding water and then 
 with cold water. This will freshen the churn and fill the 
 pores of the wood with water, so that the cream and butter 
 will not stick. Cream should always be strained into the 
 churn. This removes the possibility of white specks in 
 butter, which usually consist of curd or dried particles of 
 cream. One thickness of cheesecloth makes a good strainer. 
 
 Butter should not be churned into big lumps, because the 
 buttermilk will then be hard to remove and there will also 
 be difficulty in distributing the salt. Butter should be 
 churned until the particles are about half the size of a pea. 
 When this stage is reached remove the buttermilk and 
 wash the butter with clean, pure water, having as nearly as 
 possible the temperature of the buttermilk. If the butter 
 does not float well when drawing the buttermilk, add some 
 cold water to the churn. 
 
 Salting is, of course, largely influenced by the require- 
 
136 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 ments of the trade. When artificial coloring is required use 
 nothing but the very best quality of vegetable coloring, and 
 sparingly. 
 
 You will have observed from the above that the things 
 which must be thoroughly observed are cleanliness, the 
 acidity of the cream, the thorough washing of the butter, 
 and the working, and when these points are carefully ob- 
 served, you are pretty sure to have high class butter. There 
 is one point, however, that I have not yet mentioned, and 
 that is moisture. While the farmer is not held responsible 
 for producing high moisture butter, a grocer is held to be 
 guilty if he sells butter containing more than i6% moisture 
 (the percentage of water allowed by the government), and 
 once your butter has been found to be carrying more than 
 the lawful percentage, you are pretty sure to reap the result 
 in loss of customers. 
 
 When the butter fat contains more than the usual amount 
 of olein and volatile acids it will be softer, and the result- 
 ing butter will more readily retain moisture. Butter fat 
 with large globules is softer and retains moisture more 
 readily than does fat in which the globules are smaller. 
 These two factors, the chemical composition and the size 
 of the fat globules, are controlled by the breed of the cow, 
 the time in the period of lactation, and the kind of feed 
 that is given. 
 
Com One of the Most Valuable Staples 
 
 Corn is one of the most valuable of agricultural staples, 
 and in fact may fairly be classed as the most important of 
 all crops, considering its value to man and beast and its 
 money making possibilities on the farm. It is a crop that 
 requires great care, not to speak of scientific knowledge. 
 Skill and industry in com growing account for the differ- 
 ence between this nation's average of 30 bushels an acre 
 and a crop of 100 bushels, which is about the average in 
 competitive experiments. In ordinary farming where skill 
 and common sense are combined a yield of 75 bushels of 
 corn is not too much to expect, and this kind of farming 
 is worth while. At the general average of 30 bushels there 
 is little profit. 
 
 Fall plowing is best, and the ground should have an ap- 
 plication of five to ten loads of barnyard manure on each 
 acre. A liberal use of manure will pay even on clover sod. 
 Make sure that the soil is not lacking in humus. The en- 
 riching of the land is of great importance. After continual 
 cropping and selling grain off our once virgin and fertile 
 soils we are face to face with sterile fields, and the key to 
 the situation, as I see it, is the dairy cow or an equivalent. 
 By taking advantage of the suggestions of our experiment 
 stations the yield of corn can be greatly increased. A care- 
 ful study of the conditions that produce short fodder and 
 nubbins, or rank fodder and no ears, or rank fodder and 
 big, soft ears that grow indifferently, will pay. 
 
 See that the soil has been thoroughly drained and fitted 
 with care and judgment, plowed deep, and made firm and 
 mellow. See that a sufficient amount of fertilizer has been 
 worked in, by one means or another, but preferably barn- 
 yard manure from the dairy cow, as she consumes much 
 of the feeds that contain a high manurial value. Planting 
 
 137 
 
138 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 in hills is desirable, so far as good, clean cultivation is con- 
 cerned, for, one season with another, hill corn is more easily 
 cultivated and gives better grain yields than drill corn. 
 After planting, it is a good plan to roll and then harrow 
 twice. A little later start the cultivator to get the weeds. 
 Give two cultivations, once each way, which thoroughly 
 stirs all the ground around the hill. This is very important, 
 for he who fails to get the weeds then usually loses out 
 when it comes to later cultivations. Aim to go through the 
 corn once a week with the weeder for the seven or eight 
 weeks from time of planting until July 8 or lo. During 
 the heat of the summer keep the crust broken and form a 
 dust mulch, which proves very beneficial in that it prevents 
 the escape of the moisture which the growing corn so badly 
 needs. During July and August the life of the corn plant 
 lies in the care and cultivation given it and the light sur- 
 face cultivation can be continued indefinitely as long as the 
 corn stands up, allowing the passage of a horse and wheel 
 between the rows. 
 
 Any of the dent varieties are suitable for the North. I 
 have found it unwise to attempt to introduce the big south- 
 ern open end kernel generally in the middle West, because it 
 grows indifferently, and requires the lengthy season not 
 always to be had. 
 
 When the hills of com are 42 inches apart an acre has 
 in it practically 3,500 hills. If each hill has one stalk which 
 produces one average ear weighing fourteen ounces we 
 have a yield of forty-five bushels per acre. In the North 
 the ears are smaller but the hills are closer and in the South 
 the ears are larger while the hills are farther apart. So the 
 average in localities is practically the same. Even if each 
 hill produces only a nubbin which weighs half as much as 
 a good average ear the yield will exceed the averages of 
 several states and many localities. It does not require a 
 very fertile soil to produce one ear per hill. So it is seen 
 that in most cases we are failing to grow an average of one 
 stalk per hill. There may be two or three stalks in some 
 
CORN ONE OF THE MOST VALUABLE STAPLES 139 
 
 hills while in others there may be not one stalk or possibly 
 some of the stalks are dwarfed and stunted because they 
 had a poor start from the seed in the beginning. So the 
 whole thing resolves itself to the insurance of a good stand 
 as one of the greatest factors in crop production. 
 
 In the spring of 1912 the Extension Department of the 
 Indiana Experiment Station tested samples of seed corn 
 which were secured from the farmers out of the lots of 
 corn to be used for seed by them that spring. The results 
 of these tests showed that the losses in those different cases, 
 if the corn had been planted without testing, would have 
 varied from $1.50 to $14 per acre. 
 
 The data given in the report of this test again shows very 
 conclusively one of the chief reasons why our average yield 
 in com is so low, namely, the lack of testing seeds before 
 planting. The testing of seeds does not only show us which 
 or how many will germinate but also shows the relative 
 vitality or strength of the germ. 
 
 It is known that about fourteen ears of com are required 
 to plant an acre. With a yield of 70 bushels per acre, each 
 of these 14 seed ears produces five bushels, which, valued at 
 50 cents per bushel, amounts to $2.50. Can you afford to 
 plant a weak or a dead ear? 
 
 With a germinator, one man can make an individual ear 
 germination test of from five to six bushels per day. The 
 task of germinating corn for the average farm is small. 
 Arrange to test every ear. Every weak ear that goes to the 
 planter means several hundreds of weak plants or vacant 
 spaces in the field, and a corresponding loss in yield. 
 
 The Indiana station describes a convenient tester made 
 of a wooden tray about two inches deep filled with soil or 
 sand with cross wires near the surface, making squares a 
 little over an inch wide. In each of these squares five ker- 
 nels taken from various parts of a seed ear are placed and 
 a record kept of each ear and each square. The grain is to 
 be kept covered with one or two layers of cheesecloth • or 
 canton flannel. The soil is kept moist and the tester is kept 
 
140 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 in a room where the temperature is near 70 degrees. All 
 kernels which do not send out vigorous root and stem 
 sprouts within four or five days under these conditions 
 should be considered as too weak to germinate properly 
 under ordinary field conditions and the ears from which 
 they came should be discarded. 
 
 The bureau of plant industry at Washington gives the 
 following method: A germinating box can be made in a 
 few minutes' time from any boards picked up about the 
 cribs or other farm buildings. The box should be about 
 Ij4 or 2 inches deep inside and the length and width such 
 as to suit the needs of the individual farmer, but it should 
 not be made water-tight. Instead of filling the box with 
 sand, soil, or sawdust, as is commonly recommended, the 
 seed bed is made of heavy canton flannel or similar ma- 
 terial, having two or three thicknesses of cloth in the bottom 
 of the box and one or two thicknesses of cloth for cov- 
 ering the kernels after the square has been filled. A new 
 cloth should be thoroughly washed before using. 
 
 If canton flannel is to be used, it is well to bear in mind 
 that it comes 27 inches wide. A box may be made just the 
 right width for the canton flannel once folded, allowing for 
 shrinkage. With a lead pencil, mark the cloth into squares 
 2 inches each way. For use, first wet the cloth thoroughly 
 by soaking in water and then place the half of the cloth, 
 double thickness, which has been marked in squares in the 
 bottom of the germinating box. The kernels from ear No. 
 I are then placed, germ side up, in square No. i, and so 
 on. When all of the squares have been filled, fold the 
 other end of the cloth carefully over the kernels. If dur- 
 ing the sampling the cloths have become dry, sprinkle them 
 well with water. Cover the box with a piece of glass (oil- 
 cloth may be used) to prevent the evaporation of the water 
 from the cloths, and set the box aside for a few days to 
 await the results of the test. 
 
 The principal advantage of a germinating box of this 
 kind is that it is almost impossible to injure the corn by 
 
CORN ONE OF THE MOST VALUABLE STAPLES 141 
 
 the addition of too much water, as is frequently done where 
 tests are made in soil or sand. Moreover, the entire de- 
 velopment of each kernel, both root and stem, can be ob- 
 served and the sampling can be done in about one-half of 
 the time required when sand or soil is used. 
 
 If the preliminary work has been well done the germinat- 
 ing box will need but little care until the sprouts are ready 
 for counting. The moisture necessary for germination is 
 supplied from the w«t cloths, and in most cases the first 
 wetting will be sufficient to complete the test. However, 
 if at any time the cloths become dry they should be mois- 
 tened by sprinkling a little water over the top. If a piece 
 of glass is used for the cover, as recommended, the amount 
 of water condensed on the under side of the glass will usu- 
 ally show whether there is a lack of moisture. 
 
 Corn germinates best at a temperature alternating be- 
 tween 65° and 85° F., representing in a way what actually 
 takes place in nature, the higher temperature prevailing 
 from 4 to 6 hours during the day and the lower tem- 
 perature at night. Temperatures such as are found near 
 the stove or furnace in an ordinary country home approach 
 these conditions quite well. It is important, however, that 
 the temperature does not get too low during the night; a 
 drop much below 55° F. will seriously affect the reliability 
 of the test. 
 
 The production of seed corn may be made exceedingly 
 profitable. The following directions for planting and con- 
 ducting a "seed corn patch" are from a circular of the Pur- 
 due Exr riment Station: 
 
 1. Select from 50 to 100 of the best and most typical 
 ears of corn from the seed which you aim to plant. 
 
 2. Make a germination test of each ear, in order that no 
 weak ears may be planted. 
 
 3. Shell off and discard the small and irregular grains 
 from the tips and butts of the ears. 
 
 4. Shell the ears together and mix thoroughly. 
 
 5. Test the planter with this corn, and adjust the plates 
 
142 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 until the desired number of kernels can be secured 90 to 
 95 times out of every 100 drops-. 
 
 6. At the usual time of planting, plant this corn in a 
 small field by itself, or on the south or west side of a field 
 to be planted with the same variety. Do not plant on south 
 or west side if that is near a cornfield planted with another 
 variety. 
 
 7. Give usual good cultivation, keeping the ground free 
 of weeds, and preserving a loose soil mulch. 
 
 8. After the corn is five or six inches high, go through 
 the patch and remove all the weak and backward plants. 
 
 9. When the tassels begin to appear, remove them from 
 all stalks which are either weak, barren, smutted, badly 
 suckered, or for other reasons undesirable. 
 
 10. When the corn is mature, the seed should be har- 
 vested. These seed ears should be taken only from the 
 strongest stalks, and those bearing the ear at a convenient 
 height, and holding it in the right position. 
 
 11. The corn should be put in a dry place, where each 
 ear will be subjected to a constant circulation of pure air. 
 It should be thoroughly dry by the first of December, and 
 should be protected throughout the winter from all sudden 
 or extreme changes of temperature or humidity. It must 
 be kept above the freezing point until thoroughly dry. 
 
Preparation of Land for Wheat 
 
 There is a lesson for wheat farmers all over the United 
 States in some yields obtained on the farm of the Kansas 
 agricultural college. It is a lesson in the preparation of 
 land for wheat. Sixteen and two-thirds bushels of wheat 
 was the acre-yield on a piece of upland, prepared in a way 
 common among Kansas farmers — ^plowed 3 inches deep 
 September 15. The same kind of wheat, grown on the 
 same unmanured upland, but in rotation and on a seed bed 
 made the right way, plowed 7 inches deep July 15, yielded 
 44% bushels to the acre. The difference of 28 bushels in 
 the yields of these two fields was due wholly to different 
 methods of preparing the land before seeding. 
 
 This striking variation in yield, regarded by Henry J. 
 Waters, president of the Kansas college, as one of the most 
 important recent results in wheat experimentation, is not 
 the result of a one-year test only. The results of three 
 years' trial, in which similar and equally striking variations 
 have occurred, corroborate this year's conclusions. To 
 Kansas farmers, at least, the college has proved conclusively 
 what it set about to do three years ago : That Kansas' low 
 acre average for wheat, something over 13 bushels, could 
 be doubled by a change in the ordinary methods of prepar- 
 ing land for this crop. 
 
 It doesn't cost much more to prepare a seed bed right, 
 the Kansas college men learned. The 45-bushel yield was 
 obtained at a cost of $4.85 an acre to prepare the land. Fig- 
 uring the wheat at the price current at harvest time, 80 cents 
 a bushel, this left $30.88 an acre over the cost of preparing 
 the land. 
 
 Early plowing alone was responsible for doubling the 
 yields over late plowed land in several instances. A plot 
 plowed 7 inches deep July 15, on land continuously cropped 
 
 143 
 
144 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 to wheat, yielded 35 bushels an acre, while a similar plot 
 of land, plowed 7 inches deep September 15, yielded only 
 17}^ bushels. Where wheat had been rotated with corn 
 and oats, the gain from early plowing was 20 bushels to 
 the acre in one case. A field plowed 3 inches deep July 15 
 yielded 44 bushels to the acre, while similar land plowed 3 
 inches deep September 15 yielded 25 J^ bushels. Where 
 rotation is practiced, deep plowing every year is not es- 
 sential. Three-inch plowing July 15 gave nearly the same 
 yield as 7-inch plowing on the same date in one case, be- 
 cause the land had been plowed deep during the two pre- 
 ceding years when com and oats, respectively, were grown. 
 
 Disking alone was found to be a poor method of prepar- 
 ing a seed bed. On light types of soil this method has pro- 
 duced satisfactory crops of wheat for a single season, but 
 when the method is followed year after year it cannot be 
 expected to equal plowing or any other good method of 
 preparation. In this test a plot which had not been plowed 
 for three' years was prepared for wheat by disking just be- 
 fore seeding time. The yield from this plot this year was 
 only gys bushels an acre, and the average yield for the last 
 three years has been only 6% bushels an acre. Such a yield 
 is not sufficient to pay for the cost of production. 
 
 There is no doubt of the benefit resulting from double 
 disking ground early in the season when it cannot be plowed 
 or listed. Such cultivation at this time not only insures an 
 increased yield of wheat, but holds moisture in the ground 
 so that plowing can be done later with greater ease and at 
 less expense. Listing, too, was found to be a good method 
 of preparing a seed bed for wheat, providing the work is 
 properly done. Ground can be listed more rapidly than 
 it can be plowed, thus where a large acreage of land is to 
 be prepared it can be done earlier in the season by listing 
 than by plowing. When listing is the general practice fol- 
 lowed it is better to plow the land occasionally. Plowing 
 pulverizes and inverts the soil more thoroughly than listing, 
 thereby putting it into better physical condition. 
 
PREPARATION OF LAND FOR WHEAT 145 
 
 The greatest income from the land which is sown to 
 wheat is not merely a matter of proper seeding, correct 
 harvesting and handling of the grain, but along with this 
 must be systematic management of the field, from the time 
 the wheat-plants come through the ground till next spring. 
 
 Ordinarily, the farmer can add to the profits accruing 
 from the wheat-field by utilizing it as pasturage during the 
 late fall and while there are doubtless some sections which, 
 on account of late sowing, will not produce a growth of 
 sufficient height to warrant pasturing it, there are many 
 places where it will be large enough to graze. 
 
 It should be understood that the pasturing of wheat must 
 be most conservatively managed. There should be only 
 such a number of stock run on it as will graze the growth 
 lightly — simply nip the plants back. This grazing not only 
 enables the farmer to save his stored feed supply for mid- 
 winter feeding, but the nipping back of the plants will pre- 
 vent too extensive stooling in case the weather remains 
 warm and the wheat makes a rapid growth that will reach 
 the stage of "jointing" before winter, which process is to 
 be avoided. It must also be borne in mind that the wheat 
 field should not be pastured while the ground is soft and 
 spongy, or while the surface of the ground is thawing out 
 in the morning after a light freeze the preceding evening. 
 
 W. P, Smith, who owns a farm in the central part of 
 the corn belt at Monticello, 111., has given much thought to 
 the successful growing of fall wheat. The prevailing 
 method in that vicinity has been to either plow the oats 
 stubble in the fall and after thorough preparation of the 
 soil to drill about ij4 bushels of seed wheat per acre, or 
 to use a one-horse drill and seed between the corn rows 
 of the standing corn, or use a standard drill and drill in the 
 corn stubble where the corn had been cut and shocked. 
 
 Mr. Smith thinks either of the last two methods slovenly 
 and should be resorted to only when, by reason of drouth, 
 fall plowing is impossible, no other method being practica- 
 ble. Having made up his mind that the first method was 
 
146 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 the nearest ideal, he applied his mind to trying to improve 
 on the old plan. 
 
 He noticed that some people drilled their wheat north 
 and south, and others east and west, and of recent years 
 many fields are seen where the drill is driven around the 
 field, beginning on the outside and finishing in the center. 
 
 The first objection to this method of seeding was that if 
 the seed was good the plants were too thick and crowded 
 in the row, interfering with stooling, while between the 
 rows was twice as much land upon which nothing was 
 growing, thus giving the weeds a chance. As the wheat 
 plant is not cultivated after sowing this surplus ground 
 between the rows is clearly waste land. The second objec- 
 tion noticed was that some years the wheat drilled north 
 and south perished, while that drilled east and west sur- 
 vived; the next year the reverse occurred — why? The 
 reason is obvious, the prevailing winds during cold and 
 snowy weather were responsible. The obvious answer is 
 to drill both ways. 
 
 The resulting advantages are a better distribution of the 
 seed over the ground, a double cultivation of the soil, put- 
 ting the seed bed in better condition to hold the snow and 
 withstand the effects of the wind. Mr. Smith also uses 
 more seed, drilling three pecks each way, or ij^ bushels 
 in all. 
 
 Now, the all-important question would be, what has been 
 the result? Three years ago Mr. Smith's field yielded 
 at the rate of 35 bushels per acre and neighboring fields 
 drilled one way yielded from 20 to 25 bushels. Two years 
 ago his wheat yielded 15 bushels, while but few of his 
 neighbors harvested theirs, either sowing oats in the wheat 
 or plowing up and putting the land in corn. Last year, 
 1913, his wheat yielded 32^^ bushels, his neighbors' 20. 
 
Great Value of Alfalfa and Other Legumes 
 
 A VALUABLE characteristic of alfalfa is that it grows profit- 
 ably on hilly and even gravelly or sandy land. It some- 
 times turns the poorest part of the farm into a state of 
 great productiveness and money making. 
 
 Besides its ability to thrive on the poorest land of the 
 older states, alfalfa is particularly fitted for cultivation on 
 the prairies — on arid or semi-arid lands. It does not re- 
 quire an excessive amount of moisture to thrive, and it 
 can withstand long seasons of drouth. When moisture is 
 supplied it resumes rapid growth with apparently no set- 
 back due to the forced standstill. It is during July and 
 August, our hottest months, that this plant makes its most 
 rapid growth, provided the moisture is not exhausted. 
 
 On dry farms the second and third cuttings are lighter 
 than the first, from the fact that the growth of the plant 
 up to the first cutting uses up the moisture to a large de- 
 gree, and unless timely rains come, the soil is often too dry 
 to produce a very heavy crop afterwards. 
 
 Select land that is well drained, not necessarily land that 
 is high and exposed, but it must not be wet or soggy, and 
 the ground water should never be closer to the surface than 
 three to five feet at any time during the year. This is 
 quite important, as alfalfa is not a plant that will tolerate 
 "wet feet." It prefers a sandy soil with an open subsoil, 
 though this is by no means essential to its success. River 
 bottom land often offers ideal conditions for its growth. 
 
 The land should have been under cultivation a sufficient 
 length of time to have killed out the wild grasses, for it 
 has been found that if these wild grasses come up to any 
 extent during the first or even the second season, in a field 
 sown with alfalfa, they retard the growth of the alfalfa 
 plants, which are easily injured in this way until they 
 
 147 
 
148 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 become well established. The ideal condition of soil would 
 be to take ground on which potatoes or other hoed crops 
 have been grown, or summer fallowed land, and prepare 
 the seed bed by disking or harrowing, or both. If the land 
 is in suitable condition, it is better not to plow in the spring. 
 If such conditions are not obtainable, stubble land may be 
 used by plowing and preparing a good seed bed. 
 
 As alfalfa furnishes a very nutritious hay, being par- 
 ticularly rich in nitrogenous or flesh producing constituents, 
 and as it yields heavily, it might be expected to impoverish 
 the available nitrogen in the soil and thus diminish its fer- 
 tility very rapidly. Nature, however, arranges for any 
 heavy draught on the nitrogen of the soil that might accom- 
 pany the growing of alfalfa or other legumes through the 
 agency of certain bacteria that live on their roots. These 
 bacteria have the ability of using the free nitrogen in the 
 air, present in the soil, and passing it on to their host plant, 
 the alfalfa or other legume, in such a form that it enters 
 the general circulation of the plant to build up its various 
 tissues of leaf, stem and root. These bacteria may develop 
 rapidly, and thus store up very large amounts of nitrogen 
 in the legume crop. The decay of the roots, and of the 
 whole plant when plowed under enriches the soil in nitro- 
 gen, and thus it is that the growth of alfalfa, or other 
 legume, invariably increases the soil's fertility. In alfalfa 
 districts in the west, however, it is not customary to plow 
 under any of the top, for it has been found by experience 
 that after a field has been growing alfalfa four or five years, 
 or more, the soil is as rich in nitrogen as is desirable for 
 ordinary grain crops. 
 
 Sometimes these bacteria, which live on the roots of the 
 alfalfa, are not present in the soil when the field is sown, 
 with the result that the crop grows well the first season, 
 as difficulty in obtaining a stand is rarely met with, but in 
 the summer following the plant indicates lack of vigor, 
 quite often assuming a light or yellowish color. The cause 
 for this condition is ascribed to the fact that the plants. 
 
VALUE OF ALFALFA AND OTHER LEGUMES 149 
 
 being such greedy feeders, have used up a great portion 
 of the available nitrogen the first season, and consequently 
 lacked a sufiScient supply for the second year's growth. 
 During this second season, spots from one to two feet in 
 diameter may be observed where the foliage is a rich dark 
 green, and the plants are taller than the majority of those 
 in the field. Where these dark, healthy spots are, no doubt 
 bacteria are present, being introduced by the germs being 
 on individual seeds or on foreign matter in the seed, or 
 possibly were present in the native soil, having previously 
 lived on the native vetches or peas. 
 
 The presence of bacteria on the roots of alfalfa is indi- 
 cated by small whitish nodules, about the size of a pin 
 head, or smaller. These often form in clumps, resembling 
 somewhat a miniature bunch of grapes, and are more often 
 found on the newer roots. When looking for these bunches 
 great care should be taken or they will be entirely stripped 
 from the roots as the plant is lifted. 
 
 It has been found that it often pays to inoculate the soil 
 with these bacteria when the seed is sown, for fields thus 
 inoculated do not assume the unthrifty appearance the 
 second season that fields not so treated are very apt to put 
 on. The usual practice is to use soil from an old alfalfa 
 field. This is sown on the land at the rate of from loo to 
 200 pounds per acre and is worked in as the seed bed is 
 prepared. Soil that is taken from an area where sweet 
 clover is growing may also be used successfully for 
 inoculating. 
 
 It does not follow that inoculation is an essential to the 
 successful growth of alfalfa, although the field may remain 
 unprofitable for one or two years, due to the lack of it. 
 In fields not inoculated, the dark vigorous spots, above 
 referred to, get gradually larger. 
 
 Mixtures of alfalfa and grasses, such as timothy, brome 
 grass and western rye grass have been successful, the 
 grasses growing much more vigorously than when grown 
 alone, and the alfalfa growing apparently almost as well 
 
150 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 as when sown by itself. The grasses being shallow rooted, 
 and the alfalfa deep rooted, it is but natural that they 
 should not interfere with each other, and the grasses thrive 
 on the fertility added to the soil through the growth and 
 decay of the alfalfa roots. But two crops in a season are 
 obtained from these mixtures, owing to the fact that the 
 grasses are not ready to cut until July. The crops are, 
 however, sufficiently heavier to compensate in great measure 
 for the loss of the third cutting. After the first cutting, 
 the grasses do not make much growth, consequently the 
 second cutting is clear alfalfa. The only objection so far 
 found to these mixtures is that the grasses are apt to crowd 
 the alfalfa out, the stand of alfalfa becoming thinner. 
 
 It would seem advisable in starting these mixtures to 
 sow but a small quantity of grass seed, say from two to 
 four pounds per acre, and reduce but little the amount of 
 alfalfa seed. A satisfactory method has been to sow alfalfa 
 alone, and in the spring of the second year, harrow in the 
 grass seed, for it has been found that occasionally the 
 grass seed is so much more vigorous the first and second 
 seasons than is the alfalfa, that it seriously thins the stand 
 of the latter at the very beginning. 
 
 I have seen quite often fields not inoculated remain sickly 
 looking and unthrifty for a number of years, while other 
 fields not inoculated, but sown on well prepared land and 
 given careful attention, were in vigorous, thrifty condition 
 at the end of the second season. It is safe to assume that 
 inoculation will be an important aid to the first trial field 
 in one's district, or on one's farm. 
 
 All large seed houses carry alfalfa seed in stock, and 
 care should be taken in buying that the best is selected. 
 Turkestan is supposed to be somewhat more hardy than 
 the common variety, although it so closely resembles the 
 common alfalfa that even experts are sometimes unable to 
 distinguish it from the common when sown side by side. 
 Northern grown seed should be obtained, if possible, for 
 use in northern sections. 
 
VALUE OF ALFALFA AND OTHER LEGUMES ISl 
 
 Use not to exceed twenty pounds per acre; oftentimes 
 somewhat less than this will do. 
 
 From the middle to the last of May is the best time to 
 sow in the north, although early in June is usually quite 
 satisfactory. 
 
 It is well to remember that alfalfa originally was a sub- 
 tropical plant, and although it has wonderful adaptability, 
 it is somewhat tender, while young, under northern condi- 
 tions. It welcomes sunshine and warmth, consequently it 
 does not do as well when shaded by a growing crop of grain. 
 It has been aptly expressed that the nurse crop might more 
 aptly be termed a murder crop. 
 
 It is quite important that the young plant should be 
 clipped once or twice the first season. This serves not only 
 as a check to the weeds, but tends to make the plants more 
 stocky. When not cut, the alfalfa plants, if they are for- 
 tunate enough not to be choked completely out by the weeds, 
 often form blossoms and put their energy into forming or 
 starting to form a seed pod, while this energy should be 
 devoted to root development, which is the result when 
 plants are cut occasionally. 
 
 In recent years in alfalfa growing districts the practice 
 of disking the alfalfa fields is becoming quite common. 
 The disks are set at a slight angle and, if necessary, the 
 implement is weighted. The object is to split the crown 
 about two inches down. This should be done early in 
 the spring just after the frost has disappeared. 
 
 To get the best quality of hay, particular care must be 
 given alfalfa in curing and handling. The first point of 
 importance to remember is that it must be cut young, for 
 at this stage in its development it is more nutritious as well 
 as more palatable. As soon as blossoms appear, alfalfa 
 is ready to cut, or, as expressed by some, when one-tenth 
 of the field is in bloom. The hay should be raked as soon 
 as possible after cutting, and immediately put in cock. 
 Curing it in the cock in this way prevents the leaves from 
 breaking oflf, which is quite important when it is consid- 
 
152 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 ered that much of the nourishment is in the leaves. A 
 practice highly spoken of by those who have tried it, is to 
 follow immediately behind the mowing machine with a 
 rake, which will gather the hay perfectly, although if it is 
 allowed to remain half an hour or so and wilt, the rake 
 could not pick it up. This is immediately put up in small 
 cocks and allowed to remain till cured. In this way all 
 the juices are retained in the most a,cceptable manner, 
 making the hay extremely palatable. The only possible 
 objection is that it takes a day or two longer to cure, which 
 is a disadvantage in showery weather. 
 
 It has been customary to cut alfalfa three times in the 
 north, the first cutting usually occurring about June loth 
 to 25th ; the second the first week in August, and the third 
 about the time of frost. In more southerly states five cut- 
 tings each season are the rule. The total yield per acre 
 should be four or five tons for three cuttings and seven to 
 eight tons for five cuttings. As the hay is readily bought 
 at high prices, alfalfa is a profitable crop in any locality. 
 
 Nitrogen is one of the pressing needs in all cultivated 
 land, and alfalfa supplies it, providing the inoculating bac- 
 teria are present. The roots go deep and absorb mineral 
 matter from the lower strata of soil and bring it near the 
 surface, so that when the land is broken up a plentiful 
 supply of available plant food is at hand in the surface 
 soil layers. The deep growing roots loosen up the subsoil 
 and, when they decay, add humus and form a means of soil 
 aeration. 
 
 Millet is a surface feeder and as the seeds are reasonably 
 small they must have a fine and well prepared seed bed. 
 The surface should be cultivated deep, pulverized finely, 
 giving every opportunity to hasten the growth of the seeds. 
 Millet can be put in as a catch crop and we have known it 
 to be planted as late as the first of August and come through 
 all right. The crop may be seeded either broadcast or in 
 drills. The quantity of seed is regulated by the variety 
 and whether it is drilled or sown broadcast. Generally 
 
VALUE OF ALFALFA AND OTHER LEGUMES 153 
 
 speaking, thirty pounds the acre are broadcasted and fifteen 
 pounds are drilled in. 
 
 Gradually we are learning of the enormous value of 
 legumes in agriculture. Indeed, modern business farming 
 is based on the legumes — ^alfalfa, clover, peas, beans, etc. 
 This is because of not only the efJfect on the soil, but of 
 the relatively higher value of the legumes for feeding live 
 stock. To be successful, however, in raising legumes, two 
 things are necessary — sweet soils and perfect inoculation. 
 
 A soil may be thoroughly limed and absolutely free of 
 any acidity, but if the bacteria are not present no legume 
 can grow and no nitrogen can be stored in the soil. On 
 the other hand, if the soil is sour and acid, no matter what 
 bacteria are added, the crop will not prosper because these 
 bacteria are certain to perish in acid soils. 
 
 The problem of fine legume crops, therefore, is dependent 
 upon sweet soils properly limed, and on the use of the par- 
 ticular bacteria fancied by that crop. Fortunately, lime is 
 available on the one hand and bacteria on the other. The 
 commercial cultures now available everywhere make it pos- 
 sible to introduce in any soil the very bacteria that the 
 plants seeded in it require. These commercial cultures 
 have been on the market for years and wherever used 
 under proper soil conditions excellent satisfaction has been 
 given. 
 
 *^ COWPEAS AND SOY BEANS 
 
 The cowpea is a legume, being able to gather free nitro- 
 gen from the air — four-fifths of the air being nitrogen — 
 and with the aid of the little bacteria, store its surplus in 
 nodules on the roots. When the plant finishes its growth 
 in . the late summer or early fall these nodules evaporate 
 and the nitrogen is disseminated in the soil, making it much 
 richer in that, the most costly of all fertilizers. 
 
 A crop of cowpeas will put in the soil as much nitrogen 
 and humus in ninety days as clover will in fifteen to eight- 
 een months, and at the same time be giving a good yield 
 of the very best hay. 
 
154 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 They should not be sown until the ground gets warm. 
 If sown too early they are not so apt to come through well, 
 and if they germinate a full stand the cold, wet weather will 
 retard their growth, causing them to spot or leaf blight, 
 and if they have been sown broadcast the weeds and grass 
 will get the start and choke them out. 
 
 There are quite a number of ways of seeding, and each 
 grower has his own particular mode of sowing and is 
 making a fairly good success. I have observed about all 
 the different plans — ^broadcasting, sowing with a wheat 
 drill, leaving all the flues open; drilling by stopping up 
 every other flue, drilling with a check rower, doubling the 
 rows, drilling with the check rower and leaving the rows 
 corn-row width (44 inches) and cultivating them two or 
 three times. The last way has proven the most successful 
 for me. Use an edge drop planter, planting with the largest 
 notched places and setting the gearing in the fastest cogs.. 
 This drops one or two peas every two or three inches, 
 taking about one peck of seed to the acre. 
 
 Cowpeas are most in favor in sections where clover 
 catches are uncertain. The cowpea is hardier than clover, 
 will make a good showing on poor land and will in addi- 
 tion to a rich grain yield a forage equal to clover either as 
 a green feed or dry hay. When used as a catch crop after 
 wheat, or when sown after the last cultivation of the corn, 
 only the early maturing varieties produce grain of any con- 
 sequence. Where the clovers grow readily when sown on 
 winter grain, the cowpea should not be substituted in any 
 well planned crop rotation. In fact, only the dwarf varie- 
 ties should be grown on clover land if they are grown to 
 increase the feed supply. The common varieties would 
 grow a very long, coarse vine, probably no grain at all, 
 and would be slow to cure in harvesting. 
 
 To make cowpeas do their best on a thin clay soil, use 150 
 to 200 pounds of commercial fertilizer consisting of 12 
 per cent phosphoric acid and 2 to 4 per cent of muriate 
 of potash. The cheaper forms of these may be used. The 
 
VALUE OF ALFALFA AND OTHER LEGUMES 155 
 
 mineral fertilizers can be sown in the wheat drill along with 
 the seed. 
 
 With the larger growing varieties one bushel per acre is 
 the rate to sow. The dwarf varieties may have a heavier 
 seeding, ij4 to i}4 bushels. If sown in rows lo to 26 
 inches apart, it .will take one-half less seed, and if shallow 
 culture is carried on and rows kept free of weeds, the yield 
 of grain is increased over the solid sowing. 
 
 Many complain about not being able to cure them with- 
 out losing the leaves, which are the most valuable part of 
 the feed. If they will rake and shock immediately after 
 the machine and let them cure in the shock, they will find 
 that they have not only saved the leaves but they have cured 
 the hay almost as green as it w£^s before cutting. Use a 
 four-and-a-half-foot mower and cut one row at a time, 
 following the mower with a pitchfork, and turning the cut 
 row upside down and over out of the way of the team and 
 machine for the next round, so when a piece is finished 
 the peas are all "standing on their heads" and none have 
 been trampled in the dust or mud. Rake and shock at once 
 and let them cure out in the shock. Have them put up in 
 large shocks, placing the last forkful or two carefully on 
 the top and the weight of the green vine will settle down, 
 making a nice cap that will turn water surprisingly well. 
 I saw some last year that stood out for nearly four weeks 
 and took a number of very hard rains but came through 
 all right and held their leaves and pods well. 
 
 The threshing problem is one that has kept many from 
 growing cowpeas, but we are overcoming that now since 
 factories are building small "individual" machines that do 
 the work and save the peas. One firm makes a small double- 
 cylinder machine that can be bought for about $75. It 
 not only threshes the peas but shreds the vines, putting 
 them in the best condition for baling or for feeding direct. 
 
 Soy beans ought to be grown more extensively. They 
 will yield from 15 to 25 bushels of seed per acre. Three 
 pounds of soy bean meal can be substituted for an equal 
 
156 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 amount of linseed meal with satisfactory results in feeding 
 dairy cows. As a fertilizer alone, they are superior to 
 cowpeas. They are a stronger nitrogen gatherer and much 
 deeper rooted than cowpeas, as they have a long taproot 
 that penetrates the soil to a depth of from twelve to eighteen 
 inches. i 
 
 The soy bean is the plant so loudly advertised by the seed 
 men in their catalogues as the wonderful "Coffee Berry." 
 The beans lightly browned, ground and mixed with the 
 store product, half and half, make a mild flavored drink 
 resembling somewhat pure coffee, but probably more 
 wholesome. 
 
 There are quite a number of varieties of the soy bean. 
 They may be planted as early as corn, and if up when a 
 light frost strikes them it will have no bad effect, as they 
 seem to be perfectly hardy. They do best planted after 
 cowpeas, as the cowpeas inoculate the soil. 
 
 For forage, they should be cut just as they begin to show 
 yellow on the leaves. Let them lie in the swath for about 
 two days, shock and allow to cure in the shock. This 
 makes a number one grade of hay, that is greedily eaten 
 by all farm stock. When cut at this age there are but few 
 beans that have matured, and the yield will be very light. 
 If grown for beans, they should be allowed to get ripe, by 
 which time most of the leaves will have fallen off, and they 
 can be cut and shocked without much curing, allowing time 
 for them to cure in the shock. They should be planted on 
 the thinnest land of the farm, especially if desired for 
 beans, as on thin land they do not make such large shocks 
 but more pods. The threshed beans are very rich feed, 
 especially for hogs. They are as rich as oil meal, pound 
 for pound. 
 
 CRIMSON CLOVER A USEFUL CROP 
 
 A number of ways in which the early appearance of 
 crimson clover in the spring can be turned to the farmer's 
 advantage are pointed out in Farmers' Bulletin 579, "Crim- 
 
VALUE OF ALFALFA AND OTHER LEGUMES 157 
 
 son Clover Utilization." In the Southern and Central At- 
 lantic States this crop is of particular value. Generally 
 speaking it suffers from the severe winters in the North 
 and from too great dryness west of the Mississippi. 
 In Florida also it has proved less successful than else- 
 where. 
 
 Crimson clover, says the bulletin, has two great advan- 
 tages. It is an excellent fertilizer and it can be used for 
 pasture and hay before any other green growth is avail- 
 able, the land being then sown with an ordinary summer- 
 grown crop. The clover itself can be sown toward the end 
 of the summer on land where such late crops as corn or 
 tomatoes are still under cultivation. Its use, therefore, does 
 not interfere with other products and its benefits cost little 
 but the labor and seed involved. 
 
 To obtain the full value of crimson clover as a fertilizer, 
 the entire green crop should be plowed under, thus adding 
 to the soil a large quantity of nitrogen and humus, or de- 
 cayed vegetable matter. The poorer the land the greater 
 is the benefit that the succeeding crop derives from this 
 process. A yield of 30 bushels of corn per acre may ordi- 
 narily be increased by crimson clover to 45, but on richer 
 land an increase of more than 10 bushels is uncommon. 
 A convenient method of calculation is to consider a full 
 crop of crimson clover, weighing, with roots and tops, about 
 10 tons an acre, as the equivalent of a distribution of 8 
 tons of fresh barnyard manure to an acre. In this way 
 the soil is greatly enriched each year without interfering 
 in any way with the regular money crops, such as corn, 
 cotton or tomatoes. 
 
 It is, however, by no means necessary to sacrifice the 
 entire crop of crimson clover to fertilizing purposes. Ex- 
 cellent results can be obtained by plowing under merely 
 the roots and stubble. This, it is estimated, returns to the 
 soil 40 per cent as much nitrogen as the green crop. When 
 this is done the clover itself can be used either for pasture, 
 before ordinary grass is sufficiently far advanced to be 
 
158 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 available, or for hay which can be gathered in time to leave 
 the land free for another crop. 
 
 Crimson clover intended for hay must, however, be cut 
 at the right moment, when the most advanced heads are 
 beginning to show faded flowers at their base. At this 
 stage the plants contain the maximum amount of protein 
 and dry matter, while the leaves are still present and the 
 stems comparatively green. If the harvest is put off, the 
 short hairs on the stems and flower heads become dry and 
 stiff. In this stage there is danger that they may form 
 hard hair balls in the intestinal tracts of horses and mules 
 to which the hay is fed. These hair, balls, solid, compact, 
 feltlike structures, nearly always cause death. Early cut- 
 ting, however, and judicious mixing with other hay will 
 obviate this difficulty to a great extent, and, under any 
 circumstances, cattle are rarely affected. By dairymen, 
 crimson-clover hay is considered a roughage feed fully 
 equal if not superior to either red or alsike clover. 
 
 For early pasturing crimson clover is even more satis- 
 factory, its chief drawback being the limited period in 
 which it can be utilized for this purpose. This period, 
 however, is ample to enable the ordinary grass pastures to 
 attain a growth which will greatly increase their carrying 
 capacity later in the season. After the cattle are removed, 
 the uneaten plants and the manure left behind are plowed 
 under, the manure of course forming a valuable addition to 
 the fertilizing effect of the clover. 
 
 The Kansas Experiment Station in a recent publication 
 makes it plain that sweet clover, a hitherto neglected plant, 
 despised as a pernicious weed, has very considerable agri- 
 cultural value. It is stated that "as a soil improver it is 
 unexcelled; for pasturing purposes it has considerable 
 value; and as a forage crop it can be utilized to good ad- 
 vantage where alfalfa or red clover cannot be successfully 
 grown." 
 
Money Making Garden Crops 
 
 With keen and incessant market demands for ordinary 
 vegetables, as well as garden novelties, owners of small 
 farms will miss a chance for liberal profits if they fail to 
 give some attention to this feature. As a vegetable crop 
 will frequently equal in one season the entire purchase 
 price of the land, it is folly for small farmers to neglect 
 this class of commodities. Times have suddenly changed 
 in this particular so that the cities snap up all farm products 
 at good prices. 
 
 Asparagus, beets, lettuce, cabbage and small fruits can 
 be grown between the rows of trees in an orchard without 
 detriment to either trees or vegetables. This is a good way 
 to make land profitable, while trees are coming to maturity. 
 Strawberries are also well adapted to orchard growth. All 
 these things require an amount of light cultivation, mostly 
 by hand, which is good for fruit trees. 
 
 Where there is a market convenient, it is considered 
 more profitable to grow strawberries in the young orchard 
 than any other crop, as they come into full profit in about 
 14 months after planting, and the turning of them under 
 every two or three years adds much organic matter to the 
 soil, which is in every way quite beneficial to the young 
 orchard. But whatever kind of crop is grown in the 
 orchard, atnple space must be left on each side of the 
 rows of trees to admit of unrestricted cultivation, as young 
 trees cannot thrive in a hard sun-baked soil. 
 
 Rhubarb, or pie plant, is one of the easiest vegetables to 
 force and requires no special equipment, such as hotbeds 
 or green houses. It can be forced in an ordinary cellar 
 where there is a furnace and where the temperature ranges 
 from 60 to 70 degrees F. For forcing, select strong plants 
 two or more years old, dig in the fall after the leaves have 
 
 159 
 
160 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 been killed by frost and the roots have become dormant. 
 After digging, throw the roots into a pile and cover lightly 
 with straw to protect them from the sun. Leave the roots 
 thus exposed until they have been frozen for two or three 
 weeks, after which they are taken into the cellar and buried 
 in moist sand to a depth of three inches. The roots will 
 soon start to sprout and send out leaf stocks. 
 
 In ten days to two weeks the stems ,of rhubarb are ready 
 to be broken off and either used at home or sold. 
 Ordinarily about two or three crops of shoots can be taken 
 from each root before the food supply stored in them is 
 exhausted. After the roots have been exhausted they are 
 discarded, as they are not fit for planting again in the open 
 field. By sowing a small amount of seed each year in the 
 garden so as to have a supply of roots on hand every fall, 
 one can cheaply provide for this vegetable during the winter 
 months when fresh vegetables are expensive and difficult 
 to obtain. 
 
 Salsify is hardy, and may be treated in all respects like 
 the parsnip. It may be left in the ground where it grows, 
 or it may be taken up and stored for winter use, either in 
 the root cellar or in a pit. The ordinary house cellar is, as 
 a rule, too warm and dry for the storage of such cold- 
 blooded roots as the parsnip and salsify ; a temperature of 
 50 degrees will induce growth, which is not desirable, nor 
 good for the roots, as they soon become withered and unfit 
 for use. I have for a number of years used a cold frame 
 for the storage of parsnips, beets, carrots and salsify with 
 good success. The frame should be excavated to a depth of 
 a foot or more below the outside surface of the ground, 
 much depending on the natural drainage, which must be 
 good, as water lying around the roots would soon destroy 
 them. With twelve-inch boards the frame should be 
 divided into as many compartments as there are kinds of 
 roots to store, and large enough to hold the quantity of each 
 kind on hand. They should be placed in a few at a time, 
 sifting soil among them so that practically all come in con- 
 
MONEY MAKING GARDEN CROPS 161 
 
 tact with the soil. The heaps of roots and soil should not 
 extend above the outside soil surface. Put about three 
 inches of soil over them, after which they should have a 
 covering of forest leaves, straw or hay to a depth of six to 
 twelve inches, according to the severity of the winter. The 
 sash may now be put on to keep out rain, and if shutters are 
 not at hand the sash must be blocked up in the rear to a 
 height of about four inches and so kept until severe freez- 
 ing sets in, when they are to be lowered for the winter. 
 Roots so stored will keep in perfect condition and be easy 
 to get out when wanted for use during the winter months. 
 
 In European gardens, small holdings, and allotments, the 
 shallot is one of the crops that is never absent. The bulbs 
 are so easy to manage; indeed it might be said with truth 
 that they manage themselves. The ground is merely well 
 dug and then somewhat firmed, and the little offsets or 
 bulbules are pressed with the fingers into the surface of the 
 soil to half their depth. This operation is done in the 
 southern half of England in January, for the winter there 
 is rarely so severe that outdoor operations are altogether 
 stopped even then. In any case the planting is done at the 
 earliest opportunity after the second or third week in 
 January. Ten or twelve degrees of frost (20 to 22 deg. 
 above zero) will not injure them. In the Atlantic States 
 the end of March would possibly be early enough to plant 
 them, and they would mature faster than in England. July 
 is the month for harvesting, by which time the one original 
 bulb will have developed half a dozen others around it in 
 a cluster. Quite a large crop can thus be got off a tiny 
 plot of ground, as the rows are only one foot apart, and 
 the bulbules six inches apart in the row. When nearly ripe 
 they are lifted and spread on the soil to dry and are then 
 roped or stored in a cool, dry loft or cellar until wanted. 
 Being no larger than walnuts, they are suitable for pickling 
 or for flavoring. The common shallot and the Russian or 
 Large Red are the sorts chiefly grown. 
 
 A new thing known as celery-cabbage has appeared in 
 
162 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 the eastern markets where it has created much favorable 
 comment. It looks like a big loose-headed lettuce or cab- 
 bage and is listed in some of the seed catalogs as Pe-Tsai 
 or Chinese cabbage. It is not difficult to grow and is used 
 as a salad plant either served alone or along with onions, 
 tomatoes or potatoes. The seed is small and round like 
 cabbage. It is planted in a seedbed and transplanted when 
 quite small, about like lettuce plants, which they much 
 resemble. The head never becomes absolutely hard like 
 the cabbage, but semi-hard, like strains of lettuce. Every 
 leaf, including the outside ones, is tender and delicate and 
 good to eat. 
 
 A person can sow spinach in the early spring and get a 
 good crop, but there will be an earlier crop from fall-sown 
 seed. In mild climates it is available long into the winter. 
 It is a gross feeder and for best results requires rich soil. 
 If a small area only is available, it may be sown broad- 
 cast in beds; but by all means sow in drills if possible, as 
 the ground can be kept loose and free from weeds during 
 the summer. 
 
 For all regions north of the Ohio river the winter pro- 
 tection should be given, and this may consist of coarse 
 litter of any kind. In general, mulching is not required 
 south of that line. In the north the covering serves two 
 purposes : Not only protection from freezing but it is also 
 more easily gathered when thus protected from the snow. 
 
 As to varieties for autumn sowing the Prickly Winter 
 and the Long Standing are the best. Of the former 
 variety the term "prickly" applies only to the seeds ; not to 
 the foliage or edible part. Long Standing is so named 
 from its habit of remaining in edible condition for a long 
 time before going to seed. 
 
 Spinach may be sown every two weeks or so from the 
 time the ground is fit to work until May 25, when the 
 sowings must be discontinued until the middle of Septem- 
 ber, when one or two sowings may be made for fall and 
 early winter use. Radishes may be sown as soon as the 
 
MONEY MAKING GARDEN CROPS 163 
 
 ground can be worked, and successive sowings can be 
 made every fourteen to eighteen days until about August 25. 
 
 Onions are one of the most profitable of all farm or 
 garden crops. Taking one year with another, onions will 
 clear more money for the farmer than either potatoes or 
 beans, and are about equal to cabbage for big profits. The 
 Red Globe is the universal favorite. Some Yellow Globe 
 are grown in the north but they do not find a ready market 
 except in the southern states. The former variety has a 
 ready demand in all of the central and northern states. It 
 is splendidly adapted to climatic conditions and will grow 
 in almost any climate or soil. Good seed will germinate 
 100 per cent and 90 per cent germination test will do and 
 is accepted, but nothing less. Seed more than two years 
 old will not test up to 90 per cent, and it is not advisable 
 to rely on seed more than one year old. 
 
 In growing a crop for seed on a large place the bulbs 
 are harvested in the fall, and selection is made as to size 
 and uniformity. They are cut and spread upon the barn 
 floor to dry. After they are thoroughly dried they are 
 harvested, usually with the flail, and winnowing will 
 remove most of the chaff. The seeds are then placed, a 
 few at a time in a pailful of water. Heavy seeds will sink, 
 leaving the lighter ones and the remaining chaff to be 
 poured off when the better seeds at the bottom are 
 thoroughly dried and cured. Early spring is the best time 
 for planting the seed crop. It is covered 2 inches deep, 8 
 inches apart and in rows one and one-half feet apart, 
 and covered with the first cultivation. A few growers 
 furnish supports for the slender seed stalks, but in most 
 cases the simple method of hilling up with the cultivation 
 has been sufficient to keep the stalks in an upright position 
 until thoroughly rooted. Harvest the crop just before the 
 seed is ready to fall from the pod. Growing onion seed 
 requires a great deal of labor. 
 
 Early seeding is always advisable. ApMl i is none too 
 early, although I have seen, fields planted May 10 with 
 
164 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 good results. But this is extreme and cannot be relied 
 upon. 
 
 In planting an onion crop the condition of the soil is the 
 first consideration. A rich, light loam on clay subsoil is 
 best. A rotation with some other crop, cabbage preferred, 
 will rid the fields of the maggot, and in this way prove 
 beneficial. The ground is plowed at a depth of from 6 to 
 8 inches, depending largely on the soil. Clay soils cannot 
 be plowed as deeply as the black loam. In the spring it is 
 thoroughly harrowed and planked until the surface is level 
 and finely pulverized. 
 
 Manure is essential to best results in onion growing. 
 Use lo or 15 tons per acre each year. This one feature 
 adds largely to the total cost of production, but it is an 
 outlay that brings big returns in yield and quality. 
 
 The labor problem has for many years been a serious 
 drawback in onion culture. The dawn of a brighter day 
 is coming with the advent of efficient machinery. There 
 are now onion toppers, a truly wonderful machine that 
 tops, cleans and grades in one operation. Machine-topped 
 onions, being free from leaves and other foreign sub- 
 stances are, and probably will be, the choice of the onion 
 buyer. A man can top about 75 bushels a day with one of 
 these machines. 
 
 If one only has a few acres and no machine for topping, 
 the best way is to pull two rows and place them all one 
 way, with the tops lying flat on the ground, then have the 
 next two rows lying in the opposite way, so that when the 
 tops are clipped the onions will all come together in one 
 row. They are then shoveled up with a coke fork into 
 crates and stacked in the field to cure and dry. If one 
 does not have a sufficient number of crates to take care of 
 the crop in this manner it may be put into cribs, the same 
 as we used to store a crop of corn. 
 
 Cabbage is one of the greatest and surest of money- 
 making garden crops. This product is suitable for either 
 large or small places. The owner of five acres who devotes 
 
MONEY MAKING GARDEN CROPS 165 
 
 half of this land to cabbage and half to miscellaneous 
 vegetables, flowers and fruits, will secure a satisfactory 
 living income. Crop rotation and double cropping can be 
 worked out in such a way as to make the earnings large 
 and keep the soil fertile. 
 
 Spring sown cabbage plants have almost entirely taken 
 the place of the wintered-over ones. They can be produced 
 cheaper, and if properly grown are much superior. If a 
 greenhouse is not available, the seed may be sown in hot- 
 beds and when a few inches high the plants set in a cold 
 frame, just as wintered-over plants. 
 
 A somewhat better plan is to sow the seed in flats, and 
 to place the flats in the hotbed. When the rough leaf 
 appears the seedlings are transplanted in similar flats 
 ij^xij^ inches apart. These flats are then watered, placed 
 in cold frames, and, if necessary, shaded a few days. 
 
 As a rule the beginner is likely to coddle his plants to 
 much, and as a result the plants are likely to damp off on 
 accotint of not having sufficient ventilation or too much 
 water. If the soil is inclined to be heavy, it will be greatly 
 improved by the addition of fine anthracite ashes. The 
 soil should be rather dry and not packed tightly in the flats. 
 The temperature in the house should not go above 50 
 degrees at night. 
 
 Cabbage is not at all particular in regard to soil. It will 
 do well on almost any kind of land not wet and soggy. 
 The ground should be well drained, either naturally or 
 artificially. Land with a loose, graVelly subsoil, however, 
 is not desirable. As cabbage is a rank feeder, the main 
 thing is to have the soil filled with available plant food. 
 Put on an abundance of manure. 
 
 The greatest loss in plant raising is due to the damping 
 off fungus. This disease usually attacks the young plants 
 in the seedling box, causing the stem of the plant to turn 
 black and rot off. It is due to too much heat, lack of 
 ventilation, heavy watering, cloudy weather, or the use of 
 old soil. This trouble can be almost entirely eliminated by 
 
166 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 careful attention to watering and ventilation. Loosening 
 the soil slightly between the rows of seedlings is also 
 beneficial. 
 
 The plants in the cold frames should be ventilated every 
 day, the amount of ventilation depending upon their age 
 and the condition of the weather. During warm days the 
 sashes are removed and the plants gradually hardened so 
 as to stand a temperature of at least 20 degrees. A well- 
 developed plant will be short and stocky, having five or six 
 leaves of a reddish hue, and having an abundance of fibrous 
 roots. Use double cold frames in preference to the single 
 frame. They are made deep enough to allow one-half foot 
 of fresh horse manure in the bottom; this furnishes some 
 bottom heat, which is desirable while the plants are young 
 and the weather severe. 
 
 Most vegetable growers know the value of getting crops 
 in early. Very often we get in too much of a hurry, and 
 as a consequence often set out plants without first getting 
 the soil in proper condition. This is one of the worst 
 mistakes we can make. If the land is not properly fitted 
 before planting it never can be afterward. Plow the 
 ground as soon as it is dry enough, then harrow and roll. 
 
 For a commercial crop of cabbage apply on each acre 
 the following fertilizer : Six hundred pounds of acid phos- 
 phate and 400 pounds potash. This is applied broadcast 
 and worked into the soil with a harrow. The ground is 
 then smoothed and marked out 2j4xij4 feet. The plants 
 are dumped from the flats and separated carefully, so as to 
 retain as many of the fibrous roots as possible. They are 
 puddled in thin mud, stood upright in boxes and taken to 
 the plot selected. 
 
 Care must be taken to get the soil tight around the 
 roots. The plants are set as deep as possible without 
 covering the hearts ; this is a great protection if the weather 
 should turn cold before the plants have been established. 
 The cabbages are cultivated and hoed as soon as they have 
 struck root. A small handful of nitrate of soda is then 
 
MONEY MAKING GARDEN CROPS 167 
 
 applied around the plants, usually from 200 to 500 pounds 
 an acre. 
 
 If conditions are favorable, growing peas for the cannery 
 is one of the most profitable operations for the farm — 
 as the returns are large for the amount of labor expended 
 and the operation is an economical one. The roots of the 
 pea vines contain a large amount of nitrogen, which is con- 
 fined in small nodules on the roots of the plant, and after 
 the crop has been harvested, these are plowed under, 
 adding humus as well as nitrogen to the soil, thereby bring- 
 ing up the land in a remarkable degree and at a minimum 
 of expense. 
 
 Start tomato seeds in a house or in a hotbed, and trans- 
 plant once or twice in order to secure strong, vigorous 
 plants by the time all danger from frost has passed. After 
 the seedlings become established, all but the two best are 
 thinned out, and later but one is left in the hill. 
 
 The tomato is one of the crops that can be hastened to 
 maturity by carefully growing the plants indoors and trans- 
 planting to the open ground. Pot-grown plants are espe- 
 cially desirable, and they may be brought to the blooming 
 period by the time it is warm enough safely to plant them 
 in the garden. If the plants are not to be trained but 
 permitted to lie on the ground they should be set about 
 four feet apart each way. If trimmed and tied to stakes 
 they may be planted in rows three feet apart and eighteen 
 inches apart in the row. It is best to use some kind of a 
 support and keep them off the ground. 
 
 The following is almost a perfect manure for tomatoes: 
 Phosphoric acid, 8 per cent; equivalent to ammonia, 2 per 
 cent ; soluble potash, 2 per cent. This compound is largely 
 used by farmers who supply canners with tomatoes. It 
 has made good in every instance. 
 
 Swiss chard is a satisfactory form of salad plant that can 
 also be used as greens, and is quite as good as spinach. 
 The heavy ribs of the leaves may be cut and cooked as 
 asparagus. New leaves keep coming on all s,ummer, and 
 
168 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 they do not grow tough nor bitter. Five cents worth of 
 Swiss chard seed will furnish greens enough for a good 
 sized family. 
 
 The oyster plant will supply the family with inexpensive 
 oyster soup all summer. Salsify is easily raised, and under 
 favorable conditions it will attain the size of one inch in 
 diameter and eight inches in length. It may be left in the 
 ground all winter, or can be dug and placed in the cellar. 
 All such novelties have a ready sale among housekeepers. 
 
 Asparagus is not hard to grow, and we know of no other 
 vegetable that will give more satisfactory results if well 
 cared for. Plow the ground deeply as early as possible in 
 the spring and mix with it an abundance of well-rotted 
 manure. In addition to the manure, apply one-half ton of 
 coarse bone meal to the acre, or 35 to 40 pounds of muriate 
 of potash, and 95 to 100 pounds of finely ground natural 
 phosphate rock to each ton of manure. This should be 
 done three or four days before planting, and a strong 
 fertilizer should never be put next to the plants, because 
 it often destroys them. 
 
 The rows should be about six feet apart and the plants 
 should be set ten inches deep. Set out only strong i-year- 
 old roots. Press the soil about them, and as the plants 
 begin to come up throw a little dirt into the furrows to 
 smother the weeds and keep the soil loose around the plants. 
 Gradually fill the rows until the ground is level. The 
 weeds must be kept from the plants for two years ; then not 
 much further care is necessary, but the bed should always 
 be kept clear. 
 
 Cutting may begin the second year, for perhaps thirty 
 days, but not longer. After the third year asparagus may 
 be cut up to the middle of June, or perhaps a little later. 
 As earliness is greatly to be desired, a warm, well-drained, 
 sandy soil with a southern exposure and well protected 
 from wind is the best for this crop, and as asparagus should 
 have full sunlight the entire day it must not be planted 
 in the shade of trees nor anything else. The plants are 
 
MONEY MAKING GARDEN CROPS 169 
 
 gross feeders, and the soil can scarcely be too rich for them. 
 If the plants are not well supplied with food at all times 
 they will not produce the maximum weight of first-class 
 sprouts. 
 
 Celery is naturally a swamp plant and thrives best in a 
 moist, rather cool soil, but such soils are not always avail- 
 able, and the higher and drier soils have to be used. For 
 this crop apply old, well-rotted manure to land at the rate 
 of not less than fifteen tons to the acre, which may be sup- 
 plemented with commercial fertilizer containing ammonia, 
 4 per cent to 5 per cent; available phosphoric acid, 8 per 
 cent; potash, 7 per cent, applied broadcast after plowing, 
 at the rate of one-half ton to the acre. Plow the land as 
 deeply as possible. Celery requires good feeding to produce 
 a marketable crop. 
 
 Setting celery plants in furrows, in trenches and on a 
 level surface are methods employed by various growers. 
 Good results have been attained in the following way: 
 Mark ofif rows four feet apart and furrow with stirring 
 plow, turning the ridges in the same direction. Set the 
 plants six inches apart in the side of the furrow next the 
 ridge and a little above the bottom. In subsequent cultiva- 
 tion keep the furrows open and use them as ditches for 
 water in case of drought. Permit no weeds to grow, and 
 cultivate the ground after each application of water. 
 
 When the plants have attained the proper size for use, 
 the leaves are brought into an upright position by boards 
 placed on either side of the row, so that they slope toward 
 the plants at the top, or else by dirt drawn against the 
 plants and packed firmly around them. The object of this 
 is to cause the leaves to take an upright position and 
 exclude the light from the heart of the plant, so that the 
 latter growth is white or bleached. The process of bleach- 
 ing requires from two to four weeks. Plants may be set 
 out at any time, and seed may be started in the house. 
 
 Celery is difficult to handle in a small garden on account 
 of the amount of soil required to hill it up in the fall. 
 
170 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 This problem has been solved by planting four rows of 
 celery in a foot deep trench with two rows of sweet corn 
 on either side of it. The corn is off by the time the celery 
 needs hilling and the soil from the corn is available. 
 
 There is no danger of raising too much celery. It is a 
 paying crop and the owner of any garden may have the 
 plant on the market almost all the year through. 
 
 Lettuce is a rapidly growing and hardy plant for which 
 there is a continual demand. There are liberal profits in 
 growing lettuce, and gardeners as well as farmers should 
 give some attention to the plant. It is one of the surest 
 money-making garden products. 
 
 The seeds may be sown in a hotbed or cold frame and 
 the seedlings transplanted to the open ground, or the seed- 
 ing may be in rows in the garden and the plants thinned to 
 five or six inches in the row. Lettuce may be grown in 
 rows about twelve inches apart. In order to produce crisp 
 and tender lettuce during the summer months it may be 
 necessary to provide some form of partial shading. 
 
 Lettuce attains its best development in a rich sandy loam 
 in which there is plenty of organic matter. It thrives best 
 during the early spring or late autumn and will not with- 
 stand the heat of summer. In order that the leaves may 
 be crisp and tender, it is necessary to force the growth. 
 The usual method of growing lettuce for home use is to 
 sow the seeds broadcast in a bed and remove the leaves 
 from the plant as rapidly as they become large enough for 
 use. A much better method is either to thin or transplant 
 the seedlings and permit the plants to form rather compact 
 heads. 
 
 Plant sweet corn as soon as the soil is warm in the spring, 
 and make successive plantings every two weeks until July, 
 or the same result can be attained to some extent by a 
 careful selection of early, medium and late varieties. 
 Plant the seeds in drills three feet apart and thin to a single 
 stalk every ten or fourteen inches, or plant five to six seeds 
 in hills three feet apart each way and thin out to three to 
 
MONEY MAKING GARDEN CROPS 171 
 
 five stalks to a hill. Cover the seeds about two inches deep. 
 Cultivate frequently and keep down all weeds, removing 
 suckers from around the base of the stalk. 
 
 A branch of fancy gardening which affords large profits 
 from small space is the cultivation of ginseng. The pro- 
 duction of this crop naturally appeals to young people who 
 have to confine themselves to small tracts of land. 
 
 If they will build a shady bed lo by 20 feet they can 
 obtain an almost unbelievable amount of money from the 
 ginseng roots and seed which may be grown in such a 
 space. There is a steady demand for this product, and 
 there seems to be no danger of overproduction. It would 
 not be wise to give up the entire garden to ginseng because 
 there is no income from it for about four years. It is 
 best, therefore, to have other crops which will give annual 
 returns. 
 
 When the ginseng has come to maturity it pays well for 
 the long wait. Both seed and roots sell at high figures. A 
 small amount of the former may be produced in the third 
 year, and the sale of roots may begin in the fourth year, 
 but there are better results in the next two or three years. 
 Ginseng seeds are best planted in the spring as early as 
 the soil can be worked to advantage. - Only cracked or 
 partially germinated seeds should be used. They may be 
 planted six inches apart each way in the permanent beds, 
 or 2x6 inches in seed beds and transplanted to stand six 
 or eight inches apart when two years old. The seeds should 
 be covered one inch deep with forest soil, or a compost 
 carrying 80 per cent black loam and 20 per cent well rotted 
 manure. It is not best to use sawdust, as some writers 
 advise. 
 
 The roots may be set any time from October to April, 
 when the soil is in suitable condition, the crowns being 
 placed about two inches below the surface. The most ap- 
 proved distances to plant are six or eight inches apart each 
 way. Ginseng needs little cultivation, but the beds should 
 at all times be kept free from weeds and grass, and the 
 
172 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 surface of the soil should be scratched with a light tool 
 whenever it shows signs of caking. 
 
 Ginseng seedlings grow about two inches high the first 
 year, with three leaflets at the apex of the stem. The 
 second-year plants may reach five or six inches in height, 
 bearing two compound leaves, each composed of five leaflets. 
 A third leaf is generally added the next year, and fruits 
 may be expected. In succeeding years a fourth leaf is 
 formed and the fruiting head reaches its maximum devel- 
 opment, sometimes producing as many as lOO seeds, but 
 the average under cultivation seldom exceeds forty seeds 
 to a plant. 
 
 Ginseng grows naturally in rather dense shade, and when 
 placed under cultural conditions must be shielded from 
 direct sunlight by tree shade or some construction that 
 will reduce the light to about one-fourth its normal inten- 
 sity. This may be accomplished by planting it in forest 
 beds, or, in cultivated grounds, by erecting sheds open to 
 the north and possibly to the east, but covered at the top 
 and the south and west with laths or boards so spaced as 
 to cut out nearly three-fourths of the sunlight. Brush 
 and heavy burlap have been used with fair success for 
 shading, but thin or ordinary muslins are useless, as they 
 do not intercept enough light. 
 
 In its wild state ginseng grows from twelve to twenty 
 inches high, bearing three or more compound leaves, each 
 consisting of five thin-stalked leaflets pointed at the apex 
 and rounded or narrowed at the base, the three upper 
 leaflets being larger than the two lower ones. A cluster 
 of from six to twenty small greenish yellow flowers is 
 produced in midsummer, followed later by as many bright- 
 crimson berries, each containing from one to three flatfish, 
 wrinkled seeds the size of small peas. 
 
 The root is spindle shaped, two to four inches long and 
 one-half to one inch or more in thickness, generally 
 branched in the older specimens and prominently marked 
 with circular wrinkles. Beds should rarely be dug for 
 
MONEY MAKING GARDEN CROPS 173 
 
 market until the sixth year, and should then be taken up 
 solidly and the undersized roots replanted or securely heeled 
 in until time to plant in the spring. Good roots should run 
 nearly four inches long, half an inch in thickness below 
 the crown, and average about an ounce in weight in the 
 fresh state. 
 
 Roots may be dug at any time after growth ceases in 
 September, but mid-October is regarded as the most favor- 
 able time. They should be carefully washed or shaken 
 free of all adhering soil, but not scraped, as it is important 
 to preserve the natural dusky color of the skin with its 
 characteristic annular markings. 
 
 Curing is best effected in an airy room heated to about 
 80 degrees by a stove or furnace. The roots are spread 
 on lattice traps and are frequently examined and turned, 
 but must always be handled gently to avoid breaking the 
 forks or marring the surface. It requires nearly a month 
 of drying to cure the larger roots properly, but the heat 
 may well be diminished toward the end of the process 
 except in noticeably damp weather. The market lies with 
 the wholesale drug dealers, some of whom make a specialty 
 of buying ginseng for export. 
 
 Lima beans, properly cooked and served, form one of 
 the most delicious and nutritious foods that come to the 
 table. With butter and cream added they are very appe- 
 tizing. As they are rich in protein they take the place of 
 meat and eggs. In the summer, when the heavier or animal 
 foods are not so much wanted, a dish of lima beans with 
 bread and fruit makes a meal that is all we desire. 
 
 Common bush beans are easily grown, but the lima, so 
 much better in quality, is very tender. Its cultivation is 
 more difficult. While the lima is very edible in the dry 
 state, it is most delicious when not quite matured, so those 
 who grow it may plan to have a succession in this condi- 
 tion, and also a supply for canning. 
 
 For my main crop, while I depend on the large pole or 
 running lima, I believe the bush form should have a place 
 
174 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 in the garden, because of its earliness. In the order named 
 come Henderson's, Burpee's, Seibert's, Large Lima and 
 King of the Garden. The various varieties are so very sen- 
 sitive to cold and to too much moisture that I have had 
 my seed fail to germinate even when planted June i. To 
 make sure of the crop, especially the large, late varieties, 
 such as King of the Garden, I use a hotbed or a cold frame 
 to start the earliest ones. I also plant seed in open ground 
 for succession. 
 
 The last of April or May i I cover the surface of a cold 
 frame with inverted sods cut in squares of about four 
 inches. In each of these I plant two or three beans. From 
 the start I water frequently and admit plenty of air. When 
 the soil out of doors has become thoroughly warm and 
 there is little danger of frost I transplant in open ground. 
 The sods are lifted with a spade after watering. Care 
 must be taken not to break the soil so as to disturb the 
 roots. The lima should be planted in very rich soil, but 
 a well balanced fertilizer should be used. Well rotted 
 animal manure supplemented with wood ashes I consider 
 the best. Hen manure and wood ashes or high-grade com- 
 mercial fertilizer can be so used as to give good results. 
 Select a well drained part of the garden ; if possible, a light 
 loam with a sunny exposure. Work part of the fertilizer 
 in the soil with the harrow, the balance in the hills or 
 furrows. 
 
 The bush lima should be planted about the same distance 
 apart as the ordinary bush bean. The plan I generally 
 use when growing the pole lima is to make a furrow three 
 or four inches deep, scatter in it fertilizers which I mix 
 well with the soil, level and firm well ; then over it make a 
 mark one or two inches deep, in this press the beans, eye 
 down, one or two inches apart, draw about one-half inch 
 of soil over them and firm well. I set some posts over the 
 row and fasten 6-foot wide netting to them. To this the 
 vines are trained as they grow, but are cut ofif when they 
 reach the top. 
 
MONEY MAKING GARDEN CROPS 175 
 
 Judicious pruning is necessary to make them bear well 
 and produce large pods. If poles are easily obtained I 
 have no objection to using them, except that the vines 
 require more attention than when trained on trellises, and 
 it is more work to set them. I have used outside rows of 
 corn for a support, also sunflowers, but for my main crop 
 I shall continue to use wire netting. I plant as above 
 described a part of my crop at the same time I transplant 
 seedlings from the cold frame. The plants should stand 
 eight to ten inches apart in the rows after transplanting 
 or thinning. 
 
 An excellent old-fashioned way to raise cucumbers and 
 melons in the kitchen garden is to dig a circular hole in 
 the ground from 6 to lo inches deep and 3 feet across. 
 In the center of the excavation place on end a nail cask 
 with both ends knocked out. Then fill the space around 
 the outside of the cask with a compost of good loam and 
 rotted stable manure, or droppings from the hennery well 
 pulverized and thoroughly mixed with earth. Cover the 
 compost with 2 or 3 inches of loam, and plant the seed 
 near the cask. 
 
 Fill the cask with mulch or light manure from the horse 
 stable, that will hold moisture like a sponge. In case of 
 drought, water may be poured into the cask freely. It will 
 not evaporate readily, and gives a gradual supply to the 
 plants as they require. A number of small holes should 
 be bored through the staves of the cask to allow outward 
 seepage of water. 
 
 If the ground is naturally inclined to dampness no exca- 
 vation below the level should be made. Place the cask on 
 the surface and build a mound of compost around it. To 
 give the vines freedom of growth, the casks should be set 
 eight or nine feet apart each way. 
 
 One of the most delicious vegetables in the world is water 
 cress, and yet with few exceptions farmers are doing with- 
 out this delicacy when they could have it freely and for 
 nothing more than the gathering. England is full of water 
 
176 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 cress. It grows wild in the running brooklets, in the hedge 
 ditches and along small river banks; it is on every table 
 in season and on sale in every city, town and village, but 
 here in our own country it is found only in the markets 
 of the great cities. Yet we have unexampled facilities in 
 the millions of free running springs that in many states 
 are found in such profusion. All that is demanded for the 
 raising of cress is a running spring of pure water. Five 
 cents will buy a packet of seed from any seedsman. Sow 
 seeds in the mud at the edge of the water. They germinate 
 easily and the plants will soon fill the bed of the stream 
 and continue to spread down its channel. If growing near 
 the source of the spring where the waters are warm, it will 
 be ready for use in March, while the garden is still bare. 
 It is surely not exaggerating to say that it is the equal of 
 lettuce or of celery. No vegetable is more wholesome. 
 
 The cultivation of the watermelon is practically the same 
 as for the muskmelon, except that the plants grow larger 
 and require more room for development than those of the 
 muskmelon. Watermelons require that the soil should con- 
 tain a larger percentage of sand than muskmelons, and that 
 the land should be quite rich. Watermelons should be 
 planted with a space of ten feet each way between the 
 hills, or in drills ten feet apart. The watermelon seedlings 
 must be protected from the cucumber beetle until the foliage 
 becomes toughened. 
 
 When the owner of a tract of land gets the vision of 
 money-making from garden crops, an essential move is to 
 make land do double duty. Succession crops are success- 
 fully grown by expert gardeners in any part of the country. 
 
 Then it should be remembered there are early and late 
 varieties of seeds, and by planting both kinds at the same 
 time there will be a good succession of crops. Another 
 plan is to plant seeds at intervals two weeks apart and 
 thus secure a continuous supply. To make this kind of 
 gardening pay well, all of the cool-weather plants should 
 be in the ground early in April. Lettuce, radishes, onions, 
 
MONEY MAKING GARDEN CROPS 177 
 
 beets, spinach, parsley, swiss chard, salsify, peas and early 
 potatoes will stand much cold and more or less freezing. 
 Plant them early and follow with others. 
 
 The warm-weather plants include beans, melons, squash, 
 corn, cabbage, cauliflower, tomatoes, eggplant and peppers. 
 These should not be planted until cold weather is past and 
 the ground is warm. 
 
 In planning for succession crops, radishes and set onions 
 may be placed between rows of early peas, followed by 
 wax or snap beans and celery or beets. During August late 
 turnip, radish and carrot seed may be scattered broadcast 
 and raked in lightly among peppers, tomato, eggplant or 
 corn to utilize the ground after the first frost that nips 
 such tender plants. By skillful work along these lines 
 many gardeners secure three good crops in a season. 
 
 To be sure, many of the plants will be trampled on while 
 gathering the tomatoes, etc., and many qf them will fail 
 to reach edible size, but there will be enough to make the 
 practice worth while. By preceding the eggplants, etc., with 
 a quick-maturing spring series and following them as just 
 indicated, the ground may be kept busy from early spring 
 till late fall and an astonishing amount of food thus secured. 
 
 Many vegetables may be started in midsummer for a fall 
 garden. It is a good plan to arrange for the ground to be 
 left bare in good-sized blocks by the removal of the earliest 
 crops, so the soil may be immediately worked over and 
 planted to succession vegetables. 
 
 In connection with this double-cropping it is asserted that 
 carrots between rows of tomatoes will prevent the blight 
 from attacking the latter vegetable. This is worth trying. 
 It is also well to remember that the extra cultivation called 
 for by succession crops is good for the soil, especially if 
 plenty of well-rotted manure is used. 
 
 For seeds of quick germination, such as cabbage, cauli- 
 flower and aster, a thorough watering, of the seed box 
 before planting will generally be sufificient. Seed should 
 be planted across the box in rows about an inch apart, so 
 
178 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 that after the plants appear watering can be done without 
 knocking over or washing out the tiny plants. Do this 
 watering between the rows with a can having a nail-hole 
 at one side of the bottom; fill it with water and carry it 
 back and forth between the rows. 
 
 For seeds requiring a longer period to germinate, such 
 as peppers, tomatoes, parsley, pansies and nearly all peren- 
 nials, a different method must be used. Water thoroughly, 
 as in the first method, and plant in rows also, but the seed 
 box should then be covered with a glass and placed in 
 good heat and strong light, but during the brightest part 
 of the day a single thickness of paper should be placed 
 over the glass. When watering finally becomes necessary 
 (as the soil must never be allowed to become thoroughly 
 dry), a whiskbroom dipped in lukewarm water and shaken 
 over the surface will provide moisture without washing 
 out the seed. 
 
 At first glance it would seem that there are not many 
 vegetables on the list that could be sown successfully as 
 late as midsummer, but those tested form quite an array. 
 Bush beans, carrots, lettuce, beets, corn, parsley, peas, rad- 
 ishes, spinach and turnips all give satisfactory results when 
 sown July 15 to August i, according to location. They 
 should be put in as near the ist of July as possible to make 
 all growth possible before frost. The hardy ones cause 
 no anxiety, as they endure light frosts. The tender sort, 
 such as beans, cucumbers and spinach, may be saved from 
 the cold by a covering of old rugs and similar material. 
 
 As the gardener cannot duplicate the cool, moist condi- 
 tions of spring for the germination of July seeds, he must 
 do the next best thing and firm the soil well after sowing. 
 This helps to draw the moisture in the soil where the seed- 
 lings can use it. When they have made a start the surface 
 is to be stirred to form a mulch. 
 
 Bush beans sown as late as the middle of July have been 
 successfully harvested by Oct. 15. In another case an 
 Aug. I sowing of peas yielded full sized pods in less than 
 
MONEY MAKING GARDEN CilOPS i'^^ 
 
 seven weeks. These were an extra early sort. The crop, 
 however, was not so heavy as from spring sown seed. 
 
 Lettuce planted in early August bore leaves large enough 
 to use before the middle of September and well formed 
 heads from the first week in October until the ground was 
 cleared. 
 
 This is only a suggestive outline of the scheme of grow- 
 ing succession crops. There are wide possibilities along 
 that line, and it is feasible to go still further and sow rape 
 as soon as the vegetables are off in September and October. 
 By November i this will be in condition for forage. Hogs 
 and sheep can feed from this field of rape for several weeks 
 before winter sets in, and it is again ready for them in the 
 spring. 
 
 So far as the effect on the soil is concerned, it is possible 
 to continue the double chopping of vegetables indefinitely. 
 The land will most likely show improvement under such 
 methods of cultivation, but a rotative scheme is advisable 
 on small tracts as well as large ones. 
 
 The chance that we may have a hot dry summer is 
 always to be reckoned with when we plan the garden. An 
 early start may make all the difference between success and 
 failure. If the hardy vegetables are put in the ground 
 as soon as it is dry enough to work and the more tender 
 plants started in a hotbed, no risk will be run of losing 
 them, and an early garden will be assured whether the 
 summer proves wet or dry. 
 
 Peas, beets, lettuce, radishes and spinach will stand quite 
 a little freeze and still "make good." But cabbage, tomato 
 and caiiliflower plants must not be set out in the garden 
 until the ground is warm and the frosty nights past. The 
 same is true of pepper, eggplant, celery, as well as many 
 kinds of annual flowers. 
 
 A single sash hotbed will grow enough early tomatoes, 
 cabbages and flowers for one garden and a double sash will 
 give space for all the varieties mentioned above with plants 
 to spare. 
 
180 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 If there is a well drained spot where a sunken hotbed 
 can be made, it will be necessary to make an excavation 
 only a little larger than the frame to be used and about 
 two feet deep. This will not require a large amount of 
 manure and will be easily protected from cold. If there is 
 no well drained spot, a surface hotbed will furnish its own 
 drainage. The manure used must be piled at least two feet 
 high and two or three feet wider than the frame to be used. 
 This is necessary because more heat must be generated and 
 the frame must be set on a broad base to hold it securely 
 in place. 
 
 For either sort of hotbed, the manure must be thoroughly 
 heated before it is used. Fresh, strawy stable manure from 
 the horse stalls should be thoroughly mixed and piled under 
 cover. When it begins to steam like a small volcano it 
 should be again thoroughly mixed and piled up to heat a 
 second time. The manure should not be too coarse and 
 dry, nor should it be too wet. If conditions are good, it 
 will take but a few days to get the manure well heated and 
 ready to put in place. Whether it is used in an excavated 
 bed or on the surface, it must be well and evenly packed. 
 Six inches of rich, well pulverized earth will give depth 
 enough for the seeds. This should be put in after the 
 frame is in place. 
 
 The frame should be banked up on the outside with 
 manure and a covering of boards put over it for warmth 
 and for convenience to stand or sit, when working in the 
 hotbed. 
 
 When all this is done and the sash in place the bed should 
 be left to heat and for the germination of any weed seeds. 
 At night or on stormy days the glass should be well pro- 
 tected with old carpets or something of the sort, and boards 
 to hold them in place in case a high wind arises. 
 
 When the first crop of weeds has appeared so they can 
 be killed and the temperature is at summer heat, the seeds 
 should be sowed in rows about five inches apart for tomato 
 and a little nearer for smaller growing plants. The seed 
 
MONEY MAKING GARDEN CROPS 181 
 
 must be covered quite shallow and care must be taken in 
 watering not to wash the earth off of them. While the 
 frame for the sash must slope four or five inches toward 
 the southern exposure, the hotbed should be as nearly level 
 as possible, otherwise it will dry out unevenly. 
 
 A thorough watering that will soak down through the 
 earth is much better than a little sprinkle oftener. It is 
 the nature of plant roots to grow downward, but if all 
 the moisture is near the surface they will spread out in a 
 shallow growth to reach it and the plants will not be so 
 well rooted. 
 
 A hotbed needs watchful care. It must not get too 
 hot or too dry. It must not be forgotten at night and 
 left uncovered when frost is in the air. But our 
 farmer folk are used to caring for young and tender 
 animals and plants and are not likely to need much caution- 
 ing on that score. If started in March, it will probably 
 be necessary to transplant once from the hotbed before 
 setting the tomatoes and cabbages in the ground. If a cold 
 frame is in readiness for this it will be more convenient 
 than window boxes and give better results. 
 
 POTATOES A STANDARD CROP 
 
 It is next to impossible to contemplate a farming scheme 
 without the usual crop of potatoes. Owners of farms of 
 anything more than ten acres should have considerable po- 
 tato acreage in rotation with other products. The crop is 
 worth as high as $300 ah acre where produced on scientific 
 principles. The average farmer, and more particularly 
 the amateur, cannot expect to attain such results very often. 
 It is not too much to expect a profit of $100 to $150 an 
 acre, however, at the present range of prices. 
 
 A rich sandy loam is best suited to the production of 
 Irish potatoes, and the fertilizers employed should contain 
 high percentages of potash. The main crop of Irish pota- 
 toes for family use should be grown elsewhere, but a small 
 area of early ones properly belongs in the garden. The 
 
182 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 preparation of the soil should be the same as for general 
 crops. 
 
 Early potatoes should be planted as early in the spring 
 as it is feasible to work the land, irrespective of locality. 
 This will require planting in January in the extreme south- 
 ern states, and as late as May in the extreme northern 
 states. Late potatoes are extensively grown in the north, 
 and the planting should be done late in May or during June. 
 The rows should be 2>^ feet apart, and the hills 14 to 18 
 inches apart in the row. Lay off the rows with a one- 
 horse plow or lister and drop the seed, one or two pieces 
 in a place, in the bottom of the furrow. Cover the seed 
 to a depth of about four inches, using a hoe or a one-horse 
 plow for the purpose. One to three weeks will be required 
 for the potatoes to come up, depending entirely upon the 
 temperature of the soil. The ground may freeze slightly 
 after the planting has been done, but so long as the frost 
 does not reach the seed potatoes no harm will result, and 
 growth will begin as soon as the soil becomes sufificiently 
 warm. 
 
 As soon as the potatoes appear above the ground and 
 the rows can be followed, the surface should be well stirred 
 by means of one of the harrow-toothed cultivators. Good 
 cultivation should be maintained throughout the growing 
 season, with occasional hand hoeing, if necessary, to keep 
 the ground free from weeds. Toward the last the soil 
 may be well worked up around the plants to hold them 
 erect and protect the tubers from the sun after the vines 
 begin to die. 
 
 After digging the potatoes they should not be allowed to 
 lie exposed to the sun or to any light while in storage, as 
 they soon become green and unfit for table use. Early 
 potatoes especially should not be stored in a damp place 
 during the heated part of the summer, and will keep best 
 if covered with straw in a cool, shady shed until the autumn 
 weather sets in, after which they can be placed in a dry cel- 
 lar or buried in the open ground. The ideal temperature 
 
MONEY MAKING GARDEN CROPS 183 
 
 for keeping Irish potatoes is between 36 and 40 degrees 
 Fahrenheit, but they will not withstand any freezing. 
 
 A conservative estimate of the increase that might be 
 expected from the use of high-grade seed potatoes is cer- 
 tainly not less than 10 per cent. Such an increase based 
 on the average production of the past five years would 
 amount to over 34,000,000 bushels, having an approximate 
 value of $21,000,000. Of the many causes which operate 
 to produce a low average potato yield in this country, pure 
 seed is an important one. 
 
 By far the simplest and most promising means of devel- 
 oping high-grade seed potatoes is that of the tuber-unit 
 and hill-selection methods. The former consists in select- 
 ing from the seed bin before planting time a considerable 
 number of the most perfectly shaped tubers of from six to 
 eight ounces in weight. When planted these tubers are 
 quartered, as dropped, into four as nearly equal parts as 
 possible. This is done by splitting the bud-eye cliister in 
 each direction from seed to stem end of the tuber. The 
 four pieces of each tuber are dropped consecutively in the 
 row, at a distance of from ten to twelve inches apart in 
 the furrow. All tubers showing discoloration of the flesh 
 or other evidence of disease should be rejected. 
 
 By allowing an additional space between each set of 
 fours, the four plants from each tuber are definitely isolated 
 from adjoining ones, and the grower can readily observe 
 any variation in vigor and uniformity between the units 
 planted. This method also enables him to detect, any 
 mixtures that may occur in the variety. 
 
 At digging time the product of each unit is separately 
 harvested and a further selection made from the marked 
 units of all those which most nearly approach the size, 
 shape and smoothness desired. The selected tubers should 
 be numbered with both field and unit numbers and sep- 
 arately placed in small sacks. From each of the units 
 retained ten of the best tubers should be selected for the 
 next season's planting. It is desirable to maintain the 
 
184 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 study of each selection on the tuber-unit basis the following 
 season, because it permits a more accurate comparison of 
 the behavior of each. 
 
 The hill-selection method consists in marking the most 
 promising plants during the growing season. At harvest- 
 ing time save only those which give greatest promise. Keep 
 the progeny of each hill separate, and take the same data 
 as outlined for the tuber unit. Plant on the tuber-unit 
 basis the following season. For sake of uniformity a 
 definite number of tubers — five or more — should be 
 planted from each hill selection. From this point on 
 the methods given in the tuber-unit work should be fol- 
 lowed. 
 
 The only requirements for the successful practice of 
 the two methods of seed selections are a reasonable degree 
 of painstaking effort on the part of the grower, some 
 i2-inch garden labels, a small pair of balances, a sufficient 
 number of suitable small sacks, and a safe place in which 
 to store the selected tubers until required by the next sea- 
 son's planting. In addition to this, the grower should have 
 a breeding plat. in which each season's selections can be 
 developed up to the point of field-planting stock. 
 
 The selection of the breeding plat need not necessarily 
 be divorced from the general field plat. In most cases it 
 can be more conveniently handled if it is a part of the 
 regular field. All that is required is to set aside as many 
 rows as may be required to plant the selected tubers. These 
 should be preferably on one side of the field, so that they 
 can be more readily observed. The planting furrows may 
 be open and a fertilizer distributed with the potato planter 
 by removing the disks and setting the plow a trifle deeper. 
 If a plow is used in covering, care should be exercised to 
 avoid displacing the seed pieces. 
 
 There is a good opportunity for money making in the 
 production of a high quality of seed potatoes. Farmers 
 who have sound and uniform stock will have no difficulty in 
 disposing of it at double the regular price. The fight 
 
MONEY MAKING GARDEN CROPS 185 
 
 against disease must be made with clean ground and perfect 
 seed. 
 
 Those who have had scabby potatoes or who are not 
 absolutely sure about the kind of stock they are about to 
 use should employ formaldehyde. Dr. Arthur of the 
 Indiana station has used formaldehyde gas with great suc- 
 cess. This product, being nonpoisonous and harmless, has 
 become the most popular disinfectant. The most common 
 method of generating the gas is to pour a solution of for- 
 maldehyde over crystals of potassium permanganate. A 
 large amount of gas is formed in a few minutes. A liquid 
 treatment is also feasible. An immersion for potato seed 
 is sixteen ounces of 40 per cent formaldehyde to forty 
 gallons of water. 
 
 When seed potatoes are to be treated with gas place them 
 in bushel crates or shallow slat-work bins in a tight room. 
 For each 1,000 cubic feet of space spread twenty-three 
 ounces of potassium permanganate evenly over the bottom 
 of a large flaring pan or pail placed in the middle of the 
 room. Pour over this three pounds of formalin. Then 
 close the room at once and do not open it for two days. 
 The mixture is not to be placed very close to the potatoes. 
 Many scientists say that the liquid immersion will suit the 
 majority of cases better than the gas treatment. 
 
 Recently a shipment of potatoes in the port of New York 
 en route to Cuba from Ireland was found to have about 
 35 per cent of the potatoes infected with powdery scab. 
 This is only an example of why the government cannot be 
 too discriminative in keeping out imports of potatoes. 
 Although scientists have studied potato diseases for a long 
 time and have more recently turned their attention to pow- 
 dery scab, very little, relatively speaking, is yet known. It 
 is well understood that the ordinary scab known in the 
 United States for some time is different from powdery 
 scab or ordinary roughness. 
 
 Experts who have been studying the situation in the 
 middle west believe that common scab is more likely to be 
 
186 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 found in fields which have been dressed with liberal appli- 
 cations of manure. Where commercial fertilizer is used, 
 powdery scab is not so likely to be found. This is based 
 somewhat on the theory that the rank manure full of humus 
 generates more or less heat and in its disintegration favors 
 the development of the spore growth of potato scab. 
 
 The disease gains an entrance at the eyes of the young 
 sprouts, and there causes a destructive growth. Gener- 
 ally the growth is noticeable, but it is possible for one eye 
 of a tuber to be affected by the disease and not show it to 
 any extent, yet this might spread the disease throughout 
 the field. These warts are first light brown in color and 
 quite firm, but they gradually darken until they become 
 almost black, and later rot and become soft. 
 
 The aim in raising potatoes should be to plant so as to 
 get the biggest yield and at the same time with the least 
 expense. One of the farmers in Somerset county, Maine, 
 who have been able to do this most successfully is F. E. 
 Davis. He has received as big a yield as 800 bushels per 
 acre in some instances and on the whole 300 to 500 bushels 
 per acre. 
 
 The soil must be in the best possible condition as regards 
 tilth and fertility. The dirt should be made fine and 
 mellow and the soil of good depth before planting the seed. 
 If the piece is of clover sod then the time for plowing does 
 not count so much, but fall plowing is usually best, and an 
 application of a small coat of manure is good and enables 
 us to reduce the expense of commercial fertilizer at least 
 one-half and to further increase the yield of from fifty to 
 a hundred bushels per acre. Care should be taken not to 
 put on too much manure. In the spring, just before plant- 
 ing, harrow in 1,000 pounds of potash to the acre, sowing 
 it with a planter. 
 
 Plowing and planting are only a small part of the work 
 of raising potatoes. They require considerable care. ' If 
 in a dry season they should be cultivated often, the loose 
 dirt having a tendency to moisten the plants. 
 
Successful Poultry Management 
 
 The main points pertaining to successful poultry manage- 
 ment may be summed up in these propositions: 
 
 Depend only on pullets and yearlings for winter egg 
 production. 
 
 In building up a flock use nothing but chickens from a 
 good laying strain. 
 
 Feed a well-balanced ration and in liberal quantities, but 
 avoid wastefulness. See that the chickens clean up their 
 food. 
 
 Fowls of all kinds should be kept free from vermin if 
 they are to thrive. Disease must not be allowed to get a 
 foothold in a flock. Cleanliness is as important as any- 
 thing else. Aim to keep chickens hearty and vigorous. 
 
 Lice are a great enemy to young chicks. Examine the 
 tops of the heads and under the wings for the body lice. 
 Go over the bunch some night and "grease" the entire lot 
 with just a touch of lard to the heads and under the wings, 
 old hens included if you have hen mothers. If not, then 
 examine the brooder and roosting boards for the little red 
 mites, the lice that suck the life blood and vigor out of the 
 flock by night. These mites will be found in the cracks 
 and crevices of the boards. We clean out and scald the 
 roosting places thoroughly at least once a week. 
 
 House the poultry in snug, sanitary buildings. See that 
 walls and floors are free from dampness. Sunlight and 
 ventilation are essential, but drafts are dangerous. Not 
 infrequently poultry keepers complain of the failure of 
 their chickens to show profits, when the whole fault lies in 
 defective housing. More than half the diseases with which 
 fowls sufifer are caused in this way. 
 
 The chief requisites of a house are that it should be 
 weather proof, so that whatever the inclemency of the 
 
 187 
 
188 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 season the birds keep dry. It must be provided with ample 
 ventilation and should have a sunny aspect. The sun is 
 life to all animals, and the more fowls get of it in winter 
 the better. Yet, sometimes, poultry quarters are placed in 
 dark, secluded corners, and built to admit hardly any light. 
 The owners seem to imagine fowls are like rabbits or foxes, 
 and like to hide in the dark, but they belong to "the fowls 
 of the air" and need light and air, and plenty of it. 
 
 It is very important that we give the young chicks a good 
 start in life, and once started keep them growing. Hold 
 them up on dewy mornings and days of threatened rain. 
 Confinement at such times is far better than allowing them 
 to range through wet weeds and grass. Incubator chicks 
 are hard to control in times of sudden showers if raised 
 "by hand," so it is generally best to confine their range to 
 a given area and have the coops or shelters well distributed 
 over this space. We find it best to give the chicks to hens 
 at hatching so they will be kept out in small bunches and 
 thus every hen knows her own coop and takes her chicks 
 thither on the approach of rain. By keeping a watch on 
 the weather we can call the chicks up at such times and have 
 them all safe before a rain. 
 
 Matured fowls do not start to lay until a week or two 
 after the new feathers are fully grown and the bodies of 
 the hens are well protected from cold weather. During 
 the moulting period few, if any, eggs are laid, because all 
 the feed the hen consumes is needed to keep up her health 
 and vitality and produce the new coat of feathers. 
 
 It follows that practically the only fresh eggs in early 
 winter are from pullets hatched during the preceding spring. 
 If they were hatched late or for any reason have not been 
 grown and matured properly, a scarcity of fresh eggs is 
 bound to result. When climatic or other conditions exercise 
 a widespread influence to retard the development of pullets 
 over a considerable area, this shortage of eggs will be 
 noticed. 
 
 To secure pullets that will lay in the fall, the American 
 
SUCCESSFUL POULTRY MANAGEMENT 189 
 
 breeds should be hatched in March, and the Leghorn and 
 other Mediterranean breeds somewhat later, in April or 
 May. The Leghorn pullets begin to lay sooner than the 
 American breeds. Proper feeding will cause the pullets to 
 lay during the fall .and winter, but too heavy feeding will 
 force the growth of the pullets to such an extent that they 
 will begin laying in August and September, then pass 
 through the molting period in the fall, the same as hens, and 
 cease laying until warm weather. This is a difficulty that 
 the skillful poultry man must avoid. 
 
 The winter layers must have a diet rich in protein, and 
 also considerable mineral matter. There are many foods 
 that contain large amounts of protein, but the source that is 
 most common is meat scrap, cotton-seed meal, wheat shorts, 
 and wheat bran. Grains have considerable protein, but fat 
 and carbohydrates are the leading constituents of grain. 
 Laying hens require some corn, but too much is conducive 
 to laying on fat at expense of eggs. 
 
 It is practically impossible to make hens lay in winter, 
 but it is not only possible, but comparatively easy to pro- 
 duce hens that will lay in winter. One man can lead a 
 horse to water, but ten men cannot make him drink, yet it 
 would be easy to prepare him beforehand so he would not 
 only drink of his own accord, but would go to the trough 
 without leading. It is just the same with hens. One may 
 find them, but ten cannot make them lay without previous 
 preparation. 
 
 It is possible, perhaps, to help matters a little if we know 
 under what conditions the birds have been kept. Then it 
 becomes a question to some extent, at least, of whose hens 
 we are going to try to make lay. Taking the farmer's 
 flock as we find it, it is about as well to give up at once, 
 chop off the fowl's heads, dress the carcasses for market, 
 and wait until spring to start in right to produce birds that 
 will lay. 
 
 Among the farmers* flocks we generally find one of two 
 evils: Either the fowls (I am speaking now of old birds) 
 
190 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 are allowed to become too fat during the fall, or are com- 
 pelled to forage for themselves and to use all their energies 
 in obtaining food sufficient to keep life in their bodies. In 
 the first case, the birds become sluggish, and no amount of 
 coaxing will make them lay until nature's appointed time, 
 which is not the winter. In the second case we may help 
 matters with either fowls or chickens, and even make quite 
 early layers of them by giving them proper food and care. 
 This is where the question of whose hens comes in. 
 
 In speaking as I do of the farmers' flock I wish it under- 
 stood that in very many cases the conditions under which 
 the fowls are kept today are widely different from those 
 prevalent a few years ago, when the farmer, as a rule, 
 looked upon his hens not as a source of profit, but as a 
 sort of necessary evil, and treated them accordingly. Today 
 some of our best and most productive flocks are owned 
 by farmers. 
 
 It is, of course, wholly unnatural for hens to lay in the 
 winter. In order to induce them to do so we must resort 
 not to unnatural methods, such as the feeding of patent 
 pills and powders, or forcing foods, so called, but to the 
 providing of unnatural conditions, so to speak. In other 
 words, we must turn winter into summer by providing sum- 
 mer foods as far as possible. In summer under natural 
 conditions the birds roam at large, their surroundings are 
 clean and healthy, and they are contented and happy. Com- 
 pare this with the conditions of the general run of farmers' 
 poultry yards and, I am sorry to say, of some would-be 
 poultrymen's flocks confined in small, filthy, ill-ventilated 
 pens, fed once in a while and watered, perhaps, but as 
 like as not compelled to eat snow that blows in through 
 the cracks, eaten up by lice, and so seldom cared for in any 
 way that they are frightened half to death if anyone goes 
 in where they are. 
 
 If we would have our birds lay in winter we must begin 
 at the egg, or what is better with the parent stock; breed 
 from nothing but the strongest, most vigorous birds, and 
 
SUCCESSFUL POULTRY MANAGEMENT 191 
 
 keep none but the best we can buy or raise. From the day 
 the chicks are hatched they must never miss a meal nor be 
 without plenty of cool, fresh water. The rules should be: 
 Feed little and often, and change the water every time of 
 feeding; plenty of fresh air, plenty of shade, as well as 
 sunshine; never a minute of discontent or unhappiness. 
 These are the foundation stones of winter laying. Anyone 
 who will follow these simple rules, being careful that he 
 does not crowd the chicks when in confinement, and provide 
 ample fresh, clean grass range as soon as the chicks are old 
 enough to return to their coops, should be able to produce 
 winter layers. 
 
 In winter all the grain feed should be worked into straw 
 litter so that the hens may get good exercise and amuse- 
 ment hunting for it. If nothing of this kind is done, the 
 flock will huddle in one corner of the poultry house or in 
 or about one of the other farm buildings and will seem 
 to lose all interest in life. If the flock gets into this lazy 
 and indifferent habit, winter eggs will be few and hard 
 to get. It is well to get the hens to exercising and singing 
 as they work for their feed, and then sell fifty-cent eggs 
 to the city buyers who want the genuine article. 
 
 The flock should be given as great a variety of grain as 
 possible. Corn, wheat, barley, and clipped oats make a sat- 
 isfactory ration. If all of these grains are not produced on 
 the farm, then feed those that are raised. On real cold 
 days take some ear corn into the house, thoroughly heat it 
 upon the kitchen stove, then break into small pieces and 
 scatter over the feeding floor an hour or more before dark. 
 Arrange a mash box or trough with a little ground feed 
 where the hens may have access to it. They can then go to 
 the "pantry" and get "a bite" to eat when the grain is gone 
 from the litter. A warm mash of moist, ground feed, 
 table scraps, etc., fed so that all of the birds will get what 
 they will eat greedily in fifteen minutes, is good for laying 
 hens. 
 
 As insects are not available in winter, skim milk should 
 
192 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 be fed liberally. If this is not obtainable feed some ground 
 green bone or meat, about an ounce to each hen three 
 times a week. If unable to provide any of these, buy com- 
 mercial meat scrap, for animal feed of some sort helps to 
 fill the egg basket. 
 
 Housing has much to do with successful poultry keeping. 
 Some do not realize that fowls require shelter and protec- 
 tion throughout the entire year, especially during the sea- 
 son when it is cold and damp. Of all the types of houses 
 used today, the most popular is the fresh-air house. By 
 this we mean a house which is absolutely tight on three 
 sides, dry, well ventilated and comfortable. This house 
 should have an opening in front or on the south side, as all 
 houses should face the south, so the sun can shine in the 
 house and make it cheery. This type of house is not damp, 
 cold, and uncomfortable, but if properly constructed plenty 
 of fresh air can be obtained without drafts and at the same 
 time there is warmth. 
 
 The open front house with a woven wire screen covering, 
 and this screen protected by a muslin curtain for cold, rainy, 
 and snowy weather, is the best form of a building that can 
 be recommended for the successful wintering of fowls. 
 Keep the floor well covered with straw, and change this as 
 often as it becomes much soiled or rusty. The grain should 
 be scattered in this litter. 
 
 SELECTION AND BREEDING FOR RESULTS 
 
 The first 300-egg hen in the world has been developed 
 at the Oregon agricultural college. She is known in the 
 college records as No. C521, and she laid 303 eggs in one 
 year. This is 21 more eggs than the former world's cham- 
 pion, and 22 more than the United States record. This 
 wonderful hen weighs five pounds and the 303 eggs she pro- 
 duced totaled 42 pounds. The eggs were of large size and 
 of good shape and color. 
 
 An interesting thing about this hen is that she is not a 
 pure bred, but comes from the crossing of different breeds 
 
SUCCESSFUL POULTRY MANAGEMENT 193 
 
 made by the college in an effort to develop a new breed of 
 heavy producers that will breed true to type. This work has 
 been in progress for six years and the college hopes to be 
 able to present a new breed of egg producers within the 
 next two years. The results obtained with this crossing 
 would indicate that they are on the right track. The best 
 five hens in the flock averaged 280 eggs each. The new 
 champion and four of her full sisters averaged 245 eggs, 
 and the entire flock of forty averaged over 210 eggs per 
 year. 
 
 There was no scrub stock in the contest. That point 
 should be clearly understood. The prize winning hen is a 
 cross of pure-bred White Plymouth Rock and White Leg- 
 horn. The female stock in both breeds was noted for egg 
 production for several years, and the male birds were chosen 
 from families of similar merit. Thus, by both selection and 
 breeding the greatest of egg records was made. The 
 medium sized, general purpose stock is winning honors 
 all over the country, but in every case there is selection 
 on the score of individual merit. 
 
 I believe the value of the trap-nest, or, in other words, 
 the importance of individual selection in poultry breeding, 
 has not been emphasized enough or appreciated at its real 
 value. When it is considered with what rapidity a flock 
 of hens is reproduced, the possibilities that open in the 
 way of rapid increase in poultry production, are surely 
 great. The trap-nest will, I believe, do much for the world 
 in the way of increasing food production. We must em- 
 phasize the value of the individual and minimize the im- 
 portance of breed. Rather it is a question of breeding than 
 of breed. Where would the dairy industry have been, or 
 any other live-stock industry, if breeding had been based 
 on the average of the herd rather than on the individual? 
 
 Another thing that must be considered if we are to make 
 rapid progress in breeding for eggs, is the futility of breed- 
 ing for a great many points that have no connection with 
 egg-laying qualities. We all believe in beautiful fowls, 
 
194 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 that is, we like to see beautiful chickens, but we can have 
 beauty without insisting on points that are not necessary 
 from a standpoint of beauty nor desirable from the stand- 
 point of utility. We can't expect to make progress in 
 breeding for eggs if we are to follow a standard in our 
 breeding that insists on 20 or 50 points of no value except 
 in the show. If we do it will mean that it will take i<x> or 
 1,000 years to accomplish in egg production what might be 
 accomplished in 10 or 20 years. A profitable poultry indus- 
 try must be built upon a system of breeding that encour- 
 ages rather than retards the one essential thing — the im- 
 provement of productive qualities. This is the one improve- 
 ment of most vital importance to commercial poultry 
 raising. 
 
 Haphazard poultry raising is fast becoming a thing of 
 the past. The wideawake farmer of today realizes the value 
 of the hen as a money-maker, and is constantly on the look- 
 out for knowledge that will help him to increase that 
 value. 
 
 To produce eggs and poultry at a profit requires a knowl- 
 edge of feeding that covers the entire life of the fowl. 
 Egg production is influenced by many factors, chief of 
 which are the health of the hen, the methods of housing, 
 the feed, and the general care. Because the laying hen 
 is the producer, it is necessary to first look after her wel- 
 fare. 
 
 A laying hen should be healthy. Activity in scratching 
 and foraging is an indication of health; the weak fowl is 
 rarely active and does not forage far from the poultry house. 
 She is the last oflf the perch in the morning and the first 
 on at night. The fowl that forages far out in the fields 
 is the one that secures food to make eggs. The head 
 and its appendages also show indications of health and 
 vitality. The strong fowl has a broad head with a short, 
 well-curved beak. The eye is bright and full ; the wattles 
 and comb are bright red and of medium size. A very 
 large comb does not necessarily indicate the best health. 
 
SUCCESSFUL POULTRY MANAGEMENT 195 
 
 and has the disadvantage of being frozen in severe weather. 
 However, a hen with a shrunken comb, a long, flat head, and 
 a correspondingly long beak, should never be used for 
 breeding purposes ; she is rarely a profitable layer. Smooth, 
 full developed, glossy plumage is also an indication of 
 health. 
 
 The shape of the body is an important characteristic. A 
 laying hen has a deep, broad body, indicating abundant 
 space for a large digestive and reproductive system. The 
 legs should be of medium length, strong, and placed well 
 apart. The neck should be short and thick ; the breast full 
 and round, and the keel well covered with meat. 
 
 Chief of all is the feeding of the laying hen. There is 
 a close relationship between the food eaten by the hen and 
 the eggs laid. The various grains contain five elements — 
 water, ash, protein, carbohydrates, and fat, varying in quan- 
 tity. The body of the fowl and the egg contain these same 
 elements in different form; i.e., the ash (mineral matter) 
 of feeds is changed to bone and egg shell in the body of the 
 fowl ; the protein is changed from gluten into lean meat, or 
 egg albumen, and the carbohydrates and the fat are con- 
 verted from starch, sugar and oil into the fat of the body 
 or the yolk of the egg. 
 
 It is impossible for a hen to do her best in laying eggs if 
 she is fed a ration rich in carbohydrates and fat but con- 
 taining little protein ; she has little material for albumen on 
 such ration, but plenty for the yolk of the egg. Carbo- 
 hydrates cannot be changed into protein, although protein 
 can be changed into fat, but as protein is a very small 
 part of the grain, it is economy to supply a food that carries 
 a large percentage of protein. 
 
 Practically all grains contain far more carbohydrates than 
 any other element, and while nearly any grain can be util- 
 ized as feed, com, wheat, oats, buckwheat, and sunflower 
 seed will be found the most economical. Sunflower seed 
 contains a larger percentage of protein than any of the 
 grains and for this reason is a very good and economical 
 
196 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 » 
 
 food. Of ground feeds and by-products, linseed oil meal, 
 gluten meal and meat scraps will be found to contain a 
 large percentage of protein and fat. Other desirable ground 
 feeds and by-products are wheat bran, wheat middlings, 
 corn meal, alfalfa meal, and skim milk. Green alfalfa, 
 green red clover, mangled beets, rye forage, cabbage and 
 rape are among the most desirable vegetable foods. 
 
 In short, a balanced ration will make the best return 
 and show a saving in the feed bills. A balanced ration must 
 contain whole grain, ground grain, green food, grit and 
 shell. At this point I will compare and discuss a number 
 of feeding methods. Here is a popular ration: To 40 
 pounds of whole grain add 20 pounds of dry mash, 10 
 pounds of clover, 2j^ pounds of shell, and I pound of grit. 
 You will see from this that grain should constitute about 
 two-thirds of the ration. It should be fed morning and 
 evening in a deep litter of straw or scratching material. 
 Exercise is important for the health of the fowl and means 
 increased egg production. In the morning, the hens should 
 not be given a full feed, but about the quantity they will 
 clean up in half an hour. A fowl with a full crop will 
 not take much exercise. In the evening the hens may be 
 given all they will eat so that their crops will be well filled 
 when they go to roost. The exact quantity of feed will 
 depend upon the breed, the season of the year, the age, 
 and the appetite of the hens. Hens in full laying will 
 consume more feed than sitting hens, and certain breeds will 
 consume a third more than others. A hen will often become 
 too fat on the quantity of feed that would be required 
 by a pullet in good laying condition. No rule definitely 
 fixing the quantity of feed can be laid down. Successful 
 feeding is the result of daily observation and experience. 
 
 There are a great many grain mixtures that may be fed, 
 but two things should be considered in preparing such a 
 mixture. First, it should provide a variety of foods; and 
 second, it should not contain an excess of indigestible fiber. 
 A ration which some experts use is composed of 15 pounds 
 
SUCCESSFUL POULTRY MANAGEMENT 197 
 
 cracked corn, lo pounds wheat, and 5 pounds oats. The 
 corn is cracked to enable the digestive juices to act upon it 
 more readily and to afford more exercise to the hens in 
 scratching in the litter. Undamaged wheat screenings may 
 be fed in place of whole wheat. Oats should be clipped 
 or rolled. This mixture has an excess of carbohydrates, 
 and in order to make a balanced ration it will be necessary 
 to supply a mash. A dry mash which is satisfactory is com- 
 posed of 4 pounds of corn meal, 6 pounds wheat middlings, 
 4 pounds wheat bran, 4 pounds meat scraps, i pound linseed 
 oil meal, i pound alfalfa meal, J^ pound fine charcoal, i 
 tablespoonful salt. This mash fed in proportion of one- 
 third to two-thirds grain will make a well-balanced ration. 
 
 Another successful combination is 4 pounds of cracked 
 corn, 2 pounds wheat, and i pound oats, with a dry mash 
 composed of 3 pounds corn meal, 2 pounds wheat bran, 
 2 pounds meat scraps, i pound wheat middlings. 
 
 It is not always convenient to weigh the parts of ground 
 grain which we intend to mix for the mash. Most of 
 us find it easier to measure it out in scoopfuls. The follow- 
 ing table will be found useful for those who desire to 
 have their mash made up of equal parts each of ground 
 food: 
 
 One pound of corn meal will measure about one and 
 
 one-half pints. 
 One pound middlings will measure about one quart. 
 One pound ground oats will measure about two and 
 
 one-half pints. 
 One pound wheat bran will measure about three pints. 
 One pound clover meal will measure about two quarts. 
 
 Green food in some form is necessary for the health of 
 the fowl. Its value lies chiefly in its physical effect upon 
 the digestive system. Beets, cabbage, and sprouted oats are 
 among the best green feeds for winter. Rape, alfalfa, and 
 clover are excellent summer feeds. Grit and shell are also 
 essential, for without grit, the hen cannot grind the hard 
 
198 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 grains, and without shell, she will lack the lime to make 
 the shell of the egg. 
 
 The last and most important food is water. Eggs are 
 composed largely of water, and hens which have an irregu- 
 lar or insufficient supply of water will suffer. A large 
 pan with sufficient water to last a day should always be 
 in each pen. 
 
 The great egg yield obtained by C. H. Wykoflf, a New 
 York state breeder of White Leghorns, has provoked ex- 
 tended comment. Following is a summary of his feeding 
 methods: All the fowls are fed three times daily. In the 
 morning they are given a ration composed half and half, 
 by weight, of wheat bran and a mixture made of equal 
 quantities, by measure, of oat and corn meal. This is 
 scalded. At noon a little grain, a mixture of oats, buck- 
 wheat, and wheat in equal parts, is scattered on the floors 
 lightly to induce the fowls to scratch for exercise. At 
 night they are given all they will eat of the grain ration. 
 Sour skimmed milk forms a daily diet and would easily 
 take the place of meat if it could be obtained in sufficient 
 quantities. As it is every other day each group of sixty 
 fowls receives about one and one-half pounds of pressed 
 meat. Ground oyster shells are continually accessible. 
 About four and one-half quarts of green food is given 
 daily to each lot, consisting of cabbage, turnips, and beets 
 in winter, grass in spring, and sea kale in summer. Salt 
 is the only condiment fed, stimulating commercial feeds 
 having long ago been abandoned as dangerous. Clean clover 
 hay, chopped fine and mixed with com meal and steamed, 
 is frequently fed, but only in small quantities, as it is found 
 to be too bulky for the crop. 
 
 W. H. Rudd, the well-known poultry expert, has adopted 
 this plan: "My morning feed consists of corn meal and 
 fine feed in equal parts, ground beef scraps, and in winter 
 boiled potatoes. This is all mixed together with hot water, 
 adding a little salt and egg food. This is fed as soon as 
 the fowls can see to eat, except in the longest days in 
 
SUCCESSFUL POULTRY MANAGEMENT 199 
 
 summer. This feed is put in troughs eight feet long, 
 eight inches wide, and three inches deep. The ends are 
 put in so the bottom of the trough will be three inches 
 above the ground. This same trough is used for the dry 
 grain on stormy days, and in all winter weather. At 
 other times the grain is fed in the yards. For dry grain 
 feed, I use equal parts of whole corn, oats, and wheat. 
 This grain is mixed together in a basket that holds three 
 pecks, and I always use a two-quart flour scoop to deal 
 out both wet and dry feed. This mixture is fed twice a 
 day, morning and night. I never feed in the middle of 
 the day or disturb the hens in the least during the sum- 
 mer. I want them to spend all the time they want in 
 laying eggs. I used to feed at noon, but found if all 
 the hens were called off the nest to eat dinner the same 
 number would not go back again that day. 
 
 "Four to six quarts of feed per day for twenty-six 
 hens would be about right. If large Brahmas, they require 
 more; if Leghorns, less. The proper way is to give 
 them what they will eat up rapidly. Wheat screenings con- 
 tain a large quantity of foul seed ; some of them the hens 
 will not eat and, of course, they will take root and grow. 
 We have known hens to die from eating the seed in screen- 
 ings. It is better to feed good wheat. A good winter 
 feed for laying hens is equal parts corn meal and fine feed ; 
 - add to this one-twentieth as much ground beef scraps and 
 some boiled potatoes, mix with hot water and feed every 
 morning. Give whole corn, oats, and wheat in equal quan- 
 tities at noon and night, giving light feed at noon and all 
 they will eat at night." 
 
 In fattening for the poultry market, the food should be 
 chosen to produce soft, tender meat. Corn meal, wheat 
 middlings, low grade wheat flour, buckwheat meal, and 
 barley meal are used by expert feeders, but shredded wheat 
 waste, boiled potatoes, oat and graham flour, and alfalfa 
 meal may be used to advantage. Sifted meat scraps or 
 alfalfa meal may constitute ten per cent of the ration if 
 
200 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 neither milk nor butter milk is used. Buttermilk or skim 
 milk, however, is regarded as necessary to secure the best 
 results. Usually the mash consists of 40 per cent meal 
 and 60 per cent milk. A mixture of 60 per cent butter- 
 milk or skimmed milk and 40 per cent meal, mixed to the 
 consistency of thick cream or pancake batter, gives good 
 results. 
 
 The period of fattening lasts from 10 days to three 
 weeks. Usually the best results are obtained in a period 
 of two weeks or less. The condition of the birds should 
 determine to a certain extent the period during which they 
 should be fed. 
 
 Feed for young chickens must be digestible, especially 
 during the first week of feeding. It should be composed 
 largely of such foods as rolled oats, hard-cooked eggs, 
 cracked wheat, cracked corn, sifted meat scraps, wheat 
 middlings, and corn meal. Bulky foods, such as bran and 
 alfalfa meal, should be fed in smaller quantities. Follow- 
 ing are two grain mixtures and two mash mixtures which 
 meet with all the requirements and have been thoroughly 
 tested : 3 pounds cracked wheat and 2 pounds fine cracked 
 corn, or 2 pounds cracked wheat and 2 pounds cracked 
 corn, with chick grit, granulated bone, lettuce, cabbage, 
 clover, or alfalfa added in small quantities. The mash 
 mixtures are: 4 pounds rolled oats, 3 pounds corn meal, 
 3 pounds wheat middlings, 4 pounds sifted meat scraps, 
 6 pounds wheat bran, i pound alfalfa meal, J4 pound bone 
 meal, and % pound fine charcoal, or 2 pounds wheat bran, 
 I pound rolled oats, i pound sifted meat scraps, I pound 
 wheat middlings, i pound corn meal, jS^^ pound alfalfa meal, 
 and Ys, pound fine charcoal. 
 
 No feeding is done until the chicks are thirty-six hours 
 old. After that time they may be fed with a moist, crumbly 
 mash, which is made by mixing the first mash mixture given 
 with a small amount of skimmed milk or buttermilk. Dur- 
 ing the first three days, cooked, infertile eggs and chopped 
 lettuce or cabbage leaves should be added to the mash in 
 
SUCCESSFUL POULTRY MANAGEMENT 201 
 
 the proportion of one part eggs and lettuce to three parts 
 mash. The mash is to be fed three times a day from 
 the first until the fourteenth day, together with the first 
 grain mixture, which should be given to the chicks at 
 7 in the morning and 4 in the afternoon. 
 
 Beginning the fourteenth day, a gradual change should 
 be made in the ration. The bone meal is dropped from 
 the mash and granulated bone and grit should be fed 
 in hoppers. Vegetable food is to be fed separately once 
 a day, and the second mash is fed dry at noon instead of 
 the moist mash. The plan of feeding will then be: The 
 grain mixture at 7 in the morning, the moist mash at 9, 
 dry mash at noon, moist mash at 3, and at 4 the grain 
 mixture. This plan should be followed for three or four 
 days. Then the morning feed is eliminated and the chicks 
 are allowed dry mash all day in open hoppers, using the 
 moist njash in the afternoon until after the eighth week, 
 when the chicks may be allowed to hopper-feed them- 
 selves. The grain may be hopper-fed after the fourteenth 
 day by feeding a limited quantity of the second grain mix- 
 ture in a hopper and gradually increasing it until the chicks 
 have an unlimited supply. The hoppers referred to above 
 are trays 6 inches wide, 2 inches deep, and 30 inches long 
 when first used, the size and depth being changed as the 
 size of the chicks increases. 
 
 The Cornell chick rations, recommended by the New 
 York College of Agriculture, are as follows: 
 
 Mixture No. i. — 8 pounds rolled oats; 8 pounds bread 
 crumbs or cracked waste ; 2 pounds sifted beef scrap (best 
 grade) ; i pound bone meal. 
 
 Mixture No. 2. — 3 pounds wheat (cracked) ; 2 pounds 
 cracked corn (fine) ; i pound pinhead oatmeal. 
 
 Mixture No. 3. — 3 pounds wheat bran; 3 pounds corn 
 meal ; 3 pounds wheat middlings ; 3 pounds beef scrap (best 
 grade) ; i pound bone meal. 
 
 Mixture No. 4. — 3 pounds wheat (whole) ; 2 pounds 
 cracked corn ; i pound hulled oats. 
 
202 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 Mixture No. 5. — 3 pounds wheat; 3 pounds cracked 
 corn. 
 
 The method of feeding these mixtures to the young 
 chicks is as follows: 
 
 One to five days of age: Mixture No. i, moistened with 
 sour skimmed milk, fed five times a day. Mixture No. 2 
 in shallow tray containing a little of mixture No. 3 (dry) 
 always before chicks. Shredded green food and fine grit 
 and charcoal scattered over feed. 
 
 Five days to two weeks of age: No. 2 in a light litter 
 twice a day. Mixture No. 3 moistened with sour skimmed 
 milk, fed three times a day. Mixture No. 3 (dry) always 
 available. 
 
 Two to four weeks of age : The same as above, except 
 that the moist mash is given twice a day. 
 
 Four to six weeks of age, or until the chicks are put on 
 range. Reduce the meals of moist mash to one a day. 
 Mixture No. 4 in litter twice a day; dry mash always 
 available. 
 
 Six weeks of age to maturity : No. 3 and No. 5 hopper 
 fed. One meal a day of moist mash if it is desired to 
 hasten development: In mixture No. 3 in place of three 
 pounds of wheat middlings I use three pounds of wheat 
 mixed feed, which I find does not make the wet mash so 
 sticky. 
 
 Along with this system of feeding the following gen- 
 eral directions should be observed : 
 
 1. Provide fine grit, charcoal, shell, and bone from the 
 start. 
 
 2. Give grass range or plenty of green feed. 
 
 3. Have fresh, clean water always before the chicks. 
 
 4. Feed only sweet, wholesome foods. 
 
 5. Avoid damp and soiled litter. 
 
 6. Disinfect brooders and brood coops frequently. 
 
 7. Examine all beef-scrap before feeding. 
 
 8. Keep chickens active by allowing them to become 
 hungry. 
 
SUCCESSFUL POULTRY MANAGEMENT 203 
 
 9. Feed moist mash sparingly and mix it to a crumbly 
 mass, not sloppy. 
 
 10. Keep dry mash always before the chicks. 
 
 Good healthy chicks hatched from vigorous parent stock, 
 fed as above directed, will thrive and grow fast. 
 
 GREEN FOOD FOR LAYING HENS 
 
 A green winter feed that is greatly relished by fowls is 
 sprouted oats. This can be provided by sowing oats in 
 shallow flat boxes about two inches deep, and by sprinkling 
 and keeping the box in a warm place the oats will sprout 
 very rapidly. 
 
 The flats must be thoroughly scrubbed with half water 
 and half formalyn every time before they are used, or the 
 oats will mold in the sprouting. 
 
 The best way to sprout oats is to build a small closet into 
 which the flats can be slipped on cleats and supply the 
 closet with a steam-pipe, or if that is not feasible, a small 
 stove, either for wood or kerosene, or sometimes a large 
 kerosene lamp may be used to maintain heat. 
 
 Soak clean and sound oats overnight in a pail of water. 
 Next morning fill the flats about two inches deep and put 
 in the sprouting closet. Place the freshly filled flats near the 
 top of the closet, so as to get the maximum amount of 
 heat and in that way start the sprouts quickly. 
 
 Rake the sprouts thoroughly two or three times a day 
 until they have become from half to three-quarters of an 
 inch long, then do not disturb them in any way. The oats 
 should be kept quite wet. 
 
 As the oats grow, the flats are moved to different posi- 
 tions in the closets. The taller the material gets, the nearer 
 the flats are moved to the floor, as they then need less 
 heat. 
 
 Feed when the sprouts are from 4 to 6 inches in height, 
 at the rate of a piece of matted oats about 8 inches square 
 for each 100 birds per day. Break up so that every bird 
 in the pen may have some. 
 
204 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 Sprouted oats are not fed for their food, but to supply 
 fresh, succulent, green food during the winter months. 
 
 Cabbage, however, is my favorite green food. Hens 
 are very fond of it, and it requires no work to put it into 
 an eatable condition. I simply suspend a head by a strong 
 cord from a rafter overhead, allowing it to swing at a height 
 a little above the hens. This compels them to jump for 
 every bite they get, giving them exercise and keeping them 
 busy when they would otherwise be standing around in the 
 corners or humped up on the roosts. One good-sized head 
 will usually last loo hens all day. 
 
 Next to cabbage, for a main dependence, I like sugar 
 beets. These I cut open lengthwise and impale on headless 
 spikes driven in the wall at a height which will compel the 
 hens to jump at them. I do not make them jump high — just 
 enough to provide a little exercise. They will eat the beets 
 out clean, leaving only the tough rind. Mangels I feed in 
 the same way, but these are tougher and less sweet, and 
 hens do not eat them so freely. 
 
 Turnips and rutabagas I have found very good green 
 food, especially for a change. These I either boil or chop, 
 usually the latter, however, as hens prefer them so, and 
 tire of them less quickly. To chop I use a wooden bowl 
 and an ordinary chopping knife. They are first sliced finely, 
 then chopped to about the size of small kernels of corn. 
 Only a few minutes are required to chop enough for a good- 
 sized flock. 
 
 Potatoes are an excellent green food, and I feed them 
 freely. If large I simply cut them open and throw them 
 down before the hens. If small I chop them. Usually the 
 parings from those used by the family are sufficient. When 
 other green food was scarce, I have fed these, chopped 
 raw, almost exclusively for a whole winter with very sat- 
 isfactory results. When I have plenty of other stuff I 
 often boil them in place of chopping, mixing them with 
 scalded bran or chopped feed. Hens eat them with relish 
 either way. 
 
SUCCESSFUL POULTRY MANAGEMENT 205 
 
 Every winter I feed a considerable number of pumpkins 
 and squashes. Pumpkins I simply cut open; squashes I 
 bake whole. Hens are fond of both, especially the baked 
 squashes. 
 
 Onions are good. I have fed them almost daily with ex- 
 cellent results. I chop them as a rule with turnips or 
 potatoes. Fed too freely they will taint the flesh, but I have 
 never had them affect the flavor of eggs. I always feed 
 all apple parings and discarded apples I may have to my 
 hens. Hens are greedy for them. 
 
 Clover hay, alsike, and alfalfa will furnish a considerable 
 amount of green food if the hens can get at it. I often 
 use such hay for litter instead of straw. Hens will pick 
 off and eat almost every leaf. Occasionally I gather up a 
 pailful of leaves and heads from the floor of the mow and 
 steam them by covering for a few moments with boiling 
 water. This is the best substitute obtainable for grass, and 
 the hens eat it with great relish. 
 
 CARELESSNESS DESTROYS PROFITS 
 
 Experts claim that the carelessness of farmers in handling 
 eggs is often responsible for their financial failure. It is 
 shown by government statistics that the difference in market 
 value between eggs that are properly gathered, marked, 
 sorted and shipped and those which are carelessly handled 
 amounts to $50,000,000 in the United States, and $2,000,000 
 to $5,000,000 in the separate states. That is, the egg pro- 
 duction of the country would sell for $50,000,000 more 
 than it does if the product were sent to market in more 
 presentable shape. 
 
 The people who are working for a better marketing for 
 farm produce say that the common faults which take the 
 profits off eggs are due to the constant drudgery of the 
 agricultural vocation, which causes farmers to treat the 
 poultry industry as a side issue, instead of making it an 
 important feature and giving to it the thought and atten- 
 tion required to make it a success. Eggs are gathered in 
 
206 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 the most slipshod manner, because nests are not always kept 
 in regular quarters, but may be found in haystacks, fence 
 corners and other out-of-the-way places. They are gathered 
 when they are found and are sent to market without regard 
 to age, color, cleanliness or uniformity. 
 
 Poulterers who are just engaging in the business with a 
 view to supplying city trade and farmers who are trying 
 to make their chickens profitable should mark every egg 
 that is shipped. This is easily done with an indelible pencil 
 or a rubber stamp, giving in the briefest way the owner's 
 name and the date. If the flock is mixed brown eggs should 
 be placed in one case and white ones in another. This item 
 is important. If eggs are soiled they should be wiped clean. 
 When there is any doubt about the age of an egg it should 
 not be sent to market. There is a certain bloom about a 
 strictly fresh egg that dealers and housekeepers look for. 
 This bloom disappears with time or is rubbed off with care- 
 less handling. Owners of poultry should ship the eggs 
 promptly and regularly. 
 
 A candler can be made in the home in a very simple 
 manner. Take a quart tin can or measure; a convenient 
 size is a two-pound cofifee can. Discard the lid, turn the can 
 upside down and with the edge of a silver dollar and a pencil 
 draw a circle in the center of the bottom of the can, then 
 with the aid of a can opener or knife, cut a hole the 
 exact size of the circle. The average egg measures about 
 one and five-eighths inches. This hole will be a little over 
 one and one-half in diameter, which will prevent an ordi- 
 nary sized egg from passing through. Such a tin can and 
 a source of bright light, as the electric light bulb or lamp, 
 is all the apparatus required. 
 
 Place the eggs to be examined inside the can over the 
 hole, keeping the face as close to the can as possible and 
 shutting out all side light by the aid of the two hands. In 
 looking at the light a fresh egg will have a clear, golden 
 yellow appearance without any dark specks or spots. As 
 the eggs become older they will give a mottled appearance 
 
SUCCESSFUL POULTRY MANAGEMENT 207 
 
 varying from a slight cloudiness to black spots, depending 
 upon the age. A rotten egg is generally so dark a person is 
 unable to see any light through it. With a little experi- 
 ence and good judgment a person can judge the quality of 
 an egg by this test. 
 
 Another test is known as the salt solution test. Perfectly 
 fresh eggs will just sink in a lo per cent salt solution at 70 
 degrees Fahrenheit. This test is quickly applied and will 
 distinguish the fresh egg from one that is even a few days 
 old. There are some instances where a fresh egg will not 
 sink under these circumstances, but such cases are not 
 numerous enough to be of any importance. This test should 
 not be applied to eggs which are intended for storage, as 
 it probably impairs the keeping qualities. 
 
 Nearly 7 per cent of all eggs packed in crates and shipped 
 arrive at their destinations in bad order, according to fig- 
 ures just obtained by the Food Research Laboratory of the 
 United States Department of Agriculture. This means that 
 on an average 24.96 eggs out of every 30 dozen packed and 
 shipped arrive at the market either as cracks, dents, leakers, 
 or mashers. These figures were obtained as a result of 
 the individual examination of 6,000 dozen eggs before and 
 after shipment, and a further general study of the con- 
 dition of 71 carloads, or over 500,000 dozen eggs shipped 
 from 36 packing houses in the corn belt to 10 different 
 markets on the eastern coast. The results of this study 
 have been formulated in a preliminary report which is 
 submitted to the joint committee representing the egg ship- 
 pers, the railroads and the United States Department of 
 Agriculture. 
 
 To determine whether the egg breakage was due princi- 
 pally to the jarring of the eggs received in railroad cars, or 
 to careless handling on the part of the packers, the Depart- 
 ment's investigators personally unpacked at the packing 
 house over 200 cases of eggs, containing 6,000 dozen. 
 Every egg was examined and the location in the cardboard 
 partitions of each broken egg on each layer of eggs was 
 
208 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 charted to determine whether breakage was unusually heavy 
 in any particular point of the box. It was found, how- 
 ever, that the breakage in the packing houses was dis- 
 tributed throughout the case. 
 
 As a result of this examination of packed cases, egg by 
 egg, it was found that 19.22 eggs per case on an average, 
 or 5.34 per cent, had cracked shells before they were put 
 on the railroad cars. These eggs were then repacked and 
 shipped to distant points, and again examined, egg by egg, 
 on their arrival. It was found that during the transfer to 
 the car, stowing, hauling, railroad trip, and unloading, there 
 was an additional breakage of 5.75 eggs per case, on an 
 average, which made a total of 24.96 eggs in bad order out 
 of every thirty dozen that arrived. In other words, 6.94 
 per cent of all eggs shipped in car lots are received with 
 damaged shells. 
 
 These figures, however, do not at all represent the actual 
 total damage from breakage. Practically every leaker and 
 every mashed egg in a case lowers the value of severaU 
 eggs around or below it, because each leaking egg soils a 
 number of other eggs and reduces their market value. Fur- 
 ther, it does not include any deterioration or spoilage of 
 whole eggs on account of heat or faulty refrigeration. 
 
 Storing eggs when prices are low and holding them till 
 prices are high is a form of economy that everyone who has 
 a cool cellar can practice. None but newly laid eggs should 
 be so stored. Preferably these should be laid by hens which 
 have not run with a male bird for at least two weeks, be- 
 cause such eggs, being infertile, will keep better than fer- 
 tile ones. Two very satisfactory methods have long been 
 proved useful. In either case place the eggs in a stone- 
 ware crock or a wooden keg and cover with one or other 
 of the following solutions : Water glass, silicate of soda, a 
 thick liquid can be obtained at drug stores for 10 to 30 cents 
 a pound. To each quart of it add 10 quarts of pure, clean 
 rain water. After mixing pour over and cover the eggs. 
 Cover the vessel and keep in a cool place. 
 
SUCCESSFUL POULTRY MANAGEMENT 209 
 
 Lime-salt solution. Slake fresh stone lime with boiling 
 water, adding a little at a time until it breaks into small 
 pieces and forms a thin paste. Then add salt and more 
 water, so the final mixture will be at the rate of one pound 
 lime, y^ pound salt and four quarts water. Stir several 
 times after the lime has dissolved, then allow to stand over- 
 night. In the morning siphon off the clear liquid and pour 
 over the eggs. 
 
 Eggs stored by these methods will keep for six to lo 
 months. Those stored in water glass can be used for boil- 
 ing, but unless those stored by the lime process are pricked 
 with a needle they will crack, because of the lime deposit 
 upon them. For cooking outside the shell they should be 
 almost as good as newly laid eggs. 
 
 Few persons know just what eggs consist of, although 
 the question is asked often. The results of tests made 
 by the Department of Agriculture show that about seven- 
 eighths of the white of eggs is water, the remaining one- 
 eighth being nearly pure albumen. The eggs of chickens, 
 geese, ducks, and turkeys were used in making the tests. 
 The tests showed the entire eggs to be made up as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 Hen eggs, 50 per cent water, 16 per cent protein, 34 
 per cent fat. 
 
 Goose eggs, 44 per cent water, 19 per cent protein, 36 
 per cent fat. 
 
 Duck eggs, 46 per cent water, 17 per cent protein, 36 
 per cent fat. 
 
 Turkey eggs, 48 per cent water, 18 per cent protein, 33 
 per cent fat. 
 
 The protein goes to make blood and muscle and the fat 
 furnishes fuel for heat, so it is easily seen that eggs, al- 
 though largely composed of water, contain the elements 
 needed to build up the body and repair the tissues. 
 
 It is not true, however, that an egg contains as much 
 nourishment as a pound of steak. As a general rule three- 
 
210 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 fourths of a pound of eggs contain about the same amount 
 of nourishment as a pound of lean steak. 
 
 OPERATING THE INCUBATOR 
 
 The lamp should be thoroughly cleaned, the burner boiled 
 in soda and water, and a new wick put in before the machine 
 is started. In beginning the hatch, use a medium flame and 
 adjust the thermostat to that flame. If too small a flame 
 is used to start, at the end of the hatch in warm weather, 
 the flame cannot be turned low enough to keep the tempera- 
 ture from running up. If too high a flame is used the lamp 
 will smoke. 
 
 The lamp should be cleaned and filled every morning after 
 turning the eggs. If it is filled before turning the eggs, the 
 hands being smeared with oil from the lamp will leave a 
 coating of oil on the eggs and cause serious injury to the 
 growing embryos. Trim the wick with a burnt match after 
 filling by simply rubbing off the charred crust, and then 
 wipe away all dirt and oil from all parts of lamp before 
 replacing in the incubator. Do not ordinarily trim wick 
 with scissors. Before and after every hatch the incubator 
 should be thoroughly washed and sprayed and the movable 
 parts placed in the sun to dry. 
 
 Put the machine in a room where the temperature remains 
 fairly uniform at all times and where there is plenty of 
 ventilation without drafts. A cellar is usually best, because 
 it is well protected from the direct rays of the sun and the 
 temperature is uniformly low. The proper temperature for 
 an incubator room is loo degrees. Having located the 
 incubator, level it with a spirit level and see that all parts 
 are in satisfactory working order. Leveling is very im- 
 portant. 
 
 Start the incubator to warm it up a few days before put- 
 ting in the eggs. After the machine is thoroughly heated 
 up continue to adjust the regulator until the temperature 
 remains steadily at 102 degrees for 24 hours, with center 
 of thermometer bulb on a level with the tops of the eggs. 
 
SUCCESSFUL POULTRY MANAGEMENT 211 
 
 When the operator is sure that the regulation is correct the 
 eggs should be put in. It is usually best to do this in the 
 morning so the eggs may become warmed and the tempera- 
 ture returned to 102 degrees before bedtime. 
 
 After the eggs are put in the temperature will drop and 
 return very slowly. Do not touch the regulator. The tem- 
 perature will readjust itself to 102 degrees again in a few 
 hours, or as soon as the eggs become heated. After careful 
 adjustment of the regulator b,efore putting in the eggs, 
 it is not necessary nor advisable to touch it again until the 
 second week, when the temperature should be raised to 
 io2j/$ to 103 degrees. Do whatever daily regulation is re- 
 quired by raising or lowering the flame. 
 
 In order to be certain that the thermometer is correct, 
 the operator should test it himself with a clinical thermome- 
 ter. Place both thermometers in lukewarm water, and 
 while stirring add hot water slowly until the clinical ther- 
 mometer registers 103 degrees, and observe whether the 
 incubator thermometer gives a similar reading. If not, the 
 operator knows that at 103 degrees the incubator ther- 
 mometer reads, say, io2j^ degrees, and must allow for this 
 error in running his incubator. Finally, thermometers have 
 caused more damage in the way of poor hatches than is 
 generally realized. 
 
 For the first week the temperature should stand at 102 
 degrees, the second and the third week at 103 degrees, 
 where the center of thermometer bulb is on a level with the 
 top of the eggs. Hanging thermometers having the cen- 
 ter of the thermometer bulb above the eggs need not be run 
 higher according to the height of the bulb above the eggs, 
 because the heat comes into the egg chamber from the top, 
 and the nearer the thermometer is to the top of the egg 
 chamber the higher it will read when a standing thermome- 
 ter on a level with the tops of the eggs registers the cor- 
 rect temperature. While chicks are hatching it can, and 
 invariably does, run up to 104 degrees without doing any 
 harm. 
 
212 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 Some machines use moisture, some do not, but all need 
 moisture, except when the weather is very damp. One of 
 the best ways to supply this moisture when using a non- 
 moisture machine is to keep the floor of the room well 
 soaked. The evaporation of moisture is in proportion to the 
 surface of water exposed to the air, so wetting down the 
 floor exposes a large water surface and enables the air to 
 become well saturated before entering the incubator. The 
 purpose of such moisture is not to supply it to the egg, but 
 to keep the air entering the incubator moist enough not to 
 take up moisture from the eggs and thus rob the embryos 
 of the water they absolutely need in order to develop into 
 strong, lusty chicks. 
 
 Plenty of fresh air is essential to the production of 
 strong, vigorous chicks, because during the process of 
 growth taking place within the shell the egg gives off carbon 
 dioxide and takes up oxygen, just as a person in breathing 
 exhales oxygen. In order to carry off carbon dioxide "ex- 
 haled" by the growing embryo and supply it with all the 
 oxygen it needs, a good system of ventilation (see chart) 
 is necessary. Unless that ventilation is such as to carry 
 fresh air into the egg chamber as rapidly as it is needed 
 and carry away the carbon dioxide as rapidly as it is given 
 off by the eggs, the embryos will not thrive as they should, 
 and the resulting chicks will lack vitality. In the better 
 types of incubators the ventilation system is good and 
 works automatically, thus relieving the operator. Always 
 follow the directions accompanying the incubator until suf- 
 ficient experience has been gained to enable the operator 
 to act intelligently in making any change that appears ad- 
 visable. 
 
 HARDENING OFF THE BROODER CHICKS 
 
 In order to get the chicks in condition for removal to the 
 range, it is necessary after the second week to practice a 
 hardening off process. This should be gradual and consist 
 of lowering the temperature, with the idea" of doing away 
 
SUCCESSFUL POULTRY MANAGEMENT 213 
 
 with artificial heat entirely in three to six weeks, depend- 
 ing upon outside weather conditions. The best practice 
 is to reduce the artificial heat until it can be wholly given 
 up, then gradually raise the hover until it can be removed 
 and replaced with muslin covered frames, hung to the hover 
 wall, gradually raising them in front a little each night until 
 the chicks become used to their absence. 
 
 It is impracticable to take the chicks from a warm heated 
 brooder house and put them into a colony due to the fol- 
 lowing causes : 
 
 I. Crowding and subsequent death, caused directly by 
 a too low brooder temperature. 2. Derangement of the 
 digestive system, resulting in diarrhea, and usually caused 
 by wet, sloppy, and early feeds. 3. Loss of vitality and 
 growth unless they have been accustomed gradually to the 
 change. The idea should be to get them on the range as 
 soon as possible. When they are four weeks old, the sooner 
 they can be gotten out into the cool temperature in large, well 
 ventilated quarters, with free range, and abundance of green 
 food and access to the ground, the better will they grow, 
 and the hardier and more vigorous will they be at maturity. 
 Most of the losses in brooding young chicks are stamina, 
 due to overheating. 4. A contagious disease known as 
 white diarrhea. Where the chicks are carried off during 
 their early growth in large numbers, it is often caused by 
 an infection which may be inherited by the young chicks, 
 the disease in its chronic form being found in the ovaries 
 of their mother. The best way in such a case is completely 
 to disinfect the brooding quarters and provide the chicks 
 with an abundance of sour milk to drink. The germs of 
 white diarrhea are easily killed in a dilute acid. The only 
 way to avoid future epidemics is to trap-nest all hens and 
 find out which are infected. They should be killed when 
 detected. 
 
 The real object of shipping day-old chicks is to eliminate 
 the "eggs for hatching" business. All breeders know too 
 well the many obstacles to be met in this work. A breeder 
 
214 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 may be ever so honest, use all methods at his disposal to 
 send out eggs fresh and fertile, use the latest models of 
 packages and label them ever so cautiously, and at best many 
 sad reports will result. Hence the rapid evolution of the 
 day-old chick business, as it is commonly called by poultry 
 men. 
 
 How far a little chick can be shipped will depend largely 
 upon how direct the route. Distance should be limited to 
 the amount of time it takes in transit. Where the route is 
 direct and no delay, I would say 1,500 miles should be the 
 limit, but where connecting points are to be made, allow- 
 ances should be made accordingly. This should be studied 
 by the shipper, as well as the purchaser. When shipping 
 direct, it is easier to make 1,500 miles than it is even a 
 few miles where several changes are to be made. All this 
 should be studied before an order is placed. Most people 
 think that the older the chick the more capable it is of 
 standing shipment. This is an erroneous idea. Nature's 
 food only should be the chick's nourishment during the 
 trip. Nature has supplied the little fellows with food as 
 they emerge from the shell for at least the first two days of 
 their lives, and even three days will do no harm. I would 
 much prefer to have them go three days than to have them 
 fed under two days. Many shippers pack day-old chicks in 
 lots of 50, but in my own practice I have better results in not 
 allowing over 25. I never allow more than 100 in a package. 
 
 All packages are carefully labeled, stating the contents, 
 with the address plainly written, and a separate placard to 
 attract the attention of the messengers in charge, telling how 
 to handle, to keep out of cold drafts, and that no feed or 
 water be given. Many kind-hearted messengers are prone 
 to share their lunches; this should be strictly placarded 
 against. 
 
 The shipper should always notify the purchaser at least 
 one week in advance of the date he will ship. Then it is 
 the duty of the purchaser to be at the train to receive them, 
 so as to avoid all delay possible. Upon their arrival, get 
 
SUCCESSFUL POULTRY MANAGEMENT 215 
 
 them to their permanent brooding quarters at once. Too 
 many take them to the kitchen floor, where they are spread 
 out that the whole family may see them, They are tired 
 from their journey and need rest and quiet for recuperation. 
 This is far more essential than food or water, which come 
 in later. Just put water where they can get it without 
 getting wet; they will do the rest. Feed sparingly for 
 several days and induce them to get as far away from their 
 mother as you can consistently. 
 
 The same chance for rascality exists in this industry as 
 in that of selling eggs for hatching, and I would advise 
 caution in regard to character and methods of the adver- 
 tiser before purchasing. It is a known fact that many of 
 our day-old chick hatchers do not own a fowl, and buy 
 all their eggs from farmers and other sources. Such hatch- 
 eries no doubt would need to exercise themselves to a con- 
 siderable extent if they are to secure a stock fully to satisfy 
 their customers. 
 
 GOOD HEALTH AND SUCCESS 
 
 Success or failure with poultry may turn on the health 
 of the flock. If chickens are kept in a .clean, comfortable 
 house they will stand any reasonable amount of dry cold 
 in winter, provided they receive plenty of good food and 
 are kept free from vermin and draughts, but in numerous 
 cases flocks suffer with disease because of neglect at one 
 of the most critical periods. In some ways the spring 
 season is harder on a poultry plant than either fall or 
 winter. 
 
 Chickens are as sensitive as human beings and their dis- 
 eases are much the same. The most common ailments in 
 the poultry yard are colds in their various stages. These 
 have a variety of names, but they result from neglect at a 
 time of year when special care is needed. Roup, bron- 
 chitis, pneumonia and rheumatism are prevalent among 
 fowls at times, and, while a majority of the sick birds may 
 
216 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 recover, such illness is sure to affect the general vitality of 
 the flock. There are many things to be considered along 
 this line. 
 
 Too many poultrymen do not recognize the importance 
 of the health and vitality of the breeding stock from which 
 they are to secure their chickens for future use. Unless 
 the breeding stock is healthy and vigorous and in the best 
 of condition, satisfaction cannot be secured in the offspring. 
 
 Breed for health and vigor to be successful and keep stock 
 healthy by good care, feeding and housing. If eggs run 
 low in fertility and chicks die in the shell or soon after 
 hatching, do not blame the incubator too quickly, but first 
 investigate the conditions and surroundings of the breeding 
 stock. 
 
 Cleanliness is another important factor ; do not give fowls 
 food or water that is not perfectly clean. Avoid feeding 
 musty or sour grains, as this would produce sick fowls. 
 
 To restore the vitality of the flocks now affected by wet 
 weather diseases, experts agree that prompt treatment is 
 required. If chickens are allowed to run down from roup 
 or bronchitis the flock will soon be attacked by pneumonia 
 and cholera. 
 
 Now and again I run across a poultry owner who is 
 actually making a living income from a flock of chickens. 
 Success in this line is much more common than it was five 
 or ten years ago, because people are zealously studying 
 the business. 
 
 Failures are still numerous and perhaps where one owner 
 gets his flock on a paying basis three give up in disgust or 
 despair. After a good deal of observation, I am free to 
 say that I never saw a success where chickens were kept 
 in a damp or drafty house, where lice were allowed to exist 
 or where the ordinary rules of feeding and care were 
 neglected. Nor is it safe to allow them to run in a wet yard 
 jn spring or fall. 
 
 On the other hand success is pretty sure to come if one 
 gives the flock high ground, plenty of dust, a range of an 
 
SUCCESSFUL POULTRY MANAGEMENT 217 
 
 acre or two in grass or clover, a clean building and a rea- 
 sonable variety of food. 
 
 As there are times when it seems advisable to doctor 
 sick fowls, in preference to killing them, I give a few 
 simple remedies for some of the common ailments: 
 
 Asthenia or Groing Light — ^This trouble is not a form of 
 consumption, as many suppose. The fowl has a ravenous 
 appetite, but the food seems to afford no nourishment and 
 the fowl gradually wastes away and dies of actual starva- 
 tion. The disease has been investigated by Dr. Charles F. 
 Dawson, who finds that 't is caused by a microbe or bac- 
 terium in the small intestine. The bacteria undoubtedly 
 subsists largely on the food consumed by the fowl and 
 cause a fermentation in it so that no nourishment can be 
 obtained from it. A slight inflammation of the intestines 
 is also noted. The treatment should be, first, the removal 
 of the bacteria, and the use of easily digested foods and 
 tonics to build up the system. As medicinal agents for 
 the removal of the cause by purgation. Dr. Dawson recom- 
 mends castor oil in two-teaspoon ful doses, or calomel in 
 oft-repeated one-quarter-grain doses may be tried. Pur- 
 gation should be followed by a stimulating tonic. Dr. 
 Salmon recommends the following tonic : Powdered fennel, 
 anise, coriander seed, cinchona, of each thirty grains ; pow- 
 dered gentian and ginger, of each one dram; powdered 
 sulphate of iron, fifteen grains. Mix; add from two to 
 four grains of this mixture for each fowl to the food twice 
 a day. 
 
 Bowel Trouble — Fowls whose droppings are black, 
 watery or yellowish white have bowel trouble, probably 
 caused by indigestion. Give an abundance of sharp, hard 
 grit, moderately at first, some green vegetable food and 
 good wholesome food, and pure, clean water, to which add 
 one teaspoonful of Douglas mixture. Scald and keep clean 
 all drinking vessels and feed boxes. Spread lime freely 
 about the yard, spade it up and seed down to rye or wheat. 
 Add two ounces sulphuric acid to two gallons of water and 
 
218 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 sprinkle liberally around the house. Feed once a day a 
 mash scalded, composed of four parts each of ground oats, 
 wheat bran and corn meal and one part linseed meal, with 
 sound, whole grain at other times. Every other day for 
 a week add one ounce powdered charcoal to each quart of 
 mash. 
 
 Bumble Foot — This is caused by some injury to the foot. 
 Put a good warm linseed meal poultice on the foot as soon 
 as the trouble is discovered. When the swelling softens up 
 lance at the point where the skin over the abscess seems 
 thinnest, and after lancing wash the wound out thoroughly 
 with a solution composed of one part hydrogen dioxide 
 and two parts warm water. Bathe with this solution daily 
 until healed. Do not be afraid to open the abscess freely 
 when you lance it. One lancing should be sufHcient, keep- 
 ing it open by packing the wound with gauze. So treated 
 it will heal from the bottom out, and will give a good foot 
 when healed. The wound should be bathed and dressed at 
 least once a day, and better, twice a day. Keep bird by 
 itself in clean coop on clean straw, with foot well bandaged 
 until well. If your roosts are too high, lower them, as 
 this trouble is frequently caused by jumping from too high 
 roosts. 
 
 Cholera — A highly contagious disease caused by bacteria. 
 The infection occurs by taking food or drink contaminated 
 by the excrement of sick birds, or even by inhaling the 
 germs floating in the air. It may run rapidly through a 
 flock, destroying a large portion of the fowls in a week, or 
 it may assume a chronic form, lasting for weeks or months. 
 The earliest symptoms are a yellow color of the urates, or 
 excrement secreted by the kidneys, followed by loss of ap- 
 petite. The bird separates from the flock, the feathers 
 become rough, the wings droop, the head is drawn toward 
 the body and the fowl becomes very weak and sleepy. 
 These symptoms are usually accompanied with a high 
 fever and intense thirst. The disease lasts about three 
 days, usually. Medical treatment is of little avail. A des- 
 
SUCCESSFUL POULTRY MANAGEMENT 219 
 
 sertspoonful of a solution of one dram carbolic or hydro- 
 chloric acid to one quart of water for adult birds is 
 recommended. Affected birds should be isolated and the 
 premises thoroughly disinfected. For disinfecting, sul- 
 phuric acid is the cheapest, but it is extremely dangerous to 
 use, as it burns severely if it touches the flesh or clothing. 
 One pound to fifty quarts of water is the right proportion 
 to use. Pour the acid slowly into the water in a wooden 
 vessel, as it creates considerable heat in mixing. Sprinkle 
 this solution freely around the henhouse and yards. Thor- 
 oughly cleanse the drinking and feeding vessels and keep 
 them clean. The following remedy is given by an Illinois 
 poultry dealer as a sure cure for chicken cholera: Two 
 ounces pulverized capsicum, two ounces pulverized asa- 
 fetida, one ounce pulverized rhubarb, six ounces Spanish 
 brown, two ounces flowers of sulphur; mix thoroughly 
 and keep in an air-tight can. Put one teaspoonful in two 
 quarts of the mash and feed twice a day until all symptoms 
 of the disease disappear. 
 
 Colds — Each fowl showing evidence of cold or conges- 
 tion should be shut up in a small coop and given two grains 
 of calomel at night, followed by a one-grain quinine pill 
 night and morning for two or three days. If there is any 
 discharge from nostrils, inject a few drops of camphorated 
 oil into each nostril. Inside of two or three days, if any 
 improvement is shown, remove to a small room and add a 
 solution of copperas to the drinking water, keeping there 
 until recovered. If no improvement is manifest after two 
 or three days' treatment, the bird should be killed and 
 buried. 
 
 Consumption — ^The aflfected fowls grow thin, pale, list- 
 less and eventually die. Breeding from healthy, vigorous 
 stock, clean, well ventilated quarters, food and care are the 
 best ways to avoid it. 
 
 Cramp — ^This is often caused by overfeeding of heating 
 and stimulating foods, or from confinement in damp quar- 
 ters. The toes begin to swell and grow crooked, turned 
 
220 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 to one side and twist; joint after joint becomes affected, 
 until the whole foot is swollen. The chicks stop growing 
 and the feet seem tender and painful. This disease is 
 most common in chicks from overfat, delicate or rheumatic 
 parents. Chicks which have had cramps are worthless as 
 breeders. Treatment: Rub the legs and feet twice a day 
 with a good liniment, carefully stretching out the toes. 
 Add to a pint of fresh drinking water ten grains of salicylate 
 of soda. Mix fresh every day, letting chicks have a drink 
 of this morning, noon and night. Take it away as soon 
 as they have each had a drink. Allow no other drink but 
 the medicated water while under treatjiient, and continue 
 treatment for a few days after apparent cure. 
 
 Crop-bound — The commonest form of crop trouble, and 
 generally caused by careless feeding. This trouble is easily 
 discernible, the crop hanging down like a bag, and on being 
 felt there is found to be inside a lump or ball of food. If 
 the trouble is discovered early, cure is very easy. First, 
 pour some salad oil or melted lard down the throat and 
 then work gently with the hand the mass in the crop. This, 
 if properly and effectively done, will soon cause the food 
 and fluid to mix, and when the mass has been well broken 
 up it will pass away in a few hours. When the mass has 
 been gotten rid of, feed sparingly for a few days on sopped 
 bread only, to prevent a recurrence. When the kneading 
 process is ineffectual, an operation becomes necessary. This 
 is, however, very simple and requires no great skill. Make 
 an incision lengthwise in the upper part of the crop, about 
 an inch or an inch and a half in length with a sharp lancet 
 or penknife. Through this incision the contents may be 
 removed, using a small eggspoon. In case the mass is so 
 hard it cannot pass through the aperture, it must be broken 
 up. After it is removed, disinfect, first making sure that 
 there is no obstruction in the orifice by passing the finger, 
 well pared and oiled, through the orifice, for if there should 
 be an obstruction there the whole process may have to be 
 gone over again. This done, sew up the incision, using a 
 
SUCCESSFUL POULTRY MANAGEMENT 221 
 
 small bent needle and horsehair. Sew the inner skin first, 
 and then the outer one, using three stitches in each skin. 
 Tie each stitch separately. No water must be supplied 
 until the suture is completely healed; the food must be 
 limited in quantity. 
 
 Egg-bound — Do not allow the hens to get overfat and 
 they are not likely to become egg-bound. Dip the finger 
 into sweet or castor oil and introduce into the vent. Ten 
 drops of fluid extract of ergot, given the hen from a spoon, 
 and followed in half an hour by holding the hen over hot 
 water so the steam can reach the vent, will sometimes relieve 
 this condition. At all events, remove her from the male 
 bird and feed soft food and warm water. If successful 
 in removing the egg, and the bird is worth the extra trouble, 
 keep her in dry sunny quarters and in her drink put ten 
 drops of tincture nux vomica to one pint of water, giving 
 this for ten days and avoiding foods rich in starch, such as 
 corn and buckwheat. The best thing to do, however, is 
 to kill and eat a hen in this condition. 
 
 Feather Eating — This is a vice caused by idleness and 
 lack of exercise, also from want of proper food, particu- 
 larly animal matter. Generally one or two hens in the 
 flock are the guilty ones and if they are removed the trouble 
 stops. Give them exercise and plenty of fresh meat. 
 
 Gapes are caused by the presence of one or several 
 forked red worms in the windpipe of the chick. Disinfect 
 all premises thoroughly at frequent intervals with a two 
 per cent (in water) solution of sulphuric acid. Whitewash 
 all coops with hot whitewash, plow up all runs frequently, 
 and keep them planted with quick growing green stuff. 
 As a preventive measure also medicate the drinking water, 
 using three drams of salicylate of soda to each quart of 
 drinking water. Affected chicks will need radical treat- 
 ment. Remove the worms from the windpipe, using a 
 long slender feather from which all the barbules have been 
 removed except those at the tip. Mix a little oil of clove 
 and sweet oil. Moisten the feather tip with this and insert 
 
222 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 it gently into the windpipe of the chick. Twist the feather 
 around several times and withdraw it. This should draw 
 out most of the worms and the oil will kill the others which 
 are left behind. The bodies of any birds which may die 
 of gapes should be burned, all worms removed, and all 
 excrement of affected birds should be burned also. 
 
 Leg weakness is noticed more in young cockerels of the 
 large breeds than in pullets or in those of the smaller 
 varieties. It is generally caused by pushing too rapidly for 
 growth. The first symptom is an uncertain gait and in a 
 week's time the bird will be unable to stand. The remedy 
 is to take away all forcing foods, such as meat or green 
 bone, also corn, buckwheat and rye. Feed entirely on 
 wheat, oats and barley with plenty of grit. Also add fine 
 ground bone or bone meal to the ration. One-tenth grain 
 quinine a day will also be a great help. 
 
 Limber neck is a complaint common to chickens in the 
 middle and southern states. It is caused by ptomaine poi- 
 soning from eating putrid flesh, which results in paralysis 
 of the neck. Turpentine is a good remedy, but half a tea- 
 spoonful of Venetian red to each bird daily is the most 
 effective. 
 
 Roup is the name commonly given to most disorders of 
 the passages of head and throat, the symptoms varying 
 considerably, as in humans affected with colds, influenza, 
 acute catarrh, sore throat, etc. First signs are dumpish- 
 ness, usually a poor appetite, loud breathing and cough. 
 Then follows a discharge from the nose, and in severe 
 cases, from the eyes, and sometimes the whole face is badly 
 swelled. In diphtheritic roup, the roof of the mouth and 
 throat show patches of white matter, which later becomes 
 yellowish, sometimes with a bad odor. Separate the 
 affected birds and see that the quarters are dry, light and 
 warm. A simple remedy is a drop of kerosene in the nose 
 passages and a very little applied to the other diseased 
 parts with a small brush. One part carbolic acid to fifty 
 parts water may be used. Peroxide of hydrogen diluted 
 
SUCCESSFUL POULTRY MANAGEMENT 223 
 
 one-half with water and squirted into the nostrils with a 
 fountain pen filler or medicine dropper will clear the pas- 
 sages. Remove matter on face and eyes with a soft sponge 
 and warm water, and from Jhe throat with a cotton wad on 
 a splinter. 
 
 Sore Heads — ^Use vaseline, kerosene and sulphur rubbed 
 on the head. This is quick and effective. 
 
 Scaly leg is caused by a parasite that lives under the 
 scale of the leg, and the scab is the excrement thrown off 
 by these insects. It can be easily cured if a little pains is 
 taken to rub on ointment made of kerosene, lard and a little 
 sulphur. Rub this well in under the scales three times, 
 once a week or so, and it will effect a cure. 
 
 Worms — There are two kinds of worms common in 
 poultry; the round, and the flat or tapeworms. Infection 
 takes place through fowls eating the eggs of the parasites 
 found in the droppings of infected birds. Droppings of 
 infected birds should be collected frequently and burned. 
 For round worms, give a two-grain pill of santonin to each 
 affected bird every other morning before feeding, follow- 
 ing it in half an hour with two teaspoonfuls of raw linseed 
 oil. Continue treatment one week. Tapeworms when 
 found in the droppings look like pieces of tape. The 
 affected birds frequently have remarkable appetites and 
 at the same time grow thin. Make a mash of bruised 
 pumpkin seeds with a little milk, and after allowing the 
 bird to fast for twelve hours, feed it all of this mash that 
 it can be forced to eat. In an hour or two give a teaspoon- 
 ful of castor oil, or two teaspoonfuls of raw linseed oil. 
 After the worms are expelled feed a warm mash of bran, 
 middlings and milk. If worms appear again in droppings, 
 repeat the treatment in a few days. 
 
 Blackhead in Turkeys — This is an infectious liver dis- 
 ease, similar in its nature to human dysentery. Sick birds 
 should be killed and burned or buried deeply, as their 
 excrement, if found in food or water, may produce the 
 disease in other turkeys. Separate from the well fowls and 
 
224 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 disinfect all buildings, coops, feeding and drinking vessels. 
 Little turkeys are most susceptible; the disease develops 
 slowly or fast according to the strength of the turkey. 
 Wet, stormy weather aggravates the disease. The feathers 
 look rough, and the birds have diarrhea with bright yellow 
 excrement; and they weakly drag one foot after the other 
 for some time before they die. Prevention is possible, but 
 cure is difificult. By breeding to secure great vigor, by 
 feeding to counteract any tendency to diarrhea, and by 
 giving preventive treatment upon the slightest symptoms of 
 abnormal looseness, much may be done to help them resist 
 the disease if they are exposed to it. A tonic and stimu- 
 lant for the liver and bowels will prevent the disease ; con- 
 finement and overfeeding favor it. Pepper and ginger and 
 something sour are indicated as well as an astringent. Sick 
 turkeys sometimes recover after they can eat all the acorns 
 they want; they administer the astringent themselves. 
 
 I have mentioned two or three remedies in the foregoing, 
 and to assist in their use give brief descriptions below : 
 
 Douglas mixture is a tonic. It is made by mixing one- 
 half pound sulphate of iron, one ounce sulphuric acid and 
 two gallons pure soft water. Let settle twenty-four hours, 
 then drain off and bottle. 
 
 Venetian red is the red oxide of iron. It is used chiefly 
 in the drinking water — about a teaspoonful to a quart of 
 water. It has been found valuable in canker, some bowel 
 troubles, going light, etc. 
 
 In addition to the numerous diseases to which a poultry 
 flock is subject, lice and mites have to be reckoned with. 
 There are several kinds, but the two commonest ones are 
 the gray body lice which live on the fowls and the mites 
 which live in the houses and go on the fowls at night when 
 they are on the roost. The gray lice can be killed by 
 dusting the hens with insect powder, greasing or dipping 
 in sheep dip or tobacco water, or confining them a short 
 time in a box or barrel painted on the inside with a lice 
 killer. Wood ashes mixed with the dust in the dusting 
 
SUCCESSFUL POULTRY MANAGEMENT 225 
 
 box, equal parts of each, will keep away the lice. A little 
 vaseline on the heads of small chicks as a preventive is 
 effective. If the house is tight, fumigate with sulphur ; if 
 not, whitewash with hot lime, to every gallon of which add 
 one ounce of crude carbolic acid. Remove the old roosts, 
 nests and other fixtures and saturate with kerosene before 
 putting back. Also clean out and burn all refuse. Twice 
 a month shut up the house and throw around air-slacked 
 lime and sulphur. Tobacco dust in the iiests and wallows 
 is also useful. Paint the roosts frequently with a lice killer. 
 A good one can be made of one pint carbolic acid, one-half 
 pint bisulphuret of carbon and one-half gill pine tar. Shake 
 thoroughly and add slowly to fifteen pints crude petroleum. 
 Keep well corked in a jug or can. Shake well before using 
 and apply with a brush to drop boards, roosts, nests and 
 the inside of poultry house shortly before the fowls go to 
 roost. Another good lice killer is made by dissolving in 
 kerosene all the crude naphthalene flakes it will take up. 
 Mites will not venture on roosts that receive a soaking in 
 this liquid every two weeks. 
 
 To get rid of rats, take a large box, make some holes in 
 the sides and ends high enough from the ground so the 
 chickens cannot get in ; put in corn meal for a bait for a 
 few nights. After the rats get to eating good, mix some 
 plaster of paris with the meal. The moisture in the rats' 
 stomachs will cause the plaster to set hard, and you will 
 find the rats dead right where they were eating. A small 
 dish of water in the box will cause the rats to die sooner. 
 
Ducks, Geese and Turkeys Profitable 
 
 No BUSINESS proposition that can be handled with small 
 capital exceeds duck and goose raising for quick and sure 
 profit. 
 
 In some respects this branch of the poultry business is 
 more satisfactory than chicken raising. Young water fowls 
 are a great delicacy, the market is never over-supplied and 
 they enable the poultry owner to have a good income from 
 one year's end to the other. 
 
 Why there are not more ducks and geese raised is a prob- 
 lem that only individuals can answer. It is not the low price 
 of either the flesh or the feathers, for both are high; it 
 is not because of their being hard to rear, for they are not. 
 
 A low fence will keep them confined, and a dry shed serve 
 their housing. 
 
 The lack of a swimming place need not be the cause for 
 the Embden and Toulouse geese, and the Pekin ducks do 
 famously without ponds or creeks. 
 
 Goslings are foolish and tender for a while, but are 
 cheaply raised, grass being their main provender. 
 
 Both ducks and geese make such a rapid growth as to 
 astonish the beginner, so they will soon be out of the way. 
 
 Geese feathers are always in demand in spite of the 
 healthier mattress, and bring fine prices. Duck feathers 
 will not bring so much, but pay for the bother of picking. 
 
 There are twelve standard varieties of ducks raised in 
 this country, as follows: The White Pekin, White Ayles- 
 bury, Colored Rouen, Black Cayuga, Colored Muscovy, 
 White Muscovy, Indian Runner, Gray Call, White Call, 
 Black East India, Crested White and Blue Swedish. Of 
 these varieties, the first seven are considered profitable to 
 raise; the two varieties of Calls and the Black East India 
 are bantams, and are bred more for the showroom; the 
 
 226 
 
DUCKS, GEESE AND TURKEYS PROFITABLE 227 
 
 Crested White may be considered as almost purely orna- 
 mental, while at present but little is known of the Blue 
 Swedish in this country. 
 
 Of all ducks for farm and practical purposes none stands 
 higher in popular esteem than the White Pekin. It is valu- 
 able for raising on a large scale and is the most easily 
 raised of all. It is a very timid bird and must be handled 
 quite carefully. It was imported from China in the early 
 seventies, and has steadily grown in popularity since its 
 introduction into this country. 
 
 The White Aylesbury ducks are second to the popular 
 Pekin for market purposes, and are bred in large numbers 
 in Europe. In this country they are not so extensively 
 bred as the Pekin, neither have they been found so good 
 as the latter. 
 
 The Colored Rouen duck is deservedly popular through- 
 out this country, and is considered one of the most profit- 
 able varieties to keep. These ducks are said to have conie 
 originally from the city of Rouen, in Normandy. It is 
 known that large quantities of poultry are raised in Nor- 
 mandy, and while there may be no positive proof that these 
 ducks came originally from that city, large numbers of 
 birds closely resembling them are to be found in the market 
 places there. Some writers contend that the name should 
 be "Roan," owing to their color, but the color itself does 
 not support this contention. The correct name is Rouen, 
 and "Roan" is undoubtedly a corruption. 
 
 By some raisers the Cayuga is considered to be as good 
 as the Pekin for early markets, and the claim is made that 
 it can be grown as cheaply. 
 
 There are two varieties of Muscovy ducks, the colored 
 and the white. The head of the Colored Muscovy is glossy 
 black and white ; the color of the bill is pink shaded with 
 horn ; eyes, brown ; the back in color of plumage is lustrous 
 blue black, which is sometimes broken with white; the color 
 of the breast and body is the same as that of the back. 
 The wing coverts are rich, lustrous green black, and the 
 
228 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 tail feathers may be either black or white, the latter being 
 preferred. The thighs, like the tail feathers, may be either 
 black or white, white being preferred ; the shanks, toes and 
 webs vary in color from yellow to dark lead. The White 
 Muscovy in color of plumage is pure white throughout; 
 feathers of any other color will disqualify the bird for show 
 purposes. The eyes in the white variety are of a blue color, 
 while those of the colored are brown. The shanks, toes and 
 webs are of a pale orange or yellow color. 
 
 The standard weight of the adult drake is ten pounds; 
 adult duck, seven pounds; young drake, eight pounds, and 
 young duck, six pounds. They are a fairly profitable fowl. 
 
 The Indian Runner is a breed of small, utility duck noted 
 for its egg production, and is often termed the Leghorn of 
 the duck family. These ducks have been credited with 
 records of more than 200 eggs each in flocks of ten, and of 
 192 eggs each in flocks of one hundred. The "Runners" 
 are active in their habits, are good foragers, and on an 
 extensive run are able to find a large proportion of their 
 food. They are nonsitters, are hardy and easily reared, but 
 do not stand confinement well. Their flesh is of a deep 
 yellow color and is of fine quality, but their small size is 
 rather against them for market purposes, except for 
 broilers. 
 
 Duck raising has been developed within the last twenty 
 years into a flourishing industry. Prior to that time the 
 duck was not considered a profitable fowl to raise ; its flesh 
 was never prized very highly by the masses. Ducks were 
 raised without constraint in waterways, feeding mostly on 
 fish and water insects. This food gave the flesh a strong 
 fishy flavor; hence it was not particularly sought after, 
 save by the few who were partial to that class of diet. The 
 duck centers of Long Island and New England were then 
 producing a limited number each season, and it was with 
 difficulty that these were sold with any profit. 
 
 Artificial incubation and brooding, combined with judi- 
 cious feeding, have been instrumental in the development 
 
DUCKS, GEESE AND TURKEYS PROFITABLE 229 
 
 of the industry. Machinery has enabled the duck raiser to 
 accomplish his ambition of having his stock in the markets 
 when prices are best, and also of raising large numbers of 
 birds in a limited space of time. The season for raising 
 ducks is about six months — from early spring till fall. 
 
 Ducks usually lay their eggs early in the morning, and 
 they often prefer to drop those eggs in any mudpuddle 
 about the barn lot, or as they swim in the creek. But if 
 a house is provided for the ducks they will lay in their 
 house if kept up until 9 or 10 o'clock in the morning. Nests 
 can be made for the layers along one of the walls by nailing 
 little boards about fifteen inches apart to this wall; these 
 form a sort of stall, into which you place straw, and nail 
 a low cleat along the nest fronts, close to the floor; this 
 prevents the eggs rolling out and does not hinder the duck 
 stepping into her laying stall. 
 
 If the ducks have been allowed to run in slush and mud 
 all winter, with no dry shelter into which they can run and 
 warm up their feet in the straw, and this continues through 
 cold February and March, I wouldn't give much for all the 
 eggs you will get from those ducks until the warm weather 
 advances ; but if you have cared for them in the right way 
 they will pay you back in eggs, beginning to lay in mid- 
 winter or soon after. 
 
 Four weeks is the time given for ducks to hatch, unless 
 it may be the Muscovy, which usually wants five weeks' 
 time for that work. The colder the weather the surer 
 that the time will be twenty-eight days, and then maybe 
 one extra for our common farm ducks. After they pip 
 don't get worried if they take their time to come out, as a 
 duck or goose is slower coming out than a chick. Watch 
 that the membrane does not dry about and choke or hold 
 them in too tight, but, otherwise, allow them to take their 
 time coming out, then remove to a warm place in the kitchen, 
 and be sure it is as warm as the hen's downy breast. 
 
 The little things are easily crushed. Do not feed them 
 for at least thirty-six hours after hatching, and then let it 
 
230 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 be something crumbly; eggs chopped fine with onion tops 
 are best, to be followed by cornbread baked with a little 
 sand in it and squeezed tight from milk. Feed at least five 
 times a day, but just a little at a time for the first few days. 
 
 Young ducklings must be kept warm and from swimming 
 water, especially if there be the least chill in the water. 
 After five or six days ducklings can eat cornmeal and bran 
 mixed, and nearly anything in the line of table scraps that 
 you want to give them, but give no whole wheat or any- 
 thing of that kind, and always remember that green stuff 
 they must have ; also, a little animal food makes them grow 
 faster. There is a call in their bodies for bugs and worms, 
 and if these are not at hand throw them some bits of 
 chopped meat instead. 
 
 If plenty of water is not provided always as they eat, 
 they will often choke to death. If they are kept with a hen 
 or hatched by hens, watch out for lice, for they can kill a 
 duck as well as a chick. 
 
 A duck does not mind the cold if she can keep her feet 
 warm. Cold feet will affect a duck as a frozen comb does 
 a hen, retarding laying and inducing ailments. The feathers 
 of a duck are almost impenetrable and will withstand almost 
 any degree of cold. Again, a duck cannot stand the amount 
 of confinement in a house that a hen can ; she is more rest- 
 less in disposition and is given to exercise in a greater 
 degree than is a hen. Indigestion is not so prevalent with 
 ducks as with chickens ; the duck's ceaseless motion aids the 
 digestive organs and keeps her generally in good health. 
 
 The food of the duck is both vegetable and animal in 
 nature. In the wild state it gathers its food from brooks 
 and marshes, consisting of flag, grasses, small fishes, water 
 insects, etc. When the birds are raised in confinement this 
 diet must, in a measure, be imitated to get the most satis- 
 factory results. The duck has no crop, the food passing 
 directly from the throat to the gizzard, and as a conse- 
 quence the food must be in a soft mushy state. Too much 
 hard food, such as grain, does not agree with these birds 
 
DUCKS, GEESE AND TURKEYS PROFITABLE 231 
 
 and they cannot thrive on it. While some raisers use a 
 small allowance of grain others do not, and it has not been 
 proved to be of any advantage to feed it. Soft food is 
 their natural diet, together with grasses, vegetables and 
 animal food. A good general ration is suggested in the 
 duck industry as follows : 
 
 (i) From time of hatching to five days old provide the 
 following mixture : Cracker or bread crumbs and corn meal, 
 equal parts by measure; hard boiled eggs, 15 per cent of 
 the total bulk of crackers and meal; sand, 5 per cent of 
 the total of crackers and meal. Mix with water or milk, 
 and feed four times a day. 
 
 (2) From five to twenty days old, the following mixture: 
 Wheat bran, two parts by measure; corn meal, one part; 
 rolled oats, 50 per cent of this bulk ; beef scraps, 5 per cent ; 
 sand, 5 per cent ; green food, 10 per cent. Mix with water 
 to a dry crumbly state and feed four times a day. 
 
 (3) From twenty to forty-two days old, the following 
 mixture: Wheat bran, two parts by measure; corn meal, 
 one part ; beef scraps, 5 per cent of this bulk ; sand, 5 per 
 cent; green food, 10 per cent. Mix with water to a dry 
 crumbly state and feed four times a day. 
 
 (4) From forty-two to seventy days old, the following 
 mixture: Com meal, two parts by measure; wheat bran, 
 one part ; beef scraps, 10 per cent of this bulk ; coarse sand 
 or grit, 5 per cent; green food, 10 per cent. Mix with 
 water to a dry crumbly state and feed four times a day. 
 
 The hours for feeding are 6 a. m., 10 a. m., 2 p. m. and 
 6 p. m. Ducks which are to be kept for breeding purposes 
 must not be forced quite so rapidly as those being fitted for 
 market, so that the above rations may be varied somewhat. 
 In fitting ducks for market at eight or ten weeks they can 
 be forced with a ration as follows : Equal parts by measure, 
 corn meal, wheat bran, and No. 2 grade flour ; 10 per cent 
 of this bulk beef scraps ; 10 per cent coarse sand, and I2f^ 
 per cent green foods (green rye, oats, clover, etc.). Mix 
 with water to a dry crumbly state and feed four times a day. 
 
232 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 Grit in some form is essential to ducks, and should be 
 kept before them at all times. Many overlook this fact, 
 and do not seem to understand that it is of as much value 
 to them as it is to chickens. The sand used in the mashes 
 tends to supply a certain amount of grinding material or 
 grit to them, but does not fully satisfy them for digesting 
 their food. On a farm where more than ten thousand birds 
 are raised annually, and where disease is practically un- 
 known, it was noted that in every pen there was a box of 
 grit and a box of crushed oyster shells. During warm 
 weather there should be provision for swimming or 
 splashing. 
 
 There are two methods of dressing ducks for market, by 
 dry picking and by scalding. Both of these methods are 
 good and are being successfully employed by the largest 
 raisers. Some have a preference for dry picking and others 
 for scalding, and it becomes only a matter of taste which 
 method is used. 
 
 Hatching under the setting hen (generally used for hatch- 
 ing ducks) is what is termed the natural process of incu- 
 bation. The hatching of eggs by this means has always 
 been followed, and no special skill is needed for success, 
 provided the eggs are well fertilized with healthy germs. 
 Many who raise ducks in large numbers, however, use 
 almost exclusively artificial means. The mission of an in- 
 cubator is to supplant the setting hen, and make it possible 
 to hatch a large number of chicks at a minimum amount of 
 cost and labor. That this can be done is proved each day. 
 
 For artificial incubation, have a room with a tempera- 
 ture as nearly uniform as possible. Balance the heat in 
 the machines, or, in other words, see that the heat is uni- 
 form at both ends, and, in fact, all over them. See that 
 each is running steadily before placing the eggs in it, as 
 there is a great deal in starting right. The machines should 
 be run at a temperature of 102° for the first three weeks, 
 and 103° degrees the last week. The eggs should be turned 
 and cooled a little twice each day at regular periods. In- 
 
DUCKS, GEESE AND TURKEYS PROFITABLE 233 
 
 troduce a pan of water from the fifteenth to the twenty- 
 second day, no matter what the location of the machine, 
 whether in a damp cellar or in a dry room overhead, in a 
 moist atmosphere near the seashore or in a dry one at an 
 altitude in the country. The temperature may go as high 
 as 104° just previous to and while hatching without injury. 
 Place the glass on a live egg after the animal heat rises, 
 which will be when the circulation begins. This will be 
 perceptible in good eggs the fourteenth and fifteenth days. 
 
 When the ducklings are hatching, the broken egg shells 
 should be removed once in every six or eight hours, so 
 that they will not slip over the pipped eggs, as it would be 
 sure death to the imprisoned ones. Occasionally a little 
 bird is unable to free itself from the shell and needs help ; 
 the expert can readily detect when this is necessary. The 
 one point to note in this connection is this: The tgg just 
 before hatching radiates a great deal of heat, while the 
 duckling, when first out, being not unlike a little sponge, 
 absorbs it ; or, in other words, the rapid evaporation which 
 takes place generates cold ; so that when the ducklings are 
 out the machine should be gauged one degree higher. 
 
 When the ducklings are all out and dried off, the machine 
 will run at least two degrees lower than when they were 
 in the egg. Plenty of ventilation is needed in the machines 
 while hatching. Keep the ducklings in the machine at 
 least twenty-four hours after hatching, when they will be 
 strong enough to be removed to the brooder. The heat in 
 the brooder should be started 24 hours previous to use. 
 
 If ducks are killed for home consumption they can be 
 slaughtered in any way and scalded. Ducks and geese 
 should be left longer in hot water than chickens, or wrapped 
 in an old blanket or sack to start the down. If they are to 
 be killed for market the heads should be left on. The birds 
 should be killed with a pointed knife, sharp on both edges. 
 This may be thrust into the roof of the mouth so as to pierce 
 the brain, and then turned so as to cut the arteries and 
 cause profuse bleeding. A rap on the head with a short 
 
234 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 club before sticking will stun the bird and prevent much 
 fluttering. The secret of successful dry picking is to get 
 the feathers off while the bird is dying, for as soon as the 
 duck is dead the muscles contract and hold the feathers 
 tight. After killing, the duck may be hung by its feet at a 
 convenient height, or laid on the lap with the head between 
 the right knee and the feather box. Whichever way is 
 adopted the most important thing is to strip off the feathers 
 at the utmost speed, with a pail of water near by, into which 
 the right hand should occasionally be dipped in order to 
 make the feathers stick to it. The fingers can get a better 
 grip on the feathers than when dry. The left hand should 
 hold the carcass, and when necessary pull the skin taut to 
 prevent tearing as the right hand pulls off the feathers by 
 the handful. Much of the down can be rubbed off by the 
 wet hand. The rest must be pulled out separately or shaved 
 off with a knife of good steel honed to a razor edge. The 
 long flight feathers of the wings are usually left on, as are 
 those for an inch or more from the head. The latter is not 
 removed. Any tears of skin should be sewed up. 
 
 As soon as the feathers are all removed the carcass should 
 be put at once into cold water, and after it is washed thor- 
 oughly to remove all blood from the body and dirt from 
 the feet, it should be put into colder water, ice water if 
 possible. 
 
 TURKEY RAISING SHOULD BE REVIVED 
 
 It has been reported for several years that turkey raising 
 was declining, owing to the ravages of disease and the 
 difficulties of handling these fowls. There can be and 
 should be a revival in the industry along practical lines. 
 
 Turkeys have reached a price where they return a net 
 profit of $1.50 to $2 apiece, allowing amply for the cost 
 of feeding and housing. The great essentials in the present 
 crisis are to successfully combat disease and provide a clean, 
 healthful farm range. There is no use, breeders declare, in 
 trying to raise turkeys in cramped quarters. 
 
DUCKS, GEESE AND TURKEYS PROFITABLE 235 
 
 The decline in the turkey industry started six or seven 
 years ago, when the terrible disease of blackhead began 
 to destroy flocks in Ne:w England. The ravages of this 
 disease have become so great in Rhode Island, which was 
 once the great turkey state, that flocks at present are hardly 
 worth considering as a market commodity. The disease 
 has spread to other states throughout the east and has 
 even done some damage in the west. Thousands of 
 farmers in New York, Massachusetts, New Jersey and New 
 Hampshire, all formerly good turkey states, have prac- 
 tically given up the business. 
 
 In the west there is a better chance to fight these turkey 
 diseases than in the east, because there is more room and 
 better sanitary conditions prevail. The advice given by 
 experts in the matter of blackhead is to quit breeding tur- 
 keys for a season or two wherever the plague appears. This 
 will bring about a curtailment of losses and stamp out the 
 disease on farm lands. The greatest safety is to use land 
 that has never had a flock affected by the blackhead or 
 other contagious disease. When blackhead attacks a flock 
 the only safe thing is to kill those which are badly affected 
 and segregate the rest. 
 
 Young turkeys are also easily killed by lice, and they 
 must be examined every few days in order to keep them 
 free from vermin. A little lard rubbed upon the head 
 and under the wings will, as a rule, dispose of lice. The 
 critical time in the life of turkeys is the first six weeks. 
 
 It will be found that turkey raising is no more difficult 
 than the raising of any other kind of poultry if these pre- 
 cautions are taken. In fact, where there is considerable 
 land to range on, the rearing of turkeys is less trouble than 
 that of chickens. There is nothing to be made by hap- 
 hazard methods in any of these lines. Business principles 
 are necessary if there is to be a success with any kind of 
 poultry. The outlook just now is that people who are 
 adapted to the business can clean up a few hundred dollars 
 with turkeys as fast as by any other product. 
 
236 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 Farmers in central Kentucky continue to push this par- 
 ticular industry with fair success. In some cases the 
 farmer's wife clears more on her turkeys than her husband 
 does on his corn or tobacco. The market opened last year 
 on November lo, and continued until Christmas. A large 
 crop was reported, but there were many inferior birds on 
 account of the drouth. 
 
 Most of the turkeys are gathered up by agents working 
 for commission. These men go over the country weighing 
 and paying for turkeys as they go. The bunches are driven 
 along the highways until a neighborhood has been com- 
 pleted. Then at a central point on the main road they are 
 driven in from other sections. Sometimes 2,000 or 3,000, 
 and even 4,000, are driven to the slaughtering pens in one 
 flock. 
 
 From here they are shipped to the large cities, and at 
 Thanksgiving or Christmas grace the tables of the city 
 folk who are fortunate enough to have the wherewithal to 
 purchase one. There are slaughter houses in Shelbyville, 
 Lawrenceburg, Frankfort, Lexington, Danville, Winchester 
 and many other cities in central Kentucky. From 20,000 
 to 50,000 turkeys are handled every year at each house. 
 Buyers say 1913 was an average year as to the number of 
 turks handled. The price last year ranged around 14 cents 
 a pound on foot. Turkeys weigh from 8 to 20 pounds each, 
 about 10 pounds being the average. 
 
 You can readily see what this means. The farmer's wife 
 who has a bunch of 50 or 60 for sale will take in enough to 
 buy anything she may need, or she can start a savings 
 account at the bank. Some prefer hauling their turkeys to 
 market, as they receive one cent more a pound when deliv- 
 ered. In some counties there were no agents last year, 
 while in others they were a necessity. 
 
 The following is the method of preparing and shipping: 
 First, the butcher cuts the bird's throat. After bleeding 
 well the turkeys are picked, usually by negro women, who 
 receive one cent for each bird. Some of them can strip a 
 
DUCKS, GEESE AND TURKEYS PROFITABLE 237 
 
 turk in a very few minutes. The head and the craw are 
 now removed and the birds are packed in boxes containing 
 one dozen. These boxes weigh, on an average, 125 pounds. 
 This size package just came into general use last year. 
 Turkeys were formerly shipped in much larger boxes, but 
 turkey men say the smaller package shows their product 
 much better, as the turkeys always arrive in better shape. 
 Most buyers ship their stuff to the east. Boston, Mass., 
 handles many thousands of Kentucky birds every year. 
 
 Some people claim the eggs are more fertile when the 
 hens are left to find nests their own way, so they never con- 
 fine their turkeys during the laying season. The eggs 
 should be kept in a moderately cool place and turned every 
 day. To keep from forgetting whether the eggs have been 
 turned or not it is a good plan to put a pencil mark on one 
 side of each egg, this leaves the mark on top one time and 
 under the egg next time. Nearly, if not all the eggs in that 
 section are set under either turkey or chicken hens. Some 
 . prefer one, some the other, but I believe on the whole the 
 turks mature better when raised with the turkey mother, as 
 she takes much larger range. The ones with a chicken hen 
 have a tendency to be more gentle and stay nearer home. 
 
 Another thing to consider is the liability of a fox or some 
 other animal making a raid on the flock. I have known of 
 20 or 30 young turkeys being caught in one night. Some- 
 times two-legged enemies are harder on turkeys than the 
 four-legged ones. 
 
 Young turkeys are very delicate and require the closest 
 of attention for two or three weeks. When taken from 
 the nest they are placed in a pen made of boards about a 
 foot wide and eight or ten feet long. A tight, waterproof 
 coop is placed in one corner of the pen. They are kept in 
 this coop at night and in bad weather. By the time they 
 can fly out of this pen they may be allowed considerable 
 range each day. 
 
 The young turkeys are allowed to remain in the nest 
 about 48 hours after hatching. They are then removed 
 
238 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 to the pens and fed for two or three weeks on a diet of 
 hard-boiled eggs well seasoned with black pepper, and are 
 given pure drinking water. They are now fed on biscuit 
 soaked in sweet milk. Onion tops make a splendid addi- 
 tion to this course, which should last about four weeks. 
 After this they are fed on corn bread made with soda, milk 
 and shortening, this being continued three or four weeks. 
 They are now ready to take their own range and eat any- 
 thing they wish. They consider the tobacco worm a great 
 delicacy, and if given access to the patch will keep the 
 plants free from this dreaded enemy of the weed. Turkeys 
 are much more apt to come in at evening if fed a little 
 every day. Some make it a rule to feed them about sun- 
 down, so they will come in about that time. They should 
 be driven to shelter if there is danger of a heavy rain. The 
 next important period in the life of a turkey is preparing 
 him for market. Corn or any small grain is all right for 
 fattening turkeys. 
 
 Before killing turkeys for the holiday trade keep them 
 for eighteen hours in a clean, airy place without any food. 
 They are given water, for this gives a healthy look to the 
 skin and assists in cleansing the digestive organs of matter 
 that would become sour and taint the flesh. 
 
 Wihen a bird is to be killed it should be suspended head 
 downward, with its feet in a noose of strong cord, far 
 enough from the walls of the house and other objects so 
 that it cannot injure its wings when it struggles. After 
 stunning it by dealing a sharp blow at the base of the skull 
 with a club, pass the left arm around the body of the fowl, 
 under the wings, and hold the side of the breast toward you. 
 Grasp the head in the left hand, opening the bill with the 
 thumb and forefinger, and thrust the knife blade into the 
 mouth to the region just back of the brain, making a sharp 
 cut directly across the roof of the mouth to sever the 
 arteries. Holding the bird firmly with the left arm and 
 hand, begin at once to remove the feathers with the right 
 hand, beginning at the juncture of the head and neck and 
 
DUCKS, GEESE AND TURKEYS PROFITABLE 239 
 
 working up over the breast and body. Give the bird a 
 turn that presents the back to the operator, and begin at 
 the neck, or between the wings, and pluck towards the tail. 
 The short feathers of the wings, tail, shanks and neck are 
 removed next, and the long feathers of the wings and tail, 
 if removed at all, are plucked last. 
 
 As a general rule the feathers of the last joint of each 
 wing are left on, and the long feathers of the tail are re^ 
 moved, or not, as the market requires. Though the skin is 
 less likely to be torn than in the case of the chicken or duck, 
 the plucking should be done carefully and none but experi- 
 enced pickers should attempt to hurry the process. The 
 thumb and forefinger do most of the work by firmly grasp- 
 ing a few feathers and removing therh by a quick jerk, 
 which begins upward toward the tail and terminates out- 
 ward and is accomplished by a quick jerk of the wrist. 
 This motion first loosens the feathers in their sockets by 
 starting them the way they grow, and then removes them at 
 the angle least liable to tear the skin. A well grown turkey 
 is very powerful and must be held firmly, yet with due care, 
 for if the wings are grasped by their extremities, or held too 
 rigidly in any position, the bird may struggle and break 
 or wrench them out of joint, making the carcass unfit for 
 sale. Careful handling after picking is also desirable, for 
 a bruise will cause discoloration. 
 
 In my experience, cooling is best accomplished by hanging 
 the picked turkeys in the open air, out of the sun, long 
 enough to allow the escape of all blood. If the market 
 catered to favors drawn stock, drawing is performed rapidly 
 before the fowls are hung up to cool. The incision should 
 be as small as possible, and only the intestines need be 
 removed. 
 
 Stock intended for special markets should be treated with 
 extreme care — the intestines drawn and the head and feet 
 removed. When the head is cut off considerable blood will 
 be clotted in the neck, and unless this blood is removed it 
 will turn black and show through the skin. If there is any 
 
240 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 food in the crop it is wise to remove it before cooling, 
 which is done by pushing back the skin of the neck and 
 working the crop out from under it with the forefinger, 
 taking care not to tear the crop when separating it from 
 the surrounding tissues. The removal of this organ does 
 not leave the breast looking so well as when the crop is left 
 in, because its absence allows the skin to sag in front of 
 the breast bone ; but if the food remains it will show black 
 through the skin, mark the appearance and taint the flesh. 
 Draw the skin forward over the end of the neck and tie 
 with a clean string. When thoroughly cooled wrap the 
 carcass in clean parchment paper and pack in a clean box. 
 White paper alone should be used, for otherwise at the end 
 of the journey the color will be found to have deserted the 
 paper to cling to the skin of the turkey. 
 
 GEESE ARE A GOOD FARM PRODUCT 
 
 Geese may be made a source of profit on any farm. It 
 is useless to try to raise them on a town lot, but on a farm, 
 large or small, they should have a place in the scheme of 
 management. 
 
 Geese are the hardiest of domestic fowls and for meat 
 production pay a larger percentage of profit than almost 
 any other kind. This is because they are good foragers, 
 picking up in the fields and around the creeks and ponds 
 a large part of their living. If the cost of food, breeding 
 and care is placed at 50 cents for each fowl, a profit of 
 $1.50 can be counted, for the ordinary goose is worth at 
 least $2 in market during the fall and winter. The feathers 
 add to this profit. 
 
 Toulouse geese may be depended on to reach a weight of 
 fifteen to eighteen pounds in one season. Whether the 
 flock is large enough or is still being developed, there will 
 always be a number to sell when the market is right. After 
 the first year Toulouse geese weigh twenty to twenty-five 
 pounds. For the first couple of years the owner should 
 give special attention to the selection of breeding fowls. 
 
DUCKS, GEESE AND TURKEYS PROFITABLE 241 
 
 Those that are not up to standard for size and vigor should 
 be disposed of, while the best ought to be kept for improv- 
 ing the flock. Ganders of the highest type should be used, 
 but must be killed when three or four years old, as they 
 are then declining in virility. The females are best for 
 egg production when three years old and upward. Hens 
 should be used for hatching the goslings and caring for 
 them during the first couple of weeks. There is no better 
 method of developing a good flock than to buy a lot of 
 well-bred goslings in the spring. At least one setting of 
 eggs or a dozen good young males should be bought every 
 season in order to get the best results in breeding. 
 
 One advantage is that geese thrive on pasture, putting 
 on flesh at a low cost. They do well on rape, artichoke, 
 clover, common field grass or any of the ordinary forage 
 crops. Heavy feeding of grain is harmful, and this fact 
 makes for economical n^eat production. GosHngs on grass 
 grow to eight or ten pounds without any grain. Like the 
 sheep, geese grow a great proportion of their flesh on food 
 that would be wasted unless so used. It is unwise, how- 
 ever, to allow geese to occupy a pasture with live stock. 
 Animals dislike such an arrangement and are injured 
 thereby. The fowls should have a few acres to themselves. 
 It does not matter if the land is rough or marshy. Some 
 kind of a swimming place is needed. 
 
 If there is no chance to provide a suitable pasture it is 
 unwise to keep geese. It is also bad policy to keep these 
 fowls in poorly ventilated houses. They must have fresh 
 air and clean surroundings. It is best to keep goslings 
 shut up in a yard for two or three weeks, supplying them 
 with clover and other green stuff, with plenty of clean 
 water, but they are not to have anything for twenty-four 
 hours after hatching. A little clean water is the first thing 
 needed. 
 
 Toulouse geese do not mature so fast as some other 
 breeds and consequently are not so profitable for selling at 
 ten or twelve weeks of age, but are the best for Christmas 
 
242 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 sales. In December they attain their greatest weight for 
 the season. On account of their predominance in the 
 markets at this season they are sometimes termed the Christ- 
 mas goose. The size of Toulouse geese makes them quiet 
 and docile. They are contented to remain near home and 
 less inclined to wander than some of the smaller breeds. 
 In egg-laying they compare well with the other large breeds. 
 The government bulletin on geese gives forty as the average 
 number of eggs laid by Toulouse geese. Another report, 
 based on a two-year test, gives twenty-six as the average. 
 Individual reports give larger numbers. 
 
 Where the market is high or customers call for young 
 geese it will pay to fatten the birds at ten or twelve weeks 
 and let them go. They cost less per pound at this age than 
 after they have begun to consume grain extensively. Avoid 
 fattening the breeding stock. To push the young fowls 
 for the market, cornmeal and beef scraps are the main 
 articles. Culled potatoes, boiled and mixed with shorts, 
 are helpful, and this should be moistened with skimmed 
 milk. They are to be fed three times a day, the heaviest 
 meal at night. 
 
 Geese kept in the breeding flock over winter need corn, 
 oats and wheat, with boiled vegetables and such green stuff 
 as can be procured. Clover, alfalfa, cabbage, etc., are ex- 
 cellent. While geese may run in a large flock in summer, 
 they need to be divided into pens during the breeding season, 
 allowing two females to one male. As the laying season 
 extends from March till May the fowls should be confined 
 until about 9 o'clock each morning. They usually lay 
 before that hour. They may have a little feed before going 
 out. 
 
 There are seven standard varieties of geese, as follows: 
 Gray Toulouse, White Embden, Gray African, Brown 
 Chinese, White Chinese, Gray Wild and Colored Egyptian. 
 
 Gray African geese are by many raisers considered the 
 most profitable of all geese to keep. They grow the heavi- 
 est in the shortest space of time, and are ready for market 
 
DUCKS, GEESE AND TURKEYS PROFITABLE 243 
 
 in ten weeks, weighing at that age between eight and ten 
 pounds. They are like the Pekin duck in this respect, and 
 as compared with other geese give the most satisfactory 
 returns for the least labor and time spent in growing them. 
 They are, according to standard weights, as heavy as the 
 Toulouse and Embden, but specimens are not uncommon 
 that exceed these weights by several pounds. They are 
 first-class layers and average about forty eggs in a season. 
 For table purposes they are esteemed very highly, their 
 flesh being fine and nicely flavored. 
 
 The simplest kinds of houses are used for shelter. These 
 should be built after the plans of those given for ducks, 
 but should be proportionately of larger size to accommo- 
 date comfortably the number of birds to be kept. Geese 
 are long-lived birds, some having been known to attain the 
 age of forty years, while birds fifteen and twenty years of 
 age are not uncommon. They retain their laying and hatch- 
 ing qualities through life. Ganders should not be kept for 
 breeding after three years of age ; young ganders are more 
 active and insure greater fertility of the eggs than old ones 
 do; besides, ganders become more quarrelsome as age 
 advances. 
 
 The feathers of geese are an important source of revenue 
 and find a ready sale in the markets. A goose will average 
 about one pound of feathers a year. The feathers should 
 be plucked when there is no blood in the ends of the quills ; 
 this can be readily ascertained, as they will then leave the 
 flesh without hard pulling. Almost all breeds of geese are 
 good setters and attentive mothers, and if left to themselves 
 will make their nests^ much as when wild, and hatch a large 
 percentage of their eggs. But hens are now more fre- 
 quently used for hatching goose eggs, as, by taking the eggs 
 from the goose when laid and giving them to hens to hatch, 
 the goose will lay a greater number of eggs than if she were 
 permitted to set. 
 
 The first feed for goslings is grass, fed on sod ; a small 
 allowance of corn meal, slightly moistened, is also given 
 
244 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 them. Sand and charcoal are sometimes mixed with the 
 corn meal. They are fed on the above food three times a 
 day for a couple of days, when they are given a ration 
 composed of equal parts, by measure, of bran, middlings 
 and steamed cut clover or cooked vegetables. This feed 
 is given them morning, noon and night until they are eight 
 weeks old, when they are penned to be fattened for market 
 at ten weeks old. 
 
 To fatten young geese, place them in a pen, not too large, 
 so that they will not exercise too much, and feed three 
 times a day all they will eat up clean of the following: 
 Corn meal mixed to a dry, crumbly state, and beef scraps 
 amounting to 20 per cent of the bulk of the corn meal. 
 While fattening young geese, they should be kept as quiet 
 as possible; no excitement whatever should disturb them. 
 When feeding, approach them quietly, and do not irritate 
 them in the least or they will not fatten, but will "throw 
 out" or grow another crop of feathers. At ten weeks of 
 age, or when the tips of the wings reach the tail, they are 
 ready for market and should weigh between eight and ten 
 pounds. 
 
 When young goslings are to be dressed for market, they 
 are killed by cutting them in the roof of the mouth, sever- 
 ing the artery, or by stunning them by hitting them a 
 sharp, quick blow on the head. The picker uses a box in 
 front of him about the height of the knees, holding the 
 bird with the left hand and clasping the feet and wings 
 together; he places the head of the bird against the box 
 and holds it in place with the knee. Pick the feathers from 
 the body of the bird, then dampen the right hand and brush 
 the body to remove the down. Leave about two inches of 
 feathers on the neck, and also leave feathers on the wings 
 at the first joint. Lay the wings against the body of the 
 birds and tie a string around to hold in position. Place the 
 birds, when picked, in cold water for an hour or so. 
 
Production of Honey 
 
 Honey is an important crop and bee keeping is almost 
 vitally necessary in connection with fruit growing. All 
 farmers should look into the feasibility of keeping bees. 
 Some make a great deal of money from honey, but all can- 
 not be equally successful. The apiary works well in con- 
 nection with an orchard, but it might not be desirable on a 
 small truck farm. Each person should study all the con- 
 ditions which count in the matter and act accordingly. 
 
 Many beekeepers are able to dispose of their entire output 
 of honey in their local markets, sometimes creating quite 
 a demand for their product by advertising and demon- 
 strating. Comb honey that is to be sent to a distant market 
 should be shipped before cold weather, since the combs 
 become extremely fragile when cold. Small lots should be 
 crated in "carriers" holding several cases to prevent break- 
 age by rough handling of individual cases, while in larger 
 shipments the cases are simply packed in the car in such a 
 manner that the individual cases cannot be thrown about by 
 the movement of the car. 
 
 The present tendency in beekeeping is decidedly toward 
 the production of extracted honey rather than of comb 
 honey. The recent activity among beekeepers toward spe- 
 cialization and the rapidly increasing demand for extracted 
 honey are among the factors bringing about this condition. 
 Enormous quantities of honey are now used for manufac- 
 turing purposes, and this demand is, of course, for extracted 
 honey. 
 
 If the general public finally becomes convinced of the 
 purity and wholesomeness of extracted honey, this will 
 become a staple article of food. Comb honey to command 
 the higher price — proportionate to the greater cost of pro- 
 duction — ^must justify the extra cost to the consumer by 
 
 245 
 
246 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 its finer appearance. The consumer of extracted honey is 
 not concerned as to the straightness or finish of the combs 
 in which it was originally stored, but by virtue of its ap- 
 pearance there will probably always be a good demand for 
 the finest grade of comb honey where appearance is the 
 chief consideration. Present tendencies therefore empha- 
 size the desirability of producing comb honey of the most 
 attractive appearance possible. 
 
 There are four essential factors entering into the secur- 
 ing of a crop of honey : ( i ) A sufficient amount of bloom 
 of healthy and well-nourished nectar-secreting plants 
 growing in soil to which they are adapted and within range 
 of the apiary. (2) Weather conditions favorable to nectar 
 secretion and bee flight. (3) A large number of workers 
 in excess of those needed for the routine work of the 
 colony. (4) Conditions of the colony making the storing 
 instinct dominant. If any one of these factors is absent, 
 the effect of the other three is immediately nullified, and 
 the amount of honey secured will vary as these factors are 
 present at the same time in greater or less degree or as the 
 time during which they are all present is longer or shorter. 
 It is therefore possible to have each of these factors present 
 at some time during the season without securing a crop of 
 honey and the period of time during which they are all 
 present at the same time is usually quite short. 
 
 During the six or eight weeks just preceding the honey 
 flow every colony should be encouraged to rear the greatest 
 possible amount of brood. Brood rearing during this 
 period is often restricted by insufficient stores or by insuffi- 
 cient room. It is therefore of great importance that both 
 stores and available bfood-rearing space be supplied in 
 abundance. If stimulative feeding or spreading the brood 
 is practiced, this is the time it should be done. 
 
 If feeding is not practiced during this critical period, the 
 beekeeper should see that each colony is at all times sup- 
 plied with a reserve of stores, for surprisingly large quanti- 
 ties are consumed when brood rearing is going on rapidly. 
 
PRODUCTION OF HONEY 247 
 
 If any colonies should run short, brood rearing will be 
 carried on sparingly and the colony so severely crippled that 
 it may not recover its strength until after the honey flow 
 is over. 
 
 Whether stimulative feeding or supplying each colony 
 with an abundance of reserve stores is the more profitable 
 depends upon circumstances and must be decided by each 
 beekeeper for his own conditions. Stimulative feeding, if 
 properly done, will undoubtedly result in the rearing of 
 more bees for the harvest. When the beekeeper is oper- 
 ating several apiaries and must travel some distance to 
 reach them, the labor involved is considerable, and the 
 question to be decided is whether this labor would yield 
 greater returns if expended in stimulative feeding or in 
 operating a larger number of colonies. If the brood cham- 
 ber is large and well provisioned or if the flowers furnish 
 some nectar in early spring the colonies may have sufficient 
 stores for this period of heavy brood rearing. Some bee- 
 keepers save combs of honey of the previous year to supply 
 food for this period. This is one of the most convenient 
 and satisfactory methods of feeding. 
 
 The use of comb foundation in frames is recommended 
 in all cases except where frames are left empty for the 
 transferring of old combs. By using full sheets of comb 
 foundation it is possible to secure the building of combs 
 containing nothing but worker cells, which largely increases 
 the worker progeny of the queen. Bees will often build 
 comb with drone cells, or what is known as "store comb," 
 in a season of rapid honey flow, and such cells invariably 
 produce drone bees when they are used for brood rearing. 
 It is desirable to limit the number of drones to the needs 
 of the mating season and drone comb is considered a nui- 
 sance by everyone except the professional queen breeder, 
 who is able at times to make excellent use of such comb 
 for his particular purposes. 
 
 Comb foundation comes in various grades of weight and 
 thickness, the thinnest being known as "extra thin surplus," 
 
248 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 the next heavier being "thin surplus," both of which are 
 used in comb honey sections as starters for the bees. In 
 the hive proper the two varieties of foundation commonly 
 used are known as "light brood" and "medium brood." We 
 give preference to the light-brood foundation, which comes 
 about nine sheets to the pound and customarily sells at 
 about 55 cents per pound. The best practice indicates the 
 use of full sheets of foundation in a frame, as this prac- 
 tically fills the frame and greatly aids the bees in the work 
 of building up rapidly. Combs of this character which are 
 well supported by wires in the center of the frame are prac- 
 tically indestructible with careful handling and may be used 
 for many years. 
 
 The worms found in the honeycomb of unused hives or 
 weak colonies are hatched from eggs laid by the bee moth 
 and are best prevented from making their appearance by 
 keeping only strong colonies of Italian or hybrid bees in 
 the apiary and using care to store unused comb where the 
 moths cannot get at it. A good colony of Italians or even 
 of hybrids will protect itself from the ravages of the bee 
 moth, while ordinary black bees, especially if the colony is 
 weak, seem unable to keep the moths out of their hives. 
 Strong colonies in good hives will protect themselves, and 
 comb outside of hives may be fumigated with sulphur fumes 
 to kill any eggs or worms present, and then stored in some 
 moth-tight place to protect them. 
 
 Do not wait until swarming time before clipping a queen's 
 wings, but sometime early in May provide yourself with 
 a pair of scissors, a queen excluder, an old sheet, a smoker 
 and a veil. Better dispense with gloves if you can, as you 
 can work better with bare fingers. After subduing the 
 bees with a little smoke blown into the hive entrance, open 
 the hive and remove a brood frame with its clinging bees 
 from near the centre. Examine each side of the frame 
 carefully, paying special attention to the bottom where the 
 comb is open and the queen can pass from one side to the 
 other. She is apt to elude you by doing this quickly ip 
 
PRODUCTION OF HONEY 249 
 
 her efforts to hide. Having satisfied yourself that the 
 queen is not on this frame, set it carefully aside, either 
 leaning it up against the outside of the hive or placing it in 
 another empty hive conveniently placed, and continue your 
 search until you have gone over all the frames in the hive, 
 if need be. Should you still be unsuccessful, look into the 
 hive to see that the queen is not hiding in a cluster of bees 
 there, and go over the frames a second or third time, if 
 you wish. A laying queen differs so much in size and shape 
 from workers and drones that she is readily recognized, 
 even by an amateur, but if you fail to find her upon the 
 brood combs, you still have recourse to another method 
 which can hardly fail. After seeing that the hive is entirely 
 empty, close it up and place the queen excluder before the 
 entrance ; then spread your sheet upon the ground in front 
 of the hive and shake the clinging bees from each frame 
 upon it. The workers will at once run into the hive through 
 the excluder, and after they are all in, or before, you will 
 see the queen running about and vainly trying to make her 
 way through the zinc. Having found her, pick her up 
 gently by the wings, or the head and thorax (do not hold 
 a queen by the abdomen), and with your scissors clip the 
 two wings of one side fairly close to the body. She may 
 then be placed upon a comb or allowed to run into the 
 entrance. The queen will not sting, no matter how roughly 
 handled, and the other bees will pay no attention to you 
 or her until after she has been released among them. Un- 
 fortunately they then sometimes seem to recognize that their 
 queen has been violated by human touch, and ball her. 
 
 Clipping the queen's wings does not keep the bees from 
 swarming; it simply prevents the queen from going with 
 them, and without her, they are pretty sure to return. If 
 the beekeeper would hive these returning swarms and save 
 the clipped queen, he must needs be watchful, and it is a 
 question whether the amateur with a few swarms may not 
 better permit swarming in the usual way, and take his 
 chances on their clustering within his reach. The writer 
 
250 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 finds few things more pleasurably exciting than climbing a 
 ladder into a big tree, cutting down a big swarm of hand- 
 some yellow bees, and getting them safely installed in a 
 new home. Swarming bees seldom sting, but there are 
 possibilities that lend a distinct thrill to the process. As it 
 is only under very exceptional circumstances that more 
 than one queen will be found in a hive, you need have no 
 fear of being embarrassed by their numbers when you wish 
 to clip the wings of the head of the colony. Indeed, you 
 will probably congratulate yourself when you have found 
 one queen. 
 
 The success of the beekeeper depends largely upon the 
 correct starting and care of bees in the spring. Spring 
 dwindling, weak colonies and robbing, result in a small 
 amount of surplus honey. To those who winter bees in 
 cellars it is a problem to know at what time in the spring 
 to take them out. Great care should be taken. When the 
 weather has every appearance of being rainy or cool and 
 cloudy on the morrow, commence at sundown and carry 
 out all the hives and put them on the stands which they are 
 to occupy. See that the hives are not too close together. 
 Bees should not be set out during warm weather or on the 
 evening before a warm day, as they drift to one part of 
 the yard and some of the hives will get the larger share of 
 the flying bees, thus weakening others. Do not, however, 
 carry bees out until the cold weather has passed, unless 
 bees have dysentery. Bees wintered out of doors need not 
 be unpacked until spring work in the hive makes it necessary. 
 
 During the first month after taking bees out of the cellar 
 there are more bees lost than during the other eleven 
 months. If bees are kept alive and in their hives during 
 the chilly, cloudy, changeable weather of early spring, good 
 strong colonies may be obtained in the time to take advan- 
 tage of the honey flow. It is only the strong colonies that 
 produce honey profitably. 
 
 If the colony has an old queen, a young queen is intro- 
 duced early in the season. Poor honey causes bees to die 
 
PRODUCTION OF HONEY 251 
 
 in large numbers. This can be prevented by feeding a small 
 amount of sugar syrup daily. Another cause for spring 
 dwindling is the desire of bees to fly on changeable days. 
 This can be almost completely prevented by facing the hives 
 north and having a board leaning against the hive so as to 
 shade the entrance. The giving of sweetened water at 
 night will also help in this, as the greatest reason for bees 
 flying at this season is to bring water for brood rearing. 
 
 Bees should be kept as warm as possible where wintered 
 out doors. When bees are wintered in the cellar a tem- 
 perature between 45 and 48 degrees is best. . If bees are 
 removed from cellar early I advise covering them with 
 tarred felt. To have a wind-break either natural or arti- 
 ficial is a big help. The hive entrances should be about 
 three-eighths by two inches. This keeps the bees much 
 warmer and prevents robbing. Stimulative feeding will 
 build hives into strong colonies. 
 
 Outside of the beekeeping world the great majority of 
 people think that the only benefit humanity receives from 
 bees is the production of honey and wax. It is not gener- 
 ally known nor even understood that bees were created 
 not so much for the purpose of gathering the delicious sweet 
 for mankind as for carrying the pollen grains from one 
 flower to another, so that these may bear fruit and seed. 
 The real economical value of the bees is to be found in the 
 work of fertilizing and cross-fertilizing seed and fruit- 
 bearing plants so valuable to man; the honey and wax are 
 secondary. 
 
Commercial Apple Growing 
 
 Apple growing is a reasonably safe and promising business 
 proposition. A fairly good apple orchard will return a 
 net profit of upwards of $200 an acre annually. In many 
 instances the product amounts to $300 to $400 an acre in 
 a single season. Taking a conservative view of the matter, 
 it is safe to estimate the profits of an orchard at $100 an 
 acre each year, and if it will do this on a twenty-year aver- 
 age the product is paying better than any grain crop. It is 
 not best, however, to trust entirely to apples any more than 
 to grain. The wise farmer will have a dozen such interests. 
 
 Apples are a profitable crop in all states which produce 
 timber, and there are hardy varieties which grow well in 
 the extreme north. For New England, New York, Penn- 
 sylvania, Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, Canada and north- 
 ern localities generally the following varieties are sug- 
 gested : Tetof ski. Yellow Transparent, Early Harvest, Red 
 Astrachan, Red June, Duchess of Oldenburg, Golden Sweet, 
 Trenton Early, Redstripe, Early Strawberry, Early Joe, 
 Benoni, Primate, Maiden Blush, Gravenstein, Fall Wine, 
 Jeflferis, Jersey Sweet, Rambo, Porter, Mother, Melon, Fall 
 Pippin, Bailey Sweet, Jacobs Sweet, Fameuse, Shiawassee 
 Beauty, Wealthy, Grimes Golden, Jonathan, Romanstem, 
 Westfield, Red Canada, Smokehouse, Delicious, Hubbards- 
 ton Nonsuch, Tompkins King, Domine, Wine, Northern 
 Spy, Sutton, Wagener, Esopus Spitzenburg, Rome Beauty, 
 Roxbury Russet, Baldwin, Ben Davis, Rhode Island Grfeen- 
 ing. Stark, Winesap, York Imperial, Lansingburg and 
 Yellow Newton. In the South and Pacific coast all the 
 finer grades of apples are easily produced. 
 
 It is not recommended that the average farmer propa- 
 gate his own trees for planting. It is best to buy two- 
 year-old trees from nurserymen, but it is well enough to 
 understand something of the processes and methods of 
 
 252 
 
COMMERCIAL APPLE GROWING 253 
 
 propagation commonly used. The natural method of prop- 
 agation is by planting the seed of the fruit, but a very large 
 per cent of seedlings are inferior in quality to the parent 
 variety. The results are too uncertain to recommend for 
 planters generally. Only the painstaking experimenter can 
 afford to practice this natural method of propagation. Once 
 having obtained a valuable variety and wishing to multiply 
 and perpetuate it, one of several methods now in use must 
 be resorted to for propagation. The methods more com- 
 monly practiced in growing young apple trees for planting 
 in orchards are budding and grafting. 
 
 Budding must be performed during the growing season. 
 This operation consists in removing a bud from a twig of 
 the variety which we wish to propagate and inserting it 
 beneath the bark of the stock or young seedling tree we 
 wish to change; and this is then held in place by tying it 
 fast until the bud and stock have united. Then by forcing 
 the sap and consequent growth into this transplanted bud 
 by preventing all other growth, we get a new tree of the 
 desired variety. This we call budding. It is a method 
 of artificially multiplying a desirable variety. The extent 
 of this multiplication is limited only by the number of buds 
 available. 
 
 The main requisite for success in budding is a healthy, 
 growing condition of the stock on which the work is to be 
 done and a certain state of maturity of the buds. The bark 
 of the stock must separate freely, so that the bud may be 
 forced under it without injury to the cambium layer of 
 either bud or stock. The bud sticks or scions selected for 
 summer budding should be of the current year's growth 
 and should have well-developed buds. When taken from 
 the tree the leaves must be cut off immediately, leaving 
 only a short stub of the leaf stem for convenience in han- 
 dling during the operation. They should be kept in a fresh 
 condition by means of damp moss or a wet cloth until used, 
 and not more than one or two scions should be withdrawn 
 from the package at a time. 
 
254 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 If it is desired to start the bud into growth the same 
 season it is inserted, the budding should be done as early 
 in the season as well-developed buds can be obtained. As 
 soon as it is found that the bud has united with the stock 
 or branch, the material used to fasten the bud in place must 
 be removed and the stock or branch cut back to within a 
 short distance from the bud, to force the growth of the 
 inserted bud. 
 
 Late fall budding' is more commonly practiced among 
 nurserymen, the buds being inserted into the stock as late 
 in the season as the bark of the stock will separate freely 
 to receive it. In such instances the bud remains dormant 
 through the winter. The following spring the wrapping is 
 removed and wherever the buds appear sound the tops of 
 the stocks are cut back and treated in the same manner as 
 described for June budding. All buds on the stocks below 
 the one inserted should be rubbed off as they start to grow. 
 The objection to early, or June, budding is that the growth 
 from such buds does not always mature sufficiently in 
 northern sections to pass a severely cold winter without 
 injury. 
 
 Grafting, unlike budding, is usually performed during 
 the dormant period of growth. It is accomplished by care- 
 fully fitting a small dormant twig or scion of the variety 
 we wish to propagate into a cut in a stock or seedling tree 
 which we wish to change. There are several forms of 
 grafting, but they differ more in method than in results. 
 In fact, so far as the top of the tree is concerned the results 
 are the same in all cases whether we bud or graft. The 
 object sought is to change an undesirable or uncertain tree 
 into one which we know will produce a variety whose fruit 
 will possess certain desirable characteristics. 
 
 The simple form of splice grafting is used when the stock 
 and scion are very nearly the same size. It consists in splic- 
 ing or lapping the scion on the stock by scarfing each at the 
 same angle. When a close joint is secured the parts are 
 held in place by means of some kind of wrapping material. 
 
COMMERCIAL APPLE GROWING 255 
 
 Tongue grafting differs from splice grafting in that both 
 scion and stock are split at corresponding points on the 
 scarf with a thin-bladed knife so as to form tongues. The 
 object of this is to unite more firmly the two portions and 
 present a larger surface for the effusion of cell tissue, and 
 to promote the callousing process. This is the method 
 commonly practiced by nurserymen under the name of root 
 grafting. 
 
 Thrifty one-year-old stocks grown from seeds are taken 
 up in the fall and stored in a cellar or buried in the soil, 
 where they will keep fresh and be accessible at any time in 
 winter when wanted. The scions having been secured in 
 the fall, the work of grafting may be performed at any 
 time during the winter. The roots only are used in this 
 method, and they may be cut in two or more sections, 
 according to their size and length or the desire of the 
 propagator. But the larger or stronger roots as a rule may 
 be relied upon for the most satisfactory results. 
 
 In the foregoing methods of grafting, but especially in 
 the first, the parts must be held together by some kind of 
 bandage or tie. This may be made of thin cotton cloth or 
 tough manila paper spread with melted grafting wax and 
 when cool cut or torn in narrow strips of convenient width 
 for wrapping, but the most common method now practiced 
 is to employ cotton yarn drawn through melted wax and 
 wound upon a spool from which it is used when wanted. 
 
 These root grafts, after having been tied in bundles, 
 with each variety separately labeled, may be packed away 
 in moist earth or loam and left in a cellar free from frost 
 until spring, when they should be planted in nursery rows 
 in the open ground and cultivated for one, two or three 
 years, when they are ready to be transplanted to the orchard 
 site. Thorough cultivation in the nursery rows should be 
 given, and some attention should be paid to training or 
 shaping the young trees, so as to insure the best results 
 when transplanted in the orchard. 
 
 Cleft grafting is generally done when the stock is con- 
 
256 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 siderably larger than the scion and where the operation is 
 to be performed above ground. The stock is split down- 
 ward, after it has been cut off at the point where the scion 
 is to be inserted, by using a fine-tooth saw. The bark 
 should be cut through first to avoid being torn and so that 
 the sides of the cleft will be smooth. A wedge is put in 
 to keep the cleft open for the insertion of the scion, which 
 is cut wedge shape, with a long slope, one edge being a 
 little thicker than the other. The object of this is to have 
 the pressure of the cleft greatest upon the outer side where 
 the union is to be effected. 
 
 If the stock is large enough, a graft may be inserted on 
 each side of the cleft, but if both grow one should eventu- 
 ally be cut off. After the scion has been properly inserted 
 the wedge should be carefully withdrawn, leaving the scion 
 in place, so that the inner bark of the scion and the stock 
 shall coincide. If the pressure of the cleft be not suffi- 
 cient to hold the scion in place, it must be wrapped with 
 cloth or strings before waxing. 
 
 The stock and scion are now ready for the grafting wax, 
 which may be applied either in liquid form with a brush or 
 in plastic condition after having been worked with the 
 hands, or they may be wrapped with strips of muslin or 
 manila paper previously spread with wax, as heretofore 
 mentioned. Great care should be taken to make every 
 joint air-tight or the operation will be a failure. 
 
 The selection of an orchard site is not governed by any 
 arbitrary rule. It is unfortunate that some farms do not 
 afford the best soils and exposures for orchards. But the 
 owners of such should not allow this fact to deter them 
 from planting trees and caring for them afterwards. Some 
 kinds of soils and surface presentations are preferable to 
 others, as they are better adapted to this fruit and require 
 less expense in preparation and in the after care and treat- 
 ment of the orchard. The most intelligent and experienced 
 orchardists differ as to the best location and exposure of 
 an orchard, some preferring a northern slope, others an 
 
COMMERCIAL APPLE GROWING 257 
 
 eastern, and yet others recommend a southern or even a 
 western slope as best. It is believed that the advantages 
 preponderate in favor of a gentle eastern or northeastern 
 slope, as orchards located on such sites suffer less in both 
 soil and tree from the effects of heat and drought. An 
 orchard with such an exposure will maintain its vigor and 
 longevity better than if inclined to the west or southwest. 
 This is especially true in States south of the New England 
 group, where the summers are long, hot and dry, and where 
 it is probable that the greatest injury to trees results from 
 these causes. But, as before stated, all farms do not afford 
 these most favorable sites, especially near the home, which 
 is the most desirable location for the orchard. Thus the 
 planter will often be forced to forego such a location and 
 take his chances where the natural conditions are not so 
 favorable. If possible, the site should be elevated above its 
 immediate surroundings, thus giving a free circulation of 
 air, while such an elevation will also be of great aid in 
 guarding against late spring frosts, so fatal to young fruit at 
 the blooming season. 
 
 Apple trees will thrive and do well on alpiost any soil 
 which is well prepared, but the different kinds of soil may 
 require different treatment and after care. A loamy soil is 
 naturally rich in plant food; hence it will need little, if 
 any, manuring in its preparation. But it should be deeply 
 stirred and thoroughly broken up by subsoiling. This loamy 
 soil is what may be termed free soil, as it seldom becomes 
 compacted, even by abusive treatment. 
 
 A clay soil is the most difficult to prepare, and often re- 
 quires manuring, as well as thorough plowing, replowing, 
 and subsoiling. It should also be frequently stirred during 
 the summer months, and especially as soon after each rain- 
 fall as is practicable, to prevent it from baking and becom- 
 ing compacted. This becomes even more important in sea- 
 sons of long droughts. 
 
 Sandy soils are generally lacking in the necessary plant 
 food. They also have the objection of losing such fertilizers 
 
258 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 as may be added by the leaching effect of the rainfall. The 
 wood growth on loamy soils will be strong and vigorous, 
 but may not be sufficiently mature to withstand the freez- 
 ing of the more rigorous winters. Clay lands are not apt 
 to produce such vigorous growth, and orchard trees on such 
 lands will be hardier as to winterkilling than on most other 
 soils. With a free subsoil underlying it, a loamy clay soil 
 will probably yield the best results, especially if it be well 
 prepared by thorough culture and subsoiling before plant- 
 ing the trees. Timber lands, or lands on which forests have 
 formerly grown, if having the proper exposure and drain- 
 age, are preferable for orchard sites. Such lands contain 
 all the elements of plant food necessary to insure a good 
 and sufficient wood growth and fruitfulness. Fruit grown 
 on such lands will rank first-class in size, quality and ap- 
 pearance. Forty trees to the acre are better than a greater 
 number. 
 
 It is possible to make from apples a quality of cider of 
 such attractive and delicate flavor, and such attractive 
 sparkle, that it will sell for a higher price than good grape 
 wine. 
 
 The difficulty is that apple growers and cider makers have 
 not given this subject attention. That is the most of them 
 have not. I know of a firm which has succeeded in making 
 from apple juice a quality of cider that sells for an extrava- 
 gant price and is in demand bottled all over this country 
 and from which the firm is making fabulous profits. 
 
 Cider as made at present comes from immature apples, 
 over-ripe kpples, wormy and rotten apples, and from vari- 
 ous varieities of apples without any regard to selection of 
 good from bad or desirable from the undesirable. Thus 
 cider as made today is a sort of a hodgepodge, manufac- 
 tured with little regard for cleanliness either in handling, 
 storing, grinding or in barreling. Much cider is injured 
 by being put in barrels that are not clean. 
 
Cherry Growing Is Profitable 
 
 People are learning that the cherry is a profitable product 
 in all parts of the country where other fruit can be grown. 
 There has been a mistaken idea that the cherry tree is 
 particularly delicate, and for many years this belief has kept 
 land owners in the north from engaging extensively in 
 cherry growing. There is a gradual change in opinion, how- 
 ever, and fine orchards are being developed in localities 
 where ten years ago it would have been thought foolish to 
 try to grow cherries for market. 
 
 The Pacific Coast has led in commercial cherry culture 
 and especially in that of the sweet varieties. There is so 
 much interest in it in some sections that there are cherry 
 fairs held for the special purpose of showing what is be- 
 ing done to attract buyers of the fresh fruit and the manu- 
 factured products of the orchards as well, and to stimulate 
 the business generally in an intelligent way. 
 
 The orchards are planted in good soil and usually in the 
 valleys and on the gentle slopes of the lower hills. The 
 distance between trees is, generally, about 30 feet, but in 
 many cases much less room is given, which is a mistake, 
 for the trees grow to large size where properly cared for. 
 The bountiful crops which are grown well deserve the best 
 of opportunities for development. Thirty feet is none too 
 riiuch room for a mature sweet cherry tree. The variety 
 most extensively grown is Napoleon, which is almost uni- 
 versally called Royal Ann on the Pacific Coast. It is quite 
 large, pale yellow, with a suflfusion of light red or pink 
 that g^ves the fruit a very attractive appearance except 
 in case of bruising. The flavor is a mild sub-acid which is 
 pleasing to the taste and by some would be called sweet. 
 The flesh is firm, enduring handling well. The larger part 
 of the crop of this variety is picked and sold to those who 
 
 2S9 
 
260 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 make what is called maraschino cherries. There are large 
 quantities canned and also packed and sold in the markets 
 of the entire country. In the course of the development of 
 the cherry industry on the Pacific Coast, there were grown 
 many seedlings by several intelligent experimenters, and as 
 a result there were produced the Republic, Bing, Lambert, 
 Haskins, Oregon and several other good varieties. All these 
 are dark in color, the Republic being about black and 
 the Bing nearly as dark. The Lambert is somewhat less 
 so, but is the largest of all. These varieties, especially the 
 Bing and Lambert are generally grown and shipped all 
 over the country in the fresh state and canned in the western 
 factories. 
 
 There are some good sweet cherry orchards in the East 
 and South, but as a rule the sour cherry has had the lead in 
 those sections. Sweet cherries thrive nicely in Northern 
 Michigan. The Grand Traverse region is famous for them 
 and it is there that the Paul Rose orchard was planted be- 
 tween 15 and 20 years ago. There are about 75 acres in 
 the older part of it, a large part of the trees being of the 
 sweet or Mazzard type. The varieties are May Duke, Na- 
 poleon, Yellow Spanish, Tartarian, Governor Wood, Pur- 
 ple Gean, Schmidt, Windsor and many others of this class 
 that were planted as experiments. Among the latter are 
 Bing and Lambert, which have proved to be almost entirely 
 unfitted for that region because of the fact that they crack 
 about the time of ripening. I have seen the trees of these 
 two varieties loaded with fruit that was so badly cracked 
 that it was not worth gathering and was left on the trees 
 to rot. In a dry climate, such as is usually experienced on 
 the western coast, there is very little of this trouble, but in 
 all the eastern states there is more or less of it among the 
 hard-fleshed cherries especially when it rains about the time 
 of ripening. The soft fleshed kinds are but little affected 
 in this way and Tartarian, May Duke, Schmidt and a few 
 others are quite successful. Schmidt has flesh that is quite 
 firm and as it is of large size, dark purple in color, and ships 
 
CHERRY GROWING IS PROFITABLE 261 
 
 remarkably well — the tree being large, thrifty, and a good 
 bearer — it is the best of all the sweet cherries for commercial 
 culture in the east. At least this is the decision of Mr. 
 Paul Rose and others who are growing it beside many other 
 kinds. 
 
 The regions in which sour cherries will succeed are far 
 more numerous and extensive than those where the sweet 
 kinds flourish. The trees are more hardy and the fruit 
 does not crack or rot even in rainy weather. There are not 
 many sour cherry trees planted on the Pacific Coast because 
 the fruit has soft flesh and does not ship well. The flavor 
 being sour and of a peculiarly delicate yet pronounced 
 flavor, it is especially adapted to cooking. Cherry pies and 
 tarts and crullers are famous. No sweet cherry is fit for 
 such use as the flavor is not piquant but too flat and insipid. 
 Canned sour cherries are also excellent. 
 
 As the trees are of smaller size than those of the sweet 
 varieties they need less room in the orchard and from 20 
 to 30 feet is enough for them. 
 
 Over the larger part of the northern and central states 
 this class of cherries may be grown for home use and com- 
 mercially as well, and this fact should be grasped by farm- 
 ers. There are fewer and smaller cherry orchards than 
 there should be. The largest plantings in the central West 
 are in eastern Wisconsin, on the peninsula between Green 
 Bay and Lake Michigan. The soil and climate there are 
 both suitable and orchards of ,50 to 100 acres are not un- 
 common. The variety planted most extensively is the Mont- 
 morency. This is one of the later kinds and comes at a 
 time when all seem glad to get the fruit. The trees are 
 quite hardy, well shaped and bear enormously. The fruit 
 hangs on without rotting or dropping even when dead ripe. 
 Its flavor is of the most pronounced "cherry" character and 
 is retained when cooked in any way. Richmond is earlier 
 but is not handled so well without damage and is, there- 
 fore, of less value for market purposes. For home use it 
 is a variety that should always be planted. Phillipe is an- 
 
262 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 other sour cherry of value but not equal to the others 
 named. English Morello is very late and bears well under 
 almost all conditions and is well worth planting. The com- 
 mon Black Morello of the old times is another late and very 
 good cherry. But the Montmorency is the best of all com- 
 mercial sour cherries. 
 
 There is a common practice among nurserymen to use the 
 Mahaleb as the stock upon which to bud all kinds of cher- 
 ries. This is a great mistake, for while it does splendidly 
 in the nursery for all varieties and for some years after- 
 wards in the orchard, it will cause .he trees of the sweet or 
 Mazzard type to gradually fail when the test of bearing 
 comes. The wood growths are not alike and there is a 
 decided uncongeniality that is sure to develop sooner or 
 later. I have seen thousands of sweet cherry trees all over 
 the country fail from this cause and in most cases the own- 
 ers did not know what it was. Nor do many now under- 
 stand this matter. The Mazzard is the stock for the sweet 
 cherries, which is the same species from which they all 
 sprang. Sometimes the trees send out roots from above 
 the place of union and then they prosper. For the sour 
 varieties the Mahaleb stock is all right. 
 
 The higher grades of sweet cherries are always packed in 
 boxes with the greatest care on the Pacific Coast, and a few 
 of the eastern growers are doing the same. A shallow box 
 holding ID pounds is the common package, but in some cases 
 smaller paper cartons are used and these are enclosed in 
 boxes or crates. The boxed cherries from the Paul Rose 
 farm in Michigan bring as high prices as any that go to 
 market, and this is proof that many more might profit by 
 the same plan, as a very few do. 
 
 Spraying is a necessity in every orchard. There are 
 fungus diseases that prey on the foliage and fruit and in- 
 sects as well and by intelligent and prompt action they may 
 be kept under control. 
 
Profits in Small Fruits 
 
 Small fruits pay well and afford great pleasure to the 
 family on a little farm. They are ideal products where the 
 place is small and situated near a city, so that they may be 
 sold to families or hotels and restaurants. Much waste 
 and loss of profit will be avoided by delivering to private 
 customers. 
 
 An advantage in raising berries comes from the quick 
 growth as well as from the small acreage required. It takes 
 only a year to get started with small fruits. They can be 
 grown in an orchard and will return a large amount of 
 money in the years when peach and apple trees are coming 
 to maturity. The more this orchard ground is stirred the 
 better, and the cultivation of berries is of actual benefit to 
 the large fruits up to a certain point. It is unwise to crowd 
 the orchard, and care must be taken not to tax the vitality 
 of the soil too heavily. When the main orchard comes to 
 the bearing period the wisest course is to remove all small 
 fruits and any other plants that have been grown among 
 the trees. 
 
 There are many corners and out-of-the-way spots on a 
 farm which might be utilized as the location of berry and 
 currant bushes. In this way a place would be beautified 
 and hundreds of dollars would be realized with little effort. 
 It is also true that small fruits give a large profitable return 
 when raised on high-priced land. Almost any farmer who 
 is so located as to be able to market his products quickly 
 can make it pay to devote a few acres of his best ground to 
 berries. 
 
 A fair yield of strawberries ought to pay $200 to $300 
 an acre above the cost of picking. This fruit requires a 
 well drained soil. A light, deep loam is best, and an abun- 
 dance of well rotted barnyard fertilizer should be plowed 
 
 263 
 
264 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 in. Soggy land is not favorable to any kind of fruits, 
 but nevertheless moisture is needed, and unless rain is plen- 
 tiful it will pay to carry water or convey it by means of 
 hose. 
 
 Plant strawberries in hills or hedges and keep the soil 
 loose with hoe or cultivator. Pinch off all blossoms the 
 first season. Strawberries are hardy and prolific, but 
 skilled attention will pay in extent and quality of produc- 
 tion. With a view to successful marketing both early and 
 late varieties should be cultivated. 
 
 There are several considerations which govern the time 
 and manner of setting strawberry plants. The time to plant 
 depends in humid regions more upon the rainfall than upon 
 any other factor. If there are not timely rains at the plant- 
 ing season to give the plants an opportunity to establish 
 themselves, the stand will be uneven, with the result that 
 more work will be required to keep the land free from 
 weeds and more trouble will be necessary to get the blank 
 spaces occupied by runners from the plants that survive. 
 The plants that withstand the drought are checked and 
 dwarfed. They seldom recover so as to make either satis- 
 factory croppers or plant producers. It is most satisfactory 
 and most economical, therefore, to choose that season which 
 offers most advantages at planting time, other things being 
 equal. It is impossible to specify the season for each local- 
 ity or even for large areas, as local conditions of soil and 
 climate necessitate different practices in localities only a 
 short distance apart. In general there are only two seasons 
 for planting — spring and fall — ^but in some localities spring 
 planting should be done in April or May by the use of the 
 preceding season's plants, while in others it may be done 
 in June from the crop of runners of the same season. 
 
 In irrigated regions planting can be done at whatever 
 season the work will give best results in future crop produc- 
 tion. In humid regions rainfall is a determining factor. 
 In the northern half of the prairie region spring planting 
 gives best results. In the Middle Atlantic States the work 
 
PROFITS IN SMALL FRUITS 265 
 
 is divided between spring and August planting, with the 
 balance in favor of the latter in some localities. In New 
 England the work is chiefly confined to the spring months, 
 although there are enthusiastic advocates of fall planting, 
 especially among those who combine strawberry growing 
 with the trucking business on expensive lands near the 
 large cities. In the Atlantic Coast States south of New 
 York, August and September planting is most extensively 
 practiced, particularly upon the more retentive soils. In 
 the trucking region on the islands about Charleston, S. C, 
 spring planting is extensively practiced, as it results in a 
 paying crop the following year, while only a small crop can 
 be harvested from fall-set plants. On these quick soils the 
 plant can be grown as an annual, and farther south, in 
 Georgia and Florida, the fall-set plants will return a profit- 
 able crop the following spring. On the heavier soils of 
 South Carolina, however, fall planting, with the paying 
 crop one year from the following spring, is the most profit- 
 able method. The particular time during the summer or 
 fall when the planting should be done will be governed by 
 the occurrence of the seasonal rains — if in July and August, 
 plant then; if in September and October, plant at that 
 time. (If the earlier date can be taken advantage of, so 
 much the better; the plants will have a longer period in 
 which to grow, and they will be stronger and the crop heavi- 
 er in consequence.) 
 
 Success in transplanting strawberry plants depends, first, 
 on the quality of the plant, and, second, upon the time and 
 manner of doing the work. If the plants are good, the stand 
 depends upon care in setting them. The success of this 
 operation is measured by the degree of compactness of the 
 soil about the roots of the plant. If the plant has many 
 roots and these are thrust into a hole made by an ordinary 
 dibble, it is more difficult to get the earth in contact with 
 the roots than when the plant has fewer roots. The plant 
 with the greatest number of feeding roots is, however, the 
 most desirable if properly handled. Such plants should 
 
266 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 be set in a broad, flat hole where the roots can be spread out 
 in natural form. By giving the crown of the plant a whirl 
 between the thumb and finger to throw the roots out like the 
 ribs of an umbrella, and quickly putting it in place while 
 the roots are still thrown out from the crown, the normal 
 position of the root system can be closely approached. 
 
 The hill system and the matted row are two common 
 methods of planting and cultivating strawberries. For the 
 hill system of culture plants are set singly either 3 by 3 
 feet apart, or with the rows 4 feet apart and the plants 2 
 feet apart in the row, depending upon the character of the 
 soil and the length of time the plantation is to be maintained. 
 In Florida a common practice is to lay the land off in broad 
 beds 8 to 12 feet wide, the rows of plants to run lengthwise 
 of the beds, the rows 24 inches apart, with the plants 18 
 inches apart in the rows. Such beds afford sufficient drain- 
 age and hold the mulch better than narrow beds or raised 
 rows, and the space between the plants admits light to all 
 sides of the plant — an advantage in coloring the fruits which 
 can not be secured by the matted row system early in the 
 season in the climate of Florida. The hill system raises 
 the plant somewhat and admits of more intensive cultivation 
 than does the matted row. On light, dry soils it is consid- 
 ered best to practice flat or level culture rather than bedding. 
 
 In order to maintain a belt of plants 12 to 18 inches wide, 
 and still have space between the belts for cultivation and 
 the other operations necessary to the successful manage- 
 ment of a plantation, the rows at planting time should be 
 much farther apart than is necesary with the hill system. 
 A common practice is to set the plants in single rows 4 feet 
 apart, with the plants 12 inches apart in the row. The run- 
 ners which develop from these plants are then allowed 
 to take possession of tlje area for 6 to 9 inches on either 
 side of the original plants, thus making a matted row 12 
 to 16 inches wide; this leaves 30 inches between the rows. 
 
 If the soil is not rich, for best results it should have a 
 dressing of at least 20 cartloads of well-decomposed stable 
 
PROFITS IN SMALL FRUITS 267 
 
 manure per acre, either plowed under or incorporated with 
 the soil by surface culture after plowing. If stable manure 
 is not available, plant food should be supplied by a liberal 
 use of fine ground bone and chemical manures rich in nitro- 
 gen and potash. The use upon the plants at blooming time 
 of highly nitrogenous manures, such as nitrate of soda, 
 at the rate of about loo pounds per acre often proves of 
 great value. If it can be applied in solution it will give 
 quicker results than if put on in the form of a salt. If the 
 fertility of the soil is little more than sufficient to support 
 the plant, when the heavy strain of fruit production comes 
 on, the plant will only perfect the number of fruits its food 
 supply will allow ; hence the advantage of applying quickly 
 available plant foods just at this critical time. 
 
 One thing that always does good to a strawberry patch 
 is to mulch it in the fall or early winter. As the cold 
 weather comes on and the plants naturally go into winter 
 quarters, it is time to apply the mulch, says Western Farm- 
 er. If it is done too early the plants will be smothered and 
 hurt. It is not applied altogether as a winter protection, 
 for strawberries are defiant of cold. It is the mulch that 
 equalizes alternative freezings and thawings, which upheave 
 the plants. 
 
 The best material to use in covering the beds or rows 
 of plants is something in the way of coarse vegetation that 
 is free from weed seeds. Clean straw or coarse grass are 
 of this character. Hay is troublesome because of the seed 
 it contains, and coarse manure that has any considerable 
 proportion of timothy is objectionable on that account. 
 Marsh grass or cattail flags are free from anything that is 
 troublesome. The refuse from sorghum mills can be used 
 with good results. It lies close to the ground, and if not 
 put on too thickly will serve the purpose of keeping the 
 strawberry plants from feeling the violent changes of win- 
 ter, retain the moisture in the soil and keep the berries clean 
 the following summer. Cornfodder will act something in 
 the same way. Pine needles, tanbark and cottonseed hulls 
 
268 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 can be utilized in this way. In the northern sections, where 
 the snow covers the ground like a blanket and only melts 
 in time for growth to proceed naturally, a mulch is not in 
 as much demand as further south, where changes and un- 
 settled cold prevail. 
 
 If a mulch is put on thickly in winter it will not hurt 
 then, but must be partly raked off the rows early in the 
 spring and left between them. If this is delayed until after 
 the growth starts, which is very often done, there will be 
 serious injury. 
 
 The time of gathering the fruit, as well as the manner 
 of handling, is governed by the use to which it is to be put. 
 If for a local market, much riper fruits can be handled than 
 when they are to be shipped long distances. 
 
 The most progressive growers of strawberries for local 
 markets not only give particular attention to the ripeness of 
 the fruit, but to assorting and grading as well, only large 
 perfect berries being placed in the first grade, and all small 
 or soiled fruits in the second. 
 
 For a distant market the fruits must be gathered as soon 
 as fully grown and colored. When the fruits are removed 
 from the plants they should go either into cooled shipping 
 cases or into a cool storeroom where the temperature can 
 be maintained at about 50° F. If this is impracticable, they 
 should be placed in the shade in as cool a situation as possi- 
 ble. Fruits to be shipped in refrigerator boxes such as 
 are used by the southern growers can be placed in the chilled 
 carriers as soon as they have stood in the shade for a half 
 hour. Such hardening off or chilling has much the same 
 effect on soft fruits of this nature as it has upon flowers; 
 it checks the ripening process and, while it does not entirely 
 stop it, the effect is to deliver the fruits at the end of their 
 journey in much better condition than when not so chilled. 
 In this, as in all work of like nature, careful judgment is 
 necessary. Too much cold is as bad as too little; in any 
 case the chilling and icing should be considered merely as 
 a means to an end. Experience has demonstrated that it 
 
PROFITS IN SMALL FRUITS 269 
 
 is not advisable to attempt to hold soft fruits for any length 
 of time in cold storage. The icing or shipping in refriger- 
 ator carriers allows the grower to bring his fruits to a higher 
 state of perfection on the vines than when he is obliged to 
 ship long distances without such appliances. For that rea- 
 son alone this method of handling should be encouraged, as 
 it gives the consumer a higher grade product. 
 
 Thousands of farmers who are located near cities are 
 missing a money-making opportunity when they fail to 
 raise raspberries. This fruit requires little attention, for 
 it thrives in a wild state, but cultivation adds to its quality 
 and productiveness. 
 
 An acre of raspberry bushes will produce $200 to $300 
 worth of fruit, and the cost of picking is about $50. Berries 
 may be grown between orchard trees or in any idle spot 
 around the premises. They are a sure crop, and there is 
 a constant demand for them. Even a small farm should 
 have 500 or 1,000 raspberry bushes. 
 
 An expert will have such a variety that picking may be 
 done gradually and the season for profit-taking prolonged 
 for several weeks. Among the black caps, which are com- 
 ing more into popularity of late years, the Gregg is the best 
 known late variety. It is a very good shipper and an ex- 
 cellent variety for evaporating when picked by hand. The 
 Kansas is similar to Gregg, ripening a week earlier, juicy, 
 of excellent flavor and firm enough to ship well. 
 
 The Ohio is the great evaporating raspberry of the pres- 
 ent day. The quality is poor, as it is very seedy, but it 
 yields more pounds of evaporated fruit to the bushel than 
 any other sort. Of the purple cane varieties the Shafifer is 
 an excellent canning berry. The Philadelphia represents 
 the red raspberry more closely than some of the other pur- 
 ple sorts. It is propagated by suckers and yields but spar- 
 ingly. The Columbian is of the Shaffer type, but ripens 
 a little later. 
 
 The Marlboro is a red of common grade and early. It 
 is noted for firmness both on the bushes and holding up 
 
270 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 well in shipping. The Cuthbert is a good berry for home 
 use, having fine quality, but is generally too soft for ship- 
 ping long distances. The London has vigorous canes, quite 
 hardy and productive. It is a good berry for local market 
 or home use. The Turner is hardy and vigorous. The fruit 
 is sweet and of excellent flavor, coming toward the end of 
 the season. The Golden Queen in all its characteristics is 
 a Cuthbert except that it bears yellow fruit. A few for 
 home use are quite desirable. 
 
 Perhaps if one had to choose a single variety the Syra- 
 cuse Red would be placed above all others. It is said to 
 be the largest and most prolific of all. One of its advan- 
 tages is that it will grow fruit vigorously from July i to 
 Aug. 15. The Herbert is the hardiest of all berry plants. 
 It originated in Canada and is recommended for northern 
 localities. The Cardinal is another wonderful raspberry, 
 being hardy and prolific. 
 
 The red raspberry differs greatly in character from the 
 black cap. The latter is propagated from tips, the ends of 
 the canes when buried taking root and forming the new 
 plant. The red raspberry propagates from slickers that 
 spring up from the roots of the parent plant. With some 
 varieties, especially the Cuthbert, these suckers are thrown 
 up so freely as to interfere with the productiveness of the 
 parent plants, making it necessary for the plantation to be 
 renewed after it has borne fruit for two or three years. 
 Any variety may be kept in fruit for many years if the 
 young suckers are clipped off with a hoe, the same as weeds. 
 
 The fruiting canes of the red raspberry are not so wide- 
 spreading and thorny as the black cap, therefore it is not 
 necessary to plant the red raspberry quite so far apart as 
 the other, but it is well to give all small fruits plenty of 
 room. Plant the red raspberry four feet apart between 
 the rows and three and a half feet in the rows. 
 
 The young canes are usually cropped off to about three 
 and a half feet at the time they appear above the old 
 bushes. The old canes are removed immediately after the 
 
PROFITS IN SMALL FRUITS 271 
 
 fruit is harvested by means of sharp hooks with long han- 
 dles. Frequent cultivation of the ground helps the crop. 
 Some protection is needed in winter and a good method is 
 to pile up a lot of manure around the bushes. This will 
 invigorate the plants, insuring larger and better fruit the 
 next season, and will aid in the production of strong young 
 plants for future crops. 
 
 Some experts do not stake raspberrieis, as is the custom 
 with most growers. When the tips are about two feet high 
 they are pinched back. This causes laterals to be sent out 
 along the stems. In the spring at trimming time these 
 laterals are cut back so as to leave about six inches, and they 
 hold up all the berries they can properly mature. 
 
 The red varieties do not need the summer pruning, but 
 are pruned back to about eighteen inches in the spring. 
 
 Grapes succeed on sandy soil, loam soil or best of all 
 on a shaley land such as prevails in the famous Chautauqua 
 grape belt along the shores of Lake Erie. Almost any soil 
 that will produce corn, wheat, etc., will produce grapes if 
 the location and climate are suitable. 
 
 Do not plant the rows too closely together, not less than 
 8 or lo feet, leaving plenty of room between the rows for 
 a team to pass up and down with a two-horse cultivator. 
 Leave room at the ends of the rows for turning around, if 
 turning is necessary. Wagons are made especially for short 
 turning in vineyards. 
 
 Common and reliable varieties of grapes are Moore's 
 Early, Worden, Concord, Niagara and Delaware. 
 
 If the vines are planted 12 feet apart each way, 303 vines 
 will be required for each acre ; 10 feet apart each way, 435 
 vines; 8 feet apart each way, 680 vines. I would suggest 
 planting the vines 8 feet apart in the row and the rows to be 
 10 feet apart. 
 
 There are fewer blackberries grown than any other ber- 
 ries although no fruit meets with a readier sale or brings 
 a higher price in the market than the blackberry and no 
 fruit is more delicious. They make the best of pies and are 
 
272 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 most excellent in various ways. They bring from ten to 
 twelve cents per basket and they are a berry that is easily 
 picked if they are properly planted. 
 
 There are some varieties that are easily killed by severe 
 winters. The Snyder, Taylor and Minnewaskam, however, 
 are entirely proof against injury by winter killing. 
 
 Blackberries continue fruiting longer on the same ground 
 than strawberries do. If the weeds are kept down, and the 
 soil is kept rich they remain in bearing from ten to twelve 
 years, without replanting and starting a new bed. 
 
 To have a good blackberry patch select siSil that is some 
 sandy; light loam is preferable to clay soil. Plow the 
 ground well and harrow it thoroughly to take all sods and 
 lumps out of the soil. Spread a good coat of horse manure 
 or any stable manure that is well rotted over the ground. 
 If this cannot be had, use fertilizers. Mix this well into 
 the soil with the harrow. Then furrow for planting the. 
 young canes. These furrows should be six feet apart. Use 
 a shovel plow, running the plow through each furrow three 
 or four times to get the soil well dug up and loosened so 
 that the young plants will become easily rooted. Plant the 
 young canes at considerable depth in the ground. The 
 ground should be checked by running cross furrows three 
 feet apart. This should be done only as fast as needed. 
 
 The ground is now ready for planting. Select young 
 canes that have come up the summer before and plant them 
 early in the spring before the sap begins to run up in the 
 canes. If this cannot be done, take the young canes up in 
 the fall and put them in a cellar, then they can be set out 
 as late as June. 
 
 Before placing in the ground cut the canes back about 
 one-third, then put them in the furrow. Be sure to get the 
 roots down in the bottom of the furrow when planting. 
 A mistake is made in putting the plants too near together 
 and in planting too late in the season. Cover the roots from 
 five to six inches deep with good loose soil and press the 
 dirt firm around the plants. Some of the roots may not 
 
PROFITS IN SMALL FRUITS 273 
 
 start readily at first, but don't get discouraged, they may 
 lay dormant till July and then start up and grow. 
 
 As soon as the weeds begin to start, commence to culti- 
 vate, running the cultivator between the rows and also 
 between the blackberry bushes. This saves time as well as 
 labor in using the hand hoe. The second year cultivate 
 several times until the blackberries gain full possession of 
 the ground. Give the young canes a chance to start between 
 the old canes or those that are set out, but no chance to 
 start between the rows. Keep them so that they will form 
 a row by cutting all the canes out that start each year be- 
 tween the rows. In the fall the canes should be cut back 
 one-third of their growth. This will stop them from break- 
 ing off and being bent down by the heavy snow storms and 
 insures a better crop of blackberries. 
 
 Mulch late in the fall with some stable manure. This 
 will enrich the ground for the coming year. In the spring 
 cut out all of the dead canes. The canes bear fruit but 
 one year then die and new canes take their places. 
 
 The crop should be from 2,500 to 3,500 quarts per acre, 
 bringing from $250 to $400 per acre. They should be 
 picked and put in baskets when good and fresh with all good 
 sized ones throughout, leaving all the green and small ones 
 at home. The imperfect berries can be used at home in 
 various ways. They can be canned, made into pies or eaten 
 as fruit on the table. The berries should be picked and 
 sent to market as soon as they are ripe enough; for most 
 of our small fruit such as strawberries, raspberries and 
 blackberries are very perishable. The bushes should be 
 looked over every day and all the ripe fruit picked. They 
 will keep better if picked as fast as they ripen, and will 
 look better if sent to market as soon as they are picked and 
 will bring a better price. There is always a market for 
 them if they look fresh and good. 
 
 Currants and gooseberries require almost the same treat- 
 ment and can be considered together. One or two year old 
 plants are best and should be set in rows four feet apart 
 
274 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 each way so that they may be cultivated both ways. This 
 method insures thorough and easy cultivation. They should 
 be cultivated frequently so as to have a good soil mulch 
 during the growing season. It is best to grow the plants 
 in bush form and trim out very little, only the surplus and 
 deadwood. 
 
 It is very important to kill all currant worms with some 
 poisonous spray as soon as they appear. If this is neglected 
 the bushes will soon be destroyed. 
 
 If the locality is troubled with severe winds that are 
 likely to injure the fruit it is well to plant a row of apples 
 on the side that receives the prevailing wind. If the local- 
 ity sufifers from winter injuries, put the hardier fruits, as 
 apples and pears, on the outside of the fruit garden, and 
 the more tender, as peaches and plums in the center. Give 
 each variety a sunny spot. A windbreak of Norway Spruce 
 or some such a tree is needed on every farm. This kind 
 of protection is good for dwelling, barn and garden. Why 
 not use some fruit trees for shade and ornament around 
 the house? They are beautiful in blossom, in foliage and 
 in fruit. The Transcendent Crab is especially desirable 
 for this purpose. Grapes can be used to advantage on 
 arbors or trained over fences. 
 
 When a producer has established a reputation for having 
 a good quality of fruit and giving full measure there will 
 be no difficulty in securing customers. If the product ex- ■ 
 ceeds the demand of private patrons it is always possible 
 to ship to stores or commission houses. Bear in mind, how- 
 ever, that the selling end of the business is important and 
 try to arrange in advance for private customers or retail 
 merchants to take the whole output. 
 
Flowers for Pleasure and Profit 
 
 Flower growing has become a commercial proposition of 
 such vast proportions that farmers can hardly escape its 
 consideration. Flower culture will make a strong appeal 
 to city people because they understand the money making 
 possibilities of the product. There is an unlimited market 
 and prices are on a profitable basis. There are no years 
 of depression on account of overproduction of flowers. 
 Many of the most popular types can be successfully grown 
 in the northern states and comparatively little land is re- 
 quired. 
 
 With a greenhouse they can be raised the year through, 
 and, of course, winter production pays. This is intensive 
 farming in its best sense. It is not too much to expect 
 $i,ooo worth of flowers in one season from an acre in the 
 open garden, and at least $2,000 worth may be grown every 
 year in a greenhouse 40x100 feet. Thousands of people, 
 men and women, who would call themselves amateur farm- 
 ers, could manage a greenhouse successfully and gain a 
 good income from the product of a small tract. I would 
 urge all city people who intend to move to the country, 
 and even experienced farmers, to make their plans for at 
 least one hothouse to be used for vegetables and flowers 
 according to the market demand. 
 
 A succession of flowers may be planned lasting from 
 spring till fall. For early results tulips, narcissus, violets, 
 pansies, and iris will give a variety, and later will follow 
 sweetpeas, peonies, daisies, poppies, roses, bachelor buttons, 
 larkspur, coreopsis, golden glow, cosmos and other varie- 
 ties. The season will end with asters, dahlias and chrysan- 
 themums. Seeds may be started indoors in February or 
 March for pansies, sweetpeas, daisies and larkspur. 
 
 Flowers as a rule require rich, loose soil, neither soggy nor 
 hard. While cultivation Is equally important with fertility, 
 
 275 
 
276 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 the flower grower must not neglect to have the ground en- 
 riched. It may not require as much nutriment to develop 
 flowers as to perfect vegetables, but it makes a heavy de- 
 mand on the vitality of the plant, and this demand can not 
 be met when the soil is lacking in plant food. Therefore, 
 use well rotted manure and use it liberally, in both flower 
 and vegetable gardens. 
 
 All over the country succession crops of both flowers 
 and vegetables can be raised. It is entirely feasible to take 
 off an early crop of lettuce, peas, radishes, etc., and follow 
 with nasturtiums, larkspur and mignonette, the seeds of 
 which may be sown for ordinary purposes as late as the 
 middle of June. In fact mignonette can be sown as late 
 as August. 
 
 Every indoor or outdoor garden should have mignonette 
 in plentiful supply. If successive plantings are made, its 
 fragrant, modest-colored flowers may be gathered outdoors 
 until November. For early bloom in the open, sow seed in 
 pots or boxes under glass in February or March and thin 
 or pot ofif the seedlings to make stocky plants for bedding 
 out, as soon as severe frosts are past. To insure a succes- 
 sion of bloom throughout the season, sow a row or two 
 at a time in the open about April 15 in the vicinity of New 
 York, and earlier southward, repeating regularly at inter- 
 vals of about three weeks till August. The July sowing 
 will make good winter-flowering plants. The average 
 height of mignonette is one foot. 
 
 Unlike almost all other plants, nasturtiums thrive best 
 in rather poor soil. The nasturtium has large seeds and 
 the plants are to be about six inches apart in the row for 
 dwarf varieties. They have a neat, compact habit of growth 
 and attractive foliage, and are not infested by insects. 
 Blossoms appear in two months from the date of seed sow- 
 ing, and continue throughout the whole season. A bed of 
 dwarf nasturtiums in full bloom is a sea of color. It is 
 said that a good bed 6 by 20 feet in size, will yield about 
 1,000 flowers per day. In connection with the planting of 
 
FLOWERS FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 277 
 
 these seeds, a number of flowers which need to be started 
 in boxes in the house or in hotbeds can be transplanted for 
 late summer and fall crops. In this list are placed asters, 
 pansies, salvia, and verbenas, as well as the tubers for 
 dahlias and bulbs for gladioli. 
 
 While the verbena grows readily from cuttings and from 
 layers, seeding plants are more vigorous and as a rule pro- 
 duce better flowers. For the earliest bloom sow the seeds 
 early in February in a moderately warm living room or 
 greenhouse. For general outdoor planting the seeds may be 
 sown about April i, either in a living room, hotbed, or 
 greenhouse. Soak the seed a few hours in tepid water and 
 sow in seed boxes filled with light, rich soil; cover one- 
 fourth of an inch deep, press down firmly and water spar- 
 ingly. 
 
 When the seedlings are about an inch high transplant 
 them into other boxes, placing the young plants two or three 
 inches apart each way. When planting-out time arrives 
 choose a bright, sunny situation. Make the soil rich and 
 compact rather than light, but in all cases provide good 
 drainage. Set the young plants ten to fifteen inches apart 
 each way and give good cultivation Until they cover the 
 ground. With such treatment the verbena should give con- 
 tinuous bloom until killed by frost. 
 
 Blue is a comparatively rare color among cultivated 
 plants, and for that reason larkspur is particularly valuable. 
 The brilliant flower spikes can be seen from a distance 
 and are strikingly effective in beds or masses, in borders, 
 shrubberies, or in combination with white lilies or other 
 plants where a high contrast is desirable. They are more 
 robust when grown from seed. 
 
 This plant is easily propagated and adapts itself to many 
 conditions, but in a soil deeply dug and well enriched with 
 fine old manure their blooms are largest and best. For best 
 results the plants must have ample room to grow ; eighteen 
 inches or two feet each way is not too much for the taller 
 sorts. 
 
278 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 The best flowers for amateurs to start with, if they have 
 a view to market results, are asters and sweetpeas, both be- 
 ing specially hardy and easy to cultivate. There is a con- 
 stant demand for them. Sweetpeas must be started as soon 
 as the frost is out of the ground and the garden soil can 
 be worked. One of the methods followed with excellent 
 results is to dig a trench about ten inches deep and a foot 
 wide; at the bottom put in a layer of well-rotted manure 
 three inches deep and tramp down well, fill up about five 
 inches with good soil and then firm well. 
 
 Peas may be sown in single or double rows, but care 
 should be taken not to sow too thickly; cover with soil to 
 within about one inch of the top of the trench. When 
 plants begin to show about six inches above the soil, a light 
 dressing of bone meal is recommended, and a liberal supply 
 of water should be given. 
 
 The cutworm is one of the greatest enemies of sweetpeas, 
 attacking the young shoots just as they come up. At the 
 first appearance of this pest a good sprinkling of lime over 
 the row sometimes helps. As soon as the vines reach a 
 height of about eight inches, trellis or other supports should 
 be provided. All blossoms should be picked every other 
 day. Do not let a seed pod form. Mulch in midsummer to 
 protect the roots from heat. Water freely. 
 
 Sweetpeas are among the first seeds to grow. As peas 
 are great nitrogen feeders, and as they will not thrive on 
 sour soil, a fertilizer that will supply the one and correct 
 the other is needed. In the absence of agricultural lime, 
 hardwood ashes may be mixed with the soil to supply lime, 
 and nitrate of soda to supply nitrogen. This is a good rule 
 to follow, whether starting them in the house or in the 
 garden. 
 
 Sweetpeas should be planted one inch apart and four 
 inches or more deep, that they may root deeply and be 
 able to withstand dry, hot weather. Good stout brush is 
 the ideal trellis for them. Where this can not be obtained 
 wire netting is the next best. The blossoms should be kept 
 
FLOWERS FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 279 
 
 cut, for if the vine form seed they will soon stop bloom- 
 ing. Sweetpeas should not stand closer in the row than 
 four or five inches apart. 
 
 The aster is certainly one of the most satisfactory of the 
 annual flowering plants. The great variety in its size, color, 
 form, and season of blooming makes it a most satisfactory 
 plant for supplying cut flowers. In fact, many of the im- 
 proved sorts produce flowers equal in form and size to 
 some of the better sorts of chrysanthemums. The range of 
 color presented in this group is one of its chief merits. 
 Strange as it may appear, the plant world is not very well 
 supplied with blue flowers possessing characters which ren- 
 der them suited to domestic or commercial uses. In the 
 aster, however, are found many shades of blue and purple 
 and for this reason, if for no other, the aster should prove 
 an attractive decorative plant. The habit of growth adapts 
 the aster not only to close planting for cut bloom, but some 
 forms are robust, tall-growing plants, well adapted for use 
 in an herbaceous border where late bloom and careless 
 effects are desired. The more compact-growing, large-flow- 
 ered forms are most desirable for cut blooms, while the 
 tall-growing, open types are most useful in wild gardens or 
 for screens. The wild aster is one of the most beautiful 
 and most satisfactory of this latter class. The vigor and 
 ease of culture of the aster are factors which contribute to 
 its popularity. In some localities and during some seasons 
 the aster is seriously attacked by the so-called black potato 
 beetle or blister beetle, an insect which feeds upon the partly 
 developed buds, causing them to develop, if at all, into de- 
 formed, irregular blossoms. In such localities asters can be 
 successfully grown under screens of mosquito netting or 
 other thin cloth. 
 
 Plants from seed sown in the open ground in May bloom 
 finely in September and October, when the flowers are seen 
 at their best. For July and August bloom, seeds should 
 be sown in March or April in a cold frame, spent hotbed, or 
 in pots or boxes in a living room. Cover the seeds about 
 
280 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 half an inch deep with rich, light soil and when the plants 
 have three or four leaves transfer them to thumb pots or 
 to other boxes, setting the plants about 2 inches apart each 
 way. After all danger of frost is past transplant the plants 
 so treated to their permanent home, where they should 
 stand about i8 inches apart each way in well-prepared beds. 
 Fresh manure or manure used in too large quantities some- 
 times proves injurious to asters. Only thoroughly com- 
 posted manure mixed with the soil is safe for these plants. 
 Small quantities of air-slaked lime, or of fresh wood ashes, 
 stirred in to the surface of the aster beds prove beneficial 
 to the plants. Change the location in the garden each sea- 
 son. New soil i^ needed for health and vigor. When given 
 plenty of water and rich, fine soil asters can be grown into 
 beautiful pot plants. 
 
 For strengthening the garden's color forces in blue, no 
 annual can be better than the ageratum. Though ordinarily 
 used in bedding and borders in contrast with such plants 
 as geraniums, perillas and amaranthus, the rose, white and 
 blue ageratums are exceedingly attractive and mingle 
 with alyssum, candytuft and similar plants. Agera- 
 tums grow well upon almost all soils and through a 
 wide range of climate. For that reason many combinations 
 with them are possible. The plants are neat, bushy and 
 erect, with continual, profuse clustering of pretty brushlike 
 flowers throughout the season. The dwarf blue sorts make 
 fine borders and are much used where contrasting color 
 effects are desired. For early bloom the seed should be 
 sown in cold frames or in boxes in the house early in the 
 season, but for summer and fall blooms the seed may be 
 sown in well-prepared beds in the open garden. Seeds sown 
 in August will produce good plants for winter flowering. 
 
 Then there is another blue flower known by various 
 names such as, "bluebottle," "ragged sailor," "kaiser blu- 
 men," and sometimes as "bachelor button." These bright- 
 flowered plants are of a hardy nature, requiring simple cul- 
 ture, yet they are among the most attractive and graceful 
 
FLOWERS FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 281 
 
 of all the old-fashioned flowers. When placed in water 
 after cutting, the flowers increase in size. Seed of the an- 
 nual sorts should be sown in the open in April or May and 
 the young plants thinned to 4 to 6 inches apart. They thrive 
 well on all moderately rich garden soils. The perennials 
 may be grown from seeds sown in gentle heat in March 
 and planted out in May or June. 
 
 The use of alyssum can also be recommended in almost 
 any scheme of adornment. For borders, baskets, pots, rack- 
 work, and even for cutting, a liberal use of this dainty lit- 
 tle flower is feasible. For borders the seed should be sown 
 thickly so as to form masses. For winter bloom sow late 
 in August and thin the seedlings so as to stand about four 
 inches apart. They will thrive right up into severe weather, 
 but, of course, in the north they will not last through the 
 winter. 
 
 For spring blooms or borders the seeds should be sown 
 in the open as early as the weather will permit. To get an 
 early start it is feasible to plant in a sold frame or hotbed. 
 Alyssum can also be increased from cuttings made from 
 strong new side shoots, as well as by division of the roots. 
 By cutting back after the first flowers fade others will be 
 produced. While white is the most common and popular 
 color, there are yellow varieties. 
 
 The arilia is an excellent plant for decorative purposes. 
 Many who fail with the palm can grow this well. Give 
 it a soil of rich loam, water it moderately, and keep it free 
 from insects, and it will grow luxuriously and delight you 
 with its large, rich foliage of dark green. Being thick and 
 leathery, the leaves are able to stand the effects of hot air, 
 dust and frequent changes of temperature better than most 
 plants. A well-grown plant is quite as decorative as the 
 average palm. 
 
 There is general enthusiasm over the iris, which is grown 
 from roots and can be pushed for early use. It is one of 
 the greatest perennial flowers we have for home adornment. 
 The Florentine Alba has large, white, early and fragrant 
 
282 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 flowers, the plant producing the orris root of commerce, so 
 much prized in the manufacture of delicate toilet articles. 
 Sans Souci is the standard of the vivid yellow, the drop- 
 ping petals are delicately veined with chocolate. Queen 
 of May is soft, rosy lilac of delicate beauty. 
 
 The calendula or pot marigold is a hardy annual about 
 a foot high. A moderately rich, light soil is most congenial 
 to these plants, which should be placed eight or ten inches 
 apart. The seed may be sown in the open ground quite 
 early in the spring and the plants will be in bloom early in 
 the summer and continue right up until the heavy frosts, 
 come. The coloring ranges through all shades of yellow, 
 from ivory to deep orange. The plants bloom freely and 
 earlier than marigold and are useful in beds, borders or 
 backgrounds. The dried flowers are sometimes used for 
 flavoring soups and stews. 
 
 There are both single and double forms of the pot mari- 
 gold. One of the most satisfactory methods of propagating 
 this plant is from seed sown in hotbeds or cold frames. 
 After the frosts have ceased in May it will be safe to trans- 
 fer the young plants to their permanent summer quarters. 
 
 Roses may be used to advantage for decorating purposes 
 on the home grounds and to add to the family's income. If 
 handled commercially, however, a greenhouse is necessary. 
 From a cultural standpoint roses are divided into three main 
 classes : Those grown for bush or mass effect, those grown 
 for cut flowers and those that climb trellises and porches. 
 Those grown mainly for the individual blooms which are 
 to be taken from them must be treated in a different man- 
 ner from the roses used for bush effect. A still different 
 treatment must be given to the climbing roses. 
 
 Roses that are grown for cut flowers should be in a 
 secluded location. This will insure many fine individual 
 flowers. To secure a maximum bloom the plant should be 
 pruned thoroughly. After the blooming season of climb- 
 ing roses is over, in June or July shoots should be pruned, 
 so as to throw the growth of the plant into the new wood, 
 
FLOWERS FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 283 
 
 for this is the part that will bear next year. When a trellis 
 is low it is a good plan to cut off the shoots that have borne 
 flowers this year clear to the ground. Climbing roses are 
 a valuable aid in making an attractive home and will repay 
 careful treatment. 
 
 In case of a high trellis a different method must be fol- 
 lowed. The renewal of wood begins from a point higher 
 up instead of from the root. Only so much of the old wood 
 should be removed after the flowers have bloomed as will 
 enable the new shoots to replace the old growth. About 
 4 feet is a safe measure of the amount that may be taken 
 off. The foliage will recover within a short period and con- 
 tinue to screen the porch. Next year an abundant crop of 
 blossoms will be grown. A trellis that is considered high 
 is one that measures 8 feet or more from the ground. 
 
 Roses which are grown mainly for bush or mass effect 
 should be sparingly pruned. They should be permitted to 
 run wild instead of being pruned into any form, and only 
 deadwood or very old wood should be removed when they 
 are pruned. Of the various species of roses used to beau- 
 tify lawns the most prominent are Rosa rugosa and the 
 common wild roses of the roadsides and thickets in the dif- 
 ferent sections of the United States. Most of the roses 
 used for mass effects have only single blooms. The bloom, 
 however, is a comparatively insignificant feature of the 
 decorative value of these roses. An even more attractive 
 feature is the "hip" of the rose. The "hip" is the bright- 
 red tip of the stem, which enlarges to hold the seeds of 
 the plant and remains a brilliant color after cold weather has 
 set in. 
 
 Peonies do best in deep, rich, rather moist soil. The plants 
 are gross feeders, and the soil should be well-worked before 
 planting and enriched with cow manure. Clean cultivation 
 should be given. An annual top-dressing of well-rotted 
 manure should be given in November and forked into the 
 soil in spring. Liquid manure, given in the growing sea- 
 son, helps the bloom wonderfully. They need abundant 
 
284 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 water, and if they suffer from drought at blooming time 
 there are likely to be small flowers and blighted buds. The 
 crowns should be set in planting about two inches below the 
 surface. They may be set in spring or fall. Small divided 
 roots are sometimes slow to bloom, and produce imperfect 
 flowers, but a well-established plant, properly fed, will 
 bloom for a long term of years. 
 
 The Althea or Rose of Sharon is a very handsome shrub, 
 producing flowers in late summer, but should be planted 
 with caution as its hardiness is somewhat doubtful. A 
 good way would be to try one and if it does not winter kill 
 in the locality get more. Those shrubs which produce orna- 
 mental fruit after they are done flowering perhaps give 
 us more satisfaction than any others. Among these the 
 Golden Elder and its variegated form are especially 
 desirable. 
 
 The glorious and showy autumn-blooming chrysanthe- 
 mums, so much admired and cultivated have their repre- 
 sentatives among summer annuals, which are easily raised 
 from seed. They are free-blooming, showy border plants, 
 and the flowers are very desirable for cutting. Seed can be 
 sown in the open seedbed, or where the plants are to stand, 
 provided the plants are thinned out to eight or twelve inches 
 apart. A little shade, or shade in the after part of the day, 
 is desirable. Pinch back until July 15 to make branching 
 and stocky plants. 
 
 Seed of perennial chrysanthemums should be sown in 
 February or March, in the house. If slightly covered and 
 placed in a warm temperature they will soon germinate. If 
 the seedlings are pricked ofif at once into pots and placed 
 near the glass good plants will soon be obtained. By the 
 middle of May they may be planted out of doors. 
 
 All the varieties of chrysanthemums that were rooted 
 early and intended for market will need much care and at- 
 tention in starting. They will require shifting right along 
 so they will not Become potbound, which always checks their 
 growth and makes it impossible to produce fine flowers. 
 
FLOWERS FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 285 
 
 As every flower grower knows, chrysanthemums are great 
 feeders and soon draw all the plant food from the soil. 
 
 For a compost there is nothing better than sod. This 
 should have at least one part of well-rotted manure to three 
 of chopped sod. Mixed at this rate, it will do for shifts 
 up to May. As they advance they will take equal parts 
 of sod and cow manure with a sprinkling of bone meal. 
 Give them airy quarters, where they can have plenty of 
 sun. Keep on propagating right along after the middle of 
 March. See that all stock is kept clean by timely fumiga- 
 tions. 
 
 The eschscholtzia, or California poppy, is an annual of 
 striking character both as regards form and color. It is 
 rich in yellow and orange tints. The plants average about 
 a foot in height, have attractive silvery foliage, and pro- 
 duce their large poppy-like flowers quite lavishly from early 
 spring until winter. They are most effective when grown 
 in beds of considerable size, over which the seed may be 
 thinly sown broadcast and lightly raked in. The California 
 poppy is also useful as a pot plant and for cut flowers. 
 
 If the hollyhock is grown from seed it should be sown 
 in pans or shallow boxes that have been efficiently drained 
 and filled with a light, rich compost. To avoid waste of 
 seed or injury to the seedlings from overcrowding before 
 they are of a suitable size for transplanting, place the seed 
 an inch apart and cover to the depth of a quarter of an inch 
 with fine soil. When sown in this way there will be no oc- 
 casion to disturb the seedlings until they are touching each 
 other and then they will be of convenient size for trans- 
 planting. 
 
 A temperature of 65 degrees will be the most suitable 
 for promoting a quick germination of this and other varie- 
 ties, and until the seedlings are making their appearance 
 above the surface a piece of paper should be laid over the 
 pans and boxes. It should then be removed and a few days 
 afterward the pans or boxes may be put in a light position 
 near a window. 
 
286 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 Pansies are another easily-raised and much-prized flower. 
 A pansy bed can not be made too rich, and the ideal fertil- 
 izer is well-rotted manure, so as to supply plenty of humus. 
 Pansies delight in cool, moist, rich soil, slightly shaded. 
 The largest and finest pansies can be grown, if covered 
 with black mosquito netting, stretched over ' half barrel 
 hoops over the bed. This is done to keep the chickens out 
 of the bed, but if the bed is exposed to the sun it furnishes 
 just the right amount of shade and does not keep out the 
 warmth of the sun. Pansies also must be kept picked or 
 they will form seed, dwindle in size, and finally stop 
 blooming. 
 
 The annual phlox, sometimes called flame flower, is par- 
 ticularly useful and attractive when sown in masses or rib- 
 bon beds of contrasting colors. Few annual plants are more 
 easily grown from seed, give a quicker return of bloom, or 
 offer such a variety to choose from as do the phloxes. There 
 are few desirable colors beyond their range, and if given 
 good soil and plenty of water they furnish a supply of 
 delicate flowers for cutting throughout the season. The 
 phloxes are also useful as window-garden plants, and may 
 be used as an undergrowth for tall, bare-stemmed plants. 
 The first sowing of seed should be made as soon as the 
 frost is out of the ground in the spring; later ones in May, 
 either where the plants are to bloom or in a seed bed, as 
 the phlox transplants readily. In transplanting set the taller 
 kinds about a foot apart ; if planted too thickly they suffer 
 from mildew. The removal of flowers and seed-pods makes 
 the plants more bushy and compact and lengthens their 
 blooming period. The average height of the plant is about 
 a foot. 
 
 The large and varied genus of Dianthus (pinks) contains 
 some of our most beautiful and most profitable flowers. The 
 most of them are hardy perennials that bloom freely the 
 first season, the plants remaining green all winter and blos- 
 soming the next year also if lightly protected by a mulch 
 of straw, cut fodder, or leaves. Old plants flower the earli- 
 
FLOWERS FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 287 
 
 est, but as young ones give the largest, finest flowers, sow- 
 ings are made every year. Seed can be sown under glass 
 or in an open sheltered bed in March. The seedlings are 
 easily transplanted and should stand 8 to 12 inches apart ; 
 dwarf ones, about 6 inches. If especially large, brilliant 
 flowers are desired, a bed of well-mixed turfy loam, leaf- 
 mold, and well-decayed manure should be prepared for 
 them. Good drainage should be provided, as the plants are 
 impatient of too much moisture and are more liable to 
 winter-kill in moist than in well-drained situations. In fact, 
 the plant is hardy in severe cold, but succumbs when ex- 
 posed to low temperatures in wet places. 
 
 The carnation pink, which is the forcing carnation of the 
 American florist, can be grown from seeds sown early in the 
 season in hotbeds, the young plants being given frequent 
 shifts to pots of increased size as they grow until all dan- 
 ger of frost is past and the growing season is well on, when 
 they may be transferred to the border where they are to 
 bloom. If they are given rich soil and an abundance of 
 moisture, the bloom will more than repay the extra trouble 
 taken. 
 
 Every year a lot of people want to know how they can 
 keep Dahlia tubers over winter, most of them having lost 
 all their plants by improper storage. Different ways are 
 used, varying with the temperature and humidity of the 
 storing place, but one practically sure way is to place the 
 clumps on a dry cellar bottom, or on boards if the floor is 
 damp and cover with perfectly dry sand or dirt. This keeps 
 the moisture of the tubers and renders them practically 
 immune to surrounding atmospheric conditions. On the 
 approach of spring the sand or dirt should be watered 
 enough to start growth, so that at planting time division of 
 the clumps will be clearly indicated by the sprouts. Do not 
 dig the dahlias until cut down by frost, then dig the clump 
 and allow to dry for a few hours, but do not remove the 
 dirt. Then put in the cellar and cover. 
 
 Shasta daisy germinates quickly and easily, but is a rather 
 
288 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 slow grower. Seed sown early in the year will bloom the 
 following year, otherwise it may take two, years. Propaga- 
 tion is generally by division of the roots but a start can be 
 made from seed very readily. 
 
 Of Canterbury bells, the single Medium varieties are the 
 best. The seed is cheap, very fine and of slow germination. 
 I have found it a rather difficult seedling to handle. It 
 damps ofif easily and for that reason must have plenty of air 
 at all times and never be allowed to get dry while small or 
 while germinating. Seed can be sown thickly and will ap- 
 pear as minute specks of green in about three weeks. It 
 is well to make an intermediate transplanting about one 
 inch apart, and when they have filled this space they can 
 then go into their flowering quarters. 
 
 Rock cress is a fine white flower borne on a pretty little 
 plant in great profusion. It will be almost the first flower 
 after snow goes. Seed is fine and will need a little care 
 till well started. This plant is excellent for rockeries or for 
 a nearly white border anywhere. 
 
 Sweet William seed germinates quickly and easily. It 
 is of slow growth for a month or more and then comes on 
 rapidly. Sow thinly about one-eighth inch deep and trans- 
 plant to permanent position. Single sorts are prettiest. 
 
 The English daisy, rose, white, red and pink, is a splen- 
 did perennial for borders. Seed is fine, germinates quickly 
 and is easy to handle. Sown thickly in a small box, in 
 one month plants can be readily handled and put in shallow 
 boxes two inches apart each way. Leave them thus till the 
 space is filled, by which time the plants will nearly all be in 
 bloom. It is one of the few perennials that bloom in two 
 months from seed. The mature plants make a spread of 
 about eight inches and are about three inches high. 
 
 Single violet plants should be left outside until they have 
 had a few frosts, or if preferable they can be housed sooner, 
 and the frames or greenhouses as the case may be, opened 
 during two or three nights when it is freezing. This freez- 
 ing-out process has the greatest importance as it checks 
 
FLOWERS FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 289 
 
 the leaf growth on the plants to the benefit of the flowers ; 
 in other words if the plants were not frozen, they would 
 give a tremendous crop of leaves and the flowers would 
 be very few. Better results are obtained with solid beds 
 than raised benches. When the beds are ready to be planted 
 the plants are dug out with a shovel, care being taken to 
 leave as much dirt on the roots as possible as then with a 
 judicious amount of water the plants do not show the trans- 
 planting to any great extent; in fact they keep right on 
 blooming as if they had never been disturbed. 
 
 The violet is unlike the rose or carnation as regards heat ; 
 it must be kept cool and any attempt to force it will result 
 in overgrowth of leaves and blasting of the flowers. Of 
 course temperature changes a good deal, but every effort 
 should be made to keep the night temperature as near 40 
 degrees as possible, with a day temperature of between 
 55 and 60 in bright weather. The violet is a lover of fresh 
 air and ventilation should be carefully attended to so that 
 there is seldom a day when more or less air should not be 
 given. The same care given in the houses must be observed 
 where frames are used. Plants in a frame will burn up on 
 a bright day unless air is properly given, so watch the ther- 
 mometer and give air when the plants need it. For the 
 night if indications point to severe weather the frames 
 should be protected with mats, straw, pine needles or what- 
 ever one has handy on the place. If the temperature in the 
 frames should get to freezing point do not be alarmed, no 
 harm will result. Last winter was very severe, and I had a 
 few frames which got frozen one night quite hard. Early 
 next morning I took the sashes off and with a fine spray of 
 water, thawed out the plants as well as the flowers with 
 the result that 75 per cent of the latter were saved and 
 picked that same afternoon. Violets properly grown are al- 
 ways sweet, but the delicious odor may be lost through 
 improper handling. Throughout the entire work of pick- 
 ing, bunching and shipping every precaution must be taken 
 to keep the flowers away from all foreign odors. Any ob- 
 
290 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 jectionable odor either in the box, paper or the room where 
 the work is carried on, is apt to be taken up by the flow- 
 ers and to destroy their sweetness. The flowers are gen- 
 erally put up in bunches of 50, with 10 to 20 leaves forming 
 a neat margin of green, and sold by the hundred. 
 
 Besides culture in greenhouses and frames violets can be 
 left outside all winter, provided the suitable variety is used. 
 There is nothing so beautiful as a bed; they are the last 
 flowers to be killed by frost in the fall and the first to bloom 
 in the spring. They bloom in the fall until very severe 
 weather sets in, when they can be protected by spreading 
 straw or leaves, hay or comf odder over the beds; then 
 when the nice spring days arrive, the covering is taken of? 
 and the violets start to bloom again. The sight must be 
 seen to be appreciated. 
 
 Azaleas are usually increased by seed sown as soon as 
 ripe, or in early spring; in boxes placed in greenhouse or 
 frame. The soil is" sandy peat ; the seeds are scattered on 
 the surface, and a little soil sifted over them, then well- 
 watered. Seed may also be sown in live sphagnum moss 
 where it germinates promptly, but the seedlings must be 
 moved as soon as they can be handled. As soon as the little 
 plants appear, they need plenty of air, and a daily syring- 
 ing. In fall they are transplanted into boxes or frames, 
 the proper soil being sandy peat. The second year, in 
 spring, they are planted out in well-prepared beds, with 
 space for two years' growth; long and ungainly shoots 
 should be pinched back to form a compact plant. The 
 tender Indian Azaleas are rarely grown from seed, the usual 
 practice being to propagate from cuttings of half-ripened 
 wood taken in August, and placed in sand with gentle bot- 
 tom heat. Seed may be treated, however, like that of the 
 hardy sorts, only of course the young seedlings would be 
 given greenhouse treatment, instead of being planted out in 
 beds. 
 
 If you are fond of striking color effects in foliage, don't 
 fail to give the kochia a trial. This plant is known in some 
 
FLOWERS FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 291 
 
 localities as "burning bush" and in others as the "Mexican 
 fire plant." Its height is from two and a half to three feet. 
 In the autumn it turns from green to a rich crimson. It 
 makes a fine hedge if set about a foot apart in two rows, 
 these rows about a foot and a half apart. 
 
 If you have a location near the house or a patch which 
 is fully exposed to strong sunshine, where the ordinary 
 plants fail because of the intense heat, try the portulaca. 
 This has been classed as a vegetable salamander because 
 it seems to take delight in the strong sunshine and a dry 
 soil. It has cylindrical pulpy foliage, which stirs up in itself 
 a sufficient amount of moisture to meet all the requirements 
 of the plant in the hot weather of midsummer. It is a pro- 
 fuse and constant bloomer. It comes in a wide range of 
 color, from white to dark crimson, pink to purple, and yel- 
 low to dark orange. Plants with double flowers give one the 
 impression of a creeping variety of the rose family, so rose- 
 like are their blossoms in shape and general appearance. 
 
 Two of the most popular garden ornaments which lend 
 themselves to a satisfactory floral scheme are scarlet sage 
 and snapdragon. Scarlet sage, also known as salvia, blooms 
 after midsummer and grows more beautiful as the season 
 advances until hard frosts come. The seeds should be 
 planted in the house, in pots or boxes, and transplanting 
 may be done as soon as the ground is warm. 
 
 The snapdragon is a valuable border plant. It flowers 
 the first year from seeds sown as an annual. The bright 
 color and peculiar form attract attention. The spikes are 
 useful for cutting and keep fresh a long time. From seeds 
 sown in the open ground in May plants will bloom in July 
 and August. For earlier flowers the seed should be sown 
 in pots or under glass. If protected by a cold frame or even 
 a heavy mulch the plants will winter well and bloom early 
 the following year. 
 
 Many persons consider a bed incomplete without a bor- 
 der. Some use flowering plants for this purpose. While 
 candytuft is fine, so is the sweet alyssum, so is ageratum, 
 
292 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 but the best border plant I have any knowledge of is the 
 Madame Salleroi geranium. This is a variety quite unlike 
 any other geranium in habit. Instead of sending up a few 
 long, scraggly stalks, as the ordinary flowering geranium 
 does, unless it is carefully trained, it produces a great many 
 short branches close to the base of the plant, and these 
 seldom grow to more than five inches long. The result is a 
 bushy, compact plant, which is always symmetrical, and this 
 without any pruning whatever. Set the plants about six 
 inches apart in a row, and in a short time they will run to- 
 gether and you will have a solid mass of foliage of a pale 
 green, bordered with white. 
 
 Sunflowers have great value as poultry feed and they are 
 really a beautiful plant, especially when placed in rows 
 around the garden. They should be planted in the open 
 garden about the first of May and the plants thinned to 
 stand from two to four feet apart. The tall habit of sun- 
 flowers and their dense foliage make them suitable for 
 backgrounds and screens. They have good lasting qualities. 
 
 The sunflower has been regarded as a common plant and 
 is looked upon as a weed by many thoughtless persons, but 
 in truth they are both beautiful and useful. A gardener can 
 have either the dwarf or the tall-growing kind. 
 
 There are few classes of plants that have the great vari- 
 ety of form, coloring and habit of growth that the Begonias 
 have. There are the luxuriant Rex varieties with their 
 wonderful beauty of shape in the leaf, with their lustrous 
 blendings of jade and silver, agate, bronze and gold. There 
 are the fibrous rooted, or more common but still variedly 
 beautiful sorts, easily reproduced, as are the Rex varieties, 
 by cuttings of stalk or leaf, which obligingly throw out roots 
 when placed in water or damp sand. 
 
 Many people have a great admiration for the tuberous 
 rooted Begonias, and their kin, the half-tuberous or hybrid 
 forms, with their dainty, vine-like foliage and their sur- 
 mounting masses of waxen, ruby-tinted flowers. Unfor- 
 tunately a large proportion of their admirers consider that 
 
FLOWERS FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT 293 
 
 the two latter classes thrive only with greenhouse culture, 
 and thus miss one of the finest plants the amateur may 
 enjoy. 
 
 Begonias, tuberous-rooted ones, will thrive most satisfy- 
 ingly in the home. To be sure, they will not flourish with 
 all sorts of conditions and discouragements, as will the 
 geranium. But given the soil that they like, and plenty of 
 moisture, they will grow amazingly and blossom profusely. 
 Their needs are not at all difficult to supply. To begin with, 
 get a good-sized root or tuber. They range in price from 
 eight cents to 15 cents each, varying with the size, variety 
 and the firm that sells them. The shades of color are par- 
 ticularly beautiful, pale yellow, deep orange, pure white, 
 salmon pink, rose pink, deep red, and the flowers are both 
 single and double. The latter look like huge waxen roses, 
 but do not bloom quite so freely as the single varieties. The 
 latter now have newer forms that are fringed, half doubled, 
 a^nd fluted, with shaded colorings that are simply gorgeous 
 in effect when in bloom. 
 
 By potting the tubers in February, March or April they 
 may be made to furnish a wealth of decoration through the 
 spring and summer months, or by keeping them dormant 
 until in May or June you can have them for fall and early 
 winter. It is a good plan to pot a couple at a time and 
 bring them on in a succession from spring until early winter. 
 
 They should be planted in rather small, shallow pots, in 
 soil composed of half leaf mold, and nearly half a rich 
 dark loam, with a little sand. The soil should be sifted 
 once or twice thoroughly, to make it fine, soft and light. 
 No rotted manure need be added, but when growth is well 
 begun, which may be from ten days to two weeks, liquid 
 manure of nearly any sort, well diluted, will make them 
 respond beautifully if applied once or twice a week. Be 
 careful that you do not set the tubers out bottom side up. 
 The slightly hollowed or concave side is the top. 
 
Field and Garden Pests 
 
 In the small garden, hand methods of fighting insects are 
 usually employed; and it is often found more effective to 
 protect the plant by mechanical means than to kill the insects. 
 Thus, cutworms may be prevented from destroying newly 
 transplanted cabbages and tomatoes by wrapping a piece of 
 heavy paper around the stem of each plant at the time of 
 transplanting. This method is fully as effective as scattering 
 poisoned bran mash about the garden a day or two before 
 setting the plants. Likewise the striped beetles which inva- 
 riably attack cucumbers, melons, and squashes, can be kept 
 away from the plants by a covering of mosquito bar or 
 cheese cloth stretched over a light frame or bottomless box 
 made for each hill. This is a more effective method than 
 the use of repellents, like turpentine or crude carbolic acid, 
 mixed with ashes or land plaster, and is well adapted to the 
 small garden, where only a few hills of the vine crops are 
 grown. When plants are attacked by any of the larger 
 insects, like tomato worms or celery caterpillars, the quickest 
 way to dispose of the insects is to knock them off and crush 
 them under foot. Hand picking may also be employed for 
 destroying the eggs of squash bugs and potato beetles. For 
 some of the smaller leaf -eating insects, it may be necessary 
 to resort to the use of spray materials. In the small garden, 
 these can usually be applied with sufficient thoroughness by 
 the use of a sprinkling can or an atomizer. 
 
 Caterpillars, in their various forms, have been unusually 
 destructive in all parts of the country. They seem to be 
 getting the start of land owners in corn and cotton fields as 
 well as in orchards and gardens. 
 
 The difficulty in fighting the cutworm lies chiefly in the 
 fact that it operates extensively in fields and hides in the 
 ground. Its operations cover such a wide territory and its 
 
 294 
 
FIELD AND GARDEN PESTS 295 
 
 migrations are so rapid that ordinary spraying processes are 
 not effective. This caterpillar is almost identical with the 
 army worm and the cotton worm. In habits and formation 
 it is identical, though rather larger in southern localities than 
 in the northern lake region. 
 
 When a farmer knows in the spring that there are cut- 
 worms or army worms in his fields he should adopt vigorous 
 measures. The extra work involved is cheaper than replant- 
 ing his crops. A second plowing of the land is helpful, the 
 last to be as near seeding time as possible. All methods of 
 stirring the soil as summer warmth comes on are beneficial. 
 The plow tears up the nesting places, throws the insects out 
 where birds may get at them and creates a general disturb- 
 ance. 
 
 This extra tillage is good for the land and will go a long 
 way toward exterminating the pests. In connection with the 
 work of plowing and cultivating it will pay to use a prepara- 
 tion made on the basis of one pound of Paris green, thirty 
 pounds of bran and two quarts of molasses. Moisten the 
 bran with water before mixing. This may be manufactured 
 in larger lots if needed. It is to be spread thinly about the 
 field. If placed around a garden, orchard or field it may 
 serve to exclude all caterpillars. Kerosene emulsion is also 
 recommended. 
 
 Where any crop has been damaged by the caterpillar pest 
 it is a good policy to sow alsike. This is a profitable product, 
 almost equal to cotton or corn, when cost is considered, and 
 it is of great value to the soil. 
 
 Another good plan is to sow part of the affected ground to 
 rape and allow a drove of hogs to forage on it. A rotation 
 of crops, with an occasional application of the preparation 
 described, will rid a farm of cutworms and similar creeping 
 pests. 
 
 The San Jose scale can be destroyed by the use of one of 
 the lime and sulphur mixtures, which may be purchased 
 ready made or brought into solution by boiling the raw ma- 
 terials together as follows : Fifteen pounds of lime, fifteen 
 
296 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 pounds of sulphur and fifty gallons of soft water. For fifty 
 gallons of the spray heat twelve gallons of water in a four- 
 gallon iron kettle, mixing in a separate vessel fifteen pounds 
 of sulphur with enough water to form a thin paste. Add 
 this sulphur to the water in the kettle and bring the mixture 
 to a temperature just below boiling. Then add fifteen 
 pounds of best lump lime, keeping cold water at hand to use 
 as the mixture threatens to boil over. After the lime is fully 
 slaked, boil for forty minutes with almost constant stirring. 
 Then strain into a fifty gallon tank and fill with warm water. 
 
 Codling moth, attacking apple and other fruit trees, should 
 be treated with the bordeaux mixture, which can be pur- 
 chased ready for use or made up as follows : Copper sul- 
 phate (blue vitriol), four pounds; quicklime (not air 
 slaked), four pounds ; water to make fifty gallons. Dissolve 
 the copper sulphate by putting it in a bag of cheesecloth and 
 hanging this in a vessel holding at least four gallons, so that 
 it is just covered by Ivater. Use an earthen or wooden ves- 
 sel. Slake the lime by addition of a small quantity of water 
 and when slaked cover freely with water and stir. Strain 
 the milk of lime thus made into the copper sulphate. Pour 
 more water over the remaining lime and stir the strain into 
 the other until all lime but stone lumps is taken out. 
 
 Among the common insects that do a great deal of dam- 
 age in orchards and on farms, one of the commonest is the 
 oyster shell scale. In the latitude of Ohio this insect remains 
 in the egg stage until about the last week in May. These 
 eggs are concealed beneath brownish scales, which cover 25 
 to 100 each. The scales themselves resemble an oyster shell 
 in shape. They may be found on fruit trees, especially apple 
 and pear. If the weather is cool at hatching time the young 
 remain sheltered until warm weather arrives. They are 
 whitish, crawling specks, which soon attach themselves, 
 preferably near the buds on the young wood and even the 
 larger limbs. In cases of bad infestation they may be found 
 anywhere on the trunk where the bark is smooth enough to 
 give them lodgment. When they are seen is time enough to 
 
FIELD AND GARDEN PESTS 297 
 
 fight them. A pound of whale oil soap dissolved in five 
 gallons of water or kerosene emulsion (one part to nine of 
 water) will fix them. A second spraying a we'ek or ten 
 days after the first should get those that escape the first 
 spraying. 
 
 The proper way to control the canker worm is by banding 
 the trees in the fall or spraying with arsenicals in the spring. 
 The eggs of the fall insect hatch at the same time as those 
 of the spring canker worm. The larvae of both species are 
 greenish or brownish loopers or measuring worms with pale 
 yellowish stripes. When grown they swing to the ground 
 by means of silken threads. The spraying with paris green 
 or arsenate of lead should be made as soon as the leaves 
 expand and be followed by a second as soon as the petals 
 fall. It is not necessary to spray specially for this pest 
 where spraying is already being done for codling moth. 
 
 The tent caterpillar is one of the commonest orchard in- 
 sects. Its eggs, which may be found in brownish masses on 
 small twigs, should be gathered and placed where they will 
 hatch, but where the caterpillars will not reach any food. 
 The reason is that countless numbers of these eggs are para- 
 sitized ; so it is advisable to allow the parasites to live to aid 
 in controlling the pest by natural means. The eggs normally 
 hatch about the time the buds begin to swell. The cater- 
 pillars soon form webs in which they rest when not eating 
 the foliage. These webs may be burned or the foliage may 
 be sprayed with arsenicals to kill the worms. 
 
 No strawberry bed should ever be set on ground which 
 has long been in sod and plowed less than two years before 
 setting the berry plants in it. This is because the larvse of 
 the May beetle or June bug are sure to be present and just 
 as sure to spoil the chances of growing strawberries. The 
 large brown-headed white grubs are among the commonest 
 insects found in old pastures. Often they are so numerous 
 as to make large patches of grass yellow or brown, because 
 such large numbers of the roots have been destroyed. There 
 is no satisfactory way of fighting these insects while they are 
 
298 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 in the ground. The only thing to do is to deprive them of 
 their food and plant such crops as potatoes, cabbage and 
 turnips on newly-turned sod. 
 
 The bordeaux mixture is effective in treating asparagus 
 rust, cabbage worm, mildew, rot and parasites on grapes, 
 early blight, scab and Colorado beetle on potatoes, leaf blight 
 and insects on muskmelons and watermelons, worms on 
 tomatoes, raspberries and blackberries, slugs and leaf blight 
 on roses, leaf spot on strawberries, rot on fruit trees and 
 nearly all insect pests and fungous diseases. 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 
 
 In nearly all cases it is cheapest and best to buy insecti- 
 cides and fungicides, but for those who need large quantities 
 the following methods of manufacture are given: 
 
 Bordeaux — ^Dissolve number of pounds bluestone indi- 
 cated by first figure of formula in table in two-thirds number 
 of gallons of water (last number of formula). Slake num- 
 ber of pounds quicklime (second figure of formula) by 
 adding water a little at a time till thin paste forms. Add 
 balance (one-third) of water. Wash through 20-mesh sieve, 
 then stir into spray barrel with a bluestone solution. 
 
 Self -boiled Lime-sulphur — Make cream-like paste with 
 10 pounds sulphur and water. ,Add 10 pounds quicklime. 
 Add water as needed to slake ; stir while slaking. After 
 mixture cools somewhat, add more water and strain through 
 20-mesh sieve, forcing all sulphur through, but keeping out 
 lime lumps. Dilute to 50 gallons with water. Keep well 
 agitated while spraying. 
 
 Formalin — For potato scab, dilute half pint 40 per cent 
 formalin to 50 gallons water. Immerse potatoes for two 
 hours. Use sack or wire basket, which raise and lower 
 several times. 
 
 Arsenicals — Mix paris green with a little water to form a 
 paste before adding to water, bordeaux or lime-sulphur, 
 otherwise it will float. Proportions are four to six ounces 
 to 50 gallons. To prevent burning add Yz pound freshly 
 
FIELD AND GARDEN PESTS 299 
 
 slaked lime. Arsenate of lead is less caustic than paris 
 green, remains in suspension, and adheres to foliage longer. 
 Proportions are ij^ pounds to 4 pounds with 50 gallons 
 water, bordeaux or lime-sulphur. 
 
 Kerosene Emulsion — Dissolve J^ pound common soap in 
 hot water. Add two gallons kerosene and one gallon water. 
 Emulsify by violent churning or pumping. Dilute to strength 
 required. Twelve to 15 per cent of kerosene in mixture is 
 strong enough for plant lice. 
 
 Concentrated Lime-Sulphur — Many commercial brands 
 on market may be used instead of home-made mixture at 
 rate of one part to nine. Apply only to dormant trees and 
 shrubs. 
 
 Home-Made Lime-Sulphur — Boil 20 gallons water in iron 
 pot or hog scalder. Add 20 pounds quicklime and 15 pounds 
 sulphur, the latter previously mixed with a little hot water 
 to form a paste. Boil half to full hour ; stir several times. 
 When sulphur has dissolved and clear amber-colored liquor 
 has formed, dilute to 50 gallons ; strain and apply warm. 
 
 Tobacco — ^As dust, apply heavily around plants and trees. 
 Use freely when setting young trees (one or two handful's). 
 One pound tobacco stems to a gallon or two of water, soaked 
 overnight may be sprayed on plant lice. "Black leaf" 
 tobacco extract, one to 40 or 50 parts water to be used 
 similarly. 
 
 Bisulphid Carbon — Two or three pounds of liquid will 
 form fumes enough for 100 bushels of grain in a tightly 
 closed receptacle. Place liquid in small pans above seed. 
 Keep closed 12 to 24 hours. Avoid lights while fumigating, 
 because fumes are exceedingly explosive. 
 
 Miscible Oils — Several brands on the market. 
 
 Poisoned Bait — Mix J^ pound paris green and 25 pounds 
 bran, middlings or cheap meal. Add 2 gallons water, sweet- 
 ened with one quart cheap molasses. If necessary, add more 
 water to get mixture moist throughout but not sloppy. 
 Scatter in little fingerfuls on ground infested by cutworms. 
 
 Carbolic Acid Emulsion — Dissolve one pound common 
 
300 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 soap in one gallon water. Add one pound crude carbolic 
 acid. Agitate to form emulsion. 
 
 Whale Oil Soap — One pound to one gallon water. 
 
 Hellebore — To 2 or 3 gallons water add 4 ounces fresh 
 white hellebore, for spraying. For dry application use i 
 pound hellebore to 5 of cheap flour or air-slaked lime. 
 
 Pyrethrum — Apply fresh pyrethrum powder as dust, or 
 make spray of one ounces to two gallons water. 
 
 DO NOT SPRAY TREES WHILE IN BLOOM 
 
 Regardless of the great amount of information that has 
 been disseminated there are people who still hold to the idea 
 that fruit trees should be sprayed at the time they are in 
 full bloom. 
 
 Apple Scab, Peach Leaf Curl, the Plum and Apple Cur- 
 culio, the Bud Moth, the Spring Canker, the Worm and 
 early Brown Rot infection, etc., can all be more successfully 
 combated when the spray is applied before the petals of the 
 blossoms begin to straighten out. The Codling Moth does 
 not begin to breed early enough to Justify remedial measures 
 until the petals have dropped. It should be sprayed for, 
 however, before the blossom end of the little apples close up. 
 
 When fruit trees are in full bloom, a careful observer will 
 note scores of different insects, both pollen feeders and 
 nectar feeders, working on the blossoms. An arsenical spray 
 will not only kill these blossom visitors but will very likely 
 produce a bad effect on the vitality of the pollen grains— 
 thus producing poor fertilization and consequently a poor 
 set as well as ill-shapen fruit. The honey bee is the most 
 valuable insect for distributing pollen. If the weather hap- 
 pens to be cold and rainy at blossom time, there is no other 
 insect that will compare with the honey bee in distributing 
 pollen, as it requires only a few minutes of bright warm sun- 
 shine to bring the whole force of field workers from the hive 
 to the fruit trees. 
 
 If there were no bees, fruit trees and other plants could 
 not produce any fruit. Apple, plum, cucumber, clover. 
 
FIELD AND GARDEN PESTS 301 
 
 alsike, alfalfa are fertilized by bees. Honey is the bait with 
 which the bee is induced to perform this task. The colored, 
 fragrant petals of the blossom are the advertising signboard 
 telling the bee where the honey may be found. If the blos- 
 som is to "set fruit," the bee with its fuzzy body must brush 
 some of the yellow dust called pollen from the male organs 
 or anthers at the bottom of the blossom, and flying away to 
 another blossom, deposit this pollen on the female organ 
 called the stigma. The blossoms are so arranged that to get 
 at the honey the bee must first brush, with its pollen-covered 
 body, against the stigma, thus completing the pollination. 
 As soon as it has performed this duty, it may draw a check 
 for the work in the form of a drop of honey at the bottom 
 of the blossom. While drawing this pay the bee is involun- 
 tarily covered with pollen again and made ready to proceed 
 to the next blossom and repeat the process. 
 
 Those who consider that it is essential that their fruit 
 trees be sprayed while in full bloom should first familiarize 
 themselves with the life cycles of the fruit tree insects and 
 diseases and also make some observation and study of the 
 value of cross fertilization in producing good fruit. 
 
 THE WIRE WORM PEST 
 
 For some years now it seems as if wireworms were more 
 than usually abundant. They are, as are also white grubs, 
 strictly an underground pest. There are several species of 
 them, but unfortunately for us, the most common are those 
 which attack our crops. The insect's common name is quite 
 appropriate, as it has a distinct wirelike appearance and feel. 
 It is from one-half to an inch long, hard, smooth, shiny, and, 
 yellowish in color. The parent is the so-called "click beetle" 
 or "snap bug," that little fellow which jumps up in the air 
 with a distinct click when you turn him over onto his back. 
 From two to three years are required for full growth from 
 the egg to the mature insect, and most of this time is spent 
 underground. Potatoes seem to suffer more from the at- 
 tacks of wireworm than other crops. Possibly this is be- 
 
302 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 cause potatoes are more generally grown than other vegeta- 
 bles and the injury is therefore more noticeable. However 
 that may be, such vegetables as turnips, carrots, beets, onions 
 and lettuce are also subject to attack. The worms usually 
 eat the smaller tubers, frequently boring holes through the 
 underground part of the stalk. 
 
 Many remedies have been suggested, but none has been 
 found to be entirely satisfactory. The fact that they ordin- 
 arily breed in sod ground suggests a remedy, or rather a 
 preventive, in rotation in crops. It has been found that wire- 
 worms do not attack clover and related plants. Therefore 
 they may be starved out by planting clover on ground that 
 has been infested heretofore. Vegetables can follow clover 
 with comparatively little danger of attack. Fields which 
 have been in grass for a time and are plowed and planted 
 to some vegetable are especia:lly apt to be troubled with wire- 
 worms. Fall plowing is also of some value. By this means 
 the over-wintering adults and "pupae," or immature insects, 
 are exposed to the action of the ^weather and the attacks of 
 birds. It is always a good scheme to allow chickens to fol- 
 low along after the plow, as they will pick up quantities of 
 insects such as white grubs, wireworms, and cutworms. Be- 
 cause of the hardness of their skins, the worms cannot be 
 killed by insecticides. Any application strong enough to 
 penetrate through them would also kill the plants. 
 
 CONTROL OF THE PEACH BORER 
 
 The best way to control the peach tree borer is by pre- 
 ventive measures ; "an ounce of prevention is worth a pound 
 of cure" in this case. The most successful method, I be- 
 lieve, is first to remove the borers — no matter what the size 
 of the tree, whether it is just from the nursery or a 12-year- 
 old tree. Examine it carefully and remove the borers. Then 
 paint the trunk from a couple of inches below the surface 
 of the ground to 12 or 18 inches above the ground with 
 strong lime-sulphur wash, to which has been added one 
 ounce of arsenate of lead (paste) to each gallon of liquid. 
 
FIELD AND GARDEN PESTS 303 
 
 This can be applied with a brush or with a spraying outfit. 
 One man to each row — ^two men to an outfit — can apply the 
 solution as fast as a man can walk. The first application 
 should be made late in May so as to be there when the first 
 moths fly, and two or three subsequent sprayings or enough 
 to protect the trunk, should be made. The moths will not lay 
 their eggs on the tree with this material there, and if any 
 young borers do get on they will be killed by the arsenic, so 
 that there is little danger of trees so protected becoming 
 infested. 
 
 WAR ON FLIES AND MOSQUITOES 
 
 Health officials, government scientists and many owners 
 of valuable live stock have joined in a general crusade 
 against the fly pest. Having discovered that the ordinary fly 
 is the cause of typhoid fever and other maladies, and is par- 
 ticularly dangerous to the health of children, it is probable 
 that persistent effdrts will be made to exterminate these 
 bothersome insects. 
 
 The average housekeeper who for years has been "swat- 
 ting the fly". needs to go a step further and apply a few 
 simple agencies not only for exterminating, but for prevent- 
 ing the propagation of flies. Remedies which are both sim- 
 ple and effective can be applied by families either in city or 
 country. A little watchfulness in the early summer in clear- 
 ing up rubbish and applying the proper chemical solutions to 
 live stock and around bams and manure heaps will tend to 
 lessen the number of flies. Their total prevention is within 
 the means of the general public without much scientific aid. 
 
 The windows of stables should be properly screened. This 
 will keep out the flies, add to the animals' comfort, and 
 lessen the amount of feed necessary to keep them in good 
 condition. Ordinary mosquito netting tacked on the outside 
 of the windows will suffice, but light frames covered with 
 fly screening, which cost only a trifle more, are bettef. If 
 well taken care of they will last for years. 
 
 Screen doors for a stable, while more inconvenient than 
 
304 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 screen doors for a house, will be found useful to exclude the 
 flies. Screens on the doors and windows of the milking 
 stables will keep out the flies, as well as secure light and 
 ventilation. Burlap, which is used so often, darkens the 
 stables and hinders the circulation of the air. If the manure 
 is not hauled out at least once each week, it should be stored 
 in screened enclosures where the flies will find it difficult to 
 obtain admission. 
 
 You can keep flies away from animals if you will apply 
 the following mixture with a brush, rubbing it into the hair 
 and upon the skin so thoroughly that it will not readily evap- 
 orate or be washed off: Take ij^ pounds of resin, 2 cakes 
 of laundry soap, J^ pint of fish oil and water enough to 
 make 3 gallons. Dissolve the resin in a solution of the soap 
 and some of the water, and then add. the fish oil and the rest 
 of the water. It is not worth while to designate the various 
 kinds of domestic flies with which people are commonly an- 
 noyed. It is sufficient to state that while there is some dif- 
 ference in insects which are called house flies the treatment 
 necessary to exterminate them is much the same. The most 
 dangerous of these nuisances is the typhoid or house fly. Its 
 •mouth is spread out at the tip for sucking up liquids. It is 
 found in nearly all parts of the world and disseminates 
 typhoid fever more commonly than any other insect. This 
 house fly cannot bite, yet no impression is stronger in the 
 minds of most people than that this insect does bite. The 
 stable fly closely resembles it and is often found in dwell- 
 ings. The mouth of the stable fly is so formed that it can 
 pierce the skin of man or beast. The filthy habits of these 
 flies are alike and they are usually bred in garbage, manure 
 or other filth. There are other species which carry dirt and 
 disease like all the rest. The various remedies to be used 
 are simple and cheap. 
 
 The free use of kerosene in manure piles and around 
 decaying vegetation is known to be effective in killing flies 
 and preventing their propagation. Barnyard litter if exam- 
 ined at almost any time in hot weather will be found to con- 
 
FIELD AND GARDEN PESTS 305 
 
 tain hundreds and perhaps thousands of maggots, which in 
 a few days turn into flies. When premises cannot be kept 
 absolutely free from such material kerosene will do much 
 toward exterminating the fly pest. 
 
 As a remedy for mosquitoes kerosene has proved effect- 
 ive. It is employed to destroy the larvae in breeding places 
 such as small pools, ponds or stagnant water. It can be 
 used wherever such bodies of water are not kept for house- 
 sold use or as a habitation of fish. In rainwater pools 
 around lawns, gardens and farms mosquitoes multiply by 
 thousands. They can be controlled by the free use of kero- 
 sene, which forms a film over the surface and destroys all 
 forms of insect life with which it comes in contact, including 
 the larvae of the mosquito and adult females coming to the 
 water to deposit their eggs. A light grade of fuel oil is 
 preferred for this purpose. 
 
 The largest experiments in the use of kerosene oil against, 
 flies and mosquitoes have been made by the United States 
 government through the agricultural department and the 
 conclusion is that where breeding places can be thoroughly 
 saturated with the oil results are satisfactory. Chloride of 
 lime is the best article for use around buildings. This is not 
 only useful as a disinfectant for stables and closets but has a 
 good effect in killing maggots and worms. 
 
 Scientists of other countries, while no further advanced 
 than those in America with respect to the destruction of 
 domestic insects, have carried on experiments which bear 
 out the conclusions reached in Washington. In the destruc- 
 tion of house flies, mosquitoes and many other insects resid- 
 uum oil and various petroleum products are declared to be 
 cheap and efficacious remedies, and with these chloride of 
 lime is to be used freely in buildings which require attention. 
 
 COMBATING CHINCH BUGS. 
 
 The chinch bug, which in sixty years has probably caused 
 loss considerably in excess of $350,000,000 to American 
 farmers, is more effectively destroyed during the winter 
 
 -3 
 
306 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 months than later when it has left its winter quarters, ac- 
 cording to the Department of Agriculture. The burning of 
 dry grass, leaves and rubbish along the margin of woods and 
 fields is the best method of destroying the pest at this season 
 of the year. 
 
 The pest, which is distributed generally throughout the 
 United States except in the extreme west, has caused par- 
 ticular damage to the staple grains throughout the middle 
 west. The greatest losses from the insect are suffered in 
 Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky, North Carolina, Missouri, 
 Iowa, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma, 
 and Texas. The fact that this bug causes such widespread 
 depredations makes this warning for its destruction during 
 the winter of very general importance. 
 
 The chinch bug when full grown is only about one-fifth 
 of an inch in length and may be less. It may be described 
 as black with numerous hairs, also black. The underwings 
 are white. There are two forms of the fully developed in- 
 sect, one with long wings and the other with shorter wings. 
 The short-wing form differs very much in its habits from 
 the long-wing form, the first passing the winter in the 
 meadows, which it usually attacks in preference to grain 
 crops. The other kind may be observed flying about during 
 Indian summer in search of winter quarters. The short- 
 wing insects are not able to fly and therefore cannot make 
 such extensive migrations to and from winter quarters. The 
 chinch bug with the short wings is found in abundance only 
 in the east. The more dangerous long-wing variety ranges 
 over most of the country between the Rockies and the 
 Appalachians. 
 
 Pasturing sometimes aids in the destruction of the chinch 
 bug. This is particularly effective to the northward in the 
 middle west when the grass is green and matted or occurs 
 along hedge rows and rail fences so that it cannot be burned. 
 Leaving the ground bare of vegetation permits the bugs to 
 be exposed to the winter weather, and this kills them. It is 
 sometimes possible to clear out hedge rows and along rail 
 
FIELD AND GARDEN PESTS 307 
 
 fences, piling the refuse to one side where it can be burned 
 later. These measures should be carried out in spring (the 
 earlier the better) before the chinch bugs leave their winter 
 quarters and take themselves to the fields. In the middle 
 west the burning is not very effective if done after March 
 1st and is effective if done in November or December. 
 Along with these preventive measures, all grass growing on 
 waste lands should be burned and especially clumps of 
 broom sedge in pastures and similar localities. 
 
 It is most advisable to get rid of the chinch bug before 
 they enter the young wheat in the early spring. Once they 
 have reached the wheat they are not readily accessible. Most 
 of the bugs spend the winter in the thick bunches of clump- 
 forming grasses in waste places, pastures and meadows, 
 along road sides and railroad rights of way. During late 
 fall and early winter great numbers of living bugs can be 
 found in corn husks, piles of kafir, corn, etc. In the spring, 
 however, very few living bugs but many dead ones may be 
 found in such situations. This means to show that the cur- 
 rent belief that most of the bugs pass the winter beneath 
 such refuse has no foundation in fact. 
 
 It is very important when grass is burned that it be dry, 
 and yet burn slowly, so that the heat will penetrate the 
 densest portions and reach the bugs. The bugs need not 
 come in direct contact with the fire. iThis burning in early 
 fall and late spring is not as effective as when done during 
 the winter, for green and wet stems in the former seasons 
 furnish protection to certain of the bugs. Even the most 
 careful burning will not reach the bugs under this condition. 
 
 An important item in the destruction of these pests is the 
 co-operation of all the farmers in a neighborhood. It is 
 really an easy matter to fight this pest if a whole neighbor- 
 hood undertakes it. 
 
 Few insects have caused such enormous losses as have 
 the chinch bug. It is the inost fatal pest that attacks our 
 corn, wheat and other staple grains. If it were not for the 
 extreme susceptibility of the very young bugs to destruction 
 
308 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 by drenching rains and for the fatal effects of certain para- 
 sitic fungi on both the adults and the young, the practice of 
 raising grain year after year on the same area would become 
 altogether unprofitable in the United States. 
 
 CORN ROOT WORMS AND BEETLES 
 
 Among the many enemies of Indian corn two forms of 
 slender, soft-bodied, whitish larvae known as root-worms are 
 prominent through their work. When the plants are found 
 to be withering or when the ears fail to fully develop, form- 
 ing "nubbins," without any visible cause, the earth about the 
 roots should be searched. It then frequently happens that 
 root-worms are found at work. They operate somewhat in 
 the manner of wireworms, and the two forms vary some- 
 what in the nature of their operations, as well as in the 
 territory which they ravage. They are the young of two 
 species of leaf-beetles. 
 
 The species which inhabits the middle western region is 
 the western or northern corn root-worm. Its injuries are 
 practically confined to the middle west, where it would be a 
 very serious pest were it not that progressive farmers have 
 adopted as a part of a sound agricultural routine a system 
 of rotation which greatly reduces losses that might other- 
 wise be sustained. In spite, however, of the best methods of 
 tillage, losses due to this insect are reckoned in millions of 
 dollars annually. Thus Prof. F. M. Webster estimated the 
 damage accomplished by this pest to corn in twenty-four 
 counties of Indiana alone in a year at nearly $2,000,000, this 
 judgment being based on a loss of $16,000 sustained by one 
 farmer and a personal knowledge of the destructive abund- 
 ance of the insect throughout that state. 
 
 The second species is the southern corn root-worm. It 
 occurs throughout nearly the whole of the United States, 
 but its injurious range is somewhat closely restricted to the 
 Southern States, though in recent years it is showing a 
 disposition to extend depredations into the more northern 
 regions. 
 
FIELD AND GARDEN PESTS 309 
 
 The former species attacks first the fibrous roots and later 
 the larger ones which it frequently destroys to such an ex- 
 tent that the infested plants may easily be pulled up by hand 
 after they are seen to wither. The latter, at least in the 
 maturing stage, eats directly into the stalk at a point near 
 the upper whorl of roots. 
 
 The twelve-spotted cucumber beetle occurs commonly 
 throughout that portion of the United States lying between 
 the Atlantic seacoast and the base of the Rocky Moun- 
 tains, and from New England to Florida. It also inhabits 
 Canada in the North and extends in a southwesterly direc- 
 tion through Texas into Mexico. Throughout practically 
 all this region, which includes portions of twenty-nine states, 
 it is really abundant, though not nearly so destructive in 
 northern as in southern states, where year by year more 
 or less injury is accomplished by the larvae or root- worms 
 as far northward as Maryland, Virginia and southern Ohio. 
 
 The adult, as stated, is practically omnivorous. Its known 
 food materials are legion, and include, besides the blades, 
 green ears, silk and pollen of corn, the partly matured ker- 
 nels of wheat, corn and oats, the foliage of alfalfa, corn, 
 clover, crimson clover, cotton, rye, tobacco, beets, cabbage, 
 kale, cauliflower, turnip, mustard, cucumber, cantaloupe, 
 watermelon, pumpkin, squash, okra, potato, tomato, rhu- 
 barb and asparagus, the leaves and pods of beans, as also 
 the buds, flowers and sometimes the leaves of fruit trees, 
 including apple, pear, quince, apricot, cherry and peach, the 
 buds and flowers of rose, dahlia, sunflower, aster, canna, 
 chrysanthemum, grapevine, sweet pea, cosmos, cultivated 
 Bidens and raspberry, the fruit of apple and melons and 
 other cucurbits. To all of these more or less serious injury 
 is inflicted. 
 
 For the root-worm the use of insecticides on growing 
 corn is impracticable. In fact, we can not reach the root- 
 worm stage to any extent with poisons. Therefore we must 
 have recourse to farming methods. Injury in corn fields 
 is most abundant when the seed has been planted in bottom 
 
310 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 lands, and if planting is necessary in such locations, it 
 should be done late, or attack may be so distributed that 
 damage will be inconsequential by dropping eight or ten 
 grains of seed corn in each hill. Of still more importance, 
 however, is judicio\is crop rotation. Numbers of crops 
 are not injured to any extent by the southern, corn root- 
 worm, and of these are cotton, buckwheat, the smaller 
 grains and various garden vegetables other than beans and 
 cucurbits. Experience will teach which of these can best 
 be employed as alternates. It is inadvisable to plant squash 
 and pumpkin to any extent in rows between the hills of 
 corn, more particularly in regions where injury by this 
 species has been previously observed. 
 
 Beetles can be controlled by applying an arsenical alone 
 or combined with Bordeaux mixture, the latter having a 
 repellant effect. Arsenate of lead is preferable to Paris 
 green as it adheres to the foliage better and is not washed 
 off so readily by rains, and there is little or no danger of 
 scorching. 
 
 CURRANT WORMS 
 
 There is no worse enemy to the currant than the com- 
 mon currant worm and his depredations mean a great loss 
 annually. Indiana does not raise enough currants to meet 
 her own demands and this is due largely to the work of 
 this little insect which is so easily controlled if a few pre- 
 cautions are taken. 
 
 The flies appear early in the spring and lay their eggs 
 in rows along the larger veins of the leaves. The larvae 
 hatch from these eggs in about ten days and at once begin 
 to devour the tender leaves of the bush. If taken at once, 
 they may be effectively checked, but a few days' time will 
 enable them to thoroughly strip the plant. 
 
 A few handfuls of powdered hellebore (white) dusted 
 down into the center of the leaves will get thefn if they are 
 noticed as soon as they hatch, but if allowed to remain a 
 day or two before noticed, they will have spread over the 
 
FIELD AND GARDEN PESTS 311 
 
 entire bush and it will be necessary to spray with a solution 
 of hellebore and water. This is a very effective remedy 
 and there is no reason why currants should not be grown 
 more than they are. 
 
 The currant borer is another pest of the gardener, but 
 the only method for the control of it is to cut off infested 
 parts and burn them. The perfect insects appear in June, 
 but before this time the borers enter the .stems of the plant, 
 where they live by eating away the pith. This saps the 
 vitality of the plant and the leaves will turn yellow. Thus 
 if the leaves of the currant bush begins to turn yellow with- 
 out any seeming cause, it is probably the borer at work and 
 all affected parts should be cut back to live wood and the 
 cuttings burned. 
 
 CABBAGE WORMS 
 
 The cabbage worm has always been and still is one of 
 the worst pests of cabbages. There are few gardeners who 
 have not had some experience with it. The worm itself 
 is velvety green in color with a faint white line down its 
 back, and about an inch and a quarter long when full 
 grown. Hatching early in the spring, it attacks the young 
 cabbage plants, eating the outer leaves. As the head of 
 the cabbage forms, it is also attacked, the worms hiding in 
 it and disfiguring it with their excrement. Their parent 
 is the familiar cabbage butterfly, white with two black 
 spots on its wing. It may be seen hovering about from 
 early spring to late fall. Soon after they appear the adult 
 butterflies mate and the females lay their eggs, generally, 
 on the undersides of the leaves ; these eggs hatch within a 
 few days and so the process goes on. Since there inay be 
 several broods or generations per season, depending on the 
 locality, it is easy to see why they are such a pest. It is 
 quite possible to get rid of them by the use of a poison 
 such as Paris green or lead arsenate, to which a "sticker" 
 has been added. A sticker is necessary because of the waxy 
 surface of the cabbage leaf, to which the ordinary spray 
 
312 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 will not adhere. A pound of resin dissolved in fifty gal- 
 long of spray material will make it stick. The poison 
 should be applied as soon as the worms appear, and as often 
 afterward as appears necessary. But the careful man will 
 say he doesn't want to put on poison a few days before he 
 expects to eat that cabbage. He would rather take what 
 the worms leave. If it is necessary to put on poison a short 
 time before the cabbage is to be used, try hellebore. That 
 will lose its poisonous qualities after a few days' exposure 
 to the air, and there will then be no danger from it. 
 Poisoned bran mash, as is used for cutworms, may also be 
 used to advantage for the cabbage worm. Small quantities 
 may be made by mixing a quart of ordinary bran with a 
 teaspoonful of Paris green and moistening it with half a 
 cup of water, to which has been added a tablespoonful of 
 molasses. The poisoned bran should then be scattered over 
 the affected plants. 
 
 PICKLE WORMS IN CANTELOUPES 
 
 The pickle worm is the larvae of -the Eudioptis hyalinata, 
 a moth of white color with a dark border on the outer 
 edges of the front wings and part of the rear wings. The 
 larvae are somewhat over an inch long and are commonly 
 known as "pickle worms," as they attack cucumbers as well 
 as melons. Powdered white hellebore has been used for 
 them successfully, but it is far less trouble to use arsenate 
 of lead, one pound in thirty gallons of water, with some 
 corn syrup to make it stick better. The insect is far more 
 troublesome South than in the North, and in many parts 
 of the South forbids the growing of melons unless kept 
 down by arsenical spraying. The spraying will help more 
 if the poison is mixed with Bordeaux mixture, two pounds 
 of lead arsenate to thirty gallons of the Bordeaux, and thus 
 the leaf rust and blight of the foliage can be prevented 
 while preventing the worms. The spraying must be begun 
 early, when the moths are seen flying around, for the worm 
 enters the partially grown melons. 
 
, FIELD AND GARDEN PESTS 313 
 
 DESTRUCTION OF GRASSHOPPERS' EGGS 
 
 It has been determined that the most effective way of 
 fighting grasshoppers is to destroy their eggs. The female 
 grasshopper lays the eggs in the ground in the fall of the 
 year. She makes an oblong pocket in the ground, which is 
 coated with a waterproof fluid, making it practically im- 
 pervious to the rain. In this waterproof cavity are laid 
 from thirty to fifty eggs. Then the opening of the pocket 
 is filled with a spongy material and the eggs will survive 
 the coldest weather if left undisturbed and will hatch out 
 in the first warm days of summer. 
 
 The grasshopper lays its eggs generally at the base of 
 some growing plant. The alfalfa plant is the favorite shel- 
 ter chosen by the female for the protection of her young. 
 The roots of an alfalfa plant will in many cases show dozens 
 of these cells, filled with grasshopper eggs. The grassy 
 sides of the road and the thick grass that fringes the irri- 
 gation ditches form tempting nest places and, in many 
 cases, dry knolls are selected. 
 
 A little prospecting with a spade will determine where 
 the eggs are thickest. A farmer who is conducting an anti- 
 grasshopper campaign has only to watch where the insects 
 are congregated in the fall and then hunt among the roots 
 of the nearby plants. 
 
 APHIS, OR PLANT LOUSE 
 
 The aphis, or plant louse, is a common as well as pestifer- 
 ous enemy of plant growth and frequently young shoots 
 of all sorts and kinds of plants suddenly become solidly 
 coated with them. Brilliant red ones are particularly fond 
 of golden glow, and black ones are attracted by the aster 
 family and grapes, but the green ones are most common 
 all over the country, for they love roses and honeysuckle, 
 apples, peas, cauliflower and cabbage. Some varieties 
 apparently attract this pest more than others. The twenty- 
 ounce pippin, for example, each year receives a visitation. 
 
314 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 All kinds of roses, bush and climbing are attacked ; grapes, 
 while seldom seriously affected, at times have goodly colo- 
 nies. The little lady bugs do their level best to help kill 
 the plant louse, but they are few, and the aphis is inany, so 
 we turn to spraying materials, and all sorts of things are 
 used to put the aphis out of business. The most common 
 thing is kerosene emulsion. This is perfectly satisfactory, 
 but hard to make, and not only mightily unpleasant as to 
 odor, but a long stayer. Tobacco extract or decoction, 
 destroys the little pest instantly and disappears shortly 
 after the enemy. Tobacco tea is frequently made by boil- 
 ing tobacco stems or any other form of tobacco that may 
 be handy about the house or a nearby store. Tobacco 
 powder is also used. The best, the easiest and most quickly 
 available form is the tobacco paste, which is a boiled-down 
 concoction, and this can be purchased of seedsmen. 
 
 If left alone, these little insects suck the juice from the 
 new shoots so they wither and die, and if not quickly 
 destroyed, they frequently ruin great fields of peas or other 
 food products for which they have a fancy. They do not 
 chew, so cannot be poisoned. Like fruit scale, they must 
 be coated with a destructive solution or powder. 
 
 CONTROL OF THE BOLL WEEVIL 
 
 Having studied the methods of boll weevil control which 
 have been recommended, the writer firmly believes that the 
 destruction of the stalks in the early fall is the most effect- 
 ive method known of actually reducing the numbers of the 
 pest. This destruction will cost but a small fraction of 
 the expense necessary in the frequent picking up in the 
 spring of the squares infested by the hibernated weevils, 
 and is far more thorough as a means of reducing the num- 
 bers of the weevil than is the practice of picking hibernated 
 weevils from the young plants. Early destruction of the 
 stalks is essential to the greatest success of any system of 
 controlling the pest. All other practices recommended, 
 though very valuable in securing a crop, are of the greatest 
 
FIELD AND GARDEN PESTS 315 
 
 value as they are followed in connection with this one prime 
 essential. Since the earliest investigations of the boll weevil 
 made by the Agricultural Department, it has been recognized 
 and pointed out by Dr. L. O. Howard that this practice is 
 of the first importance, and the experience of recent years 
 has added but certainty to this conviction. A number of 
 planters, have adopted it, and their work and the large- 
 scale work by the Bureau of Entomology have abundantly 
 demonstrated its effectiveness. It must not be thought that 
 the procuring of the immediate crop is the only thing to be 
 desired. Early and complete destruction of the stalks is 
 undoubtedly the most important single element insuring 
 success for the subsequent year. 
 
 Concerted action in fall destruction is, of course, desir- 
 able. The greatest benefit will result only when whole com- 
 munities adopt the method. But no planter should hesitate 
 on account of the indifference of his neighbors. The fact 
 that weevils move about but little until the time when the 
 bulk of the crop is safe will assist materially in saving one 
 field though nearby ones have not been properly treated, 
 and even under such circumstances the success of the 
 method in one field will be a powerful stimulus toward its 
 general adoption the following season. 
 
 ENEMIES OF ASPARAGUS PLANTS 
 
 Asparagus is subject to the attacks of a number of fungi, 
 the most widespread and destructive being the rust, a 
 fungus long known in Europe, but only recently observed 
 here. In 1896 it caused serious injury in parts of New 
 Jersey and Long Island. When the plants are in full, 
 vigorous growth and full vegetation, they are attacked by 
 this disease, which appears first as small reddish-yellow 
 points on the main stem near the ground, also on the 
 branches and leaves, then spreading into patches and streaks 
 till it covers the whole plant. At the same time it changes 
 to a red-brown or orange color, which later in the season 
 becomes dark colored, remaining this way all winter. 
 
316 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 The disease causes the leaves to fall and the plants pre- 
 sent a naked appearance. The stalks and branches are 
 rough to the touch. Rust attacks asparagus plants at all 
 stages of growth. Neither location of the bed, level of 
 the land nor methods of cultivation seem to affect the dis- 
 ease. The date of the appearance of rust is due somewhat 
 to the condition of the weather. At the beginning of a 
 July or August drought it will make its appearance and 
 the ill effects from it will be more noticeable on the high, 
 dry locations. 
 
 This disease is as enduring as it is dangerous to aspara- 
 gus culture. It is often two or three years after the attack 
 before the plants entirely recover. The most effectual means 
 of control is fire. The cutting, careful collection and imme- 
 diate burning, not only of all visibly affected stalks, but of 
 all asparagus brush, both cultivated and wild, early in the 
 autumn are duties that each asparagus grower owes to 
 himself and to every other grower. 
 
 In order to prevent the crowns from becoming effected, 
 the ground should be kept light and open by frequent hoe- 
 ings and cultivation, and during the winter the soil should 
 be kept free from all standing water. Extreme dampness 
 will induce root decay, and that is a favorable condition 
 for developing the disease. 
 
 Perhaps the withholding of organic manures and substi- 
 tuting chemical fertilizers may assist in preventing the 
 disease ; or the addition of sand and charcoal or coal ashes 
 will aid in keeping the plants healthy and in absorbing the 
 overabundant winter moisture. 
 
 Spraying may do something toward checking the disease, 
 and some standard fungicide, like Bordeaux mixture with 
 paris green added, should be used after the cutting season 
 is over and as soon as the foliage begins to develop; for, 
 while this fungus is one which does not readily yield to 
 treatment, some good may be accomplished, and the arsenite 
 used will at least make the plants unwholesome food for 
 the beetles and their larvae. 
 
FIELD AND GARDEN PESTS 317 
 
 The common asparagus beetle is still the most abundant 
 of the asparagus beetles and by far the most important 
 enemy of this plant. Its first appearance was noted in 
 this country at Astoria, near New York City, in i860, and 
 it is now conceded that it was introduced in that locality 
 about 1856. 
 
 The injury inflicted by this insect is due to the work of 
 both adults and larvae upon the tender shoots, which they 
 render unfit for market early in the season. Later they 
 destroy by defoliation growing plants, and are particularly 
 injurious to seedlings, the roots of which are weakened by 
 having their tops devoured. Larvae, as well as beetles, 
 attack the tenderest portions of the plants, but the latter 
 gnaw with seemingly equal relish the epidermis or rind of 
 the stems. The beetles are also accused of gnawing young 
 shoots beneath the surface, causing them to become woody 
 and crooked in growth. ' 
 
 This insect is a most beautiful, slender, graceful creature, 
 blue-black in color, with red thorax, lemon-yellow and dark 
 blue elytra or wing covers, with reddish border. It is a 
 trifle less than one-fourth of an inch in length. 
 
 The common asparagus beetle has very efficient checks 
 in the shape of predaceous insects which prey upon its 
 larvae and assist In preventing its undue increase. One of 
 the most active of these is known as the "spotted lady- 
 bird." The "spined soldier bug" and the "bordered soldier 
 bug" are also useful agents in the destruction of the aspara- 
 gus beetle larvae, which they catch and kill by impaling them 
 upon their long beaks and sucking out their juices. Cer- 
 tain species of wasps and small dragon flies also prey upon 
 the larvae. A sudden change from high to low temperature 
 will serve to rid the community of this pest. 
 
 Under ordinary circumstances, simple means will serve 
 to hold the insects in check. Chickens and ducks are useful 
 as a destroying medium. One of the best remedies is fresh 
 air-slaked lime dusted on the plants in the early morning 
 while the dew is on. This quickly destroys all grubs with 
 
318 WEALTH FROM THE SOIL 
 
 which it comes in contact. The arsenites, applied in a dry 
 powder mixed with flour, answer equally well, and they 
 possess the value of destroying beetles as well as grubs, 
 and are of value upon plants not being cut for food. Some 
 growers use a mixture of paris green and air-slaked lime, 
 applying at frequent intervals. The proportions are two 
 pounds of paris green to a barrel of lime. 
 
 For the twelve spotted asparagus beetle the remedies are 
 those indicated for the common beetle. 
 
 DISEASE RESISTING TOMATO PLANTS 
 
 In many parts of the country, a disease of the tomato 
 known as wilt is doing considerable damage. This is a 
 disease of the roots and stems, and is caused by a fungus 
 which lives over in the soil from season to season. The 
 disease can readily be told in the field by cutting a sus- 
 pected plant near the surface of the ground and examining 
 the cut surface. If the stem is black on the inside, or has 
 black streaks running up through it, the evidence is strong 
 that the wilt is present. The disease kills the roots of the 
 plants and plugs up the ducts in the stems in which the 
 water is carried to the leaves from the roots, with the 
 results that the plants wilt and finally die. The trouble gen- 
 erally is most conspicuous at about the time the first fruits 
 are maturing. 
 
 As the fungus which causes the disease lives in the soil 
 and within the tissues of the host plant, none of the ordi- 
 nary methods of disease control, such as spraying, can 
 be used to check it. Rotation of crops will help, as the 
 fungus will gradually die out if tomatoes are kept out of 
 an infected field for several years, but the results obtained 
 by this method are often discouraging. The method of 
 control that has given the best results is the growing of wilt- 
 resistant varieties. In a recent bulletin of the Louisiana 
 Experiment Station, the results with one such resident 
 variety are given. That plants can be selected which are 
 resistant to wilt diseases has been known for some time. 
 
FIELD AND GARDEN PESTS 319 
 
 It is by the use of such varieties that the cotton industry 
 has been saved in some of the sandy regions of the Southern 
 States. Resistant varieties of tomatoes are perhaps more 
 recent than are those of cotton, yet investigators at more 
 than one experiment station have shown that such varieties 
 can be selected. 
 
 To obtain a wilt-resistant strain of a tomato, it is neces- 
 sary to grow the desired variety on a badly infected piece 
 of ground. If the plants are examined carefully during the 
 season, it will be seen that the individual plants show a 
 wide variation in regard to their susceptibility to the dis- 
 ease. Some will die very early, others succumb more 
 slowly, and perhaps a few may be seen which remain healthy 
 and show no signs of the disease^ If seed is saved sepa- 
 rately from several of these healthy plants and planted the 
 following year on badly infected ground, it will be noticed 
 that the progeny of some of these plants show a high degree 
 of resistance to the disease, while the progeny of others 
 wilt perhaps as badly as did the plants the previous year. 
 Carrots grown between the rows of tomatoes will also have 
 the effect of lessening wilt. Rot may be caused by heavy 
 manuring, or allowing the tomatoes to rest on the ground. 
 Cheap trellises can be used to keep the fruit off the soil. 
 
 CONTROLLING CUCUMBER ROT 
 
 First appearance of rot on the cucumber is a small watery 
 spot, which opens and exudes a gummy liquid. The infec- 
 tion does not spread all over the cucumber, but stays near 
 the center, and in a few days the interior of the fruit be- 
 comes soft and watery. The younger fruits are more sus- 
 ceptible to infection, said Dr. O. F. Burger, of the Florida 
 station, in a recent bulletin. Spray experiments have been 
 conducted for the control of the disease, Bordeaux 4-6-50 
 formula being used, fifty gallons per acre being applied. 
 The result was that 17 per cent, of the sprayed cucumbers 
 were affected and 35 per cent, of the unsprayed. 
 
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 By ROBERT JOOS 
 
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