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 ^"*'niii'iiiMi'iSfi!?.!^ o^ *^® doctrine of a fu 
 
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 3 1924 029 318 882 
 
A CRITICAL HISTORY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 DOCTRINE OF A FUTURE LIFE 
 
OTHER "WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 THE APOCALYPSE OF BARUCH.— Translated from the Syriac : 
 Chapters L-LXXVII. from the Sixth Century MS. in the 
 Ambrosian Library of Milan, and Chapters LXXVIII.- 
 LXXXVII.— THE EPISTLE OF BARUCH.— From a New 
 
 and Critical Text based on Ten MSS. and published herewith. 
 Edited, with Introduction, Notes, and Indices, 7s. 6d. net. 
 
 THE ASSUMPTION OF MOSES.— Translated from the Latin 
 Sixth Century MS. , the unemended Text of which is published 
 herewith, together with the Text in its restored and critically 
 emended form. Edited, with Introduction, Notes, and Indices, 
 7s. 6d. 
 
 London : A. & C. BLACK. 
 
 THE BOOK OF ENOCH.— Translated from Dillmann's Ethiopic 
 Text (emended and revised in accordance with hitherto uncoUated 
 Ethiopic MSS. and with the Gizeh and other Greek and Latin 
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 THE BOOK OF THE SECRETS OF ENOCH.— Translated from 
 the Slavonic by W. R. M0RFII.L, M.A., and edited, with Intro- 
 duction, Notes, and Indices, by R. H. Charles, M.A. 8vo, 
 7s. 6d. 
 
 Oxford : THE CLARENDON PRESS. 
 
A Critical History 
 
 OF THE 
 
 Doctrine of a Future Life 
 
 In Israel, in Judaism, and in Christianity 
 
 OR 
 
 HEBREW, JEWISH, AND CHRISTIAN ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 FROM PRE-PROPHETIC TIMES TILL THE CLOSE 
 
 OF THE NEW TESTAMENT CANON 
 
 BEING THE JOWETT LECTURES FOR 
 1898-99 
 
 BY 
 
 R. H. CHARLES, D.D. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL GREEK, TRINITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN 
 
 LONDON 
 ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK 
 
 1899 
 

 D3 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The present work is the result of studies begun 
 over twelve years ago, and pursued unremittingly 
 for the past ten. This long period of preparation 
 is partly to be explained by the fact that some of 
 the most important books in the history of the 
 development of Jewish eschatology had to be 
 studied afresh and re-edited before their evidence 
 was available for such a work as the present. After 
 a severe and prolonged examination of the Apoca- 
 lyptic and Apocryphal literature of Judaism, I pro- 
 ceeded to carry my investigations backward into 
 the Old Testament and forward into the New, and 
 in both cases, I hope, with fresh and fruitful results. 
 I am painfully aware, however, of the unsatisfactory 
 treatment of some of the books in the New Testa- 
 ment, such as the Apocalypse, and of the need of a 
 deeper and fuller treatment of the Messianic hope 
 of the Nation in the Old Testament. 
 
 It seemed good, however, not to delay publica- 
 tion further, and accordingly I gladly accepted the 
 invitation of the Jowett Committee to give a course 
 of lectures on the subject of these studies. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 Throughout this work I have been obHged 
 repeatedly to abandon the beaten track in dealing 
 with the eschatology both of the Old and of the 
 New Testament. This has been due in part to the 
 method pursued ; for it became clear to me many 
 years ago that, in order to apprehend the evidence 
 of a passage dealing with the religious hopes of 
 Israel, it was necessary to study it not only in its 
 textual but also in its historical context. 
 
 All scholars with any pretension to thoroughness 
 have already recognised the duty of studying a 
 passage in its textual context ; but very few have 
 seen that it is just as necessary to study it in its 
 historical context, that is, in its rightful place in 
 the development of religious thought. Thus two 
 writings may be composed within the same decade : 
 yet one may be reactionary in character, and belong 
 to a bygone period of development, while the other 
 may be spiritual and progressive, and in the van 
 of the religious thought of the time. In such cases 
 it is the part of the historian to allow the definitive 
 passages in both writings their full weight, and not 
 to force them into unnatural conformity by spiritual- 
 ising some or materialising others. 
 
 It is only by such a scientific method of investi- 
 gation that we can hope to arrive at any valid 
 conclusions on such subjects as Universalism, Con- 
 ditional Immortahty, or Eternal Damnation. Such 
 conclusions are not to be gathered so much from 
 
PREFACE vii 
 
 isolated statements in the New Testament books, 
 which may vary in accordance with the spiritual 
 endowments of the writer, as from the consumma- 
 tion to which the eschatological development of the 
 past undoubtedly points, and, above all, from that 
 consummation foreshadowed and implied in the 
 great fundamental truths proclaimed by Christ and 
 variously unfolded in Apostolic teaching. 
 
 As in nature, so in religion, God reveals Himself 
 in the course of slow evolution. 
 
 A learned book on the same subject as the 
 present work has recently been published by Prin- 
 cipal Salmond. Since, however, our method and 
 treatment have taken different lines, I have refrained 
 throughout from referring to the work of this well- 
 known scholar. 
 
 In order to make this book easy to consult, I 
 have provided it with an elaborate index. This 
 index consists of an alphabetical list of names and 
 subjects : but it is more ; for under each subject- 
 heading an analytical treatment is attempted, from 
 which the reader can gather the historical develop- 
 ment of the particular conception through the 
 course of nearly a thousand years. 
 
 Finally, I wish to express my thanks to Messrs. 
 A. & C. Black, the publishers of the Encyclopcedia 
 Biblica, and to its editors, Drs. Cheyne and Black, 
 for permitting me to use my article on Eschatology 
 in that work as the basis of the present work. 
 
viii PREFACE 
 
 I would also gratefully acknowledge the many- 
 helpful suggestions which I owe to Dr. Cheyne, as 
 well as Dr. Black's revision of the proofs, notwith- 
 standing the multitudinous claims on his time and 
 energies. 
 
 17 BitADMORE Road, Oxford, 
 September 1899. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 PAGES 
 
 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN THE OlD TESTAMENT ^-^ 
 
 PRIOR TO THE ORIGIN OF THE BELIEF IN IMMORTALITY I-50 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 EsCHATOLOGY OF THE INDIVIDUAL — RiSE OF THE DOCTRINE 
 
 OF AN Individual Immortality . . . 51-80 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 The Eschatology of the Nation and the Synthesis of 
 
 THE TWO EsCHATOLOGIES IN THE DOCTRINE OF THE 
 
 Resurrection, Doctrine of the Soul and of the 
 
 Future Life among the Greeks . . . 81-15 1 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 Summary of Old Testament Teaching on Individual 
 
 Conceptions . . . . . .152-161 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 The Eschatology of Apocryphal and Apocalyptic 
 
 Literature during the Second Century b.c. . 162-199 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 Eschatology of Apocryphal and Apocalyptic Literature 
 
 during the First Century b.c. . . 200-241 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 PAGES 
 ESCHATOLOGY OF APOCRYPHAL AND ApOCALYPTIC LITERATURE 
 
 DURING THE FiRST CeNTURY A.D. . . . 242-268 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 ESCHATOLOGY OF APOCRYPHAL AND ApOCALYPTIC LITERATURE 
 
 DURING THE FiRST Century A.D. {continued) . . 269-305 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NeW TESTAMENT — GENERAL INTRO- 
 DUCTION : The Synoptic Gospels . . . 306-344 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NeW TESTAMENT — REVELATION, JUDE, 
 
 2 Peter, James, Hebrews, Johannine Gospel and 
 Epistles, i Peter ..... 345-378 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 The Pauline Eschatology in its Four Stages . , 379-417 
 
 Index of Names and Subjects .... 419-428 
 
CHAPTER I 
 
 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN THE OLD 
 TESTAMENT PRIOR TO THE ORIGIN OF THE 
 BELIEF IN IMMORTALITY. 
 
 The purpose of this work is to deal with Hebrew, scope of this 
 Jewish, and Christian eschatology, or the teaching 
 of the Old Testament, of Judaism, and of the New ' 
 Testament on the final condition of man and 
 of the world. It is but too generally assumed 
 that we are already fully acquainted with this sub- 
 ject; but such an assumption is by no means 
 justified. We have yet much to learn, and the 
 work of patient research is still far from fruitless 
 in this field. 
 
 So far as this work bears on Old Testament 
 eschatology, the writer is under infinite obligations 
 to Old Testament scholars,^ but notwithstanding the 
 fulness of their labours, he has not unfrequently 
 been compelled in the special subject of these 
 lectures to take new departures and pursue paths 
 
 1 Particularly to Cheyne, Stade, Robertson Smith, Schwally, Smend, 
 Nowack, and a host of others. 
 
PRIMITIVE HEATHEN ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 CHAP. I. of his own. The necessity for such new departures, 
 alike in the Old Testament and the New Testa- 
 ment, arose in connection with his attempt to grasp 
 the whole course of eschatological development from 
 the time of Moses to the close of the New Testa- 
 ment. The nature of such new departures will 
 appear in the sequel. 
 Doctrine of From the period of Moses, the religious and 
 
 of God must to poHtical fouuder of Israel, to the time of Christ, we 
 be'^tudUed"^ Can with some degree of certainty determine the 
 with Hebrew Teligious views of that nation on the after- world. 
 eschatoiogy. g^^ the facts are often so isolated, the sources so 
 often defective and reset in later environments, 
 that, if we confine our attention to ideas of the 
 after-life alone, it is possible to give only a dis- 
 jointed statement of beliefs and expectations with 
 large lacunae and unintelligible changes, and lacking 
 that coherence and orderly development without 
 which the mind cannot be satisfied. 
 
 Now we find that we can impart some degree 
 of coherence and intelligibleness to the subject by 
 considering the development of the conception of 
 God in Israel. On this conception hinges ultimately 
 every other religious conception of the nation. 
 Obviously, however, only the salient points in this 
 development can be dealt with ; but these will be 
 sufficient for our present purpose. 
 Illustration. Let me give an illustration of the necessity of 
 
 treating the conception of God in connection with 
 that of the after-world. How comes it that in the 
 second century B.C. the conception of the after- 
 
OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN ISRAEL 3 
 
 world is mainly moral and retributive, whereas from chap, i. 
 the fourth century back to Moses' time it is non- 
 moral, being in fact a piece of pure Semitic 
 heathenism. This change of conception is mainly 
 due to monotheism, which, partially apprehended by 
 the great prophets of the eighth century, and more 
 fully by those of the sixth, was at last carried to 
 its logical results. No part of the Universe created 
 by God, religious men felt and religious men 
 reasoned, could be withdrawn from His influence. 
 Hence in due course the rejection of the heathen 
 Semitic view of Sheol for one that was moral and 
 retributive. Till, however, monotheism was the 
 accepted belief of the nation, this transformation of 
 Sheol was impossible. 
 
 Before I enter on the subject I may premise oid Testament 
 that, though I have to deal so to speak with the explained as 
 anatomy of Old Testament religious thought, I do development. 
 not pretend or hold it possible to explain it as a 
 merely natural development. All true growth in 
 religion, whether in the past or the present, springs 
 from the communion of man with the immediate 
 living God, wherein man learns the will of God, 
 and becomes thereby an organ of God, a per- 
 sonalised conscience, a revealer of divine truth 
 for men less inspired than himself. The truth 
 thus revealed through a man possesses a divine 
 authority for men. In the Old Testament we have 
 a catena of such revelations. At the Exodus God 
 took Israel, Semitic heathens as they were for the 
 niost part, and taught them in the measure of their 
 
PRIMITIVE HEATHEN ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 The divine 
 name to be 
 pronounced 
 Yahwfe, and 
 BOt Jehovah. 
 
 capacity : revealed Himself at the outset to them 
 as their God, the God of their nation, and claimed 
 Israel as His people. He did not then make 
 Himself known as the Creator and Moral Ruler of 
 the world, for in the childhood of Israel's religious 
 history these ideas would have been impossible of 
 comprehension. Yahwe was Israel's God, and 
 Israel was the people of Yahwe. Yahwe was a 
 righteous God, and required righteousness in His 
 people. From this stage the divine education of 
 Israel is carried forward, till in Jeremiah and the 
 Second Isaiah God becomes known to Israel as 
 the Sole Supreme all-loving Creator and God of 
 all mankind. 
 
 In the following chapters our investigations will 
 be guided by the results of Old Testament criticism. 
 Since, however, some of these results are still pro- 
 visional, the same provisional character will attach 
 to some of our conclusions. 
 
 We shall throughout these studies revert to the 
 original pronunciation of the divine name Yahwe. 
 Owing to their dread of misusing this name (Exod. 
 XX. 7 ; Lev. xxiv. ii) the Jews avoided pronouncing 
 it with its legitimate vowels, and supplied its vocal- 
 isation from Adonai ; or where this word had 
 appeared immediately before, with the vocalisation 
 of Elohim. 
 
 From an ignorance of these facts the false pro- 
 nunciation Jehovah was introduced through a 
 sixteenth-century scholar, Petrus Galatinus, in his 
 work, De Arcanis Catholicce Veritatis, 1518 (see 
 
OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN ISRAEL 5 
 
 Marti, Gesch, d. Isr, ReL p. 60). The true pro- chap. i. 
 nunciation is attested by Clement of Alexandria 
 (laofe) and Theodoret ('la/Se), not to speak of 
 authorities of an earlier date. 
 
 I. Preprophetic Yahwism. — We shall make no i. Preprophetic 
 
 - 1 1 • 1 Yahwism. 
 
 attempt to trace the various stages through which 
 Yahwism passed before it became monotheistic, but 
 consider it broadly as divided into two periods, 
 namely, (i.) Preprophetic Yahwism, from Moses to the 
 eighth century; and (ii.) Prophetic Yahwism. Our 
 attention will be mainly confined to the former, for 
 the possibility of understanding Early Hebrew escha- 
 tology is conditioned by our prior comprehension of 
 the limited scope of preprophetic Yahwism. From 
 whatever source the worship of Yahwe^ was ulti- 
 mately derived, it was probably through Moses 
 that Yahwe became the God of Israel, that is, the 
 national God. Now a nation originates not merely 
 through the increase and extension of the tribe, but 
 through the federation of tribes descended from the 
 same or from different ancestors, and worshipping 
 independent tribal gods. Such a federation may 
 arise from a common danger or from common 
 interests. Should the community of interest and 
 action thus established be of lasting duration, a 
 
 ^ Full information on the development of Yahwism from different stand- 
 points will be found in Marti, Geschichte der israelitischen Religion^ 1 897 ; 
 Kuenen, The Religion of Israel (translated from the Dutch) j Montefiore, 
 Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion, 1892 ; Konig, Die Haupt- 
 probleme d. altisrael. Religionsgeschichte, 1 884 ; Smend, Alttestainentliche 
 Religionsgeschichte, 1893 ; Valeton in Chantepie de la Saussaye's Religions- 
 geschichte^ i. i<^i-'^2,<^^ 1897. Davidson, Art. "God" in Hastings' Bible 
 Dictionary, ii. 199-205. 
 
PRIMITIVE HEATHEN ESCHATOIOGY 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 Was this 
 divine name 
 known before 
 the time of 
 Moses ? 
 
 nation is the result. The incorporation of different 
 tribes into a nation is a sign that the tribal con- 
 sciousness has vailed to the consciousness of the 
 larger community, and that in this process the 
 tribal gods have been forced into a subordinate 
 relation to the new god of the nation. 
 
 This god had often no doubt been the god of the 
 chief tribe in the confederacy. Wellhausen thinks 
 that Yahwe was originally the God of the tribe of 
 Joseph, on the ground that the ark was placed in the 
 territory of Joseph ; and that Joshua — the oldest 
 historical name compounded with Yahwe — belonged 
 to the tribe of Joseph. But there are overwhelming 
 difficulties in the way of this theory. Into these, 
 however, it does not concern us to enter here. The 
 origin of Yahwism is still buried in mystery. 
 
 It is a moot question whether God was known 
 under the name of Yahwe before the time of Moses. 
 On the one side it has been argued by Smend i^Alt- 
 testamentlicke Religionsgesck. pp. 17, 18) and others 
 that Moses would have appealed in vain to the tribes 
 in Egypt if he had come to them in the name of a 
 hitherto unknown god. This, moreover, was the 
 view of the Yahwist (Gen. iv. 26, '' Then began 
 men to call on the nameof Yahwe "). On the other 
 hand, in the Elohist in Exod. iii. 11-14, and the 
 Priests' Code in Exod. vi. 2, 3, it is stated that the 
 name Yahwe was first revealed to Moses. The 
 latter passage runs as follows: "And God spake 
 unto Moses, and said unto him : I am Yahwe, and 
 I appeared unto Abraham, unto Isaac, and unto 
 
OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN ISRAEL 
 
 Jacob as El Shaddai, but by my name Yahwe chap. i. 
 was I not known unto them." The latter view 
 is strongly supported by the evidence of proper 
 names. Thus the first proper name undoubtedly 
 compounded with Yahwe is that of Joshua.^ But 
 as this question does not closely affect our sub- 
 ject we may pass on to more important issues, 
 only adding that the higher teaching of Moses must 
 have had points of affinity with pre-existing beliefs 
 within his people or tribe. 
 
 Whatever Yahwe may have been conceived whatever the 
 in His essential nature,^ whether as God of derivation of 
 the thunderstorm or the like, this question haveTeTn^i^s 
 fell early into the background, and all stress f^^^^^^^^^ 
 was laid upon the nature of H is activities unique. 
 within the nation. Hence the character of His 
 religion is therefore not metaphysical and dogmatic, 
 but ethical and experiential. The very name, more- 
 over, being so indefinite in content and free from 
 associations which could limit its development, pre- 
 sented a framework within which the unhampered 
 growth of piety was possible. This fact is of 
 especial importance for the development of mono- 
 theism. The Tjltimate derivation of Yahwism could 
 thus affect only the external form : its true content 
 and character within Israel were unique. 
 
 Moses, as we have above remarked, was the Faith in 
 
 Yahwe the 
 motive force 
 ^ See Buchanan Gray's Hebrew Proper Names, 190, 191, 257, 258. in the found- 
 Possibly it appears mjochebedj Exod, vi. 20. ing of the 
 
 2 On the various derivations of this divine name, see Smend, Alttestavie?it' nation. 
 izche Religionsgeschichte, p. 21 ; Marti, Geschichte der israelitischeit Religion^ 
 pp. 61, 62 ; Davidson in Hastings' Bible Dictionary^ ii. 199. 
 
PRIMITIVE HEATHEN ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 Religion and 
 history of 
 Israel inter- 
 woven from 
 the beginning. 
 
 true founder of the nation and of Yahwism. 
 Through his personal communion with God he 
 reanimated an enslaved race that was perishing 
 under Egyptian oppression. His certainty that the 
 living God was his inspirer and stay was the im- 
 pelling force in his action, and in this certainty he 
 carried with him the bulk of the people. There 
 was, however, no absolute break with the past. 
 The traditions and spiritual limitations that Israel 
 had in the past in common with their Semitic kindred 
 reappear in the early forms of Yahwism. The 
 name Yahwe formed the point of departure, and the 
 mainstay of the religious movement thus initiated, 
 in which Israel became a nation. It was not Israel 
 that had chosen Yahwe to be their God, but Yahwe 
 that had chosen Israel to be His people, and revealed 
 Himself to Moses as the living God. This faith 
 was the motive force in the formation of the 
 nation. 
 
 As the national God, Yahwe was the invisible 
 Head of the nation. As such, He inspired and 
 controlled its action and shaped its destinies. Thus 
 the religion and history of Israel were interwoven 
 from the beginning, and the unfailing inspirations of 
 the former so influenced the march of the latter that 
 Israel's spiritual development is absolutely unique in 
 the world : for despite frequent halts and retrogres- 
 sions, its advance. was steadily from strength to 
 strength and truth unto truth, till at last it was con- 
 summated in the final revelation of the personality 
 of the Christ. 
 
OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN ISRAEL 9 
 
 That the first revelation of Yahwe's intervention chap. i. 
 on behalf of Israel is connected with the deliverance Yahwism a 
 from Egypt is full of significance. His religion is redfmptk)n. 
 thus characterised from the outset as a religion 
 of redemption : " I am Yahwe thy God, which 
 brought thee out of the land of Egypt, out of the 
 house of bondage" (Exod. xx. 2). Herein Israel 
 found the stay of its faith, the ground of its trust, and 
 pledge of salvation in the dawn of evil days. 
 
 As the Head of the nation, Yahwe was pre- vahwfe as the 
 eminently its Leader in battle and War-god. It is in wi^ 
 this character that He mainly appears in the earlier 
 days. His presence was nowhere felt so strongly 
 and really as in the battlefield. He is, as the 
 Hebrew poet declares, "A man of war" (Exod. 
 XV. 3), and His people are called Israel, that is, 
 ** soldiers of God." ^ The first altar erected in His 
 name by Moses is named "Yahwe nissi," that is, 
 ** Yahwe is my banner" (Exod. xvii. 15). Religious 
 and national enthusiasm were in preprophetic times 
 almost synonymous. Israelis enemies wer^ Yahwe's 
 enemies (i Sam. xxx. 26); Israel's wars were the 
 wars of Yahwe (Num. xxi. 14; i Sam. xviii. 17). 
 He is the God of the armies of Israel (i Sam. 
 xvii. 26, 36, 45). 
 
 These considerations supply us with the original 
 sense of the divine name "Yahwe of Hosts." That vahw^of 
 this meant at the outset the Lord of the hosts of 
 Israel is clear from i Sam. xvii. 45, where David 
 
 1 So Gesenius, Ewald, Kautzsch. Dillmann and E. Meyer take it to 
 mean "God contends," Buchanan Gray {op. cit. 218) *'let God contend." 
 
I o PRIMITl VE HE A THEN ESCHA TOL OGY 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 Ark originally 
 sanctuary of 
 Yahwe the 
 War -god. 
 
 declares that he goes forth to meet Goliath "in the 
 name of Yahwe of Hosts, the God of the armies of 
 Israel." With the later significations^ of this phrase 
 we have at present no concern. 
 
 The ark was originally regarded in Israel as the 
 actual sanctuary of Yahwe the War-god.^ As such 
 it was borne into the field and represented Yahwe s 
 presence (i Sam. iv. 3-1 1, v. 6 ; 2 Sam. vi. 1-12). 
 In this connection we can apprehend the significance 
 of the ancient prayers when the ark set forward 
 and when it rested: *' Rise up, Yahwe, and let 
 thine enemies be scattered, and let them that hate 
 thee flee before thee": and, "Return, O Yahwe, 
 unto the thousands of the thousands of Israel " 
 (Num. X. 35, 36). But it was not merely that the 
 interests of Israel were Yahwe s interests : the 
 interests of Yahwe were likewise those of Israel. 
 Thus the tribes of Israel mustered to the help of 
 Yahwe (Judg. v. 23) : in His honour was the war 
 cry raised, *' A sword for Yahwe and for Gideon" 
 (Judg. vii. 18, 20). 
 
 But Yahwe was not only the God of war: He 
 
 On Israel's 
 
 Yahw^ the God 
 
 of justice and , i /^ i r ■ • i • i 
 
 purity. was also the God 01 justice and right 
 
 1 In later times He was conceived not as the God of the hosts of Israel 
 but of all powers, whether human, stellar, or angelic. This later development 
 is due probably to Amos. See p. 86 ; Marti, Gesck. 139-141 ; Driver on Joel 
 and Amos, 231, 232. 
 
 2 A later view of the ark as the receptacle for the two tables of stone is 
 found in Deut. x. 1-3 ; Exod. xxv. 10-22. That the ark originally con- 
 tained a stone, i.e, a Bethel or "house of God " (Gen. xxviii. 18, xxxv. 14), 
 is generally accepted. This fact would point to the ark as a constituent of 
 Semitic heathenism before its adoption into the service of Yahwism. In 
 any case the ark lost its significance on the advent of monotheism. See 
 Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie^ 367-370 ; Marti, Gesch. 67-69 ; Nowack, 
 liebrdische Archdologie, ii. yj. 
 
OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN ISRAEL ii 
 
 deliverance from Egypt naturally followed their chap. i. 
 internal organisation. This was carried out under 
 the name of Yahwe, who was recognised as the 
 central authority of justice. His sanctuary was 
 the depository of law, and the priests were the 
 interpreters of His will. The teaching or torah 
 of the priests had at once a legal and a moral 
 character. In the course of many centuries this 
 teaching came to assume a stereotyped form in 
 the written Law or Pentateuch. But besides being 
 the God of justice, Yahwe was essentially the God 
 of purity. Whilst the worship of other Semitic 
 deities was characterised by various forms of 
 licentiousness, none such was ever connected with 
 the uncorrupted worship of Yahwe. Though con- 
 ceived as a person, He had no other deity, and 
 particularly no goddess beside or beneath Him. 
 These important ethical elements in Yahwe s char- 
 acter, which required justice and purity in His 
 people, lie at the base of primitive Yahwism, and 
 contain the promise and potency of the later mono- 
 theism. 
 
 Having now recognised two of the chief char- Sovereignty or 
 acteristics of Yahwe, namely His warlike and His aiiy conceived 
 ethical character, in accordance with which He ^s^Tith h'i^' 
 moulded the outer and inner histories of Israel, we p^J'pJe"'^ ^""^ 
 have next to touch on the views held by Israel 
 regarding the gods of the neighbouring nations, 
 which were in some degree applicable also to 
 Yahwe. In these preprophetic times the actual 
 existence of such independent deities outside Israel 
 
1 2 PRIMITIVE HE A THEN ESCHA TOLOG Y 
 
 CHAP. I. was fully acknowledged. Each nation had its own 
 god. Milcom was the god of Ammon, Ashtoreth 
 of the Zidonians, and Chemosh of Moab (Num. xxi. 
 29; I Kings xi. 33; Jer. xlviii. 46). According to 
 the beliefs of the time, it was these gods that had 
 given their respective peoples their territories, just 
 as Yahwe had given Canaan to Israel. Thus in 
 Judg. xi. 24 Jephthah sends the following message 
 to the Ammonites^: ''Wilt not thou possess that 
 which Chemosh thy god giveth thee to possess ? 
 So whomsoever Yahw^ our God hath dispossessed 
 before us, them will we possess." Not only was 
 the power of the national deity conceived to be 
 paramount within his own land, but all who were 
 resident in his country were regarded as in duty 
 bound to worship him. Thus David complains 
 to Saul that he had been driven forth from his 
 own land and forced to forsake the worship of 
 Yahwe for the service of other gods(i Sam. xxvi. 
 19): *' If it be Yahwe that hath stirred thee 
 up against me, let him accept an offering ; but if 
 it be the children of men, cursed be they before 
 Yahwe ; for they have driven me out this day, 
 that I should have no share in the inheritance of 
 Yahwe, saying, Go serve other gods." Thus the 
 sovereignty and interest of the national deities were 
 popularly held to be conterminous with the bounds 
 of their own lands. 
 
 1 There is clearly a mistake in the text here ; for Milcom and not 
 Chemosh was the god of the Ammonites : see i Kings xi. 7, 33 ; 2 Kings 
 xxiii. 13; Jer. xlviii. 7, 13, 46; Nmn. xxi. 29, and the Mesha Inscription, 
 where Chemosh is always spoken of as the god of Moab. 
 
OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN ISRAEL 13 
 
 Again, just as Israel explained its national reverses chap. i. 
 through the anger of Yahwe with His people, so 
 likewise did Moab, as we learn from the Moabite 
 Stone; for there the subjection of Moab to Israel 
 is represented as due to the wrath of Chemosh 
 with his people. When, however, this wrath was 
 appeased, Chemosh restored to Moab its lost 
 provinces through the agency of Mesha. The 
 Moabites no doubt regarded the might of their god 
 as superior to that of Yahwe.^ 
 
 We shall point out two further analogies between certain un- 
 Yahwe and the neighbouring Semitic deities. The in the early 
 first of these is that certain unethical and unin- Yahw?'°^^° 
 telligible moods appear in Yahwe just as we might 
 expect in a national god ; for the national god is 
 a personification of the genius of a people, the 
 embodiment of its virtues and its vices on an heroic 
 scale. Thus the anger of Yahwe is at times un- 
 intelligible. It was, for example, kindled against 
 Uzzah to his destruction when he stepped forward 
 to prevent the ark from falling at the threshing- 
 floor of Nacon (2 Sam. vi. 6, 7), and likewise against 
 the men of Beth Shemesh for gazing too curiously 
 upon it ( I Sam. vi. 1 9). David can imagine that Saul's 
 undeserved enmity may be due to^ the motiveless 
 incitement of Yahwe (i Sam. xxvi. 19), and the early 
 historian in 2 Sam. xxiv. i finds no difficulty in 
 attributing" to Him an apparently unreasonable 
 wrath ; for he represents Yahwe as causing David 
 
 ^ See the description of the Moabite Stone in Driver's Notes on the Hebrew 
 Text of the Books of Samtiel^ pp. Ixxxv.-xciv. 
 
14 
 
 PRIMITIVE HEATHEN ESCHATOLOG Y 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 Interests of 
 Yahwfe and of 
 Israel origin- 
 ally identified. 
 
 to number the people, and then as punishing the 
 people for the sin which He had prompted. It is 
 noteworthy that when the chronicler some centuries 
 later was recounting the same event he assigns this 
 action not to Yah we but to Satan (i Chron. xxi. i) : 
 "And Satan stood up against Israel, and moved 
 David to number Israel." Thus the anger of Yahwe 
 in preprophetic times was not necessarily conceived 
 as due to sin in Israel : it might spring from other 
 causes. But this imperfect conception of the divine 
 wrath is not recognised by the prophets. To them 
 Yahwe's wrath is never unaccountable ; for it is 
 always ethically conditional and kindled by the sin 
 of the nation. 
 
 The next analogy between the conception of 
 Yahwe and that of the gods of the heathen nations 
 is that as a national god H is interests were 
 absolutely identified with those of His nation. 
 Though He might become temporally estranged, 
 He could never forsake His people. To imagine 
 such a possibility would have been the act not 
 merely of a blasphemer but of a madman. This 
 was \he popular view in Israel in the eighth century, 
 and even later. 
 
 Accordingly, the reverses that Israel sustained 
 at the hands of the neighbouring nations were to 
 the unthinking masses so many proofs that Yahwe 
 had temporarily forsaken His land, but to the 
 prophetic vision they were the discipline wherewith 
 Yahwe was educating His people. In the case of 
 a purely heathen religion outward disasters involved 
 
OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN ISRAEL 1 5 
 
 the people and their god in the same humiliation, chap. i. 
 and ultimately in the same destruction, but in the 
 very catastrophes that proved fatal to the gods of 
 the heathen Yahwe vindicated His true sovereignty 
 over the earth. 
 
 We have now considered the chief defects that These limita- 
 clung to the conception of Yahwe in preprophetic defects^are 
 times. These shortcomings mark nearly all the s^^vivah in 
 period when Israel was passinp^ from a monolatrous the domain of 
 
 ^ ... Yahwism, and 
 
 to a true monotheistic belief. They are clearly to as such were 
 
 ,., attacked and 
 
 be regarded as heathen survivals m the domam of destroyed by 
 Yahwism, that is, in the people's conception of ^p^°p^^* 
 Yahwe. They form the ground of Yahwe's great 
 controversy with Israel. In this controversy Yahwe 
 manifests in ever clearer form His will and purpose, 
 which are directed to the spiritual enfranchisement 
 of His people. While the heathen gods always re- 
 mained on the same moral level as their worshippers, 
 and so were powerless to deepen and develop char- 
 acter, it was otherwise in Israel. To serve Yahwe 
 aright involved spiritual effort and personal sacrifice, 
 and consequently led to growth in righteousness. 
 
 The people had hardly attained a certain religious Essential 
 level when the messengers of Yahwe urged them Yahwism con- 
 on to loftier heights in life and thought than their rlghttous*^^ 
 present achievement. Thus one by one the false yahw?^^ °* 
 views attaching to Yahwe in Israel were in the 
 course of its divine education expelled. Hence we 
 conclude that the essential superiority of Yahwism 
 to the neighbouring Semitic religions lay not in its 
 moral code, in which indeed it was unquestionably 
 
i6 PRIMITIVE HEATHEN ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 II. Monothe- 
 istic Yahwism, 
 from 800 B.C. 
 onwards. 
 
 Israel's rela- 
 tion to Yahwii 
 ethically 
 conditioned. 
 
 superior, but in the righteous character of Yahwe 
 which was progressively revealed to His servants. 
 
 We have now touched on some of the leading 
 characteristics of Yahwism in its first stage, when it 
 was monolatrous, that Is, claimed to be the true 
 religion of Israel : " Thou shalt have none other gods 
 but Me." We have now to touch briefly on the 
 next stage, when it is monotheistic, and its teaching 
 then is : ** There are no other Gods but Me." 
 
 II. Monotheistic Period of Yahwism. — This 
 development appears as already achieved in the 
 eighth- and seventh - century prophets. These 
 prophets were not founders of religion, but reformers 
 in a true sense. For true reform, whilst returning 
 to earlier beliefs, is yet also progressive. Thus the 
 prophets went back to the old essentially Mosaic 
 thought, that the bond existing between Yahwe and 
 Israel had been the result of a free act of the former, 
 attested by their deliverance from Egypt. Through 
 Canaanitish influence, however, this bond had come 
 to be regarded popularly by Israel as a natural ow.^ 
 in accordance with which the god and his people 
 mutually possessed each other, and could not exist 
 in isolation. But the prophets teach that Israel's 
 relation to Yahwe is ethically conditioned. Israel 
 had been chosen in order to carry out the moral 
 purposes of Yahwe, If Israel is faithless therein, 
 its nearness to Yahwe must entail a proportionately 
 severer punishment. Should their disobedience 
 prove irremediable, then Yahwe must destroy the 
 nation, for righteousness is the measure of all 
 
OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN ISRAEL m 
 
 things, and even the world-empires subserve its de- chap. i. 
 crees. As Yahwe's agent, Assyria will destroy Israel. 
 Although the preachers of the destruction of the 
 nation of Israel, the prophets became the saviours 
 of its religion. Through their living communion 
 with God, they made it known, in terms that could 
 never be forgotten, that Yahwe pursued His own 
 righteous purposes independently of Israel. Thus 
 it was that Yahwism did not perish with the nation, 
 and that true religion survived the destruction of individmiisa- 
 the state. In the religion thus enfranchised from by the 
 national limitations, the individual becomes the ^^°^ ^^^ 
 religious unit, and is brought into immediate com- 
 munion with God. Thus the way is prepared for 
 the coming of Christianity. 
 
 From the period of the Exile onwards there are 
 two parallel developments of monotheism. In the Parallel but 
 
 - _ , . inconsistent 
 
 truer and nobler development, as it appears in developments 
 
 T • 1 11' • • , 1 , 1 • of monotheism 
 
 Jeremiah and his spiritual successors, monotheism from the Exile 
 is a living doctrine which shapes the teachings of its o^"^^^^- 
 adherents on the religious duties and destinies not 
 only of Israel but also of the nations. In the parallel 
 development initiated by Ezekiel, monotheism is a 
 living and fruitful doctrine for Israel, but not for the 
 nations. From the legitimate scope of its blessings 
 they are absolutely excluded. So far as they are con- 
 cerned, it has become a lifeless dogma. Such a false 
 conception of Yahwe's relation to the nations in due 
 time reacted on Judaistic monotheism, and explains 
 in large measure its subsequent barrenness. 
 
 In studying a great religion the inquirer seeks 
 
1 8 PRIMITIVE HE A THEN ESCHA TOL OG Y 
 
 CHAP. I. naturally to trace an organic connection between its 
 In universal Central conceptions and the most remote portions of 
 
 religions an . , ^ r ^ ■ i 
 
 organic con- its system. He expects to find a certam degree 
 
 exist between ^^ logical Coherence existing between all its parts. 
 
 inTthe^r°^°^ "^^^ ^'^ ^^^ expectations he is not disappointed 
 
 eschatoiogy. when dealing with such religions as Christianity, 
 
 Mohammedanism, or Buddhism, for in these the 
 
 eschatoiogy, or the teaching on the final condition 
 
 of man and of the world, follows in the main from 
 
 the fundamental doctrines of these religions. But 
 
 the student must not approach the early religion 
 
 Thisconnec- of Israel with such an expectation; for though an 
 
 w?th begird to organic connection exists between its theology and 
 
 the eschatoiogy ^-j^^ cschataloQ^y of the 7tatio7i as a whole, this con- 
 
 of the nation, . 
 
 but not of the nection does not extend to the eschatoiogy of the 
 
 individual in • !• • 7 j t t -t-^i 1 
 
 Israel. indivtdttal Israelite, 1 he eschatoiogy of the m- 
 
 dividual in early Israel is not only wholly inde- 
 pendent of Yahwism, but it actually stands in 
 implicit antagonism to it, an antagonism which 
 becomes explicit and irreconcilable in the subsequent 
 developments of Yahwism, and which results in the 
 final triumoh of the latter. At the close of this con- 
 flict Yahwism will be found to have developed an 
 eschatoiogy of the individual more or less con- 
 Yahwism bad sistcnt With its own cssential conceptions. Thus 
 tmato^he°^ it is only in respect of the nation that Yahwism can 
 Exile. |-jg gg^j(j l-Q have possessed a definite eschatoiogy till 
 
 long after the return from Exile. 
 The expiana- The explanation of this defect in the early religion 
 
 defect '^*' of Israel is not far to seek. The sphere of that 
 religion was, like the sway of Yahwe, confined, as 
 
OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN ISRAEL 19 
 
 we have found above, to this world, and indeed to chap. i. 
 a small portion of it. The dominion of Yahwe 
 being so circumscribed had no concern whatever 
 with any future existence of man, and hence it 
 possessed no eschatology of the individual. Accord- 
 ingly we must look elsewhere for that eschatology. 
 
 We shall deal with Old Testament eschatology oid Testament 
 under three heads — (i.) The eschatology of the the individual 
 individual ; (ii.) The eschatology of the nation,^ i.e. natio°n, and 
 Israel; (iii.) The synthesis of these two eschato- ^^[hi"'^'' 
 logics in the fourth century B.C. 
 
 Eschatology of the Individual. — The ideas Primitive 
 
 •11' TIT • • T eschatology 
 
 that prevailed in pre-Mosaic times regarding the of the in- 
 future life, and that were indeed current in some israeHs^"^ 
 degree down to the second century B.C., were in many hSthen^'^^'" 
 respects common to Israel and other Semitic nations, sources, i,e. 
 
 ^ from Ancestor 
 
 These were naturally not the outcome of revelation, worship. 
 but were mere survivals of Semitic heathenism. 
 According to Stade, Schwally, and other scholars, 
 they belong to what is known as Ancestor Worship. 
 Prior to the legislation of Moses this phase of 
 religion dominated to a great degree the life of the 
 Israelite. But Yahwism from the first was implicitly 
 engaged with it in irreconcilable strife. For several 
 centuries, however, many of the tenets and usages 
 of this worship were left unaffected by Yahwism ; 
 for, as we have already seen, early Yahwism had 
 no eschatology of the individual, and concerned 
 
 ^ As Israel in the course of history necessarily enters into relations with 
 Gentile powers, the final destinies of the latter are naturally dealt with by the 
 prophetic .writers. 
 
20 PRIMITIVE HEATHEN ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 Ancestor 
 Worship. 
 
 Evidence for 
 existence of 
 Ancestor 
 Worship in 
 Israel. 
 
 itself only with the existence of the nation. Thus 
 the individual was left to his hereditary heathen 
 beliefs, and these can be best interpreted as part 
 and parcel of Ancestor Worship/ 
 
 According to this belief the dead were not re- 
 garded as dead, but as in a certain sense living and 
 sharing in all the vicissitudes of their posterity, and 
 as possessing superhuman powers to benefit or 
 injure. With a view to propitiate these powers 
 the living offered sacrifices. By these sacrifices the 
 vitality of the dead was preserved, and their honour 
 in the next world upheld. A man made sacrifices 
 naturally to his own ancestors : ^ the departed ances- 
 tors and their living descendants formed one family. 
 We shall now give some of the evidence for the 
 existence of such beliefs in Israel, under the three 
 following heads — I. The ancestors or their images, 
 the household gods, namely the teraphim, were 
 honoured with sacrifices, and the right of offering 
 these sacrifices was restricted to a son of the de- 
 parted. II. The primitive mourning usages in 
 Israel are part and parcel of Ancestor Worship. 
 
 ^ Cf. Schwally, Das Leben 7iach dem Tode, chap. i. ** Der alte Glaube," pp. 
 5-74, and Stade, Gesch. i. 387-427, to whom the present writer is immeasur- 
 ably indebted on this subject ; also Marti, Gesch. der israel. Religion, 22-26. 
 40-43, 47-49* 193 ; Budde on Judg. xi. 37, xvii. 5 ; Holzinger on Gen. xxxi., 
 XXXV. 8-14, xxxvii. 29-34, xxxviii. 30, and appendix on p. 269; Wildeboer 
 on Eccl. xii. 7 ; Nowack on Hos. iii. 4. This view has been recently 
 attacked by Frey, Tod^ Seelenglaube imd Seelenkult ij?i alien Israel^ 1 898, but 
 on the whole unsuccessfully. His contention is that, whereas a Seelenglaube 
 existed in Israel, it is not true that this Seelenglaube was ever developed into 
 a Seelenmlt. Davidson, Hastings' B,D. ii. 200, 201, is disinclined to accept 
 the view in the text. 
 
 2 Sacrifices could be offered to departed heroes of the nation, with a view 
 to gain their counsel and advice, as in the case of Saul and Samuel. This 
 was customary also in the Babylonian and Greek religions. 
 
OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN ISRAEL 21 
 
 III. The beliefs regarding the departed are essential chap. i. 
 constituents of the same cult. 
 
 1. Our first thesis, that the ancestors or their 
 images, the teraphim, were honoured with sacrifices 
 performed by a son of the departed, can best be 
 treated under the following heads — (i.) The teraphim 
 or images of the ancestors were the object of family 
 worship ; (ii.) To these certain sacrifices were 
 offered ; (iii.) The right of offering such sacrifices 
 was limited to a son of the departed, that is, a son of 
 his own body begotten or adopted ; (iv.) But since 
 a man might die without male offspring of his own 
 or adopted, the necessities of Ancestor Worship 
 gave birth to the levirate law, in accordance with 
 which it became the duty of a surviving brother to 
 marry the childless widow of the deceased in order 
 to raise up a male offspring to his brother for the 
 performance of the sacrificial usages due to his 
 deceased brother; (v.) The family formed a 
 sacramentally united corporation. 
 
 (i.) First, then, as to the teraphim. The tera- Teraphim, or 
 
 ,. -i-^ household 
 
 phim mentioned m Gen. xxxv. 4 were clearly gods, gods, probably 
 Their sacred character is recognised by their burial Ancestors, 
 under a sacred tree, the terebinth. They could be 
 buried but not profaned, else such profanation might 
 provoke the powers they represented. In the above 
 passage they are called "strange gods," and their 
 
 ^ Stade [Gesch. i. 467) and Schwally's {Leben nach dem Tode^ 35 sqq.) 
 contention that these teraphim are images of departed ancestors is practically 
 accepted by Budde on Judg. xvii. 5 ; Holzinger on Gen. xxxi. 17 ; Nowack 
 on Hos. iii. 4, and in his Hebrduche Archaologie^ ii. 23 ; but disputed by 
 Frey, 102-112. 
 
22 PRIMITIVE HEATHEN ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 CHAP. I. worship is regarded as incompatible with that of 
 Yahwe. An earlier mention of these is found in 
 Gen. xxxi. 19, 30-35, where Rachel steals her 
 father's teraphim. Further, they were household 
 gods. Thus from i Sam. xix. 13, 16 it follows 
 that they had a human form, and also that they 
 formed part of the usual equipment of a well-to-do 
 family — observe ''the teraphim." In the next place 
 they are most probably, with Stade and Schwally, 
 to be identified with images of ancestors ; for they 
 were consulted as oracles : thus they are enumerated 
 with the 'oboth and yidde'onlm in 2 Kings xxiii. 24. 
 In Exod. xxi. 2-6 we have a passage attesting the 
 worship of these gods. According to this section 
 there was a god close to the door in private houses 
 to which the slave who desired enrolment in his 
 masters family had to be brought: "Then his 
 master shall bring him unto the god, and shall bring 
 him to the door and to the doorpost, and his master 
 shall bore his ear through with an awl ; and he shall 
 serve him for ever," This was originally admission 
 to the familycult,with all its obligations andprivileges. 
 It is quite wrong to take this door to be that of the 
 temple with the older interpreters ; for this sacrificial 
 action which made the slave a member of his master's 
 family would have been meaningless unless the door, 
 on which his ear was pierced by the awl, was that of 
 his master's house.-^ As regards the use of the word 
 
 1 So Schwally (37 sqq.)^ who rightly rejects the older view which takes 
 D'n'pNH to mean the judges (so Revised Version in margin). Frey, 104-110, 
 disagrees with both these interpretations, but his own, that D'n'?^-'?^ E^'jn means 
 no more than to take an oath, seems clearly to be impossible. His words are 
 
OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN ISRAEL 23 
 
 **elohim," or god, here, we should remember that chap. r. 
 the dead when invoked were termed elohim (see 
 I Sam. xxviii. 13). In Deut. xv. 12-18 this heathen 
 ceremony is robbed of all its primitive religious 
 significance by the omission of the term "god," 
 and given a wholly secular character. Later these but later 
 teraphim were regarded as images of Yahwe (cf. [mag^es^of^ 
 Judg. xvii. 5 and xviii. 17 sqq.\ see also i Sam. ^^^' 
 xix. 13-16) ; for we can hardly regard it as possible 
 that David, the champion of the religion of Yahwe, 
 would have worshipped the teraphim in their original 
 character as household gods. In Hos. iii. 4 and 
 Zech. X. 2 they may retain their original character 
 as images of ancestors, or, as images of Yahwe, 
 they may have been used like the Ephod in con- 
 sulting the Deity. They are represented in Ezek. 
 xxi. 26 (ver. 21 in E.V.) as being consulted by 
 Nebuchadnezzar. Thus this cult of household gods 
 (Dillmann, Alttest, Theologie, 90, 98) was firmly 
 established in the family of Jacob before it went 
 down into Egypt, and must have been observed by 
 Israel during its entire stay in Egypt, seeing that 
 it flourished among the people after their settlement 
 in Canaan, and prevailed down to the latest period 
 of the Monarchy. 
 
 (ii.) SacHfices were offered to the dead, — The sacrifices 
 object of these sacrmces is clear trom Deut. xxvi. dead. 
 
 (p. 109) : " Liegt nichts im Wege, die Bedeutung dei- Handlung nur in dem 
 Heften des Ohres an den Thiirpfosten zii sehen, wahvend das Bringen dmSkh-'?**, 
 wodurch der Handlung nur ein eidlicher Character aufgepragt wird, bei 
 Wiederholung dieser Verordnung, weil nicht konstitutives Merkmal, unbe- 
 schadet wegfallen konnte." The omission referred to in the concluding words 
 is found in Deut. xv. 12-18, 
 
24 PRIMITIVE HEATHEN ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 CHAP. I. 14 : *' I have not eaten thereof in my mourning, 
 neither have I put away thereof, being unclean, nor 
 given thereof /£?ir the dead'' ; Jen xvi. 7 (?). They 
 are probably implied in Is. viii. 19, xix. 3 ; for when 
 a man wished to consult the dead, he would naturally 
 present an offering. They are referred to in Ezek. 
 xxiv. 17 : **Make no mourning for the dead, bind 
 thy headtire upon thee, and put thy shoes upon thy 
 feet, and cover not thy lips, and eat not the bread of 
 mourning."^ See also xxiv. 22; 2 Chron. xvi. 14 (see 
 Schwally, 16, 24, 48), xxi. 19. The object of these 
 sacrifices was to give sustenance to the dead and to 
 win their favour.^ In later times this object was lost 
 sight of, and these sacrifices came to be regarded as 
 mere funeral feasts. But this does not seem to 
 
 1 I have here followed Bertholet and Toy in emending D'tyjN into D'jin. 
 Thus, instead of the senseless "bread of men" we obtain "the bread of 
 mourning" (cf. Hos. ix. 4). This verse refers to four of the mourning 
 usages : uncovering the head in order to strew it with ashes, putting off the 
 shoes, covering the beard, and eating the bread of the offering to the dead 
 (see pp. 28-30). 
 
 2 See Schwally, 21-25; Stade, Gesch. i. 389, 390; Nowack, ^rc/^. i. 
 192-198; Wellhausen, Isr, v. ji'id. Gesch.^ 100, loi, 1899; Benzinger, 
 Hebrdische Archdologie.^ 164-167. Just as in the old Semitic, so in the Greek 
 reHgion, libations were made to gain the favour of the departed (cf. 
 Euripides, Or. 119, 7S9 ; El. 676-683; Here. Fur. 491-494; Sophocles, 
 El. 454. See Rohde, Psyche^'^ i. 242, 243 ; ii. 250). But the value of these 
 is questioned in Eur. Troad. 1248- 1250, where Hector declares that rich 
 offerings on the grave are of no service to the dead, but only minister to the 
 vanity of the Uving. 
 
 5o/c(S 5^ rots dauoucrt. bia(j>4puv jSpaxu, 
 el irKovaioiv ris reiJferai KT€pL<T/j.dT(ijp • 
 Kcvbv 8k ya^tpojfx* iarl tGjv ^(hvruiv rSde. 
 
 These lines represent the real view of Euripides. But still more important 
 than these Greek analogies are the similar usages which prevailed in Baby- 
 lonia. The close affinities existing between the early Hebrew and the 
 Babylonian views of the departed are beyond the reach of questioning (see 
 pp. 23, 24, 34, 39-4 1 ). The burial couch was filled with various kinds of spices, 
 which were of the nature of offerings (cf. 2 Chron. xvi. 14). Offerings of food 
 
OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN ISRAEL 25 
 
 have come about even in the second century B.C. chap. i. 
 Sacrifices to the dead appear to be commended in 
 Sir. vii. 33, "From a dead man keep not back 
 grace";^ Job iv. 17, ** Pour out thy bread on the 
 tomb of the just"; but derided in Sir. xxx. 18, 19; 
 Ep. Jer. 31, 32 ; Wisdom xiv. 15, xix. 3 ; Or. Sibyl, 
 viii. 382-384. They are referred to in Jubilees xxii. 
 17 as prevailing among the Gentiles. 
 
 (iii.) The right of offering such sacrifices was Right of 
 limited to a son of the departed, — Ancestor Worship sf^^^Tfic^s^^^^ 
 enables us to explain the importance of male off- I'^iited to a 
 
 ^ ■*■ ^ son. 
 
 spring.^ The honour and wellbeing of the dead 
 depended on the worship and sacrifices offered by 
 their male descendants. According to this belief, 
 even in the after-life men could be punished by 
 Yahwe through the destruction of their posterity 
 
 and water were presented to the departed, not only at the time of burial, but 
 afterwards at certain seasons by their surviving relatives. The comfort of 
 the departed depended on their reception of the proper burial rites and 
 offerings. If they were deprived of the rites of burial, their shades were 
 forced to wander restlessly. Any mutilation of the dead body affected the 
 departed shade. Furthermore, if after burial the body were disinterred, no 
 food could be offered or sacrifice tendered to the shade. In such a case not 
 only the disentombed shade suffered, but also the survivors ; for the shade 
 assumed the form of a demon and afflicted the living. The shades, more- 
 over, possessed great power. They could direct the affairs of the living. 
 To gain their favour offerings and prayers were made to them. They were 
 consulted regarding the future. Hence their abode is at times called Shualu, 
 or "the place of oracles" (so Jastrow, p. 561, who denies Jeremias' ex- 
 planation as *'the place of decision, "p. 559). At times also they are said to dwell 
 in Ekur, where likewise the gods were supposed to dwell. Thus the departed 
 were brought into close association with the gods. Indeed, certain of the 
 dead received the honour of deification. In Israel, it is true, the departed 
 had no association with any gods. They were, however, themselves addressed 
 as gods by those who consulted them (see pp. 23, 40). See Jeremias, 
 Bab-Assyr. Vorstellungen vom Leben iiach dem Tode^ pp. 53-58 ; Jastrow, 
 Religion of Babylonia and Assyria^ 511, 512, 568, 582, 598, 599. 
 
 2 Besides Schwally and Stade, see Benzinger, Arc/i. 354 s^^. ; Nowack, 
 ArcA. i. 348 si/^. 
 
26 PRIMITIVE HEATHEN ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 CHAP. I. (Exod. XX. 5 ; xxxlv. 7; Num. xiv. 18; Deut. v. 9), 
 for with the destruction of the latter, sacrifices 
 ceased to be made to the former. On the same 
 principle a man destroyed his enemy and all his sons 
 originally with the object of depriving him of 
 respect and worship in the lower world. We have 
 already remarked that sacrifices could be offered 
 only by the son. But as not unfrequently a man 
 might fail to have male offspring, the difficulty was 
 surmounted by adoption. By such adoption a man 
 passed from his own family or clan to that of the 
 father who adopted him, and thereby took upon 
 himself all the obligations attaching to the latter. 
 Even a slave could be so adopted. Thus in Gen. 
 XV. 2, 3 Eliezer is regarded as Abraham's heir in 
 default of male issue. It is to be presumed, with 
 Stade {Gesch, Isr. i. 391) and Holzinger (on Gen. 
 XV. 2), that he had already been adopted into the 
 family cult. Thus the right of inheritance is derived 
 in principle from Ancestor Worship.^ Only the son 
 
 ^ The duty of the avenging of blood is to be traced originally to the 
 worship of ancestors. This obligation was in Greek religion limited to a 
 body of relations of three generations (an d7xt(rTeta), who in the male line had 
 the same man for father, grandfather, and great-grandfather. Now this was 
 the very body to whom the right of succession belonged. With succession to 
 an inheritance the obligation of the avenging of blood was at the same time 
 undertaken. In the earliest times the soul of the departed could be appeased 
 only by the blood of the murderer ; but subsequently, even before the 
 Homeric era, when the worship of ancestors had retired largely into the 
 background, the custom arose of taking compensation or blood-money. In 
 this case the matter is a transaction wholly between the living, and no account 
 is taken of the dead. In the centuries immediately subsequent to Hesiod, 
 when there was a great revival of the worship of the dead, the nearest rela- 
 tive was obliged to avenge the dead. Being a member of an organised 
 community, he was not allowed to do so with his own hand, but could pro- 
 ceed against the slayer before a court of justice, as the State refused to allow 
 a money ransom. If the relative in question failed in this duty through 
 
OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN ISRAEL 27 
 
 or heir could fulfil its rites. Illegitimate sons could chap. i. 
 not inherit (Stade, Gesch. Isr. i. 391), because their 
 mother had not been admitted by marriage into 
 the cult (cf. Judg. xi. 2). In Num. xxxvi. we see 
 that the law regulating inheritance has already- 
 undergone a change. Thus a daughter is there 
 allowed to inherit on condition she married a man 
 belonging to the same family or tribe as her father. 
 In Athens, on the other hand, the property de- 
 scended to the next heir male, but he was obliged 
 to marry the daughter of the deceased. Thus from 
 the above facts it appears that the living and the 
 dead formed one family, and the departed partici- 
 pated in the vicissitudes of their living descendants. 
 Rachel in her grave shared in the troubles of her 
 children in northern Israel (Jer. xxxi. 15, "A voice is 
 heard in Ramah, lamentation and bitter weeping, 
 Rachel weeping for her children : she refuseth to 
 be comforted for her children ; because they are not "). 
 
 (iv.) But the necessity of a son for the perform- Hence is to be 
 ance of Ancestor Worship gave birth, where Lwate^aw.^ 
 there was no such offspring, to the levirate law} 
 
 negligence, the soul of the slain visited with its wrath its faithless avenger : 
 for such a soul had no rest until its wrongs were avenged. This was the 
 general belief at Athens down to the tenth century (see Rohde, Psyche^ 
 260 sqq. ) This stage of ransom was already reached by Israel long before 
 the Monarchy. The legislation of the Priests' Code is directed against this 
 custom of compensation (see Num. xxxv. 31, 32). In Israel the homicide 
 was clearly distinguished from the murderer ; but no such distinction existed 
 in Greece in Homeric times ; but at a later period, when the community took 
 into its own hands the right of the avenger, this distinction was carefully 
 observed. 
 
 1 This custom (according to Stade, Gesch. Isr. i. 394) still prevails among 
 the Indians, Persians, Afghans, Circassians, and Gallas, amongst whom 
 Ancestor Worship exists. See also Schwally, 28 sqq. ; Marti,^ 48, 49 ; 
 Nowack, ArcJu i. 343 sqq,-, Benzinger, Arch. 134, 136, 345, 346. 
 
: 8 PRIMITIVE HE A THEN ESCHA TO LOG Y 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 Family was a 
 sacramentally 
 united cor- 
 poration. 
 
 II. Mourning 
 usages origin- 
 ally derived 
 from Ancestor 
 Worship. 
 
 According to this law, it was the duty of surviving 
 brothers to marry the childless widow of their de- 
 ceased brother, or where there was no brother, the 
 duty fell on the nearest male relation of the deceased. 
 The firstborn son of such a marriage was registered 
 as the son of the deceased. Thus the deceased was 
 secured the respect and sacrifices due to him. 
 These could be rendered only by a son legitimately 
 begotten or adopted. This law appears to have 
 been in force in Gen. xxxviii. i6, but its significance 
 is forgotten in Deut. xxv. 5-10. Tamar fulfilled 
 according to old Israelitish views a duty of piety 
 towards her dead husband (Stade, i. 394) and 
 similarly Ruth. The daughters of Lot may have 
 had the same end in view. 
 
 (v.) The family formed a sacramentally united 
 corporation, within which the above rites were 
 celebrated. The father of the family was its priest. 
 This title was afterwards actually transferred to the 
 priest (Judg. xvii. 10, xviii. 19). Even in historical 
 times the family preserved its special festivals 
 (i Sam. XX. 29). These undoubtedly point back to 
 the family cult. 
 
 II. The Primitive Mourning Usages in Israel 
 WERE Part and Parcel of Ancestor Worship.^ 
 Such usages had originally a religious significance, 
 and not merely a psychological, as they came subse- 
 quently to possess. They indicate reverence for the 
 
 ' Schwally, Das Leben nach dem Tode, pp. 9-16; Stade, Gesch. d. Volks 
 Israel, i. 387 sqq. \ Benzinger, Arch. 102, 165-167; Nowack, Arch. i. 
 192-198. 
 
OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN ISRAEL 29 
 
 dead, and the confession of dependence upon them. 
 Thus (i) the mourner girt himself with sackcloth 
 (2 Sam. iii. 31 ; i Kings xx. 31 ; Is. iii. 24, xv. 3, 
 xxii. 12; Jer. vi. 26), or laid it on his loins (Gen. 
 xxxvii. 34 ; Jer, xlviii. 37). This practice expresses 
 submission to a superior. Thus the servants of 
 Benhadad go forth in sackcloth from Aphek to Ahab 
 (i Kings XX. 31, 32). (2) The mourner put off his 
 shoes (2 Sam. xv. 30; Ezek. xxiv. 17). The re- 
 moval of the shoes was required in approaching holy 
 places (Exod. iii. 5, 6 ; Jos. v. 15). This explains its 
 connection with the dead. (3) Mourners cut off 
 their hair (Is. xxii. 12; Jer. vii. 29; Am. viii. 10; 
 Mic. i. 16 ; Ezek. vii. 18, xxvii. 31) and beards (Jer. 
 xli. 5), or both (Is. xv. 2 ; Jer. xlviii. ^il) \ and made 
 baldnesses between the eyes (Deut. xiv. i, 2). The 
 hair so cut off was designed as an offering for the 
 dead (Robertson Smith, ReL Sem} 323-336). These 
 rites are condemned as idolatrous in the latter half of 
 the seventh century in Deut. xiv. i, 2; for they are 
 forbidden on the ground "for thou art a holy people 
 to the Lord thy God" (cf. Deut. xviii. 11, 12 ; Lev. 
 xix. 27, 28). Yet these rites are mentioned by the 
 prophets of the eighth century without any con- 
 sciousness of their impropriety (cf. Am. viii. 10, 'T 
 will bring up sackcloth upon all loins, and baldness 
 upon every head"; Mic. i. 16, *' Make thee bald, 
 and poll thee for the children of thy delight"; see 
 also Is. XV. 2, xxii. 12). They appear still to have 
 been the universal custom (Jer. xli. 5). At this 
 period their original significance may have largely 
 
30 PRIMITIVE HEA THEN ESCHA TOLOG Y 
 
 been forgotten. (4) Mourners made cuttings in 
 their flesh for the dead. Such incisions were re- 
 garded as "making an enduring covenant with the 
 dead" (Rob. Smith, i?^/. Sem, 322, 323). Like inci- 
 sions were made by the priests of Baal (i Kings 
 xviii. 28). These rites were forbidden by the 
 Hebrew law in Deut. xiv. i ; Lev. xix. 28, on the 
 same grounds as (3). (5) The covering of the head 
 by the mourner (2 Sam. xv. 30; Esth. vi. 12; 
 Jer. xiv. 3) is probably, with Schwally, to be re- 
 garded as a substitute for cutting off the hair, and 
 similarly the covering of the beard for its removal 
 (Ezek. xxiv. 17). This practice on the part of the 
 mourner expresses his reverence for the dead. The 
 same custom was observed by the worshipper in 
 approaching God. Thus Elijah covered his head 
 in the presence of God on Horeb, and such is the 
 universal usage in the synagogue and mosque at 
 the present day. 
 
 We have now considered the household gods of 
 Ancient Israel, the sacrifices that were offered to 
 them, that is, to the departed whom they represented, 
 and the restriction of the right of offering such 
 sacrifices to the eldest son, or to the son through a 
 levirate marriage, or the nearest male heir. We 
 have also touched on the mourning usages. All 
 these are essential parts of Ancestor Worship, and 
 for the most part regulate ^Ae condttct of the living in 
 their approach to the dead. We have now to con- 
 sider the beliefs that prevailed regarding the dead 
 themselves, i.e. their place of abode, and the nature 
 
OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN ISRAEL 31 
 
 of their existence there. These beUefs regarding chap. i. 
 the dead are essential constituents of Ancestor Heathen be- 
 Worship no less surely than those we have already the^dead^su^-^ 
 considered. They had, moreover, a much more ^'^^^^^^^qa.o. 
 extended lease of life ; for, long after the other con- 
 stituents of this worship had become unintelligible, 
 or sunk into complete desuetude, these still flourished 
 in the high places, of Judaism, and claimed the 
 adherence of no small portion of the priesthood 
 down to the destruction of the temple by 
 Titus. 
 
 III. Beliefs regarding the Dead. — We shall iii. Beliefs 
 consider these under the heads of — (i.) Burial ; (ii.) deld^ '"^^ ^ 
 The family grave ; (lii.) Sheol ; (iv.) The dead, or the 
 inhabitants of Sheol 
 
 (i.) Burial was regarded as indispensable to the (i.) Burial. 
 comfort of the departed, just as in the religions of 
 Greece and Rome. It was hardly ever withheld in 
 Israel. Criminals who were hanged (Deut. xxi.22,23) 
 or stoned (Jos. vii. 24-26), and suicides (Joseph. Bell, 
 Jud. III. viii. 5), were accorded burial, and even the 
 most hostile of the national foes of Israel (Ezek. 
 xxxix. 12). One of the most grievous calamities 
 that could befall a man was loss of burial. This is 
 the sentence pronounced on Jezebel (2 Kings ix. 
 10). It was the fate that awaited the enemies of 
 Yahwe (Jer. xxv. 33^). This horror at the thought 
 
 1 Even the materialistic writer of Eccl. vi. 3 regards such a misfortune 
 as outweighing a whole lifetime of material blessings on earth. But the con- 
 text is against this reference to the loss of burial, and so we must either 
 strike out the entire phrase "and moreover he have no burial," with Hitzig, 
 or else the negative, with Wildeboer. 
 
32 PRIMITIVE HEATHEN ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 CHAP. I. of being unburied cannot be explained as in the 
 Greek and Roman religions, where it involved the 
 penalty of non-admission to Hades; for according to 
 Hebrew views all without exception descended into 
 Sheol. It may be explained on two grounds: (i) 
 In earlier times no sacrifices could be offered to the 
 dead unless they had received burial. Sacrifices 
 were offered at the grave ; for the grave was in 
 some measure the temple in Ancestor Worship. 
 (2) The soul was conceived as connected with the 
 body even after death. Hence every outrage to 
 the dead body was also an outrage to the departed 
 soul. This view appears as late as Job*s time (see 
 XIV, 22). 
 (ii.) The family (ii.) The family grav 6. — Not burial only but burial 
 ^'^^^^' in the family grave was the desire of every Israelite. 
 
 Hence the frequent mention that a man was 
 gathered to his fathers (Gen. xv. 15 ; Judg. ii. 10), or 
 his people (Gen. xlix. 29-33; Num. xxvii. 13). The 
 object of burial not merely in a grave but in the 
 family grave was clearly to introduce the departed 
 into the society of his ancestors. In the earliest 
 times this society was conceived to exist either in the 
 family grave or in its immediate neighbourhood. 
 Every one wished to be buried with his father and 
 mother (2 Sam. xvii. 23, xix. 38). The deprivation 
 of such a burial was an act of condemnation 
 (r Kings xiii. 22). Jacob and Joseph direct that 
 their bodies should be carried back to Canaan to 
 be buried in the family grave (Gen. xlvii. 30, 1. 25 ; 
 Exod. xiii. 19). The family grave was originally 
 
OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN ISRAEL 33 
 
 in the house.^ Thus Samuel was buried in his own chap, i 
 house (i Sam. xxv. i), and Joab (i Kings, ii. 34).^ 
 But as no family stood in isolation, but was closely 
 united with others, and as those together made up 
 the clan or tribe, and these tribes in due time were 
 consolidated into the nation, a new conception arose. 
 According to this all the graves of the tribe or 
 nation were regarded as united in one ; and to this 
 new conception the designation Sheol was given. 
 How early this new conception arose we have no 
 means at present of determining. 
 
 (iii.) SheoL — We have just seen that in all prob- (ui.)siieoi. 
 ability Sheol was originally conceived as a combina- 
 tion of the graves of the clan or nation, and as thus 
 its final abode. In due course this conception was 
 naturally extended till it embraced the departed of 
 all nations, and thus became the final abode of all 
 mankind, good and bad alike. It has already 
 reached this stage in Ezek. xxxii.; Is. xiv.; Job xxx. 
 23 ("the house appointed for all living"); Eccl. 
 xii. 5 ("his eternal house"). Strictly regarded, 
 the conceptions of the abode of the dead in the 
 grave and in Sheol are mutually exclusive. But 
 being popular notions they do not admit of 
 scientific definition, and their characteristics are 
 
 ^ The same usage is said to have prevailed in Ancient Greece (see 
 Rohde, Psyche? i. 228), and in Babylonia (see Jastrow's ReU of Babylon, 599)' 
 
 2 Certain kings of Judah (2 Kings xxi. 18, 26) were buried close to the 
 temple. Seeing that graves had originally a sacred character, such sites as 
 human dwellings and the immediate neighbourhood of the temple were 
 natural. But in later times just because of their old association with Ancestor 
 Worship they were declared to be unclean (Ezek. xliii. 7 J Num. xix. 16), 
 and were marked with white (cf. Matt, xxiii. 27, rct^ois KCKoviafx^vois) in order 
 to guard wayfarers from impurity through contact with them. 
 
34 PRIMITIVE HE A THEN ESCHA TOIOG Y 
 
 treated at times as interchangeable (cf. Is. xiv. ii, 
 "Thy pomp is brought down to Sheol . . ." the 
 worm is spread over thee, and the worms cover 
 thee '')} The family grave, with its associations of 
 Ancestor Worship, is of course the older conception. 
 But the conception of Sheol goes back to the period 
 when the Hebrew clans lived in the Valley of the 
 Euphrates, and shared this and other beliefs with 
 the Babylonians of that time.^ Just as a man re- 
 quired burial in the family grave in order to join 
 the circle of his ancestors, so honourable burial was 
 a precondition to an honourable place in Sheol, ix, 
 to union with his people there. Otherwise they are 
 
 ^ The same confusion is to be found frequently in the Greek religion. 
 See Rohde, Psyche^ i. 257 note ; ii. 240 7tote, 366 note^ 381 note^ 384 note, 
 Rohde is of opinion that the cult of the dead can have no legitimate relation 
 to the soul that has once entered Hades (i. 257 note).^ though such a relation 
 is often assumed in Greek religion. The same confusion appears also in the 
 Babylonian religion. 
 
 2 That the Hebrew and Babylonian conceptions of Sheol are ultimately 
 from the same source is clear if we compare them together. Thus AralU, the 
 Babylonian Sheol, is a mighty palace situated under the earth, in the depths 
 of the mountain Aralu (cf. Jonah ii. 6). It is approached by the great ocean 
 into which the sun dips at evening. Hence it appears to be in the west, and 
 in this respect differs from the Hebrew Sheol. It is without light, surrounded 
 by seven walls, and provided with gates and bars. It is covered with dust 
 and filth. The food of its inhabitants is dust, unless offerings of food are 
 received from the living. There is no distinction made between good and bad. 
 They are withdrawn from the control of the gods of the upper world just as 
 the inhabitants of Sheol were supposed to be removed from the jurisdiction 
 of Yahw^. But Aralil, unlike Sheol, had its own gods, Nergal and AUatu. 
 The departed cannot enter Arald unless they have received burial. In this 
 respect also the Hebrew view differs. It is probable also that in the 
 Babylonian Shualu we have the same word as the Hebrew Sheol (so 
 Delitzsch, Jeremias, Jastrow. Jensen, however, doubts the existence of this 
 word in Babylonian ; Zimmern regards the question as still open). The 
 inhabitants of Aralu are naked (cf. Job i. 21). But the more usual Hebrew 
 view was that the departed wore in shadowy guise the customary attire of earth 
 (cf. Ezek. xxxii. ; Is, xiv.) See especially Jeremias {Bab,-assyr. Vorstelhinge^i 
 vom Leben nach dem Tode, pp. 106-126) on the relations existing between 
 Babylonian and Old Testament views of the after-life. 
 
OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN ISRAEL 35 
 
 thrust into the lowest and most outlying parts of the chap. i. 
 pit (Ezek, xxxii. 23). Sheol is said to have different 
 divisions or chambers, nio ^'TXn (Prov. vii. 27). It is 
 provided with gates (Ps. ix. 14, cvii. 18; Job xxxviii. 
 17; Is. xxxviii. 10). These are secured with bars 
 (Job xvii. 16). It is the land of disorder (Job x. 22), 
 and of dust (Dan. xii. 2; Job vii, 21, xvii. 16). As 
 regards its position, Sheol was supposed to be 
 situated in the lowest parts of the earth (Ps. Ixiii. 9, 
 Ixxxvi. 13; Ezek. xxvi. 20, xxxi. 14, xxxii. 18, 24), 
 below the sea (Job xxvi. 5), yet above the subter- 
 ranean waters (Ps. Ixxi. 20). It is likewise known as 
 *' the pit," ni:i (Ezek. xxvi. 20, xxxi. 14, 16, xxxii. 
 18, 24, 25, 29, 30; Lam. iii. 53, 55; Is. xiv. 15, 19; 
 Prov. i. 12, xxviii. 17; Ps. xxviii. i, xxx. 3, Ixxxviii. 
 4, cxliii. 7), or nnttJ (Is. xxxviii. 17, li. 14; Ezek. 
 xxviii. 8; Job xvii. 14, xxxiii. 18, 22, 24, 28, 30). 
 So situated, Sheol is naturally without light. It is 
 "the land of darkness," of thick darkness as dark- 
 ness itself, *' where the light is as darkness" (Job x, 
 21, 22). 
 
 In the next section we shall deal at some length Twocharac- 
 with the condition of the dead in Sheol. It will be sheoi. 
 sufficient here to point out two of its main char- 
 acteristics — (a) Sheol was in early times quite 
 independent of Yahwe, and outside the sphere of 
 H is rule. For, as we have seen, Yahwe was 
 originally but the God of the tribe or nation, and 
 His sway for many centuries after Moses was con- 
 ceived to extend not to the whole upper world, 
 much less to the lower, i.e, Sheol, but only to His 
 
36 PRIMITIVE HE A THEN ESCHA TO LOG Y 
 
 CHAP. I. own people and His own land. Sheol preserved 
 its independence undiminished in many respects 
 down to the fourth century. The persistence of 
 this heathen conception of Sheol ^ side by side with 
 the monotheistic conception of Yahwe as Creator 
 and Ruler of the world for several centuries is hard 
 for the Western mind to understand ; for the con- 
 ceptions are mutually exclusive. Thus Israel be- 
 lieved that when a man died he was removed from 
 the moral jurisdiction of Yahwe (Ps. Ixxxviii. 5 : — 
 
 Like the slain that lie in the grave 
 Whom thou rememberest no more 
 And they are cut off from thy hand. 
 
 Ps. xxxi. 22), and his relations with Yahwe ceased 
 
 *(Is. xxxviii. 18) : — 
 
 For Sheol cannot praise thee ; 
 
 Death cannot celebrate thee. 
 
 They that go down into the pit cannot hope for thy truth. 
 
 {b) As Sheol is independent of Yahwe, the moral 
 distinctions that prevailed on earth had no currency 
 in Sheol. 
 
 (iv.)The (iv.) The Dead, or the Inhabitants of SheoL — 
 
 Death, according to the Old Testament, means an 
 end of the earthly life, but not the cessation of all 
 existence. After death the person still subsists. In 
 
 1 Though God's power is conceived from the eighth century onward 
 (cf. Am. ix. 2 ; i Sam. ii. 6 (very late) ; Job xxvi. 6, xxxviii. 17 ; Prov. xv. 
 II; Ps. cxxxix. 7, 8 : — 
 
 Wliither shall I go from thy spirit ? 
 
 Or whither shall I flee from thy presence ? 
 
 If I ascend into heaven, thou art there, 
 
 If I make my bed in Sheol, behold thou art there) 
 
 to extend to Sheol, yet Sheol maintains its primitive character. In the 
 earlier centuries the powers that bore sway in Sheol were the ancestors of the 
 living. 
 
 inhabitants of 
 Sheol, 
 
OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN ISRAEL 37 
 
 order to understand so far as possible the nature of chap. i. 
 existence in Sheol, we must first consider the com- 
 posite personality of man in the Old Testament, om Testament 
 
 -i\/r ■ . r 1 • • 11 anthropology 
 
 Man consists oi two elements, spirit or soul and —the earlier 
 body, according to the older view, and of three ^^ 
 elements, spirit and soul and body, according to the 
 later view. Now a knowledge of the Old Testa- 
 ment doctrine of the soul is of paramount importance 
 if we wish to understand the eschatological develop- 
 ment of the Old Testament. For convenience 
 sake we shall treat it under the following heads : — 
 
 ( 1 ) The souL or nephesh (mQ3), is identical with the (i) The soui 
 
 ^ ' ^ r \ n identical with 
 
 blood, — As the shedding of blood caused death, the thebiood. 
 soul was conceived to be in the blood (Lev. xvii. 
 II''), or was actually identified with it (Deut. xii. 
 23 ; Gen. ix. 4, 5). Hence the eating of blood 
 was shunned, and the blood offered to God. Hence 
 likewise blood unjustly spilt on the earth (Gen. iv. 
 10) cried to heaven for vengeance, ix, the soul. 
 Again, since the soul was the blood, and the heart 
 was the central seat of the blood, the heart was 
 regarded as the organ of thought. A ''heartless" 
 man was a man without intelligence (Hos. vii. 11) ; 
 when a man thought, he was said to *' speak in his 
 heart." Thought is not ascribed to the soul, though 
 intelligence in a limited degree is. 
 
 (2) The soul is the seat of feelinp; and desire, and, (2) The seat of 
 
 ^ ' . . J . . J . feeling and the 
 
 in a secondary degree, of the intelligence, andts tdenti- personality. 
 fiedwith the personality. — Not only are purely animal 
 functions attributed to the soul, such as hunger (Prov> 
 x. 3), thirst (Prov. xxv. 25), sexual desire (Jer. ii. 24), 
 
38 PRIMITIVE HEATHEN ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 CHAP. I. but also psychical affections, such as love (Is. xlii. i), 
 joy (Ps. Ixxxvi. 4), fear (Is. xv. 4), trust (Ps. Ivii. i), 
 hate (Is. i. 14), contempt (Ezek, xxxvi. 5).^ Indeed 
 these are so essentially affections of the soul that 
 they are hardly ever attributed to the spirit ; yet 
 see p. 46. To the soul also are ascribed wish 
 and desire (Gen. xxiii. 8 ; 2 Kings ix. 15 ; i Chron. 
 xxviii. 9), and likewise, but very rarely, memory 
 (Lam. iii. 20 ; Deut. iv. 9) and knowledge (Ps. 
 cxxxix. 14). As the seat of feeling and desire and 
 intelligence (in a limited degree) it becomes an 
 expression for the individual conscious life. Thus 
 "my soul" (^t&DD) = I, ''thy soul " = thou, etc. 
 (Hos. ix. 4; Ps. iii. 3, vii. 2, xi. i). So many 
 souls = so many persons (Gen. xlvi. 18 ; Exod. i. 5). 
 This designation of the personality by soul (nephesh) 
 points to the limited conception of the personality 
 that prevailed in Israel. '* My spirit" ("'nil) was 
 never so used. 
 Soul leaves the (:,) The soul Icaves the body in death (Gen. xxxv. 
 
 body m death. r - 
 
 18; I Kings xvii. 21 ; 2 Sam. i. 9; Jonah iv. 3). — 
 But this did not always necessarily take place 
 immediately, but it did so apparently on the 
 corruption of the body. In certaia cases after 
 outward death the soul was regarded as being still 
 in some sense either in or near the body ; for a 
 dead person is called a *'soul/' z.e, nephesh (Lev. 
 
 1 This Semitic view of the soul is quite distinct from that of the Greeks 
 as it appears in Homer. There the soul is not the seat of any of the mental 
 activities ; for these belong to the 6v/j.6s, which is merely a function of the 
 body, and disappears on the death of the body. It is only the soul that 
 survives death according to Homer (see Chap. HI. pp. 137-139). 
 
OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN ISRAEL 39 
 
 xix. 28, xxi. I, xxii. 4; Num. ix. 6, 7, 10; Hag. chap, i. 
 ii. 13), or a "dead soul," ix, no msD (Num. vi. 6; 
 Lev. xxi. 1 1). This usage, however, can be far more 
 satisfactorily explained from Gen. ii. 7, where the 
 living man is called *' a living soul " (see pp. 42, 43). 
 (4) In death the soul dies^ but not in an absolute 
 sense, according to primitive Hebrew anthropology. — 
 We have here to deal with a very important 
 question, and one which brings to light in the Old 
 Testament conflicting, and to a certain extent con- Two conflict- 
 current, views on the nature of the after-life in some^extent 
 Sheol. At this stage we are obliged to part v°ews''of hfe 
 company with our predecessors in this field. ^ The inSheoi. 
 older view {a) which originated in the period of 
 Semitic heathenism, attributes to the departed a 
 certain degree of knowledge and power in reference 
 to the living and their affairs ; the later {b\ which is 
 derived logically from the monotheistic doctrine of 
 man's nature taught in Gen. ii., iii., but was un- 
 known in preprophetic times, declares that there is 
 neither knowledge, nor wisdom, nor life in the grave. 
 We shall deal with the latter in due course. To 
 return, according to the older view (13:), the departed The older 
 possessed a certain degree of self- consciousness The departed 
 and the power of speech and movement (Is. xiv.) ; tuh^twffetrt 
 a large measure of knowleds^e, hence their name of their de- 
 
 o o ' scendants, and 
 
 D■^3^i^^^ *'the knowing^ ones " ^ (JLev. xix. 31, xx, 6; possess the 
 
 ^ ^ power of 
 
 helping them. 
 ^ Only Stade appears to have apprehended this fact, and that but partially, 
 so far as we may judge from his published works. 
 
 2 The departed spirit when consulted was also termed niN. A necro- 
 mancer was said to possess an niN, or familiar spirit (Lev. xx. 2,7 ; i Sam. 
 xxviii. 7) ; he was called *'a questioner of the mx" (Deut. xviii. '11). 
 
40 PRIMITIVE HEATHEN ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 Customs of 
 this life 
 reproduced in 
 Sheol. 
 
 Is. xix. 3) ; acquaintance with the affairs of their 
 living descendants, and a keen interest in their 
 fortunes — thus Rachel mourns from her grave for 
 her captive children (Jen xxxi. 15^); ability to 
 forecast the future, hence they were consulted by 
 the living regarding it (i Sam. xxviii. 13-20, 
 where observe that the dead person invoked is 
 called elohim ; Is. viii. 19, xxix. 4). Hence the 
 practice of incubation (Is. Ixv. 4). We have already 
 shown that the departed were believed to have the 
 power of helping or injuring their descendants 
 (see p. 24). It will be sufficient to observe here 
 that it follows from Is. Ixiii. 16 that Abraham 
 and Israel were conceived as protectors of their 
 descendants (see Cheyne and Duhm in loc) 
 
 The relations and customs of earth were repro- 
 duced in Sheol. Thus the prophet was dis- 
 tinguished by his mantle (i Sam. xxviii. 14), kings 
 by their crowns and thrones (Is. xiv.), the uncircum- 
 cised by his foreskin (Ezek. xxxii.) Each nation 
 also preserved its individuality, and no doubt its 
 national garb and customs (Ezek. xxxii.) Those 
 
 ^ According to the Greek religion also, the inhabitants of Hades were 
 acquainted with the affairs of the living. Cf. Pindar, Pyth. v. 98-103 ; 
 Olymp. viii. 81-84, xiv. 20-24. See Rohde, Psyche^ i. 201. This view is 
 expressed doubtfully by Demosthenes, Leptln. 87, but it is presupposed in 
 Aeschylus, Choeph. 324, 325, <f>p6v't)ixoi rod davbvTos ov dafjid^ec irvpbs fiaXepa 
 yvddosj and also by the words of invocation addressed to the soul of Agamem- 
 non (139, 147, 148, 156, 157, 477-509); cf. Pi/m. 598. This knowledge 
 of what occurs on earth is ascribed to the dead also in Sophocles, P/. 1066 
 sg^. ; the dead can avenge themselves on the living {Track. 1201, 1202), or 
 help them {PL 454, 1419, 1420). Similarly in Euripides the soul of the slain 
 father is invoked to help his children {PL 676 sqq.\ who are convinced that 
 their father hears their appeal {^^2i)' The soul of the dead sweeps round the 
 living, and knows all their concerns {Or. 66'j sqq.) 
 
OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN ISRAEL 41 
 
 slain with the sword bear for ever the tokens of a chap. i. 
 violent death in Sheol (Ezek. xxxii. 25), and like- 
 wise those who died from grief (Gen. xlii. 38). 
 Indeed the departed were regarded as reproducing 
 exactly the same features as marked them at the 
 moment of death. Hence we can appreciate the 
 terrible significance of David s departing counsel to 
 Solomon touching Joab : " Let not his hoar head 
 go down to Sheol in peace " (i Kings ii. 6). 
 
 In many respects the above view is identical 
 with that of Ancestor Worship, and, though this 
 worship had already withdrawn entirely into the 
 background before the prophetic period, yet many 
 of its usages still persisted in the popular belief till 
 long after the Exile. The leading characteristic of 
 these survivals may be said to be the comparatively 
 large measure of life^ movement, knowledge, and 
 Itkewise power a.ttnhuted to the departed in Sheol. 
 The importance of this characteristic will become 
 obvious when we deal with the later and antagonistic 
 views of the condition of the departed in Sheol. 
 
 (d) This later view, which practically denies 
 knowledge and life to the inhabitants of Sheol, 
 follows logically from the account in Gen. ii. 4-iii., composite 
 according to which the material form when animated according To^" 
 by the spirit became a living soul. *' Yahwe Elohim ^^^' "' 
 formed man of dust from the ground, and blew into 
 his nostrils breath of life (n^^n nomD), and man 
 became a living soul" (Gen. ii. 7, J). The breath 
 of life {n^^n n^m^) here mentioned is identical with 
 the spirit of life (D"'"'n nn) in vi. 17, vii. 15 (P). 
 
 111. 
 
42 
 
 PRIMITIVE HE A THEN ESCHA TOLOG V 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 Spirit imper- 
 sonally con- 
 ceived. 
 
 Man a 
 trichotomy. 
 
 Soul a func- 
 tion of the 
 quickened 
 body. 
 
 Thus the spirit of Hfe is found also in the brute 
 creation according to both these passages (see also 
 Ps. civ. 29, 30). A conflation of both these phrases is 
 given in vii. 22 (J), "the breath of the spirit of life" 
 (D'^^'n nn-nom^), which the lower creation is said to 
 possess. Since, therefore, **the breath of life," or 
 "the spirit of life," is common to man and the rest 
 of the animal creation,^ the spirit of life conceived 
 as thus existing in all living things is life in an 
 impersonal sense. The spirit, therefore, in man can 
 never in this sense be the bearer of the personality. 
 On the other hand, though the spirit is not per- 
 sonally conceived, yet, since it remains in the man 
 so long as he lives and forms in him a thing apart 
 by itself, it must be regarded as forming part of 
 man's composite personality. Accordingly, we 
 have here a real trichotomy of spirit {nT\)y soul 
 (ti?Da), and body (idi). But if we examine these 
 elements more closely we see that the soul is the 
 result of the indwelling of the spirit in the material 
 body, and has no independent existence of its 
 own. It is really a function of the material body 
 when quickened by the spirit. So long as the spirit 
 is present, so long is the soul "a living sotil" (mD3 
 n'^n)y but when the spirit is withdrawn, the vitality 
 of the soul is destroyed, and it becomes a dead 
 soul {no msD), or corpse (Num. vi. 6 ; Lev. xxi. 11). 
 The dead body is sometimes simply termed "a 
 
 1 According to the story worked up by a late priestly writer in Gen. i. 24 
 (P), the brute creation is only indirectly the product of the divine creation, 
 whereas man is such directly (i. 26). 
 
OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN ISRAEL 43 
 
 soul" (Lev. xix. 28, xxi. i, xxii. 4; Num. ix. chap. i. 
 6, 7, 10; Hag. ii. 13). According to this view the 
 annihilation of the soul ensues inevitably at death, 
 that is, when the spirit is withdrawn. This dis- Hence 
 solution of the personality at death is frankly extinguished 
 recognised in Eccl. xii. 7, and the impersonal breath ^ 
 of life returns to the Supreme Fount of Life : '*the 
 spirit shall return to God, who gave it." Thus 
 this anthropological view is logically and historically 
 the parent of later Sadduceism, which taught that 
 there is neither angel nor spirit (Acts xxiii. 8). 
 Thus the consequences of this view were fully 
 drawn in the second and first centuries before the 
 Christian era, but in the three preceding centuries 
 the logic of its representatives was less consistent. 
 They still believed that the soul szidsisted after 
 death, though it did not exist. This subsistence 
 is indeed purely shadowy and negative — so negative 
 that in it all the faculties of the soul were suspended, 
 and Sheol, the abode of the souls, became a synonym 
 of Abaddon or destruction (Job xxvi. 6 ; Prov. xv. 
 1 1, xxvii. 20). 
 
 If the teaching of Gen. ii., iii. is taken as a com- Thesouiison 
 
 1 r ) • 11 this view the 
 
 plete account 01 mans composite nature, the soul seat of the 
 must be regarded not only as the vital principle "^*"^* 
 of the body, but as the seat of all the mental 
 activities.^ With these the spirit, which is really the 
 impersonal basis of life in man, stands in no direct 
 relation. 
 
 ^ It is noteworthy that the soul, according to this view, corresponds to the 
 Homeric conception of the mind {BviLbi). See p. 137. 
 
44 PRIMITIVE HEATHEN ESCHATOLOG Y 
 
 CHAP. I. From these facts it is clear that no advance in the 
 
 Such a theory direction of an immortality of the soul can be made 
 
 makes the . ^ , i , r • i i i 1 
 
 doctrine of a With such an anthropoiogy ; tor m death the soul 
 
 [ncom:eivabie. ^^ extinguished and only the spirit survives. But 
 
 since the spirit is only the impersonal force of life 
 
 common to men and brutes, it returns to the Fount 
 
 of all Life, and thus all personal existence ceases at 
 
 death. So the Sadducees concluded, and if we start 
 
 from the same premises we must inevitably arrive 
 
 at the same conclusion (cf. the Pauline psychology, 
 
 p. 409). 
 
 Soul and spirit In the above threefold division of man's person- 
 
 esslnce and ality the Spirit and soul are distinct alike in essence 
 
 °"^^^* and origin. The former is the impersonal basis of 
 
 life coming from God, and returning on death to 
 
 God. The latter, which is the personal factor in 
 
 man, is simply the supreme function of the quickened 
 
 body, and perishes on the withdrawal of the spirit. 
 
 This doctrine of Gen. ii., iii. never succeeded in 
 dispossessing the older and rival doctrine.-^ Their 
 conflicting views of soul and spirit were current 
 together, and not unfrequently the same writers in 
 the Old Testament have used these terms, sometimes 
 
 ^ Its prevalence is attested by the Second Isaiah xlii. 5. It is pre- 
 supposed probably by Deuteronomy, certainly by Ezek. xxxvii., and its diction 
 and influence are conspicuous in Job and certain psalms. Thus in Job xxvii. 
 3 we find : *' The spirit of God is in my nostrils " ; and in xxxiii. 4, *' The 
 spirit of God hath made me and the breath of the Almighty giveth me life " ; 
 and in xxxiv. 11-15, " I^ ^^ cause his spirit to return unto him, and 
 gathereth unto him his breath, all flesh shall perish together " (so Duhm 
 emends). Similarly in Ps. civ. 30-29, "Thousendest forth thy spirit, they are 
 created, and thou renewest the face of the earth. Thou takest away their 
 spirit ; they die, and return to their dust" ; and in Ps. cxlvi. 3, 4, '• Put not 
 your trust in princes, in a son of man who cannot save. His spirit goeth 
 forth, he returneth to his earth ; in that very day his thoughts perish." 
 
OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN ISRAEL 45 
 
 with one meaning, sometimes with another. Greece chap. i. 
 furnishes us with good analogies (see pp. 137, 138, 
 141-145). 
 
 Having now dealt with the later doctrine of 
 man's personality which is taught in Gen. ii., iii., we 
 shall now return to the earlier view with which 
 we have already dealt at some length above. 
 According to this primitive Hebrew view, man was Earlier 
 composed not of three essentially distinct elements ManTotT^' 
 — a trichotomy — spirit, soul, and body, but only of Ifd^hot'^my''^ 
 two — a dichotomy — spirit or soul and body. The 
 spirit and soul were really one and the same. 
 They were synonymous in their primitive signi- 
 fication as ''breath" or "wind." The conception . 
 of both was arrived at in the way of observa- 
 tion. When the breath (nephesh or ruach, ddd or 
 nn) left the body, death ensued. Thus the principle 
 of life was identified with the soul or spirit. The 
 partial difi^erentiation of these two naturally arose 
 in the course of time. The term ''spirit" was The spirit. 
 appropriated to mark the stronger side of the soul 
 and, as Stade {Gesch, d. Volks Israel^ i. 418) 
 has remarked, designated the stronger and stormier 
 emotions. 
 
 When once it became customary to personify the 
 psychical affections as nephesh, the practice began 
 of naming the stronger expressions of this personifi- 
 cation as spirit or ruach. Thus anger is an affec- 
 tion of the ruach (Judg. viii. 3 ; see later). 
 
 So long as a man was wholly master of his 
 powers, he still possessed his ruach, but when he 
 
46 PRIMITIVE HEATHEN ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 CHAP. I. became lost in amazement, as the queen of Sheba 
 (i Kings X. 5), or despair (Jos. ii. 11), or fainted 
 (i Sam. XXX. 12), his ruach left him, though on his 
 reviving it returned (Gen. xlv. 27 ; Judg. xv. 19). 
 In keeping with this view of the spirit, it is said to 
 be the subject of trouble (Gen. xli. 8), anguish (Job 
 vii. 11), grief (Gen. xxvi. 35 ; Is. liv. 6), contrition 
 (Ps. li. 17 ; Is. Ixvi. 2), heaviness (Is. Ixi. 3). It is 
 the seat of energetic volition and action. Thus the 
 '* haughty spirit" (Prov. xvi. 18), the "lowly spirit" 
 (xxix. 23), the impatient spirit (Prov. xiv. 29), etc. 
 
 As the departure of the ruach entailed a paralysis 
 of the will (see above), it expresses therefore the im- 
 pulse of the will (Exod. xxxv. 21) ; the purposes of 
 man are the outcome of the spirit, nn rch'^ta (Ezek. 
 xi. 5) : the false prophets follow their own spirit 
 rather than that of Yahwe (Ezek. xiii. 3) ; God tries 
 men's spirits (Prov. xvi. 2). Further, it seems to 
 express character as the result of will in Num. xiv. 
 24, *' Caleb . . . had another spirit in him." 
 
 These various applications were evolved in 
 connection with the earlier conception of ruach. 
 Soul and I u the course of a natural development, the 
 fn essence and ruach had bccome the seat of the highest spiritual 
 differentiated functions iu man. To sum up, then, soul and 
 in function. spirit are at this early stage identical in essence 
 and origin, though differentiated in function. 
 
 The primitive doctrine of the soul has already 
 been discussed (see pp. 3 7-40). I f we compare 
 the doctrine of the soul there given with that of the 
 spirit, which we have just investigated, it will be 
 
. OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN ISRAEL 47 
 
 obvious that soul and spirit at this early stage were chap. i. 
 identical in essence and origin, though differen- Difference be- 
 tiated in function, whereas according to the later andTatTr"^ 
 doctrine of Gen. ii., iii. they differed alike in essence, ^^^^^' 
 in origin, and function. 
 
 According to the primitive view of the spirit as spirit could 
 
 ■, 'iri i'-i ^ • 11 ^Ot descend 
 
 the stronger side oi the soul, it is clear that it could into sheoi. 
 not descend into Sheol. The soul, on the other 
 hand, did descend, and enjoyed a considerable degree 
 of life and knowledge there. 
 
 We are now in a position to contrast the earlier state of the 
 
 11 . , r 1 1 1 • departed in 
 
 and later views on the state oi the departed in sheoi accord- 
 
 CUp„1 1 ingtothe 
 
 •^^^^^^^ ' earlier and 
 
 Thus in opposition to the older view that in interviews. 
 Sheol there is a certain degree of life, movement, and 
 remembrance, the later view teaches that it is the 
 land of forgetfulness (Ps. Ixxxviii. 12), of silence 
 (Ps. xciv. 17, cxv. 17), of destruction (Job xxvi. 6, 
 xxviii. 22) ; in opposition to the belief that the dead 
 return to counsel the living, the later teaches that the 
 dead cannot return to earth (Job vii. 9, xiv. 12) ; in 
 opposition to the belief that they are acquainted with 
 the affairs of their living descendants, the later 
 teaches that they no longer know what befalls them 
 on earth (Job xiv. 21, '* His sons come to honour, 
 and he knoweth it not ; and they are brought low, 
 but he perceiveth it not of them ") ; in opposition to 
 the belief in their superhuman knowledge of the 
 future — as the ''knowing ones" — the later teaches 
 
 ' Logically, as we have seen above, there could be no future life for the 
 soul in Sheol according to the later teaching of Gen. ii., iii. 
 
48 PRIMITIVE HEATHEN ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 CHAP. I. that all knowledge has forsaken them (Eccl. ix. 5), 
 that they have neither device nor knowledge nor 
 wisdom (Eccl. ix. 10). And whereas according to 
 the older view they were called elohim in invoca- 
 tion, they are termed in the later ''dead ones/' 
 □"'no (Is. xxvi. 14; Ps. Ixxxviii. 10).^ 
 
 Finally, the relations of the upper world appear 
 to be more faintly reproduced, if at all ; for all the 
 inhabitants of Sheol, kings and slaves, oppressor 
 and oppressed, good and bad, are all buried in pro- 
 found sleep (Job iii. 14-20). Indeed all existence 
 seems to be absolutely at an end. Thus Ps. xxxix. 
 13, *' O spare me, that I may recover strength 
 before I go hence and be no more " ; Job xiv. 7, 10, 
 *' There is hope of a tree, if it be cut down, that it 
 will sprout out again — but — man giveth up the ghost, 
 and where is he ? " 
 Departed in We have now to Call attention to one point more 
 
 deslignated as bcfore leaving this subject, and this is that though 
 fate period, ^^^ ^^'^^^ leaves the body in deaths the departed in 
 Sheol are hardly if ever designated as souls in the 
 Old Testament, This fact is probably to be explained 
 by the metaphysical inability of early Israel to con- 
 ceive the body without psychical functions, or the 
 soul without a certain corporeity. Thus the de- 
 parted were conceived as possessing a soul and a 
 shadowy body. In the older days they were called 
 
 1 The term "shades," d'N£3-) (used also in the Phoenician religion; see 
 Driver, Books of Samitel^ p. xxix), was applied to the departed by both 
 views, but possibly with a diiference : contrast Is. xiv. 9, 10; xxvi. 14, 19, 
 with Ps. Ixxxviii. 10 (Prov. ii. 18, ix. 81, etc.), where it is synonymous with 
 the dead. 
 
OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN ISRAEL 49 
 
 shades (rephatm), or, when addressed, elohim. chap. i. 
 
 During the later times when such a doctrine of 
 
 man's being became current as that in Gen. ii., iii., 
 
 the departed were called **dead ones," or "shades," 
 
 as in the older days. We should probably recognise 
 
 in Job xiv. 22 an instance of the later usage of 
 
 designating the inhabitants of Sheol as souls: *' Only 
 
 for himself his flesh hath pain, and for himself his 
 
 soul mourneth." ^ Here the soul is in Sheol, with all 
 
 its feeling and interests limited to itself, and the 
 
 body is in the grave. In this passage Job reflects 
 
 the popular eschatolop-v of his day. Furthermore, According to 
 
 1 1111- 11 the higher 
 
 m XIX. 26, 27, where he abandons this eschatology, theology, the 
 
 !• 1 • ri'V'-L^v i_ soul after death 
 
 and rises to the expression of his highest hopes, he s.% capable of 
 declares that without the body he will see God, that ^^g^io^^"^ 
 is, his soul or spirit will enjoy the divine vision at 
 some period after death. Since only the highest 
 powers of man's soul were capable of the divine 
 vision, it is clear that the writer had a lofty con- 
 ception of the capabilities of the soul apart from the 
 body. We cannot emphasise too strongly the 
 importance of this point, since it is almost univers- 
 ally taught that the Jew had no such conception of 
 the soul till he came under the influence of the 
 Greek (see pp. 71, 72). 
 
 We have now done with the treatment of short r^sum^ 
 Ancestor Worship. We have considered it only in 
 
 ^ We seem here to have an idea which is also found in ancient Greek 
 religion. So long as the body in any form still existed, the soul, though 
 separated from it, was conscious of what befell it. This is the presupposition 
 underlying Achilles' ill-treatment of Hector's dead body (see Rohde, Psyche^ 
 i. 27). 
 
 4 
 
50 PRIMITIVE HEATHEN ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 its eschatological aspects, only so far as it supplied 
 to the individual a doctrine of the future life. 
 
 We have found that the individual Israelite 
 derived from this source his views as to the nature 
 of the soul and spirit, Sheol, and the condition of 
 the departed there. On these questions no revela- 
 tion was furnished by Yahwism for many centuries ; 
 Yahwism had no eschatology relating to the indi- 
 vidual to begin with. But with the first proclama- 
 tion of Yahwism by Moses the doom of Ancestor 
 Worship and its teachings was already pronounced, 
 though centuries might elapse before this doom was 
 fully accomplished. We have already seen partial ful- 
 filments of this doom in the destruction by Yahwism 
 of all life in Sheol. This step was necessary with a 
 view to the truly ethical doctrine of the future life. 
 In the next chapter we shall deal with the positive 
 preparation made by Yahwism for such a higher 
 doctrine. This preparation proceeded essentially 
 from the new value which came to be set on the 
 individual through Yahwism. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE INDIVIDUAL RISE OF THE 
 
 DOCTRINE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IMMORTALITY 
 
 In the preceding chapter we pointed out that it R^sum^of 
 would be impossible to understand the eschatology 
 of the individual Israelite in preprophetic times 
 apart from some knowledge of his conception of 
 God. 
 
 For even a superficial study of the former is 
 sufficient to show that down to the Exile and later 
 the beliefs of Israel in reference to a future life were 
 heathen to the core, and irreconcilable with any 
 intelligible belief in a sole and supreme God. The 
 question therefore naturally arose: Since Israel's 
 preprophetic conception of God was not mono- 
 theistic, of what nature was it? In our short 
 inquiry into this question, we found that Yahwe 
 had revealed Himself to Israel as a God of justice, 
 righteousness, and purity, and was thereby sundered 
 essentially and absolutely from the other Semitic 
 deities of the time, and yet that He was not regarded 
 by Early Israel as the sole God of the earth, but 
 
52 RISE OF THE DOCTRINE OF 
 
 CHAP. 11. only as the sole God of Israel, whose influence and 
 authority were in the main limited to His own 
 people and country. As a national God, further, 
 He was popularly conceived as being concerned 
 only with the wellbeing of the nation, and as 
 possessing neither interest nor jurisdiction in the 
 life of the individual beyond the grave. Hence 
 since early Yahwism possessed no eschatology of 
 its own, the individual Israelite was left to his 
 hereditary heathen beliefs. These beliefs we found 
 were elements of Ancestor Worship. Thus the 
 individual Israelite possessed teraphim, or house- 
 hold gods, which he worshipped with sacrifices 
 with a view to secure their favour or avert their 
 wrath. This worship was performed by a son of 
 the departed, and thus in connection with this 
 worship arose the importance of securing a male 
 offspring. The primitive mourning usages in 
 Israel belonged to this worship, and likewise the 
 beliefs entertained regarding the family grave, Sheol, 
 and its inhabitants. Finally we discovered that we 
 have herein a key to difficulties that have hitherto 
 proved insoluble in relation to the conceptions of 
 the soul and spirit in the Old Testament. For 
 the Old Testament attests, not a single and uniform 
 doctrine of the soul and spirit, but two essentially 
 distinct views of these conceptions, the earlier 
 derived ultimately from Ancestor Worship, the later 
 from the monotheistic account in Genesis. 
 
 The primitive beliefs of the individual Israelite 
 regarding the future life, being thus derived from 
 
AN INDIVIDUAL IMMORTALITY 53 
 
 Ancestor Worship, were implicitly antagonistic to chap. u. 
 Yahwism from its first proclamation by Moses. In 
 its subsequent developments this antagonism be- 
 comes explicit, and results in the final triumph of 
 Yahwism. During the progress of this conflict 
 Yahwism annihilates all existence in Sheol, since 
 the nature of this existence was heathen and non- 
 moral, and could in no sense form a basis on which 
 to found an ethical and spiritual doctrine of the 
 future life. Thus the first stage in this conflict 
 was eminently destructive in character, but this 
 only with a view to a higher reconstruction. For 
 whilst Yahwism was destroying the false life in 
 Sheol it was steadily developing in the individual 
 the consciousness of a new life and a new worth 
 through immediate communion with God. Now 
 it is from the consciousness of this new life, and 
 not from the moribund existence in Sheol, that the 
 doctrine of a blessed future — whether of the soul 
 only immediately after death, or of the soul and 
 body through a resurrection at some later date — 
 was developed in Israel. Thus this doctrine was 
 a new creation, the offspring of faith in God on the 
 part of Israel's saints. 
 
 A large body of the nation, however, took the 
 provisional stage above referred to to be one of 
 true and eternal significance. This defective view, 
 named in later times the Sadducean, arose in the 
 fifth century e.g., and maintained itself down to the 
 destruction of Jerusalem in 70 a.d. 
 
 When Yahwism had destroyed the false view of 
 
54 
 
 RISE OF THE DOCTRINE OF 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 Doctrine of 
 individual 
 retribution 
 derives its 
 origin from 
 Yahwism. 
 
 Preludings of 
 the doctrine 
 of a blessed 
 future. 
 
 Man's creation 
 in God's like- 
 ness not made 
 the basis of 
 Biblical 
 anthropology. 
 
 the future life, it began to develop an eschatology 
 of the individual in harmony with its own essential 
 conceptions. We have now to deal with the 
 foundation laid by Yahwism for this higher doctrine 
 of the future life. This foundation is based on the 
 new value set on the individual through Yahwism. 
 The rise of individualism in Israel must therefore 
 presently engage our attention. 
 
 But before we enter on this study we must not 
 fail to observe certain beliefs in pre-Exilic religion, 
 which, though they could not be regarded as forming 
 actual stages in the development of the doctrine of 
 a blessed future life, are nevertheless heralds and 
 preludings of this doctrine. Regarded from the 
 standpoint of our present investigation, these beliefs 
 are of various worth. Of such beliefs there are 
 four. Two of these, which ought to have had 
 a determining influence on subsequent Jewish de- 
 velopment, but which apparently had not, we shall 
 discuss first. These are (i.) the creation of man in 
 God's image and likeness in Gen. i. 26, 27. (ii.) 
 The presence of the tree of life in the Garden of 
 Eden (Gen. ii., iii.) We need not linger long over 
 either of these. As regards the former, however 
 we interpret Gen. i. 26, 27, we cannot adopt it as 
 the foundation of a Biblical anthropology, since this 
 doctrine of man's creation in the divine likeness^ 
 
 ^ Does the likeness refer to moral qualities ? This is possible. Yet it is 
 to be observed that Adam transmits this likeness to Seth v. 3, and that all 
 men possess it after the fall (ix. 6). On the other hand, it is contended that 
 the divine likeness consists in the fact that man rules all other living creatures 
 on the earth just as God rules the universe. It is to be observed that, had 
 the likeness been one of essence, and this view been accepted in Israel^ the 
 
AN INDIVIDUAL IMMORTALITY 55 
 
 does not appear, with the exception of Gen. i. chap. n. 
 26, 27; V. I, 3; ix. 6, throughout the rest of the 
 Old Testament, (ii.) Next, as to the tree of life. 
 The presence of this tree in the Garden of Eden References to 
 would seem to indicate that primitive man was in- in^oen. ii.,iii. 
 tended from the outset to become immortal. But i^e'J^xr''' 
 Budde {Biblische Urgeschichte, pp. 48-59) has shown 
 that only one tree was spoken of in the original 
 narrative, and that this tree was the tree of the 
 knowledge of good and evil. Thus, according to 
 iii. 3, there is only one tree in the midst of the 
 Garden, and the same presupposition underlies iii. 
 5, 6, II, 12. We find the first mention of the tree 
 of life in ii. 9. But the latter half of this verse, 
 which is in itself syntactically questionable, is irre- 
 concilable with iii. 3. Further, though according 
 to ii. 9 the tree of life occupied the chief place in 
 the Garden, man was not forbidden to eat of it. 
 Yet the eating of it would, according to iii. 22, have 
 made man immortal. But this last idea is at vari- 
 ance with iii. 19. Man's mortality follows not from 
 his being forbidden to eat of the magical tree of life : 
 it rests simply on the will of Yahwe.^ Hence ii. 9^, 
 iii. 22, 24 are intrusions in the original narrative. 
 
 These passages regarding the tree of life, 
 whether we take them as interpolations or not, 
 were without effect on the Old Testament doctrine 
 of a future life. 
 
 Having disposed of these two apparent herald- 
 doctrine of a future life would have been developed some centuries earlier 
 than it actually was. 
 
 ^ See Holzinger on Genesis, pp. 40, 41 in the Kicrzer Haiid-Co77imentar. 
 
56 RISE OF THE DOCTRINE OF 
 
 CHAP. II. ings of a higher theology in Israel, we are now at 
 Two beliefs liberty to deal with two beliefs which, though not 
 
 which provide r-i' -i i ii-r i-ii 
 
 essential lumishing in themselves the basis lor this theology, 
 and^pre^"^^^^^ yet provide some of its essential characteristics and 
 ^^"^doctfmlof pJ^Gsuppositions. These beliefs have to do with (i.) 
 a future life, the translation of Enoch and Elijah; (ii.) the 
 
 power of Yahwe to bring back the soul from Sheol. 
 
 The former involves certain essential characteristics 
 
 of the higher doctrine of the future life, and the latter 
 
 one of its necessary presuppositions. 
 Thetransia- (i.) Tke translatio7is of Enoch and Elijah. — 
 
 and Elijah''^'' These translations of Enoch (Gen. v. 22-24) ^i^d 
 es^e^nda^ Elijah (2 Kings ii, ii) are essentially miraculous 
 S^tfdoarine ^^ character, and on such exceptional incidents, 
 —the future therefore, the doctrine of a future life for man as 
 
 life follows 
 
 from present ina7i cannot be built. They are significant, how- 
 ever, in that they teach that death does not end the 
 full and conscious life of all, and that Sheol does not 
 engulf every living energy. They belong to an 
 early period in Hebrew thought when immortality 
 was inconceivable for man if soul and body were 
 sundered. Hence soul and body must be translated 
 together. The belief in such translations does not 
 controvert the ancient view of Sheol as a place 
 whence none can return. It probably springs from 
 a time when the authority of Yahwe was still limited 
 to this side the grave, and the dead were regarded 
 as beyond the exercise of His grace. The dead 
 were beyond recall, but the living could be raised to 
 immortality — that is, to an immortality with the 
 body, not without it, before death, not after it. But 
 
soul from 
 Sheol. 
 
 AN INDIVIDUAL IMMORTALITY 57 
 
 since these translations, though miraculous, follow chap. h. 
 
 distinctively from the moral uprightness of Enoch 
 
 and Elijah, we see herein an essential characteristic 
 
 of the subsequent development. As it was a life of 
 
 communion with God that led, though uniquely, to 
 
 the translation of Enoch and Elijah,^ so it was from 
 
 the same spiritual root that the immortality of all 
 
 who enjoyed such communion was derived in later 
 
 centuries. 
 
 (ii.) The power of Yahwe to bring back the sottl a blessed 
 from Sheol. — This view could not have arisen till presupposes 
 monotheism had in some form been accepted. to\e^tore^°hT^ 
 Yahwe's power now extends to Sheol, though it 
 does not influence its non-moral character. This 
 belief is attested in i Kings xvii. 22 and 2 Kings 
 iv. 35, xiii. 21, where Yahwe restores the dead to 
 life through the instrumentality of His prophets. 
 Here again the incidents in question are excep- 
 tional, but they are important as showing that 
 Yahwe s power can reach the dead. 
 
 With this preface we shall now turn to the rise 
 and development of individualism in Israel. 
 
 ^ What an infinite gulf yawns between the old Greek conception of the 
 translation of Heroes to the Isles of the Blessed and that of the translation of 
 Enoch and Elijah in Israel ! For the translation of the Greek Heroes was 
 due, not to their moral character or merits of any kind, but to \}\€\x physical 
 relationship to some of the gods. It is on this ground that the ** cowardly " 
 Menelaus {/xaXdaKbs alxf^w^^i ^^' ^vii. 588) is translated {Od. iv. 561-565). 
 See pp, 39, 40; and Rohde, Psyche^ i. 79-81. In the Babylonian religion 
 there is one instance of translation — that of Parnapishtim and of his wife to 
 the confluence of the waters, where they enjoy the immortal life of the gods. 
 For this translation no distinctively ethical grounds were advanced. This place 
 at the ''confluence of the waters" may be an island, according to Jeremias. 
 See Jastrow, Rel. of Bab. and Assyr. pp. 488, 493, 494, 577 ; Jeremias, 
 Bab.-assyr, Vorstellungen vom Leben nach dem Tode^ pp. 94-99. 
 
5^ 
 
 RISE OF THE DOCTRINE OF 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 No individual 
 retribution 
 looked for in 
 preprophetic 
 times. 
 
 Popular 
 seventh-cen- 
 tury view 
 responsibility 
 of the in 
 dividual. 
 
 No individual retrihition looked/or in preprophetic 
 times. — The early Israelite was not alarmed by the 
 prosperity of the wicked man or the calamities of the 
 righteous ; for Yahwe was concerned with the well- 
 being of the people as a whole, and not with that 
 of its individual members. The individual was not 
 the religious unit, but the family or tribe. The in- 
 dividual was, as in Ancestor Worship, identified 
 with his family ; a solidarity existed between him 
 and the line of his ancestors and descendants. This 
 identification led to strange consequences. Hence 
 it was regarded as natural and reasonable for God 
 to visit the virtues and vices of the fathers on the 
 children (Exod. xx. 5; Lev. xx. 5; Jos. vii. 24; 
 I Sam. iii. 13), of an individual on his community 
 or tribe (Gen. xii. 17, xx. 18; Exod. xii. 29), while 
 His mercy was shown in postponing the punish- 
 ment of the sinner till after his death -^ and allowing 
 it to fall on his son (i Kings xi. 12, xxi. 29). This 
 principle of retribution gave no difficulty to the 
 prophets of the eighth century. Their message is 
 still directed to the nation, and the judgments they 
 proclaim are collective punishment for collective 
 guilt. It is not till late in the seventh century that 
 the problem of individual retribution really emerged 
 and received its first solution in the teaching of 
 Jeremiah. 
 
 Towards the close of the kingdom of Judah the 
 ofthe popular sentiment expressed itself in the proverb : 
 
 1 Rewards and punishments were necessarily conceived as limited to the 
 earthly life ; for Sheol was regarded as outside the jurisdiction of Yahw^. 
 
AN INDIVIDUAL IMMORTALITY 59 
 
 *' The fathers have eaten sour grapes, and the chap. n. 
 children's teeth are set on edge " (Jer. xxxi. 29). 
 In this the people explicitly denied their own re- 
 sponsibility in the overthrow of the nation. It was 
 their fathers that had sinned, and they were involved 
 as by an iron fate in their guilt. Such a view 
 naturally paralysed all personal effort after righteous- 
 ness, and made men the victims of despair. But im- 
 plicitly in the same proverb there is expressed, not 
 an humble submission to the divine judgments, but 
 rather an arraignment of the divine method of 
 government. The righteousness of the individual 
 could not deliver him from the doom befalling the 
 nation. 
 
 Now in opposition to this popular statement of Criticism of 
 the law of responsibility Jeremiah answers as follows : jeremfah, Jnd 
 the days come **when they shall say no more, The omfneT' 
 fathers have eaten sour gfrapes, and the children s doctrine of the 
 
 o i ' individual 
 
 teeth are set on edsfe ; but every one shall die for his spnnging from 
 
 . . , ,) / ^^^ personal 
 
 own miquity (Jer. xxxi. 29, 30). And yet the relation to 
 same prophet had already himself declared that the 
 children suffered for the sins of the fathers : *' I will 
 cause them to be tossed to and fro among all the 
 kingdoms of the earth because of Manasseh, the son 
 of Hezekiah " (Jer. xv. 4). How, then, are we to 
 account for this new departure in his teaching ? It 
 is to be explained from the new relation which God 
 would establish in the coming days between Him- 
 self and the individual Israelite} which would 
 
 1 See Duhm, Theologie der Propheten^ 242-247 j Giesebrecht, Das Buck 
 Jeremia, Einleit. xiii. xiv. pp. 171, 172; Marti, Gesch. d. isr. Rel. 153-156. 
 
man's need 
 
 60 RISE OF THE DOCTRINE OF 
 
 CHAP. II. supersede the old relation which had existed be- 
 tween Himself and the nation as a whole (Jer. xxxi. 
 31-34). Heretofore the individual was related to 
 Yahwe only as a member of the nation, and as such 
 shared, whatever his nature and character, in the 
 national judgments, and thus had no individual 
 worth. The nation was the religious unit. Hence- 
 forth the individual would step into the place of the 
 nation in its relation to Yahwe, and the individual 
 would henceforth constitute the religious unit. 
 Nature of new Two great facts determined the nature of this 
 
 covenant , . . , i j /-* j' 
 
 determined by new relation or covenant, tx, man s need, and Kjoa s 
 essential character. 
 
 First as to man, Jeremiah affirms man's total in- 
 capacity for self-reformation, his inability to convert 
 himself. Just as easily might the Ethiopian change 
 his skin or the leopard his spots (xiii. 22, 23). The 
 law imposed under Josiah (i.e. Deuteronomy) had 
 failed to touch the evil : it had led to a righteous- 
 ness merely legal (vii. 4 sqq, ; viii. 9, 10), as external 
 as the physical rite of circumcision (iv. 4), to an 
 outward reformation which cannot stand before 
 Him who tries the reins and the heart (xi. 20, 
 xvii. 10, XX. 12). Hence, since the old covenant 
 had failed to preserve, much less to redeem' 
 Israel, Jeremiah promises the institution of this 
 new covenant. Under this new covenant man's 
 spiritual incapacities for obedience to God's law- 
 would be removed ; for God would write His law 
 in their hearts, and so beget a willing obedience. 
 Jeremiah has arrived at this conclusion from his own 
 
AN INDIVIDUAL IMMORTALITY 6i 
 
 experience, his own relation to the law. To him chap. h. 
 the law is not an external commandment provoking 
 opposition, but the word of God written in his heart, 
 renewed from day to day, and evoking within him a 
 passionate loyalty and obedience. His life is fed 
 through constant communion with God. If then 
 God so entered into communion with him, He will 
 likewise in the coming time redeem the nation by 
 writing His law in their hearts (Jer. xxxi. 31-34), 
 that is, by establishing an immediate relation with 
 each individual, such as God has already established 
 with the prophet. Thus in the face of the coming 
 exile, when the nation would cease to exist and only 
 the individuals remain, Jeremiah was the first to 
 conceive religion as the communion of the indivi- 
 dual soul with God. Thus each individual enters 
 into the privileges of the prophet. Moreover, the and God's 
 character of God led to a like conclusion. Since character. 
 God could accept none but a true and spiritual 
 worship (xi. 20, xvii. 10), and, since, if this is to be 
 offered, it must spring from the heart of the in- 
 dividual, then God must enter into relation with the 
 individual, and make known His will to him, and 
 hereby a personal relation of the individual with 
 God is established. Thus through Jeremiah the 
 foundation of a true individualism was laid, and the 
 law of individual retribution proclaimed. The 
 further development of these ideas led inevitably to 
 the conception of a blessed life beyond the grave. 
 
 This teaching of Jeremiah was taken up and 
 developed by Ezekiel. In pre-Exilic times the 
 
62 RISE OF THE DOCTRINE OF 
 
 CHAP. II. individual soul had been conceived as the property 
 jerem^s of the family and the nation, but Ezekiel ^ now 
 in°div7duai ^ teaches that every soul is God's, and therefore 
 Ezlk^r^^^ exists in a direct and immediate relation to God 
 (Ezek. xviii. 4). Ezekiel's individualism here 
 receives its most noble and profound expression. 
 Never hitherto had the absolute worth of the 
 individual soul been asserted in such brief and 
 pregnant words as those of the prophet speaking 
 in God's behalf: '* Behold all souls are mine." 
 From this principle Ezekiel concluded that if the 
 individual is faithful in his relation to Yahwe, he 
 is unaffected whether by his own past (xviii. 21-28), 
 or by the sins or the righteousness of his fathers 
 (xviii. 20, xiv. 12-20). Righteousness raises him 
 above the sweep of the dooms that befall the 
 sinful individual or the sinful nation. And since 
 this righteousness is open to his own achievement, 
 he possesses moral freedom,^ and his destiny is the 
 shaping of his own will (xviii. 30-32). Hence there 
 is a strictly individual retribution : judgment is daily 
 executed by God, and finds concrete expression in 
 man's outward lot. Thus the outward lot of the 
 individual harmonises perfectly with his inner 
 character. According to ix. 3-6 Ezekiel expected 
 that no righteous man would perish in the fall of 
 Jerusalem. This expectation naturally followed 
 
 1 Ezekiel's individualism is stated in iii. 16-21, xiv. 12-23, xviii., 
 
 XXX. 1-20. 
 
 ^ On the other hand, we must recognise that Ezekiel emphasises beyond 
 all other Old Testament prophets the absolute sovereignty of God. With 
 this he makes no attempt to reconcile man's free will. 
 
AN INDIVIDUAL IMMORTALITY 63 
 
 from his doctrine of individual retribution. Only chap. h. 
 once does he fall into forgetfulness of it, when in 
 xxi. 3, 4 he foretells the indiscriminate destruction 
 of the righteous and the wicked. 
 
 In these statements Ezekiel has enunciated a False elements 
 great spiritual truth, but has hampered its accept- doctrine of the 
 ance and development by associating it with positions '"^'''^^^^^• 
 which are demonstrably false. It is true, on the one 
 hand, that the individual can in communion with 
 God break with the iron nexus of his own past and 
 that of his people, and make a new beginning which 
 is different in essence from that past and inexpli- 
 cable from it as a starting-point ; but, on the other 
 hand, it is no less true that this new beginning is 
 always conditioned in some degree by the past of 
 the individual and that of his fathers. 
 
 Ezekiel's doctrine rooted itself firmly in the 
 national consciousness. The evil results of such a 
 doctrine are not far to seek. Thus, since in 
 Ezekiel's view all retribution is necessarily limited 
 to this life, and since, further, it has mainly to do 
 with material blessings and is strictly proportioned 
 to a man's deserts, it inevitably follows that a man's 
 outward fortunes are the infallible witness to his 
 internal character and to the actual condition in 
 which he stands before God. 
 
 Thus by Ezekiel's individualism the community 
 is dissolved into a mass of individual units, each of 
 which pursues independently his own way wholly 
 unaffected by the rest, responsible only for his own 
 acts, and working out his own salvation or his own 
 
64 
 
 RISE OF THE DOCTRINE OF 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 Religious 
 atomism 
 of Ezekiel. 
 
 Currency of 
 Ezekiel' s 
 doctrine in 
 Psalms and 
 Proverbs. 
 
 This doctrine 
 a stumbling- 
 block to the 
 suffering 
 righteous, 
 
 doom. But his individualism proceeds farther still. 
 The very individual is no longer conceived in his 
 unity, but is dismembered into so many outward 
 manifestations of life. Righteousness is not for 
 Ezekiel a uniform divine temper shaping the whole 
 life in conformity to God's will, but a mass or 
 congeries of separate righteous acts. Hence the 
 individual act is taken to be a true expression of the 
 whole man at the moment of its occurrence. If this 
 act is wicked on the moment of the advent of the 
 kingdom, then the man will rightfully be destroyed, 
 but if righteous he will be preserved. 
 
 This doctrine of a strictly individual retribution 
 is taught and applied in detail in the great popular 
 handbooks, the Psalter and the Book of Proverbs. 
 Though the righteous may have many afflictions, 
 the Lord delivereth him out of them all : all his 
 bones are kept, not one of them is broken, but evil 
 slays the wicked (Ps. xxxiv. 19-21 ;,see also xxxvii. 
 28, etc.) Similarly, the righteous and the wicked are 
 to be recompensed on earth (Prov. xi. 31). Life is 
 the outcome of righteousness, and this is to be 
 understood as physical life, just as physical death is 
 the outcome of wickedness (Prov. ii. 21, 22 ; x. 2 ; xi. 
 19 ; XV. 24, 25 ; xix. 16, etc.) Doubts, however, as 
 to the truth of this doctrine are found from time to 
 time in the Psalms. 
 
 Naturally such a doctrine was a continual 
 stumbling-block to the righteous when in trouble. 
 So long as all went well with him, he was assured 
 of the favour of God, but misfortune or pain 
 
AN INDIVIDUAL IMMORTALITY 65 
 
 destroyed this certainty ; for as such they were chap, il 
 incontrovertible evidence of sin. Hence the right- 
 eous man looked to God to be justified by an 
 outward judgment. If this was granted, then his 
 righteousness was attested to his own conscience, 
 and before men ; but if it was withheld, no other con- 
 clusion could be drawn save that his case was one, 
 not of afflicted righteousness, but hidden wickedness, 
 now unmasked and visited with its fitting retribution. 
 
 Nor was it to the sufferer alone that this doctrine and an 
 of retribution proved an insuperable difficulty. So dranceto^'y 
 long as the nation was convinced that there was f/ue^soMon^ 
 a perfectly adequate retribution in this life, no true of the problem. 
 solution of the problem ^ was possible, nor was there 
 any occasion to question the justice of the prevailing 
 views of the condition of the departed in Sheol, and 
 thus every possibility of progress in this direction was 
 at a standstill. Hence, as a preparation to the attain- 
 ment of truer views of the after-life, it was necessary 
 that this theory of retribution should be questioned 
 and rejected. This was done subsequently in Job 
 and Ecclesiastes. 
 
 Now, before dealing with the later developments 
 of the doctrine of Ezekiel, it would be of advantage 
 to define in the briefest compass those elements in 
 it which received the sanction of subsequent re- 
 ligious thought, or called forth its opposition. Now 
 whilst Ezekiel's undying merit in this respect was 
 his assertion of the independent worth of the indi- 
 
 1 According to Ezekiel's theory, there was no problem to solve. Every 
 man received his exact due in this life. 
 
66 
 
 mSE OF THE DOCTRINE OF 
 
 CHAP. II, 
 
 Erroneous 
 elements in 
 EzekieVs 
 doctrine. 
 
 Ezekiel's views 
 
 vidual, his defects lay in two misstatements — {a) 
 the individual does not suffer for the sins of his 
 fathers, but only for his own ; {b) the individual 
 is at present judged in perfect keeping with his 
 deserts. In other words, sin and suffering, righteous- 
 ness and wellbeing, are always connected : the 
 outward lot of the individual is God's judgment in 
 concrete form/ 
 
 Now as regards (a), the experience of the nation 
 must always have run counter to this statement. 
 Indeed, subsequent Jewish literature attests the 
 persistence of the older view, and rightly so, for the 
 elements in every man's nature and lot which lie 
 outside the sphere of his volition are undoubtedly 
 shaped for better or worse in accordance with the 
 merits or demerits of his father and people. Thus 
 in Ps. cix. 1 3 the writer prays that the posterity of 
 the wicked may be cut off The son of Sirach 
 declares that such is the fate of the children of 
 sinners (xli. 6), that the offspring of the ungodly 
 put forth few branches (xl. 15), that the children of 
 an adulterous wife will be destroyed (xxiv. 25). 
 That men are punished for the iniquities of their 
 fathers and brethren is freely acknowledged in Ps. 
 cvi. 6 ; Dan. ix. 7, 8, 16 ; Jud. vii. 28 ; Tob. iii. 3 ; 
 Ass. Mos. iii. 5 ; Matt, xxiii. 35 ; Baruch i. 18-21, ii. 
 26, iii. 8 ; Apoc. Bar. Ixxvii. 3, 4, 10. 
 
 Ezekiel's second error {b\ that the individual's 
 
 by^'thrwriters experience agrees with his deserts, is the corollary 
 
 of Job and 
 
 Ecclesiastes. i ;3oth [a) and {h) seemed to Ezekiel to follow logically from God's 
 
 righteousness. 
 
AN INDIVIDUAL IMMORTALITY 67 
 
 of {a). We find that this thesis gave birth to chap. h. 
 a lengthened controversy, of which two notable 
 memorials have come down to us, ix. Job and 
 Ecclesiastes. Although Ecclesiastes is much the 
 later in time we will, for convenience sake, deal 
 with it first. 
 
 Asfainst the statement in (^), that the individual Protestor 
 
 • 1 1 • r 1 • • 1 1 • Ecclesiastes. 
 
 IS at present judged in perfect keepmg with his 
 deserts, the writer of Ecclesiastes enters at once a 
 decided negative. He declares, in fact, that there is 
 no retribution at all.-^ Thus he maintains that evil 
 may prolong a man's days and righteousness curtail 
 them (vii. 15), that the destiny of the wise man and 
 of the fool is identical (ii. 14), and likewise that of 
 the righteous and the wicked (ix. 2) : " All things 
 come alike to all : there is one event to the 
 righteous and to the wicked ; to the good and to 
 the evil ; to the clean and to the unclean ; to him that 
 sacrificeth and to him that sacrificeth not. The 
 good man fares like the sinner, and he that sweareth 
 as he that feareth an oath " ; finally, that the 
 wicked attain to the honour of burial, whilst this 
 is often denied to the righteous (viii. 10). However 
 extravagant the attack of this writer, his book is 
 nevertheless valuable as a counterblast to the no 
 less extravagant and superficial doctrine of Ezekiel, 
 
 ^ Tiie passages where judgment is threatened (iii. i7) xi. 9*, xii. 14) are, 
 according to an increasing number of critics, intrusions in the text, being at 
 variance with the entire thought of the writer, viii. 12, 13 is likewise an 
 interpolation, or else no longer exists in its original form. Yet in certain 
 cases the man who fears God has, he thinks, an advantage over others 
 (ii. 26, vii. 18, 26). For a very interesting discussion of this book, see 
 Cheyne'syijw. Rel. Life, pp, 183-203. 
 
68 
 
 RISE OF THE DOCTRINE OF 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 Job's criticism 
 of the 
 Ezekelian 
 doctrine. 
 
 that the previsions and claims of faith are realised in 
 the world of sight. 
 
 In the Book of Job the principal elements of 
 Ezekiel's teaching reappear, and are dealt with in 
 dramatic form. It is here shown that the doctrines 
 of man's individual worth and a strictly individual 
 retribution are really irreconcilable. The former 
 receives in the person of Job its noblest exposition 
 in all ancient literature, whilst in his actual fortunes 
 the extravagance and untruth of the latter are demon- 
 strated to the full. Conscious in the highest degree 
 of his own worth and rectitude, Job claims that God 
 should deal with him in accordance with his deserts. 
 Like his contemporaries, he believes (for Job and 
 the author of the dialogues may be identified for the 
 present) that every event that befalls a man reflects 
 God's disposition towards him ; misfortune betokens 
 God's anger, prosperity His favour: in short, that 
 there is a strictly retributive judgment enforced in 
 this life. But this belief, Job discovers, is not con- 
 firmed by the fortunes of other men (xxi. 1-15), for 
 the wicked prosper, grow old and go down to the 
 grave in peace, and their seed is established on the 
 earth. Most of all, his own experience emphasises 
 this conflict between faith and experience, and 
 teaches him to conclude that in the world, governed 
 as it is, faith may be without recognition, and the 
 righteous be visited with the penalty of the wrong- 
 doer. Faith, indeed, in order to be sure of its own 
 reality, claims its attestation by the outward judg- 
 ments of God ; yet, despite the absence of all such 
 
AN INDIVIDUAL IMMORTALITY 69 
 
 attestation, Job resolves to hold on in the way of chap. n. 
 righteousness independently of both God and man 
 (xvii. 7-9). The world as it is is out of joint ; hence 
 Job appeals from the God of outer providence, from 
 the God of circumstance, to the God of faith.^ The 
 fact that the writer does not seek to solve the anti- 
 nomies of the problem, by making his argument lead 
 up to the doctrine of a future life, shows that this 
 doctrine had not yet won acceptance even amongst 
 the religious thinkers of Israel 
 
 And yet the main views and conclusions of Job The writer's 
 
 , . , . . r^. 1 • 1 • 1 > conclusions 
 
 point in this direction. Ine emphasis laid on mans point to the 
 individual worth, with his consequent claims upon a [l^j^n^ofThT^^ 
 righteous God, and the denial that these claims meet f^^^^^i^^^- 
 with any satisfaction at the hands of the God of the 
 wrongful present, lead naturally to the conclusion 
 that at some future time all these wrongs will be 
 righted by the God of faith. And this thought is 
 not wholly absent from Job. A momentary antici- 
 pation of it appears in xiv. 1-15. May not man 
 revive as the tree that has been cut down ? May 
 not Sheol be only a temporary place of sojourn,^ 
 where man is sheltered from the wrongs of the 
 present life till God, who had once communion with 
 him, summons him back to its renewal ? But the 
 time for realising this axiom of the faith had not yet 
 
 ^ In keeping with the high conception of the worth of the individual in Job 
 is that of the conscience also, which is unique as regards the Old Testament. 
 Job accepts its verdict over against that of his contemporaries and of the 
 outward events of Providence. 
 
 2 This idea of Sheol as an intermediate abode which is here suggested 
 became shortly after 200 B.C. the prevailing doctrine. In xix. 25-27 also Sheol 
 is conceived in some sense as an intermediate place. 
 
70 RISE OF THE DOCTRINE OF 
 
 CHAP. II. come. It is but a passing gleam that dispersed the 
 gloom of Job's perplexities, and the darkness speedily- 
 prevailed as before. 
 
 But what appears only as an impassioned desire 
 in chap. xiv. rises into a real, though possibly only 
 momentary y conviction in xix. 25-27 :-^ 
 
 But I know that my Avenger liveth, 
 
 And that at the last he will appear above (my) grave : 
 
 jAnd after my skin hath been thus destroyed, t ■'" 
 
 Without my body shall I see God : 
 
 Whom I shall see for myself, 
 
 And mine eyes shall behold, and not another. 
 
 Although line 3 is hopelessly corrupt, the rest of 
 the passage is clear. Job declares that God will 
 appear for his vindication, and that after his death 
 {i.e. without the body) he shall witness this vindica- 
 tion, and enjoy the vision of God. But we cannot 
 infer that this divine experience will endure beyond 
 the momejtt of Job' s justification by God. It is not the 
 blessed immortality of the departed soul that is 
 referred to here, but its actual entrance into and 
 enjoyment of the higher life, however momentary its 
 duration. The possibiHty of the continuance, much 
 less the unendingness, of this higher life does not 
 seem to have dawned on Job, though it lay in the 
 line of his reasonings. If it had, its overwhelming 
 significance could not have been ignored through the 
 
 ^ See Duhm in loc.^ who declares that, with the exception of line 3 
 and a slight transposition in line 2, not a single letter in the rest of the text 
 need be changed. Dr. Cheyne, on the other hand {/.Q,R. Oct. 1897, pp. 
 15, 16), regards the present form of xix. 26, 27 as corrupt. His restoration 
 removes all reference to a future life. I cannot herein follow him. Both 
 text and thought seem to me to be against him. 
 
AN INDIVID UAL IMMOR TALITY 7 1 
 
 rest of the book. Nevertheless, the importance of chap. n. 
 the spiritual advance here made cannot be exagger- 
 ated. In order to appreciate this advance we have 
 only to compare the new outlook into the future 
 which it provides with the absolutely hopeless view 
 that was then accepted on all hands. The Book of Book of job 
 Job reflects all the darkness of the popular doctrine Lps whereby 
 (see chaps, iii., vii., xiv.), and Hkewise exhibits the spirit^rosTto 
 actual steps, whereby the human spirit rose gradu- ^^^ apprehen- 
 ally to the apprehension that man's soul is capable of blessed life 
 
 , . . . /- 7 IT- - . beyond the 
 
 a divine life beyond the graver Two pomts require grave. 
 here to be emphasised. The first is that this new 
 view of the next life springs from a spiritual root, 
 and owes nothing to any animistic doctrines of the 
 soul then existing. The second is no less weighty. 
 We have here a new doctrine of the soul. The soul a new doctrine 
 is no longer cut off from all communion with God on voivedTherdn. 
 death and shorn of all its powers, even of existence, 
 as Job and his contemporaries had been taught to con- 
 ceive it, but is regarded as still capable of the highest 
 spiritual activities, thoitgh without the body'^ (see 
 
 1 I cannot but regard as misleading in the highest degree the statement 
 of Gunkel [Schopfun^ iind Chaos, p. 291 note) that the rise of the resurrection 
 doctrine cannot be traced in the Old Testament. He holds that this belief 
 originated neither in prophetical eschatology nor in the piety of the psalmists. 
 It is owing to the piecemeal and unhistorical method in which the doctrine 
 of a future life in the Old Testament and in Apocryphal and Pseudepigraphal 
 literature has been studied in Germany and England that such assertions are 
 possible. The spiritual basis for the resurrection doctrine is laid in Job and 
 the Psalms, which in part suggest and in part teach the doctrine of a future 
 blessed life of the individual. When we take one step farther, and combine 
 the hope of the individual and that of the nation together, we arrive forthwith at 
 the doctrine of the resurrection. But, according to Gunkel, this doctrine arose 
 in Israel neither from the previsions of faith nor from religious reflection, but 
 was borrowed in its fully developed form from the East ! 
 
 2 Thus the new and lofty idea of the after-life has arisen, not from the old 
 animistic conceptions, but amid their ruins. 
 
72 
 
 RISE OF THE DOCTRINE OF 
 
 CHAP. 11. 
 
 Though the 
 Book of Job 
 did not teach 
 categorically 
 the ' ' higher 
 theology," it 
 opliged its 
 readers to take 
 up a definite 
 attitude to it. 
 
 The doctrine 
 of a blessed 
 future of the 
 soul in the 
 Psalms. 
 
 pp. 48, 49). We thus see that it was not necessary 
 for Israel to borrow from Greece the idea that the soul 
 could preserve its powers independently of the body. 
 
 Though the Book of Job does not teach categoric- 
 ally, it undoubtedly suggests, the idea of a future 
 life. That this idea was in the aii" is clear from xiv. 
 13-15 and xix. 28, 29, but even if they were 
 entirely absent, it would still be true ; for through- 
 out the rest of this book the antinomies of the 
 present are presented in so strong a light that the 
 thinkers of Israel who assimilated its contents were 
 forced to take up a definite attitude to the '* higher 
 theology." Some made the venture of faith and 
 postulated the doctrine of a future life ; others, like 
 the writer of Ecclesiastes, declining this challenge 
 of the Spirit, made the '* great refusal," and fell back 
 on unbelief and materialism. We have here arrived 
 at the parting of the ways. 
 
 It only remains to consider the evidence of the 
 Psalms touching a blessed future life of the soul. 
 
 Those who maintain the existence of this hope 
 in the Psalter base their view on Pss. xvi., xvii., 
 xlix., Ixxiii. As regards the two former, the evidence 
 fails to bear out their view. There is nothing that 
 necessarily relates to a future life in Ps. xvi., 
 which expresses the fears and hopes not of the 
 individual but of the community. In Ps. xvii. 
 likewise the psalmist does not speak as an individual 
 (cf. the plurals, vers. 7 and 11), but as the mouth- 
 piece of the Jewish people, who are to Yahwe as 
 the apple of the eye (ver. 8). In fear of a foreign 
 
AN INDIVID UAL IMMORTALITY 7 3 
 
 invader (vers. 9, 13) the psalmist prays for help, chap, n. 
 Hence instead of " I shall be satisfied, when I 
 awake with thy likeness " we expect some reference 
 to God's help (so Cheyne and Smend ^). The 
 former reads *' I shall feast mine eyes when thy 
 zeal awakes." In any case the context does not 
 admit of a reference to a future life. 
 
 But with regard to Pss. xlix. and Ixxiii. the case Psaimxiix. 
 is different. The doctrine of a blessed future life 
 appears to be implied. With the present text 
 of xlix. we seem compelled to adopt one or other 
 of two interpretations. I n vers. 14, 15 the 
 speaker announces speedy destruction for the wicked, 
 but complete redemption from death for himself. 
 But who is the speaker .^ Does the '* I " here denote 
 the psalmist as a representative pious Israelite or 
 the righteous community? In favour of the latter 
 it is argued that the psalmist is here speaking in 
 the name of the righteous who are poor and 
 oppressed over against the wicked who are rich 
 and oppressive : and in the next place that ver. 10 
 states that '*all die, alike the wise man {i.e, the 
 righteous) and the fool." Thus the immortality here 
 expected is that of the righteous community.^ This 
 
 1 Smend, ZATW, 1888, p, 95 ; Cheyne, /^w. Rel. Life, 240 f. Duhm, 
 on the other hand, in his new Commentary on the Psahns, maintains that no 
 change of text is necessary. *'To behold God's face " = to visit the temple, 
 as in Ps. xxvii. 4; and "the awaking" here mentioned means nothing more 
 than the awaking next morning, when the psalmist will join afresh in the 
 temple worship (cf. v. 3). 
 
 2 See Cheyne's Bampton Lectures on the Psalter, 381-425, where it is 
 contended that the belief of a future life is implied in Pss. xvi., xvii., xlix., 
 Ixxiii. In Pss. xlix. and Ixxiii. he finds a protest against the old Hebrew view 
 of Sheol. Dr. Cheyne has since abandoned this view of the psalms in question. 
 
and Ixxiii, 
 never be- 
 comes the 
 abode of the 
 righteous. 
 
 74 J^ISE OF THE DOCTRINE OF 
 
 CHAP. II. is the view of Smend, Schwally, and Cheyne. But 
 
 in favour of a future life of the individual it is to 
 
 be argued that Sheol is represented in ver. 14 
 
 sheoi having as clearly /^^^/ iu character — a place where the 
 
 penal character , . ^ . . 'ii t*!** mii 
 
 inPss. xHx. Wicked rich men are punished. Ihis is still clearer 
 from Dr. Cheyne's attractively emended text {Jew. 
 ReL Life, 238) :— 
 
 Like sheep they sink into Sheol 
 Death rules them, terrors affright them ; 
 They go down straight into the grave 
 Sheol is their mansion for ever. 
 
 Thus in Pss. xlix. and Ixxiii. Sheol is conceived 
 as the future abode of the wicked only ; heaven as 
 other penal that of the righteous. This conception of the penal 
 oidTestament. character of Sheol is all the more credible from the 
 fact that in the Old Testament two other places of 
 punishment for special offenders are already de- 
 veloped. Thus in Is, xxiv. 21, 22 the angelic rulers 
 of the nations and the kings will be imprisoned in 
 ''the pit" for "many days," after which they shall 
 receive their (final) punishment. This "pit" must 
 not be confounded with Sheol (cf. Eth. En. 54). 
 Again, Gehenna is alluded to in Is. Ixvi. 24 as the 
 final abode of Jewish apostates. . 
 
 But apart from all emendation, Sheol appears 
 here as the place of punishment for the wicked, and 
 the same view returns in some degree in ver. 20. 
 From Sheol so described the righteous is to be 
 delivered (ver. 15). But the force of the argument 
 will be seen best by bringing forward the salient 
 points of the thought. Thus in vers. 7-9 bodily 
 
AN INDIVIDUAL IMMORTALITY 7S 
 
 death is declared to be the inevitable lot of all : chap. h. 
 the righteous and wicked alike must physically die 
 (ver. lo). But after death a difference in their 
 respective lots sets in. As regards the wicked rich 
 men, they must perish as the beasts (ver. 12) ; their 
 bodies will be housed for ever in the grave ^ (ver. 11), 
 and their souls descend as helpless sheep into Sheol, 
 there to be shepherded by death ; Sheol will con- 
 sume their phantom forms (ver. 14). But as for 
 the righteous, though they too must die^ (ver. 10), 
 God will ransom them, from the hand of Sheol 
 will He take their souP (ver. 15). 
 
 As a place of penal punishment, therefore, Sheol 
 could never become the abode of the righteous. 
 Hence in ver. 15 the righteous expect to escape 
 it after death, and be taken immediately to heaven : 
 '* Surely my soul God will set free; for from the 
 hand of Sheol will he take me." 
 
 In Ps. Ixxiii., as in xlix., the writer is troubled Psaim ixxm. 
 by the prosperity of the wicked (vers. 11, 12). He 
 is even tempted to declare that all things fall out 
 
 1 Here I follow the i.xx, Syr., Vulg. and Targum, which, by transposing 
 two letters {nnnp for oanp), read — 
 
 Their graves are their houses for ever, 
 instead of 
 
 Their inward thought is their houses for ever. 
 
 2 All must submit to bodily death is the teaching of ver. lo. Duhm, how- 
 ever, thinks that "the wise" spoken of here are not the wise in a religious 
 sense, but are **the wise of this world," and this, he believes, is proved by 
 their being contrasted with "the fools" and "brutish persons" in the 
 parallel member of the verse. But the usage of almost the entire Wisdom 
 literature is against this view, and particularly the usage of the Psalms, which 
 always take the terms "wise man" and "fool" in a religious and ethical 
 sense. This misinterpretation of ver. lo has led Duhm into his impossible 
 exposition of ver. 15 (see note 2 on p. 76). 
 
 3 '1^33 is here taken collectively of all the faithful, as in Ps. xi. i. 
 
76 RISE OF THE DOCTRINE OF 
 
 CHAP. II. well with the sinner, but ill with the righteous, but 
 from such an utterance he refrains out of loyalty to 
 the Jewish community (vers. 13-15). Nevertheless, 
 his trouble of heart has driven him to study this 
 inversion of right and wrong in life, but the problem 
 remained an unsolved burden upon him (yen 16) 
 till he entered into the knowledge of God's secret 
 mysteries (^N-^mTpo), and learnt the fate of the un- 
 godly, how that they do not escape punishment, but 
 are already the prey of self-delusion (riTNimD — so 
 Duhm), and will become the victims of a speedy and 
 utter destruction (vers. 17-19). From such false 
 views of life the righteous are preserved through 
 Gods daily chastisements (ver. 14), and enjoy His 
 guidance continually. Their highest blessedness con- 
 sists in unbroken communion with Him — unbroken 
 even by death ; for after this life God takes them to 
 Himself (vers. 23, 24). What earth or heaven, 
 therefore, has in store for them matters not. In 
 comparison with God all the universe is as nothing 
 (ver. 25) : this life ended, God is the true portion of 
 the souls'^ of the righteous for evermore (ver. 26). 
 
 In interpreting this psalm as referring to indivi- 
 dual immortality the present writer has the support 
 of Delitzsch, Davidson, Baethgen, Duhm,^ and 
 
 ^ Duhm appears to be right in striking out ^iih iia as a false variant of 
 "I'^'s nNB" ; we should then render: *'When my flesh and my heart have 
 perished, God is my portion for ever." 
 
 2 Duhm interprets Ps. xlix. 15 of an actual (5(?£/z{j/ "translation, on the 
 ground that np"? has here the same technical meaning as in 2 Kings ii. 9, 10 ; 
 Gen. V. 24 ; Ps. Ixxiii. 24. Such an interpretation is simply impossible. 
 Indeed on Ps. Ixxiii. 24 he is obliged to abandon this view, and take the verb 
 as simply meaning translation from this life to a higher state of being. Of 
 what nature this state of being is we gather from Ixxiii. 26, which takes for 
 
AN INDIVIDUAL IMMORTALITY 77 
 
 originally Cheyne,^ though there is great divergence chap. n. 
 in the exposition of details. 
 
 We have now done with the question of in- conclusions as 
 dividual immortality so far as it is dealt with in doctr^e^fan 
 the Old Testament. Its attestation is meagre. In i^^i^iduai 
 
 o immortality of 
 
 Job it emerges as a strong: aspiration, but falls short the righteous 
 
 . , . . , . . ^r« 1 existed in the 
 
 of being an abiding spiritual conviction. To the oidTestament. 
 latter stage it has already risen in Pss. xlix. and Ixxiii. 
 But even if the evidence of the Psalms were doubtful, 
 the evidence of Job is in itself sufficient to prove 
 that, amongst a few at any rate in Israel, the hopes 
 of the individual had at last come in sight of their 
 destined goal, even the future blessed life of the 
 righteous. But, further, even if all such evidence The historical 
 were wanting*, we should be oblisred to postulate f"estation of 
 
 o^ o Jr this doctrine 
 
 the existence of this doctrine from the logical neces- confirmed by 
 sities of thought ; for the doctrine of the resurrection necessities of 
 which was developed towards the close of the fourth 
 century, or at latest early in the third, is a complex 
 idea, and presupposes in Israel^ the prior existence 
 of its tw^o chief components, namely, the doctrine 
 of an individual immortality of the righteous and 
 that of the Messianic kingdom. When once the 
 
 granted the disembodied existence of the righteous after death. In Ps. xlix. 
 also the writer is dealing with the destinies of the righteous and of the wicked 
 after death.. Death leads off the latter to Sheol (ver. 14), whereas God takes 
 the souls of the former to Himself (ver. 15). We should observe that juera- 
 ridrjfJiL, which is the LXX rendering of nph in Gen. v. 24, is used in Wisdom 
 iv. 10 of the translation of the souL 
 
 ^ Dr. Cheyne now regards ver. 24 as corrupt, and reads "And will make 
 known to me the path of glory," i.e. the divine glory which will be revealed 
 in the Messianic age. 
 
 2 That is, unless we assume that Israel borrowed the resurrection doctrine 
 in its completeness. But the Book of Job, supported by Pss. xlix., Ixxiii., 
 makes this assumption at once gratuitous and groundless. 
 
 thought. 
 
78 
 
 RISE OF THE DOCTRINE OF 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 resurrection. 
 
 doctrine of an individual immortality was subsumed 
 Eariyl^er- in the larger doctrine of the resurrection, and had 
 doarine^oV the thus played its part in the evolution of truth, it 
 could no longer exist side by side with this larger 
 conception, but fell perforce into the background, 
 and for a prolonged period appears to be unknown 
 and undesired in the thoughts and aspirations 
 of the faithful. But with the lapse of nigh 200 
 years or more it again comes of necessity to the 
 front, when the growing dualism of the times leads 
 to the disintegration of the resurrection hope (as 
 then conceived) into its original constituents, in 
 order that these may pursue afresh and inde- 
 pendently their paths of development with a view 
 to their final synthesis in Christianity. 
 
 If we should ask why the doctrine of an indi- 
 vidual immortality so soon gave place to that of the 
 resurrection, the answer is at hand. The common 
 good was still more dear to the faithful in Israel than 
 that of the individual ; in other words, the Messianic 
 kingdom was a more fundamental article of their 
 faith than that of a blessed future life of the indi- 
 vidual. Hence when these doctrines were fused 
 together, the doctrine of the resurrection, which was 
 the direct outcome of this fusion, soon displaced 
 that of the individual immortality of the righteous ; 
 for the latter doctrine could never gain the full 
 sympathies of the Jew, who loved his nation, and 
 had his heart fixed on its blessed future. Thus 
 the resurrection, stripped of its accidents and con- 
 ceived in its essence, marks the entrance of the 
 
 The ground 
 for this super- 
 session. 
 
 Essential 
 significance oi 
 the resurrec- 
 tion. 
 
AN INDIVIDUAL IMMORTALITY 79 
 
 individual after death into the divine Hfe of the 
 community, the synthesis of the individual and 
 the common good. Thus the faithful in Pales- 
 tine looked forward to a blessed future only as 
 members of the holy people, as citizens of the 
 righteous kingdom that should embrace their 
 brethren. And herein, as throughout this evolution 
 of religion, we can trace the finger of God ; for it 
 was no accident that His servants were unable to 
 anticipate any future blessedness save such as they 
 shared in common with their brethren and nation. 
 The self-centredness, if not selfishness, that marked 
 the Greek doctrine of immortality^ is conspicuous 
 
 1 Thus in the religious philosophy of Plato, where the immortality of the 
 soul is set forth in its loftiest and purest form, the individual who would 
 secure this immortality is taught to live an ascetic life : not to concern him- 
 self with the community, but with himself (iStwreiJet;/ dWA yJr\ dri/xoaceijeLVj Apol. 
 32 A) ; to lead a quiet life and mind his own business, like a man who has 
 fallen among beasts (wo-Trep €.h drjpia dvdpojiros ifiireau^v, Rep. vi. 496 D). 
 "Human affairs are not worth any real trouble " {rk twv avdpioirwv irpdyfiara 
 /j.eyd\'r}s ovk H^io. cttouS'^s, Leg. vii. 803 B). From these and many other 
 passages of like import (see Rohde, Psyche^ ii. 288-294) it follows that in 
 pursuit of his own individual good a man should ignore the interests of the 
 community ; for that all the present life is corrupt, and the aim of the 
 individual is to adopt a hostile attitude towards its manifold expressions, and 
 fashion his conduct wholly with a view to his own immortality. Even in his 
 own ideal Republic, the civic and social virtues had no independent value for 
 the philosopher. *' Der voUendete Weise hat nicht mehr die oberste Bestim- 
 mung, den Andern, draussen Stehenden, Pflichten zu erweisen ; sein eigenes 
 inneres Leben reif machen zur Selbsterlosung, das ist seine wahre und nachste 
 Pflicht " {p. 293). 
 
 Thus the Greek development was one-sided. It was individualistic. 
 And yet it could not well be otherwise with its peculiar doctrine of immor- 
 tality, namely, its view that the soul was not only immortal but eternal, alike 
 without beginning and end, and that it was capable of repeated incarnations 
 in human and animal bodies. From this doctrine it follows that the present 
 environment of the soul is only one of the many in which it exists from age 
 to age, and accordingly this community or that can have no abiding signifi- 
 cance. Such a soul can only consider God and itself. In Israel, however, 
 as we have above seen, the soul was not in itself immortal, but only won 
 such immortality through life in God. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
8o AN INDIVIDUAL IMMORTALITY 
 
 by its absence in the religious forecasts of the 
 faithful in Judaism. In true religion unlimited 
 individualism is an impossibility. The individual 
 can only attain to his highest in the life of the com- 
 munity alike here and hereafter. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 THE ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NATION AND THE SYNTHESIS 
 OF THE TWO ESCHATOLOGIES IN THE DOCTRINE 
 OF THE RESURRECTION. DOCTRINE OF THE SOUL 
 AND OF THE FUTURE LIFE AMONG THE GREEKS. 
 
 In the preceding chapters we have studied the 
 eschatology of the individual, and in the course of 
 this Study we have come down to within a couple of 
 centuries of the Christian era. We have now to 
 study the eschatology of the nation, and for this 
 purpose we must retrace our steps and go many a 
 hundred years back into Israel's past. 
 
 Though Israel became a nation at the Exodus, 
 it would be difficult to express what were the hopes 
 and aspirations they cherished at that early date or 
 for many subsequent centuries. Long before they 
 came into existence as a nation, promises are ex- 
 pressed in connection with Abraham, Isaac, and 
 Jacob (Gen. xii. 2,3; xvii. 2, 4-6; xviii. 18; xxii. 17, 18; 
 xxvi. 3, 4 ; xxvii. 29 ; xxviii. 14 ; xxxii. 12) as to the 
 ultimate greatness of Israel and its" destination as a 
 source of blessing to all mankind. But since the 
 
82 ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 CHAP. III. passages in question were, according to recent 
 criticism, written eight hundred years or more sub- 
 sequently to the Exodus, we shall confine ourselves 
 in the present work to such eschatological facts 
 and hopes as appear in the prophets. As these 
 cluster at the outset round the familiar concep- 
 tion, "the day of Yahwe," we may with advantage 
 Eschatoiogy of study the eschatology of the nation in connection 
 
 nation may be ... . . - , . . ^ 
 
 treated as With this conception trom prepropnetic tmies down 
 the^'concepto, ^^ the close of the Old Testament. But the day of 
 Y^we'^^^^^ Yahwe does not in itself constitute the blessed 
 future, but only the divine act of judgment which 
 Eschatology of inaugurates it. Hence the eschatology of the nation 
 centres in the ccntrcs iu the future national blessedness introduced 
 SlsL7n" by the day of Yahwe. This future is variously con- 
 b^ the dt^^of ceived. According to the popular conception which 
 Yahwe. "vvas Current down to the eighth century, it was 
 
 merely a period of material and unbroken prosperity 
 Popular non- which the uation was soon to enjoy through 
 tion'^ofthis^^^ Yahwe's victorious overthrow of Israel's national 
 period. ioz'^. With this non-ethical expectation we shall 
 
 not occupy ourselves further than to notice the con- 
 ception of the day of Yahwe, associated with it. 
 
 But this conception of the future gave place in 
 
 the eighth century, at all events amongst the 
 
 Prophetic Spiritual leaders of the people, to the prophetic 
 
 TrTgTnemtrd doctriue of the coming kingdom. According to the 
 
 community prophcts, this kino^dom was to consist of a re- 
 
 existmg under Jr i ' o 
 
 national forms generated nation, a community in which the divine 
 divine will will should be fulfilled, an organised society inter- 
 fuifiiied/ penetrated, welded together, and shaped to ever 
 
OF THE NATION 83 
 
 higher issues by the actual presence of God. This ideal chap. m. 
 we shall henceforth, for convenience sake, designate 
 shortly as the Messianic or theocratic kingdom. 
 
 Whether this kingdom was constituted under mon- The Messiah 
 archical, hierarchical, or purely theocratic forms was pan of this 
 in itself a matter of indifference. Since the Messiah mentconcep- 
 formed no organic part of the conception, He was *^°^' 
 sometimes conceived as present at its head, some- 
 times as absent. Two factors, and only two. Two factors n- 
 
 ,. . , . *. . -p-,. . dispensable. , 4 
 
 were mdispensable to its realisation. Jrirst, it must 
 be a community of Israelites, or of these together with 
 non-Israelites. Secondly, it must be a community 
 in which God's will is fulfilled. If we lose sight of 
 either factor, our view of the kingdom is untrue. 
 
 That the prophetic conception of the kingdom 
 prevailed from the seventhXcentury onwards is 
 admitted on all hands, but of late years there is a 
 growing body of scholars who mVintain , that, with 
 the exception of a single passage i-n Isaiah, no Nodghth- 
 pro^et of the eighth century preaened the advent phet foretold 
 of this kingdom, and that the uHtea^ing burden of l^fg kingdom 
 their message to Israel was solely one of fast ap- ^^^^^^^h^^ 
 proachine: and inevitable doemi. That most of the Rawing body 
 
 ■■■ . ^ Z , , .of scholars. 
 
 passages in Amos, Hosea/lsaiah, and Micah which 
 promi se the advent^ pi^he Messianic kingdom and 
 of the Messiah are intrusions in the text from a later 
 time, may be regarded, on the whole, as a sound 
 conclusion of criticism. But that they are all with 
 one exception interpolations of a later date, and 
 particularly that all the passages which tell of the 
 Messiah are without exception of this character, 
 
84 ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 CHAP. III. cannot be regarded as an established result of 
 criticism, 
 B^tthis If the folio winef pages betray at times sip:ns of 
 
 conclusion is . . ^ ^ n i 1 
 
 still to be mdecision, they do but reflect the present attitude ot 
 visiona^fy.' the Writer ; for though he has elected to follow the 
 conclusions of the more advanced critics, it is with 
 great hesitation that he has done so. 
 
 All the following statements on the above contro- 
 versy regarding the eighth-century prophets are to 
 be regarded as provisional. 
 
 As regards the day of Yahwe, no such critical 
 Our study difficulty exists. Our study of the eschatologfy of the 
 
 begins with . ^ -n 1 • • 1 1 • . 
 
 the day of nation, therefore, will begin with this unquestioned 
 
 develops into element in Israel's expectations of the future, and 
 
 ome'^k^gdom trace its subsequent enlargement and various de- 
 
 it introduces, velopments from a judgment of individual nations to 
 
 a judgment of all mankind. In pre-Exilic times this 
 
 conception constitutes all but exclusively the subject 
 
 of the prophetic teaching as to the future ; but from 
 
 the Exile onwards this is not so. Henceforth it 
 
 serves only to introduce the eternal kingdom of God 
 
 on earth. From the Exile onwards eschatological 
 
 development begins to grow in complexity, for from 
 
 that period the nation, no less than the individual, 
 
 begins to maintain his claims to righteous treatment. 
 
 Thk Day of Yahw^: 
 
 tTon\e°aTe7t'o ^^^^ conception is related to the people as a 
 
 the nation, whole, and not to the individual. It means essen- 
 individuai. tially the day on which Yahwe manifests Himself in 
 
OF THE NATION 
 
 victory over His foes, that is, the national foes of chap. m. 
 Israel. 
 
 Day amongst the Hebrews, as among the Arabs, 
 occasionally had the definite signification of **day of 
 battle." Thus in Is. ix. 4 **the day of Midian" is 
 the day of victory over Midian. The belief in this 
 day was older than any written prophecy. It was a 
 popular expectation in the time of Amos. This 
 popular conception, which was as unethical and 
 nationalistic as the kingdom it was expected to 
 establish, was adopted by the prophets and trans- 
 formed into one of thoroughly ethical and universal 
 significance. We shall now deal with the various 
 forms it assumed in the Old Testament. 
 
 I. The popular conception of the day of Yahwe Popular and 
 as a judgment on Israels national enemies, eighth conception of 
 century B.C. and earlier. — This conception originated, ^"^y^^^^^^^- 
 no doubt, from the old limited view of Yahwe as 
 merely the national God of Israel. The relation 
 of Yahwe to Israel, in the minds of Amos' con- 
 temporaries, was not an ethical, but, to a large 
 extent, a natural one. They conceived themselves 
 to be solely Yahwe's people, and Yahwe to be 
 solely Israel's God (Am. iii. 2). Israel's duty was 
 to worship Yahwe, and Yahwe s to protect Israel. 
 This worship consisted in ritual and sacrifice, and 
 to its due discharge the morality of the worshipper 
 was a thing indifferent. Hence, as they were faith- 
 ful in the duties of worship and sacrifice and tith- 
 ing (iv. 5; v. 5, 21, 22), they could with confidence 
 not only look forward to, but also pray for, "the 
 
86 
 
 ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 CHAP. in. day of Yahwe " as the instrument of their vindica- 
 tion against their enemies. The *'day of Yahwe" is 
 thus the day of Israel's vindication against their 
 enemies tkrott-gk Yahwe} But ''the day of Yahwe," 
 Amos warns Israel, is no such day as they expected. 
 The day of Yahwe, the God of righteousness, cannot 
 for an unrighteous people be a day of salvation, 
 but of woe ; not a day in which Israel would be 
 vindicated against its enemies, but in which Yahwe's 
 righteousness would be vindicated against wrong- 
 doing, whether in Israel or its enemies. 
 
 Prophetic 
 conception of 
 the day of 
 Yahwe. 
 I. Pre- Exilic 
 period. 
 {a) directed 
 against Israel 
 in Amos 
 
 Amos {circa 760 B.C.) 
 
 This assault of Amos on the popular conceptions 
 of the day of Yahwe provides us, at the same time, 
 with the prophetic conception of this day. Accord- 
 ing to the prophets of the eighth century, this day 
 was to be one {a) of judgment directed, first 
 and chiefly, against Israel, In opposition to the 
 popular view that Yahwe is Israels national 
 God, Amos avoids the very phrase *' God of 
 Israel," and designates Him as ''the Lord Yahwe," 
 ^'the God of Hosts," or " Yahw6 of Hosts."' 
 Yahwe is the Moral Ruler of all the earth. His 
 "day,"^ therefore, is, as we have seen, the day 
 
 ^ This belief that Yahw^ must save His people survived, despite the 
 prophets, till the captivity of Judah in 586 B.C. 
 
 2 Yahwe of Hosts means in the prophets the Omnipotent, the Lord of 
 the armies of heaven as well as of earth. See p. 9 for an earlier meaning. 
 
 3 The day of Yahw^, in its double character as a day of punishment and 
 blessing, is also spoken of as *'that day" (Is. xvii. 7, xxx. 23, xxviii. 5, 
 xxix. 18 ; Hos. ii. 18 ; Mic. ii. 4, iv. 6, v. 10 ; Zech. ix. \6y xiv. 4, 6, 9), 
 "that time" (Jer. xxxi. I, xxxiii. 15, 1. 4; Zeph. iii. 19, 20; Joel iii. i), 
 "the day" {Ezek. vii 10; Mic. iii. 6), "the time" {Ezek. vii. 12). 
 
OF THE NATION 
 
 in which He manifests Himself for the vindica- chap. m. 
 tion of Himself and of His righteotcs ptcrposeSy mtd 
 not of Israel. In Amos, to whom we owe this new 
 meaning of the phrase, the day of Yahwe appears 
 only in its darker side} as directed against Israel. 
 It will bring about the overthrow of the kingdom 
 (v. 1-3), Samaria will be destroyed (iii. 11, 12), and 
 Israel carried into captivity (v. 5, 27 ; vi. 7 ; vii. 11 ; 
 ix. 4). This day is " darkness and not light " for 
 Israel (v. 18). Other nations will feel it in pro- 
 portion to their unrighteousness, but since un- 
 righteous Israel is specially related to Yahwe, they 
 will, for that reason, experience His severest judg- 
 ments (iii. 2) : '* You only have I known of all the 
 families of the earth : therefore will I visit upon you 
 all your iniquities." 
 
 ^ ix. 8-15, which promises a happy future for Israel and the house of 
 David, is rejected as an ExiHc addition by Wellhausen, Smend, Cheyne, 
 G. A. Smith, Marti, Nowack, Volz. Driver, on the other hand, defends this 
 passage, but with some hesitation {Joel and Amos ^ 1 19-123). 
 
 In this rejected passage we have the promise of the restoration of the 
 dynasty of David in all its former splendour over reunited Ephraim and 
 Judah (ix. 11) : — 
 
 In that day will I raise up the fallen tabernacle of David, 
 
 And close up the breaches thereof ; 
 
 And I will raise up his ruins, 
 
 And I will build it as in the days of old. 
 
 The land is to be blessed with prosperity (ix. 13), and the exiles to be 
 restored (ix. 14) : — 
 
 And I will bring again the captivity of my people Israel, 
 And they shall build the waste cities and inhabit them, etc. 
 
 And Israel thus restored will never again be removed from its own land 
 (ix. 15). 
 
 The Messianic kingdom is limited strictly to Israel. The neighbouring 
 nations, particularly Israel's ancient foe Edom, should come under the 
 suzerainty of Israel, as in David's time (ix. 12). 
 
88 ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 HOSEA (746-734 B.C.) 
 
 and in Hosea. Hosca IS of One mind with Amos.^ It is against 
 
 Israel that the day of Yahwe is directed. Though 
 the phrase itself is not found in Hosea, the judg- 
 ment it designates is foretold. 
 
 The whole nation is utterly corrupt: *' There is 
 no truth, nor mercy, nor knowledge of God in the 
 land" (iv. i). They have gone after Baal, and 
 become worshippers of graven images (v. 3, viii. 4, 
 xi. 2). Wherefore Israel ** shall fall by the sword ; 
 their infants shall be dashed in pieces, and their 
 women with child shall be ripped up " (xiii. 16). So 
 dire will be their tribulation that "they shall say to 
 the mountains, Cover us ; and to the hills, Fall on 
 us " (x. 8). It was a fate from which there was no 
 escape.^ ** The iniquity of Ephraim is bound up : 
 
 ^ The clauses referring to Judah in i. 7 ; iv. 15; v. 5, 10, 12, 13, 14; 
 vi. 4, II ; viii. 14; x. 11 ; xi. 12 ; xii. 2 are rejected by Marti as inter- 
 polations. Nowack, Die klezne Propheten^ 1897, excises all these references 
 except V. 5- 
 
 2 Most of the passages which predict the establishment of the kingdom 
 under the Messianic King are rejected by a variety of scholars. Thus i. 10- 
 ji. I, iii. 5, iv. 15** are condemned as interpolations by Stade [Gesch.^ 577 
 note). In addition to these, ii. 16, vi. 11, and most of xiv. 1-9, have been 
 rejected by Wellhausen. The latter, however, and Nowack, defend some of 
 the passages which promise the future blessedness of Israel. "The complete 
 destruction of Israel is for him (Hosea) an inconceivable thought" (Well- 
 hausen, Gesck.^ 1x6). Similarly Nowack {Die kl. Propheten^ p. 81). 
 Nowack, notwithstanding, denies the originality of i. 7 ; i. lo-ii. i, T4-16, 
 20-23 ; iii. 5 ; iv. 1 5" ; vi. 1 1 ; xiv. 7, 9. The passages of a similar character 
 which he accepts are v. 15-vi. 3 ; xi. 8 ; xiv. 6, 8. G. A. Smith adopts a 
 like attitude to Wellhausen and Nowack. Cheyne (in W. R. Smith, Proph.^ 
 pp. xvii. 5^^.) rejects i. 7 ; i. lo-ii. i ; iii. 5 ; iv. 15**; v. 15-vi. 4, 11 ; vii. i ; 
 viii. 14; and xiv. 1-9 in its entirety. Marti {Gesck. d. isr. Pel. pp. 181, 
 182) appears to regard Hosea as the prophet of inexorable doom like Amos. 
 Similarly Volz {Vorexilisch. Yahweprophetie^ 32 sqq.) See Driver, Introd. to 
 Old Tesiameftt,'^ 306, 307. 
 
 Taking the text as it stands, the eschatology is as follows : " At the end 
 
OF THE NATION 
 
 his sin is laid up in store. . . . From the hand of chap. m. 
 Sheol shall I ransom them : from death shall I ~~ 
 redeem them : . . . compassion is hid from mine 
 eyes " (xiii. 12-14). 
 
 Isaiah (740-701 b.c.) 
 
 {b) Day of Yahwe mainly against Judah, — In (^) directed 
 Isaiah and Micah the day of Yahwe receives a new judah. ' 
 application : it is directed against Judah. Like the 
 two preceding prophets, Isaiah ^ aimed his warn- 
 ings of judgment against Israel (ii. 6-21, viii. 1-4, First against 
 ix. 8-20, xvii. i-ii, xxviii. 1-4). By Yahwe s wrath preceding ^"^ 
 should the land be burnt up ; its people should be as p^°p^^^^- 
 the fuel for fire (ix. 19) ; in one day should head and 
 tail, palm-branch and rush be cut off (ix. 14) ; its 
 warriors shall not be spared, nor its widows nor 
 orphans receive compassion (ix. 17). The doom 
 shall come like a tempest of hail, a destroying storm, 
 as a tempest of mighty waters (xxviii. 2). And the 
 lofty looks of man shall be brought low, and the 
 haughtiness of men shall be bowed down, and the 
 
 of days" (iii. 5) Israel will be converted and return to God (v. 15), for He 
 will revive them from their spiritual death (vi. 2), and betroth them to Him 
 for ever '* in righteousness, and in judgment, and in loving kindness, and in 
 mercies" (ii. 19). And Israel will be called *'sons of the living God," and 
 become innumei*able as the sand of the sea, and Judah and Ephraim will be 
 reunited under one king (i. 10, 11), even under a scion of the house of 
 David (iii. 5). And the exiles will return to their own land (xL 10, 11). 
 In this period the earth will be blessed with fruitfulness (ii. 22), the wild 
 beasts will become tame, and all the weapons of war will be destroyed 
 (ii. 18). 
 
 ^ In my references to Isaiah I have adopted Dr. Cheyne's critical results 
 in his Iiitrodtidzon to Isaiah^ 1895. ^^ is due pre-eminently to this scholar 
 that it is possible to give some coherent account of the various eschatological 
 systems that are to be found in the composite book of Isaiah. 
 
90 ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 CHAP. III. Lord shall be exalted in that day (ii. 11-17). And 
 men shall cast away their idols of silver and of gold 
 to the moles and the bats, and go into the caves of 
 the rocks to hide themselves from before the terror 
 of the Lord, when He ariseth to shake mightily the 
 
 Judgment on earth (ii. 19-21). Thus judgment fell on Israel, and 
 since Judah was no less corrupt, it too must be 
 destroyed (i. 10-17, 21-26; iii. 1-15 ; v. 8-24; 
 xxviii. 14-22; xxix. 1-4; xxx. 8-17; xxxi. 4), and 
 all the more surely as it sought help from the 
 neighbouring world-powers (xxviii. 14-22, xxxi. 3). 
 The judgment on Jerusalem shall come suddenly : 
 it shall receive doom from the Lord of Hosts with 
 thunder and with earthquake and great noise, with 
 whirlwind and tempest, and the flame of a devouring 
 fire (xxix. 6 ^). 
 
 Thus Isaiah was, like Amos, a prophet of doom. 
 
 Isaiah once In One passagc, however, he prophesies the advent 
 
 advenrof the^ of the kingdom, but in a very modest form. 
 
 kingdom. j^ 24-26. *' Therefore this is the oracle of the 
 
 Lord, Yahwe Sebaoth, the Hero of Israel : Ha ! I will 
 appease me of mine adversaries, and avenge me on 
 mine enemies ; 25. and I will bring back mine hand 
 upon thee, and will smelt out in the furnace thy 
 dross and will take away all thy alloy; 26. and I 
 will bring back thy judges as at the first, and thy 
 counsellors at the beginning : afterwards thou shalt 
 
 1 If we accept the last as it stands, the views of Isaiah as to the in- 
 violability of Jerusalem wavered. Thus in xxix. 7, 8 ; xxxi. 5 he definitely 
 prophesies that Zion can never be taken by its foes. This latter view is 
 rejected by Cheyne, who pronounces xxix. 5, 7, 8 an intrusion, and xxxi. 5 to 
 be hopelessly corrupt. 
 
OF THE NATION 91 
 
 be called Citadel of Righteousness, Faithful City" chap. m. 
 (Cheyne's translation). 
 
 The nation is thus to be restored as aforetime, 
 but on a righteous foundation. All that was evil 
 was to be purged out of it. It is to be observed, 
 however, that there is no mention of the Messiah 
 in connection with it. 
 
 There is no world -judgment in Isaiah. Judg- Noworid- 
 
 . . .,11 1 T-, T- 1 • judgment in 
 
 ment, it is true, will be executed on Jigypt, Jtithi- isaiah. 
 opia, Tyre, Philistia, Moab, and Syria, and all 
 nations will be concerned in Yahwe's purpose of 
 *' breaking Assyria." These nations, however, are 
 dealt with by the prophet only in relation to his own 
 people. The conception of a world - j udgment 
 wherein every nation was to be judged inde- 
 pendently of Israel was of a later date.^ 
 
 In iii. 13, where there appears to be a reference 
 to it, the text is corrupt.^ The idea of its uni- 
 versality seems to be given in ii. 11 -21, but the 
 language is poetical. 
 
 Isaiah nowhere extends the blessings of the 
 kingdom to the heathen world. Israel alone should 
 enjoy them. Most of the Messianic passages in 
 Isaiah i.-xxxix. are due to later interpolations.^ 
 
 ^ Cheyne, Introd. pp. 53, 246. 
 
 ^ Ibid. 391 note. 
 
 3 All the Messianic passages save one (Is. i. 24-26) are rejected as the 
 work of a later age by Cheyne : also wholly or in part by Duhm, Hackmann, 
 Marti, Volz, Bruckner, G. A. Smith, etc. The chief passages are Is. ii. 2-4, 
 iv. 2-6, ix. 1-7, xi., xvi. 5, xix. 18-25, xxv. ^-%^ xxviii. 16, xxix. 16-24, 
 XXX. 18-26, xxxii. i-S"^, XXXV. i-io. With ii. 2-4, xix. 18-25 we shall deal 
 under post-Exilic prophecy. The post-Exilic date of iv. 2-6 is practically 
 admitted by G. A. Smith (Hastings' Bible Diciionary^ ii. 488) ; likewise of 
 xi. 10-16, xvi. 5, xxv. 6-8, and xxxv. i-io, pp. 492, 493. On the other 
 
92 
 
 ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 MiCAH (circa 723-700 B.C.) 
 
 Destruction of In Micah the doom of Jerusalem is pro- 
 NrMessianic nounced, and no hope of ultimate redemption is 
 
 kingdom. 
 
 hand, this scholar strongly contends against Marti, Volz, and Briickner, who 
 deny that the Messiah appeared at all in pre-Exilic prophecy. 
 
 Apart from arguments based on language and historical allusions, these 
 writers argue that the functions of the Messiah are purely political and not 
 religious. He is a national leader, and exercises the offices of neither 
 prophet, priest, nor leader, and belongs therefore to the Exilic and post-Exilic 
 periods. G. A. Smith vigorously assails this view. He contends (Hastings' 
 Bible Dictionary, ii. 488, 489) that this national conception of the Messiah 
 suits the pre-Exilic and not the later periods : that it belongs naturally to the 
 pre-Exilic forms of the Messianic kingdom : that the Isaianic passages ascribe 
 to the Messiah the duties prescribed by the time, the deliverance of Israel from 
 the Assyrian invasion, and the establishment of a righteous kingdom over 
 the people of Yahw^. 
 
 If we accept the chief Messianic passages as Isaianic, we obtain a very 
 striking picture of the Messiah. Thus, according to ix. 6, 7 (Cheyne's 
 translation) : — 
 
 A child is born unto us, a son is given unto us, 
 
 And the government is upon his shoulders, and his name as called 
 
 Wonder- counsellor, God-hero, Father of booty. Prince of Peace. 
 
 Increased is the government and of peace there is no end, 
 
 Upon the throne of David and over his kingdom, 
 
 In estabhshing and supporting it by justice and righteousness from henceforth 
 
 even for ever. 
 The zeal of Yahwfe Sebdoth will accomplish this. 
 
 In these verses we have a description of the Messiah as a great warrior and 
 ruler. In the following verses as a righteous judge, inspired by the Spirit of 
 Yahwe, equally great in knowledge and in practice, xi. 1-5 : — 
 
 And a shoot shall come forth from the stock of Jesse, 
 
 And a scion from his roots shall bear fruit, 
 
 And the spirit of Yahwfe shall rest upon him, 
 
 A spirit of wisdom and discernment, a spirit of counsel and might, a spirit of 
 
 knowledge and of the fear of Yahwe. 
 And he shall not judge according to that which his eyes have seen, 
 Nor arbitrate according to that which his ears have heard, 
 But with righteousness shall he judge the helpless, 
 And arbitrate with equity for the humble in the land ; 
 And he shall smite tyrants with the rod of his mouth, 
 And with the breath of his lips shall he slay the ungodly. 
 And righteousness shall be the girdle of his loins, 
 And faithfulness the girdle of his reins. 
 
OF THE NATION 93 
 
 held out:^ iii. 12. '* Zion, for your sake, shall be chap. m. 
 ploughed as a field, and Jerusalem shall become 
 heaps, and the mountain of the house as the high 
 places of the forest." 
 
 In the above prophets the judgment of the 
 Gentiles is never conceived independently, but only in 
 relation to the jtcdgment on Israel or Judah, 
 
 Nahum (664-607 B.C.) and Habakkuk 
 
 (605-600 B.C.) 
 
 When we pass from these four great prophets of 
 the eighth century to those of the latter half of the 
 seventh, namely Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah, 
 we find that religious thought on our subject has in 
 
 The nature of the lower creation will be transformed, xi. 6-8 : — 
 
 And the wolf shall lodge with the lamb, and the leopard lie down with the kid, 
 And the calf and the young lion, and the fatling together, whilst a little child 
 
 leadeth them. 
 And the cow and the bear shall feed, together shall their young ones lie down, 
 And the lion shall eat straw like the ox ; 
 And the suckling shall play at the hole of the asp, 
 And the weaned child shall stretch out his hand to the eyeball of the basilisk. 
 
 XXX. 26 : — 
 
 Moreover the light of the moon shall be as the light of the sun, 
 
 And the light of the sun shall be sevenfold, as the light of seven days. 
 
 ^ Only chaps, i.-iii. (with the exception of ii. 12, 13, which promise the 
 return from the Exile) are assigned to Micah. Chaps, iv.-vii. (with the excep- 
 tion of iv. 9, 10, and v. i, 10-14) ^^^^ according to Nowack {Kleine Propheten, 
 187, i^Zy20^sqq.)j derived from different authors and different periods. Stade, 
 Smend, Wellhausen, Marti, and Cheyne reject iv., v. in their entirety, and most 
 critics since Ewald's time reject vi., vii. See Stade, ZATWj 1881, pp. 161- 
 172; 1883, 1-16; 1884, 291-297; Smend, ATliche Theol. 225; Driver, 
 Introd. vii. 329-334. 
 
 According to the rejected chapters, Yahw^ will again restore the kingdom 
 to Israel (vii. 7-9). The exiles will be restored (ii. 12 ; iv. 6, 7). The Messiah 
 from Beth Ephratah will rule in Yahwe's name (v. 2), and with His reign will 
 begin the eternal Messianic kingdom (v. ^'1)^ ^^^ He will crush Assyria (v. 5-7), 
 and henceforth idolatry and wickedness and warfare will be at an end 
 (v. 10-14). 
 
94 
 
 ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 Modification 
 of conception 
 of day of 
 Yahwfe in 
 seventh cen- 
 tury. 
 
 Yahwe must 
 intervene for 
 Israel because 
 Israel is 
 risfhteous. 
 
 part advanced and in part retrograded. The retro- 
 gression is manifest in the books of Nahum and 
 Habakkuk. In these prophets we have a modified 
 renewal of the old popular conception of the day of 
 Yahwe ; for they conceive it as an intervention on 
 h^^-Ai oi righteous Israel against the ze;^^/^^^ Assyria. 
 According to the primitive view, Yahwe was bound 
 to intervene on behalf of His people on the ground 
 of the supposed natural affinities existing between 
 them, whereas according to the view of Nahum 
 and Habakkuk^ His intervention must follow on 
 the ground of ethical affinities ; for Israel and the 
 Gentiles are related to each other as the righteous, 
 pnis, and the wicked, i;mi (Hab. i. 4, 13). 
 
 The grounds for this renewal in a modified form 
 of the old view of the day of Yahwe are to be found 
 partly in the sufferings experienced by Israel at the 
 hands of their oppressors, and partly in the confidence 
 which Josiah's reforms had begotten in the people 
 that they were truly Yahwe's people. 
 
 Israel's sufferings at the hands of their oppressors 
 had given birth to unutterable bitterness and resent- 
 ment. The pressure of foreign influences in worship 
 and morals also naturally made the religious leaders 
 in Judah set all the higher value on their national 
 w^orship and ancestral customs. The religious 
 party therefore tended to become more and more 
 
 ^ Hab. i. 5- 1 1 is an interpolation according to Giesebrecht, Wellhausen, 
 Nowack, etc. Likewise chap. iii. The former passage is probably earlier and 
 the latter much later in date than Habakkuk. With the later date of iii. 
 Davidson and Driver agree, but both defend i. 5-1 1. ii. 11-14 is rejected by 
 Nowack. 
 
OF THE NATION 95 
 
 national in sympathy and aims. Nahum appears chap. m. 
 as the spokesman of this party. He does not 
 stand, as the preceding prophets, in opposition to the 
 ruling party in the state, but rather gives expression 
 to their sentiments. The cause of Yahwe and of 
 Israel is one and the same. 
 
 In the next place, owing to the reforms under 
 Josiah, the people felt themselves to be Yahwe s 
 people, and accordingly were confident of His help. 
 They felt themselves to be righteous — neither in 
 Nahum nor Habakkuk is there any mention of Israel's 
 sin — hence over against the glaring wickedness of 
 the Gentiles the actual Judah was regarded as 
 righteous (see Hab. i. 4, 13). The righteous- 
 ness of Judah was thus, it is true, only a relative 
 righteousness. Judah could claim to be righteous 
 only in contrast with the wickedness of the heathen- 
 We have herein the beginnings of the thought that This the 
 Israel is right over against the world — the begin- thfbSiefthat 
 nings ; for in Nahum and Habakkuk this view is rfghfover 
 applied only to the single nation of the Assyrians ^^^^1^^^^^^ 
 and not, as in later times, to all the Gentiles. 
 Hence the impending judgment will strike, not 
 righteous Israel, but the godless Gentiles. Under 
 the influence of Habakkuk's example the usage was 
 developed later of designating the Gentiles abso- 
 lutely as the godless, i?tn, and Judah as the righteous, 
 pns (cf Is. xxvi. 10; Pss. ix. 5, 17, X. 2, 3, 4, 
 Iviii. 10, Ixviii. 2, cxxv, 3. Henceforth in most 
 subsequent representations of the future the destruc- 
 tion of the Gentiles stands as a central thought. 
 
ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 CHAP. III. In Nahum i.-ii. 2 we have a description of the 
 
 day of Yahwe and the setting up of the Messianic 
 kingdom. It begins with a reference to the attri- 
 butes of Yahwe and their manifestation in nature 
 (i. 2-6). The writer then deals with the utter end 
 that is to be made of the enemies of His people, 
 The Messianic particularly of Assyria (i. 7-14). The Messianic 
 
 kingdom to r. J / 1 r 11 i i 
 
 follow on the Kingdom is apparently to follow on the destruction 
 
 Assyria in" ° of Nineveh. For the humiliation of Judah is at an 
 
 Nahum. ^^^ ^i^ j2): "Though I have afflicted thee, I will 
 
 afflict thee no more,"^ The hour of redemption is 
 
 at hand (i. 15): "Behold upon the mountains the 
 
 feet of him that bringeth good tidings, that publisheth 
 
 peace.'' God will restore Israel and Judah (ii. 2) : 
 
 "Yahwe bringeth again the excellency of Jacob, as 
 
 the excellency of Israel." 
 
 Buti. 2-ii. 2 If, however, Bickell, Gunkel, and Nowack are 
 
 post-Exilic. right in their views that i. 2-ii. 2 is not a prophecy 
 
 Nahum would but an alphabetical psalm describing under traditional 
 
 ?e°ference°o forms the coming of Yahwe to judge the enemies of 
 
 the Messianic p^is people and the establishment of the Messianic 
 
 future. . 
 
 kingdom,^ they will be no less right in maintaining that 
 it is not from Nahum's hand but from a much later 
 date. In that case the original prophecy of Nahum 
 would deal with the judgment of Nineveh (ii. 3-iii,) 
 and not possess a single reference to the Messianic 
 
 1 These words might be rendered : '* When I afflict, I will afflict thee no 
 more," that is, the affliction would be thorough and final. In this case the verse 
 would apply tO'Assyria. 
 
 2 See Gunkel, ZATW, 1893, pp. 223 sqq. ; Bickell, Sitzungsberichte der 
 kaiserl. Aka4. der Wzss. in Wien, Abhandl, v, 1894; Gunkel, ScMpfung 
 und Chaos, 102, 103, 1895; Nowack, A7^?V/fi Propketen, pp. 227, 231-237, 
 1897 ; Davidson on Nahum, pp. 18-20, criticises this view unfavourably. 
 
OF THE NATION 97 
 
 future. The real beginning of this prophecy was chap. m. 
 according to this view thrust out when i. 2-ii. 2 
 was amalgamated with ii. 3-iii. 
 
 In Habakkuk the only words that could be con- inHabakkuk 
 strued as reierring to the kingdom are ii. 4, " The 
 just shall remain in life through his integrity," at the 
 judgment, and ii. 14, '*the earth shall be filled with 
 the knowledge of the glory of Yahwe, as the waters 
 cover the sea."^ 
 
 Zephaniah (before 621 b.c.) 
 
 But whilst Nahum and Habakkuk are retrogres- 
 sive, an important advance in the development of the 
 idea of divine judgment is attested in Zephaniah, by 
 whom the day of Yahwe is conceived as the judgment DayofVahw^ 
 of the whole world resulting in the survival of a judgment 
 righteous remnant of Israel s^vlvTfor 
 
 In Zephaniah the judgment appears for the first aright 
 time to be universal. Its universal scope is the israei. 
 necessary corollary to the monotheistic faith of the 
 prophet ; for Yahwe as the God of the whole earth, 
 and pre-eminently as the God of righteousness, must 
 summon all the nations to judgment. 
 
 The judgment deals with Jerusalem (i. 8-13), with 
 Philistia, Ethiopia, and Assyria (ii. 1-6), with all 
 nations (iii. 8), with all the inhabitants of the 
 earth (i. 18). It extends even to the brute creation 
 (i. 2, 3). There is, however, a certain inconsistency 
 in the picture. The instruments of judgment are a 
 
 ^ This verse, however, is regarded by many scholars as a later addition. 
 
 7 
 
 :eous 
 remnant in 
 
98 
 
 ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 Zephaniah 
 first treats of 
 the judgment 
 of all nations. 
 
 mysterious people, called "the guests " of Yahwe (i. 
 7) — probably the Scythians — who do not themselves 
 come within the scope of judgment. Thus the con- 
 ception is wanting in definiteness and comprehen- 
 sion. Zephaniah moves in the footsteps of Isaiah 
 in the account of the impending judgment, but, 
 whereas, in the latter, judgment on Israel and the 
 nations stands in inner connection with his con- 
 ception of the divine character and purposes, in 
 Zephaniah it is without definite aim,^ if with certain 
 critics we reject ii. 8-1 1, iii. 8-io : its various 
 constituents appear to represent already current 
 eschatological expectations, while its wide sweep 
 shows the operation of the prevailing monotheism. 
 The day of Yahwe is a day of battle and assault on 
 the defenced cities (i. 16), a day of trouble and dis- 
 tress, of wasteness and desolation, of supernatural 
 terrors, of darkness, clouds and thick darkness (i. 14- 
 18). The nations are to be assembled in order to 
 be destroyed by the fierce anger of Yahwe (iii. 8). 
 This last feature, that is, the destruction of the 
 nations generally, appears first in Zephaniah. This 
 idea is a further development of the earlier doctrine 
 that only the nations hostile to Judah should be 
 destroyed, which is found in ii. 1-7 {i.e. the 
 Philistines, Moab, and Ammon, etc.), Jer. xxv. 15- 
 24 (i.e. the genuine portions), and Is. xvii. 12, 13 
 {i.e. the Assyrians). In the eighth-century prophets 
 
 1 ii. 8-1 1 are rejected by Wellhausen and Nowack {I.e. 275-277) ; also by 
 Budde and Cornill. iii. 9, 10 generally held to be later. Davidson defends 
 the integrity of the entire book. See Driver, Introd. 342, 343. 
 
OF THE NATION 99 
 
 in this connection it is the destruction of definite and chap. m. 
 present foes that is announced,- but in the later it is 
 that of the nations generally. Of these later pro- 
 phets it forms a prominent and constantly recurring 
 characteristic, as we see in Jer. xxv. 32, 33 (the 
 addition of a reviser) ; Ezek. xxxviii.-xxxix., the 
 fifth-century passages in Is. xxxiv., Ixiii. 1-6 ; Zech. 
 xii. 1-3, and the much later anonymous fragments 
 in Is. Ixvi. 16, 18, 19 ; Zech. xiv. 1-3, 12-15. The 
 scene of this judgment on the nations, which 
 Zephaniah leaves indeterminate, is declared by later 
 prophets to be Jerusalem (Zech. xiv. 2, 12, 13 ; 
 Joel iii. 2 ; Is. Ixvi. 15). 
 
 At the close of the judgment there will be left TheMcssiank 
 a small and righteous remnant in Israel (iii. 12, 13) : ^°^ °"^ 
 *' I will leave in the midst of thee an afflicted and 
 poor people, and they shall trust in the name of 
 Yahwe. The remnant of Israel shall not do iniquity, 
 neither shall a deceitful tongue be found in their 
 mouth : for they shall feed and lie down, and none 
 shall make them afraid." These are those who are 
 urged in ii. 3 to seek righteousness, if haply they 
 may be hid in the day of Yahwe. 
 
 There is a wide universalism in Zephaniah if ah the nations 
 
 T ... . . , .. ,«. , ,, are to serve 
 
 u. II and ni. 9, 10 are origmal. n. 11. '' Men shall Yahw^, 
 worship him, every one from his place, even all the 
 coast lands of the nations." iii. 9. ** Then will I turn 
 to the peoples a pure lip, that they may all call upon 
 the name of Yahwe, to serve him with one consent." 
 
 In Zephaniah, as in Nahum and Habakkuk, there No Messiah. 
 is no mention of a Messianic king. 
 
lOO 
 
 ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 Contrast 
 between the 
 pre-Exilic and 
 Exilic con- 
 ceptions of 
 judgment. 
 
 The Exile con- 
 tributes to the 
 individualisa- 
 tion of religion. 
 
 Jeremiah^ (626-586 b.c.) and Ezekiel 
 (593-571 B.C.) 
 
 We have now done with the pre-ExiHc concep- 
 tions of the day of Yahwe. In pre-Exihc times 
 divine judgment was mainly conceived collectively 
 as one of doom on the nation as a nation : in Exilic 
 and subsequent times the divine judgment is con- 
 ceived as dealing with the individual Israelite, and 
 thus as presenting a favourable or unfavourable 
 side according to the character of the individual. 
 As a result of this judgment a righteous community 
 was to emerge, forming the nucleus of the Messianic 
 kingdom. This difference in the conceptions of 
 the two periods was brought about, at all events 
 externally, by the destruction of the State. For the 
 political annihilation of Israel maybe regarded from 
 two standpoints : from the one it was the inevitable 
 doom of the impenitent nation ; from the other, and 
 that the one of most moment to our present study, 
 it formed an indispensable factor in the develop- 
 ment of religion ; for it contributed to the indi- 
 vidualisation of religion, alike in its essential nature 
 and its expectations of the future. Thus the 
 eschatology of the individual becomes henceforth a 
 factor in the eschatology of the nation. 
 
 1 Jeremiah (626-586 B.C.) belongs, it is true, to the pre-Exilic period. 
 Since, however, his teaching on the relation of man to God is so diverse from 
 that of his contemporaries and predecessors, and in many respects so nearly 
 akin to that of Ezekiel (who was herein his disciple), I have thought it best 
 to discuss their doctrines together, and treat Jeremiah as though he were a 
 prophet of the Exile. 
 
OF THE NATION loi 
 
 We have seen above that the message of the chap. m. 
 pre-Exilic prophet to Israel was mainly one of con- contrast 
 demnation, and that only in a few cases was the ^^xx^L^r 
 prospect held out of a regenerated national life, p^oph^ec^^^ 
 But with the Exile the burthen of prophecy is no fhe Messianic 
 
 ^ ^ ^ kingdom. 
 
 longer doom and destruction, but promise and bless- 
 ing, and such is its unfailing characteristic till the 
 close of the Canon. Judgment is still of necessity 
 preached. But its character is very differently con- 
 ceived in the succeeding centuries accordingly as 
 we study the spiritual founders of Judaism or the 
 large-hearted prophets who prepared the way for 
 Christianity. According to Jeremiah and his spiri- The kingdom 
 tual successors, the role of judgment is only vindic- a'lf thrnattons, 
 tive with the finally impenitent : in the case of all ^{^^^^^^ ^° 
 others its character is corrective and disciplinary. 
 Its object is to prepare the way for the external 
 Messianic kingdom in which all 'the nations shall 
 participate. 
 
 But, according to Ezekiel and subsequent writers For israei only, 
 of the same school, judgment was conceived as aEzekier^^° 
 purging of Israel from its evil elements with a view 
 to the establishment of the eternal Messianic 
 kingdom ; but for the nations it meant only de- 
 struction, partial or complete, or, under the most 
 favourable construction, absolute political subjection 
 to Israel. 
 
 According, therefore, to the eschatology of the E°ufc''concep- 
 Exile, the Messianic kingdom was placed in the ^*°^^ f^t x 
 forefront of both prophetic and popular expectation, and of the 
 This kingdom was to be introduced by the day ^kingdom. 
 
ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 CHAP. in. 
 
 Ezekiel's 
 synthesis of the 
 eschatologies 
 of the nation 
 and of the 
 individual. 
 
 Prophecy of 
 the Messianic 
 kingdom by 
 Jeremiah. 
 
 Yahwe — conceived no longer merely as inflicting 
 collective punishment fo7^ collective guilt, but as 
 meting out individual retribution. As the result of 
 this judgment a new and regenerate Israel emerges 
 — the Messianic kingdom. Into this kingdom the 
 nations e^tter by conversion, according to Jeremiah, 
 but according to Ezekiel, even those which had siir- 
 vived the day of Yahwe are for ever exc hided from it. 
 
 We have above dealt with Jeremiah and Ezekiel's 
 doctrine of Individualism (see pp. 59-67). The 
 individualising of religion in these prophets was the 
 precondition of the restoration of Israel after the 
 fall of Jerusalem. In God's visitations only the 
 wicked in Israel, according to Ezekiel, should be 
 destroyed. When a new Israel was thus created, 
 Yahwe would further intervene to vindicate His 
 honour and sole sovereignty over the world, and 
 Israel would be restored to its own land, and the 
 Gentiles destroyed. In Ezekiel a synthesis of the 
 eschatologies of the nation and of the individual is 
 attempted wholly within the sphere of this life. 
 
 We have now arrived at a new period in the 
 development of eschatological thought in Israel. 
 Israel is on the eve of exile. But this exile is to 
 be only of temporary duration. Yahwe's thoughts 
 to Israel are thoughts of peace and not of evil 
 (Jer. xxix. 11). After an exile of 70 years^ in 
 Babylon (xxv. 11, xxix. 10), Israel will be converted 
 and brought back to its own land, and an ever- 
 
 1 What a fruitful source of apocalyptic systems this number became we 
 shall see later (see pp. 171-173). 
 
OF THE NATION 103 
 
 lasting Messianic kingdom be established. This chap. m. 
 kingdom will be ruled over either by Yahwe or 
 His servant the Messiah. Some scholars, it is true, 
 maintain that the references to the Messiah in this 
 prophet do not belong to the original text.^ 
 
 Although the judgment of Israel is not strictly- 
 individualistic in Jeremiah, as it is in Ezekiel, we 
 shall give his eschatological views with those of 
 Ezekiel ; for the latter are built on the former. 
 
 In Jeremiah the day of Yahwe is directed first 
 and principally against Judah : the enemy will come 
 in from the north (i. 11-16) ; the city and the 
 temple will be destroyed (xxxvii. 6-10). But account 
 is taken also of other nations, which are to drink 
 of the cup of the wine of the fury of Yahwe — 
 Egypt, Palestine, Edom, Moab, Ammon (xxv. 15-24; 
 cf. i. 18). The further details of the judgment 
 (xxv. 27-33, which expand it into a day of universal 
 judgment) are interpolations from a later date. But 
 there is a hopeful outlook. Israel will be restored 
 (xxiii. 7, 8; xxiv. 5, 6). This restoration will be Restoration of 
 preceded by repentance (iii. 13, 19-25). and accom- IccT^paSed 
 panied by a change of heart wrought by Yahwe. ^Ln^*^^"^^ °^ 
 Through this change of heart each member of the 
 nation will know Yahwe and obey Him (xxiv. 7) : 
 ''And I will give them a heart to know me, that 
 I am Yahwe ; and they shall be my people, and I 
 will be their God : for they shall return unto me 
 with their whole heart"; cf. xxxii. 39. The same 
 
 * So Volz, who rejects all the passages which speak of the Messiah in 
 Jeremiah. See Vorexilische Yahwepropketie, pp. 78-80. 
 
104 
 
 ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 Messianic 
 kingdom and 
 the Messiah, 
 the latter 
 representing 
 a dynasty. 
 
 The nations 
 will be con- 
 verted and 
 incorporated 
 in the king- 
 dom. 
 
 promise is made, but more clearly and fully, in 
 xxxi. 33, 34: '* But this is the covenant that I will 
 make with the house of Israel after those days, 
 saith Yahwe : I will put my law in their inward 
 parts, and in their heart will I write it ; and I will 
 be their God, and they shall be my people ; and 
 they shall teach no more every man his neighbour, 
 and every man his brother, saying, Know Yahwe, 
 for they shall all know me, from the least of them 
 unto the greatest of them, saith Yahwe : for I 
 will forgive their iniquity, and their sin will I 
 remember no more." When restored to their own 
 land, Yahwe will give them a righteous Branch of 
 the house of David to rule over them (xxiii. 5, 6) : 
 *' Behold the days come, saith Yahwe, that I will 
 raise unto David a righteous Branch, and he shall 
 reign as king and deal wisely, and shall execute 
 judgment and justice in the land. In his days 
 Judah shall be saved, and Israel shall dwell safely: 
 and this is his name whereby he shall be called, 
 Yahwe is our righteousness." Elsewhere Jeremiah 
 speaks of the rulers of restored Israel as Shepherds 
 (iii. 15, xxiii. 4). The Messiah, therefore, is con- 
 ceived of as a dynasty, and not as an individual. 
 Other Messianic passages, as xxx. 8, 9, 21 ; xxxiii. 
 14-26, are rejected by Giesebrecht. 
 
 But the blessings of the kingdom will not be 
 limited to Israel. The nations also will be con- 
 verted, even those who have been hostile to Israel 
 (xii. 14, 15) : " Thus saith Yahwe : Against all mine 
 evil neighbours, that touch the inheritance which I 
 
OF THE NATION 105 
 
 have caused my people Israel to inherit: Behold I chap. m. 
 will pluck them up from off their land, and will 
 pluck up the house of Judah from among them. 
 And it shall come to pass, after that I have plucked 
 them up, I will return and have compassion on 
 them ; and I will bring them again, every man to 
 his heritage, and every man to his land." And 
 elsewhere it is declared (iv. 2) : "The nations shall 
 bless themselves in Yahwe, and in him shall they 
 glory" ; (xvi. 19) : " O Yahwe, my strength and my 
 stronghold, and my refuge in the day of afflic- 
 tion, unto thee shall the nations come from 
 the ends of the earth, and shall say, Our fathers 
 have inherited nought but lies, even vanity and 
 things wherein there is no profit." iii. 17, which 
 gives evidence in the same direction, is rejected 
 by Giesebrecht. All the nations shall be converted, 
 and only the impenitent will be destroyed (xii. 16, oniythefinaiiy 
 17); "And it shall come to pass, if they will b^deTtroyer 
 diligently learn the ways of my people, to swear by 
 my name. As Yahwe liveth ; even as they taught 
 my people to swear by Baal ; then shall they be 
 built up in the midst of my people. But if they will 
 not hear, then will I pluck up that nation, plucking 
 up and destroying it, saith Yahwe." 
 
 The individualism appearing in Jeremiah is, as 
 we have seen above, developed in Ezekiel to an Teaching of 
 extreme degree. Judgment will proceed individu- 
 ally on Israel, but collectively on the Gentiles. 
 Yahwe will give a new heart to Israel (xi. 17-21, 
 xxxvi. 25-32), and restore Israel and Judah to their 
 
io6 
 
 ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 Messianic 
 kingdom. 
 
 The Messiah 
 not an in- 
 dividual, but 
 a series of 
 successive 
 kings. 
 
 Invasion of 
 Palestine by 
 Go-. 
 
 This prophecy 
 arises from an 
 unfulfilled 
 prophecy of 
 Jeremiah and 
 Zephaniah. 
 
 Unfulfilled 
 prophecy a 
 source of 
 Apocalyptic. 
 
 Hopeless 
 destiny of the 
 surviving 
 Gentiles. 
 
 own land, where, as the Messianic kingdom (xvii. 
 22-24), they shall be ruled by the Messiah (xxi. 27), 
 by one king, even David (xxxiv. 23-31, xxxvii. 
 21-28). But the Messiah is not conceived here as 
 an individual, but as a series of successive kings 
 (cf. xlv. 8, xlvi. 16). 
 
 But after the establishment of the kingdom under - 
 the Messiah in Palestine, the heathen powers will join 
 in a vast confederation against it. Under Gog, from 
 the land Magog, will they march, but will all be de- 
 stroyed through the might of Yahwe (xxxviii., xxxix.) 
 This is the foe whose invasion of Israel from the 
 north had been prophesied by Jeremiah (iii.-vi.) and 
 Zephaniah (i. 7), but whose coming had hitherto 
 been looked for in vain. Since this prophecy had 
 remained unfulfilled, Ezekiel edits it anew, and 
 adjourns its accomplishment. It is of Gog that 
 Ezekiel thus speaks: ''Thou art he of whom I 
 spake by my servants the prophets of Israel, which 
 prophesied in those days for many years, that I 
 would bring thee against them " (xxxviii. 17^). This 
 reduplication of judgment first appears in Ezekiel. 
 
 To this re -editing of unfulfilled prophecy is to 
 be traced one of the main sources of Apocalyptic. 
 
 On the Gentiles which survive the final over- 
 throw in the land of Israel, no gleam of divine 
 compassion will for ever light.^ 
 
 I have given side by side the views of Jeremiah 
 
 1 See Bertholet on Ezekiel xxxviii. 17. 
 
 2 Some scholars find in xvii. 23 a promise that the Gentiles will seek 
 refuge under the rule of the Messiah ; but xvii. 24 shows that this interpreta- 
 tion is unsound. The Gentiles are symbolised not by the " birds of every 
 
OF THE NATION 107 
 
 and Ezekiel, the great prophets of the Exile and the chap. m. 
 
 years immediately preceding it, as the best means 
 
 of displaying their undoubted affinities, and their no 
 
 less indubitable diversities. This parallel presenta- Jeremiah and 
 
 tion of their views will be helpful, since these two founders of 
 
 prophets were the sources of two concurrent but dT^erTeTchoois 
 
 very diverse streams of development. ofdeveiop- 
 
 -' Jr ment. 
 
 Both prophets are teachers of monotheism. 
 With Jeremiah this doctrine was a Hving and fruit- 
 ful principle, and teaches him to see, not in Israel 
 only but in all the nations, the objects of the saving 
 purposes of Yahwe. Jeremiah's universalism marks 
 him out as the true spiritual successor of the great 
 prophets of the eighth century. Ezekiel's particular- 
 ism, on the other hand, shows his affinities to Nahum 
 and Habakkuk of the seventh. For in Ezekiel mono- 
 theism is but a barren and lifeless dogma. Though 
 theoretically he conceives Yahwe to be the sole 
 Creator and God of all the earth, his behef has no 
 influence on his views as to the destinies of the 
 Gentiles. Israel alone will experience the salvation 
 of Yahwe : but as for the Gentiles, their end is 
 partly destruction and partly an unblessed existence 
 under the malign rule of an ever hostile and ever 
 unappeasable deity. 
 
 We shall deal first with those prophets who 
 followed in the wake of Jeremiah, and developed 
 his teaching to its legitimate consequences. In this 
 
 wing" in xvii. 23, but by "the trees of the field," xvii. 24. As "the 
 cedar," xvii. 23, represents the kingdom of Israel, so " the trees of the field " 
 represent the Gentile kingdoms. The only object with which the latter seem 
 to be spared is that they may recognise the omnipotence of Yahwe. 
 
io8 ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 CHAP. III. post-Exilic development (550-275 B.C.) the thought 
 Universaiistic of judg'fnent, of the day of Yahwe, all but wholly 
 the M^essiailic disappears before that of an all-embracing Messianic 
 kingdom. kingdo7n — a kingdom initiated not through judgment 
 
 but through the missionary efforts of Israel and the 
 
 willing conversion of the nations. 
 
 The Second Isaiah, xl.-lv. (545-539 b.c.) 
 
 According to the Second I saiah, there is in store for 
 Jerusalem not punishment but mercy, for already she 
 has received double for all her sins (xl.2). Moreover 
 the Chaldean power will be overthrown through Cyrus 
 (xli. 25; xliii. 14; xlv.-xlvii. ; xlviii. 14, 15). Yahwe's 
 people will then come forth from Babylon (xlviii. 20, 
 Hi. ri, 12). All difficulties in the way of the return- 
 ing exiles will be removed (xl. 3-5 ; xli. 18, 19 ; xliii. 
 Restoration of 2-"] \ xlviii. 20-22; xHx. 8). Jcrusalcm and the temple 
 rebuUding'of will be rebuilt by the help of Cyrus (xliv. 28, xlv. 
 &mp"e '"^ 13). The desolation of Zion will be at an end, her 
 wilderness will become like Eden and her desert 
 like the garden of the Lord (li. 3), and Jerusalem 
 will be built of precious stones (liv. 11, 12), and its 
 inhabitants will be disciples of Yahwe (liv. 1 3). 
 And the land will be too strait for its inhabitants 
 (xlix. 18-23, liv. i). And never more shall Jerusalem 
 be assailed nor any arm raised up against her (xlix. 
 24-26, liv. 8-10, 14-17). The cities of Judah shall 
 Tonvetionof ^gain bc inhabited (xl. 9, xliv. 26), and Israel will 
 thelrsubmi^ posscss the natious (liv. 3). Egypt and Ethiopia 
 sion to Israel, will of their own free will submit themselves unto 
 
OF THE NATION 109 
 
 Israel, confessing : ** Only in thee is God, and there chap. m. 
 is none beside — no Godhead at all " (xlv. 14). Yea, 
 all the nations will become subject to Israel (xlix. 
 22, 21)} 
 
 But the conception of Israel's purpose and future The kingdom 
 is more nobly conceived in the " Songs of the israei and the 
 
 S,))/T- T ^1 T- T" \ nations to be 
 
 ervant (xhi. 1-4, xlix. 1-6, 1. 4-9, In. 13-lui. 12), established 
 
 which can hardly be of the same authorship as the s^/j.°^ntof^^'' 
 rest of Isaiah (xl.-lv.) *' They form a connected cycle Yahw^," 
 
 ^ ^ ' •' ^ ^ according to 
 
 of poetical meditations."^ In this poem the Servant "Songsof 
 
 , , r 1 1 '-T^i 1 the Servant." 
 
 IS the pious remnant 01 the people. 1 hey nave 
 been elected by God to a special service, and this 
 service is the conversion of mankind to the worship 
 of Yahwe. Hence the function of this true Israel 
 is a missionary one. Their first task is the con- 
 version of the rest of the nation — to "bring back 
 Jacob unto him, and that unto him Israel might 
 be gathered" (xlix. 5). Then their work is to 
 extend to all the ends of the earth. The Servant 
 should become the light of the nations ; judgment 
 shall be established on the earth, and the coast lands 
 shall wait for His law (xlix. 6, xlii. 4). In these 
 *' Songs " the nations are considered only as subjects 
 of the divine mercy, and never of judgment, as in Is. 
 xlii. 13-17. There is no thought of Israel's political 
 supremacy. 
 
 A representation of the future somewhat similar The nations 
 
 1 . , f-, 1 T • 1 .1 to put them- 
 
 to that m the Second Isaiah appears in the post- sewes under 
 
 the tutelage 
 ^ In xlii. 13-17 we have a description of the day of Yah w^ in the Second of Yahwe 
 
 Isaiah. In this passage it is the heathen and idolatrous world that is judged, (^s, ii. 2-4). 
 
 Israel does not come within its scope (cf. li. 23). 
 2 Cheyne, Iiitrod, p. 305. 
 
I lO 
 
 ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 CHAP. III. Exilic passages Is. ii. 2-4==Mic. iv. 1-3, according 
 to which the nations should of their own free will 
 submit themselves to Yahwe. 
 
 Isaiah ii. 2-4 : ** And it shall come to pass in the 
 latter days that the mountain of Yahwe's house 
 shall be established in the top of the mountains, and 
 shall be exalted above the hills ; and all nations 
 shall flow unto it. And many peoples shall go and 
 say, Come ye, and let us go up to the mountain of 
 Yahwe, to the house of the God of Jacob ; and he 
 will teach us of his ways, and we will walk in his 
 paths : for out of Zion shall go forth the law, and 
 the word of Yahwe from Jerusalem, And he 
 shall judge between the nations, and reprove many 
 peoples, and they shall beat their swords into plow- 
 shares, and their spears into pruning hooks ; nation 
 shall not lift up sword against nation, neither shall 
 they learn war any more." 
 
 A like conception is probably at the base of the 
 post- Exilic Is. xi. 9 = Hab. ii. 14 (both editorial 
 additions?), which declare that the earth shall be 
 full of the knowledge of Yahwe as the waters cover 
 the sea. 
 
 Psalms xxii., Ixv., Ixxxvi., Ixxxvii. 
 
 In the Psalms. The Same thought ^ is set forth in the Psalms : 
 *' All the ends of the earth shall remember and turn 
 to Yahwe, and all the kindreds of the nations shall 
 worship before him" (xxii. 27-31) : yea, '*all nations 
 . . . should come and worship," for God is their 
 
 1 Cf. also the addition in Zeph. iii. 9, 10. 
 
OF THE NATION m 
 
 Creator (Ixxxvi. 9)/ God is said to be " the con- chap. m. 
 fidence of all the ends of the earth" (Ixv. 5); all 
 flesh is to come to Him as **the hearer of prayer " 
 (Ixv. 2)? But in Ps. Ixxxvii. we have a noble con- 
 ception which sums up in itself all the highest thought 
 of the past in this direction. Jerusalem is to be the 
 mother city of all the nations, '' the metropolis of an 
 ideally Catholic Church " (Cheyne) ; whole nations 
 should enter the Jewish. Church (Ixxxvii. 4), but as 
 individuals (Ixxxvii. 5) ; and this should be their 
 universal song : '* All my fresh springs are in thee " 
 (Ixxxvii. 7). 
 
 Only two more works, Malachi and Is. xix. 16-25, 
 call for attention, but these are beyond measure re- 
 markable. 
 
 Malachi (before 458 e.g.) 
 
 A wide universalism is apparently found in Mai. i. Recognition of 
 IT, where, in regard to the surrounding nations, the ^emenUn''' 
 prophet declares : *' From the risinsf of the sun even ^^^then 
 
 ^ ^ religions by 
 
 unto the going down of the same, my name is great Malachi. 
 among the Gentiles ; and in every place incense is 
 offered unto my name and a pure offering." Here 
 the writer recognises the monotheism underlying 
 the heathen religions. At this date the divine 
 
 ^ Cf. also XXV. 6 in the small apocalypse in Is. xxiv. ; xxv. 6-8 ; xxvi. 
 
 10-20 ; xxvii. i, 12, 13. This Cheyne assigns to the fourth century, Duhm to 
 the second. This later date, which is, however, impossible on other grounds, 
 would help to explain the very advanced eschatology which appears in xxiv. 
 21-23, which speaks of a preliminary judgment, and then after a very long 
 interval of the final judgment. On the latter follows the theocratic kingdom 
 (xxiv. 23). 
 
 2 On the expectation that proselytes shall be admitted into the congrega- 
 tion of Yahwe's worshippers, see also Is. xiv. i, xxv. 6, Ixv. 3, 6. 
 
112 ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 CHAP. III. designation "the Most High God" existed con- 
 temporaneously among the Phcenicians, Samaritans, 
 and Jews. The words, however, are not to be taken 
 in an absolute, but in a relative sense. The offer- 
 ings of the heathen are made, though unconsciously, 
 to Yahwe, and are more pleasing to Him than the 
 faulty and deceitful sacrifices of Israel. That the 
 words are to be construed in some such limited 
 sense is clear from the next chapter (ii. lo), where 
 Yahwe is represented as the Father and Creator of 
 all the members of Judaism, and of these alone ; ^ for 
 on this statement is based an argument against the 
 taking of heathen wives. And yet, however much 
 we limit the words, it is indisputable that in Malachi 
 heathenism is not conceived as a power hostile to 
 God, as it is in Haggai and Zechariah. 
 
 Despite the severe visitations which the nation 
 had experienced in the past, Israel proved again 
 unfaithful when restored to its own land. Some 
 seventy years earlier Haggai and Zechariah had 
 promised the advent of the kingdom on the rebuild- 
 ing of the temple. Within a few years the temple 
 had been rebuilt, but the promise remained un- 
 fulfilled. 
 
 With Malachi the temple still holds this central 
 position. Yahwe will suddenly come to it after that 
 His messenger has prepared the way. But this 
 coming will be for judgment ; for Israel has, alike in 
 
 1 These conflicting views show that although the monotheistic conception 
 of God was a central article of the Jewish creed of the time, it was not a 
 living and growing principle, and so its transforming influence on the rest of 
 this creed was in the main nullified. 
 
OF THE NA TION 1 1 3 
 
 private morals (iii. 5, 14) and public worship (i. 6, chap. m. 
 14), gone back to evil pre-Exilic ways. 
 
 Judgment was therefore impending, but before DayofVahwfe 
 that "great and terrible day " Elijah should be sent ° 
 to *' turn the heart of the fathers to the children and 
 the heart of the children to the fathers" (iv. 5, 6). 
 This judgment, which in Hag. ii. 5 sqq.^ 21-23, and 
 Zech. i. 15, ii. i sqq,, vi. 1-8, was conceived as an 
 annihilation of the heathen powers, is in Malachi 
 limited to Israel (ii. 17, iii. 3, 5, 13 sqq,) This day 
 will " burn as a furnace," and destroy ** all the proud 
 and all that work wickedness." Only the righteous Oniythe 
 will be delivered. For them there is a book of [nLrit'the^^ 
 remembrance written before Yahwe. *'And they ^^^sdom. 
 shall be a peculiar treasure unto me, saith Yahwe 
 of Hosts, in the day that I prepare ; and I will spare 
 them as a man spareth his own son that serveth him " 
 (iii. 17); "and all nations shall call you happy; for 
 ye shall be a delightsome land, saith Yahwe of 
 Hosts" (iii. 12). 
 
 Isaiah xix. 16-25 {pi'^<^cL 275 e.g., Cheyne) 
 
 In Is. xix. 16-25 ^he hopes of Ps. Ixxxvii. 
 reappear, but are far outbid in universality. 
 Jerusalem, though the source of spiritual blessed- Israel, E^t. 
 ness to Egypt and Assyria (Syria), is neither ^o^formT'^ 
 nationally nor spiritually paramount over them ; confederacy. 
 rather do they form a spiritual and national 
 confederacy in which Israel holds not the first 
 but the third place (Is. xix, 21, 23-25): **And 
 
114 
 
 ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 The future, 
 according to 
 Ezekiel and 
 his successors. 
 
 Yahwe shall be known to Egypt, and the Egyptians 
 shall know Yahwe in that day ; yea, they shall 
 worship with sacrifice and oblation. . . . In that day 
 shall there be a high way out of Egypt to Assyria, 
 and the Assyrians shall come into Egypt and the 
 Egyptians into Assyria ; and the Egyptians shall 
 worship with the Assyrians. And in that day shall 
 Israel be the third with Egypt and with Assyria, a 
 blessing in the midst of the earth ; for that Yahwe 
 of Hosts hath blessed them, saying : Blessed be 
 Egypt my people, and Assyria the work of my 
 hands, and Israel mine inheritance." 
 
 We have now dealt with the prophetic writers 
 who, following in the wake of Jeremiah and the 
 Second Isaiah, foretold the incorporation of the 
 Gentiles into the Messianic kingdom. But con- 
 currently with this large-hearted universalism there 
 existed a variety of narrow and one-sided views, 
 which held more or less closely to the particularism 
 which originated with Nahum and Habakkuk, but 
 especially with Ezekiel. According to Ezekiel and 
 his successors, the future world, the Messianic age, 
 belonged to Israel — to Judah and Israel reunited 
 (Hos. iii. 5; Mic. v. 3^; post- Exilic) under the 
 Messianic descendant of David (Is. ix. 1-6, xi. 1-8 ; 
 Mic. v. 2-4; all Exilic or later) : in it the Gentiles 
 had no share at all, or only in a subordinate degree 
 as dependants or servants of Israel. Their destiny 
 was subjection or destruction, generally the latter, 
 and always so in the case of those that had been 
 hostile to Israel. According to these teachers — 
 
OF THE NA TION 1 1 5 
 
 The day of Yahwe was to be a day of deliverance^ chap. m. 
 initiating the Messianic kingdom on earth for Israel^ Particularistic 
 hit (a) a period of ministry or bondage^ or (b) else the day of 
 of partial or complete desti^uction for the Gentiles} ivTes^anlc 
 
 kingdom. 
 
 Some post-Exilic Fragments of Isaiah 
 
 {a) In the Messianic future the Gentiles are to various 
 escort the returning Israelites to Jerusalem,, and be- fragmemrof 
 come their servants and handmaids (Is. xiv. i-3,^]xvi. ■^^'"^^■ 
 i2-i6, i8''-20^): they should build up its walls (Ix. lo), 
 and bow themselves and bec^ome subject to Israel 
 (Ix. 14), or else perish (Ix. 12) ; they should become 
 Israel's herdsmen, and ploughmen, and vinedressers 
 (Ixi. 5)/ Very noble descriptions of the Messianic 
 kingdom are given in iv. 2-6, xxvii. 6, xxix. 16-24, 
 XXXV. I- 10, but these speak only of Israel in relation 
 to the Messianic age. 
 
 {b) But at times the partial or complete de- 
 struction of the Gentiles predicted. In Is. xxxiv., 
 XXXV. (450-430 B.C., Cheyne) there is a universal 
 judgment described in which all the nations are to 
 be destroyed (xxxiv. 1-3).^ In the fifth -century 
 
 ^ Though in Haggai and Zechariah, and other post- Exilic writings, the 
 day of Yahwe is essentially a day of destruction for the Gentiles, in Malachi, 
 as we have already seen, its range is limited to Israel (see ii. 1 7-iii. 6, iii. 
 17-iv. 3). 
 
 2 Cheyne regards these verses as alien to Is. xiii. 2-xiv. 21. This idea of 
 the nations escorting the exiles back to Zion is found also in the Second 
 Is. xlix, 22, 23. 
 
 2 According to Cheyne, Ix. and Ixvi. 6-16, 18^-22 belong to the age of 
 Nehemiah and Ezra. 
 
 * These passages are post-Exilic, Ix., Ixi. being about 432 B.C. (Cheyne). 
 
 ^ We have a world-judgment described in xiii. 6-22, though the judgment 
 is there directed primarily against Babylon (cf. xiii. 11, 19), just as in xxxiv. 
 it is specially against Edom. 
 
ii6 ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 CHAP. in. fragment lix. 15^-20 the nations hostile to Yahwe 
 and IsraeP are singled out for destruction, while 
 those that are spared fear the name of Yahwe 
 (lix. 18, 19);^ whereas in another fragment of the 
 same date, Ixiii. 1-6, which closely resembles the 
 preceding passage in subject and phraseology, only 
 the destruction of the Gentiles is announced. 
 
 Haggai (520 B.C.) 
 
 Messianic The exiles have already returned sixteen years, 
 
 be^estabiished and the Messianic kingdom has not yet come.^ That 
 
 pi^etk.n oTthe ^^ ^^ ^^ hand the prophet Haggai is assured. A few 
 
 building of years more and it will be manifested. So he infers 
 
 the temple. -^ ^ _ 
 
 from the political upheavals of the time. But Israel 
 has not done its part. The temple is still lying in 
 ruins. When it is rebuilt, the time will have arrived. 
 Yahwe will in a little while shake the heavens and 
 the earth, and the kingdoms of the nations will be 
 overthrown, and their wealth will be brought to the 
 temple, and though all the world round about be 
 tumbHng into ruin, peace will reign in Jerusalem 
 (i. 8, ii. 6-9). That the dawn of this kingdom has 
 
 1 In the post-Exilic (?) passage ix. 1-7 it is the Messiah that destroys the 
 oppressors of Israel (ix. i). This active role of the Messiah is rare in the Old 
 Testament. 
 
 2 Cf. the world-judgment in the small apocalypse Is. xxiv., xxv. (fourth 
 century according to Cheyne, second century according to Duhm, but latter date 
 not possible), where after the judgment (xxiv. 18-23) the surviving Gentiles 
 shall be admitted to the worship of Yahw^ (xxv. 6). It is very remarkable 
 that in xxiv. 21, 22 a)i intermediate place of punishme^tt is spoken of. The 
 judgment, therefore, is conceived as consisting of two distinct acts. It is 
 possible that we have here some traces of Mazdean influences. See Stave, 
 Ueber de7t Einjiuss des Parsismus aufdas/tidenthzwij 176, 177. 
 
 3 The prophecies of Jeremiah and Ezekiel imply that the return from the 
 Exile and the advent of the kingdom will synchronise. 
 
OF THE NA TION 1 1 7 
 
 already appeared is made clear by a prophecy de- chap. m. 
 livered two months later. For Yahwe will presently The heathen 
 overthrow all the heathen powers, and set on destroyed, and 
 the throne of the Messianic kingdom a prince of chSen^to^be 
 the house of David, even Zerubbabel, who was j^iessiah. 
 already in their midst (ii. 20-23). 
 
 Thus the establishment of the Messianic king- 
 dom was expected to follow on the completion of the 
 building of the temple ; ^ and the day of Yahwe was 
 conceived to be a destruction of the heathen powers. 
 
 What a falling-off there is in Haggai as com- 
 pared with the great pre-Exilic prophets! No 
 religious reformation of the individual and of the 
 community is demanded by this prophet to prepare 
 for the kingdom. They have only to build the 
 temple. 
 
 Zechariah i.-viii. (520-518 B.C.) 
 
 The thoughts of Haggai are more fully developed 
 by his contemporary Zechariah. He expects the Advent of 
 immediate advent of the kingdom when once the kingdom^on 
 temple is rebuilt. As in Haggai (ii. 20-22), so in [jJ'e^feJJfpie^ 
 Zechariah there will be a day of Yahwe in which 
 all the hostile heathen powers will be destroyed 
 (i. 18-21). In this passage the complete heathen 
 world is symbolised by the "four horns," Le. the 
 four quarters of the world. Since this world was 
 
 ^ For Yahw^ the temple is indispensable as His dwelling-place. This 
 thought is apocalyptic. It is not through moral reformation, but through 
 divine intervention, that the kingdom is to be introduced. The importance of 
 the temple also testifies to the growing importance of the priesthood. Hence 
 the Messiah is less important in Haggai and Zechariah than in Jeremiah. 
 
ii8 
 
 ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 CHAP. in. 
 
 Zerubbabel to 
 be the Messiah 
 and to build 
 the temple. 
 
 Entrance into 
 the kingdom 
 ethically con- 
 ditioned for 
 Jews and 
 surviving 
 Gentiles. 
 
 hostile to Israel, which was to Yahwe as the apple 
 of His eye (ii. 8), it must be annihilated. This 
 destruction of the heathen powers is a precondition 
 of the Messianic time. We have in Haggai and 
 Zechariah further developments of that opposition 
 between the kingdom of God and of the world- 
 kingdoms which has already appeared in Nahum, 
 Habakkuk, and Ezekiel, and which is presented in 
 its sharpest features in Daniel. 
 
 Zechariah agrees also with Haggai in naming 
 Zerubbabel as the Messianic king. After the 
 example of Jeremiah (xxiii. 5, xxxiii. 15), he names 
 him the Branch (iii. 8, 9; vi. 12). But whereas 
 Jeremiah designated a dynasty by this term, in 
 Zechariah it is applied to an individual already in 
 their midst. Zerubbabel will rebuild the temple (vi. 
 12)5 and thus Yahwe will dwell among them (ii. 12, 
 13 ; viii. 23). The exiles will return (ii. vi.) 
 
 Zechariah differs from Haggai in requiring moral 
 purity and uprightness in the members of the king- 
 dom (vii. 9, 10; viii. 16, 17). The nations also that 
 survive the day of Yahwe will become worshippers 
 of Yahwe (ii. 11, viii. 20, 21, 23). 
 
 Judgment and 
 annihilation 
 of all the 
 Gentiles. 
 
 Joel (about 400 b.c.) 
 
 In Joel the enemies of Judah are not actual and 
 present foes, but the nations generally. These are to 
 be gathered together in order to be annihilated (iii. 
 I, 2). The place of judgment is mentioned — the 
 valley of Jehoshaphat — which is obviously chosen 
 
OF THE NATION 119 
 
 on the ground of the etymological meaning of the chap. m. 
 term. Yahwe will there sit in judgment upon them 
 (iii. 12), and all the Gentiles will be destroyed. 
 Here we have a nearer approximation to the idea of 
 a final world - judgment than elsewhere in the Old 
 Testament save in Dan. vii. 9, 10. But the judgment 
 is one - sided. Yahwe appears as an advocate for 
 Israel against the nations (iii. 2). The day of 
 Yahwe does not morally sift Israel, as in the pre- 
 Exilic and some Exilic prophets, and the exceptional 
 post-Exilic Mai. iii. 2-5, iv. 1-3, 5, but serves only 
 to justify Israel (ii. 25-27, iii. 16, 17) against the 
 world.^ On the other hand, it is to be observed 
 that Israel here is not the achtal but the purified 
 and restored Israel, a spiritually transformed people 
 (ii. 28, 29) worthy of Yahwe's presence (iii. 21). 
 This spiritual transformation, however, is not ex- 
 tended to any of the nations. They are to perish 
 irrevocably. 
 
 Before the day of Yahwe all the members of the 
 nation will be filled with the spirit of God (ii. 28, 29) : 
 *' And it shall come to pass afterward, that I will pour 
 out my spirit upon all flesh ; and your sons and your 
 daughters shall prophesy, your old men shall dream 
 dreams, your young men shall see visions : and also 
 upon the servants and upon the handmaids in those 
 days will I pour out my spirit." 
 
 Then signs of the approaching judgment will signs of the 
 appear in nature (ii. 30,31): *'And I will show ^^° 
 wonders in the heaven and in the earth, blood and 
 
 ^ Cf. the interpolation in Second Isaiah, i.e. xlv. 25, 
 
I20 
 
 ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 Jerusalem the 
 centre of the 
 eternal 
 Messianic 
 kingdom. 
 
 Joel apocalyp- 
 tic in character, 
 
 fire, and pillars of smoke. The sun shall be turned 
 into darkness, and the moon into blood, before the 
 great and terrible day of Yahwe come." 
 
 Those who call upon Yahwe in Jerusalem (ii. 32) 
 will be saved. Henceforth Jerusalem is to be holy, 
 and there will be no heathen to defile it; (iii. 17) : 
 *' So shall ye know that I am Yahwe your God, 
 dwelling in Zion, my holy mountain : then shall 
 Jerusalem be holy, and there shall no strangers pass 
 through her any more " ; (iii. 18, 20) : '' And it shall 
 come to pass in that day, that the mountains shall 
 drop down sweet wine, and the hills shall flow with 
 milk, and all the brooks of Judah shall flow with 
 waters ; and a fountain shall come forth of the house 
 of the Lord, and shall water the valley of Shittim. 
 . . . But Judah shall abide for ever, and Jerusalem 
 from generation to generation." There is no mention 
 of the Messiah. 
 
 With Joel and his successors prophecy has 
 largely changed into apocalypse. The forecasts of 
 these prophets do not as a rule stand in a living 
 relation with the present and its needs, but are 
 frequently the results of literary reflection on former 
 prophecies. This is specially clear in Joel's *' day of 
 Yahwe," which has no organic relation with the 
 present, as it has in the earlier prophets. 
 
 Zechariah xii.-xiv. (before 300 e.g.) 
 
 According to the late post-Exilic fragment Zech. 
 xii. i-xiii. 6, all the Gentiles will attack Jerusalem 
 
OF THE NA TION 1 2 1 
 
 and be destroyed before it (xii. 3, 4, 9), whereas in chap. m. 
 the still later fragment xiv. it is only the hostile 
 nations that are to be annihilated (Zech. xiv. 12, 
 13), and the remnant to be converted to Judaism, Thenon- 
 and to attend the yearly Feast of Tabernacles (Zech. to be converted 
 xiv. 9, 16-21). This fragment is further peculiar ^" ^" ^^^"'' 
 in that divine help does not intervene till Jerusalem 
 is in the hands of the Gentiles (xiv. 2, 3). 
 
 Daniel (168-167 e.g.) 
 
 We shall now touch on the salient points in the 
 Apocalypse of Daniel, but only in the briefest man- 
 ner, as we shall have to deal with it later at greater 
 length under various heads. When evil reaches its when evii 
 
 ^ • ^- 1,1 ii-i • . reaches its 
 
 culmmation, and the need of the samts is greatest climax, God 
 (vii. 21, 22; xii. i) (in the time of Antiochus Epi- Tnd judg^^^^^^^^ 
 phanes), the Ancient of Days will intervene, and His '^'''^^■ 
 throne of judgment will be set up (vii. 9), and the 
 world-powers overthrown (vii. 11, 12), and ever- 
 lasting dominion given to His saints (vii. 14, 22, 
 27), and these will *' break in pieces and consume" 
 all the kingdoms of the world (ii. 44), and all the 
 surviving nations will serve them (vii. 14). And the 
 righteous dead of Israel shall rise to share in this TheMessiani 
 Messianic kingdom, but the apostate Jews shall be ^he 
 cast into Gehenna (xii. 1-3). With the question of ^' 
 the resurrection we shall deal presently. 
 
 The view that the world's history will terminate That the 
 in the culmination of evil, and that Israel will be wiiitermina°7 
 dehvered by supernatural help in the moment of its 
 
 kingdom and 
 resurrec- 
 tion. 
 
 on the cul- 
 mination of 
 
122 
 
 ESCHATOLOGY 
 
 evil hence- 
 forth an 
 apocalyptic 
 dogma. 
 
 greatest need, derives originally from Ezekiel, and 
 after reproduction in various forms in his spiritual 
 successors attains to classical expression in Daniel, 
 and henceforth becomes a permanent factor in 
 Jewish Apocalyptic. 
 
 The doctrine 
 of a new 
 heavens and 
 a new earth 
 an interpola- 
 tion in Is. Ixv. 
 17 and Ixvi. 
 22 {from Maz- 
 dean sources?) 
 
 Isaiah Ixv., Ixvi. (before 400 b.c.) 
 
 In defiance of historical sequence I have reserved 
 the consideration of the composite chapters Is. Ixv., 
 Ixvi. to the last. These call for special treatment, 
 because apparently they present a new development 
 as regards the scene of the Messianic kingdom: it 
 was to be a new heavens and a new earth. In Ixv. 
 Jerusalem is to be especially blessed : it is to under- 
 go a spiritual, but not a physical transformation ^ — 
 there appears to be no question here of the New 
 Jerusalem : it is the same material Jerusalem as 
 before, but supernaturally blessed. They still build 
 houses and plant vineyards in it (Ixv. 21, 22), sinners 
 are still found in it (Ixv. 20), and death still prevails. 
 Hence Ixv. 17, where a novel doctrine is pro- 
 claimed — the creation of a new heavens and a new 
 earth ^ — seems impossible in its present context. In 
 
 ^ The word Nin does not appear to imply a physical or actual creation in 
 Ixv. 18, therein differing from its sense in Ixv. 17. 
 
 2 The older doctrine was the eternity of the present order of things. 
 This doctrine is attested in Ps. civ. 5, *'Who laid the foundations of the 
 earth, that it should not be removed for ever"; Eccl. i. 4, "The earth 
 abideth forever." See also Pss. xciii. i, xcvi. 10, cxlviii. 6. This was the 
 received view in Palestine down to the close of the second century B.C., with 
 the exception of a few passages in the Old Testament, which we shall deal 
 with presently. About or after 100 B.C. the destruction of the present heaven 
 and earth was taught in Eth. En. xci.-civ., and some decades later this doctrine, 
 together with the creation of a new heavens and a new earth, in Eth. En. xxxvii. - 
 
OF THE NATION 123 
 
 the Messianic age here foreshadowed men live to a chap. m. 
 patriarchal age, and the animal world, as in an earlier 
 prophecy (xi. 6-9), loses its ferocity, and shares in 
 the prevailing peace and blessedness (Ixv. 25). 
 
 In Ixvi. 6-16, 18^-22 we have a fragmentary 
 apocalypse (see Cheyne, Introd, to Isaiah, 374-385) 
 which describes the judgment of the hostile nations 
 (Ixvi. 16, 18^, 19). Those of the Gentiles who 
 escape are to go to the more distant nations and 
 declare to them the divine glory (Ixv. 19). There- 
 
 Ixx. In this last book the doctrine of a new heaven and a new earth is set 
 forth for the first time in Jewish literature with logical consistency. In the Old 
 Testament passages where such a view appears, it is, as we have seen above, 
 at variance with other eschatological features therein described. Is. li. 16, 
 which apparently speaks also of a new heavens and a new earth is, as 
 Cheyne (introductmt^ p. 303) and Duhm {Isaiah.^ p. 359) have shown, 
 a piece of mosaic interpolated at a later date. Hence the doctrine of 
 a new heaven and a new earth appears to be adopted eclectically in the 
 Old Testament, and is thus of the nature of a foreign element. It may there- 
 fore be a loan from Mazdeism, as Kohut has pointed out [ZDMG, xxx. 716, 
 717). On the other hand, it must be recognised that the way for such a 
 doctrine was prepared for in the Old Testament by the post-Exilic view that 
 the present heavens and earth should be destroyed. Thus in Is. li. 6 
 this view is expressed, not indeed as an eschatological doctrine, but purely 
 poetically. Not only the inhabitants of the world but the world itself will 
 perish ; only God's salvation and God's righteousness abide for ever. *' The 
 heavens shall vanish away like smoke, and the earth shall wax old like a 
 garment, and they that dwell therein shall die in like manner, but my salva- 
 tion shall be for ever, and my righteousness shall not be abolished." The 
 further dissolution of the heavens and earth is pronounced in a distinctly 
 eschatological passage of a late date, i.e. Is. xxxiv. Thus in ver. 4, " The 
 heavens shall be rolled together as a scroll, and all their host shall fade 
 away." Finally, in Ps. cii. 25, 26, which, according to Baethgen, was prob- 
 ably, and, according to Duhm, was certainly, written in Maccabean times, 
 the destruction of the present heaven and earth, and their creation anew, are 
 poetically described : " Of old thou hast laid the foundation of the earth, and 
 the heavens are the work of thy hands. They shall perish, but thou shalt 
 endure : yea, they shall all wax old like a garment : as a vesture thou shalt 
 change them, and they shall be changed." The important thought here, it is 
 true, is not the transitoriness of the world, but the eternity of God : though 
 heaven and earth pass away, God abides. But if this psalm be Maccabean, 
 we have probably here the reflection of the new doctrine of the future heaven 
 and earth, though there is no other reference to it in the literature of the 
 second century. 
 
124 SYNTHESIS OF THE TWO ESCHATOLOGIES 
 
 CHAP. III. upon the latter are to go up to Jerusalem, escorting 
 the returning exiles. This apocalypse concludes 
 with the promise : ** For as the new heavens and 
 the new earth, which I will make, shall remain 
 before me ... so shall your seed . . . remain " 
 (Ixv. 22). This verse is all but unintelligible. 
 Does the new creation take place at the beginning 
 of the Messianic kingdom, or at its close? By 
 neither supposition can we overcome the inherent 
 difficulties of the text. If the new creation is to be 
 taken literally, it can only be supposed to be carried 
 out at the close of the Messianic kingdom ; but this 
 kingdom has apparently no close. Either, then, 
 the expression is used loosely and vaguely ; or, 
 and I incline to this view, Ixvi. 22 is a later 
 intrusion.^ 
 
 We have now completed the study of the escha- 
 tologies of the individual and of the nation, in their 
 concurrent and separate developments, from pre- 
 prophetic times to the fourth century before the 
 Christian era and somewhat later. Down to the 
 period of the Exile these developments pursue an 
 independent course, but from the Exile onwards they 
 begin to exert a mutual influence on each other. 
 This mutual interaction, however, does not lead to 
 any true synthesis till the close of the fourth century 
 or the early decades of the third, when they are both 
 
 ^ Is. li. 16 and Ix. 19 can hardly be quoted in support of Ixv. 17, Ixvi. 
 22 ; for in the two last passages the language is obviously meant to be literal, 
 whereas in the former it is metaphorical. 
 
 It is possible that the idea is derived from the Persian religion. The 
 renewal of the earth, according to this faith, was to follow after the final judg- 
 ment and the destruction of the evil powers. Yet see note on pp. 123, 124. 
 
IN DOCTRINE OF THE RESURRECTION 125 
 
 seen to be the two complementary sides of a religious chap. m. 
 system, that subsumes and does justice to the 
 essential claims of both. Thus, when the doctrine 
 of the blessed immortality of the faithful is connected 
 with that of the coming Messianic kingdom, the 
 separate eschatologies of the individual and of the Synthesis of 
 nation issue finally in their synthesis : ^ the 7'ighteotts eschatologies 
 individual^ no less than the righteous nation, will ifon of the^^^^' 
 participate in the Messianic kingdom, for the ^l^^li^^^^ 
 risihteotts dead of Israel will rise to share therein. Messianic 
 
 ^ -^ . Idngdom. 
 
 We have considered the question of the day of ^ 
 Yahwe and the Messianic kingdom in relation to \ 
 Israel and the Gentiles as they were conceived by ) 
 pre-Exilic, Exilic, and post-Exilic writers. We ' 
 have seen that whereas the advent of Yahwe to \ 
 exercise judgment meant all but universally a crisis 
 of doom for Israel in the pre-Exilic period, in sub- 
 sequent times it came all but universally to be 
 regarded as marking the advent of Messianic 
 blessedness for Israel 
 
 Concurrently with the establishment of the Mes- 
 sianic hope in the national consciousness the claims 
 of the individual had, as has already been shown, 
 pressed themselves irresistibly on the notice of 
 religious thinkers — so irresistibly, in fact, that no 
 representation of the future could ultimately hope 
 for acceptance which failed to render them adequate 
 
 ^ A synthesis of these two eschatologies was attempted by Ezekiel wholly 
 within the sphere of this life. But this reconciliation was achieved only 
 through a misconception and misrepresentation of the actual facts of the 
 problem. And yet this theory of retribution gave such general satisfaction 
 that the need of a theory that did justice to the facts of the problem was not 
 experienced, save by isolated thinkers, till the era of the Job literature. 
 
126 RESURRECTION OF THE 
 
 CHAP. III. satisfaction. Thus naturally these two questions 
 came to be considered as essentially related, as in 
 fact they were. The righteous individual and the 
 righteous nation should be blessed together — or 
 rather the righteous individual should ultimately be 
 recompensed — not with a solitary immortality in 
 heaven or elsewhere, but with a blessed resurrection 
 life together with his brethren in the coming Messi- 
 anic kingdom. We saw above how the doctrine of 
 an individual immortality failed to establish itself per- 
 manently in the Old Testament, and the grounds for 
 such a failure were not far to seek. But the objections 
 against thfijbelief, in_a ^blessed irmnortalit^ISL-the^ 
 righteous man apart from the righteous community^ 
 are actual arguments in favour of the resurrection of 
 the righteous to share in the Messianic kingdom. 
 The obvious lesson in such a development is that 
 the individual should not seek to be blessed apart 
 from his brethren — nay, rather that his blessedness, 
 his highest well-being, is impossible of realisation 
 except through the common life. 
 
 The doctrine of the resurrection is clearly enun- 
 ciated in two passages of great interest : as a spiritual 
 conception in Is. xxvi. 1-19, and as a mechanical 
 conception in Dan. xii. 2, 3. 
 Doctrine of the Is. xxvi. 1-19 forms an independent writing, 
 spHtuTiiy" according to Cheyne, composed about 334 b.c.^ He 
 calls it *'a Liturgical Meditation." 
 
 conceived in 
 Is. xxvi. 
 
 1 Smend {ZA TIV, 1884, pp. 161 s^(^.) and Kuenen assign chaps, xxiv.- 
 xxvii. to the fourth century ; Driver to an early post-Exihc date ; Duhm {Das 
 Bzuhjesaia^ p. xii.) to the close of the second century B.C. 
 
RIGHTEOUS IN ISAIAH 127 
 
 The writer looks forward to the setting up of the chap. m. 
 kingdom, to the city of strength, whose walls and 
 bulwarks are salvation, and whose gates will open 
 that the righteous nation may ** enter in '* (xxvi. 1,2). 
 And since the nation was but few in numbers, the 
 righteous dead shall rise and share the blessedness 
 of the regenerate nation (xxvi. 19). This notable 
 verse should, with Duhm and Cheyne, be read as 
 follows : ''Thy dead men (Israel!) shall arise, and 
 the inhabitants of the dust shall awake ^ and shout 
 for joy ; ^ for a dew of lights is thy dew, and the 
 earth shall produce the shades." 
 
 In this passage of Isaiah, as we have above criticism of 
 remarked, there is a true synthesis of the escha- 
 tologies of the nation and of the individual. A true 
 synthesis, and yet defective. A true synthesis ; for 
 justice is done to the claims of the righteous nation 
 and the righteous individual, and the blessedness of 
 the individual and that of the nation receive their 
 perfect consummation together. A defective syn- 
 thesis ; for the righteous who die before the advent 
 of the Messianic kingdom are, till that kingdom 
 appears, committed to the unblessed existence of 
 Sheol,^ where they are shut out from the life of God. 
 
 1 The designation of death as a sleep did not arise from the resurrection 
 hope ; for it is found in books that were unacquainted with this hope. Thus 
 death is described as "sleep" in Gen. xlvii. 30; Deut. xxxi. 16 ; Job vii. 
 21, xiv. 12 ; as *' the eternal sleep " in Jer. li. 39, 57. Hence in later times, 
 when the belief in the resurrection was firmly established, and the state of 
 the departed is described as a "sleep," the word must in no case be taken 
 in its literal meaning. 
 
 2 vn' and ^rhi"^ are omitted by these scholars as interpolations, and instead 
 of osni lu^jDH they read ^ani '^^'''pTS^. 
 
 ^ In this synthesis Sheol on the one hand maintains its primitive heathen 
 
128 
 
 RESURRECTION OF THE 
 
 c?iAP. in. 
 
 The doctrine 
 that only the 
 righteous are 
 raised a 
 genuine pro- 
 
 Yet if we are to disregard this defect, which was 
 inevitable under the circumstances, this passage of 
 Isaiah presents us with a truly spiritual doctrine of 
 the future life ; for that life stands in organic and 
 living relation to the present life in God, which the 
 faithful enjoy on earth. And since the faithful alone 
 stood in this relation, only the resurrection of the 
 righteous was conceivably possible. This limitation 
 of the resurrection to the righteous is the primitive 
 form of this conception. It is the genuine product 
 of Jewish inspiration, and not derived from any 
 foreign source. For even if the Mazdean doctrine 
 of the resurrection of the righteous and the wicked 
 be of an earlier date, it could not be the parent of 
 the higher spiritual form with which we have just 
 dealt. 
 
 This spiritual form of the resurrection doctrine is 
 the genuine product of Jewish inspiration ; for all 
 its factors are indigenous to Jewish thought. The 
 
 duct of Jewish ^^y ^^g prepared for it, as we have seen, in the 
 
 inspiration. ■' ^ ■*■ i i • r i • 
 
 independent and concurrent eschatologies of the m- 
 dividual and the nation, the synthesis of which could 
 not admit of any other resurrection save that of the 
 righteous. But long before any such synthesis was 
 effected the idea of a spiritual resurrection had 
 
 character in that it is still an unspiritual, godless region ; but on the other it 
 undergoes a certain transformation in that, though heretofore the eternal 
 abode of all the departed, it henceforth becomes only the intermediate abode 
 of righteous Israelites, though it continues to be the eternal abode of all 
 else. Thus for the time being the progress achieved by the writers of Pss. 
 xlix. and Ixxiii. Is lost sight of. These, we remember (pp. 72-77), held that 
 death could not break off the communionof the righteous with God, and accord- 
 ingly that the soul of the faithful could not descend into Sheol, as popularly 
 conceived, but must be taken home to God. 
 
RIGHTEOUS IN ISAIAH 129 
 
 established itself in Israel. Thus in Hos. vi. 2 chap. m. 
 (possibly of Exilic or post-Exilic origin) a religious The idea of a 
 transformation of character is described as a spiritual resurJ^eaion— 
 resurrection : "After two days will he revive us : on °href°sources— 
 the third day he will raise us up so that we shall live f'^^^^ 
 
 ■' ^ ^ ^ familiar to 
 
 before him." This is done on a large scale in Ezek. Judaism 
 xxxvii. The resurrection there described of the dry and Ezekiei. 
 bones imports, no doubt, a political restoration of 
 Israel, but it is a restoration ethically conditioned. 
 The people so restored are to be God's people (xxxvii. 
 13); they will be cleansed from all their sins and 
 transgressions (xxxvii. 23); they will walk in the 
 statutes and judgments of God, and be ruled by the 
 Messiah of David's line (xxxvii. 24, 25) ; God will 
 make an everlasting covenant of peace with them, and 
 dwell with them for ever (xxxvii. 26, 27). Hence the 
 resurrection in Ezekiei, though national, postulates a 
 moral regeneration of the people. This harmonises 
 with the view enforced elsewhere in Ezekiei that 
 the conversion of the individual Israelites is the pre- 
 condition for the restoration of the kingdom. 
 
 We have on an earlier page (see pp. 78-80) Determination 
 referred to the thought underlying this spiritually thoughfunder- 
 conceived doctrine of the resurrection. We must !f'!?f-^^^^ 
 
 doctrine. 
 
 here deal with it more closely. According to Is. 
 xxvi. the righteous individual is at some period after 
 death to be restored to communion with God and 
 with the righteous community. This double restora- The resurrec- 
 tion to com^minion with God and to comm^union with double restora- 
 the community of the faithful after death constitutes re^u^ratton to 
 the resurrection in its essential aspects. That there 
 
 9 
 
 communion 
 
I30 RESURRECTION OF THE 
 
 CHAP. in. should be any delay to this restoration to commtmion 
 
 with G^, and wttk God dit^v death in Is. xxvi. is, as we have above 
 
 righTeous^^ seen, due to the imperfect thought conditions of the 
 
 community. ^j^^^^ jjlj ^^^ Messianic kingdom was established, 
 
 even the righteous must abide in Sheol apart from 
 
 God. In later times, however, when this heathen 
 
 idea of Sheol was displaced by the doctrine of 
 
 Paradise, or heaven, as the abode of the faithful 
 
 immediately after death, death made no breach in 
 
 («) Restoration the communion of the faithful with God. Hence 
 
 with°G^ToT the first constituent of the resurrection doctrine is 
 
 conditioned ^^^ really subject to any time-conditions. The 
 
 because un- sccond constituent, however, restoration to com- 
 
 broken by . , . , 
 
 death. munion with the community of the righteous, seems 
 
 {b) Restoration at first sight to be so conditioned ; for this second 
 with°th™^^°" requirement cannot he fully realised till the kingdom 
 righteous f God is Consummated either in this world or in the 
 
 community 
 
 is temporally next. In Other words, the blessedness of the in- 
 
 conditioned .... . 
 
 as regards its dividual is Conditioned by that of the com^m^inity as a 
 
 consummation, r ^ rr ' i ir*- 
 
 whole. But lurther. it m the dehnition "restora- 
 tion to communion with God and to communion 
 with the community of the faithful after death " we 
 but not as omit the words '* after death," we have in what 
 spmtua/*^ remains a description of the spiritual change which 
 thrspidtu°ai the faithful must already experience in the present 
 resurrection jjf^ ^^^ which rcallv forms in itself the essence of 
 
 can be experi- ' ... 
 
 enced in the the resurrection. Such a spiritual change constitutes, 
 in Pauline language, a spiritual resurrection. Thus it 
 appears that man can appropriate the spiritual side 
 of this doctrine already here : can, through abjuring 
 the life of self and sin, enter into the new life of God 
 
RIGHTEOUS IN ISAIAH 131 
 
 and of the community of the faithful. Thus the chap. m. 
 spiri^ua/ resurrection can already be experienced by 
 the faithful on this side of the grave. 
 
 But we may press on farther, and ask : If Moreover. 
 this Old Testament doctrine of the ^zme of the of the faithful 
 resurrection of the faithful is manifestly based on ^avet'hT 
 the faulty conceptions of that age, when do the ^°[51"^o'*d°rnd 
 faithful rise to the resurrection life beyond the the faithful 
 
 ^ ,-«i . , • 1 1- 1 r 1 departed, this 
 
 grave? The answer is clear m the light of later life is the 
 developments. Since the life of the faithful be- ufe, though 
 yond the grave consists in communion with God beginnings. 
 and communion with the faithful who form the 
 kingdom of God, though but in its beginnings, 
 then the faithful in a certain degree enter into the 
 resurrection life immediately after death, into the 
 true resurrection life, though not indeed into its 
 consummated form ; for that cannot be realised till 
 the consummation of the righteous community, or 
 the kingdom of God. Thus it is only from the 
 standpoint of its consMnimation that the second 
 essential factor of the resurrection can be said to 
 be temporally conditioned. 
 
 The currency of the doctrine of the resurrection Prevalence oi 
 is attested in Ps. Ixxxviii. ro, where, indeed, the doTtrine'°" 
 resurrection of the righteous is only mentioned in a"fest^ed!^ 
 order to be rejected : '*Wilt thou show wonders to 
 the dead ? Shall the shades arise and praise 
 thee ? " That this psalmist should reject the resur- 
 rection hope is not to be wondered at ; for in the 
 Psalter this psalm stands solitary and alone as 
 the expression of a pessimistic despair. A similar 
 
132 
 
 RESURRECTION 
 
 CHAP. Ill, 
 
 Doctrine of the 
 resurrection 
 mechanically 
 conceived. 
 
 The resurrec- 
 tion doctrine 
 has already 
 degenerated 
 into lifeless 
 dogma. 
 
 rejection of the resurrection doctrine may possibly 
 be found in Ecclesiastes vii. 14. 
 
 We must assume that a considerable period of 
 time elapses between the promulgation of this 
 doctrine in Isaiah and the next and final form in 
 which it appears in the Old Testament, i.e. in Dan. 
 xii. 2 : ** And many of them that sleep in the land 
 of dust shall awake, some to everlasting life, and 
 some to shame and everlasting contempt." 
 
 Here there is an absolute transformation of the 
 resurrection doctrine. Heretofore it was the sole pre- 
 rogative of the righteous Israelite ; now it is extended 
 to the pre-eminently good and bad in Israel. Accord- 
 ingly, between the rise of the doctrine enunciated in 
 Isaiah and that in Daniel there must have been a 
 considerable interval — an interval sufficiently long to 
 account for the loss of the original significance of the 
 resurrection as a restoration to the life of communion 
 with God which had been broken off by death. 
 During this interval, at all events within a small 
 circle of pious Israelites, the spiritual doctrine has 
 passed into a current and somewhat lifeless dogma, 
 in which the real essence of the conception has been 
 forgotten ; for without any consciousness of impro- 
 priety, the writer of Daniel can speak of the resur- 
 rection of the wicked. ^Xhe^xesurrection is thus 
 /severed from the spiritual root from which iTsprangT 
 / and transformed into an eschatological property or 
 V. device, by means of which all the members of the 
 ) nation are presented in the body before God for 
 \ judgment. 
 
IN DANIEL 133 
 
 Thus the doctrine of the resurrection must have chap, m, 
 been familiar to the J ews for many generations previous 
 to Daniel ; unless we are to assume that the later 
 conception in Daniel is due to Mazdean influences. 
 
 But though the possibility of extending the resur- Grounds for 
 
 1 • 1 1 • 1 1-11 1 this extension 
 
 rection to the wicked is to be explamed by the of the 
 lifelessness of this article of the faith, we have not ^^°^ ^° ^^^ 
 
 resurrec- 
 
 ) tl 
 wicked. 
 
 as yet learnt why the writer was obliged to resort 
 to this idea. The ground for such a necessity is 
 clearly to be discovered in his belief that Sheol is 
 still exempt from the divine sway, and that, though 
 God can raise souls from thence, He cannot influ- 
 ence them for good or evil so long as they are there. 
 Hence, if any inhabitants of Sheol are to be re- 
 warded or punished, they must first through resur- 
 rection return to earth and come within the bounds 
 of the divine rule. Thus this new application of the 
 resurrection conception ^ in Daniel follows logically 
 from two beliefs of the writer — the doctrine of Gods 
 retribtitive righteousness^ and the heathen conception 
 of Sheol? 
 
 It is most noteworthy that this doctrine of the 
 resurrection of the wicked ^ is attested only three or, 
 
 ^ This doctrine of a partial resurrection of the wicked is taught also in 
 Eth. En. i.-xxxvi. (see Chap. XXII.) This section maybe earlier than Daniel. 
 A general resurrection of all Israel is found probably in 2 Mace. xii. 42, 43, 
 and Eth. En. li. i. 
 
 2 Sheol is still the " land of dust," Dan. xii. 2. 
 
 3 This resurrection to punishment, or a belief perfectly akin, is found in 
 contemporary work, xxiv. ; xxv. 6-8; xxvi. 20, 21 ; xxvii. i, 12, 13, afragment- 
 
 "ary apocalypse of 334 B.C. (Cheyne), a date which seems too early, as that of 
 Duhm [Das Btick/esaiaj-p.x\\.)^i.e. 128 B.C., is much too late. Thus in xxiv. 21, 
 22, the "host of heaven," i.e. angelic rulers of the nations, and the kings of the 
 earth, are to be imprisoned in the "pit," and " after many days to be visited " 
 
134 DOCTRINE OF RESURRECTION 
 
 CHAP. III. at most, four times in Jewish literature prior to the 
 Christian era. 
 
 In these two conflicting doctrines of the resurrec- 
 tion we have the parents of all subsequent specula- 
 tion on this subject in Judaism and Christianity, 
 Resurrection We have uow traced the rise and development of 
 
 19 the the doctrine of a blessed future so far as it appears in 
 
 XXVI 
 
 jewis'hk°spira- the Old Testament. We have seen how thoroughly 
 sin'^eborro"^^^ native to the Jewish genius has been the nature of 
 from Mazde- this development. It is therefore a matter of 
 surprise that some scholars have sought to affiliate 
 this doctrine on that of the Mazdean religion, and 
 to treat it accordingly as borrowed from the teaching 
 of Zoroaster. But in the case of any religion such 
 a method of explanation is mechanical, and only to 
 be admitted when it is clearly proved that the 
 elements for an internal and organic development 
 were wanting. In the case of Israel, however, 
 these elements were present, and that in a very high 
 degree, and were slowly but surely shaped under the 
 influence of the supreme and formative idea of God. 
 Further, even were the resurrection doctrine in 
 Israel the exact equivalent of that in Mazdeism, the 
 evidence would not justify us in concluding that the 
 former was borrowed from Mazdeism, but only that 
 the latter exercised a formative influence in shaping 
 the Jewish doctrine. But as a matter of fact the 
 
 with punishment. This punishment of the angelic rulers of the nations and 
 the kings is found also in Eth. En. liv., xc. 25. 
 
 According to later views, God did not punish a nation until He had first 
 humiliated its angelic patron (Shir, rabba xxvii.'') Moreover, the future judg- 
 ment of the Gentile nations will be preceded by the judgment of these angelic 
 chiefs (Tanchuma, Beshallach 13) ; see Weber, L. d. Talmud,^ 170. 
 
IN ISAIAH NOT BORRO WED 1 3 5 
 
 Jewish doctrine, as it appears in its earliest form chap. m. 
 in Is. xxvi., is essentially different from the Maz- 
 dean. Thus (i.) Whereas the former is spiritually 
 conceived as the prerogative of only the righteous 
 in Israel, the latter is a mechanical and ethically in- 
 different dogma, in accordance with which good and 
 bad alike are raised. Thus whereas the former is 
 specifically the result of right conduct, the latter has 
 no relation to conduct at all. (ii.) According to the 
 former, only a limited number — the faithful in Israel 
 — are raised ; according to the latter, all men of all 
 nationalities and of all times, (iii.) According to 
 the former, the resurrection was at the beginning of 
 the Messianic kingdom ; according to the latter, at 
 its consummation in connection with the final judg- 
 ment. Thus we see that the resurrection doctrine 
 in Is. xxvi. cannot in any sense be derived from 
 that of the Mazdean religion. We may observe 
 here, in the way of anticipation, that this spiritual 
 form of the resurrection is the prevailing one in 
 Judaism down to the Christian era. 
 
 But as regards this doctrine as it appears in Resurrection 
 Daniel, the case is very dissimilar. There are Daniel has 
 several points in common between Daniel's doctrine aSL with 
 of the resurrection and that in Mazdeism. Thus — (i.) ^azdeism 
 both alike teach a resurrection of the righteous and 
 the wicked ; and (ii.) both alike combine it with the 
 final judgment. Since there are some other points 
 of contact between the eschatologies of the two, it 
 is not impossible that we have here traces of the 
 influence of the Mazdean religion. On the other 
 
136 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 but in other 
 respects is 
 strongly at 
 variance with 
 it. 
 
 Grounds for a 
 short study of 
 the Greek doc- 
 trines of the 
 soul and the 
 future life. 
 
 hand, we must recognise that certain differences 
 exist. Thus the resurrection in Daniel is not ex- 
 tended to all Israelites, but is limited to the martyrs 
 and the apostates, whereas in Mazdeism it is abso- 
 lutely universal. Again in Daniel, Sheol — the inter- 
 mediate abode of the saints and apostates — preserves 
 its ancient godless character, whereas in Mazdeism 
 the intermediate abode of the souls of the righteous 
 and of the wicked are respectively heaven and hell. 
 Finally, in Daniel the final judgment is at the 
 beginning of the Messianic kingdom, in Mazdeism 
 at its close. Thus even in Daniel's eschatology the 
 influence of Mazdeism was, on the most favourable 
 assumption, but slight. 
 
 We conclude, therefore, that though Mazdeism 
 may have exerted some influence in shaping the 
 mechanical doctrine of the resurrection in Daniel, 
 the evidence is wholly against the assumption of 
 any such influence on the spiritual doctrine of the 
 resurrection as taught by Is. xxvi. 
 
 Judaism, as we are aware, came under Greek 
 influences as early as the third century B.C. It is a 
 matter, therefore, of great moment to ascertain to 
 what extent these influences operated in the forma- 
 tion of the Jewish doctrines of the soul and of 
 the future life. It has long been the fashion to 
 exaggerate these influences, and to derive from 
 Greek sources certain undoubtedly indigenous 
 developments. Such exaggerations have been due 
 in many instances to indefinite ideas both of Judaism 
 and of Greek religion. Their best refutation will 
 
AMONG THE GREEKS i37 
 
 be to append to our history of Jewish eschatology chap. m. 
 a short sketch of Greek reUgion in so far as this 
 relates to the soul and the future life. 
 
 Doctrine of the Soul and the Future Life among 
 the Greeks^ 
 
 Only one part of man's composite nature sur- Homeric 
 
 J T ^1 1. TT r^y . ^1 doctrine of the 
 
 vived death accordmg to Homer. Ihis was the soui. 
 soul (-v/^ux^). But the Homeric conception of the 
 soul is peculiar. It enjoys an independent and 
 secret existence in the body, and on the death of 
 the body independently withdraws itself. It exer- 
 cises no function of the human spirit, whether of 
 thought, will, or emotion. These belong to the 
 ''mind" (^u/ao?), which resided in the diaphragm 
 (0/)ez^e9, //. xxii. 475). The ^y/^o? is the most 
 comprehensive expression in Homer for the various 
 mental activities. Now this Qvixo^, and such faculties 
 of the mind as are represented more or less de- 
 finitely by 1/009, /A€z/09, or physical expressions such 
 as r)TQp, KapMrjy Krjp, arrjOo^, etc., are all functions of 
 the body and not of the sottl, and disappear with its 
 resolution into its original elements.- Homer never 
 
 1 The present writer is indebted beyond measure in this sketch of Greek 
 religion to Rohde's Psyche,^ 1898. He has also used Zeller's History 
 of Greek Philosophy, likewise that of Ueberweg, Campbell's Religion in Greek 
 Literature, 1898, and Fairbairn's Studies in the Philosophy of Religion, 168- 
 230, which, though written over twenty years ago, is valuable and suggestive. 
 Dieterich's Nekuia has occasionally been found helpful. 
 
 2 Only once is the ^u^6s said to descend into Hades (vii. 131); but 
 this can only be an oversight or carelessness of expression. In Od. xi. 221, 
 222 the 0u/t6s and ■\\/vxh are distinguished. The latter alone goes down to 
 Hades. 
 
138 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 Conflicting 
 views due to 
 survivals of 
 Animism in 
 the Homeric 
 poems. 
 
 ascribes any activity to the soul in the living man. 
 The soul is not mentioned till its separation from 
 the body is impending, or has actually taken place. 
 Accordingly after death, or rather after entrance 
 into Hades/ the soul loses consciousness and 
 thought (//. xxiii. 103, 104); it knows naught of 
 the upper world ; it cannot return thither ^ (//. 
 xxiii. 75, 76) ; it cannot exert any influence on the 
 living ; it is as incapable of anguish as of affection. 
 Wherein the personality consists in Homer is 
 difficult of comprehension. At times the body, as 
 opposed to the soul (//. i. 3-5), is described as the 
 person, at times the soul (//. xv. 251, where it is 
 the soul that speaks). The person fully conceived 
 appears to be the living man, that is, the combina- 
 tion of the visible body and the invisible soul. 
 
 Such is the normal, and all but universal, view of 
 the soul in Homer.^ On the other hand, passages 
 are occasionally to be met with in the Odyssey which 
 
 ^ The soul possessed a certain degree of consciousness and thought before 
 it entered Hades (//. xxii. 65-67). 
 
 2 Hence the Homeric world had no ghosts. The living were at rest 
 from the dead, 
 
 ^ The Homeric conceptions of the soul and of Hades find an excellent 
 parallel in the fourth- and third-century views of these in Israel. In the case 
 of the latter this result was brought about, as we have seen, by the action of 
 Yahwism directly and indirectly. The soul in Sheol possessed in early Israel 
 a certain degree of energy and power to benefit or injure the living — an idea 
 which was derived from a primitive Ancestor Worship, but in the course of 
 1000 years this idea was overcome by Yahwism, the soul reduced to all but 
 annihilation in Sheol, and Sheol itself transformed into a synonym for de- 
 struction and death. In Greece, on the other hand, the Homeric conceptions 
 were the result of very different influences. What these were it is perhaps 
 impossible to enumerate exhaustively. Amongst them, however, undoubtedly 
 was first the separation of the Ionic Greeks from the land of their forefathers, 
 where were the ancestral graves — the temples of the dead. A further cause 
 was the adoption of the custom of burning the dead. By this means the soul 
 was confined at once and for ever to Hades. 
 
AMONG THE GREEKS i39 
 
 assign a larger degree of consciousness, thought, chap. m. 
 and vitality to the shades. These passages attest 
 belated survivals of Ancestor Worship. They 
 are to be found especially in books x. and xi. of 
 the Odyssey, In these books the poet attributes 
 the restoration of the consciousness of the shades 
 to their enjoyment of the blood of the slaughtered 
 animals ; but this is a pure misapprehension of the 
 poet, who lived in an age that had forgotten the 
 original significance of these rites. The shades, even 
 according to these books, possess the faculties of 
 thought, will, and action before drinking the blood. 
 The blood is simply an offering to the souls of the 
 departed to comfort and feed them, but not to 
 restore to them faculties which they had never lost. 
 Moreover, the poet s account provides us with an 
 exact and detailed description of a sacrifice to the 
 dead (see Rohde, i. 55-59). 
 
 Hence, according to the specific view of the 
 Homeric times, the soul had no consciousness in 
 Hades ; but occasional survivals of the older view 
 belonging to Animism are reproduced in the 
 Odyssey without any consciousness of their true 
 significance. 
 
 We have now to ask : How are the Homeric immortality 
 views related to the question of immortality ? The through °rans- 
 soul, as we have seen, when it had once descended EfyXmor 
 into Hades could never return. Hence if immor- ^^^yp"^' f^' 
 
 cording to 
 
 tality was to be vouchsafed to any individual man, Homeric 
 
 , , . . views. 
 
 it had of necessity to be given to him when living 
 through translation into Elysium (as in the case of 
 
I40 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 Further sur- 
 vivals of 
 Animism in 
 Hesiod. 
 
 Menelaus) or heaven (as in that of Ganymede). 
 Thus this immortality was mainly a material im- 
 mortality, and such was the immortality of the 
 Homeric gods. Moreover, as immortality was of 
 necessity a privilege limited in the main to mortals 
 who were physically related to the gods, it is of no 
 service in preparing the way for a doctrine of 
 human immortality as such. 
 
 From Homer we pass on to Hesiod, but in this 
 connection we shall only pause to draw attention 
 to the vigorous survivals of Animism which are 
 apparent in his poems. Souls cannot exist outside 
 Erebus and possess consciousness in Homer ; yet 
 such is Hesiod's belief. Thus, according to his 
 Works and Days, 109-201, the men of the golden 
 age became after death haip^ove^ liTi')(Poviot, watchers 
 over mankind in a good sense, and endowed with 
 large powers. Similarly, men of the silver age 
 became Sat/^ove? viro'^Oovioi (not in Hades). Men 
 of the bronze age (namely of Hesiod's own time) 
 became phantoms {eUcoXa) in Hades, Now these 
 views regarding the two earlier ages are not inven- 
 tions of Hesiod, but survivals in the outlying 
 Boeotia of a worship of souls which had existed 
 long anterior to Homer; and that such views pre- 
 vailed with regard to earlier generations and not 
 to the later is due to the fact that in Hesiod's age 
 the Homeric doctrine had become supreme. 
 
 Such views as to the conscious and independent 
 activity of souls after life were undoubted helps to 
 the formation of a doctrine of immortality. Certain 
 
AMONG THE GREEKS 141 
 
 classes of souls in the past belonging to the gold chap. m. 
 and silver ages could, it is true, become immortal, 
 but this was not possible for members of the bronze 
 age. 
 
 The first real contribution towards this doctrine Doctrine of the 
 comes from the Dionysiac cult in Thrace. Under- Dionysiac 
 lying this cult is the presupposition of the original *^^^^' 
 kinship of God and man. This being presumed, 
 man could through certain ritual ceremonies and 
 ecstasies become one with the gods. In such 
 experiences the soul burst, as it were, the fetters 
 of the body. But even so, the old Homeric view 
 of the indispensableness of the body to the soul 
 is not yet fully transcended. The soul has an a vigorous 
 eternal existence, but not apart from the body. A apart from the 
 full and divine life apart from the body for men in iJTconcdvabie. 
 general was still inconceivable. Hence the doctrine Hencedoctrine 
 
 - - • • r 1 r .of transmigra- 
 
 01 the transmigration 01 souls was 01 necessity a tion adopted. 
 factor in this belief. The soul could maintain its 
 immortality only through successive incarnations.^ 
 
 With the Orphic teaching we enter on a new Transforma- 
 stage of development. So far from the body being Dionysiac 
 the necessary complement of the soul, the union of soui and 0°/ 
 body and soul has become an actual bar to the con- transmigration 
 
 ■' m the Orphic 
 
 summation of the latter. And this is easy to under- teaching. 
 stand ; for when the conviction that the soul and body 
 can exist independently rises into a belief in the 
 godlikeness and immortality of the soul, as opposed 
 to the transitoriness of the body, the distinction 
 
 1 For a full treatment of the Dionysiac, cult in Thrace and Greece, 
 Rohde, Psyche^ ii. 1-69. 
 
142 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 Hades be- 
 comes an 
 intermediate 
 abode and a 
 place of moral 
 distinctions. 
 
 between soul and body naturally leads to an 
 antagonism of both. Thus the body comes to be 
 conceived as the prison-house {pea-^oiTrjphov) or tomb 
 of the soul {(Twixa — arj^a, Plato, Crat. 400 c), and the 
 connection of the soul and body to be regarded as a 
 punishment of the former. Under this view the 
 tenet of transmigration changes of necessity its 
 character. It is no longer the means whereby the 
 soul preserves its vitality, as the Dionysiac religion 
 conceived it, but has become a spiritual punishment 
 and discipline of the soul, and the soul does not 
 attain to its highest till it is freed from this cycle of 
 
 necessity or rebirths {kvk\o<; avdyKrjf; or rpO'^o<; rrj<i 
 
 y€V6<T€0)<;)y and lives eternally in God.^ As opposed, 
 therefore, to the Homeric doctrine of the soul, we 
 have here a new and well-defined doctrine as to the 
 origin, essence, and destiny of the soul. 
 
 This transformation is to be traced to the Orphic 
 doctrine of the indissoluble connection of guilt and 
 expiation. 
 
 In this phase of religion Hades becomes an inter- 
 mediate abode where the soul meets with retributive 
 judgment. There the initiated and purified live in 
 communion with the gods of the lower world till the 
 time for their return to the upper life has come. At 
 last when the soul has passed through its cycle of 
 rebirths and is fully cleansed, it ascends, as we have 
 above remarked, to enjoy a never-ending existence 
 with God. 
 
 The soul, whether of the impure or of the purified, 
 
 1 See Rohde, Psyche, ii. 129, 130, 133-136 ; Dieterich, Nektiia, 88, 89. 
 
AMONG THE GREEKS i43 
 
 Is in itself immortal. But it is not only immortal, it chap, m. 
 is eternal, without beginning or end. The soui 
 
 T 1 1 > r 1 1 *i 1 ^ eternal — with- 
 
 in the speculative systems oi the philosophers to ©m beginning 
 
 which we must now turn, the term '* soul " assumes a °^^'^'^' 
 
 new meaning, and becomes a comprehensive designa- ^^^hTrto^^L 
 
 tion for all the human powers of thought and will. I,^''"? '^u^^ 
 
 -C^ o by the philo- 
 
 From the fifth century onwards it is used in this sophers. No 
 
 room in their 
 
 sense in prose writers and non-philosophical poets, systems for the 
 When the soul was thus absolutely identified with the soui after 
 the mind, its individual existence after death was ^f^er meaning. 
 inconceivable in the speculative systems of such "oj'yetmits 
 
 ^ J new. 
 
 philosophers as Thales of Miletus, Anaximander, 
 Anaximenes, Heraclitus. Indeed, such a question 
 would have been meaningless ; for the soul was in 
 their philosophies conceived merely as a function of 
 the various elements of the body or as a transient 
 individualisation of the one primitive substance or 
 force, and this individualisation terminated at death. 
 
 In the pantheistic theories of the Eleatic philo- 
 sophers Xenophanes of Colophon, Parmenides, and 
 Zeno, there is no room for the future individual 
 existence of the soul. And yet Parmenides quite 
 inconsistently taught the pre-existence of the. soul 
 and its survival on the death of the body/ but this 
 he did as a disciple of the Orphic and Pythagorean 
 schools. 
 
 According to Pythagoras, the soul of man is Pythagoras- 
 immortal, and is confined in the body only in sour"^°^^^^ 
 
 ^ See Ritter and Preller's Historia Philosophiae, § 1 5 1 , /cai ras "^vxo.^ Tri/Mireiv 
 -TTOT^ fxh iK ToG ifM4>o-vovs ds t6 diS^s, work S^ dvaTroKiv (ptja-LV. This view, 
 however, is disputed by Zeller, Pre-Socratic Philosophy^ i. 604 (English transl.) 
 
144 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 CHAP. III. the way of punishment. It has no inner connection 
 with the body in which it dwells ; any soul may live 
 in any body. It possesses a divine knowledge 
 through memory (Dieterich, Nekuiay-^, 122 ; Rohde, 
 Psyche, ii. 186 note). When death separates the 
 soul from the body, the soul must after an interval 
 of purification in Hades return to the upper world, 
 and be reborn. Its conduct in the earlier life 
 determines the nature of its new incarnation. 
 Finally, after a series of transmigrations, it is raised 
 from the earthly life and restored to a divine 
 existence. 
 Empedocies. Empedocles' doctrine of the soul is peculiar. 
 
 The office of the soul, which is a stranger in the 
 world of sense, is neither perception nor thought, 
 which are merely functions of the body, but the 
 philosophic vision into the complete truth of being 
 and becoming which it brings with it out of its 
 divine existence in the past (Rohde, /^^j)/<;/^^, 185, 186). 
 The faculty of thought (7^009) and the daimonic being 
 which we may call soul (though Empedocles never 
 uses this term) thus exist side by side in man, the 
 former of which perishes with the body, while the 
 latter is not immortal, indeed, but longlived. This 
 dualism in the inner life which appears in Homer 
 thus reappears in Empedocles, and later in Plato and 
 Aristotle. The doctrine of transmigration naturally 
 formed a part of his system ; but between the various 
 incorporations of the soul it did not, as in the Orphic 
 or Pythagorean belief, descend into an underground 
 Hades. Finally, when all the elements and powers 
 
AMONG THE GREEKS US 
 
 return into their original unity, all souls and even the chap. m. 
 gods will be reunited in the divine universal spirit, in 
 order again to come forth In individual existence in 
 a newly restored world. 
 
 The immortality of the soul was inconceivable 
 from Anaxagoras' principle of an allrpervading mind. 
 For though this mind individualised itself in certain Anaxagoras. 
 material combinations, it retired into itself on the 
 dissolution of these. 
 
 The views of Pindar on the soul and the after-life Pindars 
 form an interesting study. Side by side we find two vilw^on the 
 distinct and irreconcilable views on these questions, destiny."^ '^^ 
 Thus at times — (i.) his poems reproduce the old 
 Homeric doctrine of the soul and of Hades, the 
 everlasting abode of the shades, combined with 
 certain elements of soul worship ; (ii.) at others they 
 present us with a theology of an essentially Orphic 
 type. 
 
 In the former he uses the language of the popular (i.) The 
 theology of the day, which was a medley of Homeric p°p^^^^ ''"^'^' 
 and animistic elements. This was indeed practically 
 at all times the orthodox belief. Thus the soul departs 
 after death to Hades {Pytk. xi. 19-22 ; OL ix. 33-35), 
 where it is still acquainted with the affairs of the 
 living (Pyth, v. 96-104). No rewards await it save 
 the praise its virtues have won on earth. If indi- 
 viduals were to enjoy a blessed life, they were 
 translated in the body, as in the Homeric view a 
 perfect life was otherwise inconceivable. Yet 
 instances of deification after death were also acknow- 
 ledged, as of Semele. 
 
 10 
 
146 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 CHAP. III. The second view is closely connected with the 
 
 (ii.)Th7 first. The soul is, as in the former, the invisible 
 pSdar's^'ow^ double of the man. It is to a large degree dormant 
 — though not wholly, as in Homer — during a man's 
 living activities on earth. Soul is never used by 
 Pindar in its philosophic meaning {see above). 
 Thus far, therefore, Pindar's conception corresponds 
 mainly with the Homeric, but to this conception he 
 adds, with the Orphics, that it is of divine origin, *' an 
 image of eternity" {alcovo<; elScoXop), and springs from 
 the gods only [fxovov ix 0€O)v, Frag, 131). Its descent 
 into the body is due to ancient guilt. After death 
 retributive judgment follows in Hades, and the con- 
 demned are plunged into Tartarus {OL ii. 57-60). The 
 soul must be embodied at least three times before 
 it can hope for an end of its earthly course. The 
 past life determined the conditions of the present, 
 and the present those of the future. After a final 
 course of nine years in Hades the purified soul could 
 '* ascend the path of Zeus" and enter *'the Isles of 
 the Blessed" {OL ii. 69-75) ^"^^ become heroes.^ 
 Aeschylus Aeschylus reproduces the old Homeric concep- 
 
 pop^^arvfews tions of Hades and the soul, but he goes beyond 
 these in speaking in a few cases of a judgment 
 beyond death in Hades. This judgment, however, 
 is only a completion of the retribution which is 
 generally executed on earth {SuppL 230, 231, 416 ; 
 Bum, 273-275 ; Choeph, 61-65). O^ the other hand, 
 the belief in the community of interests existing 
 
 1 According to certain tomb-inscriptions of the fourth century found near 
 Sybaris the blessed become gods (see Rohde, Psyche^ ii. 217-221). 
 
 of the soul and 
 of Hades. 
 
AMONG THE GREEKS i47 
 
 between the living and the dead is reflected strongly chap. m. 
 — in other words, an essential factor belonging to 
 Ancestor Worship (see p. 40 note). This same 
 belief is attested also in Sophocles and Euripides, 
 though the latter does not himself accept it (see 
 p. 24 note). 
 
 The immortality of the soul was not originally a Piato at first 
 part of Plato's system.^ We have in the Repiiblic popular views. 
 the various stages through which his views passed 
 before he arrived at his maturest convictions on the 
 subject. 
 
 It is not necessary to our present purpose to do 
 more than give a few of the salient points in the 
 later Platonic doctrine of the soul. The soul is a His own 
 
 , ...,,. T- 1/)/ doctrine of the 
 
 purely spiritual being, it is uncreated (afy€y?;T09, soui. 
 Pkaedr. xxiv.), apparently eternal^ (ai'Sto?, Rep, x. 
 611 b). In compliance with a universal cosmic 
 law, according to the Timaeus (41 d sqq.\ or else in 
 consequence of an intellectual declension of the soul 
 from its original destiny, according to the Pkaedrus 
 
 ^ This has been established by Krohn, Der Platon. Staat, p. 265 ; 
 Pfleiderer, Platon. Frage, pp. 23, 24, 35 sqq. ; Rohde, Psyche^ ii. 265-267, 
 Thus no trace of this doctrine is to be found in the oldest part of the Republic^ 
 iii. 368-v. 460 C. The next portions that were composed were v. 460 D— 
 471 c, viii., ix. (all but 580 D-588 a), x. (608 C to end). In this part the 
 doctrine of immortality is introduced and discussed, and further established in 
 the third part, v. 471 c-vii., ix. 580 D-588 A, x. 595-608 B. Books i.- 
 ii. 367 were finally written as an introduction to the whole. In this intro- 
 duction a harmonising of the above parts is attempted. This statement is 
 drawn from Rohde. 
 
 ^ Plato's doctrine of the soul's immortality and pre-existence are bound up 
 together. The mythical representation of the Timaeiis^ where the creation of 
 souls is attributed to the Demiurge, cannot be allowed any weight in the face 
 of his frequent assertions that this pre-existence had no beginning (cf. 
 Phaedr. 245 c, ^^xtj Trao-a d^dparos. The soul is dpx^? Kivr}(j eta's, dpxv Sk 
 dyivTjTOV . . . ^^ avdyKT]^ Q.y^vr)Tbv re Kal dddvarov ^vxv dp exi). See Zeller, 
 Plato J 398, 399, 405 (English transl.) 
 
1 48 ESCHA TOLOG Y OF THE INDIVID UAL 
 
 CHAP, III. 
 
 Soul, accord- 
 ing to his 
 earlier views, 
 a trichotomy 
 of reason, 
 courage, and 
 desire. 
 
 Afterwards 
 held to be 
 purely rational. 
 
 Courage and 
 desire added 
 to the soul on 
 its birth in the 
 body. 
 
 (246 sqq,) and the Phaedon (246 c), it enters into 
 the body. In the body the soul Hves as in a prison. 
 However closely united, there can never be any true 
 harmony between them. Yet this connection with 
 the body can become the cause of unlimited impurity 
 and degradation. 
 
 In his earlier speculations, Le. the Phaedrtts^ 
 Plato had ascribed a trichotomy of reason (to Xor^i- 
 aTtfc6v)y courage (to OvfioetSi^;), and desire {to iTrt- 
 dvfMTjTCKov), to the soul in its pre-existent state, and 
 explained its fall by the presence of the two latter. 
 Subsequently, however, the thought that such lower 
 powers were indissolubly connected with the soul 
 became inconceivable, since this conjunction would 
 have logically involved the soul in a never-ending 
 cycle of rebirths, and, henceforth, the soul was re- 
 garded by him as simple and indivisible, a power of 
 pure thought (Xoytarc/cov ^). According, therefore, to 
 his later speculations in the Timaeus, it was not until 
 a soul was enclosed in the body that courage and 
 desire were associated with it, these being proper 
 to the body only. Though the passions are on this 
 view left behind by the soul at death, yet the associa- 
 tion of the soul with these in the body produces an 
 inward deterioration of the soul — an idea by means of 
 which Plato explains its desire for rebirth in the body. 
 
 ^ See Zeller, Plato mid the Older Academy , 391, 392 (English transl.) ; 
 Lewis Campbell, Religion in Greek Literature ^ p. 353. 
 
 2 When the entire content of the soul came to be regarded as \oyi<TTiK6v, 
 a soul could no longer consistently be ascribed to animals, who only possessed 
 6v^i6^ and iTTLdv/Mla. Further, if a soul could not justly be ascribed to animals, 
 it follows further that a human soul could not rightly be said to descend into 
 the body of an animal. Plato, however, maintained this view to the end, 
 probably for ethical reasons. 
 
AMONG THE GREEKS i49 
 
 Immediately after death the soul is judged, and chap. m. 
 placed in heaven or under earth by way of reward judgment after 
 
 . 1 1 , , f. death, and 
 
 or punishment, where it remains tor looo years, subsequent 
 When this interval has elapsed the soul is forced to iJ'ons.'"'^'^" ' 
 be incorporated anew. The nature of the new body 
 is determined by the character of the soul in the 
 former life. The soul must pass through a series 
 of such transmigrations.^ In the course of these it 
 can descend to the beast,^ or ascend into nobler 
 forms of existence. Incurable sinners are cast into 
 Tartarus. The aim of the soul is finally to be Aim of the 
 delivered from the body and to depart into the 
 realm of pure being, that is, of the divine, the in- 
 visible, and the pure. 
 
 In Plato pre-existence and immortality stand or Pre-existence 
 fall together,^ and if these are admitted, the doctrine ityieS^to"^^' 
 of recollection follows of necessity. This doctrine, feToHeTtion. 
 which appears first among the Orphics, receives at 
 Plato's hands a philosophical exposition. It is 
 necessary, he holds, in order to explain the facts of 
 learning and knowledge. *' We could not seek for 
 what is yet unknown to us, nor recognise in what 
 we find the thing that we sought for, if we had not 
 unconsciously possessed it before we recognised and 
 were conscious of it (see Meno, 80 d sqq.) We 
 could form no conception of Ideas, of the eternal 
 essence of things which is hidden from our percep- 
 
 1 At least three (as in Pindar, OL ii. 68 sqq,\ according to the Pkaednis^ 
 249 A. Between each of the births there is a period of lOOO years (cf. 
 Rep. X. 615 a). 
 
 2 See note 2, p. 148. 
 
 ^ Zeller, Plato^ 405 sqq. 
 
ISO ESCHATOLOGY OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 Earlier teach- 
 ing on retri- 
 bution. 
 
 Later teaching. 
 
 An immeasur- 
 able gulf 
 divides Greek 
 from Jewish 
 and Christian 
 eschatology. 
 
 tion, if we had not attained to the intuition of these 
 in a former existence." ^ 
 
 Two phases of teaching on the question of retri- 
 bution appear in Plato. In the earlier the uncondi- 
 tional worth of morality in itself is set forth without 
 reference to a hereafter. Thus, according to the 
 Republic, iii. i sqq,, the guardians are to pay no heed 
 to what follows after death, but to make it their chief 
 task to show that virtue carries with it its own 
 reward. But this doctrine is handled very differ- 
 ently when Plato became convinced of the soul's 
 immortality. Retribution hereafter appeared to 
 follow necessarily from this doctrine, else divine 
 justice would be at fault, and discord disturb the 
 moral order of the universe.^ 
 
 We have now touched on the chief features of 
 Plato's doctrine of immortality. 
 
 It is obvious that an immeasurable gulf divides it 
 from Jewish no less than Christian doctrine. We 
 do not refer to such obvious differences as appear in 
 his doctrine of the soul's transmigrations, its eternal 
 pre-existence, and its antagonism to the body, but to 
 the two following points : (i.) it is not a human soul 
 that Plato's final teaching deals with, but a pure 
 intelligence; (ii.) his doctrine, as set over against 
 the Jewish and Christian, is the glorification of 
 an unbridled individualism. The individual soul 
 owes no duty practically but to itself. Its appear- 
 ance in any single human community or family 
 
 ^ Zeller, Plato^ 406, 407. 
 2 Rep. X. 612 A sqq. ; cf. Pkaedo, 63 C, 95 B, 1 14 d. 
 
AMONG THE GREEKS 151 
 
 is of the nature of an accident. It existed before chap. m. 
 any such came into being, and will outlive them. 
 However nobly the virtues relating to one's neigh- 
 bour or the State are expounded in the Platonic 
 system, they are related to the individual mainly as 
 elements in its discipline and self-culture. 
 
 Despite all the teaching of individual poets, Popular 
 philosophers, and schools, the popular beliefs of the stm^Homfric 
 Greeks remained from century to century in the chdstiaVera. 
 main unaffected. The immortality of the soul never 
 became a part of the national creed, but remained 
 the peculiar property of individual theologians and 
 philosophers.^ This is conclusively established by 
 the evidence of Greek epitaphs. 
 
 1 Prof. Percy Gardner, New Chapters in Greek History^ 333, 334 ; 
 Rohde, Psyche, ii. 3 7 8. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 SUMMARY OF OLD TESTAMENT TEACHING ON 
 INDIVIDUAL CONCEPTIONS 
 
 Short sum- 
 mary of 
 development 
 of doctrine of 
 a future life. 
 
 In the preceding chapters we have tried to trace 
 the history of Old Testament eschatology ; but 
 before entering on the subsequent developments of 
 this eschatology in Jewish literature, it will be help- 
 ful to sum up shortly the results we have already 
 gathered from the writers of the Old Testament 
 on this question. In these results we are pro- 
 vided with an eschatology that to a large extent 
 takes its character from the conception of Yahwe. 
 So long indeed as Yahwe's jurisdiction was conceived 
 as limited to this life, a Yahwistic eschatology of the 
 individual could not exist; but when at last Israel 
 reached the great truth of monotheism, the way was 
 prepared for the moralisation of the future no less 
 than of the present. The Exile also contributed to 
 this development by making possible a new and truer 
 conception of the individual. Henceforth the indi- 
 vidual and not the nation became the religious unit. 
 Step by step through the slow processes of the 
 religious life, through the ofttimes halting logic of 
 spiritual experience, the religious thinkers of Israel 
 
SOUL AND SPIRIT i53 
 
 were led to a moral conception of the future life, and chap. iv. 
 to the certainty of their share therein. These truths 
 were reached, not through questionable assumptions 
 and metaphysical processes, as in Greece, but through 
 spiritual crises deep as the human personality and wide 
 as human life. Only thus could they be won if they 
 were to last for ever. The eternal life, the life in God, 
 cannot admit of death as its goal, and to the apprehen- 
 sion of this truth Israel's saints rose through first realis- 
 ing that life to be the one supreme fact of the present, 
 before the necessities of their spiritual experienceforced 
 them to postulate its continuance in the future. Thus 
 in fact they reasoned : he that hath God hath eternal life. 
 
 We shall now enumerate the views of the Old 
 Testament on such conceptions as soul, spirit, Sheol, 
 Gehenna, etc., which are partly developed from 
 Yahwism, and, partly as heathen survivals, are still 
 independent of it. 
 
 Soul and Spirit, — There were two conflicting soui and spirit. 
 
 1 ^ , , . Earlier and 
 
 Views on the nature ot these, as we have seen above, later doctrines 
 According to the older dichotomic view, the soul and °^^^^^^* 
 spirit were all but practically identical. The spirit re- 
 presented the stronger side of the soul. But accord- 
 ing to the later trichotomic view (Gen. ii. d^-iii.), which 
 is current from the time of the Deuteronomist on- 
 wards side by side with the former, the spirit is the 
 breath of God, which on death returns to God. This 
 different conception should be borne in mind in order 
 to appreciate the psychology of subsequent periods. 
 For a full account of the two views, see above, pp. 
 39-48. 
 
154 
 
 rUDGMENT 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 Judgment, 
 preliminary 
 and final. 
 
 The final 
 never 
 
 embraced all 
 men in the 
 OldTestament. 
 
 We should observe that the departed in Sheol are 
 spoken of as "gods," *' shades," or ** dead ones," but 
 never as "spirits" nor as "souls" except in Job. See 
 above, pp. 48, 49. The way for this last usage is pre- 
 pared by such passages as Pss. xvi. 10, "Thou wilt not 
 give over my soul to Sheol"; xxx. 3, etc. On the other 
 hand, that the soul of the righteous was conceived as 
 capable of exercising its highest capacities after death 
 follows incontestably from Job xix. 26, 27, and also, 
 we may safely conclude, from Pss. xlix. 15, Ixxiii. 24. 
 
 Judgment, preliminary and final, on all Israel, on 
 the surviving Gentiles, and on the faithless angelic 
 rulers. — In the Old Testament the conception of a 
 final judgment is developed, but in a limited sense. 
 It always precedes the Messianic kingdom. It deals 
 only with the living Jew and Gentile, and not with the 
 dead, in Ezekiel and Joel; in its latest Old Testament 
 development in Daniel it takes account, of course, 
 of all the living, whether Jew or Gentile, but it is also 
 extended to certain classes of departed Israelites — 
 the martyrs and apostates. The Gentiles were 
 apparently visited with temporal penalties only, ie. 
 loss of this life. But it is possible that even in the 
 third century, or much earlier, pains and penalties 
 were conceived to attend on them in Sheol ; for 
 Sheol was in all cases the final abode of the Gentiles, 
 whether bad or good, and had already in some 
 instances come to be regarded as penal in character. 
 But though the final judgment in the Old Testament 
 was never conceived as embracing all men, living 
 and dead, a very remarkable extension of the idea 
 
HEAVEN, SHEOL iS5 
 
 of judgment is found in Is. xxiv. 21, 22, where the chap. iv. 
 faithless angelic patrons and departed kings are 
 brought within its venue.^ Here there is definitely a 
 preliminary as well as a final judgment. 
 
 This division of the judgment into two distinct 
 catastrophes is to be found in Ezekiel, where the 
 first consists of the triumphal restoration of Israel to 
 its own land, and the second in the judgment of the 
 Gentile world. But still more clearly in Daniel, 
 where the first act of judgment is executed by the 
 saints (ii. 44), and the final by God Himself on all 
 the nations. 
 
 Of abodes for the departed there are Heaven, places of 
 Sheol, Gehenna, and the Pit. dep^'el''^^ 
 
 Heaven. — ^Heaven appears to be the final abode Heaven. 
 to which the writers in Pss. xlix. 15, Ixxiii. 24 look 
 forward. It was to heaven also that Enoch and 
 Elijah were translated. 
 
 SheoP appears in the Old Testament either as (i.) sheoi— its 
 the eternal abode of all the dead; (ii.) the eternal -^f^"-^- 
 abode of the wicked only ; (iii.) the intermediate abode 
 of certain classes in Israel (i.) Of the former con- 
 ception there were two varieties, as we have already 
 seen : {a) the older represents Sheol as the scene 
 of considerable life, movement, and knowledge ; 
 
 1 See pp. 133 77ote, 159. 
 
 2 As synonyms for Sheol in meaning (i.) we find '* pit " (nia), Pss. xxviii. I, 
 XXX. 3, Ixxxviii. 4, cxliii. 7; Is. xiv. 19, xxxviii. 18; Ezek. xxvi. 20, 
 xxxi. 14, 16, xxxii. 18, 24, 29, 30; Prov. i. 12. We must carefully dis- 
 tinguish this sense of *'pit" (nn) from that in Is. xxiv. 22, where it is the 
 intermediate abode of angels and kings. " Pit" is also a rendering of nnaJ, 
 and in this case also it is a synonym for Sheol in the following passages : Pss. 
 xvi. 10, XXX. 9, Iv. 23, ciii. 4; Is. xxxviii. 17; Ezek. xxviii. 8; Job xvii. 
 14, xxxiii. 18, 22. 
 
156 
 
 GEHENNA 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 Gehenna — 
 its various 
 meanings. 
 
 {b) the later represents it as the practical negation of 
 all existence, and all but a synonym for annihilation. 
 Greek religion furnishes us with a remarkable parallel 
 to these two conflicting views of Sheol (see above, 
 pp. 40-43). Hades was similarly conceived in Greece 
 at two different periods (see p. 138 note), (ii.) Sheol 
 is depicted as the eternal abode of the wicked only 
 in Pss. xlix. 14, 15 ; Ixxiii. 19, 20. (iii.) The trans- 
 formation of Sheol into an intermediate abode of the 
 departed was due to the rise of the higher theology. 
 The transformation, however, is very slight. Though 
 Sheol is regarded as the intermediate abode of 
 righteous Israelites in Is. xxvi. 19, it remains the 
 eternal abode of all the rest of mankind. In Dan. 
 xii. 2 it is again presupposed as the intermediate 
 abode of Jewish martyrs and apostates, but the 
 eternal abode of all else. 
 
 Gehenna, — The word Gehenna, Vkewa in Tisch- 
 endorf and WH (or Vekwa according to other 
 scholars, on the ground of its derivation from the 
 Aram. Djm), is derived ultimately from the Hebrew 
 expression nsn "^3. = '* Valley of Hinnom" (Jos. xv. 8, 
 xviii. 16 ; Neh. xi. 30), which is an abbreviated form 
 of D3rT]n-^3.= "Valley of the Son of Hinnom" (Jos. xv. 
 8, xviii. 16 ; 2 Chron. xxviii. 3, xxxiii. 6 ; Jer. vii. 31, 
 32, xix. 2, 6), or in the Kethib of 2 Kings xxili. 10 
 (dsh-^di "-a). But this place became so notorious 
 through its evil associations that it was simply called 
 '* the Valley," icaT e^oxnv (Jer. ii. 23, xxxi. 40), and 
 the gate of Jerusalem leading to it *'the Valley-gate" 
 (2 Chron. xxvi. 9 ; Neh. ii. 13, 15, iii. 13). In Eth. 
 
GEHENNA i57 
 
 En. xxvii. 2 it is termed ** the accursed ge or valley," 
 '' the deep g6 or valley" (liv. i), and " the ge or valley" 
 (Ass. Mos. X. 10). This valley lay to the S. and S. W. 
 of Jerusalem (Robinson, BRP. ii. 273, 274). The 
 derivation of Dian is quite uncertain. This term is 
 used in a variety of meanings in the course of Israel- 
 itish and Jewish history. 
 
 I. Its use in the Old Testament falls under three 
 heads, (a) It is used in a merely topographical sense. 
 Thus it formed the boundary between Judah and 
 Benjamin (Jos. xv. 8, xviii. 16), and the northern 
 limit of the district occupied by the tribe of Judah 
 after the Captivity (Neh. xi. 30), and lay in front of 
 the gate Harsith of Jerusalem (Jer. xix. 2). 
 
 {U) It is used in a religious significance as imply- 
 ing a place of idolatrous and inhu7nan sacrifices. 
 These were first offered by Ahaz and Manasseh, 
 who made their children to *'pass through the fire" 
 to Moloch in this valley (2 Kings xvi. 3 ; 2 Chron. 
 xxviii. 3; and 2 Kings xxi. 6; 2 Chron. xxxiii. 6). 
 These sacrifices were probably made on the *'high 
 places of Tophet, which is in the Valley of the Son 
 of Hinnom " (Jer. vii. 31; cf. Jer. xxxii. 35). In order 
 to put an end to these abominations, Josiah polluted 
 it with human bones and other corruptions (2 Kings 
 xxiii. 10, 13, 14). But this worship of Moloch was 
 revived under Jehoiakim (Jer. xi. 10-13 J Ezek. xx. 
 30). In consequence of these idolatrous practices in 
 the Valley of Hinnom, Jeremiah prophesied that one 
 day it would be called the "Valley of Slaughter," 
 and that they should " bury in Topheth till there be 
 
158 GEHENNA 
 
 no place to bury" (Jer. vii. 32, xix. 11). Many 
 scholars have accepted the statement of Kimchi {circa. 
 1200 A.D.) on Ps. xxvii : " Gehinnam fuit locus 
 spretus, in quern abjecerunt sordes et cadavera, et 
 fuit ibi perpetuo ignis ad comburendum sordes illos 
 et ossa ; propterea parabolice vocatur judicium 
 impiorum Gehennam." But this is denied by 
 Robinson (i. 274), who writes that ''there is no 
 evidence of any other fires than those of Moloch 
 having been kept up in this valley " (Rosenmiiller, 
 BibliscL Geogr, 11. i. 156, 164). 
 
 {c) It signifies the place of punts kfnent for rebel- 
 lious or apostate Jews in the presence of the righteous. 
 Gehinnom or Gehenna is not actually mentioned 
 with this signification in the Old Testament, but it is 
 it and no other place that is implied in Is. 1. 11, 
 " in a place of pain shall ye lie down," and Ixvi. 24, 
 with this new connotation. Both these passages 
 are very late, and probably from the same hand — not 
 earlier than the third century B.C. (see Cheyne, 
 Introd. to the Bk, of Isaiah, p. 380; Smend, Alttes- 
 tamentliche Religionsgeschichte,"^. 506). Further, the 
 punishment of the apostate Jews in Is. Ixvi. 24 is 
 conceived as eternal : " They shall look upon the 
 carcases of the men that have transgressed against 
 me ; for their worm shall not die, neither shall their 
 fire be quenched, and they shall be an abhorring to 
 all flesh." The punishment of Gehenna is implied 
 also in Dan. xii. 2, **some to shame and everlast- 
 ing abhorrence." We should observe that the same 
 word pMn"7, '* abhorrence," occurs in these two pass- 
 
THE PIT, THE RESURRECTION 159 
 
 ages, and in these only, and the reference in both is chap. iv. 
 to Gehenna.-^ 
 
 The Pit ("ii:n) is the intermediate abode or place The pu as the 
 
 r . , r 1 -1 1 11' intermediate 
 
 01 punishment 01 the guilty angels and kmgs abode of 
 (Is. xxiv. 22). The fact that there is a special khi^s!^""^ 
 intermediate place for these makes it easier to 
 understand Sheol as an intermediate place for the 
 righteous. Yet the ideas in Is. xxiv. 22 appear as a 
 foreign element in the Old Testament, and may be 
 derived from the Mazdean religion.^ 
 
 Though the doctrine of an individual immortality Resurrection, 
 emerged in Job and the Psalms, it failed to estabhsh 
 itself permanently in the religious expectations of 
 Israel. Not to a future of individual bliss, even 
 though in the divine presence, but to a resurrection 
 to a new life (Is. xxvi. 19) as members of the holy 
 people and citizens of the Messianic kingdom, did 
 the righteous aspire. The individual thus looked 
 forward to his highest consummation in the life of 
 the righteous community. This resurrection as the 
 necessary spiritual sequel and the true organic 
 development of the righteous life on earth was of 
 necessity limited to the righteous ; but, as we have 
 seen, the author of Dan. xii., writing at a time when 
 this spiritual significance of the resurrection was 
 forgotten, extended it to the unfaithful in Israel, 
 and thus wholly secularised it, and gave it a mean- 
 ing absolutely at variance with its original one. 
 
 ^ Most of these paragraphs on Gehenna have already appeared in my 
 article on Gehenna in Hastings* Bible Dictionary , ii. 119. 
 
 2 See Stave, Einfluss des Farsismus auf das Judenthtim, pp. 176, 177. 
 
eternal dura- 
 tion in the Old 
 Testament. 
 
 1 60 MESSIANIC KINGDOM, GENTILES 
 
 CHAP. IV. The Messianic kingdom was always conceived 
 
 Messianic as eternal on earth save in Is. Ixv. 17, Ixvi. 22, 
 aiwlysof where a new heavens and a new earth are 
 spoken of; but these verses are at issue with their 
 contexts, and should no doubt be rejected (see 
 pp. 122-124). 
 
 Gentiles. — Apart from the few wider teachers 
 who looked for the redemption of the Gentiles, the 
 prevailing view, and the view that was strong and 
 effective in later Judaism, was that all the Gentiles 
 were to be destroyed (Is. xxxiv., xxxv. ; Joel) or 
 all that were hostile to Israel (Ezekiel, Haggai, 
 Zechariah), while the rest were for ever to rest 
 under the shadow of Yah we s omnipotent but 
 pitiless supremacy (Ezekiel), or to be converted to 
 His worship (Haggai, Zechariah, etc.^) 
 
 1 Eschatological ideas, which are proper to Apocalyptic, are by no means 
 rare in later Jewish prophecy. Thus we have the Book of Life. A roll of 
 citizens seems to have been kept in Israel from the end of the ninth century 
 onwards (Ezra ii. 62 ; Neh. xii. 22, 23, vii. 5, 64) as a security against 
 aliens (Bertholet, Stellung d. hr. zu d. Fremden, p. 80). This burgher list 
 is referred to in Ezek. xiii. 9 (Jer. xxii. 30). From this seems to have been 
 derived the expression "God's Book" in Exod. xxxii. 32, 33; Ps. cxxxix. 
 16; "Book of the living," Ps. Ixix. 28: cf. also Ezek. ix. 4; Ps. 
 Ixxxvii. 6. In all these passages to have one's name in the book of life meant 
 participation in the temporal blessings of the theocracy ; but in Dan. xii, i 
 the idea is transformed, and to have one's name in the Book of Life means 
 participation in the spiritual blessings of a future life. For further details see 
 Charles' Book of Enochs 131-135. 
 
 New heavens and a new earth. — This idea, though found in Is. Ixv., Ixvi., 
 is really inoperative there (see above, pp. 122, 123). 
 
 Angelic patrons of the nations, — This idea, which is referred to in Is. xxiv. 
 21, 22, where the angelic rulers and kings are committed to prison, was used 
 by the Jews to explain the oppression of Israel consistently with the belief 
 in the supremacy of Yahw^ (see Cheyne, Jntrod. Is. p. 151 ; Smend, 
 A.T. Rel, Gesch. 395, 396). God did not rule the world directly, but 
 through the agency of angels. The mention of this judgment is here so 
 brief that obviously it is a current belief. The writer counts on the ready 
 intelligence of his readers, and so touches on it shortly. This idea is referred 
 to in Deut. xxxii. 8 j Pss. Iviii. 2, 3-lxxxii.; Dan. x.-xii., and is reproduced, 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1 6 1 
 
 Bibliography. — For the older literature on this subject see chap. iv. 
 Alger ^ a Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life, with a — 
 
 Co7nplete Bibliography^ by Ezra Abbot, pp. 783-970, New York, 1871. 
 Schulze, Voraussetzung der Christ. Lehre v. d. Unsterblichkeit, 1861. 
 Stade, Die A Tliche Vorstellungen vom Zustand nach dent Tode, 1877; 
 Geschichte des Volks Israel^ i. 415-427, 503-506, 1889. Briggs, 
 Messianic Prophecy^ 1886. Jeremias, Die Babyl.-Assyr. Vorstellungen 
 vom Zustand nac/z dem Tode, 1887. Schwally, Das Leben nach 
 dem Tode^ 1892 — original and most helpful, ^oy^' Judaism and 
 Christianity^ 1892. Cheyne, Origin of the Psalter, see pp. 381-452 
 on " Rise of Doctrine of Judgment after Death," 1891 ; Introduction 
 to the Book of Isaiah, 1895 — invaluable both on critical and exegetical 
 grounds; Jewish Religious Life after the Exile, 1898. Robertson 
 Smith, Religion of the Semites, 1894. Salmond, Christian Doctrine 
 of Immortality, 3rd ed., 1897. Davidson, Art. " Eschatology " in 
 Hastings' B.D. i. 734-741. See also the relative sections in the 
 Biblical Theologies of Oehler, Schultz, Dillmann, and particularly 
 Smend's ATliche Religionsgeschichte, 1893, and Marti's Geschichte 
 der Israelitischen Religion, 1897. 
 
 but in a different form, in Eth. En. Ixxxix. 59, xc. 17. According to Jubilees 
 XV. 31, 32, angels are set over the nations^ but only God is over Israel. 
 
 Mountain of God in the North. — This mountain in the north is referred 
 to in Is. xiv. 13 {Ezek. i. 4) and in Job xxxvii. 22 (according to Siegfried's 
 emendation) and in Ps. xlviii. 2 (?). In Ezek. xxviii. 13, 14, 16 this idea is 
 combined with that of the Garden of Eden in Gen. iii. In this form the myth 
 is further developed in Eth. En. xviii. 6-9, xxiv. 1-3, xxv. 3. The Mountain 
 of God in the North is found amongst the Assyrians, Babylonians, Indians, 
 etc. It is a late idea in Israel ; for their sacred mountain was anciently in 
 the south {Judg. v. 4, 5 ; Deut. xxxiii. 2 ; Hab. iii. 3 ; Ps. Ixviii. 8, 9 ; 
 Zech. ix. 14). 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 THE ESCHATOLOGY OF APOCRYPHAL AND APOCALYPTIC 
 LITERATURE DURING THE SECOND CENTURY B.C. 
 
 Higher 
 theology of 
 Old Testa- 
 ment further 
 developed in 
 subsequent 
 n on -Canonical 
 literature, but 
 not in Eccles- 
 iasticus and 
 Tobit. 
 
 Doctrine of 
 retribution in 
 Ecclesiasticus. 
 
 In the preceding chapters we have dealt with the 
 eschatological thought of the Old Testament Canoni- 
 cal books, and the rise of the higher theology in Job, 
 the Psalms, Isaiah, and Daniel The main ideas of 
 this theology are reproduced and further developed in 
 the subsequent Apocryphal and Apocalyptic litera- 
 ture. Of the Apocryphal books, however, Ecclesi- 
 asticus and Tobit have no part in this development, 
 but reflect the earlier and more conservative views 
 of the Old Testament. Since these are the last chief 
 witnesses to some of the still surviving heathen 
 elements in Judaism, and lie off the main path of 
 religious development, we shall consider them at the 
 outset together, and then pass on to the writings, 
 which are important in an eschatological regard. 
 
 In Ecclesiasticus the problem of retribution 
 takes a peculiar form. On the one hand it is 
 uncompromisingly tory, and refuses to admit the 
 possibility of the new views as to the future life. 
 
ECCLESIASTICUS 1 6^ 
 
 All retribution without exception is confined to this chap. v. 
 life : " Fear not death," exclaims the Son of Sirach, Retribution 
 " whether it be ten or a hundred or a thousand years, this life. 
 there are no chastisements^ for life in Sheol" (xli. 
 3, 4). On the other hand, this writer supplements 
 Ezekiel's theory of exact individual retribution with 
 the older view which Ezekiel attacked, and seeks to 
 cover its obvious defects with the doctrine of the 
 solidarity of the family. A man*s wickedness must 
 receive its recompense either in his own person in 
 this life, or, failing this, in the persons of his sur- 
 viving children, since Sheol knows no retribution. 
 Thus on the one hand he teaches the doctrine of 
 individual retribution : 
 
 Look at the generations of old and see : 
 
 Who did ever put his trust in the Lord and was ashamed?^ 
 (ii. 10, 11). 
 
 There shall no good come to him that continueth to do evil, 
 Nor to him that giveth no alms (xii. 3). 
 
 The ungodly . . . shall not go unpunished unto Hades 
 - (ix. 12). 
 
 For it is an easy thing in the sight of the Lord 
 To reward a man in the day of death according to his ways, . , , 
 And in the last end of a man is the revelation of his deeds 
 (xi. 26, 27^). 
 
 But this theory of individual retribution was inade- 
 quate, for obviously all men did not meet with their 
 deserts. Hence a man's sins are visited through 
 
 1 So the marginal reading of the new Hebrew text. This reading is 
 supported by the LXX. 
 
 2 Some suffering is disciplinary and educational, and as such is a proof of 
 God's love. Thus *' gold is tried in the fire, and acceptable men in the furnace 
 of humiliation " (ii. 5; cf. Prov. iii. 12; Ps. cxix. 71). 
 
1 64 ECCLESIASTICUS 
 
 the evil remembrance of his name and in the mis- 
 fortunes of his children after him. Thus our author 
 declares that a man's character shall be manifest in 
 the fortunes of his children : — 
 
 A man shall be known in his children (xi. 28). 
 The children of the ungodly shall not put forth many branches ; 
 For the root of the impious is on the point of a crag (so Heb.) 
 (xl. IS). 
 
 The inheritance of sinners' children shall perish, 
 And with their posterity abideth poverty (Heb. and Syr. ) 
 (xli. 6j cf. xxiii. 24-26). 
 
 On the other hand, the children of the righteous 
 are blessed. Thus : — 
 
 With their seed shall remain continually a good inheritance ; 
 
 Their children are within the covenants. 
 
 Their seed standeth fast 
 
 And their children for their sakes. 
 
 Their seed shall remain for ever, 
 
 And their glory shall not be blotted out (xliv. 11-13)- 
 
 Since there is thus no retribution beyond the grave, 
 there is no organic relation between this life and 
 the life in Sheol.-^ Sheol is out of the sphere of 
 moral government ; for there no account is taken of 
 man's past life on earth (xli. 4) ; there is there no 
 recognition of God : '* Thanksgiving perisheth from 
 the dead as from one that is not" (xvii. .28). In 
 that region there is no delight of life (xiv. 16); its 
 inhabitants are bereft of light (xxii. 11); they are 
 plunged in an eternal sleep (xlvi. 19). 
 
 The reference to Gehenna in vii. 17, eVSt/c^^o-i? 
 
 ^ In xxi. 10 thoughts of the penal character of Sheol do seem to be 
 present, though not in harmony with the doctrinal system of the author. 
 
TO BIT 165 
 
 ao-e/3o£;9 irvp koX a-fcciXT}^, is undoubtedly corrupt ; for chap. v. 
 belief in an abode of penal character is contrary to 
 the whole outlook of the writer as to the future : 
 moreover, it is without the support of the Hebrew, 
 of the Syriac Version and the best MSS. of the 
 Ethiopic Version. 
 
 As regards the future of the nation, the writer 
 looks forward to the Messianic kingdom (xxxvi. 
 1-17), of which Elijah is to be the forerunner 
 (xlviii. 10), when Israel will be delivered from evil 
 (1. 23, 24), the scattered tribes restored (xxxvi. 11 ; 
 Greek, xxxiii. 13), the heathen nations duly 
 punished (xxxvi. 18, 19 ; Greek, xxxii. 22-24). 
 This kingdom of Israel will last for ever (xxxvii. 
 25, xliv. 13).^ 
 
 Tobit. — The eschatology of this book is very slight. Tobit. 
 It entertains, like the Old Testament, high hopes for 
 the nation. Thus Jerusalem and the temple will be 
 rebuilt with gold and precious stones, the scattered 
 tribes restored, and the heathen, forsaking their 
 idols, will worship the God of Israel (xiii, 10-18, 
 xiv. 4-6). This author takes Sheol in its Old 
 Testament sense. Thus it is called the eternal 
 place (o alcovio^ T67ro<i) in iii. 6. Here Hades (cf. iii. 
 10, xiii. 2) is a region where existence is practically 
 at an end, as in Job and Ecclesiasticus, for Sarah, 
 the daughter of Raguel, prays in iii. 6 : ** Command 
 my spirit to be taken from me, that I . . . may 
 
 ^ This last statement is questionable, as it has the support of the Greek 
 Version only ; for xxxvii. 25 is not found in the Syriac, and in xliv. 13, while 
 the Greek gives "their seed { = Dy"ii) shall remain for ever," the Heb. and 
 Syr. " their remembrance ( = d"I31) shall remain for ever." 
 
1 66 THE CHASIDS, THE CHAMPIONS 
 
 CHAP. V. become earth . . . and go to the everlasting place." 
 This deathlike character of Sheol is due to the 
 current theory of the soul and spirit derived from 
 Gen. ii., iii. 
 A developed When we pass from the Old Testament to 
 
 oiTxestament apocalyptic literature at the beginning of the second 
 [^f;,^f/^[°f^ century B.C., we find that what had been tenta- 
 chasids. tive and exceptional on the part of two or more 
 
 Old Testament writers has now become normal and 
 settled in the creed of a small body of zealous 
 Jews known as Chasids or Asidaeans. Since these 
 came forward as the representatives and champions 
 of the higher theology in Israel, we must turn aside 
 Their history, for a few minutcs to notice their history. For 
 many years it was one of patient martyrdom. The 
 first reference to these as forming a religious 
 organisation is found in Eth. En. xc. 6, and the 
 date of its initiation appears to be about 200 B.C. 
 In this passage they are described in the following 
 allegorical terms : '* But behold lambs were borne 
 by those white sheep, and they began to open their 
 eyes, and to see and to cry to the sheep." '* The 
 white sheep" here are the faithful adherents of the 
 Theocracy, the lambs are the Chasids. The lambs 
 are distinguished from the white sheep, because the 
 movement initiated by the Chasids marked a new 
 and severer rule of life and worship than had 
 hitherto been observed. The next reference to 
 them is to be found in i Mace. ii. 29-38, where we 
 are told of a large body of men who, with their 
 wives and children, forsook all that they had, and 
 
OF THE HIGHER THEOLOGY 167 
 
 took refuge in the caves in the wilderness, in order 
 to worship without let or hindrance. When the 
 officers of Antiochus were informed of this exodus, 
 they went in pursuit, and put 1000 Chasids to the 
 sword (Joseph. Ant, xii. 6, 2) on their refusal to 
 return and comply with the edicts of Antiochus. 
 The victims offered no resistance, for it was the 
 Sabbath. But many escaped and gave their sup- 
 port to Mattathias in the great Maccabean struggle 
 on behalf of the Law of God, but only after much 
 indecision (i Mace. vii. 13 sqq.)] because the Mac- 
 cabean movement put them in strife with the high 
 priest of the time, the legitimate and religious 
 head of the nation. So long, however, as the 
 Maccabean family fought simply for the restoration 
 of the Theocracy, they carried with them the support 
 of the Chasids ; but the moment that Jonathan laid 
 hands on the high priesthood, from that moment 
 began the alienation of the Chasids, and their with- 
 drawal from the arena of public life. For almost 
 half a century they are unknown to history ; when 
 they once more reappear in history, they are known 
 as the Pharisees, and from henceforth they mould 
 for good or ill the destinies of the nation. How- 
 ever corrupt this movement became in later times, 
 it was incomparably noble in its early days. It 
 incorporated within it all the enthusiasm and 
 religious faith of the nation, and, though spiritual 
 children of the Scribes, they drew within their 
 membership the most zealous of the priestly as well 
 as the non-priestly families. Though first appearing 
 
i68 
 
 UNFULFILLED PROPHECY 
 
 Their tasks 
 and achieve- 
 ments. 
 
 Apocalyptic 
 springs from 
 prophecy, but 
 is differentiated 
 from it in cer- 
 tain respects. 
 
 Apocalyptic 
 springs from 
 the reinter- 
 pretation of 
 unfulfilled 
 prophecy. 
 
 as the champions of the Law against the Hellenising 
 Sadducees, they were still more the representatives 
 of advanced forms of doctrine on the Messianic 
 kingdom and the resurrection. To this compara- 
 tively small body of men was entrusted for some 
 decades the defence, confirmation, and development 
 of the religious truths that were to save the world. 
 How nobly and with what prodigal self-sacrifice 
 they proved themselves worthy guardians of this 
 sacred trust is told for all time in the Enoch and 
 Maccabean literature, and set forth in pregnant 
 strength and simplicity in the New Testament 
 book of the Hebrews (xi. 35-39), which describes 
 them as those '' of whom the world was not worthy." 
 Through their agency the spiritual aspirations of the 
 Old Testament few became in the course of a century 
 the unshakeable convictions of Palestinean Judaism. 
 
 Before we enter into the study of apocalyptic 
 literature, it will be well to touch briefly upon its 
 origin^ from prophecy, and likewise on its essential 
 differentiation from the latter. On the appearance 
 of apocalyptic features in the Old Testament, w^e 
 have from time to time remarked in the last 
 chapters.^ We shall now give a short but compre- 
 hensive account of Apocalyptic. 
 
 The origin of Apocalyptic is to be sought in 
 prophecy, or rather, indeed, in unfulfilled prophecy. 
 For that certain prophecies had not been fulfilled 
 was clearly a matter of religious difficulty as early 
 
 1 On this question see Wellhausen, Skizzen und Vorarbeiten^ viii. 225-231. 
 2 See pp. 102, 106, 116, 117, 120-122, 160, 161, 7iotes. 
 
A SOURCE OF APOCALYPTIC 169 
 
 as the Exile. Thus Ezekiel takes up one such chap. v. 
 prophecy and reinterprets it in such a way as to First re- 
 
 1 1 ' r ■\r^ • -ir 'T-'i interpretation 
 
 show that Its lulnlment is yet in the luture. Ine due to Ezekiei. 
 prophets Jeremiah (iii.-vi.) and Zephaniah had fore- 
 told the invasion of Judah by a mighty people from 
 the North. But this northern foe had failed to 
 appear. And yet appear he must ; for was not in- 
 spired prophecy pledged thereto ?^ Hence Ezekiel 
 re-edits this prophecy in a new form, and adjourns 
 its fulfilment. Thus, according to Ezek. xxxviii. 8, 
 16, a mighty host (i.e. Gog) in the future will attack 
 Jerusalem from the North (see above, p. 106). 
 This host, Ezekiel declares, is the foe foretold by the 
 prophets : " Thou art he of whom I spake by my 
 servants the prophets of Israel, which prophesied 
 in those days for many years that I would bring 
 thee against them" (xxxviii. 17^). 
 
 It was probably the re-editing of these unfulfilled 
 prophecies that led Ezekiel to divide the final 
 judgment into two great catastrophic events — the 
 glorification of the united Israel in Jerusalem 
 
 ^ The source of a prophecy, whether from Yahwe or not, was, according 
 to Deut. xviii. 21, 22, to be shown by what followed. If the prophecy was 
 fulfilled, then it was from Yahwe, but otherwise not. That this cannot, how- 
 ever, be regarded as a true canon follows from the fact that many prophecies of 
 the greatest prophets remained unfulfilled. This canon, moreover, is to some 
 extent questioned in Deut. xiii. 1-4, where it is said that false prophets, who 
 would lead Israel to worship other gods, will foretell signs and wonders, and 
 that though these come to pass the false prophets are not to be hearkened to. 
 Thus the fulfilment of prophecy did not in itself prove that the prophet was 
 from Yahwe. Yet another canon is given by Jer. xxviii. 8, 9: "The 
 prophets which have been before me and before thee of old prophesied against 
 many countries, and against great kingdoms, (only) of war and of evil and of 
 pestilence. (But) the prophet which prophesieth of peace, when the word 
 of the prophet shall come to pass, then shall the prophet be known that 
 Yahw^ hath truly sent him." 
 
 "^ So LXX and Vulgate, which omit the interrogative in this verse. 
 
I70 
 
 UNFULFILLED PROPHECY 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 Other 
 apocalyptic 
 features in 
 Ezekiel. 
 
 Non-fulfilment 
 of prophecies 
 of the date of 
 the Messianic 
 kingdom the 
 main source 
 of Apocalyptic, 
 
 (xxxvii. 23-28) and the subsequent destruction of 
 the heathen powers (xxxviii., xxxix.) 
 
 Other traces of the apocalyptic type of thought 
 discover themselves in Ezekiel. Thus the word of 
 God has become identical with a written book (ii. 8- 
 iii. 4), by the eating of which he learns the will of 
 God — an idea that is to be compared with the tree 
 in Paradise, the eating of which imparted spiritual 
 knowledge. Moreover, when the divine word is 
 thus conceived as a written message, the sole office 
 of the prophet is that of merely communicating what 
 is written. Thus the human element is reduced 
 almost to zero, and the conception of prophecy 
 becomes mechanical. Man stands over against God 
 as the involuntary instrument of the Absolute. And 
 as the personal element disappears in the conception 
 of the prophetic calling, so it tends to disappear in 
 the prophetic view of history, and the future comes 
 to be conceived, not as the organic result of the 
 present under the divine guidance, but as mechanic- 
 ally determined from the beginning in the counsels 
 of God, and as arranged under certain artificial 
 categories of time. 
 
 It is therefore not without reason that Duhm^ 
 has called Ezekiel the spiritual founder of Apoca- 
 lyptic. 
 
 The non-fulfilment of prophecies relating to this 
 or that individual event or people served, no doubt, 
 to popularise the methods of Apocalyptic, but only 
 in a very slight degree in comparison with the non- 
 
 1 Theologie der Propheten^ p. 210. 
 
A SOURCE OF APOCALYPTIC 171 
 
 fulfilment of the greatest of all prophecies — the chap. v. 
 advent of the Messianic kingdom. Thus, though Advent of 
 Jeremiah had promised that after seventy years sevfnty^J^e^ars^ 
 (xxv. II, xxix. 10) Israel should be restored to j^^^^'l^^tf;*^ 
 their own land (xxiv. K, 6), and there enjoy ^^^r forty 
 
 V ^' /' -J J years, accord- 
 
 the blessings of the Messianic kingdom under the mgtoEzekiei. 
 Messianic King (xxiii. 5, 6), this period had passed 
 by, and things remained as of old. A similar ex- 
 pectation was cherished by Ezekiel, but this no 
 more than that of Jeremiah was destined to be 
 fulfilled.-^ Next, Haggai and Zechariah promised After rebuiid- 
 that, when the temple was rebuilt, the Davidic king- according to ' 
 dom should be established and the glories of the zecll^iah" 
 Messianic time. The temple was presently rebuilt, 
 but the kingdom failed to appear. Through century 
 after century the hope for the advent of the kingdom 
 still persisted, and was possibly sustained with fresh 
 reinterpretations of ancient prophecy. 
 
 At any rate, in the first half of the second According to 
 
 1 "II' • two writers 
 
 century B.C. we nave two notable reinterpretations {circaie^- 
 of the old prophecy of Jeremiah. In both of these kfngd"°^ 
 works the problem is solved by adjourning the hour '^eJ^rl'' or^ar 
 of fulfilment. In the first — the Book of Daniel, circa ^^^5 ^ genera- 
 168 B.C. — the writer (ix. 25-27) interprets the 70 years 
 of Jeremiah as 70 weeks of years = 490 years. 
 Since 69^ of these had already expired, there 
 were only 3I years to run before the destruction of 
 the Greek power and the consummation of the 
 
 1 According to Ezek. iv. 6, the captivity was to last forty years. Thus 
 the present generation was to atone for its own guilt. But since the children 
 were not to suffer for the parents, the next generation was to witness their 
 restoration to Palestine. Ezekiel hoped to survive it (xxix. 21). 
 
 tion. 
 
172 UNFULFILLED PROPHECY 
 
 CHAP. V. Theocracy. In the second, and almost contempora- 
 neous work — Eth. En. Ixxxiii.-xc, circa 166-161 B.C. 
 — a somewhat analogous solution of the problem is 
 given. The writer takes the 70 years of Jeremiah 
 to denote the 70 successive reigns of the 70 angelic 
 patrons to whom God had committed the care and 
 administration of the world. Since the sway of 
 these angelic rulers was to terminate within the 
 present generation, the Messianic kingdom was, 
 therefore, at hand. 
 
 Both the above periods came and passed by, 
 and again the expectations of the Jews were 
 doomed to disappointment. The Greek empire in 
 the East was indeed overthrown, and an inde- 
 pendent kingdom of Judah set up under the Macca- 
 bean dynasty. But this latter speedily showed 
 itself to be in many respects the antithesis of the 
 promised kingdom of God. Thenceforward the 
 Messianic hopes undergo an absolute transforma- 
 AfteriooB.c. tion. They are still cherished, indeed, but their 
 
 only a temper- i • • i 7 i 1 
 
 ary Messianic oDject IS no longer an eternal but only a temporary 
 pected.'buuhat theocracy established on the present earth. The 
 immediately, golutions of Daniel and Enoch (Ixxxix., xc.) have 
 been perforce abandoned for the time, but the 
 number seventy still possesses a strong fascination 
 for the Jewish writer of Apocalyptic. Thus in 
 Eth. En. xci. -civ. (circa 105-95 B.C.) the whole 
 history of the world is divided into ten weeks, each 
 apparently of seven generations. The Messianic 
 kingdom is to be established at the beginning of 
 the eighth week, and to terminate with the seventh 
 
A SOURCE OF APOCALYPTIC 173 
 
 day of the tenth. The writer is Hving at the chap. v. 
 close of the seventh week (Eth. En. xciii. 10). 
 Hence the kingdom is close at hand. But this 
 hope no more than its predecessors met with 
 fulfilment. 
 
 We shall now pass over a period of a century Book of Daniel 
 and a half During this interval the Book of Daniel prestige^, and 
 has more than recovered the loss its prestige had onhe°fourth 
 sustained in the second century through its un- l^in&dom now 
 
 •' ^ ^ interpreted of 
 
 fulfilled prophecies of the kingdom. During the Ronieinthe 
 same interval, however, a new and more ruthless ofBaruchand 
 power had taken the place of the Greek empire in "^ 
 the East. This new phenomenon called, therefore, 
 for a fresh reinterpretation of Daniel. The fourth 
 and last empire, which, according to Dan. vii. 
 19-25, was to be Greek, was now declared to be 
 Roman by the writer of the Apocalypse of Baruch 
 xxxvi.-xl. [circa 50-70 a.d.), and likewise by the 
 author of 4 Ezra x. 60-xii. 35 (circa 90 a.d.) In 
 the latter work the writer implies that the vision in 
 Dan. vii. 7, 8 was misinterpreted by the angel in 
 vii. 23-25.^ 
 
 We have now shown sufficiently that unfulfilled 
 prophecy has been a perennial source of Apocalyptic. 
 We shall now point out in what respects Apocalyptic Apocalyptic 
 
 -, . . • 1 1 r T\ 1 distinguished 
 
 is distmguisned from rrophecy. from Prophecy 
 
 (i) Prophecy still believes that this world is God's fe^ence^or^' 
 world, and that in this world His goodness and truth Ihe^^em'^o 
 
 the future, 
 1 Thus m reference to the fourth kingdom, symbolised by the eagle m this fj-Qj^ ^^^ 
 
 book (see xi. i sqq.\ God says to Ezra : " Aquilam quam vidisti ascendentem mundane to 
 
 de mari, hoc est regnum quartum quod visum est in visu Danieli fratri tuo. the super- 
 
 Sed non est illi interpretatum quomodo ego nunc tibi interpreter" (xii. 11, 12). mundane, 
 
1 74 AFOCAL YFTIC AS DISTING UISHED 
 
 CHAP. V. will yet be justified. Hence the prophet addresses 
 himself chiefly to the present and its concerns, 
 and, when he addresses himself to the future, his 
 prophecy springs naturally from the present, and 
 the future which he depicts is regarded as in organic 
 connection with it. The apocalyptic writer, on the 
 other handy almost wholly despairs of the present ; 
 his main interests are superm^undane. He cherishes 
 no hope of arousing his contemporaries to faith and 
 duty by direct and personal appeals ; for though 
 God spoke in the past, "there is no more any 
 prophet/' This pessimism and want of faith in the 
 present, alike 'in the leaders and the led, limited 
 and defined the form in which the religious ardour 
 of the former should manifest itself. They pre- 
 scribed, in fact, as a necessity of the age, and 
 as a condition of successful effort, the adoption of 
 and by the pseudonymous authorship. And thus it is that the 
 pSdo°nymous apocalyptic writer approaches his countrymen with 
 authorship. ^ work which claims to be the production of some 
 great figure in the past, such as Enoch, Moses, 
 Isaiah, Daniel, or Baruch. 
 Also by its (2) Another feature of Apocalyptic, as dis- 
 
 and™'""'^"^ tinguished from Prophecy, was imposed upon it by 
 mechanical ^^ necessitics of the time, i.e, its indefinitely wider 
 
 conception of ^ j ^ 
 
 history. view of the world's history. Thus, whereas ancient 
 
 Prophecy had to deal with temporary reverses at 
 the hands of some heathen power, Apocalyptic arose 
 at a time when Israel had been subject for centuries 
 to the sway of one or other of the great world- 
 powers. Hence in order to harmonise such diffi- 
 
FROM PROPHECY i75 
 
 culties with God's righteousness, it had to take chap. v. 
 account of the role of such empires in the counsels 
 of God ; to recount the sway and downfall of each 
 in turn till, finally, the lordship of the world passed 
 into the hands of Israel, or the final judgment 
 arrived. The chief part of these events belonged, 
 it is true, to the past ; but the apocalyptic writer 
 represented them as still in the future, arranged 
 under certain artificial categories of time, and as 
 definitely determined from the beginning in the 
 counsels of God, and revealed by Him to His 
 servants the prophets. Determinism thus became 
 a leading characteristic of Jewish Apocalyptic ; and 
 accordingly its conception of history^ as distinguished 
 from that of Prophecy^ was mechanical rather than 
 organic} 
 
 Having now dealt with the origin of Apocalyptic 
 and its differentiation from Prophecy, we shall now 
 address ourselves to a detailed consideration of 
 the literature of the former throughout the three 
 centuries from 200 B.C. to 100 a.d. The literature 
 of each century can be considered best by itself. 
 It will thus fall into three divisions. Each 
 division will be treated under four heads. I. The 
 authorities. 1 1 . General eschatological develop- 
 ment of the century. III. Eschatological systems 
 of the various writers of the century. IV. Develop- 
 ment of special conceptions. 
 
 ^ These two paragraphs are repeated from my article on Apocalyptic in 
 Hastings' Bible Dictionary, i. 109, no. 
 
176 SIBYLLINE ORACLES 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 I. Authorities for 200-100 B.C. 
 
 Ethiopic Enoch i.-xxxvi. 
 
 Daniel. 
 
 Ethiopic Enoch Ixxxiii.-xc, 
 
 Sibylline Oracles — Prooemium and iii. 97-818. 
 
 Test. xii. Patriarchs — Some of its apocalyptic sections. 
 
 We have given the above authorities in their 
 chronological order, and in the following discussion 
 this order will be observed save in the case of the 
 third book of the Sibylline Oracles {i.e. iii. 97-818). 
 Since this shallow rechauffd oi Old Testament ideas 
 makes no single contribution to the eschatological 
 expectations of the time, and confines its forecasts 
 to the final destinies of Israel as a nation and of the 
 Gentiles, we will at once reproduce its main teaching 
 in these respects. Belonging, moreover, to Hellen- 
 istic Judaism, and observing an esoteric (?) reticence 
 as to the higher doctrines of a future life, its evidence 
 is only of very secondary importance in this study of 
 Palestinean eschatology, and really lies outside the 
 stream of religious development that drew within 
 it all the noblest elements in Palestinean Judaism. 
 Eschatology of I ts eschatological forecasts are, as we have 
 oracieriii. <^7- already observed, confined to this world. 
 tl1he°nat"on. Though SO limited, it gives, nevertheless, a vivid 
 Ultimate account of the Messianic kingdom. Very soon the 
 fsTa^and'the peoplc of the Mighty God will grow strong (iii. 194, 
 195), and God will send the Messiah from the East, 
 who will put an end to evil war, slaying some, and 
 
 Gentiles. 
 
ESCHATOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT i77 
 
 fulfilling the promises in behalf of others, and He will chap. v. 
 be guided in all things by God. And the temple 
 will be resplendent with glory, and the earth teem 
 with fruitfulness (iii. 652-660). Then the nations 
 will muster their forces and attack Palestine (iii. 
 660-668), but God will destroy them, and their 
 judgment will be accompanied by fearful portents 
 (iii. 669-697). But Israel will dwell safely under 
 the divine protection (iii. 702-709), and the rest of 
 the cities and the islands will be converted, and 
 unite with Israel in praising God (iii. 710-731). 
 The blessings of the Messianic age are recounted 
 (iii. 744-754; cf. also iii. 367-380, 619-623). And 
 the kings of the earth will be at peace with one 
 another (iii. 755-759). In the later section of this 
 book the forecast is somewhat different. Though in 
 the earlier part, as we have seen above, it was the 
 Messiah that conducted the war against the hostile 
 nations, in this it is the prophets of God. Thus 
 God will establish a universal kingdom over all man- 
 kind, with Jerusalem as centre (iii. 767-771), and 
 the prophets of God will lay down the sword and 
 become judges and kings of the earth (iii. 781, 782), 
 and men will bring offerings to the temple from all 
 parts of the earth (iii. 772, 773). 
 
 II. Gejteral Eschatological Development in the Eschatoiogicai 
 Second Century b,c. devdopmTm 
 
 of the second 
 
 In the apocalyptic literature of the second '"'"'^ ^•''• 
 century we enter into a region of definite ideas 
 
178 
 
 GENERAL ESCHATOLOGICAL 
 
 The righteous 
 dead rise to 
 share in the 
 eternal 
 Messianic 
 kingdom on 
 earth. 
 
 Old Testament 
 synthesis 
 of the two 
 hopes prevails 
 throughout 
 this century. 
 
 as to the destinies of the individual and the 
 nation. 
 
 Despairing of the present, the writers of this 
 century have fixed their entire hopes on the future. 
 This future is sketched in firm, unwavering lines. 
 In order to encourage the faithful under the un- 
 sparing persecutions of Antiochus, religious thinkers 
 of the period consolidated and developed into more 
 or less consistent theodicies the various eschatologi- 
 cal systems of the Old Testament. In these theo- 
 dicies there is no vagueness or doubt as to the 
 ultimate destinies of the righteous and the wicked. 
 The doctrine of retribution in the next life is held all 
 the more firmly in proportion to the uncertainty of 
 its sway in the present. These writers are con- 
 vinced that the essential distinctions already existing 
 between these classes must one day be outwardly 
 realised. Hence, all with one accord proclaim, in 
 the most emphatic tones, the certainty of judgment 
 on the advent of the Messianic kingdom, while some 
 further teach that on death men enter immediately 
 on a state of bliss or woe in Sheol, which is but the 
 prelude to their final destiny. The righteous, both 
 quick and dead,^ will be recompensed to the full in 
 the eternal Messianic kingdom, and the blessed 
 future of the righteous individual and of the 
 righteous nation will be realised and consummated 
 together. Thus the synthesis between the eschato- 
 logies of the nation and the individual, that was 
 estabhshed on Old Testament soil, is still maintained 
 
 ^ This is true only of the martyred righteous in Daniel. 
 
DEVELOPMENT— 200-100 B.C. 179 
 
 throughout this century. There are not wanting, chap. v. 
 however, signs of its approaching resolution into its 
 original factors, in order that these may again pursue 
 their separate lines of development, and, on attaining 
 their full-grown stature, may once more coalesce in 
 the final and complete synthesis which they receive 
 in the New Testament. 
 
 The sign of this impending detachment of the sign of the 
 hopes of the individual from those of the nation is resoiutk.n"o^ 
 to be seen in the fact that the writer of Enoch ^^^^^y""'^®^^' 
 Ixxxiii.-xc. has become conscious that the earth, 
 however purged and purified, is no fitting theatre 
 for an eternal Messianic kingdom. If the Messianic 
 kingdom is to be of eternal duration, and God is to 
 be present with men. His habitation and that of the 
 blessed must be built, not of things earthly and cor- 
 ruptible, but of things heavenly and incorruptible. 
 Hence the writer represents the erection of the 
 heavenly Jerusalem in the place of the earthly as 
 the centre of the kingdom. 
 
 This device is clearly of the nature of a compro- owing to the 
 mise, and springs from the dualism that was making dualism of the 
 itself increasingly felt in Judaism. In the following ^"^^^' 
 century we shall find that it had established itself so 
 firmly in Jewish thought that an eternal Messianic 
 kingdom on the present earth became inconceivable. 
 
 We must not fail to notice here a development of 
 this century to which we have already called atten- 
 tion. This is the extension of the prerogative of 
 resurrection from the righteous to the wicked. That 
 this marks a declension in religious thought we have 
 
i8o DANIEL 
 
 already pointed out. The currency, however, of 
 this lower view was far from general. The older 
 and higher conception is retained in Eth. En. 
 Ixxxiii.-xc, which presents the fullest picture of the 
 last things in the literature of the second century. 
 
 III. Eschatological Systems of the various Writers 
 of the Second Century b, c. 
 
 The Book of Daniel (i68 b.c.) 
 
 We have already discussed the Book of Daniel 
 
 in certain aspects amongst the Old Testament books. 
 
 But since it belongs in character specially to this 
 
 literature ; since, further, it forms an indispensable 
 
 link in eschatological development, it finds here its 
 
 natural place. 
 
 Book of Daniel Although this book is the forerunner and herald 
 
 Smedwith of most subsequcnt apocalyptic developments, its 
 
 Imph-^Lt ^^^ outlook is in the main confined to this world. 
 
 Israel— the j^g hopcs are directed, not to the after-world, with its 
 
 Messianic *- 
 
 kingdom— and retHbutions for the individual, but to the setting up 
 with the future of a world-cmpire of Israel which is to displace the 
 individual. heathen, to an eternal Messianic kingdom on earth. 
 Accordingly, it extends neither promise nor threat- 
 ening to the individual as such, but only to those 
 individuals who have in an extraordinary degree 
 helped or hindered the advent of this kingdom. 
 To the former, the martyrs, the great saints and 
 teachers (xii. 2, 3), it holds forth the blessedness of a 
 resurrection to life; to the latter, the Jewish apostates, 
 
DANIEL i8i 
 
 it proclaims a resurrection to shame and everlasting chap. v. 
 contempt.^ As for the great majority of the nation, 
 who are of average character, and are neither over- 
 much righteous nor overmuch wicked, their lot is of 
 no concern to the kingdom, and Sheol remains their 
 eternal abode. Thus the claims of the individual 
 are only very partially recognised in the eschato- 
 logical system of Daniel. 
 
 This world-empire of Israel is to be of eternal 
 duration, and all the nations are to be subject to it 
 (vii. 14). We are probably right in assuming that 
 all the surviving nations will be converted. There 
 is no Messiah. 
 
 Sheol, which is called '' the land of dust " ^ (xii. 2), sheoi here 
 
 /-MIT- 1 used in its 
 
 retams its Old iestament sense as a non-moral non-morai 
 
 sense. 
 
 region. This is not incomprehensible in a writer 
 whose paramount interest is in the nation and not in 
 the individual, in this world and not in the next. If 
 he had ever experienced a profound concern in the 
 problem of individual retribution, he could no longer 
 have tolerated such a heathen conception. Sheol 
 thus possesses a peculiar character in our author. It very peculiarly 
 is the intermediate abode of the very good and the this book. 
 very bad in Israel, and the eternal 'sikiodi^ of the rest 
 of Israel and of all the Gentiles. It is not improb- 
 able, likewise, that after the special class of righteous 
 Israel have enjoyed "an aeonian life"^ inthekingdom, 
 
 ^ This is probably to be taken as describing Gehenna. 
 
 2 13V np-iN. For Sheol so described compare Job vii. 21, xvii. 16, and 
 the Babylonian view. 
 
 3 oViy 'm. That this is not an eternal life follows from the general pre- 
 suppositions of the writer. The above Hebrew phrase = ),ja^^ .j.",^ 
 
1^2 
 
 ETHIOPIC ENOCH L-XXXVL 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 Angelic 
 patrons of the 
 nations. 
 
 they will descend finally and for ever to Sheol. 
 Thus ultimately Sheol becomes sooner or later the 
 eternal abode of all mankind, save the small class of 
 Jewish apostates who are condemned to Gehenna. 
 In this book the writer uses the belief in the angelic 
 patrons of the nations to explain the national reverses, 
 and likewise the delay in the establishment of the 
 Messianic kingdom. Thus Persia has its angelic 
 guardian (x. 13, 20), likewise Greece (x. 20), and 
 Israel (x. 21, xii. i), ix. Michael.-^ We shall find 
 another application of this idea in the almost con- 
 temporaneous work Eth. En. Ixxxiii.-xc, which we 
 shall now deal with. 
 
 Ethiopic Enoch i.-xxxvi. (probably before 
 
 170 B.C.) 
 
 Ethiopic This fragmentary work represents the earliest 
 
 an early '^^^^'' and iu some respects the most primitive theodicy of 
 theodicy. ^^ secoud ceutury. The problem of its author is 
 
 ^wy\ alionos. The indefinite meaning of this phrase is seen in the contem- 
 porary work Eth. En. i.-xxxvi. Thus in x. lo it is said that the fw^ 
 'a^aJ^ios=5oo years, and els ro^s alQvas in x. 5 = a period of 70 generations. 
 In the next century the phrase els aluvas diravras {Sibyl. Or, iii. 50) denotes 
 merely a very long time. This same use is attested also in Apoc. Bar. xl. 3, 
 Ixxiii, I, where the Syriac = e/y rhv a^tDi'a= " for the age." See below, p. 226. 
 The phrase in Daniel might possibly be taken to mean everlasting life if we 
 could accept the view advocated by Berthold, Daniel neu ilberseizt und erkldrt 
 (1806), and later by Lagarde, and by Barton, Composition of the Book of Daniel, 
 1898, which regards Dan. x.-xii. as an independent writing. 
 
 ^ In the Targ. Jer. i. on Gen. xi. 7, 8 the seventy angels of God are 
 apparently appointed to preside over the seventy nations which originated 
 through the confusion of tongues. So also Deut, xxxii. 8 (lxx). These 
 guardian angels are referred to in Ecclus. xvii. 17, but are limited to the 
 Gentiles — Israel has God as its portion. But according to the prevailing 
 tradition Michael represents Israel. 
 
ETHIOPIC ENOCH L-XXXVL 183 
 
 to justify the ways of God to man. Unlike the chap. v. 
 author of Daniel, this writer is more concerned with 
 the problem of individual retribution than with the 
 future of the nation. The righteous will not always 
 suffer, and the wicked will not always prosper (i. i). 
 The limits to such evil experience are set by death 
 (xxii.) and by great world-judgments. But in order 
 to apprehend the remedy of the world's ills, we must 
 apprehend their cause, and their cause, according to 
 our author, is to be discovered^ not in the primal fall 
 of Adam, but in the lust of the fallen angels for 
 the daughters of men referred to in Gen. vi. 1-4. 
 Original sin, therefore, stands not in the following of 
 Adam, whose transgression seems limited in its effects 
 to himself, but in the evil engendered through the 
 fallen watchers or angels (ix. 6, 9, 10; x. 8). But 
 sin of necessity entails its due retribution, and this 
 retribution has already in part befallen the sinful 
 angels, their children, and antediluvian man in the 
 first world-judgment (x. 4-10, xii. 1-3.) By this 
 first act of judgment the fallen angels are confined 
 in caverns under the mountains as an intermediate 
 abode of punishment (x. 4, 5, 12), and the souls of 
 men are committed to Sheol (xxii.) To an account 
 of this place we will return presently. It is well to 
 observe the definiteness with which the intermediate 
 abodes of angelic and human beings are here con- 
 ceived. But though only a few righteous survived 
 the Deluge, sin afresh asserted itself in the world 
 through the agency of the demons. These demons, 
 according to our author, were the spirits that had 
 
i84 
 
 ETHIOPIC ENOCH L-XXXVL 
 
 CHAP. \\ 
 
 Certain Old 
 Testament 
 views of Sheol 
 prepare the 
 way for the 
 teaching of 
 chap, xxii. 
 
 Description of 
 Sheol. Four- 
 fold division. 
 
 gone forth from the slaughtered children of the 
 fallen angels and the daughters of men. For some 
 reason unexplained, these invisible agents of evil 
 were allowed to pursue their wicked activities 
 through all the interval elapsing between the Deluge 
 and the Final World-judgment (xvi. i), a belief that 
 was still current in New Testament times.-^ But with 
 regard to the generations of men subsequent to the 
 Flood, the due recompense of their conduct is not 
 postponed till the last judgment. Immediately after 
 death they enter on a foretaste of their final doom in 
 Sheol (xxii.) We must now treat somewhat fully 
 this important conception. 
 
 We have shown in the preceding chapters that the 
 conception of Sheol as an intermediate abode under- 
 lies at least certain passages of the Old Testament (see 
 pp. 155, 156, i8i),though in otherrespects it preserves 
 in these passages its traditional non-moral character. 
 In two of the Psalms it assumes the character of a 
 place of retribution ; but since some doubt possibly 
 attaches to this view, there is all the more reason 
 here for dwelling on the ancient and very full de- 
 scription of Sheol given by our author in chap, xxii., 
 written probably before 170 B.C. This chapter^ I 
 will give in the words of the author, who represents 
 himself, like Dante, as visiting this region under the 
 guidance of an angel. 
 
 xxii. I. '*And thence I went to another place, 
 
 1 See Matt. viii. 29. 
 
 2 The translation given in the text is a revised form of that which is given 
 in my Book of Enochs pp. 93-97- It incorporates the emendations made on 
 pp. 359-362 on the basis of the Gizeh Greek Fragment of Enoch. 
 
ETHIOPIC ENOCH L~XXXVL 1 8 s 
 
 and (Uriel) showed me in the west^ a great and high chap. v. 
 mountain and hard rocks. 2. And there were in this 
 (mountain) four hollow places, deep, wide, and very 
 smooth. Three of them were gloomy and one bright, 
 and there was a spring of water in its midst. And I 
 said: How smooth are these hollow places, and 
 deep and black to look at. 3. And this time Rufael 
 answered me, one of the holy angels who was with me, 
 and spake to me : These hollow places, whereon the 
 spirits of the souls of the dead are assembled, have 
 been created to this very end, that all the souls of 
 the children of men should assemble here. 4. These 
 places are appointed as their habitation till the day 
 of their judgment and till their appointed period, 
 and the appointed time in which the great judgment 
 comes upon them. 5. And I saw the spirits of the First division 
 children of men who were dead, and their voice righteous who 
 penetrated to the heaven and complained. 6. an^u^Tdis^rved 
 This time I asked the angel Rufael who was with '^^^^^• 
 me, and spake to him : Whose spirit is that one 
 yonder whose voice thus penetrates (to heaven) and 
 complains ? 7. And he answered me, and spake 
 thus to me, saying : This is the spirit which went 
 forth from Abel, whom his brother Cain slew, and 
 he keeps complaining of him till his seed is destroyed 
 from the face of the earth, and his seed disappears 
 ' from amongst the seed of men. 8. And therefore 
 at that time I asked regarding it, and regarding all 
 the hollow places, Why is one separated from the 
 
 ^ The geographical position assigned to Sheol here agrees with Baby- 
 lonian (?), Greek, and Egyptian ideas, but not with the ancient Hebrew. It 
 is most probably Greek views that have influenced the text. 
 
i86 
 
 ETHIOPIC ENOCH L-XXXVL 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 Second 
 division for 
 the other 
 righteous. 
 
 Third for 
 sinners who 
 have died with- 
 out suffering 
 due retribu- 
 
 Fourth for 
 sinners who 
 have met with 
 retribution in 
 life. These 
 will remain 
 here for ever. 
 
 Other? 9. And he answered me, and spake to me : 
 These three divisions are made to separate the 
 spirits of the dead. And thus a division is made for 
 the spirits of the righteous, in which there is a bright 
 spring of water. 10. Such a (division) Hkewise has 
 been made for sinners when they die and are buried 
 in the earth without incurring judgment in their 
 Hfetime. 11. Here their spirits are placed apart in 
 this great pain, till the great day of judgment and 
 punishment and torment of the accursed for ever, 
 and vengeance for their spirits, there will they be 
 bound for ever. 12. And such a division has been 
 made for the spirits of those who complain and make 
 known their destruction when they were slain in the 
 days of the sinners. 13. Thus it has been made for 
 the spirits of men who were not righteous but 
 sinners, complete in their crimes : they will be with 
 criminals like themselves, but their spirits will not 
 be slain on the day of judgment, nor will they be 
 raised from thence."^ 
 
 This elaborate description of Sheol with its four 
 divisions, two for the spirits of the righteous and 
 two for those of the wicked, cannot have leapt into 
 life full grown, as it appears here, but must have 
 passed through several stages of development. 
 This fact in itself serves to confirm the view urged 
 in previous chapters, that different conceptions of 
 Sheol springing from the higher theology had 
 already shown themselves in the Old Testament. 
 
 ^ Since the wicked in this division are confined here for ever, Sheol has in 
 this instance become synonymous with Hell. 
 
ETHIOPIC ENOCH L-XXXVI. 187 
 
 From this view of Sheol the chief heathen chap. v. 
 features have disappeared. We have thus here a Great moral 
 
 -I 1 . r T-\ • 1 T ^ 1 advance in this 
 
 vast advance on the conception 01 JJaniel. Instead picture of 
 of being a region where existence was at its lowest ^^^°^' 
 possible ebb, and the presence of moral distinctions 
 was inconceivable, it has now become a place where 
 there is a vigorous conscious existence, where 
 ethical considerations are paramount, and the soul's 
 lot is determined on moral grounds, and on moral 
 grounds alone. 
 
 It is difficult to exaggerate the importance of 
 this revolution in Jewish thought on the nature of 
 the after-life. 
 
 But whilst we recognise the ethical importance its short- 
 of this forward movement, we must not conceal 
 its shortcomings. For its conception of Sheol is 
 only imperfectly ethical. The destiny of each soul 
 is regarded as accomplished at death, and its place 
 in Sheol is absolutely and irrevocably defined 
 according to its character on earth. Thus, however 
 prolonged its abode may be in Sheol, it is held to 
 be incapable of progress either upward or down- 
 ward, and its character is regarded as mechanically 
 fixed. Hence, at its best, Sheol thus conceived 
 is only a place of petrified moralities and suspended 
 graces. It aims at being moral but ends in being 
 mechanical, and thus constitutes an amalgam formed 
 of heterogeneous elements. 
 
 . To return, however, to the description of our 
 author, we should observe that of the four classes 
 of souls or spirits in Sheol, three are raised to 
 
ETHIOPIC ENOCH I.-XXXVL 
 
 CHAP, V. receive their final award, but the fourth, which con- 
 sheoi=heiifor sists of the wickcd who have already been punished 
 
 the wicked p,.. -i ii* -i 
 
 who have met lor their criHies in the upper world, is not raised 
 on ei'lh^'^'"' from Sheol, but remains there for ever. Of the 
 but only an three Other classes, one is composed of the wicked 
 
 intermediate ' ^ 
 
 abode for other vvho had cscapcd ounishment in this life, and after 
 
 Israelites. i . . 
 
 The wicked ^ preliminary course of "great pain" in Sheol, are 
 Tsca ^d'^ud raised at the great day of judgment in order to 
 ment in life rcceive the punishment and torment of the accursed 
 
 raised ^s , ^ ^_ 
 
 disembodied in Gehenna (xxvii. 2). Thus though the wicked are 
 
 punished for here said to rise, they do not share in the resurrection 
 
 Getenna. truly SO Called, they are simply transferred from 
 
 Sheol to everlasting punishment in Gehenna, where 
 
 '* their spirits are slain." ^ This phrase appears to 
 
 teach that the writer conceived the wicked to rise 
 
 as disembodied spirits at the resurrection.^ As for 
 
 The righteous the two remaining classes, composed of the righteous, 
 
 body to^enjoy thcse Hse with their bodies : they eat of the tree 
 
 and^mrtfriai ^f ^^^^ (xxv. 4-6), and thereby enjoy patriarchal lives 
 
 prosperity, ^y^ g^ XXV. 6), iu the Mcssiauic kingdom on a 
 
 purified earth (x. 7, 16, 20-22), with Jerusalem as 
 
 its centre (xxv. 5). All the Gentiles become righteous 
 
 and worship God (x. 21). In this Messianic kingdom, 
 
 in which there is, however, no Messiah, but the 
 
 immediate presence of God with men (xxv. 2), the 
 
 felicity of the blessed is of a very sensuous character. 
 
 The powers of nature are increased indefinitely. 
 
 1 The fourth class escapes this severest form of condemnation (Eth. En. 
 xxii. 13). 
 
 2 xxii. 10, II (cf. xxii. ,13). It is true that in xxvii. 3 the wicked in 
 Gehenna are visible to the risen righteous, but this does not necessarily imply 
 the possession of a body by the wicked. 
 
ETHIOPIC ENOCH LXXXIIL-XC. 1 89 
 
 Thus the righteous will beget 1000 children (x. 17) ; chap. v. 
 of all the seed that is sown each measure will bear 
 10,000 grains (x. 19); and each vine will have 10,000 
 branches, and each branch 10,000 twigs, and each 
 twig 10,000 clusters, and each cluster 10,000 grapes, 
 and each grape 25 measures of wine,^ The allow- 
 ance is liberal. We must not, however, neglect 
 the ethical side of this felicity. Thus '* light and yet of a 
 joy and peace and wisdom" will be bestowed upon character. 
 them, and ''they will all live and never again sin 
 either through heedlessness or through pride," and 
 *' their lives will grow old in peace, and the years of 
 their joy will be many in happiness, and the peace 
 of the age all the days of their life " (v. 7-9) : '* And 
 the store-chambers of blessing which are in heaven 
 will be opened" and ''poured down upon the work 
 and labour of the children of men," and "peace and 
 justice will be wedded throughout all the generations 
 of the world" (xi. i, 2), 
 
 Ethiopic Enoch Ixxxiii.-xc. (166-161 B.C.) 
 
 We have now to study that most interesting Enoch ixxxiii.- 
 fragment of the Book of Enoch which was written defence of the 
 when Judas the Maccabee was still warring against ^^^^^^^^^• 
 Antiochus (166-161 b.c.) It consists of only eight 
 chapters, ue. Ixxxiii.-xc. Their author was a Chasid, 
 writing in support of the Maccabean movement. 
 Its value is all the greater as it is the chief literary 
 memorial emanating from the short period when 
 
 ^ See my Apocalypse of Baruch, p. 54) where I show that such was prob- 
 ably the full and original form of this expectation. 
 
I go 
 
 ETHIOPIC ENOCH LXXXIIL-XC. 
 
 CHAP. \. 
 
 His eschato- 
 logical views 
 are in advance 
 alike of Daniel 
 and Eth. 
 En. i.-xxxvi. 
 
 Like Eth. 
 En. i.-xxxvi. 
 this also a 
 theodicy. 
 
 Israel's undue 
 sufferings due 
 to the seventy 
 angels to 
 whom God 
 had committed 
 Israel for 
 chastisement. 
 
 a coalition existed between the Chasids and the 
 Maccabees. 
 
 The writer has advanced considerably beyond 
 the naive and sensuous views of the kingdom 
 presented in the earlier fragment i.-xxxvi. His 
 conceptions are more spiritual. He writes a few 
 years later than the Daniel Apocalypse. To this 
 apocalypse his own forecasts of the future are on 
 the whole closely allied, but in certain respects his 
 outlook is more logically ethical : he reflects the 
 earlier and more spiritual view of the resurrection, 
 and does fuller justice to the problem of indi- 
 vidual retribution. To these points we will return 
 presently. 
 
 Like the previous writers of his century, our 
 author is concerned with the undeserved calamities 
 of the elect people, and with the task of reconciling 
 the belief in God's righteousness with the suffering 
 condition of His servants on earth. 
 
 His solution of this problem took the form in 
 short compass of a Semitic philosophy of religion. 
 In this treatise, though he describes the first world- 
 judgment, and traces it to the sin of the angels, 
 his interest centres mainly in the disastrous history 
 of Israel since the Exile. That Israel indeed has 
 sinned grievously, and is deserving of punishment, 
 our author amply acknowledges, but not a punish- 
 ment so immeasurably transcending its guilt. But 
 these undue severities have not come upon Israel 
 from God's hands. They are the doing of the seventy 
 shepherds or angels into whose care God committed 
 
E THIOPIC ENO CH LXXXIIL^XC. 1 9 1 
 
 Israel (Ixxxix. 59) for the due chastisement of Israel, chap. v. 
 
 But these angels had proved faithless to their trust, 
 
 and treacherously destroyed those whom God willed 
 
 not to destroy — but not with impunity. For an 
 
 account has been taken of all their excesses, and 
 
 of all those whom they had wickedly destroyed 
 
 (Ixxxix. 61, 62). And judgment is fast approaching. 
 
 When the oppression is at its worst a righteous The chasids 
 
 league will be established in Israel (xc. 6). This the forerunners 
 
 league is composed of the Chasids, with whom we fj^^ ^^^"" 
 
 have already dealt. These embrace within their 
 
 ranks a family from which will come forth the 
 
 deliverer of Israel (xc. 9-16). The deliverer here 
 
 referred to is Judas the Maccabee, who was fighting judasthe 
 
 against Syria when our author was writing. At ^^^^ ^^' 
 
 this point the writer has completed his description 
 
 of the past. He now completes his representation 
 
 with a forecast of the future. The Syrians and 
 
 other enemies of Israel, and finally all nations of 
 
 the earth, will put forth every effort to destroy the 
 
 God-sent hero, but in vain. While the struggle is 
 
 still raging, God will intervene in person, and the 
 
 earth will open her mouth and swallow them up 
 
 (xc. 19, 16, 18). Then a throne will be " erected The final 
 
 in the pleasant land" (xc. 20), and first the lustful J'^^s^^^^- 
 
 angels, who had wrought such woe through their 
 
 sin with women, will be judged and condemned to 
 
 the abyss of fire, which is full of fire and flame and 
 
 pillars of fire, and likewise the seventy angels who 
 
 had dealt treacherously with Israel (xc. 20-25). The 
 
 apostate Jews are next judged, and cast into Gehenna 
 
192 TESTAMENTS OF THE XII. PATRIARCHS 
 
 The resurrec- 
 tion. 
 
 Signs of 
 dualism in this 
 apocalypse. 
 
 Only the 
 
 righteous are 
 
 raised 
 
 to an eternal 
 
 life. 
 
 (xc, 26, 27). With this last act the great Assize will 
 close. Then God Himself will set up the New 
 Jerusalem (xc. 28, 29), and the surviving non-Jewish 
 nations will be converted and serve Israel (xc. 30), 
 and the dispersion will be brought back, and the 
 righteous dead of Israel will be raised to take part 
 in the kingdom (xc. 33). Then the Messiah will 
 appear amongst them, and all the righteous will 
 be transformed into His likeness (xc. 38) ; and God 
 will rejoice over them. 
 
 In the above apocalypse there are one or two 
 features that call for further attention. We remark 
 first of all the consciousness of a dualism in the mind 
 of the writer. The earthly Jerusalem, however 
 purified, is no longer regarded as a fitting abode for 
 God amongst men. Hence the heavenly Jerusalem 
 must take the place of the earthly, as the spiritual 
 and temporal metropolis of the Messianic kingdom, 
 which is co-extensive with the world. 
 
 In the next place only the righteous dead are 
 raised. Thus our writer holds fast to the original 
 and spiritual view of the resurrection, that the risen 
 life is the organic development of the righteous life 
 on earth. Finally, after the resurrection follows a 
 transformation of all the members of the kingdom 
 into a higher form of life. From this transforma- 
 tion of the righteous into the likeness of the Messiah 
 we naturally conclude their eternal risen life. Thus 
 we have this idea for the first time in Jewish 
 literature. . 
 
TESTAMENTS OF THE XII. PATRIARCHS 193 
 
 Testaments of the xii. Patriarchs 
 
 Only one more work calls for consideration in 
 this century — the Testaments of the XII. Patriarchs. 
 It seems indubitable that some apocalyptic frag- 
 ments of this book belong to this century, though 
 the body of the book originated over a century later. 
 Some of the oldest sections appear to have consti- 
 tuted originally a defence of the warlike Maccabean 
 high priests in the latter half of the second century 
 B.C., while others^ seem to attack the later chiefs of 
 that family in the first century B.C. It is hardly 
 possible to interpret otherwise such a statement 
 regarding Levi as in Reub. vi. ad fin, : ** He shall die 
 for us in wars visible and invisible" (cf. Sim. v.) 
 One or more of these sections may possibly be from 
 an earlier date, whereas many of them may belong 
 to the first century B.C. Since, however, their escha- 
 tological thought in some respects belongs to the 
 second century, we will give a brief outline of it, 
 though we will not build any conclusions upon it. 
 
 This is all that can be done till a critical edition 
 of this book appears. In the following references 
 I have availed myself of the better readings of the 
 Armenian Version. 
 
 Levi has been chosen by God to rule all the 
 Gentiles with supreme sovereignty (Reub, vi.) The 
 Messiah of the tribe of Levi,^ who will appear at the 
 
 ^ Of. Levi xiv., xix. in init. These passages resemble the Psalms of 
 Solomon where these assail the Sadducean priesthood. 
 
 2 Sometimes a Messiah of the tribe of Judah is spoken of. There is 
 nothing against the Jewish origin of such passages, but others which combine 
 the two ideas are Christian. 
 
 13 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
194 SOUL AND SPIRIT 
 
 CHAP. V. close of the 7th Jubilee, will possess an eternal priest- 
 hood (Levi xviii. ; Apocalyptic sections of Levi = ii.-v., 
 viii., X., xiv. -xviii.) This will endure till God comes 
 and restores Jerusalem and dwells in Israel (Levi v.) 
 This Messiah will judge as a king : He will bind 
 Beliar, open the gates of Paradise, and give His 
 saints to eat of the tree of life (Levi xviii. ; cf Eth. 
 En. xxv. 4-6). To the Messianic kingdom on 
 earth all the righteous patriarchs will rise (Sim. vi.; 
 Zeb. X. ; Jud. xxv.) Then the spirits of deceit will 
 be trodden under foot (Sim. vi.; Zeb. ix.) and Beliar 
 destroyed (Levi xviii.; Jud. xxv.) And there will 
 be only one people and one tongue (Jud. xxv.) 
 The surviving Gentiles are in all cases to be con- 
 verted save in Sim. vi., where they are doomed to 
 annihilation. According to Benj. x. there is to be 
 a resurrection, first of the Old Testament heroes 
 and patriarchs, and next of the righteous and of the 
 wicked. Thereupon the judgment is to follow, first 
 of Israel and then of the Gentiles. Many of the 
 above views are very late. 
 
 The designation of Michael in Dan. vi. (cf. 
 Levi v.; Jud. xxv.) as a "mediator between God 
 and man " is noteworthy. 
 
 Development of Special Conceptions 
 
 So2d and Spirit, — The later view of the spirit 
 as the divine breath of life probably underlies 
 Ecclus. xxxviii. 23 ; Bar. ii. 17 (**the dead also who 
 are in Hades whose spirit is taken from their 
 
SOUL AND SPIRIT i95 
 
 bodies ") ; Tob. iii. 6 (" Command my spirit chap. v. 
 to be taken from me, that I may depart and be- 
 come earth . . . command therefore that I may 
 now depart unto the everlasting place ") ; and 
 Jud. X. 13, where man is called a breath of life 
 (TTpev/ia fw?)?). In the Baruch and Tobit passages 
 the spirit and the soul are regarded as essentially 
 different. The spirit goes back to God and the 
 soul continues to subsist in Sheol. 
 
 Elsewhere in the second century only the older The older 
 Semitic view of the soul and spirit is attested, but prevaurin?" 
 ^Ae older view in a further stage of development. fo7m°^^^ 
 At this stage the difference that had hitherto dis- 
 tinguished these conceptions has now wholly disap- 
 peared. The soul and spirit, which according to 
 the older view had been identical in essence but not 
 in function, are now identical in both. The terms 
 have become absolutely synonymous. What can 
 be predicated of one can be predicated of the other. 
 
 Of this new development we find several ex- Departed in 
 amples in the oldest chapters of the Ethiopic Enoch. fo^uTs^Tipfrits 
 Thus the inhabitants of Sheol are called ** souls " in i^^iff^^emiy. 
 xxii. 3 (cf. also ix. 3), but generally '* spirits" 
 (xxii. 5, 6, 7, 9, II, 12, 13^). The obvious result of 
 this development is the high degree of life and 
 consciousness now attributed to the inhabitants of 
 Sheol. On death the entire personality so far as 
 this is immaterial descends into Sheol. Thus, 
 though according to the old Semitic view the spirit 
 
 ^ A very peculiar phraseology appears in ix. lo and xxii. 3^ where we find 
 " the spirits of the souls of the dead." In the Syncellus Version of ix. 3 we 
 have " the spirits and the souls of men." 
 
196 JUDGMENT 
 
 CHAP. V. never descended into Sheol, now it always does sOy 
 and the departed in Sheol are more frequently 
 called ** spirits " than *' souls." ^ From this time for- 
 ward, when the departed are spoken of as ** asleep," 
 the term is to be regarded as a mere metaphor. 
 The departed are henceforth conceived as possess- 
 ing life and consciousness as much as the living. 
 
 Before leaving this subject it is worth observing 
 
 that the fallen angels and demons are always spoken 
 
 of as ''spirits," the former in xiii. 6, xv. 4, 6, 7, the 
 
 latter in xv. 9, 11; xvi. i. The term "soul" is 
 
 never used of angels, fallen or otherwise, in the 
 
 Old Testament, or elsewhere in Jewish or Christian 
 
 literature. 
 
 Final judgment Judgment. — Bcsides the preliminary judgment 
 
 andonclmin there was, on the advent of the Messianic kingdom, 
 
 delT'°^'^^ to be the final judgment on all men living, and 
 
 on certain classes of the dead of Israel, or on all 
 
 Israel, on the faithless angelic rulers and the impure 
 
 angels. 
 
 Judgment, The sccond century thus marks a great develop- 
 
 ET'^En.^i.^ ment upon the past. This development is not seen 
 
 fn sheor^''^"^^ in Daniel so much as in the Ethiopic Enoch. In 
 
 Judgment, Daniel there is a preliminary judgment of the sword 
 
 according to t, •, . /., ^ ii/-, 
 
 Daniel, on the exccuted by the samts (11. 44), and the final world- 
 cerSead judgment in vii. 9, ii, 12 by God Himself to initiate 
 Israelites. ^^^ Messianic kingdom. There is no mention of 
 
 ^ In Daniel the word " soul " is not found. The writer always uses 
 "spirit" when he could with perfect propriety have used "soul." That he 
 had likewise the idea of the spirit existing apart from the body after death 
 may probably be concluded from vii. 15, "my spirit was grieved in its 
 sheath " (reading mij instead of nnj with Noldeke). But the text is doubtful. 
 
SHEOL, PARADISE, GEHENNA i97 
 
 the judgment of angels ; but this must be supposed chap^v. 
 in the case of the angelic patrons of Persia and 
 Greece, who were hostile to Israel. In Eth. En. 
 i.-xxxvi. the question of retribution has advanced 
 with mighty strides. Judgment is conceived as 
 setting in immediately on death in an intermediate 
 abode of souls (xxii.) There is also a pre- 
 liminary judgment on the angels who married the 
 daughters of men, and likewise on all mankind 
 at the Deluge (x. 1-12). The final judgment will 
 take place before the advent of the Messianic 
 kingdom on the impure angels (x. 12, 13), on the 
 demons who have hitherto gone unpunished (xvi. i), 
 and on all Israel with the exception of a certain 
 class of sinners. In Eth. En. Ixxxiii.-xc. there is judgment in 
 the first world-judgment of the Deluge (Ixxxix. 1-8), ixxxviii.-xc. 
 the judgment of the sword executed under Judas 
 the Maccabee (xc. 19, 16), and the final judgment 
 on the impure angels and the faithless angelic 
 patrons (xc. 20-25) and the apostate Jews (xc. 26, 
 27). This judgment serves to introduce the Messi- 
 anic kingdom on the present earth. 
 
 Places of Abode for the Departed, — Of these 
 there are four. 
 
 (i.) We have already dealt with the transformation 
 which Sheol has undergone in Daniel (see p. 181) 
 and Eth. En. i.-xxxvi. (see pp. 184-188). 
 
 (ii.) Paradise. — In the second century only two Paradise only 
 
 I-* 1 1 -r^ 1 ■ • 1 • n 1 • 1 for those who 
 
 men, Jbnocn and lilijah, were conceived as admitted had been 
 to Paradise immediately on leaving this worid (Eth. th^flih!^''' 
 En. Ixxxvii. 3, 4; Ixxxix. 52). This view was 
 
198 RESURRECTION, MESSIANIC KINGDOM 
 
 Gehenna 
 becomes the 
 final abode of 
 apostates. 
 
 Final abodes 
 of the faithless 
 and the impure 
 angels. 
 
 Resurrection - 
 various con- 
 ceptions. 
 
 Messianic 
 kingdom in 
 all cases on 
 the earth and 
 for ever. 
 
 evidently due to Old Testament accounts of their 
 translation (see above, p. 58). 
 
 (iii.) Gehenna, — The conception of Gehenna pre- 
 serves for the most part during this century its Old 
 Testament signification. But whereas in Is. 1. 11, 
 Ixvi. 24 it signifies the immediate place of punishment 
 of apostate Jews, it is definitely conceived in Dan. 
 xii. 2 ; Eth. En. xxvii. i, 2, xc. 26, 27 as \h^ final 
 and not the immediate abode of apostates in the next 
 world.^ 
 
 (iv.) The Abyss of Fire, — This abyss is the final 
 place of punishment for the faithless angelic rulers 
 and for the impure angels (Eth. En. xviii. ii-xix., 
 xxi., xc. 21-25). In Eth. En. xviii. 11-16, xxi. 1-6 
 the fiery abyss for the impure angels is distinguished 
 from another fiery abyss in xxi. 7-10. This latter 
 may be for the faithless angelic rulers. 
 
 Resurrection, — There is only a resurrection of 
 some of the righteous and some of the wicked in 
 Dan. xii. 2, 3, of all the righteous and some of the 
 wicked in Eth. En. i.-xxxvi. (see pp. 184-188), of 
 all the righteous but of none of the wicked in Eth. 
 En. Ixxxvii.-xc. In all cases only Israelites attain 
 to the resurrection. The ethical character of this 
 second-century development we have already dis- 
 cussed (see pp. 178-180). In all cases where the 
 righteous rise they rise to participate in the Messi- 
 anic kingdom. 
 
 Messianic Kingdom. — The scene of this kingdom 
 
 1 In Eth. En. xc. 26, 27 apparently only the living apostates are judged 
 and cast into Gehenna. 
 
MESSIAH, GENTILES i99 
 
 was to be on the earth in Daniel, and in Eth. chap, v. 
 En. i.-xxxvi. But the growing consciousness of 
 the evils and imperfections of the present world 
 shows itself in Eth. En. lxxxiii.-xc., where the 
 centre of this kingdom is to be, not the earthly- 
 Jerusalem, but the New Jerusalem brought down 
 from heaven. This is the first trace in this century 
 of a sense of the unfitness of the present world for 
 this kingdom. In all cases the kingdom itself was 
 to last for ever, and its members were. to enjoy a 
 patriarchal life, Dan. xii. and in Eth. En. v. 9, 
 xxv. 6, or a never-ending one in xc. 
 
 Messiah, — There is no mention of the Messiah Messiah only 
 
 1 . ,_,-_.-... , referred to 
 
 m this century save m Eth, En. Ixxxui.-xc. (see twice in second 
 xc. 37) and the Sibylline Oracles III. 652-654. ''"'^^' 
 But there He has no part to play in the kingdom, 
 and His introduction seems due merely to literary 
 reminiscence. 
 
 Since there is such great doubt attaching to the 
 date of the Testaments of the XII. Patriarchs, I 
 have refrained in the sequel from building on its 
 evidence. 
 
 Gentiles, — According to Eth. En. x. 21, all the Non-hostiie 
 Gentiles are to become righteous and worship coTverled^ 
 God. Only the hostile Gentiles are to be destroyed 
 (Dan. ii. 44, vii. 11, 12; Eth. En. xc. 9-16, 18). 
 The rest will be converted (.?) and serve Israel 
 (Dan. vii. 14; Eth. En. xc. 30). 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 ESCHATOLOGY OF APOCRYPHAL AND APOCALYPTIC 
 LITERATURE DURING THE FIRST CENTURY B.C. 
 
 I. Authorities for 104-1 b.c. 
 
 Ethiopic Enoch xci.-civ. 
 Ethiopia Enoch xxxvii.-lxx. 
 
 1 Maccabees. 
 Judith. 
 
 Psalms of Solomon. 
 Sibylline Oracles III. 1-62. 
 
 2 Maccabees. 
 
 This last book was composed indeed in this 
 century, but its eschatology belongs to the second 
 century e.g., as we shall see in the sequel. 
 
 1 1. General Eschatological Development in First 
 
 Century B.c, 
 
 br'fa^ch with ^ great gulf divides as a whole the eschatology 
 
 theexpecta- of this ccntury from that of the past. Thus the 
 
 tions of the /iv/r '•!• 
 
 past. hope of an eternal Messianic kingdom 07t the present 
 
ESCHATOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT 10 Jf-l B.C. 201 
 
 earth, which had been taught by the Old Testament chap. vi. 
 prophets and cherished by every individual Israelite, 
 is now at last absolutely abandoned.^ The earth, as 
 it is, has now come to be regarded as wholly unfit 
 for the manifestation of this kingdom. Thus the 
 dualism which had begun to affect the forecasts of 
 religious thinkers in the preceding century has in this 
 century succeeded in leavening their entire expecta- 
 tions. As a consequence of this breach between the 
 things of earth and the things of heaven, the writers 
 of this century are forced to advance to new con- 
 ceptions touching the kingdom. Hence some boldly Henceforth 
 declare (Eth. En. xci.-civ.) or else imply (Pss. Sol. ary Messianic 
 i.-xvi.) that the Messianic kingdom is only of pected^nThe 
 temporary duration, and that the goal of the risen a^d^thlresur- 
 rigfhteous is not this transitory kinefdom but heaven recUonand the 
 
 o y o final judgment 
 
 itself From this abandonment of the hope of an adjourned to 
 
 its close. 
 
 eternal Messianic kingdom it follows further that 
 not only the resurrection but also the final judgment 
 must be adjourned to its close. 
 
 In the thoughts of these writers the belief in a 
 personal immortality has thus dissociated itself from 
 the doctrine of the Messianic kingdom. Thus the Synthesis of 
 synthesis of the two eschatologies achieved two cen- toiogies re- 
 tttries earlier (see pp. 125-131) is anew resolved into their original 
 its elements, never again, save once ( E th . En. f^^^^^s, 
 xxxvii.-lxx.), to be spiritually fused together within the 
 sphere of Judaism. Their true and final synthesis 
 became the task and achievement of Christianity. 
 
 But quite another line of thought, was possible, 
 
 ^ See also p. 203. 
 
202 ESCHATOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT 10 Jp-l B.C. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 except in the 
 Similitudes, 
 Eth. En. 
 xxxvii, -Ixx. , 
 which teach 
 the doctrine of 
 a new heavens 
 and earth as 
 the scene of 
 the kingdom 
 and the goal 
 of the risen 
 righteous. 
 
 Elsewhere in 
 this century 
 only a resur- 
 rection of the 
 spirits of the 
 righteous 
 expected. 
 
 Unique 
 doctrine of the 
 Messiah. 
 
 Object of 
 suffering in 
 regard to 
 Israel. 
 
 and this was pursued by the author of the SimiU- 
 tudes (Eth. En. xxxvii. -Ixx.) The present earth 
 could not, it is true, be regarded as the scene of 
 an eternal Messianic kingdom, but a renewed and 
 transformed earth could. Hence the scene of the 
 eternal Messianic kingdom would be such a new 
 earth, and not only so, but also a new heaven, and to 
 a share in this eternal kingdom the righteous should 
 rise. Here the idea of a new heaven and a new 
 earth, which appeared illogically in Is. Ixv., Ixvi., is 
 applied for the first time with reasonable consistency. 
 It is further to be observed that these writers who 
 hope only for a temporary Messianic kingdom 
 anticipate a resurrection of the righteous only, and 
 of the spirit, not of the body (Eth. En. xci.-civ. ; 
 Pss. Sol.), at the close of this temporary Messianic 
 kingdom, whereas the writer of the Similitudes 
 looks forward to a resurrection of all Israel (Eth. En. 
 xxxvii.-lxx.) at the beginning of the eternal Messi- 
 anic kingdom. In 2 Maccabees, which diverges in 
 some respects from both classes, a bodily resurrec- 
 tion of the righteous is expected, and possibly of all 
 Israel ; but this doctrine belongs, as we shall discover 
 presently, to the second century B.C. 
 
 Again, in contradistinction to the preceding cen- 
 tury, a vigorous, and indeed a unique, doctrine of the 
 Messiah is developed in this century — that of the 
 supernatural Son of Man in the Similitudes, and of 
 the militant Messiah in the Psalms of Solomon. 
 
 Finally, the present sufferings of Israel at the 
 hands of the Gentiles are explained as of a disci- 
 
ETHIOPIC ENOCH XCL-CIV, 203 
 
 plinary character.^ Israel is at once chastened for chap. vi. 
 its sins lest they should come to a head ; but the 
 Gentiles are allowed to fill up the cup of their 
 iniquity.^ 
 
 III. Eschatological Systems of the various Writers 
 of the First Century B.C. 
 
 Ethiopic Enoch xci.-civ. (134-95, or more 
 nearly 104-95, ^•*^-) 
 
 We begin the study of the eschatological litera- 
 ture of this century with a most fascinating and 
 original work. It dates at latest from the first centm-y opens 
 years of the century, and attests in unmistakable voiutionary 
 terms the revolution that has passed over Jewish f^turT^°^^^^ 
 thought. 
 
 In the preceding century it was still conceivable, 
 as in the Old Testament prophets, that God could 
 take up His abode with men. But this conception 
 has now become impossible. God is of such un- 
 approachable purity on the one hand, and humanity 
 so sinful and defiled on the other, that His abiding 
 on earth with men has now become inconceivable. 
 Thus the doctrine of the divine immanence has given 
 place to that of the divine transcendence, and the 
 time-honoured hope of an eternal Messianic kingdom No longer an 
 which should abide for ever on earth, ruled and onTy"a tempor- 
 sustained by the immediate present Deity, has at kilg^om'^"''' 
 last been sorrowfully abandoned by the Jews of ^^pec^e^- 
 
 ^ See 2 Mace. vi. 12-17 J cf. Jud. vili. 27 ; Wisdom xii. 22. 
 2 See Dan. viii. 23, ix. 24; cf. Gen. xv. 16. 
 
204 ETHIOPIC ENOCH XCL~CIV. 
 
 CHAP. VI. this later age. According to the universal expecta- 
 tions of the past, the resurrection and the final 
 Hence the judgment Were to form the prelude to an everlast- 
 and final judg- ing Messianic kingdom on earth, but from this 
 longlrXmate time forth these great events are relegated to its 
 bmmuffb?' close, and the Messianic kingdom is for the first 
 
 relegated to time in literature conceived as of temporary dura- 
 its close. , ^ _ ^ , , 
 
 tion. On this revolutionary view of the Messianic 
 kingdom follows another no less revolutionary. 
 Such a temporary earthly kingdom cannot be the 
 goal of the hopes of the risen righteous. Their 
 faith can find satisfaction only in a blessed im- 
 mortality in the eternal heaven itself. 
 Debate on the Another question of surpassing interest dealt 
 retribution. With by the author is that of the nature of retribu- 
 tion in this and in the after life. His views on this 
 subject he brings forward in the course of a debate 
 which he represents as taking place between himself 
 and some Sadducees. The latter uphold the still 
 orthodox and tory view found in the Old Testament, 
 our author that of the higher theology. We will 
 not, however, recount this discussion till we have 
 first sketched the eschatology of this work. Our 
 author acknowledges that the wicked are seemingly 
 sinning with impunity ; but this is not so : their 
 evil deeds are recorded every day (civ. 7), and 
 immediately on death ''their spirits will be cast 
 into the furnace of fire " (xcviii. 3) : yea, they '*will 
 be slain in Sheol" (xcix. 11); and from this hell of 
 darkness and flame and grievous condemnation, 
 into which their souls enter on death, they will 
 
ETHIOPIC ENOCH XCL-CIV. 205 
 
 never escape (ciii. 7, 8). Thus Sheol is here con- chap. vi. 
 ceived as hell. 
 
 But turning from our author s views of the im- The author's 
 mediate lot of the wicked at death to his scheme world's history 
 of the world's history, we find that he divides the i^.^^^)^"' '''''■ 
 history of mankind into ten world-weeks of varying 
 duration. The first seven weeks embrace all events 
 from the Creation till the advent of the Messianic 
 kingdom. This kingdom lasts three world-weeks, 
 and thus terminates with the close of the tenth 
 week. In the words of the writer, ''And after that 
 there will be another week, the eighth, that of 
 righteousness, and a sword will be given to it, 
 that judgment and righteousness may be executed 
 on those who commit oppression, and sinners will 
 be delivered into the hands of the righteous. 13. 
 And at its close they will acquire houses through 
 their righteousness, and the house of the Great 
 King will be built in righteousness for evermore. 
 14. And after that in the ninth week the righteous 
 judgment will be revealed to the whole world, and 
 all the works of the godless will vanish from the 
 whole earth, and the world will be written down 
 for destruction, and all mankind will look to the 
 path of uprightness. 15. And after this, in tbe 
 tenth week in the seventh part, there will be the 
 great eternal judgment, in which he will execute 
 vengeance amongst the angels. 16". And the first 
 heaven will depart and pass away, and a new 
 heaven will appear, and all the powers of the 
 heavens will shine sevenfold for ever. 17. And 
 
2o6 
 
 ETHIOPIC ENOCH XCL-CIV. 
 
 Spirits of the 
 departed 
 righteous kept 
 in safety till 
 the final 
 judgment. 
 Heaven hence- 
 forth their 
 abode. 
 
 Our author 
 denies Ezekiel's 
 doctrine of 
 retribution. 
 
 Prosperity is 
 no mark of 
 divine favour, 
 but only a 
 source of 
 delusion to 
 those who 
 experience it. 
 
 after that there will be many weeks without number 
 for ever in goodness and righteousness, and sin 
 will no more be mentioned for ever" (Eth. En. xci. 
 12-17^ ). Here we see that the final judgment will 
 be held at the close of the Messianic kingdom, 
 that the former heaven and earth will be destroyed 
 and a new heaven created. To share in this new 
 heaven the righteous dead will rise ; but in the 
 meantime their spirits will be at rest, guarded by 
 angels (c. 5). From this intermediate abode (prob- 
 ably in Sheol, cf. 4 Ezra iv. 41) they will be raised 
 (xci. 10, xcii. 3), but not in the body, but as spirits 
 only (ciii. 3, 4), and the portals of heaven will be 
 opened to them (civ. 2), and they shall joy as the 
 angels (civ. 4), and become companions of the 
 heavenly hosts (civ. 6), and shine as the stars for 
 ever (civ. 2). 
 
 We now return to our author s treatment of the 
 question of retribution. He enters the arena 
 against the doctrine as taught by Ezekiel. Ac- 
 cording to Ezekiel's teaching and that of his 
 spiritual successors, the wealthy could appeal to 
 their riches as a proof of their righteousness ; for 
 according to them prosperity was a divine token 
 of God's approval. 
 
 Our author, on the other hand, so far from re- 
 garding prosperity as the mark of divine favour, 
 charges it with being the source of delusion to 
 
 1 From the present writer's edition of the Book of Enoch, The rest of 
 the quotations from the Ethiopic Enoch are from the same edition, with 
 occasional slight changes in the renderings. 
 
ETHIOPIC ENOCH XCL-CIV. 207 
 
 those who possess it : *' Woe unto you, ye sinners chap. m. 
 for your riches make you appear like the righteous, 
 but your hearts convict you of being sinners " (xcvi. 
 4). To their own conscience, therefore, this writer 
 appeals against the orthodox view of retribution. 
 Yea, further, he declares that their very personality 
 through giving itself up to such external possessions 
 will at last lose itself: "in grandeur, and in power, 
 and in silver, and in gold, and in purple, and in 
 splendour, and in food, they will be poured out as 
 water. Therefore they will be wanting in know- 
 ledge and wisdom, and they will perish thereby, 
 together with their possessions and with all their 
 glory and their splendour, and in shame and in 
 slaughter and in great destitution will their spirits 
 be cast into the furnace of fire " (xcviii. 2, 3). And 
 as regards the experience of the righteous, our 
 author considers Ezekiel's doctrine of retribution as 
 equally false. He teaches that there is often no There is often 
 difference in the outward lot of the righteous and fn the outward 
 the wicked, either in life or in death. Nay, more, righteous and 
 he can contemplate the righteous as enduring un- ^^^ wicked. 
 deserved tribulation all their days, and yet address 
 them with words of hope and encouragement : 
 " Fear ye not, ye souls of the righteous, and be 
 hopeful, ye that die in righteousness. 5. And 
 grieve not if your soul descends in grief into Sheol, 
 and that in your life your body has not fared as 
 your goodness deserved, but truly as on a day on 
 which ye became like the sinners, and on a day of 
 cursing and chastisement" (cii. 4, 5). These words 
 
2o8 ETHIOPIC ENOCH XCL~CIV. 
 
 CHAP. VI. conceding the unhappy experience of the righteous 
 This conces- in this life are immediately fastened upon by the 
 thTslTducean Sadducean opponents in this debate, cii. 6. " As we 
 opponents. ^j^^ ^^ ^j^ ^l^^ righteous, and what benefit do they 
 
 reap from their deeds ? 7. Behold, even as we, so 
 
 they die in grief and darkness, and what advantage 
 
 have they over us ? From henceforth we are equal. 
 
 8. And what will they receive and what will they 
 
 see for ever ? For, behold, they too have died, and 
 
 Our author's from henccforth they will never see light." To 
 
 The^righteous this the author replies that the life of the wicked 
 
 differ^nlto-"^ is fashioned by material and temporal aims only, 
 
 acterand ^^^ g^ ^|| th^jj- desircs find Satisfaction in this 
 
 ideals. 
 
 world, but the life of the righteous is moulded by 
 
 spiritual and eternal aims. 9. '' I tell you, ye 
 
 sinners, ye find your satisfaction in eating and 
 
 drinking ... in robbery and sin, in the acquisition 
 
 of wealth and in seeing good days. 10. Have ye 
 
 seen the righteous how their end falls out } for no 
 
 manner of violence is found in them till the day of 
 
 "These make their death" (cii. 9, 10). Thereto the wicked rejoin 
 
 Tn destSy?"^ that thIs difference in character is of no advantage : 
 
 saythewicked. *^ Notwithstanding they perished, and became as 
 
 though they had not been, and their souls descended 
 
 into Sheol in tribulation" (cii. 11). 
 
 Our author At this point the context ceases to bear the form 
 
 thTfo^rmVr of a debate, and thenceforward the author develops 
 
 henSfirth'^ the Contention at issue in alternate addresses to the 
 
 ^"^httouslnd righteous and their Sadducean opponents. At first, 
 
 their Saddu- j^ oDDOsition to the Statement of the latter that the 
 
 cean opponents ^ *' n i i i • i 
 
 alternately. Same lot awaits the good and bad alike, our author 
 
ETHIOPIC ENOCH XCI.-CIV. 209 
 
 declares: ciii. i. ''I swear to you, ye righteous, by chap. vi. 
 
 the glory of him that is great and honoured, and 
 
 mighty in dominion; yea, by his greatness I swear 
 
 to you. 2. I know this mystery and have read it 
 
 in the heavenly tables, and have seen the book of 
 
 the holy ones, and have found written therein and 
 
 inscribed regarding them; 3. That all goodness He assures the 
 
 and joy and glory are prepared for them, and are their future 
 
 written down for the spirits of those who have died ^^^^ ^^^^' 
 
 in righteousness, and that manifold good will be 
 
 given to you in recompense for your labours, and 
 
 that your lot is abundantly beyond the lot of the 
 
 living. 4. And your spirits — (the spirits) of you who 
 
 die in righteousness, will live and rejoice and be 
 
 glad, and their spirits will not perish, and their 
 
 memorial will be before the face of the Great One 
 
 unto all the generations of the world : wherefore, 
 
 then, fear not their contumely." 
 
 Having thus assured the righteous, he turns to and declares 
 the wicked with words of denunciation and woe : ciii. tormenTof the 
 5. "Woe unto you, ye sinners, when ye die in your ^^^^^^• 
 sins, and those who resemble you say regarding 
 you : Blessed are the sinners : they have seen good 
 all their days. 6. And now they have died in 
 prosperity and in riches, and have not seen tribula- 
 tion or slaughter in their life ; and they have died in 
 honour, and judgment has not been executed on 
 them during their life. 7. Know ye that their souls 
 will be made to descend into Sheol, and they will 
 become wretched, and great will be their tribulation. 
 8. And into darkness and chains and a burning fire, 
 
 14 
 
2 1 o ETHIOPIC ENOCH XCL~CIV, 
 
 CHAP. VI. where there is grievous condemnation for the 
 generations of the world. Woe unto you, for ye 
 will have no peace." 
 
 It is noteworthy here that, though our author 
 declares that the anticipations of the godless as to 
 their future destiny are wholly false, he tacitly 
 admits their claim to having seen good all their 
 days. Moreover, in keeping with this admission, 
 he accepts as true the derisive description which 
 the ungodly give of the righteous in the immediately 
 The evil lot of subsequent verses ciii. 9-15: '* In the days of 
 in^theVSent their life they are worn out with their troublous toil, 
 ^^ ^* and have experienced every trouble, and met with 
 
 much evil and suffered from disease, and have been 
 minished and become small in spirit. 10. And they 
 have been destroyed, and there has been none to 
 help them (even) in word, and have attained to 
 nothing : they are tortured and destroyed, and have 
 not hoped to see life from day to day. 11. And 
 they hoped to be the head, and they have become 
 the tail : they toiled laboriously, and attained not 
 to the fruit of their toil ; and they became the food 
 of sinners, and the unrighteous laid their yoke 
 heavily upon them. 12. And they that hated them 
 and smote them have had dominion over them ; and 
 they have bowed their necks to those that hated 
 them, and they have had no compassion on them. 1 3.. 
 And they have desired to get away from them that 
 they might escape and be at rest, but have found no 
 place whereunto they should flee and be safe from 
 them. 1 4. And they have complained to their 
 
ETHIOPIC ENOCH XCI.-CIV. 2 1 1 
 
 rulers in their tribulation, and cried out against chap. vi. 
 those who devoured them, but they did not attend 
 to their cries, and would not hearken to their voice. 
 15. And they helped those who robbed and de- 
 voured them, and those who made them few ; and 
 they concealed their oppression, and they did not 
 remove from them the yoke of those who devoured, 
 and dispersed, and murdered them, and they con- 
 cealed their murder, and have thought not of the 
 fact that they had lifted up their hands against 
 them." 
 
 This terrible picture, which the godless gave 
 of the condition of the Chasids, is, as we have 
 remarked, accepted by our author as true. He, 
 therefore, makes no attempt to charge it with 
 exaggeration or weaken a single detail, but turns 
 to the righteous, and urges them to continued 
 faithfulness and hope, for that the day of recompense Yet the day of 
 and of the great judgment will soon appear : civ. penseTat^ 
 I. "I swear unto you, that in heaven the angels *^^^^' 
 are mindful of you for good before the glory 
 of the Great One : your names are written before 
 the glory of the Great One. 2. Be hopeful ; for 
 aforetime ye were put to shame through ills and 
 affliction ; but soon ye will shine as the stars of 
 heaven, ye will shine and ye will be seen, and the 
 portals of heaven will be opened to you. 3. And 
 persist in your cry for judgment, and it will appear 
 to you ; for all your tribulations will be visited on 
 the rulers, and on all their helpers, and on all those 
 who plundered you. 4. Be hopeful, and cast not 
 
2 1 2 ETHIOPIC ENOCH XCL~CIV. 
 
 CHAP. VI. away your hope, for ye will have great joy as the 
 angels of heaven. 5. What will ye be obliged to 
 do then ? Ye will not have to hide on the day of 
 the great judgment, and ye will not be found as 
 sinners, and the eternal judgment will be far from 
 you for all the generations of the world. 6. And 
 now fear not, ye righteous, when ye see the sinners 
 growing strong and prospering in their ways, and 
 be not like unto them and have no companionship 
 with them, but keep afar from their violence ; for ye 
 will become companions of the hosts of heaven. 
 7. Ye sinners, though ye say, Ye cannot ascertain 
 it, and all our sins are not written down, still they 
 will write down all your sins continually every 
 day.'* 
 
 We cannot part from this book without con- 
 fessing how nobly it maintains the cause of goodness 
 in the face of triumphant evil, how unhesitatingly 
 it concedes that this world gives its best to the 
 unrighteous and the sinner, and that godliness can 
 find no stay or encouragement therein. Yet though 
 the lot of the latter is thus one of contumely and 
 rebuke and shame, they are not for one moment to 
 regret their high calling, but to be steadfast and 
 hopeful ; for the day of their glorification is at hand. 
 It is a noble work, yet falls far short of what was 
 noblest in the past. It never reminds the faithful, 
 as do some of the psalmists, that present life and 
 communion with God more than outweigh the loss 
 of every temporal blessing. 
 
ETHIOPIC ENOCH XXX VIL-LXX. 213 
 
 CHAP, VI. 
 
 Ethiopic Enoch xxxvii.-lxx. (94-64 b.c.) 
 
 From this interesting work we now pass to the 
 consideration of one of still greater interest, namely, 
 the well - known ** Similitudes," which consist of 
 chaps, xxxvii.-lxx. of the Ethiopic Book of Enoch. 
 This book presents us with many difficulties. In 
 several respects it stands alone among Jewish apo- 
 calyptic writings. Thus, though all other writers 
 of this and the next century abandoned the Old 
 Testament idea of an everlasting Messianic kingdom, 
 the author of the Similitudes clings fast to this hope. 
 The scene of this kingdom, indeed, was not to be 
 the present earth, but a new heavens and a new 
 earth (xlv. 4, 5 ^) ; for, owing to the prevalent 
 dualism, such a conception had already become 
 impossible. Thus the writer for the last time 
 in Judaism combines in one blessed future the 
 separate hopes of the individual and the nation, and 
 thus unites in a high spiritual synthesis the severed 
 eschatologies. 
 
 Of no less startling character is the conception The unique 
 entertained by the writer of the coming Messiah, the Messiah! 
 He is here regarded not as of human descent, but 
 as a supernatural being. Four titles applied to Him 
 
 1 This thought lay ready to hand in Is. Ixv., Ixvi. But there, as we have 
 already seen, the thought is an interpolation, being incompatible with other 
 facts in the context. Thus the wicked still live on the new earth (Ixv. 20). 
 The writer of the Similitudes seems to guard against such a misconception, 
 for in the words following on the declaration of a new heaven and a new 
 earth, he declares ' ' the sinners and the evildoers will not set foot 
 thereon." 
 
214 
 
 ETHIOPIC ENOCH XXXVIL-LXX. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 Various y 
 described as 
 "the Christ,' 
 ' ' the Right- 
 eous One," 
 " the Elect 
 One," 
 ' ' the Son 
 of Man." 
 
 here for the first time in literature are afterwards 
 reproduced in the New Testament. These are ''the 
 Christ" (xlviii. lo, Hi. 4); ''the Righteous One" 
 (xxxviii. 2, liii. 6 ; Acts iii. 14, vii. 52, xxii. 14) ; "the 
 Elect One" (xl. 5, xlv. 3, 4, etc. ; Luke ix. 35, xxiii. 
 35) ; and, most important of all, " the Son of Man." ^ 
 This last title is found in its definite form for the 
 first time in the Similitudes, and is historically the 
 source of the New Testament designation, if the 
 date assigned to the former is correct. The con- 
 ception, indeed, is so lofty and wide-reaching 
 that in treating of it we are treating likewise of the 
 writer^s eschatology. Thus he is conceived as the 
 Judge of the world, and the Champion and eternal 
 Ruler of the righteous. 
 
 1 Eerdmans [TheoL Tijdschrift, 1894, pp. 153-176) and Lietzmann {Der 
 Menschettsokn^ 1896) have sought to show that '* Son of Man" in the 
 Similitudes is never a title of the Messiah, and that it simply means "man." 
 To prove this contention, they point out that ** Son of Man" is almost 
 always accompanied by the demonstrative *' this " or " that," and allege that in 
 only one passage (Ixii. 7) is it without the demonstrative. Since this passage 
 is contrary to his thesis, Lietzmann rejects it, while Eerdmanns seeks to 
 weaken its evidential value by reference to the context. Wellhausen {Skizzen 
 und Vorarbeiten, vi. 199) builds an hypothesis also on the presence of the 
 demonstrative. He holds, with the two scholars already mentioned, that, the 
 expression "Son of Man" simply = man, and that if it has to convey a 
 definite signification, it must be preceded by a demonstrative pronoun, as is 
 always the case in the Ethiopic Enoch, according to Lietzmann. Wellhausen 
 presses home the fact that the use of the demonstrative before the expression 
 "Son of Man" proves conclusively that "Son of Man" cannot be a Mes- 
 sianic title ; for that such a phrase a.s "this Messiah" or " that Messiah" is 
 an impossibility. Since, therefore, so much turns on the presence or absence 
 of the demonstratives, it is of the highest moment to determine whether these 
 demonstratives, when they are present, are renderings of Greek demonstra- 
 tives, or of the Greek article. That they are renderings of the Greek article 
 will, I think, be clear from the following evidence. Now, if we examine the 
 way in which the Ethiopic translator frequently renders the Greek article in 
 those passages where the Greek Version is preserved, we shall be able to 
 deal with the meaning of the Ethiopic demonstratives which are prefixed to 
 the phrase "Son of Man." Now as regards "this" (=ze and zent^), we find 
 that in chaps, xxv. I, xxvii. 2, xxviii. 2, xxxii. 5 it is a rendering of the 
 
ETHIOPIC ENOCH XXXVIL-LXX. 2 1 5 
 
 The Messiah is conceived in the Similitudes as chap. vi. 
 (i.) the Judge of the world and the Revealer of all The Messiah 
 things ; (ii.) the Messianic Champion and Ruler of the the w"or?d.° 
 righteous, (i.) As Judge, He possesses righteousness, 
 wisdom, and power (cf. Pss. xlv, 4-8, Ixxii. ; Is. xi. 
 3-5 ; Jer. xxiii. 5, 6). He is the Righteous One in 
 an extraordinary sense (xxxviii. 2, liii. 6) : He pos- 
 sesses righteousness, and it dwells with Him (xlvi. 3), 
 and on the ground of His essential righteousness 
 (xlvi. 3) has He been chosen no less than according 
 to God s good pleasure (xlix. 4). Wisdom, which 
 could find no dwelling-place on earth (xlii.), dwells 
 in Him, and the spirit of Him who giveth knowledge 
 (xlix. 3) : and the secrets of wisdom stream forth 
 from His mouth (li. 3), and wisdom is poured forth 
 
 Greek article. But the result is startling if we compare the small Greek 
 fragment of chap. Ixxxix. 42-49 with the Ethiopic Version, for we find that 
 zekii or zektii ( = that), though occurring ten times in these verses, is nine 
 times a rendering of the Greek article. That it is very frequently used in 
 this sense in Ethiopic translations generally is stated by Dillmann's Ethiopic 
 Lexicon^ col. 1057. W'etu ( = that) is also twice used to render the Greek 
 article in Ixxxix. 42-49. Thus it appears that the demonstratives very 
 frequently represent the Greek article, and it is these very demonstratives 
 that are prefixed to the expression " Son of Man." Hence we may, with 
 some reason, conclude that before the latter expression the demonstratives 
 zeku and zentu stand for the article, and nothing more, in xlvi. 2, 4 ; xlviii. 
 2 ; Ixii. 9, 14; Ixiii. 11. This conclusion is supported by Ixii. 7, where 
 the demonstrative is wanting. But the evidence is still stronger. In xlvi. 
 3; Ixix. 26, 29"^*; Ixx. I ; Ixxi. 14, 17 the demonstrative w'etu ( = that) is 
 prefixed. Now that in all these cases, except xlvi, 3, Ixxi. 14, where it stands 
 for the copula, w'etii represents the article" I feel convinced, for in the first 
 place this is one of its commonest uses in translations from the Greek (see 
 Dillmann's Lexicon^ col. 919), and in the next place the Ethiopic translator 
 actually uses it in this sense, as I have shown above. Finally, in two other 
 passages (Ixiii. 10, Ixii. 2), where w'etu precedes the phrase *' Lord of Spirits," 
 it is beyond the reach of question the equivalent of the Greek article. In xlvi. 
 3, Ixxi. 14 w'etu serves as a copula. Indeed, it cannot be taken here in any 
 other sense. Thus we conclude that in the Ethiopic expression *' Son of 
 Man" we have a Messianic title, and that this expression represents the Greek 
 6 ul6s ToO dvdpdjTTOV. 
 
2i6 ETHIOPIC ENOCH XXXVIL-LXX, 
 
 CHAP. VI. like water before Him (xlix.) In Him abides the 
 spirit of power (xlix. 3), and He possesses universal 
 dominion (Ixii. 6). He is the revealer of all things. 
 His appearance will be the signal for the revelation 
 of good and the unmasking of evil : will bring to 
 light everything that is hidden, ahke the invisible 
 world of righteousness and the hidden world of sin 
 (xlvi. 3 ; xlix. 2, 4) : and will recall to life those 
 that have perished on land and sea, and those that 
 are in Sheol and hell (li. i, Ixi. 5). Evil when once 
 unmasked will vanish from His presence (xlix. 2). 
 Hence all judgment has been committed unto Him 
 (Ixix. 27), and universal dominion (Ixii. 6), and He 
 will sit on the throne of His glory (xlv. 3, Ixii. 3, 5), 
 which is likewise the throne of God (xlvii. 3, li. 3), 
 and all men, righteous and wicked, and all angels, 
 fallen and unfallen, will be judged before Him (li. 2, 
 Iv. 4, Ixi, 8, Ixii. 2, 3), and no lying utterance 
 will be possible before Him (xlix. 4, Ixii. 3), and by 
 the mere word of His mouth will He slay the un- 
 The Champion godly (IxiL 2). (ii.) He is the Messianic Champion 
 ^he^ri^hteous. and Ruler of the righteous. He is the stay of the 
 righteous (xlviii. 4), and has already been revealed 
 to them (Ixii. 7) : He is the avenger of their life (xlviii. 
 7), the preserver of their inheritance (xlviii. 7) : He 
 will vindicate the earth as their possession for ever 
 (li. 5), and establish the community of the righteous 
 in unhindered prosperity (liii. 6, Ixii. 8) : their faces 
 will shine with joy (li. 5), and they will be vestured 
 with life (Ixii. 15), and be resplendent with light 
 (xxxix. 7), and ''become angels in heaven" (li. 4), 
 
ETHIOPIC ENOCH XXXVIL-LXX. 217 
 
 and He will abide in closest communion with them chap. vi. 
 for ever (Ixii. 14), in the immediate presence of the 
 Lord of Spirits (xxxix. 7), and His glory is for 
 ever and ever, and His might unto all generations, 
 (xlix. 2). I have given with some fulness this 
 description of the expected Messiah ; for it forms 
 the centre of this writer's expectations of the future. 
 To the revival of the Messiah hope in this century 
 we shall advert later. 
 
 Before leaving this author we shall briefly This writer's 
 recount his solution of the difficulties affecting the moral problem 
 moral government of the world. This he discovers ° ^ ^^°^ 
 in a comprehensive view of the world's history. 
 Only by tracing evil to its source can the present 
 wrongness of things be understood, and only by 
 pursuing the world s history to its final issues can its 
 present inequalities be justified. The author has no 
 interest save for the moral and spiritual worlds, and 
 this is manifest even in the divine name ''Lord of 
 Spirits," and in the peculiar form he gives to the 
 trisagion (xxxix. 12): "Holy, holy, holy, is the 
 Lord of Spirits : he filleth the earth with spirits." 
 Whole hierarchies of angelic beings appear in Ixi. 
 10-12, and the doctrine of the Satanic world is further sin traced to 
 developed. The origin of sin is traced back not to 
 the Watchers or angels, as in an earlier work, but to 
 the Satans, the original adversaries of man (xl. 7). 
 
 The Watchers fell through becoming subject to 
 these, and leading mankind astray (liv. 6). Punish- 
 ment was at once meted out to the Watchers, and 
 they were confined in a deep abyss (liv. 5) to 
 
2l8 
 
 ETHIOPIC ENOCH XXXVIL-LXX, 
 
 The Head of 
 Days and the 
 Messiah 
 appear to 
 judge the 
 world. 
 
 CHAP. VI. await the final judgment (liv, 6, Iv. 3, Ixiv.) In 
 the meantime sin flourishes in the world : sinners 
 deny the name of the Lord of Spirits (xxxviii. 2, 
 xli. 2), and of His Anointed (xlviii. 10); the kings 
 and the mighty of the earth trust in their sceptre and 
 glory (Ixiii. 7), and oppress the elect of the children 
 of God (Ixii. 11). But the prayer of the righteous 
 ascends, and their blood goes up before the Lord of 
 Spirits crying for vengeance (xlvii. i) ; and the 
 angels unite in the prayer of the righteous (xlvii. 2). 
 But the oppression of the kings and the mighty will 
 not continue for ever : suddenly the Head of Days 
 will appear, and with Him the Son of Man (xlvi. 2, 
 3, 4 ; xlviii. 2), to execute judgment upon all alike— 
 on the righteous and wicked, on angel and on man. 
 All are judged according to their deeds, for their 
 deeds are weighed in the balance (xli. i). The 
 fallen angels are cast into a fiery furnace (liv. 6) ; 
 the kings and the mighty confess their sins, and pray 
 for forgiveness, but in vain (Ixiii.) ; and are given into 
 the hands of the righteous (xxxviii. 5) ; and their 
 destruction furnishes a spectacle to the righteous 
 as they burn and vanish for ever out of sight (xlviii. 
 9, 10; Ixii. 12), to be tortured in Gehenna by the 
 angels of punishment (liii. 3-5, liv. i, 2). The re- 
 maining sinners and godless are driven from off 
 the face of the earth (xxxviii. 3, xli. 2, xlv, 6). 
 The Son of Man slays them with the word of 
 A new heavens His mouth (Ixii. 2). Siu and wrongdoing are 
 earth. banished from the earth (xlix. 2) ; and heaven 
 
 and earth are transformed (xlv. 4, 5) ; and the 
 
ETHIOPIC ENOCH XXXVIL~LXX. 219 
 
 righteous and elect have their mansions therein chap. vi. 
 (xxxix. 5, xh*. 2). And the Hght of the Lord of 
 Spirits shines upon them (xxxviii. 4) ; they live 
 in the light of eternal life (Iviii. 3). And they 
 seek after light and find righteousness and peace 
 with the Lord of Spirits (Iviii. 3, 4) ; and grow in 
 knowledge and righteousness (Iviii. 5). 
 
 Of the peculiar character of the resurrection in 
 this book we shall treat presently. 
 
 I Maccabees (roo-64 b.c.) 
 
 From the Similitudes, the work of an original i Maccabees 
 and highly gifted member of the Pharisaic school, we sadducee. 
 turn for a few minutes to First Maccabees, the work 
 of a contemporary who belonged to the Sadducean 
 party. As we might expect, this book is entirely 
 wanting in eschatological teaching. Of the hope of 
 a future life beyond the grave there is not a trace. 
 All the rewards of faithfulness enumerated by the 
 dying Mattathias (ii. 52-61) are limited to this life. 
 Thus this writer ignores the entire Chasid move- 
 ment, which embodied within it all that was best and 
 most spiritual from the Maccabean revolt for many 
 generations onwards. God has no longer direct 
 dealings with men. With the Maccabean psalmist 
 who wrote — 
 
 We see not our signs : 
 
 There is no more any prophet, 
 
 Neither is there among us any that knoweth how long 
 
 (Ps. Ixxiv. 9) — 
 
 this writer too deplores the extinction of prophecy 
 
220 
 
 PSALMS OF SOLOMON 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 (ix. 27). And yet he seems to look forward to some 
 prophet in the future ; for Simon the Maccabee was 
 appointed to be high priest **until there should arise 
 a faithful prophet" (xiv. 41), and the stones of the 
 profaned altar of burnt offerings were laid up '*in 
 the mountain of the temple . . . until there should 
 come a prophet to show what should be done with 
 them " (iv. 46). 
 
 Psalms of 
 Solomon of 
 Pharisaic 
 authorship, 
 
 are from 
 different 
 authors, and 
 present two 
 distinct escha- 
 tological 
 systems. 
 
 Pss. xvii., xvni. 
 
 Psalms of Solomon (70-40 b.c.) 
 
 The next work that calls for consideration is the 
 so-called Psalms of Solomon, which were written 
 some decades later than the Similitudes. These 
 Psalms are eighteen in all. They appear to be 
 derived from various authors. With this diversity 
 of authorship we are only here concerned in a Hmited 
 degree. Our present subject requires us to dis- 
 tinguish the first sixteen psalms carefully from the 
 last two. The eschatological systems presented by 
 these differ in essential respects. 
 
 We shall deal with Pss. xvii., xviii. first. 
 These psalms cannot be regarded as possessing 
 great originality. There is hardly a statement in 
 them relative to the hopes of Israel which could 
 not be accounted for on the grounds of literary 
 reminiscence. And yet the representation on the 
 whole is vigorous and fascinating. Where, however, 
 they do display decided originality, their influence is 
 distinctly hurtful ; for, by connecting the Messiah 
 with the popular aspirations of the nation, they 
 
XVIU. 
 
 PSALMS OF SOLOMON 221 
 
 secularised it, and with it the teaching of Pharisaism, chap. vi. 
 and thus prepared the way for the ultimate destruc- 
 tion of the nation. The Messiah, certainly, is 
 finely conceived. As in the Similitudes, He is called The Mess ah 
 the Christ (xvii. 36, xviii. 6, 8). He is to be of : 
 the house and lineage of David : thus the psalmist 
 prays (xvii. 23-25) : — 
 
 Behold, O Lord, and raise up unto them their king, 
 
 The Son of David, in the time which thou, O God, knowest. 
 
 That he may reign over Israel thy servant. 
 
 And gird him with strength to break in pieces unrighteous 
 rulers, 
 
 To purge Jerusalem from the heathen that tread her down and 
 destroy .1 
 
 Moreover, the Messiah will be **a righteous king and 
 taught of God" (xvii. 35); He will "be pure from 
 sin, so that he may rule a mighty people " (xvii. 41). 
 He will bring back the dispersion also (xvii. 28) : — 
 
 And he shall gather together a holy people, whom he shall 
 lead in righteousness. 
 
 And he shall judge the tribes of the people that have been 
 sanctified by the Lord his God. 
 
 And having purged Jerusalem and made it holy as 
 in the days of old (xvii. 33), He will make Israel a 
 holy people (xvii. 29, 30"", 36) : — 
 
 And he shall not suffer iniquity to lodge in their midst 
 And none shall dwell with them that knoweth wickedness j 
 For he shall take knowledge of them that they are all the sons 
 of their God. 
 
 ^ These and the following quotations from this book are drawn from Ryle 
 and James's edition. They are, however, occasionally modified in accordance 
 with Gebhardt's new text. For "to purge" {KaQapiaai.), conjectured by Geiger 
 and accepted by Gebhardt, Ryle and James give the MSS. reading KadipKXov, 
 "purge." 
 
222 
 
 PSALMS OF SOLOMON 
 
 The Messiah 
 is mortal. 
 
 And there shall be no iniquity in his days in their midst 
 For all shall be holy and their king is the Lord Messiah. 
 
 And no stranger shall dwell within the gates : '' the 
 sojourner and the stranger shall dwell with them no 
 more " (xvii. 31''). 
 
 But as for the ungodly nations, He will destroy 
 them with the word of His mouth {xvii. 27; cf 
 xvii. 39). His weapons will not be carnal (xvii. 
 
 37):— 
 
 For he shall not put his trust in horse, and rider, and bow, 
 Nor shall he multiply unto himself gold and silver for war, 
 Nor by means of many peoples ^ shall he gather confidence for 
 the day of battle. 
 
 But he shall (xvii. 41) — 
 
 Rebuke princes and overthrow sinners by the might of his 
 word. 
 
 When at last the hostile nations are destroyed, the 
 rest will become subject to Him (xvii. 31^ 32'', 38^ 
 
 34):— 
 
 He shall judge the nations and the peoples with the wisdom of 
 his righteousness 
 
 And he shall possess the nations of the heathen to serve him 
 beneath his yoke. 
 
 And he shall have mercy on all the nations that come before 
 him in fear. 
 
 (Yea) the nations shall come from the ends of the world to see 
 his glory, 
 
 Bringing as gifts her sons that had fainted. 
 
 And the Messiah will not faint all His days (xvii. 
 
 42). 
 
 1 So Gebhardt, adding Xao:s after -koKKoXs. Ryle and James emend TroXXois 
 into Tr'KoioLS ( ** by means of ships "), Hilgenfeld into TraXrots or ^TrXots. 
 
PSALMS OF SOLOMON 223 
 
 I have given at some length this very vigorous chap. m. 
 presentation of the Messiah hope. The nearly con- 
 temporaneous appearance of this picture of the 
 Messiah and that in the Similitudes attests the 
 strength and vitality to which this hope, though 
 practically dead in the preceding century, had 
 already attained, before many decades had elapsed 
 in its successor. By means of these two writings 
 we are enabled to understand in some degree the 
 intensity with which the expectation of a personal 
 Messiah was cherished in the first century of the 
 Christian era, and likewise the guise in which the 
 people expected Him to appear. 
 
 The Messianic kingdom in these psalms is ap- The Messianic 
 parently of temporary duration, for there is no hint j^em^t^^ry ^ 
 of the righteous dead rising to share in it. Only ^^^^tion. 
 the surviving righteous become members of it, 
 Cf xvii. 50 : — 
 
 Blessed are they that shall be born in those days. 
 To behold the blessing of Israel, which God shall bring to pass 
 in the gathering together of the tribes. 
 
 Further, we might infer the transitory nature of the 
 Messianic kingdom from the fact that the Messiah 
 here is a single person, and not a series of kings. 
 The duration of His kingdom, therefore, is to be 
 regarded as conterminous with that of its ruler. 
 
 We now proceed to discuss the remaining sixteen Pss. i.-xvi. 
 psalms of this book. In these psalms there are referenceTto 
 hardly any references to the future, and there are ^^^ Messiah, 
 none to the Messiah. 
 
 A Messianic kingdom, however, was expected ; 
 
224 
 
 PSALMS OF SOLOMON 
 
 but dwell on 
 the Messianic 
 kingdom. 
 
 But the 
 righteous do 
 not rise to 
 share in this 
 kingdom, but 
 to an eternal 
 life in the 
 spirit. 
 
 for they paint in glowing colours the restoration 
 of the tribes (xi. i-8 ■^) : — 
 
 1. Blow ye the trumpet in Zion, yea the holy trumpet of 
 Jubilee. 
 
 2. Proclaim ye in Jerusalem with the voice of him that 
 bringeth good tidings, 
 
 That God hath had mercy upon Israel : he hath visited them. 
 
 3. Stand up on high, O Jerusalem : and behold thy children 
 Gathered from the East and the West together by the Lord. 
 
 4. From the North they come in the gladness of their God : 
 From the islands afar off hath God gathered them. 
 
 5. Lofty mountains did he make low : yea even unto the 
 plain before them. 
 
 6. The hills fled before their entering in, 
 
 The woods gave them shelter as they passed by. 
 
 7. Every tree of sweet savour did God make to spring up 
 before them 
 
 That Israel might pass by in the day when the glory of their 
 God shall visit them. 
 
 8. Put on, O Jerusalem, the garments of thy glory : 
 Make ready thine holy apparel, 
 
 For God hath spoken comfortably unto Israel, world without 
 end. 
 
 This future is regarded as a promised and 
 
 appointed period when God would succour His 
 
 people (vii. 9). But the psalmists do not dwell on 
 
 the gracious side of this promised time, but on the 
 
 vengeance that will befall the hostile nations and 
 
 the sinners amongst men. With their main burden, 
 
 therefore, we are not here concerned. Whatever 
 
 degree of importance they may attach to the 
 
 expected kingdom, they do not regard it as the 
 
 recompense of the righteous. The righteous rise 
 
 not to a kingdom of temporal prosperity but to 
 
 eternal life. Thus iii. 16 : — 
 
 ^ Cf. also viii. 34. 
 
JUDITH 225 
 
 They that fear the Lord shall rise unto life eternal, chap. vi. 
 
 And their life shall be in the light of the Lord, and it shall fail — 
 
 no more. 
 
 And they will *' inherit this life in gladness " (xiv. 7), 
 
 and "live in the righteousness of their God " (xv. 
 
 15). There seems to be no resurrection of the body. 
 
 As for the wicked, on the other hand, they The wicked 
 
 descend on death into hell (xvi. 2). Further, the Hades thdr 
 
 psalmist declares (xv. 1 1 ) :- ouoit'^ 
 
 And the inheritance of the sinners is destruction and darkness, 
 And their iniquities shall pursue them as far as Hades beneath. 
 
 And again (xiv. s"*, 6) : — 
 
 They remembered not God : 
 
 Therefore is their inheritance Hades and darkness and de- 
 struction 
 
 And they shall not be found in the day of mercy for the 
 righteous. 
 
 We thus observe a remarkable agreement between 
 the teaching of the first sixteen psalms of this book 
 and that of Eth. En. xci.-civ. 
 
 Judith {circa 50 b.c.^) 
 
 In the next book of which we have to take 
 account, i.e. Judith, there is only one eschatological 
 reference. This is found in xvi. 17, which runs: — 
 
 Woe to the nations that rise up against my kindred : Judith attests 
 
 The Lord Almighty will take vengeance of them in the day of ^ ^^^ develop 
 j-^dgment. --^4 
 
 By puttmg fire and worms in their fiesh,^ 
 And they shall weep and feel their pain for ever. 
 
 ^ The date of this book is uncertain. Most probably it belongs to the 
 first century E.c 
 
 ^ SoDi/tti ttOjO koX <7KLb\T}Kas ds (xdpKas ai^rwc. 
 
 15 
 
2 2 6 SIB YLLINE OR A CLES, % MA CCABEES 
 
 CHAR VI. This passage refers obviously to Gehenna, and is 
 
 valuable in this respect, that it attests a new develop- 
 ment in the use of the term Gehenna. Conceived 
 heretofore as the final abode of the apostate Jews, it 
 is now regarded as the final abode of the nations 
 generally, a meaning which it preserves in the next 
 century also (cf. Ass. of Mos. x. lo ; 4 Ezra vii. 36). 
 Only two books more call for consideration, and 
 our survey of the eschatology of this century will 
 be complete. These are a short fragment of the 
 Sibylline Oracles and the Second Book of Maccabees. 
 
 Sibylline Oracles III. 1-62 (before 31 b.c.^) 
 
 In these verses God's kingdom is expected, and 
 the advent of a holy king who shall sway the sceptre 
 
 of every land (-^fet S' 077^09 ava^ Trda-Tjf; 77)9 aKrjTTTpa 
 
 Messiah to KpaTTjacov, iii. 49). This Messianic King is to reign 
 
 ages, i.e. for a *' for all agcs " (iii. 50), but these words must not be 
 
 ongtime. pressed, for in a few lines later a universal judgment 
 
 on all men is foretold (iii. 53-56, 60, 61). For a 
 
 similar limitation of these words, cf. Apoc. Bar. xl. 3, 
 
 Ixxiii. I (see note on pp. 181, 182). 
 
 2 Maccabees (some time between 60 b.c. and the 
 Christian era) 
 
 The Messianic In the Second Book of Maccabees there is 
 
 kingdom in ^ . i i • i n yr . 
 
 2 Maccabees, no Qircct declaration as to the Messianic king- 
 dom, though we are most probably right in 
 interpreting vii. 37 as referring to it, where the 
 
 1 See Encyclo^(sdia Bibhcay i. Article on Apoc. Lit. par. 85. 
 
2 MACCABEES 227 
 
 youngest of the seven brethren prays that "God chap. vi. 
 may speedily be gracious to the nation." The hope 
 of this kingdom is implied also in the expectation of 
 the return of the tribes. This expectation appears 
 in the prayer of Jonathan (i. 27) : — 
 
 Gather together our dispersed ones, 
 
 Set at liberty them that are in bondage among the heathen, 
 
 Look upon them that are despised and abhorred, 
 
 And let the heathen know that thou art our God. 
 
 And in ii. 18 : — 
 
 In God have we hope, that he will quickly have mercy upon 
 us, and gather us together out of all the earth into the holy 
 place. 
 
 The two last passages indeed do not belong to 
 the original work, but to the two letters which were 
 prefixed to it by the epitomiser of Jason's work or at 
 a later date. It is very difficult to get a clear view 
 of the eschatology of this writer. According to his 2 Maccabees 
 express statement (ii. 19-23), the main narrative of of jTson^live 
 the book is drawn entirely from a single source, and ^°°^^' 
 forms merely an epitome of a work written by one 
 Jason of Cyrene in five books. These five books of 
 Jason, our writer declares that he has *' abridged 
 into one work" (ii. 23). They, therefore, if we may 
 reason backwards from the epitome to the original 
 work, dealt with the history of events from 175 b.c. 
 down to the decisive victory of Judas in 161, in all a 
 period of fifteen years, and were written most prob- 
 ably several decades before the close of the second 
 century B.C. Hence if these books of Jason are faith- 
 fully epitomised in the Second Book of Maccabees 
 
22C 
 
 2 MACCABEES 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 Messianic 
 kingdom. 
 
 Writer's 
 conception • 
 Hades. 
 
 / 
 
 we should have in the latter book the eschato- 
 ogical views of the second century b.c. And in 
 some respects this must be the case ; for though this 
 book nowhere enunciates definitely the nature of the 
 future kingdom, we can nevertheless with some 
 degree of certainty infer it from several passages. 
 Thus a Messianic or theocratic kingdom of some 
 sort seems to be expected ; for God has estab- 
 lished Israel for ever (xiv. 15). vii. '^'j^ as we have 
 mentioned above, points to the blessed future which 
 Israel will yet experience, and the same inference 
 might be drawn from vii. 33 also, where the hope is 
 expressed that God will again be reconciled to His 
 servants. But we are left in the dark as to the 
 nature of this kingdom. May we complete the 
 picture from the writer's beliefs on Hades and the 
 resurrection ? Immediately after death the righteous 
 and wicked alike depart to Hades (vi. 23). In 
 Hades the departed have a foretaste of their final 
 doom. Thus when bidden to share in the idolatrous 
 sacrifices of Antiochus, Eleazer declares : "Even if for 
 the present time I shall remove from me the punish- 
 ment of man, yet shall I not escape the hands of the 
 Almighty, either living or dead " (vi. 26). But Hades 
 was only an intermediate state for the righteous 
 (vii. 9, II, 14, etc.), and likewise for all Israel; for 
 in xii. 44 it is stated that Judas made a certain 
 sacrifice in the belief that those Jews who had fallen 
 in battle would rise again. For the non-Israelite 
 there was no resurrection (vii. 14) : ** It is good to 
 die at the hands of men and look for the hopes which 
 
2 MACCABEES 229 
 
 are given of God, that we shall be raised up again chap, vi. 
 by him ; for as for thee, thou shalt have no resurrec- 
 tion unto life."^ 
 
 Now as regards the resurrection, its nature was as The resurrec- 
 follows. It was to be to an eternal life. Thus the etemaiiife. 
 second of the seven brethren addressed Antiochus 
 before he died (vii. 9): *' Thou, O miscreant, dost 
 release us out of this present life, but the King of the 
 world shall raise us up, who have died for his laws 
 unto an eternal revival of life " (d^ aicoviov ava^icoo-cv 
 ^Q)rj<;). And to the same effect the youngest of the 
 seven, addressing Antiochus, declares (vii. 36) : " For 
 these our brethren, who have endured a short pain, 
 have now died under God's covenant of everlasting 
 life; but thou, through the judgment of God, shalt 
 receive in just measure the penalties of thy pride." 
 
 Thus the heathen enter at death on their eternal 
 doom. 
 
 In the next place, the resurrection is to be one Resurrection 
 0/ the body. The third of the seven brethren 
 declares (vii. 11) : ** From heaven I had them {i.e, 
 his tongue and hands) ; and for his laws' sake I 
 contemn them ; and from him I hope to receive 
 these back again." And with this thought the 
 mother of the seven encouraged them to endure 
 martyrdom (vii. 22, 23) : '' I know not how ye came 
 into my womb, neither was it I that bestowed on 
 you your spirit and your life, and it was not I that 
 brought into order the first elements of each one of 
 you. 23. Therefore the Creator of the world, who 
 
 ^ The text is <jo\ fihv yhp avdaraa-is els t<^7]v ovk ^(xrai. 
 
2 30 2 MACCABEES 
 
 CHAP. VI. fashioned the generation of man and devised the 
 generation of all things, will in mercy give back 
 to you again both your spirit and your life, as ye 
 now regard not your own selves for his laws' 
 sake." 
 
 Finally, it is said of Razis in xiv. 46 : ** He drew 
 forth his bowels through the wound, and taking them 
 in both his hands he shook them at the crowds ; and 
 calling upon him who is Lord of the life and spirit 
 to restore him these again, he thus died." 
 Resurrection to - Finally, the resurrection was not only to be to an 
 kingdom!^""^ eternal life, and that an eternal life in the body, but 
 also to a life to be eternally enjoyed in the com- 
 fmmity of the righteous. This follows from the 
 mother's words in vii. 29 : ** Fear not this execu- 
 tioner, but proving thyself worthy of thy brethren, 
 accept thy death, that in the mercy of God I may 
 receive thee again with thy brethren." 
 
 This last thought of a community of the risen 
 
 righteous in the body recalls the idea of the Messianic 
 
 kingdom. Now we found above certain allusions 
 
 to such a kingdom. If, therefore, we combine the 
 
 \ latter with those we have just learnt touching the 
 
 nature of the expected resurrection, we arrive at a 
 
 picture of the future that belongs essentially to the 
 
 second century. The departed righteous are raised to 
 
 Theeschato- an eternal Messianic kingdom on earth. Thus the 
 
 2°Maccabees Writer looked forward to such a kingdom as we find 
 
 setnd^emury depicted iu Eth. Eu. Ixxxiii.-xc, of which the scene 
 
 is the present earth. This being so, we must regard 
 
 the writer of this book as having reproduced with 
 
 B.C. 
 
SOUL AND SPIRIT 231 
 
 some faithfulness, at least in an eschatological aspect, chap. vi. 
 the work of Jason. 
 
 Before parting with this interesting book, we 
 should notice the significant rdle played in it by the 
 doctrine of retribution, present no less than future. 
 
 Present retribution follows sin alike in the case its doctrine of 
 
 , retribution in 
 
 of Israel and of the Gentiles, but in the case of thisufe. 
 Israel its purpose is corrective, but in that of the 
 Gentiles it is vindictive (vi. 13-15). Though God 
 punish His people, He does not withdraw His mercy 
 from them (vi. 12-16, xiv. 15). In order to show 
 the certainty of retribution in this life, the writer re- 
 writes history, and makes individual sinners suffer 
 the penalties which he thought, in strict justice, they 
 ought to have suffered. This we may see in the 
 final earthly destinies assigned to the heathen 
 oppressors Epiphanes (vii. 17, ix. 5-12) and Nicanor 
 (xv. 32-35), and to the Hellenising Jews, Jason (v. 7- 
 10) and Menelaus (xiii. 8). Even the martyrs confess 
 their sufferings as due to sin (vii. 18, 33, 37), and pray 
 that God's wrath may be expiated in their sufferings 
 (vii. 38). Immediate retribution is a token of God's 
 goodness (vi. 13). But here we must part with our 
 author, for our present concern is mainly with retribu- 
 tion beyond the grave. 
 
 IV. Development of Special Conceptions 
 
 Soul and Spirit, — Just as in the second, so in this syncretism of 
 century, the doctrine of the soul and spirit is almost entv^ews^in^"^' 
 without exception a development of the older Semitic ^ ^^^^^^tjees. 
 
232 SOUL AND SPIRIT 
 
 CHAP. VI. view. We shall notice the exceptions first. They 
 are to be found in 2 Mace. vii. 22, 23, where we have 
 a syncretism of the two psychologies. Thus in vii. 
 22 the mother of the seven martyred brethren de- 
 clares : "It was not I that bestowed upon you your 
 spirit and your life" (to irveviia koX t7)v ^(otjv^). Here 
 the spirit is the life-giving principle of which the life, 
 or living soul, is the product, just as in Gen. ii., iii. 
 These were given by God, and according to the 
 writer's view are taken back by God at death ; for 
 in vii. 23 the mother continues: ''Therefore the 
 Creator of the world ... in mercy giveth back to 
 you again both your spirit and your life." Yet the 
 withdrawal of this spirit does not lead to annihila- 
 tion or unconsciousness in Sheol : for the departed 
 are conscious (vi. 26). Hence the writer possesses 
 no consistent psychology ; for the ordinary dichotomy 
 Elsewhere the of soul and body is found in vi. 30, vii. 37, xiv. 38, 
 
 ordinary dicho- t hi • ■ t r i • 
 
 tomy appears. XV. 30. lu all the rcmammg literature oi this 
 
 century there is only a dichotomy — either the spirit 
 Soul and spirit and body, or the soul and body. Some writers 
 fdenUcaL spcak Only of the spirit and body, others only of the 
 
 soul and body, but some also use either indifferently. 
 In none of these cases is spirit conceived as in Gen. 
 ii., iii. Thus in the oldest writing of the century the 
 departed in Sheol are spoken of as spirits (in Eth. 
 En. xcviii. lo, and likewise in ciii. 3, 4, 8) : ''All good- 
 ness and joy and glory are prepared for them, and are 
 
 1 The same phraseology recurs in xiv. 46. 
 
 2 In Eth. En. xv. 4 the antithesis between the spiritual and the fleshly 
 is strongly emphasised, but the contrast is not between two parts of man, but 
 between the nature of angels and of men. 
 
 2 
 
JUDGMENT 233 
 
 written down for the spirits of those who have chap. vi. 
 
 died in righteolisness, and manifold good will be 
 
 given to you in recompense for your labours, 
 
 and your lot is abundantly beyond the lot of the 
 
 living. 4. And your spirits — (the spirits) of you who 
 
 die in righteousness, will live and rejoice and be 
 
 glad, and their spirits will not perish, but their 
 
 memorial will be before the face of the Great One 
 
 unto all the generations of the world : wherefore 
 
 then fear not their contumely. ... 8. And into 
 
 darkness and chains, and a burning fire, where there 
 
 is grievous condemnation, will your spirits enter ; 
 
 and there will be grievous condemnation for the 
 
 generations of the world. Woe unto you, for ye 
 
 will have no peace." Again, the departed in Sheol 
 
 are spoken of as *' souls " (cii. 5, 1 1 ; ciii. 7) : '*Know 
 
 ye that their souls will be made to descend into 
 
 Sheol, and they will become wretched, and great will 
 
 be their tribulation." On the other hand, in the 
 
 nearly contemporaneous books of the Similitudes 
 
 and Psalms of Solomon the term *' spirit " is not used 
 
 of man at all, but only '*soul " (see Eth. En. xlv. 3, 
 
 Ixiii. 10; Pss. Sol, passim). 
 
 Finally, in the Noachic interpolations only the 
 term '' spirit" is used of man (cf. xli. 8 ; Ix. 4 ; Ixvii. 
 
 8, 9 ; Ixxi. i), and likewise in the Essenic appendix 
 to this book, where it speaks of ''the spirits of the 
 wicked (cviii. 3, 6) and of the righteous " (cviii. 7, 
 
 9, 11). 
 
 Judgment^final on all rational beings, htiman Finaijudgment 
 and angelic, at the close of the Messianic kingdo7n Me's^lanic^ 
 
234 
 
 PARADISE 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 kingdom ex- 
 cept in Eth. 
 En. xxxvii.- 
 Ixx. 
 
 Paradise the 
 intermediate 
 abode of the 
 righteous, 
 according to 
 various sec- 
 tions of Ethio- 
 pia Enoch. 
 
 except in one autho7\ — Only in Eth. En. xxxvii.-lxx. 
 in the hterature of this century is the final judgment 
 regarded as initiating the Messianic kingdom. The 
 scope of this judgment is co-extensive with the 
 human and angelic worlds (see p. 218). This con- 
 ception of the final judgment, though apparently the 
 same as that which prevailed in the second century, 
 differs, however, from it in this respect, that while 
 the latter ushers in the Messianic kingdom on the 
 present earth, the former ushers in the Messianic 
 kingdom in a new heavens and a new earth. 
 
 But — and herein the main difference between the 
 first- and second-century eschatologies under this 
 head is to be observed — all (?) other writers of this 
 century conceived the final judgment as forming 
 the close of the temporary Messianic kingdom. 
 This is clearly so in Eth. En. xci.-civ. and Pss. Sol. 
 i.-xvi., and also in Pss. Sol. xvii., xviii. With the 
 difficulties besetting 2 Maccabees we have already 
 dealt (see pp. 226-231). A preliminary judgment 
 of the sword is found in Eth. En. xci. 1 2, xcv. 7, xcvi. 
 i' xcviii. 12, etc., which is executed by the saints, as 
 in Dan. ii. 44. This Messianic judgment is executed 
 in Pss. Sol. xvii., xviii. by the yi^ssvsHa forensically. 
 
 Places of abode of the departed: (i.) Paradise. — 
 Paradise, which in the preceding century had been 
 regarded as the abode of only two men, has come 
 in this to be conceived as the intermediate abode of 
 all the righteous and elect (Eth. En. Ixi. 12) : ** All 
 the holy ones who are in heaven will bless him, 
 and all the elect who dwell in the garden of life." 
 
HEAVEN 235 
 
 VI. 
 
 Ixx. 2-4: ''And he was carried aloft on the chap. 
 chariots of the spirit, and the name vanished amongst 
 men (lit. * them '). 3. And from that day I was 
 no longer numbered amongst them, and he set me 
 between the two winds, between the North and the 
 West, where the angels took the cords to measure 
 for me the place for the elect and righteous. 4. 
 And there I saw the first fathers and the right- 
 eous who from the beginning dwell in that place." 
 Noachic fragment, Ix. 8: "But the male is called 
 Behemoth, who occupies with his breast a waste 
 wilderness named D^ndain, on the east of the 
 Garden where the elect and the righteous dwell, 
 where my grandfather was taken up, the seventh 
 from Adam, the first man whom the Lord of spirits 
 created." Again in Ixxvii. 3 Paradise is called 
 "the garden of righteousness," and in Ix. 23 **the 
 garden of the righteous." This Paradise appears 
 to be somewhere in the N.W. From Paradise 
 the righteous pass to the Messianic kingdom in the 
 Similitudes. 
 
 (ii.) Heaven. — For the first time in apocalyptic Heaven the 
 literature heaven becomes the abode of the spirits the^righteous 
 of the righteous after the final'iM^gm^m. Thus the x^^c^; .^i"ke- 
 portals of heaven will be open to them (Eth. En. ^iseinxxxvii.- 
 civ. 2), and their spirits will live and rejoice (ciii. 4), 
 and "have great joy as the angels in heaven," and 
 "become companions of the heavenly hosts" (civ. 
 4, 6). Likewise in the Similitudes the new heaven 
 as well as the new earth is to be the abode of the 
 righteous (see xli. 2, li. 4). 
 
236 
 
 SHEOL 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 Sheol — [a] the 
 intermediate 
 abode of the 
 departed. 
 
 For the first 
 time conceived 
 to be a place 
 where moral 
 transformation 
 becomes 
 possible. 
 
 {b) Hell or 
 Gehenna the 
 final abode of 
 the wicked. 
 
 (iii.) SheoL — During this century Sheol has a 
 variety of meanings, most of which have been 
 attested previously. Thus it = {a) Intermediate 
 abode of the departed whence all Israel (?) rises to 
 judgment (Eth. En. li. i ^), In 2 Maccabees it appears 
 only in this sense (vi. 23). It is noteworthy that 
 the writer of this book regards a moral change as 
 possible in Sheol, in xii. 42-45. Thus Judas sacri- 
 fices on behalf of those who had fallen in battle, 
 and on whose persons idolatrous symbols had been 
 found. ''For," the writer adds, **if he had not 
 expected that they that had fallen would rise 
 again, it would have been superfluous and idle to 
 pray for the dead." This is the first trace of a 
 belief in Sheol as a truly moral abode. Accord- 
 ing to Eth. En. c. 5, the souls of the righteous are 
 preserved in a special part of Sheol (? cf. 4 Ezra 
 iv. 41). 
 
 {b) Secondly, Sheol is regarded as the place of 
 final eternal punishment, that is, it has become hell 
 (Eth. En. Ivi. 8, Ixiii. 10, xcix. 11, ciii. 7). In 
 Sheol the souls are slain (xcix. 1 1). Yet in Eth. En. 
 xxii. 11-13, which belongs to the preceding century, 
 the souls of the wicked had to be raised out of 
 
 ^ Eth. En, li. I is difificult. Both Sheol and hell (here Haguel = Abaddon, 
 cf. Job xxvi. 6) are said to give up their inhabitants for judgment. Are we 
 therefore to regard Sheol and hell as mere synonyms here, or Sheol as the 
 temporary abode of the righteous and hell of the wicked? The fact that 
 Paradise is the intermediate abode of the righteous in the Similitudes {see 
 above) favours the former alternative. Thus Sheol would in all cases be a 
 place of punishment intermediate or final in the Similitudes. But Sheol may 
 be regarded as lying in the N.W., and Paradise as a department of Sheol. 
 Paradise in the Similitudes lies in the N.W. and Sheol in the W., according 
 to Eth. En. xxii. 
 
SHEOL 237 
 
 Sheol in order to be slain. The reason is clear, chap. vi. 
 In Eth. En. xxii. Sheol is not an abode of fire. 
 Hence it is the place of final retribution where 
 '* souls are slain." In Eth. En. xci.-civ., on the 
 other hand, which belongs to the opening years of 
 the first century, Sheol has become an abode of fire, 
 and therefore synonymous so far with Gehenna. In 
 the Psalms of Solomon Sheol in all cases is a synonym 
 for hell (xiv. 6, xv. 11, xvi. 2). We should ob- 
 serve here how Sheol is associated with fire and 
 darkness. It has thus drawn to itself some of the 
 attributes of Gehenna. In several passages in the 
 Similitudes, and throughout Eth. En. xci. - civ., 
 Sheol and Gehenna are practically identical. In 
 the Similitudes Sheol is the intermediate abode of 
 all (? see footnote) that died before the advent of 
 the Messianic kingdom (li. i) ; but after its advent 
 it is henceforth conceived as a final abode of fire 
 (Ixiii. 10). 
 
 (iv.) Gehenna. — A new development of this idea Gehenna. 
 
 |. ..j_^-._. !••■ 1- Transforma- 
 
 appears m this century m rLtn. En. xlvui. 9; liv. tionsofthis 
 I, 2 ; Ixii. 12, 13. According to the prevailing view ^°"^^p*'°"- 
 of the second century b.c, Gehenna was to be the final 
 abode of Jewish apostates whose sufferings were to 
 form an ever-present spectacle to the righteous ; but 
 in the Similitudes (xxxvii.-lxx.) Gehenna is specially 
 designed for the kings and the mighty, and Gehenna 
 and its victims are forthwith to vanish for ever from 
 the sight of the righteous. This latter view appears 
 to be due to the fact that after the judgment in the 
 Similitudes there were to be a new heavens and a 
 
238 
 
 RESURRECTION 
 
 Gehenna a 
 place of 
 spiritual 
 punishment 
 only in Eth. 
 En. xci.-civ. 
 
 Burning 
 Furnace = final 
 abode of the 
 fallen angels. 
 
 Resurrection. 
 The teaching 
 of 2 Macca- 
 bees on this 
 head belongs 
 to second cen- 
 tury B.C. 
 
 new earth, in which, of course, there was no room for 
 Gehenna. The notable transformation of Gehenna 
 referred to on p. i88 is further attested in Eth. En. 
 xci.-civ., if we may identify Sheol and Gehenna-^ in 
 this book. Elsewhere Gehenna had always been 
 conceived as a place of both corporal and spiritual 
 punishment. In the book just mentioned it appears 
 as a place of spiritual punishment only. Thus in 
 xcviii. 3 "their spirits will be cast into the furnace of 
 fire " (cf. also ciii. 8). Sheol and Gehenna seem to 
 be equivalent terms in this writer (see xcix. ii, ciii. 
 7 ; also c. 9). The old idea of Gehenna as a place 
 of punishment within view of the righteous can no 
 more be admitted in this book than in the 
 Similitudes ; for after the destruction of heaven and 
 earth only a new heaven is created. The same 
 conception is found in the Essene writing Eth. En. 
 cviii. 5, 6. 
 
 (v.) Burning Furnace — \h^ final abode of the 
 fallen angels (Eth. En. Hv. 6 ; cf. xviii. 11-16, 
 xxi. 1-6). 
 
 Resurrection, — The doctrine of the resurrection 
 is taught in four books belonging to this century, 
 but the particular form of this doctrine, which 
 appears in 2 Maccabees, belongs, as we have seen 
 above, to the second century B.C., and not to the first. 
 This book puts forward a very definite doctrine of 
 the resurrection of the body. Such a doctrine was 
 
 1 Gehenna is never mentioned by name in this book, but only Sheol. 
 Sheol, however, possesses some of the chief characteristics of Gehenna. It 
 is generally spoken of as " a burning fire," *' a furnace of fire," etc. 
 
RESURRECTION 239 
 
 quite in keeping with the view of the Messianic chap. vi. 
 kingdom which prevailed in the second century B.C. 
 as an eternal kingdom on the present earth. But in 
 the next century, where this specific doctrine of the 
 kingdom is abandoned, and the righteous are re- 
 garded as rising either to heaven itself or to the 
 eternal Messianic kingdom in a new heaven and a 
 new earth, the nature of this resurrection is, of 
 necessity, differently conceived. To such spiritual 
 final abodes of the blessed there could not be a 
 mere bodily resurrection. Hence two views arose views of first 
 as to the nature of the resurrection. Whilst some ^^"^^^ 
 taught, as the writers of Eth. En. xci.-civ. and Pss. 
 Sol., that there would be no resurrection of the a resurrection 
 body at all but only of the spirit, others, as the ipl^t onfy ; 
 writer of the Similitudes, said that there would be a {^) of the 
 resurrection of the body, but that this body would ^n'abodyof 
 consist of garments of glory and of light (Eth. En. ^^^_^^^ 
 Ixii. 15, 16), and that the risen righteous would be 
 of an angelic nature (li. 4). Thus we find that the 
 doctrine of the resurrection which was current 
 amongst the cultured Pharisees in the century im- 
 mediately preceding the Christian era was of a truly 
 spiritual nature. And moreover, as regards those oniythe 
 who have the right to share in the resurrection, the [o°att^^n\o^he 
 doctrine is no less high and spiritual. Thus accord- (E^En°" 
 insf to the teachine^ of Eth. En. xci.-civ, and Pss. ^'''•"'''y/"'^ 
 
 o o ^ Pss, of Solo- 
 
 Sol, i.-xvi. only the righteous are to rise. The "ion). 
 
 testimony of the Similitudes on this head is doubtful. Testimony of 
 
 Thus in Eth. En. Ixi. 5 it is clearly implied that di^ded. ^^ 
 
 only the righteous are to share in the resurrection, 
 
240 
 
 THE MESSIAH, THE GENTILES 
 
 but in li. I, 2 it is just as clearly stated that there is 
 a resurrection both of the just and of the unjust. 
 
 Messianic Kingdom. — See general historical de- 
 velopment in first century (see pp. 200-203). 
 
 Messiah, — In the preceding century the Messi- 
 anic hope was practically non-existent. So long as 
 Judas and Simon were chiefs of the nation, the need 
 of a Messiah was hardly felt. But in the first half 
 of the next century it was very different. Subject 
 to ruthless oppressions, the righteous were in sore 
 need of help. But inasmuch as the Maccabean 
 princes were themselves the leaders in this oppres- 
 sion, the thoughts of the faithful were forced to look 
 for divine aid. Thus the bold and original thinker 
 to whom we owe the Similitudes conceived the 
 Messiah as the supernatural Son of Man, who 
 should enjoy universal dominion and execute judg- 
 ment on men and angels. But other religious 
 thinkers returning afresh to the study of the Old 
 Old Testament Testament, revived, as in Pss. Sol., the expectation 
 of the prophetic Messiah, sprung from the house and 
 lineage of David (xvii. 23 ; see above, pp. 220-223). 
 These very divergent conceptions took such a firm 
 hold of the national consciousness that henceforth 
 the Messiah becomes almost universally the central 
 and chief figure in the Messianic kingdom. 
 
 Gentiles. — The favourable view of the second 
 century as to the future of the Gentiles has in this 
 century all but disappeared. In Eth. En. xxxvii,- 
 Ixx. annihilation appears to await them. Only in 
 Pss. Sol. xvii. 32 is it stated that they shall be 
 
 Supernatural 
 Messiah. 
 
 conception of 
 
 the Messiah. 
 
 No share in 
 a blessed 
 future for the 
 Gentiles. 
 
THE GENTILES 241 
 
 spared to serve Israel in the temporary Messianic chap, vl 
 kingdom. This may have been the view of the 
 other writers of this century, who looked forward 
 to a merely temporary Messianic kingdom. In no 
 case does it appear that the Gentiles could attain 
 to a blessed resurrection. 
 
 16 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 (1-60 A.D.) 
 
 ESCHATOLOGY OF APOCRYPHAL AND APOCALYPTIC 
 LITERATURE DURING THE FIRST CENTURY A.D. 
 
 I. Authorities for the First Century a.d. 
 
 Book of Jubilees. 
 
 Assumption of Moses. 
 
 Book of Wisdom. 
 
 Philo. 
 
 Slavonic Enoch. 
 
 4 Maccabees. 
 
 Apocalypse of Baruch. 
 
 Book of Baruch.^ 
 
 4 Ezra. 
 
 Josephus. 
 
 1 1 . General Eschatological Development of the 
 First Centtiry a, v. 
 
 Further effects The gfowth of dualism, which was so vigorous 
 
 dufusm"^ in the preceding century, attains in this its final 
 
 development. Not only has the thought of an 
 
 ^ The earlier part of this work may be as old as the second century B.C. 
 
ESCHATOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT 243 
 
 eternal Messianic kingdom passed absolutely from c?iap. vu. 
 the minds of men, but also the hope of a tempo- EvenThThope 
 rary Messianic kingdom is at times abandoned in MessiaSc"^^"^^ 
 despair (B^ and B^ of Apocalypse of Baruch ; 4 Ezra, SgWen up. 
 Salathiel Apoc. ; 4 Mace.) ; and in the rest, where 
 it is expected, it is always of temporary duration. 
 
 In some books the actual duration of this tem- Duration of 
 porary Messianic kingdom is defined. Thus the defined^s 
 Slavonic Enoch ascribes to it a duration of 1000 Hen°cJthe^' 
 years, Le, a millennium, and the Ezra Apocalypse i^iiiennium. 
 (4 Ezra vii. 28, 29) a period of 400 years. According 
 to the latter authority also, some of the saints will rise 
 to share in it. In this way was evolved the doctrine 
 of the first resurrection. 
 
 Thus the breach which had set in between the 
 eschatologies of the individual and of the nation in 
 the preceding century has been still further widened 
 in this century, and the differences in the two 
 eschatologies developed to their utmost limits. 
 Either the nation has no blessed future at all, or at 
 best only one of temporary duration. With this the Extreme 
 individual has no essential concern. His interest in^rdigil^n^™ 
 centres round his own lot in the after-life. Thus foi^owsupon 
 
 the loss of the 
 
 Judaism has surrendered in despair the thought of Messianic 
 the divine kingdom, which was the bequest of the 
 Old Testament prophets. 
 
 The transcendent view of the risen righteous 
 which we observed in the preceding century is in 
 this century likewise e^enerally received. Thus it ^/surrection 
 
 ■' ^ ^ '' _ ^ of spirit only, 
 
 is to be a resurrection of the spirit only (Jubilees, or of spirit 
 Assumption of Moses, Philo, Book of Wisdom, gioryofcod, 
 
244 ESCHATOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT 
 
 CHAP. VII. 4 Maccabees), or the righteous are to rise vestured 
 or of thT with the glory of God (Slavonic Enoch ; see also the 
 whic/wa° ^' Pharisaic doctrine in Josephus, BJ. ii. viii. 14), or 
 to^brtrans-^ with their former earthly body, which is forthwith to 
 figured. bg transformed and made like that of the angels 
 
 (Apocalypse of Baruch ; 4 Ezra).. 
 Righteous But a new development now takes its rise in 
 
 abo^deof regard to the resurrection of the spirit. Heretofore 
 ShJ'acc^r the righteous spirit did not rise from its intermediate 
 ing to Heiien- abodc in Sheol till after the final iuds^ment ; but now 
 
 istic but not _ . . 
 
 Paiestinean several writers regard the righteous as entering on a 
 The latter blessed immortality immediately after death. But 
 the doctrine of this vicw is held only by Alexandrian writers, i.e, 
 
 :rea^oTet; Book of Wisdom (iii. I-4; iv. 2, 7, lO, Ctc), Philo, 
 
 the righteous. ^ Maccabces, or by the Essenes (see Josephus, B.J, 
 II. viii. 11). This may possibly be the view of the 
 Book of Jubilees, but it is unlikely. Hence we may 
 conclude that the universal tradition of Paiestinean 
 Judaism always taught the doctrine of an inter- 
 mediate abode for the righteous. 
 Resurrection Finally, the scope of the resurrection, which in 
 
 israeUoaii°'" ^hc past was limited to Israel, is in this century 
 mankind. extended in some books to all mankind (Apocalypse 
 of Baruch xlix.-li.; 4 Ezra vii. 32, -2^"]^, For the Gen- 
 tiles, however, this is but a sorry boon. They are 
 raised only to be condemned for ever, and the con- 
 demnation that followed such a resurrection was 
 beyond measure severer than had been that which 
 they had endured before its advent.-^ 
 
 1 So Apoc. Bar. xxx. 4, 5, xxxvi. Ii ; 4 Ezra vii, %•], 
 
JUBILEES 245 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 t. 
 
 III. Eschatological Systems of the various Writers 
 of the First Century a,d. 
 
 The Book of Jubilees (before 10 a.d.) 
 
 There is not much eschatological thought in the 
 Book of Jubilees. It is a glorification of legalistic 
 Judaism and of the priesthood. Hence a special 
 blessing is given to Levi by Isaac (xxxi. 13-15): 
 *' May the God of all, the very Lord of all ages, 
 bless thee and thy children throughout all ages. 
 14. And may the Lord give to thee and to thy seed 
 greatness and great glory, and cause thee and thy 
 seed, from among all flesh, to approach him to serve 
 in his sanctuary as the angels of the presence and as 
 the holy ones ; (even) as they, will the seed of thy 
 sons be for glory and greatness and holiness, and 
 may he make them great in all the ages. 15. And 
 they will be princes and judges, and chiefs of all the 
 seed of the sons of Jacob ; they will speak the word 
 of the Lord in righteousness, and they will judge all 
 his judgments in righteousness, and declare my ways 
 to Jacob and my paths to Israel. The blessing of 
 the Lord will be given in their mouths that they 
 may bless all the seed of the beloved." 
 
 A Messiah of the tribe of Judah seems to be a Messiah 
 expected by this writer. Thus Isaac blesses Judah : expected. 
 ** May the Lord give thee (xxxi. 18, 19) strength and 
 power to tread down all that hate thee ; be a prince, 
 thou and one of thy sons, over the sons of Jacob ; 
 may thy name and the name of thy sons go forth 
 
woes. 
 
 246 JUBILEES 
 
 CHAP. VII. and traverse the whole earth and the countries ; 
 then shall the Gentiles fear thy face, and all the 
 nations shall quake and all the peoples shall quake. 
 19. In thee may there be the help of Jacob, and in 
 thee may there be found the salvation of Israel." 
 But the words may refer to David. 
 The Messianic There is a detailed description of the Messianic 
 woes (xxiii. 13, 14, 18, 19, 22). 13. '* For calamity 
 follows on calamity, and wound on wound, and 
 tribulation on tribulation, and evil tidings on evil 
 tidings, and illness on illness, and all evil judgments 
 such as these one with another, illness and over- 
 throw, and snow and frost, and ice and fever and 
 chills, and torpor and famine, and death, and sword, 
 and captivity and all kinds of calamities and pains. 
 14. And all these will come on an evil generation, 
 which has transgressed on the earth ; and their 
 works are uncleanness and fornication, and pollution 
 and abominations. ... 18. Behold the earth will 
 be destroyed on account of all their works, and there 
 will be no seed of the vine, and no oil ; for their 
 works are altogether faithless, and they will all 
 perish together, beasts, and cattle, and birds, and all 
 the fish of the sea, on account of the children of men. 
 19. And they will strive one with another, the young 
 with the old, and the old with the young, the poor 
 with the rich, and the lowly with the greats and the 
 beggar with the prince, on account of the law and 
 the covenant ; for they have forgotten his com- 
 mandment and the covenant, and the feasts, and the 
 months, and the Sabbaths, and the jubilees, and all 
 
JUBILEES 247 
 
 the judgments. ... 22. And a great punishment chap, vn, 
 will befall the deeds of this generation from the Lord, 
 and he will give them over to the sword, and to 
 judgment, and to captivity, and to be plundered and 
 devoured." Thereupon will follow an invasion of invasion of 
 Palestine by the heathen nations (xxiii. 23, 24). 23, the Gentiles. 
 ** And he will wake up against them the sinners of 
 the Gentiles, who will show them no mercy or grace, 
 and who will respect the person of none, neither old 
 nor young, nor any one, for they are wicked and 
 powerful, so that they are more wicked than all the 
 children of men. And they will use violence against 
 Israel and transgression against Jacob, and much 
 blood will be shed upon the earth, and there will be 
 none to gather it and none to bury. 24. In those 
 days they will cry aloud and call and pray that they 
 may be saved from the hand of the sinful Gentiles ; 
 but none will be saved." 
 
 Then Israel will begin to learn the error of its Repentance of 
 ways, and repent (xxiii. 16, 26). 16. *' And in that ^^'^^^' 
 generation the sons will convict their fathers and 
 their elders of sin and unrighteousness, and of the 
 words of their mouth and of the great wickedness 
 which they perpetrate, and concerning their forsak- 
 ing the covenant which the Lord made between them 
 and him, that they should observe and do all his 
 commandments and his ordinances and all his laws, 
 without departing to the right hand or to the 
 left. ... 26. And in those days the children will 
 begin to study the laws, and to seek the command- 
 ments, and to return to the path of righteousness." 
 
248 
 
 JUBILEES 
 
 CHAP, VII, 
 
 The gradual 
 advent of the 
 Messianic 
 kingdom. 
 
 No resurrec- 
 tion but a 
 blessed im- 
 mortality of the 
 righteous. 
 
 Judgment on 
 close of Mes- 
 sianic king- 
 dom. 
 
 And then as the nation becomes faithful (xxiii. 
 27-29). 27. '* The days of the children of men will 
 begin to grow many, and increase from generation 
 to generation, and day to day, till their days draw 
 nigh to a thousand years, and to a greater number 
 of years than (before) were their days. 28. And 
 there will be no old man, nor one that is not satisfied 
 with his days ; for all will be (as) children and 
 youths. 29. And all their days they will com- 
 plete in peace and in joy, and they will live, and 
 there will be no Satan nor any evil destroyer ; for 
 all their days will be days of blessing and healing." 
 
 The Messianic period here described is else- 
 where (xxv. 20) called ''the great day of peace." 
 Though the Gentiles are to be blessed through 
 Israel (xviii. 16, xx. 10, xxvii. 23), it is doubtful 
 if this applies to the Messianic age. Finally, when 
 the righteous die, their spirits will enter into a 
 blessed immortality (xxiii. 31): ''And their bones 
 will rest in the earth and their spirits will have much 
 joy, and they will know that it is the Lord who 
 executes judgment, and shows mercy to hundreds 
 and thousands of all that love him." The '*day of 
 the great judgment" (xxiii. 11) seems to follow on 
 the close of the Messianic kingdom. At this judg- 
 ment M^stema, the chief of the demons, will be 
 judged (x. 8), and the demons subject to him. We 
 have seen that the writer believes only in a resur- 
 rection of the spirit (xxiii. 31). The question now 
 arises : Where do the spirits of the righteous go who 
 die before the final judgment? It cannot be to 
 
ASSUMPTION OF MOSES 249 
 
 Sheol as this book ordinarily conceives it ; for Sheol chap, vil 
 is "the place of condemnation" to which eaters of 
 blood and idolaters are condemned (vii. 29, xxii. 22). 
 It must either be to an intermediate abode of the 
 righteous, such as Paradise, as in the Similitudes, or 
 else to heaven. All Palestinean Jewish tradition 
 favours the former view. 
 
 Assumption of Moses (7-29 a.d.) 
 
 The Assumption of Moses is closely allied to the xheAssump- 
 Book of Jubilees in many respects. But whereas o°a Pharisaic 
 Jubilees is a manifesto in favour of the priesthood, ^^^^^'^^• 
 the Assumption emanates from a Pharisaic Quietist, 
 and contains a bitter attack on the priesthood in vii. 
 It adds greatly to the interest of this book that it 
 was written during the early life of our Lord, or 
 possibly contemporaneously with His public ministry. 
 As in Jubilees, so here the preparation for the advent 
 of the theocratic or Messianic kingdom will be a 
 period of repentance (i. i8). Seventeen hundred 
 and fifty years after the death of Moses (x. 12) God Messianic 
 will intervene on behalf of Israel (x. 7), and the ten restoraaon^of 
 tribes brought back from captivity. There is no ^^^ ^^" *'"''"'' 
 Messiah : "The eternal God alone . . . will punish 
 the Gentiles " (x. 7). In this respect it may differ 
 from Jubilees. Moreover, the most popular doctrine 
 of the Messiah made Him a man of war. But such a 
 doctrine was offensive to the author of the Assump- 
 tion. He was a Pharisee of a fast -disappearing 
 type, recalling in all respects the Chasid of the early 
 
250 ASSUMPTION OF MOSES 
 
 CHAP. vii. Maccabean times, and upholding the old traditions 
 of quietude and resignation. While his party was 
 fast committing itself to political interests and move- 
 ments, he raised his voice to recall them from the 
 evil ways on which they had entered, and besought 
 them to return to the old paths, but his appeal was 
 made in vain, and so the secularisation of the 
 Pharisaic movement in due course culminated in 
 the fall of Jerusalem. 
 Israel will be At the close of this temporary Messianic 
 
 heaven, and kingdom Israel will be exalted to heaven, whence 
 
 see its enemies -,1.11 v ' • r^ -y t^t 
 
 in Gehenna, it shail sce its encmies m Gehenna. 1 he great 
 hymn of the last things is so fine that we shall 
 quote it almost wholly (x. 3-10^): — 
 
 3. For the Heavenly One will arise from his royal throne, 
 And he will go forth from his holy habitation, 
 
 And his wrath will burn on account of his sons. 
 
 4. And the earth will tremble : to its confines will it be shaken : 
 And the high mountains will be made low, 
 
 And the hills will be shaken and fall. 
 
 5. And the horns of the sun will be broken, and he will be turned 
 
 into darkness ; 
 And the moon will not give her light, and be turned wholly 
 
 into blood. 
 And the circle of the stars will be disturbed. 
 
 6. And the sea will retire into the abyss. 
 And the fountains of waters will fail, 
 And the rivers will dry up. 
 
 7. For the Most High will arise, the Eternal God alone. 
 And he will appear to punish the Gentiles, 
 
 And he will destroy all their idols. 
 
 1 For the text of this hymn, see the present writer's Assumption of Moses ^ 
 pp. 40-43- 
 
ALEXANDRIAN JUDAISM 2 5 1 
 
 8. Then thou, O Israel, wilt be happy, chap. vii. 
 And thou wilt mount upon the neck[s and wings] of the eagle, 
 
 And (the days of thy mourning) will be ended. 
 
 9. And God will exalt thee, 
 
 And he will cause thee to approach to the heaven of the stars, 
 And he will establish thy habitation among them. 
 
 10. And thou wilt look from on high and wilt see thy enemies in 
 Ge(henna), 
 And thou wilt recognise them and rejoice, 
 And thou wilt give thanks and confess thy Creator. 
 
 It is noteworthy that the conception of Gehenna, Gehenna be- 
 which was originally the specific place of punishment final abode of 
 for apostate Jews, is here extended, as In Judith, so g^nerl^fy."^ 
 as to become the final abode of the wicked generally. 
 Finally, there seems to be no resurrection of the 
 body, but of the spirit only. 
 
 We must now leave Palestinean soil and discuss 
 the hopes which Alexandrian Judaism cherished as Alexandrian 
 to the final condition of the individual and of the ^ ^^^^' 
 nation. The literary representatives of this phase The 
 of Judaism are the Book of Wisdom, the writings ^" 
 of Philo, the Book of the Secrets of Enoch, and 
 4 Maccabees. All these works are more or less 
 leavened by Greek philosophy. But their writers, 
 however saturated with Greek ideas, remain essen- 
 tially Jews. Their aim is practical, not speculative ; 
 is ethical, not metaphysical. They draw their 
 materials from Plato, Aristotle, the Pythagoreans, 
 and Stoics. Of the above four Alexandrian writers, 
 Philo alone can be said to have thought out a 
 definite system. The writers of Wisdom and 4 
 Maccabees adopt current philosophical expressions 
 
252 FUNDAMENTAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 Points of 
 difference 
 between Alex- 
 andrian and 
 Palestinean 
 Judaism, 
 (i.) Eternity 
 and evil nature 
 of matter. 
 Hence no 
 resurrection 
 of the body. 
 
 (ii. ) Pre-exist- 
 ence of soul. 
 
 Different 
 classes of souls. 
 Why some 
 descend into 
 the body, 
 according to 
 Philo. 
 
 for incidental use : they philosophise, but are not 
 philosophers : while the writer of the Secrets of 
 Enoch is the merest eclectic in this field. In some 
 respects the last work is more nearly related to 
 Palestinean than Alexandrian Judaism. 
 
 The chief fundamental doctrines of Alexandrian 
 Judaism, as distinct from Palestinean, are three : (i.) 
 The eternity of matter, and its essentially evil nature. 
 From this philosophical dogma it at once follows 
 that there can be no resurrection of the flesh ; in- 
 deed, three of the above writers deny a resurrection 
 even of the body. Only the Slavonic Enoch teaches 
 that the risen body will be constituted of the divine 
 glory, and therein shows its Palestinean affinities, 
 (ii.) In the next place, the doctrine of the soul's pre- 
 existence is taught, not, however, as it appears in 
 the Platonic philosophy,^ but in such a way as to 
 be consistent with monotheism. According to the 
 Book of Wisdom, a good soul obtains a good body 
 (viii. 20). Are we to infer from this that souls were 
 created originally with a specifically ethical character, 
 some good, some bad ? This can hardly be so, since 
 God is conceived as the perfectly good, and as the 
 lover of souls. Thus the ethical character of the 
 soul on its entrance into the mortal body would 
 appear to be the result of its own action in the 
 past.^ This appears to have been the view of Philo. 
 According to the latter, the air was the habitation of 
 incorporeal souls. Before the creation of the earth 
 
 1 See above, pp. i47-i5i' 
 2 This was at one time the view of Plato. See p. 148. 
 
ALEXANDRIAN &^ PALESTINEAN JUDAISM 253 
 
 these souls had lived in the undisturbed con- chap. vh. 
 templation of God {De Gigantibus, 7). By 
 the creation of the earth some souls that were 
 possessed of divine thoughts were wholly unaffected, 
 and always served the Ruler of the Universe, being 
 as it were His lieutenants. Other souls, though 
 less highly endowed, regarding the body as the 
 source of folly and as a prison-house and a tomb, 
 soared aloft to the ether and devoted themselves to 
 sublime speculation. But others, that dwelt nearer 
 to the earth and loved the body, descended to the 
 earth and were united to mortal bodies {De Somno, 
 i. 22). Of those who so descended only a few are 
 saved by a spiritual philosophy, "meditating, from 
 beginning to end, on how to die to the life in the 
 body in order to obtain incorporeal and immortal 
 life in the presence of the uncreated and immortal 
 God" {De Gigantibus, 3 ; Mangey, i. 264), 
 
 (iii.) Souls enter immediately after death on their (iii.) At death 
 final award, whether of blessedness or torment. f°medrateiy 
 Such a doctrine follows naturally from the dogma "^^ ^f" ^"^^ 
 just enunciated of the soul's pre-existence. Where ^^^^^ ^lo 
 
 - . , , intermediate 
 
 such a dogma exists, there can be no true solidarity abode of souu 
 of the race or nation. The soul has no abiding tildgra°ent"^ 
 interests in common with the community in which it 
 may chance to be incarnated or born. It pursues, 
 therefore, its own independent destiny, and no 
 concern for others can legitimately retard its own 
 consummation. Since it was held to reach this con- 
 summation at death, it ascended, therefore, forthwith 
 to heaven. For it, therefore, there could be no 
 
254 
 
 BOOK OF WISDOM 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 Though these 
 writers con- 
 ceived the pre- 
 earthly life 
 ethically, they 
 conceived the 
 post- earthly 
 life mechanic- 
 ally. 
 
 intermediate abode of partial blessedness where it 
 could grow in wisdom and in knowledge, but it 
 could enter at once on its final perfectionment 
 independently of its brethren. Accordingly, to this 
 individualistic type of religion there was no Sheol 
 and no final judgment in the ordinary sense. 
 This is the teaching of Philo, 4 Maccabees, and 
 most probably of Wisdom. On the other hand, it is 
 just in these two respects that the Slavonic Enoch 
 diverges from Alexandrian Judaism ; for under 
 Palestinean influence it teaches the two doctrines of 
 Sheol and the final judgment. 
 
 Thus, apparently, these Alexandrian writers re- 
 garded a man's condition in this life as determined 
 by his ethical conduct when a pre-existent soul. It 
 is strange, therefore, that though they conceived 
 the pre-existent life of the soul as essentially ethical 
 and capable of progress upward and downward, they 
 failed to extend this view to the after-life of the soul, 
 and regarded it as mechanically fixed for good or 
 evil unto all eternity. 
 
 Book of Wisdom 
 
 The mind of the writer of the Book of Wisdom 
 is of a philosophic cast. He was a student of 
 Greek philosophy, and incorporated many of its 
 Writer borrows couceptious in his book. Thus he adopted from 
 phoJis^pC Plato and his successors the doctrine that matter 
 is eternal (xi. 17); that it is essentially evil, and 
 that an ineradicably evil nature attaches therefore 
 
BOOK OF WISDOM 255 
 
 to the human body (i. 4) ; that the soul pre-exists chap. vn. 
 (viil. 20), and finds in the body a temporary prison- 
 house (ix. 15). From Stoic sources he derives the 
 doctrine of the four cardinal virtues — temperance, 
 prudence, justice, and fortitude (viii. 7), and prob- 
 ably his idea of a world-soul (i. 7, vii. 24, xii. i). 
 The attempted fusion of these and like views with 
 Hebrew thought has led to a great indefiniteness 
 of conception in this writer. And this want of 
 precision of thought must in some measure affect 
 our interpretation. Our author makes no reference There is no 
 to the Messiah. There is, however, to be a though there is 
 Messianic or theocratic kingdom, in which the kingdom!^'^ 
 surviving righteous will judge the nations and have 
 dominion. These events are described in the 
 following terms (iii. 7, 8) : — 
 
 And in the time of their visitation they shall shine forth, 
 And as sparks among stubble they shall run to and fro. 
 
 8. They Shall judge nations, and have dominion over peoples ; 
 And the Lord shall reign over them for evermore. 
 
 Owing to the evil nature of matter, there can of 
 course be no resurrection of the body ; the soul is No resurrec- 
 the proper self : the body is a mere burthen taken body° The 
 up by the pre-existent soul, but in due season laid proper letf. 
 down again. The soul receives a body in keeping 
 so far as possible with its own character. Thus our 
 author writes (viii. 19, 20) : — 
 
 I was a child of parts, 
 
 And a good soul fell to my lot ; 
 
 20. Yea, rather being good, I came into a body undefiled. 
 
256 
 
 BOOK OF WISDOM 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 The soul is 
 redeemed 
 through 
 wisdom. 
 
 But even an *'undefiled body" is an oppressive 
 weight. 
 
 ix. 15. For a corruptible body weigheth down the soul, 
 
 And the earthly tabernacle lieth heavy on a mind that 
 museth on many things. 
 
 Accordingly, there is only an immortality of the 
 soul. For the soul in such evil straits there is 
 one sovereign remedy, and that is, divine wisdom. 
 Wisdom is the redeemer of the soul, its preserver, 
 and the only spring of its immortality. Thus in 
 viii. 1 7 he declares : — 
 
 When I considered these things in myself, 
 
 And took thought in my heart, 
 
 How that immortality lieth in kinship to wisdom, 
 
 viii. 13. Because of her I shall have immortality. 
 
 And again in vi. 18, 19 : — 
 
 And the love of Wisdom is observance of her laws ; 
 And the giving heed to her laws is an assurance of incor- 
 ruption ; 
 
 1 9. And incorruption bringeth near unto God. 
 
 Thus through the life of divine wisdom man 
 attains to his original destination : *' For God created 
 The life of the man for incorruption " (ii. 23). The life of the right- 
 eous and their future blessedness are set forth in 
 terms remarkable at once for their beauty and 
 vigour (iii. 1-4) : — 
 
 But the souls of the righteous are in the hand of God, 
 And there shall no torment touch them. 
 
 2. In the sight of the unwise they seemed to die; 
 And their departure was taken to be their hurt, 
 
 righteous and 
 their future 
 blessedness. 
 
BOOK OF WISDOM 257 
 
 3. And their journeying away from us to be their ruin ; chap, vil 
 But they are in peace. — 
 
 4. For though they be punished in the sight of men, 
 Yet is their hope full of immortahty ; 
 
 iv. 2, 7-1 1. When virtue is present, men imitate it; 
 And they long after it, when it is departed ; 
 And throughout all time it marcheth crowned in triumph, 
 Victorious in the strife for the prizes that are undefiled. 
 
 7. But a righteous man though he die before his time 
 Yet shall he be at rest. 
 
 8. For honourable old age is not that which standeth in length 
 
 of time, 
 Nor is its measure given by number of years : 
 
 9. But understanding is grey hairs unto men, 
 And an unspotted life is ripe old age. 
 
 10. Being found well-pleasing unto God, he was beloved of him, 
 And while living among sinners he was translated ; 
 
 11. He was caught away, lest wickedness should change his 
 
 understanding, 
 Or guile deceive his soul. 
 
 V. 2, 3", 4, 5, 15. When they see it, they shall be troubled with 
 terrible fear. 
 And shall be amazed at the marvel of God's salvation. , . , 
 
 3. They shall say within themselves repenting, . . . 
 
 4. We fools accounted his life madness, 
 And his end without honour : 
 
 5. How was he numbered among the sons of God ? 
 And how his lot among the saints ? . . . 
 
 15. But the righteous live for ever. 
 And in the Lord is their reward, 
 And the care of them with the Most High. 
 
 As for the wicked, they will be punished with death The wicked 
 (ii. 24) ; they will be bereft of hope ; they will dLiny!''' 
 
 17 
 
CHAP. VIl. 
 
 25 S BOOK OF WISDOM 
 
 suffer retribution both in this world and in the 
 next (iii. 16, 18) : — 
 
 But children of adulterers shall not come to maturity, 
 And the seed of an unlawful bed shall vanish away. 
 
 17. For if they live long, they shall be held in no account, 
 And at the last their old age shall be without honour. 
 
 1 8. And if they die quickly, they shall have no hope, 
 Nor in the day of decision shall they have consolation. 
 
 v. 14. For the hope of the ungodly is as chaff carried by the 
 wind. 
 And as a thin froth that is driven away with the storm, 
 And as smoke that is scattered by the wind. 
 And passeth by as the remembrance of a guest that tarrieth 
 but a day. 
 
 XV. 10. His heart is ashes, 
 
 And his hope of less value than earth, 
 And his life of less honour than clay. 
 
 The time for repentance is past (v. 3) ; thick dark- 
 ness will cover them (xvii. 21) ; they will be utterly- 
 destroyed (iv. 19), yet not annihilated; for they 
 will be subject to pain (iv. 19), and be aware of 
 Final judgment the blesscdness of the righteous (v. i, 2). The 
 
 scene in iv. 2- . • i ■ • c \ r ^ 
 
 V. 13 not to writer gives a dramatic representation of the final 
 aiVrfoTthl^"^ judgment in iv. 2 -v. 13, but it can hardly be 
 individual is taken literally. The judgment of the individual sets 
 
 judged imme- ■' Jo 
 
 diateiy after j^ ^t death (iv. lo, ia). We have already men- 
 death. 1 1 • 1 
 
 tioned the expectation that the righteous in Israel 
 
 are to judge the nations. This seems to be a later 
 development of the judgment by the sword fre- 
 quently mentioned in previous literature (cf Dan. 
 ii. 44; Eth. En. xci. 12, etc.) Thus the judg- 
 ment of the saints has become a forensic one, as 
 that of the Messiah (cf i Cor. vi. 2), 
 
PHILO 259 
 
 CHAP. vn. 
 
 PhILO (25 B.C.-50 A.D.) 
 
 In Philo we have the chief exponent of Alexan- 
 drian Judaism. We shall only touch, however, on 
 the main points of his eschatology. He looked 
 forward to the return of the tribes from captivity, 
 to the establishment of a Messianic kingdom of 
 temporal prosperity, and even to a Messiah. The 
 loci classici on this subject are De Execrat, §§ 8, 9 
 (ed. Mang. ii. 435 sqq.), and De Proem, et Poen. 
 §§ 15-20 (ed. Mang. ii. 421 -428). In the former 
 passage the restoration of a converted Israel to the 
 Holy Land is foretold. Their captivity will be at an 
 end in one day : " If filled with shame they change israeion 
 
 ,. •1111' 1 1 1 c repentance to 
 
 their ways with all their soul, and avow and confess be set free in 
 with cleansed minds all the sins that they have com- °"^^^y 
 mitted against themselves . . . then, though they be 
 at the very ends of the earth, slaves of the foes that 
 took them captive, nevertheless as at a given signal, 
 they shall all be set free in one day, because their 
 sudden change to virtue will strike their masters 
 with amazement ; for they will let them go, because 
 ashamed to govern those who are better than them- 
 selves. But when this unlooked-for freedom has 
 been bestowed, those, who but a short time before 
 were scattered in Hellas and in barbarous countries, 
 or islands, and continents, will arise with one 
 impulse and hasten from all quarters to the place and return 
 pointed out to them, led on their way by a divine guidance^f 
 superhuman appearance, which though unseen by ^^^ ^^^ssiah. 
 all others, is visible only to the delivered." 
 
26o 
 
 PHILO 
 
 CHAP, Vll. 
 
 No general 
 judgment. 
 
 The everlast- 
 ing punish- 
 ment of the 
 wicked. 
 
 No resurrec- 
 tion of the 
 body. 
 
 In the latter passage there is a description of 
 the Messianic kingdom. The Messiah is men- 
 tioned as a man of war — i^eXeva-erao yap dv6pco7ro'i, 
 <f>7}(rlv 6 '^p7}<Tfji6<i (Num. xxiv. 7)> fcaraarparap'^oiv kol 
 
 TToXefjbcov eOvT). The inclusion of the Messiah in the 
 Messianic kingdom in Philo's eschatology, though 
 really foreign to his system, is strong evidence as 
 to the prevalence of these expectations even in 
 Hellenistic Judaism. Apparently he did not look 
 forward to a general and final judgment. All enter 
 after death into their final abode. The punish- 
 ment of the wicked was for everlasting {De Cherub, 
 § I, ed. Mang. i. 138) : "But he who is cast out 
 by God must endure a never-ending banishment ; 
 for though the man who has not yet become the 
 complete captive of wickedness may on repentance 
 return to virtue as to his native country from which 
 he had gone into exile, he, on the other hand, who 
 is in the grip and power of a violent and incurable 
 disease must bear his sufferings for evermore, and 
 be flung into the place of the godless to endure 
 unmixed and unremitting misery." Even the wicked 
 Jews were committed to Tartarus [De Execrat, 
 § 6). As matter was incurably evil there could of 
 course be no resurrection of the body. Our present 
 life in the body is death ; for the body is the 
 *' utterly polluted prison" of the soul (TrafiixLapov 
 heaiMoyrrjpLov, De Migr, Abr. ii. ; Mangey, ii. 437) : 
 nay, more, it is its sepulchre {Quod Deus immut, 
 xxxii.) ; our crw/^a is our a-yj^Ma^ {,Leg, Alleg, i. 33). 
 
 1 This statement goes back to the Orphic mysteries (Plato, Crat. 400 C ; 
 see above, p. 142). 
 
SLAVONIC ENOCH 261 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 Slavonic Enoch^ (1-50 a.d.) 
 
 From Philo we pass naturally to the work of 
 another Egyptian Jew, to whom we owe the Book 
 of the Secrets of Enoch. This interesting book, 
 which has only come to light within the last six 
 years, gives a long description of the seven heavens. 
 Its writer deals with many subjects in a thoroughly 
 eclectic spirit. As regards the duration of the The world's 
 world, he reasons that since the earth was created eooo'^years.^^ 
 in six days, its history w^ill be accomplished in 
 6000 years, evidently basing his view on the Old 
 Testament words that " each day with the Lord is 
 as 1000 years "; and as the six days of creation were 
 followed by one of rest, so the 6000 years of the 
 world's history will be followed by a rest of 1000 
 years. This time of rest and blessedness is the Thereupon 
 Messianic period. Here for the first time the theMiUe^nnium 
 Messianic kingdom is conceived as lasting for 1000 Mess^ni'^'^^ 
 years, and it is to such an origin that we must i^i^igdom. 
 trace the later Christian view of the Millennium. 
 On the close of this kingdom, in which there 
 is no Messiah, time will pass into eternity (xxxii. 
 2-xxxiii. 2). At the termination of the Messianic Then the final 
 kingdom the final judgment is held, variously called ^" ^'^^"*' 
 "the day of judgment" (xxxix. i, H. 3), "the great 
 day of the Lord" (xviii. 6), "the great judgment" 
 (Iviii. 5, Ixv. 6, Ixvi. 7), "the day of the great judg- 
 ment" (1. 4, Hi. 15), "the eternal judgment" (vii. i), 
 
 ^ For further details see MorfiU and Charles' ediiio princeps of this book. 
 The quotations given from it are drawn from this edition. 
 
262 SLAVONIC ENOCH 
 
 CHAP. VII. '* the great judgment for ever" (Ix. 4), *' the terrible 
 
 judgment" (xlviii. 8), ** the immeasurable judgment " 
 
 Intermediate (xl. 1 2). But orior to the final judgment the souls 
 
 abodes of souls rii i •• ti '^1 
 
 and fallen oi the departed are m mtermediate places, i hus 
 anges. ^j^^ rebellious angels are confined to the second 
 
 heaven, awaiting in torment the eternal judgment 
 (vii. 1-3). The fallen lustful angels are kept in 
 durance under the earth (xviii. 7) ; Satan being 
 hurled down from heaven, has the air as his habita- 
 tion (xxix. 4, 5). 
 All souls As for man, the doctrine of pre-existence is 
 
 the foundation taught. The souls of men, according to our author, 
 were created before the foundation of the world 
 (xxiii. 5), and future places of abode have been 
 prepared for every human soul (xlix. 2, Iviii. 5). 
 From the latter context these appear to constitute 
 also the intermediate place for human souls. In 
 xxxii. I Adam is sent back to this receptacle of souls 
 on his death, and is transferred from it to Paradise 
 in the third heaven after the great judgment (xlii. 5). 
 Souls of beasts Evcu the souls of bcasts are preserved till the final 
 
 to be preserved ., . , .- -imi /- 
 
 till final judgment m order to testify against the ill-usage of 
 
 judgment. ^^^ ^j^jjj^ ^^ g^^ 
 
 Description of The rightcous will escape the final judgment, 
 Paradise m the ^^^ enter Paradise as their eternal inheritance and 
 
 third heaven- 
 the final 
 abode of the 
 
 final abode (viii. ; ix. ; xlii. 3, 5; Ixi. 3; Ixv. 10). 
 righteous. The description of Paradise, which is in the third 
 heaven, is naive and worth quoting : viii. i. **And 
 these men took me from thence, and brought me 
 to the third heaven, and placed me in the midst of 
 a garden — a place such as has never been known for 
 
SLA VONIC ENOCH 263 
 
 the goodliness of its appearance. 2. And I saw all chap. vh. 
 the trees of beautiful colours and their fruits ripe 
 and fragrant and all kinds of food which they pro- 
 duced, springing up with delightful fragrance. 3. 
 And in the midst (there is) the tree of life, in that 
 place, on which God rests when he comes into 
 Paradise. And this tree cannot be described for 
 its excellence and sweet odour. 4. And it is 
 beautiful more than any created thing. And on all 
 sides in appearance it is like gold and crimson and 
 transparent as fire, and it covers every thing. 5. 
 From its root in the garden there go forth four 
 streams which pour honey and milk, oil and wine, 
 and are separated in four directions, and go about 
 with a soft course. 6. And ^ they go down to the its connection 
 Paradise of Eden, between corruptibility and in- earthly Para- 
 corruptibility. And thence they go along the earth, w^'onthe 
 and have a revolution in their circle like also the cormpabuW 
 other elements. 7. And there is another tree, an and incormpti- 
 
 ... . . bihty. 
 
 olive tree, always distilling oil. And there is no 
 tree there without fruit, and every tree is blessed. 
 8. And there are three hundred angels very 
 glorious, who keep the garden, and with never- 
 ceasing voices and blessed singing, they serve the 
 Lord every day. And I said : What a very blessed 
 place is this ! And those men spake unto me : 
 ix. This place, O Enoch, is prepared for the 
 righteous who endure every kind of attack in their 
 lives from those who afflict their souls : who turn 
 away their eyes from unrighteousness, and accom- 
 plish a righteous judgment, and also give bread to 
 
264 
 
 SLAVONIC ENOCH 
 
 CHAP. vii. the hungry, and clothe the naked, and raise the 
 fallen, and assist the orphans who are oppressed, 
 and who walk without blame before the face of the 
 Lord, and serve him only. For them this place is 
 The heavenly prepared as an eternal inheritance." Ixv. lo. '* And 
 incorruptible, there shall be to them a great wall that cannot be 
 broken down ; and bright and incorruptible Paradise 
 shall be their protection, and their eternal habita- 
 tion. For all corruptible things shall vanish, and 
 there shall be eternal life." xlii. 3. " I went out to 
 the East, to the Paradise of Eden, where rest has 
 been prepared for the just, and it is open to the 
 third heaven, and shut from this world. 5. At the 
 last coming they will lead forth Adam with our 
 forefathers, and conduct them there, that they may 
 rejoice, as a man calls those whom he loves to feast 
 with him ; and they having come with joy hold 
 converse, before the dwelling of that man, with joy 
 awaiting his feast, the enjoyment and the im- 
 measurable wealth, and joy and merriment in the 
 light, and eternal life." Ixi. 3. '' Blessed are those 
 who shall go to the mansions of the blessed ; for 
 in the evil ones there is no rest nor any means of 
 return from them." 
 
 The wicked are cast into hell in the third 
 heaven, where their torment will be for everlasting 
 scriptionofit ^^^ ^^ . u ^j^j ^j^e men then led me to the Northern 
 region, and showed me there a very terrible place. 
 2. And there are all sorts of tortures in that place. 
 Savage darkness and impenetrable gloom ; and 
 there is no light there, but a gloomy fire is always 
 
 Hell in the 
 third heaven, 
 Enoch's de- 
 
SLA VONIC ENOCH 265 
 
 burning, and a fiery river goes forth. And all chap. vh. 
 that place has fire on all sides, and on all sides cold 
 and ice, thus it burns and freezes. 3. And the 
 prisoners are very savage. And the angels terrible 
 and without pity, carrying savage weapons, and 
 their torture was unmerciful. 4. And I said : Woe ! 
 woe! How terrible is this place! And the men 
 said to me : This place, Enoch, is prepared for The classes for 
 those who do not honour God ; who commit evil prepared. 
 deeds on earth, vitium sodomiticum, witchcraft, 
 enchantments, devilish magic ; and who boast of 
 their evil deeds, stealing, lying, calumnies, envy, 
 evil thoughts, fornication, murder. 5. Who steal 
 the souls of wretched men, oppressing the poor and 
 spoiling them of their possessions, and themselves 
 grow rich by the taking of other men's possessions, 
 injuring them. Who when they might feed the 
 hungry, allow them to die of famine ; who when 
 they might clothe them, strip them naked. 6. Who 
 do not know their Creator and have worshipped 
 gods without life ; who can neither see nor hear, 
 being vain gods, and have fashioned the forms of 
 idols, and bow down to a contemptible thing, made 
 with hands ; for all these this place is prepared for 
 an eternal inheritance." xlii. i. ''I saw those who 
 keep the keys, and are the guardians of the gates of Heirs gate- 
 hell, standing, like great serpents, and their faces ^^^^^^' 
 were like quenched lamps, and their eyes were fiery, 
 and their teeth were sharp. And they were stripped 
 to the waist. 2. And I said before their faces, 
 Would that I had not seen you, nor heard of your 
 
266 Jf MACCABEES 
 
 CHAP. VII. doings, and that those of my race had never come 
 
 to you ! Now they have sinned only a little in this 
 
 life, and always suffet in the eternal life."^ 
 
 Noresurrec- There is no resurrection of the flesh. This 
 
 flesh. would naturally follow where the soul's pre-existence 
 
 is accepted. But though there is no resurrection of 
 
 The righteous the flesh, the risen righteous are conceived as posses- 
 
 heaveniy body sing a heavculy body : for they are clothed with the 
 
 formed of the ^r/^j' 1 t^i i t^ i 
 
 glory of God. garments oi Gods glory. Ihus when hnoch was 
 translated, Michael is directed by God to remove 
 Enoch's earthly body and to give him a body com- 
 posed of the divine glory (xxii. 8-10): *'And the 
 Lord said to Michael : Go and take from Enoch his 
 earthly robe, and anoint him with my holy oil, and 
 clothe him with the raiments of my glory. 9. And 
 so Michael did as the Lord spake unto him. He 
 anointed me and clothed me, and the appearance of 
 that oil was more than a great light, and its , anoint- 
 ing was like excellent dew ; and its fragrance like 
 myrrh, shining like a ray of the sun."^ 
 
 The seventh heaven is the final abode of Enoch 
 (Iv. 2, Ixvii. 2), but this is an exceptional privilege, 
 for the final abode of the righteous is the third 
 heaven. 
 
 4 Maccabees (before 70 a.d.) 
 
 The last Jewish book of a philosophic character 
 with which we have to deal is that of 4 Maccabees. 
 It is really a discourse or sermon of the Synagogue ; 
 
 ^ See also xl. 12, xli. 2. 
 2 cf^ Eth^ En. Ixii. 16, cviii. 12. 
 
A MACCABEES 267. 
 
 for it presumes the presence of an audience, and chap. vh. 
 frequently addresses them directly (cf i. i, xviii. 1). 
 This discourse constitutes an exposition of Jewish An exposition 
 Stoicism. Its theme is announced in i. 13 : '* The stoicism. 
 question which we have to determine, therefore, is 
 whether the reason be complete master of the 
 passions." So stated, the writers fundamental idea 
 seems to be identical with that of Stoicism. But 
 this is not so : for the reason which is to exercise 
 supremacy over the passions is not human reason in 
 itself, but the reason that is inspired by piety — 
 o 6vaej3r)^ Xoycafio'; (i. I , vii. 1 6, xiii. I , XV. 20, 
 xvi. I, xviii. 2). The realisation of the Stoic ideal stoic ideal can 
 is possible only in Judaism. For the four cardinal in Judaism?""^ 
 virtues of Stoicism are but forms of true wisdom 
 which can be won only through the Mosaic Law 
 (i. 15-18). The passions, however, are not to be Passions not to 
 exterminated, as the Stoics taught, but to be ruled natS^'"''' 
 (i. 6, iii. 5), for they were implanted by God (ii. 21). 
 Since the means of attaining such piety are 
 furnished by the Jewish religion (v. 21, 23), only the 
 descendants of Abraham, as members of this faith, 
 are capable of true virtue, and are in this respect 
 invincible. Thus the eldest of the seven martyred 
 brothers addresses Antiochus : *' By enduring all the 
 tortures I will persuade you that only the children of 
 the Hebrews are invincible in respect of virtue" (ix. 
 
 18). 
 
 But though descent from Abraham is empha- 
 sised repeatedly (xviii. i, 20, 23), the value of such 
 an ancestry is regarded as only potential in the 
 
268 J^ MACCABEES 
 
 CHAP. VII. individual Israelite, but not actual until the in- 
 dividual has realised the greatness open to him. 
 Hence the children of Abraham are exhorted to die 
 nobly, as became them, on behalf of virtue and 
 godliness (vi. 22, ix. 21, xiii. 12; xiv. 20, xvii. 6). 
 " Inasmuch as they know that these, who have died 
 on behalf of God, live unto God, as Abraham, Isaac, 
 and Jacob, and all the patriarchs" (xvi. 25). There 
 Though this can of course be no resurrection of the body. This 
 
 book is founded • ^^ ^ ^ ^ ^ * i't 
 
 on 2 Mac- IS all the more remarkable smce this discourse is 
 teaSies only foundcd on 2 Maccabecs, which takes a very material 
 of ti^^ouf^^^^ view of the resurrection. Only a blessed immortality 
 of the soul is taught. 
 
 The patriarchs, even Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, 
 
 will receive the faithful soul on death {xiii. i6,^ v. 
 
 36,^ xviii. 23). This expression shows us that the 
 
 "Abraham's phrase *' Abraham's bosom " was a current one, but 
 
 °^°""' whereas in the Gospels it is an intermediate abode, 
 
 here it is heaven itself (cf. xvii. 5, 18). 
 
 The souls of the blessed will enjoy communion 
 with God (ix. 8, xv. 2, xvii. 5). But the wicked 
 will be tormented in fire for ever (x, 11, 15 ; xii. 
 12 ; xiii. 14). 
 
 ^ oiirws 7ap 6av6vras ijfids 'A/3paa/A Kal 'Icract/c Kal 'laKii/S iirod^^opraL. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 (60-100 A.D.) 
 
 ESCHATOLOGY OF APOCRYPHAL A*ND APOCALYPTIC 
 LITERATURE DURING THE FIRST CENTURY A.D. 
 
 — continued. 
 
 From our somewhat long excursion in the last 
 chapter into Hellenistic Judaism we return once more 
 to Judaism on its native soil, and are thereupon 
 confronted with several works of great interest and 
 of no small literary merit. Of these the two chief 
 are the Apocalypse of Baruch and 4 Ezra. 
 
 Apocalypse of Baruch 
 
 The Apocalypse of Baruch was written in the 
 latter half of the first century of the Christian 
 era. It is thus contemporaneous with the chief 
 writings of the New Testament. Its authors were 
 orthodox Jews, and it is a good representative of 
 the Judaism against which the Pauline dialectic was 
 directed. 
 
 In this apocalypse we have almost the last noble 
 
2 70 APOCALYPSE OF BARUCH A^ 
 
 CHAP. VIII. utterance of Judaism before it plunged into the dark 
 and oppressive years that followed the destruction of 
 Jerusalem. For ages after that epoch its people 
 seem to have been bereft of their immemorial gifts 
 of song and eloquence, and to have had thought 
 and energy only for the study and expansion of the 
 traditions of the fathers. But when our book was 
 written, that evil and barren era had not yet set in ; 
 breathing thought and burning word had still their 
 home in Palestine, and the hand of the Jewish artist 
 was still master of its ancient cunning. 
 Thisapo- This work, as I have shown elsewhere, was 
 
 work o^f several Written Originally in Hebrew, and is very composite.^ 
 before^70A"D., ^^ embraces at least six independent constituents. 
 some after. Q£ ^j^gse we shall deal first with the three fragmen- 
 tary Messiah apocalypses xxvii.-xxx. r., xxxvi.-xl.," 
 liii.-lxxiv., which are differentiated from the remain- 
 ing portions of the book both in doctrine and time. 
 These "three fragmentary works were written prior 
 to the fall of Jerusalem in 70 a.d., and teach the 
 doctrine of a personal. Messiah. 
 First apo- In the first of these apocalypses (xxvii.-xxx. i) 
 
 xxl^f' ''''''"' there is an account of the final tribulation that is to 
 befall the earth before the advent of the Messiah. 
 This time of tribulation is divided into twelve parts, . 
 each of which is marked by some disaster. The 
 duration of this period' is to be ''two parts weeks of 
 seven weeks," whatever that may mean. At its 
 The Messianic close the Mcssiah will be revealed (xxix. 4-XXX4 i) : 
 
 period. 
 
 1 See^ the present writer's Apocalypse of Baruch^ 1896, from which the 
 materials that follow are drawn. 
 
APOCALYPSE OF BARUCH A\ A^ 271 
 
 '* And Behemoth will be revealed from his place chap. vm. 
 
 and Leviathan will ascend from the sea, those two 
 
 great monsters which I created on the fifth day of 
 
 creation, and I kept them until that time ; and 
 
 then they will be for food for all that are left. 5. 
 
 The earth also will yield its fruits ten thousand fold, 
 
 and on each vine there will be a thousand branches, 
 
 and each branch will produce a thousand clusters, 
 
 and each cluster will produce a thousand grapes, and 
 
 each grape will produce a cor of wine. 6. And 
 
 those who have hungered will rejoice : moreover, 
 
 also, they will behold marvels every day. 7. For 
 
 winds will go forth from before me to bring every 
 
 morning the fragrance of aromatic fruits, and at the 
 
 close of the day clouds distilling the dew of health. 
 
 8. And it will come to pass at that selfsame time, 
 
 that the treasury of manna will again descend from 
 
 on high, and they will eat of it in those years, 
 
 because these are they that have come to the 
 
 consummation of time. xxx. i. And it will come to The Messiah. 
 
 pass after these things, when the time of the advent 
 
 of the Messiah is fulfilled, and he will return in 
 
 glory, then all who have fallen asleep in hope of 
 
 him shall rise again." 
 
 With these words this short apocalypse breaks 
 off. Its view of the temporary Messianic kingdom 
 is very sensuous, and recalls the materialistic pro- 
 sperity which marked some of the second-century 
 representations of the eternal Messianic kingdom.^ 
 
 The next apocalypse, composed of chaps, car'^gg^^^ 
 
 1 See above, pp. i88, 1S9. xxxvi.-xl. 
 
372 
 
 APOCALYPSE OF BARUCH A'^ 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 The fourth 
 empire =^ 
 Rome. 
 
 To be de- 
 stroyed by the 
 Messiah. 
 
 xxxvi.-xl., is of greater interest. It recounts a vision 
 which Baruch saw in the night (xxxvi. 2-xxxvii.) 
 On awaking from this vision he prayed to God to 
 make known to him its interpretation. This inter- 
 pretation we will give in the author's own words 
 (xxxix. 3-xl. 3). xxxix. 3. ** Behold ! the days come, 
 and this kingdom will be destroyed which once de- 
 stroyed Zion, and it will be subjected to that which 
 comes after it. 4. Moreover, that also again after a 
 time will be destroyed, and another, a third, will arise, 
 and that also will have dominion for its time, and will 
 be destroyed. 5. And after these things a fourth king- 
 dom will arise, whose power will be harsh and evil far 
 beyond those which were before it, and it will rule 
 many times as the forests on the plain, and it will hold 
 fast the times, and will exalt itself more than the cedars 
 of Lebanon. 6. And by it the truth will be hidden, 
 and all those who are polluted with iniquity will flee 
 to it, as evil beasts flee and creep into the forest. 
 7. And it will come to pass, when the time of its 
 consummation that it should fall has approached, 
 then the principate of my Messiah will be revealed, 
 which is like the fountain and the vine, and, when 
 it is revealed, it will root out the multitude of its 
 host. 8. And as touching that which thou hast 
 seen, the lofty cedar, which was left of that forest, 
 and the fact, that the vine spoke those words with 
 it which thou didst hear, this is the word." 
 
 xl. *' The last leader of that time will be left 
 alive, when the multitude of his hosts will be put to the 
 sword, and he will be bound, and they will take him 
 
APOCALYPSE OF BARUCH A'^ = LIIL-LXXIV, 273 
 
 up to Mount Zion, and my Messiah will convict chap. vm. 
 him of all his impieties, and will gather and set 
 before him all the works of his hosts. 2. And after- 
 wards he will put him to death, and protect the 
 rest of my people which shall be found in the 
 place which I have chosen. 3. And his principate Messianic 
 will stand for the age,^ until the world of corruption ^'""sdom. 
 is at an end, and until the times aforesaid are 
 fulfilled." 
 
 We should observe here that whereas the r61e 
 of the Messiah in the first apocalypse is entirely 
 passive, in this He is conceived as a warrior who 
 slays the enemies of Israel with His own hand. 
 Against Him all the heathen powers are arrayed 
 under a last great leader. This leader represents 
 the Antichrist. The principate of the Messiah is 
 to last until the world of corruption is at an end. 
 
 The third apocalypse, consisting of chaps. Third apo- 
 liii.-lxxiv., now claims our attention. This work is ^xf^^^"^"'* 
 one of extreme value, as it is the oldest literary 
 evidence for the fusion of early Rabbinism and the 
 popular Messianic expectation. It has come down 
 in tolerable preservation. It was written before the written 
 fall of Jerusalem, and not earlier than 50 A.r). The ^o^^^ad 
 means by which we determine the latter date are Meansoffixing 
 
 T 1 T c ^\ • r the terminus 
 
 mterestmg. In chap. lix. 01 this fragment we a quo. 
 find that a large number of the revelations and 
 achievements, which earlier times assigned to 
 Enoch, are here attributed to Moses. This rob- 
 bing of Enoch to benefit Moses is a clear sign of 
 
 1 =zeh rbv alQva {cf. Ixxiii. l). 
 18 
 
274 APOCALYPSE OF BARUCH A^^LIIL-LXXIL 
 
 CHAP. VIII. Jewish hostility to Christianity. Enoch's acceptance 
 amongst Christians as a Messianic prophet was a 
 ground for his rejection by the Jews. So thorough- 
 going, indeed, was this rejection, that, although he 
 was the chief figure next to Daniel in Jewish 
 Apocalyptic prior to 40 a.d., in subsequent Jewish 
 literature his achievements are ascribed sometimes to 
 Moses, as here, at others to Ezra or else to Baruch. 
 This aggressive attitude of the Synagogue could 
 hardly have arisen before the Pauline controversy. 
 The same hostility is unswervingly pursued in the 
 Talmud, which avoids all "reference to this hero of 
 early Judaism. It is noteworthy that the Septuagint 
 experienced somewhat similar fortunes. The fact 
 that the Christians always made their appeal to it 
 led to its disuse by the Jews. It is to the Chris- 
 tian Church that we owe the preservation alike of 
 Jewish apocalypses and of the Septuagint. 
 
 We must now, however, return to the contents 
 of this apocalypse. In chap. liii. Baruch receives 
 a vision in which the history of the entire world is 
 depicted. Since this is unintelligible, Baruch prays 
 for its interpretation (liv. 6). In answer to Baruch's 
 prayer the angel Ramiel, ''who presides over the 
 visions," was sent to interpret the vision. We are 
 here concerned only with that portion of the inter- 
 its account of pretation which relates to the future (Ixx. 2) : '* Be- 
 the future. j^^j^ , ^j^^ ^^^^ come," we read, "and it will be 
 
 when the time of the age has ripened and the 
 harvest of its evil and good seeds has come, that the 
 Mighty One will bring upon the earth and upon its 
 
AFOCAL YFSE OF BAR UCH A ^ = LIIL-LXXII. 275 
 
 rulers perturbation of spirit and stupor of heart." chap. vm. 
 When this last period has arrived, men (Ixx. 3, 5) Messianic 
 ''will hate one another, and provoke one another '^°^^' 
 to fight, and the mean will rule over the honourable, 
 and those of low degree will be extolled above the 
 famous " : " And the wise will be silent, and the 
 foolish will speak, neither will the thought of men 
 be then confirmed, nor the counsel of the mighty, 
 nor will the hope of those who hope be confirmed." 
 Thereupon universal war will follow (Ixx. 8, 10) : 
 '* And it will come to pass that whosoever gets safe 
 out of the war will die in the earthquake, and who- 
 soever gets safe out of the earthquake will be burned 
 by the fire, and whosoever gets safe out of the fire 
 will be destroyed by famine. 10. For all the earth 
 will devour its inhabitants." Not so, however, the 
 Holy Land, for it will protect its own (Ixxi. i). Then 
 (Ixxii. 2) the Messiah ''will summon all the nations, xhedestruc- 
 and some of them he will spare and some of them nations ^who 
 he will slay," and (Ixxii. 4) "every nation which jg^^^f^^'^^j^^ 
 knows not Israel, and has not trodden down the seed Messiah. 
 of Jacob, shall indeed be spared." " But (Ixxii. 6- 
 Ixxiii. 4) all those who have ruled over you, or have 
 known you, shall be given up to the sword." Ixxiii. 
 I. "And it will come to pass, when he has brought The temporary 
 low every thing that is in the world, and has sat ^rfod''''' 
 down in peace for the age^ on the throne of his 
 kingdom, that joy will then be revealed, and rest 
 appear. 2. And then healing will descend in dew, 
 and disease will withdraw, and anxiety and anguish 
 
 ^ As above, in xl. 3 {see p. 273). 
 
276 CRITICISM OF THESE MESSIANIC HOPES 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 The Messianic 
 kingdom of 
 temporary 
 duration. 
 
 Entrance into^ 
 it ethically 
 conditioned, 
 
 but the trans- 
 formation 
 supposed by 
 it is mechanic- 
 ally conceived. 
 
 and lamentation will pass from amongst men, and 
 gladness will proceed through the whole earth. 3. 
 And no one shall again die untimely, nor shall any 
 adversity suddenly befall. 4. And judgments, and 
 revilings, and contentions, and revenges and blood, 
 and passions, and envy, and hatred, and whatsoever 
 things are like these, shall go into condemnation 
 when they are removed." Ixxiv. i, 2. ** And it will 
 come to pass in those days that the reapers will not 
 grow weary, nor those that build be toilworn ; for 
 the works will of themselves speedily advance with 
 those who do them in much tranquility. 2. For that 
 time is the consummation of that which is corruptible, 
 and the beginning of that which is incorruptible." 
 
 In all these three apocalypses the Messianic 
 kingdom is, as we have seen, of temporary duration, 
 and its felicity of an earthly description. It has of 
 course a severely ethical character. Sin and wicked- 
 ness have no place therein. But, on the other hand, 
 and this criticism applies to all Jewish representa- 
 tions of the Messianic kingdom, but particularly to 
 the later, there is no adequate account given of the 
 cause of this spiritual transformation. This trans- 
 formation is brought about catastrophically and in 
 the main mechanically. By the eternal fiat of the 
 Almighty, sin is banished at once and for ever from 
 the hearts of the members of the Messianic kingdom. 
 This catastrophic change is in itself at variance with 
 all the spiritual experience of mankind. Godlike 
 character cannot come from without as an external 
 gift, nor can it.be won in a moment, but can only 
 
APOCALYPSE OF BARUCH B^ ^77 
 
 be the slow result of the spiritual travail of the chap. vm. 
 human heart in communion with the divine. 
 
 Moreover, the hope of a kingdom whence all other 
 who fell below a certain conventional standard features in the 
 should be banished is the thought of men whose '^^^'^^p^'""* 
 notions of perfection were mechanical, and whose 
 chief aspiration was not the salvation of mankind at 
 large but that of a few individuals, whose future 
 comfort and blessedness could only be secured 
 through the local separation of the good and the 
 evil. But a goodness which can only maintain itself 
 through local separation from evil cannot be called 
 divine. Moreover, all temporary conditions of 
 existence in the life of moral beings such as that in 
 the temporary Messianic kingdoms here portrayed 
 must in their essence be of the nature of a proba- 
 tion, and if of this nature, then the admixture of 
 good and evil, as in the present world, appears to 
 be not only conceivable, but also to be indispensable 
 for the spiritual education of moral beings. 
 
 The remaining constituents of Baruch are three, Three other 
 which for convenience may be named B\ B^ B^ T^T'^o- 
 They were all written after the fall of Jerusalem in gf^^f^s 
 70 A.D. B^ stands by itself, and consists of i.-ix. i ; 
 xliii.-xliv. 7; xlv.-xlvi. 6; Ixxvii.-lxxxii. ; Ixxxvi. ; 
 Ixxxvii. Its writer is optimistic, and looks forward OutiookofBi 
 to the rebuilding of Jerusalem (vi. 9), which has 
 been destroyed by angels lest the enemy should 
 boast (vii. i), the restoration of the exiles (Ixxvii. 6. Restoration of 
 
 ... -^ ^ the exiles, the 
 
 Ixxvni. 7), the Messianic kingdom, but no Messiah Messianic 
 
 r ^ ^ ' ^ ^ •• \T^ir ■ r kingdom, but 
 
 (1. 5, xlvi. 6, Ixxvii. 12). The future m store for no Messiah. 
 
278 
 
 APOCALYPSE OF BARUCH B\ B^ 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 No hope for 
 the Gentiles. 
 
 B2 and B^ are 
 pessimistic as 
 to this world. 
 No Messiah or 
 Messianic 
 kingdom. 
 The world 
 wholly cor- 
 rupt : the end 
 at hand. 
 
 Writer of B^ 
 mainly con- 
 cerned with 
 theological 
 Droblems. 
 
 the Gentiles is without hope. This is no doubt due 
 in part to the destruction of Jerusalem (Ixxxii. 3, 6, 7) : 
 3. ** For lo ! we see now the multitude of the pro- 
 sperity of the Gentiles, though they act impiously, 
 but they will be like a vapour. ... 6. And we 
 consider the glory of their greatness, though they 
 do not keep the statutes of the Most High, but as 
 smoke will they pass away. 7. And we meditate 
 on the beauty of their gracefulness, though they 
 have to do with pollutions, but as grass that withers 
 will they fade away." 
 
 The two remaining sections, B^ and BV may be 
 treated together. In these all expectations of a 
 Messianic kingdom are absolutely abandoned, and 
 the hopes of the righteous are directed to the 
 immediate advent of the final judgment and to the 
 spiritual world alone. This world is a scene of cor- 
 ruption ; its evils are irremediable ; it is a never- 
 ceasing toil and strife, but its end is at hand ; its 
 youth is past ; its strength exhausted ; the pitcher 
 is near to the cistern, the ship to the port, the 
 course of the journey to the city, and life to its con- 
 summation (Ixxxv.) The advent of the times is 
 nigh, the corruptible will pass away, the mortal 
 depart, that that which abides for ever may come, 
 and the new world which does not turn to corrup- 
 tion those who depart to its blessedness (cf. xxi. 19, 
 xliv. 9-15, Ixxxv.) 
 
 Such being the views of this writer, it is only 
 natural that his main concern is with theological 
 
 ' For the contents of B^and B^, see my Apocalypse of Bmnich^ pp. Ixi.-lxiii. 
 
APOCALYPSE OF BARUCH B'^ 279 
 
 problems and the nature of the incorruptible world chap. vm. 
 that is to be. 
 
 The world will be renewed (xxxii, 6), and in this contrasts 
 renewal, from being transitory and verging to its woddTnd tL 
 close (xlviii. 50, Ixxxv. 10), it will become undying ^^^^' 
 (li. 3) and everlasting (xlviii. 50) ; from being a 
 world of corruption (xxi. 19, xxxi. 5 ; cf. xl. 3, 
 Ixxiv. 2), it will become incorruptible and invisible 
 (li. 8, xliv. 12). 
 
 Full of world-despair, the writer's regards are 
 fixed on the last day when he shall testify against 
 the Gentile oppressors of Israel (xiii. 3). In the 
 meantime, as men die they enter in some degree on in sheoi there 
 their reward in Sheol, the intermediate abode of the SreL'sJlTor^ 
 souls of the departed prior to the final judgment [J^^^^^^j^^^^^ 
 (xxiii. 5, xlviii. 16, lii. 2 ; cf. Ivi. 6). This inter- 
 mediate place is ope involving certain degrees of 
 happiness or torment. Thus the wicked in Sheol of torment. 
 are said to ** recline in anguish and rest in torment," 
 but the pain of Sheol is not to be compared with the 
 torments that are to follow on the final judgment, 
 for then the condemned "know that their torment 
 has come and their perdition has arrived" (xxx. 5). 
 
 As for the righteous, these are preserved in of happiness. 
 certain "chambers" or " treasuries " which are in 
 Sheol (4 Ezra iv. 41),^ where they enjoy rest and 
 peace, and are guarded by angels (Eth. En. c. 5 ; 
 4 Ezra vii. 15): xxx. 2. "And it will come to 
 pass at that time that the treasuries will be opened, 
 
 ^ This statement, which is based on the Latin Version of 4 Ezra, is not 
 supported by the Syriac and Ethiopic Versions. See pp. 294, 302 note. 
 
28o 
 
 APOCALYPSE OF BARUCH B^ 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 The resurrec- 
 tion. 
 
 ' ' In what 
 body do they 
 come? " 
 
 The body will 
 be restored in 
 the same form 
 in which it was 
 committed to 
 the earth, for 
 the sake of 
 common re- 
 cognition. 
 
 in which is preserved the number of the souls of the 
 righteous, and they will come forth, and a multitude 
 of souls will be seen together in one assemblage of 
 one thought, and the first will rejoice and the last 
 will not be grieved," 
 
 The teaching of this writer on the resurrection is 
 of great interest and value. Baruch is represented 
 as asking God (xlix. 2, 3) : *' In what shape will those 
 live who live in thy day ? or how will the splendour 
 of ■ those who (are) after that time continue? 3. 
 Will they then resume this form of the present and 
 put on these entrammelling members, which are now 
 involved in evils, and in which evils are consum- 
 mated, or wilt thou perchance change these things 
 {i.e, man's material members) which have been in the 
 world, as also the world ? " To these questions God 
 replies: 1. i. ** Hear, Baruch, this word, and write 
 in the remembrance of thy heart all that thou shalt 
 learn. 2. For the earth will then assuredly restore 
 the dead, which it now receives, in order to preserve 
 them, making no change in their form, but, as it has 
 received, so will it restore them, and as I delivered 
 them unto it, so also will it raise them. 3. For 
 then it will be necessary to show to the living that 
 the dead have come to life again, and that those who 
 had departed have returned (again). 4. And it will 
 come to pass, when they have severally recognised 
 those whom they now know, then judgment will 
 grow strong, and those things which before were 
 spoken of will come." 
 
 We have here, undoubtedly, a very interesting 
 
APOCALYPSE OF BAPUCff B^ 281 
 
 view of the resurrection. Thus the dead will rise chap. vm. 
 possessing every defect and deformity they had at 
 the moment of death/ This is the earliest appear- 
 ance of a doctrine which was developed to extrava- 
 gant lengths in later Judaism and Christianity.^ Thus, 
 according to the Talmud (Sanhedrin, 90^), not only 
 were the dead to be raised exactly as they were 
 when they died, but there was to be a resurrection 
 of the very clothes in which they were buried. 
 
 To return, however. When this recognition by After such 
 
 . iirii' 1111T recognition the 
 
 the risen dead of each other is completed, the bodies bodies of the 
 of the righteous will be transformed, with a view to t(f be^mins-^ 
 a spiritual existence of unending duration and glory *"°^'^^^- 
 (li. 3, 7-10, 12) : 3. '* As for the glory of those who 
 have now been justified in my law, who have had 
 understanding in their life, and who have planted in 
 their heart the root of wisdom, then their splendour 
 will be glorified in changes, and the form of their 
 face will be turned into the light of their beauty, that 
 ishey may be able to acquire and receive the world 
 which does not die, which is then promised to them. 
 ... 7. But those who have been saved by their 
 works, and to whom the law has been now a hope, 
 and understanding an expectation, and wisdom a 
 confidence, to them wonders will appear in their 
 time. 8. For they will behold the world which is 
 
 ^ Jerome taught that there would be a restoration of the bones, veins, 
 nerves, teeth, and hair, on the ground of his false translation of Job xix. 26. 
 From the stridor dentium of the damned he infers the restoration of the 
 teeth, and from the words capilli capitis vestri numerati sunt that of the 
 hair. The risen, he writes, habent denies, ventrem, genitalia^ et tmnen nee 
 cibis nee uxoribus indigent. {Adv. Errores Joan. Hier. ad Pammach, Opp, 
 t. ii. p. 1 18 sqq. See Hagenbach, History of Doctrines, ii. 91 (transl. from 
 the German), 
 
2S2 
 
 APOCALYPSE OF BARUCH B^ 
 
 CHAP. VIII. now invisible to them, and they will behold the time 
 which is now hidden from them. 9. And again time 
 will not age them. 10. For in the heights of that 
 world shall they dwell, and they shall be made like 
 unto the angels, and be made equal to the stars, and 
 they shall be changed into every form they desire, 
 from beauty into loveliness, and from .light into the 
 splendour of glory. ... 12. Moreover, there will 
 then be excellency in the righteous surpassing 'that 
 in the angels." 
 
 Thus we see that the Pauline teaching in i Cor. 
 ^v. 35-50 is in some respects a developed and 
 more spiritual expression of ideas already current in 
 Judaism. 
 B3=ixxxv. In B^, i.e. Ixxxv., there is the same despair 
 
 of a national restoration as in B^, and only 
 spiritual blessedness is looked for in the world of 
 incorruption (Ixxxv. 4, 5). For this world the writer 
 urges men to prepare themselves ; for here alone can 
 such preparation be made (Ixxxv. 12, 13) : 12. "For 
 lo ! when the Most High will bring to pass all these 
 things, there will not there be again an opportunity 
 for returning, nor a limit to the times, nor adjourn- 
 ment to the hours, nor change of ways, nor place 
 for prayer, nor sending of petitions, nor receiving of 
 knowledge, nor giving of love, nor place of repent- 
 ance, nor supplication for offences, nor intercession 
 of the fathers, nor prayer of the prophets, nor help 
 of the righteous. 13. There there is the sentence 
 of corruption, the way of fire, and the path which 
 bringeth to Gehenna," 
 
Jf EZRA: THE EZRA APOCALYPSE 283 
 
 4 Ezra. — From the Apocalypse of Baruch we chap. vm. 
 now turn to the sister work of 4 Ezra. Though 
 very closely related, they have nevertheless many 
 points of divergence. Thus, whereas the former 4 Ezra more 
 work represents faithfully the ordinary Judaism of to Christianity 
 the first century, the latter holds an isolated position, Apocalypse of 
 and is more closely related to Christianity than to ^^''"^^' 
 Judaism in its teaching on the Law, on Works, Justifi- 
 cation, Original Sin, and Freewill.^ It was no doubt 
 owing to its Christian elements or Christian affinities 
 that it won and preserved a high position in the 
 Christian Church. 
 
 Like the Apocalypse of Baruch, it too is a com- a composite 
 posite work. As no satisfactory edition has as yet 
 appeared, I will adopt provisionally the critical 
 results obtained by Kabisch. Of the five inde- 
 pendent writings which he discovers in it, two were 
 written before the fall of Jerusalem in 70 a.d., and 
 three subsequently. The two former he designates 
 respectively as an Ezra Apocalypse and a Son of 
 Man Vision. 
 
 {a) The Ezra Apocalypse consists of chaps, iv. 52- {a) The Ezra 
 V. 13''; vi. 13-25, 28; vii. 26-44; viii. 63-ix. 12. Its p^'^^^p^^* 
 contents are mainly eschatological. The signs of signs oftiie 
 the last times are recorded in great fulness (v. ^^^^' 
 1-12^): '* Nevertheless as concerning the tokens, 
 behold, the days shall come, that they which dwell 
 upon earth shall be taken with great amazement, 
 
 ^ For full treatment of these questions, see the 2.\i.\}[\.ox^% Apocalypse of Baruch, 
 pp. lxix.-lxxi., 39, 92, 93. 
 
 2 The following passages are taken from the Revised Version of the 
 Apociypha. I have introduced some emendations. 
 
284 
 
 Jf. EZRA: THE EZRA APOCALYPSE 
 
 CHAP. VIII, 
 
 Destruction of 
 Rome foretold. 
 
 Rome ^the 
 fourth king- 
 dom. 
 
 Signs in 
 nature. 
 
 Wisdom 
 shall depart 
 from the earth. 
 
 and the way of truth shall be hidden, and the land 
 shall be barren of faith. 2. But iniquity shall be 
 increased above that which now thou seest, or that 
 thou hast heard long ago. 3. And the land, that 
 thou seest now to have rule, shall be waste and 
 untrodden, and men shall see it desolate. 4. 
 But if the Most High grant thee to live, thou 
 shalt see that which is after the third kingdom 
 to be troubled ; and the sun shall suddenly shine 
 forth in the night, and the moon in the day : 
 
 5. And blood shall drop out of wood, and the 
 stone shall give his voice, and the people shall 
 be troubled ; and their goings shall be changed : 
 
 6. And he shall rule, whom they that dwell upon 
 the earth look not for, and the fowls shall take 
 their flight away together: 7. And the sea^ shall 
 cast out fish, and one whom^ many have not 
 known will make a noise in the night : and all 
 shall hear his voice. 8. And the earth shall be 
 riven over wide regions and fire burst forth for 
 a long period,^ and the wild beasts shall change 
 their places, and women shall bring forth monsters. 
 9. And salt waters shall be found in the sweet, and 
 all friends shall destroy one another ; then shall wit 
 hide itself, and understanding withdraw itself into 
 
 ^ Text wrongly adds *' of Sodom." But the Sea of Sodom has no fish, as 
 Wellhausen has pointed out [Skizzen und Vorarbeiten-t vii. 246). » 
 
 2 So the text is to be emended with Wellhausen, and qtiam changed into 
 qtiem. 
 
 3 So the Syriac and Armenian, which found x^^f^^i instead of x^°h which 
 the Latin implies. The Ethiopic implies ijxo^ = sound ; the Arabic = Savfj-a, 
 a corruption of xdir/Aa. It was Wellhausen who first recognised the sound- 
 ness of the Syriac Version. The additional evidence now advanced of the 
 Armenian, and indirectly of the Arabic, supports his view. 
 
Jf. EZRA: THE EZRA APOCALYPSE 285 
 
 its chamber. 10. And it shall be sought of many, chap. vm. 
 
 and shall not be found : and unrighteousness and 
 
 incontinency shall be multiplied upon earth. 11. 
 
 One land also shall ask another, and say, Is 
 
 righteousness, is a man that doeth righteousness, 
 
 gone through thee? And it shall say, No. 12. 
 
 And it shall come to pass at that time that men 
 
 shall hope, but shall not obtain : they shall labour, 
 
 but their ways shall not prosper." (vi. 21, 22): 
 
 "And the children of a year old shall speak with Further signs. 
 
 their voices, the women with child shall bring forth 
 
 untimely children at three or four months, and they 
 
 shall live and dance. 22. And suddenly shall the 
 
 sown places appear unsown, the full storehouses 
 
 shall suddenly be found empty." Then all who 
 
 escape these evils will be saved (vi. 25-28) : ** And 
 
 it shall be that whosoever remaineth after all these 
 
 things that I have told thee of shall be saved, and 
 
 shall see my salvation, and the end of my world. 
 
 26. And they shall see the men that have been Enoch and 
 
 taken up, who have not tasted death from their ^^ 
 
 birth : and the heart of the inhabitants shall be 
 
 changed, and turned into another meaning. 27. 
 
 For evil shall be blotted out, and deceit shall be 
 
 quenched. 28. And faith shall flourish, and 
 
 corruption shall be overcome, and the truth, 
 
 which hath _ been so long without fruit, shall be 
 
 declared." 
 
 Then the Messiah, the Son of God, shall be Revelation of 
 revealed, and with Him certain saints (vii. 28 ; cf vi. 
 26). Here we seem to have the idea of a first and 
 
2 86 ^ EZRA: THE EZRA APOCALYPSE 
 
 CHAP. viii. preliminary resurrection or manifestation of the 
 saints to the temporary Messianic kingdom. This 
 Kingdom to kingdom will last 400 years. The origin of this 
 400 years, j^i^j^j^^ number is in all probability as follows. 
 According to Gen. xv. 13, Israel was to be op- 
 pressed 400 years in Egypt. Now in Ps. xc. the 
 writer prays : *' Make us glad according to the 
 days wherein thou hast afflicted us, and the years 
 wherein we have seen evil." From the combina- 
 tion of these two passages it was inferred that the 
 Messianic kingdom would last 400 years, as a set-off 
 against the period of oppression in Egypt. We 
 should compare this view with that of the 1000 
 years broached in the Slavonic Enoch. At the 
 At its close the close of this 400 years the Messiah and all men 
 all men die. wiU die. And the earth will return to primeval 
 silence for seven days. Then the judgment will 
 follow (vii. 29-33). To this judgment of the Most 
 High all men will rise. And then the furnace of 
 Gehenna appear, and over against it the Paradise of 
 delight (vii. 36). Of the day of judgment we have 
 the following peculiar account (vii. 39-43) : *'This 
 is a day that hath neither sun, nor moon, nor stars, 
 40. Neither cloud, nor thunder, nor lightning, 
 neither wind nor water, nor air, neither darkness, 
 nor evening nor morning, 41. Neither summer, nor 
 spring, nor heat, nor winter, neither frost,, nor cold, 
 nor hail, nor rain, nor dew, 42. Neither noon, nor 
 night, nor dawn, neither shining, nor brightness, 
 nor light save only the splendour of the glory of 
 the Most High, whereby all shall see the things 
 
Jf. EZRA: A SON OF MAN VISION 287 
 
 that are set before them : 43. For it shall endure as chap. vm. 
 it were a week of years.^ 
 
 (b\ A Son of Man Vision, — The second inde- son of Man 
 
 1 . . ,1.1- T- 1 • Vision. 
 
 pendent writing embodied in 4 h.zra, and written 
 probably before 70 a.d., is a Son of Man Vision. 
 It consists of chap. xiii. This vision, which is 
 recounted in vers. 2-13, tells of a Son of Man^ 
 coming in the clouds of heaven and graving for 
 Himself a great mountain and establishing Himself 
 thereon. And against Him there musters a multi- 
 tude of men without number from the four winds of 
 heaven. And that Son of Man repels their assault, 
 not with spear nor instrument of war, but destroys 
 them as it were with a flood of fire out of His mouth 
 and a flaming breath out of His lips, and thereupon 
 they are reduced to the dust of ashes and the smell 
 of smoke. After the annihilation of this hostile 
 host, there came to Him another multitude, and 
 this multitude was peaceable. And thereupon the 
 dreamer woke and besought of God the interpreta- 
 tion of the vision. And his prayer is answered in 
 the following words (xiii. 29-36) : *' Behold, the 
 days come, when the Most High will begin to 
 
 1 Compare the description of the period of the last judgment in Oracula 
 SibylL iii. 89-92 \— 
 
 oi) v6^f o^K i)th^, oiiK ■^/J-ara ttoXXo. /xepl/xPTjSj 
 ovK ^ap, 0^ x^i^utii/, oijT B.p 6ipoSj 06 /xerdircopov. 
 Kal rdre Si] fieyoKoLO deov KpL<ns is /jJffov ij^ci 
 aldvos fieyaXoLO, Sr' B.jf rdde irdvra yev-qraL. 
 
 2 4 Ezra xiii. 2, 3 : *' I dreamed a dream by night : and, lo, there arose 
 a wind from the sea, that it moved all the waters thereof. 3. And I beheld 
 and, lo, (this wind made to ascend from the heart of the sea as it were the 
 likeness of a man, and I beheld, and lo,) that man flew with the clouds of 
 heaven." The words in brackets are supplied from the Syriac Version. 
 They were lost in the Latin through homoeotdeuton. 
 
288 Jf. EZRA: A SON OF MAN VISION 
 
 CHAP. VIII. deliver them that are upon the earth. 30. And 
 
 Messili^ there shall come astonishment of mind upon them 
 
 '^°^^' that dwell on the earth. 31. And one shall think 
 
 to war against another, city against city, place 
 
 against place, people against people, and kingdom 
 
 against kingdom. 32. And it shall be when these 
 
 things shall come to pass, and the signs shall 
 
 happen which I showed thee before, then shall 
 
 Revelation of my Son be revealed, whom thou sawest as a man 
 
 ascending. 33. And it shall be, when all the 
 
 nations hear his voice, every man shall leave his 
 
 own land and the battle they have one against 
 
 another. 34. And an innumerable multitude shall 
 
 be gathered together, as thou sawest, desiring to 
 
 come, and to fight against him. 35. But he shall 
 
 stand upon the top of Mount Zion. 36. And Zion 
 
 shall come and shall be showed to all men, being 
 
 prepared and builded, like as thou sawest the 
 
 mountain graven without hands." 
 
 Destruction of And thercupon the Messiah will destroy the 
 
 Ind?hTreilora- assailing multitudes. And after this victory He will 
 
 tionof the ten j-^^^jy.^ back into Zion the ten tribes who had been 
 
 tribes. 
 
 taken captive in the time of Hoshea. On the 
 previous history of the ten tribes here given we 
 The first re- cannot now touch. The Messiah will be accom- 
 panied by certain Old Testament saints (xiii. 52). 
 This is equivalent to a partial resurrection or 
 manifestation. 
 
 There is no limit assigned as to the duration of 
 this Messianic kingdom, but, since there is no mention 
 of a general resurrection and final judgment, these 
 
 surrection. 
 
Jf. EZRA: THE EAGLE VISION 289 
 
 events were probably regarded as still in the future, chap. vm. 
 and, therefore, as coming at the close of the kingdom. 
 
 We must now pass on to the eschatological 
 expectations which appear in the three remaining 
 constituents of this work. These writings belong 
 to various dates between 70 and 96 a.d. 
 
 (c) The Eagle Vision (x. 60-xii. 35). — And first Destruction of 
 of these we shall consider the Eagle Vision. Here fo^h beast!" 
 the destruction of Rome, which is identified (xii. bytheMessiah. 
 II, 12) with the fourth beast ^ in Dan. vii. 7, 8, 
 is predicted, through the agency of the Messiah 
 sprung from the house of David (xii. 32) — so Syrian 
 and other versions except the Latin — who will judge 
 that nation and destroy them (xii. 33). He will 
 save the residue of God s people in Palestine, and 
 will fill them with joy to the end, even the day Final judg 
 of judgment (xii. 34). 
 
 {d) The next constituent is an Ezra fragment, 
 Le, xiv. 1-17^ 18-27, 3^'47> which may really be a 
 part of the Ezra Apocalypse {a) already discussed. 
 Ezra is to be translated and live with the Messiah 
 till the times are ended (xiv. 9) : *' For thou shalt 
 be taken away from men, and from henceforth thou 
 shalt remain with my Son, and with such as be like 
 thee, until the times be ended." 
 
 Of the twelve times into which the history of 
 the world is divided, ten and a half have already 
 elapsed (xiv. 1 1). Great woes have already befallen, 
 but the worst are yet to come, as the world through 
 
 1 I have on an earlier page (see p. 173) called attention to this re- 
 interpretation of Daniel's prophecy of the fourth kingdom. The writer of 
 Ezra implies that the interpretation in Dan. vii. 23-25 is wrong. 
 
 19 
 
 ment. 
 
290 LEGEND ON THE BURNING OF THE LA W 
 
 CHAP. vm. age grows weak (xiv. i6, 17). From xiv. 9, which 
 
 we have quoted above, it follows that when "the 
 
 times are ended " there will be a Messianic kingdom 
 
 like that in the Ezra Apocalypse discussed above {a). 
 
 There is also the same conception of the Messiah 
 
 at the base of both (cf. xiv. 9 with vii. 28). Hence 
 
 this fragment may belong to that apocalypse. 
 
 Legend on the In this chapter we have the strange legend that 
 
 buniingofthe ^^ j^^^ ^^^ bumt on the destruction of Jerusalem 
 
 (xiv. 21), and that Ezra and five others were com- 
 missioned and endowed with spiritual powers by 
 God to rewrite the entire Law in forty days. Thus 
 the writer says (xiv. 42-47): *'The Most High 
 gave understanding unto the five men, and they 
 wrote by course the things that were told them, in 
 characters which they knew not, and they sat forty 
 days : now they wrote in the day-time, and at night 
 they eat bread. 43. As for me I spake in the day, 
 and by night I held not my tongue. 44. So in 
 forty days were written fourscore and fourteen 
 books. 45. And it came to pass when the forty 
 days were fulfilled, that the Most High spake unto 
 me, saying, The first that thou hast written publish 
 openly, and let the worthy and unworthy read it : 
 
 46. But keep the seventy last, that thou mayst 
 deliver them to such as be wise among thy people : 
 
 47. For in them is the spring of understanding, 
 and the fountain of wisdom, and the stream of 
 knowledge." Of the ninety-four books referred to, 
 twenty-four compose the Old Testament, and the 
 remaining seventy are the non-canonical writings. 
 
Jf EZRA: APOCALYPSE OF SALATHIEL 291 
 
 {e) The last constituent of 4 Ezra is what chap. vni. 
 Kabisch, rightly or wrongly, calls the Apocalypse of Apocalypse of 
 
 r.ii>i>>>> • h * • •* SalathieH?) 
 
 balathiel, t.e, in. 1-31; iv. 1-51; v. 13 -vi. 10; vi. 30-vu. 
 25; vii.45-viii. 62;ix. 13-X. 57; xii. 40-48; xiv. 28-35. 
 
 Its writer is thoroughly pessimistic. He has no oniyafewwiii 
 hesitation in answering the question propounded in 
 the New Testament. Salvation, he holds, is for the 
 few. This is stated in viii. 1-3 : "And he answered 
 me, and said : The Most High hath made this 
 world for many, but the world to come for few. 
 2. I will tell thee now a similitude, Esdras : As when 
 thou askest the earth, it shall say unto thee, that it 
 giveth very much mould whereof earthen vessels 
 are made, and little dust that gold cometh of: even 
 so is the course of the present world. 3. There 
 be many created, but few shall be saved." 
 
 And elsewhere Ezra sorrowfully declares (vii. 
 
 47, 48): "And now I see, that the world to come 
 shall bring delight to few, but torments unto many. 
 
 48. For an evil heart hath grown up in us, which 
 hath led us astray from these statutes, and hath 
 brought us into corruption and into the ways of 
 death, hath showed us the paths of perdition, and 
 removed us far from life ; and that, not a few only 
 but well-nigh all that have been created." To this 
 God is represented as saying (vii, 51, 52): "For 
 whereas thou hast said that the just are not many, 
 but few, and the ungodly abound, hear the answer 
 thereto. 52, If thou have choice stones exceed- 
 ing few, wilt thou set for thee over against them 
 according to their number things of lead and clay.^" 
 
92 Ji. EZRA: APOCALYPSE OF SALATHIEL 
 
 2Q2 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 God has, according to this writer, no love for man 
 as man, but only for man as righteous. And since 
 only a few attain to righteousness, God rejoices 
 over these, since they ''are hard to get"; but is not 
 concerned over the innumerable hosts that perish 
 (vii. 59-61): '*And he answered me and said. 
 Weigh within thyself the things that thou hast 
 thought, for he that hath what is hard to get re- 
 joiceth over him that hath what is plentiful. 60. So 
 also is the judgment which I have promised : for I 
 will rejoice over the few that shall be saved, inasmuch 
 as these are they that have made my glory now to 
 prevail, and of whom my name is now named, 61. 
 And I will not grieve over the multitude of them 
 that perish ; for these are they that are now like unto 
 vapour, and are become as flame and smoke ; they 
 are set on fire and burn hotly, and are quenched." 
 
 How different is this view as compared with 
 that in the Apocalypse of Baruch, where it is dis- 
 tinctly maintained that not a few will be saved 
 (xxi. 11). This very different attitude of these two 
 writers towards this question springs from their 
 respective views on the question of freewill. The 
 latter nobly declares (liv. 15, 19): "For though 
 Adam first sinned and brought untimely death upon 
 all, yet of those who were born from him each one 
 of them has prepared for his own soul torment to 
 come, and again each one of them has chosen for 
 Every man the himself gloHcs to come. ... 1 9. Adam is there- 
 ^wnToui^'^ fore not the cause, save only of his own soul, but 
 each one of us has been the Adam of his own soul." 
 
 But many, ac 
 cording to 
 Apocalypse 
 of Baruch, 
 
Jf EZRA: APOCALYPSE OF SALATHIEL 293 
 
 On the other hand, the Ezra writers hold that man chap. vm. 
 is so very far gone in original sin that his heart is Not so, say 
 wholly wicked. Adam is the source of all our woe wrlters^^ Man 
 (vii. 118): ^'O thou Adam, what hast thou done? for Ih^ugr'"^'^ 
 though it was thou that sinned, the evil is not fallen original sin. 
 on thee alone, but upon all of us that come of thee." 
 In keeping with our writer's gloomy views of 
 man s future is his declaration as to God's action 
 with regard to that future. Thus he writes (vii. 70): 
 '* When the Most High made the world, and Adam 
 and all them that came of him, he first prepared 
 the judgment and the things that pertain unto the 
 judgment." If we combine this statement with the 
 fact that almost all mankind were predoomed to 
 eternal destruction, then the object of God in 
 creation is difficult to determine. 
 
 This subordination of all things to judgment, what can the 
 and that a judgment at once final and all but creatTon^be? 
 universally damnatory, makes it, we repeat, difficult 
 to apprehend what this writer conceived God's 
 object to be in making the world. In three different 
 passages, indeed, he declares categorically that the 
 world was created on account of Israel, but, since 
 only a handful even of Israel are saved, we must 
 conclude that, according to this writer, God regards 
 these few as worth a whole eternity of pain on the 
 part of all the rest of humanity. 
 
 Just as in the Gospels, so here the question is 
 put: ''When shall these things be?" Indeed it 
 is said that the souls of the departed righteous in 
 their chambers inquire as to the time of the coming 
 
294 -4 EZRA: APOCALYPSE OF SALATHIEL 
 
 CHAP. viii. end: ** How long are we here?^ When cometh 
 
 the fruit of the harvest of our reward?" (iv, 35). 
 
 The end will To this the angel replied : " Even when the number 
 
 come when the .-,-,,1 ri 
 
 number of the IS fulfilled oi them that are like you." And the 
 
 elect is fulfilled. • r i i i i i - 
 
 sms of the earth cannot delay this consummation : 
 '* Hades and (so Syriac and Ethiopic) the chambers 
 of souls are like the womb " (iv. 41) : ''for like as a 
 woman that travaileth maketh haste to escape the 
 anguish of the travail : even so do these places haste 
 to deliver those things that are committed unto them 
 Retribution from the beginning " (iv. 42). But in the meantime 
 fnsheol ^^^ retribution sets in immediately after death. Thus 
 Ezra asks (vii, 75) : ** If I have found grace in thy 
 sight, O Lord, shew this also unto thy servant, 
 whether after death, even now when every one of us 
 giveth up his soul, we shall be kept in rest until those 
 times come, in which thou shalt renew the creation, 
 or whether we shall be tormented forthwith." In 
 vii. 80 it is answered that the spirits of the wicked 
 after death '* shall not enter into habitations, but shall 
 wander and be in torments forthwith, ever grieving, 
 The spirits of and sad in seven ways " (vii. 81-87). ^i- ** The first 
 be^^rmemeT way, bccausc they have despised the law of the Most 
 in seven ways. w\^\i. 82. The sccond way, because they cannot 
 now make a good returning that they may live. 83. 
 The third way, they shall see the reward laid 
 up for them that have believed the covenants 
 of the Most High. 84, The fourth way, they 
 shall consider the torment laid up for themselves 
 
 ^ So the Syriac and Ethiopic. The Latin gives : ** How long shall I hope 
 in this fashion ? " 
 
Jf EZRA: APOCALYPSE OF SALATHIEL 295 
 
 in the last days. 85. The fifth way, they shall see chap. vm. 
 
 the dwelling-places of the others guarded by angels, 
 
 with great quietness. 86. The sixth way, they shall 
 
 see the punishment that is prepared for them from 
 
 henceforth,^ 87. The seventh way, which is more 
 
 grievous than all the aforesaid ways, because they 
 
 shall pine away in confusion and be consumed with 
 
 shame, and shall be withered up by fears, seeing the 
 
 glory of the Most High before whom they have 
 
 sinned whilst living, and before whom they shall be 
 
 judged in the last times." And after the final but more 
 
 judgment they will be tormented more grievously ffte^^^gna" 
 
 (vii. 84). As for the souls of the righteous, they Judgment. 
 
 will be allowed seven days to see what will befall wiuhave 
 
 them (vii. 100, 10 1). They will be guarded by angels sev^n ways.^'^ 
 
 in habitations of health and safety (vii. 121 ; cf. vii. 
 
 75, 85, 95), and have joy in seven ways (vii. gi-98) : 
 
 " First of all they shall see with great joy the glory 
 
 of him who taketh them up, for they shall have 
 
 rest in seven orders. 92. The first order, because 
 
 they have striven with great labour to overcome the 
 
 evil thought which was fashioned together with them, 
 
 that it might not lead them astray from life into 
 
 death. 93. The second order, because they see 
 
 the perplexity in which the souls of the ungodly 
 
 wander, and the punishment that awaiteth them. 
 
 94. The third order, they see the witness which 
 
 he that fashioned them beareth concerning them, 
 
 that while they lived they kept the law which was 
 
 1 I have in this verse followed the Syriac Version, which is supported by 
 the Ethiopic. The Latin is here corrupt. 
 
296 Jf. EZRA: APOCALYPSE OF SALATHIEL 
 
 CHAP. VIII. given them in trust, 95. The fourth order, they 
 understand the rest which, being gathered in their 
 chambers, they now enjoy with great quietness, 
 guarded by angels, and the glory that awaiteth them 
 in the last days. 96. The fifth order, they rejoice, 
 seeing how they have now escaped from that which 
 is corruptible, and how they shall inherit that which 
 is to come, while they see, moreover, the straightness 
 and the painfulness from which they have been 
 delivered, and the large room which they shall receive 
 with joy and immortality. 97. The sixth order, when 
 it is showed unto them how their face shall shine as 
 the sun, and how they shall be made like unto the 
 light of the stars, being henceforth incorruptible, 
 98. The seventh order, which is greater than all 
 the aforesaid orders, because they shall rejoice with 
 confidence, and because they shall be bold without 
 confusion, and shall be glad without fear, for they 
 hasten to behold the face of him whom in their 
 lifetime they served, and from whom they shall 
 receive their reward in glory." These chambers 
 of the righteous souls are their intermediate abode : 
 after the final judgment glory and transfiguration 
 await them (vii. 95, 97.) 
 Intercession At this judgment intercession for sinners will 
 
 aftlr^finT/judg. ^ot be permitted (vii. 102-105). ^^ things will then 
 be finally determined (vii. 113-115): ''The day of 
 judgment shall be the end of this time, and the 
 beginning of the immortality for to come, wherein 
 corruption has passed away. 114. Intemperance is 
 at an end, infidelity is cut off, but righteousness is 
 
 ment. 
 
BOOK OF BARUCH 297 
 
 grown and truth is sprung up. 115. Then shall chap. vnr. 
 no man be able to have mercy on him that is cast 
 in judgment, nor to thrust down him that hath 
 gotten the victory." It will be a new creation (vii. 
 75). With its establishment the righteous enter on 
 their great reward. Then their faces will "shine 
 as the sun," they will be bright as the stars (vii. 
 97), and beyond them (vii. 125). They will enjoy 
 immortality (vii. 97). 
 
 The close affinity of this portion of 4 Ezra to 
 one of the chief constituents in the Apocalypse of 
 Baruch is manifest. 
 
 Book of Baruch (from various periods) 
 
 This composite work has very little eschatological The Book of 
 interest. i.-iii. 8 is undoubtedly derived from a no^ntribution 
 Hebrew original, and possibly part of iii. 9-iv. 29. L7ge'of Jewish 
 It is composed of at least three independent writings, ^s^^^toiogy. 
 As to their dates nothing satisfactory has yet been 
 arrived at. It is noteworthy that in ii. 17 Hades 
 still possesses its Old Testament connotation. The 
 eschatology of the nation is the chief theme of the 
 last chapters. The enemies of Israel will be de- 
 stroyed (iv. 25, 33). Jerusalem will be restored (iv. 
 19-35) ^nd the exiles brought back (iv. 36-v.) : v. 5. 
 ''Arise, O Jerusalem, and stand upon the height, and 
 look about thee toward the east, and behold thy 
 children gathered from the going down of the sun 
 unto the rising thereof at the word of the Holy One, 
 rejoicing that God hath remembered them." 
 
298 
 
 JOSEPHUS 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 The Messianic 
 kingdom. 
 
 Sheol the 
 intermediate 
 abode of the 
 righteous, but 
 the eternal 
 abode of the 
 wicked. 
 
 Only the 
 righteous 
 attain to the 
 resurrection. 
 
 The Essene 
 doctrine. 
 
 JOSEPHUS (37-101 A.D.) 
 
 Josephus' interpretation of Messianic prophecy 
 as pointing to Vespasian {BJ. vi. v. 4) must be 
 set down to the exigencies of his position with 
 regard to the Romans. For it is clear from Ant, 
 IV. vi. 5 that he looked forward to a Messianic era. 
 As the troubles predicted by Daniel had fallen to the 
 lot of Israel, so likewise would the prosperity {^Ant, x. 
 xi. 7). He believed in an intermediate state for the 
 righteous. Thus in Ant. xviii. i. 3 it is said that 
 " souls have an immortal vigour, and that under the 
 earth {hiro xdovo^, cf. B,J. 11. viii. 14, Ka& aBov) there 
 will be rewards and punishments, according as they 
 have lived virtuously or viciously in this life ; and the 
 latter are to be detained in an everlasting prison, but 
 the former will have power to revive and live again.'* 
 Here the wicked enter at once into everlasting 
 punishment. Sheol is here hell. But the righteous 
 rise from the intermediate place of happiness and 
 enter into other bodies {B.y. ri. viii. 14). Such was 
 the Pharisaic doctrine according to Josephus. The 
 Essenes believed that a blessed immortality awaited 
 the souls of the righteous {B.y. 11. viii. 11), but that 
 those of the wicked were destined to a dark, cold 
 region, full of undying torment. 
 
 The above account of Pharisaic belief which we 
 derive from Josephus may be regarded as fairly 
 trustworthy ; but that which he gives in B,/. 
 III. viii. 5 is misleading to a high degree. There 
 he describes the soul as a "particle of Divinity" 
 
SOUL AND SPIRIT 299 
 
 (Q^ov fioipa) which has taken up its abode in a mortal chap. vm. 
 body. After death the souls of the righteous 
 *' receive as their lot the most holy place in heaven, 
 from whence, in the revolution of ages, they are 
 again sent into pure bodies."^ For the souls of 
 suicides the darkest place in Hades is reserved. 
 
 III. Development of Special Conceptions 
 Soul and Spirit. — There is hardly a trace of the Thesouiand 
 
 ,, r r-^ ' - * 1 1 *••! spirit are re- 
 
 teachmg of Gen. n., ni. on the soul and spirit in the gardedas 
 Jewish literature of this century.^ In Jubilees xxiii. noT-canon^cai^ 
 3 1 the departed are spoken of as '' spirits." So like- ^'^^^'^^,^1 
 wise in the Assumption of Moses. See Origen, In 
 Jos. horn. ii. i. On the other hand, the Slavonic 
 Enoch only speaks of " souls " (see xxiii. 5, Iviii. 5). 
 Again, whereas the Apocalypse of Baruch uses only 
 the term '* soul " in reference to the departed, cf. xxx. 
 2, 4 (li. 15), the sister work 4 Ezra uses in this refer- 
 ence either ''soul" (vii. 75, 93, 99, 100) or "spirit," 
 (vii. 78, 80). The Book of Wisdom, on the other 
 hand, shows clear indications of the diction of Gen. 
 ii., iii. Its psychology, however, is not that of Gen. 
 ii., iii., but more nearly corresponds to the popular 
 
 ^ This view is derived from Greek philosophy. See pp. 141, 142, 146, 149. 
 
 ^ In the Book of Baruch, chaps, i.-iii. 1-8, which belong in character to 
 the Old Testament, this teaching appears in ii. 17 : " The dead that are in 
 Hades, whose spirit is taken from their bodies." Yet in iii. I spirit and 
 soul are- treated as synonyms according to the popular and older view. This 
 part of Baruch may belong to the second or first century B.C. 
 
 Even in 4 Maccabees, which is saturated with Greek philosophy, the 
 famiUar dichotomy of soul and body is the normal view of the writer (i. 20, 
 26, 27, 32 ; X. 4 ; xiii. 13, 14 ; cf. xiv. 6). As he uses also body and spirit to 
 express the same idea, he regarded the soul and spirit as identical. See vii. 
 14, xii. 20. 
 
300 JUDGMENT 
 
 CHAP. VIII. dichotomy of man. Thus we have the familiar 
 dichotomy of soul and body in i. 4; viii. 19, 20; 
 ix. 15. The soul in the next life constitutes the 
 entire personality (iii. i). But the writer uses the 
 term "spirit" also, and this as synonymous with 
 " soul/' as appears from a comparison of xv. 8 and 
 XV. 16. This identity is still clearer from xvi. 14 : 
 
 i^€k0ov Be TTvevfia ovfc avaaTpe^ec 
 ovBe avaXvev '\lrv'^r}v 'TrapaXr}ix(^6elo'av» 
 
 These conclusions enable us to see that there is no 
 trichotomy in xv. 11. ** He was ignorant of him 
 . . . that inspired into him an active soul {'^vxw 
 ivepyovcrav) and breathed into him a vital spirit " 
 {iTvevfia ^cortfcov). Here, if any difference is to be 
 found, it is in the epithets and not in the substan- 
 tives. Thus though the phraseology '* vital spirit" 
 points back to Gen. ii., iii., yet its teaching is not fol- 
 lowed. The soul is here not the result of the 
 inbreathing of the divine breath into the body, but 
 an independent entity synonymous with the spirit. 
 The fact that z/oiJ? ( = mind) is used as equivalent to 
 spirit or soul in ix. 15 is evidence of Greek influence. 
 Judgment, — This century witnesses but little 
 change in the current beliefs on this head. There 
 is to be a preliminary judgment in all cases where 
 a Messianic kingdom is expected, as in Jubilees, 
 Assumption of Moses, Wisdom, and all the different 
 constituents of the Apocalypse of Baruch and 4 Ezra, 
 save in B^ and B^ of the former and the Salathiel 
 Apocalypse of the latter. As for the final judgment, 
 
HEAVEN, PARADISE, HADES 301 
 
 it is to be executed on men and angels (Jubilees, chap. vm. 
 Slavonic Enoch, and Apocalypse of Baruch). It The final judg- 
 is to take place at the close of the Messianic close of the 
 kingdom, or, where none is expected, either at the ^ngdom*^: 
 close of the aw (Apoc. Bar. B', B^), or when the where there 
 
 <j \ ^ ' / ' was none, at 
 
 number of the righteous is completed (4 Ezra, thecioseofthe 
 Apocalypse of Salathiel). In Wisdom (?), Philo, 4 
 Maccabees, however, no such judgment is spoken of. But none such 
 
 7-. I 1 T , , . ^ , in Alexandrian 
 
 iiacn soul apparently enters at death on its nnal Judaism. 
 destiny (see above, pp. 253, 254). In this last 
 respect only is there a definite divergence from the 
 beliefs of the preceding century, and this develop- 
 ment is confined to Alexandrian Judaism. 
 
 Places of Abode of the Departed, — These are 
 many in number, but have for the most part their 
 roots in the past. 
 
 Heaven (or Paradise). — The final abode of the Heaven. 
 righteous (Jub. xxiii. 31; Ass. Mos. x. 9; Apoc. 
 Bar. h.) 
 
 Paradise, — (a) The final abode of the righteous Paradise.— {«) 
 
 /d T^ .... ■•.. -_» .. Final abode. 
 
 (Slav. En. vui., ix., xlu. 3, 5, etc. ; 4 Ezra vii. 36, 
 123; viii. 52. 
 
 {b) The intermediate abode of the righteous (5) inter- 
 
 (JubileeS? see p. 249). mediateabode. 
 
 Sheol or Hades : ^ {a) The abode of all departed Hades.— («) 
 souls till the final judgment (Apoc. Bar. xxiii. 5, IborofaT 
 xlviii. 16, Hi. 2 ; 4 Ezra iv. 41 ; Josephus, see above, So'^s.^*''° 
 p. 298). But Sheol thus conceived had two divisions 
 
 1 Hades is used in its Old Testament sense as the eternal abode of souls 
 in Baruch ii. 17. But the first three chapters of Baruch most probably belong 
 to the second or first century B.C. 
 
302 
 
 GEHENNA, THE RESURRECTION 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 {b) Final 
 abode of the 
 wicked. 
 
 {i. ) Resurrec- 
 of the 
 righteous only. 
 
 {a) Without 
 a body. 
 
 {b) In a 
 spiritual body. 
 
 (ii. ) Resurrec- 
 tion of all n:\an- 
 kind. 
 
 — a place of pain for the wicked (Apoc. Bar. xxx. 
 5, xxxvi. ii), and a place of rest and blessedness 
 for the righteous (cf. 4 Ezra iv. 4i).'^ This latter 
 was called the *' treasuries " or ** chambers" (cf. 
 Apoc. Bar. xxx. 2 ; 4 Ezra vii. 75, 85, 95). 
 
 {b) Hell (Jub. vii. 29, xxii. 22 ; 4 Ezra viii. 
 53 ; Josephus, see above, p. 298). 
 
 Gehenna, — This is now generally conceived as 
 the final place of punishment for all the wicked 
 (Ass. Mos. X. 10; 4 Ezra vii. 36). It seems to be 
 referred to in Wisdom (cf. iv. 19) and in Slav. En. 
 xl. 12, and described in this last work in x. and xh. 2. 
 Restirrection, — (i.) According to all the Jewish 
 literature of this century save the Apocalypse of 
 Baruch and 4 Ezra, there was to be a resurrection 
 of the righteous only. But this resurrection was 
 variously conceived, (a) The Alexandrian writers, 
 as we might anticipate, taught only a resurrection 
 of the soul or spirit immediately after death, as we 
 find in Wisdom, Philo, and 4 Maccabees. The 
 Palestinean works, Jubilees and the Assumption 
 of Moses, postponed this resurrection of the spirit 
 till after the final judgment, {b) On the other 
 hand, the resurrection of the soul or spirit 
 clothed in a body unlike the present [erepov o-wfia) 
 is set forth by Josephus as the doctrine of the 
 Pharisees {B.J. 11. viii. 14), or, according to 
 the Slavonic Enoch, clothed in the glory of God. 
 (ii.) But besides this spiritual doctrine of the 
 
 1 That is, according to the Latin Version : in inferno proinptuaria. But 
 the Syriac and Ethiopic = inferntim etpromptuaria. 
 
THE MESSIANIC KINGDOM, THE MESSIAH 303 
 
 resurrection, this century attests also that of a chap. vm. 
 general resurrection — not merely a general resurrec- 
 tion, the resurrection of all Israel, as in the preced- 
 ing two centuries, but a resurrection of all mankind, 
 good and bad, Jew and Gentile alike. This form 
 of the doctrine is first found in B^ of the Apo- 
 calypse of Baruch xxx. 2-5, 1., li. ; and the Ezra 
 Apocalypse of Ezra vii. 32-37. (iii.) But the history {iii.) The First 
 
 ^ , • r 1 • 1 • 1 ' Resurrection. 
 
 01 the various forms this doctrme assumed is not 
 yet fully enumerated. The consciousness that the 
 resurrection is a privilege of the faithful is not 
 wholly lost, even to those who have made it the 
 common lot of all men. Hence, at all events, in 
 4 Ezra vii. 28 (cp. xiv. 9), and xiii. 52, in both 
 of which sections a Messiah is expected, the idea 
 of a first resurrection — resurrection of special Old 
 Testament heroes — is evolved. These accompany 
 the Messiah when He comes to reign on earth. 
 
 Messianic Kingdom, — See general historical de- 
 velopment in the first century a.d. (see pp. 242-244). 
 
 Messiah, — We remarked above that from the 
 middle of the first century B.C. the expectation of 
 the Messiah took such a firm hold of the national 
 consciousness that henceforth the Messiah becomes 
 almost universally the central figure in the Messianic 
 kingdom. This conclusion does not seem capable 
 of justification from the books we have above dealt 
 with, for of these only five express this hope. But 
 the explanation is not far to seek. Against the 
 combination of the Messiah-hope with the national 
 aspirations for an earthly kingdom, advocated, as 
 
304 THE MESSIAH 
 
 CHAP. vni. we have already seen, by the Psalms of Solomon, 
 varj'ing atti- a Strong body of Pharisees raised an emphatic 
 the exprc^tfon protest. These, according to the ideal of the 
 of the Messiah, indent Chasids, were Quietists. Their duty was to 
 observe the law ; it was for God to intervene and 
 defend them. This standpoint is represented by 
 the Assumption of Moses, and later by the Salathiel 
 Apocalypse in 4 Ezra. Among the Jews of the 
 Dispersion likewise this view naturally gained large 
 acceptance. Hence we find no hint of it in the 
 Slavonic Enoch, the Book of Wisdom, and 4 
 Maccabees. But this opposition from the severely 
 legal wing of Pharisaism to the Messiah-hope at 
 length gave way, andin Apoc. Bar. liii.-lxxiv., i.e, A^ 
 we have literary evidence of the fusion of early 
 Rabbinism and the popular Messianic expectation. 
 How widespread was the hope of the Messiah in 
 Expectation all the first century of the Christian era may be seen 
 pSne.''^ '" not only from Jubilees (?), Philo, Josephus, and the 
 various independent writings in the Apocalypse of 
 Baruch and 4 Ezra, but also from the New Testa- 
 ment and the notice taken of this expectation in 
 Tacitus, Hist, v. 13, and Suetonius, Vesp, c. 4. 
 Messiah's reign Siuce in all cascs Only a transitory Messianic 
 porarydura- kingdom is cxpectcd in this century, the Messiah's 
 
 reign is naturally conceived as likewise transitory. 
 Messiah to be The Messiah is to be of the tribe of Judah (Jub. 
 
 of the tribe of • n -0 • • \ t t • i 
 
 Judah. XXXI. 18, 19; 4 Ezra xn. 32). He is to play a 
 
 passive part (Apoc. Bar. xxvii.-xxx. i ; 4 Ezra vii. 
 28, i.e, Ezra Apocalypse ; see above, p. 285). In the 
 former passage He is to appear at the close of the 
 
GENTILES 305 
 
 Messianic woes ; in the latter simultaneously with chap. vm. 
 the first resurrection. But more usually He is re- 
 garded as an active warrior who slays His enemies 
 with His own hand (Apoc. Bar. xxxvi.-xl., hii.-lxx. ; 
 4 Ezra X. 60-xii. 35), while others again conceive 
 Him more loftily as one who slays His enemies by 
 the word of His mouth (4 Ezra xiii. 10 ; cf. Pss. 
 Sol. xvii.). 
 
 Gentiles. — In most works written before the fall 
 of Jerusalem only the hostile nations are destroyed 
 (cf. Apoc. Bar. xl. 1,2; Ixxii. 4-6), but in later 
 works, as 4 Ezra xiii., all are to be annihilated. In 
 no case have they any hope of a future life. They sheoi or 
 either descend into Sheol, which thenceforth becomes final destina- 
 their eternal abiding-place, or else into Gehenna ; GemUes. ^ 
 but if in any instance they are regarded as having 
 part in the resurrection, it is only that they may be 
 committed to severer and never-ending torment 
 4 Ezra vii. 36-38). 
 
 Bibliography. — The bulk of the preceding four chapters is 
 mainly based on various books edited by the present writer and 
 referred to in the text. In addition to these and others there cited 
 the reader can consult Liicke, Einleitung in die Offenbarung des 
 Johannes^ 1852; 'Wi%^vd€iA.^ Jildische Apocalyptik^ 1857; Langen, 
 Das Judenthum in Palds'tina^ 1866; Drummond, The Jewish 
 Messiah^ 1877; Hausrath, NTliche Zeitgeschichte, 187 5- 1877 ; 
 Stanton, The Jewish and Christian Messiah, 1886; Baldensperger, 
 Das Selbstbewusstsein Jesu, 1888 ; Deane, Pseudepigrapha, 1891 ; 
 Thomson, Books that influenced our Lord, 1891 ; Schwally, Das 
 Leben nach dem Tode, 1892; Briggs, The Messiah of the Gospels, 
 pp. 1-40, 1894; Messiah of the Apostles, pp. 1-20, 1895 ; Salmond, 
 Christian Doctrine of Immortality, 1896 ; Marti, Geschichte der 
 Israelitischen Religion^ pp. 270-310, 1897: Schurer,^ Geschichte des 
 jUdischen Volkes, vols. ii. and iii., 1898; Art. *' Eschatology," by 
 the present writer, in Hastings* Bible Dictionary, I. 741-749, 1898 ; 
 also Art. " Eschatology " in the Encyclopcedia Biblica, 
 
 20 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 General Introduction — The Synoptic Gospels 
 
 When we pass from Jewish literature to that of the 
 
 New Testament, we find ourselves in an absolutely 
 
 new atmosphere. It is not that we have to do with 
 
 a wholly new world of ideas and moral forces, for all 
 
 that was great and inspiring in the past has come 
 
 over into the present and claimed its part in the 
 
 Incorporation formation of the Christian Church. But in the 
 
 nobiisUdeas process of incorporation this heritage from the past 
 
 ^he^^^tlnthe '^^^ been of necessity largely transformed; it no 
 
 spiritual king- lon2:er constitutcs a heterosreneous mass of ideas in 
 
 dom of Christ, ^ n • i • i 
 
 membership of constant flux — a flux in which the less worthy, quite 
 
 which is con- r ^ t i i • • i i 
 
 stitutedby as frequently as the more noble, is in the ascendant, 
 tion °to^its ^ ^ and in which each idea in turn makes its individual 
 
 tion to Its 
 Head, 
 
 appeal for acceptance, and generating its little 
 system, enjoys in turn its little day. When re- 
 ceived, however, within the sphere of the cosmos of 
 Christian life and thought, all these forces and ideas 
 gradually fall into their due subordination to its 
 
ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 307 
 
 centre, and contribute harmoniously to the purpose chap. ix. 
 of the whole. For the Messiah now assumes a 
 position^undreaint of in the past , andj nembership^oT 
 the kingdom is constitated, firstly and predominat- 
 inglyr through pergonal— relationship, to its divine 
 
 Head.- ^^ 
 
 In the next place, we have to remember that in the synthesis of the 
 teaching of Christ and of Christianity the synthesis in°d^viduai, Ld 
 of the eschatologies of the race and of the individual chrl^tilnUy^ 
 has at last been fully and finally achieved. We 
 saw how Ezekiel, by a doctrine of the individual, Past attempts 
 partly true, partly false, sought in some fashion to s^STfn^ '^ 
 effect a synthesis of the hopes of the individual ^^^^"^^ 
 and of the nation within the sphere of this life, Rise of the 
 but naturally without success. We saw, further, indivi'duai im- 
 how the individual, uplifted by the certainty of '"°'''^^'^^" 
 personal communion with the living God, came at 
 last to formulate as the axiom of his spiritual 
 experience the doctrine of a blessed immortality. 
 God rules, he felt assured, not only in this life, but 
 in the next ; and for the man who walks with God 
 here, there can be no unblessed existence in the 
 hereafter. But this great truth was as yet but 
 imperfectly apprehended. It seemed as though it 
 were the reward which the righteous individual won 
 by himself, and for himself, irrespectively of his 
 brethren, and thus in this regard it was a triumph of 
 individualism in the sphere of the highest religion as doctrine in this 
 yet realised on earth. But this imperfect concep- form could not 
 
 1 J 1 ... - - ^ be final, ignor- 
 
 tion could not long mam tain itself amongst a people ing as it did the 
 whose hopes were fixed on a national blessedness, oftSngdom. 
 
3o8 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 First synthesis 
 of the two re- 
 sulting in the 
 doctrine of the 
 resurrection 
 towards close of 
 fourth century. 
 
 Its resolution 
 into its original 
 factors about 
 loo B.C., when 
 the hope of an 
 eternal Messi- 
 anic kingdom 
 was aban- 
 doned. 
 
 Their final 
 synthesis in 
 Christian ity» 
 
 on that coming kingdom which should embrace all 
 that were fit and worthy in Israel. Hence but a 
 short time elapsed before the hope of the righteous 
 individual and the hope of the righteous nation 
 were combined in one, and thus emerged the 
 doctrine of the resurrection, as we find in the books 
 of Isaiah, Daniel, and Enoch, which taught that the 
 righteous nation of Israel and the righteous indi- 
 vidual — alike the quick and the dead — ^would be 
 recompensed to the full in the eternal Messianic king- 
 dom on earth. But the synthesis thus estabhshed 
 as early as the fourth century B.C. hardly outlived 
 the second, and the expectations of the individual 
 and of the nation again took divergent paths ; for 
 the earth had at last come to be regarded as wholly 
 unfit for the manifestation of the eternal kingdom of 
 God, and to such a kingdom and none other could 
 the hopes of the righteous individual be directed. 
 The Messianic kingdom was still expected, but one 
 only of temporary duration. Henceforth not the 
 Messianic kingdom, but heaven itself or paradise 
 became the goal of the hopes of the faithful in death. 
 In this severance of the hopes of the individual and 
 the nation true religion suffered, and individualism 
 gained an illegitimate and regulative authority in 
 matters of religion. 
 
 By the Founder of Christianity, however, the 
 synthesis of the two hopes was established in a 
 universal form finally and for ever. The true 
 Messianic kingdom begins on earth, and will 
 be consummated in heaven ; it is not tempor- 
 
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 309 
 
 ary,^ but eternal ; it is not limited to one people, chap. ix. 
 but embraces the righteous of all nations and of all 
 times. It forms a divine society in which the posi- 
 tion and significance of each member is determined 
 by his endowments, and his blessedness conditioned 
 by the blessedness of the whole. Thus religious 
 individualism becomes an impossibihty. On the 
 one hand, it is true the individual can have no part 
 in the kingdom save through a living relation to 
 its Head ; ^ yet, on the other, this relation cannot be 
 maintained and developed save through life in and 
 for the brethren ; and so closely is the individual 
 life bound to that of the brethren, that no soul can 
 reach its consummation apart. 
 
 We have above referred to the incorporation of xransforma- 
 a large body of Jewish ideas in the system of ^Tdlh""' ^''' 
 Christian thought, and their subsequent transforma- f^^-^t^^ °^ 
 
 tion in the process. It would, however, be a serious elements in 
 ^ New Testa- 
 
 error to assume that all ideas that were incorporated mem. 
 
 from Jewish sources by all the New Testament 
 
 writers underwent an immediate and complete, or 
 
 even a partial, transformation. 
 
 In the course of the preceding chapters we have, Parallel pheno- 
 
 I hope, recognised that at all periods of the history Tes'tamem '^ 
 
 of Israel there existed side by side in its religion 
 
 and subse- 
 quent Jewish 
 history. 
 
 1 It is temporary, according to I Cor. xv. 24-28, but not according to the 
 later teaching of St. Paul. St. Paul's earlier epistles imply an eschatology 
 that is in certain respects Judaistic. These Judaistic doctrines are gradually 
 abandoned in his later epistles. See Chapter XI. 
 
 2 This relation need not be a conscious one. All that have done good 
 for the sake of goodness without any ulterior motive have, in reality, shown 
 themselves to be true disciples of Christ, though they may not have known 
 Him (Matt. xxv. 37-40), 
 
3IO ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. IX. incongruous and inconsistent elements. Thus in 
 
 every period we have, on the one side, the doctrine 
 
 of God ever advancing in depth and fulness ; on the 
 
 other, we have eschatological and other survivals 
 
 which, however justifiable in earlier stages, are 
 
 in unmistakable antagonism with the theistic 
 
 beliefs of their time. The eschatology of a 
 
 nation is always the last part of their religion to 
 
 experience the transforming power of new ideas 
 
 and new facts. 
 
 Therecogni- The recognition of these facts is of primary 
 
 phenomena importance when we deal with New Testament 
 
 onheptsf" eschatology. In the first place, we shall not be 
 
 ex^^fcTthr^ surprised if the eschatology of the latter should, 
 
 occurrence of to some extent, present similar incong^ruous pheno- 
 
 imilar pheno- i --t-' i i 
 
 menainthe mena as the Old Testament and subsequent Jewish 
 ment. ^^^' literature. And, in the next, we shall be prepared 
 to deal honestly with any such inconsistencies. So 
 far, therefore, from attempting, as in the past, to 
 explain them away or to bring them into harmony 
 with doctrines that in reality make their accept- 
 ance impossible, we shall frankly acknowledge their 
 existence, and assign to them their full historical 
 Such survivals value. That their existence, however, in the New 
 
 have no claim t* ^ . /^ • i i . i 
 
 on the accept- i estament Canon can give them no claim on the 
 acceptance of the Church, follows from their in- 
 herent discordance with the Christian fundamental 
 doctrines of God and Christ ; for such discordance 
 condemns them as survivals of an earlier and lower 
 stage of religious belief. 
 
 That certain Judaistic conceptions of a mechanical 
 
 ance of the 
 Church. 
 
GENERAL INTROD UCTION 311 
 
 and unethical character have passed into the New chap. ix. 
 Testament must be recognised. But since these 
 possess no organic relation to the fundamental 
 doctrines of Christ, and indeed at times betray 
 a character wholly irreconcilable therewith, they 
 have naturally no true rationale in Christianity. 
 In Christianity there is a survival of alien Judaistic 
 elements, just as in the Hebrew rehgion there 
 were for centuries large survivals of Semitic 
 heathenism. That Judaism should cherish many 
 beliefs of a mechanical or even unethical character 
 ought not to be surprising, seeing that it was 
 false to the fundamental doctrine of monotheism, 
 of which, nevertheless, it claimed to be the true 
 exponent ; for if monotheism were true, then 
 Judaistic particularism was false, and God was 
 the God and Saviour of the Gentile also. As an 
 instance of such survivals we may adduce the such a survival 
 generally accepted doctrine of Hades, which is doctrine°of ^"^ 
 truly Judaistic. Just as the Hebrew view of Sheol, ^^^^• 
 which was essentially heathen, gave way to the 
 Judaistic view, which was partially moral, so this in 
 turn must jaeld to the fully moralised and Christian 
 conception of Hades as a place not of mechanical 
 fixity of character, but of moral movement and pro- 
 gress in the direction either of light or darkness (see 
 pp. 343, 344, 378). The doctrine of eternal damna- 
 tion also is a Judaistic survival of a still more also that of an 
 grossly immoral character. We shall do no more 
 here than point out that this doctrine originated 
 in Judaism when monotheism had become a lifeless 
 
312 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. IX. dogma, and Jewish particularism reigned supreme, 
 and when a handful of the pious could not only 
 comfortably believe that God was the God of 
 the Jew alone, and only of a very few of these, 
 but also could imagine that part of their highest 
 bliss in the next world would consist in witnessing 
 the torment of the damned. 
 Co-existence of Furthermore, from the history of eschatological 
 of development thought in the past we shall likewise be prepared to 
 Teltai^nL ^^^ not Only isolated religious survivals of that past 
 in the New Testament, but also the co-existence 
 within it of various stages of development. The 
 New Testament writers have assimilated in various 
 degrees, according to their spiritual intuition, the 
 fundamental teaching of Christ, and in various 
 degrees have applied this to the body of eschato- 
 logical doctrine which they had brought with them 
 from Judaism. That some ideas morally irrecon- 
 cilable should exist in the same writer is easily con- 
 ceivable. For a time the heritage of the past and 
 the revelation of the present could in some degree 
 exist side by side. The transformation of the 
 former by the latter in matters of theoretical and 
 not oi practical importance must naturally be a work 
 of time. In the Pauline Epistles we have a very 
 instructive instance of this slow and progressive 
 transformation, during which the great apostle 
 passes from an eschatological standpoint largely 
 Judaistic to one essentially Christian. 
 
 We shall now proceed to study the fundamental 
 teaching of Christ as set forth in the Synoptic 
 
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 313 
 
 Gospels. Seeing that the remaining books of the chap. ix. 
 New Testament present various stages of eschato- 
 logical development, we shall deal with them in the 
 order which will best bring this fact to light. 
 
 Finally, we shall discover in the New Testa- 
 ment the existence of large fragments of Jewish 
 apocalypses wholly unassimilated by Christian 
 thought. These are found for the most part in 
 Revelation. A small Jewish apocalypse is probably 
 also to be recognised in Mark xiii., and another in 
 2 Thess. ii. 
 
 I. Synoptic Gospels. — These give the funda- 
 mental teaching of Christ, but leave 
 in doubt some minor points of His 
 eschatological doctrine. 
 
 Revelation. — This book presents Judaistic and 
 Christian elements side by side. Its 
 Millenarian doctrine has never been 
 accepted by the Christian Church. 
 
 Jude and 2 Peter. 
 
 James, 
 
 Hebrews. 
 
 The Johannine Eschatology. 
 
 The Petrine Eschatology. 
 
 The Pauline Eschatology. 
 
 n. Development of special conceptions. 
 
CHAP. IX. 
 
 314 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 Thk Synoptic Gospels 
 
 The eschatology of the Synoptic Gospels deals 
 
 with the consummation of the kingdom of God 
 
 The kingdom which is there set forth. This kinsfdom is likewise 
 
 of heaven. ^ 
 
 called the kingdom of heaven in the first Gospel.^ 
 This designation fittingly describes its character 
 
 Its meaning, in opposition to the worldly and political expecta- 
 tions of the Jews. It was essentially the community 
 in which the divine will was to be realised'^ on earth 
 as it is already in heaven, and into which the in- 
 dividual could enter only by abjuring all self-seeking 
 
 The kingdom individualism. In this aspect the kingdom appears 
 
 = the common 1 r o 1 x 
 
 good. as the common good of man. 
 
 Further, the divine will has for its end the salva- 
 tion of man. Hence the kingdom presents itself 
 as the highest good attainable in the parables of the 
 Hid Treasure and the Goodly Pearl. As such it 
 embraces all goods, and first and chiefly life (Matt, 
 vi. 33 = Luke xii. 31; Mark viii. 36, 37), that is, 
 eternal life (Mark x. 17, 30= Matt. xix. 16). Eternal 
 life which cannot be enjoyed apart from the kingdom. 
 is the most comprehensive expression for the bless- 
 ings of the kingdom. Hence occasionally they 
 seem to be interchangeable terms. Thus " to have 
 life" (Matt. xix. 16), '*to inherit life" (Mark x. 17), 
 and "to enter into life" (Mark ix. 43-45 = Matt, 
 xviii. 8, 9) are synonymous with "to inherit the 
 
 ^ See Schwartzkopff, The Prophecies of Jesus Christy 210, 211. Sanday, 
 Art. "Jesus Christ" in Hastings' Bible Did, ii. 619. Both expressions are 
 probably original. 
 
 2 See pp. 82, 83 for a discussion of this meaning. See also pp. 129-13 1. 
 
SYNOPTIC GOSPELS 315 
 
 kingdom" (Matt. xxv. 34), and "to enter into the chap. ix. 
 
 kingdom'* (Mark ix. 47; Luke xviii. 24= Matt. 
 
 xviii. 3). There is, however, this distinction that 
 
 Hfe is the good of the individual, but the king- Life=thegood 
 
 dom that of the community.^ By entering into viduai.'" ^' 
 
 life the individual enters into the kingdom. We 
 
 have thus the perfect synthesis of the hopes of 
 
 the individual and of the divine community in 
 
 Christ s kingdom of God. 
 
 But the kingdom of God presents two divergent This kingdom 
 aspects. It is represented now as present, now as Jepresemed. 
 future ; now as inward and spiritual, now as external 
 and manifest. Since some have sought to contro- 
 vert the former view of this kingdom, and some the 
 latter as existing in the Gospels, we must here 
 examine the evidence, but as briefly as possible. 
 
 First, then, as to the actual presence of the Already pre- 
 kingdom. 
 
 Christ's conception of the kingdom as already 
 present belongs to the beginning of His ministry. 
 Thus when the Baptist sent his disciples to Christ, 
 and said (Matt. xi. 3), "Art thou he that should 
 come, or are we to look for another.?" Jesus 
 answered (Matt. xi. 4-6), **Go your way and tell 
 John the things which ye do hear and see. 5. The 
 blind receive their sight, and the lame walk, the 
 lepers are cleansed, and the deaf hear, and the dead 
 are raised up, and the poor have good tidings 
 
 1 The entrance into life may also be designated a spiritual resurrection. 
 See above, pp. 128-131 ; see also pp. 78-80. Man can only enter into the 
 kingdom by losing his life, i.e. dying to the old life and rising to the new. 
 
 sent. 
 
3i6 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. IX. preached to them. 6. And blessed is he, whosoever 
 shall find none occasion of stumbling in me." 
 
 By the works thus enumerated the Baptist is to 
 recognise that the kingdom has come. The same 
 conclusion follows from the text of Christ^s sermon 
 in the synagogue of Nazareth, and especially from 
 His comment thereon (Luke iv. i8, 19) : — 
 
 The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, 
 
 Because he anointed me to preach good tidings to the poor : 
 He hath sent me to proclaim release to the captives, 
 And recovering of sight to the blind. 
 To set at liberty them that are bruised. 
 1 9. To proclaim the acceptable year of the Lord. 
 
 The comment is given in iv. 21 : "To-day hath 
 this scripture been fulfilled in your ears." In other 
 words, the kingdom is already present, and He 
 that fulfils it is already before them. Again, the 
 same truth is attested in the earliest teaching 
 ascribed to Christ by St. Mark (Mark i. 15) : ''The 
 time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of heaven is at 
 hand ; repent ye, and believe the gospel." 
 
 As further evidence in the same direction should 
 be cited Matt. xii. 28 ( = Luke xi. 20) : '* But if I by 
 the Spirit of God cast out devils, then is the king- 
 dom of God come upon you." The kingdom, there- 
 fore, has already dawned, nay more, as Christ else- 
 where declares to the Pharisees, ''The kingdom of 
 God is in your midst" (Luke xvii. 21). 
 
 Again, the fact that the kingdom is already 
 present is presupposed by many of the parables. 
 Thus in the parables of the Mustard Seed and of 
 
SYNOPTIC GOSPELS 317 
 
 the Leaven the kingdom is represented as spreading 
 intensively and extensively. It is thus obviously 
 conceived as present. The same presupposition 
 underlies the parables of the Tares and of the 
 Draught of Fishes ; also that of the slowly growing 
 seed in Mark iv. 26-29. '*And he said, So is the 
 kingdom of God, as if a man should cast seed upon 
 the earth. 27. And should sleep and rise night and 
 day, and the seed should spring up and grow, he 
 knoweth not how. 28. The earth beareth fruit of 
 herself; first the blade, then the ear, then the full 
 corn in the ear. 29. But when the fruit is ripe, 
 straightway he putteth forth the sickle, because the 
 harvest is come." 
 
 The emphasis in the last lies on the gradual 
 growth of the seed, which requires time to mature. 
 The kingdom of God, once planted, gradually but 
 surely will attain to its consummation by its divine 
 indwelling powers. To this question of develop- 
 ment we shall return later. 
 
 That the kingdom is present in some form 
 follows likewise from Matt. vi. 33: ** But seek ye 
 first his kingdom, and his righteousness ; and all 
 these things shall be added unto you." vii. 13, 14 : 
 '* Enter ye in by the narrow gate : for wide is the 
 gate, and broad is the way, that leadeth to destruc- 
 tion, and many be they that enter in thereby. 14. 
 For narrow is the gate, and straitened the way, that 
 leadeth unto life, and few be they that find it." We 
 have already seen that in some aspects *' life " and 
 the kingdom are synonymous (Matt, xi. 11, 12): 
 
3i8 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 Kingdom 
 already pre- 
 sent in its 
 essence. 
 
 " Verily I say unto you, Among them that are born 
 of women there hath not arisen a greater than John 
 the Baptist : yet he that is but little in the kingdom 
 of heaven is greater than he. 12. And from the 
 days of John the Baptist until now the kingdom of 
 heaven suffereth violence, and the men of violence 
 take it by force" ( = Luke vii. 28, xvi. 16). Thus 
 certain men are said to be already in the kingdom, 
 and this comes out still more clearly in Matt. xxi. 31 : 
 "Whether of the twain did the will of his father? 
 They say. The first. Jesus saith unto them, Verily 
 I say unto you, that the publicans and the harlots 
 go into the kingdom of God before you," And in 
 xxiii. 13 : ** But woe unto you, scribes and Pharisees, 
 hypocrites ! because ye shut the kingdom of heaven 
 against men : for ye enter not in yourselves, neither 
 suffer ye them that are entering in to enter." 
 
 Elsewhere we remember a certain scribe is de- 
 clared to be not far from the kingdom of heaven 
 (Mark xii. 34), and that " No man, having put his 
 hand to the plough, and looking back, is fit for the 
 kingdom of God " (Luke ix. 62). 
 
 From the above evidence we may beyond all 
 reasonable doubt conclude that the kingdom of 
 heaven was in some form conceived to be actually 
 
 present. 
 Yet still future O^ the Other hand, as the kingdom, according to 
 as regards its T^sus' conceotion of it, could Only be truly realised 
 
 realisation, J ^ i i • i • 
 
 in its completed form, m this sense the kmgdom is 
 still conceived as in the future. 
 
 But this future may be conceived in two aspects : 
 
SYNOPTIC GOSPELS 319 
 
 either as one brought about in the course of develop- chap. ix. 
 ment according to the ordinary laws of spiritual xhisfutme 
 growth. Possibly Matt. vi. 10; '*Thy kingdom about ^aX- 
 come. Thy will be done, as in heaven, so on earth," course S^ 
 may be interpreted in this way. development. 
 
 But the future kingdom is almost universally re- or suddenly 
 garded in the Synoptic Gospels as introduced eschato- God Himse/ 
 logically by God Himself. It is to this kingdom 
 that reference is made (Matt. xxvi. 29) : '' But I say 
 unto you, I will not drink henceforth of this fruit of the 
 vine, until that day when I drink it new with you in 
 my fathers kingdom." In Mark ix. i : **And he 
 said unto them, Verily I say unto you, There be some • 
 here of them that stand by, which shall in no wise 
 taste of death, till they see the kingdom of God come 
 with power " ( = Luke ix. 27). Likewise in Luke xiii. 
 28, 29 : ''There shall be the weeping and gnashing 
 of teeth, when ye shall see Abraham, and Isaac, and 
 Jacob, and all the prophets, in the kingdom of God, 
 and yourselves cast forth without. 29. And they 
 shall come from the east and west, and from the 
 north and south, and shall sit down in the kingdom 
 of God" ( = cf. Matt. viii. 1 1) ; and in Luke xiv. 15: 
 "And when one of them that sat at meat with him 
 heard these things, he said unto him, Blessed is he 
 that shall eat bread in the kingdom of God." In 
 these passages the kingdom is expressly conceived 
 as future and still to be realised. This future king- 
 dom is contrasted with the present in Mark ix. i, 
 for its advent is to be '*with power." 
 
 Having now recognised the existence of these 
 
320 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 Relations of 
 these two con- 
 ceptions to 
 each other. 
 Their chrono- 
 logical relation. 
 
 According to 
 all the past the 
 kingdom 
 comes with 
 the Messiah. 
 This is also 
 the teaching of 
 the Gospels. 
 
 Christ 
 
 preached the 
 kingdom as 
 already pre- 
 sent from the 
 outset, 
 
 two conceptions of the kingdom as already present 
 and as still future in the Synoptics, we have next to 
 inquire their relations, chronological and otherwise. 
 As regards the former there cannot be any reason- 
 able doubt that the conception of the kingdom as 
 already present is the earlier. With the Messiah 
 came simultaneously the Messianic kingdom or the 
 kingdom of God. Such is clearly the teaching of 
 the Gospels, and such, in fact, had been the universal 
 expectation of the Jews in the past. So far, there- 
 fore, both expectation and fulfilment were in har- 
 mony. The harmony, however, was only superficial. 
 The inward and spiritual character of the kingdom 
 established by Christ was at absolute variance with 
 the outward and materially glorious kingdom hoped 
 for by the Jews. 
 
 To return, however, to the chronological relations 
 of the present and the future kingdom, we have 
 already seen that Christ spoke of the kingdom as 
 present from the outset. The kingdom of God had 
 essentially in His person already become a present 
 kingdom on earth. 
 
 At the outset of His ministry he had, we can 
 hardly doubt, hoped to witness the consummation of 
 this kingdom without passing through the gates of 
 death. But the accomplishment of His task was de- 
 pendent on the conduct of the people. In the earlier 
 days when His preaching was received with enthusi- 
 asm and the nation seemed to be pressing into the 
 kingdom of God, His teaching dwells mainly on the 
 present kingdom of God on earth. 
 
SYNOPTIC GOSPELS 321 
 
 The possibility, therefore, of its consummation chap. ix. 
 through a natural development seemed a natural 
 expectation. 
 
 But when the temper of the people changed and but when His 
 
 . . 11, 1 • 11 death appeared 
 
 riis rejection and death appeared as an mexorable inevitable, He 
 necessity, He began to speak of the future kingdom, offraisol^^ 
 He never relinquished, indeed, the thought of the ^'^^'^^' 
 present kingdom, but whilst holding it fast, He saw 
 that, if it were ultimately to prevail, it must receive 
 its consummation in the future by the direct inter- 
 vention of God, or rather by His own return to judge 
 the world. 
 
 In this way, then, the two conceptions of the Organic reia- 
 
 1 1 ■ 11 T-"!- tion of these 
 
 kingdom appear to be related chronologically. 1 hat two concep- 
 they are also organically connected is obvious. 
 Thus both views of the kingdom are put forward 
 in one and the same statement by Christ in Mark 
 X. 15 : " Verily I say unto you. Whosoever shall not 
 receive the kingdom of God as a little child, he shall 
 in no wise enter therein " ( = Luke xviii. 17 ; cf. Matt, 
 xviii. 3, 4). These words declare that entrance into 
 the future kingdom of God is dependent on a man's 
 right attitude to the present kingdom of God. In 
 the course of a truly ethical development the latter 
 becomes the parent of the former, and the kingdom 
 of heaven, now founded spiritually in weakness and 
 in secret, will, through the infinite toil of God and 
 man, issue in the completed kingdom of God, which 
 is the perfect expression of the divine goodness and 
 truth, having for its scene a new heaven and a new 
 earth. 
 
322 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 first foretold 
 in connection 
 with His 
 approaching 
 death. 
 
 CHAP. IX. We are thus introduced to the eschatological 
 
 side of Christ's teaching of the kingdom. We have 
 now to deal with the various events which will usher 
 in this kingdom. These are, {a) The Parusia, or 
 Second Advent, {b) The Final Judgment, {c) The 
 Resurrection and the consummation of all things. 
 Parusia or [a) The Purusia, or Second Advent, — As the 
 
 kingdom of God owed its foundation to the divine 
 mission of the Messiah, so also it will owe to Him 
 its consummation. The prophecy of His second 
 coming appears in connection with His first mention 
 of His approaching death. Having foretold His 
 death in Mark viii. 31, He speaks of His return in 
 viii. 38 (Mark viii. 31): *' And he began to teach them 
 that the Son of man must suffer many things, and 
 be rejected by the elders, and the chief priests, and 
 the scribes, and be killed, and after three days rise 
 again. . . . 38. For whosoever shall be ashamed of 
 me and of my words in this adulterous and sinful 
 generation, the Son of man also shall be ashamed 
 of him when he cometh in the glory of his Father 
 with the holy angels" ( = Matt. xvi. 27 = Luke ix, 26). 
 This coming will take place at the close of the 
 age [avvreXeia rod alS)vos:)y (Matt. xiii. 39, 40, 49 ; 
 xxiv. 3 ; xxviii. 20). 
 
 In regard, however, to the manner and time of 
 
 the second Advent the Gospels present us with two 
 
 somewhat conflicting accounts, which we shall discuss 
 
 in turn. 
 
 Advent. Con- First as regards the manner. If the present 
 
 coumf.^^' text of the Gospels is trustworthy, we have two 
 
SYNOPTIC GOSPELS 323 
 
 mutually exclusive accounts. On the one hand the chap. ix. 
 Advent will take the world by surprise. This expecta- (i.) it was to 
 tion is inculcated in the parable of the Waiting bysurprir^"^ 
 Servants (Mark xiii. 33-36 ; Matt, xxiv, 42-44 ; Luke 
 xii. 35-40), which concludes with the words (Mark 
 xiii. 35-37): ** Watch therefore: for ye know not 
 when the lord of the house cometh, whether at even, 
 or at midnight, or at cock-crowing, or in the morn- 
 ing ; 36. Lest coming suddenly he find you sleeping. 
 3 7. And what I say unto you I say unto all, 
 Watch." 
 
 Also in the parable of the Ten Virgins (Matt. xxv. 
 I- 1 2), which closes with the admonition, *' Watch 
 therefore, for ye know not the day nor the hour" ; 
 and in the eschatological account of the days of 
 Noah and Lot (Matt. xxiv. 37-41 = Lukexvii. 26-36). 
 This doctrine of His return at an unlooked-for hour 
 goes back undoubtedly to Christ. It belongs to the 
 various contexts in which it occurs, and it forms the 
 motive of several of the undisputed parables. 
 
 Since this conclusion may be taken as beyond (n.) it was to 
 the range of doubt, we must regard with suspicion unmCt^abie^ 
 the conflicting view which is given in Mark xiii. ^^^^^* 
 
 This view irr6- 
 
 ( = Matt. xxiv. = Luke xxi.), according to which the condiabie with 
 second Advent is to be heralded by a succession and before 
 of signs which are unmistakable precursors of its ^^p'"°^^- 
 appearance, such as wars, and earthquakes, and 
 famines, the destruction of Jerusalem, and the like. 
 
 And this suspicion is justified when we proceed The source of 
 to examine St. Mark xiii. ; for it presents a very Lul f suTpidou^ 
 composite appearance. Thus (a) in ver. 29 : ** When ^" ^^^^^^' 
 
324 BSCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 Two inde- 
 pendent series 
 of sayings 
 worked up in 
 Mark xiii. 
 
 ye see these things come to pass, know ye that it 
 is nigh, even at the doors," the expression *' these 
 things " can only denote the signs which announce 
 the parusia, and not the parusia itself, whereas its 
 position in the text requires us to refer it to the 
 actual parusia and the events accompanying it, and 
 not to the signs which precede it. In the next 
 verse (ver. 30) the same expression "these things" 
 rightly refers to the parusia, and not to the signs 
 of it. {b) In the next place the term "end" has 
 an eschatological meaning in ver. 7, but its ordinary 
 meaning in ver. 13. {c) Again, in ver. 30 it is 
 declared with all emphasis that this generation 
 shall not pass away till all these things be fulfilled, 
 whereas two verses later we have an undoubtedly 
 original declaration of Christ in essential contra- 
 diction with it : ** Of that day or of that hour 
 knoweth no one, not even the angels in heaven, 
 neither the Son, but the Father." {d) The words 
 ''let him that readeth understand" indicate that this 
 prediction appeared first not in a spoken address 
 but in a written form. 
 
 But these considerations when followed up only 
 lead to the recognition of still wider divergencies 
 in thought and statement within this chapter. Thus 
 it appears that there are two originally independent 
 series of sayings worked together by the Evangelist 
 in this chapter. Whether both these series of 
 sayings are to be traced back to Christ we shall 
 inquire presently. 
 
 Of these two one deals with the persecutions 
 
SYNOPTIC GOSPELS 325 
 
 which will befall the disciples of Christ in reference chap, ix, 
 to their faith at the hands of the Jews. From such onesenesaims 
 
 . /- 1 1 . . • at strengthen- 
 
 persecutions no promise 01 deliverance is given, ing the faith of 
 They are to endure them unto the end (ver. 13), l^^j^pt^^^^^^^ 
 even unto death (ver. 12); only so can they attain ^^°"' .^"^ 
 
 ^ / ' ^ J promises 
 
 unto salvation. spiritual salva- 
 
 1 r 1 1 " ^^'^^ '° ^^® 
 
 But the thoughts and purpose of the other series faithful despite 
 of sayings in this chapter are absolutely different. xhJother^on- 
 The woes predicted here have no relation to the of wo°e^s to''^' 
 disciples or their faith. They consist of wars and i^ig no direct 
 
 ^ J relation to the 
 
 famines and convulsions of nature. The prediction disciples. 
 of the chief calamity, namely, the destruction of the destruction 
 Jerusalem, has only an indirect reference to the °t aims^at^"^ 
 Christians in so far as it secures them from personal ag'SJ^sTb^dUy 
 participation in its fall. Further, it is declared that ^^^t^- 
 on account of the elect God will shorten these days, 
 else should no flesh be saved. Thus whereas in 
 the former source only security against spiritual 
 destruction is promised, in the latter protection 
 against temporal disaster is assured. And whereas 
 faithfulness unto the death of the body is required- 
 from the disciples in the one source, in the other 
 they are exhorted to pray that the attack on 
 Jerusalem, which is the beginning of the end, may 
 not be in the winter, lest they should suffer bodily 
 discomfort from the cold ! 
 
 These and other considerations therefore call The removal 
 
 r ^ ^ r r> of the latter 
 
 for the removal of vers. 7, 8, 14-20, 24-27, 30, 31 passages re- 
 from their present context. By this removal ^o^the^™"""^ 
 harmony is restored to the text, and the p^-ssages ^^^^^*^°jj^^^^" 
 so removed constitute a very short though complete ^ei^^s an 
 
326 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 independent 
 apocalypse in 
 three Acts. 
 Act i. =The 
 travail pains 
 of the Messiah. 
 
 Act ii. =The 
 actual tribula- 
 tion. 
 
 apocalypse, with its three essential acts, namely, 
 Act i., consisting of verses 7, 8, which enumerate 
 the woes heralding the parusia : — 
 
 7. ** And when ye shall hear of wars and 
 rumours of wars,^ be not troubled : these things 
 must needs come to pass ; but the end is not yet. 
 8, For nation shall rise against nation, and kingdom 
 against kingdom ^ : there shall be earthquakes ^ in 
 divers places ; there shall be famines : ^ these things 
 are the beginning of travail." Act ii., verses 14-20, 
 which describe the actual tribulation or ^Xti/rt? : 14. 
 " But when ye see the abomination of desolation 
 standing ^ where it ought not (let him that readeth 
 understand), then let them that are in Judseaflee unto 
 the mountains: 15. And let him that is on the 
 housetop not go down, nor enter in, to take any- 
 thing out of his house : 16. And let him that is in 
 the field not return back to take his cloke. 17. 
 But woe to them that are with child and to them 
 that give suck in those days! 18. And pray ye 
 
 1 According to Jewish Apocalyptic, wars were to precede the advent of 
 the Messiah or of the kingdom. These were part of the travail pains of the 
 Messiah (n'U'sn '^3n — an expression derived ultimately from Hos. xiii. 13). 
 See Jub. xxiii. 13 sqq. (quoted above on p. 247), {Apoc. Bar. xxvii. 2-5; 
 xlviii. 32, 34, 37 ; Ixx. 2, 3, 6, 7 ; 4 Ezra v, 9 ; vi. 24). 
 
 2 Universal and civil wars were to be a sign of the end (Apoc. Bar. 
 xlviii. 32 ; Ixx. 2, 3, 8). 
 
 3 Earthquakes, according to the popular expectation, were to precede the 
 end (Apoc. Bar. xxvii. 7 \ Ixx. 8 ; 4 Ezra ix. 3). 
 
 * Famines were to be a sign of the last times (Apoc. Bar. xxvii. 6 j Ixx. 
 8 ; cf. 4 Ezra vi. 22. 
 
 s The phrase "abomination of desolation," owing to its use in Dan. ix. 
 27, xi. 31, xii. II, had probably become proverbial. It occurs in I Mace. 
 i. 54, and is implied in vi. 7, where it refers to the altar set up by Antiochus 
 to Olympian Zeus in the place of the altar of burnt offering. This phrase in 
 the original apocalypse referred probably to the apprehension of a similar out- 
 rage at the hands of the Romans. 
 
SYNOPTIC GOSPELS 327 
 
 that it be not in the winter. 19. For those days chap. ix. 
 
 shall be tribulation, such as there hath not been 
 
 the like from the beginning of the creation which 
 
 God created until now/ and never shall be. 20. 
 
 And except the Lord had shortened the days, no, 
 
 flesh would have been saved : but for the elect's 
 
 sake, whom he chose, he shortened the days." ^ 
 
 Act iii., verses 24-27, describing the actual parusia : Actiii.=The 
 
 *' But in those days, after that tribulation, the sun ^^"^ 
 
 shall be darkened, and the moon shall not give 
 
 her light, 25. and the stars shall be falling from 
 
 heaven, and the powers that are in the heavens 
 
 shall be shaken.^ 26. And then shall they see the 
 
 Son of man ^ coming in clouds with great power 
 
 and glory. 27. And then shall he send forth the 
 
 angels, and they shall gather together his elect 
 
 ^ " Tribulation such as there hath not been," etc. This is a stock eschato- 
 logical expression. It is first found in Dan. xii. i ; then in l Mace, ix. 27 ; 
 next in Ass. Mos. viii. i, and subsequently in Rev. xvi. 18. 
 
 2 This idea of the shortening of the days is found in Jewish apocalypses. 
 Thus in Apoc. Bar. Ixxxiii. 1-4: **The Most High will assuredly hasten his 
 times, and he will assuredly bring on his hours. And he will assuredly 
 judge those," etc. Cf. xx. i ; liv. i ; 4 Ezra iv. 26. Further, that Mark xiii. 
 20 reproduces a current tradition has been shown by Bousset ( The Antichrist 
 Legend^ 218, 219). The shortened period is three and a half years ( =the half- 
 week of years in Daniel?). Cf. the Pseudo-Johannine Apocalypse, 8, rpta 
 iTfi taovrai ol Kaipol iKeiPOi, Kal irovqcdj rb. rpla ^tt} wff Tpels fiijvas Kal Toi>s rpeis 
 fiTJuas <hs Tpeis i^dofjiddas Kal rhs rpets i^dofxadas tlis rpeis ijfx^pas kt\. 
 
 3 The expressions in these two verses touching the sun, moon, and stars are 
 familiar from the Old Testament onward. Cf. Is. xiii. 10 ; Ezek. xxxii. 7; 
 Joel ii. 31, iii. 15 ; Ass. Mos. x. 5 ; Rev. vi. 12. 
 
 * In Matt. xxiv. 30 we have an amplification of this verse : " And then shall 
 appear the sign of the Son of man in heaven, and then shall all the tribes 
 of the earth mourn, and they shall see the Son of man coming in the clouds 
 of heaven." The expression "sign of the Son of man" is unknown in 
 Jewish Apocalyptic and in Early Christian. It may have arisen from 
 a corruption of riN into niN (=sign) in DTNn-33-nN hnt. Hence we should 
 read "then shall appear (or be revealed) the Son of man," etc. This 
 apocalypse, like 4 Ezra, Apocalypse of Baruch, etc., was probably composed 
 in Hebrew. 
 
328 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. IX. from the four winds, from the uttermost part of 
 the earth to the uttermost part of heaven." On this 
 apocalypse follows a short appendix (vers, 30, 31) : 
 ''Verily I say unto you, This generation shall not 
 pass away, until all these things be accomplished. 
 Heaven and earth shall pass away ; but my words 
 shall not pass away." 
 
 Now with Colani {J^stcs Christ et les Croyances 
 Messianiques de son Temps, 1864, pp. 201 sqq?)^ 
 Weiffenbach {Der Wiederkunftsgedanke, 90 - 1 9 2 ), 
 Weizsacker, Wendt {Lehre Jesu, i. 12-21), Balden- 
 sperger, H. J. Holtzmann {NTliche TheoL i. 
 327 ; Hand - Commentar Synoptiker, 257 - 262), 
 Bousset (The Antichrist Legend, p. 165), and others, 
 we may very reasonably assume that this apocalypse 
 is not derived from Christ, but is a Christian 
 adaptation of an originally Jewish work, written 
 67-68 A.D. during the trouble preceding the fall 
 of Jerusalem. In favour of this hypothesis I may 
 call attention to the parallels from Jewish apocalyptic 
 writings which I have given in the footnotes on the 
 preceding pages. Furthermore, its identification 
 of the coming destruction of Jerusalem with the 
 parusia is contrary to the universal practice of 
 Christ elsewhere.^ Christ often prophesies His 
 parusia in connection with His death and resurrection 
 (Matt. X. 23 ; Mark ix. i, xiv. 62), but the destruc- 
 
 1 The combination of the judgment of Jerusalem and the panisia in Matt, 
 xxiii. 35-39 is not original : for the last two verses which speak of the 
 parusia were uttered on another occasion, as is manifest from Luke xiii. 34. 
 Matt. xxii. 7 is an addition of the Evangelist, as appears from the parallel 
 passage in Luke xiv. 2 1 . 
 
SYNOPTIC GOSPELS 329 
 
 tion -of Jerusalem invariably by itself (Luke xix. chap. ix. 
 41-44, xxiii. 28-30; see Schwarzkopff, Prophecies 
 of Jesus Christ, p. 254). 
 
 Hence in our account of the eschatology of the Hencethisjew- 
 
 ^ . ^ , 111 1 ish-Christian 
 
 bynoptic (j-ospels we shall not base our statement apocalypse 
 on the Jewish-Christian apocalypse as it appears ^e cUed ; ^^ 
 
 i as an 
 
 in Mark xiii. or in Matt. xxiv. 6-8, 15-22, 29-31, ^^^^°^'^ty- 
 34, 35 ; Luke xxi. 9-1 1, 20-28, 32, 33. It is probably 
 the oracle (?) referred to by Eusebius [Hist. EccL 
 III. V. 3). That such oracles were in circulation 
 before the fall of Jerusalem is clear from the state- 
 ment of Josephus.^ 
 
 Thus from the above investigation it appears 
 that as regards the manner of the parusia it was Theparusia 
 to be sudden and unexpected, whether early or late Tarty or Le^^to 
 (Mark xiii. 35; Luke xii. 35-46; Matt. xxv. 1-13). be unexpected. 
 
 Certain signs indeed were to precede it, such as Certain signs. 
 
 -,,.., 11- 1 • but not of a 
 
 persecution 01 the disciples and their condemnation definite char- 
 before Jewish and heathen tribunals (Mark xiii. 9-13). pjecedrit.^ *° 
 This persecution, moreover, was conceived as lasting 
 continuously from the founding of the Church to 
 the parusia. The experience of Christ was to be 
 likewise that of His disciples (Matt. x. 24, 25 ; John 
 XV. 20). 
 
 Persecution, indeed, was to be a true mark of Persecution to 
 the faith. The preaching of Christ's message would tmema^kof 
 inevitably lead to it (Mark iv. 17 = Matt. xiii. 21 ; '^^^^^^^• 
 Matt. X. 23) : the world which persecuted Him would 
 
 ^ Bell. Jtid. IV. vi. 3 : '* There was a certain ancient oracle of those men 
 (the Zealots) that the city should then be taken and the sanctuary burnt, by 
 right of war, when a sedition should invade the Jews, and their own hand 
 should pollute the temple of God." 
 
330 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 The time of 
 the Advent. 
 
 During the 
 
 existing 
 
 generation. 
 
 also persecute His servants (Matt. x. 24, 25 ; John 
 XV. 20). Nevertheless, by enduring such persecutions 
 faithfully unto death, they should testify to Christ 
 throughout Israel in Palestine and the Dispersion, 
 and this testimony would not be completed till 
 their Master's return (Matt. x. 23). But of that day 
 and of that hour knew no man, not even the Son 
 (Mark xiii. 32). Thus we observe that no definite 
 sign of the parusia is given, such as we find 
 abundantly in the Jewish apocalypses and in the 
 small Jewish -Christian apocalypse we have just 
 dealt with. 
 
 Having thus shown that the teaching of Christ 
 as to the manner of the Advent is that it will be 
 unexpected, we have now to study His declarations 
 as to its time. That Christ expected to return 
 during the existing generation is proved beyond 
 question by such statements as Mark ix. i : *' And 
 he said unto them, Verily I say unto you, There be 
 some here of them that stand by, which shall in no 
 wise taste of death till they see the kingdom of God 
 come with power " ( = Matt. xvi. 28 = Luke ix. 27 ^). 
 Thus Christ expected to return before all His disciples 
 had passed away, and this expectation is further 
 attested in Matt. x. 23 : ** But when they persecute 
 you in this city, flee unto the next : for verily I say 
 unto you, Ye shall not have gone through the cities 
 of Israel, till the Son of man be come." 
 
 Probably the same thought underlies Mark xiv. 
 
 1 Matt. xvi. 28 reads '• Son of man " instead of ** kingdom of God," but 
 wrongly, since Luke supports Mark. 
 
SYNOPTIC GOSPELS zzi 
 
 62 : "And Jesus said, I am : and ye shall see the chap. ix. 
 Son of man sitting at the right hand of power, and 
 coming with the clouds of heaven." The circum- 
 stance, too, that, whilst the persecution and violent 
 death of the disciples are frequently foreshadowed 
 (Mark viii. 34, 35, xiii. 12, 13 ; Matt. x. 28, 29) there 
 is hardly a reference to their natural death,^ is to be 
 explained from this expectation. In view of the 
 quickly approaching parusia natural death came 
 hardly within the purview of practical life. If we 
 go outside the Gospels we find the attestation 
 of this hope universal. For there is not a single 
 writer of the New Testament, as we shall see 
 in the sequel, who does not look forward to the 
 personal return of Christ in his own generation. 
 And what the New Testament taught, all primitive 
 Christendom believed, and fashioned its practical 
 life in accordance with this hope. 
 
 We conclude, therefore, that according to the 
 teaching of Christ the parusia was to be within the 
 current generation. 
 
 We must, accordingly, admit that this expectation This expecta- 
 of Christ was falsified.^ But the error is not material, but the error 
 It is in reality inseparable from all true prophecy. ^"^™^^"^' 
 For the latter, so far as relates to fulfilment, is 
 always conditioned by the course of human develop- 
 ment. Herein lies the radical difference between 
 Apocalyptic and Prophecy. The former determines 
 
 1 Only in Luke xii. 15-21, xvi. 19-31. 
 
 2 It is also to some extent neutralised by the recognition of the possibility 
 of a long period of historical development (see below, pp. 333-335). 
 
332 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 The time of 
 the consumma- 
 tion of the 
 kingdom of no 
 spiritual signi- 
 ficance. 
 
 Though the 
 parusia was" 
 expected 
 
 mechanically the date of consummation of a certain 
 process, irrespective of human conduct, the latter 
 determines only the ultimate certainty of that con- 
 summation. Moreover, Old Testament prophecy, 
 and likewise Jewish Apocalyptic, represent the 
 consummation of the kingdom as following im- 
 mediately on its establishment. Thus all the past 
 gave its suffrage to Christ's expectation. Further- 
 more, as Christ was convinced that all the prophecies 
 of the Old Testament were fulfilled in Him, and 
 that the age introduced by Him was final and 
 ultimate as regards things religious and spiritual, the 
 expectation was in the highest degree natural that 
 this age would he final and ultimate in a temporal 
 sense also. But whereas the fact that the kingdom 
 should be consummated was a matter of transcen- 
 dental importance, the time of that consummation 
 had no immediate significance, religious or spiritual. 
 Provided with all knowledge that was needful for 
 His vocation, Christ yet confessed that the know- 
 ledge of this date had been expressly withheld (Mark 
 xiii. 32) : " But of that day or that hour knoweth 
 no one, not even the angels in heaven, neither the 
 Son, but the Father." By His unique and perfect 
 communion with God He possessed an independent 
 and authoritative judgment in things essentially 
 spiritual and religious, but not in other spheres. In 
 the latter He was dependent on the thought and 
 development of His time. 
 
 Having now shown that the second Advent was 
 expected to occur within the current generation, and 
 
SYNOPTIC GOSPELS 333 
 
 also sought to explain the genesis of this misappre- chap, ix, 
 hension, we must not fail to observe the fact that within the 
 
 I 1 /^i • /- 1 '^ r 1 present genera- 
 
 account was taken by Christ of the process oi human tion, yet the 
 
 development which must run its course before that development 
 advent. Of such a gfradual evolution of the ^^thmthat 
 
 o period em- 
 
 kingdom there is hardly a trace in preceding Jewish p^asised, 
 literature : the consummation of the kingdom was to 
 be catastrophic, not gradtiaL 
 
 The kingdom must spread extensively and inten- 
 sively : extensively till its final expansion is out of all 
 proportion to its original smallness (cf the parable of 
 the Mustard Seed) ; intensively till it transforms and 
 regenerates the life of the nation and of the world 
 (cf. the parable of the Leaven, Matt. xiii. 31, 32). 
 
 This process has its parallel in the growth of a 
 grain of corn, where there is ** first the blade, then 
 the ear, then the full corn in the ear." Then, 
 when the fruit is ripe, cometh the harvest (Mark iv. 
 26-29), 
 
 This representation of the future presupposes a and likewise 
 lengthened period of development. It no less than ontrcomlnu- 
 the former goes back to Christ. The contingency ^ha'periofac 
 that the former view, which is derived from Old knowiedged- 
 Testament prophecy might not be realised, is 
 acknowledged in Matt. xxiv. 48 ; Luke xii. 45 ; also 
 in Mark xiii. 35, where the possibilities of an 
 indefinitely long night of history preceding the final 
 advent is clearly contemplated. suchacon- 
 
 ; ^ tmuance pre- 
 
 The preaching of the Gospel must extend to the supposed by 
 
 ^ .-, 1 ,-T^i ... . . the mission to 
 
 Lrentiles also. i nis is tne presupposition 01 the the Gentiles 
 parables above cited. Christ^s conception of the ^^rabies.^ 
 
334 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. IX. kingdom of God is essentially a development of the 
 large prophetic doctrine which emanated from 
 Jeremiah and the later prophets of his school, just 
 as the narrow particularism of the Pharisees was the 
 legitimate offspring of Ezekiel's teaching and that of 
 his successors. 
 
 In the chapters on the Old Testament we showed 
 the steady trend towards universalism in Jeremiah 
 and his spiritual successors. The movement then 
 inaugurated finds in Christ's conception of the 
 kingdom its highest consummation. For the 
 qualifications for entrance into this kingdom as 
 and by the enumerated in the Sermon on the Mount are 
 Mount. purely ethical and spiritual. Thus the difference 
 
 between Jew and Gentile is implicitly and essen- 
 tially abolished. The religion of the kingdom 
 cannot be other than the religion of the humanity at 
 large. Thus monotheism attains at last to its full 
 rights in Christianity ; for monotheism and univer- 
 salism are correlative conceptions. 
 Destination of But it IS not improbable that the wide unqualified 
 tbrcentnes destination of the Gospel for the Gentiles belongs to 
 cSsiLr Christ's later teaching. At all events, a higher 
 teaching. position is assigued to the Jews in the earlier period. 
 The strong words preserved in Matt. xv. 24 point 
 in this direction : "■ I was not sent but unto the lost 
 sheep of the house of Israel." Also in ver. 26 the 
 Jews are called the children of the kingdom : *' And 
 he answered and said. It is not meet to take the 
 children's bread and cast it to the dogs." But, later, 
 after His rejection by the majority of the people, and 
 
SYNOPTIC GOSPELS 335 
 
 His experience of the faith of many non-Israelites, chap. ix. 
 such as that of the Syrophenician woman, the grateful 
 Samaritan, and the Roman Centurion, His attitude 
 towards His countrymen changed. The kingdom, 
 He declared unto them, would be taken from them, 
 and given to others, who would bear appropriate 
 fruits (Mark xii. 9 ; = Matt. xxi. 40, 41). The invita- 
 tion of the Gentiles into the kingdom is thus fore- 
 shadowed in Matt. xxii. 8, 9, where in the parable 
 of the Wedding Feast the king commands his 
 servants : '* The wedding is ready but they that were 
 bidden were not worthy. Go ye therefore into the 
 partings of the highways, and as many as ye shall 
 find, bid to the marriage feast. And those servants 
 went out into the highways and gathered together 
 all as many as they found, both bad and good : and 
 the wedding was filled with guests" (Luke xiv. 22- 
 24). Jerusalem itself, as we learn from other 
 passages, would be destroyed (Mark xiv. 58 ; Luke 
 xiii. 3-5, xix. 41-44. 
 
 Thus though the destination of the Gospel to 
 the Gentiles is undeniable, yet Christ gave no Nopronounce- 
 pronouncement as to the manner in which the manneMa 
 Gentile should enter the kingfdom, and the mutual ^Mch cemiies 
 
 1 . . 1 ■ 1 T were to be 
 
 relation in which Jew and Gentile should stand admitted into 
 within it. In the absence of such a pronouncement, * ^ '"^ °'"' 
 the Apostles naturally inferred that the kingdom 
 could only be realised under the forms of the Jewish 
 Theocracy, and that therefore circumcision was 
 obligatory on all Gentiles that wished to become 
 members of the Christian Church. How this 
 
336 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 Christ being 
 the realisation 
 of God's 
 righteousness, 
 man's relation 
 to Christ de- 
 termines his 
 relation to God. 
 Hence Christ 
 is also the 
 Judge of men. 
 
 Christ's judg- 
 ment in the 
 present. 
 
 Final judgment 
 to be at the 
 parusia. 
 
 misconception was removed later, in some degree 
 through the revelation to Peter, but mainly through 
 that to Paul, we have not here to deal. 
 
 {U) The Final Judgment, — Seeing that in 
 Christ the righteousness of God was realised, it 
 follows that a man's relation to Christ's person 
 (Matt. xi. 27) determines likewise his relation to 
 God. Thus Christ, the Saviour of men, becomes, of 
 necessity, the Judge of men. Further, being the 
 Mediator of God's righteousness and love to man. 
 He is necessarily the Mediator of God's judgment 
 on man, which is one of justification or condemna- 
 tion according to man's attitude to the revelation 
 so mediated. 
 
 Christ's judgment, moreover, is both present and 
 future. He is the Mediator of God's continuous and 
 present judgment on the conduct of men. He will 
 be the Mediator of the final judgment of God in 
 the consummation of the world. All things, Christ 
 declares, relating to the kingdom have been 
 delivered into His hands by the Father (Matt. xi. 
 27 = Luke X. 22). As the Mediator of divine 
 judgment in the present. He forgives sin (Mark 
 ii. 5 = Matt. ix. 2 = Luke v. 20, vii. 48, etc.) He 
 denounces unbelieving cities (Matt. xi. 21-24, ^xiii. 
 37, 38 = Luke x. 13-15, xiii. 34, 35, xix. 4i-44)» 
 and breaks up the most intimate bonds of social 
 life because founded on a false peace (Matt, x, 
 
 34-37)- 
 
 The final judgment is to be executed at the 
 
 parusia. After the manner of the Old Testament it 
 
SYNOPTIC GOSPELS 337 
 
 is called "that day" (Matt. vii. 22): *' Many will chap. ix. 
 say to me in that day, Lord, Lord, did we not 
 prophesy in thy name, and by thy name "cast out 
 devils, and by thy name do many mighty works ? " 
 (Matt. xxiv. 36 ; Luke vi. 23, x. 12, xxi. 34). 
 
 Sometimes it is God who is represented as the 
 Judge of the world. This view appears several 
 times in the Sermon on the Mount, Matt. vi. 4, 6, 
 14, 15, 18; also in Matt, xviii. 35 : **So shall also 
 thy heavenly father," etc. x. 28. "Be not afraid of 
 them which kill the body but are not able to kill the 
 soul ; but rather fear him which is able to destroy 
 both soul and body in Gehenna ( = Luke xii. 5 ; 
 see also Luke xviii.) But more usually it is Christ 
 that discharges the duties of Judge. 
 
 Just as Christ's judicial action when on earth 
 took various directions, so His part in the final 
 judgment is variously described. In some passages, in some pass- 
 as Mark viii. 38 = Luke ix. 26, Christ apparently appears only 
 claims no more than a paramount influence in the parTmounT^^ 
 iudc^ment when He declares that " whosoever shalP"*^^^"^^ ^^ 
 
 . f. t"^ judgment, 
 
 be ashamed of me and of my words in this adulter- 
 ous and sinful generation, the Son of man also shall 
 be ashamed of him, when he cometh in the glory of 
 his Father with the holy angels." It is remarkable 
 that in the parallel passage in Matt. xvi. 27 we 
 have a different statement substituted, which repre- 
 sents Christ as the sole Judge : '* For the Son of 
 man shall come in the glory of his Father with his 
 angels ; and then shall he render unto every man 
 according to his deeds." Elsewhere, in the first 
 
 22 
 
338 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 but in others 
 as the sole 
 Judge. 
 
 Judgment 
 according to 
 works. 
 
 Gospel, X. 32, 33 ( = Luke xii. 8, 9), we have a close 
 parallel to the above statement of Mark viii. 38 
 (Matt. X. 32, 33) : " Every one therefore who shall 
 confess me before men, him will I confess before my 
 Father which is in heaven. But whosoever shall 
 deny me before men, him will I also deny before my 
 Father which is in heaven." His office as Judge 
 comes forward strongly in Matt. vii. 22, 23 : ** I 
 never knew you : depart from mie ye that work 
 iniquity." Again in Matt. xxiv. 50, 51 : '*The Lord 
 of that servant shall come in a day that he expecteth 
 not, and in an hour when he knoweth not, and shall 
 cut him asunder and appoint him his portion with 
 the hypocrites" (cf. xxv. 19). Likewise in Matt. 
 xiii. 30, 41-43, and in the great judgment scene 
 described in Matt. xxv. 31-46, beginning '' But 
 when the Son of man shall come in his glory, and all 
 the angels with him, then shall he sit on the throne 
 of his glory : and before him shall be gathered 
 all nations : and he shall separate them one from 
 another as the shepherd separateth the sheep from 
 the goats." 
 
 This judgment is universally conceived as a 
 judgment according to works. Thus, according to 
 Matt. xvi. 27, "The Son of man shall come in the 
 glory of his Father with his angels : and then shall 
 he render unto every man according to his deeds." 
 (xiii. 41-43, xxii. 11-14). Every deed of kindness 
 shown to one of His disciples will be duly rewarded 
 (Mark ix. 41 ; = Matt. x. 42). Nay, more, every 
 disinterested act of goodness will be acknowledged 
 
SYNOPTIC GOSPELS 339 
 
 just as much as though it had been rendered person- chap. ix. 
 ally to Christ Himself (Matt. xxv. 40) : '' Inasmuch 
 as ye did it unto one of the least of these my 
 brethren ye did it unto me." 
 
 Amongst the judged appear His own servants 
 (Luke xix. 22, 23 ; Matt. xxv. 14-30), the children 
 of Israel (Matt. xix. 28), the heathen (Matt. xxv. 
 37, 38) : not only the contemporaries of Christ, but 
 also all the nations of the past, Nineveh, the Queen 
 of Sheba (Matt. xii. 41, 42; Luke xi. 31, 32), the 
 inhabitants of Tyre and Sidon (Matt. xi. 20-24). 
 The demons probably are judged at the same time 
 (Matt. viii. 29). 
 
 {c) Consummation of the Kingdom and the consumma- 
 Resurrection, — Thekingdom is consummated, "comes kuigdoill!^ 
 with power" (Mark ix. i), on the advent of Christ. 
 Into His kingdom, which has been prepared from the 
 foundation of the world, the righteous shall enter 
 (Matt xxv. 34). Its possession, as we have seen 
 above, means eternal life (Mark x. 17), which is the 
 good of the individual, as the kingdom is the good 
 of the community. 
 
 The kingdom is not of an earthly but of a consummated 
 heavenly character. The relations of sex are to be heaveni^ char- 
 abolished (Mark xii. 24, 25 = Matt. xxii. 29, 30;= ^^^^'^' 
 Luke XX. 34, 35). Certain appetites, however, con- certain ex- 
 tinue to exist in the kingdom. Thus in Luke xxii. -""^ting^k^ 
 30 eating and drinking are spoken of: also ^"^^^^^Ymt^omoi 
 drinking^ of wine in Mark xiv. 2S ( = Matt. xxvi. 29 = iieaven.mustbe 
 
 =* _ ^ \ -^ taken m a figu- 
 
 Luke xxii. 18), and even the eating of the Passover rative sense. 
 in Luke xxii. 16. In the face of such statements 
 
340 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. IX. two courses are open to us. Either we must take 
 them in a purely figurative sense, or else we must 
 admit that eating and drinking were still conceived 
 as occupations of the heavenly life, and, that thus 
 certain appetites still persisted which modern thought 
 excludes from its conception of that life. 
 
 In any case, however, the food in question is not 
 earthly and material ; for those also who partake of 
 it are as ** angels in heaven" (Matt. xxii. 30 = Mark 
 xii. 25) ; '*are equal unto the angels " (Luke xx. 36). 
 The fact that these very phrases of the Gospels are 
 found in the Ethiopic Enoch (civ, 4, 6; li. 4), and in 
 the Apocalypse of Baruch (li. 10), in passages where 
 the life of the blessed is conceived in the most 
 spiritual manner, makes it clear that in any case 
 the Gospel expressions relating to food must be 
 interpreted in a figurative sense. 
 Resurrection of And uext as rcg^ards the resurrection itself, the 
 
 the righteous r /-^i • 
 
 only taught in teachmg of Christ seems clearly to have been that 
 33=MTrk^di only the righteous attain thereto.^ Thus in the 
 ^^■^^' celebrated passage which recounts the conversation 
 
 of Jesus with the Sadducees (Matt. xxii. 23-33 = 
 Mark xii. 18-27), it is taught that all who share in 
 the resurrection are ** as angels in heaven"; for in 
 the former Gospel we have simply "in the resurrec- 
 tion they . . . are as angels in heaven," and in the 
 latter, **When they shall rise from the dead, they 
 . . . are as angels in heaven." That this is the 
 true teaching of the passage becomes more evident 
 
 ^ Observe that, according to the Didache xvi. 6, 7, only the righteous are 
 raised. 
 
SYNOPTIC GOSPELS 34i 
 
 as we advance. In the words of God to Moses, chap. ix. 
 " I am the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and 
 the God of Jacob," our Lord finds a deeper signifi- 
 cance, and this is, that the patriarchs still lived unto 
 God, in other words, that in spite of death they 
 still enjoyed communion with God. He was their 
 God, the God of the spiritually living. It is note- 
 worthy that the right interpretation of the passage 
 is found in 4 Mace. xvi. 25: ** Those who die on 
 behalf of God live unto God as Abraham, Isaac, 
 and Jacob." 
 
 Life here thus means not the mere shadowy 
 existence in Sheol ; for this the Sadducees, from the 
 standpoint of the Old Testament, would not have 
 denied ; but a true existence in the enjoyment of the 
 divine fellowship — an existence of which the resurrec- 
 tion is the natural outcome ; for this is the question 
 at issue. Such a life, which is in essence the life 
 eternal, the blessed now enjoy, and this life leads 
 of necessity to the resurrection life. In St. Luke Buttheparai- 
 XX. 27-40, however, another turn is given to the slS?xx.^ 
 passage. Instead of saying simply that all who are strutted'aTto 
 raised are as the anofels in heaven, the writer care- teach a general 
 
 f^ resurrection. 
 
 fully defines the righteous as " those who are ac- 
 counted worthy to attain ... to the resurrection from 
 the dead."^ The words *' accounted worthy" and 
 *'attain" are, we should observe, distinctively Lucan 
 and Pauline. In the next place, he gives to the con- 
 ception of life in this passage the ordinary meaning 
 
 ^ oi Kara^ioidevrcs . . . tux"*' • • • "^V^ avacrTdceoys ttjs e/c vGKpwv. In 
 Matt. xxii. 31 there is simply t) dvdffToc-t? rdv veKpQv when the same thought 
 has to be expressed. 
 
342 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 But this is 
 against the 
 sense of the 
 parallel pass- 
 ages in the 
 other two 
 Gospels, and 
 likewise 
 against the 
 terms of the 
 original 
 sources. 
 
 of existence, whether blessed or unblessed, by adding 
 in XX. 38, after the statement *' He is not the God 
 of the dead but of the living," the words *'for all live 
 unto him." Thus St. Luke interprets the passage 
 to mean that as all men, whether righteous or wicked, 
 live in the after-world unto God, so all men will be 
 raised, and there will be a resurrection of the just 
 and of the unjust. But the parallel passages in St. 
 Matthew and St. Mark are against this interpreta- 
 tion of the passage. 
 
 It is true that this passage has been interpreted 
 in exactly the opposite sense as teaching only a 
 resurrection of the righteous. But the meaning of 
 the words "all live unto him" seems conclusive 
 against that view. On the other hand, there is not 
 wanting evidence that St. Luke's original sources 
 taught only a resurrection of the righteous ; for how 
 else can we reasonably interpret the phrase '*sons 
 of God because sons of the resurrection " (xx. 36). 
 The expression **the resurrection of the just," in 
 xiv. 14, is not decisive either way. We hold, there- 
 fore, that St. Luke intends this passage to teach 
 a resurrection of the just and of the unjust, similarly 
 as he represents St. Paul as preaching this resur- 
 rection of the just and of the unjust in Acts 
 xxiv. 1 5, though, as we shall find in the next 
 chapter of this book, that St. Paul could not have 
 taught such a doctrine. 
 
 Hefice we conclude that the Lucan account of 
 our Lord's teaching is not to be followed here, but 
 that of the first two Evangelists. 
 
resur- 
 rection. 
 
 SYNOPTIC GOSPELS 343 
 
 In the resurrection the wicked, as we have seen, chap. ix. 
 have no part. It has been said by some scholars The doctrine 
 that there must be a resurrection of all men in the mentdoes^not 
 body at the final judgment. But these two ideas d^ctrile^oVa^ 
 have no necessary connection. In jubilees there is general 
 a final judgment, but no resurrection of the body at 
 all, and in Eth. En. xci.-civ. there is likewise a final 
 judgment, but only a resurrection of the spirits of 
 the righteous (xci. lo, xcii. 3, ciii. 3, 4). The fact, 
 too, that demons and other disembodied spirits 
 (Matt. viii. 29) are conceived as falling under the last 
 judgment is further evidence in the same direction. 
 
 As the righteous are raised to the perfected 
 kingdom of God, the wicked, on the other hand, 
 are cast down into Gehenna (Matt, v, 29, 30, x. 28 ; 
 Mark ix. 43, 45, 47, 48). The fire spoken of in this 
 connection (Matt. v. 22) is not to be conceived 
 sensuously, but as a symbol of the divine wrath, 
 which vividly represents the terrors of this judg- 
 ment. This place or state of punishment is likewise 
 described as **the outer darkness" (Matt, viii, 12), 
 the place of those who are excluded from the light 
 of the kingdom. The torment appears to be a 
 torment of the soul or disembodied spirit (see pp. 
 416, 417 on Gehenna). 
 
 Though in conformity with Jewish tradition the Christ's recog- 
 
 ,1 , . 1 1 . 1 1 , , nition of pos- 
 
 punishment is generally conceived as everlasting in sibiuty of 
 the Gospels, yet there are not wanting passages l^^^dtl^"^^ 
 which appear to fix a finite and limited punishment 
 for certain offenders, and hence recognise the 
 possibility of moral change in the intermediate state. 
 
344 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 Without such 
 recognition 
 Hades still 
 partially 
 heathen, and 
 God's rule over 
 the next life 
 still in part 
 denied. 
 
 Thus some are to be beaten with few, others with 
 many, stripes (Luke xii. 47, 48). It is not possible 
 to conceive eternal torment under the figure of a 
 few stripes (cf. statements as to Sodom and 
 Gomorrah). Again, with regard only to one sin 
 it is said that " neither in this world nor in that 
 which is to come" can it be forgiven (Matt. xii. 32). 
 Now such a statement would not only be meaning- 
 less but also misleading in the highest degree, if in 
 the next life forgiveness were a thing impossible. 
 The saying in the Sermon on the Mount (Matt. v. 26), 
 " Thou shalt by no means come out thence till thou 
 have paid the last farthing," admits of a like inter- 
 pretation. It may not be amiss likewise to find signs 
 of this moral amelioration in the rich man in Hades 
 who appeals to Abraham on behalf of his five 
 brethren still on earth (Luke xvi. 19-31). And if 
 we appeal to the science of ethics, which finds its 
 perfect realisation in Christianity, the idea that 
 forgiveness is impossible in the next life has only to 
 be stated in order to be rejected ; for till absolute 
 fixity of character is reached, repentance and forgive- 
 ness, being moral acts, must be possible under a 
 perfectly moral Being. 
 
 Indeed, it is not until we have reached such a 
 conception of the next life that we have banished 
 the last survivals of heathenism that are still in- 
 herent in the Judaistic Hades, and made it hence- 
 forth part and parcel of the dominion of the Lord 
 and of His Christ. Not until then does God rule 
 in the next world even as in this. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT REVELATION, 
 
 JUDE, 2 PETER, JAMES, HEBREWS, JOHANNINE 
 GOSPEL AND EPISTLES, I PETER. 
 
 Having dealt with the eschatology of the Synoptic 
 Gospels in the last chapter, and acquainted ourselves 
 SO far as possible with the teaching of Christ in this 
 respect, we have now to study in what measure His 
 teaching is reproduced or developed in the other 
 books of the New Testament. 
 
 It would seem natural indeed to proceed at once 
 to the fourth Gospel. But since this Gospel presents 
 us in many aspects with a developed phase of Chris- 
 tian doctrine, it is better to adjourn its consideration, 
 and address ourselves first to those books in the 
 New Testament which discover less developed forms 
 of doctrine, and in some cases a greater or lesser 
 admixture of purely Judaistic conceptions. 
 
 The fundamental and formative principles of 
 Christianity were necessarily long in operation 
 before they succeeded in transforming the body of 
 inherited Jewish beliefs which the first believers 
 
346 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. X. took over with them into Christianity. It is with a 
 In order to view to mark this process of transformation and 
 cessoftrans° development that I have decided on abandoning the 
 dLvdopment,^ usual Order of these books as they appear in the 
 both the pre- Bible, and likewise their chronolop:ical order. 
 
 sent order of ' o 
 
 the New Testa- As rcQ^ards the former order, nothing: could 
 
 ment books, -it i 111 
 
 as well as their be more misleadmg, and as regards the latter, or 
 
 must^'be^lbTn- chronological, it would be of no real help to our 
 
 doned. present purpose to observe it, unless in the case of 
 
 a collection of works emanating from one and the 
 
 same writer, as the Pauline Epistles. 
 
 The depth and coherence of spiritual or meta- 
 thought does not necessarily grow with the passage 
 of years, and since all the writings which call 
 for examination were written almost within a single 
 generation, it is allowable to take them in the order 
 that best subserves our present object. 
 
 At the same time, it is hardly possible to adopt 
 any order that would not be open to weighty objec- 
 tions. Hence the order that will be observed in this 
 and the following chapter does not necessarily and 
 always suppose that each subsequent writer dis- 
 cussed occupies a superior level to those already 
 treated of ; for in some cases the degrees of develop- 
 ment are hardly distinguishable. 
 
 Having so premised, we shall at once address 
 ourselves to the book which contains most Judaistic 
 thought in the New Testament, that is, the Apoca- 
 lypse. 
 
THE APOCALYPSE 347 
 
 The Apocalypse 
 
 The writer or editor of this book was a Jewish 
 Christian. We cannot here enter on the critical 
 questions affecting this work. It is admittedly a 
 conglomerate of ill-according elements. The ripest 
 products of Christian thought and experience lie side 
 by side with the most unadulterated Judaism. 
 
 It is not within our present province to seek to 
 disentangle the Christian sections from the Judaistic. 
 
 Although it would be vain to look for a theo- 
 logical system in such a composite production, it is 
 none the less possible to summarise some of its 
 characteristic doctrines in such a way as will not 
 prejudge any of the critical theories which are still 
 at issue. The main object with which the Apoca- 
 lypse was written was undoubtedly to encourage the 
 persecuted Church to face death with constancy, 
 nay more, with a rapturous joy. It is the glorifica- 
 tion of martyrdom. '* Blessed are those that die in 
 the Lord." 
 
 We shall deal with the teaching of this book under 
 the following heads: (a) Parusia and Messianic Judg- 
 ment, {b) First Resurrection and Millennium : the 
 uprising and destruction of Gog and Magog, (c) 
 General Resurrection and Judgment. {d) Final 
 consummation of the righteous. 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 Parusia— this 
 
 (a) Parusia and Messianic fudzment. — Every ^^^^f^^^^^"^ 
 
 ^ ' u c> 'in reference t 
 
 in reference to 
 
 visitation of the Churches, every divine judgment repeated in- 
 
 , . visible comings 
 
 upon them, is regarded as a spiritual advent of for judgment. 
 
348 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 Final visible 
 advent. 
 
 Final 
 judgment. 
 
 Christ (ii. 5, 16) : " Remember therefore from whence 
 thou art fallen, and repent, and do the first works ; 
 or else I come to thee, and will move thy candlestick 
 out of its place, except thou repent." 16. ** Repent 
 therefore ; or else I come to thee quickly, and I will 
 make war against them with the sword of my 
 mouth" (cf. ii. 22, 23; iii. 3, 20); but this invisible 
 coming ends in a final advent visible to all. Of this 
 visible parusia the date is not revealed (i, 7), yet 
 it is close at hand: iii. 11. *' I come quickly: hold 
 fast that which thou hast, that no one take thy 
 crown." xxii. 12, 20. ''Behold, I come quickly; 
 and my reward is with me, to render to each man 
 according as his work is. . . . 20. He which testi- 
 fieth these things saith, Yea : I come quickly. Amen : 
 come Lord Jesus." 
 
 At His coming all the kindreds of the earth shall 
 wail (i. 7). In chap. xiv. His coming is in the clouds 
 of heaven. The judgment executed by Him appears 
 under various symbolical figures. Thus He reaps 
 the great harvest with a sharp sickle (xiv. 14-16); 
 He treads the winepress of the wrath of God (xiv. 
 17-20, xix. 15). The judgment of the great day — 
 "the great day of God" (xvi. 14) — is represented 
 under the image of illimitable slaughter, before the 
 beginning of which the birds of prey are summoned 
 to feast on the bodies and blood of men (xix. 17, 18, 
 21 ; cf. xiv. 20). 
 
 At Harmageddon, i.e, Megiddo (xvi. 16), Anti- 
 christ^ and his allies are annihilated, the Beast and 
 
 1 Observe that, whereas Antichrist in the Johannine Epistles denotes the 
 
THE APOCALYPSE 349 
 
 the false prophet are cast into the lake of fire chap. x. 
 (xix. 20), and all their followers slain with the sword 
 (xix. 21). 
 
 {J}) First Resurrection and Millennium : the up- 
 rising and destruction of Gog a7td Magog, — With 
 the overthrow of the earthly powers, Satan — "the 
 old dragon, the serpent" — is stripped of all his 
 might, and is cast in chains into the abyss, where he 
 is imprisoned for a thousand years (xx. 1-3 ^) : "And 
 I saw an angel coming down out of heaven, having 
 the key of the abyss and a great chain in his hand. 
 And he laid hold on the dragon, the old serpent, ontheover- 
 which is the Devil and Satan, and bound him for a Suenntm 
 thousand years, and cast him into the abyss, and sets m. 
 shut it, and sealed it over him, that he should 
 deceive the nations no more, until the thousand 
 years should be finished : after this he must be 
 loosed for a little time." Thereupon ensues the 
 Millennium, when the martyrs, and the martyrs Tothistempor- 
 only, are raised in the first resurrection and be- ^ngdom^h^ 
 come priests of God (cf Is. Ixi. 6) and of Christ, "^^"^^y^^] 
 and reign with Christ personally on earth for a 
 thousand years (xx. 4-6), with Jerusalem as the 
 centre of the kingdom. According to an earlier 
 passage (v. 10) they are made unto God "a kingdom 
 and priests ; and they reign upon the earth." 
 
 false teachers and prophets, in the Apocalypse it designates Rome. In 2 
 Thessalonians, on the other hand, Rome is a beneficent power which hinders 
 the manifestation of Antichrist. 
 
 1 This idea of the conquest of "the dragon" may be derived from 
 Parsism {?). According to the older Jewish view, this and other sea monsters 
 were overcome in primeval times by God. See prayer of Manasseh 2-4 ; 
 Gunkel, Schopfungund Chaost 91-95. 
 
 i rise. 
 
350 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 Origin of this 
 doctrine in 
 Judaism. 
 
 Here only be- 
 yond question 
 in New Testa- 
 ment. 
 
 Not admissible 
 in the doctrinal 
 systems of the 
 other New 
 Testament 
 books. 
 
 This combina- 
 tion of the 
 temporary 
 Messianic 
 kingdom with 
 the resurrection 
 may have 
 originated in 
 Jewish-Chris- 
 tian circles, 
 
 The idea of a temporary Messianic kingdom 
 first emerged, as we have seen in an earlier chapter, 
 at the beginning of the first century B.C. Its limita- 
 tion, as here, to a thousand years, is first found in 
 Slav. En. xxxii., xxxiii. We have before shown 
 how this number arose.^ It should be observed that 
 this is the only passage in the New Testament 
 where the doctrine of the Millennium is undoubtedly 
 taught. Some scholars have sought to prove its 
 existence also in i Cor. xv. 24-27. But even if 
 their contention were granted, and it would be 
 difficult to do so, it was only a temporary stage in 
 the development of Pauline thought. In all other 
 writers of the New Testament this doctrine is not 
 only ignored, but its acceptance is made impossible 
 in their definite doctrinal systems of the last things, 
 for in these the second advent and the last judgment 
 synchronise. Thus the Millennium, or the reign of 
 Christ for 1 000 years on the present earth, or any other 
 form of the temporary Messianic kingdom, cannot 
 be said to belong to the sphere of Christian doctrine. 
 
 And yet though the Millennium does not be- 
 long to Christian theology, it may have been first 
 developed in its present form in a Jewish-Christian 
 atmosphere— in its present form, I repeat, that is, in 
 its combination of the resurrection of the martyrs 
 with a temporary Messianic kingdom under the 
 Christian Messiah. In our earlier chapters we saw 
 that when once the Messianic kingdom came to be 
 regarded as temporary, from that moment— more 
 
 ^ See p. 201. 
 
THE APO CAL YPSE 3 5 1 
 
 than 150 years before the date of the New Testa- chap. x. 
 ment Apocalypse — the resurrection was relegated 
 from the beginning of the Messianic kingdom to 
 its close, and the righteous were conceived as rising 
 not to the Messianic kingdom, but to eternal blessed- 
 ness in a new world or in heaven itself. 
 
 The same combination of the temporary Messi- but since a 
 
 t . 1 11 . r 1 • • 1 kindred doc- 
 
 anic kmgdom and the resurrection 01 a limited trine is found 
 number of the righteous is to be found in 4 Ezra. ^" J^^^^^ =°^^' 
 Thus in xiii. 52 and in xiv. 9 the Messiah is repre- 
 sented as dwelling in Paradise or some kindred 
 place with Ezra and other righteous men till the 
 times are ended, that is, probably, till the time of the 
 Messianic kingdom. When this era has arrived, 
 then, according to vii. 28, '*The Messiah will be 
 revealed, together with those who are with him." 
 He is to rule over the Messianic kingdom for 400 
 years, and then die. These sections of 4 Ezra are 
 taken by nearly all scholars to be later than 80 a.d. 
 They are at all events subsequent to the advent of 
 Christianity. But since the doctrine of the temporal 
 reign of the Messiah and of the first resurrection 
 is a favourite theme in the Talmud,^ it is no doubt both are to be 
 to be traced to an exclusively Judaistic source. famfjudlfsUc 
 
 But now to return. At the close of the Messianic ^°'^'^®' 
 kingdom Satan will be loosed from his prison in the satanioosedat 
 abyss, and the nations Gog and Magog — the idea Miiiennhimf^ 
 goes back ultimately to Ezek. xxxviii. 2-xxxix. 16 Go^^^an^^^^ 
 — are stirred up to make the last assault on the ^^gog. 
 kingdom of Christ (Rev. xx. 7-9): **And when the 
 
 ^ See y^t^tXjJudiscke Theologie^ 364-371. 
 
352 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 Their destruc- 
 tion, and the 
 overthrow of 
 Satan. 
 
 General resur- 
 rection 
 
 and judgment 
 
 Hades = abode, 
 of wicked only. 
 
 Souls of the 
 martyrs. 
 
 thousand years are finished, Satan shall be loosed 
 out of his prison, and shall come forth to deceive 
 the nations which are in the four corners of the 
 earth, Gog and Magog, to gather them together to 
 war : the number of whom is as the sand of the sea. 
 And they went up over the breadth of the earth, 
 and compassed the camp of the saints about, and the 
 beloved city." In this attack they are destroyed by 
 God Himself, who sends down fire from heaven (xx. 9). 
 The devil is finally cast into the lake of fire (xx. 10), 
 where are also the Beast and the false prophet. 
 
 (c) General Resurrection and Judgment, — These 
 follow on the close of the Millennium and the destruc- 
 tion of the heathen powers and the final overthrow 
 of Satan. A great white throne is set up, and the 
 Judge takes His seat thereon, and from before His 
 face the present heaven and earth pass away (xx. 
 II ; cf, xxi. i). God is Judge, and yet in some re- 
 spects the Messiah also (xxii. 12) : " Behold I come 
 quickly ; and my reward is with me, to render to 
 each man according as his work is" (cf. also vi. 16, 
 1 7), All are judged according to their works, which 
 stand revealed in the heavenly books (xx, 12). The 
 wicked are cast into the lake of fire (xxi. 8 ; see also 
 xix. 20, XX, 10). So likewise are death and Hades 
 (xx. 14). Hades seems to be conceived in the 
 Apocalypse as the intermediate abode of the wicked 
 only ; for it is always combined with death (see i. 18, 
 vi. 8, XX. 13, 14). The souls of the martyrs have 
 as their intermediate abode the place beneath the 
 altar (vi, 9-1 1). The occupation of the martyred 
 
THE APOCAL YPSE 3 5 3 
 
 souls in the intermediate state is essentially Judaistic. chap. x. 
 Their whole prayer is for the destruction of their 
 persecutors. The rest of the righteous were prob- 
 ably conceived as in Paradise or in the treasuries of 
 the righteous (see 4 Ezra). This final award repre- 
 sents the second death (xx. 14, xxi. 8 ; see also ii. 
 1 1, XX. 6). 
 
 The second death is the death of the soul, as the The second 
 first is the death of the body. It is not the annihila- ^ 
 tion, but the endless torment of the wicked that is 
 here meant. The expression is a familiar Rabbinic 
 one (see Jerusalem Targ. on Deut. xxxiii. 6, where 
 for " let Reuben live and not die," we have " let 
 Reuben live and not die the second death " ^). 
 
 (d) Final Consummation of the Righteous. — The consummation 
 
 r -K ' ■ • 1 111 of the righteous 
 
 scene of this consummation is the new world — the in the new 
 new heaven and the new earth (xxi. i, 5), and the new earth!^ ^^^ 
 heavenly Jerusalem (xxi. 10-21^). Then the ideal 
 kingdom of God becomes actual. This city needs 
 no temple : for God and Christ dwell in it (xxi. 22). 
 The throne of God and of the Lamb is set up 
 therein (xxii. i, 3). The citizens dwell in perfect 
 fellowship with God (xxii. 4), and are as kings unto 
 God (xxii, 5). The Messiah still exercises His 
 mediatorial functions (see vii, 17, xxi. 22, 23, etc.) 
 
 It is noteworthy that the distinction of Jew and in this book 
 
 r^ -\ T^.i- •, 1 the distinction 
 
 Gentile seems, according to this writer, to be an of jew and 
 
 Gentile seems 
 
 1 ^ -.-.T . T, .. indelible. 
 
 1 See Wettstein on Rev. 11. 11. 
 
 2 Quite inconsistently with the idea of a new heaven and a new earth 
 (xxi. I ) the writer represents various classes of sinners as dwelling outside the 
 gates of the city of God, the New Jerusalem (xxii. 14, 15). In xxi. 8, on the 
 other hand, these are committed to the lake of fire. 
 
 23 
 
354 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. X. indelible one.^ It persists even through eternity. 
 The firstfruits of the twelve tribes which form the 
 kernel of the New Testament community (vii. 4-8, 
 xiv. i) are represented in the after-world as a fixed 
 and definite number over against the hosts of the 
 Gentile world (vii. 9). The redeemed of Israel are 
 to dwell in the New Jerusalem, while the Gentiles 
 are to walk in the light thereof (xxi. 24, 26). The 
 former are to eat of the fruit of the tree of life, while 
 the latter are to be healed by its leaves (xxii. 2). 
 The twelve gates of the heavenly city are to be 
 named after the twelve tribes (xxi. 12), and the 
 names of the twelve Apostles are inscribed on the 
 foundation stone of the city. Yet Jew and Gentile 
 form one divine community, and are alike kings and 
 priests unto God (i. 6, v. 10). 
 
 From the Apocalypse we shall now proceed to 
 deal with the two closely-related epistles, St. Jude 
 and 2 Peter, The latter is dependent on the former, 
 and the two epistles are probably the latest writings 
 in the New Testament. 
 
 St. Jude 
 
 St. judesatu- Though St, Jude deals almost wholly with the 
 
 je^shApo- question of judgment, there is nothing very char- 
 caiyptic. acteristic in his teaching, save that, he is saturated 
 
 with Jewish apocalyptic literature, and recognises 
 its prophecies as genuine products of the Old Testa- 
 ment saints, and as binding on the Christian con- 
 
 1 See Holtzmann, NTliche Theol. i, 474, 475. 
 
ST. JUDE 355 
 
 science. Thus in this short epistle of twenty-five chap. x. 
 verses we have in vers. 14^ 15 a direct quotation 
 from the Book of Enoch i. 9 : in ver. 13 the phrase 
 "wandering stars " goes back to Eth. En. xviii. 15; 
 in ver. 14 the words " Enoch the seventh from 
 Adam " to Ix. 8 ; in ver. 6 the statement regarding 
 the angels that kept not their first estate to Eth. 
 En. X. 5, 6, 12, 13. 
 
 At least one other such work, ?>. the Assumption 
 of Moses, is laid under contribution in ver. 9.^ 
 
 As regards its teaching on the last things, the Pastjudg- 
 
 - 1 . 1 , . . T r 1 ments types of 
 
 writer finds m the divme judgments 01 the past the final judg- 
 types of the final judgment. Such were the destruc- ^^^^' 
 tion of the faithless Israelites that were saved out 
 of Egypt (ver. 5), and the condemnation of Sodom 
 and Gomorrah to the ** punishment of eternal fire" 
 (ver. 7). This last is very instructive. It shows instance of 
 how Christians at the close of the first century a.d. TestLmem^"^ 
 read their own ideas into the Old Testament records ofdTesJ^i^m. 
 of the past. Thus the temporal destruction by fire of 
 Sodom and Gomorrah is interpreted as an eternal 
 punishment by fire beyond the grave. With their 
 views of inspiration no other interpretation was 
 possible. Other such judgments were the destruc- 
 tion of Korah and his company (ver. 1 1), and finally 
 the judgment on the angels, which were guilty of 
 unnatural union with the daughters of men, in 
 accordance with which they are "kept in everlasting 
 
 1 For a full classification of the coincidences of thought and language 
 between Jude and apocalyptic writers, see Chase's article on Jude in Hastings' 
 Bible Dictionary^ li. 8oi, 802, 
 
356 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. X. bonds under darkness unto the judgment of the 
 great day" (ver. 6). But these judgments are only 
 
 Finaijudgment preliminary to the "judgment of the great day'* 
 (ver. 6), when, according to the prophecy of Enoch, 
 "the Lord cometh with ten thousand of his holy 
 
 on men ones, to execute judgment upon all, and to convict 
 
 all the ungodly of all their works of ungodliness 
 which they have ungodly wrought, and of all the 
 hard things which ungodly sinners have spoken 
 against him" (St. Jude 14, 15), and on the fallen 
 
 and angels. angels, who are "kept in everlasting bonds under 
 darkness unto the judgment of the great day" (ver. 
 6). This extension of the judgment to the angels, 
 which was an accepted dogma of Judaism for at 
 least 300 years previously, is presupposed, as we 
 saw in the Gospels (Matt. viii. 29); it is expressly 
 stated in i Cor. vi. 3, and reproduced in 2 Peter ii. 
 4. At this final judgment with which Jude menaces 
 the godless libertines or, according to many recent 
 critics, the Gnostics of his own day, the faithful will 
 obtain mercy, even eternal life (ver. 21). 
 
 2 Peter 
 
 This epistle is closely related to Jude^ — in fact, 
 presupposes it. Like Jude, its author recounts 
 various temporal judgments as warnings to the 
 godless of his own day. Thus he adduces the 
 Deluge (ii. 5, iii. 6), the destruction of Sodom and 
 Condemnation Gomorrah (ii. 6), the condemnation of the fallen 
 t'oTarta^^as^ angels to Tartarus : "God spared not angels when 
 
% PETER 357 
 
 they sinned, but cast them down to hell, and com- chap. x. 
 mitted them to pits of darkness, to be reserved unto an intermedi- 
 judgment " (ii. 4). This is the only passage where punishment. 
 this word '* Tartarus" appears. Its use here is not 
 inappropriate in connection with the fallen angels, 
 for it was originally the place of punishment of the 
 Titans. On the other hand, our author has changed 
 it from being a place of eternal punishment into 
 one of temporary and intermediate punishment. 
 
 But these were but preliminary acts of judgment. 
 The final **day of judgment" (ii. 9, iii. 7) is impend- 
 ing. In the meantime the unrighteous are kept 
 under punishment (ii. 9) : "The Lord knoweth how 
 to deliver the godly out of temptation, and to keep 
 the unrighteous under punishment unto the day of 
 judgment." We observe that no possibility of re- 
 pentance beyond the grave is here recognised as it 
 is in I Peter. 
 
 The ultimate doom of the wicked false teachers 
 and their followers will be "destruction," aTrmX^ia 
 (iii. 7) ; it is coming speedily upon them (ii. 3) ; the 
 wicked have brought it upon themselves (ii. i) ; 
 they shall assuredly be destroyed (ii, 12). At the 
 final judgment the present constitution of the world The world to 
 will perish by fire (iii. 7, to, 12), as formerly by ^^^^r^^^' 
 water (ii. 5, iii. 6), and in their stead there will be 
 a new heavens and a new earth (iii. 12, 13). The 
 destruction of the world by fire is found in the New 
 Testament only in this epistle. 
 
 The day of judgment and the destruction of the The final 
 world do not take place till Christ s parusia (1. 16; JSeSa' 
 
358 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CWAP. X. 
 
 Date of the 
 pamsia de- 
 pendent on 
 human con- 
 duct. 
 
 iii. 4, 12). But this parusia is already being denied 
 by evil men, who say (iii. 4), '* Where is the promise 
 of his coming?" Now our writer insists that the 
 presence of such mockers is evidence that the last 
 days are already come (iii. 3). Moreover, the 
 parusia is only postponed through the longsufifering 
 of God with a view to the repentance of the faith- 
 less and their salvation (iii. 9) ; it may, indeed, be 
 still far distant, for **one day is with the Lord as 
 a thousand years, and a thousand years as one day" 
 (iii. 8). But the date of the Advent is dependent on 
 human conduct. By holy living and godliness they 
 could prevent its further postponement (iii. 11, 12) : 
 "Seeing that these things are thus all to be dis- 
 solved, what manner of persons ought ye to be in all 
 holy living and godliness, looking for and hastening 
 the coming of the day of God, by reason of which 
 the heavens being on fire shall be dissolved, and the 
 elements shall melt with fervent heat ? " 
 
 With the parusia the eternal kingdom of Christ 
 begins (i. 11) in the new heavens and the new 
 earth (iii. 12, 13). There the perfect life of righteous- 
 ness will be realised (iii. 13). 
 
 St. James 
 
 In this work of primitive Jewish Christianity, 
 in which Christianity is conceived as the fulfil- 
 ment of the perfect Law, prominence is given to 
 the doctrine of recompense. Hence whilst the 
 fulfilment of the Law under temptation led to a 
 
ST. JAMES 359 
 
 recompense of blessing (i. 12, v. ri), failure for chap. x. 
 
 those who are subjects of "the law of liberty" 
 
 entails an aggravated form of punishment (ii. 12). 
 
 Greater responsibility leads to severer judgment 
 
 (iii. i). None, however, can fulfil the law perfectly 
 
 (iii. 2), and so claim *'the crown of life" (i. 12) as 
 
 their reward. Men need forgiveness now (v. 15), 
 
 and must need a merciful Judge hereafter. Only the 
 
 merciful, by the law of recompense, will find God to 
 
 be such (ii. 13). Moreover the judgment is close at The judgment 
 
 hand. It is a day of slaughter for the godless rich 
 
 (v. 5). The advent of the Messiah, who will judge The Messiah 
 
 the world, is close at hand (v. 8, 9) : '* Be ye also world. 
 
 patient ; stablish your hearts : for the coming of 
 
 the Lord is at hand. Murmur not, brethren, one 
 
 against another, that ye be not judged : behold, the 
 
 judge standeth before the doors." He alone can 
 
 save or destroy (iv. 12) : *' One only is the lawgiver 
 
 and judge, even he who is able to save and to destroy : 
 
 but who art thou that judgest thy neighbour.'* " 
 
 But as faithful endurance receives life (i. 12), so 
 the outcome of sin is death (i. 15). A fire will 
 consume their bodies (v. 2 — ? in Gehenna). The 
 death to which the Messianic judgment (iv. 12) will 
 deliver the wicked is not a death of the body only, 
 but also of the soul (v. 20) : ** Let him know, that he 
 which converteth a sinner from the error of his 
 way shall save a soul from death, and shall cover a 
 multitude of sins." 
 
 Finally, the faithful will enter into the promised 
 kingdom (ii. 5), 
 
36o ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 Hebrews 
 
 hand. 
 
 There is a large eschatological element in this 
 The day" at epistle. The final judgment — **the day" — is nigh 
 at hand (x. 25). This day appears to be intro- 
 duced by the final shaking of the heaven and earth 
 God is Judge, (xii. 26, with xii, 25, 29), and the parusia. God is 
 judge (x. 30, 31 ; xiii. 4); the Judge of all (xii. 23). 
 Though Christ judges not, His second coming is 
 coincident with this judgment (ix. 27, 28; x. 37). 
 Retribution is in some sense reserved unto this 
 judgment (x. 30), which will be terrible (x. 31) and 
 inevitable (xii. 25). Yet as regards the righteous, 
 Christ will come not to judge but to save (ix. 28) : 
 " So Christ also, having been once offered to bear 
 the sins of many, shall appear a second time, apart 
 from sin, to them that wait for him, unto salvation." 
 Thus the righteous, it would seem, will in a certain 
 sense escape the final judgment. Their recompense 
 is to be in heaven (vi. 19, 20), where they have an 
 eternal inheritance (ix. 15), a better country (xi. 16), 
 the city which is to come (xiii. 14), even the city 
 which hath the foundations, whose builder and 
 maker is God (xi. g, 10). Then the present visible 
 world (xi. 3), which is already waxing old (i. 10-12), 
 will be removed, and the kingdom which cannot be 
 shaken will remain (xii. 26-28). Into this new 
 world the righteous will pass through the resurrec- 
 tion. The life of this world is described as a 
 sabbatismos or Sabbath keeping (iv. 9). There is 
 apparently to be a resurrection of the righteous only. 
 
 Recompense 
 of the right- 
 eous in heaven 
 
 in the new 
 world. 
 
HEBREWS 361 
 
 This follows from xi. 35, "that they might obtain chap. x. 
 a better resurrection." These words, which refer Resurrection of 
 to the Maccabean martyrs (2 Mace, vii.), set the oruy?^ ^'^^^ 
 resurrection in contrast to a merely temporary 
 deliverance from death, and represent it not as the 
 common lot of all, but as a prize to be striven for. 
 The statement in vi. 2 is not conclusive for or 
 against this view. The blessedness of the righteous 
 is described as a participation in the glory of God 
 (ii. 10) and in the divine vision (xii. 14). 
 
 As regards the wicked, their doom is destruction, Doom of the 
 
 . . , 1 Ti wicked. 
 
 dircoXeca (x. 39). It consists not m a mere bodily 
 death (ix. 27), but in something far more terrible. 
 This retribution is represented as a consuming fire 
 (x. 27) : ** A certain fearful expectation of judgment, 
 and a fierceness of fire which shall devour the 
 adversaries" (cf. vi. 8, xii. 27). Annihilation seems 
 to be the destiny of the wicked/ 
 
 ^ I have followed in the main the traditional views of scholars in the 
 above. The eschatology of this book might, however, be differently construed. 
 Judgment sets in immediately after death in the case of the individual (ix. 27) : 
 *' And inasmuch as it is appointed unto men once to die, and after this cometh 
 judgment." The righteous, having undergone this judgment, forthwith reach 
 their consummation, for they are spoken of as "the spirits of just men made 
 perfect" (xii. 23). As such they do not come within the sphere of the final 
 judgment, for the surviving righteous at the Advent are delivered from it 
 (ix. 28) : " So Christ also, having been once offered to bear the sins of many, 
 shall appear a. second time, apart from sin, to them that wait for him, unto 
 sajvation." Hence the resurrection of the spirits of the righteous would thus 
 be conceived as following immiediately on death. The Alexandrian origin 
 of the Epistle would favour this view. Likewise the designation of God as 
 "the Father of spirits" (xii. 9). Again, the phrase "spirits of just men 
 made perfect" (xii. 23) points in the same direction. For if moral perfection 
 is meant, these spirits must have already reached their consummation. But 
 if they have reached their consummation as spirits, the writer as an Alex- 
 andrian seems to teach only a spiritual resurrection. But the chief obstacle 
 in the way of this interpretation is the meaning of the words " to perfect " and 
 "perfection." See Weiss, Biblical Theol. ofN.T., § 123. 
 
362 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 Twofold mean- 
 ing of parusia 
 in St. John — 
 {a) a present 
 spiritual fact. 
 
 The Johannine Eschatology 
 
 The sources for this eschatology are the fourth 
 Gospel and the Epistles, The Apocalypse springs 
 from a different author, and belongs to a different 
 school of eschatological thought. The salient points 
 of the Johannine eschatology may be summed up 
 under the following heads : — {a) The Parusia ; (b) 
 Judgment; {c) The Resurrection and final con- 
 summation. 
 
 {a) The Parusia, — The parusia has a twofold 
 meaning, a spiritual and an historical, in St. John. 
 Thus in John xiv. i8, 19 the coming Advent is 
 resolved into (a) an event already present ; '' I will not 
 leave you desolate : I come unto you. Yet a little 
 while, and the world beholdeth me no more ; but ye 
 behold me : because I live, ye shall live also." Thus 
 in a spiritual sense Christ is already present (i John 
 V. 12) : ** He that hath the Son hath life." A spiritual 
 and an abiding communion is already established 
 between the exalted Christ and His own (xii. 26): 
 ** If any man serve me, let him follow me; and 
 where I am, there shall also my servant be : if any 
 man serve me, him will my Father honour." In this 
 communion as Christ knows and loves His own, so 
 they know and love Him (x. 14, 15) ; '* I know mine 
 own, and mine own know me, even as the Father 
 knoweth me, and I know the Father." By this 
 communion with the Son the communion and love 
 of the Father is assured (xiv. 21) : "He that loveth 
 
THE JOHANNINE ESCHATOLOGY 363 
 
 me shall be loved of my Father, and 1 will love him, chap. x. 
 and will manifest myself unto him." xiv. 23. ''If 
 a man love me, he will keep my word : and my 
 Father will love him, and we will come unto him, 
 and make our abode with him." xiv. 20. "In 
 that day ye shall know that I am in my Father, 
 and ye in me, and I in you." xvii. 23. ** I in 
 them, and thou in me, that they may be perfected 
 into one ; and that the world may know that thou 
 didst send me, and lovedst them, even as thou 
 lovedst me." xvii. 26. **And I made known unto 
 them thy name, and will make it known ; that the 
 love wherewith thou lovedst me may be in them, 
 and I in them." 
 
 {b\ On the other hand, the parusia is also con- (3) a future 
 
 . event. 
 
 ceived as a future and historical event. Thus Christ 
 will return from heaven and take His own unto 
 Himself, that they may be with Him in heaven 
 (xiv. 2, 3): "In my Father's house are many man- 
 sions ; if it were not so, I would have told you ; for I 
 go to prepare a place for you. And if I go and 
 prepare a place for you, I will come again, and will 
 receive you unto myself; that where I am, there ye 
 may be also." 
 
 That xiv. 2, 3 cannot be interpreted of His com- 
 ing to receive His disciples individually on death is 
 shown by xxi. 22 : "Jesus saith unto him. If I will 
 that he tarry till I come, what is that to thee ? 
 follow thou me." According to the New Testament, 
 death translates believers to Christ (2 Cor. v. 8 ; 
 Phil. i. 23 ; Acts vii. 59), but nowhere is He said to 
 
364 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. X. come and fetch them. This parusia is at hand ; 
 
 Theparusiaat for some of His disciplcs are expected to survive 
 till it appears (xxi. 22), though Peter must first be 
 martyred (xxi. 18, 19). Even in extreme old age 
 the Apostle still hopes to witness it together with his 
 disciples, whom he exhorts to abide in Christ, that 
 they may not be ashamed before Him at His com- 
 ing (i John ii. 28). 
 
 The Antichrist In his teaching regarding the Antichrist this 
 
 manifested in -. _ ry^i-'i 
 
 false teachers, cvangelist reproduces the teachmg of Christ m the 
 Synoptics. This doctrine is referred to as a tradi- 
 tional article of faith, but the conception is Christian 
 and not Judaistic, Just as in the last chapter we 
 saw that Christ foretold the coming of many false 
 Christs and many false prophets (Mark xiii. 6, 21-23 
 = Matt. xxiv. 5, 23, 24= Luke xxi. 8, xvii. 23), so 
 St. John declares that the close approach of the 
 parusia is shown by the appearance of false prophets 
 and teachers. These are so many Antichrists, and 
 their advent is a sign of the end (i John ii. 18): 
 " Little children, it is the last hour: and as ye heard 
 that antichrist cometh, even now have there arisen 
 many antichrists ; whereby we know that it is the 
 last hour." An Antichrist is defined in ii. 22 as ** he 
 that denieth the Father and the Son," and in iv. 3 
 as any "spirit that confesseth not Jesus." In these 
 false teachers the Antichrist manifests himself (iv. 3). 
 How widely different is this doctrine of the Anti- 
 christ from that which appears in Revelation. 
 Judgment, (J?) Judgment, — Judgment is conceived by this 
 
 ^ubjective'!'^ evangelist as present and subjective and as future 
 
THE JOHANNINE ESCHATOLOGY 365 
 
 and objective. Judgment in the former sense is no chap, x. 
 arbitrary process, but the working out of an absolute 
 law whereby the unbelieving world is self- con- 
 demned. For a man is justified or condemned accord- proceeds ac- 
 ing to the attitude he assumes to the light (John man's attitude 
 iii. 19-21) : ** And this is the judgment, that the light ^°^ ^ '^ ^' 
 is come into the world, and men loved the darkness 
 rather than the light ; for their works were evil. 
 For every one that doeth ill hateth the light, and 
 cometh not to the light, lest his works should be 
 reproved. But he that doeth the truth cometh to 
 the light, that his works may be made manifest, 
 that they have been wrought in God." This justifi- that is, to 
 
 , • r 11 T •> Christ's per- 
 
 cation or condemnation lollows accordmg to a man s son. 
 attitude to Christ's person (ix. 39) : *' And Jesus said, 
 For judgment came I into this world, that they 
 which see not may see ; and that they which see 
 may become blind," Hence, from the fact that a 
 man exercises judgment on himself, it is declared judgment is 
 that Christ " came not to judge but to save " (iii. 1 7) : chr^rcamV 
 '' For God sent not the Son into the world to judge bmlolatf' 
 the world ; but that the world should be saved 
 through him." xii. 47. *'And if any man hear my 
 sayings, and keep them not, I judge him not : for I 
 came not to judge the world but to save the world." 
 Indeed, so far removed from judgment is the pur- 
 pose of His coming that He declares (viii. 15), *' I 
 judge no man," though in the next verse the neces- 
 sity of judging is conceded, for judgment is the j^uVt^be^thr^ 
 inexorable sequel which follows rejection of the sequel of 
 
 , . A -I • 1 • rejecting His 
 
 proffered salvation. And in this sense elsewhere salvation. 
 
366 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. X. He declares (ix. 39), *' For judgment came I into 
 this world." 
 
 Now since it is rejection of the light that brings 
 man within the sphere of judgment or condemnation, 
 acceptance of the light delivers him from it. We read . 
 accordingly (iii. 18) : ** He that believeth on him is 
 not judged : he that believeth not hath been judged 
 already, because he hath not believed on the name 
 of the only begotten Son of God." v. 24. "Verily, 
 verily, I say unto you, He that heareth my word, 
 and believeth him that sent me, hath eternal life, 
 and Cometh not into judgment, but hath passed out 
 of death into life." The words "hath passed out of 
 death into life" and **cometh not into judgment" are 
 very definite. They must, however, be interpreted 
 in the sense that so far, and only just so far, as a 
 man is faithful has he passed from death into life 
 and cometh not into judgment. Since this present 
 self- executing judgment is coextensive with the 
 Hence charac- entire humau life, it follows that a man's character 
 oTthis present IS the result of all this process in the past, and is, in 
 fud^enr"^ fact, the verdict of God on man's conduct from first 
 to last. His ultimate destiny has thus already been 
 determined by his spiritual condition. Hence, from 
 Finaijudgment this Standpoint the final judgment cannot be other- 
 tionof the^""^' wise couccived than as the recognition and mani- 
 Sdrcon- festation of judgment already exercised and con- 
 summated, summated. 
 
 Contrast of this In the face of such a spiritual conception of 
 
 wewtov. 28, j^(Jg]^ent, what are we to make of John v. 28, 29 : 
 
 ** Marvel not at this : for the hour cometh, in which 
 
THE JOHANNINE ESCHA TOLOGY 367 
 
 all that are in the tombs shall hear his voice, and chap. x. 
 shall come forth ; they that have done good, unto 
 the resurrection of life ; and they that have done ill, 
 unto the resurrection of judgment." We shall 
 return to this question later. 
 
 Though the object of Christ's coming was not Christ as 
 
 T 1 . 1 1 r 1 • • standard of 
 
 judgment, yet as the unique standard 01 divme divine right- 
 righteousness and the sole mediator between God m^J^torts 
 and man, He is the judgfe of man. In viii. so there the judge of 
 
 ^ J o ^ man. 
 
 is a reference to God as executing judgment, but 
 elsewhere it is definitely stated that God judgeth no 
 man, but has committed all judgment to the Son (v. 
 22, 27): "For neither doth the Father judge any 
 man, but he hath given all judgment unto the Son." 
 27. "And he gave him authority to execute 
 judgment, because he is the Son of man." And 
 the justness of the Son's judgment is assured, for it 
 is according to the will of the Father (v. 30) ; " I can 
 of myself do nothing : as I hear, I judge ; and my 
 judgment is righteous ; because I seek not mine own 
 will, but the will of him that sent me." viii. 16. 
 "Yea, and if I judge, my judgment is true; for I 
 am not alone, but I and the Father that sent 
 me. 
 
 (c) The Resurrection. — In the Synoptic Gospels 
 "the kingdom of God" and "life" were used to 
 some extent as synonyms. The same usage pre- 
 vails in the fourth Gospel, only to an indefinitely 
 g^reater des^ree. Indeed, the conception of "life," conception of 
 
 ^ i-r n ' *'Hfe" almost 
 
 or " eternal life, appears to supersede that of the supersedes 
 kingdom. The kingdom is only spoken of three kingdom. 
 
368 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. X. times — in iii. 3 : "' Except a man be born from above, 
 The kingdom he cannot see the kingdom of God " ; and in iii. 5 : 
 iS^th^erpJs"^ ** Except a man be born of water and the Spirit, he 
 Ts^^n^wed'^ cannot enter into the kingdom of God/' In these 
 ^«enf^^^^"*^ two passages the kingdom is conceived as present 
 and spiritual, and this is no doubt its character in 
 xviii. 36, the only other passage where the phrase 
 occurs : **My kingdom is not of this world : if my 
 kingdom were of this world, then would my servants 
 fight, that I should not be delivered to the Jews : 
 but now is my kingdom not from hence." 
 But the But though the kingdom is seldom mentioned, 
 
 frequently pre- the thought is frequently present in the Johannine 
 ^^"^' writings. The divine gift of eternal life, as the good 
 
 of the individual, can only be realised in so far as it 
 brings the individual into vital union with the divine 
 community, which is none other than the kingdom. 
 The realisation of this life leads to unity with the 
 brethren, such as prevails between the Father and 
 the Son (xvii. 21), and, through this unity con- 
 sciously apprehended, the individual life attains to 
 Eternal Hfe and its perfection (xvii. 23). Thus eternal life and the 
 are co^eiatTve kingdom are correlative and complementary thoughts 
 thoughts. jj^ ^^ fourth Gospel. The indispensable evidence 
 of this life in the individual is his love to the com- 
 munity. He who possesses it not has no divine life 
 as an individual ; he neither comes from God nor 
 knows Him (i John iii. lo, iv. 8), but abides in dark- 
 ness and death (i John ii. lo, iii. 14). 
 
 But we must discuss more intimately the concep- 
 tion "eternal life," for on the right apprehension of 
 
THE JOHANNINE ESCHATOLOGY 369 
 
 this thought depends our ability to understand the chap. x. 
 Johannine doctrine of the resurrection. 
 
 As death is the evil from which Christ delivers 
 men (viii. 51), so the gift which He brings is life, xhiseteraai 
 and that eternal life (iii. 15, 16) : " That whosoever po^ssession^^"' 
 believeth may in him have eternal life. For God so 
 loved the world, that he gave his only begotten Son, 
 that whosoever believeth on him should not perish, 
 but have eternal life " (cf. x. 28, xii. 50). This eternal 
 life is already a present possession (vi. 47) : '* Verily, 
 verily, I say unto you, He that believeth hath eternal 
 life." V. 24. ** Verily, verily, I say unto you, He 
 that heareth my word, and believeth him that sent 
 me, hath eternal life, and cometh not into judgment, 
 but hath passed out of death into life." It consists 
 in a growing personal knowledge of God and of His 
 Son (xvii. 3): "And this is life eternal, that they 
 should know thee the only true God, and him 
 whom thou hast sent, even Jesus Christ." And 
 this life is the presupposition and living germ of the The germ of 
 resurrection life (vi. 40) : "This is the will of my ^f^^;^^^^^^^ 
 Father, that every one that beholdeth the Son, and 
 believeth on him, should have eternal life ; and that 
 I should raise him up." Nay more, this eternal life Nay more, is 
 which the believer at present possesses is already tion^uf^^*^ 
 the resurrection life (v. 25) : "Verily, verily, I say 
 unto you. The hour cometh, and now is, when the 
 dead shall hear the voice of the Son of God ; and 
 they that hear shall live." Thus the resurrection, 
 spiritually conceived, is brought into the present, 
 and Christ Himself as the resurrection and the life 
 
 24 
 
370 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 \ CHAP. X. 
 
 and cannot be 
 affected by 
 death. 
 
 Eternal life in 
 this sense an 
 ethical and 
 timeless con- 
 ception. 
 
 Conclusions as 
 to the resur- 
 rection. 
 
 Arev, 28, 29 
 genuine ? 
 
 is its source (xi. 25): '* Jesus said unto her, I am the 
 resurrection, and the life : he that believeth on me, 
 though he die, yet shall he live." This divine resur- 
 rection life cannot be affected by death. He that 
 possesses it can never truly die (viii. 51): "Verily, 
 verily, I say unto you, If a man keep my word, he 
 shall never see death." xi. 26. *' Whosoever liveth 
 and believeth on me, shall never die.'* 
 
 From the preceding, therefore, we see that the 
 spiritual resurrection life is synonymous with eternal 
 life, and that eternal life in the fourth Gospel is not 
 a time conception, but a purely ethical and timeless 
 one. In only a few passages does it retain a 
 temporal meaning. In these it refers to the future 
 heavenly life (iv. 14, vi. 27, xii. 25). Seeing, there- 
 fore, that the resurrection in the fourth Gospel is, 
 spiritually conceived, synonymous with eternal life, 
 and, historically conceived, is the essential fruit of 
 eternal life, two conclusions naturally follow: (i) 
 The believer cannot lose this spiritual resurrection 
 life at death, but must enter rather on a fuller 
 consummation of it. (2) Only the righteous can 
 share in that resurrection life. 
 
 How, then, are we to deal with such a passage 
 as V. 28, 29: ''Marvel not at this: for an hour 
 Cometh, in which all that are in the tombs shall hear 
 his voice, and shall come forth ; they that have done 
 good, unto the resurrection of life ; and they that have 
 done ill, unto the resurrection of judgment." Here 
 the resurrection is adjourned to the last day ; both 
 righteous and unrighteous are described as coming 
 
THE JOHANNINE ESCHATOLOG Y 37 1 
 
 forth from the tombs, and the scene is depicted in chap. x. 
 the most materiahstic form — in fact, it would be hard 
 to find a more unspiritual description of the resur- 
 rection in the whole literature of the first century 
 A.D. These considerations are of themselves quite 
 sufficient to render these verses questionable in a 
 high degree ; for their teaching is in glaring conflict 
 with the fundamental conceptions of this Gospel. 
 Owing to their incompatibility with the rest of the 
 Johannine teaching, a recent writer (Holtzmann, 
 NTliche Theologie, ii. 519) has not shrunk from 
 branding them as an accommodation on the part of 
 the Evangelist to current popular views. But the 
 charge is unjustifiable. For, as Wendt has shown, 
 not only is the teaching of these verses at variance 
 with that of the rest of the Gospel, but they are also 
 at variance with their actual context,^ and their 
 excision restores unity of thought to the passage. 
 The same scholar rightly treats as interpolations 
 from the same hand the words "at the last day" 
 in vi. 39, 40, 44, 54 ; xii. 48. The popular view of 
 resurrection at the last day is again stated, though 
 not in so gross a form, in xi. 24, where Martha says, 
 
 ^ There is an outward resemblance between v. 25 and v. 28, yet an 
 inward antagonism. In the former, "an hour cometh, and now is, when 
 the dead shall hear the voice of the Son of God ; and they that hear shall 
 live," the word "hear "is used in the pregnant sense of obedience, whereas 
 the sense is wholly wanting in v. 28 : " An hour cometh, in which all that are 
 in the tombs shall hear his voice, and shall come forth," which is obviously, 
 nevertheless, modelled upon v. 25. For the various grounds for the rejection 
 of these verses, see Wendt, Lehrejesu, i. 249-251. It is to be observed th-at 
 the phrase ol h rots fivrjfidoLs in v. 28 is no doubt derived from Isaiah xxvi. 
 19 (LXX) ; for it does not appear to occur outside these two passages. In the 
 Old Testament passage this phrase can refer to the righteous only, as the con- 
 text shows, but its New Testament apphcation relates it to all mankind. 
 
372 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 Johannine doc 
 trine of the 
 resurrection. 
 
 Manifestation 
 of the results 
 of the daily 
 judgment at 
 the consumma- 
 tion of the 
 world. 
 
 Consummation 
 of the right- 
 eous. 
 
 touching her brother : '* I know that he shall rise 
 again in the resurrection at the last day." But this 
 view of Martha's is not accepted by Christ, but is 
 implicitly corrected in the pregnant words which He 
 utters in reply : ** I am the resurrection, and the 
 life : he that believeth on me, though he die, yet shall 
 he live : and whosoever liveth and believeth on me 
 shall never die." 
 
 Thus the Johannine teaching appears to be that 
 in some form the resurrection life follows im- 
 mediately on death, but that its perfect consumma- 
 tion cannot be attained till the final consummation 
 of all things. 
 
 But the final result of this daily secret judgment 
 must one day become manifest ; believers shall have 
 boldness in the day of judgment (i John ii. 28, iv. 17), 
 for it can only be the recognition and manifestation 
 of judgment already exercised. A man's attitude to 
 Christ determines now, and will determine finally, 
 his relation to God and destiny (iii. 18, 19 ; 
 ix. 39). 
 
 (c) The final consummation is one of heavenly 
 blessedness. After the final judgment the present 
 world will pass away (i John ii. 17), and Christ will 
 take His own to heaven — a state rather than a 
 locality^ (xiv. 2, 3): they are to be with Him 
 where He is (xii. 26, xvii. 24). Eternal fife — 
 the resurrection life — is then truly consummated. 
 Begun essentially on earth, it is now realised 
 in its fulness and perfected. The faithful now 
 
 1 See Hort, The Way, the Truth, the Life, pp. 13-16. 
 
THE PETRINE ESCHATOLOGY 373 
 
 obtain their *' full reward" (2 John 8). As chap. x. 
 "children of God" they are, through enjoyment 
 of the divine vision, transformed into the divine 
 likeness (i John iii. 2, 3). 
 
 Though the Apostle does not present us with johanninedoc- 
 any fresh teaching touching Hades and hell, he necessitates a 
 furnishes us with principles which in themselves o7ju(Sst^^°^ 
 necessitate a transformation of the Judaistic views H^defand^^^ 
 regarding these intermediate and final abodes of the ^^ii- 
 departed. Thus, when he teaches that God so 
 loved the world as to give His only Son to redeem 
 it (John iii. 16), that "God is love " (i John iv. 8), 
 that He is light, and in Him is no darkness at all, 
 then Hades, which is wholly under His sway, must 
 be a place where moral growth is possible ; and as 
 for hell, the final eternal abode of the damned, such 
 a conception is impassible in the cosmos ruled by 
 the God of justice. and love. Sin, according to the 
 Johannine view, is the destroyer of all life — physical, 
 spiritual, and ontological. Now, to check the ulti- 
 mate effects of this process of destruction and 
 preserve the sinner in a state of sin, in a state of 
 ever-growing, ever-deepening sin, could in no sense 
 be the work of God so conceived. 
 
 The Petrine Eschatology 
 
 The earliest form of this is to be found in Acts Earlier form of 
 iii. 12-26. It is very Jewish in character, and its tology! ^^"^ ^' 
 value in regard to Christian eschatology is historical 
 rather than intrinsic. Thus St. Peter expects that 
 
374 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. X. the kingdom of God will be realised In the forms of 
 The kingdom the JewIsh theocracy (cf. Acts i. 6), and that the 
 in the forms of Gentiles will participate in its blessings only through 
 theocracy!^ conversion to Judaism (ill. 25, 26). At any rate, 
 it required a further revelation (see Acts x.) to 
 teach him that Gentiles as Gentiles should become 
 members of the kingdom. Having thus appre- 
 hended the limited scope of the passage before us, 
 we can recognise how idle have been the many dis- 
 cussions that have originated in the familiar phrase 
 Meaning of the "the tImes of the restoration of all things" (iii. 21).^ ' 
 tutionofaii Thcse words, in the mind of the Apostle, relate 
 ^ ^"^^' either to the renewal of the world, or else, and in all 
 
 likelihood, to the moral regeneration of Israel. This 
 interpretation follows from Mai. iv. 6, which is the 
 ultiniate source of the expression, and from the 
 application they receive from our Lord in Matt. xvii. 
 II. St. Peter urges his hearers to repent that 
 they may be forgiven their sins and so hasten the 
 parusia. He connects the parusia and *'the seasons 
 of refreshing." '* The times of the restoration of 
 all things" (ill. 21) are preparatory to the parusia, 
 or else they are synonymous with *' the seasons of 
 refreshing." In the latter case they would point to 
 a temporary Messianic kingdom which is apparently 
 to be consummated on the earth. In fact, the 
 
 1 Seeing that St. Peter was unacquainted with a fact of immediate and 
 primary importance, — the destination of the Gospel to the Gentiles as 
 Gentiles, — it is unreasonable to wrest his words into a disclosure on a 
 question of merely speculative interest : the ultimate and universal destiny of 
 man. Further, Dalman {Worte Jesu, i. 145, 146) shows that this phrase does 
 not refer to the renewal of the word, but to the fulfilment of all that was 
 declared by the prophets. 
 
THE PETRINE ESCHATOLOGY 375 
 
 phrase " seasons of refreshing" is hardly intelligible char x. 
 of any but an earthly Messianic kingdom. The 
 same thought appears in the "rest" {-av^ai^) of 
 2 Thess. i. 7. 
 
 I St. Peter. — In this epistle there is a decided Later Petrine 
 
 ,,.»...T' eschatology. 
 
 advance on the Petrme teachmg m Acts 111. It is 
 true that believing Israelites still form, as in Acts 
 iii., the real substance of the Christian Church ; but 
 in the Apostle's view this Church embraces all who 
 come to believe in Christ, whether of Israelitish or 
 Gentile origin, in this world or the next {iii. 19, 
 iv. 6). Further, it is not an earthly consummation 
 of the theocracy, but an heavenly one that is looked a heavenly 
 for. The ** inheritance" that awaits the righteous pe'Jifed."'^'' 
 is '* incorruptible and undefiled, and reserved in 
 heaven" for them (i. 4). The goal, then, of the 
 Christian hope is this ** salvation ready to be re- 
 vealed at the last time" (i. 5). But this consumma- 
 tion of the heavenly theocracy is initiated by the 
 revelation of Jesus Christ and the judgment of the 
 world. 
 
 Though God is declared in general terms to be chnst the 
 the Judge (i. 17, ii. 23), yet this final judgment is " ^^' 
 expressly assigned to Christ (iv. 5). But the end of 
 all things is at hand (iv. 7) : for judgment has already 
 begun with the house of God, ix. with the Church 
 of believing Israel (iv. 17). Persecution is sifting 
 the true from the false members of the Church. 
 But such afflictions will last but ** a little while" 
 (i. 6, V. 10). Then Christ will be revealed (i. 7, 
 V. 4), and will execute a universal judgment over 
 
376 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. X. the quick and the dead (iv. 5), over the righteous 
 and the wicked (iv. 17, 18 ?). Then the approved 
 disciples will share with their Lord in " eternal 
 glory" (v. 10); they will "receive the crown of 
 life " (v. 4), and live such a life as that of God 
 (iv. 6). 
 
 But the question of chief importance in the 
 1 Peter iii. 19- Petriue cschatology is still to be discussed. It 
 21, an IV. s, . (,gj^^j.gg jjj ^^ ^^Q difficult passages which describe 
 
 the preaching to the spirits in prison (iii, 19-21), 
 and the preaching of the Gospel to the dead 
 (iv. 5, 6). 
 
 The interpretations that have been assigned to 
 
 these passages ^ are multitudinous, but the majority 
 
 are simply impossible, attributing, as they do, a 
 
 false sense to the phrase '*the spirits in prison." 
 
 This phrase can be interpreted only in two ways. 
 
 The spirits in question are either those of men in 
 
 Sheol, or they are the fallen angels mentioned in 
 
 2 Peter ii. 4; Jude 6. In the next place, the 
 
 words "in prison" denote the local condition of the 
 
 According tQ spirits at the time of preaching. Hence, according 
 
 Chris^reached to the text, Christ *' in the spirit" (i,e, between His 
 
 w^n^of^^ death and resurrection) preached the Gospel of 
 
 Tn Hade?"^"^ redemption (for so only can we render iKripv^ev) to 
 
 1 See Dietelmaier, Historia Dogmatis de Descensti Christi ad Inferos 
 litteraria, 1 741 and 1762; Giider, Die Lekre von d. Erscheinung Christi 
 unter den Toten, i8S3 > Zezschwitz, De Christi ad Inferos Descensu^ 1857 ; 
 Usteri, Hinabgefahren zur Hdlle ; Schweitzerj Hinabgefahren zur Hblle ; 
 Hofmann, Schrifibeweiss, ii. 335-341 ; Salmond,^ Christian Doctrine of 
 Immortality, pp. 450-486, 1896; Spitta, Christi Predigt an die Geister ; 
 Bruston, La Descente du Christ aux Enfers, 1897 ; Steven's Theology of 
 the New Testament^ 304-311, 1899 ; as well as the commentators in loc. 
 
THE PETRINE ESCHATOLOGY Z77 
 
 human or angelic spirits in the underworld.^ With chap. x. 
 the more exact determination of the objects of this 
 mission we are not here concerned. For, however 
 it be decided, we have here a clear apostolic state- 
 ment that the scope of redemption is not limited to 
 this life in the case of certain individuals, human or 
 angelic. We have now to deal with iv. 5, 6 : '* Who This is only a 
 shall give an account to him that is ready to judge L^erdoarine 
 the quick and the dead. For unto this end was the '"^ ^^' ^' ^' 
 Gospel preached even unto the dead, that they 
 might be judged according to men in the flesh, but 
 live according to God in the spirit." The doctrine 
 we found stated above in iii. 19-21 is here sub- 
 stantiated, as being part of the larger truth now 
 enunciated. Christ is ready to judge the quick 
 and the dead — the latter no less than the former ; 
 for even to the dead was the Gospel preached ^ in 
 order that, though they had already been judged 
 in the flesh, they might live the life of God in the 
 spirit. Thus the Apostle teaches that on the advent 
 of the last judgment the Gospel will already have 
 been preached to all. As to how far this preaching 
 of redemption succeeds, there is no hint in the 
 Petrine teaching. 
 
 These passages in i Peter are of extreme value. 
 
 ^ See Gospel of Peter ver. 41. Such may have been St. Paul's belief (Rom. 
 X. 7 ; Eph.iv. 8-10). This may be the idea at the root of Matt, xxvii. 52, 53. 
 Christ's appearance in Hades was the signal for the release of the saints. 
 
 2 The tense of eCnjyyeXia-dT} creates no difficulty here. This preaching 
 might be already regarded as a completed act in the past, for in the next verse 
 (iv. 7) the writer declares that the end of all things is at hand. But even if 
 this were not so, the aorist can be used of a continuous practice (cf. i Cor. 
 ix. 20 ; James ii. 6). 
 
378 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. X. They attest the achievement of the all but final 
 Here Hades, stapfe in the moralisation of Hades. The first stae^e 
 
 which had ^ ^ 
 
 partially been in this moralisation was taken early in the second 
 
 transformed ^ i . ^ r i . , i 
 
 under judaistic century B.C., when It was transiormed into a place 
 fuftoTrans- ^^ moral distinctions, having been originally one of 
 formed under merely social or national distinctions. But this 
 
 Christian. \ ^ 
 
 moralisation was very inadequately carried out. 
 According to the Judaistic conception, souls in 
 Sheol were conceived as insusceptible of ethical 
 progress. What they were on entering Sheol, that 
 they continued to be till the final judgment. Thus 
 this conception is mechanical and unethical if judged 
 in the light of Christian theism. It precludes moral 
 change in moral beings who are under the rule 
 of a perfectly moral Being, who wills not that 
 any should perish, but that all should come to 
 repentance. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 THE PAULINE ESCHATOLOGY IN ITS FOUR STAGES 
 
 In the writings of this Apostle we find no single 
 eschatological system. His ideas in this respect 
 were in a state of development. He began with an 
 expectation of the future that he had inherited 
 largely from Judaism, but under the influence of 
 great formative Christian conceptions he parted 
 gradually from this and entered on a process of 
 development, in the course of which the hetero- 
 geneous elements were for the most part silently 
 dropped. We have marked out four stages in this 
 development, but perfect consistency within these 
 stages is not to be looked for. Even in the last 
 the Apostle does not seem to have obtained finality, 
 though he was ever working towards it. It is 
 permissible, therefore, for his readers to develop 
 his thoughts in symmetrical completeness and carry 
 to its conclusion his chain of reasoning. The 
 present writer has not attempted to do so in this 
 volume, but may do so later. The various stages 
 are attested by (i.) i and 2 Thessalonians ; (ii.) 
 
38o ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. XI. 
 
 I Corinthians ; (iii.) 2 Corinthians and Romans ; 
 (iv.) Philippians, Colossians, Ephesians. 
 
 Earliest form 
 of Pauline 
 eschatology in 
 I and 2 Thes- 
 salonians. 
 
 The end will 
 come when 
 evil has reached 
 its climax 
 
 First Period of Development — 
 I and 2 Thessalonians 
 
 The two Epistles to the Thessalonians ^ present 
 us with the earliest form of the Pauline teaching 
 and eschatology. They constitute, in fact, the 
 Pauline Apocalypse. In this apocalypse the salient 
 features are {a) the great Apostasy and the Anti- 
 christ ; {b) the Parusia and Final Judgment ; {c) the 
 Resurrection and blessed Consummation of the 
 Faithful. In his teachings on these questions the 
 Apostle appeals to the authority of Christ. What 
 he puts before his readers in i Thess. iv. 15-17 is 
 derived from the Lord (see ver. 15). There is, 
 however, a setness and rigidity in the teaching of the 
 Apostle which is not to be found in that of Christ. 
 
 {a) The Apostasy and the Antichrist. — St. Paul 
 starts from the fundamental thought of Jewish 
 Apocalyptic that the end of the world will be 
 brought about by the direct intervention of God 
 when evil has reached its climax. The moment for 
 such intervention is thus not arbitrarily determined, 
 but conditioned by the development and final con- 
 
 ^ There are undoubted difficulties in the way of reconciling the eschato- 
 logy of I and 2 Thessalonians. The eschatology of the former is closer than 
 that of the second to the Synoptic Gospels. I have with some hesitation used 
 both epistles as depicting the first stage in St. Paul's eschatological views. 
 The conflicting views as to the manner of the Parusia, whether as wholly 
 unexpected (l Thess.) or as preceded by certains signs (2 Thess.), are not in 
 themselves sufficient grounds for rejecting 2 Thessalonians, since (i) some 
 time elapses between the composition of the epistles, and (2) since some of 
 the eschatological views of the Apostle were in a constant state of flux. 
 
THE PA ULINE ESCHA TOLOG V 381 
 
 summation of the forces of good and evil at work in chap. xi. 
 the world. In the course of this development the 
 separation of those susceptible of salvation and the 
 unsusceptible is realised gradually but inevitably. 
 The day of the Lord cannot come ** except the 
 falling away (1? diroaracrLa) come first, and the man 
 of sin be revealed, the son of perdition whose com- 
 ing is according to the working of Satan — with all 
 deceit of unrighteousness for them that are perish- 
 ing" (2 Thess. ii. 3, 9, 10). This evil, which already andtheAnti- 
 pervades and is leavening the world (2 Thess. ii. 7), veaied!^^^" 
 must reach its consummation, and this it will do in 
 the son of perdition, the Antichrist. Thus as the 
 revelation of God culminated in Christ, so the mani- 
 festation of evil will culminate in Antichrist, whose 
 parusia (2 Thess. ii. 9) is the Satanic counterfeit 
 of the true Messiah. But as the incarnation of evil 
 he appears as the negation not only of Christ but 
 also of God ; for, exalting himself above all that is 
 called God, he places his throne in God s temple in 
 Jerusalem, setting himself forth as God (2 Thess. 
 ii. 4). But the climax of evil is the immediate 
 herald of its destruction ; for thereupon Christ will 
 descend from heaven and slay him with the breath 
 of His mouth, and consume him with the manifest- 
 ation of His coming (2 Thess, ii. 8). 
 
 Whence Antichrist was to proceed it is difficult Does the Ami 
 to determine — whether from Judaism or heathenism.^ from^udSsm 
 
 1 Weiss (rto/. o/N,T., English transl., i. 305-311) maintains the Jewish or heathenism ? 
 origin of Antichrist. He argues that an apostasy, strictly speaking, was 
 impossible in heathenism, and it was only unbelieving Judaism which had as 
 yet shown itself to be the real seat of hostility to Christ. Thus the real 
 obstacle to the spread of the teaching of Christ lay in the fanatical Jews 
 
Rome. 
 
 382 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 GHAP. XI. That the Apostle did not conceive him as proceeding 
 from Rome is clear ; for the power and person who 
 Not from restrain (2 Thess. ii. 6, 7) the Antichristian revolu- 
 tion are none other than the Roman empire and its 
 imperial head. These, as the representatives of 
 order and justice/ repress the outbreak of evil, and 
 delay the coming of Antichrist.^ 
 
 whom the Apostle designates as *' unreasonable and evil men" (2 Thess. iii, 
 2 ; cf. also I Thess. ii. 18). Having for the most part remained unbelieving 
 (Acts xviii. 6 ; 2 Thess. i. 8), they had always pursued him with persecution 
 and calumny (Acts ix. 23, 24, 29 j xiii. 8, 45), had stirred up the heathen 
 against him (xiii. 50; xiv. 2, 5, 19; xvii. 5, 13). Hence the Apostle de- 
 nounces them as the real foes of Christ. Having slain Christ and the 
 prophets, they were now the relentless persecutors of His Church. Dis- 
 pleasing to God and contrary to all men, the cup of their iniquity was all 
 but full, and wrath was already come upon them to the uttermost (l Thess. 
 ii. 16-18). When to the above facts we add the further consideration that 
 the false Messiah or Antichrist regards the temple at Jerusalem as the 
 dwelling-place of God (2 Thess. ii. 4), the Jewish origin of the Antichristian 
 principle seems in a very high degree probable. Sabatier [Apostle Paul, Eng- 
 lish transl. 119-121) was originally of this opinion, but now declares that a 
 fresh examination of the passages makes him less confident as to the Jewish 
 character of the Antichrist : "The apostasy in question seems to extend far 
 beyond the limits of Judaism, and to be the outcome of a general and hope- 
 less revolt of the whole world against God and the order established by Him." 
 The Apostle "leaves the personality of Antichrist indefinite, precisely because 
 this personality did not as yet present a distinct form to the eyes." Bey- 
 schlag [N,T. Theology, English transl. ii. 257, 258) takes somewhat the same 
 view. That the Antichrist is a personification of God-opposing heathenism 
 is the view of Baur, Hilgenfeld, DoUinger, Schmiedel, and JuUcher. 
 Bousset {The Antichrist Legettd), on the other hand, supports with great 
 learning and force the Jewish origin of the Antichrist. Holtzmann {NTliche 
 Theol. ii. 192) is of opinion that, notwithstanding Bousset's work, it is 
 impossible to maintain the Jewish origin. The attempt to establish such a 
 view must, he holds, be hopelessly wrecked on the fact that the Antichrist, 
 who claimed to be God (2 Thess. ii. 4), could never have been regarded as 
 the Messiah by the Jews. If we regard the Antichrist as proceeding from 
 heathenism, the thought in its ultimate derivation springs from the Gog and 
 Magog assault of the Gentiles on Jerusalem in Ezek. xxxviii., xxxix. Thus 
 we should have an excellent parallel to Rev. xx. 7-10. 
 
 ^ The power of Rome had repeatedly protected the' Apostle from the 
 attacks of the Jews (Acts xviii. 12-16, xix. 35-41, xxii. 22-29). Iii Rom. 
 xiii. I its magistrates are declared by him to be God's ministers. Later, this 
 distinction between the Roman Emperor and Antichrist disappeared. Thus 
 the Emperor is the Beast and Rome the mystery of iniquity in Rev. xiii., xvii. 
 
 2 We should observe that the figure of Antichrist, which belongs to the 
 earliest type of Paulinism, does not reappear in his later teaching. 
 
THE PAULINE ESCHATOLOGY z^i 
 
 {b) Parusia and Final Judgment,- — -The Apostle chap. xi. 
 expects the parusia of Christ in his own lifetime Pamsiainthe 
 (i Thess, ii. 19) : ** For what is our hope, or time! ^^ 
 joy, or crown of rejoicing ? Are not even ye 
 before our Lord Jesus at his coming?" iii. 13. 
 **To the end that he may establish your hearts 
 unblameable in holiness before our God and Father 
 at the coming of our Lord Jesus with his saints." 
 iv. 15. ** For this we say unto you by the word of 
 the Lord, that we which are alive and are left unto 
 the coming of the Lord, shall in no wise precede 
 them that are fallen asleep." v. 23. " And the 
 God of peace himself sanctify you wholly ; and may 
 your spirit and soul and body be preserved entire, 
 without blame at the coming of our Lord Jesus 
 Christ." The parusia follows immediately on the itwiiibepre- 
 culmination of evil (2 Thess. ii. 1-4): ** Now we certain ^gns, 
 beseech you brethren, touching the coming of our a'^Thets^^ii^^ 
 Lord Jesus Christ, and our gathering together unto 
 him ; to the end that ye be not quickly shaken 
 from your mind, nor yet be troubled, either by spirit, 
 or by word, or by epistle as from us, as that the 
 day of the Lord is now present ; let no man beguile 
 you in any wise : for it will not be, except the 
 falling away come first, and the man of sin^ be 
 
 « 1 There is a very close 'affinity between ttie conception of Antichrist in 
 the above passage and in the Apocalypse. In both he is clearly conceived 
 as the Satanic counterfeit of Christ. Thus the Antichrist has his parusia (2 
 Thess. ii. 9 = Rev. xvii. 8) : he is an instrument of Satan, who enables him to 
 perform lying signs and wonders {2 Thess. ii. 9 = Rev. xiii. 2, 4, 13, 15), 
 whereby he deceives the faithless (2 Thess. ii. 10 = Rev. xiii. 14). He 
 blasphemes God and claims the worship of men (2 Thess. ii. 4= Rev. xiii. 
 4, S, 6, 8, 12). Finally he will be destroyed {2 Thess. ii. 3 = Rev. xvii. 
 8, n) : Christ will destroy him with the breath of His mouth (2 Thess. ii. 
 8 = Rev. xix. 15, 21). 
 
384 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 Yet come as 
 a thief in the 
 night (i 
 Thess. ) 
 
 Parusia is also 
 the day of 
 judgment. 
 
 revealed, the son of perdition, he that opposeth and 
 exalteth himself against all that is called God or 
 that is worshipped ; so that he sitteth in the temple 
 of God, setting himself forth as God." Yet the 
 day of the final catastrophe is uncertain ; for it 
 comes as a thief in the night (i Thess. v, 1-3) : 
 ** But concerning the times and the seasons, brethren, 
 ye have no need that aught be written unto you. 
 For yourselves know perfectly that the day of the 
 Lord so cometh as a thief in the night. When they 
 are saying, Peace and safety, then sudden destruc- 
 tion cometh upon them, as travail upon a woman 
 with child ; and they shall in no wise escape " (cf. 
 Matt. xxiv. 43). With what vividness and emphasis 
 the Apostle must have preached the impending 
 advent of Christ is clear from i Thess. v. 1-3, as 
 well as from the second epistle, where he seeks to 
 quiet their excitement, almost bordering on fanati- 
 cism. In His second advent Christ will descend 
 from heaven (i Thess. i. 10), with the voice of the 
 archangel and the trump of God (cf. i Cor. xv. 52) 
 (i Thess. iv. 16 ; 2 Thess. i. 7), and His glory will 
 then be revealed (2 Thess. i. 7) {airoKoKv^i^. Angels 
 will accompany Him as the executors of His decrees 
 (2 Thess. i. 7). 
 
 But the parusia is likewise the day of judgment. 
 For the Old Testament designation of the day of 
 judgment is used of the parusia. Thus the latter is 
 spoken of as '* the day of the Lord " (i Thess. v. 2),' 
 "the day" (i Thess. v. 4), "that day" {2 Thess. 
 i. 10). This judgment deals with Antichrist and 
 
THE PAULINE ESCHATOLOGY 385 
 
 all the wicked and godless. First of all, Antichrist chap. xi. 
 is annihilated (2 Thess, ii. 8) ; "with flaming fire " 
 vengeance will be taken on the godless amongst the 
 Gentiles and Jews (i Thess. iv. 6 ; 2 Thess. i. 8), 
 alike on the careless (i Thess. v. 3) and the actively 
 hostile (2 Thess. i. 6). The doom of the wicked is 
 "eternal destruction," o\e6po<; aiwvto^ {2 Thess. i. 9 ; 
 cf. I Thess. V. 3), described likewise as dircciXeca 
 (2 Thess. ii. 3, 10). In this harsh forecast of the This forecast 
 future the Apostle has hardly outgrown the narrow abandoned 
 intolerance of Jewish eschatology. We shall see that o^a morr°''' 
 later it is not the consummation of evil and the un- christian one. 
 belief of mankind, but rather the triumph of Christi- 
 anity in the conversion of the world that ushers in 
 the fulness of the times and the advent of Christ. 
 To the Apostle's maturer mind God so shapes the 
 varying destinies of Jew and Gentile "that he may 
 extend his mercy unto all " (Rom. xi. 32). 
 
 (c) The Resurrection and the blessed Consumma- 
 tion of the Faithful, — The Apostle's disclosure on 
 the resurrection is occasioned by an apprehension in 
 the young Church which he had founded that those 
 who died before the parusia would fail to share in 
 its blessedness. Hence he refers them to a special 
 statement of Christ on this subject (i Thess. iv. 15 ; 
 cf. Matt. xxiv. 31). The dead in Christ, who are 
 said " to sleep," -^ shall rise first (i Thess. iv. 16), but 
 the teaching on this point is not quite clear. ^ The 
 
 ^ That this does not imply a latent existence, as Holtzmann asserts 
 {NTliche Theol. ii. 196), Schmiedel, Hand-commentar Thessalontans, p. 28, 
 we have already shown (see pp. 127 note, 187, 196). 
 
 -2 According to i Thess. iii. 13, these are to accompany Christ at His 
 
 25 
 
386 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. XI. word "first" is not intended here to contrast this 
 resurrection with a second resurrection, but rather 
 Resurrection to denote the two classes of the righteous who share 
 r^hteous.^ in the resurrection. The first are those who have 
 died before the parusia ; the second are those who 
 survive to meet it. Both are caught up to meet the 
 Lord in the air. The scene of their blessedness is, 
 probably, a transformed heaven and earth (cf. 
 
 1 Cor. vii, 31). Since the resurrection and the final 
 judgment take place at the parusia, it is not a 
 temporary Messianic kingdom but the eternal abode 
 of the blessed into the possession of which the 
 risen and surviving righteous enter. The elect are 
 gathered together unto Christ (2 Thess. ii. i ; cf. 
 Matt. xxiv. 31). There is no reference to a resurrec- 
 tion of the wicked in these two epistles.^ It is to be 
 inferred that after the resurrection the world from 
 
 parusia — that is if, according to the usage of the New Testament, we take the 
 briioi here as "the faithful," and not as "the angels." It is true that in 
 
 2 Thess. i. 7 the angels are spoken of, but purely as agents of the divine judg- 
 ment. That we are to understand i Thess. iii. 13 of men, and not of angels, 
 follows also from i Thess. iv. 14. Hence the resurrection of the faithful 
 dead, according to iii. 13, iv. 14, is coincident with the Advent, since they 
 accompany Christ at His advent, but according to iv. 16 this resurrection is 
 subsequent to the Advent. This vagueness of language need not necessarily 
 imply a corresponding vagueness of thought. 
 
 ^ Indeed, as we shall discover later, there could be no resurrection of the 
 wicked according to St. Paul's views. Hence we cannot regard the statement 
 attributed to St. Paul in Acts xxiv. 15, that "there shall be a resurrection 
 both of the just and of the unjust," as an accurate report. To share in the 
 resurrection, according to the all but universal teaching of the New Testa- 
 ment, is the privilege only of those who are spiritually one with Christ and 
 quickened by the Holy Spirit. Only two passages — ^John v. 28, 29, and Rev. 
 XX. 12, 13 — attest the opposite view. But the latter passage occurs in a 
 Judaistic source of that book, and the former stands in clear contradiction to the 
 entire drift of the fourth Gospel in this respect {see pp. 370, 371). Inall Jewish 
 books which teach a resurrection of the wicked the resurrection is not conceived 
 as a result of spiritual oneness with God, but merely as an eschatological 
 arrangement for the furtherance of divine justice or some other divine end. 
 
THE PAULINE ESCHATOLOGY z^l 
 
 which the righteous have been removed is given chap, xi. 
 over to destruction. After the resurrection follows 
 the blessed consummation of everlasting fellowship 
 with the Lord (i Thess. iv. 17). Owing to the 
 organic connection between Christ and His people, 
 they will be raised even as He (i Thess. iv. 14), 
 and therefore not to an earthly but to a heavenly 
 life, in which they share in the glory of God and of 
 Christ (i Thess. ii. 12; 2 Thess. iL 14), in the 
 completed kingdom of God (i Thess. ii. 12; 2 
 Thess. i. 5). The kingdom is here conceived as in 
 the future. 
 
 Second Period of Development — -i Corinthians 
 
 The second stage in the development of the 
 Pauline eschatology is to be found in the ist Epistle 
 to the Corinthians. In many respects the teaching 
 of this epistle is in harmony with that of the 
 Epistles to the Thessalonians, but it is marked off 
 from them by the omission of all reference to the 
 Antichrist when dealing with the enemies of the 
 Messianic kingdom. Other divergencies will appear 
 in the sequel. We shall now sketch shortly the 
 teaching of this epistle under the following heads : 
 {a) The Parusia and the Final Judgment. (3) The 
 Resurrection, {c) The Consummation of the Blessed. 
 
 {a) The Parusia and Final Judgment. — The Thepamsiain 
 Apostle looks forward to the parusia of Christ ^ S^ti^^'^''' 
 (i Cor. iv. 5) : *' Wherefore judge nothing before the 
 
 1 So also in Phil. iii. 20, 21 : yet he had always the possibility of meeting 
 death before him. This is possibly the case in i Cor. xv. 31, 32. 
 
388 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 It will be 
 preceded by 
 severe trials, 
 
 but of short 
 duration. 
 
 time, until the Lord come, who will both bring to 
 light the hidden things of darkness, and make mani- 
 fest the counsels of the hearts ; and then shall each 
 man have hia praise from God." xi. 26, *' For as 
 often as ye eat this bread, and drink the cup, ye 
 proclaim the Lord's death till he come." xv. 51, 
 52. ** Behold I tell you a mystery : We shall not all 
 sleep, but we shall all be changed, in a moment, in 
 the twinkling of an eye, at the last trump : for the 
 trumpet shall sound, and the dead shall be raised 
 incorruptible, and we shall be changed." xvi. 22. 
 '*If any man loveth not the Lord, let him be 
 Anathema Maranatha." It will be preceded by 
 severe trials^ (vii. 26, 28): '* I think, therefore, that 
 this is good by reason of the present distress, namely 
 that it is good for a man to be as he is. . . . But 
 and if thou marry, thou hast not sinned; and if a 
 virgin marry she hath not sinned. Yet such shall 
 have tribulation in the flesh : and I would spare 
 you." The interval preceding the parusia will be 
 short : hence the faithful should not give themselves 
 up even to the legitimate joys of this life (vii. 29). 
 This second coming will be one which will manifest 
 His glory (i. 7) : **So that ye come behind in no 
 gift ; waiting for the revelation of our Lord Jesus 
 Christ," and likewise bring the world to a close 
 (i, 8) : '* Who shall also confirm you unto the end, 
 that ye be unreproveable in the day of our Lord 
 Jesus Christ" (cf. 2 Cor. i. 13, 14). With the 
 
 ^ These are the nearest approach to the terrible picture of the future 
 troubles in 2 Thess. ii. They represent the travail pains of the Messiah. 
 
THE PAULINE ESCHATOLOGY 389 
 
 parusia is immediately connected the final judg- chap. xi. 
 ment, at which the Judge will be Christ (iv. 4, 5) : xhejiid^ent 
 ** For I know nothing against myself; yet am I not dJaSyu^^^' 
 hereby justified: but he that judgeth me is the ^^j^^P^^- 
 Lord. Wherefore judge nothing before the time, 
 until the Lord come, who will both bring to light 
 the hidden things of darkness, and make manifest 
 the counsels of the hearts ; and then shall each man 
 have his praise from God." ^ That this second 
 coming is conceived as one of judgment is seen also 
 in the designation elsewhere applied to it, i,e, " the 
 day of the Lord Jesus Christ" (i, 8), **the day" 
 (iii. 13), **the day of the Lord" (v. 5). Observe 
 that the judgment is according to works (i Cor. iv. 
 4; iii. 17 ; vi. 9, 10) — that is, when the life is looked 
 at from without and in its final consummation. On 
 the other hand, in the subsequent epistles, perform- 
 ance and reward are treated in their inner organic 
 relation. Wages of sin = death. Whatsoever a man 
 soweth that shall he also reap (Gal. vi. 7). 
 
 From the above facts it follows that the Apostle did 
 not expect the intervention of a temporary Messianic 
 or millennial period between the parusia and the final 
 judgment, as some have inferred from i Cor. xv. 22-24. 
 According to this passage, every power hostile to God 
 in the world is stripped of its influence by the time of 
 the parusia. With the resurrection which ensues 
 
 1 As in the Thessalonians (see above). This doctrine appears also in 
 2 Cor. V. 10, *' the judgment seat of Christ." The judgment is also spoken of 
 as the judgment of God (Rom. xiv. 10) ; "the judgment seat of God." Cf. 
 also Rom. ii. 5, 6, iii. 6, xiv. 12; 2 Cor. vii. i. In Rom. ii. 16 the two 
 views are reconciled : God will judge the world through Jesus Christ. 
 
390 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 taught in i 
 Cor. w. 22-24, 
 
 CHAP. XI. thereupon is involved the destruction of the last 
 enemy, even death (xv. 26). Thus the parusia, accom- 
 panied by the final judgment and the resurrection, 
 marks the end of the present age and the beginning 
 of the new. The angels are to be judged — but their 
 judges are the righteous (i Cor. vi. 3 ; see on Book 
 of Wisdom above, p. 258). Some scholars^ have in- 
 No Millennium deed attempted to interpret i Cor. xv. 22-24 of the 
 Millennium. But this interpretation is untenable ; 
 for in the passage cited the period of Christ's domi- 
 nation precedes the parusia. The character, more- 
 over, of Christ's kingdom therein portrayed is wholly 
 at variance with that of the temporary Messianic 
 kingdom of Apocalyptic and the Millennium of the 
 Apocalypse ; for the Messianic reign is here one of 
 unintermitting strife, whereas in the literature above 
 referred to it is always one of peaceful dominion and 
 blessedness. What the Apostle speaks of here is a 
 Messianic reign of temporary duration from Christ's 
 exaltation to the final judgment. In his later epistles 
 the Apostle conceives this reign as unending. 
 
 {b) The Resurrection, — The resurrection of man is 
 connected organically with that of Christ. As God 
 has raised up Christ, so also He will raise us up 
 (i Cor. vi. 14): **God both raised the Lord and 
 will raise us up through his power " ; cf. 2 Cor. 
 iv. 14). The doctrine of man's resurrection had 
 been denied by certain members of the Church 
 of Corinth, who did not question the resurrection 
 of Christ. To these the Apostle rejoined that 
 
 1 See Schmiedel, Hand-commentar I Corintker, p. 196. 
 
 Resurrection 
 of Christ and 
 that of man 
 organically 
 connected. 
 
THE PA ULINE ESCHA TOLOG Y 39 1 
 
 both were indissolubly united, and stood or chap. xr. 
 fell together. The ground of man's resurrection 
 hope was based on his living fellowship with 
 Christ: **As in Adam all die, so also in Christ as spiritual 
 shall all be made alive" (xv. 22). The relation Adam^^drto 
 manifestly in each case is the same. Now as this ^^^^^^^^^x- 
 relation cannot be a natural and genealogical one, it lo^^wp ^^^^ 
 
 t> o ^ Chnst leads to 
 
 must of necessity be an ethical and spiritual one. Hfe. 
 
 Furthermore, from the position of the words eV tw 
 
 'ASayu, Traz/Te? airoOvrfaKova-tv, the '* in Adam" must be 
 
 connected with **all." Hence it is equivalent "all , 
 
 who are in Adam." Similarly ''all in Christ " = *'all 
 
 who are in Christ." ^ Thus the verse means : " as all 
 
 who are ethically or spiritually in fellowship with 
 
 Adam die, so all who are spiritually in fellowship 
 
 with Christ shall be made alive." This being made 
 
 alive = being spiritually quickened^ (^Q)O7roc€to-0a,t)y 
 
 involves the ** being raised" (cf Rom. viii, ii). 
 
 There can be no resurrection but in Christ. That That only the 
 
 the righteous only are raised we shall be forced to ami'n°o\he 
 
 conclude also from the Apostle's teaching on ^Ae res^rection 
 
 ■■■ ^ *-' follows also 
 
 origin of the resurrection body in xv. 35-49. In from the 
 answer to the question, How are the dead raised? teaching on the 
 the Apostle rejoins: "Thou fool, that which thou bo^dy!^^^ ^°^ 
 sowest is not quickened except it die " (xv. 36). 
 That is, a man's own experience should instruct him 
 herein ; for it overturns the objection that is raised. 
 
 1 For similar constructions, see xv. 18; I Thess. iv. 16; Col. i. 4; 
 Rom. ix. 3. 
 
 2 That this is the meaning of fiooTrotettr^ai appears to follow from its use in 
 XV. 36 : "that which thou sowest is not quickened except it die." Here, as 
 in XV. 22, the fresh inward quickening of life is referred to, not its outer 
 manifestation. 
 
392 ESCBATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. XI. 
 
 I Cor. XV, 
 
 44- 
 
 42- 
 
 Man's life on 
 earth corre- 
 sponds to the 
 hfe of the seed 
 germ under 
 ground. 
 
 The death of the seed consists in the decomposition 
 of its material wrapping. By this process the Hving 
 principle within it is set free, and seizes hold of the 
 matter around it, wherewith it forms for itself a new 
 body!^ In like manner the resurrection is affected 
 through death itself. What appears as the obstacle 
 is actually the means. The spirit of man must 
 free itself from the body which contains it before 
 it fashions for itself an incorruptible body. We are 
 next instructed as to the nature of the resurrection 
 body in xv. 42-44 : " It is sown in corruption, it is 
 raised in incorruption : it is sown in dishonour, it is 
 raised in glory : it is sown in weakness, it is raised 
 in power ; it is sown a psychical body, it is raised 
 a spiritual body." The sowing here cannot mean 
 the mere burying of the body in the grave : such a 
 meaning of aireipeiv is wholly unattested : it is rather 
 the placing the vital principle or spirit in its material 
 environment here on earth, where, even as a seed 
 gathers to itself a body from the matter around it, 
 so the spirit of man fashions for itself a body out of 
 the materials around it. Thus the entire life of 
 man in this world, from its first appearance to the 
 obsequies that attest its departure, corresponds to 
 the sowing of the seed in the earth.^ That this is 
 
 ^ The Pauline way of stating this formation of the new body is noteworthy : 
 •* God gives it a body." We moderns say : The new body is the result of the 
 vital principle in the grain acting on its environment in conformity with God's 
 law in the natural world. St. Paul says in such a case : " God gives it a body" 
 (xv. 38). This is important to remember in connection with 2 Cor. v. 
 
 2 Such is to a large extent the view advocated by Reuss (quoted by 
 Heinrici, i Corinther, p. 529}, that in the first term, " sowing," the Apostle 
 embraces the entire earthly Ufe until the act which determines its close, and 
 in the second term, "raising," the entire future existence from its earliest 
 
THE PAULINE ESCHATOLOGY 393 
 
 the Apostle's meaning will become clearer if we con- chap. xi. 
 sider the opposing members in the various contrasts 
 drawn in xv. 42-44. Thus it is sown *'in corrup- 
 tion " (xv, 42). This description is no doubt appli- 
 cable to the interment of the body ; but still more, 
 it characterises human life as a whole. The phrase characteristics 
 "in corruption" ( = eV <j>0opa) is especially Pauline or psyc^hSa"^ 
 in reference to the present life of man. For this ^°'^^- 
 life is in "the bondage of corruption," SovKeia Trj<; 
 <f>6opd^ (Rom. viii. 21); and the living body is at 
 present undergoing corruption, ha^deiperat (2 Cor. 
 iv. 16). Furthermore, ** flesh and blood," the con- 
 stituents of the present living body, are declared in 
 ver. 50 of the present chapter to be ** corruption " 
 ((f)0opd). This interpretation is, further, supported 
 by the current definition of this life in apocalyptic 
 literature as the sphere of the corruptible. Thus, 
 'according to the Apocalypse of Baruch, the whole 
 present world belongs to this sphere. Even the 
 Messianic kingdom falls within it (xL 3, Ixxiv. 2). 
 All, that is, is doomed to corruption (xxxi. 5). In 
 4 Ezra also this age is spoken of as the age of cor- 
 ruption (iv. II ; see also vii. iii, 113^). 
 
 "In dishonour" denotes the miseries of this 
 earthly life, which we experience in "this body of 
 our humiliation" (Phil. iii. 21). "Weakness" is 
 another fitting description of the body as an agent 
 
 beginning. Heinrici writes : "The two members of the antithesis designate 
 the two conditions of existence, and include a reference to the facts of life 
 and death which are decisive as regards the essence of each." Calvin was 
 practically of the same view : ** Praesentis vitae tempus metaphorice sationi 
 comparat, resurrectionem vero messi." 
 
 1 See the present writer's Apocalypse of Baruch , pp. 40, 41. 
 
394 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. XI. of the spirit — **the spirit is willing but the flesh 
 is weak." In i Cor. ii. 3, 4 ; 2 Cor. xii. 9, 10 we 
 find the same contrast, " weakness " and " power," as 
 here. To apply such a term as ** weakness " to the 
 dead body would be absurd, but such a term rightly 
 describes the inherent weakness of the body, issuing 
 ultimately in death. Finally, this present body is 
 psychical as an organ of the psyche or soul, whereas 
 the risen or spiritual body is an organ of the spirit. 
 Contrasts be- Thus as the psychical body is corruptible^ and clothed 
 
 tween tli6 
 
 psychical and wUfi humiliation and weakness, the pneumatical or 
 bodies^ spiritual body will enjoy incorruptibility, honour, and 
 
 Yet connected pQwer, Hence between the bodies there is no exact 
 
 in that they are . . ,— ,, . r i ' i i 
 
 successive ex- contmuity. i he existence 01 the one depends on 
 same'person- ^ the death of the other. Nevertheless some essential 
 aiity. likeness exists between them. This essential like- 
 
 ness proceeds from the fact that they are succes- 
 sive expressions of the same personality, though in 
 different spheres. It is the same individual vital 
 principle that organises both. From this description 
 of the resurrection body it is obvious that only the 
 righteous can share in the resurrection. 
 
 Further, it follows that, since the faithless lose 
 their psychical body at death, and can never, so 
 long as they are such, possess a spiritual body, they 
 are necessarily conceived as ** naked," that is, dis- 
 embodied beings. 
 When does the We have uow dealt with the characteristics of 
 take'^lace? ^^e riscn body and its relation to the present body. 
 At the parusia, -pj^^ qucstion now arises : When does this resurrec- 
 
 according to ^ 
 
 XV. 51, 52. tion of the body take place ? In conformity with the 
 
THE PAULINE ESCHATOLOGY 395 
 
 universal Jewish tradition, the Apostle makes it to chap. xi. 
 follow on the parusia (xv. 51, 52) : "We shall not all 
 sleep, but we shall all be changed ... at the last 
 trump ; for the trumpet shall sound, and the dead 
 shall be raised incorruptible." But such a time deter- 
 mination, while fully conformable to the mechanical 
 systems of Judaism, fails to establish an organic 
 connection with the doctrine of the risen body stated 
 above. Hence, unless our interpretation of this 
 doctrine is wholly wrong, its entire trend points not on the death 
 to a period externally determined and at some accor^dinVto^^' 
 possibly remote age, but to the hour of departure of of^thrri"eT 
 the individual believer. The analogy of the seed ^°'^y* 
 points in this direction. Seeing that with the cor- 
 ruption of the material husk the vital principle is set 
 free to form a new body or expression of itself, the 
 analogy urged by the Apostle leads to the inference 
 that with the death of the present body the energies 
 of the human spirit are set free to organise from its 
 new environment a spiritual body — a body adapted 
 to that environment. Thus in a certain sense the 
 resurrection of the faithful would follow immediately 
 on death, and not be adjourned to the parusia. Of 
 this variance between his living and growing thought Thus his grow- 
 and his inherited Jewish views the Apostle does not confllSs^ilh 
 seem conscious in i Corinthians. In the 2nd Epistle ^^^^"^^"ted. 
 to the Corinthians we shall find that the Apostle has 
 become conscious of the inherent inconsistencies of 
 his former view, which was the traditional one, and 
 abandoned it in favour of the doctrine of a resurrec- 
 tion of the righteous following immediately on death. 
 
396 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. XI. {c) The Final Consummation, — With the resur- 
 
 rection of the righteous dead, ** each in his own 
 company " (i Cor. xv. 23), and the transfiguration of 
 the righteous living, death is finally overcome (i 
 Kingdom of Cor. XV. 26, 51-54). But, death being the last of all 
 ates'with™ cuemies, the end has come (xv, 24, i. 8), when the 
 end^ofthis 5^j^ ^ju deliver up to God, even the Father, the 
 kingdom which He had ruled since His exaltation. 
 The resurrec- The resurrectiou ^ of the righteous dead will take 
 
 tion synchron- , . - , / \ ry^i 
 
 ises therewith, place m a momeut, at the last trump (xv. 52). 1 hen 
 begins Th^^°" will follow the transfiguration of the righteous living, 
 God^°"^ °^ when the corruptible will put on incorruption and the 
 mortal immortality (xv. 53). Thereupon begins the 
 perfected kingdom of God ^ in a new and glorious 
 world, which has taken the place of the present, 
 which -is already passing away (i Cor. vii. 31). 
 That which is perfect has then come (xiii. 10), and 
 the blessed in immediate communion see God face 
 to face (xiii. 12). 
 
 In this perfected kingdom God has become **all 
 in all " (xv, 28). This statement is limited to the 
 blessed. It does not apply to the powers in xv. 
 25, 28. These have been reduced to unwilling 
 obedience, 
 
 1 Seeing that the resurrection is only possible through living fellowship 
 with Christ, there can be no resurrection of the wicked. 
 
 2 The phrase "kingdom of God" is used in St. Paul to denote the 
 kingdom of the consummation, and so as future (i Cor. vi. 9, 10, xv. 50; 
 Gal. V. 21). In a few cases, however, he applies it to the kingdom as it is 
 at present being realised on earth (i Cor. iv. 20 ; Rom. xiv. 17). Yet even 
 here Weiss argues that the passages refer, not to the kingdom of God in its 
 realisation, but in its essence. In Col. i. 13 the present kingdom is called 
 '* the kingdom of his dear Son." 
 
THE PAULINE ESCHATOLOGY 397 
 
 CHAP. XI. 
 
 Third Period of Development — 2 Corinthians 
 and Romans 
 
 In these epistles we arrive at the third stage in 
 the development of the Pauline eschatology. This This period 
 development will be mainly apparent in the Apostle's Aposue's con-^ 
 conscious change of view as to the time of the of'vreV'artf 
 resurrection, and in his enlarged conceptions as to t^e time of the 
 
 o Jr resurrection 
 
 the universal spread and comprehensiveness of ^^^ ^*^« ^°""- 
 
 r^^ '•>■%' 1 1 TTT111 prehensiveness 
 
 Christ s kmgdom on earth. We shall give the chief of the king- 
 features of the eschatological teaching of these 
 epistles under the following heads : (a) Universal 
 Spread of Christ's kingdom on earth ; {b) The 
 Parusia and Judgment ; {c) The Resurrection — 
 the immediate sequel of departure from this life. 
 
 {a) Universal Spread of Christ's Kingdom on 
 Earth, — In the interval between the writing of the 
 Epistles to the Thessalonians and that of the Romans 
 we are obliged to assume an essential change in the 
 Apostle's views of the future. In the earlier epistles, 
 as we have seen, the Apostle, under the influence of 
 Jewish inherited beliefs, looked forward to a great 
 apostasy and the revelation of the man of sin as the 
 immediate precursor of the parusia. Thus the 
 history of the world was to close in the culmination 
 of evil and the final impenitence of the bulk of 
 mankind. In Rom. xi., on the other hand, the The history of 
 Apostle proclaims the inner and progressive trans- cu^n^nattin 
 formation of mankind through the Gospel, culminat- o^f aumlnk^d 
 ing in the conversion of the entire Gentile and 
 
398 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 The judgment 
 follows on the 
 parusia. 
 
 Judgment 
 according to 
 works, for 
 these deter- 
 mine the real 
 value of the 
 faith. 
 
 Jewish worlds as the immediate prelude of the 
 advent of Christ. The present generation of un- 
 believing Jews were indeed as ** vessels of wrath" 
 (ix. 22) hastening to destruction. But this tempo- 
 rary rejection of the Jews has become the cause of 
 the fulness of the Gentiles, and when the Gentile 
 world has entered Christ's kingdom then ''all Israel 
 shall be saved" (xi. 25). God has thus shaped the 
 history of both Jew and Gentile **in order that he 
 might have mercy upon all " (Rom. xi. 32). 
 
 {U) Parusia and Judgment. — The parusia is ** the 
 day of our Lord Jesus Christ" (2 Cor. i. 14; cf. 
 Phil. i. 6, 10 ; ii. 16) ; it is close at hand (Rom. xiii. 
 II, 12 ^). At this judgment the Judge will be Christ 
 (2 Cor. V. 10) — hkewise God (Rom, xiv, 10; see 
 note^ p. 389). All men must appear before the judg- 
 ment seat (Rom. xiv. 10), and each render an account 
 of himself to God (xiv. 12). The judgment will 
 proceed according to works (Rom. ii. 6) ; for, if 
 faith is operative, it can only be in the sphere of 
 works. Moreover, the purpose of the mission of 
 Christ is "that the righteous demands of the law 
 might be fulfilled in us who walk not after the flesh 
 but after the spirit (Rom. viii. 4). We are what we 
 make ourselves. Destiny is related to character as 
 harvest to seed-time (Gal. vi. 7, 8). Every man 
 bears in his character his own reward and his own 
 punishment (2 Cor. v. 10). Hence, since character 
 is the creation of will, arises the all-importance of 
 the principle that rules the will — whether faith or 
 
 ^ The hope of surviving is found also in Phil. iii. 21. 
 
THE PAULINE ESCHATOLOGY 399 
 
 unbelief, life to God or life to ourselves. Retribu- chap. xi. 
 tion present and future follows in the line of a man^s 
 works (2 Cor. xi. 15^). 
 
 The idea of the final judgment is not really at No conflict 
 variance with the doctrine of the resurrection follow- docTrineof an 
 ing immediately after death, as certain scholars ^Tsui^ec^ion 
 allege. It is a perfectly philosophical idea. It ^nhe^fi^nai^""^ 
 teaches that at the consummation of the universe judgment, 
 all rational beings will receive their due unto the 
 full. We have above shown that according to the 
 doctrine of the kingdom the individual member 
 cannot reach his consummation apart from the 
 consummation of the blessedness of all. Hence, 
 though the righteous attain to the resurrection 
 immediately after death, they have therein only 
 partially achieved their consummation, which will be 
 realised finally when alike the community and the 
 individual have reached their perfectionment. 
 
 {c) The Resurrection — the imfnediate sequel of 
 departure from this life. — In the earlier epistles 
 we have sought to show that certain incon- 
 sistencies in regard to the time of the resur- 
 rection are discoverable, and that, although the 
 Apostle formally adjourns this event to the 
 parusia, in accordance with Jewish eschatology, his 
 teaching with regard to the resurrection body is 
 implicitly at variance with it. During these earlier 
 years the Apostle was still unconscious that he had 
 
 1 The retributive character of the judgment is expressed in still sharper 
 terms in the later epistles. Thus : "he that doeth wrong shall receive again 
 the wrong that he hath done " (Col. iii. 25) ; " whatsoever good thing each 
 one doeth, the same shall he receive from the Lord " (Eph. vi. 8). 
 
400 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. XI. 
 
 New form of 
 doctrine taught 
 in 2 Cor. V. 
 1-5- 
 
 Resurrection 
 of righteous 
 follows at 
 death. 
 
 in spirit broken with the traditional belief. In the 
 interval, however, that elapsed between the first and 
 second epistles, he came to a conscious breach with 
 the older view, and henceforth taught the resurrec- 
 tion to be the immediate sequel of departure from 
 this life. The main evidence for this later doctrine 
 of the Apostle is found in 2 Cor. v. 1-8 : *' We know 
 that if the earthly house of our tabernacle be dis- 
 solved, we have a building from God, a house not 
 made with hands, eternal, in the heavens. 2. For 
 verily in this we groan, longing to be clothed upon 
 with our habitation which is from heaven : 3. If so 
 be that we shall be found also clothed, not naked, 
 4. For indeed we that are in this tabernacle do 
 groan, being burdened ; not that we would be un- 
 clothed, but that we would be clothed upon, that 
 that which is mortal may be swallowed up of life. . . . 
 6. Knowing that whilst we are at home in the body, 
 we are absent from the Lord. ... 8. We are willing 
 rather to be absent from the body, and to be at 
 home with the Lord." In ver. 4 the Apostle de- 
 clares his wish to live to the parusia in order to 
 escape the dissolution of the earthly body and be 
 transformed alive. But in other verses he faces the 
 possibility of death, and comforts himself and his 
 readers with the prospect before them. When we 
 die — observe the determination of the point of time 
 — we have (exofiev), we come into possession of, an 
 immortal body in heaven. That this is a real and 
 not an zdeal possession to be realised at the parusia 
 follows from the date assigned for our becoming 
 
THE PAULINE ESCHATOLOGY 401 
 
 possessed of it. Ideally, the faithful receive their chap. xi. 
 immortal bodies from the time of their election/ and 
 actually, as our text declares, at death.^ Now this 
 idea of the future body being a divine gift in no v^ay 
 contradicts the teaching in i Cor. xv. 35-49, but 
 forms its complement and completion. We have 
 already seen (p. 392, note i) that whereas we should 
 describe the new embodiment of the vital principle The new body 
 in the grain as the result of the action of this principle stkndpoinrthe 
 on its environment, in accordance with divine law, action °oVthe 
 the Apostle describes this process and result wholly individual 
 
 ■^ ^ ^ ^ •' spirit ; from 
 
 m the words **God gives it a body" (i Cor. xv. another, it is a 
 38). Thus, regarded from one standpoint, the new 
 body is the result of a secret vital process ; from 
 another, it is a divine gift. Similarly with regard to 
 the glorified body. In one aspect it is the result of 
 the action of the human spirit when quickened by 
 God, in another it is a divine gift. This twofold Analogous 
 way of regarding one and the same fact may be gardlngetemai 
 exemplified from Gal. vi. 8 and Rom, vi. 23. ^^^^■ 
 According to the former passage, eternal life is the 
 harvest of a man's sowing to the Spirit ; but according 
 to the latter, it is the gift of God. 
 
 Thus as I Cor. xv. 35-49 implied that the 
 resurrection followed immediately on the death of 
 the faithful, so in 2 Cor. v. 1-8 we have this fact 
 stated categorically. 
 
 1 Rom. viii. 29 : "whom he foreknew, he also pre-ordained to be con- 
 formed to the image of his Son." 
 
 2 St. Paul's doctrine ** of the Spirit " {rh Trvev/Jia) must have contributed in 
 some degree to this change of view ; for according to St. Paul's psychology 
 the irtfevfjia is the real bearer of the personality as opposed to the soul. 
 
 26 
 
402 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. XI. The views of the Apostle having thus changed 
 
 ^ in this respect, we should naturally expect to find 
 
 Further signs further evidencc of this change in his references to 
 
 ofthis^chan^e ^^^ faithful at the parusia. And such surely we 
 find in Rom, viii. 19 : ''The earnest longing of the 
 
 Theresurrec- creation waiteth for the revelation of the sons of 
 
 righteouslt God." Just as at His second coming there will be 
 
 longerTpL" ^ revdation of Christ (i Cor. i. 7 ; 2 Thess. i. 7), 
 
 of, but their ^1^^^ ig 3^ manifestation of the Sflory He already 
 
 revelation. ^ ^ . , , 
 
 possesses, so likewise there will be a manifestation 
 of the glory already possessed by the faithful. Thus 
 the Apostle no longer speaks of a resurrection of the 
 faithful to glory at the parusia,^ but a manifestation 
 of the glory they already possessed. Glory (Sofa) is 
 to be the clothing of the faithful. This manifesta- 
 tion of Christ and His people at His parusia are 
 expressly connected in Col. iii. 4 : " When Christ who 
 is our life shall be revealed, then shall ye also be 
 revealed with him in glory." 
 The spiritual It is, further, noteworthy that, though the Apostle 
 
 resurrection of- iri • rir-iri 
 
 the faithful does not speak 01 the resurrection 01 the laithiul at 
 
 dwelt upon. ^^ parusia, but rather of a revelation of the glory 
 
 already possessed by them, he speaks in these later 
 
 epistles of the spiritual resurrection of the faithful, 
 
 an idea, indeed, which is not absent from the earlier. 
 
 1 In Rom. viii. 1 1 it is not a quickening of the dead body that is spoken 
 of, but of the body which is subject to death (rd Qvryrh o-cijuara), but not 
 actually dead. In the latter case we should have rd ce/cpA a-dbfiara. Hence 
 we interpret the words of those who shall be alive at the coming of Christ. 
 The parusia is close at hand (Rom. xiii. ii, 12). By the quickening of the 
 "mortal body" (Rom, viii. ii) it becomes immortal. Compare I Cor. xv. 
 54 ; " when this mortal shall have put on immortality." The hope of being 
 alive at the parusia had not deserted St. Paul when he wrote the Philippians 
 (see iii. 20), 
 
THE PAULINE ESCHATOLOGY 403 
 
 Thus they are already ** aHve from the dead " (Rom. chap. xi. 
 vi. 13), already "raised with Christ through faith" 
 (Col. ii. 12, iii. i); yea, '* quickened together and 
 raised up," and "made to sit with him in heavenly 
 places" (Eph. ii. 6). 
 
 Fourth Period of Development — Philippians^ 
 Colossians, Ephesians 
 
 In these epistles we have the final stage in the 
 development of the Pauline eschatology, which deals 
 with the cosmic significance of Christ. In the 
 earlier epistles, while the creation of the world was 
 effected through the Son (i Cor. viii. 6), its consum- 
 mation was to be realised in the Father, when the 
 Son had resigned His mediatorial kingdom to the 
 Father (i Cor. xv. 24-28). But in these epistles Christ not only 
 
 ^ • ^ c^ \ . - 1 the creative 
 
 not only is the bon the creative agent in the agent of the 
 universe— '* in him were all things created" (Col. aitltfgoaL 
 i, 17) — not only is He the principle of cohesion 
 and unity whereby it is a cosmos and not a chaos 
 — "in him all things hold together," awkaT^Kev 
 (Col. i. 17) — but He is also the end to which they 
 move — "all things were created . . . unto him" 
 €i9 avrov (Col. i. 16). He is thus at once the starting- 
 point and the goal of the universe, its creative prin- 
 ciple and its final cause, and as such all things 
 are to be summed up in Him as their centre 
 (Eph. i. lo). 
 
 From the above Christology follow two conclu- 
 sions : {a) the everlasting duration of the kingdom 
 
404 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. XI. of Christ ; (3) the extension of Christ's redemption 
 to the world of spiritual beings. 
 Hence {a) {o) Tkc cverlasting duration of the kingdom of 
 
 domVno^^ ChHst, — Whereas God alone is "all in all "in the 
 
 porary/but ^^^1 consummation, according to i Cor. xv. 28, in 
 
 same'Jfiih^the ^^ prcscHt cpistles ChHst too is conceived as *'all 
 
 eternal king- Jn all" (Eph. i. 2% \ Col. iii. 1 1), and so the gfoal of 
 
 doraofGod; . . . 
 
 the universe is no longer the completed kingdom of 
 God, in which God is '*all in all " in contrast to the 
 mediatorial kingdom of Christ (i Cor. xv. 24-28), 
 but the end towards which the entire universe is 
 advancing is the "kingdom of Christ and God" 
 
 (Eph. V. 5^). 
 (<5) and Christ's (^) Tkc cxtension of Christ's redemption to the 
 extend^d^from world of Spiritual beings, — Since all things, in 
 heaven and earth, visible and invisible, whether 
 thrones or dominions or principalities or powers, 
 were created by Christ (Col. i. 16), and, according 
 to the same passage, were to find their consum- 
 mation in Him (eKna-Tat ek avTov)^ they must 
 therefore come within the sphere of His mediatorial 
 activity; they must ultimately be summed up in 
 
 Christ as their Head, avaKe^aXatcoaaarOai Ta irdvra iv 
 
 Tft) XptarS (Eph. i. 10). Hence, since in the world 
 of spiritual beings some have sinned or apostatised, 
 they too must share in the Atonement of the Cross 
 of Christ, and so obtain reconciliation^ (Col. i. 19, 20): 
 
 ^ In 2 Tim. iv. i this kingdom is called the kingdom of Jesus Christ. It 
 is a kingdom, not of this worid but a heavenly one (2 Tim. iv. 18}, The 
 final judgment is referred to as "that day" (2 Tim. i. 12, 18; iv. 8), or 
 generally as "judgment" (i Tim. v. 24). Christ is Judge (2 Tim. iv. i, 8). 
 
 2 It is absurd to say that it is the good angels who are spoken of here. 
 
 mankind to 
 the spiritual 
 world. 
 
THE PAULINE ESCHATOLOGY 405 
 
 ** For it was the good pleasure (of the Father) that ghap. xi. 
 
 in him should all tlie fulness dwell ; and through 
 
 him to reconcile all things unto himself, having 
 
 made peace through the blood of his cross ; through 
 
 him (I say), whether things upon the earth or things in 
 
 the heavens" ; these having been reconciled, should 
 
 join in the universal worship of the Son (Phil, ii. 10). 
 
 How successful this ministry of reconciliation in the 
 
 spiritual world is, the Apostle does not inform us, 
 
 nor yet whether it will embrace this entire world, 
 
 i,e, the angels of Satan. Since, however, all things since aii things 
 
 must be reconciled and summed up in Christ, there ^mmed^upin^ 
 
 can be no room finally in the universe for a wicked an crekted^^'^ 
 
 being:, whether human or ansrelic. Thus the Pauline personal beings 
 
 &' o must be re- 
 
 eschatoloe^y points^ obviously, in its ultimate issues, deemed or the 
 
 1 r 1 1 • r 11 finally impeni- 
 
 either to the final redemption of all created personal tent destroyed 
 beings^ or — and this seems the true alternative — to jecXe and ' 
 the destruction of the finally impenitent. But this Judgment!^"* 
 destruction would not be of the nature of an ex- 
 ternal punishment, but subjective and self-executed. 
 
 The text can only refer to rebellious or fallen angels ; for the word "recon- 
 ciliation" necessarily presupposes previous enmity (see Eph. ii. 16), and no 
 less so does the phrase in the text, "having made peace through the blood of 
 the cross." (See Sanday on Rom. viii. 38,) On St. Paul's belief in the seven 
 heavens and the presence of evil in them, see MorfiU and Charles's Book of 
 the Secrets of Enochs pp. xl.-xlii. 
 
 ^ The Apostle appears, in these later epistles no less than in the former, 
 not to have arrived at final and consistent views on these questions. For 
 though he speaks of the reconciliation of hostile spirits, he does not seem to 
 have included Satan's angels amongst them, but his leading principles 
 involve this. 
 
 2 It is generally agreed that the doctrine of Christ's preaching to the 
 spirits in Sheol is referred to in Eph. iv. 9, 10. 
 
4o6 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. XI, 
 
 Development of Special Conceptions 
 
 Soul and Spirit, — We shall treat these con- 
 ceptions under two heads : {a) as found in the 
 Gospels and the other books of the New Testament 
 save the Pauline Epistles ; {b) as found in the 
 Pauline Epistles. 
 
 {a) The meaning attached to these conceptions 
 by all the books of the New Testament, save the 
 Pauline Epistles, is in the main that which prevailed 
 among the people. 
 Thesoui=the The SouL — The soul is conceived as the bearer 
 
 sensuous life, of the bodily-sensuous life, and also of the emotions 
 and of the higher spiritual life. As the former, it 
 is sustained by food (Matt. vi. 25), is capable of 
 sensuous impressions (Mark xiv. 34). If the blood 
 is shed the soul departs. Thus lK'^v')(eiv = to 
 soui=person. die (Acts V. 5, lo ; xii. 23). Further, the soul is 
 identified with the personality, as in the Old 
 Testament. Thus so many souls = so many per- 
 sons (Acts ii. 41, vii. 14, xxvii. 37 ;. i Peter iii. 20). 
 But in the New Testament, just as in the Judaism 
 of that and the preceding generations, the soul 
 Thesoui=the is the Seat of the emotions and of the higher 
 emotions, Spiritual life also. Thus it is the subject of fear 
 (Acts ii. 43), of grief (Matt. xxvi. 38 ; Mark xiv. 
 34; Luke ii. 35), of trouble (John xii. 27), of rest 
 (Matt. xi. 29), of pleasure (Matt. xii. 18; Heb. x. 
 38), of love (Matt. xxii. 37), of hate (Acts xiv. 2). 
 In a spiritual sense it can become stronger (Acts 
 
SOUL AND SPIRIT 407 
 
 xiv. 22) or weaker (Heb. xii. 3) ; it can be sub- chap. xi. 
 verted by heresy (Acts xv. 24), or entrapped into and of the 
 sensuality (i Peter ii. 11 ; 2 Peter ii, 14). Itisprob- ^^'''"'^ 
 ably from this conception of the soul that the 
 adjective 'yfrvxcKo^ derives its bad signification in 
 James iii. 1 5 ; Jude 1 9). Again, the soul, in the higher 
 conception of the word, can be cleansed ( I Peter i. 22), 
 and preserved from evil ( i Peter iv. 1 9 ; Heb. xiii. 1 7). 
 By the sacrifice of its lower and sensual life it can The bearer of 
 
 the entire 
 
 attain to the higher and eternal life (Matt, x, 39, spiritual per- 
 xvi. 25 ( = Mark viii. 35 = Luke ix. 24), John xii. 25). anTato ^^°'^ 
 Thus it is capable of eternal salvation (Heb. x. 39 ; ^^^^1); identical 
 James i. 21, v. 20 ; i Peter i. 9, ii. 1 1, 25 ; Luke xxi. with the spirit. 
 19). Surviving death (Matt. x. 28), it passes first 
 to an intermediate abode of the departed. This 
 abode is in either the blessed department of Hades 
 (Acts ii. 27), called Abraham's bosom (Luke xvi. 23), 
 or in the unblest part of Hades (Luke xvi. 23). 
 According to Rev. vi. 9, the souls of martyrs are 
 beneath the altar in heaven. In the next life the 
 departed are designated ** souls" (Rev. vi. 9, xx. 4). 
 As the bearer of the entire spiritual personality after 
 death, the soul is in this sense identical with the 
 spirit^ as we shall see from the next section. 
 
 The Spirit. — In the case of the spirit, as in that 
 of the soul, we find — with possibly two or three 
 exceptions — no fresh developments, but only the 
 acknowledged and popular conceptions of Judaism. 
 The spirit is the higher side of the soul. Like the 
 soul, it is the subject of grief (Mark viii. 12), of Thespirit= 
 trouble (John xiii. 21), of joy (Luke i. 47, x. 21), of eJoti'ons^ 
 
4o8 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP, XI. indignation (John xi. 33; Acts xvii. 16), of zeal (Acts 
 xviii. 25), of meekness (i Peter iii. 4). It is the seat 
 also of volition, of purpose and volition (Acts xix. 21, xx. 22). 
 Again, as with the soul, if the spirit departs, death 
 ensues (Matt, xxvii. 50 ; Luke xxiii. 46; Acts vii. 59); 
 the body apart from it is dead (James ii. 26) ; but if 
 it returns, so does life (Luke viii, 55). Thus iiarvkcv 
 (Mark xv. 37, 39 ; Luke xxiii. 46) is synonymous 
 with iic->^v')(etv. 
 spirit=bearer But the Spirit, like the soul, exists independently 
 
 ^terdeath.' ^ after death as the bearer of the personality. Though 
 the same or similar diction is found in the Old 
 Testament and in a few of the later books, the idea 
 conveyed in either case is absolutely different. 
 The New Testament usage is that of the current 
 Judaism.-^ In the next life the departed are called 
 '* spirits" (i Peter iii, 19, iv. 6 ; Heb. xii. 23), as else- 
 where they are called "souls." Thus in this respect 
 Spirit and soul the terms ''sour' and ''spirit'' are identical, 
 inTuToo^^f But the spirit is the seat also of the higher 
 mentla^ve^" Spiritual life. Man is described as a synthesis of 
 Pauline ^^ spirit, SO conceived, and of the flesh (Mark xiv. 
 
 38). Since in Matt. x. 28 he is regarded as a 
 synthesis of the soul and body, it is clear that here 
 also spirit and soul are interchangeable terms. 
 Growth in the spirit is set over against growth in 
 the body (Luke i. 80, ii. 40). The spirit which God 
 has placed in man longeth for man's salvation 
 
 ^ According to Gen. ii., iii., the spirit is a breath of lite from God, which 
 on death returns to God, the Fount of Life (Eccl. xii. 7). As such it has no 
 individual or personal existence. In Rev. xi. 11, xiii. 15 the diction of 
 Gen. ii., iii. is reproduced. 
 
SOUL AND SPIRIT 409 
 
 (James iv. 5). It discerneth that which is not mani- chap. xi. 
 fest to the senses (Mark ii. 8). In these cases we 
 have approaches to the Pauline use. 
 
 There is no trichotomy in the New Testament No trichotomy 
 outside the Pauline Epistles. The only doubtful 
 passage is Heb. iv. 12. 
 
 In the Pauline Epistles St. Paul breaks with the Pauline use of 
 entire traditional use of the terms ''soul" and "body," and "spirit" 
 and gives them a new connotation, and yet not fhfi[''(^f'^resT^ 
 wholly new, as we shall discover presently. His ^^^1^^^'^" 
 views take their origin in a fresh study of Gen. ii., iii., 
 and his doctrines of the soul and spirit are developed 
 more or less directly from the psychology of these 
 chapters. His doctrine of the soul may be said to 
 be directly founded on Gen. ii., iii., that of the spirit 
 indirectly. Now first as to the soul, we discover Doctrine of 
 that the teaching has been adopted almost without Gen. ii., iii. 
 change. He appeals to Gen. ii. 7 as the foundation 
 of his argument on the nature of the soulish body 
 in I Cor. xv. 45. According to Gen. ii., iii., the soul soui— isa 
 
 , T I r • rill function of the 
 
 IS regarded as the supreme function 01 the body body, and 
 quickened by the spirit.^ So conceived it naturally p^^^^^^^^^^*- 
 perishes on the withdrawal of the latter. It has, 
 therefore, no existence in the next life. And such, in 
 fact, appears to be the view of the Apostle. The soul, 
 he holds, is the vital principle of the flesh (o-dp^). Hence 
 the epithets "fleshly" and *' soulish" {a-apKiico^ and 
 >/rv;^AA:o9) over against "spiritual" (Tn/ey/iart/co?) are taken 
 
 1 As the supreme function of the body it would, logically conceived, 
 embrace all the intellectual powers, like the ^xixn of the Greek philosophers. 
 But St. Paul does not so accept it. To him it is essentially the transitory 
 element in man. 
 
4IO ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. XI. to be synonymous (i Cor. xv. 44, 46). The soulish 
 or natural man {^v')(iko^ dvdpcoiro';) is incapable of 
 receiving the things of the spirit. The soul is never 
 conceived as the bearer of a higher spiritual life by 
 St. Paul. Further, he never speaks, as almost all 
 the other writers of the New Testament do, of the 
 salvation of the soul ssn^ in one instance in his first 
 epistle (i Thess. v. 23), which scholars are agreed 
 in regarding only as a popular statement, and not 
 as an expression of the Apostle's own psychology. 
 The spirit— It is true, indeed, that the all but universal usage 
 
 not the soul — . - i • n • i 
 
 is to be saved. IS to connect the term "salvation not with anyone 
 part of man, but with man in his essence. In one 
 passage, however, he speaks of the saving of the 
 spirit (i Cor. v. 5), no doubt as forming the essential 
 element in man. Now in such a passage the 
 Apostle could not have spoken of the saving of the 
 soul ; for though according to the current view he 
 describes man as a synthesis of "spirit and flesh" 
 (Col. ii. 5) and "spirit and body" (i Cor. v. 3), he 
 never uses the still more popular expression "soul 
 and body." Again, that according to St. Paul the 
 soul belongs wholly to the sphere of this life follows 
 also from his teaching on the soulish body and the 
 spiritual body. The whole after-life of the faithful 
 belongs to the spiritual sphere. They are spirits 
 clothed in spiritual bodies. 
 
 The existence of the soul appears, therefore, to 
 be confined to this life. The soul is the bearer of 
 the bodily life in the Pauline epistles as in the rest of 
 the New Testament (cf. Rom. xvi. 4; 2 Cor. xii. 
 
THE SPIRIT 411 
 
 15 ; Phil. ii. 30). It is menaced when a man's life chap. xi. 
 is sought (Rom. xi. 3). It is the bearer of the per- 
 sonality in a general sense (Rom. xiii. i, ii. 9). 
 
 The Pauline doctrine of the spirit is beset with Doctrine of 
 difficulties. Since, however, we know that the fr^om <Si.%.. 
 Apostle had Gen. ii., iii. continually in his thoughts, eve7'"onh'e°"'" 
 it will be best to start from the doctrine of the ^""^^" spirit 
 
 as such, but of 
 
 spirit in these chapters in our attempt to learn the theHoiySpint 
 
 T-.,. - . T._ - r^ 1 •• infused into the 
 
 raulme doctrme. Now m Gen. 11., ni. the spirit faithful. 
 which quickens the material body is the breath of 
 God. Thereby all physical life is derived from God. 
 Similarly St. Paul teaches that all spiritual life is 
 likewise sprung immediately from God — in each 
 case a new creation — a spiritual one (2 Cor. v. 17; 
 Gal. vi. 15), as opposed to the soulish or psychical 
 creation in Gen. ii. 7 (i Cor. xv. 45). 
 
 This new creation is due to the entrance of God's 
 Spirit into man, which henceforth becomes a divine 
 Immanent principle within man, dwelling in him 
 (i Cor. iii. 16 ; Rom. viii. 9, 11), and making thereby 
 the individual man a temple of God (i Cor. iii. 
 16, 17). In these passages, as well as Rom. viii. 
 14 ; I Cor. vi. 1 1, vii. 40, xii. 3, the spirit is regarded 
 as Gods Spirit dwelling in and influencing the 
 faithful, and is not identified with the human spirit. 
 The presence of the Spirit is essential to man's 
 spiritual life, just as the ** breath of life" is to the 
 psychical existence. But since this Spirit may 
 finally withdraw from man if he is unfaithful, and 
 since the unfaithful man survives death, we have 
 still to inquire wherein consists the immaterial part 
 
412 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. XI. of man. It cannot be in the soul, as we have seen 
 above. 
 
 Thus far the analogy of the spiritual creation to 
 the psychical in Gen. ii. 7 is perfect, but does not 
 Part of the admit of further development. Gen. ii., iii. has 
 choiogy drawn helped the Apostle to formulate the doctrine of the 
 ti^SrTaid'part Spiritual creation of man by the infusion and in- 
 ['t°^jud1ism dwelling of the Holy Spirit, but, if he would set 
 forth the complex internal nature of man, he must 
 perforce resort to popular Palestinean Judaism, or 
 else to Hellenistic, for his conceptions and termino- 
 logy. In actual fact he has recourse to both. The 
 conceptions and terminology in question deal with 
 (i) the higher nature of man as an intellectual and 
 moral being, and (2) the immaterial personality of 
 man as surviving death. For the former the 
 Apostle has recourse to the world of Hellenistic 
 Highernature Judaism. Hence he borrows the phrase ''the inner 
 expressed man " (6 e(j(£i avQponro^. This phrase goes back to 
 HeTiS° Plato, Rep. ix. 589 A (o kvrh^ dv0pa>^os:), and appears 
 Judaism as J^ various forms in Philo : dv6pco7ro<i iv avOpcoTroy 
 
 " the inner ' it 
 
 man" and the (Mangey, p. 533) and dv6p(oiro<; o iv eKaa-Ttp r)fimv Tt9 
 
 av €17] ttXtjv 6 vov<i {De Agric, § 2). Its equivalent 
 is found in i Peter iii. 4 (6 KpvirTo^ ttJ? Kaphlm 
 dvdpa>TTos:). The Pauline phrase has no reference to 
 man as created anew or otherwise, but denotes him 
 simply as an intellectual and moral personality. 
 From the same source St. Paul adopts the term 
 *'mind" (vov<i), which belongs to "the inner man" 
 and signifies the higher naittre of man as man. In 
 this sense the Apostle employs also the term 
 
THE SPIRIT 413 
 
 XI. 
 
 '* spirit,'* after a current usage of Palestinean chap. 
 Judaism. Accordingly, we find the ordinary syn- as "the spirit- 
 thesis of *' spirit and body" (i Cor. v. 3) and of paiestinean 
 "spirit and flesh" (Col. ii. 5), just as in Rom. vii. J^^^"'- 
 25 the synthesis of ** mind " and ** flesh" is pre- 
 supposed. In this sense also St. Paul writes : *' His in this sense 
 spirit hath been refreshed by you all " (2 Cor. vii. 13), ©r "\^ru" 
 and again in i Cor. ii. ii : '* Who among men knoweth refreshment. 
 the thinsfs of a man save the spirit of the man, which knowledge ; 
 
 o ^ ' can suffer, be- 
 
 is in him ? " Since this spirit is human and finite, it comerepro- 
 is capable of suffering. Hence we find in 2 Cor. defiled. 
 ii. 13, "I had no relief for my spirit" {pvic e(T')(Tf)Ka 
 dv7}(Ttv Tft) TTvevfiaTi fiov)y just as elsewhere in vii. 5, 
 
 "Our flesh had no relief" {ovhe^Lav ea^Vfc^P dvea-cv rj 
 
 But the higher side of man's nature, whether we 
 term it "mind"^ or "spirit," may fall under the 
 power of the "flesh." Thus "the mind" can become 
 vain (Eph. iv. 17) or "corrupt" (Rom. i. 28), or the 
 slave of the flesh (Col. ii. 18), and "the spirit" can 
 become defiled (^jidKva-^ov . . . irvevfiaros:), 2 Cor. 
 vii. I. 
 
 (2) Next in order to denote man as an immaterial The human 
 personality surviving death the Apostle is obliged whTch'survives 
 to have recourse to Palestinean psychology. In pres^erbythe 
 this sense he adopts the term "spirit," as we see ^^^"^ "^p^"^" 
 in I Cor. v. 5, where he directs the Corinthian 
 Church to deliver the incestuous person "unto 
 
 1 By the mind the natural man can know God through creation (Rom. 
 i. 20), and feels the obligation of obedience to His will (Rom. vii. 25), but 
 without divine renewal cannot gain the mastery over the flesh. 
 
414 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. XI. Satan for the destruction of the flesh, that the spirit 
 may be saved in the day of the Lord Jesus." 
 Third mean- (3) We have Only to notice one more sense of 
 
 "spirit"— the term *' spirit" as employed by St. Paul. In 
 Pauiinf- the two preceding uses he has simply followed the 
 forXine com- psychology of the time. But this third sense of the 
 munion created word is distinctly his own. 
 
 anew by God. 
 
 The spirit so conceived is that part of mans 
 irnvtaterial nature which is capable of direct com- 
 munion with the Spirit (Rom. viii. i6), but not this 
 faculty as it exists by itself ^ but as it is recreated by 
 God, In this sense the spirit is no longer synony- 
 mous with the mind, but is the suzerain of the latter. 
 Unless the mind is obedient to the spirit so con- 
 ceived, it becomes corrupt (see above). The 
 The spirit in difference of the mind and of the spirit in this 
 
 this sense to be ^i-j -i i^^* r^ • ./t-> 
 
 distinguished third sense is brought out in i Cor. xiv. 14, 15 : '*For 
 from the mind. j|- j p^.^^ j^^ ^ tongue, my Spirit prayeth, but my 
 
 mind is unfruitful. What is it then ? I will pray 
 with the spirit, and I will pray with the mind also.*' 
 The mind still exists in the spiritual man as he 
 deals with matters of human judgment. 
 
 The renewed spirit is "our spirit," and lives in 
 
 communion with the Spirit of God (Rom. viii. 16). 
 
 By virtue of it man becomes spiritual (i Cor. ii. 15, 
 
 iii, i). 
 
 Points of Since the psychology of Paul has certain external 
 
 d^^gJ^ement" resemblances to that of Philo, we shall notice some 
 
 PaXTand of the points wherein they agree and wherein they 
 
 Phiionicpsy. differ. Philo presents the usual Hellenistic dualism 
 
 cnologies. ^ 
 
 of soul (;;^v%r]y called also vov^ and body (acbfjua and 
 
THE SPIRIT, PARADISE 41 5 
 
 cra/j^), Man's nature has two sides. Each has chap. xi. 
 its own distinct faculty — an animal soul and a 
 rational soul. The animal soul has its seat in the 
 blood, and, subsequently to its first creation, is due 
 to human generation, but the rational soul comes 
 direct from God to all men as the irvev^a [Quod 
 detertuSy §§ 22-24). The rational soul (called vom 
 or Scdvota, ^{rvx;^ or irvevfjua) possesses intellect and 
 freedom of will, and can fulfil the law, if it will. 
 St. Paul differs herein from Philo in teaching that 
 man is incapable of fulfilling the divine law since, 
 though he has z/ouy, he has not the divinely renewed 
 m-vevfjba. The enmity of the mind and of the flesh 
 comes to consciousness at the age of seven accord- 
 ing to Philo, but according to St. Paul, as soon as 
 we come to the knowledge of law. 
 
 Since the body is only the tomb of the soul 
 according to Philo, it — no less than the flesh — is 
 the foe of the soul. But from this foe the soul 
 of the righteous is delivered by death. According 
 to the Apostle, on the other hand, though the flesh 
 is in antagonism with the spirit, there is no such 
 antagonism between the body and the spirit. 
 Nay, rather the body is indispensable to the com- 
 pleted well-being of the latter. A bodiless human 
 spirit is *' naked," is in a state of weakness and 
 deprivation. 
 
 Places of Abode of the Departed 
 
 Paradise. — (i.) The abode of the blessed in Hades Paradise (i.) 
 (Luke xxiii. 43 ; Acts ii. 31). (ii.) A division of the ^^^ 
 
41 6 ESCHATOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 CHAP. XI. third heaven, being likewise an intermediate abode 
 abode, (iii.) of the HP^hteous (2 Cor. xii. 4). (iii.) Apparently 
 
 a final abode. r i i ^ , r u • i. /o \. \ ^^ ^ 
 
 a nnal abode or the righteous (Kev. n. 7). 
 Hades=inter- Hades, — (i.) Intermediate abode of the departed, 
 ™Oofde^°^ with two divisions for the righteous ( = Abraham's 
 wtcked iniy,°^ bosom) and the wicked respectively (Luke xvi. 23). 
 (iii.) a place of /J J •) Intermediate abode of the wicked only (?) 
 
 further proba- ^ ' ^ J \ J 
 
 tion. (Rev. L 18 ; xx. 13, 14). (iii.) Intermediate abode of 
 
 further moral probation (i Peter iii. 19, iv. 6), (see 
 p. 378). 
 
 Tartarus. — The intermediate place of punish- 
 ment for the fallen angels (2 Peter ii. 4). 
 Gehenna— Gckenna. — Final place of punishment for the 
 
 ofVn^shment wicked, and apparently a place of spiritual punish- 
 [^ewi^ckef °'n^ent only.^ In Luke xii. 5 it is clearly only 
 a punishment of the soul that is referred to, and 
 not of the body ; for the body is first destroyed 
 on earth : " Fear him which after he hath killed 
 hath power to cast into Gehenna." This passage 
 is found also in Matt. x. 28, but in a different form. 
 ** Fear him which is able to destroy both soul and 
 body in Gehenna." The more original form of 
 the statement seems to be given in Luke xii. 5. 
 Otherwise we may explain the destruction of the 
 soul and body with Weiss in connection with the 
 impending judgment which would take effect on the 
 current generation. Again in Matt. v. 29, 30, we 
 cannot necessarily conclude to a punishment of the 
 body; for since in these verses "eye" and '*hand" 
 
 1 I herewith withdraw the interpretation of Gehenna given in Hastings' 
 Bible Dictionary, ii. 120, as a final place of corporal punishment. 
 
GEHENNA 4i7 
 
 are used only symbolically of certain desires, the chap. xi. 
 most natural interpretation is to take the phrase 
 "the whole body" Hkewise symbolically. From 
 the above considerations Gehenna appears to be a 
 place not of corporal but of spiritual punishment. 
 
 Gehenna is a region of fire (Matt, v, 22, xviii. 9), caiiedaiso 
 of unquenchable fire (Mark ix. 43), a furnace of fire o/^V^'^Ahe 
 (Matt. xiii. 42, 50). It is probably to be identified ^^^f..^'^'^" 
 also with **the outer darkness" (Matt. viii. 12, xxii. 
 13, XXV. 30). It appears as **the lake of fire" in -the lake of 
 Rev. xix. 20; XX. 14, 15, "the lake of fire and ^^^* 
 brimstone" (Rev. xx. 10), into which are cast the 
 beast and the false prophets (Rev, xix. 20); the devil, 
 (xx. 10), death and Hades (xx. 14), and all whose 
 names were not written in the book of life. 
 
 Some Recent Bibliography, — Wendt, The Teaching of Jesus (transl. 
 from the German), 1893; Weiss, Lehrbuch d. bibL Theologie des 
 N.T^ 1895 (there is an English translation of the third edition); 
 Beyschlag, New Testament Theology (transl. from the German), 1896 ; 
 Holtzmann, NTliche Theologie^ 1897 ; Stevens, Theology of the 
 New Testament^ 1899; also Farrar, Eternal Hope (3rd ed.), 1879 j 
 Mercy and Judgment^ 1881 ; Pusey, What is of Faith as to Ever- 
 lasting Punishment^ 1881 ; Davidson, Doctrine of Last Things^ 
 1882 ; Plumptre, The Spirits in Prison^ 1884 ; Russell, The Parusia 
 (new ed.), 1887 ; MOiite, The Life of Christ j Petavel-Olliff, Problems 
 of l7n7nortality (transl. from the French), 1892; Kabisch, Escha- 
 tologie des Paulus^ 1893 ; Haupt, Aussagen Jesus in d. synopt. 
 Evajtgelien^ 1894; Chambers, Our Life after Death, 1894; Briggs, 
 The Messiah of the Gospels, 1894; The Messiah of the Apostles, 
 1895 ; Teichmann, Die Paulinischen Vorstellungen vo7t Auferstehung 
 und Gericht, 1896; Salmond, Christian Doctrine of Immortality,^ 
 1896; Beet, The Last Things^ 1897; Schmidt, Die Lehre des 
 Apostels Paulus, 1897; Dalraan, Die Worte Jesu, 1898; Art. 
 ■** Eschatology," by the present writer, in Encyclopaedia Biblica, 
 
 27 
 
INDEX 
 
 Abyss of fire, place for punishment for 
 
 faithless angels, 198 
 Advent, see "Panisia" 
 Alexandrian Judaism, 251-254 
 Altar, the place beneath, the inter- 
 mediate abode of the souls of 
 the martyrs, 352 
 Amos, 86, 87 
 
 Ancestor Worship furnished the in- 
 dividual Israelite with his views 
 of a future life, 19, 20 
 its nature, 20 
 evidence for existence of, in Israel, 
 
 20-50 
 Teraphim in, 21-23 
 sacrifices to the dead customary in, 
 
 23-25 
 right of offering such sacrifices 
 limited to a son of the de- 
 parted, 25-27 
 explains the right of succession to 
 
 property, 26, 27 
 explains the levirate law, 27, 28 
 mourning usages in Israel derived 
 from, 28-30 
 beliefs regarding the departed derived 
 from, 31-41, 45-48. 52, 53 
 regarding burial, 31, 32 
 regarding the family grave, 32, 33 
 regarding Sheol, 33-36 
 inhabitants of Sheol, 35-41, 45-48 
 destroyed by Yahwism, 50 
 Ancestor Worship in Greece 
 sacrifices in, 24 note 
 prescribes the duty of the avenging of 
 blood, 26, 27 note 
 Ancestor Worship in Babylon, 24, 25 
 
 note 
 Angelic patrons of the nations, 160 
 note, 182 
 
 Annihilation of the finally impenitent, 
 
 40s 
 Anthropology of Old Testament, see 
 
 *' Psychology" 
 Antichrist, 348 note, 364, 380-382, 385 
 Apocalypse, the, 347-354 
 Apocalypses, Jewish, in the New Testa- 
 ment, 313, 323-328, 347, 380 
 note, 385 ' 
 Apocalyptic elements in Old Testa- 
 ment, 102, 106, 117, 120, 133 
 note, 161 note, 162 note 
 originates mainly in unfulfilled 
 
 prophecy, 106, 168-173 
 differs from prophecy in that — 
 (i) its main interest is in the 
 
 future, 173, 174 
 (2) its conception of history is 
 mechanical and not organic, 
 
 174. ^7S 
 Atonement extended to all rational 
 beings, 404, 405 
 
 Baethgen, 76, 123 
 
 Baruch, Apocalypse of, 269-282 
 
 Book of, 297 
 Benzinger, 10, 24 
 Bertholet, 24, 106 
 Beyschlag, 382 
 Bickell, 96 
 
 Body, Pauline doctrine of the psychical 
 and of the spiritual, 391-394 
 
 indispensable to the well-being of 
 the spirit, 394, 415 
 Bousset, 328, 382 
 Briggs, 161, 305 
 Budde, 20, 55 
 Burial, 31, 32 
 
 Chase, 355 
 
420 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Chasids, forerunners of Pharisees and 
 representatives of the higher 
 theology, 166-168, 1S9, 191, 211 
 
 Cheyne, i, 67, 70, 73, 74, 'jj, 87, 88, 
 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 109, III, 
 113, 115, 116, 123, 126, 127, 
 
 133 
 Colani, 328 
 
 Dalman, 374 
 
 Daniel, Book of, 121, 122, 180-182 
 Davidson, 20, 76, 94, 96, 98 
 Day of Yahwfe 
 
 Popular conception — against Israel's 
 
 national foes, 85, 86 
 Prophetic conception 
 
 pre-Exilic, first and chiefly against 
 Israel : Amos and Hosea, 
 86-89 
 against Israel and Judah : Isaiah, 
 
 Micah, 89-93 
 on behalf of Israel against As- 
 syria : Nahum, Habakkuk, 
 
 93-97 
 = world-judgment : Zephaniah, 
 
 97-99 
 =judgmentof Gog: Ezekiel, 106 
 of Gentiles : Fragments of 
 Isaiah, 115, 116 
 =judgment of Israel : Malachi, 
 
 115 note 
 of Gentiles : Zechariah, 117, 
 
 H8,.12I 
 
 of Gentiles : Joel, 118, 119 
 of Gentiles : Daniel, 121 
 
 Death, second, 353 
 
 Delitzsch, 76 
 
 Dieterich, 137, 142, 144 
 
 Dillmann, 23 
 
 Driver, 10, 13, 48, 87, 93, 94, 98 
 
 Dualism in Judaism, 179, 192, 203, 242 
 
 Duhm, 59, 70, 75, 76, 91, 123, 133 
 
 Earth, eternal duration of the, according 
 
 to Old Testament, 122, 123 
 Ecclesiastes, 67, 68 
 Ecclesiasticus, 162-165 
 Eerdmans, 214 
 
 End, when will the end be? 294 
 Enoch, Ethiopic, i.-xxxvi. , 182-189 
 
 xxxvii. -Ixx. , 213-219 
 
 Ixxxiii. -xc. , 189-192 
 
 xci.-civ. , 203-212 
 Enoch, Slavonic, 261-266 
 Eschatological, general, development, 
 2nd cent. B.C., 177-180 
 
 Eschatological, general, development, 
 1st cent. B. C. , 200-203 
 ist cent. A.D,, 242-244 
 conceptions, development of special, 
 in Old Testament, 252-260 
 in Apocalyptic literature, 194-199, 
 
 231-241, 299-305 
 in New Testament, 406-417 
 ideas proper to Apocalyptic in Old 
 Testament, 160, 161 notes 
 Eschatology of the individual 
 
 I. Primitive, heathen in character, 
 
 and derived from Ancestor Wor- 
 ship, 19-49 
 destroyed for the most part by 
 Yahwism, 50, 53, 54 
 
 II. Yahwistic 
 
 (i.) First period, outlook confined 
 to this life : Jeremiah to 
 Job 
 
 founded on new value set on 
 the individual, the new 
 covenant between Yahwfe 
 and the individual from his 
 personal relation to Yahw6, 
 according to Jeremiah, 54, 
 59-61 
 
 Jeremiah's teaching developed 
 by Ezekiel into a dogma 
 partly true, partly false — 
 that the individual gets his 
 deserts in the present life, 
 62-66 
 
 Ezekiel's doctrine of retribu- 
 tion denied by Ecclesiastes, 
 67, 68 
 (ii. ) Second period, outlook reach- 
 ing forth into an individual 
 immortality in Job and Pss, 
 xlix. , Ixxiii. , 69-77 
 
 preludings of this doctrine, 
 
 54-57 
 
 Job presents antinomies of 
 present life so strongly as to 
 force his readers to postu- 
 late the doctrine of a 
 blessed future of the in- 
 dividual or become materi- 
 alists, 69-73 
 
 Pss. xlix., Ixxiii. on the im- 
 mortality of the individual 
 soul, 72-77 
 
 historical attestation of this 
 doctrine confirmed by logi- 
 cal necessities of thought, 
 77* 78 
 
INDEX 
 
 421 
 
 such a religious individualism 
 
 not permanent, 78-80 
 synthesis of, with eschatology 
 of nation resulting in doc- 
 trine of resurrection {see 
 "Resurrection"), 124-126 
 this synthesis, after maintain- 
 ing itself for over 200 years, 
 resolved into its original 
 factors, when the hope of 
 eternal Messianic kingdom 
 was abandoned [circa 100 
 B. C. ) and extreme in- 
 dividualism in religion 
 ensued, 201, 243 
 the new synthesis of the two 
 hopes — no longer of the 
 nation, but of the race and 
 the individual, 306, 307 
 Eschatology of the nation centres in 
 the national blessedness, i.e. 
 the Messianic kingdom {see 
 " Kingdom "), to be introduced 
 by the day of Yahwfe {see " Day 
 ofYahw6"), 82 
 of a nation, last part of its religion 
 to experience the transforming 
 power of new ideas and facts, 
 310 
 Eternal life, meaning of the phrase, in 
 New Testament, 315, 368-370 
 = a period of limited duration occa- 
 sionally in Apocalyptic, 181 no^e 
 Ezekiel on the Messianic kingdom, 
 loi, 102, 105, 106 
 the main founder of particularism, 
 107 
 Ezekiel' s eschatology of the individual, 
 61-67 
 controverted by Ecclesiastes, 67, 68 
 Ezra, Fourth, 283-297 
 
 Fairbairri, 137 
 Frey, 20, 22, 23 
 
 Gardner, 151 
 Gehenna, 156, 159 
 
 topographical sense, 157 
 
 place of idolatrous sacrifices, 157, 
 
 [a) place of spiritual and corporal 
 punishment for apostate Jews 
 in thepresenceof therighteous, 
 158. 159. 198 
 
 {d) place of spiritual punishment 
 for apostate Jews, Eth. En. 
 
 {c) place of punishment for all men ? 
 Eth. En. xci.-civ. , 237, 238 
 Judith, 225 
 Assumption of Moses, 251, 
 
 302 
 Slavonic Enoch, 264, 266, 302 
 Apoc. Bar., 282 
 4 Ezra, 286, 302 
 in the New Testament 
 
 final place of punishment for dis- 
 embodied spirits, 343 
 summary of New Testament 
 usages, 416, 417 
 Gentiles in Old Testament and Apoca- 
 lyptic literature, 160, 199, 240, 
 278, 305 
 Giesebrecht, 59, 94, 104 
 Grave, the family, 32, 33 
 
 characteristics of, confused with those 
 of Sheol, 34 note 
 Gray, 7, 9 
 Gunkel, 71, 96, 349 
 
 Hades, for, in Jewish and Christian 
 
 books, see " Sheol " 
 Hades according to Greek conceptions 
 (i) eternal abode of the departed, 
 in Homer, Hesiod, Aeschylus, 
 Sophocles, Euripides, 139, 
 140, 146, 147 
 the conflicting views in Homer 
 as to the nature of existence 
 in Hades, 38, 39 
 (2) intermediate abode of the retri- 
 butive judgment in Orphic 
 teaching, 142, 146, 149 
 inhabitants of, acquainted with affairs 
 of the living, 40 note 
 Haggai, 116, 117 
 Heaven as final abode of the righteous, 
 
 74- ^55> 23s, 301 
 Hebrews, 360, 361 
 
 possible Alexandrian interpretation 
 of eschatology of, 361 note 
 Heinrici, 392 
 
 Hell, see "Hades" and "Gehenna" 
 Hesiod's doctrine of the soul, 140, 141 
 Holtzmann, 328, 354, 371, 382, 385 
 Holzinger, 20, 55 
 
 Homeric doctrine of the soul, 137-140 
 Hosea, 88, 89 
 
 Immortality, preludings of, 54-57 
 of the soul apart from the Messianic 
 kingdom in the Old Testament, 
 73.80 
 
422 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Immortality of the soul, in Apocalyptic 
 
 literature, 243, 244, 248, 253, 
 
 254, 298 
 
 in Greek religion, 79 note, 150, 151 
 
 Intermediate abode for human beings, 
 
 see " Stieol" and " Hades" 
 
 for angels, 116 note, 133 note, 159, 
 
 357 
 Isaiah, 89-91, 108-110, 113, 116, 122- 
 
 124, 126-128 
 Israel right over against the world, 95 
 
 James, Epistle of, 358, 359 
 
 M. R. , 221, 222 
 Jastrow, 25, 33, 34, 57 
 Jensen, 34 
 
 Jeremiah on the relation of the in- 
 dividual to Yahwfe, 58-61 
 on the Messianic kingdom, 101-105 
 the founder of universalism, 107 
 Jeremias, 25, 34, 57 
 Jerome quoted, 281 
 Jerusalem, the New, 192 
 Jesus Christ, the centre of the king- 
 dom, 306, 307 
 living relationship to, constitutes mem- 
 bership of the kingdom, 307 
 the Judge of men ; for men's relation- 
 ship to Him is likewise His re- 
 lationship to God, since He is 
 the realisation of God'srighteous- 
 ness, 336-339. 359. 3^7. 372. yjj 
 later Pauhne doctrine of, 403 
 Job, 68-72 
 Josephus,"298, 299 
 Jubilees, 245-249 
 Judaism, Palestinean and Alexandrian, 
 
 contrasted, 251-254 
 Jude, 354-356 
 
 Judgment, in Old Testament, see Day of 
 Yahw6 
 in Apocalyptic literature 
 
 (a) on the living and certain classes 
 of the dead on the advent of 
 the kingdom, ig6, 197 
 (h) on all rational beings on the 
 
 advent of the kingdom, 234 
 (c) on all rational beings at close 
 of the kingdom, 233, 234,248, 
 261, 286, 287, 289, 300, 301 
 {d) no general judgment in Alexan- 
 drian Judaism, 253, 254, 260, 
 301 
 Judgment, final, in the New Testament — 
 Synoptic Gospels 
 
 at the parusia, 336, 337 
 
 Judgment, final, to be executed by God, 
 
 337 
 by Christ, 336-338 
 according to works, 338, 339 
 in Revelation 
 
 [a) Messianic, and [p) final, 348, 
 352, 353 
 final, executed by God, and yet 
 in some respects by Christ, 
 352 
 in Jude, i Peter, 2 Peter, James, 
 Hebrews 
 final, at the parusia, 356, 357, 359, 
 
 360, 375, 376 
 executed by the Messiah, 359, 
 375. 376 
 by God, 360 
 in Johannine writings 
 
 present, and subjective and self- 
 executing, 364-366 
 final, 372 
 
 to be executed by Christ, 367 
 in Pauline Epistles 
 
 final, at the parusia, 384, 385 
 to be executed by God, 389 note 
 
 by Christ, 389 
 according to works^ 389, 398, 399 
 doctrine of final, does not conflict 
 with that of immediate resur- 
 rection after death, 399 
 Judith, 225, 226 
 
 Kabisch, 283 
 
 Kingdom in Old Testament 
 
 I. Messianic or theocratic, according 
 
 to popular conception, =a king- 
 dom of unbroken national pro- 
 sperity, 82 
 
 II. Messianic or theocratic, according 
 
 to Old Testament prophetic con- 
 ception, = regenerated com- 
 munity of eternal duration in 
 which divine will should be ful- 
 filled, existing under national 
 forms on the present earth, 82, 
 
 83 
 (i.) Pre-Exilic, promised by Isaiah, 
 83. 90 
 Zephaniah, 99 
 (ii, ) Exilic and post-Exilic 
 
 {a) universalistic conception — 
 Jeremiah, loi, 105 
 Second Isaiah, 108, 109 
 Psalms, no, in 
 Malachi, 111-113 
 Isaiah xix., 113, 114 
 
INDEX 
 
 423 
 
 {b) particularistic conception 
 Ezekiel, 105, 106 
 Fragments of Isaiah, 115, 116 
 Haggai, 116, 117 
 Zechariah, 117, 118 
 Joel, 118-120 
 Daniel, 121, 122, 180, 181 
 III. In Apocalyptic and Apocryphal 
 literature always particularistic 
 ( I ) of eternal duration on the 
 present earth, Eth. En. 
 i.-xxxvi. , 188, 189 
 2 Mace., 226-228, 230 
 of eternal duration on the 
 present earth with the New 
 Jerusalem as centre, Eth. 
 En. Ixxxiii.-xc, 191, 192 
 {2} of temporary duration on the 
 present earth, Eth. En. 
 xci.-civ. , 201, 203, 204 
 Pss. Sol., 223, 224 
 Sibyl. Or. iii. 1-62, 226 
 Jubilees, 248 
 
 Assumption of Moses, 250 
 (of 1000 years' duration = the 
 Millennium) Slav. En. , 261 ; 
 Apoc. Bar., 270-273, 275 
 (of 400 years' duration) 4 Ezra, 
 
 286 
 (of indefinite duration), 288 
 criticism of this conception, 276, 
 277 
 
 (3) of eternal duration in a new 
 
 heaven and new earth, Eth. 
 En. xxxvii. -Ixx. , 202, 21S, 
 219 
 
 (4) all hope of, absolutely aban- 
 
 doned, Apoc. Bar., 278 
 4 Ezra, 291 
 IV. In the New Testament — Synoptic 
 Gospels 
 of eternal duration, 308, 309 
 membership of which is con- 
 stituted through a living 
 relation to its Head, 309 
 temporary Messianic, or Millen- 
 nium, not a true Christian 
 doctrine, 309 note, 350, 351, 
 390, 404 
 =:the community in which the 
 divine will was to be realised, 
 
 314 
 (i. ) already present in its essence, 
 
 315-318, 320, 321 
 (ii. ) still future as regards its 
 
 consummation, 318, 319 
 
 (a) to be realised according to 
 the ordinary laws of 
 spiritual development, 
 319, 320, 321 
 (3) or suddenly established 
 by God Himself, 319, 
 321 
 conceptions (i. ) and (ii.) 
 organically related, 321 
 (iii.) to be consummated at the 
 parusia, 339 
 of heavenly character, 339, 
 
 340 
 in Revelation 
 
 (i. ) temporary, of Christ, i.e. the 
 
 Millennium, 349-351 
 (ii.) eternal, of God and Christ, 
 
 353 
 in the Johannine writings 
 
 spiritual and present, of Christ, 
 
 367, 368 
 in the Pauline Epistles 
 
 temporary, of Christ — a view 
 
 later abandoned, 390 
 eternal, of Christ = kingdom of 
 
 God, 404 
 eternal, of God, 396 note 
 
 Lietzmann, 214 
 
 Life, the meaning of eternal , 315, 
 368-370 
 
 Maccabees, First, 219, 220 
 Maccabees, Second, 226-231 
 Maccabees, Fourth, 266-268 
 Man primitively conceived as a 
 dichotomy, 45 
 later conceived as a trichotomy, 43- 
 
 45 
 created in God's image, 54, 55 
 
 Marti, 10, 20, 88, etc. 
 
 Mazdeism in relation to Judaism, 116 
 note, 134-136 
 
 Messiah — not organically connected 
 with the Messianic kingdom in 
 Jewish literature prior to 100 
 A.D. outside the New Testa- 
 ment, 83 
 not in Zephaniah, Nahum, Habak- 
 kuk, Ethiopic Enoch i.-xxxvi., 
 xci.-civ. ; i Maccabees ; Judith ; 
 2 Maccabees 
 not in Assumption of Moses, Wis- 
 dom, Slavonic Enoch, 4 
 Maccabees 
 
424 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Messiah, not in Apocalypse of Baruch 
 (Bi, B2, B3), 4 Ezra (Salathiel 
 Apocalypse) 
 
 (See under above books) 
 
 not in pre-Exilic prophets, according 
 to recent criticism ; see notes on 
 pp. 87, 88, 91, 93, 103 
 
 as conceived in Apocalyptic and 
 Apocryphal literature, 176, 192, 
 199, 202, 213-217, 218, 220- 
 222, 226, 240, 245, 260, 272, 
 273, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 
 
 303-305 
 Messianic woes, 246, 247, 275, 283, 
 
 284, 285, 289, 326, 327 
 Micah, 92, 93 
 
 Millennium, see "Kingdom" 
 Moses, Assumption of, 249-251 
 Mourning usages in Israel, 28-30 
 
 Nahum, 93-97 
 
 New heavens and new earth, 122-124, 
 
 202, 213, 279, 353, 357 
 Nowack, 10, 20, 28, 88, 93, 96 
 
 Orphic doctrine of the soul, 141-143, 
 146 
 
 Paradise, 197, 234, 235, 262-264, 301. 
 
 415, 416 
 Particularism in Nahum and Habakkuk, 
 
 95 
 Parusia or Second Advent : In Synoptic 
 Gospels 
 manner of 
 
 (i) sudden and unexpected, 323, 
 
 329 
 (2) to be heralded with unmis- 
 takable signs, 323 
 later view — Judaistic intrusion in 
 the Gospels, 323-329 
 time of, during the existing genera- 
 tion, 330, 331 
 yet idea of development empha- 
 sised, and possibility of its con- 
 tinuance beyond that period ac- 
 knowledged, 332-334 
 at the final judgment, 336, 337 
 in Revelation 
 
 in a spiritual sense, 347, 348 
 time of, on the advent of the 
 Millennium, 347, 348 
 in Jude, i Peter, 2 Peter, James, 
 Hebrews, at the final judgment, 
 356, 357. 359. 360, 375 
 
 Parusia, or Second Advent, time of, de- 
 pendent on human conduct, 358 
 in Johannine writings 
 as a present spiritual fact, [362, 
 
 363 
 as a future event, 363, 364 
 in the Pauline Epistles 
 in the Apostle's lifetime, 383, 387, 
 
 398, 402 note 
 when evil has reached its climax — 
 a Judaistic view, afterwards 
 abandoned, 381 
 when all mankind has been con- 
 verted, 385, 397, 398 
 (i) to be preceded by certain 
 
 signs, 383, 384 
 (2) to come as a thief in the 
 
 night, 384 
 of Christ to judge, 384, 385, 389, 
 390 
 Pauline and Philonic psychologies con- 
 trasted, 414, 415 
 Pauline Epistles, 379-405 
 Peter, First Epistle, 375-378 
 Peter, Second Epistle, 356-358 
 Philo, 259, 260, 414, 415 
 Pindar's doctrine of the soul, 145, 
 
 146 
 Pit = intermediate abode of angels and 
 
 kings, 116. note, 133 note, 159 
 Pit = Sheol, 155 note 
 Plato's doctrine of the soul, 147-150 
 Preaching to the spirits in prison, 376, 
 
 377 
 Pre-existence of the soul 
 in Judaism, 252, 262 
 in Greek religion, 149-151 
 Prophecy distinguished from Apoca- 
 lyptic, see "Apocalyptic" 
 various proofs of, being from God, 
 i6g note 
 Psychology of Old Testament , two 
 conflicting and to some extent 
 concurrent views of soul, 39-47. 
 See "Soul" and "Spirit." 
 Pythagoras' doctrine of the soul, 143, 
 144 
 
 Resurrection — I. In the Old Testament 
 = synthesis of the hopes of the 
 righteous individual and of the 
 righteous nation, 77-80, 124- 
 126 
 (i.) in the body of righteous 
 Israelites on advent of king- 
 dom ; Isaiah xxvi., 126-128 
 
INDEX 
 
 425 
 
 a genuine product of Jewish 
 inspiration, 128, 129, 134, 
 
 135 
 essential significance of this 
 doctrine, 129-131 
 (ii. ) in the body of the pre- 
 eminently righteous and pre- 
 eminently wicked Israelites, 
 Dan. xii., 132, 133 
 this doctrine has affinities with 
 Mazdeism, 135, 136 
 short summary of above develop- 
 ment, 159 
 II. In Apocalyptic and Apocryphal 
 literature, 2nd cent. B.C. 
 (i) in the body of the righteous, 
 and of such wicked Israelites 
 as had not been punished in 
 life on advent of kingdon% 
 Eth. En. i.-xxxvi., 184-188 
 
 (2) in the body of all Israelites, 
 
 2 Maccabees, 184, 229-231 
 
 (3) in the body, which was to be 
 
 subsequently transformed, of 
 the righteous Israelites only, 
 Eth. En. Ixxxiii.-xc, 192 
 short summary of development, 
 2nd cent. B.C., 178-180, 198 
 
 III. In Apocalyptic and Apocryphal 
 
 literature, ist cent. B.C. 
 { i) of the spirit of the righteous at 
 close of Messianic kingdom, 
 Eth. En. xci. -civ., 203, 
 204, 206 
 Pss. Sol., 224, 225 
 (2) of the spirit of the righteous 
 clothed in a body of glory and 
 light {also of the wicked to 
 judgment, p. 239), Eth. En. 
 xxxvii.-lxx. , 216 
 short summary of development, 
 ist cent. B.C., 238-240 
 
 IV. In Apocalyptic and Apocryphal 
 
 literature, ist cent. a.d. 
 (i. ) Palestinean Judaism 
 
 (i) of the righteous only after the 
 final judgment (a) without a 
 body : Jubilees, Ass. Mos. , 
 243, 244, 248, 251 ; {b) in a 
 spiritual body : Slav. En. , 
 Josephus, 244, 266, 298 
 
 (2) in the body of all mankind, 
 
 Apoc. Baruch ; Apoc. Ezra, 
 280-282, 286 
 
 (3) the first, Apoc. Ezra, 285, 
 286, 288 
 
 (ii.) Alexandrian Judaism 
 
 of the spirits of the righteous 
 immediately after death. Wis- 
 dom, Philo, 4 Maccabees, 
 243, 244, 253, 255, 260, 
 268 
 short summary of development, 
 ist cent. A.D. , 302, 303 
 Resurrection in the New Testament 
 in the S3Tioptic Gospels 
 
 (i) of the righteous only, 340, 
 
 341. 343 
 
 (2) of the righteous and the 
 wicked — but this doctrine an 
 intrusion, 341, 342 
 
 doctrine of general, not neces- 
 sitated by that of final judg- 
 ment, 343 
 in Revelation 
 
 (i) the first, of the Martyrs, on 
 the advent of the Millennium 
 ■ — a Judaistic doctrine, 349 
 
 (2) the final, of the righteous 
 and the wicked (also a Juda- 
 istic doctrine), 352, 353 
 in Acts, in Jude, 2 Peter, James, 
 Hebrews 
 
 (i) of the righteous only, 360, 
 361 
 
 (2) of the righteous and the 
 wicked, Acts xxiv. 15, but 
 this statement misrepresents 
 the Pauline theology, 386 
 note 
 in the Johannine writings 
 
 (i) of the righteous only, 370, 
 372 
 
 (2) of the righteous and the 
 wicked in John v, 28, 29 — 
 but this passage is an inter- 
 polation, 370-372 
 in Pauline Epistles 
 
 of the righteous only at the 
 parusia, 386, 390 
 
 of Christ and of man organically 
 connected, 390, 391 
 time of the : (i) at the parusia, 
 
 385. 394. 395. 396 
 (2) immediately after death : 
 {a) as implied in Pauline doc- 
 trine of the new body, 395 
 (^) as directly taught in 2 Cor. , 
 
 399-403 
 Retribution, no individual looked for 
 in pre-prophetic times, 58 
 Ezekiel's doctrine of, 61-65 
 
426 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Retribution, debate on, in Eth. En., 
 
 206-212 
 in this life, 23 x 
 Revelation of the righteous, 402 
 Rohde, 24, 27, 33, 34, 40, 49, 57, 79, 
 
 137. 139. 141. 142, 144. 147. 
 
 Ryle, 221, 222 
 
 Sabatier, 382 
 
 Sanday, 314, 405 
 
 Satan, 349 
 
 Satans, 217 
 
 Saved, are there few that be? 291-293 
 
 Schmiedel, 382, 385, 390 
 
 Schwally, i, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 28 
 
 Schwartzkopff, 314, 329 
 
 Sheol 
 
 I. According to the Old Testament 
 (i. ) eternal abode of the departed : 
 its description, 33-35 
 customs of life reproduced in 
 
 Sheol, 40, 41 
 its characteristics sometimes 
 confused with those of the 
 grave, as in Greece and 
 Babylon, 34 note 
 outside Yahw^'s jurisdiction and 
 the sphere of moral law, 
 
 35- 36 
 {a) primarily a scene of con- 
 siderable psychical activity, 
 40, 41, 47, 48 
 {b) later a synonym for destruc- 
 tion, where all life was at 
 an end, 47, 48 
 brought within Yahwfe's jurisdic- 
 tion, 36 note, 57 
 (ii. ) intermediate abode of the 
 righteous and eternal abode 
 of all else in Job, 69 note 
 Isaiah xxvi. , 127 note 
 Daniel, 133, 181 
 (iii.) abode of the wicked only in 
 Psalms, 74, 75 
 previous Old Testament mean- 
 ings summarised, 155, 156 
 II. According to Apocryphal and 
 Apocalyptic literature 
 (i, ) eternal abode of the departed 
 
 in Ecclesiasticus, 164 
 (ii.) intermediate abode of 
 righteous Israelites, and of 
 such of the wicked as had not 
 been punished in life : the 
 eternal abode of all else 
 
 (=hell), Eth. En. i.-xxxvi., 
 184-188 
 
 (iii.) intermediate abode of all 
 Israelites, and eternal abode 
 of all else ( = hell), 2 Mace, 
 228, 236 
 
 (iv. ) intermediate abode in which 
 moral transformation becomes 
 possible, 2 Mace, , 236 
 
 (v.) intermediate abode with pre- 
 liminary foretastes of happi- 
 ness and torment, Apoc. Bar., 
 279, 280, 294-296, 302 
 
 (vi.); intermediate abode of the 
 righteous, but eternal abode 
 of the wicked = hell, Josephus, 
 298 
 
 (vii. ) final abode of fire = Gehenna 
 or hell, 236, 237, 266, 302 
 
 (viii. ) as an intermediate abode 
 not acknowledged in Alex- 
 andrian Judaism, 253, 254 
 
 summary of meanings in Apoca- 
 lyptic, 236, 237 
 III. According to the New Testament 
 
 (i. ) the intermediate abode where 
 moral change is possible, 343, 
 
 344 
 such a view is postulated by 
 
 Johannine theology, 373 
 and asserted in the Petrine 
 theology, 376-378 
 (ii. ) intermediate abode of the 
 wicked only in the Apocalypse, 
 352 
 short summary of New Testa- 
 ment usages, 416 
 Sheol {i.e. Aralu), Babylonian concep- 
 tion of, and that of Israel, from 
 same source, 34 note 
 Sibylline Oracles, 176, 177, 226 
 Signs of the last times, see ' ' Messianic 
 
 Woes" 
 Sleep, a designation of death, not to be 
 taken literally, 127 note, 187, 
 196, 385 note 
 Smend, i, yj 
 
 Smith, G. A., 87, 88, 91, 92 
 Smith, Robertson, i, 29, 30 
 Son of Man in Ethiopic Enoch, 213- 
 
 217 
 Soul in Old Testament 
 
 I. Doctrine of, prior to rise of doc- 
 trine of immortality 
 (i) primitive Semitic conception 
 identified with the blood, 37 
 
INDEX 
 
 427 
 
 the seat of the personality in 
 
 life, 37, 38 
 almost a synonym for spirit 
 
 {see "Man"), 46, 47, 153, 
 
 154 
 conscious after death , and 
 acquainted with the affairs 
 of their descendants ; pos- 
 sessed of power to benefit 
 or injure them, 39, 40 
 (2) later monotheistic conception 
 in Gen. ii. , iii. of : soul 
 distinct in essence and 
 destiny from spirit : ex- 
 tinguished at death, 41-44, 
 
 153. 154 
 II. Doctrine of, in Israel, from rise 
 of doctrine of immortality 
 first conceived in Job as 
 capable of a divine life 
 beyond the grave, 48, 49, 
 71, 72 
 and in Psalms xlix., Ixxiii. as 
 capable of an individual 
 immortality, 73-79 
 Soul in Apocalyptic literature 
 
 Soul identical in essence and function 
 with spirit, 194-196, 231-233, 
 299, 300 
 in a few cases not identified with 
 
 spirit, 194, 232 
 pre-existent in Alexandrian 
 
 Judaism, 252, 253, 255 
 enters immediately on its reward 
 at death, 253, 254 
 Soul in the New Testament 
 
 in the Gospels and non - Pauline 
 writings identical with the spirit in 
 essence and function, 406-409 
 in the Pauline Epistles 
 
 = a mere function of the body, and 
 perishes with it, 409, 410 
 Soul after death, conception of, among 
 the Greeks 
 (i) is a shade possessing thought, 
 will, and activity and power to 
 help or injure the living (Ani- 
 mistic view) 
 in Homer, 139 
 in Hesiod, 140 
 
 (2) is an unconscious helpless shade 
 
 (ordinary Homeric view) 
 in Homer, 138, 139 
 
 (3) has no existence whatever, ac- 
 
 cording to the philosophers, 
 143 
 
 (4) is an immortal spiritual being 
 in Orphic teaching, 141, 142, 
 
 146 
 in Platonic teaching, 147-150 
 Spirit in Old Testament 
 
 primitive conception of, almost syn-* 
 
 onymous with soul, 45, 46 
 later monotheistic conception of, 
 differs in origin, essence, and 
 destiny from soul, 41-44 
 never descends into Sheol in Old 
 Testament, however conceived, 
 42, 46 
 Spirit in Apocalyptic literature 
 
 spirit synonymous with soul, and 
 descends into Sheol, 195, 196, 
 232, 233, 299, 300 
 spirit not synonymous with soul, 194, 
 232 
 Spirit in the New Testament 
 
 in Gospels and non-Pauline writings 
 
 identical with soul, 407-409 
 in the Pauline Epistles 
 
 = higher nature of man as an in- 
 tellectual and moral being, 413 
 = man's immaterial personality 
 
 which survives death, 413, 414 
 = human faculty for divine com- 
 munion created anew by God, 
 414 
 Stade, I, 19, 20, 21, 24, 28, 93 
 Stave, 116, 159 
 Stevens, 376 
 
 Survivals, eschatological, in Old Testa- 
 ment, 52, 53 
 New Testament, 310-312 
 
 Tartarus, intermediate abode of punish- 
 ment for angels, 356, 357, 416 
 
 Teraphim, 21-23 
 
 = images of ancestors, 21, 22 
 = images of Yahwfe, 23 
 
 Testament, Old, its inspiration, 3 
 
 Testaments of XII. Patriarchs, 192-194 
 
 Tobit, 165, 166 
 
 Toy, 24 
 
 Translations of Enoch and Elijah, pre- 
 ludings of human immortality, 
 56, 57 
 of individuals in Hebrew and Greek 
 religions contrasted, 57 note 
 
 Tree of life, references to, intrusions 
 in text, 55 
 
 Universalism in Jeremiah and his 
 spiritual successors, 107-114 
 
428 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Volz, 87, 88, 103 
 
 Weiffenbach, 328 
 Weiss, 361, 381, 396 
 Wellhausen, 87, 88, 214 
 Wendt,, 328 
 Wildeboer, 20 
 Wisdom, Book of, 254-258 
 World closes in. culmination of evil, 
 according to Judaism, 121, 122 
 
 Yahwfe, divine name of, when first 
 
 known, 6, 7 
 the War-god, 10 
 of Hosts, 10, 86 note 
 God of justice and purity, 10, 11 
 His sovereignty originally conceived 
 
 as limited to His own land and 
 
 people, 11-13 
 had no concern therefore with any 
 
 futiore existence of man, 18, 19 
 unethical features in conception of, 
 
 13. 14 
 
 such unethical features attacked and 
 destroyed by prophets, 15 
 
 sole God of all the earth, 16 
 
 Israel's relations to, ethically con- 
 ditioned, 16 
 
 His power long conceived as Hmited 
 to the living, 56 
 yet early conceived as able to 
 restore the dead from Sheol, 57 
 Yahw^, day of, see " Day" 
 Yahwism, pre-prophetic, 5-16, 51 
 
 monotheistic, 16-19 
 
 had originally no eschatology of the 
 individual, 18, 19, 52 
 
 first destroyed Ancestor Worship 
 before it furnished an ethical 
 doctrine of future life, 50, 53, 
 54 
 
 Zechariah, 117, 118, 120, 121 
 Zeller, 137, 143, 148, 149, 150 
 Zephaniah, 97-99 
 
 THE END 
 
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 AND FORMERLY FELLOW OF BALLIOL COLLEGE, CANON OF ROCHESTER. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
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 other English Biblical scholars." — Westminster Review, 
 
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BY THE LATE 
 
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 LECTURES ON 
 
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 THEIR PLACE IN HISTORY TO THE CLOSE OF 
 THE EIGHTH CENTURY B.C. 
 
 With Introduction and additional Notes by the 
 Rev. T. K. CHEYNE, M.A, D.D., 
 
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By EDWIN A. ABBOTT, M.A., D.D., 
 
 FORMERLY FELLOW OF ST. JOHn'S COLLEGE; CAMBRIDGE, 
 AND HULSEAN LECTURER. 
 
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 6 
 
By JAMES WARD, Sc.D., Hon. LL.D. (Edin.) 
 
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 of Body and Mi?id" has to be treated as a " cor7'espondence" that is neither causal 
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 back into Materialism or advance to Idealism. Reflection upon experience as a 
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 A. & C. BLACK, SOHO SQUARE, LONDON. 
 
 7 
 
Volume I. published October 27, 1899. 
 
 To be completed in Four Volumes within two years after the 
 publication of Vol. I. 
 
 Super Royal Zvo {11 x yf inches). Bound in cloth, price 10s. net per volume, 
 or in half leather, price 25J. net per volume. 
 
 For the convenience of subscribers who wish to bind the work in One Volume 
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 leather backs. 
 
 ENCYCLOPAEDIA BIBLICA. 
 
 A DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 
 
 EDITED BY" 
 
 The Rev. T. K. CHEYNE, M.A., D.D., 
 
 Oriel Professor of the hiterpretation of Holy Scripture at Oxford, and formerly 
 Fellow of Balliol College, Canon of Rochester ; 
 
 J. SUTHERLAND BLACK, M.A., LL.D., 
 
 Assistant Editor of the 'Encyclopedia Britannica.' 
 
 The following are special points that have been kept steadily in view in the preparation of 
 this work : — 
 
 1. The primary aim has been to supply a much-felt want by applying to every detail within 
 the scope of a Bible Dictionary the most exact scientific methods now in use, so as to provide, 
 in dictionary form, the results of a thorough-going critical study of the Old and New Testa- 
 ments, with a completeness and conciseness that has never yet been attained in any language. 
 
 2. The policy adopted is to give a carefully considered account of the subjects dealt with, 
 based on and starting from the latest that has been written on the subject by the leading 
 scholars, rather than to attempt to calculate the average opinion in the world of Biblical 
 studies. 
 
 3. Generally speaking, the subject-matter of the " Encyclopasdia Biblica " is that of Bible 
 dictionaries in general. Some large important headings will, however, be found here for the 
 first time, and archgeological facts have been treated with greater fulness than has been usual 
 in works of this class. By a careful system of cross-references to general articles, and by the 
 admission of only such parts of a subject as directly affect jBiblical questions, it has been found 
 possible to treat many headings with greater brevity than in previous works in the same field. 
 For facility of reference all the larger articles have been divided into numbered sections, with 
 sub-headings printed in clear type. 
 
 4. Whilst the "Encyclopeedia Biblica" is meant for the student, other readers have con- 
 stantly been kept in view. The details that are so valuable for one reader are of much less, if 
 any, use to another. Such matters have therefore been given, as a rule, in smaller type, and 
 anyone who wishes to do so can usually learn the general meaning of an article by reading 
 simply the large type parts. The " Biblia" treated of in the " Encyclopaedia Biblica" are 
 the original Hebrew, Greek, and Aramaic documents as far as these can be recovered by the 
 help of the usual scientific methods ; but the general reader is not acquainted with all these 
 languages ; hence the frequent translation of Hebrew and other words, and the transliteration 
 of words in Semitic languages. 
 
 5. Great pains have been taken and much thought has been expended with the^ view of 
 avoiding repetitions, and attaining the greatest possible condensation, especially in minor 
 matters, so as to secure adequate treatment of all questions of primary importance within the 
 limits of one manageable volume. 
 
 6. The work has, on the whole, proceeded simultaneously throughout the alphabet, sothat 
 all the articles, from the largest to the very smallest, might be collated with each other in as 
 far as they are mutually dependent or illustrative, the results of this collation being given in 
 very full references to the numerical section of the cognate article. 
 
 7. By delaying the electrotyping to the very last, it has been possible to work the results of 
 new discoveries or fresh discussions, as they appear from month to month, into the whole mass 
 of articles. 
 
 A'. & C. BLACK, SOHO SQUARE, LONDON. , 
 
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