■:0$^ m ■^flal \^ i&; OF THE IRcw l^orft State dolicQc of agriculture a%..bg.3g> \x\-JL.\\.t 8ioz CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 344 760 Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924055344760 Paul Work STATE OF NEW YORK DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE CHARLES S. WILSON, Commissioner -7 Bulletin 70 The Vegetable Industry in New York State " It is not simply beets and potatoes and corn and siring beans that one raises in his well-hoed garden ; it is the average of human life." CHARLES DUDLEY WARNER Issued by the Bureau of Farmers' Institutes and Compiled under tbe Supervision of the Director CONTENTS — ■ PAGE Introduction 1213 Market Gardening in New York State, A. E. Wilkinson 1215 Vegetable Growing on Long Island, W. B. Nissley 1222 Truck Gardening on the Uplands of Western New York, W. E. Evans . . 1230 Muck Soils in New York: Their Nature and Distribution, E. O. Eippin 1238 Growing Vegetables on Muck Lands, Paul Work 1246 The Canning Industry from the Grower 's Standpoint, S. J. Cook 1252 Canning on the Farm, C. 0. Warford 1258 Why Organize a Canning Club, E. H. Forristall 1267 Vegetable Forcing in New York State, H. W. Schneck 1275 The Farm Garden, William Hotaling 1289 Soil and Fertilizers for Vegetables, J. F. Barker 1298 Good Seed, C. B. Myers 1305 The Seed Business from the Dealers ' Standpoint, H. W. Gordinier .... 1310 Growing Early Plants, E. H. Hallett , JL314 Diseases of Vegetables, J. C. Jagger 1320 Some Insects Injurious to Vegetables, Glenn W. Herrick 1341 '^ Irrigating Vegetables in New York, Paul Work 1351 Marketing Vegetables, C. E. White 1358 Vegetable Gardening at Cornell, Paul Work 1362 New York State Vegetable Growers' Association and its Work, Paul Work 1367 Exhibition of Vegetables, Paul Work 1372 Potatoes, Edward van Alstyne 1374 Onions, W. H. Ellis 1392 Tomatoes, C. C. Hulsart 1401 Cabbage, E. N. Eeed 1412 Cucumbers, C. E, White 1426 Cauliflower,, A. E. Wilkinson 1432 Brussels Sprouts 1449 Celery, Henry GrefCrath 1460 Asparagus, C. C. Hulsart 1471 Melons,. Chas. D. Barton 1483 Squashes and Pumpkins 1491 Peas, A. E. Wilkinson 1494 Beans,. H. E. Cox 1504 Lettuce, W. L. Bonney 1520 Sweet Corn, A. E. Wilkinson 1527 Pop Corn, J. G. Curtis 1534 Mushrboms, P. K. Nott 1539 Horse Eadish, Edward van .Alstyne , 1547 The Importance of Vegetables in the. Dietary, Ida S. Harrington 1549 Legal .Weights and Measures of Vegetables Sold in New York State, J. H. Farrell ^^^^ Guide for Vegetable Growers (Table) 1559 ...... 1560 Statistics . Keferenoe Books for Vegetable Grow;ers 1562 1565 [1209] ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Pig. 340. Bow of Commission Merchants Near Harlem Market 1216 Pig. 341. Conserving Moisture by Thorough Tillage 1218 Fig. 342. Overhead Irrigation 1220 Pig. 343. Typical Long Island Market Wagon 1222 Fig. 344. Mature Carrots in Cold Frames 1223 Fig. 345. Carrots Matured in Cold Frames in the Fall 1224 Fig. 346. Parsley in Cold Frames in Autumn 1225 Pig. 347. Barrels of Kraut Heady for Shipment 1226 Fig. 348. Barrels of Tomatoes in a Brine Solution 1227 Pig. 349. Retailers' Push Carts on the Streets of New York 1228 Pig. 350. Getting Eeady for Market 1233 Fig. 351. Vegetable Washing Machine 1234 Fig. 35'2. Map Showing Important Areas of Muck Soils 1242 Fig. 353. Plank Drag 1248 Fig. 354. A Canning Outfit in Operation 1258 Pig. 355. Everyone Becomes Useful in the Canning Season 1259 Pig. 356. Steam Pressure Canner with Firebox 1260 Pig. 357. The Clothes Boiler Used as a Sterilizer 1261 Pig. 358. Capping a Can with Eound Capping Steel 1262 Pig. 359. Tipping a Can with Solder 1263 Pig. 360. Girls of the Neighborhood Were Called in to Help 1264 Fig. 361. Demonstrating the Canning of Apples 1268 Fig. 362. The Finished Product 1270 Pig. 363. A Club Member's Fruit Closet 1271 Pig. 364. Canning Club Exhibits in the Farm Bureau Tent 1272 Fig. 365. Type of Greenhouse with Which Gardeners Begin Vegetable Forcing 1277 Pig. '366. A One- Acre Eange at Irondequoit 1278 Pig. 367. A Modern Vegetable House 1279 Fig. 368. Planting Lettuce in a Large Commercial House 1281 Fig. 369. Cucumbers Trained on an Overhead Trellis 1283 Fig. 370. A Greenhouse Crop of Tomatoes at Irondequoit 1285 Pig. 371. String Beans and Carrots from the Home Garden 1289 Fig. 372. Three Types of Carrots. 1290 Fig. 373. Harvesting Snap Beans 1293 Pig. 374. Celery Blanched by Means of Boards 1295 Pig. 375. Result of Planting Unreliable Seed 1305 Fig. 376. Variation in Germination of Jersey Wakefield Cabbage Seed. 1307 Pig. 377. Variation in Yield of Strains of Charleston Wakefield Cabbages 1308 Fig. 378. Tomatoes Grown on Stakes 1315 Fig. 379. Simplest P'orm of Manure Hotbed 1317 Pig. 380. A Cloth-Covered Cold Frame 1318 Fig. 381. Root Knot of Greenhouse Cucumbers 1324 Fig. 382. Asparagus Rust 1325 Fig. 383. Bean Anthracnose 1326 [1210] Illusteations 1211 Fig. 384. Bean Blight 1327 Fig. 385. Club Eoot of Cabbage 1328 Fig. 386. Celery Blight 1329 Fig. 387. Celery Pink Rot 1331 Fig. 388. Celery Pink Rot Fungus on Carrots 1332 Fig. 389. Cucumber Wilt 1333 Fig. 390. Cucumber Downy Mildew ^. 1334 Fig. 391. Cucumber "White Pickle 1335 Fig. 392. Rhizoctonia Rot of Lettuce 1336 Fig. 393. Onion Smut 1338 Fig. 394. Pea Blight 1339 Fig. 395. Cabbage Root Maggot 1341 Fig. 396. Tarred Paper Cards, Properly and Improperly Put On. 1342 Fig. 397. Imported Cabbage Butterfly 1343 Fig. 398. Parts of Cabbage Leaf with Eggs, Caterpillars and Chrysalis 1343 Fig. 399. Cabbage Plant Wrapped with Stiff Paper as a Protection Against Cutworms 1344 Fig. 400. The Squash Bug 1345 Fig. 401. Eggs of a Squash Bug on a Leaf 1345 Pig. 402. Striped 'Cucumber Beetle 1346 Fig. 403. Common Asparagus Beetle 1347 Fig. 404. Spotted Asparagus Beetle 1348 Fig. 405. Two Common Potato Plea Beetles 1348 Fig. 406. Potato Stalk with Beetle at Work 1349 Fig. 407. Where the Nozzle Lines Join the Main 1352 Fig. 408. Overhead Irrigation 1354 Pig. 409. A Well-Finished and a Poorly -Finished Tomato Package. . . . 1359 Fig. 410. 'Students' Garden Work at Cornell 1362 Fig. 411. Syracuse Growers Visit Cornell Gardens at Ithaca 1363 Fig. 412. A Cornell Cooperative Test of Onion Varieties 1365 Pig. 413. Group of Delegates to New York State Vegetable Growers' Association Meeting 1368 Fig. 414. Package Exhibits of Growers' Association, State Fair, 1912. . 1369 Fig. 415. Exhibit of Growers' Association, State Fair, 1913 1370 Fig. 416. Potato Field of H. F. Horton, Stephentown, N. Y 1375 Fig. 417. Variation in Progeny of Three Individual Tubers of Ver- mont Gold Coin Potatoes 1377 Fig. 418. Variation in Yielding Capacity of Two Individual Tubers Selected from Rural New Yorkers 1378 Fig. 419. The Potato Flea Beetle and Its Work 1384 Fig. 420. Spraying Potatoes with Knapsack Sprayer 1385 Fig. 421. Potato Plant Attacked by Late Blight 1388 Fig. 422. Map Showing Potato Acreage 1391 Fig. 423. Crates Ready to Receive the Onion Crop 1394 Fig. 424. Onions Stored in Crates in Field for Curing 1396 Fig. 425. Onion Curing Shed and Storage House 1397 Fig. 426. Map Showing Onion Acreage 1399 Fig. 427. New Stone Tomato 1402 Pig. 428. Well-Grown Tomato Plants Ready for Transplanting 1404 Fig. 429. Tomatoes Growing at Will, the General Practice Where Grown for Canning 1406 1212 The Vegetable Industry m New Yoek State PAGE Kg. 430. Map Showing Tomato Acreage 1^08 Pig. 431. Allhead Early Cabbage 1413 rig. 432. A Crop of Danish Cabbage 1414 Fig. 433. Good and Poor Types of Cabbage of the Same Variety 1416 Pig. 434. Master 's Plant Setter 1418 Fig. 435. Plant Setter in Action 1418 Fig. 436. Planet Jr. Cultivator Arranged as a Market Gardener's Horse Hoe 1419 Fig. 437. Cultivator with Hoes and Sweep in Position for Shallow "Work ■ 1419 Pig. 438. Arrangement of Hoes and Sweep for Shallow Cultivation 1420 Pig. 439. Map Showing Cabbage Acreage 1424 Pig. 440. Field of Cucumbers on Farm of White Farm Co 1426 Pig. 441. Five Grades into Which the Ionia Growers' Association Sort Their Cucumbers 1427 Fig. 442. Loading Cucumbers at Ionia Backing House 1429 Pig. 443. Map Showing Cucumber Acreage 1430 Fig. 444, Showing Eesult of Unfavorable Conditions on Cauliflower.. 1432 Pig. 445. Map Showing Cauliflower Acreage 1447 Pig. 446. Celery on Muck Land 1461 Pig. 447. Blanching the Early Celery Crop 1462 Pig. 448. Late Celery Banked with Earth for Blanching 1463 Fig. 449. Greenhouse for Celery, on Farm of Henry Greffrath 1464 Fig. 450. Slate Ditch at So. Lima, Celery Land on Either Side 1466 Pig. 451. Attractively Packed Celery Ready for Market 1468 Fig. 452. Map Showing Celery Acreage 1469 Fig. 453. Asparagus Plants, Three Months Old 1472 Pig. 454. Asparagus Cutting Bed 1474 Pig. 455. Map Showing Asparagus Acreage 1480 Fig. 456. Map Showing Melon Acreage 1488 Fig. 457. The Gradus or Prosperity Pea (One of the Earliest Large Growing Wakefield Varieties) 1494 Fig. 458. Map Showing Acreage of Dry Peas 1502 Fig. 459. Beans and Corn in August 1505 Fig. 460. Field of Marrow Beans Near Maturity 1506 Fig. 461. Field of Bed Kidney Beans on Farm of E. C. Brown 1509 Fig. 462. Beans on Farm of M. C. Burritt 1511 Fig. 463. Bean Harvesting on Farm of M. C. Burritt 1513 Fig. 464. Well-Filled Bean Pods 1514 Fig. 465. Field of Beans Curing in the Cock 1517 Fig. 466. Map Showing Bean Acreage 1519 Fig. 467. Lettuce Grown on Muck Land 1521 Fig. 468. A Well-Developed Head of Hanson Lettuce 1B23 Fig. 469. Map Showing Lettuce Acreage 1525 Pig. 470. Map Showing Sweet Corn Acreage 1532 Pig. 471. Mushrooms Grown in Boxes Under Greenhouse Bench 1540 Fig. 472. Shelf Beds in Warm Cellar 1542 Fig. 473. Mushrooms Attractively Packed for Market 1544 Pig. 474. Package Beady for Shipment . '. I545 Pig. 475. Brick Spawn 154g INTRODUCTION Since the long ago when " the Lord God planted a garden east- ward " and set man " to dress and to keep it " that he might live from the fruits thereof, gardens large and small have occupied an important place in man's affairs, even though, falling into a more savage state, he became more or less a carnivorous animal. For the most part he has remained such until the present, when in our most civilized countries the scarcity and high price of meat is of necessity turning mankind back to a better diet, made up more largely of " the fruits of the ground " rather than the flesh of " beasts of the field." Few realize how great is this industry among the many in our state's agriculture, vegetables exceeding in valvie both the wheat and the corn crop. With these facts in mind it is readily apparent that the subject of vegetable growing should loom large; and in the series of bulletins which the Bureau of Farmers' Institutes in the New York State Department of Agriculture is publishing, should occupy an early and conspicuous place. Two thoughts have been uppermost: first, that it may contain specific directions which will be of material help to all classes in meeting the varied problems with which the gardener has to con- tend; second, that it shall set forth to our own people and to the many from outside our borders — whose minds are turning hither as a possible dwelling place — the magnitude and variety of the business, as well as the many sections particularly well adapted by nature to one or more lines of vegetable growing, within easy reach of some of the world's best markets. To accomplish this purpose the compiler has enlisted the serv- ices of scientists from our Stations to advise as to soils, fertilizers, diseases and insect pests ; also specialists in growing or handling various vegetables — from the seed to the market and table — both from our own state and beyond, in order that it might be cosmopolitan and not warped by local prejudice or sectional limi- tations. The fundamentals treated are applicable everywhere. [1213] 1214 Intboduction To all who have so freely contributed of their best, the compiler would record his obligation and appreciation ; particularly to those personal friends from whom he has exacted and received tribute, chief among whom are Mr. Paul Work and Mr. A. E. Wilkinson, of Cornell University, without whose advice and assistance this bulletin could not have been issued. Those interested in the subject are made up of all sorts and conditions of men, including not only the child with the strip of ground so dear to his heart, which has first brought him in touch with Nature's wonderful mysteries of the development of the seed into the living plant, and which has engendered a love for the soil never forgotten; the urban dweller with his circumscribed garden plot, whose hours of sunshine are as few as those in the canyons of the mountains, and the farmer with his more ample space — sometimes, alas, like " the field of the slothful and the vineyard of the man void of understanding," yet when properly managed a most potent factor in his farm economy — but also the one who specializes in vegetable growing on a large scale. To all of these whom this volume reaches with the springtime goes the wish on the part of the compiler, that it may be not only pro- ductive of seed sowing, but also assist in a more abundant harvest. MARKET GARDENING IN NEW YORK STATE A. E. Wilkinson Extension Instructor, Department of Vegetable Gardening, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. In order to thoroughly understand what is meant by market gardening, it will be best to define it : " Market gardening is the intensive growing of vegetables, gener- ally on limited areas and very near mar- ket." It may be seen from this definition that one naturally expects to find market gardeners located around all our large cities, and this is true. There are, how- ever, one or two exceptions to this rule, where one may find market gardeners situated a considerable distance from their markets. A noted exception is the Hallock Farm at Orient, IST. Y., where thirty- four acres are under the Skinner irrigation system, all being devoted to intensive vegetable production. Near New York City, on Long Island, are found a great many market gardeners. The soil there is particularly adapted to the growing of vegetables under intensive systems. Most of the men there are Germans, Poles, Belgians, or from other European countries. Very few greenhouses are used; most of the forcing work is accomplished by using hotbeds and cold frames. It is possible to find men who have 3,500 to 4,000 sash on their small farms. The writer is acquainted with a market gardener who has a twenty-acre farm, three acres of which is covered with thirty-five hundred sash, the remainder of the land being under the overhead system of irrigation. Other men with only five acres have from 1,500 to 2,500 sash. All of the product raised by these men is marketed in Brooklyn or New York City, being carried there on wagons and sold from them at an early hour in the morning. The selling takes place in a public market, two of the largest being "Wallabout in Brook- lyn and Harlem in New York. [1215] 1216 The Vegetable Industby in New Yoek State Througli Westchester county are also many market gardens supplying vegetables to the New York market. Newburgh on the Hudson has a group of market gardeners who are very well organized and are catering strictly to the needs of their local market. At Poughkeepsie is found another group of market gardeners who both cater to local market and do a considerable shipping business. There are a few market gardeners at Kings- ton, Catskill, and Hudson, all catering to the local need. Around the capitol district, that is, Albany, Troy, and Schenectady, there are many market gardeners. However, no place in that section is as well known as Watervliet. Here may be found farm after farm devoted to the growing of vegetables for the markets in these KiG. 340. A Row OF Commission Merchants Neab Harlem Market, New York City three large cities. Near Oswego, Watertown, Amsterdam, Utica, Rome, and Herkimer a few market gardeners supply the needs of the local market and in some cases have a surplus which is sent elsewhere. It is possible to find market gardeners about Syracuse no matter in what direction one travels. The tendency among these is to practice some of the more modern ideas. They are slowly getting away from hotbeds and cold frames and working into greenhouses. Most of them have extra choice sandy loam in which to grow their crops. Practically all of the men drive to market, selling their goods in the large public square. Maeket Gaedening in New Yoek State 1317 At Irondequoit, Monroe county, is located the largest greenhouse vegetable forcing community in New York State, there being over a hundred growers, each of whom has one or more glass houses. Practically all of these growers look on hotbeds and cold frames as forcing structures not to be considered in their scheme of farming. The Irondequoit growers should be called the New York State advance guard in the most up-to-date lines of forcing vegetables. They raise radishes and lettuce in the fall, some- times also cucumbers or tomatoes, and cucumbers are often grown in the spring. They also grow a great variety of vegetables on the land outside the forcing structures. Their product is sold locally on the public market from their wagons or to special customers such as hotels, restaurants, and stores. When a surplus is found, it is shipped away to other markets. Near Buffalo there are a great many market gardeners located at Gardenville, Hamburg, Eden, Sanborn, Lancaster, Jewettville, South Wales, and other towns. Many of these are using the hot- beds and cold frames, and a few have the more modern greenhouse structure. All are intensive growers of vegetables outside as well as inside the forcing structures. The product is carried by wagon to the Elk Street or to the Polish market and is there sold. Some of the vegetables are shipped away either through a local association or through the hands of commission men. At Elmira, Ithaca, Cortland, Auburn, Binghamton, Port Jervis, and Middletown are found market gardeners, several being located near each of these cities to supply the local demands. In some cases up-to-date greenhouses are used, supplemented with hotbeds and cold frames, and outside gardening is practiced as well. INTENSIVE CULTURE The intensity of the operations conducted by the men near the different cities is quite apparent when one understands that from their land they are able in a single season to remove from one to three crops. In some cases, particularly on Long Island, even four crops are removed in some years. It is necessary for these men to reap many crops each year because of the high valuation of the land. Near New York City an acre of land is worth almost any price — $5,000 to $7,500 or even more — while in other 1218 The Vegetable Industey in New Yobk State places it seldom fall lower than $250, and in many places aver- ages $1,000 per acre. Another reason is found in the marketing conditions. Com- panion and succession cropping are commonly practiced, a crop such as beets or carrots occupying the land early in the spring, followed by a crop of celery later. Between the celery two rows of lettuce may be sown, making three crops from the same land the same year. Again, peas may be grown early, followed by beets or carrots. Sometimes lettuce or onions are grown between a crop of tomatoes when the tomatoes are young. The men take every advantage of the space and the season, working, if possible, to obtain the maximum yield and the maximum number of crops from every piece of land. It is then quite evident to some people Fie. 341. Conserving Moisture by Thorough Tillage that a man with a five-acre farm is really cultivating a farm of fifteen or twenty acres where he uses succession crops. A wide diversity of crops is raised and not one specialty, because the men have markets to supply that demand a great variety of vegetables. Also, if the grower wishes to hold his trade, he should be on the market nearly every day, often selling some particular crop at a very small profit rather than losing trade. In order to carry out this plan, it is absolutely necessary to grow many different crops and at different seasons. Market Gaedening in New Yoek State 1219 stable manuee and tillage All of the market gardeners use large quantities of manure. Very few of them understand the use of commercial fertilizer. Often forty to sixty tons of manure are applied to each acre each year. The result from this liberal manuring is that the soil has a very fine texture. Crops grow very rapidly, of large size, and are, therefore, very desirable. Most of the market gardeners practice deep preparation of the soil, following with thorough fining and smoothing, the preparation of the soil being of the utmost importance with these men. After the plowing and fitting many gardeners do not utilize the horse at all in their work, pre- ferring to use the man-power wheeled planters and cu.ltivators. By this method the crops are planted very close together, result- ing in obtaining a larger yield from each acre. Much more hand labor is used than in any other line of farming. Often ten to fifteen workers are found at times on a five-acre garden, and on the larger gardens, such as a twenty or twenty-five acre farm, from three to five laborers per acre are often utilized profitably. HOME-GROWN SEED In some places, particularly among the market gardeners of Long Island, a certain amoimt of seed is raised. Thus, to a certain extent, these gardeners are independent of the seed houses, es- pecially for particular vegetables. It would be indeed difficult to duplicate the celery raised by these Long Island men from seed produced by them, and this could also be said of the lettuce which they grow from their own seed in the hotbeds and cold frames. lEEIGATION AND MARKETING Slowly these market gardeners are realizing the importance of controlling one more factor — that is, water — and thus prevent- ing drought. On Long Island there are several men who have ten acres or more under irrigation. In other parts of ISTew York State irrigation systems are being installed and successfully used, particularly at Irondequoit and Syracuse. Practically all of the material raised on these market gardening farms is carried to the cities on the teams or auto trucks owned by the market gardeners. Most of the teams have a certain place in the markets 1220 The Vegetable Industry in New Yoek State Market Gardening in New York State 1221 and are found at these stands each morning during the week. Besides placing their teams on the markets, many of the growers have private trade — hotels, restaurants, stores, and the like. Here they deliver their high-class product early in the morning. Some of the best growers send to the city from three to five loads or more each day during the summer, a certain number attending the market and others looking after the local demands. It is an interesting scene as well as an educational opportunity to visit and study any one of the large city markets, such as the Wallabout or Harlem market in New York City or the public markets at Troy, Syracuse, Rochester, or Buffalo. Many of the smaller cities are establishing public marketing places, much to the ad- vantages of the producer and the consumer. VEGETABLE GROWING ON LONG ISLAND W. B. NiSSLEY Department of Vegetable Gardening, New York State School of Agriculture, Farmingdale, L. I. There are three distinct phases of com- mercial vegetable growing developed to a high degree on Long Island, namely: 1. Market gardening, which is highly developed on the western end of the island within driving distance of the large whole- sale and retail markets of New York City. 2. The growing of vegetables for the can- ning and pickling industry throughout the central part of the island. 3. Truck gardening in the eastern part of the island, which is more remote from the large markets. MAPiKET GARDENING ilarket gardening is the chief agricultural occupation on the western end of Long Island. Land as a rule is very high priced ;■•'«• ■:»,;.... \.». -MI^^^^^HI ■■ ^fi'JnHt^ ■ ' • • m KB^K^^' mI^Kf ' '. --^k , _-*--a* aew^-^^i^-" I^HH^^Bb- i^m .. %.i^: Fig. 343. Typical Long Islats^d Market Wagon in Harlem Wholesale Market — in many cases it is worth several thousand dollars an acre and in some cases even more ; therefore, the methods practiced are very [1222] Vegetable Growing on Long Island 1223 a o D B „ p. u O o 1224 The Vegetable Indctstey in New Yoek State intensive. A great deal of hand work is resorted to in cultivat- ing. Companion and succession cropping are developed to a high degree. Large areas of glass are used in the form of cold frames in order that a continuous supply and a large assortment of vege- tables can be marketed during as many months of the year as pos- sible. There are very few forcing houses in the form of green- houses, since much of the land is rented and therefore no perma- nent improvements are made. A great proportion of the gardeners are foreigners — Poles, Italians and Germans. The marketing is usually done personally, by attending the large wholesale and re- tail markets of ISTew York City. The style of the Long Island market wagon is peculiar to this section and parts of Xew Jersey adjacent to New York, t The load of vegetables is usually sold wholesale, sometimes by the load and sometimes by the barrel, bushel or crate. [The grower likes to sell his vegetables as soon as possible and return home in order that a day's work can be done. The cold frames are used as early in the spring as weather c o n d i- tions permit. Sometimes the seed bed is pre- pared in the fall and left until January or Feb- ruary when seed can be sown. The first early cold frame crops consist mostly of salad plants, such as lettuce, endive and parsley, and such crops as radishes, early beets, carrots, etc. The crops grown in the open ground include vegetables that can be grown commercially in this latitude; the assortment is very large. Cold frames are also brought to use^ in the fall and winter by growing such vegetables as beets, parsley, carrots and parsnips in the frames during the fall, and covering them over with glass during severe weather. In this way these crops can be bunched during December and January. Fig. 345. Carrots Matured in Cold Frames in the Fall, to be Protected With Glass and Bunched Duk- iNG THE Winter, Elmhurst, L. I. Vegetable Geowing on Long Isla? A>;ii 1221 w E-i a 15 M M D O Q iJ O a (? o <1 < P4 C5 1226 The Vegetable Industry in New York State The market gardening section is represented on the map by (1) or that part of the Island west of Hicksville. There are also small market gardening sections in other parts of the Island to supply local towns and summer resorts, but the main section is con- fined to the area mentioned. Large quantities of manure are used by these gardeners. A carload, or from 20 to 40 tons per acre, is not an exceptional appli- cation. This puts the soil (which is usually quite sandy) in ideal physical condition for working and holding fertility and moisture. The moisture factor is a very important one and some growers who own their small farms have installed and are installing the overhead system of irrigation. The auto truck is taking an important place in marketing the produce. Larger loads and very much less time is spent on the way by the use of truck. VEGETABLES FOR THE CANNING AND PICKLING INDUSTRY That part of the Island designated on the map by figure (2) is the section is which is raised large quantities of cucumbers and Fig. 347. Barbels of Keaut in a Box Car Ready for 'Shipment, Huntington, L. I. tomatoes for pickling, and cabbage for kraut. These crops are raised on an extensive scale and very often in connection with gen- eral farming. Vegetable Growing on Long Island 1227 In the case of cucumbers, especially, the soil is given careful attention in its preparation. Manure is the chief fertilizer used as the water retaining capacity of the soil is very important for this crop. Large- quantities of commercial fertilizer are not de- sirable from the canners' standpoint as the cucumbers grown under these conditions do not hold up as well after they are salted. Dill pickles are the chief product of the pickling factories. The crop comes on about the first or second week in August and con- tinues as long as the growers can fight the blight by thorough and frequent sprayings with bordeaux mixture. The pickles are sold to the canneries by the thoiisand, and from fifty to eighty thousand is a good yield per acre. The average price paid is about $2.50 to $2.Y5 per thousand. Fig. 348. Barrels of Tomatoes in a Brine Solution. Also Shows Car- load OF Manure and Part of Canning Factory When the pickles are brought to the factory they are put into wine barrels into which has been placed some dill and about a quart of mixed spices ; dill is also placed at the top of the barrels, after which they are securely headed and filled through the bung with a brine solution. The pickles are then allowed to ferment for several months. The tomatoes, which follow cucumbers very closely, arc also placed in a brine solution. Cabbage for kraut is trimmed, cored and shredded into large, 1228 The Vegetable Industry in New Yoek State wooden tanks holding about 20 tons. Fine salt is scattered be- tween the layers of shredded cabbage. It is allowed to remain this way for ten days or two weeks, after which it may be put into barrels and shipped to market by the carload, while the tanks are refilled. Cauliflower is also pickled to some extent. Long Island dill pickles and sauerkraut have a wide reputation for their quality. TRUCK GARDENING Truck gardening is carried on very extensively in the eastern part of Long Island in connection with general farming. This \J section is represented on the map by figures (4) and (5) and roughly comprises that part of the Island east of Manorville and Calverton. Fig. 349. Eetailees' Push Carts on the Streets of New York On the Northern Peninsula (4) the chief truck crops grown -^are cauliflower, potatoes, (early and late) brussels sprouts and lima beans. The cauliflower industry is very highly developed and enjoys a wide reputation for high quality. Practically every V farmer in this territory grows as much cauliflower as he can well handle. The crop is sold almost altogether through the Long Jsland Cauliflower Association which is in a very thriving condi- tion and takes a great deal of responsibility along the lines of mar- keting from the growers. As these growers are remote from the markets and cannot market their products personally, representa- Vegetable Geowing on Long Island 1229 tives of the association handle the produce in the city. The asso- ciation also sells cauliflower in carload lots to other large markets such as New Orleans, St. Louis and Chicago. On the eastern end of the island early potatoes dug in August are an important crop and good prices are usually realized. Far- ther west the late crop is the important one. It has been estimated that this year, which was a very good year for potatoes on Long^ Island, the crop approached 3,000,000 bushels. These have been largely sold in the past through the Long Island Potato Exchange, although great quantities are also sold through other sources. Lima beans are growing in popularity and the acreage is increas---' ing; it is one of the newer crops in this section. They are sold green by the bushel. Brussels sprouts are also grown extensively and sold during the fall and winter. On the southern peninsula (5) cauliflower and brussels sprouts are not grown commercially, due to unfavorable climatic and soil conditions. A Potatoes and lima beans are the chief vegetable crops, i Due to the scarcity and high price of manure in the east- ern part of the Island, cover crops are grown to a great extent, mostly rye; large quantities of commercial fertilizers are used, very often as high as one, ton per acre for cauliflower and potatoes. The produce is practically all carried by railroad to Ifew York City. During the cauliflower season a special train is run each day collecting cars of cauliflower from Southold to Manorville and- thence direct to Xew York. There is a small trade across the sound to New London and Bridgeport, Connecticut. That section of the map indicated by figure (3) is undeveloped;, much of it is in a wild state, overgrown with pines, scrub oak and small sprouts. However, there are numerous cleared spots or farms. Throughout the central part of the Island, around Middle 7 Island, Yaphank, Manorville, Selden and Holtzville, fruit grow- ing is very popular, especially peaches. There are several or- chards containing over 100 acres. Shelter Island is also an apple producing section and some vegetables are grown there. "'TDhe north and south shores are very rapidly becoming more and more popular as summer resorts and draw thousands of people each season. For this reason there is quite a local demand for fresh vegetables and a number of growers are taking advantage of the opportunity. TRUCK GARDENING ON THE UPLANDS OF WESTERN NEW YORK W. E. Evans, Alden, N. Y. ADVANTAGES OF SECTIONS ABOUT BUFFALO AND CHAEACTEB OF THE FARMS A light, sandy loam; an excellent market for vegetables in Buffalo ; a cheap source of stable manure in the same city and good roads leading to it, make AA'estern New York particularly adapted to vegetable growing. By far the largest part of the vegetables/ used in Buffalo is raised on small farms located just beyond the city limits. The land originally belonged to a religious sect known as " Ebenezers," who, when they moved to Iowa, divided their farm land into lots about thirty acres in size. As a result the farms in this section are all of this size or a multiple thereof, fifteen being a common acreage. The average amount of land devoted to the raising of vegetables is ten. the remainder being devoted to growing feed for the farm animals. The worth of this land is determined by the possibility of cutting it into city lots rather than by its fertility. Few of the farms which are for sale can be bought for less than $500 per acre. Railroads paid $1,000 per acre for land they bought, and after it is cut up into city lots it is worth $1,200 per aery. M^ TYPE OF SOIL AND CLIMATIC CONDITIONS No one particular soil type is common in this section although the light, sandy loams predominate. Some are creek bottom land and have excellent drainage in the form of a gravel subsoil, while others have a hardpan subsoil. A few are heavy clays. In this narrow strip surrounding Buffalo the seasons are about [1230] Teuck Gaedbning of Western New Yokk 1231 two weeks later than in the more inland section, due to the influence of the cold winds from Lake Erie. The prevailing winds come from the west and bring abundant snows and rainfall dur- ing the late winter and early spring, but the summers are often dry. NEED AND METHOD OF DRAINAGE The drainage for the most part is naturally poor and nearly every farm has more or less tile drain. About 1,500 feet of tile to the acre is required. It is placed on an average of three and one-half feet below the surface, although I know of one instance where a tile was laid fifteen feet in order to get through a knoll and drain a hollow spot. Glazed tile, seldom over four inches' in diameter, are used. They are given a fall of not less than one inch to a hundred feet and are interspersed with numerous silt basins. Experience has proven that tile laid more than ^en or twelve feet apart, if three and one-half feet deep, are not effective quickly enough to save the delicate root systems of the leafy vegetables. , In many instances it was necessary for several farmers to cooperate and join main tile to secure outlets for the water. In a few cases part of the farm has a gravelly subsoil and part a hardpan. In such farms the clays are drained by leading a tile to the gravel and allowing the water to drain away in that manner. In a few cases quicksand was encountered. Here a concrete bottom was made before laying the tile. 1 About 85 per cent, of the farmers have tiled to some extent, while 30 per cent, have a complete system of tile drainage. The natural system rather than the gridiron system has been adopted. MANURE AND METHODS OF HANDLING These farmers secure their manure from the Buffalo stables drawing two or even three loads each week. Sometimes two c farmers cooperatively contract to keep a stable clean by drawing a load each day. Enormous quantities of manure are used and sometimes it seems impossible to plow it under. The manure is / made from shavings instead of straw bedding and in the case of the breweries it contains many hops. Both of these tend to sour the soil. 1232 The Vegetable Industey in New York State Nearly every farmer has learned the value of lime, and hy cooperating they buy in carload lots. They use quicklime entirely and either air or v^ater slake it themselves. Again they cooperated and bought a community lime drill v^hich spreads the iine powder without any danger to man or beast, and, besides distributing it evenly, the desired quantity can be applied by regulating the flow. The truck farmers of Western New York are giving no little attention to the care of the manure. Drawing, as they do, such large quantities in the winter months when they cannot operate their spreaders, it is necessary to make great piles about three feet deep and often a hundred feet long. To this they add rock phos- phate or acid phosphate at the rate of fifty pounds to the ton. This pile is turned twice and sometimes three times before it is spread on the fields. Some of this manure is used for top dressing to conserve moisture, much is used in hot bed construction and the remainder is plowed under. In addition to this, nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia and sheep manure are purchased. These are used for forcing such crops as lettuce, spinach, etc., or to promote rapid growth to overcome blights or rusts. GEOWIJSTG SEBDLUSTGS // Each farmer reserves more or less space for cold frames and vhotbeds. These are used chiefly for growing seedlings for trans- planting, but a few farmers raise hotbed lettuce for the market. Many farmers find profit in raising seedlings of both vegetables V and flowers. These are sold to the Buffalo people who used them in their back yards. Cabbage and tomato seedlings are especially popular. MARKETING The farmers take a load of crated vegetables to market and bring back a load of " empties." They sell by wholesale only to commission merchants, wholesalers or hucksters, and by telephone can keep in touch with the buyers at all times. Usually the whole load is ordered goods so that all that is necessary is to deliver it and take orders for the noxt day. The growers take great pride in grading their goods and selling Al vegetables in boxes marked as such. Teuck Gardening of Western New Yokk 1233 The marketing facilities of this section are ideal. A farmer can go to the Buffalo markets, deliver his goods, take his orders for the next day and get home before noon. Nearly all the roads, leading to Buffalo are brick paved and afford excellent traveling facilities for these men. LABOEEES Laborers are abundant. Hundreds of Polish vpomen walk from Buffalo to these farms and work for from $1 to $1.10 a day. They furnish their own lunch at noon, and are usually supplied with something to drink by the farmer. They are as a rule very skilled weeders, bunchers and washers, and tie up a surprisingly large amount of celery in a ten-hoiir day. Fig. 350. G-ETTixG Ready for M.\kket Men do all the team work — plowing, harrowing, marketing — while the women do the trimming, bunching, washing and packing. Several farmers have washing machines which are very effective and economical. In a general way they consist of two cylinders over which is stretched a continuous carrier. As the carrier moves along the vegetables are placed on it and as they pass from one end to the other, water under pressure is forced on them from above and below through the Skinner nozzles. This washes off all dirt 1234 The Vegetable Industey in New Yoek State ^r: ^ ^ -t:0 H O O M « H O aft sg-fi t? aj ft '^ ^ M • v S at S M.I Truck Gaeden-ing of Westeen New York 1235 and does not bruise or break off any of the foliage. The machine is turned by hand and as fast as two can feed it two empty the other end and pack the goods in orange crates. In order to provide work for their help during the winter months, farmers often build greenhouses. With but one exception, however, these are used for flowers instead of vegetables. In this one case the man raises cucumbers. Among the flowers raised are carnations, roses, chrysanthemums, geraniums, asters and ferns. This system keeps one team on the road all the time hauling manure, coal or produce. CEOPS GEOWN The first crop sown and harvested is the Scarlet Globe radish. Early in the season the Buffalo market demands large green tops but later in the season smaller tops are preferred. Lettuce is sovra about the same time but matures a little later. The radishes are tied into bunches and sold by the dozen bunches. Lettuce is packed in orange crates, usually two dozen to a crate, and is sold by the crate. Although Western New York is famous for the growing of late cabbage, nevertheless this section in order to feed Buffalo must raise a little of everything. Next to cabbage the most extensively raised crops are: lettuce, beets, tomatoes, celery, radishes and cauliflower. Occasionally one will find a farmer who makes a practice of supplying a certain kind of crop to a particular firm. One farmer makes a specialty of parsley for hotels and dining cars, another has an extensive trade in oyster plants, while another has made a specialty of small white onions for pickling. ADVANTAGES OF HOME-GEOWN PEODUCTS The products of this vicinity do not compete in the Buffalo market with greenhouse or southern-grown vegetables. The peo- ple of Buffalo have been educated to demand home-grovni goods. ' This demand has been created by producing a quality of goods which are better flavored than shipped goods. Even muck raised vegetables stand little show beside these upland vegetables. As soon as the home-grown goods come on the market the shipped 1236 The Vegetable Industry m jSTew Yoek Stats vegetables are pushed aside. Many of the grocerymen advertise home-grovs^n vegetables as a specialty. The seed from vs^hich these men raise their crops is largely pur- chased from the various agents who scour the country. The farmers have learned that the seed companies specialize in their products and they therefore buy these specialties rather than give 'all their orders to one company. On the other hand, a few farmers raise their own seed.. Much of the onion seed is home grown. In fact, " Ebenezer onion " is famous over the state and commands a high price as seed or sets. One or two farmers have been raising their own cabbage seed but they never sell any. One strain of cabbage seed is about twenty years old and ap- parently as good as ever. INCOME AND EXPENSE The income from these farms varies with the seasons and the conditions of the markets. The farmers usually figure on three crops — one to pay interest, insurance and taxes ; one to pay the help, and the third for profit. If any one crop fails or is a partial failure it immediately spoils that farmer's chances of mak- a profit. No figures on net profit are available but gross receipts for a farm of ten acres ranges from $5,000 to $20,000 a year. Of course a very large percentage of this is spent for help, since vege- table gardening always requires much care in tilling, weeding, manuring and getting it ready for the market. Very few of these farmers keep cows, pigs or hens so that the products from these animals must be purchased. MOEE DISTANT SECTIONS / The second area of upland truck raising farms lies about fif- teen or twenty miles outside of Buffalo. It is difficult to draw crops to Buffalo from these sections so most of the goods are shipped. In the first area every farmer is a gardener with a green- house or two on the side, while in the second section many are general farmers raising some vegetables as a side line. There are few real truck raisers who raise vegetables exclusively. Large areas of cabbage, cauliflower and tomatoes are shipped to various points. In this section they have no hold on the Buffalo market Truck Gaedening of Western New York 1237 sucli as the others more favorably situated. They have formed associations which hire managers to look after the shipping and ^- grading of the goods. These farmers also raise much hay and enormous quantities of potatoes. They keep a cow or two, raise hogs for home consumption and have a small flock of hens, usually of mongrel breeds. Nevertheless both classes of farmers are prosperous, each liking their own method of farming better than the other. MUCK SOILS IN NEW YORK: THEIR NATURE AND DISTRIBUTION Elmer 0. Fippin Professor of Soil Technology, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Muck soil is made of the partially decayed remains of plants that have accumulated in swampy places. The swampy condition is responsible for their occurrence. Muck soils should be difFerentiated from those swampy soils that are rich in organic matter but not sufficiently rich so that they are combustible. There is a wide range in the character of such material. The plant substances of which it is composed may be only slightly decayed, in which case the material is fibrous and shows the plant tissues. Such a soil is called peat and because of its high content of organic matter is sometimes used for fuel. Muck soil represents the advanced stage of decay of the organic matter where the material has lost its fibrous nature and become fine and pulverant. All degrees of decay may be encountered and there is consequently a wide variation in the physical properties and, therefore, in the agricultural value of the material. GENERAL CHAEACTEEISTICS The chief characteristics of muck soil may be summarized as follows : 1. It is predominately organic in nature and has a dark brown or black color. The more advanced the stage of decay the darker is the color. 2. It is accumulated under swampy conditions and is naturally saturated with water. The material has a very large capacity for water and will absorb from 60 to 85 per cent, of its volume of water. 3. The shrinkage of the material when it dries is very large. Consequently, when completely drained the deeper deposits may settle two or three feet. Ordinarily the settling is a few inches to a foot or more. [1238] Muck Soils in IJ^ew Yokk 1239 4. The plasticity of tlie material is low. In the peat material it is especially lacking but is better developed in the muck soil. 5. Muck and peat land is deficient in potash and requires heavy applications of that material for crop production. 6. The climate of muck soil is inclined to be frosty. This results from the position of the material in hollows and from its large water content. Such materials accumulate the cold air in spring, and the warming of the soil is delayed by its large water content. OEIGIW The origin of the material is suggested by its primary charac- teristics. It represents the accumulation of various kinds of plant remains over a long period of years. Upon the death of the plants their materials have been covered by the swamp water where the air is excluded and where antiseptic properties have been devel- oped, both of which hinder decomposition. Decay goes on more slowly than the accumulation and consequently the deposits have been built up from year to year until frequently they have attained depths of 30 to 40 feet. Usually, however, the depth is from 2 to 10 feet. KINDS OF PLANTS THAT FOEM MUCK There is a considerable variation in the kind of plants that make up muck and peat deposits. They vary not only with dif- ferent areas but at different depths in the same area. Sometimes they start on the border of a lake and gradually build themselves out over the surface of the water until the lake is filled. In other cases the water is sufiiciently shallow so that the first plants find rooting on the bottom and gradually fill the lake with the plant materials. The following types of vegetation have been recognized as responsible for such accumulations : 1. Mosses, including the floating forms that live on the edge of open water. Sphagnum moss is one of the common varieties that contributes largely to the latter stages of muck formation. 2. Grasses and flags. These grow luxuriantly where the water level is near the surface of the land and in time they may form large accumulations. The Montezuma marsh is representative of this type. 1240 The Vegetable Industry in New York State 3. After the muck and peat has accumulated until it has reached the surface of the water of the swamp and affords a fairly firm foundation, various types of shrub and tree growth de- velop. When the land is especially wet, cedar and tamarack fre- quently develops. The latter survives out nearly to the edge of open water. 4. In the latter stages, various hardwood trees are introduced. The more common of these are elm, black ash and soft maple. This latter type of vegetation is generally characteristic of an advanced stage in muck formation. Frequently cedar is inter- spersed with the hardwood species. The large growth of hard- wood trees and of weeds and shrub plants is one of the best indi- cations of the agricultural value of muck soil. When it will sup- port such plants it is very certain to be suitable, with little treat- ment, for the growth of agricultural crops. Where the vegetation is predominately cedar and tamarack — species rich in resin — the resulting soil is likely to be loose and peaty and has a low agricultural value. It may be that the resinous matter in the wood interferes with decay. Such soil inclines to be dry and has a poor relation to moisture. Where the prevailing timber is hard- wood with only an occasional specimen of cedar, the crop value is usually good. The muck and peat deposits in New York may be divided into two general groups. The first of these is the tide water swamps under the influence of salt water. Flags and grass are the prevail- ing type of vegetation. They are generally very fibrous and cov- ered by hummocks of plants. The salt water hinders decay. When drained and protected from tidal overflow the salt is grad- ually washed out by the fresh water from the uplands and from rainfall and the soil becomes favorable for cropping. Areas of this soil have been developed on parts of Long Island. The other type is the fresh water swamps in the inland part of the state. Some of these are broad, shallow sheets of muck and peat soil while others are small deposits often of great depth. There is often a considerable difference in the agricultural value of these two types. The first, when drained, is likely to suffer seri- ously from the lack of water because of the poor moisture relations of the material and the fact that the water-table may be too far Muck Soils in New Yoek 1241 below the surface. The smaller areas are often bordered by nu- merous springs which even after drainage keep the water-table fairly near the surface. Such areas are likely to have higher agri- cultural value. The wide variations in the character of muck and peat soil are due to the kind of plants of which it is formed and the stage of decay. The stage of decay varies not only with the area but at different depths in the same area. Where the water level has been permanently at or near the surface, the surface soil is a better quality of muck than the subsoil which is likely to be quite peaty. In other cases, however, a better quality of muck soil is found be- low the surface than at the surface. It is possible that this rep- resents changes in the drainage condition of the area. Some recent obstruction of drainage may have raised the water level and thus renew the process of peat formation. In the deep areas the lower part of the formation is likely to have lost its peaty nature and it sometimes takes on a dark grayish color and a flaky nature. When thoroughly broken up by tillage such material may make good soil. There is a considerablp variation in the underlying material of muck bogs. In every case the ultimate foundation is a clay or some other compact formation which retains the water. Above this there may be a strata of sand, and in the New York areas, espe- cially through the middle part of the state from Buffalo eastward, deep accumulations of marl are common. These marl deposits are made up chiefly of lime carbonate. Shells of mussels are abundant but the origin of the material seems to be due to the growth of a certain type of moss which precipitates lime carbonate from the swamp water. In a number of the deposits south of Rochester, the marl is many feet in depth, is of very great purity and is covered by only a thin layer of a few inches to a foot or more of muck. The purer deposits are sometimes used as a source of lime carbonate for the soil, for which purpose when dried and pul- verized they are entirely satisfactory. PEOPOETION OF OEOAiriC MATCTEE Special properties. Muck and peat soil contain from 50 to more than 85 per cent, of organic matter. Usually the more peaty 1242 The Vegetable Industey in !New Yokk State the deposit the higher is the proportion of organic substance. The process of decay consists partially in the destruction of the car- bonaceous material. The process sets free carbon to which is due the brown or black color of the material. Consequently the muck deposits which represent the more advanced stage of decay have the darker color. The muck also has the accumulation of the ash material which increases its content of potash and other mineral elements. The decay also increases the proportion of soluble mate- rial which may be grouped under the general name of humus. The spongy nature of the plant tissues as well as the gelatinous nature of the humus gives the material a very high water capacity which amounts to from 300 to 1,000 or more per cent, of its dry weight. Fresh peat may weigh only 10 to 12 pounds per cubic foot when freed of water. Muck soil has a larger weight and will run from 12 to 20 pounds. The smaller the weight of the dry material per cubic foot the greater is the skrinkage, and this is one indication of the crop value of such land. Material that has an excessive shrinkage should be avoided, especially for intensive crop- ping, until it has reached a more advanced stage of decay. > CHEMICAL COMPOSITIOIsT The chemical analysis of a large number of samples of muck shows them to contain from 1% to 2V2 per cent, of nitrogen, from one-tenth or less to five-tenths per cent, of potash. They may also contain from l^ to I/2 per cent, of sulphur. The nitrogen is de- rived from proteid compounds in the plants. There are no nitrates or nitrites in fresh muck soil and very little free ammonia. The bulk of the nitrogen is in the form of a memo- and mono-ameno compounds, and in the peaty materials a few per cent, of the nitro- compounds, and in the peaty materials a small percentage of the nitrogen may be dimeno- compounds. Under treatment with basic genous organic compounds break down and the ammonia is set free. It is essentially this process that occurs during decay and for that reason muck soil in an active stage of decay is a better medium for plant growth than raw material in which decay is not active. This affords a cue i-n the management of such soil. After drainage, which is the first step, decomposition should be promoted by applications of manure or of rich garden soil. Such material is in the nature of an inoculation. MuoK Soils m New Yobk 12'43 OCCUEEENCE There are in New York State from 800 to 1,000 square miles of muck and peat deposits, and, as suggested above, these are distributed in a large number of areas. They range from areas an acre or more in extent to large sheets containing thousands of acres. Such deposits are most abundant in the northwestern part of the state adjacent to Lake Ontario. A few areas are developed in the southern, eastern and northern part of the state. They are associated with the rough topography where drainage has been much obstructed by glacial action and many of the former lakes and ponds have been filled by accumulations of this sort. The larger areas are found in the Conewango valley in Chautauqua county, in the Caneserago valley in southern Living- ston bounty, the Oak Orchard swamp in northern Genesee county, the Montezuma marshes at the foot of Cayuga lake, Cicero swamp southwest of Oneida lake. Pope Mills swamp, southeastern St. Lawrence county and the Wallkill marsh in the southern part of Orange county. The distribution of such lands is suggested on the accompanying map. IMPEOVEMENT OF MUCK LAND In the reclamation of muck lands, the following steps must be observed : 1. Drainage. The water level should be lowered to a depth of 15 to 30 inches below the surface. Usually, open ditches are em- ployed and may be combined to form extensive canal systems. It is usually desirable to extend the bottom of the small field ditches below the desired water-table in order to quickly remove the water after heavy rains. A check gate should be installed to avoid the excessive lowering of the water. As noted above, the capillary relations of such lands is deficient so that drainage should be car- ried out only to the extent necessary to start crops in the spring. The large shallow areas are most critical in this respect and are likely to suffer seriously from lack of water in the late summer. The depth to which the water-table should be lowered depends very much upon the quality of the muck. The more pulverized its character the deeper should the water-table be held. Those small areas fed by springs, and by which the water-table is maintained 1244 The Vegetable Industey iisr ISTew Yoek State at the bottom of the ditches, are most favorable for agricultural purposes. Underdrains of tile or board boxes may be used in those areas where the water-table is permanently maintained at the level of the base of the drain. This prevents the excessive and unequal shrinkage that is likely to throw the drain out of line. Open ditches are the safer form of drainage and should always be used at the beginning of operation. In a few places in the state under conditions mentioned above, tile drains are operating successfully in muck soil. Of course if the muck is sufficiently shallow so that the tile can rest on the solid material below the muck, the use of underdrains is much preferred to open ditches that seriously inter- fere with tillage operations. In other cases ii-rigation in some way may be very desirable to secure full crop yields. In some cases it is possible to utilize spring water in connection with open and underdrains as a means of sub-irrigation. 2. Applications of lime in the form of caustic lime are fre- quently beneficial. The decay of organic matter produces an acid condition which tends to hinder further decay. Lime not only promotes decomposition but aids in chemical changes of the mate- rial that liberates plantfood. One or two tons per acre shooild be used. Many of the areas in the western part of the state that are associated with marl deposits near the surface probably would not be benefited by applications of lime. 3. A light application of well-rotted stable manure or of rich garden soil serves as an inoculation to promote decomposition. 4. Thorough tillage loosens up the soil and exposes it to aeration and promotes decomposition. Since the material is inclined to be loose, plowing in the fall is preferred where there are no dan- gers from serious washing. The winter saturation aids in com- pacting the material. The tillage operations should be aimed to compact the soil which improves its moisture relations. 5. Commercial fertilizers should be rich in potash and should contain a moderate amount of phosphoric acid and nitrogen. The proportion of these will vary considerably with the deposit and the crop. Perhaps the best standard fertilizer in the early stages of cultivation of a muck area should contain from 2 to 3 per cent, of nitrogen, from 4 to 6 per cent, of phosphoric acid in the form of acid phosphate, and from 12 to 20 per cent, of potash. Muck Soils isr New Yoek 1245 6. A wide variety of crops may be grown on such soil. Its nat- ural capacity is indicated by the native vegetation. The more peaty deposits will change into muck after cropping and tillage. The high percentage of nitrogen available in well managed muck soil makes it especially suited to crops that are used for their vege- tative growth. In addition to vegetables this includes hay, espe- cially timothy, roots and potatoes. With proper fertilization fair yields of corn may be secured. Even bluegrass has been observed to make a good growth on muck soil, presumably areas rich in lime. In the early stages of the development of muck land it is advisable to plant only the stronger feeding field crops such as hay, corn and potatoes. The tillage of the latter aids in breaking up the soil in preparation for the more delicate feeding roots of the vegetable crops. ^ The more sensitive crops should be planted only on the best quality of muck land. GROWING VEGETABLES ON THE MUCK LANDS Paul Work Superintendent and Instructor, Department of Vegetable Gardening, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Though in soame sections- muck lands have been utilized for vegetable production for several decades, it is only recently that their usefulness has been generally recognized. In most places the swamp on the farm has been regarded as a dead loss. Of late years the movements of vegetable products have ceased to be exclusively from warmer to cooler climates. The states which supply early vegetables to the northern cities find that they cannot produce certain crops for their own use in summer and fall. Accordingly, they must look to other sections. For the crops which prefer a cool season, the muck lands have proved to be peculiarly adapted, and a large share of the onions, celery and head lettuce which are used in summer, fall, and early winter are grown on these soils. Other crops are grown to a lesser extent, but greater diversification is being practiced every year. Among the additional crops are spinach — chiefly for can- ning — beets, carrots, cauliflower, potatoes — chiefly for seed — and to some extent cabbage. It is often said that the latter is not solid when grown on muck, but some growers have attained ex- cellent results. Muck land that is fully developed is usually held at high valuations. In some sections areas have changed hanus at as much as five or six hundred dollars an acre. Rents as high as seventy dollars per acre per annum have been recorded. But muck land can be purchased at much lower figures, and one who is seeking a location should cast about for an investment where the interest charge will not be so high. It is necessary to exercise caution to avoid areas that are distant from railroad, or in which the soil is for any one of several reasons unproductive, or where the cost of reclamation would prove excessive. [1246] Gbowinq Vegetables on Muck Lands 1247 equipment , The investment in equipment for muck land vegetable produc- tion varies greatly. Some growers with relatively small areas are highly successful though their tools are few and simple, repre- senting less than three or four hundred dollars for — say ten acres. The buildings may be very simple, providing merely shelter for tools and a room for preparing products for market. Small and simple green houses are used by celery men for growing early plants. Storage houses for onions are frequently built, but this is really independent of crop production, as the gain incident to holding the crop is expected to meet the interest charges and other costs and to offer a profit in addition. Some men build more elaborate storage houses and expensive tool and work rooms, and so increase their investrfient rather heavily, not always with increased profit. DRAINAGE The care of drainage ditches on the muck land involves special consideration. Two general methods are in practice. Most growers maintain a narrow strip of sod, or rather a strip of sod which they pretend to keep within narrow limits, on each side of the bank. Thus the sides may be kept almost vertical. The other method consists in keeping the banks of the ditches shaved clean, thus allowing no harbor for weeds. Each requires about the same amount of space. There is a growing tendency toward the use of tile drainage in- stead of open ditches. The latter are objectionable on account of the loss of space, often as much as 10 per cent. ; the labor of keep- ing them shoveled out from year to year; their interference with operations, and on account of the harboring of weeds. It has been found that where tile is well laid, placing the line on a board bot- tom, the plan is satisfactory, even through the fall is very slight. Muck soils do not form clods as do the heavier upland soils. Even though the material is very light, plowing is not as easy as might be supposed. The smallest spot of rust on a plowshare is sufficient to start an accumulation of muck which prevents scour- ing, and before long the implement is merely dragged through the soil without turning a real furrow. Considerable care must 1248 The Vegetable Industey in New York State be exercised in selecting a plow for these lands, some models be- ing much more satisfactory than others, although there is quite a little difference of opinion as to the adaptability of different makes and shapes. Some are using disc plows with a high degree of satisfaction. FALL PLOWING AND CULTIVATION Fall plowing is favored by some gardeners, advantages sug- gested being that the work is done and off the calendar before the rush of the spring months; that the land plows a bit more easily ; that freezing in the furrow is useful, and that there is less trouble from weeds. On. the other hand, some claim that spring plowing aids in drying out the soil more speedily. Great emphasis is placed upon the advantage of careful preparation of the soil. A level surface is especially important on account of the delicate seeds and plants. On one of the ex- perimental plots of the College of Agriculture, a small area was found to be deficient in yield. The situation was studied a bit, and it was discovered that a very slight depression existed at this Fig. 353. Plank Drag point. After this was filled, it was found that the difficulty had been overcome. The plank drag or float is widely used, and some employ a scraper consisting of a plank so attached to a frame that the edge acts as a blade reducing mounds and filling depressions. The roller is regarded as very valuable for compacting loose muck soils. The Acme harrow is one of the favorites for finishing. This bulletin includes articles on the leading muck land crops, and each deal with their special fertilizer requirements. The peculiar moisture relations prevailing in muck soils render careful cultivation no less necessary than on other soils, even though the water-holding capacity is exceptionally great. The Q-EowiNG Vegetables on MtrcK Lands 1249 capillary movement is so slow that the upper soil may be suffering severely when abundance of water is to be foimd a few feet beneath. Thus the conservation of the moisture which exists in the parts of the soil where the roots are most highly developed is not to be neglected, and cultivation usually insures sufficiently favorable moisture conditions for high production without irriga- tion, although some practice artificial watering. The maintenance of a surface mulch on muck soil is exceed- ingly easy. The material itself is well adapted for the purpose ; in fact, the coarser muck soils would be found effective for the mulching of other soils. Only a very light crust is ever formed, and the lightest tools are adequate. The intensive planting plans practically banish the horse cultivator on many farms, celery be- ing the only important crop for which it is used. Wheel hoes are very widely employed. Different attachments are used at differ- ent stages of the crops, among them being sets of small discs, of light, slender teeth, mold boards which throw a considerable amount of soil to or from the row, and also blades which pass just beneath the surface, cutting weeds and leaving a fine mulch. A two-wheeled tool is best for straddling the rows, while a single wheel is better for working in the middles. When crops begin to close the middles, a single wheeled tool, known as the gooseneck, is used. The frame consists of a single bent tube, and it carries a blade which passes immediately beneath the surface. The most widely used of the hand tools is the scuffle hoe or shove hoe, as it is commonly known. This consists of a handle, a shank, and a flat blade similar to that just described from one and one-half to three inches wide and from six to twelve inches long. The shank is riveted to the blade in such a way that it is pushed in a horizontal position ahead of the worker. This passes readily beneath the foliage and is exceedingly useful in this type of soil. Ground may be covered very rapidly. Another tool that is used for thinning and for working beneath plants in the row is a hoe which consists merely of a narrow strip of metal bent in the form of a triangle and set in a handle. An enormous amount of hand weeding is necessary for closely planted crops. Especially is this true of onions and of celery. 40 1250 The Vegetable Industey in JNew Yoek State When heavy winds have drifted the muck so that young celery plants are partially covered, the soil must frequently be removed by hand. lEKIGATION As just suggested, most growers are able to procure a good crop by the conservation of moisture through good cultivation. However, an increasing number feel that the losses incident to drouth are sufficient to justify the installation of irrigation equip- ment. The overhead type of irrigation is but little used. Many control the water table by opening or closing the outlets of the ditches. The water level may be raised quite high before plant- ing a crop, thus filling the soil with moisture. It is then lowered and maintained at a level of say eighteen to twenty-four inches. An occasional grower employs a furrow system, distributing the water from a head ditch through the middles. This scheme is quite satisfactory if the pumping cost is not high. It is a little difficult to secure even distribution of water throughout the whole length of the ditch. The water ought to be so handled as to flow from one end to the other very promptly. Then it will be gradually absorbed all along the line. CEOPPING PLA]SrS The arrangement of crops on muck land varies greatly in different districts. In some places single crops are grown almost exclusively. Thus the marshes of the Wallkill river in Orange county are used chiefly for onion production; the same statement may be made of the Canastota swamp; Fulton and Albion have been widely known for their lettuce, and Arkport for its celery. However, there is a marked tendency toward diversification. Except in the warmest parts of the state, it is • difficult to grow a second crop after onions have matured, al- though some are willing to take a chance on securing a good yield of spinach, since the cost is very low. Two crops of lettuce may be matured without difficulty, and in some cases three. Celery is sometimes sowed after a crop of lettuce or vice versa. Oc- casionally lettuce is planted every fourteen inches apart, but every third row is omitted. In this wide space the celery plants are set. Thus the two crops occupy the ground together for a Gkowing Vegetables on Muck Lands 1251 few weeks. A double row of lettuce is sometimes sown on celery ground after the boards have been placed for blanching, but the removal of the celery renders this more or less unsatisfactory. MARKETING Muck lands seldom lie within hauling distance of the market, and the different problems of transportation and of sale through dealers and commission men must be met. The muck land grower seldom sees his merchant face to face, and the long time in transit usually prevents his taking full advantage of the ups and downs of a particular market. In fact, it often happens that on advice of a high market, growers ship just in time for their product to con- tribute to an over-supply incident to the wide distribution of the information which they have received. It is needless at this point to dwell upon the problems of selling on distant markets. Suffice to say that men who are producing in fairly large quantities and who are using good business judgment in working out their mar- ket problems are able to secure fairly satisfactory results. Never- theless there is something radically wrong when celery that can be profitably grown at one and one-half cents per head costs the consumer eight or ten cents, and when lettuce from western New York makes it way to Boston and back to Syracuse before it even falls into the hands of a retailer. Some growers have found it profitable to build up a clientele of small jobbers and larger groceries to whom they ship directly. They have given special attention to the growing of a high-class product and to its preparation for market. This plan involves much attention to detail and is for this reason not favored by some. Muck land production offers exceedingly favorable opportunity for cooperative marketing. No notable success in this direction has been recorded on any of the muck land areas of New York, although the upland growers of Chautauqua and Erie counties are finding the South Shore Growers' & Shippers' Association exceed- ingly helpful. THE CANNING INDUSTRY FROM THE GROWER'S STANDPOINT S. J. Cook Secretary-Treasurer of South Shore Growers' and Shippers' Asaociation, Silver Creek, Chautauqua County, N. Y. The growing of fruit and vegetables for preserving and canning in the United States and Canada has, in the last ten years, become an important industry. Hundreds of factories have been erected in many states, and hundreds of thous- ands of acres are devoted each year to the growing of canning crops. There were packed in the United States in 1914 ap- proximately 25,000,000 cases of the three vegetables — corn, peas and tomatoes — and approximately 4,500,000 cases in Canada. These, coupled with other important vegetables, such as string beans, beets, as^ paragus and kraut — to say nothing of the berries of all kinds, and other tree crops — give one an idea of the magnitude of the canning industry in this country. All manner of men are engaged in the undertaking, and there are all kinds of canning factories — from the cheaply constructed shed to the enormous, up-to-date, sanitary establishments con- structed of concrete, brick and iron, covering acres, and capitalized by large corporations with millions at stake. ISTo industry has made greater advancement in the manufacturing of its products. Inventors, expert machinists and manufacturers have designed and perfected the most modern machinery for the manufacture of canned products. A few of the larger preservers and canners manufacture their own bottles and cans. There is also great im- provement in the matter of sanitation ; likewise in the quality of the finished products. Many of the larger plants invite public inspection. Much publicity has been given the merits of canned fruits, which has had a tendency to increase the consumption. A large part of [1252] Canning Industry from Grower's Standpoint 1253 tlie population in the cities depend almost wholly on canned goods the larger part of the year, and the canning business has grown beyond the expectations of the best informed men in the business. Undoubtedly, it will continue in its growth. That the business has proven profitable is to be seen by the large fortunes acquired by those interested in canning and preserving. The canning business of this country represents enormous crops, wonderful manufacturing output,, superior salesmanship, and, while the cost of staple articles of food is ever increasing at an alarming rate — notwithstanding all the efforts that have been made to increase the production of the soil — such increase in- the cost of living cannot be laid to the canner. On the other hand, he is a public benefactor. There are exceptions to the rule, however, in the canning busi- ness. What I will say now represents the grower's interest and the unfairness on the part of the canner in his business dealings with the grower, and I trust that it will not be taken as antago- nistic. We, as growers, are all interested in the welfare and ad- vancement of the canning industry in this state, and are in a large measure dependent upon the canneries for the sale of our products. RELATION BETWEEN THE GROWER AND CANNER The canners have made it possible for us to grow thousands of tons of perishable fruit and produce, and that at a contract price ; but have they always been just and fair in their business dealings with the grower ? I think not. On the other hand, has the grower always been fair with the canner ; has he delivered all of the crop contracted for ? No, he has not. I shall say something in regard to this later. Where climatic conditions and soil are adapted to the culture of such crops as tomatoes, peas, corn ■ — in fact all vegetable crops — and a fair price is paid by the canners, many growers have made money. But, on the other hand, there are localities where canners and perservers have taken advantage of individual grow- ers in price cutting, unfairness of contract, failing to furnish crates to harvest and deliver the crop, refusing to pay the grower for his produce until the canned products were sold, thereby mak- ing the grower help finance their business — in fact their contracts 1254 The Vegetable Industry in New Yokk State with the growers were often " jug-handled " affairs. They were in position at all times to dictate in the matter of contracting for to- matoes. If the grower's crop happened to be late and the canner had received from other growers about all the tomatoes he cared to pack, he would at times refuse to receive any more tomatoes under any consideration, although the quality of the fruit might have been of the best. The same holds true with corn, peas and some other crops. Contracts for produce are generally made with the grower two or three months previous to the planting of the crop. If the can- ner- desired a large acreage of peas and the contracts were not forthcoming from the growers, he would refuse to take a contract for tomatoes, unless the grower agreed to contract for a certain acreage of peas, or vice versa. There are many other instances of unfair treatment, such as having to wait long hours in line when making delivery, and, after having done so, have the inspector inform you that he would be obliged to cut you two or three dollars a ton on the load as the tomatoes were not as perfect as they should have been and did not conform to the contract. I have had my own load of tomatoes turned down for no other reason than to help eliminate the large loss which was occurring daily on account of deterioration of the fruit, the canner being unable to properly care for the tomatoes. The accumulation of a large over supply at such times invariably caused a loss which the grower was asked to help sustain. Such discrimination and unbusinesslike management on the part of the canner has had a tendency to create great dissatisfaction, and where growers are obliged to stand for treatment of this kind there is not a likelihood of making much naoney in growing tomatoes for the canneries. . The grower, as an individual, is not in position to make demands on the canner ; he will be given to understand that he is not run- ning the canning factory — in fact, he is not taken into serious consideration. If he does not like the treatment accorded him he can, of course, refuse to contract next year, but that does not help the present situation. What I have said of unfair treatment of the growers by the can- ners is, undoubtedly, the exception rather than the rule, but in Canning Industry feom Geowek's Standpoint 1255 dealing with canners of the type mentioned many growers have made but a scant living, and have not received an adequate return for their labor or investment. The growers in this locality found that the whole solution of their troubles was to cooperate, which they did. ADVANTAGE OF COOPEEATION By cooperation the growers bettered all conditions. They re- ceived one dollar more per ton for their tomatoes than they had been previously paid and were given a better contract. In this contract the preserver agreed to receive all marketable tomatoes to a certain date, and further consented to a two-payment clause in the contract — payment for one-half of all tomatoes delivered up to September fifteenth, and the balance within ten days after the remainder of the crop had been delivered. They also agreed to furnish packages. In fact they were much more congenial and businesslike than they had been, and there was really a change in business, which was, I believe, for the good of all concerned. Cooperation is a necessity in some localities ; growers have been compelled to either " get together," or go out of the business. Can- ners as a rule do not advocate dealing with a cooperative associa- tion ; in fact they have been more or less antagonistic. But I be- lieve the time is not far distant when they can be made to see the efficiency and wisdom in doing so — as soon as it can be shown that a policy of this kind takes into consideration fairness to the canner. If the growers are to demand fair play they must in turn do their share, and while an association is, undoubtedly, in a better position to maintain a fair price for its products and demand fair treatment for its members, it should at all times apply good sense in conducting its business. We must not ask an exhorbitant price ; the canner must receive the raw products within certain limits of cost, and the treatment accorded him should be in the light of a prospective partner. Further, we should make no distinction in the matter of fair dealings between that accorded the canner and our own members. We should deliver good quality produce, goods that would please, rather than to try to get rid of poor, unmarket- able products. 1256 The V^egetable Industry in ISTew Yoek State The growers have not always been fair in matters of this kind. They have at times tried to deliver any Ijut quality produce, filling bottoms of containers with poor rubbish and topping off with standard grade fruit. They have also shipped large quanti- ties of contract produce to the open market at an advanced price, and at other times have overloaded the canneries with a large sup- ply that possibly came from an adjoining field and was not con- tracted — in direct violation of their contract. A cooperative association must have some rule of fairness; must have a reputation for fair dealing ; must be dependable and have fixed business principles which serve both the buyer and the seller. Our plan is to enter into an agreement with the canners and preservers for a specified number of acres of produce at a stated price. The conditions governing the contract cover varie- ties, delivery, loading station, baskets for delivery, right of the canner to measure acreage, quality of fruit or produce and terms of payment. In the matter of contracting with our members, each one is required to sign a binding contract specifying acreage and agree- ing that all produce marketed at canneries shall conform to the standard and conditions as set forth in the contract made be- tween canneries and the association. We found it was necessary to have a stringent contract. With us cooperation has made possible better business methods. It has likewise been a benefit to the canner. He now receives better quality produce; he is not disappointed in his acreage by being informed at the last minute that the grower failed to plant his crop; his expense in securing acreage with the individual growers is lessened, and improved methods of production and grad- ing have given him better uniformity, which has greatly improved quality. The management has interested canners and preservers in distant cities and towns in the purchase of our products. This has increased the acreage in production from year to year, which has added to the prosperity of the growers, and all classes of our citizens have shared in the prosperity. The railroads have prof- ited by the increased freight tonnage resulting from industrial activity, based on agricultural prosperity ; manufacturers of farm Canning Industry from Geowek's Standpoint 1257 maclimery and implements have been interested; the manufac- turers of commercial fertilizer have greatly increased their tonnage in this territory ; and the retail merchants who sell to the farmers, likewise the banks, receive their share by the increase in business. In the past three years we have demonstrated that cooperation for the growers will furnish an agency strong enough to control their products from orchard or field to market. CANNING ON THE FARM C. 0. Warfoed, Newbubgh, x^I". Y. ADVAXTAGES OF A FARM CANNING OUTFIT Have you ever noticed how two men with practically identical loads of vege- tables will go to the same market, and when the market closes and their loads are sold out, one man will have in his pocket as the result of the sale thirty dollars, while the other man will have but twenty or twenty-five? We say it is good salesmanship, but is it ? Perhaps it is, but many times you will find back of it all another and a bet- ter reason, and that is confidence. One is given confidence be- cause he is the possessor of a canning outfit and knows that if KiG. 354. — A Canning Outfit in Operation [1258] Canning on the Faem 1259 he holds his goods rather high in market and the buyers pass him by he can take the vegetables back home and can them at a profit, while the other man who has no canner knows that if he does not sell his goods on the market he will have to dump them somewhere at a dead loss. The consequence is that he takes about any price the piirchasers care to offer him. The ownership of a home canner gives a man backbone when he goes to market. In all transactions it is a principle well es- tablished that one or the other sets the price. A willing buyer makes a fair-priced article while an anxious seller reduces the purchase price. In all lines btit farming the seller sets his price Fig. 355. — • Every One Becomes Usetul in the Canning Season which will cover the cost of production, but when it comes to the sale of farm produce many times it seems as though this rule was reversed, for the price seems to be set by the dealer who says, " I will give you so much." And because the producer has no other place to sell, nine times out of ten he will take the price that is offered, even though he may know it is below cost of pro- duction. Then he will go back home to produce more goods at the same low offering. This I believe is wrong. I believe that every grower is entitled to a price that will cover cost of produc- tion, and the, home canner will help him obtain it. The possession of a home canner mates a home market that will cover cost of production, and whenever the city market offers 1260 The Vegetable Industey in New York State less than this cost the owner can refuse to sell, take his goods back home, set his canner at work and get a fair return for his crops and labor. Another great ad- vantage of having a home canning outfit to care for the surplus is the fact that the fruits and vegetables in the can keep the grower's name before his cus- tomers all winter when he is out of the market with his fresh stock. Many men grow only crops that are marketed through a period of three or four months in the summer and then they drop out of the market for the re- mainder of the year. During this time their reg-ular customers forget them and when they start back on the market next season they are practically strangers. With home canned foods to place on the market all winter their name is kept before the consuming public, and when they start back next season everyone knows the farmer who prodiices fresh farm products in summer and canned foods in winter. But best of all, the home cannery helps reduce the cost of liv- ing, for it is one of the means of saving waste products. By waste products I do not mean cull or defective fruits or vege- tables, but fruits and vegetables that are not just in the condi- tion that the market demands. For instance, a man may be shipping tomatoes to market ; for this purpose he must have them partly green. A dead ripe tomato in this case is a loss for it will not stand shipment, while a tomato of this kind is in the very best condition for canning, since it has the color and the flavor. Canning saves this. In bunching beets the small ones have to Fig. 356. — Steaii-Peessuke Canneb With Firebox. For Canning in Medium Small Qiantities, Either Inside or Outside the House Canning on the Farm 1261 be thrown out and these are the very best for canning as they are the most tender. Broken stalks of rhubarb are unsalable but they are perfectly proper for canning. Canning these waste products is true economy and if saved on every fruit and vege- table farm in the United States would add many million dollars to our national wealth each year and fill many hungry mouths. Fig. 357. — The Clothes Boiler Used as Sterilizer, Showing False Bottom as Eack EQUIPMENT A person who wishes to try out the matter of home canning need not go to the expense of spending many dollars for an outfit. Anyone can try out the problem at an expenditure of less than five dollars for equipment. Every farm supposedly has a wash boiler or if that is not to be obtained a common farm kettle may be used. Hot water is the great requisite. The capacity of any outfit, either for home or commercial canning, is the amount of water that can be boiled in a given time. Suppose, for instance, one wishes to can tomatoes. He must have some place where he can wash the raw tomatoes as they come from the field. On a small scale this can be done by placing them in a tub of clean water, stirring them and then removing. They are then ready for the scalding. For this process they are placed in a small wire basket — a clean market basket will do — and the basket is dipped in boiling water. It should be worked up and down several times until the skins of the tomatoes show small cracks in places. Any boiler or farm kettle will do for the purpose of holding and heating the water for scalding. ISFext in order is the peeling. A clean table is needed for this on which may be placed pans large or small for emptying the scalded tomatoes so that those who are to peel may work to advan- 1262 The Vegetable Industry in K^ew Yoek State tage. Peeling is somewhat of an art. A short knife with a blade about two inches long is the best tool. The peeler grasps the tomato in the left hand with the stem end away from the palm, the blossom end lying in the palm of the hand. The knife should be held as nearly parallel to the line of the core as possible, and should be run into the tomato only deep enough to remove the core without opening up any of the seed cells. If the tomato has been properly scalded, as the core is being removed, the skin will leave it and be left in thq palm of the hand when the tomato is dropped into another pan which is used to hold the peeled stock. !Next the tomatoes are packed into cans, after the cans have been thoroughly washed. In packing the tomatoes a small quan- tity of the juice from the peeled stock is first placed in the bottom of the can — aboiit two tablespoonfuls of juice is about correct — to fill the spaces between the tomatoes as they are placed in the can. If this juice is not placed in the bottom of the can it is almost impossible to have the can turn out full when cut and emptied. Next in order after filling is thoroughly washing or wiping off the tops of the cans. If this is not done the operation of capping or soldering the top in place cannot be properly per- formed. Next the cap or so called top of the can is soldered on. When pur- chasing cans the little tops or caps which cover the openings in the ordinary cans should be ordered sent with solder enough on their edges to fasten or seal them to the cans. Soldering is performed as follows : A tool is used, called a capping steel, which exactly fits over the cap to be soldered on the can. It is heated to the required temperature either by a plumber's gasoline furnace or by a charcoal furnace. The latter may be a homemade affair made by cutting a hole in the side of an old milk can so an opening Fig. 358.— Capping a Can With Round Capping Steel Canning on the Farm 1263 may be made large enough to cause a draft and accommodate the soldering steel. The caps or tops are placed on the cans where they fit into little grooves made to receive them and hold the solder. After the caps are in place, a few drops, about three, of what is known as soldering flux is lightly brushed along the edge of the cap and over the solder to facilitate the flow of the solder and make a smooth finish. This flux can be purchased ready-made quite cheaply or may be made at home, but the commercial article is always purer and better owing to the superior facilities the manufacturers have for making it. The cans now are ready for soldering. If the capping steel is at the required degree of heat it is taken from the furnace and dipped into a powder or mixture made of some scraps or pieces of solder and granulated sal ammoniac. If the hot steel is turned around in this mixture several times it will come oiit covered with a bright silvery film of solder. A further dipping into a can containing some of the soldering flux before mentioned, or even a wiping off with a damp cloth will add to the cleanliness of the steel and help make Fig. 359. — Tipping a Can a better job of the capping. ^"'''^™ Soldering Iron Now insert the rod which comes with the steel and cover the can cap, revolve the steel once or twice over the solder, lift the steel, holding the cap in place with the center rod until the solder cools and you will find the cap firmly fastened in place. In the center of each cap is left a little hole or vent. This can now be soldered up and the cans be given the final cook, but the best and most approved way is to place the cans in boiling water, leaving the centre hole or vent open. Immerse the cans in the water so that only about a half inch of the top is sticking above the water. Leave them in the water about three minutes. This is what the canners call " exhausting," meaning expelling the air from the cans. As soon as the cans are placed in the boiling water the heat penetrates the contents with the result that they expand, forcing the air from the can. The cans should then be removed 1264 The Vegetable Industky in New Yoek State and the little hole or vent closed at once with a drop of solder, after which they should be returned to the same or another kettle for their final cook or " process " of thirty-five minutes, the time of process being taken from the time the kettle again starts to boil after the cans are placed therein. When goods are removed from the kettle at the end of the thirty-five minutes a stream of water should be turned on the cans to rinse and in a measure cool them. When the cans are cold the ends will be found to be concave, due to the fact that the air forced out by the exhausting left a vacuum when the cans Pig. 360. — GiBLS of the Neighbokhood Were Called in to Help cooled, and the atmospheric pressure from the outside keeps the ends pushed in place. If the exhausting had not been done the goods would have kept just as well, but the pressure on the in- side and outside would be equal when the can cooled, resulting in the ends not having the finished appearance which they should have, and good appearance is a great factor in marketing any product. Of course there are many machines for performing each of the several operations in canning but these machines cost money and Canning on the Fabm 1265 a person with ordinary intelligence can many times pick up about tlie farm articles enouglit to make a fair homemade outfit which, although not quite so convenient, will do as good work — so far as -quality of product is concerned — as any of the highest priced commercial outfits. Quality of product in canning de- pends more upon the man in charge of the outfit than upon per- fection of machinery employed in the various operations. It probably will be necessary on the ordinary farm to pur- chase the capping steel and the tipping copper, total cost $2.50. The natural ingenuity of the farmer will suggest the rest. What- ever outfit is secured, homemade or commercial, the idea of cleanliness should be paramount. CLEANLINESS AND BETTEE DISTRIBUTION The keynote for the owner of the farm cannery should be " improvement of quality of product." Make " quality " the motto, and increase of demand and output is sure to follow. As soon as a person learns the business and its possibilities he will not be satisfied until he has an up-to-date cannery with all the improved sanitary machinery. The method of preparation and process for tomatoes applies practically to all fruits and vege- tables with the exception that the cook or process for the fruits varies somewhat, being twenty minutes for pears, fifteen for apples and about the same time for berries. Other vegetables require a longer time than tomatoes and some of them need a higher temperature than boiling water, which high temperature can be obtained only by using closed top pres- sure kettles. The state experimental stations or the U. S. Department of Agriculture will furnish full information regarding the canning of any special crops, on request. The demand for the so-called specialties — spinach, string beans, beets, sauerkraut, also rhubarb and apples in gallon cans for pies — is rapidly increasing and are articles which the home canner can try to advantage. It is not necessary that a person own a canner of great capacity or that he run it all through the season to have it show a profit. A home canner, even though it may stand absolutely idle during the entire season, many times vnll show a 1266 The Vegetable Industey is New York State handsome return from the fact that the owner knows that there will be no such thing as an unsold surplus while he owns a can- nery. When the time comes that every fruit and vegetable farm has a cannery attached — and it is sure to come as soon as the growers begin to study economics — then will come the day when everyone will realize that there is no such thing as an over-supply of any article of food. Overproduction and surplus supply have been bugbears to us simply because we have never thoroughly studied out the best methods of distribution. We apparently have considered it absolutely necessary to rush our crops upon the market as soon as they were ripe, surfeiting the consumer with our abundance, so that he, many times, was sick of the sight of our goods; and then for the rest of the year we have let him go hungry for the same goods because we had not the products to supply him. With the possession of a home canner these conditions are changed. If, when the fruits or vegetables are ready for market, the consumer is ready to use them, well and good ; the grower can supply his needs. If the consumer for any reason does not wish the fresh articles, or the supply' happens to be too abundant, well again ; for the grower can keep at home the portion that is not needed, place it in the cans, and later in the season when the consumer calls for the various articles, the farmer has the food for him. Xo overproduction at any time, for improvement has taken place in the method of distribution. WHY ORGANIZE A CANNING CLUB? E. H. FOERISTALL, CoRTLAND, N. Y. Farm Bureau IManager, Cortland, N". Y. The canning club movement had its inception with Mr. 0. H. Benson, Wash- ington, D. C, who is in charge of boys and girls' club work, and has afforded edu- cators of all lines of work the best oppor- tunity,' to siiccessfully meet the needs of the day with an education back to the soil and into the home. The formation of the club should be in the school, but fortunately it may be adapted to community interests, husbanded by the church, local grange, or by a few interested people who are public spirited enough to secure the advice and help on organizing a club, so gladly given by the State College or the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., and which means so much to those enrolled; The movement should not, under any circum- stances, be undertaken unless some leadership is assured whereby the plans submitted can be carried out. Organization of the girls of twelve years or older under a local leader should be perfected in the winter months, and each mem- ber supplied with literature on the subject. Headquarters should be centrally located and be supplied with a stove, fuel, cold water and a canning outfit. The project will best succeed when the girls are encouraged and allowed to rent a small piece of land at home on which to start their garden. The first year it is best that everyone grow tomatoes because they afford so many practical lessons, such as starting the plants, fertilizing the soil, transplanting from boxes or cold frames to the garden, the cultivation and training of the plants, spraying for plant diseases, marketing the fresh product (always to be encour- aged when price warrants), and the canning of all surplus in glass or tin. Members should keep careful accounts of all expenses and [1267] 1268 The Vegetable Industry isr New Yokk State Why Organize a Canning Club 1269 receipts, and report at the end of the season's work to the local leader. Such a project vitalizes school work, makes it easy for the school teacher to reach the home, bridging that awful gap between the school work and the parents. It trains the girls to work together, to follow plans laid out by leaders, employing new and tried out methods which always find their way into the home. Our girls, especially, should be interested in canning club work, and if they become members of the club that is being instructed by one who is appointed for that work, they are receiving help that their mothers are often unable to give them because most of the canning has to be done at the busiest time of the year. Then too, the girls are learning the shortest and best methods of canning which saves labor and time, and the products canned by this ap- proved method are superior to those put up by the old methods. Home canning takes care of surplus meats, products of the garden and fruits of the orchard. The windfall apple that hereto- fore has never been utilized, can be turned into a canned product and used in many different ways. Vegetables and fruits that are very plentiful cannot possibly be utilized in their season, and will go to waste if they are not canned. A splendid method of cooperation is to organize boys and girls into market garden clubs. Their members grow and sell their vegetables to the members of the canning clubs who have no time to care for a garden and are glad to be supplied with products fresh from the garden, instead of those brought into town by rail or over a long, dusty and sunny road and have lost much of their freshness. This procedure is of mutual benefit to both the garden and canning clubs. Some very good canning outfits are manufactured which clubs are using with marked success. However, such an outfit is not necessary for home canning. A washboiler. with a tight cover is very satisfactory. If the cover is not quite tight, a piece of cheese- cloth should be put over the top of the boiler and weighted at the comers. Then, when the cover is put in place, very little steam will escape. A wooden rack should be made and placed in the bottom of the boiler so that the cans will not come in direct contact with the heat. 3 1270 The Vegetable Industey in New Yoek State Why Organize a Canning Club 1271 The business training that results from work in the canning club is worthy of our consideration. Members should keep a record of all expenses such as cost of product (if purchased), ma- terials such as sugar or salt, jars, rubbers, labels, etc. Every hour spent in canning should be recorded and be included in the same expense account. Eeceipts will include fresh vegetables or fruits sold, and canned products sold. If accurate records are kept, each member will know the value of her canned product; and by com- paring the cost per can with what she would have to pay at the store for the same thing, she could determine how much she had saved by canning at home. Fig. 363. — A Club jMember's Fruit Closet, Representiin'G Only One-Half OF THE Season's Work. Photo Taken January 9, 1915. Note the Pickles, Meat, Vegetables, Fruits, Jellies, Conserves and Grape Juice The keeping of these accounts results in the houswife giving more careful attention to the elimination of many unnecessary expenses and seeking to be more economical. The simple accounts such as they have been keeping in the canning club work illus- trates to them their value, and arouse a determination to keep household accounts, something to which heretofore they have given 12Y2 The Vegetable Industry in jSTbw Yoek State little or no attention. This new resolution backed up by actual experience is not so easily broken or forgotten as the resolution adopted by so many women when they determine to keep a record of expenditures for the coming year, only to give it up after two or three entries have been made. The item of time spent in performing household duties should never be lost sight of and is a valuable part of household accounts. When a woman is hired by the housewife to do any particular work, account of the time spent is considered and she is paid for what she has done. How seldom it happens and yet how important that the hours spent every day by a woman in her home should be valued. If they were, more thought would be given to the -■"rra-a- :.' ""■>.' ifa" T J.- Fig. 364. — Canning Club Exhibits in the Farm Bureau Tent. Cobtlakd County Fair saving of steps by the proper arrangement of stove, cupboards, work table and sink in the kitchen so that the fewest possible steps would be needed to accomplish the greatest amount of work. We should not forget the social benefits of the club. The oppor- tunity aiforded of merely coming in personal contact with the older and trained mind of the instructor has a great influence on the younger person whose mind is plastic, and when her interest Why Organize a Canning Club 1273 is aroused in any particular work she is eager to accomplish and perform her everyday duty in that same pleasing, easy and forceful manner. When the women come together in their meetings, valuable ideas are exchanged. They enjoy the sociability of the occasion, and oftentimes members who have had splendid thoughts on the home life had never before shared them because no opportunity has presented itself. Many a woman, as she goes about her home performing the tasks of the day, has ideas suggested to her that often would never find expression except through the medium of the club. There is rest and recreation in leaving the cares of the home for an afternoon and mingling with friends. The house- wife returns to her home refreshed and with many helpful sug- gestions, and the work of the coming day is anticipated with pleasure. The farm bureau in cooperation with the domestic science de- partment of the New York State College, organized eleven canning clubs in Cortland county in 1914, with a membership of 284, which comprised both women and girls. In two clubs, sales agents were appointed to take care of those customers who wished to purchase the superior product put up by club members. The sales of one member, made to some of the best families of the city, have already amounted to over $40, establishing a cooperation between the women of the country and the city. Meetings in each club were held regularly every two weeks. Miss Bertha E. Titsworth of the State College was the instructor. The meetings were held in a grange hall or in the home of some member. As products appeared in season, Miss Titsworth demon- strated the canning of them, at which time the members assisted. Questions were asked and answered, and the time intervening from one meeting to the next was spent by the club members in their home? canning their products according to the methods demonstrated. A report of every club meeting was made to the farm bureau by Miss Titsworth. It included the name and place of club, mem- bership, number and names of members present, number of vis- itors present, what products were canned for demonstration, and some of the questions asked by the members. 1274 The Vegetable Industry in New Yoek State The canning of meats is now being done very successfully by the club members. We were informed only yesterday that they were filling the cans as fast as they were emptied of fruits and vege- tables, with meats to be used next summer ; thus making use of the glass jar the entire year. VEGETABLE FORCING IN NEW YORK STATE H. W. SCHNECK Instructor, Department of Vegetable Gardening, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. SUGGESTIOlSrS FOE IMPROVEMENT No other branch of agriculture has made such rapid forward strides during the past decade as has the vegetable forc- ing industry. Twenty years ago one could find only small vegetable houses, and very few of those, near our larger cities; whereas today there are many acres of land farmed under glass. Still there is room for much more development, since the demand for greenhouse products far exceeds the supply during most seasons. Inquiry is often made regarding danger of over supply of green- house products. This is a pertinent question, especially at such times as during the fall of 1912 and the fall of 1914, when lettuce sold for much less than it cost to produce it at the large forcing centers. In these two apparently dull seasons, many small towns throughout the country were not properly supplied with green- house products. During the past fall when lettuce sold for two and one-half cents a pound at Cleveland, it was bringing sixty cents a dozen bunches at many smaller towns. These facts will show at a glance that it is not a question of over-production, but rather a question of proper distribution of the products. Another factor to consider with respect to avoiding the danger of gluts on our large markets, is diversification of crops. At the present time there are but three or four crops to which forcing men devote any very considerable attention. These crops, in order of their importance are: lettuce, cucumber, tomato, and radish. Lettuce is grown by nearly all forcing men in fall and winter, when there is least demand for it. As a result, lettuce often brings a low price at this time of the year, especially if the [1275] 1276 The Vegetable Industey in New Yoek State preceding outdoor growing season was a long one. Many other crops could be grown in fall in a small way, whicli would pav mucli better returns than does lettuce. Some of these crops are: rhubarb, witloof chicory, cauliflower, onions, beets and Swiss chard. By growing a greater diversity of crops, a double gain is secured. First, a direct gain from the sale of these additional crops ; and secondly, an indirect gain, by lessening the production of lettuce in fall, and so increasing its value. There is but one factor which seriously hampers the vegetable forcing industry, and that is "hard times." The industrial classes suffer most during periods of financial depression, and it is this class to which the greenhouse man looks for an outlet of his produce. In addition to making use of the greeniouse for growing vege- table plants to maturity, it can be used in spring of the year for growing early plants to be set out in the field. This will require the greenhouse space from about the first of February to the first part of May. Early vegetable plants may be grown not only for the owner's use, but also for sale. This is a very profitable busi- ness near many towns. After the greenhouse has served its pur- pose for plant growing, cucumbers can be set out the beginning of May and yield a handsome return throughout June, July and August. MOST IMPORTANT SECTIONS The largest vegetable forcing section of New York State is located near Eochester, Monroe county, and is known as the Iron- dequoit section. This is one of the seven large forcing sections of the United States. A careful estimate of the area under glass at this place would place it at about twenty-five or thirty acres. There are no very large greenhouses, but many gardeners have small ranges. The largest range consists of about eight acres. This is of the ridge and furrow type construction. Most of the houses in the Irondequoit section are of the even span, separate type. They are of the very best and most expensive construction. The 40 X 180 foot all iron house seems to be the popular type, and several of these houses have been erected during the past year. The Irondequoit section not only supplies Eochester with win- Vegetable Fokcing in New Yoek State 1277 1278 The Vegetable Industey in New Yoek State ter vegetables but ships a great deal to Buffalo and the smaller towns of the state, as well as to the mining towns of northern Pennsylvania. Many small towns in Jiew York State offer splen- did inducements in the vegetable forcing business. A few towns, such as Binghamton, Elmira, Troy and Ithaca, have one or more small vegetable ranges, and the men conducting these places are doing a splendid business. There are many other towns in the state which at present are under-supplied and which offer just as good opportunities as the towns mentioned. Fig. 366. — A One-acke Eange at Irondequoit SOIL The soil in the Irondequoit section is one ideally suited for vegetable forcing. It is a light sandy loam, which will take plant food and water readily, but the surface of which will dry off quickly. It is very easy to work and does not bake or puddle. FERTILITY Growers maintain the fertility of their soil by trenching well- rotted manure several times a year. This well-rotted manure not Vegetable Foecinc, in New York S TATE 1279 1280 The Vegetable Industry in New Yoek State only adds plant food to the soil in a readily available form but also improves its physical condition. :N'ot many growers of greenhouse crops use commercial fer- tilizers, most of them holding the opinion that by trenching manure enough plant food is added to the soil to maintain fer- tility. Probably commercial fertilizers would prove beneficial, especially for certain crops. Some form of phosphorus would be very beneficial to cucumbers and would hasten the maturity of the fruit. Potash should be applied to tomatoes, since it is known that the tomato plant demands large amounts of potash, and a sandy soil usually is low in this element of plant food. LIME Greenhouse men lime their soils every year, applying at the rate of five to eight pounds of air-slaked lime to every one hundred square feet of area. Lime improves the physical condition of soil and sweetens it. GENEEAL CROPPING PLAN During the past few years, many of the Irondequoit growers have attempted to raise cucumbers and tomatoes as well as lettuce, radishes and parsley, in their greenhouses in fall. In many cases these growers have failed with their fall crops of cucumbers and tomatoes, chiefly because the houses were neglected in fall, most of the growers devoting their time to celery harvesting instead of remaining in the greenhouses. Cucumbers and tomatoes need constant care and attention. Especially is this true in the fall of the year. One grower near Elmira, jST. Y., has been very successful with fall tomatoes, and the secret of his success is con- stant and unceasing care and attention to the plants. It is practi- cally an impossibility to raise cucumbers successfully in the green- houses of New York State in the fall of the year on account of the dark, gloomy weather prevailing in at least most sections of the state at this time. Under proper care and management, tomatoes can be successfully grown in this state in fall, but they will need a great deal more attention than in spring, and one cannot expect nearly so large a crop, but prices are usually better in fall than in spring. Vegetable Fokcing in New York State 1281 The one important factor to be kept in mind with fall tomatoes is to get an early start and have all the fruit set before the period of dark, gloomy weather. This will necessitate sowing the seed the latter part of June in order to have the plants ready for the beds the latter part of August. These plants should give a good crop of mature fruit for the Thanksgiving and Christmas markets. The usual cropping plan followed by most growers in ISTew York State is lettuce and radishes in fall and winter. In spring the houses are given over to tomatoes and cucumbers, most men sacrificing an extra crop of lettuce in spring for an early crop of cucumbers or tomatoes. Fig. 368. — Planting Lettuce in a Labge Commeecial House LETTUCE There are two types of lettuce grown at Irondequoit, the leaf or bunching type and the Grand Kapids variety of this type. A loose head type is grown for local market, the variety being known as May King or Improved Keene. The Grand Kapids let- tuce is shipped to smaller towns of the state and to the mining districts in northern Pennsylvania. The growers in smaller towns grow the Grand Eapids variety almost entirely. 41 1282 The Vegetable Industry in New York State The seed is sown in drills in the ground beds at one end of the house. In from two to three weeks the seedlings are pricked out and placed in another portion of the bed, spaced 2x2 inches. After growing here for about three or four weeks, they are set in the permanent bed. The spacing in the permanent bed varies with different growers, some spacing 7x7 inches, others 6x7 inches, and still others 6x6 inches. The 7x7 inches spacing is used most extensively with the ]\Iay King variety. In early fall and spring it takes about six weeks to mature a crop of lettuce after it is placed in the bed. In late fall and winter it requires eight or nine weeks. The growers in Xew York State sell nearly all their lettuce by the dozen heads, not by weight. Lettuce sold locally at Koch- ester brings twenty cents a dozen heads in fall, until in Decembei,.] when it brings twenty-five cents a dozen for the remainder of the season. In smaller towns in the state the growers receive from twenty to thirty-five cents a dozen heads. No standard type of package is used to market lettuce, as most of it is sold locally. For shipping, the growers use various types of cheaply constructed packages, some merely using old orange crates, which are purchased very cheaply. CDCUMBEES At Rochester the Abundance variety of cucumber is grown almost exclusively. It is a cross between the English type and the American type, and the growers have selected for a cucumber twelve inches long and about two and a half inches in diametei. This cross cucumber is also grown in smaller towns in the state, but the White Spine is grown to a greater extent away from Rochester. The seed is sown in fiats, in drills about one and a half inches apart and about one inch between seed in the drill. As soon as the cotyledons have developed, the seedlings are pricked out into three-inch clay pots. From these they go to four- or five-inch pots, depending upon the length of time they are to be held before going to the permanent bed. It is always well to imbed the clay pots in soil so as to prevent drying out. The young plants are grown at a temperature of 70 degrees. Great care is exercised Vegetable Forcing in New York State 1283 so as to avoid checking the plants at any time, since the cucumber plant never recovers from a check. Cucumbers are grown chiefly as a spring crop in New York State. The Rochester growers sow the seed for their first crop on the first of January. These plants go to the beds in early March and start bearing mature fruit the early part of April. In New York State all growers with large houses train their cucumbers on the overhead trellis system. It has been found that with the Abundance variety of cucumber, a much higher yield can be secured by this method of training than with the upright sys- tem, although the plants do not come into bearing as early. Fig. S69. — ■Cucumbeks Teained on an Overhead Trellis. With this system, each plant is given at least sixteen square feet. The plants are taken to the overhead trellis by means of a cord looped around the base of the plant, and tied to the top wire. All the side-shoots or laterals are removed as soon as they develop. As a rule, all the female flowers are also removed. As the plant nears the overhead trellis, three or four laterals are left to develop and these form the starting point for other laterals and sub- laterals which will finally cover the trellis. As the leaves on the main stem or on the trellis turn yellow, they are removed. The 1284 The Vegetable Industry in New Yoek State new shoots developing on the wires are pinched off just beyond the second node. During the past season two troubles have materially lowered the yield of greenhouse cucumbers in JSTew York State, l^ama- todes or eel-worms were very severe in many houses. The growers have not practiced systematic sterilization, but nearly all of them steam sterilized their soils in the fall. The other trouble which has caused a great deal of loss is a new disease known as white pickle. This new trouble has shown up especially in the Ironde- quoit district. The effects are first found upon the fruit, it turn- ing a lighter green color. Often the fruit becomes blotched in appearance, which blotches sometimes show as warts. Both small and large fruits are attacked. Later the leaves turn yellow and die. This disease seems to be more prevalent with fall than! with spring cucumbers. As yet, nothing is knovsm as to the cause of this trouble, although it is thought to be contagious. There-' fore, the plants should be removed from the house as soon as they become affected. Eed spider, white fly and aphides have been very severe in many cucumber houses. For red spiders the growers syringe the undersides of the leaves with a strong current of cold water. For white fly they fumigate with hydrocyanic gas at the rate of one ounce potassium cyanide to four thousand cubic feet, and nicoti- cide fumes efficiently control the aphis or green fly. The fruit is picked re-gularly every mo'ming and marketed locally. The earliest cucumbers in spring bring two dollars a dozen. The price gradually goes down to a dollar or ninety cents per dozen in May and June. Eochester growers figure on a yield of thirty-seven dozen cucumbers per hundred square feet of area as a good average. Many of the men secure better yields than this. TOMATOES New York State markets demand a red tomato. The Bonny Best and the Peerless or Lord Roberts are the two varieties most extensively grown. Some men have- much better success with one than with the other. The chief objection to the Bonny Best, brought up by men who are successful with the Peerless, is that Vegetable Forcing in New Yoek State 1285 o P c p la o K M H < I Irt H r g' <1 fa S n n -^ n Fi ". '^ — -U rn n ■ n J '^n n ■ 3 ,n : n m n g 7 n - n n S „ n w m' n ■ < rn o ■ . ..J ■ ■ . ' . ■ . o .■-■■■■■■•"■■ ■ '] ^ . ■■ ■ ■. ;■ -^ ■■ - << K H •]' ■] ■■■■ & .'1; i 1 g ' ■■■ ■ llll 1 z llll ■ o HHBI ■ mil H liiii < IIHH ■llll ■ F? lllll ■ ^ IWB ^6t5!S (? 00 CO ^ "^ ' f ^^ ^ ^•^ i^i^^^?**:;?:-^ "^ -— ,1^ . ^.N> ^ Pig. 383. — Bean Antheancnose Bliglil (Pseudomonas phaseoWErw. Smith), Fig. 384. Irregu- lar water-soaked patches appear on leaves, stems and pods, which later become dried out and brownish in color. Diseased seed is the main source of the bacterium which causes the disease. State- ments above in regard to the control of anthracnose are largely .applicable. Diseases op Vegetables 1327 CABBAGE Black Rot (Pseudomonas Cam- pestris Erw. Smith). This disease is readily distinguished by the presence of brown or black veins in leaves and cross sections of leaf stalks and plant stems. Badly affected plants are stunted and many of the lower leaves may drop off. The disease originates from the presence of a parasitic bacte- rium either on the seed or in the soil. All danger of disease from seed is removed by soaking for fif- teen minutes in a solution of cor- rosive sublimate, one ounce dis- solved in seven gallons of water, or in formaldehyde, one pint to thirty gallons of water. Susceptible crops should not be grown on soil where the disease has occurred until a few years have elapsed. Cauliflower, rape, kale, turnips, wild miistard and other cruciferous plants are also susceptible. Club Root (Plasmodiophora hrassicae Wor.), Fig. 385. Un- sightly swellings occur on the roots of cabbage, cauliflower, tur- nips, radishes, shepards purse, wild mustard and other re- lated plants. The causal parasite lives in the soil. It is best controlled by rotating crops so that a susceptible crop is grown on a given field only every fourth to seventh year, but in the meantime the field must be kept free from weeds on account of the susceptibility of many weeds. If infested soil must be used apply lime at the rate of three to five tons per acre. Apply and harrow into the soil the fall before planting, or better, a year or two before. Fig. 384. — Bean Blight 1328 The Vegetable Imdustky in JMew Yoek State Fig. 385. — Club Koot op Cabbage Diseases of Vegetables 1329 CAULIFLOWEE Black Eot and Club Root, discussed under cabbage, are the important diseases. CELEEY Blight (Septoria petroselina Desm., var. apii Br. & Cav.), Fig. 386. It is probable that the yellowing of celery leaves, result- ing from unfavorable soil and weather conditions, is sometimes Fig. 386. — Celehy Blight called blight. True blight is, however, caused only by the attack of a fungus. It can be readily distinguished from all other troubles by the presence of brown dead spots in the leaves and rusty brown areas on the stalks, in both of which there occur small black specks, readily observed only on close observation. Thorough spraying with bordeaux, 5-5-50, effectively controls the disease. It can sometimes be checked to a certain extent by begin- ning spraying after it has appeared, but generally satisfactory 1330 The Vegetable Indtjstey in New Yoek State results are obtained only where spraying is begun as soon as the plants become established in the field and repeated at regular intervals throughout the season. Spray every ten days. Piyik Bot (Sclerotinia libertiana Fuckel), Figs. 387 and 388. This fungoiis rot is sometimes very destructive to celery in trenches and rarely in cold storage. Many other rot fungi attack stored celery, but none cause such a rapid and complete decay. The disease is readily distinguished by the presence on softened parts of dense cottony wefts of mold, within which black irregular bodies 1/32 to 3/8 inch in diameter are developed. These are the resting bodies of the fungus and serve the purpose of seeds. The same fungus attacks lettuce, carrots, cabbage and other plants. It can always be distinguished by the mold and resting bodies. Control methods are uncertain. Probably much can be done to reduce the amount of disease on all attacked plants by diligently removing and destroying all diseased material bearing the fungus resting bodies. Celerj' trenches should be ventilated as much as possible, for heat and iiioisture favor the growth of the fungus. coE]sr Smut (Ustilago zeae Ung.). The familiar smut boils occur on corn wherever it is grown and often results in noticeable losses. The causal fungus remains in the soil from year to year or is brought in with manure where infested com is fed. The fungus is killed in silos. Crop rotation and the use of unin- fested manure reduces the disease. Go through the fields several times each year and cut out and burn the smut boils before they burst open. This continued yearly will result in continued dimi- nution of smut. CUCUMBEE Wilt (Bacillus tracJieiphilus Erw. Smith), Fig. 389. Usually whole plants show a rather sudden wilting with no apparent cause. The disease results from the clogging of the water vessels of the plant by a bacterium, which gains entrance to healthy plants largely through the feeding punctures of striped beetles and other insects. Cantaloupes, pumpkins and squashes are also subject to the disease. Sure methods of control are unknown, but it is probable that crop rotation, the early removal and destruction of Diseases of \"egetables Pig. 387, — Celery Pink Bot 1332 The Vegetable Industey in New York State Diseases of Vegetables 1333 diseased plants, and the control of striped beetles and other insect enemies are of value. Downy Mildew (Plasmopora cuhensis Humphrey), Fig. 390. This is a very destructive disease to both cucumbers and canta- loupes in regions vi^here it commonly occurs, but outside of Long Island it seems to appear only occasionally in this state. The first Fig. 389. — Cucumber Wilt symptom is the appearance of yellov^ish angular spots in the older leaves, vs^hich increase in number and size, spreading to younger leaves and finally killing practically all leaves. Thorough spraying -with bordeaux, 5-5-50, controls the disease and is very profitable M^here it is destructive. Begin spraying when the vines begin to run and repeat every week or ten days throughout the season. There is little use to begin spraying after the disease appears. Leaf and Fruit Spot Diseases. There are several distinct diseases, resulting from the attacks of several species of fungi, which cause dead spots in leaves and fruits. Wherever suffi- ciently destructive to warrant control measures, all can be pre- vented by spraying as for downy mildew. 5 1334 Tub Vegetable Industry in New Yoek State White Pichle, Fig. 391. Fruits are light colored and stunted. They are often mottled with yellow and green. The green blotches may stand out as warts. The leaves turn yellow and affected plants eventually die. The disease has been known only a few years but occurs in many localities. Kothing is known in regard to its nature, cause or remedies. The same or a very similar disease is destructive to greenhouse cucumbers in some localities. Fig. 390. — Cttcumbees Downy Mildew — Early Stage LETTUCE Tip Burn. The edges of the leaves die and turn brown, making the product less salable and in severe cases decreasing yields. Various combinations of climatic conditions, resulting in a too rapid loss of moisture from the lettuce leaves, are responsible for the disease. It is usually brought about by two or three warm, moist days, resulting in a soft, watery growth, followed by a warm, bright day, when there is a rapid loss of moisture. Under glass Diseases of Vegetables 1335 such conditions can be avoided but no remedy is known for out- door lettuce. The only hope lies in obtaining varieties or strains less subject to the disease. Bhizoctonia Rot (L'orticium vagum B. & C, var. solani Burt.), Fig. 392. This is a very destructive disease of outdoor lettuce in this state and is of considerable importance in greenhouses. The rot begins where the bottom leaves rest on the ground and gradu- ally works up into the head, destroying the blades of the leaves and usiially leaving the midribs and stem more or less intact. Under glass, care in watering, so as to keep the leaves and surface Tig. 391.— Cucumber White Pickle of the soil as dry as possible, usually holds the disease in check. Outdoors little can be done towards controlling it, but thorough drainage and frequent cultivation are of value. In greenhouses soil sterilization, preferably by steaming, insures crops free from the disease, but is out of the question for fields on account of cost. Botrytis Rot (Botrytis cinerea Pers.). This rot is of no importance outdoors but is occasionally destructive under glass. Diseased parts are covered with a dirty grey fuzzy mold. The 1336 The Vegetable Industry in New York State Diseases of Vegetables 1337 disease attacks mainly weak plants and can be largely avoided by obtaining a strong vigorous growth. Soil sterilization is prob- ably of little or no value. Sclerotinia Rot (^Sclerotinia lihertiana Fuckel). This disease appears to be of minor importance in this state. Attacked plants very quickly collapse into a soft slimy mass. It is caused by the same fungus as celery pink rot and can be recognized by the mold and fungus resting bodies mentioned under that heading. The disease can be practically eliminated from both greenhouse and outdoor beds by the early removal and destruction of affected plants in each crop. Soil sterilization is effective. MUSKMELOH" OE CANTELOUPE The important diseases are, with the exception of white pickle, the same as of cucumber and the same remedies are effective. ONION Smut (Vrocystis cepulae Frost), Fig. 393. This disease is destructive in many localities where onions have been grown for several years with little or no rotation. It attacks only onions growii from seed. Black streaks occur in leaves and bulbs, which when broken open are found to be filled with a dark powder similar to the smut powder of the familiar grain smuts. The disease is caused by a fungus which gains entrance to the young seedlings from the soil. The application of a weak formaldehyde solution in the furrow with the seed at planting time is a satisfactory and extensively used remedy. The solution is made at the rate of one pound of 40 per cent, formaldehyde to 25 gallons of water. It is applied at the rate of 150 gallons or more per acre by means of a can and delivery tube attached to the seed drill. Heavy rains within 24 hours after planting may greatly reduce the efficiency, of the treatment. A mixture of 100 pounds powdered sulphur and 50 pounds lime, drilled into the furrow with the seed, is of value, but in general less efficient than formaldehyde. Blight (Peronospora schleideniana De Bary). This is a fun- gous disease similar to potato blight. Thorough spraying at regular intervals of about ten days with bordeaux, 5-5-50, con- 1338 The Vegetable Ixdustey in New York State taming resin sticker might be of value in preventing it. The disease usually appears only occasionally and then often not until late in the season' Crops are only occasionally noticeably short- ened. Present information does not warrant spraying. Fig. 393.— Onion Smut; All Diseased Except Thkee Largest PEA Blight {Mycosphaerella pinodes Berk. & Blox.). Fig. 394. This disease causes marked losses in many localities where peas are extensively grown. Brown rotten spots appear on the stems of young plants and later dead spots develop in leaves and pods. The disease results from the attack of a fungus which lives over winter in the seed and in pea roots, stubble and straw. Practice Diseases of Vegetables 1339 Fig. 394. — Pea Blight 1340 The Vegetable I^jdustey ix !New York State crop rotation. Do not put pea straw on land where peas are to be grown. The disease is introduced into fields with manure where pea vines are fed, but the disease germs are killed where the vines are used as silage. Use seed from disease-free crops. Blackish brown spots on seed are a sure indication of the disease. TOMATO Blight (Phytophthora infestans DeBary). The potato blight fungus occasionally attacks tomatoes, producing a similar blight. Spraying with bordeaux, 5-5-50, will check the disease and is advisable when it appears. Systematic spraying, as for potatoes, probably would not be profitable. Leaf Mold (Cladosporium fulvum Cke.). Yellow and dead areas, covered on the lower surface by an olivaceous mold, appear in the leaves. This is primarily a greenhouse disease. Thorough spraying with bordeaux, 5-5-50, every ten days is usually recom- mended. Spraying has, however, not proved generally satisfac- tory. The disease can be largely avoided by keeping the tomato foliage and the greenhouse atmosphere as dry as possible. Leaf Spot (Septoria lycopersici Speg.). Small angular dead spots occur in the leaves eventually causing them to dry and fall. Stems and fruits are also spotted. Three or four applications of bordeaux, 5-5-50, early in the season are said to control it. Blossom End Rot. The blossom ends of half grown and larger fruits become black and more or less sunken. The nature of the disease is not fully known. Various soil conditions, including a sudden decrease in water supply, favor it. Varieties are said to differ in susceptibility. SOME INSECTS INJURIOUS TO VEGETABLES Glenn W. Heekick Professor of Economic Entomology, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. CABBAGE EOOT-MAGGOT The cabbage root-maggot (Pegomya brassicoe) is one of the serious pests to cabbage in New York State. The parent insect of the maggot is a small fly (Fig. 395) which resembles in gen- eral appearance the house-fly, but is considerably smaller, being only about one-fifth of an inch in length. The flies appear in Fig. 395.— Cabbage Boot Maggot (Gkeatly Enlaeged) the spring, usually the first half of May, and deposit their whitish eggs on the soil or in crevices of the soil close to the stem of the cabbage plant. Here the eggs hatch and the maggots attack [1341] 1342 The Vegetable Iadustky in Xew York State the plant, eating out small channels along the underground part of the stem and the roots. If the maggots are present in any numbers the plant will begin to wilt in a few- days and eventually will die. In three or four weeks the maggots become full-grown and change to brown oval objects termed puparia, which are visually an inch or so below the surface of the soil. In about two weeks an adult fly emerges from each of the puparia and is soon ready to deposit eggs for a second brood. The insect passes the winter as a puparium in the soil. This insect is a serious pest of cabbage plants in the seed-bed aa well as of plants after they are set in the field. Control. Plants in the seed-bed may be protected by setting up boards on edge about the bed and then nailing muslin across the top. The dirt should be heaped up around the lower edges of the boards in order to prevent the flies from crawling under and gaining access to the plants. The muslin should be removed about ten days before transplanting time so as to harden the plants and prepare them for set- ting in the field. Plants in the field are best protected by placing hexagonal tarred paper cards about the stems close to the soil. These cards can be purchased ready cut from Joseph Harris Co., Coldwater, IST. Y., at $1.50 per thousand. They can be quickly and economically applied in the field (Fig. 396). Fig. 396. — (a) Tarred Paper Card Prop- erly Put Ox; (b) A Card Carelessly Applied That Will Not Prevent IMPORTED CABBAGE WORM The imported cabbage worm (Fontia rapw) is known as the white cabbage butterfly and although it is common now wherever cabbages are grown in the United States, it is a European insect Some Insects Injurious to Vegetables 1343 and came into isew York State about 1868 or 1870. The parent butterfly has two pairs of large, strong, white wings. Each of the front wings has a black patch in the outer corner and one or two black dots near the outer edge (Fig. 39Y). The butterflies appear early in the spring, and the mother insect soon be- gins to deposit her whitish or pale yellow eggs on the leaves of the cab- bage, one in a place. These hatch in about five days, and the tiny green worms appear. The velvety green caterpillars become full grown in about two weeks and each one trans- forms to a pupa which, owing to its peculiar appearance and silvery markings is called a chrysalis. The insect remains in the chrysalis stage from one to two weeks when the butterfly appears, thus completing the life cycle (Fig. 398). There are at least three broods in Xew York. It hibernates as a chrysalis. Control. The caterpillars riddle the outer leaves of the plant and crawl down into the head, where they injure and soil the tender white leaves. Fig. 397. — The Impokted Cabbage Buttebfly; Male Above, Female Below Fig. 398. — Pabts of Cabbage Leaf, "With Eggs at A, Cateepillaes at B, and 'Chrysalis at C This cabbage pest is best controlled by spraying the cabbages with arsenate of lead, 3 pounds to 50 gallons of water, or with 1344 The Vegetable Industry in New York State paris green 1 pound to 150 gallons of water. If the paris green is sifted on dry it should be mixed with 20 to 25 pounds of flour or fine air-slaked lime. There is no danger in spraying cabbages with a poison up to the time when they are half-grown or even later. The outside leaves do not fold up about the head, hence there is little danger of enclosing the poison within the cabbage. CUTWORMS The well-known cutwonns are larvte or caterpillars of certain night-flying moths. There are several species of these cutworms and they attack various kinds of plants and cause a great amount of injury. They have the habit of working mostly at night and remaining hidden an inch or so below the surface of the soil during the day. As an example of the life history of one of these pests we may take the one known as the yellow-headed cutworm. The parent moth of this cutworm usually appears through July and August and deposits its eggs at the bases of grass stems. Here they hatch and the cutworms live on the roots of the grass, at- taining part of their growth by fall. They then go downward four or five inches and make cells in the soil in which they pass the winter. In the spring they return to the surface, eat „ voraciously, and complete their Fig. 399.— Cabbage Plant i i i ^ Wrapped With Stiff Paper growth when they transform to wo^Mr°™''"°'' Against Cut- ^^^^ ^^ ^^le soil, from which the moths emerge in July and August, thus completing the life cycle. The life histories of other cutworms may vary from this one but many of them agree in eating voraciously and growing fast in the spring, doing ^ost of their damage at that time. Control. In the home garden cutworms may be caught and killed by hand. They will hide underneath pieces of boards or shingles placed near the plants where they may be found and destroyed. Some Insects Injurious to Vegetables 1345 They may be quite effectually destroyed with a poison hait made of 10 pounds of bran and 1 pound of white arsenic or paris green moistened with just enough water to hold the materials together, after which a quart or two of cheap molasses should be added to sweeten the mixture. A handful of this bait should be placed near each cabbage plant in the evening so that the cutworms will be attracted to it during the night after they emerge from their hiding places. SQUASH BUG The squash bug {Anasa tristis) is blackish-brown in color on top and specked with yellow underneath. It is from one-half to nearly threes-fourths of an inch long and has two long antennae on the head (Fig. 400-a). On the un- derside of the head is a long slender beak which constitutes the mouth parts, and with which it sucks up the juices of the plants on which it feeds. The full-grown bugs hide away in the fall beneath stones, boards, leaves and other rub- bish that they may find. In spring they come from their hiding places and begin their search for squash vines. When they find the plants they soon commence to lay their brown eggs on the under- sides of the leaves, and sometimes on the upper sides also. Occasionally the eggs are laid in regular rows, as shown in the illustration (Fig. 401). In eight to twelve days small green and black bugs hatch from the eggs. These young bugs are somewhat like the full-grown ones, but they have no wings and are lighter green in color (Fig. 400-n). They are called nymphs and each one has a beak with which it punctures the leaf and Fig. 400. — The Squash Bug: (a) ADULT; (n) Nymph •vfefj Fig. 401. — Eggs op . Squash Bug on a Leaf 43 1346 The Vegetable Industry in New Yoek State sucks out the juices. The nymphs grow and shed their skins five times before they become adults. More than a month is usually required for the bug to reach full size. There is only one gener- ation a year. Control. The full-grown squash bug and the nymphs puncture the leaves of the squash and suck out the juices, thus causing the leaves and iinally the whole plant to wither and die. In addition, the bugs may carry from one plant to another a very serious bacterial disease, the wilt, which sometimes causes a great deal of injury. Poisons will not kill the bugs, but early in the spring one should keep a sharp lookout for the old bugs and catch them by hand before they lay their eggs. A little later the eggs, when laid, may also be destroyed. The old overwintering bugs may be trapped under pieces of boards, bark or shingles laid on the ground. The bugs will crawl under these for shelter and may be caught and killed in the early cool spring mornings when they are not very active. STEIPED CUCUMBEIt BEETLE The striped cucumber beetle (Diabrotica vittata) is only about two-fifths of an inch in length. The ground color is yellow above but the head is black, and there are three l)lack lines running lengthwise of the back. The underside of the body is mostly black (Fig. 402). The full-grown beetles spend the winter hid- den away beneath leaves and other rubbish, but they appear early in spring and feed on such plants as they can find until the cucumbers and melons are itp. After feeding for awhile on PiG^ 402 — Steiped ^^^^^^ favorite plants they lay eggs in crevices CrtrMKER Beetle, of the soil near the roots of the vines. The Enlarged i i • i i , . ti i eggs hatch into slender, white, worm-like larvss that live on the roots of the plants and cause more or less injury. In about one month the larvae change to pupae and in about one week more the adult beetles appear. In most parts of New York State there are probably two generations a season, while on Long Island there may be three. Some Insects Injueious to Vegetables 1347 Control. In spring the hungry beetles eat the leaves and flowers of the young plants of cucumbers, melons and squashes, and cause severe injury, sometimes destroying the plants. The plants, at least in home gardens, may be protected by putting boxes, which have been made without tops or bottoms, around them. The lower edges of these bottomless boxes should be pressed into the earth so that the beetles cannot crawl under. The tops of the boxes may be covered with coarse thin muslin, at least until the second or third pairs of leaves appear on the plants. Another protective measure is to keep the leaves of the plants covered with fine sifted ashes or air-slaked lime. The beetles seem to be repelled by the dust. Probably the most effective protection against these beetles is afforded by spraying the plants thoroughly with arsenate of lead, 2^ pounds to 50 gallons of water, or in smaller quantities at the rate of 4 ounces to 5 gallons of water. Whatever is done must be done thoroiighly and often. The new leaves as they appear should be covered with the repellant mixture. COMMON" ASPAEAGUS BEETLE Asparagus, introduced into the colonies with * s the early settlers from Europe, is said to have \ / had no insect enemies for nearly two hundred \ ^^ / years. JSTow, however, it is sometimes seri- LftftJ) ously injured by two beetles and a species of _«^^^ The most serious pest is the common aspar- Jr J U jiiiL \ agus beetle (Crioceris asparagi). The beetle I llliiif # is scarcely one-fourth inch in length, is blue- / ^^*^ \^ black in color, with a red thorax, and with Fig. 403.— Common , ,, 11111 • -ii Asparagus Beetle iemon-vellow and dark-blue wmff covers witn a reddish border (Fig. 403). The adults vary considerably in general color, some being darker, while others are lighter. The beetles pass the winter under piles of rubbish, sticks or stones and appear in the early spring about as the aspara- gus is ready to cut for market. The adults deposit their rather large conspicuous dark-brown eggs on the stems of the aspar- 1348 The Vegetable Industey in New York State Fig. 404. — Spotted Asparagus Beetle agus, often in great numbers. In a few days they hatch and the grubs begin at once to feed on the tender plants. In ten to fourteen days the grubs complete their growth and go down into the earth where they change to pupse in dirt-covered cocoons. In about one week the beetles emerge, thus completing the life history. Two and perhaps three broods appear in a season in New York State. The other asparagus beetle is known as the twelve-spotted species and does not seem to be as destructive as the former. The chief damage by this species is done by the over- wintering beetles feeding in early spring on the young and edible asparagus shoots. The beetles and grubs that appear later seem to feed entirely on the berries of the asparagus plant. Control. On small beds of asparagus the beetles may be hand-picked. Destroy all volunteer plants about the beds in order to force the beetles to lay their eggs on the shoots that are being cut daily and sent to market. Spray the asparagus plants after the cutting season is over with arsenate of lead, 2% pounds to 50 gallons of water. In order to make the poison stick to the tiny branches of the asparagus it would be well to dissolve 2 or 3 pounds of hard soap in the mixture. POTATO ELEA BEETLE The potato flea beetle (Epitrix cu- cumeris) is a small insect about one- twelfth of an inch long with a black body and dull yellow legs. Its hind legs which are unusually stout enable this small bettle to jump suddenly when disturbed, like a flea ; hence the name " flea beetle." It attacks toma- toes, egg plants, turnips and radishes Fig. 405.— Two Common Po- ^^ , , TATO FlEA BEETLES. Epi- as well as potatoes. t^a) CucumcHs M md Sys- The adult beetles pass the winter *^""' ^iJ^sonias (b) hidden beneath rubbish or under leaves, and appear during Some Insects Injurious to Vegetables 1349 April and May. They may be found upon various plants at this early season/ but later they attack the potatoes and injure the leaves by eating cavities in the epidermis on both the upper and under sides. In June or July they lay their white eggs in the soil and the larvae, which are white, Fig. 406. — Potato Stalk With Beetle AT WOEK: (A) Beetle; (b) Grub, or Slug; (c) Eggs slender, worm-like creatures, seem to live upon the fragments of the seed potatoes and later upon the forming tubers. In some seasons on Long Island, at least, the larvas bore into the potatoes, thereby causing " slivers " to form in the tubers. Moreover, spots or pimples may form on the surface of the tubers where the larvse 1350 The Vegetable Industey in New York State entered. Such potatoes are said to be "pimply," and buyers take them only at a reduced price. There is apparently one brood, with possibly a partial second in New York. Control. The principal damage is done by the small flea beetles themselves eating holes in the leaves. This injury is often very serious and hard to prevent. Although these insects are biting, poisons do not seem to effectively control them. The best method of fighting them is -to keep the leaves of the potatoes covered with bordeaux mixture. This mixture should be sprayed on both sides of the leaves as much as possible and it should be applied at frequent intervals at the rate of, at least, 100 gallons per acre. If the Colorado potato beetle is present, paris green may be added at the rate of 1 pound to 100 gallons. IRRIGATING VEGETABLES IN NEW YORK Paul Woek Superintendent and Instructor, Department of Vegetable Gardening, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. PRACTICABILITY The casual observer in passing through the market gardening sections in the neighborhood of our cities cannot fail to notice lines of pipe supported on posts extending through many of the fields. Unless he happens along at just the right time he will wonder as to the uses of these lines. If he stops to inquire he will learn that each bears tiny nozzles spaced three or foixr feet apart, and that each is connected at the end with a water supply main. A conversation with the owner of the place will perhaps lead to a demonstration of the apparatus and he will see that these mina- ture nozzels are capable of applying water to a belt of twenty-five or thirty feet on each side, and that by means of a specially con- structed union the whole line can be turned to cast water to cover ground at a considerable distance, in the intermediate space, or directly under the line, the latter being accomplished by means of a vertical throw. The flow is controlled by means of an ordi- nary globe or gate valve. WATEE SUPPLY The next question which naturally arises in the mind of the observer is that of the water supply. There are few places where water cannot be had under conditions which would make its use profitable. In some instances a small pumping plant is estab- lished by the side of a stream or pond. A three-horsepower engine and a duplex pump is able to furnish 100 gallons of water per minute at a pressure of 30 pounds and at a cost of about ten cents per hour. As different areas can be watered successively, this is sufficient to take care of several acres. Other gardeners sink wells to a deep water-bearing stratum lying below. Some use a number of driven wells connected together. Others use single wells of large diameter which have a great gathering surface. [1351] 1352 The Vegetable Industry in New Yoek State o H O H CM >< &^ O s O 1-5 1-1 SI N O s Eh P! Ed W Irrigating Vkgetables in Kew York 1353 At Kochester a most ingenious method is employed. A concrete ring perhaps eighteen feet in diameter, four feet high and a foot thick is constructed with a sharp lower edge. This is strongly re- inforced. The soil is then dug out from the inside and it is allowed to sink as the work progresses. Concrete block are built upon the ring and thus the wall of the well is constructed as it gradually drops into its final place. Eadial pipes are usually set in the concrete ring to permit the free inflow of water. If a stream can be dammed at an elevation of about one hundred feet above the gardens the gravity will supply sufficient pressure, a three and one-half inch pipe delivering approximately 100 gallons per minute at a distance of from five to seven hundred feet. An in- creasing number of gardeners are able to secure city water at such reasonable prices as to make this the best available supply. They take advantage of the rates which are accorded manufacturers who use relatively large quantities. overhead ikrigatiobt The management of overhead irrigation apparatus presents some interesting questions. But little real experimental work has been directed along this line and the knowledge of the subject is based almost entirely on experience and opinions of growers. Most iisers believe that thorough irrigation less frequently is to be preferred to many light applications. Most men water at night or when it is cloudy, but some do not hesitate to use it even in mid-day, believing that the plants are benefitted by the cooling. The work should be so planned that the ground will not be muddy when produce is to be gathered from the field. Precautions must be taken against cracking with such crops as tomatoes and roots. This is usually occasioned by heavy watering after the plants have been kept quite dry. Care should be taken to avoid the develop- ment of rots of various sorts, in lettuce especially, as it nears maturity. DOES irrigation PAY? We have thus far neglected entirely the important question, does irrigation pay ? The very rapid increase in the number of users of irrigation is quite conclusive evidence in its favor. Those who have had experience find it especially helpful when they sow 1354 The Vegetable Indlstky in JSTew York State Irrigating Vegetables in New York 1355 seed in dry weather, when they transplant plants and as crops near maturity. It always pays to have products to market when the other fellow has none, and judicious application of water will very frequently enable a man to make his regular sales while his neighbors are devoting most of their time to praying for rain. Prices are usually highly favorable at such times. Viewing the case from another standpoint, we are further con- vinced of the value of irrigation. The vegetable man invests in land, in labor, in fertilizing material, and any other factors which make for heavy yields. It frequently happens that his return from these investments is jeopardized or lost through his inability to control the moisture factor. He may do much by leaving his land rough through winter to prevent run-off, by harrowing fre- quently until planting time, by maintaining an effective mulch throughout the season — but even so, through sheer absence of moisture to be conserved, his whole crop may be lost, or so much of it that he might better have left the ground unplanted. On the other hand, irrigation is not a panacea. It does not relieve the grower of the necessity of good drainage and careful cultivation. The former is a precaution against over-watering by means of his artificial system or by means of heavy rains which may come just after a thorough irrigation. The latter saves water which is costly and helps to keep the soil in better physical condi- tion. The man who invests his money in the improvement of most of the growth factors and then invests more money in irri- gation, but who neglects a single additional factor which limits the crop return, is worse off than if he had never heard of irrigation. He loses the cost of irrigation in addition to other costs. Many growers can give very inspiring figures as to the results they have obtained by means of irrigation. A New Jersey pro- ducer has secured yields of as much as six hundred and twenty bushels of potatoes from an acre. The same planter was able to mature a $1,500 crop of onions from a five-acre field in time to permit the setting of a later crop of celery. Another grower re- ports that an outlay of three or four hundred dollars saved sev- eral thousand dollars worth of celery, whereas an unwatered acre and a half was a complete failure. The Ontario Agricultural College reports experiments with lettuce as follows: 1356 The Vegetable Inddstky in IS^ew Yokk State Treatment Maturity Leaf Head Weight of Crop Leaf Head Quality Irrigated Non-Irrigated June 22 July 4 July 10 July 26 20 lbs. 5 oz. 20 lbs. 3 oz. 25 lbs. 15 oz. 9 lbs. 1 oz. Fine Bitter The cost of installing irrigation equipment on an acre of ground usually lies between $100 and $150, according to the price of pipe and a man's ability to pick up bargains and to utilize material that is lying around. These figures do not include the water supply, which is, of course, very difficult to estimate on account of the wide variation in conditions. lEEIGATION BY UXDEEGEOUND PIPES J Other methods of irrigation are practiced in various sections of the country. About Boston a system of underground pipes is frequently installed which, with fifty feet of hose, will reach all parts of the garden. It costs about $65 to equip the first acre and roughly $50 per acre thereafter. An inch of water (27,152 gals.) may be applied to an acre of ground with an inch and a quarter hose by a single man in five or six hours. This method is not very generally favored on account of the labor and the cost of maintain- ing hose, and on account of the distribution of plants and danger of injuring the physical condition of the soil. SUB-IEEIGATION Where the sub-soil is impervious, or where, as in the case of the muck lands, a high outlet maintains the water table relatively near the surface, it is possible to water by sub-irrigation. On the muck lands this is accomplished by merely blocking the outlet in such a way as to bring the water up a little nearer to the surface. The soil is well saturated, the outlet is again opened and the surplus water allowed to drain off. Of course, this will not work unless there is a small stream flowing into the swamp, though such is frequently the case. At Sanford, Florida, sub-irrigation is prac- ticed by means of a system of ditching almost like that used for drainage. In fact, the same lines may be used for both irrigation and drainage. In this district the water supply is from artesian wells. Surface irrigation is utilized to some extent in the East. Irrigating Vegetables in New York 1357 The method consists of conducting water along the end of the plot to be irrigated and allowing it to flow into furrows between the rows of the crop. It is best to permit the water to reach the far end of the row as soon as possible and then allow it to be ab- sorbed evenly throughout the land. If this is not done the part of the field next the supply ditch will receive much more water than the remainder. This form of irrigation is useful on level land where there is abundance of water and where the soil is suit- able. Light soils drink up the moisture so rapidly that even dis- tribution is difficult. MARKETING VEGETABLES C. E. White, Ionia, Ontario County, IST. Y. Farmers' Institute Lecturer The question of marketing vegetables presents several phases for consideration, for the reason that there are so many con- ditions under which the production is car- ried on. THE HOME MAKKET The problem of the one who lives in close proximity to the town or city in which the product is to be sold, who knows either the wholesaler, the retailer or the consumer to whom he is to sell, and is familiar with the requirements of the market, is much different from that of the large commercial grower, who depends on the markets of the entire country and who does not know at the time of planting whether the demand for his product will come from I^ew York, Boston, Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago, or possibly be transported over still longer distances to the far southern markets. The former knows just what his market requires as to type, color or condition of each vegetable. He knows the whims and caprices. He is able to establish a regular trade or to bring his products forth from day to day as the demand requires. He knows where the fancy products will meet with a ready demand, and where the cheaper trade is to be found — to whom he can dispose of his poorer grades. Only when there is a great over-sup- ply is he in trouble. THE DISTANT MAEKET Not SO with the man who is dependent on shipments being made over a wide area. He has a dozen different markets, each with its own peculiar requirements and demands. He has a chance of selling to a local dealer who has no particular interest in either the product or the producer, except to get his margin ; or, on the [1358] Maeketing Vegetables 1359 other hand, he can consign to a commission merchant in a distant market, running the many risks which are to be encountered — delay in getting cars; poor refrigeration and consequent loss in hot weather ; or freezing if in cold weather ; delay in transit and consequent loss; rapid market fluctuation and consequent falling in price during the time the product is in transit, and finally, the dishonesty of the receiver. A large number of the individual growers prefer to take less and sell to the dealer, letting him assume the risks, which is the better way where there is only a limited number of shipments to be yiG. 409.- ■ A Well-finished and a Pooely-finished Tomato Package made, for there are always losses, and, unless the shipments are large enough — as in the case of the dealer or large grower who can distribute his losses over a large number of shipments — it is liable to strike rather hard if the loss is very heavy. PUTTING OUT a SATISFACTOEY AETICLE There are a few essentials which should always be taken into consideration in any event. First, that products should always be grown, harvested, graded and packed with a view to satisfying the purchaser. It is comparatively easy to get the purchase 1360 The Vegetable Industky in New Yoek State money for a product which meets with his approval, but it is diffi- cult to convince him that the article is worth more to him than his cash, unless it is satisfactory. Second, that the product should he harvested at the right time to carry to its destination in good con- dition. Third, it should be packed in the package which meets with the approval of the particular market to which it is to be shipped. It should be packed attractively, but never so as to deceive or defraud the buyer. It is better to have the contents of a package prove better than the face rather than poorer. Then it will win reputation and consequently customers. And, understand, the time is ripe for community or collective selling of crops. The manufacturer who has most nearly reached the acme of perfection is he who has specialized in his business. He gives special attention to so producing that he will have the highest quality of product at the minimum cost. The man who accom- plishes that gives no heed to the disposition of the product except to learn the public demand so he can meet it. ADVANTAGE OF COOPEKATIVE SELLING On the other hand, the product is sold by men who are equally as expert in salesmanship, thoroughly acquainted with the de- mand of every market, with transportation conditions, with the trend of prices in the past, and alert to every phase of the science of distribution of his particular commodity. It will be said that the vegetable grower is not large enough, individually, to carry on this kind of business, except when he is close to a special market; but collectively he can accomplish the desired results. The public packing house where the products can be graded to well established standards; a system of pooling whereby the oc- casional loss which is sure to occur to every shipper can be dis- tributed over a larger volume of business, thereby becoming only an incident ; and finally the employing of special expert salesmen, will place the grower in a much more advantageous position. Marketing Vegetables 1361 It may be said that this cannot be accomplished except when vegetable growing is done on a large scale, but the tendency where such association work is carried on is to bring about specialization. The requisites for success along this line are : recognition of the possibilities of the undertaking; absolute honesty of both indi- viduals and association, and absolute loyalty and determination to make the undertaking a success. VEGETABLE GARDENING AT CORNELL Paul Work Superintendent and Instructor, Department of Vegetable Gardening, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. For many years courses in vegetable gardening have been offered at the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University at Ithaca. It is only within the last few years that this field has been developed as a specialized branch of agricul- ture. In October, 1913, the work was commenced as a separate department and the staff now includes four men who are engaged in teaching and one in extension work, beside the gardeners and the office force. It is the aim of the department to serve the vegetable interests of the state and of the country as far as possible. The prime need at present is for men well trained in practical experience, as Fig. 410. — Students ' Garden Work at Coeneix well as in technical knowledge, to carry forward the innumerable tasks which lie before xis — the solution of the important prob- lems of the field, the building up by well-planned research of a body of fundamental knowledge of matters pertaining to vegeta- ble gardening, and the dissemination of the best that is known through extension teaching, through winter courses, and through courses for regular students. The work at Cornell is being devel- oped in all of these lines. One member of the department gives [1362] Vegetable Gaed.ening at Cornell 1363 ■* T-H rH o K O o H o o o M O o 13G6 The Vegetable Iadustey i2>r Xew Yoek State The winter course in vegetable gardening has been arranged especially for those who are interested in this kind of agriculture and who are unable to spend the whole year at Ithaca. It is attended by increasing numbers of actual commercial growers as well as persons who expect to enter this field for the first time. The presence in the classes of young men who hail from the vari- ous producing sections of the state has added greatly to the in- terest and value of the work. The plan calls for courses in commercial vegetable production, in vegetable forcing, in soils, in fertility of the land, and in one or two other elective subjects. It is recommended that those who might possibly spend two winters at Ithaca devote the first to a course in general agriculture, and specialize in vegetable gardening the second year. The department is gradually building up a splendid equipment for the work in vegetable gardening. Its ofiices and class rooms are located in the poultry building. Here are kept the collec- tions of preserved specimens, of herbarium material, of photo- graphs and lantern slides, as well as of books, bulletins and period- icals. Four glass houses, comprising about 0,000 square feet of space, constitute the vegetable range at present. This is to bo enlarged to about double the area. Adjoining the greenhouses is a frame yard which accommodates at present about 125 sash. The glass is used for laboratory and departmental work in plant grow- ing and for growing plant crops to maturity. The gardens include 3i/i acres of sandy soil and about 12 acres of heavier land. The former is well adapted for intensive work and is equipped with service building and with irrigation appar- atus, illustrating several types. This garden provides facilities for the individual student's field work. A half an acre is planted each year with samples of the leading varieties of all the vegeta- bles. The 12-acre piece is divided for a four-year rotation and is utilized for the less intensive types of gardening which are practiced by the general farmer. The products of the gardens are harvested and sold, thus giving opportunity for laboratory work in marketing. THE NEW YORK STATE VEGETABLE GROWERS" ASSOCIATION AND ITS WORK Paul Work Superintendent and Instructor, Department of Vegetable Gardening, Cornell University, Ithaca, 2sf. Y. Over four years ago a small circle of New York vegetable men were gathered in conversation in the lobby of the Hotel Secor in Toledo. These men had journeyed from the Empire State to attend the meeting of the Vegetable Growers' Association of America. Within the circle the question arose as to why New York State should not itself have meetings organized on as high a plane as those of the national association. The idea was favor- ably commented upon and as a result a questionaire was addressed to a number of the commercial producers of the state inquiring as to whether they would be willing to support a state association. Eeplies were favorable and a call was issued for a meeting to consider the matter of organization. During Farmers' Week of 1911 it was decided to establish such a society and twenty-seven men became members at that time. About as many more men who were unable to be present at Ithaca joined the association within the first few months. From that day to this the growth has been steady, amounting to about 25 per cent, per year. The early months of 1915 point to a much more rapid increase in the enroll- ment, and the association seems now to be firmly on its feet. Two features of the development in membership have been pai> ticularly encouraging. From the first the membership has in- cluded leading growers from every comer of the state, and at present hardly an important producing center is unrepresented. Even more important than this has been the marked develop- ment in interest on the part of members. A large number of men are willing to give time, thought and energy to the activi- ties of the organization, and a spirit of solidarity and of willing- ness to cooperate is developing in a marked degree. The association began with comparatively few and simple ac- tivities. Each year has witnessed the introduction of some new [1367] 1368 The Yegetablk Industry ix Xeav Yokk State New Yokk State Vegetable Geowees' Association 1369 line of work of prime importance. The work of 1911 was the establishment of the society. In 1913 the seed service was in- augurated. This has developed until it seems necessary that it be reorganized for 1916 in such a way as to take care of the in- creased business, as well as to include many varieties which are not now listed. In 1913 the first annual report was printed. This records the proceedings of the meetings and so carries the good work of the sessions to members who are not able to be pres- ent. The value of this report is indicated by the large number of calls for copies which have been received from institutions and individuals outside of the state. The volume is of nearly three hundred pages and includes a full list of vegetable bulletins of all the experiment stations which are now in print. The asso- ciation helps members to procure these bulletins which Avould not otherwise be available to New Yorkers. « 1 1 I NE» YORK STATE VE&E BlE&fiflWERSASSOCWTiOH WETH0DS0FPACKIM6 "■"■TAP" ES r^R TAftKET Fig. 414.— Package Exhibits of New York State Vegetable Gbowers' Association at State Faie, 1912 It has long been the idea of the officers of the association that the meetings of the association should be carried into the local producing centers. In other words, that it is cheaper and easier to carry the speaker to the people than to carry the people to the speaker. Accordingly one day meetings have been held in 13Y0 The Vegetable Industry in New Yoek State Buffalo, Angola and Syracuse. It is probable that many others will be held next year. This was the contribution of 1914. The prime work for 1915, which is now under way, is the es- tablishment of a crop report service for the benefit of members. Sheets are sent out to all members and these are filled out and sent in to headquarters. This work is under the able and ener- getic leadership of Professor W. B. Nissley of the Long Island School of Agriculture at Farmingdale. Fig. 415. — Exhibit of New Yokk State Vegetable Growers' Association, State Fair, 1913 The Association is also engaged in active work looking toward favorable legislation, better transportation conditions, more and stronger local organizations of vegetable men, better service for growers from colleges, experiment stations and other institutions, and seeking recognition for the interests of the grower in the reorganization of the marketing system which is now in progress. Through the influence of the association very marked improve- ment has been brought about in the conditions governing the ex- hibiting of vegetables at the State Fair. The value of the pre- mium list has been doubled, and it is expected that very much better quarters will be available for these displays in the coming year. New Yoek State Vegetable Growers' Association 1371 The jSTew York State Vegetable Growers' Association was not formed with the idea that it should become a great business enterprise, but rather that its work should be educational and supervisory. It is the aim of the association to do all in its power to further the interests of the vegetable men of the state by disseminating information and by exercising its influence in the interest of progress. The officers of the association are: President, Henry GrefE- rath, South Lima; vice-president, S. J. Cook, Dunkirk; secre- tary, Paul Work, Ithaca; treasurer, C. H. Aldrich, Mattituck. VEGETABLE GKOWEES' ASSOCIATIONS IN NEW YOEK STATE Arkport-Burns Growers' & Shippers' Assn. L. J. Taylor, Arkpoxt, N. Y. Central JST. Y. Vegetable Growers' Assn. E. E. Smith, Secy., 103 Mill St., Syracuse. Erie Co. Growers' & Shippers' Assn. Chas. H. Houshalter, Secy., Hamburg, JST. Y. Fulton Vegetable Growers' & Shippers' Assn. John W. Pratt, Fulton, E". Y. Ionia Growers' Assn. 0. R. White, Secy., Ionia. Long Island Cauliflower Assn. C. H. Aldrich, Pres., Mattituck, N. Y. Long Island Potato Exchange. H. E. Talmadge, Secy., Eiverhead, N. Y. j\Ionroe Co. Market Gardeners' Assn. A. J. Warren, Secy., Irondequoit. Xewburgh Market Gardeners' Assn. Ep. Titus, Secy., Newburgh, E. D. Rose Vegetable Growers' Assn. E. W. Catchpole, N. Rose, N. Y. Sodus Vegetable Growers' Aissn. W. E. Danford, Sodus. South Lima Growers' & Shippers' Assn. Chas. ISr. Pickell, S. Lima. South Shore Growers' & Shippers' Assn. S. J. Cook, Dunkirk. Troy Market Gardeners' Assn. J. H. Pateman, Secy., Watervliet. EXHIBITION OF VEGETABLES Paul Woek Superintendent and Instructor, Department of Vegetable Gardening, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. The horse and stock industries have in the past found that ex- hibitions and exhibiting have accomplished great things for the advancement of the breeds with which they were working. The same statement might be made regarding both fruits and flowers, and furthermore regarding vegetables in European countries, particularly in England. The question at once arises — in what way is exhibition worth while for the individual grower? The chief advantage is undoubtedly in its educational value and in the inspiration toward better effort. One cares to show nothing short of his best. His first problem in preparing an exhibit is, what is the best? In deciding this, he establishes clearly in his own mind an ideal toward which his effort for the whole crop will turn. The second question is: can I not improve my entire crop in the direction of the standard which I am selecting for the fair ? Thus bis attention is focused upon his cultural methods, upon his seed and his soil, and his market requirements. Thought always means progress. Question three arises when the other fellow gets the prize. What is lacking on my place that I can not do as well ? ilore thought and study is the result, and again, inevitably, progress. The comparison of types on the show bench is also most useful. Both producing districts and individuals have found that ex- hibition is profitable advertising. Of course, a " First " is always of intrinsic value, whether for sewing machines, ginger ale, Hol- stein cattle or garden products. The garden people have not thus far taken full advantage of the possibilities. Exhibits mean miich to the vegetable business as a whole, for the progress of all vegetable growers means progress for each. Slow but steady advance is made toward standardizing types and varieties, in letting the best be known and in raising the ideal of the average grower. [1372] Exhibition of Vegetables 1373 Vegetable exhibits help to educate the public as to the value of vegetable food, as to the variety that is available, and as to the quality vs^hich they should demand. The opportunities v^hich are offered at the State Fair and in the various county fairs ought to be accepted, and where proper facilities are not afforded — as is novp emphatically the case at Syracuse — united efforts should be exerted toward bringing about more favorable conditions. POTATOES * EdWAED VAN" Alstyxe, Kixdeehook, N. Y. Director of Farmers' Institutes No cne can lay down a set of rules which another may follow to the letter, and thereby insure a crop of potatoes or of anything else, for there is always to be taken into account differences in soils, as well as climatic and weather conditions, which prevent any hard and fast adherence to another's methods. Nevertheless, there are with the potato crop, as with every other, certain fixed laws which always obtain, and he who works in harmony with them, rather than from custom or tradition, works with nature, and is more likely to succeed. Therefore, in calling attention to some of the principal laws which govern the potato — laws which are the same everywhere — I aim rather to help someone to secure a crop with a greater de- gree of certainty, than to give methods, which apart from the underlying principle may be of little value. First, then, let us look at the construction of the tuber. It is made up, in round numbers, of 75 per cent, water and 25 per cent, starch. The water — without which in sufficient quantities, and at the right time, it is impossible to obtain a maximum crop — must, of course, come from the soil. The starch is formed by the action of the sunlight through the green leaf. Whatever, then, tends to promote a vigorous growth, and maintain and preserve the leaf surface at its best throughout the entire period of the plant's life, will insure the development of the greatest amount of starch, without which no potato can attain full size or highest quality. How shall we secure the requisite water supply ? If we could control the rainfall, the problem would be an easy one. Unfortu- nately — or fortunately- — in nine years out of ten there is not * Revised from Report of Bureau of Farmers' Institutes, 1910. Write for The Potato Industry in New York State, Bulletin 57, Department of Agriculture. [1374] Potatoes 1375 enough rainfall during the growing season, from May to October, to produce a full crop of anything, much less a crop like the potato, which is three-quarters water. When one realizes that it requires at least 300 pounds of water to produce 1 pound of dry matter in a plant, and considers the tonnage from even a moderate crop of potatoes (Y5 per cent, water), and then compares this with the average rainfall in his locality during the above-mentioned period, he will appreciate the truth of this statement. We must, then, secure a water supply from that in the ground in early spring, derived from melting snows and spring rains, at a time when there is little evaporation from the soil ; and conserve that from the precipitation during the growing season. This can be done in two ways: Fig. 416. — Potato Field of H. F. Hoeton, Stephentown, Rensselaer County, N. Y. Foliage in Peefect Condition as a Result of In- telligent Fertilization and Cultivation, Followed bi' Thoe- ouGH and Timely Speaying for Bugs and Blight 1. By preventing evaporation by frequent stirring of the sur- face soil. As fast as the ground is plowed in the spring, it should be harrowed or rolled — not left until the whole field is turned over. This will make the soil compact, and prevent loss of water by drying winds, and by breaking up of the capillary cells which quickly form- when the ground is criisted, thus making the spaces so large that the water cannot climb to the surface and escape. If the weather is very dry, it is better to roll as fast as plowed, and then 1376 The Vegetable Industry in ISIew York State stir the surface. If the land has been fall plowed and one does not intend to replow, as soon as the land will hear a pair of horses and a light harrow, stir the surface. This will not only stop evapora- tion, but as the air strikes the soil the water will drop down, to be drawn up later when it is needed. Just as in a test tube, the water will not run out so long as one keeps his finger tightly over the top, hut remove the fingers and let the air in, and at once the water falls. The same principle of freqiient stirring during the culti- vation of the crop, until the tops cover and shade the ground, will do more to conserve moisture and insure a crop in a dry season than any other one thing. 2. Plenty of vegetable matter in the soil will help to hold moisture. To illustrate : if we put an equal amount of water in two vessels, biit place in one a sponge, and leave them both exposed to the siin and air, we know that from the one containing the sponge we can obtain water long after the other is dry. The vege- table matter has the same effect in the soil. I cannot, in the brief space at my disposal, describe and emphasize the question of soil humus as I should like to, but it is most vital to this crop. That is one reason that I prefer a clover sod for potatoes. I know many prefer " old ground." I am sure this is because the sod is turned in such a way as to leave the soil open, and the sod does not decay. If it is turned on edge with a narrow lap furrow and then com- pacted, it will decay very fast and be mixed with the soil where it will hold water. Better still, if the sod is thoroughly broken up with a cutaway before it is plowed, the vegetable matter will be incorporated in the soil, and at once decay and feed the plant, and less fitting will be required after plowing. It naturally follows, then, from the above that the ideal soil for potatoes is a loamy one, not so hard or compact that the water cannot readily move throiTgh it. THE SEED We are accustomed to speak of a " seed potato." Keally, there is no such thing for a potato is a tiiber, and whatever seed there may be is in the ball on top. When we plant a true seed of grain, for example, although it may come from a weak parent, the pollen from the stronger plants surrounding it overcomes, to a degree at least, the inherent weakness. Hence, such seed selected from the Potatoes 1377 4+ 1378 The Vegetable Industry in New Yoek State pile by its appearance usually will not deteriorate, but will often improve on the same farm from year to year. Not so with the potato tuber or cutting. If one from a weak hill, with only one or two potatoes, or one in which all the tubers were small, is planted, there must be a deterioration, for there is no cross pollen- ization from a strong plant to help it. This explains why varieties of potatoes run out, and why people are continually seeking new, strong seed. There are thousands of dollars expended every year for potatoes to plant, many of which come from diseased stock, and few of which are selected, except by external appearance. Most of this money might be saved if the seed tubers were selected from the most vigorous productive hills ; not so difficult a task as might at first glance appear, for one can plant a small portion of Pig. 418. — Showing Variation in the Yielding Capacity of Two In- dividual TuBEBS Selected ebom Rueal New Yorkees. a field expressly for this purpose, and by digging the potatoes by hand can throw out all hills not coming up to the desired stand- ard. I know two men, in widely separate parts of this state, who had a few years ago — and, for aught I know to the contrary, have now — the Early Rose as productive as when it was first intro- duced, and they have used only their own seed, potatoes being selected as above. A small or medium-sized potato, if it comes from a vigorous productive hill, is a good seed, but the continued planting of small potatoes will mean deterioration, for an increasing number each year must come from hills in which the potatoes were all small. Potatoes 1379 Anything which impairs the vitality of the seed means less vigor and productivity of the plant. Hence, if the tubers were blighted the previous year, it is probable that the disease is carried directly to the new crop. Of this I shall speak in particular in treating of blight. Again, a field in which the tops were destroyed by blight is one in which, because of the destruction of the leaf, the normal amount of starch has not been formed, and we have an imperfectly developed tuber. If the seed is kept where the sprouts grow long and are broken off there is a loss of vitality. For this reason I prefer to store the seed tubers in pits in the earth so covered with straw that they will not freeze, yet where they keep much cooler than in the ordinary cellar. The same covering will also keep the heat out for a long time in the spring. If one is planting late, after danger from the frost is past, the potatoes can be taken out and spread on a floor where it is light and cool. The eyes will then start slowly, and any potatoes which fail to sprout or which send out a thread-like shoot may be rejected, thus saving vacant or worthless hills. There is an increasing complaint of damage from scab. This is a bacterial disease, and never the work of insects. The infection may come from the soil. If so, there is no sure way of prevent- ing the trouble. Professor Sirrine, of Eiverhead, L. I., has had good results from 500 pounds of sulphur mixed with each ton of fertilizer — using a half ton of the fertilizer to the acre — applied in the drill. A sweet soil is most favorable to the growth of scab. For this reason lime should never be used on land just prior to a potato crop. Wood ashes which are rich in lime have the same effect. It will take at least three years for the scab to dis- appear from the soil, and in one badly infested, or strongly alkaline, much longer. I have found growers in the Ohio Valley using rye to be turned under before planting potatoes. This makes the land slightly acid and consequently less favorable for scab development. A frequent source of infection is scabby seed, which can easily be controlled. The old remedy, and an excellent one, is to soak the seed — preferably before cutting — for at least an hour in a solution of 1 ounce of corrosive sublimate to 8 gallons of water, or 1 pint of formalin to 30 gallons of water. This will 1380 The Vegetable Industet in New Yoek State treat as much seed as it will cover, and may be used again and again. A convenient way is to place the tubers in a sack and suspend it in a barrel or tub of water. After the requisite time of soaking it can be raised up, and the solution will drain back on the vessel, and the potatoes be dry to handle. Both of the above disinfectants are poison and should be handled with care. Where a large quantity of seed is to be treated, the above method takes a great deal of time. Much advice has been given as to how small a piece of potato to plant. ISTo one can lay down any ironclad rule, but the under- lying principle must be taken into account. From the stand- point of economy, one cannot ordinarily afford to plant whole potatoes, and one too small to cut is too small to plant. The number of eyes in the seed piece depends on the type of potato, and the condition of the soil in which it is planted. Two strong eyes are enough, if they grow. The flesh about the eye sustains it until it can root and be sustained in the ground. A potato of the Early Eose type, with many eyes, will have less flesh about four or five eyes than one of the Eural type, with a few eyes, will have about one or two. Hence, the latter can be safely cut to a less number of eyes than the former. If the soil is moist and fertile, the roots will obtain a feeding place much sooner than if it is dry, hard and sterile. This, too, must determine the size and number of eyes. DEPTH OF PLANTITTG The potato requires coolness and moisture. If the planting is shallow it means, sooner or later, heat and dryness. Hence, rather deep planting, 4 or 5 inches, is to be recommended, be- cause it is according to the law of the plant. iSTo one ever saw the tubers form much below the seed piece. Planted shallow, they must of necessity form near the surface. To prevent dry- ing and burning, they must then be ridged up with earth taken from between the rows, cutting off many feeding roots, and leaving a cone-shaped hill which sheds water, and a depression which carries the rainfall to the lowest part of the field, where it is least needed. When planted deep, the tubers have a chance to form in the more moist soil, little ridging is necessary, and Potatoes 1381 the summer rain penetrates to the roots about each plant. Those who plant early will contend that potatoes planted deep will be longer coming up, and the crop will not be as good as if they were planted more shallow and afterward ridged. This is true, yet the principle obtains. Early in the season the ground is cold and has an overabundance of water. If planted and covered deep, it will take a long time for the sun to pene- trate to the tuber. Hence, they sometimes fail to come up at all, or are too late for the highest price. If, instead of cover- ing deeplj- all at once, just enough of the warm surface earth is put on to keep them from chilling, the sun will warm and start the eyes. After a few days put on, with a harrow, a little more earth which has also become warm, and repeat the process until the ground is level, when the potatoes will come up quickly and be strong. At the same time one has cheaply stirred the ground, retaining the moisture, and destroying countless weeds just as they were sprouting. Except in very fo'ul ground, on which it will seldom pay to plant potatoes, the best yields are obtained from drill, rather than from check row planting. More hills can be put on an acre and there is less disturbance of the roots by late cultiva- tion when this is done only one way. I'EETILIZEES How much fertilizer and what kind to use. depends largely on the soil. If one has a clover sod, that will help to supply nitrogen, and the decaying vegetable matter will emit acids which help to liberate mineral plant food. In this case it will not be necessary to supply so much commercial fertilizer, particu- larly nitrogen. It is important to remember that nitrogen in organic matter, such as the decaying sod, manure, tankage, fish scrap or the like, will not become available until the ground is warm. Hence, for early potatoes, or where one depends in part on the sod, I would use nitrogen in the form of nitrate of soda. This is available at once, and for every 100 pounds of nitrogen applied, 63 pounds are found in the plant, while from organic sources, not more than 41 pounds in each 100 pounds applied. For this reason I believe it economy, when nitrogen 1382 The Vegetable Industry ix ISTew Yoek State must be purchased for later growth, to use nitrate of soda, making a second application just before it is needed. If a large amount is applied at one time, early in the season, much may be lost through leaching before the plants can use it. The danger of such loss will be reduced in soil full of humus. When manure is made on the farm and is applied to a sod in the late fall or early winter, so that it is broken up by the frost and rains, there is little damage from rot or disease which may occur with manure applied just before planting. This will usually supply all the nitrogen needed, and all that need be pur- chased is phosphoric acid and potash. I have had excellent re- sults from 1,800 poimds of South Carolina rock and 200 pounds of muriate of potash. This will analyze about 12 per cent, of phosphoric acid and 5 per cent, of potash. We hear much of the need of a large amount of the last named for potatoes, and many potato fertilizers contain as high as 12 per cent. For muck soils and those deficient in minerals this is doubtless none too much, but for most Xew York soils which are high in potash, all the evi- dence goes to show that from 4 per cent, to 5 per cent, is ample. In a few cases larger amounts have given better yields, but when the cost of the extra amount was figured out the increase did not pay for the extra outlay. All recent experiments show that phosphoric acid is a controlling factor. Of this there should be a surplus which will not be lost, but is available for subsequent crops. In a dry time the soluble phosphoric acid tends to revert or lock up. When rain is lacking until late in the season (which will make the plant food again available), if there is a minimum of this food, not enough will become available in the short time in which it is needed. A very good potato fertilizer for ordinary soil, when one ap- plies all three at planting time, can be made from 400 pounds of nitrate of soda, 200 pounds high-grade tankage, 1,200 pounds of South Carolina rock and 200 pounds of muriate of potash. This will analyze 3.7 per cent, nitrogen, 9.4 per cent, phosphoric acid and 5 per cent, of potash, and, if the chemicals are purchased, should cost not over $28, including mixing. In the season of 1915, with the scarcity of potash, and consequent almost prohibi- tive price, ordinary directions relative to potash are non-effective. Potatoes 1383 In many cases, from an economic standpoint, potash may be left out or reduced to the minimum. I would pay no more for potash in the sulphate form for potatoes than for the muriate. In spite of the contention that chlorine in the latter will give the tubers a strong flavor, all tests fail to show any difference, even when an excessive quantity is used. The amount of fertilizer per acre will depend on the condition of the soil, usually not less than 500 poimds in combination with manure, or on very fertile soil, or with a clover sod. When these are lacking, 1,000 pounds seems to be the most profitable amount. True, many use as high as 2,000 pounds and claim it pays. Professor Sirrine has made exhaustive tests on Long Island soils, extending over a period of years, with the following result with potatoes at 50 cents per bushel. Had the price been higher the larger quantity might have paid. Increased yi eld Fertilizer Cost per acre Money gain 500 lbs. $ 6.25 23.3 bu. $ 5.40 1000 lbs. 12.50 44.3 bu. 10.60 1500 lbs. 18.75 55.4 bu. 8.97 2000 lbs. 25.00 61.4 bu. 5.70 My own practice has been, when using only 500 pounds, to apply it all in the drill ; with a larger quantity, the balance broad- cast, because the feeding roots extend all through the soil. This seems logical. Further, if a large amount is put close to the seed, and heavy rains follow planting, there is often injury to the seed. Hence, it is always wise to mix the fertilizer with the earth. PRESERVATION" OF THE GREEBT LEAF Anything which destroys the leaf surface reduces the starch making machinery, and though there may be an abundant water supply, ample available plant food of the right sort, and greatest vigor of plants, if the leaf surface is impaired or destroyed, all will be for naught. INSECTS In many sections the flea beetle is very destructive, but where bordeaux is used the damage has been very slight. ISTot that it kills the beetles, but being very distasteful it drives them away, per- haps to feed on something less valuable, or it may be they starve. 1384 The Vegetable Indostky in New Yokk State Fig. 419. — The Potato Flea Beetle and Its Work. Upper Leaflets From an Unsprayed Plant, Lower Ones From a Sprayed Plant Potatoes 1385 Like tlie poor, the Colorado potato beetle is ever with us, and, although there is an occasional year when they do little injury, the following year is likely to see them abundant. If left un- molested, they will often, in forty-eight hours or less, so defoliate Fig. 420.— Spbaying Potatoes With a Knapsack Spbayer the plants as to reduce the yield below the point of profit. This emphasizes the importance of putting the poison on in time. Often a very little, just as the old hard shells appear, before they deposit their eggs, will prevent further injury. The old stand-by has been, and in many places still is, paris green. This has many objectionable features. First, the arsenic is soluble and the foliage is burned by it. I am sure we have suffered more than we have realized from this. Professor Jones, late of the Vermont Ex- 1386 The Vegetable Industey in New Yoek State periment Station, once told me, that 50 per cent, of the potato leaves sent to him for examination for blight had simply paris green injury. Xext, being in the form of an amorphous powder, it washes off quickly, and if applied before the bugs are well hatched out, the application must be repeated, materiall in- creasing the cost. With these facts before us, I recommend arsenate of lead. This will not injure the foliage in any qiiantity. It is in a paste form and will adhere a long time. Hence, it can be put on with impunity when the bugs' first appear, and it will remain for those hatching later. It is not so quick in its action as the green, and many who have tried it have complained that it did not kill the bugs. This was my own experience the first time I used it, waiting until the bugs were abundant and applying it with a sprayer which did not thoroughly cover the vines. Since I have learned to use it at the first appearance of the bugs, and apply it in such a way that every leaf is covered, I have freqiiently found one application sufficient for the season. Arsenate of lead is sold on a gTiaranteed analysis of the arsenic oxide it contains. Therefore, one can readily determine its com- mercial value, and also how much to use. If, for instance, 1 pound of paris green — which should be 50 per cent, arsenic — to 50 gallons of water has been found sufficient to kill the bugs, one should use 3% or 4 povmds of the lead to a like amount of water, or bordeaux. diseases A disease which does much injury is " tip burn," often mis- taken for blight, but entirely different. The life history of this has not been thoroughly worked out. One theory, and to my mind a very plausible one, is that when the early part of the season is wet and the plants heavily fed with nitrogenous fertilizers, a rank, rather soft growth follows. Later in the season it turns dry. There is more plant than can well be supported, and the extrem- ities of the leaf, farthest from the source of supply, and being only imperfectly nourished, is easily affected by the disease germ which the more vigorous parts of the plant resist. Bordeaux is a good remedy, but it must be evident, if the above is correct, that an abundant water supply and plant food are conditions which make this disease less likely to occur. Potatoes 1387 BLIGHT Taken altogether, the most serious foe to the potato is the blight. It is so insidious in its attacks that if preventive measures are not employed early in the season it will often ruin a potato crop in twenty-four hours. The late blight is the one most in evidence and most destructive. It is peculiarly a wet weather disease, the spores of which, so far as is known, live over winter only in the old tubers. When such infested tubers are planted and the earth becomes warm and moist, these spores multiply and burst from their cells, so that the soil literally swarms with them. Many, of course, die ; some find their way to the surface. Often, when the plants are five or six inches high, a heavy rain will beat them down to the earth where they come in contact with the blight spores. If the weather continues wet, these multiply and penetrate the leaf. Later they spread to other leaves and live on the leaf tissues. When weather conditions are favorable, i. e., wet, they increase at an enormous rate, and so destructive are they that a field will often turn black in a day. If the wet is excessive, these spores are washed from the tops to the ground, and so to the tubers again, and rot often follows — always infection. Here is another reason for deep planting. Tubers are less exposed to the spores and be- ing deeper and cooler in the spring, fewer spores germinate and come to the surface. There is no cure after the spores are estab- lished, but it can be prevented by what is known as the bordeaux mixture, viz., 5 pounds of copper sulphate (blue vitriol), 5 povmds of lime and 50 gallons of water. If this is thoroughly applied early, before the leaves are contaminated, it copperplates them, as it were, and the blight spores die because they can not gain an entrance. It must, therefore, be applied in season, thoroughly, so as to protect the whole plant, and often enough to cover the new growth. Sometimes one spraying before the spores come from the ground has been sufficient. Usually three give excellent re- turns. Again, five are even more profitable. Much depends on the season^ as well as on the time and thoroughness of the work. There is no question as to its practicability, in proof of which I call attention to Bulletins No. 323 and 349 of the New York State Experiment iStation, which may be had for the asking. Briefly stated, the facts are these: For seven years the station 1388 The Vegetable Industey in New Yokk State Pig. 421.— Potato Plant Attacked by Late Blight Potatoes 1389 has been carrying on cooperative experiments with farmers scat- tered from one end of the state to the other. The farmer does the work according to his own method, the station provides for proper check rows, and assists in measuring the areas and weighing the product. The grower keeps accurate account of all expenses and profit or loss from the spraying. During the seven years the average cost of spraying an acre has run from $4.15 to $5.90. The increased yield per acre has been from 18.5 bushels to 62.2 bushels and the net profit per acre from $8.53 to $24.86. This is the average highest and lowest return from all the experiments in different years. The greatest gain, of course, has been in years when blight was severe, the smallest being in 1908, when there was scarcely any blight. Doubtless, much of the gain that year was due to decreased damage from flea beetles because of bordeaux applications. The average increase in yield per acre for the entire period was 44.1 bushels, with an average net profit of $16.77 for the seven years. At Geneva the gain per acre due to spraying every two weeks was 97.5 bushels; at Riverhead 45.7 bushels. The gain due to spraying three times at Geneva was 69 bushels ; at Riverhead 25 bushels. Few appreciate the fact that the potato makes its most rapid growth in the last two weeks of its life. If the green leaf, then, is impaired or destroyed before the plant has lived out its natural life, the yield may be so decreased as to do away with the profit altogether, or the increase by preserving it by spraying, after pay- ing the expense, is clear gain. EBCAPITTTLATIOW To briefly summarize and emphasize the foregoing it is apparent : 1. That humus well mixed with the soil, and frequent surface stirrings of the same, will materially help to store up and retain moisture or a water supply against the period of greatest need, when the tubers are forming and the tops are evaporating water most rapidly. 2. That deep plowing and planting and non-hilling in ordi- nary dry seasons will all tend to the conservation of moisture. 1390 The Vegetable Industry in New York State 3. Strong, healthy seed, in well-tilled soil, with an abundance of available plant food of the proper kind, promotes a vigor of both top and tubers, which will resist disease much better than a weak plant. 4. To insure the greatest development of starch the leaf sur- face must be preserved until the potato has completed its life cycle. Surely, then, a line of procedure most in harmony with the laws of nature governing the potato plant will be most likely to insure a crop. Potatoes 1391 ONIONS W. H. Ellis, Livonia, IST. Y. This article will be confined to the onion business as conducted by the grow- ers of South Lima, IST. Y. ; the funda- mental principles are the same every- where. THE SOUTH LIMA OKION LANDS Some thirty-five years ago there was a swamp of about seven hundred acres lo- cated at what was then called Hamilton Station, now South Lima, which for sanitary reasons was drained. Soon some of this land was used for the purpose of growing broom corn, willows, etc. Finally onions were tried on a small tract and the result was so satisfactory that South Lima muck sprang into prominence as an onion producing section, and has held a leading place ever since. The entire seven hundred acres have been cleared and nearly one-half of it is annually devoted to the cultiva- tion of onions. VARIETIES The varieties presented by seed houses are many but by a pro- cess of elimination have been reduced to very few. Ten or twelve years ago, growers usually sowed an equal amount of red and yellow seed. Sometimes the red sold better than the yellow, some- times the reverse. But at the present time there seems to be almost no demand for the former; the yellow variety is grown almost entirely. It is said that one reason for the change is that the Jews, who are among the largest consumers of onions, never buy red ones. The Yellow Globe Danver is a popular variety and for early maturity is probably the best. The Ohio Yellow Globe is also good and perhaps will yield more bushels to the acre than the other varieties, but the Southport Yellow Globe is the most generally grown here. [1392] Onions 1393 The Danver and the Ohio are slightly flattened at the top. The Southport is almost a perfect sphere, with an extremely small neck, and is a good keeper. SEED Where to obtain the best seed is a question which puzzles every grower. Every catalog will claim that the seed it advertises is the best, or at least as good as any, but every year some one is taken in by a house selling onion seed of poor quality. Sometimes a firm will sell seed which will grow onions of as many different colors as Joseph's coat, and if one looks at the package in which the seed came he will find this legend, " This company gives no warranty, expressed or implied, in regard to its seeds." The best way is to grow one's own seed. When securing onions, carefully select the best bulbs, choosing for color, shape and size. From a bushel of bulbs will often be gathered three or more pounds of seed. By putting the seed in a tub of water and throwing away all that does not quickly sink to the bottom, only the good is saved. The seed grown by a South Lima man, tested at New York State College of Agriculture a year ago with seed from several of the largest seed houses, was found to be the best. Five pounds of seed that will test 80 per cent, or better should be enough for an acre. It used to be said that one ought to sow at least six pounds in order to have some for maggots and other troubles that are sure to beset the crop, but the smaller amount is more in favor now. FERTILIZERS After the seed question comes that of fertilizer — certainly an important one. The onion is a gross feeder and plant food must be supplied in liberal quantities. It should be a kind that is quickly available. A high-grade fertilizer with 4-8-10 analysis is a popular brand, though some prefer to use 2-8-10. In either case about a ton to the acre should be sown broadcast before the seed is sown. Some prefer to sow but part of the fertilizer then and the balance later in the season when the onions are one-half or two-thirds grown. If the season is a dry one it is doubtful if the crop derives much benefit from the late sowing. 1394 The Vegetable Industry of New York State o o s o w H H o H ^o* J- ■^ ; i L*2 1400 The Vegetable Industry in Xew York State stops its growth, and everything is at a standstill. It is claimed that spraying with bordeaux mixture is a preventive but the difficulties attendant upon doing this are many. It would seem that good drainage, sufficient fertilizer, thorough cultivation, and keeping the plants growing all through the season is the best and only way to fight the enemies of the onion. TOMATOES C. C. HuLsAET, Matawax, ]\Ionmoutii County, N. J. HISTORY In an article of this kind ii is interest- ing to note the history of the tomato, its gradnal rise in popularity and the rapidity with which new varieties ap- peared when once its position was as- sured. Originally an American contribu- tion to horticulture, it was first used as food by the Latin races of Europe. Philip Miller in his Gardeners' Dic- tionary, 1731, says, " The Italians and Spaniards eat their apples (love apples) as we do cucumbers — with pepper, oil and salt — and some eat them stewed in sauces, etc., but, considering their great moisture and coldness, the nourishment they afford must be bad. In New Orleons they were used in catsup as early as 1779, but in the English colonies tomatoes were planted only as ornaments, under the name of " love apples." In 1798 the tomato was introduced near Philadelphia but M'as not sold as a vegetable until about 1829. In 183G, however, it had begun to be popular as food. Thomas Bridgman, in his Kitchen Gardeners' Instructor, tells lis that at this time the tomato was used in sauces as desert, as a substitute for peaches, and that it also made excellent pies and tarts. There were only two varieties, however, — the large red and the cherry. Their use gradually increased, and in 1841 " they had be- come almost an indispensable dish through the summer months on every table." In 1847 there were six or seven varieties, with but little difference in them. By 1860 hundreds of acres were planted with this fruit in the vicinity of Philadelphia alone, and some efforts had been made to secure improved sorts, a smooth kind being especially desired. Shortly before 1860 a large, [1401] 14:02 The Vegetable Industry in Kew York State smooth, red variety became popular. At this time there were, besides the yellow and cherry kinds, but four varieties, and only two of these were widely known. Fig. 427. — New Stone Tomato. This is Called THE King of the Livingston Kinds, Which Ake the Best Types of Lakge, Smooth, Solid, " Beefy " Tomatoes VARIETIES In 1865 the tomato was a universal favorite. It had become a commercial staple and one thousand acres are said to have been devoted to its cultivation in the neighborhood of Philadelphia. During that year the Tilden appeared and at once took first rank. Tomatoes 1403 This variety was introduced by Heniy Tilden of Davenport, Iowa. In the next five years the Maupoy, Foard, Eureka, Cook's Favorite, Boston Market, Dixey, Crimson Cluster, and General Grant were introduced, the General Grant being the best of the number and a really good tomato. In these five years more varieties were brought forward than had been known during the preceding fifty. The canning industry consumed thousands of bushels, and the interest in the tomato was widespread. For many years lovers of the tomato had been selecting seed in order to improve the existing sorts and the new varieties were the outcome of this work. The best variety introduced up to that time was the Trophy, introduced in 1870 by Colonel George E. Waring of Ogden Farm, Newport, E. I., who was a farmer and a sanitary engineer. The time was ripe for a tomato of a new type, one which would be large and early, and, above all, with a regular apple-like form. The Trophy came at the right time and it was the right thing. Its success was assured ■ — it was un- bounded. It was almost the making of modern tomato culture. The Trophy was the result of twenty-three years of careful selec- tion and in spite of the high price ($5 for 20 seeds) it was soon widely distributed and became a universal favorite. From six varieties in 1860 the number increased to thirty in 1880 and by the opening of the twentieth century American seedsmen were cataloguing about 250 varieties. Of these, possibly 50 may be distinct and better than the Trophy. The evolution of the tomato in less than a century has been exceeded by no other fruit or vegetable. Today we have upwards of three hundred strains and varieties so varied that some of them must suit the most skeptical. We have in colors various shades of red ; then we have the pinks and deeper purple varieties. These are very popular in certain markets but tender in flesh and poor carriers if allowed to ripen before shipping. Furthermore, we have several shapes and shades of the yellow varieties. These last are only valuable for preserving, and can not be disposed of in large quantities. Eliminating the yellow sorts, the red and pur- ple varieties may well be divided into three classes — the early sorts, the medium and the late. In some tomato growing sections the early and medium early varieties are all that are considered 1404 The Vegetable Industry in Xew Yoek State because these varieties are more valuable M^hen marketed than any of the late sorts. This is generally the case when the location is vs^ithin easy shipping distance of some large city. On the other hand, where the cost of shipping is too great, the late varieties are grown for canning purposes or for making catsup. GEOWING EAELY TOMATOES The early crop although the most expensive to grow is at the same time the most profitable where it can be grown successfully Fig. 428.— Well-Geown Tomato Plants Ready for Traxsplantixg and markeied economically, but it requires far more skill to pro- duce it: First, the seeds must be planted in a manure hotbed or greenhouse about two and one-third months prior to the time the plants can be planted out in the field. They are grown in the seed bed until about five weeks old and then transplanted to cold frames. The beds must be made by using about three inches of manure (new horse manure preferred) on which is placed five Tomatoes 1405 inches of good soil and raked level. This soil should be made up of about one fourth rotted animal manure and three fourths loamy soil, and should be worked over together before placing on the beds. When the beds are completed and raked level, mark off four and one-half inches each way for the first early sorts; set the little seedling plants in each cross or check, being careful not to set the plant below the seed leaves. Deep planting is dangerous at this season of the year. As fast as plants are set put on sashes, and, if much wilting occurs, shade the glass for a day or two during the warm part of the day. As soon as the plants begin growing give plenty of air by raising the sashes, and when the weather becomes warm remove them altogether. This gives a strong and hardy plant that will stand conditions when set in the field. The cold frame beds will soon dry out and require watering. At first, while plants are young, light waterings will answer, but as the plants become larger more copious wettings will be required. One good wetting that penetrates deep into the soil is worth two or three light ones that moisten the soil only half an inch. Plants in cold frames should be in full bud and an occasional bloom in five weeks after setting. The last week, or at least four or five days prior to removing to the field, sashes should be re- moved entirely both day and night to allow the plants to harden. For the same purpose they should not be watered during this period. The early tomato crop can not be grown to advantage on heavy soil as it warms up too slowly in spring; hence a sandy or sandy loam soil is essential for best results, and the soil need not be very rich. MANUBB AND FERTILIZEKS If the soil is too rich a heavy vine growth will be the result at the expense of fruit. Kather start with a comparatively poor soil and then feed with animal manures spread broadcast before plowing at the rate of eight to ten tons per acre, after which use three hundred pounds of some high-grade fertilizer in the hill under the plants, incorporating it well with the soil before setting out the plants. A fertilizer made up from high-grade materials l-iuG The Vegetable Iixuustky in New Yokk State and analyzing 7-7-5 gives very good results when used at the rate of three to three hundred and fifty pounds per acre. This on some light soil is supplemented by a dressing on two sides of the plant early in its growth of about one hundred and fifty pounds of nitrate of soda. An excessive use of nitrate of soda is to be avoided because when used in large quantities it produces too much vine growth at the expense of fruit. And what nitrate of soda is used should be used as early after plants are set as pos- sible, because at that time there are less nitrates available from natural sources than would be the case later when nitrification is more active. Fig. 429. — Tomatoes Growing at Will, the General Practice Where Grown for Canning Cultivation must be done early and often and should be con- tinued as long as the vines will permit working between them. Many growers produce what is known as a second early crop. For this purpose a little later variety is chosen, not because it is a little later in ripening but because by its being a little later in ripening it is a better tomato, smoother and larger, hence sells at a higher price. Among the many varieties chosen for this crop are Bonny Best, Dwarf Champion, Twentieth Century, Dwarf Stone, John Baar (new), and many others. Tomatoes 1407 the canning ceop Last but not least conies the canning crop. In many sections this is an important crop, thousands of acres being grown an- nually. The crop is handled from seed to maturity so radically different from the early crop that special mention should be made of it in an article of this kind lest some one go astray by trying to grow the late varieties by early methods as herein set forth. Late varieties, with the exception of the dwarfs, are by nature heavy vine makers; hence it is easy to induce them to overdo that propensity, and when we do this we do it at the expense of fruit. Then too, this crop grows at a season of the year when the soil is warmer than it is when the early crop should be hustling; hence no stimulation by applications of nitrate of soda should be used as a supplement. Neither do we want as much animal manures, seven to eight tons being plenty on soils in a good state of fertility. The fertilizer formula should also be changed. A 4-8-10 is what is commonly used by progressive growers and the quantity reduced from 25 to 30 per cent. ; but on poor soils a side dressing of the same fertilizer in place of the nitrate of soda is frequently given with good results. The plants for this crop are seldom transplanted but set in the field direct from the seed bed; hence the plants are much more cheaply grown. They should be grown in a bed under glass and not out in the open as is commonly done, because when grown in the open, unprotected, they are slow in growth, not permitting the planting in the field soon enough to harvest the whole crop be- fore cool nights and possible early frosts claim a portion. The late crops for the can house should be in the field by the end of the first week in June and the further north we go the earlier they should be planted. The custom here is to mark off our tomato fields in checks four feet each way for the early sorts and four and one-half for the medium and late sorts, and cultivate in both di- rections. The principal varieties for early are Earliana and Kmg of Earlies ; a few are still growing Maule's Earliest. While the pink or purple varieties are good, not as many of them are grown as formerly. 1408 The Vegetable Industry in Xew Yoek State Tomatoes 1409 For late tomatoes either for market or cannery, there are a num- ber of varieties or strains. Among the best are the old paragon, Matchless, Stone and Success. The last named in my judgment is the best for can house purposes. The Stone is best for market because it is harder and stands up better but is a shy cropper. The Success is a heavy bearer, is of a deep red color, but is a little later in maturing than either of the others. An acre of tomatoes for cannery can be produced for from forty to forty-'five dollars per acre, and ten tons should be the yield. The writer has produced fourteen tons and slightly over, but this is the exception rather than the rule. 1410 The VErxETABLE Industry in Xew York State ACBEAGE AND VALUE OF TOMATOES CkOWX 1.\ NeW YOKK STATE BY COtJNTIES County Albany Allegany . . . Bronx Broome . . . . Cattaraugus Cayuga Chautauqua Chemung . . . Chenango . . Clinton Columbia . . Cortland . . . Delaware . . . Dutchess . . . Erie Essex Franklin . . . Fulton Genesee . . . . Greene Hamilton ... Herkimer . . Jeflferson . . . Kings Lewis Livingston . Madison . . . Monroe . . . . Montgomery Xassau .... New York . . Niagara . . . . (Taken from U. Acres Value 400 $42,9ei 2 100 18 12 22 33o (i 20 26 738 7 32 13 124 17 35 1 101 24 730 76 854 34 1, 567 3,346 1,006 3,610 28. 153 2,839 2,100 2,352 3.398 68,863 300 775 391 1,626 1,263 3,237 2,550 2,464 32 4.609 1,947 73,915 9,329 100, 625 3,443 98,088 S. Census, 1910) County Oneida Onondaga . . . . Ontario Orange Orleans Oswego Otsego Putnam Queens Rensselaer . . . . Richmond . . . . Rockland St. Lawrence . Saratoga Schenectady . . Schoharie . . . . Schuyler Seneca Steuben Suffolk Sullivan Tioga Tompkins . . . . Ulster Warren Washington . . Wayne Westchester . . Wyoming . . . . Yates Acres 63 514 41 48 659 S ,054 71 487 12 39 44 59 4 1 28 3 117 1 9' 38 3 3 40 48 1 10 Value $12,540 38,385 2,857 6,009 37,126 2,136 111,281 7,540 35,992 1,880 3,221 8,411 9,233 850 150 3,557 730 10,882 85 1,660 4,277 1.050 175 2,700 8,812 320 622 The Sitate 8, 636 $775, 803 Tomatoes 1411 * TRIUMPH OF THE ITALIAN TOMATO The tomato was given to the world by America, but Italy is today teaching the rest of the world by example how it should be raised and how it should be preserved. Italian canned tomatoes have practically pushed the American product out of the English market, and have gained an enormous market in the United States. The Italians raise a solid meaty tomato of fine color and it is so packed iu the cans that the consumer is not obliged to pay for a large percentage of water. Canned tomatoes, however, are put up principally for the ex- port trade. The Italians themselves prefer their tomatoes in the form of sauce, or paste, which is nothing more nor less than boiled down tomato pulp, minus the skins and seeds, as set forth in an interesting manner in a report by Commercial Agent J. Alexis Shriver entitled "Canned-Tomato Indiistry in Italy," recently is- sued by the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. This sauce is put up in cans and is used by the Italians in a great variety of dishes, of which spaghetti is perhaps the most familiar to Ameri- cans. According to fairly accurate statistics the area planted in to- matoes in Italy is about 22,000 acres, producing about 385,000 tons. The exports to the United States amount to about 20,000,- 000 pounds of canned tomato and tomato sauce, and some 8,000,- 000 pounds of the product go to South America. The total value of the tomato exports from Italy is well over $6,000,000. The skins and seeds that were formerly wasted are now utilized, the former as stock feed and the latter as a source of oil. The crude oil is suitable for soap making and for lamps, and the re- fined oil is said to be edible. Commercial Agent Shriver's report, Special Agents Series No. 93, may be obtained from the Superin- tendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, at 5 cents a copy. *Taken from Circular issued by U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington D. C. dated Feb. 9, 1915. CABBAGE E. N. Reed, Cortland, IST. Y. As time advances it becomes more and more apparent that each of our vegetable crops must have some special thought if we are to continue their culture. If one were to pass through some of the older cabbage districts it would be a noticeable fact that a great many fields showed disease while others looked stunted, ilany of these conditions might have been avoided had attention been paid to keeping disease off the farm and practicing more intensive cultural meth- ods. ^A"ith less acreage, still prodiicing the same number of tons, the period between two cabbage crops could be lengthened. The cabbage is one of the crops that requires a very long period before another crop of the same kind is put on the field. If this lengthy period does not occur the soil will become infested with disease and insects, and available plant food necessary for this crop will be lacking. Because I am a producer of cabbages by the hundred tons does not imply that the work is done in a wholesale way, but rather that attention has been paid to the small details and conditions which go to make yields of twenty to twenty-five tons per acre. Only once in the past six years has my yield fallen below the twenty-ton mark. With the thought of still keeping at the cabbage business I shall try to offer a few suggestions that will tend toward a longer and more successful period of cabbage culture both from the large and small grower's standpoint. It is always the attention to small things that brings success in larger ones. DIFFERENT TYPES The cabbages that are grown in this state can be divided into three classes according to their time of maturity. First comes [1412] Cabbage 1413 those belonging in a class with the Early Wakefield. Most of these are raised by gardeners for early market trade. The plants are started in a greenhouse and carried to the field where they are transplanted. Cabbages in this class are rather small, most of them being conical in shape. Of all the early varieties perhaps the Early Jersey Wakefield is the most popular. Fig. 431. — Allhbad Eakly The second class covers those called Domestic. The varieties in this class mature in the early fall. They are desirable for both market and kraut purposes. There are three varieties in this class that seem to have considerable merit — the old standard Warren, the Succession and the Autumn King. The Succession has the most uniform type of head of any cabbage I am familiar with. Any one of these true varieties is a heavy cropper. Third comes the late commercial class. Most all of this class are called " Danish." The Geneva Station collected twenty-two N^arieties in this class and tested them out ; hardly any two looked 1414 The Vegetable Industry in New Yoek State alike. The writer lias had so much trouble in the past with poor seed from these varieties that he has arranged adequate facilities and is now producing his own. After six years of hard work along this line a strain has been selected that can be depended upon to produce a crop. 432. — A Ckop of Danish Cabbage The late varieties are grown to such an extent that they are one of the large cash crops of the state. Most of the heads are more or less round, very solid and have good keeping qualities. There IS also a red strain in this class which is not so heavy a yielder, Red Eock being a standard variety here. SEED As with other crops, good seed is one of the important factors. Formerly most of our seed was imported, but now a great deal is raised in this country. Michigan, Long Island and Oregon all Cabbage 1415 lend a hand, each having sections favorable to seed production. So small a quantity is required for an acre that there seems to be a great deal of mixing of varieties. If one does not know positively about the source of his supply it is a very safe vi^ay to purchase a year's supply ahead ; then it can be tested out.* The seed can be sown either by hand or with a seed drill. Never sow seed and fertilizer together. The seeds do not need to be covered over one-half inch but the ground should be around them. Never sow seed just before a rain ; wait until after the rain when the ground has become dry enough to work again. Cabbage seed objects to coming through a crust formed by a hard shower. One pound of seed is none too much for two acres, taking into account the uncertainties of the weather and the insect trouble, if the bed is not to be screened. Invest your dollar in seed rather than in some one else's diseased plants. A few extra plants to sell help to pay the cost of seed. CABBAGE SOIL The cabbage, being one of our hardiest vegetables, will adapt itself to most soils. Those of a gravelly nature are not so suitable because they will not hold moisture. The crop often does best on the clay loam found on so many hills and uplands of the state. Perhaps why this type of soil was not used for cabbage growing in the past was because it was not properly tilled and well fertilized. PEODUCING PLANTS There seems to be as many failures in getting a stand of cab- bage plants as in all other failures combined. Care should be exercised in selecting a spot on which to sow seed. The ground should be mellow, well-drained and free from weeds or cabbage disease. Avoid spots where there has been an old manure pile or soakage from a barnyard. In such places club root is apt to develop. It is becoming quite common in some sections to break up a spot in a permanent pasture for the seed bed. Of course this should be done in the fall in order that the ground can be well fitted. It is a good plan to use a liberal dressing of lime or wood ashes on the bed, makin g it white all over. * See article on " Good Seed " by Prof. Myers, page 1305. 1416 The Vegetable Iis'dtjstey in JSTew York State Commercial fertilizers are best suited to growing plants be- cause of their freedom from weeds. Eor one pound of seed I should use nine hundred square feet of ground, and to this apply one hundred pounds of 4-10-8 fertilizer. It is preferable to have all the nitrogen in this fertilizer derived from nitrate of soda. It should be thoroughly worked in before the seeds are sown. In some sections the plants are raised in rows ; the fertilizer is sown in rows and worked in. Fig. 433. — Good and Poor Types of Cabbage of the Same Vaeiety PEEPAEATIOX OF THE FIELD Sod ground is perhaps best suited to grow this crop. Often a very bad mistake is made by not plowing the ground early enough to preserve all moisture. Fall plowing is best. In the spring the field should be dragged at least once a week until set- ting time. This will preserve all the moisture and also kill most of the weeds. Very few other crops require so much moisture, or more thorough preparation of the soil. FETITUI-IZATION Cabbage needs plenty to eat as well as to drink, if we expect to get good yields. This does not mean that it needs wet land. I like to think of a cabbage plant as a filter. The soil water is taken in through the roots and the sun evaporates the moisture thrown off by the leaves. What is left in the plant is used for growth. Cabbage 1417 It takes as much fertility out of the soil to raise five tons of cabbage per acre as it does to produce twenty bushels of wheat. Manure and commercial fertilizer make the best combination. Ten tons of manure per acre, six to eight hundredweight of 10 per cent, phosphoric acid and 8 per cent, potash usually will supply enough plant food. If no manure is at hand ten or twelve hundredweight of 4-8-10 will answer. This fertilizer is only suggestive. Xo rule can be given for all the varied conditions. It takes about one thousand parts of water to make one part of commercial fertilizer all available for a plant.. If the soil needs lime it is a good plan to apply a dressing to the field, since the crop needs a liberal supply. Lime or fertilizer should always be applied broadcast. Spreading the fertilizer has a strong tendency to spread the root system. This is essential since the plant is a gross feeder. SPACING AND SETTING PLANTS ISTo one can give a definite rule for the proper spacing of cab- bage. The distance apart will depend upon whether early or late varieties are grown, the fertility of the soil, the size of head desired and the moisture supply. It is probably best to raise all early cabbage in drills, the plants set from twelve to eighteen inches apart in rows thirty to thirty-six inches apart. Domestic and Danish need more room. They should be placed from eighteen to thirty inches in the row, the rows being thirty-six inches apart. Check rowing is practical in some places and meets with ex- cellent results, especially if the ground is weedy. This method reduces hand labor to a minimum, the only objection being that the wide spacing which is generally practical produces very large heads. Heads weighing from eight to twelve pounds are large enough for city trade. The large heads may be avoided if one will set closer and use a narrow cultivator when going the narrow way. The writer very much prefers the check row method. Cabbage setting is more important than most of us think. Too often there is a fight for a week or ten days before the plants really start to grow. This is caused by spoiling their root system or setting in too wet ground. It is best to loosen the plants in the seed bed when taking them up. The more of the root 1418 The Vegetable Ixdustey in Isew Yoek State system one can maintain the quicker the plant will start. Medium sized plants are preferable to large ones because more of their root system can be maintained. It is not good policy to set plants when the ground is wet as one can not then help packing the ground around a young plant. The sun will dry out this packed earth leaving the plant in the hard, dry soil. There should be a dry mulch of soil maintained around a newly set plant. Fig. 435. — Plant Settee in Action Fig. 434. — Master's Plant Setter Of all setting tools I prefer the " Masters Plant Setter." This little machine places the plant roots down through the dry soil on the surface into that which is moist underneath. It also seals the plant roots to the ground with water, but does not destroy the surface mulch or pack the ground. These machines are very inexpensive, costing about four dol- lars. A man can set one acre per day watering each plant, and there is no stooping, dusty work about it. They are adapted to both large and small areas, as three men, each having a machine, can set more plants than a team outfit, and no skips. Every plant will live, making a perfect stand. Cabbage 1419 CULTIVATION The cabbage crop is grown through the dry part of the season, therefore frequent cultivation is very essential. Each time the crop is cultivated the evaporation is checked and moisture collects just below the moisture mulch. The moisture is quickly taken up by the root system and then the plant receives an added amount of plant food. Fig. 436. — Planet Jh. Cultivator Aeraxged AS A Market Gasdenee's Horse Hoe, with A Pair of 10-inch Hob Steels and the Wide- Fingered Sweep Shallow cultivation is most essential. Xote the difference in the feeding area between two fields, A and B, both being plowed ten inches deep. A is cultivated one inch deep; B three inches. Fig. 437. — Cultivatoe with Hoes and Sweep in Position for Shallow Work. Hoes Should Be Turned Out foe Large Cabbage Field A has nine inches in depth to grow its crop, B has only seven inches. The only time that deep cultivation is justifiable is when the cabbages are growing so fast that they crack. I think the cases will be' not' over one to the hundred. Generally the 1420 The Vec4etable I>;dustey in New York State smaller heads will more than make \ip in growth for the loss caused bv cracking. Fig. 434 shows a Planet, Jr., cultivator rigged for cabbage when the plants are small. When the leaves commence to get large the side blades, or ten inch hoes as they are called, can be reversed so that the long end will run out under the leaves without break- ing any off. This allows nearly all evaporation to be checked even when the calibages are large. Cultivation should be con- tinued throughout the entire season. CABBACiE JlISEASEH The bacterial disease known as stump i-ot or black heart is the most serious thing a grower can have in his soil. A crop rotation of even ten years does not seem to be a remedy. The cure is — keep it out. Other fields are very easily inoculated by carry- ing dirt on farm machinery, animals' feet, or feeding stock diseased roughage, then spread- ing the manure on a non-infested field. Cabbage seeds often carry the disease. They should always be soaked for fifteen minutes just before sowing, in the following solution: for one pound of seed dissolve in an earthern dish one corrosive sublimate tablet in one pint of water. (These tablets may be obtained from any drug store for one cent each.) After soaking, spread the seed to dry, but not in the sun or near artificial heat. Club root is familiar to us all. A rotation of five or six years is sufficient to kill it if the ground is kept free from all plants belonging to the cabbage family ; this includes mustard. It being a slime mold disease, lime greatly helps to keep it in check. Often cabbage raised twice in succession on the same ground will show the disease. IX SECT PESTS The cabbage has three quite serious insect enemies. First, the flea beetle, a small black bug which eats the leaves of the seed- FiG. 438. — Showixg Arraxge- MEXT OF Hoes a>"d Sweep fob Shallow Cultivation Cabbaoe 1421 lings as soon as they appear above ground. Plaster, lime dust or tobacco dust are of some value in keeping them off, but the most practical method is to screen the bed. This screening will also control the second of the pests, the cabbage maggot. This enemy is a small, white grub which eats the roots of the seedlings about the time the cabbages are ready to transplant. The adult is a small fly that lays eggs at the sur- face of the ground just beside the stem of the plant. These eggs soon hatch and the young maggot works downward and feeds upon the root system. In many sections it is impossible to get a stand of plants every year unle3s the bed is screened. The screening consists of setting up boards eight or ten inches high around the sei3d bed. Over these boards wires are stretched to prevent the screen from sagging. The screen is made of cheese cloth and is stretched over the bed and tacked to the boards. A bed to be screened should be made not over nine feet wide. One half pound of seed will produce nearly as many plants under a screen as a whole pound in the open, but one should make the seed bed as large as for a whole pound. Under a screen nearly every seed will germinate owing to the humid condition. Put it on as soon as the seeds are sown and remove about one week before seedlings are ready to transplant. The plants will be ready to set seven to ten days earlier if raised in this way. Sometimes the maggots bother earlier varieties after they are set in the field. A tarred paper pad about two inches square should be placed around each plant. They are made by punching a hole in the center, then cutting a slit from the hole to the edge. This prevents the fly from laying eggs near the stem of the plants. Third, is the plant louse. This louse has great power of repro- duction, being capable of rearing from twelve to twenty litters of brood in a single season. In turn the young will multiply when only six days old. They are sucking insects and are there- fore controlled by the use of contract spray. Three-fourths of a pint of Black Leaf 40, four pounds of whale-oil soap and sixty gallons of water are used as a spray solution. Great care must be taken to wet the lice thoroughly; they will be found in the curls. 1422 TiiK Vegetable I^'DUSTEY ix Kew York State For large areas a power sprayer with two leads of hose, each being carried by a man, make the most satisfactory outfit. In rare eases the green cabbage worm makes considerable trouble. This is a chewing pest and should be killed with poison. The poison solution should contain some bordeaux sticker to make it cling to the leaves. MARKET COXDITIOXS ]\Iost of the early cabbages grown are for local trade, very few being shipped, as are the Danish. The market for these and the Domestics is firmer than for the Danish. A large share of the Danish raised have been stored for winter and early spring trade, but in the last few years there has been large quantities of southern cabbage sent to supply the same market. As a result stored cabbage has brought less money. The choice of either selling from the field or holding cabbage will usually be governed by certain conditions. For the past few years holding late cabbage either in a cabbage house or laid down has brought very small returns for the labor, unless a man has had some special winter market. If a grower expects to make a business of holdiii^' his crop it is necessary to protect the cabbage from freezing. Some make a practice of laying the cabbage on the ground in some sheltered place, either in the woods or some place in the open A^'here the snow will drift over them. They are placed stump down and cov- ered with straw, swamp hay, or, best of all, leaves, to a depth of perhaps six inches. Some prefer to erect a double-walled build- ing with narrow bins on each side and a driveway through the center. Either method is very satisfactory. A man will make about as much money to sell his crop every year as to hold it, and it seldom pays to switch from one practice to the other. If the price of cabbage falls much below five dollars per ton from the field there will be very little money made by selling. The dairy farmer here has a chance to get at least pay for his fertilizer and labor. The general opinion of the dairy farmer is that the cabbages are worth from four to five dollars per ton to feed. I prefer to place them at four. Under average conditions Cabbage 1423 it will cost not far from four dollars per ton to raise and market a crop. The average yield of the state is about ten tons per acre. If a grower will raise his yield to twenty tons the cost per ton can be reduced to about three dollars for production and marketing. 1424 TllK \'ec;ETABLE IXDUSTKY lA A'eW YoEK StATE Cabbage 1425 Acreage and Value of CABBAciE Ghown in New Yokk State, by Counties County Albany Allegany . . . Bronx Broome . . . . Cattaraugus Cayuga Chautauqua Cheimuig. . . . Chenango . . Clinton Columbia . . . Cortland . . . Delaware . . . Dutchess . . . Erie Essex Franklin . . . Fulton Genesee . . . . Greene Hamilton . . . Herlcimer . . . Jefferson .. . . Kings Lewis Livingston Madison . . . . Monroe . . . . Montgomerj- Nassau . . . . Xew Yorlv . . Xiagara . . . . Oneida Acres 496 92 72 .58 169 17 949 .584 3,237 91 3,012 25 1,948 263 Value 38, 744 6,926 183 14,298 93 8,024 962 67, 259 146 12, 756 84 U, 299 407 37,483 26 3,764 40 3.932 1,560 144, 452 11 1.910 54 5,497 634 63,917 9 1,632 19 2,032 40 4,242 842 46,310 19 2,500 (Talien from U. S. Census, 1910) County Onondaga . . . . Ontario Orange Orleans Oswego Otsego Putnam Queens Rensselaer . . . Richmond .... Rockland . . . . St. Lawrence . . Saratoga Schenectady ... Schoharie . . . . Schuyler Seneca Steuben Suilolk Sullivan Tioga Tompkins .... Tllster Warren Washington . . , Wayne Westchester . . Wyoming . . . . Yates 8,697 5.460 23, 189 2,360 33,501 43, 474 180, 978 10,980 241,2.52 1,866 09. .547 31.625 Acres 4,449 7,232 79 928 103 28 3 1, 169 150 136 86 34 142 119 5 32 444 99 827 6 31 142 )77 22 16 1, 628 77 1J2 851 Value $408, 924 265, 048 8,227 62,014 8,989 3,751 150 154, 502 17,038 14, 185 8,869 5,763 12, 363 12,461 885 1,360 13, 004 7,510 58, 414 465 3,460 12,952 15, 732 3, 115 2,704 71,658 7,744 6,645 23, 131 The State. 35.269 $2,335,999 CUCUMBERS 0. E. White, Io^^ia, Ontario County, S. Y. Farmers' Institute Lecturer EXTENT OF THE INDUSTRY The cucumber crop is of greater importance than is generally believed. Cucumbers are grown over a very large range of terri- tory, thriving over the entire country. They are grown perhaps more largely for pickling than for any other purpose, but many hundreds of thousands of bushels are grown in the United States for table use; these are of a size ranging from 1^ to 2^^ inches in Fig. 440. — Field of Cucumbers on Farm of White Farm Co. ; Yield, 1914, 600 Bushels Per Acbe diameter, and are used for slicing. The over-sized ones are also in demand for frying in seasons when egg plant is scarce. In New York State there are a niimber of large producing sections where both pickles and slicers are grown. On Long Island the industry is carried on very extensively, Shelter Island " cukes " being well known on the New York market. In the regions of Orchard Park and Ionia, in the western part of [1426] CUCUMBEES 1427 the state, many thousands of bushels are grown for the slicing trade, each season. There are numerous pickling and brining companies that an- nually contract for pickles, but their prices as a rule are not very remunerative, and they shift from place to place, finding new ter- ritory every few years. ISTear Rochester, in the Irondequoit garden district, there are many large hothouses devoted to growing cucumbers, which is a very profitable biisiness. SOIL AND PEKTILIZEES The cucumber may be grown on almost any loose, well-drained soil, but it prefers the sandy or gravelly soils. It will not do well on soils that are heavy, or even on sandy soils of a silty nature. Fig. 441.— Five Gkades Into Which the Iomia Gkowehs' Association Sort Their Cucumbers which become compact after rains. The soil should be well filled with humus and free from acidity. The black mucky loam gives good results but is usually situated on too low ground and is too subject to frosts to be very certain. A medium application of manure is desirable when possible. For a fertilizer we would recommend one containing a goodly 1428 The Vegetable Industey in New Yoek State amount of nitrogen derived from both nitrate and organic matter, rather high in phosphoric acid, derived from a non-acid source, such as steamed bone, and containing a small amount of potash. Among the best crops we have ever had were those grown where green manure was plowed under and fertilized. PLANTir^^G AND THIXXIXG A number of methods of planting are practiced: six by six feet in hills, thinned to four plants; three by six thinned to two plants, and in drills six feet apart, a plant every sixteen to eigh- teen inches. It is largely a matter of choice which is used. However, one of the latter distance is preferred, as it gives a bet- ter distribution. Plenty of seed should be used, as the striped bug will some- times thin the plants considerably when t,mall. They should not be planted until the ground is fiilly warm, so they will come up quickly and grow without set-backs. The thinning should be done before the plants begin to be crowded. I prefer two thinnings : the first as soon as the second leaves are fully developed, leaving twice the number required; the second, at the last hoeing, just as they are about to fall down and run. They should have frequent but shallow cultivation. They are injured badly by root pruning, and great care should be taken not to cultivate either too deep or too close to the plants. TWO ENEMIES Two cucumber enemies are the striked beetle and squash bug which, when numerous, are kept off by lime or other repellants; but they are rarely bothersome enough when a large acreage is grown to require any treatment. A more serious trouble is the bacterial blight, the only cure for which is to pull and destroy the wilted plants. Leaf blight and mildew may both be controlled by spraying with standard strength bordeaux mixture. VARIETIES The varieties grown for pickles are usually some one of the special cluster and picking varieties, each section having its pref- erence. CuCUiMBEES 1429 For slicing, the white spine varieties, of which there are num- erous strains, are most in use. The market prefers a variety which is green and holds its own in color well after being picked. The hothouse growers in New York State prefer the longer varieties of the Chinese class, while those near Boston grow the Arlington white spine, which is also a favorite outdoor variety. Fig. 442. — Loading Cucumbers at Ionia Packing House PICKIXG AXD PACKAGES In a good growing time cucumbers should be picked every two days, and should not be over two inches in diameter for best market. The favorite package in New York State is the standard bushel basket with slat cover, and the '' cukes," as they are known on the market, should be graded as to quality. PROFITS As for the profits, it is like many other of the vegetable crops — there is a wide fluctuation in it from year to year, the climatic conditions having a marked influence on the yield. The market demand is also governed by the consumption of fresh cucumbers which depends largely on the temperature, many more being used in warm weather than in cool weather. The Jewish people are the chief consumers of fresh cucumbers. 1430 The Vegetable Industry in New Yoek State CUCUMBEES 1431 AOBEAGE AND VALUE OF CUCUMBERS GBOWN IN NEW YORK STATE, BT COUNTIES (Taken from U. S. Census, 1910) County Acres Albany 274 Allegany Bronx Broome Cattaraugus .... Cayuga Chautauqua .... Chemung Chenango Clinton Columbia Cortland Delaware Dutchess Erie Essex Franklin Fulton Genesee Greene Hamilton Herkimer Jefferson Kings Lewis Livingston Madison Monroe Montgomery .... Nassau New York Niagara Oneida 2 408 3 2 2 3 1 5 4 5 1 215 156 24 740 14 51 33 Value $18, 429 120 205 525 450 50 350 300 33,914 225 400 330 230 50 415 675 520 140 8,670 15,537 2,122 92,814 1,385 3.573 2,682 County Acres Onondaga 140 Ontario 64 Orange 4 Orleans 3 Oswego 80 Otsego Putnam Queens 33 13 10 52 12 14 Rensselaer .... Richmond Rockland St. Lawrence . . Saratoga Schenectady . . Schoharie .... Schuyler Seneca Steuben Suffolk Sullivan Tioga Tompkins .... Ulster Warren Washington . . Wayne 323 Westchester . . Wyoming .... Yates Value $10,, 307 6,053 415 151 4,701 2,555 793 14, 240 3,695 509 805 863 48 84, 631 1 85 5 251 2 100 77 4,351 323 15, 053 44 4,614 2 )4 The State .... 3,350 $337,841 CAULIFLOWER A. E. Wilkinson Extension Instruction, Department of Vegetable Grardening, Cornell University, Itliaca, N. Y. Cauliflower probably was first grown in New York State in the home vegetable garden, and to a limited extent by market garden- ers. About 1874 it was tried out at Peeonie, Long Island, and a half acre there brought in about five hundred dollars. The year many of the neighboring farmers tried out following Fig. 444. — (a) A Cauliflower Head as It Is Likely to Develop When THE Weather Is Too Hot and Dby. (b) A Typical Head of Early Cauliflower as Grown in a Favorable Season in the Corn Belt this crop, one who tried four acres realizing net two thousand dol- lars. The growing of the crop soon spread to other points, par- ticularly toward Eiverhead and out towards Orient. The total acreage in the state is 1,720 acres, of which 1,498 acres are grown on Long Island, the next point of importance being Erie County. There is a vast difference between the growing of cauli- flower in these two localities. climate Cauliflower requires for its best development a moist, cool climate, especially if tempered with the air from neighboring [1432] Cauliflower 143 3 bodies of water. Long Island is particularly well situated, hav- ing the sea air; and Erie County, Niagara and other counties near the Great Lakes have the advantages of these bodies of water. There are also other points in New York, especially along the Hudson, around the Finger Lakes, and near other lakes in the state, which are desirable places to grow the crop, because they meet the climatic requirements. SOIL The soil requirements for this crop are good drainage and a liberal, constant supply of moisture. Where moisture is de- ficient, the crop stops growing. Heavy loams are particularly adapted to this crop. On Long Island are found the heavy sandy loams, whereas in Erie County the gravelly and silty loams are used to grow the crop. Cauliflower is adapted to well drained muck and has met with considerable success where grown on this type of soil. EOTATION Rotation of crops is essential for the best results. Where club root, a disease of the roots, is common, cauliflower and other closely allied plants should be kept away from the soil for at least five years. The rotation on Long Island consists of growing a crop of potatoes or carrots preceding cauliflower and following the cauliflower with corn, rye, wheat or oats. The land may be allowed to stay down one or two years following this in clover or grass. In Erie County and other sections of the state where land is less valuable than on Long Island, a longer rotation is prac- ticed, generally consisting of corn followed by cauliflower, then by grain, then by hay for two or three years or more. The im- portant factor in both of these rotations should he the incorpora- tion of humus in the soil and the avoidance of other cruciferous crops. On Long Island it would be advisable to practice a system of cover crops following potatoes and cauliflower, in order to keep the soil in better physical condition. SEED Most of the seed now used by cauliflower growers in New York is imported directly or through seed houses from Denmark. 1434 The Vegetable Industry in ]SrEW Yoek State Cauliflower men on Long Island, through tlie cauliflower ex- change, import direct and sell their seed to the members of the association at a very low price. varieties The varieties used mostly are Dwarf Erfurt and Snowball; about 90 per cent, of the latter. In Bufl:'alo and other sections of ISTew York State the Snowball is the common variety used, although the Dwarf Erfurt is used to some extent. It is impossible to overemphasize the import- ance of good seed. Poor seed obtained from carelessly selected strains are sure to produce a loose, leafy, branching head of low value. The desired characteristic to obtain from seed should be a plant of medium to large size, producing in an ordinary season a head, the flower of which is from six to eight inches in diameter, heavy, symmetrical and solid. Dwarf Erfurt and Early Snow- ball will both give these characteristics, although the Erfurt makes a larger head than the Snowball under Long Island conditions. The amount of seed necessary to plant an acre varies according to the care of the seed bed, number of plants required per acre, whether conditions and many other factors. An ounce of seed may ordinarily produce 2,500 to 3,000 plants, although the ounce may really contain over 10,000 seeds. On an average about 6,000 plants are required per acre. It would, therefore, require about two to two and one-half ounces of seed to plant an acre. Generally speaking, in planting it is best to allowed three ounces per acre, in order to be sure that enough plants will be available. The seed of cauliflower does not deteriorate quickly. It has been found that it is as good at two years or three years of age as at one, although a little thicker sowing is advisable with three-year-old seed. Beyond this point, the germinating power begins to decline rapidly. RAISING EARLY PLANTS In order to obtain an early product, it would be necessary to start the seed of cauliflower similar to the way in which early cab- bage is produced. It is necessary, however, to exercise great care in the growing of early cauliflower plants. This increased Cauliflowek 1435 care consists of having a soil which is only medium as to rich- ness, not over watered, and freely ventilated. It is desirable not to hasten the growth of plants, but to produce a healthy, un- checked, moderate growth. The early seed is sown about March first. The seedlings should then be ready for the field May first to tenth. Caulifiower plants are more tender than cabbage, and, therefore, they cannot be placed outside until danger of hard frost has passed. Some growers practice the method of trans- planting when the seedlings are very small, placing them two by two or two by three inches apart in beds or in flats. This extra space will provide free circulation of air. Cauliflower plants may be transplanted into paper pots, dirt bands, or other re- ceptacles, and a much larger plant grown in this way; also seed may be sown a trifle earlier. RAISING LATE PLANTS It is customary to prepare a seed bed on the edge of the field similar to that for growing cabbage plants. The method has but one advantage, and that is, it is handy. It is much better to select a portion of land of greater value for the growing of the crop, particularly a piece of land that is not infected with dis- ease, or if infected, that could be sterilized ; also a portion of land that could be protected and that is near water. The land is gener- ally plowed early and worked up very fine and level. The system on Long Island is that of using the planker followed by the Acme harrow, then the planker, then the Acme harrow. Some men instead of using an Acme harrow use a Meeker harrow. The numerous small discs on this harrow make it an excellent tool to finish the bed. Fertilizer is then applied to the bed, the amount varying. Some men advise a 6-8-5 at the rate of a ton to the acre, others a 5-8-8 or 4-8-8, from one-half ton to a ton to the acre. From recent experiments tried out on Long Island, it seems that ade- quate returns can be obtained from 1,000 pounds of a 4-8-10 fertilizer, thus saving half the fertilizer where a ton has been used, and the seed is generally drilled in with a hand drill, the rows being spaced one foot apart. Two methods are practiced, one with two rows planted two feet apart and then two feet 1436 The Vegetable IiNdustky in New Yoek State between the next pair of rows, and another method which requires a solid bed of rows one foot apart. There seems to be very little difference in the plants produced. There is a variation in the amount of seed to be used per rod, the difference varying from an ounce of seed to five rods, to an ounce of seed to ten or twelve rods. Some men advise the use of one ounce of seed to 200' feet of drill. Where a large distance is given be- tween plants, the plants grow short and stocky and have leaves which are in the way when using the planker. When brought very close together, the plants are spindly and weak, and not desirable. So the best distance for planting seems to be an ounce of seed to about ten rods. The depth of sowing should be carefully regulated, from one- third to one-half inch being deep enough. In order to prevent crusting or baking of the soil over the seed, thus hindering its coming up, fine sand should be strewn along the row. If this sand is dry, it will resist all attempt to bake. It takes from six to eight weeks to grow plants of suitable size for transplanting. Generally this is about one week longer than for growing cab- bages. The time of sowing the seed varies from the first of May to the middle of June, ^^'here a late crop is desirable, even later plantings may be made. It is quite advisable to make more than one sowing, because it offers an opportunity to choose the most favorable time for transplanting. It also aids in forming a succession in the har- vest, thus helping in a better distribution of labor. Clean culture is necessary during the growing period of the plants, the soil being cultivated lightly two to five times to prevent crusting. If weeds develop in the row, it is best to remove them. At the time of transplanting, the plants should cover the bed with a growth from six to eight inches high. The growth should be firm and stocky — a sappy, weak growth is not desirable. Careful watch should be kept for insects or diseases in the seed bed and suitable remedies applied at this time. TEANSPLANTING The land used for transplanting should have been plowed early. In some eases on Lond Island a crop of early potatoes is grown Cauliflower 1437 first, followed by the crop of cauliflower. If this method is practiced, the land is worked very heavily throughout the sea- son, and there seems to be no opportunity for a cover crop. In western New York the general method is to devote the land to the , one crop during the season. The soil should be very finely pre- pared in order to facilitate transplanting. The best time to transplant is in cloudy or rainy weather, and if possible, more than one transplanting should be made. This will aid in lengthening the period of harvesting and in distributing labor. If a sunny day is selected for transplanting, the plants should be set only during the latter part of the afternoon. On a large area machine planting is the system in vogue. "With smaller areas hand planters are used. The machines greatly reduce the amount of hand labor and make the work more rapid. The stand is less perfect than with hand planting, and it is quite necessary to go over the patch by hand and reset. One or two hand planters on the market at the present time, according to figures, reduce the cost of planting, and in comparison with the method used, give better satisfaction than horse-drawn machines, especially on areas of five acres or less. On the large machines drawn by two horses, a barrel of water is carried, and at each click of the machine a half pint of water is delivered in the furrow. The clicking of the machine denotes the location of the plant, and the droppers, who are on the rear of the machine close to the ground, should place a plant at this time. Sometimes the water is allowed to run continuously because there is a variation in the placing of the plants. For the most successful work with the machine, the ground should be fairly dry. If the soil is wet, the machine does not work as well. If hand planting is used, it is possible to mark out the field in two ways and place the plants at the intersection of the marks. The distance between rows should be three feet and the distance between plants in the row from eighteen to thirty inches. Plants set by hand can be cultivated both ways. Where the plants are located three feet apart between rows and thirty inches between 1438 The Vegetable Ikdustey i:^ Xew York State plants in the row, it requires 5,808 plants for an acre. With machine planting, generally more than 6,000 plants are used. Whether the setting is done by hand or by machine, the plants should be obtained in the following manner : Loosen the soil about the plants on both sides with a fork. Slightly lift the plants from the ground, being careful to retain as much of the root surface as possible. Shake them dry. Dip the roots in a pail of thick water made up of heavy soil and water. This process is known as puddling. Place the plants in boxes, roots down. If they are not running relatively even as to size, it may be best to select at this time, saving work on the planter. The best crops are obtained where plants are selected. If the leaf surfaces are too large, it is a good plan to twist or cut them off slightly. They may be carried to the field in these boxes and distributed at convenient points. FERTILIZERS The amount of fertilizer varies with the system of farming. On Long Island where the soils are deficient in humus, a larger amount of fertilizer is used than at Buffalo. The Long Island men are now employing fertilizer to the exclusion of stable manures, in many cases much to their disadvantage. The success- ful growing of cover crops combined with fertilizer might take the place of barnyard manure, but where poor cover crops are grown, success is not forthcoming. At Buffalo the fertilizer used is generally a 4—8-10 or a 3-8-6, using from 750 to 1,500 pounds per acre. On Long Island the fertilizer used is generally a 6-8-5, although 5-9-6 and other formulas are in use. The amount used on Long Island is much larger than that used near Buffalo, generally from 1,500 to 2,500 pounds per acre being applied. The fertilizer is made up as follows: one-half the nitrogen is derived from nitrate of soda, one-half from fish scrap ; acid phosphate from South Carolina rock, and in some cases when fish scrap is not obtainable, from tankage, which is substituted for fish scrap; the potash is generally in the form of muriate. The Long Island men, being organized, are able to obtain good fertilizers at a much smaller price. In one or two sections of Cauliflower 1439 western New York the same advantage is obtainable, because the men are realizing more and more that it is greatly to their ad- vantage to organize. Sometimes further applications of fertilizer are furnished. Bone meal, 300 to 400 pounds per acre, is often used ; and one or two applications of nitrate of soda, 100 to 150 pounds at each application, are found valuable. The method of applying the fertilizer varies, some men claim- ing that the best method is broadcasting, while others claim it should be applied in the row. Where cover crops and intense, up- to-date systems of farming are practiced, it may be desirable to place the fertilizer in the row. If the opposite is the rule, broad- casting should give better returns. CULTIVATION Cauliflower is a shallow-rooted crop, therefore cultivation should not be deep. It should commence as soon as the plants are set and be repeated very often. It is highly important that the plant does not suffer from drouth. Cultivation should con- tinue as long as it is possible to get through the held. TYING It is necessary to protect the head or flower from exposure to sunlight. A perfect head of cauliflower should be dazzling white. Sometimes but a day or two of exposure will cause the head to become brown or purple. At flrst the leaves protect the head, especially when the flower is small. However, when the flower has developed to the size of a teacup, the leaves are pushed aside. Then artificial means of covering become necessary. The most common method of tying the heads is that of gathering the leaves together over the top of the head and tying with a piece of string, rafiia or straw. It seems best to use difl^erent materials for tying, in order to distingTiish between the different periods of tying. If on the first tying straw was used, the next time string should be employed, and the next time probably fold- ing the leaves over the head and twisting the leaves from opposite sides, in order to hold these leaves in place, might be practiced. The grower will then know just which to cut first. 1440 The Vegetable I^'dustby in New Yoek State The length of time necessary for development of the head after it has been tied depends mainly upon the weather conditions, biit it also depends on how well the factors in growing the crop have been carried out. If the field has lacked cultivation, do not expect the heads to grow very rapidly unless rains are frequent. Where conditions are correct, it has been found that in the hotter part of the season, two or three days will be sufficient. In the cooler days of autumn it will require from eight to twelve days to develop the head. Heads should be watched carefully, and when they become six to eight inches in diameter, should be cut. If left too long in warm weather, the leaves decay and discolor the head. In cold weather the head^ begin to push up from the flower stalk, becoming undesirable, because they are irregular. CUTTING AND TE.IMMING In cutting, it is seldom necessary to examine more than an occasional head for plants of any particular day's tying, because the plants of that tying will be ready about the same time. If, however, there seems to be an unevenness in their development, it will then be necessary to pry open the leaves of every head. Cutting may be conveniently performed with a large butcher knife or hunting knife. The instrument will also serve for trimming. When the heads are to be cut, it should be done very carefully. They are seldom trimmed in the field, but are merely severed several inches below the flower and removed, leaves and all, to a packing house, where they are dressed and packed. It is necessary in cutting to have quite a portion of the stem and also of the large leaves remain with the flower, because in trimming the leaves are severed even with the sides of the flower and in such a manner that the whiteness of the flower is set off by the green frings. The leaves also serve as a protection. Where ship- ment of long cut flowers is practiced, the leaves are cut three to four inches above the flower, thus protecting the head efficiently. There are three different types of trimming, the long and the short trim, both previously mentioned, and a medium between these two. The long trim is especially suited to distant ship- ments, protecting the snow-white heads from bruises, therefore disfigurement. It also enables the retailer to retrim the head Cauliflower 1441 and place it before the customer in a very desirable manner. The great disadvantage is the lessened number in a barrel or box and the heavier weight. The medium trim leaves the tops of the leaves just flush with the crown. It is particularly adapted for short journeys. There are more heads in each barrel. Short trim heads are generally covered with a small piece of paper to protect them. They are packed in a much better package than the other types, and return a higher price on the market. PACKING The common practice on Long Island has been to use a second- hand barrel, generally the sweet potato and the spinach barrel shipped from the South. These are unattractive, often dirty, un- sanitary receptacles, and have lost favor on the market. Bufl^alo growers, by using a small, sanitary, attractive crate, have forced the Long Island men to adopt the same measures in order to con- tinue shipping cauliflower to the same market. The packing of cauliflower in barrels consists of laying the heads right side vip and as snugly as possible in the barrel, making the butts of each successive layer rest between the heads of the preceding. Another method consists of placing the heads out towards the sides of the barrel and inserting other heads in the middle. Generally from twenty to twenty-four heads of long-cut flowers fill a barrel. The barrel is crowned up eight inches above the top. It is then covered with a piece of burlap, often a piece of fertilizer bag- ging. Short-cut flowers packed in barrels require from thirty to thirty-five heads, and the medium from twenty-five to thirty. The barrel that sells the best on the 'Sew York market has been one containing about twenty-five heads. The most satisfactory crate used has been one holding just twelve heads. A row through the middle of the crate accommo- dates four heads, flowers down, and on each side of this a row of flowers heads up. A slat is preferred and one which can be in- spected easily by the association. A very desirable box is used by the Erie County Growers' and Shippers' Association, which con- sists of a slat crate with planting sides holding from nine to twelve flowers, according to the size. The crate costs about fourteen 1442 The Vegetable Industry in New Yokk State cents. It is strong enougli to prevent injury by expressmen or other rough handling ; it will protect the flowers perfectly, and it is open enough to allow the inspectors employed by the association to thoroughly inspect each package. One of the great advantages of using the crates is that of forcing the growers to grade their flowers according to size. With the barrel, grading is very seldom practiced. MAEKETING The cauliflower crop from Long Island is moved by fast freight, the railroad often providing special trains. These special trains are put on whenever the shipments are large. A large amount of the shipment, especially to distant markets, is made in re- frigerator cars. The train leaves the east end of the island in the morning and arrives at Flatbush between six and seven in the evening. The barrels are then trucked to the consignee at ±s^ew York City and go on sale early in the morning. The largest day's shipment known to the writer has been 10,000 barrels. A car holds between 200 and 300 barrels, which are loaded on their sides in the car. Most of the flowers from Long Island are sold on commission through the association, or are purchased outright. At River- head, the head office of the association, drivers come in with their wagons, drive up to a platform, the auctioneer removes one or two barrels from the load, taking out the contents, and the load is sold on the contents of those barrels. The auctioneer asks for bids, and representatives of commission houses or the manager of the exchange bid on the barrels. If the price is too low, the manager raises the bids until they are sufficiently high, in this way assuring a fair price to the grower. In western ~New York the flowers are sold through the associa- tion, the association shipping to various cities according to orders, or wherever the manager thinks advisable. In some of the other sections of ISTew York the cauliflower is carried on the market in open trays or crates and sold directly by the individual head, the dozen, or the load, the flowers going to individuals, hotels, res- taurants, stores and other places. Cauliflowek 1443 yiei.ds, prices and profits The expenses per acre of growing the crop, according to the figures obtained by Cornell University, are as follows : Moderate Liberal Eent of land ($lY5-$200 per acre) $15 00 $15 00 Plowing and harrowing 2 00 3 00 Seed, 2-3 oz 2 00 3 00 Seed-bed (labor and fertilizer) 2 00 2 50 Marking field and applying fertilizer 2 00 2 50 Fertilizer (1,500-2,000 lbs.) 22 50 30 00 Setting out plants 2 50 3 50 Cultivation (about six times) 4 00 5 00 Interests and depreciation on tools 2 00 6 00 Tying and harvesting 20 00 25 00 Packing, barrels, papers, nails and covers. 20 00 30 00 Hauling to station 2 00 4 00 Total $96 00 $129 50 The average yield per acre varies greatly according to the conditions. An average from thirty-four acres on Long Island was 1111/^ barrels per acre. Some of the high reports are 200 bar- rels, and from this it varies down to a very low yield. Good growers expect to get about 150 barrels to the acre in an average season. The price of cauliflower varies widely, depending upon the size of the crop and the demands of the market. The early sum- mer cauliflower generally brings from $3.50 to $4, falling from that to as low as 50 to 60 cents per barrel. The average price for cauliflower in crates in western New York was 72% cents, about eleven heads in each crate. An average price from a great many growers on Long Island for several years has been from 85 to 90 cents per barrel. The average yield, taking the figures given previously, would return about $100 per acre. It is safe to say in an average year, with a good fall, that a price of $200 per acre is about the amount which should be returned. 1444 The Vegetable Industry in New York State INSECTS The cauliflower is troubled with several insects. The imported cabbage worm is one of the common pests. It eats large, irregu- lar holes out of the leaves, generally working on the upper sur- face. It is readily reached by dust or spray. The cabbage looper, obtaining its name from the particular habit with which it moves, eats both on the upper side and the lower side of the leaves. The diamond back moth is a small caterpillar which works on the underside of the leaf only and does not eat through. It is very difficult to control this pest because of its habits. These leaf-eating insects are generally controlled by applica- tions of spray material. The imported cabbage worm is best controlled by spraying with arsenate of lead early in the season, and later, when the heads have formed, with such remedies as pyrethrum or hellebore. Hot water at a temperature of 130 degrees F. will also kill every worm that is reached without injuring the plant. The looper is most satisfactorily destroyed by dry poisons. A pound of paris green mixed with a pound of flour is sufiicient to dust an acre, sifted on the plants early in the morning when they are wet with dew. The diamond back moth can be controlled by the use of an elbow extension rod or an angle nozzle to spray the under sides of the leaves with arsenate of lead, six pounds to one hundred gallons of water. Cabbage aphis or louse are common pests, appearing gen- erally in the seed bed. If not controlled, they multiply rapidly on the older plants. They may be controlled with nicotine solu- tion applied to the plant, beginning early in the season. Whale oil soap is also a good remedy, one pound to six or seven gallons of water. Cabbage maggot is often found on the crop. In the seed bed it may be controlled by covering the bed with cheesecloth, keeping out the fly that lays the egg which produces the maggot. In the field we have no well tried remedy to control this pest. A new one just recommended is one-fifth ounce white arsenic dissolved in one gallon boiling water, and one pint cheap molasses. Spray on the leaves in large drops. The fly is attracted to this remedy and is killed by eating it. Cauliflower 1445 diseases Cluh root. This is a common disease in western ISTew York and is becoming more common on Long Island. It is a swelling of the root -caused by low organisms known as slime molds. The disease receives its name from the club-like appearance of the root system. Infection takes place through the root, and the organ- isms are able to live in the soil. The remedy is rotation of crops, keeping all closely allied crops away from the land for at least five years, and applying lime to the soil once every two or three years, or at longer periods. Care should be exercised not to bring the disease from the seed bed. Fields are soon rendered worthless in this manner. Black rot. This is a common disease of the cabbage which is very destructive to cauliflower. Infection generally takes place through wounds, slowly working through the veins and involving the whole plant. The growth of the disease is marked by a yel- lowing or browning of the leaf from the tip backward and a darkening of the fibro-vascular bundles. The best remedy seems to be rotation. Soft or stump rot. A common disease in seasons of hot and muggy weather. A wounded portion of the plant offers an open- ing for this parasite. The stem and inside of the head generally rots first. Rotation and liming the soil seems to be the best remedy. Physiological trouble. Ricing is a physiological trouble prob- ably resulting from renewed growth or pushing up of the flower heads, frequently caused by rain after a long period of drouth, especially where the plants have been standing still. Cultivation seems to be a good method of controlling this trouble. Additions of humus-making material to soil will also aid materially in in- creasing its water-holding capacity, thus helping to do away with the trouble. Bad seed selection may be another cause. PICKLING Cauliflowers are often grown for the pickle factory. There seems to be no diiference in the culture from that mentioned for market, with the exception of harvesting. The flowers in harvest- ing are removed from the plant and the leaves taken from them. 1446 The Vegetable Industry in Kew Yoke State The coral-like substance is the only portion sold. The yield per acre of flowers for pickling varies from three to ten tons. A good average yield is about five tons per acre. Many growers of market cauliflower have an opportunity of selling their rice heads, extra large heads', or over-supply during years of heavy production, to the pickling stations; thus realizing more from their crop than they otherwise would. GEOWING CAUMFLOWEE UNDER GLASS Cauliflower is grown under glass, particularly at Mattituck, Long Island, in the fall of the year. The plants are placed in the greenhouse early in the fall and given the same attention as that mentioned for outside with the exception that more care is exer- cised regarding the moisture conditions. The flowers are not allowed to produce as large heads as those grown outside. They should be produced about Christmas time and from then on until the flrst of February. At this time small heads are sold at from fifteen to twenty-five cents apiece. It is particularly valuable as a fall crop with greenhouse vegetable men who are growing cucumbers and tomatoes as a spring crop. The only competition of this crop at the particular time of year is from flowers grown in New Orleans and California. The time necessary to produce heads from seeds in the green- house varies from ninety to one hundred twenty days. A house 50 feet wide and 320 feet long will accommodate about 2,700 cauliflower plants. At the same time lettuce plants may be inter- planted and it will accommodate three times as many of these. From eighty-five to ninety per cent, of all the cauliflower plants should form heads under proper management. Some very high yields of flowers have been mentioned from various men engaged in this line of work. The first quality heads sell at from fifteen to twenty-five cents a head, the second quality at from ten to twenty cents and the third from five to fifteen cents. The fuel cost for growing the crop should not exceed $60 to $75; the care of the house should be about the same as for lettuce or other cool greenhouse crops ; the cost of seed about $6 to $8 ; insurance $20; miscellaneous about $75 — total, $221 to $253. Cauliflowee 1447 3448 The Vegetable Industry in New Yoek State Acreage and Value of Cauliflower Grown in New York State, by Counties County Albany . Allegany .... Bronx Broome Cattaraugus . Cayuga Chautauqua . Chemung .... Chenango . . . Clinton Columbia . . . Cortland .... Delaware ... Dutchess .... Erie Essex Franklin .... Fulton Genesee Greene Hamilton ... Herkimer . . . Jefferson .... Kings Lewis Livingston . . . Madison Monroe Montgomery . , Xassau New York . . . . Niagara (Taken from U. Acres Yalue 2 $140 100 90 300 18 3 158 7.170 300 26,723 90 125 1,800 1,583 880 S. Census, 1910) County Oneida Onondaga Ontario Orange Orleans Oswego Otsego Putnam Queens Rensselaer Richmond . Rockland . . St. Lawrence Saratoga . . Schenectady Schoharie . . Schuyler Seneca . . Steuben . Suffolk . Sullivan Tioga . . . Tompkins Ulster . . Warren . Washington Wayne .... Westchester Wyoming Yates Acres 2 3 10 Valun $500 800 462 285 300 75 570 200 742 1,320 The State 1, 720 $338, 808 BRUSSELS SPROUTS* Brussels sprouts are grown throughout the eastern end of Long Island, covering much the same section as cauliflower; but the in- dustry is centered about Orient, at the extreme end of the Island. Cauliflower was once largely planted near Orient, and the soil appears to be quite as well adapted to the crop as farther west; but it has proved impossible, perhaps because of fogs, to grow as good cauliflowers here as about Southold and to the west, hence the growers have abandoned this crop for sprouts. Equally good sprouts can be raised west of Southold, but cauliflowers are deemed more profitable, and the industry is better organized. Sprouts are grown on the same soils and sites as cauliflower, and for discussion of these topics the reader is referred to the pre- ceding article on Cauliflower. HISTORY The flrst sprout seed sown in Orient was brought there by Captain Smith Dewey, a commission man who was a regular buyer at the east end of the Island, from New York in 1876. He se- cured an ounce of seed imported from Belgium by Mr. W. G. Ihrig, a New York commission man, and divided it equally be- tween Mr. George W. Hallock and Mr. John Henry Youngs. Mr. Hallock discontinued the crop after one year, but Mr. Youngs has grown it uninterruptedly to the present time, though continu- ous and careful selection has so improved the stock that it now has little resemblance to the original. The plants first raised were about three feet in height, or nearly twice that of the present strain, and had larger, though very firm, sprouts. It was customary in the early days to plant sprouts early, and this no doubt partly accounts for the difference in height. Brussels sprouts were all but unknown on the New York market in the seventies, and Mr. Ihrig, who handled the slender Long Island product, found it slow work to build up a trade in them. Among his best customers in those days were Tom Thumb and his wife of Bamum's Museum, at Ann Street and Broadway, * Reprint from Cornell Experiment Station Bulletin No. 292. [1449] 1450 The Vegetable I^•DUSTEY i^- Kew Yoek State and ilr. Ihrig soon began to call the sprouts " Tom Thumb cab- baees," and sell them to clubs and hotels under this name. About 1880 three barrels shipped in midwinter by Mr. Youngs of Orient were promptly sold by Mr. Ihrig, who sent back a check for sixty dollars. The region about Orient continues to be one of the most impor- tant sources of supply of this vegetable for the Xew York market, the crop now amounting annually to something like 300,000 quarts. The area planted each year is approximately 125 acres. PEEPAEIXG THE SOIL. EOTATIOX OF CEOPS The preparation of soil and rotation of crops already described for cauliflowers applies equally well to Brussels sprouts. Late sprouts are grown as a succession crop following potatoes, or occa- sionally early carrots; for early sprouts the land is plowed in May and kept harrowed until time for setting the plants on new land. Sprouts are occasionally grown two years in succession but commonly three or four years are allowed to intervene between crops. JSTo cruciferous crops, such as turnips, should be grown on the land meantime, as these serve as hosts for the club-root. Sprouts are commonly followed by potatoes, but frequently by corn or carrots ; some then seed down to grass and so retiirn to potatoes and sprouts. Some persons grow potatoes every year in the intervals between successive crops of sprouts. Cover crops are commonly employed on the sprout fields. One of the leading growers finds timothy most satisfactory, broadcast- ing it in August over cucumbers or other late crops. The seed lodging on the leaves is washed into the soil by the first rain, and by winter the ground is well carpeted. Even if the top-growth is small, and the amount of vegetable matter appears trifling, when the land is turned over the soil near the surface is found to be densely filled with fine roots, and the texture of the soil greatly benefited. Another good grower will sow oats in August after potatoes, spread with ' bunkers ' (mossbunkers or menhaden) dur- ing the fall, plow under and sow to rye for a winter cover. The next ]May the rye, then twelve to eighteen inches high, is plowed under and the land kept clean by harrowing till late June, when early sprouts are set. In the fall rye is sometimes sown among the sprouts, but the eround is then rather denselv shaded to nermit Brussels Speouts 1451 raising the plants The seed used at Orient is all locally grown, those who do not produce their own supply procuring it from their neighbors. The strain is very fine; its origin and characteristics are described later in the section on seed-growing. The seed bed is prepared on one edge of the field, the land it occupies being plowed and set with plants as soon as the rest of the field is finished. After the plot is made fine, and fertilized as for the crop, the seed is put in with a hand drill in rows eighteen to twenty-two inches apart, to make horse-cultivation possible. It is not wise to crowd the plants as much as with cauliflower, since any shedding of the lower leaves means loss in the early crop, as a sprout forms in each leaf-axil. With such spacing no hand-weeding is done; the weeds which grow in the rows are lifted with the plants and rejected as the latter are sorted. Allow four ounces of seed per acre, and five weeks from seed- ing to produce plants of the proper size for setting. The sowing for the early crop is made from May 10 to 15, bringing the setting about June 20; and for the late crop from June 15 to as late as July 10. Three sowings are frequently made by the same grower at intervals of two weeks. The plants at the time of setting should be six to eight inches high, and stocky. SETTING OUT THE PLANTS For the early crop plants are set out in the latter part of June or early July, and for the late from July 20 to August 15, most of them going out about the first of August. Planting by machine has been tried by a number of growers, but practically all have fallen back on planting by hand as more reliable and giving bet- ter results. The machine would succeed under the proper condi- tions, but these it seems impracticable to meet. That is, when sprouts follow early potatoes the ground is very dry at setting time, and needs more thorough wetting than the machine affords. Then, too, to succeed with a machine one needs a heavy, slow and steady team, a skillful driver, and two 'careful and accurate men to ride behind. The ground is marked in checks 3 x 21/0 feet, or less commonly 3 X 3, or 3 X 11/2 feet. The latter distance is too close. At the 1452 The Vegetable Industey ln New Yobk State first named distance 5,808 plants are required for an acre. The holes are made with a hoe and soaked with water, and the mud is plastered over the roots in the same way as already described for cauliflowers. Twenty barrels of water an acre are required for setting in a dry time. FERTILIZATION AND CULTIVATION A commercial fertilizer is always used on sprouts, though when the latter succeed potatoes the same year the fertilizer is applied to the potatoes. If the land has been spread with bunkers the preceding fall, one-half ton of 4-8-7 fertilizer is sufficient on the potatoes; otherwise 1,500 to 2,000 pounds should be used. If the. land is saved for sprouts, the same amounts of the 4—8-7 or of the 6-8-5 are used just before setting. One grower obtained one of his best crops when he used three-fifths of a ton of Lister's potato fertilizer and one-half ton of fish scrap, on land saved for the crop. The land was in sod the preceding year. The I. P. Thomas potato fertilizer, at one to one and one-fourth tons per acre, is also liked for sprouts. Every other year the land should have a spreading of stable manure at the rate of 100 to 150 dump- loads (16 to 24 tons) per acre. Bunkers when obtainable cost $1.50 a thousand. They do not become so quickly available a^ fish scrap, but the blood and juices go into the soil, and the fertilizing materials come considerably cheaper in this form. It takes about 14,000 bunkers to make a ton of fish scrap analyzing 10 per cent, ammonia and 6 per cent, phosphoric acid, yet the scrap sells for $35 a ton, Swamp muck from the salt marshes is being used on sprout ground by one grower at the rate of ten spreader-loads per acre. It is dug with a steam shovel, sprinkled with ground phosphate rock, and shredded by running through a rotary ice chopper. The material, which is black as coal, consists of a mass of fine roots and ought greatly to increase the retentiveness of the soil ; but it has not been in use long enough to demonstrate its value. A sample shows the following analysis: Per cent. Water 6.9 Organic matter 45 . 49 Nitrogen 1.27 Brussels Speouts 1453 Per cent. Phosphoric acid (P2O..;) 079 Potash (K,0) '.'.'.'.'.'.'..'.'.'. ^586 Calcium oxid 703 Chlorine 5.53 Shallow cultivation should be given after rains and about once a w^eek in dry weather. lEEIGATION Irrigation of sprouts is being tried this year for the first time at the eastern end by Mr. L. H. Hallock of Orient. About an acre of sprouts are being watered by the Skinner system of overhead pipes set with tiny nozzles. The runs of pipe are 800 feet long and 50 feet apart, supported on pipe columns about G^/o feet high. A space 25 feet wide on either side of the pipe can easily be watered by this arrangement. The plants under irriga- tion were set out about August 15, following early carrots. They were well watered as soon as set, and have had waterings every week since, except when it rained. The water was allowed to run about five hours each time, amounting to half an inch. This sort of irrigation also has the advantage of knocking the lice off the plants. HAEVESTING Harvesting begins as early as the middle of September from the plants set in June, but the shipments are light until well into Oc- tober. Early sprouts should be picked over two or three times in the field, the lowest sprouts being taken each time, otherwise these will open out and become yellow, or rot if the weather is warm. The first picking must be done when the outer leaves of the lowest sprouts begin to turn yellow. In picking, the leaf subtending the sprout is broken away, so that when the time comes for cutting the plants the early ones will show from several inches to a foot of bare stem. As these lower leaves and sprouts are re- moved the plant continues to push up and form new leaves at the top, and the upper sprouts also fill out better, so that the yield of sprouts at the final cutting is about as great as though no picking had been done. When a sprout is ready to pick it readily breaks away from the stump ; otherwise it clings tenaciously. These early 1454 The V^egetable Industey in New Yobk State sprouts are picked into bags and carried to the packing house or " sprout house," where they are packed in berry-boxes in the man- ner described in a following paragraph. As freezing weather sets in, usually early in December, the plants are cut off near the ground with a corn hoe and hauled to some convenient place near the packing shed for stacking. A somewhat sheltered place, as an orchard, makes an excellent stack- ing ground, for the cold winds of winter are more likely to injure the sprouts than mere frost. The plants are stood upright on the ground as close together as possible, and a light covering of sea- weed placed over them. A few inches of this material affords admirable protection, for it is too porous to cause heating, yet an excellent insulator. It should be dry when used. A covering of soil is much too heating. Freezing does not injure the sprouts if they are thawed gradually before handling, as in a cellar, but alternate freezing and thawing spoils them. A few growers trim off some of the lower leaves before hauling from the field, but most of them put the plants in the stack without trimming. The stacks are only one layer deep, and are commonly made about a rod wide, and as long as required. After the plants are stacked the sprouts may be picked at leis- ure through the winter, adjusting the work to the markets and the steady employment of labor. The packing houses are provided with heat and light ; when other tasks fill the day the picking is often done at night, from half past five to ten or eleven o'clock. Early sprouts especially are packed at night, the day being con- sumed in picking them. Upon being removed from the stack, the plants are divested of leaves and tops, and merely the stumps with sprouts attached are brought to the house. The pickers sit at a table with sprouts and berryboxes before them. The sprouts are removed from the stump with a small knife, such knives as paring, budding, shoemakers' and jackknives being variously employed for this purpose. It is usually necessary to cut through the leaf-base in order to sever a sprout. The stumps are found to be good feed for stock, and are largely employed for that purpose. The sprouts having been removed from the stump, they are " shucked " or freed from the outer dry or yellow leaves, and placed in quart Brussels Speouts 1455 berry baskets, the looser heads going into the bottom, and the smooth, firm ones on top, allowing a crown of an inch or two above the rim of the box. Little attempt is made at sizing, but occa- sionally the small hard sprouts are packed by themselves. In the earlier part of the season, when the sprouts run larger and with fewer culls, the common price paid for picking and pack- ing is two cents a quart ; and at that rate a man working an eve- ning from 5:30 to 11:00 can sometimes make $1.25. If the sprouts were poor he could not make over two-thirds of this amount. In the winter the pickers often insist on being paid by the day, the common rate being one dollar, but a good picker can usually do better at piecfr-work, for he can average two bushels or sixty-four quarts a day. When the boxes are packed they are set in 32-, 48-, or 60-quart crates for shipment, the second size being the favorite for all but the earliest sprouts, which seem to sell a little better in the small- est package. The 60-quart package is a little too large for market requirements, moving a little slowly, and is now almost entirely abandoned for the 48-quart, on which the express charge is rela- tively less than on the 32-quart crate. Sprouts are picked all winter, the very last of them going to market as late as April first ; but nearly everything has commonly gone by March first. Mr. L. H. Hallock has tried freezing sprouts by embedding them in cracked ice, in order to hold them for the spring market, but found it impracticable to keep them frozen in an ordinary icehouse. With mechanical refrigeration the matter would be simpler, and doubtless will soon be employed. The frozen sprouts come out in excellent condition when thawed gradually. YIELDS, PRICES AND PROFITS Two thousand quarts per acre is considered a fair yield for late sprouts, used as a succession crop, but the best growers will not infrequently harvest as many as 2,500. In the case of early sprouts, when the land has been saved for them and part of the crop harvested in the field, 4,000 quarts can be picked, but this is more than ordinary. Even as high as 5,500 quarts have been raised on an acre. 1456 The Vegetable Ijndustey in IS'ew Yoejk State The price per qaart ranges from as low as four cents to as high as twenty-five. The prices previous to Thanksgiving are commonly low, but advance with the winter season till they reach their high- est late in February or early in March. The average price is per- haps somewhere between ten and fourteen cents. One large grower found that an acre of early sprouts in 1908 brought a gross re- turn of $400, the sprouts selling at fifteen to sixteen cents a quart. A return nearly as great is not uncommon with late sprouts. The expense of producing an acre of sprouts is approximately as follows: Jloderate. Liberal. Kent of land ($1Y5 — $200 per acre) $15 00 $15 00 Plowing and harrowing 2 00 3 00 Seed, 3 to 4 oz 1 80 2 40 Seed-bed (labor and fertilizer) 2 00 2 50 Marking field and applying fertilizer 2 00 2 50 Fertilizer (1,500-2,000 lbs.) 22 50 32 00 Setting out plants 2 50 3 50 Cultivation 4 00 5 00 Interest and depreciation on tools 2 00 4 00 Harvesting and stacking 8 00 12 00 Picking and packing 40 00 75 00 Crates and nails 20 00 30 00 Hauling to station 4 00 8 00 'ta Total $125 80 $194 90 The sprouts grown at Orient are all hauled to Greenport (four to five miles), and shipped to New York by express. The express charge on a 32-quart crate is 35 cents, and 45 cents on a 48-quart crate. INSECTS AND DISEASES These are the same as those which attack the cauliflower, and have already been dealt with in the preceding article. SEED-GROWING Selecting mother plants. Just before cutting the plants, or picking the bottom sprouts in case this is done before cutting, a Brussels Sprouts 1457 competent person should go through the field to select the seed plants. Two rows can be examined at a time, and the plants as selected can be pulled and thrown between the rows. Later the plants from four rows can be thrown into one, and left to lie until the crop is harvested or freezing is threatened. The person select- ing the plants should have clearly in mind the ideal, and select only those which approach it much more closely than the average of the field. Among the most important characters to be sought are the following: 1. Hard, firm, medium-sized sprouts. Close, compact arrangement around the stem, completely cov- ering it from the ground well up to the head. 3. Medium height. Too tall a plant exposes the sprouts more to frost. 4. Small head or rosette at top. 5. Dark green color. Such plants are more resistant to frost. Storing the plants. When the advance of winter makes it nec- essary to protect the mother plants, they are trimmed by removing the lower leaves (the upper oneis' must be left to insure good growth the following season) and are placed in a shed, cellar or trench. Most growers now prefer a shed or barn, as cellars gener- ally prove too warm, and trenches do not admit of easy examina- tion, or the removal of decaying plants. The storage building must be sufficiently tight to prevent the plants freezing, for though a slightly frozen plant may produce a good seed stalk so long as the head of the plant is not frozen, its vitality is likely to be weak- ened, and the danger to the head itself is +oo great. On the other hand, it is very important to keep the plants from heating, for yellowing of leaves and decay quickly follow a mild temperature. K"either must the plants be allowed to grow. Ventilation must be provided for, and the doors and windows opened whenever the outside temperature is above freezing. The plants are best heeled-in in shallow trenches, setting a double row and leaving an interval of about ten inches between the double rows. This permits free circulation of air, and is much better than crowding all together in a compact mass, as when stacking to cover for the winter market. Occasionally a pail or two of water should be thrown over the plants to prevent too much drying of the soil. The plants should come out in the 1458 The Vegetable Industey in New York State spring as bright and green as when they went in, without any signs of yellowing. Plants stored in cellars are troublesome to handle, because it is dilEcult to secure proper ventilation and control the temperature. The heat and moisture are likely to cause yellowing, if not down- right decay. Such conditions also favor the white mold (Alter- naria hrassiae (Berk.) Sacc.) the most dreaded of all storage troubles. Once it has a foothold it destroys swiftly and surely. The sprouts near the base should be removed, for they usually rot if left, and sometimes cause the stump to rot. Sheds with the floor about two feet below the surface of the ground are found to be desirable for storage. One grower has such a house 12 x 65 feet, the walls being insulated with a six- inch layer of seaweed. In setting the plants a path is left through the center. Since so many plants are handled, this grower does not take time to trim off any of the leaves, but finds it necessary to pick off the yellow leaves about the first of March, or earlier if the weather has been warm. The plants can also be wintered in trenches. It is the practice to dig a trench a little wider than a spade, and deep enough so that the plants will come just flush with the ground when stood up in the trench. The plants are then packed in it in a double row, so that the trench is completely filled. No covering is put on at any time. One grower who recently stored about fifty plants this way brought only about half through to actual seed-bearing. Cold frames are also successfully used for storing. Setting out. As soon as the ground can be prepared in the spring (usually from the first to the tenth of April) the plants are set out in rows about three and one-half feet apart, and about two and one-half feet apart in the row. The sprouts soon expand, and a few of the large ones near the base will produce flowering shoots, but the chief growth is made from the terminal bud. A tall, branching flower stem is thrown up from this bud, and the first mature seed pods appear in the latter part of July. The ripening is uneven over the field, and even on the same plant, so that no method of gathering is feasible other than picking by hand. The seed-stalks are clipped with small shears and crowded into a barrel which the picker carries along. This receptacle is a little cumbersome, but effectually prevents any waste by the in- Brussels Speotjts 1459 evitable shelling out of the seed. The seed stalks are pressed and trod into the barrel until it can hold no more, and it may then be set aside until a convenient time for cleaning the seed, in case the stalks are very dry; but usually it is safer to remove the stalks from the barrel and dry them in the sun for a few days, spreading them on a blanket or canvas. The pods are then readily stripped from the stalks by drawing through the hand, and this same oper- ation shells practically all the seed from the pods. The seed is readily shaken to the bottom on the blanket or in the barrel, and easily cleaned by pouring from a pail when a breeze is blowing. This seed is obtained a little too late for planting in the same season, and is used nearly a year later. Two-year-old seed is frequently used in event of the failure of the seed crop, for most growers retain enough annually to provide for such an emergency. The older seed germinates a little more slowly than the fresh, but is otherwise just as good, and the extra day or two is of no moment. Under no circumstances would one of these growers resort to the ordinary stocks of seeds on the market, as these have been tried re- peatedly in a small way, and always proved disappointing; the plants have usually been tall and vigorous, but with only a few soft, scattering sprouts, or none at all. The Long Island seed is immensely superior to the ordinary and undoubtedly the best in the country, if not in the world. It is apparently too high-priced for the dealer, bringing locally fifty to seventy-five cents an ounce, while the prevailing wholesale price elsewhere is about fifteen cents. It is scarcely necessary to add that the seed is easily worth the difference. It used to bring sixteen dollars a pound. One himdred plants will in good season produce ten to fifteen pounds of seed, or at the rate of 500 to 750 pounds per acre. CELERY Henry Geeffkath, Lijia, X. Y. President, Xew York State Vegetable Growers' Association The demand for celery in this country is constantly increasing ; but the increased acreage planted each year and the quality and condition in which celery is marketed, with present methods of distribution, fully meet the demand at the present time. I do not make this statement hoping to discourage any one from enter- ing into the growing of celery, but I do wish to impress upon everyone thinking of entering the business, and those already en- gaged in it, that the future prosperity of this industry depends on the quality of the celery grown and the condition of it when marketed, as well as on the method of distribution. The climatic conditions of this vast country of oiirs are not the same in all localities; therefore, one set of rules for the growing of celery can not be applied to all sections. The writer has been engaged in the growing and shipping of celery for the past thirty years in Xew York State, and will try to give the public what he had found to be the best methods for this part of the country. SELF BLANCHING IN GREATEST DEMAND The celery in greatest demand at the present time is a variety known as Self Blanching although in some cities the Green Golden Heart type is used to some extent. Self Blanching is the hand- somest celery, when properly grown, of all known types, bjit it is also more subject to disease than any of the other types and demands great care from the time the seed bed is started until the crop is placed before the consumer. [1460] Celery 1462 The Vegetable Industey in ISTew Yokk State growing- early crops If one wishes to market his crop in the month of July, he must start the plants in a greenhouse, sowing the seeds March 1. I find that I can get stronger plants from beds in which the seed is sown broadcast than from sowing in rows. A grower should endeavor to sow the seed so that there will be from 200 to 250 plants to the square foot. If too thick, thin them out. The seed bed should be made of the best soil available. I use muck only and have used the same muck in my greenhouse for the past fifteen years. Keep it free from all kinds of disease by sterilization and spraying. ISTever cover the seed with more than one-quarter of an inch of dirt and never let the seed bed become dry from the time seed is sown. Do not give too much water, for, if too wet, soil under glass will become sour and moss cov- ered, and the plants will not do well. Fig. 447. — Blanching the Eaely Celery Crop With Boards Plant in the field just as soon as the season will permit. A light frost will do very little harm to celery if it is well planted and the land is wet, but will spoil celery plants if the ground is dry and they have not taken root. Celery plants set May first should be ready to bleach by July first. I use lumber for bleaching and find that the celery is in a much better condition when bleached with boards than when paper is used. Self-blanching celery &«ed has about 20,000 seeds to the ounce, but one can not count on more than 5,000 good plants to the ounce. Celery 1463 In growing early celery great care must be taken to keep the water level of the land down during the months of May and June so as not to force the roots of the celery to grow too near the top. On wet land the roots will be forced so near the surface that the fine rootlets will grow upward and out of the ground. It is impossible to keep a field of celery in good growing condition during the months of August and September, when the ground usually becomes hot and dry, if the water level was too high during May and June. Keep the land well drained and cultivate deep diiring Avet weather, thereby forcing the celery roots deep down into the soil, and the crop will stand a long period of dry Fig. 448.— Late Celery Banked With Eaeth For Blanching weather. But if roots are near the top during dry weather the crop is sure to be checked badly and may be entirely spoiled by the heart turning black. THE LATE CEOPS The plants for the fall or late crops should be planted in the fields from June second to July tenth. If the land is dry when planting, wet it well before and after the plants are set. The late celery crop should be planted in rows three and one- half feet apart, plants five inches apart in rows. 1464 The Vegetable Industry in New Yokik State Celeey 1465 There will be little trouble in keeping the roots of the late celery working downward as it is usually dry during July and August when the root growth of the late crop is being made, and nature causes them to go down for moisture. I have never seen much black heart in late celery, but if planted before July fifteenth it is apt to be so affected if the fall is dry. The seed for a late crop should be sown in the open field from April tenth to ]\Iay tenth. Protect the seed beds with wind breaks to keep the cold spring winds from sweeping over the beds, and keep them wet until the plants have four leaves. After that they will get along very well if the beds are not located on too dry a spot. I sow my outdoor seed beds broadcast making the beds five feet wide with a path of eighteen inches between. My early celery crop is planted in rows eighteen inches apart, plants set five inches apart in the row. One should not try to grow early celery unless he has good irrigation. IRRIGATION AWD DRAINAGE I use the Skinner system of irrigation and would not be with- out it, but a grower should learn how to use it on a small scale before trying to grow a large acreage with it. A great many growers condemn the system because they do not know how to use it. Celery requires a large amount of water during the growing season, and, unless one can give it the amount needed, he will not get the best grade of celery. The land must be drained perfectly. I use tile for drainage and have a six-inch tile ditch every seventy- five feet, placed thirty inches below the surface. FERTILIZER Two tons of high-grade fertilizer 4-7-10 and one-half ton of fish tankage per acre is to be recommended for early celery, sowing one ton per acre and working it into the land before the crop is planted. The remainder of the fertilizer and tankage is sown as a side dressing while the crop is growing, making about three applications — the last one about three weeks before the crop is to be harvested. 1466 The Vegetable Industey in New York State On my late crop I use about one ton of high-grade fertilizer 4-7-10, sowing one-half ton before planting, and working it well into the land ; and sowing the other half ton as a side dressing in two applications on each side of the row, using care not to get any of the fertilizer on the plant. It will burn the foliage and if it gets down into the plant will spot and rot the stalks. Keep the cultivator in action from the time the celery is planted in the field. Fig. 450.^ Slate Ditch at .South Lijia, N". Y. Celery La>;d on EiTHEE Side COST OF GROWING CROPS It costs about $3Y5 to grow, harvest and ship an acre of early celery. The sale per acre for early celery will run from about $700 to $1,200, according to market conditions when harvested. The cost of growing, harvesting and shipping an acre of late celery is about $150. The average yield per acre is about 200 crates. Prices paid for the fall crop in 1913 ran from $1.25 to $2.00 per crate, while prices paid in the fall of 1914 ran from .75 to $1.35 per crate. There is not much money in late celery for the grower when such prices as paid in 1914 have to be accepted for the crop. Celeey l-i67 CONTROLLING BLIGHT By spraying, celery blight can be controlled under all weather conditions, but the spraying must be done in the most thorough way and started when plants are young in the seed beds. I have seen growers applying bordeaux with a sprinkling can. They were wasting time and money, and damaging the crop. When bordeaux is applied with a sprinkling can or any other kind of a machine that does not make a very fine spray under a high pres- sure, the mixture will form in large drops on the foliage of the plants and run down the stalks, lodging at the root of the plant, as a result of which the consumer will find a large amount of vitriol in the celery. There are cases pending in courts now in which the health department claims celery was offered for sale that was unfit for use — the result of careless spraying. Even if the growers escaped paying this fine they have not helped the con- sumption of celery through their careless acts. Celery can be Sprayed every week through the entire season and yet when bar- Vested not have a trace of bordeaux show between the stalks of the plant next to the roots. But the mixture must be applied in a fine mist and under a high pressure. IMPOETANCE OF QUALITY The future prosperity of the celery industry depends on the quality grown, conditions when shipped, and method of distribu- tion. I have made this a study- for some years and am sorry to say that a great number of New York State growers seem to care little about quality. They want something that will give them the largest number of crates per acre. A few words on the condition of celery and the way it is being sent to the market. Every celery grower in the East and South can learn from the California grower how to put up celery so as to have it appear at its best. California celery appears better than any other when it arrives on the market. This is not due to the fact that the celery is better than that grown in other sec- tions. There is no section in this country that can grow a better stalk of celery than can be grown in New York iState. If we stop to examine the California celery to learn why it shows up so well after being in transit five or six times as long as our shipments are, we will find that every defective leaf has been 1468 The Vegetable Industey in New Yoek State Fig. 451. — Attractively Packed Celery Ready for JIaeket taken off in the field ; that the celery was carefully harvested and all the dirt removed from the roots — thereby keeping it clean — and that the crate was packed with uniform stalks on the out- side and each one with the best face side of the stalk on the out- side. We will also find that it is packed in a crate of good appearance. We can pack the same way and when we do we will be paid for it. I know of one instance where a dealer in one of our large markets paid a large sum each day for drawing away dirt and trimmings that should have been removed from the celery in the field before it was shipped. The grower must pay for this extra labor, and the sooner we come to understand this the better for us all. SHIPPING and MAEKETING We must also give more care to the loading of our celery when shipping by freight in refrigerator cars. Always use a crate that will load so that air spaces, each one three inches wide, will extend from one ice bunker to the other. Always slat the crate on the top so that the top crate will not drop into the lower one while in transit. Is ever let the celery become wilted before loading into cars, and start the car with temperature down. If it is warm in the car when loaded, cool by using salt on the ice in the bunker and when -cool refill bunker with ice. Always mark the crates so that the trade can see who puts it up. A catchy name means nothing to the trade, but a good, honest package will bring the trade your way. Now we come to the distribution. We send our celery to a few large markets and keep them glutted most of the time, while there are thousands of smaller towns that never receive a ship- ment from the grower. I am not in a position to state how to bring about better methods of distribution and hope that some one will soon find a way that will help us all along that line. Celeey 1469 1470 The Vegetable Iadustey in IsTew Yokk State AOBEAGE AND VALUE OF CeLERY GrOWN IN NEW YOElK STATE, BY (Taken from U. S. Census, 1910) County Acres Albany 150 Allegany 2 Bronx Broome 20 Cattaraugus 4 Cayuga 116 Value $28, 379 24 Chautauqua Chemung . . Chenanga . . Clinton . . . . Columbia . . Cortland . . . Delaware . . Dutchess . . . Erie Essex 10 71 5,111 500 14,758 1,700 14,449 1,640 2,084 5 47 890 10,196 County Acres Oneida Onondaga Ontario Orange 329 Orleans Oswego Otsego Putnam Queens Rensselaer Richmond Rockland St. Lawrence Saratoga Schenectady Schoharie , BY Counties 3S Value 35 $6, 79S 56 11,962 49 13,486 329 290,342 5 1,400 1 800 4 1,680 159 32,263 3 400 47 17,306 Franklin Schuyler 4 46 2 Fulton Genesee Greene Hamilton Herkimer Jefferson Kings Lewis Livingston 259 1,200 12,001 893 16 468 1 1 9 45 300 3,425 7,550 Madison . . . Monroe . . . . Montgomery Nassau . . . . New York . . Niagara . . . 211 498 16 14 44 77,656 34,215 145,047 5,750 3,435 12,025 Seneca Steuben Suffolk Sullivan Tioga 3 Tompkins 1 Ulster 7 Warren Washington 1 Wayne 151 Westchester 4 Wyoming Yates 2 450 5,015 145,638 248 900 250 1,115 300 32,446 350 50 The State 2, 926 $946, 424 ASPARAGUS C. C. HuLSART, Matawai^, Monmouth County, IST. J. INTKODUCTIOlSr The popularity which asparagus has achieved within the last two or three decades is marvelous. Thirty years ago or less this vegetable was a luxury found on the tables of the rich ; it is now found on the tables in almost every home, even those of small in- comes. It is frequently recommended as an article of diet for the sick and convalescent. The fact that asparagus appears in the market at a time of the year when few or no other fresh vegetables are available has had much to do with its increased consumption in our cities. It can also be preserved by canning, being in this form almost equal to the fresh article. This has increased its use, thus lengthening the season. Within the last few years the cultivation of asparagus has been greatly extended, yet the demand is still greater than the supply except in and near large receiving centers, indicating there is room for more extended plantings remote from such centers. Every kitchen garden should have its bed, from which the table may be supplied, and many small farmers could supply them- selves with much needed cash by growing this vegetable where their farms lie adjacent to a town or village. HISTOET The use of asparagus is almost as old as the hills and marshes on which the ancient writers say the two varieties of their day grew. First as a medicinal plant and then as a vegetable it was known to the Eomans. Writers of those days praise its virtues with enthusiasm and the epicure counted it one of the delights of his table. For want of a better way, the sprouts were preserved by drying. This is done yet by some. So far had the gardeners of that day progressed in its im- [1471] 14Y2 The Vegetable Industet in New Yokk State Asparagus 1473 provement that Pliny was able to record spears of it weighing three to the pound. Once made familiar with the use of the native article by the invading Roman soldiery, the Gauls, Germans and Britons ap- preciated its value, and it soon became one of their most prized vegetables. Early writers on horticultural subjects leave no room for doubt that as early as the first part of the sixteenth century — four hundred years ago — the use of asparagus was not only gen- eral in nearly every part of Europe, but that in some parts its development was such as to put the so-called " colossal " and " mammoth " of the present day upon their mettle, since spears weighing over one-half pound each were not of uncommon occurrence. In France, Holland, Germany, Himgary and England, aspara- gus was both gathered by the peasantry in its wild state and car- ried to the towns for the tables of the prosperous burghers and grown in the landlord's gardens for his own table. The early settlers of America, familiar with its use, brought the seed of the plant with them, and, though not native to this coun- try, it found the climate congenial. Although a " cosmopolitan " there are localities where its skil- ful culture has produced such results, both as to size of spears and average yield, that they are noted the world over as asparagus growing centers. Many of the states of the eastern coast from Charleston, S. C, to Boston, Mass., of the Mississippi Valley, and of the Pacific. Slope, produce a great amount of asparagus, but it is on Long Island and ISTew Jersey that much attention has been given to its cultivation, and there its culture has reached a high state of development. BOTANY AND VARIETIES The genus asparagus belongs to the Lily-of-the-Valley family. It includes about 100 species, all native of the Old World. A few species, including the familiar asparagus vine and the smilax of the florist, are in common cultivation for ornamental purposes, but most of them, having no recognized economic value, are known only to botanists. All the various forms and varieties of the vegetable now in The Vegetable Industry in New Yoek State Asparagus 1475 common cultivation under the name of asparagus, and sold in the market as " grass," have been derived from one species, Asparagus officinalis. Although but one species is to be found in cultivation there are many so-called varieties. Thus we have Colossal, Barr's Mam- moth, Donald's Elmira, Palmetto, etc., in our own country, be- sides the numerous varieties cultivated in France, Germany, Eng- land, etc., when in reality there are but three or four of them, all of which deserve to have special names, being nearly all suscep- tible of classification under the general head of " Giant " or " Mammoth," indicative of the improved size produced by the superior conditions of manuring, soil, climate and cultivation, to which they have been subjected. PEODUCTION OF PI>A|^TS FEOM SEED For the asparagus grower there aye two methods by which plants can be secured : first, by ptirchasiug or saving the seed by which to raise them, and, second, by purchasing the plants from a seedsman or some grower. Takipg the second method as the easiest and quickest way to start a bed it is suggested that the purchaser be very discriminating ip what he accepts and who he accepts it from. He should know the variety he wants to plant, should allow no substitution, and ficcept good one-year-old roots only. Too many beds have been failures because of this oversight. The first method is by far the surest where time can be al- lowed and care given to growing the young plants from seed. In using this method the first requisite is good seed. It is not suffi- cient to know that the seed will germinate and grow; it should have prepotency. In order to secure this kind of asparagus seed care must be exercised either by the seller or the grower himself. This is rarely ever done in the commercial trade, hence do not trust your plantings to commercial seeds. Go to the man who is producing the best " grass " and have him save seed for you from choice crowns — those not producing too many stalks, but large ones. Reject all plants that produce an abundance of seed because such plants may transmit that characteristic to their progeny. It is a well known fact that those plants that are heavy seed producers 1476 The Vegetable Industet in ISTbw Yokk State are equally light crop producers. Furthermore, not all the seed produced on a plant is equally good ; that which is produced on the tips is usually small and of low vitality, and those that do grow produce weak plants. All small and weak seeds should be rejected. This can be done by first floating off in water, at the time of saving the seeds, all that will float. The one who is saving the seeds must add water to separate the skins and pulp from the seeds after having crushed the berries. The berries should not be gathered until they have had some freezing; this softens them and makes the work much easier. .Several washings will be needed to clean them perfectly. Let all seeds that do not sink readily run off with the water. When washed clean, spread out thinly to dry. When quite dry run through a windmill in which is placed the lower screen, with mesh just large enough to screen out all small seeds and allow the balance to pass over and out in the usual way. By turning the crank on the windmill at just the right speed any light seeds that escaped elimination by the water test can be blown out with the mild current. We then have the very best seed that can be pro- cured without special breeding. GEOWING THE YOUISTG PLANTS The seed of the asparagus is very hard as well as very hardy. It requires a long time to germinate, hence should be planted as early as the soil can be worked and gotten into good condition. The plants can be grown on almost any kind of soil, but preferably not too heaYj. Select a site near the buildings where poultry can run through it; they will keep the young plants free from the beetles. After deciding where the seed bed is to be made the next requi- site to success is the preparation, fertilization, and care of the young seedling plants. Remember first, that the asparagus plant is a very heavy feeder ; second, that we are to grow a strong, vig- orous root, as large as is commonly sold commercially at two years' of age, and do it in one season. In order to do that feed and care must not be neglected, therefore liberally apply yard or stable manure broadcast over the entire area where seeds are to be sown, before plowing. Plow and prepare as for other crops; mark off AsrARAGus 1477 rows about 2 feet, 9 inches distant, opening each furrow with a plow; scatter in each row fertilizer analyzing about 4-8-10, at the rate of 800 pounds per acre. Mix this well with the loose soil and cover by thrdwing a furrow on it from each side, making a low ridge, and rake off flat. Sow seeds with a drill set to sow about three seeds to the inch, and also set to sow at a depth of one inch or a little more. If the soil is light one and one-half inches will be better. The plants will be from three to four weeks coming through, according to the temperature and the time planted. From now on the main attention is cultivation, hoeing and additional fer- tilization. The yoimg plants m-ust be kept scrupulously clean and the soil around and about them mellow by frequent hand hoeings and horse cultivations. Early in July an application at the rate of 200 poimds of nitrate of soda applied alongside the row and worked in, will be found valuable. This will stimulate the vegetable growth of the young plant but will be effective only about a month, so an- other application in August is desirable. The latter will last through the season. The object is to get as much growth as possible in one short growing season. If this work is carefully done and instructions carefully carried out, a better plant will be had at one year of age than is commonly grown in two years, and far better than any two-year-old plant. PEEPAEATION OF THE PERMANENT BED ■Since much depends on the appearance as well as size of the shoots much thought should be given to the soil where the bed is to be established. The soil should be more or less of a sandy nature, free from stones, fairly level, sloping toward the sun rather than from it, and the more depth of soil the better. On a soil that is thin and that is situated above a compact subsoil this crop will not do its best. The subsoil should be quite open —one easily penetrated by the roots. The preparation of a plot or field for asparagus should begin the season before the plants are to be set. This can be done by growing thereon some hoed crop that requires liberal manuring and clean cultivation, aUowing no weeds to go to seed. As soon 1478 The Vegetable I]N'DUSTi?Y in New York State as the crop is gathered, sow the land to some cover crop — crim- son clover, if it will grow. If in a locality where none of the legumes can be grown, sow to oats or barley, but not rye, as the latter makes too much trouble in fitting the soil the following spring. Sometime during the winter, prior to setting the plants, broad- cast the area with yard or stable manure, using twelve to fifteen tons per acre. As early as possible plow as deep as soil will per- mit, turning everything under, harrow and mark off in rows five and one-half feet apart using a good two-horse turning plow, and then go each way in the same furrow making it as deep as the soil will permit, but do not go more than one inch into the subsoil. In the bottom of the furrow set the plants. settixct the young bed The young crowns should first be sorted and all small and weak speciments thrown out. Second, a sharp lookout should be kept for any individuals that have numerous eyes or bud fully developed, and they also should be cast out. A plant with that characteristic will always do the same, that is, produce numerous but small shoots. Have a good lively boy to drop the plants and have him drop them on the inside edge of the plow furrow. Then let the setter grasp the plant by about one-half of the roots and place his thumb on the buds; straighten out the other half of the roots; place the plant on the solid bottom of the trench and cover with about two inches of soil; step forward with one foot on either side of the plant just set, which firms the soil. Place the next plant twenty inches distant and continue. Some growers plant as close in the row as fifteen or sixteen inches, while others claim two feet the proper distance. It resolves itself down to this : the nar- row distance gives a crop earlier in the life of the bed but makes it shorter lived. The farther apart the plants are set the longer the life of the bed — all other things being equal. Some early hoed crop like peas, beans, carrots, etc., may be grown between the rows of asparagus the first season but not after. No manure should be used under the young plants because they live and start bet- ter on a solid bottom, and because it induces mice to harbor un- der it and destroy numerous plants. Asparagus 1479 CULTIVATION AND FERTILIZATION About the time growth begins give a dressing of fertilizer down the trench over the young plants — any good potato formula will do. Use about the same per given length of row as for potatoes. Cultivation must begin early, a small-toothed implement being used to fine the scil. Some soil should he allowed to run down beside the young plants, but not too much. The grower should be all season filling the trench. Frequent cultivations and numerous hand hoeings will be re- quired to keep the soil mellow and the weeds down, and this must be done or the whole thing spells failure. The future productive- ness of any asparagus bed is largely governed by the way the young plants are grown and the way the permanent bed is cared for the first two years of its existence. If neglected, either in cul- tivation, hoeing, fertilization, or controlling of the insects, that neglect must be paid for in low yield and poor quality. A mid- summer application of nitrate of soda of about 150 pounds per acre, applied beside the row and worked in, will be found bene- ficial. During the fall of the first year apply a good dressing of animal manure. The best way to do this is to plow a furrow away from the plants on each side and put the manure therein and cover it by plowing back over it. This induces the root system to form down below and out of reach of the implements of cultivation. All later manurings should be in an open furrow midway be- tween each row and it covered. Once in two years will do for animal manurings where the soil is fairly productive, but an annual application of fertilizer applied at the first working of the land in the spring is essential. Be sure to apply this broad- cast ; not over the row as is sometimes done. By broadcasting it is better and more evenly distributed, hence where the plants can use it more readily. At the close of the cutting season, when the bed is being leveled off, apply a dressing of nitrate of soda broadcast at the rate of 225 pounds per acre. This in my judgment is quite important. It is at this time that the plants need stimulating and the nitrate supplies it. I believe, too, it wards off the rust. Beds so treated are later in showing that disease. Cultivation should be kept up sufficient to destroy all weeds and keep soil mellow. 1480 The Vegetable Industky in jSTew York State ASPAIIAGUS 1481 INSECTS Nothing that I know of can be done for the beetle during the cutting season. All that can be done is to destroy the breeding stock the season before. This can be accomplished by spraying the foliage with arsenate of lead paste, 6 pounds to 50 gallons of water, with a heavy pressure. This may seem strong but less will not kill all old bugs. It is very important that the beetle and larvae be kept from young planted fields; they will soon damage it beyond recovery if left unmolested. HAEVESTI2>rG AKD MARKETING In this section white and half " green grass " is produced. The difference between the two is that one is cut as soon as it appears above ground, while the other is allowed to grow to five or six inches in height before cutting. It will be readily seen that if white " grass " is to be cut there must be sufficient soil over the crowns to permit the knife to be thrust down deep enough to cut the shoot at marketable length, which is about nine inches.' Hence we ridge, using an implement made for the purpose that piles the soil on top of the row and smoothes it off. For all green grass this need not be done. Cutting is done every other morning until the weather becomes warm, when it may have to be cut daily. The " grass " as cut is taken to the packing shed and washed, when it is ready for the girls or women to bunch it. We make only two grades, primes and culls. The cut of the day is shipped in the late afternoon to the city, arriving there about midnight. Growers ship to New York City, Brooklyn and Newark depending on the market in each place. The " grass " is sold by commission men the follow- ing morning, the price ranging from $1.00 to $4.00 per dozen bunches according to supply and demand. We read of wonderful yields so far as bunches are concerned, but 2,000 bunches of 3 pounds each or more is the exception not the rule. The yield is more frequently 1,500 bunches. The season of 1913 was very good, while that of 1914 was very poor, prices were low and the supply was greater than the demand. Thus it changes. While there is no bonanza in asparagus culture yet it pays those who know how to grow it. 1482 The Vegetable Industry in New Yokk State ACKEAGE AND VaLDE OF ASPARAGUS GROWN IN NEW YORK StATB, BY Counties (Taken from U. S. Census, 1910) County Albany . . . . Allegany . . . Bronx Broome . . . . Cattaraugus Cayuga . . . . . Chautauqua Chemung . . Chenango . . Clinton .... Columbia . . Cortland . . . Delaware . . Dutchess . . . Erie Essex Franklin . . . Fulton .... Genesee .... Greene .... Hamilton . . . Herkimer . . Jefferson . . Kings Lewis Livingston . Madison . . . Monroe .... Montgomery Nassau .... New York . . Niagara . . . Icres 147 3 Value $18,114 175 2,032 1,300 570 1,396 12 1 1,390 98 20 30 2,858 5,928 175 100 40 515 505 13 38 47 2 47 2 3 1,312 3,335 8,468 240 6,358 40 1,050 County Oneida Onondaga . . . Ontario Orange Orleans Oswego Otsego Putnam .... Queens Rensselaer . . Richmond . . . Rockland . . . St. Lawrence Saratoga . . . Schenectady . Schoharie . . . Schuyler Seneca Steuben Suffolk Sullivan Tioga Tompliins . . . Ulster Warren Washington . Wayne Westchester . Wyoming ... Yates Acres 11 58 26 21 2 5 3 1 5 14 21 24 5 14 1 10 8 1 4 Value $2, 823 8,357 4,561 4,155 166 100 1,250 590 125 210 1,400 2,736 1,080 3,709 358 33,784 1,420 1,622 56 1,397 1,220 90 520 The State .... 1, 003 $127, 370 MELONS Chas. D. Baeton, Maelton, Buelington County, N. J. XOCATION In the production of melons we are dealing with a group of plants that are almost semi-tropical in their natural habits, and in our temperate climates they thrive best in warmest weather. They will flourish in moderate droughts, but an excess of mois- ture retards growth, and cool nights are frequently a caiase of failure. A full appreciation of these facts is the foundation on which a successful melon grower must depend for the solution of the problems that may confront him. Earliness is an important factor, both from the standpoint of the financial return and the greater ease with which the fungous diseases can be controlled. Advantage should be taken of any aid which tends to advance the time of ripening. The selection of the ground is of prime importance to this end. It must have good drainage, so that the excess moisture of a heavy rain can run off quickly. For the canteloupe a sandy loam gives best results, while the watermelon does best in the very sandy soils. A location sloping slightly to the south, or protected from cold north winds, has an additional value. VAEIETIES The selection of varieties must be determined by the demands of the market to be supplied. In a general way markets are now demanding a medium-sized canteloupe, and the elongated shape, or Eockv Ford type, is the most popular. Some trade demands the pink, while others still prefer the green-fleshed vari- eties. The Sugar Sweet has with us proved a profltable green- fleshed variety, combining quality and earliness with good crop- ping; and in our experience is more blight-resistant than any pink-fleshed variety. The Tom Watson watermelon has become very popular m the [1483] 1484 The \"i;GETAULE Ikdustey in Kew York State last few years. The quality is very good and it stands shipping well, but the vines seem rather weak and sometimes fail to mature the later settings of fruit. This fact may force us to return to the Dixie, although a little coarser in flesh and less regular in shape. Care in the selection of seed is of more importance than variety. Seed selected from the best specimens of the home patch is superior to that secured by cutting the entire crop as the com- mercial seedsman must do. PEErAEATION OF SOIL , The preparation of the soil should be thorough, and an abund- ance of humus and plant food are essentials. Stable manure, broadcasted and plowed in, is valuable when available, but in our own practice we depend upon green manure for the humus, and chemicals for the additional plant food. The ground should be plowed early so that the vegetable matter is somewhat decom- posed and thoroughly mixed with the soil. If sod land, fall plow- ing and early working in the spring will give a looser soil for planting. The better the preparation, the better and more easily will the cultivation of the small plants be accomplished. Before the expected time of planting, 150 pounds of muriate of potash and 450 pounds of acid phosphate per acre are broad- casted and harrowed in. Two hundred and fifty pounds of tank- age or other fertilizer containing 20 pounds of organic nitrogen in good form, is placed in drills running east and west across the field. Good ridges are thrown up and cross marked — four feet for canteloupes and ten feet for watermelons. When the first runners are about twelve inches long, 100 pounds of nitrate of soda and 100 pounds of tankage are ap- plied and worked in. The material must not be allowed to come in contact with the vines. This application furnishes an abund- ance of plant food at the time the fruit is making its most rapid growth, and adds to the quality of the product. PLANTING Melons may be started in plant boxes in cold frames and trans- planted to the open ground when four or five rough leaves have been made. The plants, however, are difficult to manage under glass and, for commercial purposes, the time gained in ripening does not warrant the expense of the operation. By the following method of plant- ing we have succeeded in picking ripe fruit from seed planted in the open field almost as soon as from the transplanted plants, and at so much less expense that we have entirely abandoned the use of the cold frames. Upon the approach of the first spell of warm weather after the tenth of April, we place half of the seed in a pan and cover it with water for twelve hours at a temperature of 90 degrees. The water is then drained off, the pan covered with a cloth and kept at the same temperature for another twelve hours. During this twenty-four hours we have furnished ideal conditions for the germination of the melon seed, and germination has advanced more than it would in a week in the ground at that time of year. We next mix the dry half of the seed with the soaked seed, and are ready to plant. With a cup of the mixed seed in one hand, and facing the south side of the row, we make a level opening with the toe of the shoe as far into the side of the row as we can without breaking the crest of the ridge ; with the other hand, we drop from eight to twelve seeds in a line at right angles to the ridge. We then elevate the toe and cover, leaving the soil over the seed in about the same position as we found it. The follow- ing advantages have been gained by this method of planting, namely : 1. By sprouting the seed we secure an earlier stand than could be done by planting seed direct from the bag. 2. By mixing sprouted and dry seed we make two plantings at one operation. We have plants coming through at different times in case a late frost should injure the first ones, and the work of replanting is saved. 3. By covering with the elevated toe we produce a sloping sur- face over the seed which will not hold water. In case of heavy rains this protects against an excess of water over the seed, and prevents the formation of a hard crust for the delicate plants to break through. 4. By making the opening with the toe held level, and covering with the sloping surface, we have the seed at different depths. If 1486 The Vegetable Industry in New Yoek Statj; dry weather follows planting, the seed nearest the top will prob- ably dry out and fail to come up. If heavy rains follow planting, the deep ones, near the center of the ridge, will probably never be able to push through the amount of soil over them. Between these extremes, there must be some seeds which are suited to the conditions of moisture which they encounter. 5. The sloping surface is in the position to absorb the greatest amount of heat possible from the slanting rays of the sun. 6. By planting on the south side of the ridge, the young plants are protected from cold winds by the crest of the ridge above them. CULTIVATION Cultivation is a great aid in maintaining the loose, porous soil conditions in which the melons thrives, and should be com- menced as soon as the plants are well established. If there is no inter-crop, the horse cultivator may be used in both directions, but hand hoeing must be depended upon near the small plants, and loose soil thoroughly worked up to them. The sooner the plants are thinned down to one in a hill, the easier the hoeing will be and the more evenly balanced plant we will have. Experience has taught us that we get more and better fruit from one plant in a hill than from any other number. Cultivation should be continued frequently until the vines reach across the rows, being careful to select times when the soil is not very wet. Care is necessary in handling the vines in the later cultivations. Twisting them is liable to break off the small roots, and it is difficult to return them to their original position. The vine that is turned squarely over falls back in position naturally and will seldom break if the dew is off before commencing work. Vines should be returned to natural positions as quickly as pos- sible, and should never be left wrong side up over noontime or at night. INSECTS Cut worms, striped squash bugs and melon aphis are serious enemies. The regular cut worm mixture of paris green and bran, distributed over the ground before the plants appear, will pre- vent loss from cut worms. Offensive odors disturb the squash Melons 1487 bug and any ill-smelling substance will rout him. Land plaster scented with kerosene is frequently used. Fish scrap or tankage, if prepared without the use of acid, are effective. Frequent hoeing and early thinning rob him of protection during the cool night. The melon aphis is only an occasional pest. When once established, its position on the under side of the vine and the consequent downward folding of the leaf, make it very difficult to fight. When the infestation becomes general throughout the field the task is hopeless. If, however, a few affected leaves show- ing in June can be washed with a contact insecticide, such as whale-oil soap, the infestation may be held in check until the multiplication of the lady bugs comes to our assistance. Can- taloupes are more frequently injured than watermelons. FUNGOUS TROUBLES The most serious problems of the melon grower in cool climates, particularly in the cantaloupe patch, are the leaf blight and anthacnose. Spots appear on the top of the leaves causing them to curl upward and die very quickly. Greatest damage is caused during cool nights followed by heavy fogs and sunny days. The very early plantings mature most of the crop before injury oc- curs. Many growers depend on early planting with good fer- tilization and cultivation to produce a good crop before the in- jury becomes severe. Others have found that a thorough coat- ing of the leaves with bordeaux mixture at frequent intervals from the time of the appearance of the first rough leaves until maturity, has been effective. With the vines over the ground, however, this is a difficult and unsatisfactory operation, and the business of growing late plantings has been entirely destroyed in most sections on account of these diseases. MARKETING The cantaloupe is at its highest state of perfection when al- lowed to remain on the vine until the fruit freely parts from the stem and is then eaten within a few hours. Herein lies the problem of successful marketing. With a nearby market, the operation is simple. Careful picking every morning and prompt delivery gives the consumer the fruit in best condition. When, 1488 The Vegetable Industry in New York State Melons 1489 however, forty-eight hours or more must elapse before the fruit reaches the consumer, it takes careful picking and a trained eye to anticipate the ripening of the fruit, so as to get it to the con- sumer before deterioration has commenced on account of over ripeness, unless refrigeration is available. In picking for any market the cantaloupe which is overlooked and allowed to re- main in the field one day too long is lost, or worse than lost if then put in the package. Disappointment in prices of sales is more often caused by including too ripe fruit than from any other one cause. One the other hand, the watermelon can be kept from a week to ten days after picking without undergoing deteri- oration, and so can be shipped long distances without refrigeration. PKOFITS The melons are crops that are best suited to farms where ex- tensive gardening operations are desired, rather than to those of small acreage where very intensive methods are practiced and large money returns are expected from each acre. One thousand watermelons from an acre is a very good crop, and ten to twenty dollars per hundred is a good range of prices. Cantaloupes seldom give more than five hundred five-eights- bushel baskets to the acre, and prices are liable to vary from thirty cents to one dollar per basket. These returns per acre would not be attractive to some market gardeners, but when we con- sider that fifty to seventy-five dollars per acre will cover the cost of producing and marketing these crops, the margin of profit is fair. Besides, other crops may be produced from the same ground at very little expense. Market peas planted early between the rows, grow well on the fertilizer applied for the melons, furnish a windbreak for the small melon plants, and the vines add humus and nitrogen to the soil at the time the melons most need it. A tomato plant placed between each hill ten days before the last cultivation has often materially increased the money return for us. One strong point is the fact that crimson clover and hairy vetch sowed at the last cultivation always makes a good growth, and a melon crop in the rotation improves the fertility and humus content of the soil. 1490 The Vegetable Industey in New Yobk State AfKEAGE AND VALUE OF MELONS IN NeW YORK StaTE, BT COUNTIEB (Taken from U. S. Census 1910) 9 2 14 2 1 County Acres Albany 179 Allegany Bronx Broome Cattaraugus .... Cayuga Cattaraugus .... Chemung Chenango Clinton Columbia Cortland Delaware Dutchess Erie Essex Franklin Fulton Genesee Greene Hamilton Herkimer Jefferson Kings Lewis Livingston Madison Monroe Montgomery . . . Nassau New York Niagara 239 1 4 28 1 37 12 196 3 Value $27, 610 400 250 1,769 350 300 150 25 340 3,1S5 150 300 148 850 5,05u 1,557 24,890 700 County Oneida Onondaga . . . Ontario Orange Orleans Oswego Otsego Putnam Queens Rensselaer . . Eichmond . . . Rockland . . . St. Lawrence Saratoga . . . . Schenectady . Schoharie . . . Schuyler . . . . Seneca Steuben . . . . Suffolk SulHvan . . . . Tioga Tompkins . . . Ulster Warren Washington . . Wayne Westchester . Wyoming . . . Yates Acres Value 2 $800 76 9,078 8 950 10 1,60S 13 1,967 5 82.5 13 27 21 31 1,363 40 1,888 2,890 1,000 3,299 100 425 100 150 100 300 24,638 The State 978 $119,650 SQUASHES AND PUMPKINS* SQUASHES Types. There are two distinct types of squashes, summer and winter. The summer squashes are used in an immature stage, before the shell or seeds harden. In some varieties the flesh becomes coarse and bitter at maturity. The winter squashes are allowed to reach full maturity unless overtaken by frost, and under proper storage conditions may be kept until late in the winter. The summer varieties commonly grown are of bush form, while the winter varieties make long trailing vines. The summer varieties are less exacting as to soil and climate than the winter sorts and are the more reliable crop producers under unfavorable conditions. They will make a crop in the shade of a corn field and will also endure the intense heat of southern summers. Winter varieties, on the other hand, do not thrive in competition against corn, and suffer severely from extreme heat or drought. The summer varieties have hard, dense stems and vines, while those of the typical winter varieties are more fleshy and succulent. The summer varieties are small fruited and the winter varieties large fruited. In addition to the two common types already mentioned, there are also two others that are grown to some extent. One is a small- fruited type resembling the summer varieties in size of fruit, texture of stem, and ability to withstand heat and drought. They are, for the most part, running rather than bush varieties. The fruit may be used at an immature stage, like summer squash, and they are also of good quality when mature. They may be kept for winter use the same as the large winter varieties. A typical representative of this class of squash is the Perfect Gem. An- other type of squash grown to a limited extent in this country is the winter Crookneck or Cushaw. It forms long, often curved, fruits of large size, in which the seed cavity is confined to one end. *From J. W. Lloyd's Productive VegetabU Growing; J. B. Lippincott Co., Phila. Pa., publishers. [1491] 1492 The Vegetable Industet in New Yobk State while the rest of the squash is a neck, three to five inches in di- ameter, which consists of solid flesh. In England the vegetable marrow is- used the same as summer squash is in America. It forms a running vine, and is handled the same as other squashes. It is grown to a very limited extent in this country. Squashes in general are grown much less in America than their importance as a food would seem to warrant. Markets that handle hundreds of carloads of watermelons during a season are easily overstocked with a few carloads of winter squashes. Culture. Squashes thrive best in soil containing considerable humus. Manure applied broadcast and also in the hill con- tributes greatly to the production of a good crop. The method of preparing a field for planting is much the same as for other vine crops. The entire area should be plowed and pulverized before the hills are made. For bush varieties the hills may be four by four feet ; for running sorts they should be from eight by eight to ten by twelve, depending upon the vigor of the particular variety and the type of soil. Usually the seed is planted in the open ground, but occasionally the summer varieties are started in hot- beds and transplanted to secure an early crop. The same pre- cautions must be taken as in transplanting muskmelons and cu- cumbers. Two or three plants should be allowed in each hill. The tillage and general care of the crop are the same as for the other vine crops. The running varieties make a rampant growth and no amount of training will keep thein within prescribed limits. For this reason they should never be planted close to small vegetables that occupy the land late in the season. PUMPKIN'S Pumpkins are of three principal types : " mammoth," grown mainly for exhibition purposes; "field," grown especially for stock feeding; and " pie," produced principally for the making of pumpkin pies. Almost any variety of pumpkin may be used for making pies, but some sorts are especially adapted to this pur- pose. They are finer grained and sweeter than the other sorts. They may be stored for the winter supply of pies or the flesh may be canned for the making of pies at any time of the year. Squashes and Pumpkins M9o Field pumpkins are often grown as an incidental crop in corn fields. They are like the summer squash in heing able to endure the shade and also the competition against the corn. However, pumpkins are mtich more likely to produce large crops if they are relieved of such competition and given a piece of land to them- selves. In this case they are planted and cared for much the same as winter squashes. However, on rich land it is not neces- sary to apply manure in the hills unless extra large specimens are desired. 10 PEAS A. E. Wilkinson Extension Instructor, Department of Vegetable Gardening, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Peas have been known for centuries, being common among the early Greeks and Romans. At the present time they are widely distributed, being found as a native in Europe and prob- ably in all parts of the United States. The crop is particularly popular in the northern sections of the United States, where it Fig. 457. — The Gradus oe Pkospeeity Pea. One of the Eaeliest Labge- Gbowing Wrinkled Varieties. Pods Are Very Abundant and Well- Filled grows at its best. The requirements of this crop are, a cool tem- perature and abundant moisture. This undoubtedly accounts for its fine growth in the northern sections of the United States. SOILS Regarding the difFerent soils for this crop, a non-acid clay soil or a silty loam seems to be best for the late varieties, whereas a sandy loam is seemingly best for all early varieties. On muck [1494] Peas .1495 soils the pea crop may not be desirable, owing to the fact that it produces a rank vine growth and a limited pod formation. Con- trasted with this are the light sandy soils which do not produce enough vine but do produce small pods in large quantities. A good example of adaptability of varieties may be shown by citing an instance. In southwestern Xew York State the cannery de- mands a late type of peas. Men growing peas on the hillsides on slit and clay loams were making from twenty to forty dollars per acre, whereas men growing the same variety of peas on river- washed gravel were actually losing ten dollars per acre. The latter soil was unfit for late pea production but would produce good crops of extra early peas. EOTATIOW As a rule, peas should be rotated each year. Where they are raised for canning, the peas should follow sweet corn or potatoes, or some other cultivated crop, because there will be a tendency toward a smaller production of weeds. It has always been no- ticed where wheat follows peas that the wheat crop is increased. In the garden, peas could be rotated with root crops or with other crops of a different nature. Combinations for rotation will easily suggest themselves to any thinking person. FEETILIZEES With peas, nitrogen and humus may be oversupplied, and it is necessary to be careful not to use large' quantities of stable man- ure with this crop. Potash and phosphoric acid are never over- supplied. It has been found that wood ashes and well composted hen manure will give very good results. It is advisable not to mix these substances any length of time before applying. Better apply each separately. A good fertilizer for this crop is 350 to 500 pounds per acre of a fertilizer containing one per cent, nitro- gen, six to eight per cent, phosphoric acid, and five to seven per cent, of potash. In some cases, 400 to 500 pounds of a mixture of potash and phosphoric acid, of which the percentages of the potash and phosphoric acid are equal, has given good results. 1496 The Vegetable Industry in New Yosk State inoculation Some attention is being given at present to the inoculation of peas. With intensive vegetable culture, inoculation may be of value. In certain locations where peas are not doing well it would be advisable to try inoculation on a limited area. It has been determined that inoculated seed is better than inoculated soil. The method of inoculating is the same as for clover, alfalfa and other legTinies. PLOWING AND FITTING Where heavy lands are concerned, plowing in the fall seems to give the best results. With lighter soils, such as sandy and grav- elly loam, spring plowing is undoubtedly preferable. In the spring of the year thorough harrowing, discing, and smoothing should be given. The preparation of the seed bed is very impor- tant and should receive the closest attention. SEED It is important that good seed should be obtained. Good seed can be produced in New York State. A person starting with cer- tain varieties and practicing the method of selection could soon obtain a seed which is far superior to any that he could purchase. A test carried on by one experiment station is of interest. Where large seed was selected and planted, a yield of thirty bushels of grain and a ton and a half of straw was obtained. Small seed gave a yield of twenty-four bushels of grain and a ton and a tenth of straw. Split peas and others as they came from the thresher gave a yield of ten bushels to the acre. Weevil infested peas gave only thirty per cent, germination. In other words, of the three bushels of peas planted to the acre, practically only one bushel germinated, greatly reducing the yield. As a rule, seed pro- duced in the northern sections of the United States and Canada is to be preferred to seed produced in the southern part of the country. Seed from certain reliable seed houses, where these firms have made a specialty of certain varieties, is to be preferred to the ordinary run. PLANTING The time to plant will vary somewhat according to the locality. One of the best rules to follow is, plant when the land is ready in &' Peas 1497 the spring, which means generally April 20 to May 16, In the home garden and with many market gardeners, the planting should be arranged so there would he a succession. AMOUNT OF SEED The amount of seed to use varies with the soil, the variety, and the purpose in growing, the amount being from two to six bush- els. For peas grown for the cannery, three bushels per acre seems to be a good average. In the home garden, where the rows are planted very close together, as high as six bushels would be used at certain times. The same may be true in the market gardens. DEPTH OF PLANTING Peas should be planted from one and a half to two inches deep. If planted three, four, or more inches in depth, is it rea- sonable to expect the small seed to thrust the stalk and the leaves through this soil and make the proper growth? Sometimes na- ture will overcome such seeming carelessness in this regard, but if we wish to have the peas three or four inches deep in the home or market garden, why not cover them with an inch of soil, and after the seedlings have come above the ground, gradually draw the soil towards the plant. MANNBE OF PLANTING Peas planted for canning are generally sown with the grain drill. The older practice seems to be to sow them but one way, across the field, using from two to three bushels to the acre. Mod- ern practice is seemingly better, consisting of planting half the peas in one direction and the other half in the other direction, using at least four bushels to the acre. A larger yield of peas is obtained this way, as well as a more uniform stand. Sometimes canning peas are sown by hand and harrowed in. In some cases they have been plowed down. The harrowing and the plowing have decidedly objectionable features over the grain drilled peas, the peas not being covered evenly, an uneven stand, waste of seed, etc., but where a man does not own a grain drill, this method may be followed. In the market garden, and in the home garden, the one-row seeder, such as the Planet, Jr., Iron Age, Columbia, and 1498 The Vegetable Ixdustey in New York State Genung may be used, the peas being planted at certain depths and certain distances being utilized between rows. Sometimes the gardener will plant the seed by hand, first opening the furrow with a hoe and dropping the seed in this furrow, covering and pressing the soil over the seed. This is a good method where the garden is small. BEOADCASTING The principal objection to broadcasting is the fact that poor soil preparation and insufficient covering is generally given, re- sulting in smaller yields. CULTIVATION Where the pea crop is grown for canning, no cultivation is given. Therefore, the preparation of the land should be most thorough. In the market garden, cultivation should begin early and should be frequent ; in fact, some men think it advisable to pass through the crop at least every five days. This would be a good practice for the home gardener. The pea crop requires about four hundred and seventy-seven pounds of water to produce one pound of dry matter. It is, therefore, very evident that cul- tivation is necessary to conserve moisture in the soil. Shallow culture is always advisable. The roots of the plant come so near the surface of the soil and spread so far that deep cultivation will be the cause of great injury. Where tall sorts of peas are to be grown, some support is nec- essary. Such support may be given by the use of brush or chicken wire, or a trellis made with strings. For practical purposes, the chicken wire seems to be the best. Canning peas are not given support. The home or market garden may include tall sorts. HARVESTING As soon as the pods are ready and the inspector has given the word, the vines should be harvested. They may be cut with a scythe or a mowing machine. Where the latter is used, an ordi- nary hand rake may be used to collect these, and men with forks may follow and place them in a windrow. From this windrow they are placed in the wagon. The peas may be harvested, with a swather, a tool particularly adapted for work on large areas. Peas 1499 This is a special machine having long-fingered guards to lift the vines. These guards are placed on the cutter bar of a specially constructed mowing machine. The knives of the machine cut the vines, which are rolled by specially constructed arms so that the pea vines will be left in a swath. Ten acres per day under favorable conditions can be harvested with machines of this type. \Yhere an ordinary mowing machine is used, a side delivery rake is often employed, leaving the vines in a windrow. Immediately following this side delivery rake, hay loaders are used which place the vines upon wagons. Where a hay loader is not used, the pea vines are thrown in the wagon by hand, similarly to loading hay. The vines are then carried to the cannery or viner. MARKET GARDEN The peas are separated from the vine by hand and the pods collected in hampers or baskets. Some gardeners make but one picking, tearing up vines and all and separating the pods from the vines. The vines are dried and used for hay. Other men make two or three pickings, at each time removing only the largest pods. The average price for picking a bushel of peas varies, ac- cording to the labor supply and the heaviness of the yield, from fifteen to twenty-five cents per bushel. It would be a good prac- tice for the harvesters to grade the peas as they are picked at least into two grades, the first being the highest quality and others culls. The baskets containing the peas should be sealed at once and shipped immediately. Pre-cooling is desirable, because the crop heats easily. If this crop is slightly moist when har- vested, cars will heat and often arrive at their destination in poor condition. HOME GARDENING The peas are harvested in the home garden by hand, the peas being carefully separated from the vine. Only peas of plump- ness should be taken, thus assuring those fit to eat and of the high- est yielding. Several pickings can be made from each variety, and, if a succession is planned, pods will be available over a long period. 1500 The Vegetable Industry in New Yokk State yields and peices From 1,500 to 2,500 pounds of shelled peas per acre are often obtained from canning peas. As much as two tons have been ob- tained under very favorable conditions. The market garden aver- ages about Y5 to 150 bushels per acre of unshelled peas according to the method of planting and the variety. In the home garden a row about 100 feet long would give three to five bushels of pods. Of course, this will vary with the variety and other conditions. Canneries pay from two to two and one-half cents a pound for shelled peas. Lately there has been a system of paying intro- duced into some canneries where peas containing no hard or ex- tremely large sorts bring as high as three cents a pound. The peas grade from this down to as low as one and one-half cents a pound, this price being paid for peas containing hard seeds and varying sizes. In the market garden three dollars or a little more per bushel is sometimes received, and the price soon drops to as low as fifty cents a bushel or less. The earlier and larger the pods, the higher the price. COST OF PKODUCTION As a general rule, the cost of producing an acre of canning peas varies from thirty to forty-'five dollars. That includes all the work connected with the crop. In the market garden, the cost of this crop ^-aries from forty to seventy-five dollars, accord- ing to the methods of planting and the yield. The profits from a canning crop are generally very limited. In many localities in Kew York State there is a dead loss instead of profit. If a man is able to obtain a profit of fifteen to twenty-five dollars per acre, he should be satisfied. In the market garden, from seventy-five to one hundred dollars profit is received at times. A man re- ceiving fifty to seventy-five dollars for the crop and following on the same land with another vegetable in the same season should be satisfied. INSECTS Pea weevil.- — The pea weevil is one of the most common in- sects. This is a beetle of brownish gray color having two black dots near the anal part of the body. Its head is bent under the Peas 1501 body and ends in a sharp snout. The insect is quite common when the peas are in bloom. It deposits an egg on the young pod. The grub enters and eats its way into the interior of the pod, en- tering the pea. The insect remains within the seed throughout this larval stage and also through the pupal stage or rest stage, coming out in the early spring after the seed has been planted, as a beetle, to lay more eggs. The remedy in controlling this insect is to use bisulphide of carbon to fumigate the seeds. The way to do this is to place 100 pounds of seeds in a tight barrel or bin. Use one ounce of bisulphide of carbon, pouring the same over the seeds, and close the receptacle tightly. Allow this to remain for some time. The beetle will then be destroyed. Pea Louse. — The annual loss from this insect runs into many millions of dollars. It is a small greenish-brown insect with long legs, found on the underside of the leaves. It is very tender and, therefore, should easily be controlled. On a small scale nicotine solution such as Black Leaf 40 should be sprayed on the plants, or a solution of kerosene, soap and water. Twenty-five per cent, kerosene should be used, ilany birds and insects are its natural enemies. Another method is to cultivate the peas, sending a boy ahead to knock the pest from the vines, then bury these insects with the cultivator. Blight or Leaf Spot. — This is a discolored area generally found upon the stem near the ground. It is somewhat similar to anthracnose on the bean. The disease works through the pod and to the seed, infecting it. The remedy is self-evident ; select seed that is not infected. The vines may be sprayed with bordeaux, beginning when four to six inches in height and continuing about every four to six days. After the crop has been harvested, the vines should he burned, in order to check the spread of the disease. Mildew. — Mildew is a whitish or grayish coating generally found on the pea leaves late in the season and after the weather has become somewhat warm. The remedy for this particular disease is dusting the affected plants with sulphur. Peas grown on cool sites are less likely to be troubled. VABIETIBS For canning the Alaska is one of the common varieties. This may be a good source for the canner, but is a very poor eating 1502 The Vegetable Industey in New York State i"- »-• o " ^o|?v'.j*/^ A 'ded in the row. The rows are usually 28 inches apart. In my own opinion sixteen or eighteen quarts of pea beans and thirty-two to thirty-four quarts of the large beans, according to variety, are sufficient where conditions are right. We have noticed that when a bean plant grows alone, the pods are more numerous and the individual beans are of larger size. FEKTILIZING There can be no general rule as to the make-up of a fertilizer for beans. All soils differ in their requirements. Even differ- Beans 1509 1510 The Vegetable Industry ix Xew York State ent fields on the same farm need different fertilizers. The first essential is to have a good sod as a foundation; then vary the analysis according to how the land has been treated previous to the sod condition, and, if a fertilizer is deemed necessary, let the percentage of phosphoric acid predominate. Still, many advocate high-grade goods and use them, such as 4-8-10 and 4-10-4. The- oretically, this formula should give results; practically, the ex- pected results do not always materialize. I recall two fields of white marrow beans growing on opposite sides of a highway this past season. They were both given about the same start as to soil and preparation. On one field a 10-8 fertilizer was used and on the other barnyard manure was spread during the fall and winter and no fertilizer iised. The first field ripened early and yielded about ten bushels to the acre. The second field was about a week later in ripening and yielded twenty-three bushels to the acre. This field was planted the twelfth of June. I have talked with a great many bean growers and have asked them this question : " When you left strips across your fields where the fertilizer was not used, did you notice any difference in appearance or yield between these rows and those where you used the fertilizer ? " The answer has invariably been, " iSTo, but I have seen the crop injured in dry seasons by fertilizers." Then I ask : " Have you been using it in this way on wheat ? " The answer is, " Oh, yes, and could see good results even on the grass that follows the wheat." This confirms my own experience, and right there is the place to use the fertilizer; we always get re- sults from its use. But for beans, the place to use it is on the sod previously, not directly on the bean crop. Let the nitrogen or ammonia get toned down by the grass crop. Then the three ingredients of a complete fertilizer will be present — nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. Enough of the latter will be ren- dered available for the requirements of the growing crop. If a fertilizer is used let it be drilled over the whole surface of the field previous to planting the crop. It is the general experi- ence with us, in this section of the bean belt, that land that has always been wet and unproductive will, after drainage, produce heavy yields of beans. Usually a crop of corn is raised the first year on such lands, for this has always been the great pioneer crop. It seems to whip the soil into its normal condition. I have one Beans 1511 field in mind where conditions had long been considered hope- less. The first year after drainage, the crop planted was very poor. It was then given an application of barnyard manure. This treatment acted as a tonic on the soil, and good beans as well as other crops have been the record on that field ever since. PLANTING AND CULTIVATION Wlien soil and season conditions are normal, from the tenth to the twenty-fifth of June is the usual time for planting. If, for any cause, the crop is planted unusually late, either the pea Fig. 462.— Beans on the Farm of M. C. Buekitt, Hilton, Monroe County, N". Y. or yellow eye varieties should be used, as these varieties require a shorter season for growth and ripening. When conditions are right the rows of beans usually show up in four or five days, if not planted too deep — not over one and one-half to two inches. I have cultivated field beans six days after planting, but this was a little out of the ordinary. ISTq crop that we grow responds more readily to cultivation than does the bean crop. If other work presses, it will pay to hire extra help to keep the cultivators moving from the time the rows can 1512 The Vegetable Industry in Xew Yokk State be nicely seen until they are well in blossom, and sometimes when the pods are forming. Why ? First, because by the use of shields, the first time over one can run quite close to the row and not in- jure the roots of the plants, and, for the same reason, he can go deeper. Again, it stirs up and covers up the little weeds which at that stage in their growth are easily destroyed. Cultivation prevents a crust forming, lets the air into the soil, and at- tracts and conserves moisture. At the second cultivation, the teeth or steels next to the row should be set more shallow, and after that the cultivation should all be shallow. Often a crop of beans is badly injured by deep cultivation thoughtlessly done, for the fine feeding roots extend across the whole intervening strip, occupying the entire soil. Cultivation should never take place when the vines are wet, because in that condition the dis- ease spores are scattered if they are present, causing great damage. HARVESTING It is a good plan to let the crop get quite well and evenly ripened before cutting. Ordinarily there is not much danger by shelling. The cutter turns two rows together. A side deliv- ery rake is often used to roll four of these rows together, two going across the field and two coming back. In this way we have eight single rows in one. After lying in the windrow a few hours they can be cocked up as hay, keeping the bottoms of the cocks well tucked under so as not to have so much base. Thus they will be safer from weather damage, will cure faster and better, and can be pitched on the wagon and hauled out of the field in half the time. The bunches are usually turned over a few hours before hauling to give the bottoms a sunbath. In any event the crop must be dry and hard before being put into the barn or stack, or damp beans will result, and it is a very difficult task to dry them after threshing. There should be one ironclad rule in harvesting — never leave a load of beans in the field one minute after they are ready for housing, for no crop is more dam- aged by bad weather than is the bean crop, and with no other product is greater loss entailed. It is a discouraging job to turn and re-turn beans in the field, being all the time conscious that this loss and worry could have been avoided by a little care in man- agement. Beans 1513 151-1: The Vegetable Industry ix New York State TIIEESHIXG AXD ^SIARKETIXG On large farms, where there is plenty of help of both men and teams, threshing from the field is sometimes practiced, but this is not general or to be recommended for we are never sure what kind of weather to- morrow may have in store for us, and beans must be threshed when dry. Very little split- ing of the bean occurs where the modern double cylinder bean thresher is used. In new localities where there are not enough raised to afford such a machine they can be trodden out with horses smooth shod or bare hoofed. I have a&sisted in threshing many hun- dreds of bushels in this way during the earlier stages of bean growing in ]\Ionroe county. When we as farmers get a crop of ajiy kind ready for market I be- lieve that, covering a term of years, we are money ahead by selling just as soon as the market is right. It is much safer to hold on, if we must, when the price is low, but it is not good business, all things considered, to hold because prices are booming. Fig. 464. — Well-Filled Bean Pods Beans 1515 yield of beans The yield of beans varies from five to thirty-five bushels to the acre, according to adaptability of soil, variety of beans and seasonal conditions. In the older bean growing sections both the acreage and yield per acre is much less than formerly. Last year in our best bean section there were more ten-bushel yields than twenty. Here again we " don't know beans," for on' these same fields and farms wheat and other crops yield as good, and in many instances better than formerly. Hundreds of acres of bot- tom land in the Genesee Valley that in former years could be counted on for big yields are now given over to grass and cattle, for beans are not profitable any more on these lands. Kew terri- tory for growing this crop is being tried out with more or less success. This one thing is certain : any farm product that brings in such good money in so short a time will eventually cause the removal or correction, to a great degree, of adverse conditions and influences that now handicap its progress. DISEASES OF BEANS The principal diseases affecting beans in field culture are anthracnose or pod spot, rust and blight, the first being the most destructive. These are fungous diseases and as yet the station experiments have not shown that any treatment of plant or seed will prove of practical usefulness in controlling the trouble. The seed from a pod that is free from disease, planted on ground that is not infected with the spores of disease left over from previous crops, will produce crops free from disease. Blight and rust we have long had to contend with. These are mostly confined to the foliage and are more disastrous to the crop iu hot, moist seasons. No treatment of the seed has yet proved of any value in controll- ing these diseases. Pod selection is the only preventive. AFTEE CKOP CONDITION OF THE SOIL As we have referred to soil preparation and conditions pre- ceding the bean crop, we will now consider the aftermath. If the crop has been properly cultivated, what few weeds escaped destruction have been cut out by the bean harvester, and the land is in the best possible condition for wheat seeding after being gone 1516 The Vegetable Industry in New Yoek State over a few times with a spring-touch harrow. This gives a better preparation all through than was afforded by the summer fallow practice which was the usual method of preparing land for wheat before the advent of beans as a field crop. With a well tended bean crop we are summer fallowing and at the same time growing a cover crop that paj^s all the expense and usually much more. The benefit in either case is from the shade and thorough tillage given the land which brings the humus in the soil to a condition avoilable to plant growth, and beans being of the tri folium order of plants, or a nitrogen gatherer, the soil is left in better con- dition as regards this element. Xow with wheat and seeding, after a bean crop, the sod begins again to furnish new material for humus, and will be ready for the bean crop in rotation. SUMMARY Profitable bean growing depends upon the following: 1. The adaptability of the soil conditions, or the possibility of correcting adverse conditions. 2. The previous management of the field, and a thorough prep- aration of the soil. 3. If a fertilizer is used, let it be after a careful study of con- ditions. Use it on the wheat preceding so as to insure a good sod. In this way thousands of dollars could be saved bean growers. 4. Cultivate thoroughly, but after careful study of the plant's requirements. 5. Plant in rotation on sod, or after corn that was grown on sod. 6. Harvest when fully ripe and house when dry enough to admit of storing. 1. Do not become a speculator unless you can aiford to. There IS a positive loss in shrinkaiic, and often unheralded changes in market conditions. GARDEN BEANS A friend of mine who is at the head of a large seed house tells me that there are about seventy-five varieties of garden beans that are worthy of selecting from, having all combinations of colors from pure white to ebony black, and many of them beautifully spotted. Bej^ A.NS 1517 As with the field sorts, some Ivinds are better adapted to certain soil conditions than others. The yellow pod varieties are popular in the north, while in the south the green pods are more in de- mand. Perhaps they are better adapted to conditions there. The Early Valentine is a green pod sort and a good yielder. The Golden Wax or butter bean is a general favorite for the home garden. The pods are yellow, well filled and are a stringless snap. The dried bean is about the size of a field medium, with a white back, while the eye side of the bean is a speckled purple and white. Fig 465.— a Field of Beaxs Curing in the Cock. The Waste Land Has Since Been Drained and the Water Piped to Farm Buildings. That Part of the Field Now Raises the Heaviest Bean Crop Then there is another bean that was kept in stock at our local stores last season and was quite generally planted. It is called the Hodson Wax Pod, a speckled red and white bean about five-eighths of an inch in length. It is a later bean than the Golden Wax or butter bean and has proved to be a very strong grower and a heavy yielder. I had four varieties in my garden the past season (1914) and this was one of the best of the four. If they would vield in the field as they did in a neighbors gar- 1518 The Vegetable Industry i.\ Xew Yoek State den they ought to reach twenty bushels to the acre. I am told this sort is grown to quite an extent by market gardeners, as the pods, being nearly six inches long, measure up well for the market. Among the other excellent garden beans are Eound Pod Kidney Wax, Davis Wax and Flagalett Wax. The pods of this sort are long and quite large. The dried beans are a dark blue black and longer than the butter bean. These yellow pod beans that I have grown in my garden have given satisfaction, and there is very seldom any sign of disease. The old and well-known Cranberry, a large, round, red and white speckled bean, needs no description here. It is not as popular at present as some of the newer sorts. I have raised the Black Wax, Refugee and Valentine as a field crop, on contract for a seed house, but the yield was too light for a continiiation of this practice. I am told that the yield of field grown garden beans is decreasing and that five or six bushels is about the average. The price has been aroimd $4.00 a bushel, but as the 1914 crop was short it looks as if we would receive $10.00 a bushel for seed garden beans grown on contract. LIMA BEANS Perhaps the best early bush lima is the Pordhook. This variety followed by Wood's New Prolific will give a prolonged season for this delicious garden bean. Bush limas are in every way as good as the pole varieties, and for that reason are rapidly super- seding them. CONCLUSION Where conditions will allow of profitable bean growing, this is a very desirable crop to raise ; first, because of a quick money return, and, second, because the crop, if properly cultivated, will leave the ground in fine condition for wheat and seeding to grow, and the bean haulm makes a valuable addition to the coarse fodder for stock in winter, even for milch cows, if fed once a day. Then, again, a farm without a garden is sadly incomplete; and a garden without a succession of vegetables, especially beans, is surely unbalanced. Always having been used to a good garden, I cannot picture a real country home without this economic and educational department. Beaxs 1519 H O e maintained con- stantly. At the same time both beds and air must be kept moder- ately moist, with ventilation so under control as to avoid stagna- tion of air, which is apt to result in disease and decay. These conditions may be secured in a cellar, cave, shed, barn, or under greenhouse benches. The matter of light and dark- ness must be controlled also, since the best crops are produced in the dark; but this can 1)p secured through the use of screen- ing material. COitPOST The next item is the compost and its preparation for the beds. The requirements are simple, but the process must be carried out with the greatest care or failure is bound to result. Fresh, strawy stable manure musk bo procured. Leave in the straw but throw out any coarse weeds or stems. Sprinkle this until it is well dampened, turning and forking it over while wetting until the entire pile has a uniform degree of moisture. A safe moisture test is that of compression. The mass should have just what water it will hold without squeezing out under moderate pressure. After dampening, pile up, pressing down with a fork while pil- ing. The finished pile should be about three feet thick or high. Within a short time this begins to decompose and in so doing gen- erates heat which hastens the process of decomposition. This should not, however, be allowed to develope too far or the heat will become so great as to burn, and ruin the compost. For this reason, therefore, the pile should be pulled apart at the end of four or five days, moistened slighth' during the operation, forked over and re-piled. In about eight days more repeat the operation and at the end of another eight days the compost should be ready for use. This can be determined on opening the pile by notin.j; the change in the color of the straw from yellow to brown. It should also lie softened enough to break easily, and the odor will have changed, the rank " manure " smell being changed to a sweeter one. PREPAEIXG THE BEDS It is assumed that the mushrooms are to be grown indoors in beds, and for these the compost is now ready. The beds, if ele- 1542 Tin-: ^'J•:oETABLE Industky in Xew York State vated from the floor, should be constructed three feet wide and ten or twelve inches deep, and should be put in place while the process of compost making is going on, so that there will he no dela}^ when the time comes for filling. Rough boards will answer as it is not necessary that the boxes be tight. Spread the compost evenly in the beds, pressing down firmly as each successive layer is added ; continue until the filled bed has a uniform depth of about eight inches. Place a thermometer in the center of each bed, plunging the bulb a couple of inches below the surface. Fig. 472.— Shelf Beds ix Warji Celiak In a short time the second stage of decomposition will set in, causing a rise in temperature. Tn from five to eight days, how- ever, this should be over, and when the heat has fallen to from ^IrsuKooMs 154:5 70 to 75 degrees, the beds are ready for planting with the pre- pared spawn. This process is known as " spawning." The spawn (described later in this article) commonly comes in dried cakes, called bricks. Break these bricks into pieces from one and one-half to two inches square, and place on edge in the com- post, spacing them about twelve inches apart each way, and cover- ing them to a depth of two inches. Give the beds a light sprinkling, sufficient to maintain a proper degree of moisture, which experts set at 40 per cent., but which may for all practical purposes be determined by the "' squeezing " test. CARE WHILE GE0Wi:>;C4 In about ten days the spawn shoiild be running, which will be indicated by fine white threads spreading oiitward from each piece. In case any plantings have failed to start, remove them and insert fresh ones. The beds should then be covered evenly, about one-inch thick, with fine, moist garden loam, pressed down firmly. This should be watered lightly from time to time as needed to maintain a damp surface. Use lukewarm water and apply with a fine spray, preferably from a watering pot. If the beds are conveniently located, moisture may also be con- trolled by spraying the walls and floors. Burlaps hung along the fronts of the beds may likewise be sprayed, and this will assist in keeping both air and beds moist. BEARING SEASON Bearing should begin within from six to eight weeks from the time of spawning and continue for two or three months. Esti- mates of yields vary from one-half pound to two pounds per square foot of area and market values run from twenty to sixty cents a pound wholesale and twice that at retail. The picking should be done as fast as the mushrooms attain the proper size, usually every other day ; although daily gather- ings are sometimes necessary. They are the best size for picking when the " veil " or tissue on the under side of the cap has be- gun to break. The method of picking recommended by experts is to take hold of the cap and remove by twisting, which brings the stem away 1544 The Vegetable Industry ix Xew Yokk State with the cap. If the product is to be sold most of the stem should be cut off and the cap brushed lightly to remove any traces of soil. For marketing, mushrooms are usually packed in baskets, the size holding four pounds being the most popular. These should be lined with paraffined paper, preferably blue in color, which makes an attractive package and one in which the mush- rooms keep well. Fig. 473. — ilrsiir.ooiis Attbactively Packed for JIaekbt When a bed becomes exhausted its use for mushroom growing is over, although it makes an excellent garden fertilizer. It must be cleaned out thoroughly, all woodwork whitewashed, and the building or room fumigated, after which preparation may be made at any time for a new crop, starting with fresh material as in the beginning. INSECTS AXT) niSEASES The mushroom has some insect enemies, chief of which are sow bugs or wood lice. These may be controlled by poisoning. Dip pieces of potato into a strong solution of arsenic or paris green and put them in small yellow boxes or tins with some dry rubbish. These boxes placed on the beds will attract, kill and collect the bugs in one operation. Snails sometimes cause trouble b\it these are easily caught by using lettuce or cabbas;e leaves. ^It> !^irn(M)jrs 1545 A small insect called " sprinnfail " appears at times where mushrooms are grown in caves, but this condition is due mainly to carelessness in cleaning out. The larvae of a species of small fly is also injurious on occasions but both of these latter may easily be destroyed by fumigating with carbon bisulphide. Mushrooms are subject to some diseases, but as these are chiefly the result of improper conditions and lack of care they may be avoided by securing the right conditions and exercising care in handling the growing crop. Fig. 474. — Packaoe Ready for .Siiipmext :\tusiiEoo.'\r.s as catch chop In addition to the bed method, mushrooms are often grown in cool greenhouses such as are used for carnations and vegetables. In such cases the pieces of spawn are buried directly in the rows, between the plants, and are given no special care, being put in simply as a ea^tch crop. The expense of planting is not great and the results are often surprisingly good. They have also been grown in the same way in kitchen gardens among coarse-leaved plants such as beans, which furnish a max- imum amount of shade. A measure of success too has been attained from plantings made in lawns and pastures during the summer time, the crop 154(5 TiiK Vegetable Industry in New Yokk State appearing in the fall. Only well-drained spots should be selected and the spawn inserted just below the turf. These methods are, of course, haphazard, but if the season should be favorable the results are well worth the slight expendi- ture for spawn. ABOUT SPAWN The three leading types of spawn on the market are : French or flake, English and American. The latter two are in brick Fig. 475. — Brick Spawn form. Of the three varieties, the French is probably the least desirable as it dries out more quickly than the others, and fresh spawn is always the most desirable. The American is probably the best and is used more extensively than any other. It is scientifically prepared and moreover the purchaser has the oppor- tunity of selection of type according to style, size, hardiness, yield and color. All of the leading seed houses carry the different kinds in stock, both American and foreign, and can fill orders on short notice. SUMitARY In conclusion it will be well to emphasize the important points in mushroom culture, namely: proper preparation of manure and beds ; careful attention to moisture supply ; fresh spawn, and above all, care — constant watchful care — from start to finish, omitting no details, but giving attention to them at the proper time and not twenty-four hours afterward when the damage may be done and the prospects of a crop ruined. HORSE RADISH Edward vax Alstyxe, Kinmeiiook, N. Y. Director of Farmers' Institutes COXCEEXIXa THE CROP Horse radish is now extensively used as a condiment bv hotels and restaurants during the entire year. The demand is increas- ing and the price is high, for it is not generally grown as a crop. There are several reasons for this, such as lack of the right kind of soil, the difficulty that when once established it is hard to eradicate, and the fact that formerly there was no estabUshed trade for it, it having only been known in a wild state. Were peo- ple to grow it generally, doubtless the supply would soon be greater than the demand. Because it can be grown so inexpensively, with a ready sale and good prices, it is to be recommended as a profitable crop where one has the right kind of land near a good market. For those who like it for home use a couple of dozen plants set in some convenient corner will supply the needs of an or- dinarly family. The only attention needed is to keep out weeds and see that new plants are set to replace those taken out. SOIL In its native state horse radish is found growing in small plots in swampy places or along streams. Where one has such soil it may be utilized for growing these roots with practically no expense for culture, although when grown under these conditions they will not Ije so large or smooth as when grown on good soil with abundant cultivation. Horse radish thrives best on a deep rich soil abundantly sup- plied with humus. There, with good cultivation such as should be given corn or potatoes, the roots will be large and a goodly amount will be obtained from an acre. PLANTING The amount of seed produced is generally small, and much more time and attention is required to start it from seed than from [1547] IMS Tjie \^K(,ETAiij.E LxDr.sTJiY IX Nkw Yokk State cuttings, as is nsualiy done. These are small roots from foni' to six inches long and from one-fourth to a half an inch in di- ameter, discarded when preparing the large roots for market. Such can be purchased from seedsmen for about twenty-five cents a dozen • — ■ in large quantities for much less. The tops may be cut off and reset, but thus set they require a longer time to ma- ture than from the cuttings or side roots, and their use is recom- mended only for the home plat where land is abundant. The cuttings may be bunched in the fall and held in a cellar over winter for spring planting. For a market crop on tillable land the rows should be three feet apart, with the plants from a foot to eighteen inches in the row. These should be set deep in a furrow, or by using a small bar or dibble to make the hole. Such planting is usually — and is better — done in the spring; but it may be done at any con- venient time. If desired, beets, cabbage or some such early vege- table may be gTOwn between the rows the first season. This prac- tice is not to be recommended except where land is scarce or very high in price, as much more hand hoeing is required and the growth of the radish is apt to be checked. When grown by itself a horse cultivator can be used and no other care is needed other than to keep out the weeds. TIAEVESTING The roots should be large enuugh to dig the second season. They may be dug in the fall or left in the ground all winter as are parsnips. It is usually wise to have a portion of the crop dug in the fall to supply the winter trade, and that required in early spring while frost is in the ground or it is too wet and muddy. The roots may be grated, treated with salt and vinegar, and bottled for future use. The price received in the market for horse radish ranges from eight to ten cents per pound. THE IMPORTANCE OF VEGETABLES IN THE DIETARY Ida S. Haki{im(;t()x Bureau of Farmers' Institutes, Department of Agriculture, Albany, K. Y. " Come, ve thankful people, come, Raise the soug of Harvest-Home : All is safely gathered in. Ere the winter storms beain ; God, our Maker, doth provide For our wants to be supplied ; Come to God's own temple, come, liaise the song of Harvest-Home." — IIexky Alfoed. In words like these we give thanks at harvest time for the products of the good brown earth, of summer sun and raiu. Too often we fail in the thanks that consist in " safely gathering in" and using the bounty of orchard, garden and field. We are told that over one-half of this is wasted by us every year, while over one-half of the world goes hungry. Our canning club specialist at Washington, ilr. O. H. Benson, is right in saying that the diet of American people consists too largely of meat, coffee, bread, butter, eggs, and patent medicines. Improper feeding is responsible for over 80 per cent, of hiunan ailments. This is not so much a question of over-or imder-feeding as of wrong feeding. Good feeding consists of two things : the right food, and the ability of the body to tise it. We may starve in the midst of plenty if our digestion is poor. Inefficient powers of digestion may be due to a poor inheritance, to laclj of fresh air, or to a lack of gaifficient water ; but the chief cause is found in a poorly balanced dietary. Poor feeding in childhood is sure to result in poor advilt health. The body's needs have not been met when we have supplied protein foods for the building and repairing of tissue, and starches, sugars, and fats to furnish energy. Such foods as meats, cereals, [1549] 15."i0 Tjie N'egetajile Ijs'dustky j.\ jShw York State legumes and eggs, all tend to form acids, and imist of necessity be neutralized by a free use of fruits, milk and vegetables. Unless a balance is maintained by these means, and by a liberal allow- ance of water, there cannot be good digestion. Poor digestion is wasteful of food, of money, and of strength. We further need to use vegetables freely in order to furnish mineral matter to the body. Wh)' buy iron in a bottle when it is to be had in spinach and beans ? Or lime, when cabbage and celery furnish it ? ^^'hy purchase digestive tablets when succulent vegetables stimulate digestion ? In her "Eules for Planning the Family Dietary" Professor Flora Kose tells us that : "A liberal use of vegetables in the diet is necessary because they cleanse and regulate the body, stimulate the intestines, neutralize acids, and purify the blood, correct anaemia and improve the general health by increasing the amount of iron furnished to the blood." She suggests that vegetables, to- gether with fruits, cereals, bread, potatoes and milk, should form the bulk of our food; and that we should largely decrease the amount of meat, cand}', preserves, rich sauces, desserts, cakes, etc., to which we have been in the habit of giving so prominent a place. SOUPS Vegetables ma}' figure in every course of the meal, from soup to dessert. Cream of vegetable soups are relished by many who have no liking whatever for milk by itself, and such a soup com- bined with bread and butter, and fruit, furnishes a " balanced meal," simple as it is. Cream soups are made by combining equal parts of vegetable pulp (obtained by draining and forcing through a colander any well-cooked, well-seasoned vegetable) and cream gravy made as follows: Melt one level tablespoon of butter or fat in a saucepan; add one level tablespoon flour and stir till smooth. Kemove from the fire. Add gradually one cup of cold milk. Keturn to the fire and stir constantly for five minutes. After combining the vegetable pulp and cream gravy, thin with hot milk to suit individual taste, and add more seasoning if neces- sary. Careful seasoning, and variety in seasoning, are essential if we would keep a dish popular with our families. Such season- ImPOKTAXCE of VegETALLES l.N- DiETAKY 1551 ings as celery salt, onion salt, paprika, etc., save cream soup from tasting " flat." ^ A little left-over bacon, chopped fine, is especially nice for seasoning cream-of-corn soup. Bice and Celery Soup (From "The Housewife" for March, 1915) Boil 1 cup rice and 2 heads celery in 2 quarts of water till soft. Eub through a strainer, add 1 cup of milk and 1 cup of cream and seasoning. Carrot Soup (From "The Housewife " for March, 1915) Put through a meat-chopper 1 pint of carrots and a green sweet pepper, simmer in 3 pints of water till soft. Rub through a sieve, and add a pint of milk (combined with 1 tablespoon butter and 1 tablespoon flour) and season with salt, pepper and a little nutmeg or powdered mace. COOKING WINTER VEGETABLES In spite of the convenience of canned vegetables, there is a value in such vegetables as cabbage and turnips which we must not overlook. To render these vegetables mild and digestible we must cook them quickly in plenty of water with the cover off; change the water two or three times during cooking; and drain ott' the water when the vegetables are nearly done, substituting a little milk for the final cooking. Avoid overcooking, as this makes cab- bage tough and develops the dark color, and the strong flavor and after-taste. Baked Cabbage (Prom the Presbyterian Cook Book, Boonville, N. Y.) Cut the cabbage in small pieces, boil until tender in salted water. When cold, chop fine, add 2 beaten eggs, 1 tablespoon butter, 2 tablespoons cream. Mix well, put into a buttered pan and brovsm in the oven. Boiled Red Cabbage Eed cabbage should be boiled in an uncovered saucepan, but in a small amount of water and without stirring (merely shaking the saucepan occasionally to keep the cabbage from sticking), in order that the attractive color may not be lost. Shred the cabbage, boil l&r):3 The Vegetable Industry in ISTew Yokk State as directed for half an hour ; then season with salt, add one level tablespoon butter and one tablespoon pork drippings, duck fat or goose fat, and one apple cut in small pieces. Thicken slightly by dredging with a little flour. Cook until the apple is tender enough to be thoroughly mixed with the cabbage. Pried Onions and Apples (Prom the Presbyterian Cook Book, Boonville, N. Y.) Cut thin slices of salt pork and fry in saucepan. Fill dish with sliced onions and apples, add a little water and cook until brown, stirring often. Add a little pepper. COOKING SUMMEK VEGETABLES Young, mild-juiced vegetables like green peas, beans, etc., should be cooked slowly in a covered saucepan, with a small amount of water, in order to develop their full Havor. A\'hen tender, drain, season with butter, salt and a little sugar. A little milk or cream may be added before serving. LEFT-OVEK VEGETABLES There are as many possibilities in vegetable left-overs as in those of meat, potatoes or bread. Vegetable hash is highly es- teemed in New England, and may be looked for on the day after a boiled dinner. Baked vegetable hash is made by melting one tablespoon of butter in a frying pan, adding 1 pint of mixed chopped vegetables (or any one vegetable alone), 1 pint of chopped potatoes and 1^/^ cups soup stock. Mix tintil heated, season well, set in the oven and bake thirty minutes. Green Pea Croquettes Take equal parts of left-over green peas and thick cream gravy (made of 4 level tablespoons butter and 4 level tablespoons flour to 1 cup of milk). Season well and cool. Shape into croquettes, roll in bread-crumbs, in beaten egg ( adding 1 tablespoon of cold water to each egg) and again in bread crumbs, and fry in deep fat. Vegetable Salads Any left-over vegetables such as green peas, beans, asparagus, carrots or beets may be served separately or in combination as a IMPORTA^'CE OF VEGETABLES IX DiETAEY 1553 salad. They should be stirred as little as possible, and should be served the day they are prepared. Have them well drained and cold before addiug the salad dressiug, In general, a French dress- ing IS best adapted to vegetable salads. 2Irs. Lincoln's French Dressing One saltspoouful salt, i/:> saltspoonful pepper, 3 tablespoonsfnl oil, 1/4 teaspoonful onion juice, 1 tablespoonful vinegar or lemon juice. ]\Iix in the order given, adding the oil slowly. The onion may be omitted and a teaspoonful of made mustard may be added, if desired. Can n ed-To nudo Salad Fresh sliced tomatoes make one of our favorite salads, but a good substitute may be obtained during the ^\'inter months when we long for something that will add a little " snap " to our meals. To make the canned-tomato salad, heat 1 pint of strained tomato, seasoned with 1 teaspoon salt, a little pepper and 1 teaspoon onion juice. Soak 14 package of granulated gelatine in a little cold water, and add just enough boiling water to dissolve. Add to the tomato, boil for one mimite, strain into small moulds and chill. Serve with salad dressing. Salad Dressing (From the Presbyterian Cook Book, Boonville, N. Y.) Melt 2 tablespoons butter and stir in 2 tablespoons flour in which 1 teaspoon mtistard and 2 teaspoons salt have been mixed. Then add 1 cup milk. Cook 2 minutes, then add 1/. cup vinegar, 3 well-beaten eggs and 2 tablespoons sugar. Cook until thick. .V cup of whipped cream may be added when cold. VEGETABLE UELISIIES It is not fruits alone that form the basis of jams, marmalades, etc. Carrot may be added to orange marmalade without injury to the flavor, and with considerable lowering of the cost. Tomato relish may be prepared by boiling 2 pounds of ripe tomatoes (scalded and peeled ) with l/o cup of vinegar, 1 pound sugar, and a teaspoon of grated ginger root, until thick. 15;")^ Tjik N'egetabi.e Industby in New York Sta';-j<; vegetable desseets Squash, immpkin, carrot, and sweet-potato pie have as large a foUowiug as have apple or mince. Pumpkin Pie The only tedious part in the making of a pumpkin pie lies in preparing the pumpkin. There is a " short cut " to this which is not generally known. Bake the pumpkin whole (just as though it was an overgrown apple) until it is tender throughout. By this method it takes but a few moments to separate and mash the pulp. To one cup of this add 1 cup of milk, 1 egg, % teaspoon of cin- namon, % teaspoon ginger and a little salt. Make a paste by chopping % cup shortening into 1% cups of sifted pastry flour and adding % teaspoon salt, and just enough cold water so that the pasta can be rolled. line a deep pie tin with this, fill with pumpkin mixture, and bake till a golden brown. VEGETABLE SWEETMEATS Although i^ is too troublesome a process for the average cook, expert candy makers succeed in producing crystallized carrots, — or glaced carrots as they are called — that compare favorably with crystallized fruits and nuts. This bears out the theory that vege- tables may have a place in every course, from soup to dessert, and be excellent in all. LEGAL WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF VEGETABLES SOLD IN NEW YORK STATE Joiis H. Faeeell, Albaxy, X. Y. State Superintendent of Weights and Measures Vegetables, like all commodities sold in this state, must be sold either by weight, measure or numerical count. There are two simple ways in which vegetables may be sold in the state of Xew York: (1) l)y the head or bnnch, and (2) by weight. The method of sale by dry measure is far more complex, for, in the first place, when commodities are commonly sold by heap measure the law provides : " The measure of capacity for all commodities commonly sold by heap measure shall be the half bushel and its mul- tiples and subdivisions. The measiires used to measure such commodities shall be cylindrical, with plain and even bot- tom, and of the diameter of nineteen and one-half inches from outside to outside if a bushel ; fifteen and one-half inches if a half bushel, and twelve and one-third inches if a peck. "All commodities sold by heap measure shall be duly heaped up in the form of a cone, the outside of the meas- ure to l)e the limit of the base of the cone, and the cone to be as high as the commodities will admit." Furthermore, bushels of various vegetables must consist of a definite number of pounds, in the absence of any agreement to the contrary: peas, potatoes or beans, 60' pounds; onions, 57 pounds, sweet potatoes, 54 pounds and carrots, 50 pounds. For a fractional part of a bushel, like fractional parts of the above weights are required. There are similar provisions as to variotts fruits and grains. When more than six heads or bunches of vegetables are sold by count, or whenever vegetables are sold by weight or dry meas- ure, the weight, measure or count must be marked on a label [15551 1556 The Vegetable Industry in New Yoek State or a tag attached to the vegetables ; or, if in a container, on the side or top of the container or on a label or tag attached thereto. Where they are not in a container a sales slip may be given under the following conditions: " In case of sales of commodities not in containers, when circumstances make it impracticable to place the marking on or attach it to the commodity, a sales slip showing the name of the seller, identifying the commodity sold and show- ing the reqviired weight, measure or numerical count may be delivered to the purchaser at the time of the sale or deliv- ery, and in such case no other marking will be required. Such sales slip must give in writing the requisite information with equal clearness and distinctness as if marked on or at- tached to the commodity. The provisions of any regulation requiring the marking to be on or attached to the commodity will not be complied with by the use of a sales slip." When the sale is made in container, the quantity need not be marked, provided the container is of one of the following sizes : barrel, half-barrel, bushel, or multiples of the barrel, or sub-multiples of the bushel divisible by two. This is better understood by referring to the reg-ulations adopted by the Superintendent of Weights and Measures pursviant to law : " Containers for vegetables, frod-wce and fruit of standard size. " (a) A barrel shall represent a quantity of 7,056 cubic inches or be of the following dimensions: Head diameter, seventeen and one-eighth inches; length of stave, twenty- eight and onef-half inches; bilge, not less than sixty-four inches outside ; distance between the heads, not less than twenty-six inches. " (b) A half-barrel shall represent a quantity equal to 3,528 cubic inches. Not being a multiple of the quart, the half-barrel cannot be used as a container for fniit. " (c) Such containers other than barrels or half-barrels need not be marked if of the following sizes : Two bushels, one biishel, half-bushel, one peck, half-peck, quarter-peck, one quart, one pint and one^half pint. Legal Weights and Measuees of Vegetables Sold 1557 "(d) In measuring a barrel used or to be used as a con- tainer for vegetables, produce or fruit, the capacity thereof shall be ascertained by taking the measurement thereof be- tween heads, or, if the barrel is so made that no top can be inserted therein, then by taking the measurement stricken full. If, when so measured, the contents equal 7,056 cubic inches, no marking need be placed on the barrel; otherwise, it must be marked as provided in section 16-a. Half-barrels shall be similarly measured. " In measuring containers used or to be used for vege- tables, produce or fruit, other than the barrel or half-barrel, the capacity thereof shall be ascertained by taking the meas- urement thereof to the top of the sides, or if a cover is to placed thereon, which shall come below the top of the sides, then to the lowest point of the cover. In determining such capacity, the standards of measure are the half-bushel, con- taining 1,075.20 cubic inches, and multiples and sub-divisions thereof of proportionate cubical contents. "(e) A variation in contents of one and one-half per cent. (11/2%) will be allowed, but the variation shall not be uniformly below in a test of twelve containers taken at random." " Containers for vegetables, produce and fruit of other than standard sizes enumerated above. " (a) When not of the sizes enumerated above, the barrels shall be marked with bold, broad-faced letters at least one inch in height in terms of the fractional part of the barrel ; for instance, a barrel that contains three-fourths of a stand- ard barrel shall be marked ' % barrel.' " (b) Baskets or containers which are not of the standard size enumerated above, shall be marked in bold, broad-faced letters, at least on(^half inch in height, given in terms of dry quarts, dry pints and half-pints or in terms of net weight. XOTE This does not in any way affect the contractual rights of the buyer and seller, and when the buyer is entitled to receive heap or special measure under sections 6 and 8 of the General Business Law, the basis of payment must be such heap or special measure. 12 1558 The Vegetable Industry in New Yoek State " (c) VariatioBS or tolerances shall be allowed of the same amount as prescribed in Regulation (2). "For method of measuring, see Regulation 2 (d)." If persons selling vegetables will sell by the head, or by weight, and will mark the number, or the net weight (or the gross and tare weight) on the side or top of the container, or on a label or tag attached to the vegetables, they will always be on the safe side. Otherwise they will constantly have to be on their guard as to whether or not the container is or is not of a standard size, and if they sell by dry measure, the provisions of the law as to heap- ing measure, and fixed weight bushels will have to be borne in mind. 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