\O^OG CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY GIFT OF Jeffrey R, D, CTrockett 3 1924 031 255 635 olin.anx The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031255635 PAYSON, DDNTON, & SCRIBNER » [^ml $i |}e«tti«n^fpp. 5P., f)., & ^. Sutlioi'^: J. W. PAYSON, S. DUNTON, W. M. SCRIBNER, A. S. MANSON. REVISED EDITION. POTTER, AINSWORTH, AND COMPANY, NEW YORK AND CHICAGO. Entered acco.ifmg lo Act of Congress, in the year 1873, by WOOLWORTH, AiNSWORTH, & CoMPANY, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at WashingtOMo .cofvright, 1881, By Potter, Ainsworth, & Company. ^^?9'^<^ ? Q- Kitn. •"■ A verv^ <5^ Co.» Stereotypers and Printtrt PREFACE. Our object in this Manual is to present to the teachers of our public schools and seminaries a strictly practical hand-book on the art of teaching penmanship. We have severely ab- stained from all fine poetic iiights, and even from the discus- sion of mooted points ; and have simply aimed to present the condensed results of the actual experience of the authors of the Payson, Dunton, and Scribner's system of penmanship with scholars in public and private schools throughout the length and breadth of the land. It is not intended for '' business-colleges," where the stu- dents practise writing two or three hours every day, and where the teachers are supposed to be professional penmen, — though we think even they will find some useful hints, — but for the schools in which writing forms only one of the many branches of instruction, which are all to be taught by one per- son. The instructions given in the copy-books themselves are so full, that, if faithfully followed, they can hardly fail of in- suring satisfactory results. Still so many teachers desire to have a brief and comprehensive text-book on the subject, that :t seems desirable to furnish one meeting the wants of all who teach writing, but especially adapted to our series of copy- books. la 4v PREFACE. The table of contents will enable the teacher to see how com- plete is our treatment of the subject, — better than any enu- meration of topics we could here present. Yet there are one or two points to which we would invite particular attention. One is the method of instruction in which we have presented the true, because the st-ientific, form of all teaching applied to this art. Another is the illustrations for bringing peculiar difficulties before the scholars on the blackboard. Also the critical points of the principles and letters which embrace those features which are essential in each case. The value of those can hardly be over-estimated, as they are the result of philosophical observation, and have been confirmed by a vast experience. Once more : it will be observed, that, in this ^Manual, every point of importance is not only treated of in the text, but is fully presented to the eye by illustrations. In conclusion, we wish to say a few words on a widely-pre- vailing error. Every new sj-stem wiiich makes its appearance, and some of the old ones, base their claims for adoption on the statement, that their peculiar methods will turn out busi- ness-penmen from the schools. It is, perhaps, a pity that they do not point out some average school, where only the average time is given to v>-riting, in which the ma;]"ority of the scholars jirove their assertions. It is further said, that it is an "oft-repeated remark of merchants, that, when boys come from the public schools to the counting-room, their handwrit- ing is impracticable, and soon undergoes an entire change." The merchants do not say that the writing is bad, but that it is "impracticable." It "soon undergoes an entire change," in which developed state we presume it is entirely satisfactory. Observe the word "soon." It tells the whole story. The PREFACE. Y change takes place, and that almost immediately, simply be- cause there is constant practice; and this concurs with the thorough knowledge of the forms and previous training in movement, which only left the hand "impracticable" from lack of the element which is now supplied. Let a lad who has never had the admirable discipline in writing which is now given in all our large public schools enter the merchant's office, and we fancy his " soon," as related to the acquisition of a business-style, will be prolonged to a very indefinite period. Is it really considered how short a time is generally given to this branch in our schools ? One hour and a half a week is a fair average. Suppose the schools to be in session forty- two weeks: that gives sixty-three hours,. — ten days of six hours each in the whole year to learn writing. Suppose, fur- ther, that the scholar enters at eight, and leaves at fourteen ; and the enormous time devoted to learning writing is six times ten such days ! In a business-college, they write, during the fall and winter, three hours a day ; that is, a third more in one month, when their age is from eighteen to twenty-five, than our children from eight to fourteen do in a whole year ! It is time that this error was exploded. We shall, l^herefore, continue -in the belief, that if true movements are carefully inculcated, and the scholars are thor- oughly drilled in the knowledge and execution of the exact forms of the letters, a sure foundation is laid for the develop- ment of a fine business-hand, as soon as sufficient practice af- fords the opportunity. At the same time, we know from ex- perience that those who have a natural aptitude for writing — the artistic faculty — will acquire a business-hand even while at school. ■ CONTENTS. PAOB, Introductory Remarks. . • . . r . . l Method of Instruction ........ 2 Method of impartixg Knowledge ...... 3 Method of teaching Execution ...... 5 Method of teaching Criticism 5 "Necessary Materials in a Writing-Class .... 11 Organizing Classes . . 15 The Lesson . . .-.-.... 17 Opening and Closing an Exercise . . .... 18 Position 19 Penholdino 23 Rests 26 Movements 27 Counting " ... 31 Movement Exercises 33 Spacing 36 Shading 38 Theory of Penmanship. — Analysis 41 Classification op Letters 42 Scale op Proportions 43 Definitions op Terms and Forms 44 Elements and Principles 47 Formation op Elements, Principles, and Lettebs . . .52 Figures b3 ')n teaching Sentences ........ 94 vi CONTEKTS. Tli 96 Difficult Combinations Business Penmanship . 96 Marks, Signs, amd Abbreviations ...... 102 Variety of Capitals _ 103 Ofp-Hand Capitals ... 104 Ladies' Hand . 105 CUTS AND PLATES. Position .21 p:^holding 25 Movement Exercises, Small Letters 34 " " Capitals 35 Analysis and Classification of Letters. Plate L . .42 Variety of Capitals. Plate II., III., IV 103 Off-Hand Capitals. Plate V., VI 104 Ladies' Hand. Plate VII 105 BoMAN Letters analyzed. Plate VIII 107 Italic Print. Plate IX. 108 Egyptian. Plate IX .109 Skeleton. Plate X liO Brush Letters. Plate X . .110 Marking Letters. Plate XI 109 Old English. Plate XII HO German Text. Plate XII HI Text-Hand for Ladies. Plate XTTT 112 SPECIAL INDEX FOR TEACHERS. DEFINITIONS. PAOl Dot 40, 44 Line, — Straight, Upright, Slanting 44 Curve, — • Right Curve, Left Curve 44 Wave-Line, Double Curve 45 Base-Line '. . 45 Top Line 45 Up-Stroke, Down-Stroke 46 Main Lines, Connecting Lines 45 Parallel Lines 45 Similar Curves 45 Slant ... 45 Upper Angle, Lower Angle 45 Upper Turn, Lower Turn 46 Space in Height, Space in Width .... 46 Short Letters 46 Stem-Letters . 4ff Looped Stems .46 Oval, — Direct, Indirect .46 vill SPECIAL INDEl FOR TEACHERS. THE FIVE ELEMENTS. PACE Element I. — Slanting Straight Line . . .44, 49, 52 " II. — Lower Turn 46,49,55 " III. — Right Curve 44, 49, 54 " IV. — Left Curve 44, 49, 55 " v. — Upper Turn 46,50,57 THE SIX PRINCIPLES OP THE SMALL LETTERS. First Principle 50, 55 Second " 50,57 Third " 50,58 Fourth " 50,61 Fifth " Upper Looped Stem . . .46, 51, 70 Sixth " Lower Looped Stem . . .46, 51, 73 THE THREE PRINCIPLES OF THE CAPITALS. Seventh Principle, — Capital Stem . . . . 45, 51 , 75 Eighth " Direct Oval . . . .46, 51, 85 Ninth " Indirect Oval . . . .46, 81, 89 Signals, — Opening and Closing an Exercise ... 19 Marks, — Ranking the Scholars 9 SPECIAL INDEX FOE TEACHERS. STANDARD LETTERS, COMMON-SCHOOL COURSE. CAPITALS. SMALL LETTERS. A B C D P G H I J K L M If O P Q R S T U V w X Y z PAGE. . 76 83 89 86 87 79 84 79 81 82 80 81 77 77 85 82 91 84 80 78 92 92 91 90 93 91 a b . c d . e . f . g • h . i J ■ k . 1 m . n o P • q • r s t . u V w . y • z 61 72 62 67 63 72 74 71 56 74 71 72 59 59 61 68 69 64 65 66 57 59 60 59 74 74 MANUAL OF PEMASrSHIP. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. Our aim in this system is to teach the scholars of the public and private schools of our country a practical hand- writing. To do this, we supply a carefully-graduated series of Copy-Books, with special directions at ihe head of the page, and further instructions on the covers ; this Manual, for those who wish complete information as to our method ; and Blackboard Tablets, exhibiting the accurate forms of the letters and the more prominent features of their analysis, of sufficiently large size to present to a class. The use of copy-books with lithographed copies at the head of the page has very great advantages. It economizes the time of the teacher ; prevents change of hand should the teacher be changed ; gives a better system, the result of a larger and more varied experience than is possible to an individual ; and causes a very trifling increase of expense. Hence such copies are now almost universally used ; and, where once adopted, are never superseded. 1 MASTTAIi OF PBNllAKSHIP. METHOD OF INSTRUCTION. ITiTDER this head we present the fiindamental principles on vrhich the teaching of penmanship must depend. Writing is the correct representation of certain forms to a greater or less extent arbitrary, generally by means of an instrument held in the hand. Our method, therefore, naturally ranges itself under these three grand divisions in their order: first. Knowledge; second, Execution ; third, Criticism. There is something to be done, and there must be a best way of doing it : both these must be known. The doing follows. And then the questions immediately arise, Is it correctly done ? and. Was it done in the best manner? These are answered by criticis- ing. Knowledge. — Teachers and scholars, therefore, should know exactly, — I. What the proposed work itself really is ; that is, the Matter to be Executed. II. How to execute the proposed work ; that is, the Man- ner of Executing. I. The Matter to be Executed. — This embraces a thor- ough knowledge (1.) Of the elements ; (2.) Of the six prin- ciples of the small letters and of the three principles of the capitals, and of their connection to form letters ; (3.) Of the distinction between main and connecting lines, and of turns and angles ; (4.) Of the peculiarities arising from the com- bination of letters in words. These are all separately treated in their proper place. II. The Manner of Executing. — This involves a correct knowledge (1.) Of the position of the body, of the arms and the hands, and of the books ; (2.) Of penholding ; (3.) Of the rests; (4.) Of the movements. All these will be found treated of at length under their respective heads. METHOD OF INSTRUCTION. METHOD OF IMPARTING KNOWLEDGE. The question naturally arises, What is the hest method of imparting this knowledge ? We answer, — First, With regard to the Matter to he Executed. 1. The teacher must himself know what is to be done, and how it is to be done. There is no better way for him to learn this than by taking the book his scholars are to use, and writing it himself in advance from day to day. His own writing wUl be improved, and he will acquire a lively appreciation of the number of minute points which require attention, and of the difficulties to be encountered. Let him also study the directions and explanations of this Manual, pen in hand. Many a statement, which, if merely read, would obtain little if any appreciation, will be found to be of great importance if subjected at once to the test of experiment. Having thus qualified himself, however poor a writer he may be, he will come before his class with confidence. 2. He should elicit from his class by questions all that they can discover by observation of the copy and from the instruc- tions at the head of the page, and should tell them the critical points, which will be found in this Manual in the description of the letters. It is an excellent rule never to tell them any thing they can find out for themselves. They will thus be trained to habits of careful observation, — the true method of acquiring the foundations of all knowledge. 3. He should use the blackboard freely. Let him rule the lines on the board corresponding to the copy, using red as well as white chalk if convenient. Then require the class to dictate the copy to him, doing exactly what they tell him. This shows them the necessity of exact knowledge. 4 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. Next give the illustrations which will be found in the description of the letters, and call attention especially to the critical points. The latter should be impressed on their minds till they are thoroughly familiar and can be readily stated. 4. The forms and critical points of the principles should be fixed on their minds. (1.) By example. — Let them be drawn correctly on the board. (2.) By contrast. — Let the opposite be drawn. (3.) By comparison. — Let erroneous forms be made ; not all possible ones, but those that illustrate tlie various points in the description, especially the critical points. Remark. — It should ever be borne in mind, that a clear mental conception of the form to be written is an absolute necessity before it can be easily and correctly executed. And, further, it should be remembered that time and varied presentation are necessary to enable the mind to form the required conception. The use of our Blackboard Tablets will also be found ex- tremely advantageous. They are described in another place. Secondly, With regard to the Manner of Executing, we would suggest, — 1. That the teacher should sliow it by example. Let him take a large book, — a geography, for instance, — and place his right arm and hand on it in the correct position, with the pen properly held. Let the scholars view this on all sides. In the same way, let the movements be illustrated. 2. That the scholars should learn it by experiment. For instance, it is directed that the corner of the thumb should be opposite the first joint of the middle finger, and a little under the holder; and it is stated that the object of this is to keep tlie holder above the knuckle. Let them try with the thumb at the end of the fingers, and it will be found that the least pressure on the pen causes the holder to sink down. A like result follows if the thumb is placed at the side of the holder, instead of underneath it. METHOD OV INSTETJOTION. 5 The scholar, thus proving the facts by experience, will see the value of the directions given, and remember them ; for he will perceive that they are not mere arbitrary rules, made and enforced to gratify a fancy, but that they teach the best and most convenient way of attaining certain necessary ends. METHOD OF TEACHING EXECUTION. With regard to teaching Execution, it may be worth while to make a few observations. 1. Let the teacher determine that he will have correct exe- cution ; that the precise forms of the copy shall be accurately made, not merely by the few who have natural aptitude, but by all. This can be achieved; for it has been again and again. 2. It will be wejl also to settle in the mind that correct- ness of form is preferable to mere rapidity of execution. Therefore let the scholars proceed very slowly at first. As soon as the forms are correctly made, they may then advance more rapidly, but not faster than is consistent with accuracy. 3. Whilst they are writing, let their attention be frequently called to position, penholding, rests, and movements. Remark. — It is very important that they should aim at writing successively the principles of which the letters are composed, instead of writing the letters as wholes. They should understand that the modern style is based upon the oblique straight line and very short turns, formed by an up-and-down or forward-and-backward movement of the pen, whether this is produced by the fingers or by the fore- arm. This movement should be dwelt upon to overcome the tendency to rounded down-strokes and " scooping " turns. METHOD OF TEACHING CRITICISM. With regard to the art of Criticism, we remark, — 1. The scholars should learn this art, and practise it them- selves. 6 MANTTAL OF PENMANSHIP. Experience has long shown, that whatever any one will do for us we are seldom inclined to do for ourselves. If, then, the teacher criticises for the scholars, they will not consider it their business to do so for themselves. It is, besides, a very difficult thing to judge our own work fairly; and to children, especially beginners, their own writ- ing seems so wonderful, that they cannot help thinking it excellent. The fact that they can actually read it, and that it can be read by others, confirms them in this idea. Therefore the formation by them of the habit of criticism — that is, the training and constant exercise of the faculty of judging form — is of the highest consequence ; in fact, it is one of the great secrets of success. A great many scholars at first, judging from our own experience, cannot distinguish between a straight line and a curve, or between the right and left curves : all varieties of slant are equally satisfactory ; and a turn is a turn, whether it is as sharp as a knife, or as round as a hoop. They must be trained, then, by every means to improve the deficient faculty, and to acquire the habit of always criticising their own work. It is very curious to observe how much more readily and accurately they will criticise any erroneous form the teacher puts on the board than they will their own. 2. Teach them to criticise, therefore, by questioning them .successively on each particular of their knowledge. It will be found desirable to take up the Critical Points first ; afterwards to go through the particulars of the letter in order. Suppose a line written, the following questions should be isked : — (1.) What are the critical points of the principle, or letter? Which is the first? (2.) How many scholars have this right ? Remark. — Instead of putting the question in these words, it is better to make it more definite. Thus, supposing the critical point to be that the down-stroke should be straight, the question should be, How many made it straight ? METHOD OB" INSTKXJCXION. 7 (3.) How many have it wrong ? Remark. — This question should, in the case just men- tioned, take the shape. How many did not make it straight ? (4.) What was the cause of the failure ? Behark. — In the case mentioned, the answer would be, perhaps, Turning too soon. (5.) How can it be corrected? Eemakk. — It is not enough to discover the fault. They must -know what to do to make the desired change. (6.) What, then, are you going to do next time ? Remabk. — This leads them to a definite object in writing the next line. Another line should then be written, when the questioning should be thus resumed : — (7.) How many have it right now ? (8.) How many still have it wrong? (9.) How many have it better ? The teacher can also show on the board how the error was made, and what must be done to correct it. Line after line is thus written and criticised, and thus each with a definite purpose. 3. Another excellent method is, as soon as a line is written, to ask, How many can point out a fault ? One after another may be called upon to state the one he discovers ; and all who observe a similar fault should raise their hands to acknowledge it when it is mentioned. The question should follow. What must be done to correct it ? This method may be varied by telling them to write an- other line, and leave out the faults they have noticed without asking what they are. The question may then be put, How manjr have written better than before ? When the hands ai-e raised, ask in what particulars they have made it better. 4. We consider this method of teaching them to criticise their own work as of the very highest importance ; but it will still be necessary for the teacher to move constantly about among them, to observe whether they criticise correctly, and to aid their immature judgments by his own remarks. 8 MAJSTTTAL OP PENMANSHIP. We would suggest, that, whenever he discovers a fault, he should embody it in a question to the whole class ; for there are sure to be several other scholars who have made the same mistake. He thus saves himself the labor of many repetitions. 5. Criticism should not contemplate merely the discovery of an error, but also the causes of failure, and the precise direc- tion that the effort to correct it must take. 6. Our critical points and our analyses of the principles enable the teacher to bring the knowledge of them before his class in an orderly manner, and suggest the proper succession of questions in criticism. The order may be as follows : — Critical Points. — (1.) The main lines m their several particulars of straightness, slant, and height. (2.) The turns as to their shape and width. (3.) The connecting lines as to their curve and slant, determining width. (4.) The connections. 7. A simple yet exhaustive rule for the teacher's guidance in criticising is this, — that the errors may always be looked for on each side of the truth. Is a line to be curved ? — it wUl be curved the wrong way, too much or too little. Is a turn of a certain width to be made ? — it will be too broad or too narrow. Is a line to be of a certain slant ? — it will be slanted too much or too little. 8. Lastly, the teacher should rank the copy of every scholar, at the close or beginning of each exercise, or at the commencement of the next, according to its merit. There are some advantages in preferring the commencement of the exercise, because the work is no longer so fresh a pro- duction of the scholar's, and he will therefore more candidly admit its faults ; also because the criticism you make will be more immediately of use. At the commencement of the exercise, then, we would have the books opened where they last wrote ; and then, going back- ward down the first aisle, we would place with a lead pencil, METHOD OF INSTRUCTION. 9 M the bottom of the last column written, a number wnich should mark its merit. Suppose 6 was adopted for excellent ; then 6, good ; 4, middling ; 3, poor ; 2, bad ; 1, very bad. The marks should be determined by the scholar's attention to and execution of the instruction specially given in the lesson ou the copy and in previous lessons, and not merely for general appearance ; for some copies, through fineness of lines, and accuracy of slant, will present a good appearance, while the turns are broad, connections bad, and so forth. Our hajsit is to mark right and left as we go backwards down the first aisle, and the same as we come forwards up the third, and so on. Make your decision ra.pidly, and mark at once. A class of fifty or sixty may be thus ranked in two or three minutes. It is time well employed. At the same time that you make the mark, you can drop a word of criticism ; for instance, Turns too broad. Bad slant, Down-strokes not straight, and so forth. Now, it seems that it would be a convenience to the teacher to remember at the next lesson what this criticisin was, that he may observe whether it has been heeded. We have there- fore devised the following simple and convenient plan by which he can place it on record. Certain significant signs easy of execution are placed beside the merit-marks, or where the fault occurs in the writing. The meaning of these should be explained to the scholars. / Too heavy. \ Bad slant. The mark slants the wrong way. — Wrong spacing. The mark indicates width. X Beginning or ending wrong. II Height not uniform. = Width of letters uneven. ,-,> ^-- Upper or lower turns too broad. A V Upper or lower turns too narrow. ( ) Curve instead of straight line. S Element I. neglected in Principle 3. X T Connection too long above or below. 10 MANXTAL OF PENMANSHIP. A profitable way to use these is to mark one of them abov» a column, without saying any thing, as you go round and observe a fault. It can be done rapidly, is a standing warning to the scholar, and is a permanent record of your criticism. We merely throw out these suggestions. Every teacher can modify, extend, or abbreviate them, as he pleases ; or he can adopt some similar method. It is hardly necessary to add, that where so many minute points require attention, as is the case in learning to write, the great secret of success lies in confining the attention to one point at a time. Thus, to make the right use of the cor- ners of the boxes, to touch the top and base lines, to make straight down-strokes, to have correct slant, to place the down- strokes at correct distances, to make fine lines, and so forth, should be taken up in turn, and perfected, by devoting several lines to each, fixing attention on it, criticising it, and correct- ing as we have suggested. If, in this statement of our method of instruction, we have seemed to dwell more particularly upon teaching beginners, it is because we feel that this will be particularly useful to teachers. This branch of education difiers from other branches. The eye is to be trained to know peculiarities of form, the hand to execute them. In other school-studies, the mind is to be trained to know, to recall, to compare, to judge, and, by the voice, to produce. Observe the difference : here a sense is to be educated, and an organ trained to obedience. If, then, those who are required to teach this branch can only be induced to begin right, they will find little difficulty in carry- ing their scholars on to the most satisfactory results, working out our principles in their legitimate development to suit their own methods. Besides, farther on we give full instructions for teaching classes as they advance. KECES8AEY mattt.rtatjI- 1\ NECESSAEY MATEEIALS IN A WEITING-CLASS. Copy-Books. — Experience has proved, that for a full course of instruction, and to afford sufficient variety to the scholars, about twelve numbers are required. This does not add to the expense of the system, because the scholar buys and uses but one book at a time. For the actual need of those who remain a shorter time at school, we have prepared the first six numbers, which are designated as THE COMMON-SCHOOL SERIES. No. 1, for beginners, commencing with the slanting straight line, and embracing all the short letters. No. 2, for the next grade, reviewing the lessons of No. 1, with more attention to free movement, and including the whole small alphabet. No. 3, the copies of smaller size, teaches both alphabets, and is ruled with guide-lines for the heights of the stem and loop letters and capitals. No. 4 is ruled with double lines, to aid the scholars in keep- ing the size of the short letters while thrown upon their own resources for the heights of the taller ones. The words are given in columns. No. 5 is a book of short sentences, with a word at each end, ruled with single lines. ^ No. 6 has sentences across the whole page, with a capital at each end. The successive numbers are thus carefiiUy graded to suit the wants of the several grades of schools or classes. They famish a uniform style of writing and of instruction, simple and practi- cal in their character. Sufficient directions for understanding and writing each copy are printed on the same page aboye it 12 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. in clear Koman type. The quality of the paper used in the books is unsurpassed. The Ruling of the Copy-Books. — The pages in the copy-books are ruled in different ways. Some have double lines and boxes; others, double lines, and additional lines marking proportions of height; others, merely double lines; others again, single. Some are divided into columns; others are plain. Columns are marked by vertical lines. Boxes are half the width of the column. The object of this ruling is to aid the beginner in making the principles and letters correctly in respect to height and width. If he makes each stroke touch both top and base line, he secures the former. If he begins and ends in the corners, and makes the strokes extend and return to definite distances on these lines, as in the copy, he secures the latter, while at the same time he gets the right slants. Remakk. — 1. In all cases where columns are ruled, it is intended that the scholar should write one column at a time, and not across the whole page. He should write as a news- paper is read. In those pages where words are given, he should be called upon to notice how much of the word is contained in each box, and to write accordingly. Another method of ruling is with double lines ; but, instead of boxes, a single line is used in each column to give the slant of the first line of the letter or word to be written. Thus the pupil is thrown more upon his own resources. Another style of ruling, stUl more advanced, has the top and base lines ruled in red : between these the short letters are written. Two blue lines above, and two below, mark the heights of the stem, loop letters, and capitals, aiding very materially in getting the correct proportions of the last. 2. The copies in our books are ruled like the pages, in whole or in part, so that the scholar can be taught without difiiculty how the ruling is to be used. The most exact NECESSARY MATERIALS. 13 observance of the way the letters are to be placed in the ruling should be required. We mention this because we have seen books in which letters half the proper size were placed in the centre of the boxes, not touching the ruled lines any- where, — like little birds sitting in cages on invisible perches. Pens. — Steel pens should be used, of the best quality. They should be fine, neither too flexible nor too stiff. These are necessary for beginners as well as for the more advanced. It is a great mistake to suppose that any thing will answer for the commencement. Scholars should not be allowed to use any pen but the kind selected by the teacher. Penholders. — These must be long and light. Avoid any thing like iron or ivory : they should be simple in construc- tion, hold the pen firmly, and allow it to be changed without difficulty. Never allow short holders to be used. Ink. — The qualities of a good ink for schools are, that it should be thin, so that it may fiow readily from the pen ; and black, that the scholar may see at once how his work will appear. The rapid evaporation of the watery part of the ink must be met by frequently adding a small quantity of water, always taking care to mix by stirring. Eresh ink must be added when necessary to keep up the color. Take care to have the ink-stands closed when not in use. Have the ink- wells washed out as often as any sediment accumulates. Always have the ink properly attended to before the writ- ing-lesson begins. Caution your scholars in taking ink always to observe strictly what they are doing. The pen should be dipped very carefully, — for young scholars, only up to the pen's eye ; while for older ones, especially where shades are to be made, the eye is to be filled. If this point is attended to, almost all blots may be avoided. Penwipers. — Every scholar should have one to cleanse his pen when necessary. They may be conveniently made of two or three circular pieces of woollen cloth, stitched together in the centre. The pen should be wiped between the folds, so 14 MANTTAL OF PENMANSHIP. that, if tlie penwiper should happen to be laid on the page, there may be no blot. They can be collected and distributed by monitors, or each scholar may keep his own in his desk. Practice-Paper. — This is needed to try the pen on, to practise the copy a few times before writing in the books, or any letter that presents peculiar difficulty. We furnish it cut in slips, and ruled to correspond to the different numbers of the series. Common ruled letter-paper will also answer, if the other cannot easily be procured. Blotting'-Board. — A piece half the size of the book is large enough. It is well to have it tolerably stiff. When writing, it should be placed under the fingers of the left hand, which hold the book steady. When the writing is finished, it should be laid carefully on the page, not slid over it, and pressed to absorb the ink before closing the book. Do not allow the scholars to place it on each word as soon as written, or the color of the ink will be spoiled. Covers. — A very nice and convenient cover may be made, for those who wish to keep their books in good order, by cut- ting a piece of Manilla paper the depth of the page, and four times its length. Fold this four times, place the back of the book on the middle fold, and lap the extreme parts over the cover or the pages when written. Writing-Tax. — A good plan is to collect a small taz — three or four cents — from each scholar at the beginning of the term, for which pens, ink, penholders, and blotters are supplied. Supervision. — The teacher ought to take charge of the books, pens, and other materials, so that all may be kept in the best and neatest state. ORGANIZING CLASSKS. 16 ORGANIZING CLASSES. Since there are both graded and ungraded schools, it is evident that the method adopted must be different. It is presumed, that, owing to the efforts of authors and educational publishers, systematic teaching of writing is practised in all cities which have graded schools. It may, therefore, be very briefly stated, that the same room should have the same book, and that the series should be written in regular order. The first six books, forming the common-school series, furnish a three-years' course in the grammar-school. They are care- fully graduated from the simplest element to the sentence across the page, thus supplying material for the acquisition of a good hand even to those whose time at school, owing to the necessities of labor, is limited; while the higher numbers - afford advanced instruction and an agreeable variety for those who remain longer. Ungraded schools present a problem far more difficult of solution. The perverse human nature of pupils and the prejudices of parents are factors that must not be lost sight of, as the wise teacher well knows. There are two plans which have hitherto been found most successful. The first is, to satisfy the above troublesome factors by allowing every pupil to have what number of copy-book he likes to amuse himself with, and then require all to have the same number, say No. 1, for a drill-book. Then teach writing in this book for the larger part of each exercise, and afterwards let the scholars write in their other books. If the teacher awakens an interest by the results of this method, he will have little trouble in introducing the second plan. The second plan is, to divide the school into two classes. Pass round slips of paper, and dictate a short sentence to be written. Place the best writers in one class, and the poorest 16 MANCTAL OF PENMANSHIP. in the other. Use No. 3 for the higher, and No. 1 for the lower. Have them all write at the same time. Give the lesson to one class, and direct them to write so many lines in the book, and then continue practising on their spare paper. Then give the lesson to the second class, and set them to work. Return to criticise the first class ; let them again write a definite number of lines ; then the second ; and so on. But now a question arises, What shall we do with scholars coming from other schools, who, well advanced in other studies, have yet never been taught to write ? The following method, which we pursue ourselves, has always been attended with success : We allow the scholar, on entering, to take the book that his class are using; but, instead of allowing hira to write the copies for the first few lessons, we set special ones for him. Remembering that the slanting straight line with the lower and upper turns is the fundamental form in the small letters, give him a copy of single u's, calling his atten- tion specially to the straightness and slant of the down-stroke, shortness of turn, and width of letter; next groups of u; then n and m, noticing the importance of carrying the up- stroke far enough over to make the down-stroke straight and slanting. Keep him on these forms till he masters the idea. Then show him the peculiarity of a, c, e, r, s, the change of slant in the upward movement for the stems and loops, and how to write the lower loops ; always keeping in mind, that, as soon as he knows the principles, he knows the letters. Then let him go on with the class, and in a short time he will, with a little special supervision, manage very tolerably. Another question is asked, How shall we correct wrong penholding? We answer, Show the reasonableness of good penholding, and then try the effects of a resolute will. How shall we correct bad position ? Show the reasonable- ness of a good position, and use persistent effort. How shall we interest our scholars ? Qualify yourselves by a thorough knowledge of this Manual, instruct your scholars as directed, keep their attention fixed on one point at a time, THE LESSON. 17 and insist on their doing as you tell them. Following our methods, you would find yourself able to interest a class for a whole month in the execution of simple straight lines. Scholars glory in perfection, if the possibility of it is only placed within their reach. THE LESSON. Under the head of Method of Instruction, we have given full directions for the teacher's guidance. "We propose here to give a few particulars as to the lesson. If possible, beginners in the grammar-school ought to write half an hour every day ; more advanced classes, forty minutes four times a week. The time selected should not be immedi- ately at the opening of the session or directly after recess, because then the scholars' hands are apt to be lieated by the excitement of play. The amount written must depend on the advancement of the scholars. At the first commencement, it may be only five or six lines of a column. After the first page, if that is care- fully written, there will be little difficulty in writing half a page at a lesson. Later, as much should be written as can be done well. Much will necessarily depend on the control the teacher has over the scholars in enforcing immediate and exact obedience and lively attention, and also on the number of scholars in the class. The books and other materials distributed as suggested in the next section, and the class in position, supposing penhold- ing and finger movements already taught, the teacher requires them to read the directions at the top of the page ; also any thing bearing on the lesson from the cover. He then questions them as to what is to be written, the name of the form, its parts and proportions. Having ruled lines -like those of the 18 MANUAL OF PENMAN'S HIP. book on the board, he requires tliem to direct him where to begin, what to write, following tlieir directions exactly. He should next give them such instruction as he finds in the Manual, and point out the true form on the Tablets. The common-school series is sufficiently complete, by tlie fulness of directions at the top of the pages and on the covers, to enable the teacher to do his work successfully b\- their aid alone ; but the Manual and Blackboard Tablets will be found very valuable auxiliaries by those who desire a thorough knowledge of the subject, as they are prepared for this very purpose. When the .scholars have acquired exact knowledge of what is to be done and how to do it, the next step is to have them write on their practice-paper by count, to trace the copy with dry pens, to criticise, and then to write in their books, to criticise and correct constantly in the way already directed. After the first page is written, five minutes of each lesson should be spent on the movement-exercises. (See page 34.) We cannot too earnestly urge upon teachers the importance of class-instruction and class-criticism; it saves so much labor, and is so much more effective. Though individual instruction cannot altogether be dispensed with, let it nevertheless be reduced to the minimum. OPENING AND CLOSING. The great object in distributing the materials for writing, which should always be kept in charge of the teacher, is to save time. After trying a variety of methods, we think the following is the most rapid, and occasions the least disturbance. A scholar is selected for each aisle, who distributes and collects the books right and left alternately. The piles are re re placed on the front desks : one scholar then collects the whole, e, e. POSITION. 19 placing the backs of one pile on the fronts of the next, and so on alternately, afterwards carrying the whole to the place appointed for them. As soon as the books are distributed, the scholars come to the teacher, who gives to each, in turn, the number of pens required for each aisle : they should always be carried with their points down. Or a handful of pens may be given to two scholars, who go down and up the_ aisles, meeting in the middle. They may be collected in the same way. The penwipers may be kept in the desks. During the distribution and collection, the scholars should all be in their usual position, with arms folded, or any other preferred. No interference with the distributers should be allowed. When all is ready, the following method for opening and closing will give a pleasant uniformity : the teacher can give the words or the numbers, as preferred : — OPENING. CLOSING. 1. Take position. 8. Dry the pens. 2. Adjust books. 9. Lay down pens. 3. Adjust arms. 10. Take usual position. 4. Find copy. 11. Close inkstands. 6. Open books. 12. Close books. 6. Open inkstands. N.B. — Give the order " Take 7. Take pens. ink " when ready. POSITION. The position of the body is of very great importance to correctness and freedom of execution. The proper position of the arms, hands, and books, must also be carefully attended to. The accompanying cuts give admirable illustrations. 20 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 1. Of the Body. — 1. Let the body be erect and self- supported. 2. Let the right side be turned exactly to the desk ; and the feet placed at the side of the seat, flat on the floor. (Fig. 1.) Remark. — 1. The relative position of the right fore-arm and book is thus most easily secured and maintained. 2. The front or back of the desk is a constant guide to the position of the fore-arm. 3. The body is more easily kept erect : there is less possi- bility of lounging. 4. The right fore-arm cannot get oif the desk : both the rests must remain on. 6. The teacher can easily see the position of every hand and arm across the rows and down the files. If this position has never been tried, we think the teacher will find it worth while to subject it to experiment. The only objection that can be made to this position is, on the ground, that in business, when using large account-books, it is unsuitable. The answer to this is, that it possesses very important advantages for learners and for the teacher; and that, when the art of writing is acquired, any other position will be found equally available. If, however, any other position should be preferred, — the body fairly fronting the desk (Fig. 2), or with more or less inclination of the right or left side to it (Fig. 3), — attention must be directed to the following points : — 1. Keeping the right fore-arm on the desk at least as far as half way between the wrist and elbow. This is accom- plished by pushing the book up every three or four lines. 2. Keeping the books at right angles to the fore-arm. 3. There must be no leaning against the desk, or resting on the right fore-arm. II. Of the Arms. — 1. Place the right fore-arm on the desk, parallel to the back or front edge. Much attention must be given to this rule, to guard against projecting the elbow. BIGHT SIDE TURNED TO THE DESK. (Fig. 10 FRONTING THE DESK. (V\:7. 9. ^ LEFT SIDE IXCLIKKD TO THK DESK;. (Hlfc, 3.) PENHOLDING. 28 2. Bring the left arm across, and place the fingers on the left side of the page, to keep the book steady. III. Of the Hands. — 1. Keep the right hand in a line with the fore-arm. 2. Keep the fingers of the left hand on the left side of the book. IV. Of the Book. — 1. Turn the book, and place the upper left corner in the corner of the desk, the top at the left side. It is to be pushed up toward the back of the desk when the first column is to be written, and drawn down to the front or over it for succeeding columns, to suit the scholar's convenience. 2. Place the top of the book on the left edge of a single desk, and at the left edge and middle of a two-seated desk. This should be constantly attended to. Kemakk. — It will be found convenient to double the books back exactly at the stitching, and to place the inner flap of the cover over the written pages. PENHOLDING. The most effectual method of teaching scholars to hold the pen correctly is to impress on their minds the following simple rules. •Por the MIDDLE FINGER, two rules : — Rule 1. — End of the finger at the end of the holder, where the pen is inserted (A). Eemark. — This allows the pen to project about three- quarters of an inch beyond the fingers, aud keeps the finger out of the ink. Rule 2. — Holder at the side of the finger, just under the corner of the nail. If preferred, instead of this, the holder may cross the finger at the root of the nail (B). 24 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. Remark. — We prefer the former for beginners ; ^because, if pupils are allowed to drop the end of the middle finger, they are apt to curl it up too much, and often to hold the pen with only the forefinger and thumb. For the thumb, two rules : — Rule 1. — End of the thumb opposite the first joint of the middle finger (C). Remark. — This is secured by bending the joints of the thumb outwards. Rule 2. — Inside upper corner of the thumb a little under the holder (D). Remark. — This is very important. If neglected, the holder will fall below the knuckle of the forefinger. The corner of the thumb, being under it, prevents this. Two rules for the forefinger : — Rule 1. — Shut the forefinger down on the pen, and let it touch the middle finger tliriaigliout its wliole length (B). Rkmark. — The first and second fingers are slightly bent outwards at the first and second joints. " Rule 2. — Let the holder cross the third section of the fore- finger obliquely b"Btween tlie second joint and the knuckle (P). Remark. — The holder can easily be kept above the knuckle if the corner of the thumb is placed a little under it. Two rules for the holder : — Rule 1. — It should make an angle of about 45° with the paper. If elevated too much, it is apt to catch in the paper; if not enough, clear lines cannot be made. Rule 2. — The top of it should point slightly inwards to the shoulder. This is effected by turning the hand slightly to the right at the wrist. It is thus made to slant nearly like the writing, and the hand is kept from dropping down on the right side. Remark. — There is a constant tendency with beginners to let the hand fall over and rest on the little-finger side. Hence this last rule is very important ; for, if the hand is allowed to bo rest on the side, it will be found that the move- PBNHOLDING. 25 ments are made ^y moving the whole hand from the wrist, which results in crooked and coarse lines, owing to the us« of only the right nib of the pen. Several methods may be used with advantage to teach the scholars how to hold the peu. 1. The teacher should take a position in front of his desk, and show the correct method with a pen in his own hand. 2. He should direct the scholars to take the holder by the end between the forefinger and thumb of the left hand, and to hold it vertically, with the point of the pen downwards ; then to hold out the right hand, to curl the third and fourth fingers up against the palm, to extend the first and second, and to place the end of the thumb a little beyond tlie first joint of the forefinger ; next, to raise the pen so that the holder may be in a horizontal position, and to move it sideways, and place it between the thumb and fingers along the whole length of the forefinger, the end of the holder next the pen at the side of the middle finger, or across the root of the nail. The holder thus placed, and still held at the top by the left-hand fingers, is below the knuckle : the fingers are still extended, and the thumb is underneath. Finally, he may direct them U raise the holder by the left hand above the knuckle, bendinj the fingers and the thumb at the first and second joint as they do so ; and the true position will be attained. Remark. — Too much stress cannot be laid upon the neces- sity of holding the penholder gently. It must not be grasped or pinched, as this, by the tension of the muscles, destroys all freedom of movement, and soon causes weariness and pain, 26 MANUAL OF PBlfMANSHIP. RESTS. There are two Rests, — one for the fore-arm, called the Arm- Rest ; and one for the hand, called the Hand-Rest. I. The Arm-Rest is the muscle at the thick part of the fore-arm, just below the elbow. By keeping the flat of the wrist well towards the desk, this muscle is brought under the arm. It forms a yielding cushion, on which and from which, as a centre of motion, the fore-arm can play easily. By rolling the arm sideways on it, a lateral movement is obtained ; and it also allows a projective and retractive movement of the whole fore-arm. This rest should be looked upon as the true support of the arm; and the hand should be considered as held out at the end of the arm thus supported. Remark. — In order to have free motion of the fore-arm, the hand must be kept well up, — that is, not leaning over towards the right, — and the wrist must not touch the paper. II. The Hand-Rest is the name given to the corners of the nails of the third and fourth fingers, which are placed on the paper by bending the fingers well under at the first and second joints. It should be used only to steady the hand. The hand should not be allowed to rest heavily on it : if it does, tlie side movement of the hand will be arrested. Remark 1. — The fleshy cushion of the third finger should be on the nail of the fourth, and these fingers should be kept clear of the pen-fingers. 2. — Let the scholars hold out the fore-arm, and observe that the hand does not sink down for want of support; that it can be held out in a line with the arm without resting on any thing. Endeavor to fix on their minds that the arm is thus to hold out and sustain the hand when writing, and that the Hand-Best is to be used only to steady it. MOVEMENTS. 27 MOVEMENTS. The force by which the pen is carried in different directions must work through some instrumentality. The action which results is termed a Movement. In writing, the instruments used are the pen-fingers, the fore-arm, and the whole arm, giving rise to the three principal movements, named respectively the finger movement, the fore- arm or muscular movement, and the whole-arm movement. The Finger Movemeiit is made by the extension and retraction of the pen-fingers by flexiob at the second joint of the first and second fingers, and at the first joint of the thumb, which also moves as far as its origin at the wrist. To teach this t-. your scholars, hold a pen in your hand so that all can see. Call their attention to the fact, that the fingers are bent down at the second joint, and the thumb out at the first ; thus holding the pen in a medium position, capa- ble of being moved upwards or downwards. Show them, that, if the fingers and thumb were straight, the pen would be fiilly extended, and an up-stroke could not be made : if they were bent as much as possible, the pen would be fully retracted, and no down-stroke could be made. Hence the convenience of the medium position. Next show, that, by straightening the thumb, the pen is pushed upwards ; and that, when the thumb pushes, the fingers yield at the second joint. In this way an up-stroke is made. Then show, that, by bending the fingers at the second joint, the pen is pushed downwards ; and that the thumb, in turn, yields by bending at the first joint, and giving way as far as the wrist. In this way a down-stroke is made. The scholars should now take their pens, and place them correctly in their fingers, holding them in the medium posi- 28 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. tion. Give the order " Thumb," upon which they are to push up with the tliumb, and observe the upward movement of the pen ; tlicn "Fingers," when they are to push down with the fingers, ;uid observe the downward movement of the pen. Repeat tliis slowly several times, then more rapidly. After this lias been done ten or twelve times, let them lay down their pens, as their fingers soon get tired, and their minds confused. While they are resting, tell them that you shall begin with tlie same words, and then change to numbers; that, when you say "One," tliey are to make the upward movement; " Two," the downward. Let them take their pens again, holding them in the medium position ; and after saying " Thumb," " Fingers,'' two or three times, begin " One," " Two," &c. Critical Points. — (1.) The correct holding of the pen ; especially that the penholder is in front of the knuckle. (2.) That the pen is in the medium position. (3.) That the hand is not resting on the right side. (4.) That the movement on the part of all the scholars is simultaneous. Remark 1. — Absolute obedience is necessary to success. Here is the beginning of that simultaneous work, which, care- fully enforced, will enable you to handle the class as one indi- vidual. 2. — Do not continue this exercise too long. Remember your own experience when you began to write. The Fore-arm or Muscular Movement consists of tho forvvard-and-backward and of the lateral movement of the fore-arm on the arm-rest, — that is, the muscle below the el- bow, — as the centre of motion. The combination of these two produces the oblique movements required. The Wbole-arm Movement is used mainly for striking large capitals and for flourishing. In this, the hand, steadied on its rest, is moved as required by the action of the whole arm from the shoulder as the centre of motion. Combined Movements result from the uaiion of any two or all of the above. MOVEMENTS. 29 Practical Use. — First, For beginners, since the time generally allotted to writing is so short, and the thorough study of the forms of the letters so imperative, the simplest movements we can use are the best. Two things are to be accomplished, — the up-strokes and down-strokes of the letters, and the keeping of the hand in the same relative position for each succeeding part by moving it to the right across the column. The finger movement secures the'former, and the lateral part of the fore-arm movement the latter. The diagram shows exactly how the movements are com-/ bined. The pen being correctly held, and the hand rightly placed, whenever the pen-fingers move up obliquely to make- the up-stroke, the hand-rest, and by consequence the whole hand, is moved sideways by the action of the fore-arm. When the pen-fingers move down, the forward movement of the hand and its rest is stopped, because the down-stroke is towards the left, and no advance of the hand is needed. The fingers make the up-strokes and down-strokes of the letter ; the rest slides forward on a straight horizontal line for each up-stroke, and stops whilst each down-stroke is made. Critical Points.' — (1.) The position of the hand, keep- ing it well up, not falling over to the right. (2.) The separa-- tion of the hand-rest from , the pen-fingers. (3.) The slide . sideways without " hitching." , ' Remakk. — It is very difficult for scholars to acquire this combined movement. Care should be taken, therefore, that, in writing, they do not lift the point of the pen from the paper till the group of letters or the word is written ; except in p^ for which special directions are given. 30 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. Secoad, As soon as the hand is somewhat trained, and a tolerable degree of steadiness acquired, an advance in move- ment may be safely attempted. The hand-rest should now be made to par- ticipate in the move- ments of the fingers. As they move obliquely up and down, it should do the same, describing a letter of the same form, but making it of less height, because part of the movement is made by the fingers. Critical Points. — > (1.) Making the hand-rest move with the fingers. (2.) Taking care that the wrist does not touch the paper. Third, The muscu- lar movement, which is the true business move- ment, may now be ac- quired. It consists in the use of the fore-arm mainly, the pen-fingers being used only to aid in making the extended letters. For the short letters, the fingers are not moved at all. The fore-arm moves the whole hand to form the letter; and conse- quently the hand-rest describes a letter of the same form and size as the pen does. For the ex- tended letters, the fingers are extended or contracted to make those parts of the stems and the loops which are above or below the short letters. This is shown in the diagram by the dotted lines. For the capitals, the mpvpolent of the fingers is combined COTJNTING. 31 with that of the whole hand, to give the greatest possible ease to the curves and turns. Critical Points. — (1.) Making the slightest possible movement of the pen-fingers, except in .the extended letters and capitals. (2.) Using the muscle below the elbow as the centre of motion. Remark. — The muscular movement can only be acquired by persistent practice. Our own experience teaches us, that, if scholars are thoroughly drilled in the accurate execution of the forms of the letters, as soon as they have sufficient prac- tice they run at once into a business-hand. The most superlative movement without accurate and graceful form is absolutely worthless ; while, on the other hand, real grace and finish can only be secured by free and practised movement. Farther on, a section will be found giving a variety of exer- cises to facilitate the acquirement of this. COUNTING. As the appearance of the lines forming the letters should be uniform, equable movements are necessary in their execu- tion ; and, as there are a great many things for a beginner to think about in writing, some device for securing sufficient time for thought is very valuable. For these ends, no method has yet been found superior to counting. It checks the sudden jerks with which beginners delight to strike off the final parts of letters, and it compels them to such a rate of progress as gives time for thought and care. Besides thig, it urges the very slow to a proper speed, and checks the hurried rate of the nervous ; while it exercises a peculiarly beneficent influence on the irritable. It should always be remembered that it is merely a means to these ends, and not an end itself. If any one doubts its 32 MANrAL OF PENMANSHIP. utility, instead of speculating on its probable results, let it be subjected to the test of experience, and a wise decision can soon be arrived at. When scholars begin the study of penmanship, the first five or six copies of No. 1 may be counted all through. Then it may be found sufficient to count the first column of each new combination ; afterwards, merely half a column ; later still, only two or three lines. As soon as equable movements are attained, and the class generally are drilled to a proper care, and avoidance of hurry, it may be dispensed with altogether. It will, however, be found useful for any new letter or peculiar combination, and for au occasional check on too rapid a rate of execution. Our method is to count generally the odd numbers for the up-strokes, and the even numbers for the down-strokes. I^HBH^^n^^H Thus, in a, we count one, up; two, ^^BI^BSK^B^ down ; three, up ; four, down ; one, up. ^S^BB^BB^^^^ "y^P count one for the final connecting line, because, in a combination, it is the first line of the next letter. Such a method of counting should be used as may best secure the end in view. Thus, in /■, for beginners it is useful to count four, — one, up ; two for the very short line return- ing on the same; three for the little vertical line; four for the oblique stiaight line, and bend of turn ; one for the final connecting line. In this case, as the lines two and three are very short, the numbers may be counted a little more rapidly. When scholars are more advanced, and the writing is smaller three may be counted. Thus, one, up; two for the head; three, the oblique down-stroke ; one, up. The general rule for counting is, to use a fresh count for each principal change of direction in the lines. Cross the t and x, and dot the i and j, after the group or word is finished, saying, "Cross," "Dot." It will be found important, also, to show on the board pre- cisely hpw much of a letter is made at each count. Thus, in MOVEMENT EXERCISES. 33 M, one, the whole up-stroke ; two, the whole down-stroke, — ■ that is, the oblique straight line, with the little bend at the bottom for the turn ; three, the whole up-stroke ; four as two ; one as three. Eemember to warn the scholars against stopping in the middle of the turn : the motion is continuous through the principle. For the capitals the same method may be followed. Thus for B, with the full oval front, we may count, for stem, one, double curve down ; two, up on left side to the middle of the turn ; three, down and under to the left ; four, over and down to the middle of the turn ; five, up. The figures for counting are marked above the copies in the earlier books. MOVEMENT EXERCISES. The accompanying exercises are designed, after a definite and scientific method, to train the hand in acquiring facil- ity of execution for those movements which the actual forms of writing require. The common practice in many systems of giving a variety of unconnected exercises, leading to no given 'result, ■and pranged without rhyme or reason, has brought such exetciae* into disrepute with practical teachers. They will, neveri^eless, be found a most valuable auxiliary when rightly arranged and faithfully used. We therefore Ball especial attention to the progressive arrangement and definite object of those here given. It is desirable that the teacher should place them on the board and explain their object, giving exact directions for their execution, and requiring perfect obedience to his direc- tions. Let the pupils have half a quire of letter-paper or a spare blank-book, ruled, without copies ; and insist upon the exercisee s 34 MANXTAI OP PENMANSHIP. being written according to the directions given, as carefully as they write their copies, without any scribbling. Careful attention should be given to correct position and penholding : without these the exercises will he of no value. Bxs. A, B. — As scholars are very apt to lean the hand over to the right, these vertical exercises are designed to correct the fault. Draw four horizontal lines on the board to repre- sent the ruling of their paper. Begin at the top line ; go vertically down to the fourth, up, down, &c., counting " one " for each movement: thus, "one," "two," &c., — six in all. Then begin again at a short distance from the last. Watch the position and penholding. The movement should be made on the muscle in front of the elbow : the nails of the third and fourth fingers should accompany the movement of the fingers down and up. The vertical oval should be written in the same way. In the diagram the lines are made separate, to show that there are several ; but, in writing, they should simply overrun the first lines. Ex. 1. — To acquire the sliding movement on the nails of the third and fourth fingers. Draw four lines on the board as before, long enough to represent the width of the page. Write the first line of the exercise on the first line, half across the page only, the next a little below, and so on, the sixth on the next ruled line below; then on tke other half of the page ; thirdly, begin on the next ruled Ime, &c. The muscle- rest remains stationary ;. the finger-rest slides forward. The straight line is made by a slight retraction of the fingers to counteract the tendency to curve. Ex. 2. — For practice on the sliding movement. In this case, remember the object is the movement, and not the aViso- lute straightness of the lines. Count as marked. Bxs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. — These are drills on the sliding movement of the finger-rest up and down. Draw six lines on the board. Begin at the top, and write down to the third : when this row is completed, begin on the fourth, and write MOVEMENT EXERCISES. MOVEMENT EXERCISES. MOVEMENT EXERCISES. 35 down to the sixth. Require the lines to be made by move- ment on the muscle-rest without bending the fingers. In Sxs. 7, 8, overrun the first oval, always using the fore-arm movement. Ex. 9. — To combine the left-to-right and the up-and-down fore-arm movements. Begin on the second line and slide, slightly rising to half the height between the lines. Make the down-stroke without moving the fingers at the counts "one," "two," giving the order " Slide " as shown. Turn at the base- line. Let this exercise extend across half the page. Ex. 10. — Condensing the last. Make four down-strokes across half the page. Ex. 11. — This further condensation gives the letter it, showing the scholar that the exercise leads directly to a practical end. Write two groups, of three tj's each, half across the page. If beginners make longer groups, they are apt to get out of position. Count one, two, three, four, one, &c. Exs. 12, 13, 14. — Similar exercises on the second and third principles, resulting in the letter n. Ex. 15. — The m, for variety, may sometimes have the curve swung round it, as in Ex. 18 ; or the last, line may be swung under, and two other groups written on the lines below, as Ex. 36. Do not try to have more than three lines written, as the arm-rest will not allow it for beginners. Count six. For the connecting-line of groups say " Round." Exs. 16, 17, 18, 19, 20. — These are illustrations of the way in which all the short letters should be practised. The fore-arm movement is to be used throughout, without using the fingers ; which wiU, however, slightly particiijate in the movement, as it is right they should. The object is to drill the scholar on the fore-arm movement ; and therefore we con- centrate his attention on that : the fingers will take care of themselves. Exs. 21, 22, 23, 24. — To drill on the shades and extended movements in the stems and looped letters. Write the shades as directed in the chapter on Shading., 36 MANUAL OP PENMANSHIP. Exs. 25, 26, 27, 28. — Further fxf irises on the loops. Ex. 29. — Tliis is an exercise for tlie direct oval. It should be overrun between three Hues. Width lialf the length. Ex. 30. — This is intended to give the power of shading the left curve wliile tlie pen is kept in motion. Separate ovals follow, to be struck with a free fore-arm movement. Count one, down ; two, up, &c. ; later, one for the complete oval, &c. Ex. 31. — An exercise forthe indirect oval. Count one, up ; two, down; three, up; four, down, &c. ; the two and three a little quicker. Ex. 32. — Varied exercises on the same, introducing the shaili' on tlie riglit curve. Ex. 33. — Forthe capital-stem, to acquire the double curve. It should be overrun. Forms are also given to impart facility in making the shade on tlie lower curve of the stem. Exs. 34, 35. — Drills to give power in sliading. Ex. 36. — An exercise on writing short words three times, each below the other, connecting them by a curved line swung under. A variety of words should be used. Ex. 37. — A group of letters or a word may thus have an oval swung round them several times. Exs. 38, 39, 40. — These are varied exercises on the direct oval. Capital-stem and indirect oval adapted to give free- dom of movement, and power of shading. SPACING. Spacing treats of the width of letters, and of their arrange- ment in words at proper distances. The distances between words and sentences are also embraced under this head. The width of each letter is given in the analysis and description of the letters : therefore nothing further need be said about it here. We have shown that the width of a letter SPACING. 37 depends upon the slant of the up-stroke. It may be well to repeat, that a condensed style results from carrying up the up- strokes with very little more slant than the down-strokes, and a running hand from giving increased slant to the up-strokes. We pass on, then, to the consideration of the combination of letters. The standard of measurement ' for width is the width of the letter it between its two upper points : this is termed a space, and depends on the slant of the up-stroke. The governing principle in- combining letters in a word is, that they should look about the same distance' apart. This distance is most con- veniently made when the up-stroke is oblique, by giving it the same slant as it has in u. If the next letter begins with a turn, as n, it will be a little farther off than a space ; but the correct slant of the up-stroke will place it right. When the last line of a letter is a horizontal curve, as in o or V, it supersedes the first line of the next letter ; and the question arises, How long should this horizontal curve be? We think, about three quarters of a space ; because, this con necting curve being at the top, the space between the letters, shows more than if it were crossed by an oblique line. The simple rule, therefore, for spacing letters in a word is, when the last line of a letter is an up-stroke, write it with the usual up-slant, observing those exceptions which arise from any peculiarity of the following letter, — as e, for instance ; but, when the last line of a letter is a horizontal curve, extend it three-quarters of a space, — that is, of the width of ti. In writing words in a sentence, begin the first line of a succeeding word vertically under the termination of the last line of the previous word. Eemark. — It is a veiy common fault to place the words too far apart. Sentences should begin close to the period which terminates the previous sentence. 38 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. Paragraphs should begin about half an inch from the margin. In punctuation, the stops should be placed close to the word they follow. Figures should be written about half a space apart. SHADING. Variety is an element of beauty. To have aU the down- strokes in writing equally fine or heavy would become weari- some to the eye through sameness, and the happy effect of contrast would be lost. Hence in the modem business style it is customary, while by far the larger number remain fine, to shade the remaining few. A fine line (Fig. 1) is one made by simply moving the pen on the paper without pressure. A shaded line (Fig. 2) is one made by press- ing on the pen as it is moved. PLACE OF THE SHADE. I. On the Straight Line. — Whether diminishing or in- creasing, the shade on the straight line is placed wholly on the left, as illustrated by the dotted lines in the illustration. Diminishing (Fig. 1), which begins heaviest at the top, and gradually diminishes to its close. To make the top square, care must be taken to spread the points of the pen to the width desired before commencing the downward movement ; then in descending, gradually lessen the pressure. SHADINGt. 39 Increasing (Fig. 2), which is begun at the base-line, and gradually becomes heavier to its close. To make the end of the increasing shade square, the down- ward movement must be stopped before the pressure is released, and the points of the pen are allowed to come together. Where there is a turn at the base (Figs. 3, 4), the pressure should be wholly released before reaching the turn. Where there is a turn at the top and base (Fig. 5), the shade diminishes equally towards the turns, being heaviest in the middle. If the movement of the pen in making these shades is carefully watched, it .will be seen how perfectly natural it is that the left point of the pen should spread out to form them, while the right point descends on a perfectly straight line and the usual slant. II. Shade on the Oval. — (1.) On the left side of the Direct Oval (Fig. 2), the dotted line shows that the shade is formed wholly on the left side of the true curve. This evidently results from the action of the pen's points, and produces true beauty of form ; for the eye naturally compares the inside of the curve on the left side, which bounds the enclosed space, with the curve that forms the right boundary. (2.) On the right side of the Indi- rect Oval, the shade is formed wholly on the right side of the true curve. The pressure must be made to fall on I lie left point of the pen, leaving the right point at liberty to spread and form the shade. In this case, also, the eye is satisfied with the result, as the inner and opposite lines of the curves bounding the oval are found perfectly symmetrical. (3.) In the Capital Stem (Fig. 2), the shade falls wholly on the right of the curve. The right point of the pen begins the 40 !\rANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. down-stroke; but the roll of the hand throws the pressure on to the left point, owing to the direction of the shade, and the right is left free to spread and form the shade. The inner curves are thus kept sj'mmetrical. Execution of Shades. — All shades in capitals, to have a smooth and pleasing effect, must beuiade by a quick and firm downward movement of the whole hand, and not merely bv pressure of the fingers. All shades should increase and diminish gradually. On the ovals, it is generally heaviest at the point of extreme cuiTa- ture. The shades must not be sudden or abrupt, and great care must be used that the shaded curves are not straiglitened. The Dot, or Bulb, is sometimes preferred for the beginning or finish of letters. It is here given of larger size than is proper for ordinary writing, for the sake of illustrating its true form. Special pains must be taken in forming it to give it a handsome appearance. Figs. 1 and 4 illus- trate it as the finish of an up-stroke. To make it, give a twist to the pen as the pres- sure is gradually increased, that it may have the shape of a pear. Figs. 2, 5, and 6 illustrate it when preferred for the -finish of a capital stem or other down-strokes. In making this, carry the fine line up and over; then give a twist to the pen towards the left as the pressure is suddenly increased and gradually diminished. Fig. 3 illustrates it when preferred for the commencement of a letter. The method of formation is also by a twist of the pen, as before. Shades, where used In ordinary writing, shades are used on the ovals of a, 'UAL OF PEXMAXSHIP. An oval modified by having more tlian the usual slant, the top pointed and projecting on the right side, is the Fourth Principle. Formation. — Continue the first curve well over, toucli- ing the top line as far forward as the second point of a u ; return half a space on this line, and make a curved down-stroke with enough slant to carry it back to the first lower turn of m; then ascend like the inner line of m, and finish like u with the First Principle. Width, one space. Illustration. — Draw the letter u on tlie l)oard. Change the first up-stroke to the luft curve, and carry it over and for- ward to the second point of the u, — that is, over like the first line of n, but not touching the top line so soon, and then for- ward one space ; next, return on the same line half a space, and slant back into the first turn of the u ; after this, continue and finish exactly like u. It adds to the force of this illustra- tion if the u is made with wliite chalk, and the a with red. The dowji-stroke of the oval has more than the usual slant. Critical Points. — (1.) Carrying the up-stroke over, and then forward one space. (2.) The increased slant of the down-stroke, that the letter in which it is used may be one space wide on the base-line. Remark. — It should be observed, that two special habits are here to bo formed, — (1) of carrying the first line forward, and (2) of giving the increased slant to the down-stroke. Both of the movements necessary to effect this are peculiar to the Fourth Principle. ■■B^^^^nnHB| Analysis. — The parts of c aro ^BHHHHHH Elements IV., Y., lY., IL, III. ^^^^—1—^-^— Formation. — Begin like the Second ^^^H^H^^^I Principle, — left curve, turn and descend jKBKBBKI^^ straight and slanting one-fourth a space; stop short, retrace the turn, form the left side and lower turn of an oval, and finish with the right curve on the usual up slant to the height of the letter. ELBMEN-TS, PKINCIPLES, AND LETTERS. 63 Eemaek. — Take care that the down-stroke of the turn at the top is on the down-slant ; that it is not made heavy, or carried down too far. It is also a very common fault to make , the back of c too round. This arises from the fact that the down-stroke is a curve. Illustrate on the board, contrasting the correct form and the error. Critical Points, — (1.) Narrow top. (2.) Slightly-curved down-stroke, not turned too soon. (3.) Narrow lower turn. |Bn^^^BB^HBB Analysis. — Tlie parts of e are IS^H^^HSH^H Elements III., lY., IL, III. Formation. — Begin with a right curve having more than the usual slant ; at one-third of the height from the base-line change this to the down-slant, that the sides of the loop may be parallel; at the top line make a narrow turn to the left, descend, and finish like c, crossing the up-stroke at one-tliird from the base-line. If another e follows, slant low, and then slant up as before. The low slant must be carried far enough to place the second 6 one space from the first. ^^^^_g^BgnK^K ILLUSTRATION. — Draw the letter ^BJR9|^9|^H^^H 11 on the board. Call attention to the W^SBBBIB^^B^^^ uniform slant of the first and of the second up-strokes. Make a mark on each of the -down-strokes of u one-third of a space from the base-line. Thei} draw the first line to this point, and notice the increased slant; in other words, how low the line must be that it may be crossed one- third from the base-line. Next carry the line up, and join it to the top of the m by a narrow turn. Notice that the slant here is less than the usual up-slant. Compare the forms of the two up-strokes, wrjting them separately on the board, and asking the scholars which you have made. . Eepeat this for the second e. Use red chalk, if convenient, for filling in the e's. Oritioal Points. — (1.) Slanting low, and then lessening the slant at one-third from thp base-line. (2.) Making the down-stroke with a slight curve, and not turning too soon. (3.) End the last up-stroke at the height of the letter. 64 MANUAL OP PENMANSHIP. Eemabe. — Observe the special habit which must be formed for the execution of the first up-stroke as it is fouud in this letter alone. Since e is one of the letters which most frequently occur in the English language, it is very important that it should be well made ; and yet no letter will give the teacher more trouble. Scholars, unless constantly watched, make it with a round back, nearly upright, and ending on the base-line. Be especially careful, therefore, that the three Critical Points are observed in practice. ^^■■■[^^■■ra^^^H Analysis. — The parts of r are ^I^^^^^H^Q^^H Element III., dot, slight vertical curve, and First Principle. Formation. — Begin with the right curve, lessening its slant very slightly, and rise one-fourth of a space above the top line. Then retrace a little without pressure to form the dot, and go directly down to unite with the First Principle just below the top line. The width of ;• at half the height is half a space. Place the r's in the box as shown in the copy. Bemabk. — It will be observed, that, in the Analysis, we say "slight curve;" and in the formation, "go directly down." The former is the true form : the latter is used to prevent the scholars, whilst beginners, from making the head project in an awkward manner in front, as is their too-common habit. ^^H||^n^^B| IllustK'Ation. ' — ^ Write t( on the ^KaSB^uKBk board; then, as in the diagram, carry up ^BKBBBttKk the first line with lessened slant one-fourth higher, and make the head, joining it to the u a little below its point. Repeat for the second r. Use red chalk, as before suggested. Critical Points. — (1.) Small dot and short vertical down- stroke of the head. (2.) Straightness and slant of the down- stroke. (3.) Ending at the usual height. This letter will always need special attention. JiliEMENTS, PRINCIPLlBS, AND LETTERS. 65 |^Hj|^^^B|^^^^^HH Analysis. — The parts of s are ^^^Qj^^^^^H Elements III., III., II., dot, and III. Formation. — Make the first up-stroke as in r, with slightly-lessened slant, and to one-fourtli above the top line. Retrace to the top line, and then form the right side and lower turn of an oval, rising one-fourth of a space from the base-line on the left side. Retrace downward to form a dot on the first up-stroke, project the last up-stroke a little before ascending, and finish at the usual height. ^^■^^■■^^■B Illustkatiox. — Make an oval on the ^^HH^^I^^H board ; draw through it with red chalk the ^^^EBI^B^^M first up-stroke, as in the diagram, cutting the left side of the oval at one-fourth from the base-line, and rising to one-fourth above the top. Retrace this, and join to the right side of the oval. Bend the up-stroke of the turn on the left side down a little to form the dot on the up-stroke with its slant. Show that, if the last up-stroke did not project a little at the base, it would be too close to the s, as in the dotted line. The letter s occurs so frequently in writing, and requires attention to so many points, that it will be found worth while to use the accompanying diagram for further illustration. Draw on the board the double lines. Make each of these errors in turn, and require those scholars who see any tiling wrong to raise their hands ; then inquire what it is. It will be observed that the erroneous forms are not made at random or arranged promiscuously, nor are aU possible faults given, but that a selection is made with a definite purpose, to enforce the knowledge of the letter in its particulars by contrast with error. The answers will be as follows : Not above the line (Tig. 1) ; a 66 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. turn not brought down to the line, making the base double (Fig. 2) ; too high (Fig. 3) ; not retraced at top (Fig. 4) ; too sadden a swell for the oval (Fig. 5) ; left side of turn projecting instead of going up, and being bent back on the first up-stroke (Fig. 6) ; not retraced at the base, but looped (Fig. 7). Critical Points. — To go up on the left side of the lower turn, and to bend down the line so that the dot may be on first up-stroke. THE STEM-LETTERS. The four stem-letters, t, d, p, and q, are so named from the extended straight lines which are found in them. The length and straight- ness of these stems render them peculiarly adapted for shading: hence they are among the most showy letters in writing. j^^^HnSJI^^H^H Analysis. — The parts of t are ^^HH^^HHRj^l Element III., the Kight Curve, as ^^^B^KBIBBI^^ <^onnectmg-\me, the First Principle extended, and the crossing. Formation. — Begin at the base-line with the right curve and the usual up-slant to the height of one space ; then change the slant to that of the down-stroke, and carry it to one space more in height. At the desired height, spread the points of the pen by pressure to the width required for the shade before the downward movement is begun ; descend with a slanting straight line on the usual down-slant, gradually'di- minishing the pressure ; and finish like the first principle, at one space in height. Cross it at one-third from the top with a very fine horizontal line one space long, and of even length on each side of the stem. To make the crossing level, it must be executed by moving the whole hand sideways, sliding on the finger-rest. KLEMENTS, PRINCIPLES, ASH LETTERS. 67 ^■■H^^^^H Illustration. — Place a m on the ^^HHH^^H board. Call attention to the fact that thu ^^^^^^^^^^B up-strokes slant more than the down- strokes. Continue the first up-stroke to another space in height without changing the slant. Next draw the upper pari of the extended First Principle, and thus show the necessity oi clianging the slant of the up-stroke at the height of one space from the base-line, that it may be retraced half its height by the down-stroke. WK^BSB^KKBM Show further, that, if the slant is ^^K^BE/KK^^k not changed, one of three faults must ^^^^^^^HBB^^H result ; either the stem will form an angle at the top with the up-stroke (Fig. 1), or it will have too much slant (Fig. 2) or a very broad turn (Fig. 3). Remark. — Wherever there is any thing peculiar in a form, there must be a corresponding change in the habitual movement to execute it. Hence especial care is needed to see that the new habit of movement is acquired. Remind the scholars of the force of the old habit already formed, and that it is only by intelligent watchfulness that the change can be made. Critical Points. — (1.) Changing the slant of the up- stroke from the height of one space upwards. (2.) Making the turn the same width as the lower turn in other letters. (3.) Crossing level by moving the whole hand. (4.) Dimin- ishing shade. (5.) Height. Whenever in any small letter the up-stroke is carried above one space in height, the slant must be changed. ■^■■■^^^^^■■n Analysis. — The parts of d are ^^KB^K^BKU^ Element lY., Fourth Principle, and ^HH[^^HBBHiil First extended. Formation. — Begin like a. Change the slant of the up- stroke of the Fourth Principle as in the up-stroke of t, and finish as t without the crossing. The Fourth Principle in A is not shaded. Critical Points. — Those of the Fourth Principle and att. 68 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. Analysis. — The parta of p are Elements III., I., and Third Prin- ciple. Formation. — The up-stroke, according to the rule given under t, since it is carried above one space, ilants less than usual. This change is to be made from the !)ase-line, and not at the height of one space, as in t, in order that the angle may he kept open to the top point, instead of having the up-stroke retraced. Ascend two spaces from the base-line, stop, and descend straight and slanting to one space and a half below the base-line, beginning to shade at the centre, and increasing the shade to its termination. When the stem is made, stop the movement, then release the pressure to make the end of the shade square, raise the pen, begin again ■v^here the stem crosses the base-line, and add the Third Principle. Illustkation. — Draw the scale on the- board. Write the up- stroke as in Fig. 1, with the usual up- slant, to the height of two spaces ; then the down-stroke with its proper slant ; call attention to the too great widtli at the base-line. It would he well to write the .syllable ap with the last up-stroke of a carried up as described, and notice that the p is, in consequence, too far off from a. Returning to the scale, without raising the pen from the bottom of the stem, write the up-stroke with its usual slant, and finish the Third Principle (see Fig. 1). Notice the double stem thus formed, and the distance between the stem and the Third Principle. From this show the advantage of raising the pen at the termination of the stem, and begin- ning again at the base-line. Draw the up-stroke as before (see Fig. 2), and then bring down the stem at the correct distance from it on tlie base-line, ELEMENTS, PRINCIPLES, AND LETTERS. tib and observe that the stem has now too much slant. This is a- very common fault, and arises from not changing the slant of the up-stroke. Draw the up-stroke as in t (see Fig. 3), changing the slant at the height of one space. If the stem is now written on the correct slant, the up-stroke will be retraced through one space, as in t. By adding the up-stroke with the slant lessened from the base-line, show how all these errors are avoided. Remark. — Eemember the remark under t as to the force of habit. The movement for the up-stroke of p is peculiar to this letter, and used in no other. There must, therefore, be a special act of the mind whenever p is written, — at the begin- ning of a word, to change the slant of the up-stroke ; when fol- lowing a letter, to change the slant of the last up'stroke of the letter. This act of the mind must be repeated till the habit is formed, and the mental act becomes no longer a conscious one. Critical Points. — (1.) Lessening the slant of the up- stroke from the base-line. (2.) Increasing sJiade of stem from its centre. (3.) Raising the pen at the termination of the stem, and beginning again on the base-line. Analysis. — The parts of q are Element IV., Fourth Principle, and Elements I., II., IV. Formation. — Begin- as in g,, con- tinue the straight line of the stem downwards one space and a half below the base-line, make a narrow turn, ascend with the left curve nearly parallel to the stem as far as the base-line, thence branch off with the usual slant. Critical Points. — (1.) TliDse for the Fourth Principle. (2.) Carrying up the lower part of the last up-stroke parallel to the stem. Ebmaek. — The common fault, arising from the force of habit, is to slant this up-stroke too much from the turn upwards. It will also require much care to join this letter in a point to the letter u, by which it is always followed. 70 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. THE FIFTH PRINCIPLE. The upper looped stem is the Fifth Princi- ple. Analysis. — The parts of the Fifth Princi- I pie are Elements III., V., and IV., ending in I. Formation. — Begin with the right curve, iis in i, thence lessening the slant according to the rule under t ; carry it to two spaces above the top line ; make a narrow turn to the left ; descend with a very slight left curve, so as to cross the up-stroke exactly on the top line ; finish with the slanting straight line. The object of changing the slant in the up-stroke is to make the loop on the down-slant ; in other words, to prevent it from falling over in the ungraceful way in which it is generally written. Illustration. — Draw the scale on the board. Write an i without the dot. Con- tinue the first two lines two spaces above the top line, with the proper slant of each, as in Fig. 1. Notice tlie divergence of these lines, and sliow that it is necessary to modify one line ar the other to make the loop. Repeat the same form, and make the loop on the up-stroke, as in Fig. 2. Notice that now the loop has too much slant. It would off'end the eye accustomed to the regular slant of tlw with white. This illustration shows that the general outline of the letter is a broad oval. Eemakk. — The force of habit here again asserts itself The back of the D is carried up on the usual up-slant : this makes a peak at the top on the right side of the stem, before a turn can be made to descend for tlie front, which is, consequently, also spoiled. This fault will be avoided by noticing that the back of the D is the right side of an oval, as indicated by the dotted line in the diagram. Critical Points. — (1.) Slant of the stem. (2.) Touching base-line on right side of stem. (3.) Narrow lobe, half a space wide. (4.) Highest point to the left of the stem. (5.) Full front of correct proportions as to width and depth. Analysis. — The parts of E are an oval top, joining loop, and Eighth Principle modified. The Eighth Principle here is nearly two-thirds the height of the letter. Formation. — Begin at the top, with the left curve slight- ly shaded ; descend two-thirds of a space ; make a narrow turn ; ascend with right curve ; turn at the top to the left, and descend with left curve, dropping it a little as it comes forward as far as a slanting line through the right curve of the top ; make 88 MAxrAL or penmanship. the narrow loop, throwing the curve well over to the leftj and finish with the Eiglith Principle modified in size. The width of the top oval is lialf that of the lower. The top is placed over the middle of the lower oval (see the second part of the diagram below). The joining loop is one-third of the height of the letter from the top. The joining loop points downwards towards the right. The downward inclinatimi of this little loop is the key to the whole letter, as will be sliown iu a succeeding illustration. Illustration. — Draw the scale on the board, place in it an oval two spaces high, and then a small oval one spai_e liigh, and half the width of the lower oval, intersecting the larger oval, as shown in the dia- gram. Then make the E in it. This shows that the outline of the letter arises from two in- tersecting ovals, and that the joining loop points downwards. This latter point being, as we have said, the key to this very difficult letter, the accom- pajiying diagram is given to prove it. If the lower curve of the loop is carried up, which is the natural temlency, or even made level, it is evident that it is impossible to carry the upper curve of the loop over in such a way as to form the rounding back of the lower oval half a space beyond the left side of the head. The diagram (Fig. 1) shows that the line will so descend as to make the whole back of the letter on the same straight line ; and the more an effort is made to carry the line back, the worse is the result. Another error also necessarily arises, — making the lower oval slant out too much in front. The whole difficulty will be avoided if the top is made as in the diagram (Fig. 2), with the lower line of the loop descend- ing and reaching forward as far as a line on the slant through the front of the top. Critical Points. — (1.) Making the top one-third and the lower oval two-thirds the height. (2.) Making the joining KLKMENXS, PKII^CIPJLKS, AND l.KTTERS. 89 loop incline downwards to the right. (3.) Broad turn at the bottom. Analysis. — The parts of C are the loop of the Fiftli Principle anil the Eighth Principle modified. Remark. — The Eighth Principle is here only half the height of the letter. Formation. — Begin on the base-line with the right curve, give it full slant, and at one sjpace in height lessen the slant, as directed for the Fifth Principle ; ascend to the full height, make a narrow turn, descend with the left curve, cross, and begin the turn at one-third from the base-line, make the turn broad, ascend with the right curve, turn at half the height, and finish with the left curve, ending near the base-line. The width of the loop is half a space ; of the oval, one spa(;e and a third. The length of the loop is two-thirds the heijclit of the letter. The distance between the left curves is one- third the width of the oval. Critical Points. — CI.) Changing the slant of the first up- stroke at the height of one space. (2.) Crossing one-third from the base-line. (3.) Broad turn at the base. (4.) Mak- ing final oval half the height. THE NIKTH PRINCIPLE, OR INVERTED OVAL. Analysis. — The parts of the Ninth Principle, or Inverted Oval, are the left curve, the upper turn, and the right curve. This Principle is subject to modifleations, which wUl be noticed as they occur. Remake. — This Principle is found in seven letters, — X, Z, Q, W, V, U, Y. Formation. — Observe the style of the introductory Hue, a long full curve, rising with a graceful sweep clear to top. 90 MANUAL OF PENMAKSHIP. The full curvature brings the curve at the start almost at right angles to maio slant. Begin at base-line ; make a full left curve on upward move- ment, to height of three spaces, carrying it well to the left at Lite start ; here make a full oval turn to the right to connect \vith downward right curve ; and descend with full right iiirve shaded, ending on base-line. The width of the Principle across the short diameter is about one space and a half, — or one-half the height. The right curve has combined shade, which is heaviest at the centre. Illustration. — The force of habit again I .leads the scholars into error. They usually malce the curvature and slant of the first up- strolce like that of the Second Principle, as shown in the diagram. To correct this, the first line must have the full curvature and the slant of the first side of an oval. Exercise. — Drill the scholars on Movement Exercises Nos. 31, 32. Critical Points. — (1.) The curvature and slant of the first up-stroke. (2.) The proportions. Analysis. — The parts of X are the Ninth Principle, and the Eighth Principle modified, the two parts touching at the middle. Formation. — Make the Ninth Principle as before di- rected. Next begin well out to the right at the top, and make the left curve nearly to base, touching first part in the mid- dle ; finish with lower turn and right curve rising to height of one space. Critical Points. — (1.) Those of the Ninth Principle. (2.) Having the parts touch at the middle. ELEMENTS, PKINCIPLES, AND LETTERS. 91 Analysis. — The parts of Z are the Ninth Principle, and the Sixth joined to the upper part by a loop and turn. Formation. — Make the Ninth Principle, and, when the base-line is reached, ascend on the left side to form a loop half a space high, turn to the right, and make the lower looped-stem. Remakk. — When one Z comes under another, care must be taken to slant the main down-strokes correctly, and to place the head of the lower Z beside and close to the lower loop of the upper one. If this is not attended to, each succeeding Z will be farther to the right, and the appearance of the copy will be spoiled. Critical Points. — (1.) Making the last down-stroke of the upper part slant under enough. (2.) Keeping the lower loop on the proper slant. Analysis. — The parts of Q are the Ninth Principle, a horizontal loop, and double curve. Formation. ■ — ■ Make the Ninth Principle, carrying the lower part of the last down-stroke a little more under; go forward to make the horizontal loop, return to the base-line on the right side, and finish with a double curve rising one space above the base-line, as in L. Critical Points. — (1.) Those of the Ninth Principle. (■2.) Carrying the down-stroke well under and forward. (3.) Touching the base-line again on the right side of the main down-stroke. Analysis. — The parts of W are the Ninth Principle, the right curve, and the left curve repeated. Formation. — Begin with the Ninth Principle, and from the point on the base-line make a slight right curve extend- II.) MAMAJ. OF I'KNMANWHrP. ing to the full height ; descend witli a slight left curve, giving this line a little bearing to the right : at the base-line move tlie pen forward \ ery slightly to take off the sharp point, and finish with the right curve to two-thirds the height. The curvature of this line is somewhat increased in the upper jiart. The extreme width of the letter, as will be seen in llie above diagram, is two spaces and a half. Across the raiddh' are three equal distances. Take care to keep the lines separate, except at the point at the top and base line. Critical Points. — (1.) Those of the Ninth Principle. (2.) Keeping the successive parts separate, except at the joining point, and yet close enough to it. (3.) The set of the third part. (4.) The even distances across the middle. Analysis. — The parts of F are the Ninth Principle, turn, and left curve. Formation. — Make the Ninth Principle, and, when near the base-line, make a narrow turn to the right, and finish with the left curve at one space from I lie top, as in W. (1.) The main down-stroke : take (2.) Ending the last line at two spaces Critical Points. care not to twist it. in height. Analysis. — The parts of U are the Ninth Principle, turn, right curve, and First Principle extended an addi- tional space. fi'ormation. — Begin with the Ninth Principle, and turn (in the base-line, as in V/ ascend with the right curve two spaces in height, finish with First Principle, terminating with a wave-line one space above the base-line. Critical Points. — (1.) That of the first part, as in V. (2.) The width between the main down-strokes. THE FIGURES, 93 Analysis. — The parts of Y are the Ninth Principle, turn, right curve, and Sixth Principle with the straight line extended an additional space. Formation. — Begin with the Ninth Principle, and, when near the base-line, turn as in U, and ascend with the right curve two spaces in height ; descend with a straight line, and iinish with the Sixth Principle. Observe carefully the width of the letter. Critical Points. — (1.) Those of the Ninth Pnnciple. (2.) Those of the Sixth Principle. THE FIGURES. ' The figure 1 is about one space and a half high. It is gen- erally written as a simple slanting straight line, beginning fine, with increasing shade to the base. The figure 2 begins a little higher than one space, descends with right curve to half the height of the figure, ascends with left curve to about one space and a half, descends with shaded right curve, and is finished like Q. Its head is an inverted oval. The figure 3 begins like 2; but its head occupies one-third instead of half the figure. A small loop is formed, project- ing a little to the left; and it is finished with the shaded right curve and the left curve. The general form of the lower part is oval. The figure 4 begins one space high, with a slanting straight line to one-fourth of a space from the base-line ; then a hori- aontal straight line is projected to the right. The latter ie 94 MAKUAL OF PENMANSHIP. crossed by a slight left curve one space and a half higb. The first line has a decreasing shade. The figure 5 is like 3, except that the top is a straight line instead of an inverted oval. It has also a small curve from the top of this upper straight line. Its heiglit is one space and a half. The figure G begins one space and- three-quarters in height, descends with a slanting straight line having a decreasing shade, and is finished with a direct oval one space high. The figure 7 begins about one space and a quarter in heiglit with a short and slight right curve, having a decreasing shade ; from the bottom of this starts a double curve ; and the figure is finished with a left curve liaving an increasing .shade extend- ing half a space below the base-line. The figure 8 begins at the heiglit of one space, with the right curve carried over to the left to the height of half a space, then a double curve shaded in the lower half, and is finished with a left curve crossing the double curve through the middle. The figure 9 consists of pointed oval, as in a, extending from one space and a third to a third of a space from the base-line ; and is finished with a straight line, having an increasing shade, to half a space below the base-line. The figure O is a simple oval, one space in height. GE TEACHING SENTENCES. The directions hitherto given have been especially directed to elementary instruction, and apply more particularly to the first four Numbers of our series. The scholars, if our direc- tions have been faithfully followed, will have a thorough knowledge of the letters and their critical points, as well as of their combination in words ; and ought also to have acquired OK TEACHtNG SENTEKCES. 95 the ability to execute them accurately with a tolerably easy movement. The two following numbers introduce them to sentences. These are much more difficult, on account of the much greater variety of combinations. The work of the teacher now assumes a more general aspect. He directs attention to what have been neatly termed the five S's, — size, slant, shape, spacing, and shading. The first two or three copies may be written with especial attention to size and slant, remembering that size includes, besides the uniform height of the short letters, the correct extension of the stems and loops above and below, and the height of the capitals ; while slant must not be confined to the short letters and capitals only, but must include the stems and loops. Then shape may assume prominence in its various features of straightness of down-strokes, shortness of lower turn, car- ryiijg the up-strokes well over for the upper turn, making the side of the oval and fourth principle parallel, correct loops, and capitals. Kext, spacing may be taken up for criticism, according to the directions we have already given. Lastly, shading should receive especial attention, according to our previous directions. We need scarcely say that we do not mean that any of these should be neglected at any time by the scholars, but that the teacher will do well to concentrate the attention of llie class, and his criticism, now on one point, now on another. The sentences should, of course, be written across the page, and not word by word down it, or the very purpose of the training will be defeated. The words must be kept exactly under each other. The position, penholding, and movements of the scholars should be carefully watched, and frequently criticised. 96 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. DIFFICULT COMBINATIONS. In writing sentences, a few difficult combinations of letters occur, which will require special attention. AVhen the right curve at the end of a letter unites with a left curve at the beginning of one following, the curve is changed at the mid- dle of the height, as when n follows u. If the lower looped stems, which are generally finished with the left cur\'e, are joined to letters which begin with the right curve, the latter supersedes the former from the crossing, as in h or i following g. To write e after the level curve-finish of b or o, the curve must be dropped half a space, and then carried up with the down-slant to form the loop of e; which is, therefore, a little shortened for acommodation. In combinations like or, os, care must be taken to make the level curve very short, and not to carry it too high for the r and s. The curve must be made short, and the slant changed, when t oi p follow this curve, as in ot, op. When a follows, the curve must be carried far enough forward to make the pointed projection of the fourth principle. The double letters bb, II, ff, will require much care, in ac- cordance with the principles already laid down. BUSINESS PENMANSHIP. When the eye and hand have been well trained on the accu- rate and elaborate forms of the standard letters, continued prac- tice naturally runs, from the urgency of business, into sim- plicity : therefore, in the course of this chapter, it will be seen that the forms given for business are more simple than these for the standard letters. It may naturally be asked why the more simple forms BUSINESS PENMANSHIP. 97 should not be given first. We answer, Because they are derived from the standard forms by modification or contrac- tion ; and hence a knowledge of the latter conduces to a hand- some execution of the former. It will be found that the essential movements are the same in the execution of both; hence there is nothing to unlearn: and attention to the almost mathematical exactness of pro- portion in the forms of the standard letters prepares admira- bly for the thorough perception and the free and rapid execu- tion of the exquisite curves of a business style. It should always be borne in mind, that the more simple the letter, the greater is the perfection of form needed for its beauty of appearance. In our series of copy-books, Nos. 7, 11, and 12 are devoted to the exhibition of business- writing. No. 12 gives a great variety of letters used by business men ; No. 11, various words and short forms, such as ledger-headings used in busi- ness ; while No. 7 contains forms of notes, due-bills, receipts, and accounts. We now proceed to show the various forms which our best penmen use, and which are valuable for their grace, ease, and rapidity. ■■MMH^HH^^H[^H^HHH|HH^HBH The forms ^I^^^I^Q^^H^BHIH^^H^^H may be generally, if preferred. The w has the first lines united in a point like ii; r begins like n, but the second up-stroke leaves the main line at the shoulder, to prevent its being mistaken for V ; X is crossed by a line parallel to the down-stroke, just to the right; of the lower turn ; c is written by returning a lit- tle on the up-stroke, which in this case is the right curve, then forming the head, and crossing the up-stroke like the e, from which it is distinguished by the semi-loop in the head. x The forms i^igs. 3 and 6 are used for final letters. The r in this style makes fi very graceful finish to a word ; and the s is used in this form at the end of words for the sake of rapid- 98 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. ity, the lower turn and dot and the usual finishing up-stroke being omitted. These forms, except Tigs. 2, 3, am} 6, are used only as finals : those excepted may be used in any position. Observe that stems ending square on the liiKi are made with an increasing shade, and that the shade iiis transferred from the stem to the oval in^the forms Figs. 4 and 5. This p and q can be used anywhere, as preferred : the / is a filial. The stems are straight, with graduated shade and very narrow turn. The up-stroke must be carried up close to the stem. These are very I commonly used in a free hand as finals, and are applicable to all the lower looped stems. In Fig. 1 the loop is changed into a simple straight and shaded line, as shown ; in Fig. 2 it has a narrow turn, and is carried up on the right side ; in Figs. 3 and 4, curved more or less, and shaded; and in Fig. .-). swung under with a fine unshaded stroke. The stem given in Fig. 2 cannot, of course, be used for [/, as it would then become a q. The looped stems, if preferred, may be begun and finished with a waved line. Figs. 1 and 2 show how happily they ac- BTTSINESS PENMANSHIP. 99 cord when thus made. The length of the initial and final lines is in this case somewhat increased. Figs. 3 and 4 show elegant forms of initial and terminating lines. The double curves are as easily made as single ones ; and are certainly- more graceful, and agreeable to the eye. The accomplished penman will not be satisfied without them. They are espe- cially suited for ladies. This diagram shows various be- ginnings and ter- minations, which may be used fot those letters to which they are adapted. Fig. 1 is an off-hand beginning to such letters as usually begin with a single curve, as shown by the curve below (see C, G, IT, K, L, S, in the standard forms). To a practised hand this is quite easy, and should be written with a free fore-arm movement. It wiU be observed that the lower curve crosses the final oval of the stem through the middle. Fig. 2 is a smaller beginning, and is suited for letters writ- ten with a straight stem', as shown below in F, B, R, H, K, W. For these same letters Fig. 3 may be used, if preferred : it should begin below the base-line. Sometimes, also, a simple curve is used, as below. In the selection, natural taste, and facility of execution, should be the guide. In writing the oval beginnings, it is important to observe their slant, and to take care that they do not sink down or project on a level, but have their long diameter on the same slant as that of the oval termination of the capital-stem. Figs. 4 and 6 show a strengthened termination to an easily- struck line, used by many writers to increase the firmness of character, or to avoid an unfinished appearance. It is not a dot or bulb, but simply a shade arising from a slight and gradual increase of pressure ended abruptly. Fig. 7 is the oval finish used in standard letters. For greater rapidity, this has been superseded by Fig. 8, — a turn 100 MANtTAL OF PENMANSHIP. of medium width finished by a wave-line. Sometimes Kg. 6, the last down-stroke of the letter, is carried downwards and forwards below the base-line, and thrown back through the letter, completing an oval form. Succeeding small letters may be begun close to the down-stroke, and written through the up-stroke without objection. The capital (? may be finished in the same way ; or, for the sake of variety, the up-stroke may be thrown back with a wave-line. Another method of finish for this letter is to carry the last down-stroke through the base of the letter, and go up on the right side like the wave-finish (Fig. 8). The standard capital- stem is frequently changed, as above, to o»ie written downwards, nearly straight, and with increasing shade. It is sometimes begun with a single curve (Figs. 3, 4) ; or with a wave-line, as in Fig. 3 of previous diagram. In some letters it has a nar- row turn and up-stroke on the right, as shown in Fig. 4 and in the next diagram. This diagram illustrates the application of the changed capital-stem to various letters. Further adaptations of the capital-stem are here shown. In writing this L (Fig. 1), the dot is made by a downward movement, and retraced. In Figs. 2 and 3, the connecting line is carried from the dot below the base-line to the next let- ter. Fig. 4 shows a rapid style of stem for the F, in which BTTSINESS PENMANSHIP. 101 the oval termination is written nearly on the usual slant of the writing. The last letter shows a convenient head for T (Fig. 7) ; while 5 and 6 show how it may be finished with a dot, or with an oval and dot. T li e natural variations of the standard form (Fig. 4) arising in rapid writing are here shown. The tendency is to dimin- ish the size of the loop ; and, in rapid business-writing, to dispense with it altogether. Fig. 3 ' is especially recom- mended for ladies : it is very elegant. We here illustrate the application of the fourtli form of the last diagram to various letters, for the convenience of business penmen. The same principle further illustrated, showing the ten- dency in business-writing to dispense with all superfluous lines. We have added a very handsome and popular form of ; and G. These letters are formed from the standard direct oval modified. They are the natural results of free movement in 102 MAJ^TTAL OF PENMANSHIP. rapid writing, necessitated by the urgency of business. They are all derived, as may be easily seen, from the standard forms given in previous pages ; except A, which is a capitalized form of the small a. In writing this form of Z>, carry the stem down to the line, and make the loop point downwards : the final line is carried down on the right of the stem, instead of passing over to the front. MARKS, SIGNS, AND ABBREVIATIONS. We here append certain marks, signs, and abbreviations uliich are generally used in business, with such explanations ,is may be useful to those unacquainted with them. Fig. 1 i s the business abbreviation for " at : " for instance, two pairs of shoes at three dollars a pair. The a. should be written smaller than the figures, and the final up- stroke swung easily and gracefully over and round it. Fig. 2 is the abbreviation for "cents:" the a should be made nearly at the height of the figures, as shown ; and small, like the a. Fig. 3 is a common form for " per cent." Observe the position, size, and connection of the o's. Fig. 4 is the usual abbrevia- tion for the Latin words " et caetera," meaning " and so forth.'' The first form is sometimes called the " ampersand," and stands for «et," and ; the " c " for " csetera," " so forth," or " the rest." The ampersand is begun on the right-hand side. Fig. 1 is the sign used for the word " number " on boxes YARIBTT OP CAPITALS, 103 and in bills of lading : it is formed by drawing two parallel lines, and crossing them by two oblique parallel lines. Fig. 2 illustrates an abbreviated method of writing " one-half :" in Fig. 3 the half is expressed fractionally. Fig. 4 shows the sign for the United-States dollar: it was probably derived from one of the pillars with a scroll on the Spanish dollar; but on this point antiquarians are not agreed. We here append a few forms of figures frequently used by business-men, which will be appre- ciated for their freedom and beauty. VAEIETT OF CAPITALS. Our object in the three accompanying plates under this title is to show the natural modifications and developments of the standard forms of the capitals. The first three lines show those of the three principles ; then the letters themselves are given in alphabetical order. We have already called attention to the fact that our present script is derived from the Roman letters through the. Italic. This is important; because, whatever variety of form we may invent, we must always be careful to preserve the distinguish- ing characteristics of the Roman type, or the identity of the letter will be lost. It also furnishes us with a guide as to the directions in which we may give free play to our fancy. We shall merely indicate these, without going into an examination of the whole. Take the capital-stem for instance, as shown in the first two lines. It is the script representation of the vertical straight line in the Roman letter. As to form, it may be waved, straight, or simply curved. As to commencement, it may be 104 MAiTUAL OF PENMANSHIP. made without an initial line, with one, or, in a letter like H, may begin with a small inverted oval. As to termination, it may end with a simple or compound oval, with a dot, or be devoid of any. Shade may be variously used, or altogether dispensed with. It may be made of different heights. Yet in all these varieties it will be observed that the stem-charac- ter is preserved. If we consider a letter, the same fact is apparent. The Ro- man B consists of a stem and two lobes : whatever form we invent for it in script, these features must be retained. For practical use, the teacher may place these varieties of form in order on the board, and point out their modifications and developments as a stimulus to the inventive powers of the scholars, and a guide to their taste, allowing them to use those which they think most beautiful. OFF-HAND CAPITALS. The subject of Penmanship would hardly be presented in a complete shape unless a few words were said on Off-hand Capitals, of which a complete set is given in the accompany- ing plates. In these the attainment of practical writing culminates. They are the adornment of business-penmanship, besides affording a most valuable training for the hand in acquiring perfect movement. They should be written with the whole-arm movement. The shoulder, in this case, is the centre of motion ; and no part of the arm should touch the desk or paper except the nails of the third and fourth fingers, used to steady the hand. They should be struck with a bold and fearless movement, and practised constantly, without being discouraged by failure to obtain handsome forms at first. Care is needed to keep the liADIES' HAOT). 105 pen in a good position, so that the points may, by a roll of the hand, be constantly kept at right angles to the changing direc- tion of the shade. The Movement Exercises should be used in connection with these capitals. The principles involved are the same as in the standard letters, — ■ the capital-stem, the direct oval, and the inverted oval. Watch the movements, and adapt them to the work. Study the examples given ; endeavor to acquire a clear mental con- ception of them; then aim to produce them. Criticise the work done ; try and discover the causes of failure in any par- ticular ; consider definitely what must be done to correct it ; then make the effort. Do not hesitate to allow the natural play of the fingers and wrist in connection with the move- ment of the arm. Persistent practice will certainly lead to success. LADIES' HAJJfD. We are satisfied, from experience, that it is desirable for girls to write the six numbers of the Common-school Series with the same thoroughness and drill as are required of boys. They may then take up the special numbers (Nos. 8, 9, 10) prepared for them. No. 8 contains a drill on the small letters, words beginning with capitals, and short sentences. No. 9 consists partly of single sentences, and partly of couplets from standard authors. No. 10 contains notes of hand, and of invitation and reply, bills, and extracts, both prose and poetry. The accompanying plate shows the proportions of the letters for our Ladies' Hand ; gives a set of standard capitals, and also of those most frequently used by writers of acknowledged taste. To these is added a suitable style of figures. 106 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. The small letters are given singly, so that each represents the connecting-line to be used either for beginning or ending a word. This line, it will be seen, begins or ends a little below or above the letters. For the loops a wave-line is used, as peculiarly adapted to the natural grace of a lady's style. A few other features may be noticed. In the capitals the shades are more delicate, because less muscular power and movement are employed in their execution, and more of finger and hand, than in business-writing. For this reason, also, the shades are placed higher on the stems, and the indirect oval beginnings are made smaller. In the advanced style of capi- tals they will be found very much reduced in size, — the natural tendency of a rapid style. We would add the caution, to beware of writing too small ; for it should always be remembered that legibility is of the first importance. Rapidity and beauty, valuable as they are, hold but the second place. l/hpieti^ of Capitals. PARTS OF LETTERS. Iha Seventh Pruzaple and -nu/dificati^t^ ( y ('. yy y^ Farts used, for Oie Seventh or Ifinth Frvi/i^Je-s The Eighth^ Fnne^U miO. -m^jt^icatians . The Jfvnih. I'nnciphi^m^'difUd. y- 1/ r-y y,/ .> / .y .} ^ 'lJ'j2^ .^ ^_.# y/ 'A yy-: '4' { (0 X'V V ,' .> Plate m I'mieitj of r.^//, rr/f. i^ J, \ ^"^ ; y' J^ /^\. ^ y - '" Y' v^ #'''^3'<: .^ ^ , """' X^^^X- yy /r ^y 4 -' //) y-/ v^:^ :xx ^'r.J/ // .^ ' ' ^—'^ .<'.:3?^ ■'!' ,.xf^ A n ^'' /;?"' . ? '" ; .J i j XX X '.^ Y'^ y/ cr /?: .#^K ^#' ^/ # ■ '''^•v '^ ' / ''^ /A- ' / r r -- .r ^ r y-^^i ;X l^arieti^ qf Capitals, yj , , -y. ) /j-^ ,-^/ '- '^ /■^ ^i /;^^ /d) ori 'I ■ f'-^'i " >. ./ "1 -^ .-,/ - r--;,^ ■' '// , -7 ./ # l^IIZZFIllL "/ " : v^r—-^^ ■ ^^^y.^y/j'yjy'>jy\ ^^SE^Z^ ^ = ^ =1 -? /^ /''' a^-"^^-' f3 m.;^, 6h I ^^ ■' ' ^) /27-= ''i5^' ,' 7r, /? wm,y€m^/^m-'''. / u "'4'y^ ef-'^^arSYfa iT- ROMAN LETTERS ANALYZED. 107 EOMAN LETTEES AiTALYZED. To render this manual complete, we append the accompany- ing plates, giving the several ' Text Hands most in use, to- gether with one presenting them of reduced size for ladies. A Book of Alphabets forms part of our system, and may be advantageously placed in the scholar's hands, containing sev- eral styles besides those here given, and equally beautiful. The ability to execute the Roman, Italic, Egyptia,n, and Brush Letters, and the Old English and German Texts, is so great a convenience, that every boy and girl ought to learn them at some period of their school education. A comparatively short time only is needed for their acquisition by those who have been instructed in penmanship on the thorough method which this Manual advocates. Although the execution of letters by hand preceded the discovery of the art of printing, yet the old text hands were adhered to ; and the present script followed, and was the result of that discovery. Hence the formation of the script letters may be easily traced from the Roman through the Italic to their present state. This fact gives additional interest to the study of those styles, and the parallel forms of the Old Eng- lish and German Text. Our analysis of the Roman letters renders any extended description unnecessary. Each letter is placed on a frame- work of small squares, which is formed by ruling five lines horizontally and vertically, taking for a standard the widtli desired for the thick parts of the letters. If preferred, these squares can be drawn by hand. It will be perceived, that, by the adoption of this plan, the letters can be increased or diminished in size at pleasure by simply observing how the various parts of the letters cross the squares. As soon as the scholar becomes thoroughly acquainted with the proportions of the letters, the squares may be dis- 108 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. pensed with, and the work done on a single hne, or between two horizontal ones. The best method for the learner is to draw the letter with fine, light lines, using a hard lead pencil (an H, for instance), and, when the form is perfected, to line it in with a fine pen. For ornament, the right-hand line of a pair may be thickened, which produces a very beautiful effect ; and, in addition, a pattern may be made in the inside that good taste may select. The lowest line of this plate shows how to adapt the scale to form letters oblique to the right or left, as well as how to extend letters in breadth by widening the spaces between the vertical lines. ITALIC PRINT. By a reference to the last line of the previous plate, it will be seen that slanting letters are narrower than vertical, be- cause the slanting lines of the scale, though drawn from the same width apart at the bottom to the same width at the top, necessarily approach nearer to each other as the slant is increased. Two patterns of this letter are given, — the solid and the open : either may be used as preferred. To execute the solid, the letters should be drawn and " lined in " as directed for the Roman ; and then they should be filled in, great care being taken not to go beyond the boundary-line. If letters are drawn on a very large scale, the filling-in should be done with a camel's-hair brush, as this method is more rapid, and gives a more even surface, MAHKING LETTERS. 109 EGYPTIAN PEINTS. The proportions of the letters are the same as before. The distinguishing peculiarity of this style is, that all the lines of the letters are the same thickness, and the " spurs " are omitted. They should be executed in the manner above stated. Some exercise of the judgment is necessary in all these styles to so place the letters that they shall appear to be equally distant apart. To effect this, it will be found neces- sary to place some a little closer than others, on account of the greater space which their peculiar profiles would otherwise leave between them. Of this the trained eye alone can judge. MARKING LETTERS. Every housekeeper will appreciate the value of these. And what youth would not feel proud to be able to relieve his mother of this care, and mark her linen tastefully for her ? or - to execute these letters gracefully on a handkerchief in pencil for his sister to embroider ? What lady would not feel glad to possess the ability to execute this work for herself, if neces- sary ? For although stencil plates have nearly superseded this old-fashioned accomplishment, yet still there are cases in which it is very useful. The peculiar art of writing these letters is to make all the lines by downstrokes : the danger of the pen's spattering by catching in the cloth, as it is very apt to do in an upstroke, is thus avoided. In the A,^ for instance, we should begin with the right side, and make the heavy line downward ; next add the left line in like manner, and add the ornamental, beginning by a similar movement downwards. So the D is made by three movements. 110 MANUAl, OP PENMAKSPnP. Great care must be taken to keep the letters upright, and to give the same slant to tlie oblique parts. Whether the Marking Letters are written with inclination to the left or right, the same method should be used. The Numerals are given, half of them inclined each wa3-- as the rest can easily be adapted to the style preferred. SKELETON LETTEES. This is a very elegant and useful form of letter for inserting names in maps, &c., and for giving variety in ornamental work. If the capitals alone are used for a word, the spurs are sometimes omitted. BRUSH LETTERS. These are almost indispensable in a business education. The ability to execute them well and rapidly with a pen ren- ders the acquisition of the power to make them with a brush for marking packages very easy. They are made entirely by downward movements like the Marking Letters, as already explained, and increase gradually in thickness. OLD ENGLISH. To execute this beautiful ornamental style, lines should be ruled as indicated, by the marks on the margin at the left of the letters. As soon as facility is acquired, they may be dis- pensed with. GERMAN TEXT. Ill The elbow should be kept somewhat out from the body, and thej)en so managed, by the fingers, that, when the points are spread, a line from one point to the other should be at a right angle to the direction of the part of the letter then being made. It will be observed that the joinings of the oblique and vertical parts are always angular, as in the upper part of the first line of m ; this must be carefully done. At the bottom of the same line the joining is more abrupt : this is made either by raising the pen at the termination of the vertical line, and then adding a small square in an oblique position ; or by con- tinuing the line, making an angular joining as in the upper joint, and afterwards by a touch of the pen giving the projec- tion. The latter is the more rapid method, and sufiiciently effective. The heavy lines should always be drawn first, and the fine lines added afterwards, as in o. To form the horizontal lines, the under part of the pen should be turned directly to the right, and the holder held in the direction of the base line. GEEMAN TEXT. This differs from the Old English in the predominance of curved instead of angular joinings ; yet, at the same time, those of the latter kind which occur must not be neglected. Let attention be given, for instance, to the difference between the upper and lower joints of the two parts of u. As in Old English, the heavy lines should be written first, and the fine lines added afterwards. It will be well to compare the two sets of Numerals, and to note the differences, illustrating the fact stated in the first paragraph as to the letters. Some general remarks will be added on these different hands in connection with the next plate. 112 MANUAL OF PENMAJ>rSHIP. TEXT HANDS FOE LADIES. In this plate the styles are given of smaller size, so as to render them more suitable for ladies. The instructions already given apply equally here ; and we shall, therefore, only- add a few general remarks. If it is desired to make oblique letters look of the same size as vertical, they must be written of less vertical height, because their slant, making them longer, gives an appearance of greater height than they really have. The principal difficulties to be encountered are to preserve uniformity of spacing, evenness of height, similarity of slant, and, when required, to make them all accurately vertical; also, as stated under the Old English, to so handle the pen as always to keep the spread of the points at right angles to the line of direction of the movement. If the Numerals are used with a word composed of capitals only, they should have the same height; if with words in which small letters are also used, they should exceed the «hort letters by half the difference between their height and that of the capitals. The marks at the left margin show the height of the let- ters ; those on the right, of the numerals. The short letters are about two-thirds the height of the capitals. It will be found easier to copy the exact size of the model : this should, therefore, be used at first. Marking Letters and Old English are more compactly writ- ten, Italic and German Text more open. Old English is generally heavier than German Text ; it is also written with- out flourishes : while the latter admits of the most elaborate ornamentation ; in which, however, a severe taste must preside, lest the form of the letter be lost in the strength of the lines laitended merely for its adornment. ROMAN LETTERS ANALYZED. .AJVJ -v/rariT^' illii:;115S:iPii ii::W .i._..A: ITALIC PRINT. JBCDEFGHI abed e f ff h i JKLALYOPQR J k I in n o p q /" STU'VWXYZ s i u V w X J z &I234567890 EGYPTIAN. A B C D E F C H. I a b c d e f g h i J K L M N O P Q R j k I m n p q r STUVWXYZ St u V w X y z &I234567890 SKELETON. AB'CB'EFGHI a b c d e / (^ h i JKLMNOPOR J k I m n p I u V w I y z ' BRU5H LETTERS. Cv\5t b^d'^ 0)\VV &iV^^\561?)S)0 MARKING LETTERS. a d c d e / ^ h / / k / m n o p q r s t u V w j:' 2/ X Flale m OLD ENGLISH. a Ir c h ^ f h i llIil1N[.(©p(^lll \klmnifpqx i f 1 1 If I f 2 ^ t tt t» It f n z GERMAN TEXT. rft ^ c b e f (f (s i if (t C in tt |J 4 f i^i^^-i^^rs^o piite xm. eK® MARKING LETTER. GERMAN TEX** XZ $ "^ ^ X $ $ O-**. ITALIC. : a b cdefg h ijk Imnopqrstu ywxyz 123 4 5 6 7 8 90 AB C D EFGHIJKLMJSfOP QRST UVWXYZ &. OLQ ENGLISH. c>C^.%V> The best, most popnlar, and most extensively used, of any System in tlie world. THE SYSTEM COMPRISES PAYSON, DUNTON, AND SCRIBNER'S COPY-BOOKS, IN THREE DISTINCT SERIES. COMUON-SCHOOL SERIES. BUSINESS SERIES. LADIES' SERIES. IN SIX BOOKS. Nos. 1, Z, S, 4,, B, and 6. IN THREE BOOKS. IN THREE BOOKS. Nos. 7, 11, and IS. Nos. 8, 9, and 10. AND A BOOK OF ALPHABETS. PAYSOH, DUHTOH, & SCHIBMR^S NATIONAL WRITING-TABLETS. NEWLY ENGRAVED AND ENLARGED. EIGHT IN NUMBER. SIZE 24 X 30 INCHES. CAPITALS 6 INCHES IN HEIGHT. These Tablets are engraved and printed by an entirely new process, and are de- signed to imitate chalk-work on the blackboard. The letters are printed in white, on black ground, and are of such extended proportions as to be distinctly seen across the largest schoolroom. They embrace all the principles^ and their application in the formation of small ard capital letters, rendering them the most useful and instructive Writing-Tablets ever published. PAYSON, DUNTON, & SCRIBNER'S MANUAL OF PEXMANSHIP FOR TEACHERS. This is not a revision of any former edition, but an entirely new work, expressly prepared to accompany the new Copy-Books and Writing-Tablets, and contains a full statement of the most approved methods of conducting classes in Penmanship. Fully illustrated with one hundred and fifty cuts, — five full-page illustrations and thirteen full pages of lithographic matter. For further informationj address POTTER, AINSWORTH, & CO., New York and Cbicago. Primary Schools. BAKTHOI.OM:ETr*S FBIMART DBATPXNCM^ABDS. These Cards are put up in jJiree sets, — Nos. i, a, and 3, — of twenty-four exam- ples each. They are arranged progressively, and present a great variety of pleasing and useful subjects for practice, including lessons in printing and writing. BAKTHOI^OMBWS PBmiAI&T DBAWING-SIiAT£S. This Slate is designed to accompany the Cards, is ruled for writing and mudcal exercises, and is made with or without rubber corners. Size, 6x9. TSACHSBS' GUIDES. A Guide for Teachers has been prepared to accompany each set of Cards, explain- ing their use, and how to teach the examples. Grammar Scliools. BABTHOI.OSIX:W'S DRAWING-BOOKS. A series of Books, — Nos. i, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, — of six lessons eacli, presenting a carefully-prepared Course of Drawing, progressively arranged, and especially adapted to the various grades of schools. They embrace an elementary and advanced course in Flat Outline Drawing, Object Drawing, Perspective, and Shading. TEACHBRS' GrrDES. Guide No. i is divided into four parts, and explains all the examples in Books Nos. 1, a, 3, and 4. Guide No; 2 is divided into two parts, and explains all the exam- oles 111 Books Nos. 5 and 6. Hi^b. Schools. Bartholomew's Drawlns-Books, Nos. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and la. Bartholomew's I.inear Berspectlve. Send for circulars, containing descriptions and recommendations, to POTTER, AINSWORTH, & CO., New Tork and Chicago.