CORNELL 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
Corned University Library 
 BL263 .B91 
 
 Bib e, and science bv T. Lauder Brunton. 
 
 olin 
 
 3 1924 029 074 719 
 
The original of tliis bool< is in 
 tlie Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924029074719 
 
THE BIBLE AND SCIENCE. 
 
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THE 
 
 BIBLE AND SCIENCE. 
 
 t: LAUDEE BEUNTOK, M.D, D.Sc, F.RS., 
 
 FELLOW OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIAKS ; 
 
 ASSISTANT PHYSICIAN TO ST. BARTHOLOMEW'S HOSPITAL ; 
 
 AND LECTURER ON' 
 
 MATERIA MEDICA AND THERAPEUTICS IN ST. BARTHOLOMEW'S HOSPITAL SCHOOL; 
 
 FORMERLY BAXTER SCHOLAR IN THE NATURAL SCIENCES IN THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH. 
 
 WITH IlLUSTRATJONS. 
 
 MACMILLAN AND CO. 
 
 1881. 
 
 TJe Rtght 0/ Tmii^laiion and ReprodwslUm U lieierved. 
 
LOMDON : 
 
 R. Clay, Soiis, and Tayt^r, 
 
 BREAD STKEET HILL. 
 
 A.ZQ-JO 
 
^^irkatioti. 
 
 TO 
 
 JOHN HUTTON BALFOUE, M.A., M.D., LL.D., 
 
 F.R.SS. LOND. AND EDIN., 
 
 LATE KEGIUS PROFESSOK OF BOTANY AND MEDICINE IN 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH, 
 
 THESE LECTURES ARE RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED BY 
 
 HIS ATTACHED FRIEND AND FORMER PUPIL, 
 
 THE AUTHOK. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Many people consider the doctrine of evolution, or, as 
 it is not unfrequently termed, Darwinism, as necessarily 
 atheistic, and regard it with horror mingled with fear. 
 They look upon it with horror, because they think that 
 its spread will be injurious to religion and morality ; 
 and they fear it, because they see that every year its 
 adoption is becoming more general, and that, notwith- 
 standing their dislike to it, they are unable to stop 
 its progress. In addition to this, some have a lurking 
 ,dread that the doctrine may be true, and that they may 
 by and by be forced, in spite of themselves, to acknow- 
 ledge its truth, and to give up the cherished religious 
 beliefs which have been their joy and strength. Feel- 
 ings of this sort induce some people to remain wilfully 
 
viii PREFACE. 
 
 ignorant, both of what the doctrine of evolution really 
 is, and the arguments that may be adduced in support 
 of it ; while others refuse to see the force of the argu- 
 ments ; and others, again, are rendered most unhappy 
 by their inability to deny their truth. The objects 
 of the present work are to give a brief and popular 
 sketch of the data on which the doctrine is founded, 
 and to show that instead of being atheistic it is the 
 very reverse, and is no more opposed to the Biblical 
 account of the Creation than those geological doctrines 
 regarding the structure and formation of the earth's 
 crust which were once regarded as heretical and 
 dangerous, but are now to be found in every class- 
 book, and are taught in every school. 
 
 The plan adopted has been to give a brief account, 
 first, of the living things both animal and vegetable 
 which now exist on this earth and of their relation 
 to one another ; and, secondly, of the forms of life which 
 existed in the early ages of the world's history, and 
 their relationships to one another as well as to those 
 of the present day. After this follows a discussion of 
 the question how these various forms of life, past and 
 
PREFACE. ix 
 
 present, came into existence, whether by sudden 
 creation or gradual evolution. 
 
 The three introductory chapters may seem at first 
 sight to have but little connection with those which 
 immediately follow them, but they have a direct 
 bearing upon the questions discussed in the later 
 part of the work. They are intended to illustrate 
 several subjects which might not be readily understood 
 if no examples were given, while the examples could 
 not have been so conveniently introduced afterwards. 
 
 The countries of Egypt and Palestine have been 
 described as typical specimens of countries where the 
 climatic conditions were entirely different, so that 
 abundance prevailed in one while famine desolated the 
 other, and drove a starving people to one of those 
 wholesale migrations which have played so important 
 a part in the world's history. 
 
 Life in ancient Egypt has been described in order to 
 fix attention on this ancient civilization, and make it 
 a landmark in the world's history, so that the long 
 centuries which lie between then and now might serve 
 as a measure of geological time. Egyptian funeral 
 
X PREFACE. 
 
 ceremonies have been described at some length as 
 
 having a bearing on the possible site of Paradise. 
 
 The influence of similar external circumstances in 
 producing a similar character in different races is ex- 
 emplified in the Fellaheen of modern, and the Israelites 
 of ancient Egypt, while the effect of different external 
 circumstances upon the same race is seen in the com- 
 parative bravery of the desert-bom Israelites and the 
 cowardice of their helot fathers. 
 
 The hereditary transmission of qualities is illustrated 
 by the conduct of Joshua and his Arab coadjutor 
 Caleb, although a still better illustration might have 
 been given in the constancy with which the love for 
 "jewels of silver, jewels of gold, and raiment," ^ mani- 
 fested by the Israelites on their departure from Egypt 
 has been transmitted to their descendants at the present 
 day, as well as the dislike to manual labour, which 
 they no doubt carried with them from the land of 
 bondage. 
 
 I know of no book which affords illustrations 
 of subjects like those I have just mentioned so 
 '■ Exodus xii. 35. 
 
■Preface. xi 
 
 readily as the Bible, and other examples might have 
 been advantageously introduced were it not that they 
 would have unduly lengthened the introductory 
 chapters. 
 
 As the object of the work is not to present new 
 discoveries to the reader, but only to describe well- 
 known facts and show their bearing upon certain 
 opinions, it seemed unnecessary to illustrate it by new 
 woodcuts. Indeed it seemed advisable rather to take 
 them from well-known text-books to which the reader 
 could refer if he wished for fuller information on the 
 subjects cursorily treated of in this work. 
 
 The books to which the author is chiefly indebted 
 for woodcuts are Flower's Osteology, Gegenbauer's Com- 
 parative Anatomy, Geikie's primers of Geology and oi 
 Physical Geography, Hooker's primer of Botany, Huxley's 
 Physiography and his Physiology, Sir John Lubbock's 
 Metamorphoses of Pnsects, Oliver's Botany, St. George 
 Mivart on the Common Frog, Wyville Thomson's 
 Depths of the Sea, Waterton's Wanderings, and White's 
 Selborne. Some illustrations have also been borrowed 
 from Nature; and figs. 164, 165, 166-173; and 180, 181 
 
xii PREFACE. 
 
 have been copied by the courteous permission of 
 Messrs. Kegan Paul and Co. from Hasckel's History 
 of Creation. 
 
 I take this opportunity of returning to the authors 
 and publishers of these works, as well as to other 
 friends who have assisted me in the preparation of this 
 work, my most hearty thanks for their kindness. 
 
 I cannot here name all the friends and authors by 
 whom I have been helped, but I ought to mention that 
 the facts and arguments on pages 341 and 342 are 
 reproduced, as nearly as my memory enabled me, from 
 a lecture which I heard delivered by Professor P. G'. 
 Tait nineteen years ago. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 LECTURE I. 
 
 PACE 
 INTRODUCTORY — BIBLE LANDS EGYPT 1 
 
 LECTURE II. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY — THE EXODUS 25 
 
 LECTURE III 
 
 INTRODUCTORY — BIBLE LANDS — PALESTINE 42 
 
 LECTURE IV. 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY — PLANTS AND TREES — THEIR STRUCTURE 
 
 AND GROWTH .... . 50 
 
 LECTURE V. 
 
 PLANTS AND TREES — MODE OF CONTINUING THEIR RACE OR 
 
 REPRODUCTION . ... .... .72 
 
 LECTURE VL 
 
 PLANTS AND TREES — NUTRITION AND GROWTH OP THE 
 
 INDIVIDUAL .... 96 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 LECTURE VII. 
 
 PAQfi 
 
 PLANTS AND ANIMALS ... . . ... 115 
 
 LECTURE VIII. 
 
 GENERAL SKETCH OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM — INVERTBBRATA 143 
 
 LECTURE IX. 
 
 GENERAL SKETCH OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM — VBRTEBRATA 163 
 
 LECTURE X. 
 
 GENERAL SKETCH OP THE ANIMAL KINGDOM VERTEBRATA — 
 
 COLD-BLOODED ANIMALS — FISHES — AMPHIBIA — REPTILES 179 
 
 LECTURE XL 
 
 GENERAL SKETCH OP THE ANIMAL KINGDOM — WARM- 
 BLOODED ANIMALS — BIRDS .... 200 
 
 LECTURE XII. 
 
 GENERAL SKETCH OP THE ANIMAL KINGDOM — WARM- 
 BLOODED ANIMALS — MAMMALS . . 214 
 
 LECTURE XIII. 
 
 GENERAL SKETCH OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM — MAN . . . 238 
 
 LECTURE XIV. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OP PLANTS AND ANIMALS IN TIME .... 255 
 
CONTENTS. XV 
 LECTURE XV. 
 
 Pkaa 
 
 GESBRAL SUMMART ... 301 
 
 LECTURE XVI. 
 
 THE MOSAIC RECORD AND EVOLnTION . . 337 
 
 LECTURE XVII. 
 
 DETBLOPMENT OF INDIVIDUALS . . . .... 368 
 
 INDEX 403 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 « 
 
 Plate I To face page 14 
 
 Plate II. , Peontispibcb To face title 
 
 FTQ. PAGE 
 
 1. The lotus 51 
 
 2. Netted-veined leaf .... 54 
 
 3. Parallel- veined leaf 54 
 
 4. Forked-veined leaf of fern 54 
 
 5. Grermination of a dicotyledon (mustard)" 55 
 
 6. Germination of a monocotyledon (wheat) 56 
 
 7. Diagram of a cross-section of the stem of a dicotyledon 58 
 
 8. Diagram of a cross-section of the stem of a monoco- 
 
 tyledon 59 
 
 9. Longitudinal section of vegetable tissue, showing cells 
 
 and vessels 61 
 
 10. Diagram of a cell 63 
 
 11. Multiplication of a cell by subdivision 65 
 
 12. Growing point of a stem, showing the mode of growth 
 
 by subdivision of cells 65 
 
 13. Cell imperfectly filled by protoplasm 67 
 
 14. Cellular tisaue of pith 67' 
 
 15. Cells with thickened walls from the stone of a stone- 
 
 fruit '. 67 
 
 h 
 
sviii LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 16. Elongated cells, with their walls thinned here and there 
 
 so as to form pits 68 
 
 17. Pitted cells united to form a vessel 68 
 
 18. Diagram representing a common arrangement of the 
 
 tissues in a fibro-vascular bundle 71 
 
 19. Fungus, showing growth by subdivision of cells, which 
 
 remain attached to one another 73 
 
 20. Creeping stems and roots of couch grass 75 
 
 21. Mushroom, showing stalk or filleus, on the gills of • 
 
 which the spores grow .... 79 
 
 22. Hair moss 79 
 
 23. Fern 80 
 
 24. Part of fern-leaf, bearing clusters of spore-cases . . 81 
 
 25. Lyoopod 82 
 
 26. Lesser club moss 83 
 
 27. Female flower of yew 84 
 
 28. Vertical section of flower of hypericum 85 
 
 29. Growth of ovule of celandine 86 
 
 30. Single stamen of mallow with 1 -celled anther ... 86 
 
 31. Anther after dehiscence 86 
 
 32. Staminal scale of Scotch fir 87 
 
 33. Scale of Scotch fir-bearing ovules 87 
 
 34. Vertical section of flower of China primrose, showing 
 
 ovary with ovules 88 
 
 35. Scale of cypress with naked ovules 89 
 
 36. Transverse section of ovary, enlarged, showing ovules 
 
 attached to placenta 89 
 
 37. Pollen grains of buttercup 89 
 
 38. Diagram representing pollen grains on the stigma of a 
 
 carpel of buttercup, which have developed their 
 
 tubes reaching to the micropyle of the ovule ... 89 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xix 
 
 S'I«- PAGE 
 
 39. Pollen grains of buttercup on the stigma, with their 
 
 tubes extending 89 
 
 40. Longitudinal section of ovule of heartsease .... 90 
 
 41. Male flower of nettle 92 
 
 42. Flower of spotted orchis 33 
 
 43. Single pollen-mass of spotted orchis, with its caudiole 
 
 and gland 93 
 
 44. Section of a flower of orchis, showing a bee standing 
 
 upon the lip, with its head touching the sticky gland 
 
 to which the pollen-masses are attached . . . , 94 
 
 45. Fragment of epidermis with a stoma 105 
 
 46. Spiral vessels with cellular tissue on each side . . . 105 
 
 47. Longitudinal section through the extremity of a root- 
 
 fibre of buttercup 106 
 
 48. Tea-plant with exposed stamens 108 
 
 49. Section of flower of periwinkle, with the stamens pro- 
 
 tected by the tube of the corolla 109 
 
 50. Sundew Ill 
 
 51. Dionea, or Venus fly-trap i]2 
 
 62. An amceba figured at two different moments during 
 
 movement 120 
 
 53. A foraminifer with extended pseudopodia which 
 
 pass through the pores of the multiloculate 
 
 shell 125 
 
 54. Transverse section of a foraminifgr, showing the 
 
 arrangement of the separate chambers in the shell . 126 
 
 55. Grains from a piece of chalk, showing the cases of 
 
 foraminifera . . •. 127 
 
 56. Actinosphaerium, a rhizopod ' . . 127 
 
 57. Diagram of the digestive cavity of one of the Infusoria 128 
 58.' A sponge 130 
 
XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 59. Diagram to repi<esent the first differentiation of the 
 
 organism into ectoderm and endoderm, and the 
 
 formation of a digestive cavity .... . . 132 
 
 60. Syncoryne, with a number of budding medusa on it at 
 
 different stages of development 136 
 
 61. A portion of a colony of hydroid polyps with budding 
 
 medusEe 137 
 
 62. Sea-anemone or actinia 138 
 
 63. Section of sea-anemone or actinia 138 
 
 64. Diagrammatic section of an island surrounded by a 
 
 fringing reef 140 
 
 65. Diagrammatic section of an island surrounded by a 
 
 barrier reef, with intervening lagoon 140 
 
 66. Diagrammatic section of a coral island, or atoll, with 
 
 central lagoon 140 
 
 67. Coral island with central lagoon 141 
 
 68. The gastrovascular system of a cydippe 142 
 
 69. Diagraramatio representation of the water-vascular 
 
 system of a starfish 144 
 
 70. A starfish 145 
 
 71. Stone-lily or crinoid ... 146 
 
 72. Tape-worm 147 
 
 73. Nervous system of insects . 149 
 
 74. Diagrammatic transverse section through the hinder 
 
 half of the body of a sandworm 151 
 
 75. Diagram of the circulatory system of a lobster . . . 152 
 
 76. Insect, showing the three segments 154 
 
 77. Diagram of an ascidian . . 167 
 
 78. Cephalopod ... . . 161 
 
 79. Single vertebra seen from above 163 
 
 80. Diagrammatic view of the human body 164 
 
LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS. xxi 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 8^. Diagrammatic view of .the human body 166 
 
 ■82. Diagrammatic representation of the limbs in mammaHa 167 
 
 83. Ditto 168 
 
 84. Diagram of the fore-limb of an amphibian .... 169 
 
 85. Manus of a marsupial 169 
 
 86. Skeleton of the manus or hand of various mammals . 170 
 
 87. Hinder extremity of a larva of salamander .... 171 
 
 88. A front view of the pelvis 172 
 
 89. A front view of the sternum 173 
 
 90. Bones of the upper extremity with the biceps muscle . 174 
 
 91. Red and white corpuscles of the blood magnified . . 177 
 
 92. Amphioxus lanoeolatus 181 
 
 93. Diagram of an ascidian 183 
 
 94. Lepidosiren anneotens 189 
 
 95. Axolotl of Mexico 191 
 
 96. The Proteus 191 
 
 97. Tadpoles in difEerent stages of development .... 192 
 
 98. Lizard 195 
 
 99. Crocodile 195 
 
 100. A mud-tortoise (Trionyx), showing the dorsal plates . 197 
 
 101. Skeleton of pterodactyl 198 
 
 102. Skeleton of the foot of a reptile 201 
 
 103. Hinder extremity of bird 202 
 
 1 04. Hesperornis regalis 205 
 
 105. .Taw and vertebra of iohthyornis . . 206 
 
 106. Compsognathus longipes 207 
 
 107. Haunch-bones and legs of bird, dinosaur, and crocodile 208 
 
 108. Woodpecker 209 
 
 109. Foot of a woodpecker . . . • 210 
 
 110. Nightingale 211 
 
 111. Vulture 212 
 
xxii LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS. 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 112. Ostriches 213 
 
 113. Ventral surface of innominate bone of kangaroo . . 216 
 
 114. Great ant-bear 219 
 
 115. African black rhinoceros 212 
 
 116. Bones of the manus of pig, rhinoceros, and horse . . 224 
 
 117. Foot of deer 225 
 
 118. Stomach of an antelope 226 
 
 119. Section of cow's horn 227 
 
 120. Fore-limb of young dolphin, showing how the bones 
 
 are modified to form the so-called fin 230 
 
 121. Polecat 231 
 
 122. Hat 232 
 
 123. Hedgehogs 234 
 
 124. Monkey 236 
 
 125- Convolutions of the brain 240 
 
 126. Sketch of a battle between reindeer . 242 
 
 127. Gelt or axe-head of flint, rudely chipped 257 
 
 128. Lance-head of finely-chipped flint . . . . . 258 
 
 129. A flint lance-point, showing two sides and edge .. . . 258 
 
 130. Celt or axe-head of polished stone 259 
 
 131. Geological map of Egypt . . 261 
 
 132. Quarry in sedimentary rocks 266 
 
 133. View of contorted strata 267 
 
 134. Vertical strata . • 268 
 
 135. Fossils . ... . . '. . . 273 
 
 136. Sigillaria attached to stigmarian roots 276 
 
 137. Stigmaria fleoides 276 
 
 138. Section of a part of the Cape Breton coal-field . . . 277 
 
 139. Section of tooth of labyrinthodon 278 
 
 140. Cycad ,279 
 
 141. Skeleton of ichthyosaurus . . . . ' . 281 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xxiii 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 142. Skeleton of plesiosaurus 281 
 
 1,43. Skeleton of pterodactyl 282 
 
 144. Microscopic section of chalk from Sussex .... 283 
 
 145. Atlantic ooze from a depth of 2,250 fathoms . . . 283 
 
 146. Compsognathus longipes 284 
 
 147. Hesperomis regalis 285 
 
 148. Palseotherium magnum 287 
 
 149. Glacier descending into the sea and breaking ofE so 
 
 as to form icebergs 289 
 
 150. Moating icebergs 290 
 
 161. Boulder deposited from an iceberg 291 
 
 152. Boulder planed and scarred by glacial action . . . 292 
 
 153. Glacier of Zermatt 293 
 
 154. Skull of old man of Cromagnon : vertical view . . 294 
 
 155. „ „ „ profile 295 
 
 156. „ „ „ front view ... 296 
 
 157. Bones of the old man of Cromagnon 297 
 
 158. Sculptured bone handle representing a reindeer . . . 298 
 
 159. Mammoth carved in ivory 299 
 
 160. The mammoth 300 
 
 161. Hinder extremity of bird 309 
 
 162. Skeleton of the foot of a reptile and a bird .... 310 
 
 163. Frog developed in egg, without undergoing meta- 
 
 morphosis 311 
 
 164. Development of an ascidian 312 
 
 165. Development of amphioxus 313 
 
 166. Embryo of tortoise (4th week) 316 
 
 167. „ fowl (4th day) 316 
 
 168. „ dog (4th week) 316 
 
 169. „ man (4th week) 316 
 
 170. „ tortoise (6th week) 317 
 
xxiv LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Fia. , ^""^ 
 
 171. Embryo of fowl (8th day) 317 
 
 172. „ dog (6th week) 317 
 
 173. „ man (8th week) 317 
 
 174. Recent equus 322 
 
 175. Pliocene pliohippus 322 
 
 176. Protohippus 323 
 
 177. Miocene miohippus . ' 324 
 
 178. Mesohippus '..... 324 
 
 179. Eocene orohippus 325 
 
 180. Embryos of foiir vertebrates 347 
 
 181. Ditto 348 
 
 ERRATA. 
 
 Page 107, lin£ 19, far " steins " read " stamens." 
 
 161, 
 194, 
 218, 
 262, 
 306, 
 895, 
 
 1, 
 
 10, 
 1, 
 
 12, 
 9, 
 
 23, 
 
 "paelozoic" read "palseozoic." 
 " vertebrata " read "mammalia." 
 "Hyracordia" read " Hyracoidea." 
 " Euthocomi " read " Euthycomi." 
 "teleostian" read "teleostean." 
 ■'Ackerman" read "Eckermann." 
 
 In the frog barometer mentioned at p. 394, the animal is stated in the last edition 
 of the Encyclopcedia Britannica to sit at the bottom of the vessel in bad weather 
 and to mount in good weather, I am nnable to discover whether my original 
 German informant or the writer of the article in the Ertcyclopcedia is correct, and 
 have therefore left the statement as I got it. 
 
THE BIBLE AND SCIENCE. 
 
 LECTURE I. 
 
 BIBLE LANDS — EGYPT. 
 
 In going along the streets of a town, one's ear ■ Can ^ 
 hardly fail to catch the cry, " Papers ! Papers ! " ; ^nd' 
 at every stationer's shop we are struck by the great 
 number of new periodicals" which are exposed in th6. 
 windows for sale. In no age of the world's history hAs 
 the saying of the wise man, that " men shall riih 
 about, and knowledge shall be increased," been inbTH 
 thoroughly verified than in the present. When we^ 
 compare the general diffusion of information to-day 
 with what it was five and twenty years ago, we are 
 surprised at the change that has taken place within the 
 limits of a quarter of a century. Nor is it merely in 
 the extent of general diffusion of information that this 
 change has taken place. It has occurred also in depth 
 and variety. 
 
 B 
 
2 HISTORY AND NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 In taking up one of the daily papers, we find that it 
 contains news from every part of the world — from 
 Afghanistan to the United States, from KaflSr Land to 
 Baflfin's Bay; and the news conveyed in the papers 
 excites in the minds of those who read it a wish to 
 know something of the appearance and productions of 
 the lands of which they read, of the stature and 
 physiognomy of the inhabitants, as well as of their 
 manners, customs, and general mode of life. To 
 supply this craving for knowledge, we have all sorts of 
 magazines, pamphlets, books, and lectures, so that 
 every individual in this country, whether living in a 
 large town, a retired village, or an isolated cottage, has 
 an opportunity of becoming acquainted, more or less 
 accurately, with countries and peoples of whom his 
 parents , had not -even heard. The acts of these 
 peoples, their wars and treaties with us and with 
 others, the names of their rulers, and their doings 
 generally, come under the head of history, but their 
 stature and strength, their powers of endurance, their 
 mental capacity, the character of their soil, its fertility 
 or its barrenness, the height of their mountains, the 
 width of their passes, the depth, rapidity, and course of 
 their rivers, all come under the natural history of these 
 peoples, although they would influence to a great 
 extent the events of the history of these races, by 
 determining the numbers of their armies, their power 
 
NATURAL HISTORY. 3 
 
 of fighting or strategy, and their relations with others. 
 The term "natural history" is a very comprehensive 
 one, for it includes, in its widest .significance, a de- 
 scription and explanation of everything that we see 
 around us. 
 
 Under this title we may discuss the appearance of 
 the earth on which we tread, its colour, its consistence, 
 the outlines of its mountains, the depth of its valleys, 
 the superposition of the different strata which are laid 
 bare by a stream as it cuts for itself a deeper and 
 deeper channel ; the appearance of the trees which 
 fringe its banks, the plants and flowers which carpet 
 the meadows at its sides, the names and characters of 
 the birds and beasts which live around it, the fishes 
 which swim in its waters, the insects, worms, and slugs, 
 which swarm around its banks ; the sea-weeds, crabs, 
 and other marine productions which any one who 
 follows its course to the ocean would meet with at the 
 sea-shore ; and all the marvels which he would 
 encounter in his visit if he were venturesome enough 
 to proceed to the lands beyond the sea. 
 
 But the term " natural history " includes more than 
 a mere description of animals, plants, and minerals. 
 It embraces the relations of the different iinds of 
 plants, animals, and minerals to each other; their dis- 
 tribution over the world's surface ; the mode in which 
 they live ; the conditions by which they are influenced ; 
 
 B 2 
 
4 DIVISIONS OF NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 their succession in the world's history ; and even the 
 place of the world itself in space, its age, its develop- 
 ment, its future. This subject is so wide that it is 
 impossible for any one to become acquainted with any- 
 thing more than the mere rudiments of the, whole of 
 it, and it has accordingly been divided, both for the 
 purposes of instruction and research, into several 
 departments. The appearance and composition of the 
 different kinds of earth and rock are treated of under 
 the head of mineralogy, the succession of strata under 
 that of geology, the distribution of land and water 
 under geography, the rainfall, the temperature, and 
 the direction and force of winds under meteorology, 
 the description of plants under that of botany, of 
 animals under zoology, of the different races of 
 man under ethnology, and the functions of life, 
 and the modes in which men, animals, and plants 
 manifest a life of their own, are treated of under 
 i)hysiology. 
 
 Day by day each of these branches of knowledge is 
 extending. The number of facts included in each, is 
 becoming greater and greater, until it is impossible for 
 any one man to master all of them, althouo-h like 
 Solomon, his wisdom excelled the wisdom of all the 
 children of the. east country, and all the wisdom of 
 Egypt, and though he were wiser than Ethan the 
 Ezrahite, and Heman and Chakol and Darda the sons of 
 
Solomon ANt) ariStotle. 5 
 
 Mahol ^ whose names have come down to us as marvels 
 of learning. How much of our present knowledge we 
 owe to these learned men it would be impossible to say, 
 for the story goes that Aristotle, to whom we are 
 indebted for a great deal, borrowed largely from the 
 stores of Solomon. When Alexander was passing 
 through Palestine on his career of triumphant conquest ; 
 Jerusalem at once opened its gates to the victor of 
 Tyre, and the High Priest placed at his disposal all the 
 treasures of the Temple. Amongst these were said to 
 be a number of manuscripts containing the sayings of 
 Solomon regarding plants, from the cedar that is in 
 Lebanon to the hyssop that is upon the wall. These 
 MSS. were sent by Alexander to his tutor Aristotle, 
 who is said, though with what truth I know not, to 
 have made free use of them, and thus, indirectly, we 
 at this moment may have in our possession much of 
 the wisdom of Solomon. 
 
 The news we get in the daily papers from far-off 
 countries awakes our attention, and excites our curi- 
 osity regarding them, but to many a one^ these events, 
 happening in distant lands, even although we receive 
 news of them on the very day of their occurrence, seem 
 much less real, and awaken much less interest, than the 
 events which took place thousands of years ago, but 
 which are narrated in the Scriptures. These, having 
 J 1, Kings, iv. 30, 31. 
 
6 BIBLE SCENES AND BIBLE LANDS. 
 
 been read and re-read by us in our early youth, seem 
 almost like a part of our own lives, and the actors in 
 them seem like personal acquaintances. 
 
 Which of us has not pictured to himself, over and 
 over again, the scene of Rebecca meeting Eleazar at 
 the well, with his line of camels behind him, patiently 
 waiting until some one should draw water for them ? Or 
 the long caravan which brought the aged Jacob to meet 
 his long-lost son Joseph in Egypt ? Or the lion stand- 
 ing beside the disobedient prophet and his ass, having 
 neither torn the ass nor mutilated the man ? Or the 
 bears which destroyed forty and two children who had 
 mocked the prophet Elisha ? Which of us has not longed 
 to visit the scenes where these various events happened ? 
 To see with our own eyes the exact spots where they took 
 place ? To tread with our own feet the same paths which 
 the patriarchs trod ? And to view mentally the whole 
 drama in the very places where it was enacted ! 
 
 Twenty or thirty years ago, but few people could 
 gratify their desire to visit Bible lands, but now they 
 go in great numbers. We see personally conducted 
 tours by Cook or Gaze advertised at the beginning of 
 every winter, and although it can hardly be very 
 agreeable to join one of these large parties, there can I 
 think be few pleasures greater than that of travelling, 
 either alone or with one or two friends, in the East. 
 Not only is there the purely physical delight of an 
 
CLIMATE AND PEOPLE OF EGYPT. 7 
 
 unclouded sky above, a clear, warm, dry atmosphere 
 around, giving strength, energy, and activity to the 
 body, and buoyancy and joyousness to the spirits, but 
 there is the mental pleasure, of moving backwards, as 
 it were, through many centuries of the world's history, 
 and seeing before one, day after day, buildings, pjiint- 
 ings, and sculptures, as fresh as if they had come only 
 yesterday from the hand of the architect or artist, 
 although those who designed and fashioned them have 
 mouldered into dust for thousands of years. At every 
 step you seem to get new light thrown upon passages 
 of Scripture with which you have been familiar from 
 childhood, but which until now have never been 
 thoroughly understood. On landing in Egypt, for 
 example, and passing onwards through the Delta 
 towards Cairo, you notice the miserable hovels of the 
 FeUaheen, looking more like large mud bee-hives than 
 anything else ; you see their occupants later on, 
 toiling from early morning till dusk, with no covering 
 but a cloth around the loins, and with no reward except 
 food barely sufficient to keep body and soul together, 
 and you no longer wonder that the Israelites, after 
 centuries of similar toil, had no thought beyond their 
 daily bread ; and would willingly have again bartered 
 their liberty for the fish which they did eat in Egypt 
 freely, for the onions and the melons and the leeka* 
 ' Numbers xi 5. 
 
8 THE HOME OF JOSEPH. 
 
 You walk through the streets, and see carriages driving 
 along through the crowd, preceded by a lightly clad 
 , runner, armed with a stick, with which he admonishes 
 such animals as may stand in the way, while he cries 
 " To the right ! " " To the left ! " " Make way ! " and 
 you at once perceive the humility of Elijah, when he 
 voluntarily assumed the position of a running footman 
 before Ahab's chariot, immediately after his triumphant 
 victory over the priests of Baal. On riding some miles 
 out from Cairo, you come to a grove of palm-trees, 
 inclosing a green open space in the centre, on which 
 stands a solitary obelisk. Here and there are mounds 
 of broken bricks, made of clay mixed with straw and 
 burned in the sun. Never in my life do I remember a 
 pleasanter moment than when I sat down on one of 
 these, and looked at the scene before me, for this was 
 the realization of my childhood's dream, this was the 
 spot where Joseph had lived. Yonder might have 
 been the granaries where he received his brothers; 
 here, in the neighbourhood, stood his house, where he 
 returned, weary with his day's work, and was received 
 by his lovely and loving wife Asenath, whose gentle 
 eare had obliterated from his mind, not only all the 
 sorrows and trials of his early life, the hatred of his 
 brothers, his slavery in Egypt, his temptations in 
 Potiphar's house, and his long imprisonment in tha 
 dungeon, but had almost made him forget his dead 
 
SHAPE OF EGYPT. • 9 
 
 mother, the kind old father who had loved him so well, 
 and the little brother Benjamin to whom he had been 
 so deeply attached, so that he called the name of his 
 first-born son Manasseh, "For God," said he, "hath 
 made me forget all my toil, and all my father's house." 
 Here he rested and was at peace ; though from time 
 to time no doubt he was called to journey over the 
 length and breadth of the land to inspect the crops and 
 regulate the taxes. It may be interesting to dwell for 
 a moment on the scenes that met his gaze, the pro- 
 ducts of the country which were paid to him in tri- 
 bute, and the peoples who were either subject to him, 
 or came in their distress to ask corn from him as 
 a favour. 
 
 Fancy then to yourself a country shaped like an 
 ' enormous capital letter Y, with its arms pointing to-' 
 wards the north, and its leg towards the south. The 
 boundaries of the country are abrupt ridges of yeUow 
 limestone hills, and the leg of the Y, and the space 
 between its arms, are filled in with perfectly flat, rich, 
 dark soil, covered with vegetation, and watered by an 
 immense river, which flows as a single, mighty stream, 
 through the valley, and spreads out into many branches 
 when it reaches the triangular space between the arms 
 of the Y, which, from its resemblance to the Greek letter, 
 has received the name of the Delta. The whole of this 
 fertile country, inclosed as it is by the barren limestone 
 
10 THE NILE. 
 
 hills, on which not a blade of grass grows, and beyond 
 which stretch sandy deserts, is emphatically the product 
 of the river. Rising in the far south, it carries with it 
 rich soil -from the countries through which it flows; and 
 in the course of ages has not only deposited this rich 
 mud over the surface of the barren sands in the valley 
 between the hills, but has formed at its mouth a bank 
 which has gradually pushed back the waters of the 
 Mediterranean until the Delta is now about 120 miles 
 both in length and breadth. Every year the river 
 gradually rises, and covers the whole of this fertile 
 tract, and again, gradually subsiding, leaves behind it 
 the rich, soft mud, in which the seed sown will, after 
 a month or two, spring up, yielding fruit a hundred- 
 fold. Both the rise and fall of the river are watched 
 by the natives with the utmost anxiety. For if it fall " 
 short of its usual rise even by so little as two cubits, 
 so flat is the country that a great part of it is left 
 uncovered by the fertilising flood, and drought and 
 famine is the consequence in Upper Egypt. If on 
 the other hand the waters rise even a cubit too high, 
 they overflow the fields destined for the autumn crops 
 and devastate the Delta, invading the slight eleva- 
 tions on which the houses are built, covering the 
 meadows and starving the cattle. The river slowly 
 begins to rise at the beginning of June, attains its 
 greatest height in the first half of October, and then 
 
THE HORNED VIPER. It 
 
 begins to sink. In February the waters have retired 
 within their banks and the fields are drying up. 
 
 Let us, in order to form an idea of the country, 
 suppose Joseph at this time of the year to be start- 
 ing on a tour of inspection, and let us in thought 
 accompany him. 
 
 He has said farewell to his wife and children. His 
 chariot and horses are at the gate, he springs up, 
 and, accompanied by his attendants, drives onwards 
 towards the southern point of the Delta, just where it 
 joins the Nile valley. At first he proceeds amongst 
 shady trees, bounded on either side by fertile gardens. 
 . but as he rides on, his path lies through a strip of hard, 
 sandy desert, in crossing which, the hind legs of one 
 of the horses ridden by his attendants suddenly becomes 
 paralysed, the animal sinks upon his haunches, and the 
 horseman falls backwards. The Cerastes, or horned 
 snake, a little viper only about a foot long, lying con- 
 cealed in the sand, which it resembles in colour, irri- 
 tated by the passage of the cavalcade, has bitten the 
 horse's heel. Immediately the poison spreads up the 
 leg, paralysing it, and, when it reaches the spinal cord, 
 paralyses it also, thus destroying the power of both 
 hind legs, and causing them to give way under the 
 weight of the aninial. Only within the last year or 
 two have we learned the exact manner in which such 
 a poison as this acts upon the tody, but centuries ago 
 
12 THE PYRAMIDS. 
 
 its general effect was well known, and no more vivid 
 description of it could be given than that of the dying 
 Jacob, who compared his son Dan to "an adder in 
 the way, a serpent in the path, biting the horse's heels, 
 so that his rider falleth backwards." 
 
 But, hardly delayed by such an incident as this, let 
 us suppose the cortige again moving on. To the right 
 spreads the green carpet of the Delta ; in front rise the 
 ends of the limestone ranges which inclose the Nile 
 valley. Close under the western range, and buUt on a 
 projecting shelf which juts therefrom, rise three pyramids 
 of enormous size, whose solid blocks of gigantic stones 
 rise tier upon tier, forming a huge mass which has re- 
 sisted the wear of centuries, and which seems likely 
 to last to the world's end. Joseph's course lies past 
 the pyramids, but the river intervenes between 
 him and them. Quickly flows the muddy tide be- 
 tween high dark-brown banks fringed with palms 
 among which run little channels for conveying water 
 from the river to the belt of herbage and plants 
 which extends from the bank to the foot of the 
 hills. For the hot sun quickly dries the moist mud 
 left by the inundation, and, unless the vegetation upon 
 it were watered artificially, it would soon be withered. 
 The surface of the river lies sunk several feet below 
 the level of its banks, and the water must be raised 
 by devices, which are of exactly the same kind as 
 
IRRIGATION AND BRICKMAKING. 13 
 
 those which were made use of by the Israelites in 
 Egypt. Upon a Short upright post is balanced a long 
 bar, which has a bucket at one end, and at the other 
 a heavy mass of clay. The Fellah who works it, just 
 as the captives of the Egyptians formerly did, pulls 
 down the bucket, fills it with water, and then, suddenly 
 letting go, the heavy mass of clay at the other end 
 descends, and thus raises the full bucket, which is then 
 emptied into a little channel. These channels are very 
 shallow, Eind have numerous branches, into which the 
 water is allowed to flow or is cut off at pleasure by the 
 foot of the labourer breaking down or building up a 
 slight dam of mud at its entrance. To the Fellah, 
 to-day, the language would be as appropriate as to the 
 Israelite of old : " The land of Egypt, which thou 
 waterest with thy foot." 
 
 A little further on he may have seen some w'eary 
 brickma,kers la,bouring in hard bondage, some breaking 
 up the hard mud with picks, others briiiging water from 
 the river or a neighbouring pool to soften it, others 
 working it up to a proper consistency, while others 
 moulded it to the proper shape, as we see in this 
 picture taken from the tomb of one of the Pharaohs 
 who lived at a time not far remote from that of Joseph. 
 
 To those of us who think of stubble such as we get 
 in our own fields it may have seemed very extraordinary 
 that the Israelites could get enough to make bricks 
 
14 REAPING— TRIBUTE. 
 
 with. But the Egyptian mode of reaping was not 
 always like ours. Some kinds of grain they cut down 
 as we do, and threshed it out by the feet of oxen. 
 But of other kinds they only cut off the ears, leaving 
 the straw standing on the ground, and this no doubt 
 was the stubble which the Israelites collected. The 
 corn, after being winnowed, was taken to the bams and 
 there measured, each measure being carefully noted by 
 a man who was placed there specially for the purpose. 
 Into such granaries as we see figured here {vide PI. I.) 
 was the tribute paid by the Egyptians to Joseph, and 
 from these was corn sold to them when the famine was 
 sore ia the land. But it was not only from Egypt that 
 people came to buy corn or to acknowledge the power 
 of Pharaoh and seek his aid or friendship. From the 
 far south they came bringing ostriches, giraffes and 
 monkeys, and so the land of Egypt was enriched, not 
 merely with its own agricultural wealth and the manu- 
 factures of its inhabitants, but with all the choicest 
 products of all surrounding countries. 
 
 And of all the riches of this wealthy country, the 
 best was Joseph's. 
 
 Connected by marriage with one of the noblest of 
 Egyptian princes, the high priest of On, and, as prime 
 minister of the king, second ciily to Pharaoh himself, 
 Joseph no doubt inhabited such a house as we find from 
 pictures on the monuments was inhabited by the 
 
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EGYPTIAN HOUSES. 15 
 
 Egyptian nobles. Through a high gate, with flagstaffs on 
 either side, he entered a paved court-yard, round which 
 extended an open shed, the roofs of which were supported 
 on wooden columns, and which served for stables, 
 chariot-houses, and dwellings for the slaves. In the 
 back wall of the court was a second door, leading to a 
 large garden, with beds of flowers, aromatic plants and 
 vegetables, groups of shrubs, and rows of fig-trees, pome- 
 granates, tall palms, and shady sycamores and acacias. 
 
 Here and there were trellises, covered with vines, 
 from which hung clusters of juicy purple grapes, and 
 in the centre was a large tank, filled with clear water, 
 from which the garden was watered, and where the 
 children were occasionally allowed to angle for the fish 
 with which it was stocked. On one side of the garden 
 stretched a long, one-storied house, with an open 
 verandah running along its whole length, and from 
 which the doors of the sitting and sleeping rooms all 
 opened. At the further end, a row of store-rooms 
 extended out at right angles, in which were kept all 
 the food and goods necessary for the household. The 
 floors of the sitting-rooms were covered with rich 
 carpets, chairs and stools of graceful shape and brilliant 
 colour stood about the rooms, which, during the day, 
 were -partially darkened by heavy blinds and shutters 
 to keep out the noon-tide heat. In the garden, near 
 the tank, was a summer-house, in which Joseph and 
 
16 MOURNING. 
 
 his wife were accustomed to sit during the cool of the 
 evening, while the children played around them, and 
 refreshed themselves with the fresh juice of grapes 
 newly plucked from the neighbouring trellises. 
 
 But it is not probable that the life of Joseph and 
 his wife was entirely free from those bereavements 
 which fall to the ordinary lot of man. In the course of 
 nature the father of Asenath would in all likelihood 
 die before them, and they probably stood around his 
 death-bed. As soon as the last breath was drawn, they 
 and the rest of the family would break out into loud 
 lamentations, renewed from time to time, and continued 
 not only while they remained in his house, but in the 
 streets as they passed from it to their own home, and on 
 their way they would throw dust upon their heads as a 
 further sign of grief For three days this was Con- 
 tinued, and the body was then sent to the embalmers. 
 These removed the brain by inserting a curved iron 
 instrument through the nostrils, and, an incision being 
 made in the side, the intestines were drawn out, 
 washed with wine, and covered with spices, and, the 
 belly being filled with myrrh, cassia, and other aro-^ 
 matics, the body was sewn up again and kept in salt 
 for seventy days. It was then washed, wrapped up in 
 bands of fine linen, smeared with gum on the . inner 
 side, and placed in a wooden case somewhat in the 
 form of a man. It was then restored to the friends. 
 
EGYPTIAN FUNERAL. 17 
 
 who, all this time, had kept up their lamentations at 
 home, by neglecting bathing and the care of their 
 garments, in order to show that their intense grief was 
 too absorbing to allow them to attend even to their 
 most ordinary duties. During this period, too, the 
 tomb was being prepared for the dead (generally on 
 the other side of the river). When ready, special 
 notice was sent out to forty-two judges, and afterwards 
 a public announcement of the day was made, the 
 mummy case was carried out of the house and placed 
 in a hearse upon a sledge, and the funeral procession 
 commenced. First were servants, carrying tables 
 loaded with eatables of all sorts, and animals for 
 sacrifice. The next group carried warlike implements ; 
 and the third, furniture, and a chariot, followed by the 
 charioteer, with horses yoked to another car, which he 
 drove on foot; next came plate and jewellery, rings, 
 collars and necklaces, and after them came the sacred 
 boat and the eye of Osiris, while others carried small 
 images of the god, and of the bird which was the 
 emblem of the soul. After these were carried flowers, 
 and bottles for libation, and then came hired mourning 
 women, throwing dust upon their heads, beating their 
 breasts, and lamenting the dead. Next followed the 
 hearse, drawn by oxen and men, and in it stood at 
 either end of the sarcophagus, the nearest female rela- 
 tions of the deceased. Beside the hearse walked the 
 
 c 
 
18 JUDGMENT OF THE DEAD. 
 
 high priest, and behind it came the male relatives of 
 the departed. Some, with downcast eye and saddened 
 look, stepped along in solemn silence, while others gave 
 vent to their grief by beating their breasts. Arrived at 
 the river -side, the forty-two judges were found ranged in 
 a semicircle, and, near at hand, boats were waiting ready 
 to convey the funeral party across. The judges now 
 proceeded to judge the dead, and grant or deny to him 
 the honours of sepulture, according as he seemed to 
 deserve. If the decision were favourable, the funeral 
 company would cross the river to the tomb, while if it 
 were adverse, they must return home with grief and 
 shame. The judges summoned all those" who had 
 anything of which to accuse the deceased to stand 
 forward, but if his life had been just, no valid accusa- 
 tion could be brought, and those who had envied his 
 greatness, and might, through ill-will, have wished to 
 cast ignominy upon his memory, were deterred from 
 making false accusations' by the remembrance of the 
 penalties which they knew would follow if their asser- 
 tions were found to be .untrue. The judges having 
 pronounced the dead worthy of sepulture, the bearers 
 of food and furniture embarked in a large boat, which 
 was followed by a small one holding cakes, fruit, and 
 green palm-branches to throw before the hearse on its 
 way to the tomb. Next followed the men with flowers 
 and plate ; and then two other boats, in which stood the 
 
' EGYPTIAN TOMBS. 19 
 
 male and female mourners, beating their breasts and 
 lamenting loudly. Last came the hearse, surrounded 
 by the chief mourners, in a consecrated boat, with afl 
 altar at the prow, from which the high-priest burned 
 incense. Arrived at the opposite shore, the procession 
 (disembarked, and the sledge was drawn across the 
 sandy desert to the tomb. This consisted of a number 
 of chambers, hewn in the solid rock of the Libyan 
 hill, and the walls were decorated with pictures illus- 
 trating the ordinary occupations of the deceased and 
 his family, painted in colours which, even at this 
 day, remain almost as vivid as when freshly applied, 
 and show us the ordinary mode of life of those who 
 lived fifty centuries ago. ' Arrived at the tomb, the 
 mummy was taken out of the hearse and placed erect 
 in one of the chambers, and his wife, embracing it, 
 burst out into a loud wail, and called upon all her 
 friends to join with her in praises of the deceased. 
 In the meantime the high-priest poured out libations,- 
 and offered up incense, while all around joined in the 
 lamentation, and threw dust upon their heads, after 
 which the tomb was closed and they all returned to 
 their homes. 
 
 In Egypt the concerns of a future life beyond the 
 grave occupied the thoughts of the living more than 
 in any other country, ancient or modern; and it is 
 iherefore all the more surprising that not only the 
 
 c 2 
 
20 FOREIGN EMBASSIES. 
 
 books of Moses written after leaving Egypt, but all 
 the earlier parts of the Old Testament, should con- 
 tain no reference to any future state. From their 
 silence on this subject it has been inferred that the 
 Israelites of old, like the Sadducees in later times, 
 had no belief in a future existence ; but it is exceed- 
 ingly difficult to imagine that they could leave Egypt 
 without a belief of this kind. Especially is this the 
 case when we find that their funeral feasts remained 
 so important, that, when an Israelite brought his tithes 
 to the temple, he had solemnly to aflSrm that he had 
 not eaten thereof in his mourning nor given aught 
 thereof for the dead. (Deut. xxvi. 14.) 
 
 But let us now turn again, from the 'private to the 
 public life of Joseph. 
 
 Forced by the famine which prevailed not only in 
 Egypt but in the surrounding countries, deputations 
 came to beg for leave to buy com in Egypt, the granary 
 .of the ancient world. With them they brought the 
 products of their country as presents to gain them 
 grace in the eyes of Joseph. Amongst others came the 
 brethren of Joseph, and they carried down from Canaan 
 with them balm and honey, spices and myrrh, nuts 
 and almonds. When they arrived, he spake to them 
 by an interpreter, for although the rulers of Egypt at 
 this time were derived from the Semitic race, allied 
 in blood to the inhabitants of Canaan, their long 
 
THE HYKSOS. 21 
 
 residence in. the country had probably' so modified 
 their forms of speech that it was no longer intelligible 
 to the children of Israel, although when Abraham 
 visited the country no such interpreter seems to have 
 been necessary. 
 
 The customs of the higher classes also appear to 
 have been modified by the feelings of the people. 
 The King and the ruling race at this time are sup- 
 posed to have been the Hyksos, or shepherd kings 
 of Egypt, who, originally a pastoral race, had invaded 
 the land and driven the former rulers out of the 
 Delta and far up the Nile, valley. This invasion 
 by a pastoral people had rendered the very name of 
 shepherd obnoxious to the Egyptians, and although the 
 rulers belonged to this race, they seem to have yielded 
 to the popular prejudice, and Joseph's brethren were 
 set at a table apart from themselves. On the arrival 
 of his father and brethren, Joseph led. them up to 
 Pharaoh, and after permission to dwell in the land oi 
 Goshen had been granted, Pharaoh commanded Joseph, 
 if there were any men of activity amongst his brethren, 
 to make them rulers over his cattle. How this com- 
 mand was fulfilled we learn iucidentally from a curious 
 passage in the Book of Chronicles, from which it 
 appears that some of the sons of Ephraim were killed 
 in an attempt to recruit their stock from their neigh- 
 bours' herds without asking leave. The following is the 
 
22 CATTLE-STEALING. 
 
 passage :—" And the sons of Ephraim . . Ezer and 
 Elead, whom the men of Gath that were horn in that 
 land slew, because they came down to take away their 
 cattle, and Ephraim their father mourned many days." ^ 
 After the death of Joseph, a quarrel . arose between 
 the king of Lower Egypt, who demanded from the 
 king of Upper Egypt — a descendant of the regal race 
 which before the foreign invasion had ruled the whole 
 country — a valuable spring, which the latter refused 
 to give up. In consequence of this a war broke out, 
 which, after lasting for nearly eighty years, ended in 
 the expulsion of the foreign race, and the union of 
 the whole of Egypt under one king. Naturally enough 
 the new rulers were suspicious of the Hebrews, a 
 people more numerous than themselves, allied in race 
 to the foreign conquerors, and bound to them by ties 
 of gratitude and affection for numerous favours received 
 at their hands. 
 
 . To expel them in a body, by open violence, was 
 impossible, and besides, it would have been ruinous, 
 for they were skilful herdsmen and agriculturists. They 
 had been dwelling a long time in the Delta, they 
 knew what embankments were needed to protect the 
 towns, and what canals were necessary to fertilize the 
 country. The people belonging to the conquering 
 race, hitherto penned up within the narrow regions of 
 1 1 Chvon. vii. 22. 
 
EGYPTIAN CONQUEST. 23 
 
 Upper Egypt, would barely have sufficed to carry on 
 the work, even if they had been so inclined, which 
 apparently they were not. It was, therefore, to some 
 extent necessary to retain the great body of the Israelites 
 in the country, although part of them, it would seem, 
 had left their land along with the remnant of the 
 Hyksos, whom, probably, they had aided in their 
 struggle with the Egyptians. 
 
 But on the other hand, should the Hyksos again 
 return to invade the country, the numbers of the 
 Israelites who in all probability would join their stan- 
 dard would render their success a matter of great 
 probability if not of actual certainty. It was not im- 
 possible, too, that they might combine amongst them- 
 selves, either to win back part of the country as their 
 own, or else to migrate from it and seek to conquer 
 territory for themselves elsewhere. Thus the Egyp- 
 tians ran the risk, either of having a second civil war, 
 or of losing their skilful labourers and servants, and 
 being compelled _ themselves to undertake distasteful 
 and menial work. It was therefore not in a spirit of 
 cruelty, but, as they thought, of wisdom and self-preser- 
 vation, that the new king said to his people " Behold, 
 the people of the children of Israel are more and 
 mightier than we; come on, let us deal wisely with 
 them ; lest they multiply, and it come to pass, that, 
 when there falleth out any war, they join also unto our 
 
24 BONDAGE OF ISRAELITES. 
 
 enemies, and fight against us, and so get them up out 
 of the land." At first, then, as we are told, they set 
 over them taskmasters to afilict them with their 
 burdens, and made their lives bitter to them with hard 
 bondage and forced labour in making sun-dried bricks, 
 and building treasure cities, Pithom and Raamses. By 
 the abstraction of so many labourers from their ordinary 
 occupations, the work of those who were left was 
 enormously increased, and the mortality amongst those 
 engaged in the works was in all probability enormous, 
 if we may judge from what has been observed, even in 
 the present day, in the construction of the Suez Canal. 
 Such work as brickmaking, carried on under the rod of 
 the taskmaster under the burning sun as we see it 
 depicted on the monuments, was weU calculated to 
 destroy many of the Israelites, and to break the spirit 
 of the survivors. Nevertheless, it was ineffectual, and 
 the Egyptians were forced to have recourse to the more 
 direct mode of lessening the numbers of the Hebrews 
 by drowning the children. 
 
LECTURE II. 
 
 THE EXODUS. 
 
 We all know the story of Moses, and how he was 
 drawn out of the water, and brought up as the son of 
 Pharaoh's daughter ; but we do not, I think, all realize 
 how much is implied in this, and also in the verse — 
 " And Moses was learned in all the wisdom of the 
 Egyptians." From Josephus we learn that, in his 
 royal capacity, he led an army into Ethiopia and van- 
 quished the Ethiopian king, whose daughter became 
 his wife. It is possible that, proud of her royal rank, 
 she somewhat slighted and despised Aaron and Miriam, 
 who, unable to bear her scorn, may have been thus 
 induced to combine against -Moses as we read in 
 Numbers xii. 1. As he was learned in all the wisdom 
 of the Egyptians, Moses knew the true signification of 
 the complicated worship in which the common people 
 were made to adore birds, beasts, and creeping things. 
 He knew that all these were simply symbolic of the 
 
2(5 EGYPTIAN RELIGION AND LEARNING. 
 
 attributes, such as "All-seeing, All-knowing, All- 
 creating," of the one God, who is over all, and in all, 
 and around all, in whom in a very definite sense indeed, 
 they lived and moved and had their being, and were, 
 as a Greek poet, who had possibly derived his idea from 
 the Egyptians long afterwards said, "His offspring." 
 From Him they came, of Him they were, to Him they 
 returned. (Acts xvii. 28.) 
 
 Of geometry, astronomy, and possibly of chemistry, 
 Moses had no mean knowledge, for the Egyptians had 
 fixed, very nearly, the proper length of the year ; they 
 were able indeed to rectify, by observation of the stars, 
 all its inequalities, and compute time accurately, and it 
 seems not improbable that the Pyramids were intended 
 to serve as astronomical observatories, as well as tombs 
 for deceased kings. All his knowledge, and all his war- 
 like service, made him, however, only more dangerous. 
 When it became known to Pharaoh that he had taken 
 the part of the oppressed Israelites, he was forced to 
 flee across the desert to the eastern side of the Eed 
 Sea, and there to dwell in some oasis with the chief of 
 a wandering Arab tribe. At last Rameses the Second 
 died, a man of great mental power and iron will ; the 
 oppressor of the Israelites, the mighty conqueror, who 
 had not kept them alone in hard bondage, but had 
 ruled his Egyptian subjects also with an iron hand, 
 and taken from the country many of its best and 
 
PLAGUE OF DAEKNESS. 27 
 
 bravest, to perish in the foreign wars 'which he had 
 waged against the tribes of Syria and Palestine, and 
 the Greeks of the Archipelago. Rameses was probably 
 the playmate of Moses in childhood and his fellow 
 student in youth, for Seti, the father of Rameses, caused 
 him to be educated along with other young nobles of 
 the country. The knowledge which Moses and Rameses 
 would thus acquire of each other's abilities and char- 
 acter would lead them to fear as well as respect one 
 another, so that Rameses dared not have Moses residing 
 in Egypt, and Moses knew that any attempt on his part 
 to return from exile would cost him his Hfe. Under the 
 reign of his feeble successor, Menepthah the First, Moses 
 dared to return to Egypt, and then, under his leader- 
 ship, as we know, the Israelites left Egypt, after an un- 
 willing consent had been wrung from the king by the 
 twelve terrible plagues, with which his country was 
 visited. Amongst these was one which used to puzzle 
 me not a little, the plague of " darkness which might 
 be felt." Why, I thought, did the people all remain in 
 the dwellings ? Why could they not take lanterns with 
 them and move out ? But a day which I once spent at 
 Port Said showed me what was probably the reason. 
 On waking in the morning it seemed to me that every- 
 thing had been turned into pea-soup. Above, around, 
 and on every side, was a thick yellow mist, darkening 
 the air like a London fog, but differing from it in this 
 
28 THE EXODUS. 
 
 respect, that it was darkness perceptible; a darkness 
 that might be felt, and painfully felt too, for it was 
 Caused by a storm of sand, driven by the wind, and 
 every particle stinging the skin like a needle. It was 
 the kham§,stn, and while it was blowing those who 
 were wise all stayed in-doors. 
 
 After leaving Egypt, the Israelites did not take the 
 short way to Palestine, as this would have brought 
 them in a few days into collision with the warlike 
 Philistines, against whose well-trained and well-armed 
 bands a mob of slaves, mostly unprovided with arms 
 and unskilled in the use of those which they might 
 have, would have had no chance of success. 
 
 Therefore it was that a long and toilsome route 
 was chosen; and through the wilderness, over the 
 sandy desert, stopping now and then at an, oasis, the 
 children of Israel journeyed under the leadership of 
 Moses. 
 
 Shortly after crossing the Red Sea they came to the 
 wells of Marah, and there an incident occurred which 
 illustrates the value of the information regarding that 
 region which Moses had acquired during his long resi- 
 dence in it. The water of these wells was so bitter that 
 the people were unable to drink of it ; but when Moses 
 had " cast " a tree into the water it became sweet. 
 This incident has puzzled some commentators, who 
 have supposed that it was some acidulous fruit which 
 
WATERS OP MABAH, . 29 
 
 Moses cast into the water, and thus rendered it 
 palatable ; but such an explanation is untenable, both 
 because no such fruit is to be found in any quantity near 
 the wells of Marah, and because no acidulation would 
 render the water sweet. The true sense of the passage 
 is obscured by the word "cast" having been used 
 instead of "put" by the translators. It ought to have 
 been " a tree,, which, when he had jput into the waters, 
 the waters were made sweet." The way in which the 
 tree was put in and the waters rendered sweet, is 
 shown by Josephus, and by some modern writers ac- 
 quainted with the district where the incident occurred. 
 Along the shores of the Eed Sea there are springs 
 where the water, as it gushes up when one digs into 
 the sand, contains salt but in quantities so small as to 
 impart no unpleasant taste. When this water stands 
 in a pool for a short time it becomes more and more 
 concentrated by evaporation, until it is so salt as to be 
 quite undrinkable. If this bitter water be now drawn 
 off and thrown away, the water which springs up in its 
 place on digging into the deeper layers of sand below 
 is quite sweet. In place of digging at the waters of 
 Marah, Moses seems to have extemporised' a kind of 
 Artesian well by driving, a wooden pipe into the sand ; 
 for Josephus tells* us that he divided a piece of wood 
 lengthways in the middle, and put it into the, well. 
 He then set the strongest men among them to draw up 
 
30 RETURN OF THE SPIES. 
 
 water, and when the greatest part was drawn up, the 
 remainder became fit to drink.^ 
 
 From Marah the Israelites went onwards until they 
 came to Sinai, and thence, after the giving of the 
 law, they turned northward, towards the borders of the 
 land of Canaan. Arrived at Kadesh, they sent messen- 
 gers to spy out the land, and these, with one consent, 
 brought back a favourable report of the fertility of the 
 country, describing it as a land flowing with milk and 
 honey, and bringing grapes,' figs, and pomegranates in 
 evidence of the truth of their statements. But while 
 they all agreed regarding the desirability of possessing 
 the land, ten of them were faint-hearted, and described 
 its conquest as an impossible task. They had seen 
 there the giant sons of Anak, in whose sight they seemed', 
 and in whose presence they appeared to themselves, as 
 grasshoppers. Only two, Caleb the son of Jephunneh, 
 of the tribe of Judah, but who, as we learn from Josh, 
 xiv. 6, was really a Kenizzite, and Joshua, the son of 
 Nun, an Ephraimite, whose ancestry, as we have 
 already seen, had been engaged in border warfare, felt 
 confident of their power to dispossess the inhabitants 
 of the country, and take possession of it. Unable to 
 persuade the people, however, they, as well as Moses 
 and Aaron, narrowly escaped being stoned by the mob, 
 who wished to return to Egypt, but, shortly afterwards 
 ' Josephus, Andq. of the Jews, Ibk. iii. cli. 2. 
 
DEATH OF MOSES. 3t 
 
 changing their minds, resolved to attempt the con- 
 quest of Palestine, although the leaders refused to go 
 with them. The consequence was that the Amorites 
 and Hivites utterly routed them, and pursued them 
 with great slaughter. After this unsuccessful attempt, 
 they spent nearly forty years wandering about in the 
 wilderness until the cowardly and vacillating slaves, 
 whose spirit had been broken by hard labour under the 
 rod of the taskmasters in Egypt, had died out, and 
 their offspring, born and bred in the desert, and likely 
 to be a better match for the warlike Canaanites, had 
 risen up in their place. Avoiding a contest with the 
 Edomites, who were nearly allied to them in race, they 
 vanquished Sihon, king of the Amorites, and Og, king 
 of Bashan, and overran their country. 
 
 Forty years they wandered, until all but three of 
 those who had left Egypt were dead, and then, on the 
 borders of the Promised Land, Moses himself called the 
 tribes together, and after some touching words of advice 
 and farewell he walked forth alone to die. 
 
 And now the leader was gone who, careless of his own 
 comfort and regardless of fatigue, would sit the whole 
 day judging between man and man, until reminded 
 that his work might and should be done by deputy. 
 The whole company, saddened by his loss, descended 
 the steep declivity of the Moab hills into the Jordan 
 valley, and travelled along until they came to the brink 
 
32 PASSAGE OF THE JORDAN. . 
 
 of the river, which, swollen with the early rains, was 
 rushing like a mill-race into the Dead Sea, a few miles 
 lower down. As soon as the feet of the priests entered 
 the turbid stream, we read that its waters stood up as 
 in a heap towards the city Adam, while those which 
 flowed towards the Dead Sea were cut off, leaving the 
 channel dry. One of the puzzles of my childhood's 
 days was to imagine the condition of the waters thus 
 cut off, for I fancied to myself the river Jordan, like 
 such streams as I had been accustomed to, flowing 
 through a small channel with level meadows stretching 
 on either side, How then, I thought, did the waters 
 stand up as in a heap ? I could picture to myself a 
 steep, glassy wall of water running across the channel 
 itself, but was there likewise a level wall along each 
 bank, or did the waters flow over the meadows on either 
 side ? On seeing the Jordan, however, I at once dis- 
 covered the solution of my childhood's difiiculty. The 
 Jordan valley itself is a huge furrow, like that of the 
 Nile, about ten miles wide,'' inclosed between steep hills, 
 stretching away to high tablelands on either side, and 
 in the middle of this runs the river, within its double 
 channel. The one channel, which it may possibly have 
 filled long, long ago, when much larger than now, is, at 
 
 ^ The inimters given here are all rough estimates, formed by the 
 writer in the course of a day's ride over the country without any 
 measurements. 
 
NATURE OF THE CHANNEL. 33 
 
 the place where the Israelites are supposed to have 
 crossed, about 100 yards broad, and some 60 feet deep. 
 Within this is the present channel, about 30 yards 
 broad, and eight or, nine feet deep. The bottom of the 
 larger and outer channel, between its banks and that of 
 the river, is covered with thickets of brushwood, which 
 formerly afforded cover where wild animals could hide 
 in comfort so long as the river remained within its 
 proper channel, but when it became swollen with the 
 rains, and overflowed its ordinary banks, though still 
 remaining within its outer channel, the waters, invading 
 their lair, drove out the lions which, in anger,i went to 
 the higher grounds, and there made havoc among the 
 cattle. 
 
 Within this larger or outer channel, then, conjined by 
 its bank on either side, the waters of the river might 
 become filled up as a heap. Here was an answer to 
 one inquiry of childhood. There were no iuAdsible or 
 glassy walls, indeed, at the sides to prevent the waters 
 from running over the surrounding country. Was 
 there, then, one to dam them up in their channel, and 
 thus to cut them off towards the Dead Sea, or was 
 the dam here simply of earth ? On standing at the 
 river's brink, the whole scene appeared to pass before 
 me. The country around is highly volcanic. Earth- 
 quakes occur with great frequency, and, during such > 
 1 Jer. xlix. 19. 
 
 D 
 
34 DESCRIPTION BY THE PSALMIST. 
 
 convulsions of nature, we know that the relations of land 
 and water becomes greatly altered. In the earthquake 
 of Lisbon, for example, the sea seemed to recede more 
 than a hundred yards, and then appeared suddenly to 
 return to its former height. This was due, not to any 
 change in the water, but to a change in the ground, 
 which first underwent a sudden upheaval and then sank 
 again to its original level. Here, I thought, we have 
 the method by which the Israelites were able to pass 
 over dry-shod. If the bed of the stream at this place 
 underwent a sudden upheaval at the time of their 
 passage, the consequences would be exactly those 
 which are described in the Book of Joshua. The 
 waters would rise up like a heap, filling the channel 
 far up the valley, and those flowing down to the Dead 
 Sea would be cut off. 
 
 To some this explanation may seem mere fancy, but 
 it appears to be the one accepted by the Psalmist, for, 
 in the 114th Psalm, we find " Jordan was driven back ; 
 the mountains skipped like rams, and the little hills 
 like lambs." " What ailed thee, thou sea, that thou 
 fleddest, thou Jordan that thou wast driven back ? 
 Ye mountains that ye skipped like rams, and ye little 
 hills like lambs ? Tremble, thou earth, in the presence 
 of the Lord, in the presence of the God of Jacob." 
 Here the Psalmist seems to ask the question why 
 Jordan was driven back, and to give us indirectly as 
 
LAND OF PROMISE. 35 
 
 an answer that the earth trembled, or, in other words, 
 that there was an earthquake. 
 
 The Hebrew word translated tremble in this passage 
 is not the word usually employed to denote an earth- 
 quake, and it signifies a prolonged convulsive effort 
 rather than a sudden shiver. This distinction makes 
 the expression of the Psalmist describe the occurrence 
 which we have supposed to take place even more 
 graphically than if he had employed the ordinary word 
 for earthquake. 
 
 Some two or three miles from the Jordan's western 
 bank, and a couple of miles from the foot of the steep, 
 almost perpendicular, ascent which bounds the flat 
 Jordan valley, lay Jericho, after the wonderful si^ge 
 of which the Israelites sent up spies to the city of 
 Ai. To any one who has toiled up that weary ascent, 
 the words of the spies are wonderfully expressive, 
 " Let n6t all the people labour unto Ai." But the 
 unfortunate issue of their first attempt to take the 
 city made it necessary for all the people to join in 
 the assault. There they found themselves high above 
 the Jordan valley, and could now see what the Land 
 of Promise was like. It was not like the land of 
 Egypt, which they bad "watered with their feet." 
 but a land of hills "and valleys, a land of corn and 
 wine, a land of oil-olive, and honey. For here from 
 Bethel, which stood a little to the west of them, ran 
 
 D 2 
 
-36 • ARAB ENCAMPMENTS. 
 
 eastward to the deep 'trench of the Jordan valley a 
 number of parallel valleys with intervening ridges 
 like the teeth" of a comb ; near this was the spot upon 
 which Abraham had pitched his tent shortly after 
 his entrance into Canaan, and his selecfioh affords ■ us 
 a curious instance of the slight alteration which [has 
 taken place in the habits which have passed down 
 from father to son, to his descendants the Arabs of -the 
 present day, and at the same time of .the exactness of 
 the descriptions which we find in the B.ook of Genesis. 
 The Arabs now generally canip at the upper end of the 
 valley, sending their flocks downwards alongits course 
 to browse through the day, and -again bringing them 
 up at night. They do not, however, camp on the top 
 of a hill, as that would be both inconvenient and un- 
 comfortable. Knowing this fact, 'I had been a little 
 astonished at" the statement that Abraham pitched his 
 tent upon d, ,hill between Bethel and Ai,'but a look at the 
 hill itself at once removed my difficulty. ' The hill here 
 is, as I have already said, hke the back of a comb, with 
 ridges, which answer to the teeth running eastward 
 from it. In one of the. valleys lying between them, 
 no doubt Abraham camped in exactly the same way as 
 "his descendants do now, and yet'the words of the text 
 are most literally exact, " He pitched his tent upon a 
 hill which lay between! Bethel add Ai." Shortly after 
 the siege, of Ai, occurred that , remarkable event' which 
 
JOSHUA'S' COMMAND TO THE SUN. 37' 
 
 had sucli a~ powerful iiciflueiice upon tlie fortunes of the 
 Israelites, raising their spirits' and utterly: dishearten-' 
 ing the people of the' land who had gathered together 
 to oppose them, and thus rendering the conquest of the^ 
 Promised Land a matter' of comparative ease.- This 
 remarkable' occurrence has been a great stumbling- 
 block in- the way of those who could not possibly see 
 how the events narrated in the text could be brought 
 into harmony with the so-caUed laws of nature. So 
 long as the view was held- 'that the sun and moon were 
 practically large lanterns, suspended in the sky for the 
 purpose of giving light to the earth, and travelling 
 round it in twenty-four hours, it was not at all sur 
 prising that these should suddenly stop in their course- 
 for several hours. But when it became known that the 
 apparent motion of the sun and moon was due to the 
 diurnal revolution of the earth, with, roughly speaking, 
 a velocity at its surface of one thousand miles ah, hour, 
 the apparent standing still of the sun and moon be- 
 came much more diflBcult to believe!' For in order to 
 produce the phenomenon we must, suppose that the 
 earth had been suddenly arrested in its course, and 
 that this arrest was continued for several hours, after 
 ■Hrhich it resumed its' motion. We aU. know the shock 
 which results from the sudden application of the break 
 to a railway train, even when going little more than 
 twenty miles an hour, and the tendency which every 
 
38 ITALIAN TEANSLATION. 
 
 person and thing in it has to fall forwards, continuing 
 their motion after the train itself has stopped. Now 
 fancy the disturbance that would be created by stopping 
 an enormous train moving at the rate of one thousand 
 miles an hour. The same disturbance would take 
 place if the motion of the earth around its axis were 
 arrested. People and things upon it would all tend to 
 fly off, the waters of the seas would rush out of their 
 beds with tremendous violence, and carry destruction 
 far over the continents, even if the solid crust itself 
 did not crack under the strain. Such difficulties as 
 these some years ago led an Italian, whose name I have 
 now forgotten, to scrutinize more closely the meaning 
 of the text, and to see whether the significance popu- 
 larly attached to it were the correct one. The literal 
 meaning of the Hebrew words translated " stand still " 
 in Joshua, is, I believe, that given in the margin, " Be 
 dumb," and is the same as that which is differently 
 translated in Leviticus, where Aaron is said to have 
 "held his peace" after the death of his two sons, 
 Nadab and Abihu. The point of the question, then, 
 according to this Italian commentator, lies in the 
 translation of the somewhat ambiguous phrase, " the 
 sun and the moon were silent." He translates it 
 " be dark," instead of "stand still," and considers the 
 darkness to have been caused by a total eclipse' of 
 the sun. The difficulty in regard to this interpretation 
 
POSITION OF THE SUN. 39 
 
 is that the text seems to indicate that both sun and 
 moon were visible. But -when the moon is close to the 
 sun, as it is before an eclipse, it is rendered invisible by 
 the sun's brightness. The words of Joshua, " Sun, be 
 thou dumb upon Gibeon, and thou moon in the valley 
 of Ajalon," may only refer, however, to the true posi- 
 tion of the moon, and not to its visibility, for they 
 indicate that the sun and moon were close together, 
 and that the moon was to the west of the sun. For 
 in order to see the sun in the midst of heaven over 
 Gibeon at all, the spectator must have been standing 
 at some point to the northward of it, and to. one in 
 that position the words " standing over the valley of 
 Ajalon " would exactly convey the idea of the moon 
 being in the heavens close to the sun and a little to 
 the west of it, for this valley runs down only a little to 
 the west of Gibeon. 
 
 Now this is the very condition under which a total 
 eclipse of the sun takes place. First, the western edge 
 of the moon gradually covers the whole disc of the sun, 
 and then apparently leaves the latter at its eastern edge. 
 
 The effect of such an occurrence as a total eclipse' 
 of the sun, even upon civilised peoples, is very ex- 
 traordinary. In the battle which was fought between 
 the Modes under Oyaxares, and the Lydians under 
 Croesus, the eclipse of the sun which took place during 
 the fight struck such terror into both armies that the 
 
40 EFFECT OF AK ECLIPSE. 
 
 conflict was suspended. Supposing that it had been 
 known to the one army and not to the other, and that/ 
 moreover, it .was regarded by the one as a token of 
 the divine interposition in their favour, and by the 
 other as an evidence of the wrath of the Deity, we can 
 fancy what an enormous advantage it would give to 
 the one side over the other. If we consider, too, that 
 the Israelites had hitherto by no means shown them- 
 selves to be a very courageous people, no less than 
 12,000 of them having but a short time previously 
 been routed by the inhabitants of the small town of 
 Ai ; and that during a great battle the combatants do 
 not watch the progress of time or calculate its lapse with 
 great accuracy; so that it might be several hours before 
 they noticed that the sun was not going down as usual 
 it seems not unnatural to conclude that a total eclipse 
 would be very much more beneficial to them, by 
 striking consternation into their enemies, than such a 
 prolongation of the day as would simply allow them to 
 slaughter a greater number of the scattered fugitives. 
 We read, too, that at the Creation the morning stars 
 sang together ; and if this be taken as ' a poetical 
 equivalent for shining, we may perhaps reasonably be 
 inclined to think that the Italian interpretation of the 
 words " Be dumb " as meaning " Be dark," is nearer 
 the truth than the one in the English translation, 
 " Stand still." 
 
CONQUEST OF PALESTINE. 41 
 
 After this victory the children of Israel, flushed with 
 success, Avent southward, taking cities and destroying 
 the inhabitants until their victorious career was stopped 
 by the southern desert, and, again turning north, they 
 continued to vanquish the peoples of Canaan as far as 
 Mount Hennon and the Valley of the Lebanon. 
 
LECTURE III. 
 
 BIBLE LANDS.— PALESTINE. 
 
 And now let us take a nearer view of the Land 
 of Promise. It has played such a large part in the 
 world's history, that one is inclined to look upon it 
 as a large country, whereas in reality it is very small, 
 its greatest length being little more than 150 miles, 
 and its breadth about 90 or 100 miles. This strip of 
 land is bounded on the west by the Mediterranean, 
 and on the east by the great Syrian desert. But, 
 small though this country is, the Palestine in which 
 the great events of Scripture history were enacted is 
 much smaller still, for all that part of the country 
 which lay to the east of the Jordan, which was 
 divided between the tribes of Eeuben, Gad, and the 
 half tribe of Manasseh, only comes incidentally into 
 Bible history, and the tribes to which it was allotted 
 were amongst the first to be carried away into captivity. 
 This part of the country forms a high table-land, and 
 
CENTRAL COMB OF HILLS. 43 
 
 is divided from the other and more important part by 
 the deep Jordan valley. 
 
 This part, the land beyond Jordan, as the Israelites 
 on the way from Egypt wete accustomed to term it, is 
 that to which we will at present confine our attention. 
 It forms a long, somewhat irregular triangle, with a 
 ridge of high land running down its centre, and 
 falling upon the one side abruptly down into the 
 Jordan valley, and on the other shelving more gently 
 towards the Mediterranean shore. 
 
 On the other side of the Jordan the high table-land 
 of the Haur^n again rises abruptly to an equal level 
 with the hills of Palestine, so that the Jordan valley 
 seems, as I have already said, like an enormous groove, 
 hewn out by some vast chisel so as to separate Pales- 
 tine proper from the continent of which it would other- 
 ..wise have formed a simple continuation. 
 
 On each side the central ridge of Palestine is furrowed 
 by valleys more or less parallel to each other, so that 
 one may compare it to a double comb, the teeth of 
 which are the ridges intervening between these valleys, 
 and the alternate spaces the valleys themselves, which 
 run towards the Jordan or the Mediterranean and con- 
 vey thither the water which falls upon the country 
 during the former and latter rains. 
 
 Not only does the country slope less abruptly towards 
 the Mediterranean than towards the Dead Sea, but the 
 
44 PRESENT AND PAST.- 
 
 heights sink down before they' reach the sea shore, and 
 leave between them and the sea a strip of fertile plain, 
 which here and there sends prolongations into the heart 
 of the country. This plain, throughout a great part of 
 its extent, bore the name of the Plain of Sharon, and 
 its northern continuation was known as the' Plain of 
 Esdraelon. This level fertile tract of rich land, as well- 
 as the bottom of the various valleys, was well adapted 
 for raising crops of grain, and so the land might well 
 be called a land of corn. 
 
 The hillsides strike a stranger now visiting the 
 country, and especially a visitor from England, as very 
 barren, being steep and exceedingly stony, so that in 
 many places one would say that the average was about 
 three stones to one blade of grass, but even amongst 
 these stones one still sees the olive tree flourishing, and 
 a visit to the Valleys of the Lebanon, where the hill- 
 sides are well cultivated, at once shows the wonderful 
 capacity and productiveness of the country. Through- 
 out the greater part of Judea the hillsides are simply 
 covered with stones. The terraces which formerly' 
 rose tier upon tier upon them have been broken down, 
 and the trees and plants which grew there have 
 utterly died out ; but in the Lebanon one sees a 
 whole hillside covered with a series of terraces such 
 as those with which one is familar on the banks of 
 the Rhine, each terrace only a few feet broad and 
 
FERTILITY. 45 
 
 raised by a wall five or six feet hi^h from the one 
 below it. Each terrace is planted with maize or 
 vines, and , along its edges i grow fig-treea and mul- 
 berries, planted .alternately, with sometimes vines 
 hanging in festoons from their boughs. The corn 
 or maize supplies the inhabitants with bread, and 
 with fodder or litter for their cattle. The fig gives 
 them most nutritious food; which when dried is a 
 useful and agreeable addition to their ordinary fare. 
 The mulberry yields food for the silkworms, the co- 
 coons of vwhich are sold for money, and the vines 
 
 •produce wine, which though often at present very 
 poor : in quality, only requires a little ^ more care in 
 its cultivation, to bring it up to a pretty high standalrd. 
 On those parts of the hills . which remain unterraced 
 grow .the olive-trees, either singly or in groves, and 
 the oil extracted from their berries forms a substitute 
 for butter. In addition to this we sometimes find, 
 close to the houses, rows of beehives, aiid the wild- 
 flowers which grow plentifully around not only yield 
 honey to their occupants, but also to colonies of wild 
 bees which form their nests amongst the rocks. One 
 could hardly, therefore, give a better description of 
 
 this country . than that which is contained in the 
 Book - of Deuteronomy. — " For , the Lord thy God 
 
 ■ bringeth thee- into a good land, a land of brooks of 
 
 water, ■ of fountains and depths that spring out of 
 
46 WINTER. 
 
 valleys and hills. A land of wheat and barley, and 
 vines, and fig-trees, and pomegranates, a land of 
 oil-olive, and honey." It was also, as the passage 
 goes on to say, not like the land of Egypt, which 
 was dependent for water on the Nile, but was watered 
 by the rains of heaven. 
 
 During the winter, the weather is sometimes very 
 cold, with snow, frost and hail, and occasionally 
 winds have been noticed of such a piercing character 
 as to be almost beyond our belief. It is narrated 
 by Dr. Thomson, in The Land and the Booh, that 
 on one occasion a party of travellers were about to 
 cross the Jordan valley, a distance of only a few 
 miles. Shortly after they started, a piercing wind 
 came down from Hermon; so exceedingly cold was 
 it, that although most of them turned back at once 
 and tried to reach the village from whence they had 
 started, several of them fell dead, chilled through 
 and through, before they could regain shelter. We 
 are accustomed to regard the climate of Palestine 
 as very warm, and to forget the description of the 
 Psalmist, which is so very true. — "He giveth snow 
 like wool ; He casteth forth His ice like morsels ; 
 who can stand before His cold ? " As spring advances, 
 the weather becomes warm and pleasant. The early 
 rains moisten the earth, and in the more fertile parts 
 of the country the grass springs up forming a green 
 
SPRING AND SUMMER. 47 
 
 carpet. The almond trees are covered with blossoms, so 
 that they look like solid masses of snow tinged with 
 rose colour, and at once show the significance of Solo- 
 mon's comparison to the hoary head of old age. — " And 
 the almond tree shall flourish, and the grasshopper shall 
 'be a burden, and desire shall fail." The beautiful cistus, 
 which may dispute with the autumn crocus the title 
 of Rose of Sharon, throws out its large rosy blossoms, 
 and on the hills of Jud«a, one may see, thickly covering 
 the ground, the white flowers of the Star of Bethlehem. 
 The melting snows on the high hills, such as Hermon, 
 swell the Jordan until it overflows all its banks, and 
 the smaller streams, which at other times of the year 
 are either dried up or shrunk into narrow beds, are 
 likewise flooded, so that they become dangerous to 
 ford, or utterly impassable, as the Canaanites found 
 to their cost, when, fleeing before Deborah and Barak, 
 the river Kishon swept them away. As the spring 
 proceeds, the rivers shrink within their beds, the 
 rains cease, and, as summer advances, the brooks dry 
 up, the land becomes parched, and the latter rains 
 are anxiously awaited. Should they be delayed, the 
 ground gets harder and ' harder, until it seems like 
 iron under foot, and many an anxious eye is cast 
 upwards and watches for the disappearance of the 
 yellowish haze which has given birth to the language 
 of the curse, "Thy heaven that is oVer thy head shall 
 
48 DROUGHT. 
 
 be brass " (Deut; xxviii. 23), and for the appearance 
 ,of the clouds from whence refreshing showers shall 
 descend. One can imagine the condition of the 
 country after three years drought, when every blade 
 of grass was burned up from the parched and fissured 
 earth, and only here and there a little vegetation 
 was to be found in , the neighbourhood . of springs, 
 or of rivers fed by, the perennial snows of Hermon. 
 From place- to place, as , pasture failed, the cattle 
 would be driven, until at length the king himself 
 and his chief officers were called upon personally 
 to decide' what should be done with the small re- 
 mainder. Great would be the depression with which 
 Ahab went forth , to search the land. Great would 
 the anger naturally be with which. he cried to Elijah, 
 " Art thou he that troubleth Israel ? " But his anxiety 
 for the future caused him to yield a ready acquiescence 
 tff the prophet's demands, almost insulting as they 
 might seem to him (1- Kings xviii. 18). 
 
 A distress so great as to humble the proud king in 
 this way, and to compel him to wander hither arid 
 thither in search of water, must have compelled many 
 of the inhabitants to do as did Elijah, and to leave the 
 country in search of subsistence. We have no record 
 of the . numbers who did this ; we only know that 
 Elijah himself had. gone first to the Jordan valley, and 
 afterwards to the Mediterranean coast, but we find that 
 
CAUSE OF MIGRATION. 49 
 
 in former famines, such as that mentioned in the Book 
 of Ruth, and that which led the Israelites to leave 
 Canaan for Egypt, the same conditions had produced 
 similar results. Want of food had caused migration. 
 Nor are these isolated instances ; other nations have 
 been affected in like manner ; and scarcity of food is 
 the probable cause of the numerous migrations of 
 peoples and tribes which have had such a mighty 
 influence on the history of the world. 
 
LECTUEE IV. 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. — PLANTS AND TREES — THEIR . 
 STRUCTURE AND GROWTH. 
 
 In moving from one country to another, nations have 
 carried with them some of their animals, and seeds of 
 some of their plants. Yet the productions of various 
 countries, although thus to some extent assimilated, 
 have not been rendered identical. Each country still 
 retains more or less its own Fauna and its own Flora, 
 adapted to the conditions of soil and climate which the 
 country affords. On the terraces covering the long 
 sides of the hills of Palestine we find the thriving oHve, 
 the fig-tree, the pomegranate, and the almond-tree; 
 while in Egypt, on the rich clay mud by the riverside, 
 we find the palm-tree, the cucumber, the onion, the 
 melon, and the leek, and formerly the papyrus and the 
 lotus flourished in the Nile water. On the plains 
 of Sharon and Esdraelon, wheat grew in abund- 
 ance, as it did in the delta of Egypt, but, though the 
 two kinds resembled one another in appearance, and 
 
ADAPTATION OF PLANTS TO COUNTRIES. 
 
 51 
 
 were both readily recognizable as wheat, they differed 
 from each other, and no one could mistake the wheat of 
 .Egypt for that of Canaan. All through the world we 
 
 Fio. 1,— The lotus. 
 
 find the same thing prevailing, the same adaptation 
 of the plants to the countries in which they grow, the 
 same diversity of form and structure corresponding to 
 diverse climes and soils, and these not only give a 
 
 E 2 
 
52 EELATIONS OF PLANTS TO EACH OTHER. 
 
 character of their own to the landscape, but affect the 
 character, habits, and disposition of the natives. In 
 Egypt, we get sharp contrasts of brilliant colour, the 
 bright green grass, the darker green of the palms, and 
 the brilliant yellow of the naked sandstone, rock, and 
 sand, while in Palestine, the grey lichens which cover 
 the rocks, and the ferns which grow in the crevices of 
 the stone on the hill sides, give half tints which blend 
 the bright blue of the sky with the dull green of the 
 olive and the darker hue of the fig. 
 
 Unlike as are the plants and trees of different regions 
 on the earth's surface to each other, is any kinship to 
 be traced between them ? Are any characteristics to 
 be found to connect the melon of Egypt with the fig- 
 tree of Palestine, or the stately palm-tree with the 
 humble onion and leek ? What link can we find to 
 connect the cedar of Lebanon with the hyssop upon 
 the wall ? In talking of pla-nts, how can we arrange 
 them so as to have no disorderly medley, but a regular 
 series in which each member is closely connected 
 with those on each side of it? 
 
 We may adopt one of many plans of arrangement. 
 We may class them according to their leaves and 
 stems, which are the parts by which the life of each 
 individual plant is carried on; or according to the 
 flowers and seeds, which are the parts by which 
 plants propagate their race. 
 
THE LEAF— ITS VENATION.. 53 
 
 Supposing that we were to take a leaf from the 
 fig of the Syrian hills, and one from a melon in an 
 Egyptian garden, and compare their structure, we would 
 find that both are supported by a framework whose 
 ribs branch out hither and thither along the back of 
 the leaf, so as to form a complete network. Anxious 
 to see if the same structure is to be observed in 
 the palm, we pluck a leaf, and again compare it, 
 but here we note that the ribs no longer form a 
 meshwork, but run in parallel lines from one end of the 
 leaf to the other. Taking a leek or an onion, we notice 
 in it that the veins of the leaves run exactly as they do 
 in the palm. , Close by the onion, in a crevice of the 
 wall, grows, perhaps a fern. On plucking this, and 
 examining its leaves, we find neither the network of 
 the melon nor the parallel veins of the palm and leek, 
 but veins which split up, forming forks, which again 
 subdivide and fork again until the margin of the leaf 
 is reached. Close by, in a crevice between the stones, 
 we see a bunch of moss, and, picking it up, we look 
 at the leaves, but the most careful scrutiny can de- 
 tect in them no veins at all. A stone at its side is 
 covered with a grey lichen, and although, as we see it 
 spreading day by day, we know that it is alive, we 
 cannot class it either with the fig, the palm, the fern, 
 or the moss. We thus see that from the leaves we 
 can divide plants into at least five families, — those 
 
54 
 
 CLASSIFICATION BY LEAVES. 
 
 with netted veins, parallel veins, forked veins, no 
 veins, and no leaves. 
 
 Fig. 2.— Netted- veined leaf. 
 
 Fig. 3.— rarallel-veined leaf. 
 
 Fig. 4.— Forked-veined leaf of fern. 
 
 But these are also different in size. Is it not pos- 
 sible that, if we were to take them all when they were 
 
ROOT-LEAVES OE COTYLEDONS. 55 
 
 young, and none mucli bigger than any of the others, 
 they would be more alike ? We plant, then, the fruit 
 of an oak and of a palm, and we bury some of the 
 old leaves of the fern and a bit of the moss under the 
 ground, and we watch for the appearance of the first 
 shoot. From the oak we see come up one small white 
 
 Fig. 6 —Germination of dicotyledon (mustard). 1. Seed. 2. Seed with tlie integu- 
 ment removed, showing embryo. 3. Rootlet pushing through the integument. 
 4. Cotyledons and radical or rootlet after throwing oif the integument. 5. 
 Young plant. All twice tlie real size. 
 
 shoot, bearing two tender green leaves opposite one 
 another (Fig. 5), while from the date we find that only 
 a single leaf appears (Fig. 6), and from the fern and 
 moss we see no such leaf at all. 
 
 These root-leaves are called cotyledons, and thus 
 again we get three great divisions of the plant king- 
 
56 
 
 CLASSIFICATION BY ROOT-LEAVES. 
 
 dom ; dicotyledons, monocotyledons, and acotyledons. 
 The dicotyledons include all tbe netted-leaf plants, the 
 monocotyledons all the parallel-leaf plants, and the 
 
 I'm. 6.— Germination of a monocotyledon (wheat). 1. Seed cut vertically, showing 
 — a, tlie integument ; 5, the albumen ; c, the embryo. 2. The same farther ad- 
 vanced. 3. Back view of grain with (cJ) plumule, and (e) sheathed rootlets. 4. 
 The same, farther advanced. All twice the real size. 
 
 acotyledons all the plants with forked veins, with no 
 veins, or without leaves, — the ferns, the mosses, and 
 the lichens. To put this in a tabular form we have : — 
 
 Dicotyledons with netted veined leaves. 
 Monocotyledons „ parallel „ 
 
 /-forked „ „ 
 Acotyledons ,, A no veins. 
 
 ^ no leaves. 
 
THE STEM. 57 
 
 "We notice, too, that where there are no leaves, there 
 is also no stalk, so that the leafless plants are also 
 stalkless, and further, that the plants whose leaves have 
 no veins have also soft stalks, while those in which we 
 find a hard framework to the leaf have also a hard 
 framework to the plant. Some have said that the leaf 
 is to be regarded as a type of the plant, and have seen, 
 in the arrangement of the veins in the leaf, a general 
 resemblance to the form of the whole plant. We must 
 not carry this resemblance too far, for, in the graceful 
 maiden-hair, with its numerous rounded fronds, and in 
 the stiff bracken, the veins are alike forked, but in the 
 angular net-work of the oak-leaf we may trace a 
 resemblance to the sturdy form of the oak tree, and 
 in the arrangement of the veins of the willow leaf we 
 may see a similar likeness to the graceful outlines of 
 the willow. 
 
 Let us now examine the structure of the stem, 
 in the oak, the palm, and the fern, and see if we can 
 find any difi'erence between them as we do between 
 the forms and venation of the leaves. If we cut 
 an oak twig in two, the first thing that strikes 
 us is that, between the bark outside and the wood 
 inside there is a sharp distinction. The outside of the 
 bark is hard and dry, but almost immediately below 
 the surface in the young twig we find that it is soft 
 and succulent, and can be easily stripped off, leaving 
 
58 
 
 EXOGENOUS STEMS. 
 
 the surface underneath it moist and glutinous. The 
 wood itself seems to some extent to repeat this 
 character, for it is not of the same consistence through- 
 out, but exhibits concentric rings, surrounding a soft 
 centre of pith. Each of these rings represents a year's 
 growth, and from the number of rings we find in the 
 trunk we are able to estimate the age of the tree. 
 The oak grows thicker as it gvcws older. A new ring 
 
 Fig. 7. — Diagram of a cross-section of the stem of a dicotyledon, p, the pith. 
 
 is added every year to the outside of the wood just 
 underneath the bark, and trees which grow in this way 
 are called exogenous, and we may sometimes guess at 
 the age from a simple glance, even although we have 
 no opportunity of counting the rings in the trunk. 
 The outside of the trunk being composed of young 
 wood is much softer than the old wood at the centre or 
 heart of the oak. If, on the contrary, we look at the 
 palm tree, we cannot tell from its thickness how old it is. 
 
ENDOGENOUS AND EXOGENOUS STEMS, 59 
 
 and if we. examine a section of the tree we can see the 
 reason of this. Unlike the oak, the palm tree has no 
 bark which we can- separate, nor any concentric rings 
 in its wood, which exhibits an even surface, dotted 
 all over with minute dark points. 
 
 These points are most numerous, and the wood is 
 hardest at the outside of the palm, instead of being 
 hardest at the heart like the oak. It was supposed 
 that the soft part in the centre was the newest, and 
 
 Fig, S. — Diagram of a cross-section of tlie stem of a. 'monocotyledon, v.h, fibro- 
 Tascular bundle, c.«, cellular tissue. 
 
 that the palm and other plants having stems similar to 
 it, grew from the inside. They were therefore called 
 endogenous. 
 
 If we cut across the stem of a fern, we find an 
 appearance differing from that of either the oak or the 
 palm. We have no concentric lines, as in the oak, no 
 bark which can be separated, but instead of the points 
 we find dark lines, which, to the imagination of children, 
 have seemed in the common bracken to present either 
 
60 MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF STEMS. 
 
 the figure of an oak, or a rough resemblance to the 
 letters J C. The growth occurs chiefly at the top, and 
 the fern stem is called acrogenous. 
 
 In order to understand what these concentric dots 
 and lines represent, we must examine into the micro- 
 scopic structure of the various stems. On looking at 
 the stem of the oak, we see that the part corresponding 
 to the pith presents numbers of somewhat irregular 
 circles, lying close to, or more or less intersecting each 
 other. In the first ring we see other circles, but 
 very much smaller, and thicker walled, with here and 
 there larger rounded openings, and the same thing is 
 repeated in each concentric ring until we come to the 
 bark. Between this and the wood we see a row in 
 which the circles are so flattened as nearly to approach 
 an oval, and outside this again we find other rows 
 in which the circles are more or less altered. Besides 
 this, however, we find running out from the pith to 
 the bark, and dividing the wood into wedge-shaped 
 portions, rays, which look as if they were composed 
 of minute paving-stones. 
 
 In order to understand what these appearances 
 mean, let us now make a longitudinal section of 
 the same piece of wood. On looking at this, 
 the pith no longer presents a number of irregular 
 circles, but a hexagonal appearance like a piece 
 of honey-comb. Corresponding to the small circles 
 
PITH, WOODY FIBRES, MEDULLARY RAYS. 61 
 
 in the concentric rings, we see elongated, spindle- 
 shaped bodies, and, where the larger openings ap- 
 peared in them, we observe long tubes with their 
 walls variously marked. The ring of oval-shaped 
 bodies between the bark and the wood still appears 
 of an oval-shape, and if we happen to cut across 
 one of the rays which stretch from the pith to the 
 bark, and which have consequently been called mcr 
 duUary rays, we find that it still presents the paving- 
 stone appearance. 
 
 Fig. 9. — Longitudinal section of vegetable tissue, showing cells and vessels. 
 
 A comparison of ,these two sections shows us that 
 the pith is composed of more or less hexagonally 
 shaped bodies, the ends of which appear somewhat 
 circular when cut across ; that the wood in the 
 concentric circles is composed of long spindle- 
 shaped bodies, intermixed with long tubes; that 
 between the bark and the wood there are a number 
 of oval bodies, and that the rays running from the 
 
62 CELLS AND VESSELS. 
 
 pith to the bark are built up of bodies like minute 
 paving-stones. 
 
 These bodies hexagonal, spindle-shaped, oval, and 
 quadrangular are all termed cells, the long tubes are 
 called vessels, and of these two structures cells and 
 vessels, all the tissues of plants are composed. 
 
 We see, from these sections, that the cells are 
 everywhere, but that the vessels are only present in 
 some parts of the plant, and if we were to examine 
 moss or lichen, we should find that in them, as -well 
 as ih seaweeds or fungi, no vessels whatever were 
 present, the whole structure being composed of cells. 
 
 The cell, then, is the fundamental structure in 
 all plants, and, as we shall see by and by, in all 
 animals likewise. We must therefore devote a little 
 time to the consideration of the cell. 
 
 In the pith of the oak we have seen that the 
 cells aggregated together appear more or less like the 
 cells of a honeycomb But have these cells ever been 
 filled with honey ? If so, where, is the honey, and 
 where are the bees which have made them? They 
 may now be empty of everything but air, like the 
 honeycomb which has been drained of its contents, 
 but they were not always so. When the young twig 
 first began to shoot, these cells were much softer than 
 they are now, and each then contained a living oc- 
 cupant, who built it up. This living occupant was 
 
THE CELL. 63 
 
 a little mass of soft gelatinous matter, to v/hich the 
 name of protoplasm lias been given. This proto- 
 plasm, like all living beings, contained nitrogen, and 
 had the power of . taking to itself nutriment, and 
 thereby moving or growing. If we had looked at it 
 in its young state, while it was still actively engaged 
 in building its cell, we should have seen lying in 
 the centre of the protoplasmic mass {a, Fig. 10) a little 
 body, to which the name of nucleus (5) has been 
 
 Fig. 10.— Diagram of a cell, a, the protoplasm. 6, the nucleus c, the nucleolus. 
 
 given, and very probably within this a small dot, 
 which has been called the nucleolus (c). 
 
 Usually then, though not always, the three parts 
 of a complete cell are the nucleus, the protoplasm 
 or cell contents, and the cell wall, which the proto- 
 plasm has built around itself. It was formerly thought 
 that all these parts were essential to the cell, but it 
 has now been found that the cell wall, though present 
 in most cells, is absent from some, and that even 
 the nucleus may be dispensed with. 
 
64 PROTOPLASM. 
 
 The Protoplasm, then, is the most essential part 
 of every cell, and as all vegetables are built up from 
 cells, and, as we shall see afterwards, all animals too, 
 protoplasm is inseparably connected with all living 
 bodies, and therefore well deserves the name, which 
 Huxley has given to it, of " the physical basis of life." 
 
 At present, however, we are talking of the young 
 cells in the twig of the oak. At its end, where growth 
 is going on, the young cells absorb nourishment and 
 grow larger, but the simple growth of each individual 
 cell will no more make the twig than the growth of 
 a man and woman will make a family. In order that 
 the twig may grow, the cells must multiply. 
 
 Now there are various ways in which cells multiply, 
 just as there are various ways in which a household 
 may increase. First, then, the cell may split into two, 
 each half growing and forming a new cell, or only part 
 of a cell may be thrown off, and this part may grow 
 into a new cell, or inside one cell a number of others 
 may grow up, and, finally, bursting the parent cell 
 riiay mature each for itself, or, yet again, two neigh- 
 bouring cells may unite and from their union new 
 cells may arise. It is in the first way that growth 
 takes place in the twig, and the latter modes of cell 
 increase are reserved, not for growth, but for the 
 reproduction of new organisms in various classes of 
 plants. 
 
MULTIPLICATION OF CELLS. 
 
 65 
 
 In growing, then, the simple cell which we have 
 been considering in the oak twig, first begins to 
 
 Fig. 11. — Multiplication of a cell by subdivision. 
 
 divide at the nucleus. This splits into two, and 
 each half becomes rounded like the parent nucleus. 
 
 Fig. 12.— Growing point of a stem, showing the mode of growth by subdivision 
 
 of cells. 
 
 Next the protoplasm begins to divide, and the cell 
 wall sends in a little projection between the dividing 
 
«fi GEOWTH OF TWIG. 
 
 portions, which becomes larger and larger until it 
 forms a complete partition, and thus we have two 
 distinct cells. Each of these may go on dividing as 
 before, and thus we get cellular tissue increasing both 
 in length and in thickness. 
 
 We have already noticed, however, that the oak 
 twig was not composed of cells alone, but that it 
 contained many different bodies, some tubular, some 
 spindle-shaped, and some oblong or hexagonal. These 
 bodies were all originally cells but some of them have 
 become much modified during the progress of growth 
 and others have actually become converted into vessels. 
 As the cells grow older they generally increase in thick- 
 ness, and may also become modified in shape. In the 
 hexagonal cells of the pith, the protoplasm, after 
 building the cell wall, dies and disappears, leaving 
 the cell filled either with water or with air. In 
 some of them the protoplasm, instead of any longer 
 completely filling the cell, begins to exhibit small 
 spaces in its substance which are filled with fiuid, and 
 these increase until the protoplasm may appear re- 
 duced to a thin layer round the inside of the cell 
 wall, either with or without branches ramifying 
 through the bodies of the cell, and uniting the proto- 
 plasmic layers on the different sides. It may then 
 finally disappear, leaving the cell filled either with 
 fluid or with air. Before its death, however, it 
 
FORMATION OP TISSUES, 
 
 67 
 
 accomplislies very different work in the various cells 
 of the vegetable tissue^. In the pith it forms only 
 a thin cell wall, which generally assumes by pressure 
 a polygonal shape, but in the wood itself, it forms 
 
 Fig. 13.— Cell imperfectly fllled by protoplasm. 
 
 long spindle-shaped cells in which the wall is very 
 thick. These spindle-shaped cells are also known by 
 the name of woody fibres, and constitute the chief 
 part of the stem and branches of the tree. Side by 
 
 Fig. 14.— Cellular tissue of pith. 
 
 Fig. 15.— Cells with thickened walls 
 from the stone of a stone fruit. 
 
 side with these spindle-shaped cells are others, which, 
 instead of developing a thick cell wall all round, do 
 so only at their sides, while the upper parts and ends 
 of the wall at the point where it touches the cells 
 
 F 2 
 
68 
 
 FOEMATION OF VESSELS. 
 
 above and below it become thinner and thinner and 
 disappear, so that the rows of cells, uniting together, 
 form a tubular vessel. 
 
 The point at which this growth of new spindle- 
 shaped woody cells, and of new vessels takes place 
 in the oak and in other plants of the same class, 
 is at the outside of the wood, just where the bark 
 joins it, and therefore trees growing like the oak 
 
 Fig. 16. — Elongated cells -with their 
 walls thinned here and there so 
 as to form pits. 
 
 Fig. 17. — Ktted cells united to form 
 a vessel. At each side are spindle- 
 shaped woody cells or fibres. 
 
 from the outside are called exogens. Every spring, 
 the return of warmth and moisture stimulates the 
 growth of the cells, and if we then strip the bark 
 off the twig, we find that it peels away readily from 
 the wood, and that both the outer surface of the 
 twig and the inner surface of the bark seem to be 
 covered with a mucilaginous fluid, which is a mix- 
 ture of protoplasm with cell fluid. During the heat 
 
CAMBIUM. 69 
 
 and drought of summer the growth progresses more 
 slowly, and is reduced to a minimum during the cold 
 of winter. These changes we see marked in the 
 concentric rings of the wood, the inner part of each 
 ring being fuller of vessels, and less dense than the 
 outer. We have said nothing as yet of the medullary 
 rays composed of bricklike or muriform cells. These are 
 simply unaltered portions of the original cellular tissue 
 of the plant. These rays, when cut across, make the 
 beautiful markings of oak, beech, and maple. 
 
 In exogens, then, the active, growing cells unite 
 with one another so as to form a regular layer, called 
 the cambium layer, on the outside of the wood, 
 between it" and the bark. 
 
 Such is not the case in endogens, which have 
 received their name from its being supposed that 
 they grow rather from the interior, the oldest wood 
 being on the surface, and the youngest in the centre, 
 exactly the converse of what is found in exogens. 
 This is not exactly correct. What we find in cutting 
 across the palm stem is a number of dots, more 
 closely aggregated near the surface. These represent 
 bundles of vessels, with active growing cells sur- 
 rounded by woody cells. Between these rows of 
 vessels lies unaltered cellular tissue. The growing 
 cells or cambium, instead of forming a ring with hard 
 woody tissue on its inside, and the softer tissue of the 
 
70 RECAPITULATION— CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 bark outside, here surround themselves with hard 
 ■ffoody tissue, and thus in a short time check their 
 own growth in all directions except upwards. There- 
 fore it is that the palm, instead of growing thicker 
 with age, ceases to do so after a certain time, although 
 it may still increase in height. 
 
 In ferns, the vessels are distributed in groups or 
 bands, between which lie other bands of hard, thick- 
 walled cells. But the chief increase takes place up- 
 wards, at the top of the plant, and not laterally, and 
 ferns have, therefore, from their mode of growth, been 
 termed acrogens. 
 
 In all these three classes, exogens, endogens, and 
 acrogens, we have both cells and vessels ; in mosses, 
 lichens, algse, and fungi, we have no vessels, but only 
 cells, which by subdivision produce the leaves and 
 stems of mosses, and the flat extensions of sea-weeds 
 and lichens. 
 
 These plants, then, may be grouped together as cel- 
 lular, in contradistinction to those containing vessels^ 
 which are designated vascular. In some of the most 
 highly organised cellular plants, a differentiation may be 
 observed between the cells composing them, those on 
 the surface for example, becoming denser and harder 
 than those inside, and thus tending to protect the 
 plant from injury, but in others the whole structure is 
 similar throughout. 
 
RECAPITULATION— CELLS AND VESSELS. 71 
 
 In all plants, then, the cell is the essential part. In 
 some — the cellular plants — it is the only constituent of 
 the tissue. In others — the vascular plants — it is asso- 
 ciated with vessels, but even these vessels are developed 
 from cells, and they may be looked upon as cells in 
 another form. By the multiplication of cells the plant 
 
 Fig, 18. — Dia^am representing a common arrangement of the tissues in a fibro* 
 vascnlar bundle ; I, the liber ; c. cambium-layer ; w, wood ; v, wide vessel of 
 the wood. 
 
 gro^ws, whatever its position in nature may be— the 
 oak as well as the lichen, but in the lichen the 
 cells always remain cellular, whilst in the oak they 
 become altered in form and structure, in order to 
 be adapted to the more complex functions which they 
 have to fulfil in the higher plant. 
 
LECTURE V. 
 
 PLANTS AND TREES. — MODE OF CONTINUING THEIR 
 RACE OR REPRODUCTION, 
 
 The essential part of every cell is the protoplasm it 
 contains; so long as this is alive, the cell may grow, 
 but when the protoplasm dies the cell can no more 
 grow than a honeycomb in which all the bees have 
 been destroyed. The simplest forms of plants consist 
 of single cells, and they grow simply by multiplication, 
 each cell giving birth to two or more, which separate 
 and form perfect individuals. The plant grows in 
 number, but does not increase in size. 
 
 Some fungi consist of rows of cells attached one to 
 another by their ends, and by the cells which compose 
 it subdividing, and each new cell formed in this manner 
 again growing, without separating itself from its neigh- 
 bours, the plant increases in size, but all parts of it still 
 remain similar to each other. 
 
 In the higher algse, and in mosses, the cells not only 
 
EEPEODUCTION IN FUNGI AND ALG^. 73 
 
 multiply, but become to some extent differentiated, 
 those on the surface, for example, becoming harder, 
 and forming a skin which protects the softer structures 
 inside, 
 
 In ferns and trees, the cells not only multiply and 
 become differentiated, as in the smaller plants, but 
 these higher members of the vegetable kingdom no 
 longer present the simple external appearance of the 
 
 Fig. 19.— Fungus, showing growth by suhdivision of cells, which remain attached 
 to one another. 
 
 lower orders. They have differentiated roots, stem, 
 branches, and leaves, and, correspondingly, we find that 
 the structure of the tissue becomes also more compli- 
 cated, and that the cells, joining together in some 
 parts, develop into vessels. 
 
 Everywhere the cell is the element of plant 
 life. From its division we see structures of the 
 most various sort arise, and at once the question 
 
74 . ORIGIN OP THE FIRST CELL. 
 
 suggests itself, Whence did the first . cell come ? 
 So far as our present observation goes, we are only 
 able to say that every cell has arisen from a pre- 
 existing cell. Omnis cellula e celluld. 
 
 In the case of a growing bud, the cells divide, and the 
 twig elongates. The power of growth is contained in 
 the bud itself, and all that is requisite is that it should 
 be supplied with sufficient nutriment. This is usually 
 derived from the plant on which it grows, which draws 
 up moisture from the soil ; but if we cut it off from the 
 parent plant, and embed it in the tissues of another 
 plant of a similar nature to its own, it will again grow, 
 the sap of its foster-parent supplying the place of its 
 natural nutriment. 
 
 This process we call grafting, and in it we notice 
 that, just as the oak and the apple-tree may draw 
 nutriment from the same soil without becoming like 
 each other, so the bud planted in the tissues of another 
 tree still retains its own peculiar qualities, and does 
 not become like the other branches. In the process of 
 grafting, the sap is supplied to the new bud by the* 
 vessels of the plant or tree into which it is grafted. 
 
 But we often find that this process is unnecessary, 
 and that the bud is able to draw from the earth 
 itself * all the nutriment that it requires. A simple 
 slip cut from a rose-bush, and stuck into the earth will 
 soon throw out new roots and grow into an independent 
 
PROPAGATION BY BUDS. 75 
 
 rose-tree. Some plants, indeed, propagate themselves 
 more or less in this way. The strawberry, for example, 
 sends out branches which creep along the ground, and, 
 here and there. Instead of the buds developing into 
 leaves, they develop into roots, which pass into the 
 ground and form the bases of new plants, which, in 
 their turn, repeat the process, until the ground is over- 
 spread for a considerable distance. In the case of the 
 strawberry, the branches run along the ground ; in those 
 of the horse-radish and carices they run underground ; 
 
 Fig. 20. — Creeping stems and roots of couch grass. 
 
 and in either case, when the branches are divided, the 
 plants continue to grow independently of each other. 
 In the banian, or Indian fig, rootlets drop down from 
 the separate branches, and gradually extend themselves 
 towards the ground until, reaching it, they form at- 
 tachments and grow into new trees, so that, from a 
 single individual may arise a complete grove, all whose 
 members are united together. 
 
 In all these in.stances, the buds remain attached to 
 
76 BUDS IN CELLULAR PLANTS. 
 
 the parent unless separated by force; but in certain 
 other plants the buds fall off spontaneously, as, for 
 example, in the bulbiferous lily amongst endogens, and 
 the aspidium bulbiferum amongst ferns, where, at a 
 certain period of the plant's growth, the buds are cast 
 off and grow independently. 
 
 Buds are formed likewise in cellular as well as in vas- 
 cular plants. In mosses, any part when cut off, will grow 
 into a new moss, and, at an early stage of the plant's 
 growth, little buds, having a similar power are put forth. 
 In liverworts, small bodies called gemmES are formed 
 in a little cup-shaped receptacle, and these likewise 
 seem to be buds, which, on falling into a favourable 
 soil, develop into new individuals. In the substance of 
 lichens, also, are formed little bodies, termed gonidia, 
 which apparently are buds like the gemmse of liver- 
 worts. In some fungi we have cells simply thrown off 
 from the jointed stalks which compose the plant. In 
 others we have little budJike processes sprouting from 
 the end of the larger cell. In some of the algse, such 
 as the diatoms,, the cells subdivide, and, after remaining 
 attached to each other for a short period, the daughter 
 cells break off and move away alone. In the lowest 
 forms of vegetable life, the whole plant consists of a 
 simple cell, the subdivision of which may be looked 
 upon as the giving off of a bud. 
 
 We see, then, that all kinds of plants, from the 
 
EEPEODUCTION BY SPORES. 77 
 
 highest to the lowest, may multiply themselves by 
 giving off living buds. In the lower classes this 
 takes place frequently and spontaneously, but in the 
 highest it occurs only exceptionally. Such a mode of 
 propagation is convenient enough for the multiplica- 
 tion of the plant in the district immediately surrounding 
 it. But buds, in their very nature, are softj and easily 
 injured, and therefore badly fitted for transportation 
 to a distance. 
 
 In almost all plants, then, we have other means 
 of propagation besides that by buds; and inasmuch 
 as the essential feature in this process seems to be 
 the union of two cells of different characters, which 
 are regarded as male and female, it has been termed 
 sexual propagation. 
 
 Sometime^ we find two cells, apparently almost 
 identical with each other, united together, and from 
 their union results a spherical mass of protoplasm 
 which is capable of growing into a new plant. This 
 is seen in some of the algae, such as those long, 
 green, thread-like confervas, existing in ponds and 
 canals, with which most of us are familiar. 
 
 In the case just mentioned the spore is formed by 
 the union of the contents of two cells which are 
 apparently alike. In other algae we see the spores 
 formed by the union of dissimilar cells. 
 
 Special protuberances arise on the surface of the 
 
78 ANTHERIDIUM AND OOGONIUM. 
 
 plant, in one of which, called the antheridiutn, or 
 male organ, a number of small bodies, which move 
 rapidly by means of vibratile threads at their ex- 
 tremities, are developed; while in the other, called 
 oogonium, appears a mass of protoplasm. Both of 
 these now burst ; the vibratile bodies, called sper- 
 matozoids, reach the protoplasm, mingle with its 
 mass, and disappear. It also immediately changes. It 
 assumes a sharp outline, which soon develops into 
 a double cell-wall, and this now forms a spore, as it 
 is termed. This spore cell swims away, and then 
 finding a suitable spot attaches itself, divides, and 
 subdivides until it forms a plant like its parent. 
 
 In some algae the spores are not merely passive 
 bodies, carried hither and thither at the mercy of 
 the currents, but are furnished with mobile hairs, or 
 cilia, by means of which they can swim about with 
 considerable rapidity. 
 
 In a fungus such as the common mushroom the 
 spore first forms a mycelium of branching threads, 
 resembling in form some of the algse, and from this 
 grows the stalk- and top with which we are familiar. 
 On the top of this stalk are produced spores which 
 grow from the gills. 
 
 In mosses the spore when it begins to germinate 
 gives rise to branching filaments resembling some 
 forms of algffi, and from this by lateral branching 
 
REPRODUCTION IN MOSSES. 
 
 79 
 
 and by the differentiation of cells the stem and leaf 
 arise. On this leafy plant the . reproductive cells 
 
 Fig. 21. — Mushroom, showing stalk or pfleus, on the gills of which the spores grow. 
 
 with their different contents are formed, and from 
 their union a spore again arises. 
 
 Fig. 22.— Hair moss. a. The stalk, or seta, bearing a spore case or sporangium. 
 6. A sporangium covered by its hood or calyptra. c. Head of antheridia 
 hearing the male inflorescence, ' 
 
80 ALTEENATION OP GENERATIONS. 
 
 In ferns a flat cellular alga-like expansion, or 
 prothallium, grows from the spore, and on it are 
 produced the antheridia and oogonia, from which 
 the spore-bearing plant is produced. 
 
 In both mosses and ferns, then, we have an alterna- 
 tion of generations, the spore germinating into a plant 
 
 Fig. 23. — Fern (Aspidium Filix-mas). 
 
 which does not resemble the parent but resembles an 
 alga, a plant lower in the scale. Here it may be well 
 to say what we mean by the term lower and higher 
 as regards plants. 
 
 By lower we mean that the plants are not so much 
 
HIGHER AND LOWER PLANTS. 81 
 
 differentiated, every part being to a considerable extent 
 like every otter and able to perform the same func- 
 tions. In higher plants the various parts are differen- 
 tiated. They become unlike one another, each part 
 ceases in great measure to perform the functions of 
 the other paris, but confines itself to its own, and does 
 that well. 
 
 Thus in algae the plant consists of cells only, and 
 these cells are aU nearly alike : they are not differen- 
 
 FiG. 24. — Part of fern-leaf, bearing clusters of spore-cases. 
 
 tiated into cells of the root, of the stem, and of the 
 leaves. 
 
 In mosses they are differentiated in this manner — 
 roots, stem, and leaves being all different, but still 
 they are composed only of cells. 
 
 In ferns we have some of the cells uniting so as 
 to form vessels, but still we have no such differentia- 
 tion of the reproductive apparatus as in the exogens 
 and endogens. 
 
 In lycbpods or club mosses, those trailing plants 
 which we see so commonly on Highland moors, there 
 
 G 
 
82 PEOTHALLIUM IN LYCOPODS. 
 
 is the same alternation of generations as in mosses 
 and ferns, the spore produces a prothallium, but with 
 this difference, that the prothallium remains within 
 the spore and does not grow as a large cellular plant 
 
 Eio. 25. — Lycopod. 
 
 From it, as in mosses and ferns. It has, as it were, got 
 a start of the mosses and ferns, for their spore has to 
 develop into a cellular expansion, which has to grow 
 on the ground for some time before it can produce 
 
GYMNOSPERMS. • 83 
 
 sexual organs from which a plant like the former is 
 to come. But the spore of the lycopod develops its 
 cellular expansion bearing reproductive organs within 
 itself, so that when it falls on the ground the new 
 plant is ready to grow up like its parent. 
 
 The lycopods also differ from the mosses and ferns 
 in the formation of the spermatozoids, for these are 
 
 Fig. 26.— Lesser club moss (from Oliver), a. Scale with sporangium containing 
 large or female spores (macrospores) fi. , Single macrospore. c. Scale, with 
 sporangium containing small or male spores (microspores), rf. Single micro- 
 spore, ni^gnified. 
 
 developed within" small spores which remind us of 
 pollen grains. 
 
 From the lycopods we make a wide leap to the next 
 class of plants, the gymnosperms, for here we have no 
 longer to do with spores, which do not reproduce the 
 parent plant, but one of a lower order, on which the 
 true sexual organs which give birth to the next 
 
 G 2 
 
84 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SPORES AND SEEDS. 
 
 generation are situated. In the place of this, we 
 have true seeds which give rise at onco to a sexual 
 plant resembling its parent. These seeds differ from 
 spores in producing at once a plant like the parent, 
 but they resemble spores in being themselves produced 
 by the union of two cells of different kinds. We no 
 longer, however, meet with the mobile spermatozoids 
 resembling those of animals, their place being taken 
 by thin-walled cells, the so-called pollen cells or 
 grains, which form the male element in the re- 
 production of the higher plants, and instead of the 
 oogonium or female element of the lower plants we 
 have a highly-developed cellular structure, the ovule. 
 
 These bodies are generally placed at no great dis- 
 tance from each other in that part of the vegetable 
 structure known as the flower. The 
 flower usuallj' consists of several 
 parts, which are regarded as altered 
 or modified leaves. These take vari- 
 ous forms in* different plants. In 
 the pines, for example, they form 
 hardened scales arranged around an 
 Fio. 27.-Peraiaie flower axis ; but in most plants they form, 
 first a circlet of greenish leaves 
 known as the calyx, the leaflets composing which are 
 termed sepals, and inside this is a second circlet of 
 coloured leaves termed the corolla, the leaflets com- 
 
THE FLOWER. 
 
 86 
 
 posing it being called petals. It is in the axil or 
 part where those modified leaves are given off from 
 the axis or stem, that the reproductive oi'gans are 
 formed, just as new buds generally sprout from the 
 axil of a branch. 
 
 Fig. 28.— Vertical section of flower of hyperioum, showing sepals, petals, stamens, 
 ovary and styles. 
 
 The formation of the male element begins as a 
 little cellular projection. The cells composing this 
 multiply, the mass grows larger, and then begins to 
 show signs of differentiation. In its body larger cells 
 appear, which form separate clusters, each surrounded 
 by smaller cells, which form a distinct covering for it. 
 Within these large cells the pollen is developed. 
 
 The ovule, or female element, likewise begins as a 
 small cellular projection, the cells of which multiply 
 until it becomes an ovoid mass, and then it also 
 undergoes differentiation. In its interior, near its 
 upper end, a cavity begins to form, and to this has 
 
86 
 
 OVULE-ANTHER— POLLEN. 
 
 been given the name of the embryo sac. Usually, also, 
 the cells on the exterior are altered so as to form a 
 double c5vering to the body or nucleus of the ovule, 
 leaving, however, at the upper end a small opening 
 
 Fig. 29.— Growth of ovule of celandine, n. Nucleus. T>. First formed covering 
 c. Second covering, d. Fimicle, very greatly enlarged. 
 
 or foramen, the other end still remaining attached 
 to the point from which it originally sprung, and 
 through it the ovule continues to derive its nutri- 
 ment from the parent plant. The pollen grains, as we 
 
 Fig. 30. — Single stamen 
 of mallow with 1-celled 
 anther. 
 
 Fig. 31.— Anther after 
 dehiscence. 
 
 have said, are formed in the interior of the cellular 
 mass, which gradually elongates until it forms a more 
 or less club-sha;ped bod}"-, which is known as the 
 stamen, the upper ■extremity of which is called the 
 
GYMNOSPEEMS— ANGIOSPERMS. 
 
 87 
 
 anther. When the pollen grains are ripe; the cells 
 intervening between them and the surface of the 
 anther gives way, and the pollen is thrown out in the 
 form of fine dust. 
 
 In pines and cycads the ovules are naked, and are 
 protected simply by the scale, at the foot of which they 
 
 Fig. 32. — Staminal scale of 
 Scotch fix. 
 
 FjG. 33.— Scale of Scotch flr- 
 bearing ovules. 
 
 are produced, but in all other flowering plants the 
 ovules are produced within a special structure, which 
 we may compare to the womb of an animal, called the 
 ovary. 
 
 All the higher plants, all those which are produced 
 directly from seed, are divided into two classes ; gymno- 
 sperms, in which the ovule is naked, and angib- 
 sperms, in which the ovule is formed within the ovary. 
 The class of gymnosperms contains only the pines and 
 cycads, and plants closely allied to them ; all other 
 flowering plants are angiosperms. 
 
 The seeds grow within the ovary until they have 
 attained maturity, and then, by its bursting or 
 
THE OVARY. 
 
 destruction they are set free and scattered abroad. The 
 ovary is generally a more or less egg-shaped or globular 
 hollow vessel, attached at one end, and sending off 
 at the other one or more prolongations called styles, 
 
 
 
 Fig. 34. — Vertical Hection of flower of China primrose, showing ovary with ovules. 
 
 each of which is terminated by a somewhat flat or 
 club-shaped appendage covered with glutinous fluid, 
 and called a stigma. The little mass of cellular tissue 
 in the interior of the ovary from which the vessels 
 spring is called the placenta, just like the nutritive 
 structure to which the embryo is attached in the 
 womb of an animal. 
 
 In the case of ovules growing within the ovary, 
 it is impossible for the pollen to come directly in 
 contact with them as it can with the naked ovules 
 of gymnosperms. When extruded from the anthers 
 it falls upon the glutinous sticky surface of the 
 
FERTILIZATION OF OVULES. 
 
 89 
 
 stigma, and at onee the pollen tube begins to grow 
 from the pollen grains, and penetrates through the 
 
 Fig. 35. — Scale of cypress with 
 naked ovtLLes. 
 
 Fig. 3fi. — Trausverse section 
 of ovary, enlarged, showing 
 ovules attached to placenta. 
 
 Fig. 37. — ^Pollen grains of buttercup. 
 
 Fig. 3S.— Diagram representing pollen 
 grains on the stigma of a carpel of 
 buttercup, which have developed 
 their tubes reaching to the micro-' 
 pyle of the ovule. The tubes are so 
 delicate it is almost impossible to 
 trace them the whole way in tlie 
 buttercup. 
 
 Fig. 39. — Pollen grains of buttercup 
 on the stigma, with i;heir tubes 
 extending — both very much en- 
 larged. 
 
 cellular tissue of the style until it comes in contact 
 with the ovule, which it enters at the foramen, just 
 
90 
 
 THE SEED— THE EMBEYO. 
 
 as we have seen to be the case in gymnosperms. 
 When ,it reaches the embryo sac, the latter divides 
 and subdivides, forming numerous cells, which gradually 
 arrange themselves so as to form the embryo or young 
 plant which is contained in the seed. 
 
 This is now ripe for growth, and, whenever ■ it is 
 planted in a proper soil, with warmth and moisture, 
 
 Fig. 40, — LongitudiDal section of ovule of heartsease, a. Vascular bundle, b. 
 Outer coat. c. Inner coat. d. Nucleus, e. Embryo sac, with the germinal 
 vehicle at its small end. /. Micropyle. g. End of pollen tube — very much 
 enlarged. 
 
 it begins to sprout, and produces a plant like its parent. 
 Sometimes the seed contains the embryo or young 
 plant alone, but usually it also contains a quantity 
 of nutritive matter sufficient to supply the wants of 
 the young plant until it has reached that point of 
 growth , at which it is capable of drawing nourishment 
 from the soil. 
 
IRRITABLE STAMENS. 91 
 
 In all cases, it is necessary that the pollen 
 shall unite with the ovule, in order that it may de- 
 velop into the seed containing the embryo. or young 
 plant. To secure this, numerous contrivances are 
 provided by nature. We have, first of all, the sticky 
 fluid on the surface of the stigma, which will prevent 
 any pollen grain that has once touched it from falling 
 off. The pollen grains, being light, may be carried 
 by the wind, and this agent probably helps materially 
 in bringing the pollen grains of pines in contact with 
 the ovules. In many flowering plants the- stamens 
 are irritable, and, when the pollen grains are ripe, 
 show distinct movements. Some of them gently 
 approach the stigma. OtKers, as in the barbery, are 
 irritable on their inner surface, and, when touched, 
 move quickly towards the stigma. In the plant 
 called stylidium the stamens and pistils are united 
 into a jointed column, which is irritable, and when 
 touched moves rapidly from one side of the, flower 
 to the other, so as to burst the anthers and shake 
 out the pollen upon the stigma. In the nettle, the 
 stamens are elastic, and are kept bound down withiu 
 the flower until the pollen is ripe, when suddenly they 
 are liberated, and, flying up, scatter the pollen forcibly. 
 In the cornus canadensis the stamens are likewise 
 elastic, and are bound down by the corolla, the 
 segments of which have elastic joints at- their bases. 
 
y2 USE OF HONEY-GLANDS. 
 
 and long hairs at their apices. When the pollen is 
 ripe, the least touch on one of these hairs causes the 
 corolla to fly back, liberating the stanaens, and 
 
 Fig. 41. — Male flower of nettle. 
 
 scattering the pollen. In other plants, again, the 
 poUen is chiefly applied to the stigma by means of 
 insects. At the base of the petals, in many flowers, 
 are honey-glands, which attract bees. When gather- 
 ing honey, these disturb the anthers, and scatter 
 the pollen upon the stigma of the same flower, or. 
 the pollen adhering to the insect's body, is carried 
 by it to the stigma of another flower which it then 
 fertilizes. In some species of aristolochia, the flower 
 is shaped like an irregular funnel, ending below in 
 a rounded dilatation, within which the stems and 
 pistil are situated. Insects crawl down this funnel 
 in order to reach the sweet secretion contained in 
 it, but their return is prevented by a number of 
 hairs, which are arranged like the wires in some 
 kinds of rat-traps, allowing the insect to pass in 
 easily, but effectually opposing its return. When 
 
FERTILIZATION OF ARISTOLOCHIA. 
 
 93 
 
 thus imprisoned, it moves about actively, and, in its 
 attempts to escape, scatters the pollen upon the 
 stigma. When the flower is thus fertilized,, the 
 
 Fig. 42. — Flower of spotted orchis. 
 
 corolla fades, and the insect escapes, after having 
 efifectually served the purpose of fertilizing the flower. 
 In orchids, the anthers are peculiarly placed, being 
 
 Fig. 43. — Single poUen-maas of spotted orchis, with its caudicle and gland. 
 
 united with the pistil into a column, the anthers 
 being placed at the upper part and the stigma at 
 the lower. The pollen is also arranged in masses. 
 
94 
 
 FERTILIZATION OF ORCHIDS. 
 
 and it would be difficult for these to become applied 
 to the surface of the stigma without some external 
 agency. Around the column honey is freely secreted, 
 and, in gathering it, the insects touch the pollen, 
 which adheres to them, and is thus conveyed to the 
 stigma of the next flower to which they pass. It 
 
 Pig. 44. — fi.. Section of a flower of orchis, showing a bee standing upon the lip, 
 with its head tonching the sticky gland, to which the pollen masses are attached. 
 h. Bee's head, with the pollen masses erect, as removed c. The same, with the 
 pollen masses after they hare moved forwards. AU enlarged. 
 
 has been noticed that orchids assume very peculiar 
 .shapes, and very often bear a striking resemblance to 
 the insects of the districts they inhabit. This resem- 
 blance has given rise to the names by which many 
 of these flowers are known, such as bee-orchids, 
 humming-bird orchids, and so on. 
 
POLYPETAL^— GAMOPETAL^. 95 
 
 In the arrangement of the parts of the flower, just 
 as in the arrangement of the veins in the leaf, we see 
 the distinction between exogens and endogens. In 
 exogens, the leaves are netted veined, and the parts 
 of the flower occur in fours or fives, or multiples of 
 these numbers. In endogens, the leaves are parallel 
 veined, and the parts of the flower are arranged in 
 threes or multiples of three. In both endogens and 
 exogens, we find that the parts composing the flower 
 are sometimes separate and sometimes united. Those 
 in which they are separate are called polypetalous, 
 while those in which they are united are designated 
 gamopetalous. To the latter belong some of the 
 orders of plants which are most susceptible of varia- 
 tion, and of thus becoming useful to man under culti- 
 vation, such as the pea tribe, and those plants nearly 
 allied to the roses, such as almonds, apples, pears, 
 quinces, plums, &c. All these, which are bitter or 
 acid in their wild state, become delicious fruits under 
 cultivation, and are amongst the most prized produc- 
 tions as well as the greatest ornaments of our orchards 
 and gardens. 
 
LECTURE VI. 
 
 PLANTS AND TREES. — NUTRITION AND GROWTH OF THE 
 INDIVIDUAL. 
 
 Let us now return to the point from which we 
 started in our survey of the vegetable kingdom. We 
 have seen that the cedar of Lebanon and the fern, 
 the lichen, and the palm, the onion, the melon, and 
 the leeks of Egypt, and the oaks of Bashan, unlike as 
 they are in their general appearance, are yet alike in 
 this, that each and all of them are formed by the mul- 
 tiplication and growth of simple cells, simple masses 
 of protoplasm inclosed within a wall of cellulose. They 
 are all alike in this, that they may be propagated 
 by the separation from them of a growing part or 
 bud, which, when planted in a suitable soil, will 
 grow into a plant resembling its parent. In the lower 
 orders of plants, multiplication by means of buds, 
 which separate spontaneously, is common, but this 
 
SPEBM CELLS' AND POLLED 97 
 
 is exceptional: amotigst the higher plants, although 
 even in them it occasionally oficurs. But the bud, 
 on account of its tenderness and softness, is unfitted 
 for transport. It cannot live long after its separation, 
 unless it falls into a convenient soil and begins to 
 grow, and therefore we have in all plants, in addition 
 to budding, a means of propagation by the union of 
 two dissimilar cells, the male and female, or the sperm 
 and the germ cells. In. the lowest plants these are 
 usually situated close together, and the male element 
 in them consists of a moving filament with a rounded 
 head like the spermatozoon of animals. As we 
 ascend higher in the scale of plant life, these are re- 
 placed by pollen grains, consisting of granular matter, 
 surrounded by an outer cell wall, which are much 
 better adapted for conveyance to a distance than the 
 spernisatozoids, which consist of soft naked protoplasm. 
 In all of them, the male element either spontaneously 
 seeks, or is conveyed to the female element, which 
 remains stationary until it is sufficiently developed to 
 be ready for independent growth. We can easily see 
 the reason of this; for the female cells, or collections 
 of cells, are much larger than the male. The male 
 simply gives to them the impulse which causes them 
 to incrra,se, develop, and differentiate, until they form 
 a spore, or seed; while the' female requires to supply 
 the material which is to yield the spore or embryo, 
 
 H 
 
98 GERM CELLS AND OVULES. • 
 
 and must be in a place where it can readily obtain 
 supplies from without. 
 
 In all plants, the female element, like the male, 
 is derived from one or more cells. In most of the 
 lower classes of the vegetable kingdom it develops 
 a spore from which a plant grows, which is unlike its 
 parent, but resembles some other plant lower in the 
 scale, and from this second source a plant resembling 
 the original parent proceeds. As we move up we 
 find that this intermediate plant never gets outside 
 of the spore, but fructifies within it, as in the lyco- 
 pods, so that we would at first imagine that the 
 spore itself yielded a plant exactly like that which 
 had produced it, although a more accurate observation 
 shows that here also w6 have got an alternation of 
 generations. 
 
 As we ascend still further, to the gymnosperms, 
 such as the pine and the cedar of Lebanon, we find 
 that we come to a naked ovule in which the contact 
 of the pollen causes division of cells which at first 
 arrange tliemselves in elongated rows, supposed by 
 some to represent the prothallus of the lycopod, and 
 which ultimately develop into the embryo within 
 the seed. 
 
 Higher up still we have the angiosperms, in which 
 the ovule is no longer naked, but is formed within 
 an ovary, which serves the function of .the womb.- 
 
NUTRITION OF CELLS. 99 
 
 In this class we Tiave the endogens, such as the onion, 
 the leek, and the palm, and the exogens, among 
 which we find -the creeping gourd and the stately 
 oak. At first sight one would say that there wa,s 
 much more resemblance between the stately palm 
 and the oak than between the palm and the leek, 
 the oak and the gourd ; but although those trees are 
 so lofty and these plants so lowly, the palm resembles 
 the leek more than the oak, and the oak the gourd 
 rather than the palm, in the essentials of their being, 
 viz., the mode in which they are nourished and grow, 
 and the method by which they propagate themselves. 
 But how is each individual cell nourished, and 
 how does it grow, for it is evident that if a cell were 
 to divide and subdivide without the parts into which 
 it splits up growing, they would soon become infini^ 
 tesimal, and the plant would crumble into dust. Each 
 cell, then, grows by absorbing water and salts through 
 its envelope or wall, through which liquids and gases 
 readily pass. But water and salts are insufiicient for 
 the whole growth of the plant, and yet we sometimes, 
 see plants growing without any other apparent nutri- 
 ment. Yet the nutriment is there, though we do 
 not see it. All air contains a certain proportion of 
 carbonic acid, that gas which is formed whenever we, 
 burn a piece of wood or anything containing carbon, 
 
 H 2 
 
100 . ENERGY. 
 
 Under the influence of light and heat, the plant 
 cells absorb this gas and decompose it, retaining the 
 carbon, with which they build up their own tissues, 
 and giving out the other constituent of which .the 
 gas is composed, viz., oxygen. In this process, the 
 energy supplied to plants by the sun in the form 
 of light and heat is transformed by them into chemical 
 energy, and when the plant is again burned, whether 
 rapidly, as when thrown into a furnace, or slowly in 
 the process of decay, for decay is a slow combustion ; 
 the tissues, uniting with the oxygen of the air, again 
 form carbonic acid, and again give off the energy 
 stored up within them as light or heat. 
 
 We now know that all forms of energy are con- 
 vertible; heat into light, chemical energy, or mecha- 
 nical power, or electricity, and mechanical power, also> 
 into heati light, and electricity, and so on. When 
 we throw a lump of coal into the fire, its chemical 
 energy is transformed into heat, and by a proper 
 apparatus, as in the steam-engine, we may again 
 transform this heat into mechanical power, as in the' 
 steam-hammer or locomotive. If we apply the steam- 
 engine to drive a wheel in front of a magnet, we 
 convert its mechanical power iato electricity, and, this 
 again, may be used for lighting our houses or streets, 
 or may be made to decompose metallic solutions, 
 
TRANSFORMATION OF ENERGY. 101 
 
 and deposit the pure metal upon a surface or Avithin 
 a mould, as in electroplating or electrotyping. 
 
 In all these cases, the energy we use is really the 
 light and heat of the sun, transformed long ages ago 
 into chemical energy in the plants of the carboniferous 
 era, stored up in their tissues during the long ages 
 in which they lay buried as coal, and now again con- 
 verted by Us for our own use into heat, light, electricity, 
 or mechanical power. 
 
 But energy is not merely transformed qualita- 
 tively ; it is alsb transformed quantitatively, that is 
 to say, a definite amount of heat is not transformed 
 into an indefinite amount of mechanical work, or vice 
 versa, but so much heat will only produce so much 
 mechanical work, and no more, and so much mecha- 
 nical work will only prodxice a certain quantity of 
 heat. In order to get so much heat as would raise 
 the temperature of a pound of water one degree, we 
 must have as much mechanical energy as would be 
 given by a pound weight falling 772 •.5.5 feet, and in 
 a perfect machine, as much heat as would raise the 
 temperature of a pound of water one degree would 
 also suffice to raise it 772-55 feet in space. No ma^ 
 chine, however, is perfect, and in every, transference 
 of energy a certain quantity of it is lost, and escapes 
 as radiant heat. 
 
 Now we distinguish between two forms of energy, 
 
102 POTENTIAL AND ACTUAL ENERGY. 
 
 potential and actual. A pound weight, suspended 
 at 772-55 feet above the earth's surface, haS' 
 potential energy sufiScient to raise a pound of water 
 one degree, that is to say, it has the power to do it 
 if allowed to exercise such power. If the support 
 be removed, and the weight fall, its potential will be 
 transformed into actual energy, and, in a proper 
 apparatus, the pound of water would be heated one 
 degree. The difference between potential and actual 
 energy will be understood by comparing the former 
 to money in the pocket, and the latter to its expendi- 
 ture. So long as the money is in the pocket, its 
 possessor has the power to expend it in various ways; 
 but, when once it is expended, its power is gone, he 
 has converted the money into something else. In 
 the words of the old proverb, "You cannot have 
 your cake and eat it too." One penny will not buy 
 as much as twopence ; it will buy a pennyworth, and 
 no more. Although very different returns may be 
 obtfiined by expending the penny in different ways, 
 yet the return is always a pennyworth, and not two- 
 pence worth. Just so it is with energy. 
 
 As energy is therefore definite in quantity, it is ob- 
 vious that, if the plant were to move about, it would 
 use up part of the heat and light which it derives from 
 ithe sun in the form of the mechanical work involved in 
 locomotion, and it would therefore have less to apply 
 
DIFFEIJENCES BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 103 
 
 to chemical work in the form of building up its tissues. 
 When we consider, further, how slowly many plants 
 grow, even when rooted to the ground as they are, we 
 can readily imagine that a removal from place to place 
 would render the light and heat daily supplied to them . 
 by the sun not only insufficient to enable them to grow 
 at all, but would hardly allow even of their motion. 
 
 In these respects, then, plants differ from ani- 
 mals. Plants, as a rule, do not move, and they use 
 up the energy supplied to them as light and heat from 
 without, in the simple act of growth, splitting up car- 
 bonic acid and water, and building up the carbon and 
 hydrogen contained in them into complex structures. 
 Animals, on the other hand, generally move about, 'and, 
 the light and heat supplied to them from without being 
 insufficient to maintain the mechanical energy which 
 they expend in motion, they are forced to draw upon 
 other stores of energy, and these they iind in the tissues 
 of plants or of other animals which they consume, again 
 converting the potential energy stored up by the plants 
 into actual energy. The plant, then, may be likened 
 to a miser, who expends little or nothing, and amasses a 
 quantity of money, while the animal which eats it may 
 be compared to the spendthrift heir, who quickly 
 squanders all that his predecessor has with so much 
 labour gathered together. There are, however, some 
 exceptions. At the time when plants are developing 
 
104 LEAVES. 
 
 their reproductive organs, they use up energy and give 
 off carbonic acid, and the consequence of this is seen 
 in the fact that some of them die as soon as they have 
 produced seed. Some of the very rapidly growing 
 lower plant.s, such as the fungi, cannot obtaiti sufficient 
 energy for their growth in the form of light and heat, 
 and .these also, like animals, are forced to obtain stores 
 of energy by feeding upon and consuming highly 
 organised materials. Usually, however, it is the light 
 and heat derived from the sun which supply the plant 
 with its power to grow, and the organs by which they 
 are chiefly utilised are the leaves. 
 
 These originate in small cellular projections, which, 
 like that already described as terrriinating the twig, 
 grow and develop until the fully-formed leaf appears, 
 with its stalk, its blade, and its veins. On the under 
 side of the leaf are a number of little stomata, or 
 mouths, through which the plant appears to breathe 
 and to take in moisture from the air. Althoiigh at 
 first all the cells in this cellular projection present 
 exactly the same characteristics, they are not under 
 exactly the same conditions, for some, being nearer 
 to the surface than others, are more exposed to light 
 and heat, while others, being nearer the centre from 
 which the sap is supplied, more readily obtain nutria 
 ment. At some point or other these two conditions 
 are so adjusted to each other as to produce certain 
 
USES OF VESSELS. 
 
 105 
 
 changes in tbe cells, causing them to elongate, and their 
 walls to thicken, so as to form woody cells or fibres 
 such as have been already described. Other cells, 
 again, join together to form tubes, on the walls of 
 which cellulose is deposited more or less irregularly. 
 Some of these tubes seem to contain air, and others 
 juices. Thus, in the very interior of the twig or stem, 
 we, have a supply of air which either aids in the pro*- 
 
 nwn 
 
 FjG. 45.-^Fragment of epidermis 
 with a stoma. 
 
 Fig. 46. — Spiral vessels witii cellular tissu^ 
 on each side, many times the real size. ' 
 
 duction of the chemical changes occurring in gtowth, 
 or is the product of these changes. From every twig 
 the cells and vessels thus produced seem to shoot down- 
 wards, aiding in .the growth of the stem. In some 
 instances^ especially in monocotyledons, such as a 
 species of palm, these bundles of vessels make their 
 way actually out of the stem near the ground, and 
 ^ppea,r again as so-called adventitious roots. ' They may 
 
106 
 
 THE ROOT. 
 
 to some extent discharge the functions of roots, but the 
 true root is a different thing. 
 
 The root begins in the same way as the bud, as 
 a little cellular projection, which gradually develops 
 woody fibres and vessels, pushing its way downwards 
 into the ground in much the same way as the twigs 
 push their way upwards into the air, but the cellular 
 mass at the end of the root never develops into leaves. 
 
 Fig, 47.— Longitudinal section througli the extremity of a root-fibre of buttercup, 
 magnifled. gp. Growinj! point sh. Sheatti. rf. Root-fibre. 
 
 as it does in the bud, but always remains as a cellular 
 cap, and if it be cut off, the growth of the root ceases. 
 This is the reason why, in transplanting a tree, it is so 
 important that the ends of the roots should remain 
 intact, and why, if they be destroyed, the tree is so 
 very apt to wither away instead of growing in the new 
 situation. 
 
 Bobh roots and branches show an amount of adapta- 
 
ADAPTATIOK OF KOOTS AND FLOWERS. 107 
 
 tion to the circumstances in which they are placed 
 that it aliriost looks as if they were endowed with 
 reason. The sunflower, for example, rotates more or 
 less around its axis, so as to follow the sun, and keep 
 the disc of the flower always exposed to its light. 
 Twining plants, when their tendrils have been torn 
 away, will push out new tendrils until they find 
 a proper spore by which to climb. When trees are 
 planted in a dry soil, at a considerable distance , from 
 a spring of water, they will send out their roots in that 
 direction until they reach the moist soil, and thus 
 obtain the fluid requisite for growth. When planted 
 on a sloping bank, they will throw their roots out 
 in such a direction as to cling to the part where there 
 is the greatest depth of earth, and thus prevent their 
 overthrow. 
 
 The same adaptation is noticed in the flower. 
 We have already spoken of the provision made for 
 the transference of pollen from the stems to the 
 stigma for the purpose of fertilization, but there are 
 other contrivances to allow of the proper ripening of 
 the pollen itself, and to prevent a premature bursting 
 of the anther in which it is contained. Supposing that 
 the anther became moist, the cells which cover the 
 pollen might burst prematurely, and thus the pollen 
 would be thrown out before it was properly ripe. The 
 moisture might be caused either by dew or rain, but in 
 
108 PROTECTION FROM RAIN. 
 
 either case the results would be alike disastrous. Now, 
 in plants whose habitat is in a warm dry climate where 
 rain rarely falls, we find that the anthers have little 
 protection from the petals of the flower, but, on the 
 other hand, in changeable, rainy climates, the petals 
 sometimes form a tube, which acts as an umbrella- 
 
 FiG. 48. — Tea-plant with exposed stamens. 
 
 like cover to the anthers, and sometimes the petals 
 close up at the approach of rain. This tendency to 
 close at the approach of wet weather is so marked in 
 the little pimpernel that it has received the name of 
 "the farmer's weather-glass." 
 
 Other plants, such as the wood-sorrel, have a habit of 
 going to sleep, as it is called, shutting up their flowers 
 
SLEEP IN PLANTS/ 
 
 109 
 
 as evening comes on, so that the anthers may be shel- 
 tered from the action of the dew or from the cold of 
 the night. Eegularly, as evening comes on, they close 
 their flowers and droop their heads, and this is not due; 
 simply to the change of temperature or the absence of 
 light during the night, for if kept constantly in the dark; 
 
 Fin. 49— Section of flower of periwinkle, wifcli the stamens protected by the tube of 
 " the corolla. The stigma is figured to the left. 
 
 they will still go on opening and shutting their flowers, 
 but no longer with their accustomed regularity. They 
 would almost remind one of a sleeper anxious to awake, 
 seeming to be constantly on the watch, and anticipating 
 the times of rest and of awakening, so that in the course 
 of six days they would gain as much as half a day,. 
 
110 SENSIBILITY IN PLANTS. 
 
 and therefore exchange night for day as their time of 
 wakefulness. 
 
 The leaves of some plants are sensitive to touch, 
 and show their sensibility much more quickly and 
 distinctly than many animals. That little species of 
 acacia known as the sensitive plant, in a warm room, 
 and in bright sunlight, expands all its leaves, so that 
 they stand out boldly fringed on either side with regular 
 rows of oblong leaflets. At the least touch of one of 
 these leaflets it droops, as if vexed or ashamed, and . in 
 a little while its adjoining neighbours follow its example, 
 and if the touch has been at all rough, every leaflet on 
 the branch wiU droop, and then the branch itself will 
 fall down by the side of the stem. By and by the 
 leaflets slowly begin to reopen, and the branch gradually 
 rises until it regains its former position. When exposed 
 to chloroform it behaves exactly like an animal. When 
 the. vapour is too strong, the plant droops just as if 
 rudely struck, while an animal, under similar circum- 
 stances, would struggle violently. A long time elapses 
 before the leaf again rises, and it seems, as it were, 
 to remain in a state of stupor. If the vapour be gently 
 administered, insensibility seems gradually to steal over 
 the plant, — the leaflets remain expanded, and the leaf 
 continues to retain its usual position, but when touched, 
 it is no longer sensible, and even considerable irritation 
 has no power to make the leaflets droop. 
 
DIGESTION IN PLANTS. Ill 
 
 The leaves of the sundew or Drosera are covered, 
 with little hairs, secreting a glutinous liquid, which 
 evidently has also some sweetness or other property 
 which renders it attractive to, insects ; but as soon as 
 the fly settles upon the leaf, its little feet are stuck fast 
 by the glutinous secretion, and, while it struggles, the 
 
 Fig. 50. — Sundew (Droxera rotu-ndi/olia). 
 
 remainder of the leaf seems to learn what is going on, 
 and gradually folds over the unfortunate insect until its' 
 escape is absolutely impossible. The poor creature is 
 thus inclosed, as it were, in a stomach, and here it is 
 gradually digested, just as it would be in the stomach 
 of an animal, for this liquid, secreted by the leaves of; 
 the drosera, has very much the same properties as the- 
 
112 
 
 INSECTIVOEOUS PLANTS. 
 
 gastric, juice of the human stomach. In another plant 
 of the same order, the Dionea, or Venus fly-trap, we do 
 not find a glutinous secretion, but this plant catches 
 flies with equal or greater readiness than its congener 
 the sundew. The leaves of the Dionea have a joint in 
 
 Fig. 51. — Dionea, or Venus flj'-trap. The leaflet to the right hand is open ready to 
 catch a fly ; the leaflet to the left has caught and closed upon one, which it is 
 now digesting. 
 
 the centre, so that the two halves of the blade fall to- 
 gether. The edges of each are fringed with hairs, which 
 interlock, and in the centre of each half are three iso- 
 lated hairs, reminding one of theT)ait in a rat-trap. As 
 soon as an insect touches on6 of them, the two halves 
 of the leaf close together, the hairs on their edges 
 
blONEiA AND SARKACENIA,, lf3 
 
 interlock, and the insect is securely imprisoned. In 
 this position the leaf remains until the insect dies and 
 is digested, tvhen it slowly unfolds, and is ready for a 
 fresh prey. In the Sarracenia the leaves have a pecu- 
 liar shape, the leaf-stalk being developed into a sort of 
 pitcher, at the top of which the true leaf lies like a 
 kind of lid. Inside this pitcher is a sweet liquid, and 
 insects, attracted by it, crawl down the pitcher's sid6. 
 Having become intoxicated by the nectar they have 
 sucked, their return is further hindered by a number 
 of hairs, and they fall down to the bottom of the 
 pitcher, -where they, too, are digested. 
 
 In these instances we see arrangements for the 
 nutrition of the plant by feeding on flies, but one may 
 be inclined to ask, "What good can a few flies do to 
 the plant ?■ From recent inves]tigations it seems pro- 
 bable that some of these arrangements are not merely 
 of benefit by aiding its nutrition, but also by preventing 
 the insects from harming the plant. In the orchids we 
 have seen the' temarkable resemblance of the flowers 
 to insects, and the strange position of the reproductive 
 parts of the flowers so admii-ably adapted for ensuring 
 fertilization by means of insects. But there are other 
 plants in which there are contrivances equally wonder- 
 ful for ensuring that insects which will not benefit the 
 flower shall not gain entrance to it, and that those 
 insects which can assist its fertilization shaR only gain 
 
 I 
 
114 FERTILIZATION BY INSECTS. 
 
 access in the proper way to ensure their serving this 
 purpose. I mentioned that in exogenous plants the 
 parts of the flower are usually five. In pentstemon 
 the petals are five, but there are only four stamens 
 with a rudimentary fifth. This is often regarded as 
 simply a useless remnant of one that had previously 
 existed in the flower, but it now seems that its use 
 is to ensure insects fertilizing the flower. The corolla 
 forms a large bell, at the mouth of which the anthers 
 are placed. At the closed end of the bell are glands 
 containing nectar ; and the fifth stamen, which has no 
 anther, is placed across the bell in such a position as to 
 ensure insects rubbing against the anthers and thus 
 scattering the pollen. 
 
 In the Pamassia palustris, too, there are staminodes 
 which form a treUis-work across the flower and force 
 the bees to settle upon it in the proper manner. 
 
 In some flowers the nectar might be sucked by little 
 insects which had crawled up the stem and which were 
 too small to fertilize the plant, but these are prevented 
 by hairs on the stem and by a perfectly wctscy surface. 
 Kerner, to whom we owe these observations, thinks the 
 secretion of Pinguicula serves to prevent insects doing 
 harm, and so also Drosera. 
 
LECTURE Vn. 
 
 PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 
 
 The highest plants and the highest animals are 
 utterly unlike one another, and there is no chance of 
 pur calling a lion a plant, or a palm-tree an animal. 
 The most notable diffei'ence between them is that the 
 plant is fixed, while the animal moves from place 
 to place. The plant has no muscles by which locomo- 
 tion can be effected, no nervous system to put them 
 in action, no separate digestive canal by which to 
 assimilate its food. The food itself is of a different 
 nature, the animal living upon plants or animals, 
 while the plant lives upon water, air, and inor- 
 ganic salts. -The products of the chemical changes 
 going on within them are different. The animal 
 bums up the food it takes, and gives out car- 
 bonic acid and water, while the plant takes up 
 carbonic acid and water, and stores up within itself 
 cellulose and starch. The tissues of which they are 
 
 I 2 
 
116 LIKENESS OF LOW PLANTS TO LOW ANIMALS. 
 
 formed are different. Those of the animal contain 
 much nitrogen, and are generally allied in composition 
 to the albumen or white of an egg, and are therefore 
 called albuminous, while those of the plant contain 
 little nitrogen, the chief of them being cellulose and 
 starch, which are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and 
 oxygen. 
 
 But when we get down to the lowest forms of plant 
 and animal life the distinction between them is ex- 
 ceedingly difficult, and in some cases almost impossible. 
 Diatoms shoot about in the water very much as we 
 might expect an animal to do, and the spores of 
 some algae are furnished with vibratile hairs or cilia, 
 and move about like some of the lower animals, while 
 some animals, like the corals, are fixed to a spot from 
 which they grow like vegetables. 
 
 Fungi, as we have already seen, do not take up 
 carbonic acid and give out oxygen like plants, but, on 
 the contrary, take in oxygen and give out carbonic 
 acid like animals. 
 
 All plants in which there is protoplasm contain more 
 or less nitrogen, and as the proportion of protoplasm 
 within them increases, so does the proportion of nitro- 
 gen, until we come down to those simple cellular 
 structures in which the proportion of nitrogen may 
 be almost as great as in animals. Cellulose is the 
 most abundant and distinctive of all vegetable 
 
CHAIiACTERS OF LIVING BEINGS. 117 
 
 products, yet it does not appertain exclusively to the 
 vegetable kingdom, for it has been found in some 
 animals, Ascidians or Tunicata, a class of beings to 
 which, as we shall see afterwards, a special interest 
 attaches. 
 
 It is thus impossible to draw a sharp line of dis- 
 tinction between the animal and vegetable king- 
 doms, for the characteristics which, when fully marked,' 
 seem distinctive of one, may be found to a greater 
 or less extent in the other. In many cases it is 
 only by knowing the life history of the plant that 
 we are able to decide its position. The ciliated em- 
 bryo of the algae might perfectly well be an animal, 
 and would be reckoned as such were it not that 
 we know it to proceed from an undoubted plant, 
 and to grow into a plant again. If we pass down- 
 wards still lower in the scale of life than the algae, 
 we come to forms which can hardly be reckoned either 
 as animal or vegetable. All we can say regarding 
 them is that they are alive, and we distihgush them 
 from dead matter, j^rs^ by their power of reacting to 
 an external stimulus, a power which we term irri^ 
 tability ; secondly by their power of taking into them- 
 selves nutriment from without, and assimilating it to 
 their own substance, that is the power of nutrition ; 
 and thirdly by the power of producing other beings 
 like themselves, or the power of reproduction. ' 
 
118 IRRITABILITY— NUTRITION- REPRODUCTION, 
 
 These three properties are characteristics of all living 
 beings, both animals and plants. 
 
 In plants, it is true, we see the powers of nutrition 
 and reproduction more marked than that of irrita- 
 bility, but it may be recognised in them even when 
 there are no marked movements, such as those of 
 the sensitive plant, to betray it. When we lop off 
 a branch of an oak, the tissues around will grow up 
 to scar over the wound, and although the tree may 
 not seem to feel the woodman's axe, yet the twig 
 shows, by the excrescence or gall which it forms, its 
 sensibility to the sting of an insect. In animals the 
 irritability is generally much more marked, and it may 
 present all phases of development, from the simple 
 contraction which a touch produces in the jelly-like 
 mass of a sea-anemone, to its highest development in 
 the complex movements of the highest animals. 
 
 Throughout all classes of the animal kingdom we find 
 these three properties — irritability, nutrition, and 
 reproduction — irritability, which enables the animal 
 to defend itself and to obtain nourishment ; the power 
 of nutrition, by the exercise of which it can assimilate 
 its food, and thus sustain or increase the strength and 
 health of the individual ; and that of reproduction, by 
 which it is enabled to continue the race. To those 
 ithree simple qualities the German poet and philosopher, 
 CliOethe, has reduced the complicated actions and history 
 
KINGDOM OF PROTISTA. 119 
 
 of mankind. " Warum treibt das Volk so und schreit ? 
 Es will sich ernahren, Kinder zeugen, und sie ernabren 
 wie es vermag." " Why are people so busy, and why do 
 they make such a noise ? They want to feed them,- 
 selves, beget children, and feed them as best they can." 
 
 But in the lowest classes of the animal king- 
 dom the property of irritability shows itself simply 
 as the power of contraction when touched. In them 
 we find no trace of the complicated structures which 
 we observe in such beings as the lion and the 
 elephant. They consist only of a mass of structureless 
 jelly. There is not even a nucleus or a cell wall ; 
 nothing but mere simple protoplasm, which stretches 
 out long arms from any part of its surface, and draws 
 them in again, enveloping any body sufficiently small 
 to be absorbed, and of such a constitution as renders 
 it fit to serve as nutriment. 
 
 To this structureless, protoplasmic mass the name of 
 monera has been given by Haeckel. It is impossible 
 to say whether it belongs to the animal or the vegetable 
 kingdom, and so this naturalist has placed it piro-^ 
 visionally in what he terms the kingdom of Peotista, 
 which is neither animal nor vegetable. But the monera 
 is distinctly a living being, and possesses all the powers, 
 just mentioned. When irritated, it contracts. It 
 moves freely from place to place. It feeds itself in the ' 
 simplest possible manner, , by actually getting outside' 
 
120 
 
 . ANIMAL KINGDOM/ 
 
 of the substance it is going to eat, the structureless, 
 protoplasm seeming, as it were, to flow over it. As 
 soon as it is digested the protoplasm opens out, and 
 the residue is ejected ; or rather, the protoplasm simply 
 moves away, leaving its refuse behind. It reproduces 
 itself by simple division, each of the divided parts again 
 growing anew. 
 
 Moving upwards a step to the lowest division of the 
 
 Fio. 52.— An amoebft figured at two diflferent moments during movement. 
 71. Nucleus, i. Ingested food. Some vacuoles may also be noticed. 
 
 Animal Kingdom, or Rhizopoda, we find that in a 
 typical specimen such as the amoeba, the protoplasm, 
 instead of being structureless, presents a nucleus, and 
 a little vacuole, as it is termed. This appears to be a 
 cavity in the interior of the protoplasm, filled with 
 fluid, which alternately contracts and dilates, so that 
 the fluid must be more or less driven through ,the 
 protoplasmic mass. But there is still no cell-wall. 
 The protoplasm moves freely about, elongating itself 
 
RHIZOPODA. 121 
 
 ia one direction and contracting in another, so that the 
 form of the animal is never the same for two minutes 
 together. From the power of throwing out proto- 
 plasmic arms or feet, called pseudopodia, possessed by 
 the amoeba and its congeners, the order to which it 
 belongs is named' Rhizopoda. The amoeba nourishes 
 itself in the same way as the monera, and reproduces 
 itself by fission, the nucleus first dividing, and the 
 protoplasm following suit. 
 
 Simple as this creature is, it contains the germs of 
 the complicated functions of circulation and respira- 
 tion, by which the power of movement is sustained in 
 the higher animalfe. Like the monera, the amoeba con- 
 tracts when touched. It is sensitive to heat and cold. 
 Cold renders it torpid, and heat, up to a certain degree, 
 quickens its movements^ but beyond that degree heat 
 causes it to pass into a state of so-called tetanus, in 
 which the protoplasm is contracted to its very utmost 
 ia every direction, and the animal thus assumes a 
 perfectly spherical form. If the heat be not carried too 
 far, the creature will again commence to move when 
 the temperature is reduced, but if the temperature be 
 raised too high the tetanic contraction passes into the 
 stiffness of death. This little a,nimal, too, is sensitive 
 to the effects of poisons ;■ a minute portion of strychnia 
 will acpelerate its movements, but a larger quantity 
 will kill the animal, and thus completely arrest them; 
 
122 MOTIONS OF ANIMALS— CAUSES. 
 
 This leads us to consider how these movements are 
 carried on and why they cease. 
 
 We know that all movement implies energy, and 
 that the movements of the protoplasmic arms or 
 pseudopodia of the amceba imply the conversion of 
 potential into actual energy. This energy is derived 
 from the substances on which it feeds, and which 
 it renders available by the process of digestion. In 
 digestion its solid nutriment is dissolved, and is 
 either converted directly into the protoplasmic mass 
 of the amoeba, or is distributed throughout it in a 
 fluid form. For the conve!rsion of the potential energy 
 contained in the food or the protoplasm of the 
 creature's body into the actual energy shown in the 
 movements of the pseudopodia, chemical changes are , 
 required, and these consist in the absorption of oxygen 
 and the giving out of carbonic acid or respiration. 
 
 The process of the conversion of potential into 
 actual energy in the amceba, and in every member 
 of the animal kingdom, is ultimately the same as 
 that in the locomotive engine. In both, the fuel 
 combines with oxygen, and is thus burned, giving 
 out carbonic acid in the process. In both a supply 
 of oxygen is required. In the locomotive this is 
 yielded by a draught of air streaming into the 
 furnace door. In the amoeba it is obtained from the 
 air which is held in solution by the water in which the 
 
DIGESTION— RESPIRATION— CIRCULATION, 12S 
 
 creature swims. If the amoeba is to continue its 
 movement, or the locomotive its course, the fuel and 
 the oxygen must be brought into contact. If the ingress 
 of air to the locomotive's furnace be completely stopped 
 the fire will go out, and the wheels will stand still. 
 If the air be completely removed from the water in 
 which the amcaba is living, its movements will also 
 cease, and the animal will die. In the monera, all 
 parts of the simple, undifferentiated protoplasm of the 
 body may come successively in contact with the sur- 
 rounding water, pr the nutriment they enclose, and 
 oxygen and fuel being thus brought into contact, the 
 movements of the creature are sustained. But in the 
 amceba we have a trace of differentiation. The nucleus 
 never comes to the surface of the body. It always 
 remains in or about the centre, and thus it would 
 be placed at a disadvantage .unless there were some 
 means of conveying nutriment and oxygen to it, 
 and this we finji in the pulsatile vacuole. As the 
 protoplasm surrounding this cavity contracts, the fluid 
 it contains is driven through the animal's body, 
 and as it again dilates the fluid returns, and, 
 permeating the entire substance of the little creature, 
 it will take up all the soluble nutriment which the 
 food has yielded. In its passage to and fro, too, it 
 will take up any carbonic acid which has been formed 
 in the centre of the body, and give it off to the water 
 
124 DIFFERENTIATION IN THE BODY", . 
 
 at the surface, taking in exchange oxygen, which it 
 will bring back with it to the centre. 
 
 The circulation thus caused by the contractile 
 vacuole removes the disadvantage at which the central 
 part of the animal would have been placed with regard 
 to nutriment and oxygen, as compared with the sur- 
 face, and equalises nutrition and oxidation throughout 
 the body. 
 
 But it is easy to imagine that a contractile vesicle 
 might not always be able to do this, and that under 
 certain conditions the outside of the animal would 
 acquire a different structure from its interior, and this 
 we actually see. In one little creature, composed, like 
 the amoeba, of a single cell, we find that the surface of 
 the body has become tough excepting at one point, and 
 that instead of throwing out pseudopods at any part of 
 the surface, it can only do so at this- particular point. 
 Here it is obliged' to take in all its nutriment and 
 throw out all the undigested refuse, and at this point 
 only is it capable of moving. In another we find the 
 same thing, with the exception that instead of the surface 
 merely becoming hardened and tough; it is covered with 
 particles of sand, which the animal seems to have the 
 power of gluing on to itself; In others the surface is 
 either covered with isolated spicules of silica, or with a 
 flinty coating consisting of these more or less united, 
 leaving holes between them through which pseudopodia 
 
FORAMTNIFERA. 125 
 
 Can be protruded. In others, again, the case is com- 
 posed of chalk, which the animal seems to have the 
 power of secreting. From the holes or foramina in 
 the case such rhizopods are called Foraminifera. 
 Some of these amoeba-like creatures, instead of 
 separating from each other completely, as the two 
 
 Fig. 53.— a foraminifer with extended pseudopodia which pass through the pores of 
 the multiloculate shell. 
 
 halves of a dividing atnoeba would do, remain par- 
 tially attached, and thus form a multiple animal. 
 Each member of this community, as we may term it, 
 surrounds itself with a shell, often of a most beau- 
 tiful structure, and, small though the creatures 
 themselves may be, they swarm in the seas in such 
 
126 INFUSORIA. 
 
 immense multitudes that their accumulated shells have 
 built up the pyramids of Egypt and the chalky clififs 
 of England's coast. 
 
 The next order, that of the Infusoria, is con- 
 siderably higher in the scale than the amoeba order, 
 or rhizopoda, which we have already considered, but it 
 
 '.Fiii. 54. — Transverse section of a foraminifer, showing the arrangement of the 
 separate chambers in the shell. After W. Carpenter. 
 
 jnust nevertheless be ranked with them, inasmuch 
 as the infusoria consist of single masses of proto- 
 plasm, and not of a number of distinct cells. In them, 
 however, we have a very distinct differentiation of the 
 protoplasm. They have no longer the power of throw- 
 ing out pseudopods, nor can they take in food at any 
 
RUDIMENT OF DIGESTIVE CAVITY. 
 
 127 
 
 part of the body indiflferently. The pseudopods are 
 replaced by cilia, and there is always at one part of the 
 body an indentation which serves as a distinct ipouth 
 
 Fig. 55. — Grains from apiece of chalk, showing the cases of foraminifera. Magnified. 
 
 and rudimentary digestive cavity. This indentation is 
 often lined internally with cilia, and thus the proto- 
 
 ■Fio. 56. — Actinosphserimn, a rhizopod. o. A morsel which has heen taken in 
 as food, and just pushed into the soft cortical layer, 6, by the animal, c. Cen- 
 trai parenchyma of the body. d. Some balls of food in it. e. Pseudopodia of 
 the cortical layer. 
 
 plasm forming its wall is shown to be somewhat differ- 
 entiated, but it resembles the ordinary soft protoplasm 
 of the amoeba's body in so far that when a particle of 
 
128 NDTBITION AND REPRODUCTION IN INFUSORIA. 
 
 food gets into the cavity it simply passes into, and 
 becomes embedded in, the protoplasm of the animal's 
 body. As one particle of food after another sinks into 
 the body, they may seem to stud every part of the 
 animal, so that the microscopist Ehrenbefg, who studied 
 the infusoria, believed that each food-particle was 
 contained in a separate stomach, and gave to the 
 
 Fig. 57 — Diagram of the digestive cavity of one of the Infusoria (parambecium), 
 a. Body space filled with soft protoplasm, into which the food is taken. 
 &. Mouth, c. Anus. d. contractile vesicles. After Lachmann. 
 
 order the name of Polygastrica. Like the amcebse, 
 the infusoria each contain a nucleus and a contractile 
 vesicle. They reproduce themselves either by sub- 
 division or" sexually. In the former case the whole 
 body divides into two, the division beginning at the 
 nucleus,, and each half grows" into a new individual. 
 In the latter case two infusoria become joined 
 together, generally at the mouth. The nucleus of 
 
AMCEBOID COLONIES— SPONGES. 129 
 
 the one seems to pass into that of the other, and from 
 their union a number of new individuals proceed. 
 
 All these amoeba-like forms, floating freely in water, 
 may readily meet with food, and can easily obtain 
 oxygen. But, supposing that they were accumulated 
 in larger communities, this might no longer be the 
 case, and then, they being unable to move to the food 
 and the oxygen, a special arrangement would be neces- 
 sary in order that the food and oxygen might be 
 brought to them. This we find in the case of the 
 Sponges. In its native state, the tough, porous 
 framework with which evei'y one is so familiar in the 
 household sponge, is clothed throughout with numbers 
 of these amoeba-like forms. It is obvious that those in 
 the interior of the sponge would have little chance of 
 obtaining food, and that the water in its pores would 
 soon be deprived of all its oxygen and charged with 
 carbonic acid given off by the protoplasm, were it not 
 that some of the amoebae have developed on their 
 surface a number of small vibratile hairs, or cilia, by 
 means of which a constant current is kept up in the 
 water. It is drawn in at one opening of the sponge, 
 carrying with it food and oxygen to the living beings 
 within, and, after it has served its purpose, it is thrown 
 out at another opening, carrying with it all the refuse of 
 the animals' digestion, and all the carbonic acid and other 
 products of waste which have been formed within them. 
 
 K 
 
130 
 
 NUTBITION IN SPONGES. 
 
 " The whole sponge," as Huxley remarks, "represents 
 a kind of sub-aqueous city, where the people are 
 
 Flo. 68.— A sponge (Ventriculites simplex), Toulmin Smith. Once and a half the 
 natural size. 
 
EEPKODUCTION IN SPONGES. 131 
 
 ranged about the streets and roads in such a manner 
 that each can easily appropriate his food from the 
 water as it passes along," and we might also say, casts 
 into it all his refuse. 
 
 The sponge reproduces itself both by buds and by 
 sexual generation. The buds appear at the approach 
 of winter in the sponge, which becomes filled with 
 rounded bodies, with gemmules or buds. These consist 
 of a leathery coat, covered with protoplasm, in which 
 are embedded a number of flinty spicules. At one 
 point is ah opening into the interior, which is filled 
 with a number of cells. These burst out at the ap- 
 proach of spring, through the opening, and develop 
 into new sponges. 
 
 The second mode of reproduction is that one amoeba- 
 like body develops within itself spermatozoa, and 
 another develops ova. The ova become fertilized by 
 the spermatozoa, and develop into embryos, which swim 
 about by means of numero\is cilia until they find a 
 place suited for them, where they fix themselves and 
 develop into fuU-grown sponges. 
 
 We have seen that the constituent parts of a sponge 
 resemble so many amoebse, but then there is this very 
 important point to be noted about them, that they have 
 begun to undergo differentiation. Some of them are pro- 
 vided with cilia, which are used not only for their own 
 benefit, but for that of their neighbours. Some of the 
 
 K 2 
 
132 INTERMEDIATE POSITION OF SPONGES. 
 
 protoplasmic masses or cells, as we may term them, are 
 devoted to aiding the nutrition of the whole com- 
 munity, others to its reproduction. Each member of 
 the community no longer does the same as any other ; 
 division of labour has commenced, and in this respect 
 the sponges stand midway between the protozoa, whose 
 
 Fig. 59. — Diagram to represent the first diflfferentiation of the organism into ecto- 
 derm and endoderm and the formation of a digestive cavity, a, moutli. h, 
 enteric cavity, c, endoderm. d, ectoderm. (In transverse section.) 
 
 bodies consist of only one cell, and the higher animals, 
 in which the body consists of many cells. 
 
 In the reproduction of sponges too, there are some 
 things which require particular notice. The fertilized 
 ovum divides into two, and then into several cells, and 
 these arrange themselves so as to form a simple hollow 
 bag which is composed of two layers, an inner and 
 an outer, differing in the nature of the cells com- 
 posing them. The inner is made up of small cubical 
 
HYDEOZOA. 133 
 
 cells without cilia, the outer of elongated cells with 
 cilia, on their external surface, so that the whole 
 animal is ciliated externally. (Compare Fig. 59.) 
 
 This bag in many respects resembles the pernlanent 
 form of the next division of the animal kingdom — the 
 Hydrozoa. 
 
 All the animals hitherto mentioned consist of single 
 cells, or of protoplasmic masses united together, bilt 
 undifferentiated, and are included in the great sub- 
 kingdom of the Protozoa. On the other hand, all 
 the animals contained in the sub-kingdom which we 
 have yet to consider consist of many cells, variously 
 differentiated. 
 
 The animals included in the next sub-kingdom to 
 the Protozoa, the Hydrozoa, differ then from those 
 belonging to the Protozoa in being composed of several 
 cells; and they are distinguished from the rest of the 
 animal kingdom by their having no intestinal canal 
 separate from the body cavity. 
 
 The type of this class is the little hydra, which may 
 often be found adhering to the duck-weed on a pond. 
 It consists simply of an elongated cup or tube, closed at 
 one end and open at the other. By the closed end it 
 attaches itself to any convenient piece of weed, and 
 the open end is its mouth. Around the mouth are 
 several tentacles, by which it is able to seize any food 
 within its reach and convey it to its mouth. The 
 
134 . REPRODUCTION OF HYDRA. 
 
 external surface of this living tube is a little harder 
 than the internal, and the former is thus adapted for 
 protection, while the latter is better fitted for digestion. 
 The difference, however, is so slight, that when the 
 animal is turned inside out, what was formerly the 
 stomach serves for the skin, and vice versa. If it be 
 cut into two also, it is not thereby destroyed ; on the 
 contrary, it is multiplied, for the mouth end develops 
 an attachment, and the attached end develops a 
 mouth, so that instead of one hydra we have two. 
 The hydra itself multiplies in two ways, by budding, 
 and sexually. Sometimes a little projection appears at 
 the side of the hydra, which grows and develops a 
 mouth and tentacles, and then, separating from its 
 parent, swims away, and starts life on its own account. 
 But, besides this, other little projections are to be 
 noticed in the wall of the tube. One of these develops 
 spermatozoa, the other germ cells or ova. At the 
 proper time these spermatozoa break loose, they reach 
 the germ-cells and fertilize them, and from the cells 
 proceed embryos covered with cilia, like infusoria, which 
 swim about until, meeting with a suitable place for 
 settlement, they attach themselves, the cilia drop off, 
 a mouth and tentacles develop, and a new hydra is 
 the result. Here, then, in the hydra, which we regard 
 as an animal, we find that the embryo swims about 
 by means of cilia, just like that of the alga, which we 
 
COLONIES OF IIYDEiE. 135 
 
 class among the plants, and we notice, too, that the 
 embryo hydra resembles a member of the class below 
 it, — the Protozoa, just as the embryo fern resembles 
 an alga, a plant which is below it in the scale. 
 
 The buds of the hydra, as we have said, are thrown 
 off, and assume an independent existence, but in other 
 animals of the same class this is not the case. In them 
 the buds remain attached to the parent body, and thus, 
 instead of a simple tube, we get a branched tube. 
 Some of these surround themselves with a calcareous 
 shell, just as we find the protozoa do, but this shell 
 is not pierced like that of the foraminifera, as these 
 hydrse, which consifet of cells, can no longer throw out 
 pseudopodia, like the protozoa, which consist of simple 
 protoplasm. In some of them this chalky covering 
 only surrounds the branches of the tube, but in other 
 cases it forms a little cup at the end of each branch, 
 into which the whole of the little hydra-like creature 
 or polyp can contract itself, tentacles and all. In 
 these orders of hydrozoa, as they are called, owing 
 to their resemblance to the hydra, the reproductive 
 organs form special buds. We might almost imagine, 
 indeed, that the part of the body in which they would 
 appear in the hydra, . having been covered by a 
 chalky shell, they are obliged to grow upwards until 
 they can find an opening for themselves. At first, 
 indeed, they are nothing more than lit'tle buds with 
 
136 HYDRA BUDS-JELLYFISH. 
 
 thick walls, but after this has attained a certain size, 
 the body of the -wall around them grows like a cup, 
 until at last the original bud, instead of projecting, 
 lies in a hollow, as the clapper lies in a bell. The 
 original body-cavity of the animal does not extend 
 equally throughout • the bell. It only sends into it 
 four canals, and these are all joined together at their 
 extremities by a circular canal extending around 
 
 «:v 
 
 Fig. 60. — Syncoryne, with a number of budding medusse on it at different stages 
 (a— c) of development. After Desor. 
 
 the mouth of the bell. On the clapper, or 
 manubrium, as it is called, sperm cells and ova are 
 produced, and the ova, when fertilized, develop an 
 embryo, just as in the hydra. But in some genera 
 the process does not stop at the formation of a bell. 
 The bell-shaped body detaches itself from the pa- 
 rent and swims about. It develops a mouth at the 
 
ACTINOZOA. 
 
 137 
 
 extremity of the manubrium, becomes thus an inde- 
 pendent animal, and rapidly grows, sometimes attaining 
 an enormous size, and forming the well-known jelly- 
 fish of our coasts. 
 
 Fig. 61. — A portion of a colony of hydroid polyps with budding medusse. ppp, 
 nutritive polyps, abcdef^ ditterent stages of budding medusae, mm', free 
 .medusae in different positions. 
 
 Closely allied to the hydra tribe is the sea-anemone 
 or actinia, and its allies Actinozoa. They resemble 
 the hydra in the body cavity being also the diges- 
 tive canal, but they differ from it in there being a 
 partial division between them, for a rudimentary 
 
138 
 
 SEA-ANEMONE. 
 
 gullet passes down a certain distance from the mouth, 
 and then opens into the general body-cavity. From 
 the end of this tube little septa pass to the body 
 wall, and hold it in position. Around the mouth are 
 a number of contractile tentacles, which, as well as 
 the body of the animal, are often brightly coloured. 
 
 Fig. 62. — Sea-anemone or actinia. 
 
 Fig. 63. — Section of sea-anemone ox 
 actinia, a, the mouth, a', the gullets 
 
 and when fully expanded they resemble the petals of 
 a flower, as in the case of the ordinary weU-known 
 sea-anemone. This animal, like the hydra, consists 
 of a single organism, with a soft body, but some 
 of its allies secrete a chalky substance, either within 
 the body or around it. Minute as these animals are, 
 
ALLIES OF THE SEA-ANEMONES— CORALS. 139 
 
 their chalky skeletons form the well-known coral 
 reefs and coral islands. These little creatures cannot 
 live much below the surface of the sea, nor can they 
 exist much above its level, for in the first case they 
 could not obtain food, and in the second they would 
 dry up and be destroyed. They therefore swarm 
 around the margin of a continent or island, round the 
 shores of which they build a chalky ridge. When 
 this lies close to the land, it is known as a fringing 
 reef. But sometimes it forms an outer belt or wall 
 around an island or along a continent at a distance of 
 several miles from the shore. In other cases, again, 
 coral islands are found rising up from the deep water 
 of mid-ocean without any other land whatever being 
 near them. These coral- islands, or atolls, are all nearly 
 circular, and have a salt-water lake, or lagoon, in their 
 centre. The formation of these reefs and islands was 
 long a mystery, as it seemed itiexplicable that these 
 structures should apparently arise sheer up out of 
 deep water as if they had been built up from the 
 bottom of the sea, when the little polyps which erected 
 them were unable to live much below the surface of 
 the water. Mr. Darwin, however, cleared up the 
 difficulty by showing that both the barrier reefs and 
 coral islands were simply another form of the fringing 
 reef. The little polyps first began their operations 
 along the surface of the land, in the shallow water 
 
140 CORAL BEEFS. 
 
 ■which suited them. The land on which they built 
 gradually subsided, as we know many districts of the 
 
 A 
 
 Fig. 64. — Diagrammatic section of an island surrounded by a fringing reef, a. llie 
 island, b, the reef. 
 
 Fig. 65.— Diagrammatic section of an island surrounded by a barrier reef, witli 
 intei-vening lagoon, c, the water between the reef and the island. 
 
 Fig. 66.— DiagrL. 
 
 _ jtion of a coral island, or atoll, with central lagoon, c. 
 
 earth's surface are doing at the present moment. As 
 the subsidence went on, the polyps died as the water 
 
CORAL ISLANDS. 
 
 141 
 
 deepened around them, but those at the surface still 
 went, on building, and thus the reef rose like a wall, 
 separated by a considerable breadth of water from the 
 land which it had originally touched. When the land 
 
 Fig. 67, — Coral island with central lagoon. 
 
 had sunk until it had completely disappeared, the 
 fringing reefs became circular rings of coral, simply 
 inclosing a salt-water lake or lagoon. As the sea 
 dashed against the outer surface of the reef or island, 
 its spray kept the corals moist at a greater height 
 above the water level on the outside than on the inside 
 of the reef, and consequently the coral wall was 
 higher towards the sea. On these walls of coral sea- 
 birds appeared, leaving their excrement, which, with 
 the decaying seaweeds, formed the basis of a soil. 
 Upon this the seeds, which had been swallowed by 
 birds and left in their evacuations, or carried thither 
 by ocean currents from neighbouring continents or 
 
142 CIRCULATION IN ACTINOZOA. 
 
 ■islands, took root, and thus the coral island became 
 filled with vegetable life. 
 
 Some of the other actinozoa, unlike the coral polyps, 
 are not fixed in one position, but float about freely in 
 the water by means of cilia. Their body-wall is much 
 thicker than that of the actinozoa, and instead of the 
 body-cavity presenting the form of a simple bag, it is 
 divided up into several canals, whicli radiate through 
 the body, as, for example, in the cydippe (Fig. 68) . All 
 
 Fig. 68. — The gastrov.iscuTar system of a cydippe. a, lateral view — ^thc mouth 
 turned upwards. B, seen from the central pole. 
 
 these are furnished with cilia, which serve to keep up 
 a constant current of fresh water, thus bringing up 
 new supplies of oxygen to all parts of the body. This 
 vascular arrangement reminds us of the vacuoles of the 
 amoeba, or of the currents kept up by the cilia of the 
 sponge, and connects the circulation in them with the 
 water-vascular system of the next sub-kingdom. 
 
LECTURE VIII. 
 
 GENERAL SKETCH OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. — 
 INVERTEBRATA. 
 
 In the next sub-kingdom, the Annuloida, we have 
 a distinct advance on the Hydrozoa, inasmuch as 
 the animals contained in it have a digestive canal 
 shut off from the body-cavity. This separation pre- 
 vents the sea-water and the oxygen it contains from 
 circulating freely through the body, and thus necessi- 
 tates a separate provision for the supply of oxygen 
 and removal of carbonic acid, or, in other words, for 
 respiration. This is effected in the annuloida by the 
 so-called water-vascular system, a system which 
 reminds us of the vacuoles in the amoeba, although 
 much more complicated — ■ a set of canals commu- 
 nicating with the exterior of the body, and in 
 which fluid is kept circulating. In some members of 
 this sub-kingdom, such as the sea-urchins and star- 
 
144 
 
 WATER- VASCULAE SYSTEM. 
 
 fishes, this water-vascular system is much developed, 
 and sustains the progression of the animal. In the 
 echinus, little rows of tentacles project from the sur- 
 face of the body in several bands. These are connected 
 with the water-vascular system, and can be filled 
 
 Fig. 69. — Diagrammatic representation of the water-vascular system of a star-fisli. 
 c, circular canal, a p, Polian vesicles, m, madreporic plate, m', stone canal, 
 r, radically arranged principal trunks (ambulacra! canals), r', lateral branches. 
 j5, suckers, a, their ampullae. Part only of their ambulacra! canals and their 
 appendages are figured. 
 
 with water or emptied at the pleasure of the animal. 
 When full they project far enough to touch the ground, 
 and by means of them the animals crawl along. In 
 the star-fish the same sort of tentacles are found 
 
ANNULOIDA— ECHINODEEMATA. 
 
 145 
 
 running along the snfface of tlie arms. In some of 
 the allies of the star-fish the arms, instead of being 
 short and thick, are long and thin, but the animal, 
 
 Fio. 70.— A Starfish, Arcliaster Wfrons (Wyville Thomson). Oral aspect. Three- 
 fourths the natural size. 
 
 like the star-fish itself, can move about freely and is 
 not attached. In others, again, we have similar 
 organisms with long arms, not floating about, but 
 fixed to the end of a long, jointed calcareous stalk, 
 
ANNULOIDA— VERMES. 
 
 147 
 
 Some of these are fixed in this way during the whole 
 of their Hves, hut others only during the earlier 
 portion of it. After they have attained a certain age 
 they loosen themselves from the stalk and float away. 
 The long arms of the stalked species give the anima!s 
 somewhat the semblance of a flower, and in ages long 
 
 Fig. 72. — 1, tape-worm : a sexual form (Nurse). 2, the same in the joint-fonniug 
 stage, in which the last joints are breaking off one by one. 
 
 gone by they formed a considerable portion of the 
 living inhabitants of our globe, and their fossil remains 
 are now known by the name of stone-lilies. The star- 
 fishes and sea-urchins more or less suggest the spokes 
 of a wheel springing from its nave, and thus they 
 used to be called radiata, but they are now known as 
 Echinodermata. 
 
 In other members of the same sub-kingdom of annu- 
 loida no trace of radiate structure is to be observed, 
 
 L 2 
 
U8 ANNULOSA— ANAETHROPODA— AETHROPODA. 
 
 but they agree with the echinodermata in possessing a 
 water-vascular system. A great number of them are 
 parasitic upon various animals, living in the intestine, 
 or in the substance of some solid organ, such as the 
 liver. They make use of the juices of their host, and 
 thus do not require any digestive system, and so in 
 some of them, such as the tape-worm, we find no 
 intestinal canal whatever. Some of them show little 
 or no trace of division into joints, but in others again 
 this tendency can be clearly seen. (Fig. 72). 
 
 In the next sub-kingdom, the Annulosa, we see 
 everywhere a distinct segmentation of the body. The 
 alimentary canal is completely shut off from the general 
 body-cavity, and there is always a distinct nervous sys- 
 tem present. Sometimes also we have a true vascular 
 system containing blood. The nervous system consists, 
 in its typical form, of two cords running along the 
 whole length of the belly, and having a nervous swell- 
 ing or ganglion in each segment. The first pair of 
 ganglia is situated above the gullet, so that the 
 nervous cords, descending to join the second pair, 
 encircle the gullet with a ring or collar. The presence 
 or absence of limbs furnishes a distinction by which 
 the annulosa are divided into two branches — anar- 
 thropoda, where limbs are absent, and arthropoda 
 or articulata, in which limbs are present. To the 
 former belong leeches, earthworms, and the lobworm 
 
EESPIEATION-GENERAL SKETCH. 
 
 149 
 
 of our coasts, while the latter consist of crabs, spiders, 
 centipedes, and insects. 
 
 The lobsters and crabs are all adapted for life in the 
 water, and they breathe by means of gills. 
 
 Here we have a much more complicated arrange- 
 ment for the conveyance of oxygen to the tissues of the 
 body than in any of the classes yet described. 
 
 Fig. 73.— Nervous system of insects, a, of a beetle, c, of a fly. 
 
 In the simple protista, such as the monera, all parts 
 of the creature's body could obtain oxygen from the sur- 
 rounding medium ; in the protozoa, such as the 'amoeba, 
 we had a provision for driving the nutritive juices of 
 the animal throughout its protoplasmic substance by 
 
150 RESPIRATION— USE OF BLOOD. 
 
 means of a vacuole ; in the hydra and sea-anemone it 
 was supplied by the sea- water which bathed both the 
 external surface of the animal and the interior of its 
 body cavity ; in the annuloida it was carried by the 
 water vascular system which communicated with the 
 water in which the animal swims ; but in the annu- 
 losa we have something quite new. In them we 
 find true blood, a fluid which carries oxygen to the 
 tissues in order to keep up combustion and maintain 
 functional activity, and at the same time conveys to 
 them nutriment, to supply the waste which occurs in 
 the process. The muscles in the claw of a lobster, 
 for example, are shut out by its hard shell from the 
 water, and the oxygen contained in it cannot penetrate 
 through the hard covering. Nor is there any provision 
 for carrying water holding oxygen in solution into the 
 interior of the claw by means of vessels. 
 
 But we now find a fluid, blood, which will take 
 up a much greater quantity of oxygen than ordinary 
 water can, which can convey it to the muscles of the 
 claw as well as to all other parts of the body, and 
 there give it off, taking up in return the carbonic 
 acid formed by combustion in the muscle during its 
 activity, and any other products of waste. But this 
 action bf the blood would soon be exhausted, and 
 it would become . so loaded with carbonic acid as 
 to be unfit for its purpose, were there no means of 
 
EXTEENAL EESPIRATION -GILLS AND LUNGS. 151 
 
 renewing the oxygen and removing the acid. This 
 is effected by means of branchiae or gills in aquatic 
 animals, and by air-tubes or lungs in land animals. 
 In the branchise the blood circulates freely, with only 
 a thin layer of tissue between it and the water. 
 Through this tissue oxygen comes from the water, 
 and carbonic acid is given out to it. The same is 
 the case in the lungs, except that instead of water 
 
 ^ ^^^ 
 
 I'tg. 74.— ^Diagrammatic transverse section tlirougli tlie hinder half of tlie body of 
 a sandworm. to show the arrangement of the vessels, and their connection witiv 
 tlie branchise or gills, d. dorsal, v, ventral side, n, ventral medulla, i, 
 enteric.cavity. -br, branchise. v, ventral vascular trunk, a h, branchial vessels. 
 d, dorsal vascular trunk, h, branch surrounding the enteric canal, v, visceral 
 ventral vessel. 
 
 on the one side of the membrane we have air. This 
 exchange of gases between the blood and the water 
 or air external to the animal's body is termed 
 external respiration. The blood thus purified passes 
 to the interior of the body, and has there to undergo 
 the changes already described in maintaining the 
 nutrition of the tissues. The interchange of gases 
 which there takes place between it and the tissues. 
 
152 
 
 RESPIEATION AND CIRCULATION. 
 
ANNULOSA— CEL'STACEA-ARACHNIDA. 153 
 
 the giving off of oxygen and' tlie taking up of car- 
 bonic acid, is termed internal respiration. 
 
 This would soon come to an end if the circulation 
 were to stop, and some apparatus is necessary- to keep 
 the blood moving. This is provided in the shape of 
 a heart, which in the annulosa is always placed at the 
 back. Crabs and lobsters are all provided with a case 
 of greater or less hardness, and are adapted for existence 
 in the water. Some of their allies appear at a very 
 early period in the history of our globe, and, from the 
 circumstance of their bodies being divided more or 
 less into three lobes, they were called " Trilobites." 
 Closely connected with the lobster tribe, or Crustacea, 
 are the spiders and scorpions, or Arachnida, but 
 these are adapted only for existence on land, and conse- 
 quently, instead of branchiae, they have either little 
 bags or tubes, into which the air comes, and around 
 which the blood flows. 
 
 The next class, or Insecta, have derived their name 
 from their peculiar formation, all the members of 
 this tribe being divided into three segments, the 
 head, the thorax, and the abdomen. The latter two 
 are sometimes connected by a mere thread, so that 
 it would almost appear that the insect had been cut 
 in two. The metamorphoses of insects, the egg de- 
 veloping not into an insect but into a caterpillar or 
 larva, this becoming dormant and apparently lifeless. 
 
154 ANNULOSA— INSECTA. 
 
 during the chrysalis or pupa stage, and this develop- 
 ing into a perfect insect or imago are too well known 
 to require to be more than merely mentioned at present. 
 The marvellous development of instinct, if not of rea- 
 son too in such insects as the ants is most astonish- 
 ing. The subdivision of labour amongst them, some 
 being workers and others warriors, their flocks of 
 aphides which they take the trouble to feed regularly 
 in order to enjoy their milk, and their means of com- 
 municating intelligence to one another, reminds one 
 
 Fig. 76. — Insect showing the three segments. 
 
 more of the actions of human. beings than of those 
 of the lower animals. 
 
 Highly organised and intelligent as some of the 
 higher members of the group of insecta are, we can 
 see no link connecting them with the vertebrata on 
 the one hand, or the moUusca on the other. The wise 
 ant is utterly unlike the subtle fox, and no resemblance 
 to the cuttle fish can be traced in either. We have 
 hitherto been able to trace, very rudely it is true, a 
 general ■ connection between the various groitps of the 
 
MOLLUSCOIDA— POLYZOA. 155 
 
 animal kingdom, which we have already considered, 
 but we have now come to the end of the chain, and 
 must go back to a lower link, the sub-kingdom of 
 Molluscoida. 
 
 Some of these are well known to visitors at the 
 sea-side, under the name of white sea-weed. In ap- 
 pearance, this sea- weed either presents a flat., some- 
 what horny expanse, studded with minute, dot-like 
 cavities, or of little jointed calcareous filaments which 
 are the horny or chalky covering of minute polyps, only 
 to be seen with the aid of a magnifying glass, and 
 which so much resemble little hydrse that they were 
 long classed with them. 
 
 They completely differ from the hydrse in their 
 structure, however, for they possess a very distinct 
 alimentary canal, furnished both with a mouth arid 
 a vent, and they have also a distinct nervous system, 
 consisting of a single ganglion. 
 
 In the hydra, too, the reproductive organs are 
 situated externally, on the body wall, whereas in the 
 molluscoida they are contained in the body cavity. 
 Both, however, have the power of forming buds and 
 in both the buds may remain attached one to another 
 so that instead of a single individual we get a regular 
 colony, and from this property these white sea-weeds, 
 or, as they are sometimes called, sea-mosses and sea- 
 mats, have received the name of Polyzoa. 
 
156 MOLLUSCOIDA— BRACHIOPODA. 
 
 Another order of moUuscoida is the Brachiopoda 
 so-called from their long fringed arms or feet. They 
 look like ordinary shell-fish, and might at first sight be 
 supposed to be very closely related to the common 
 mussels, but they have not the same developed in- 
 ternal structure. The valves of their shell are placed 
 laterally and not on the front and back of the creature. 
 The two valves of the shell are more or less unlike, 
 but the two sides of each valve are like one another, 
 whereas in the mussel, the two valves are like one 
 another but the two sides of each valve are unlike. 
 
 The Brachiopoda are of comparatively slight im- 
 portance now, but at an early period of the world's 
 history they swarmed in the seas, and one of them, 
 the Lingula, has come down from a very early period 
 untU now without undergoing almost any change. 
 
 In the next class, the Tunicata, or Ascidian 
 molluscs, the individuals sometimes remain separate, 
 and are sometimes united, but, whether separate or 
 not, they all have a heart, and thus differ from the 
 Polyzoa. The outer covering of the animal is leathery 
 and elastic, and from it they have got their name of 
 Tunicata. It contains a quantity of cellulose, which, 
 as we have already mentioned, was formerly regarded 
 as a characteristically vegetable product. From their 
 external resemblance to a wine-skin, or two-necked 
 leather bottle, they have been called Ascidians (Fig. 77). 
 
MOLLUSCOIDA— ASCIDIANS. 
 
 157 
 
 The two necks of the bottle are connected with the 
 two ends of the alimentary canal, the mouth and the 
 vent. The wider mouth opens into a large cavity, 
 called the respiratory sac, from the lower end of 
 which passes the gullet, which widens into the stomach 
 and again contracts into an intestine. This bending 
 
 Fig. 77. — Diagram of an Ascidian. o, moutli ; i, respiratory sac ; c, ventral groove ; 
 n, ganglion ; dt digestive canal ; cl, cloaca ; g, generative gland. 
 
 on itself, empties into a cavity which is connected 
 with the second or smaller mouth of the bottle, 
 and which is known as the cloaca. These two sacs, 
 the respiratory sac and the cloaca, occupy a great 
 part of the animal. At the points where their 
 walls come in contact, a number of perforations occur, 
 through which water can pass from the one to 
 
158 STRUCTURE OP ASCIDIANS. 
 
 the other. They are fringed with cilia, which are 
 in constant action, and drive the water from the 
 respiratory sac into the cloaca, thus keeping up a 
 continual circulation of water in and between these 
 sacs. The body cavity of the animal is filled with 
 a fluid containing numerous solid particles or cor- 
 puscles, and this fluid serves the purpose of blood. 
 It is driven first in one direction and then in another 
 by a contractile chamber placed near the lower part 
 of the animal, and serving the function of a heart. 
 As the fluid thus oscillates in the body cavity, fresh 
 portions of it are brought successively into contact 
 with the wall of the respiratory sac, and thus an 
 exchange of oxygen and carbonic acid is maintained 
 between the blood and the water contained in the sac. 
 Between the two necks of the bottle the body wall 
 of the animal is somewhat thick, and in it is placed 
 a single ganglion {n. Fig. 77). The position of this 
 ganglion will be seen, further on to be of great im- 
 portance, and must therefore be clearly borne in mind, 
 as it is in the tunicata or ascidians that we find 
 the nearest connecting link between the moUusca and 
 the vertebrata. 
 
 In the next section of molluscous animals, the Mol- 
 lusca proper, we find the nervous system more deve- 
 loped, so that instead of the single ganglion we have 
 three, and instead of the heart with a single chamber, 
 
MOLLUSCA— LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 159 
 
 we have a heart with at least two and sometimes 
 more chambers. 
 
 Two subdivisions of the MoUusca, the Lamelli- 
 branchiata and Gasteropoda are important on account 
 of their numbers. They constitute the so-called shell- 
 fish, one dass of which, like the oyster, has two valves 
 to its shell, and another, like the whelk or periwinkle; 
 only one. 
 
 The oyster and shell-fish like it, have no head. 
 They breathe by means of two large thin folds of 
 tissue, containing numerous blood-vessels and which 
 are bathed on their outside by the sea-water when 
 the animal opens its shell. On account of this mode 
 of breathing they are called Lamellibranchiata. 
 
 The periwinkles or whelks have a distinct head, 
 and a fleshy organ, or foot, which they protrude from 
 their shell, and by means of which they are able to 
 move about. Whelks and periwinkles are adapted for 
 living in water, and they breathe by means of gills, 
 lying in a chamber within the body, but to which 
 however, water has access. 
 
 Snails resemble periwinkles in most other respects, 
 but they are fitted for existence on land instead of 
 water. They breathe by means of lungs, little bags 
 like those of the periwinkle, but into which air passes 
 instead of water. In all of these the foot protrudes 
 from the under-surface of the body, or belly, and 
 
160 MOLLUSCA— GASTEEOPODA. 
 
 they are called Gasteropoda. The foot of the peri- 
 winkle, as we all know, consists of a rounded disc. 
 In the snail and slug it is rounded or oblong, and 
 its margins are quite smooth. 
 
 In the next subdivision of the Mollusca the Cepha- 
 lopoda, the foot attains an enormous development, 
 being split up so as to form long tentacles or arms 
 which are furnished with numerous suckers, so that 
 they can lay hold of objects and cling to them with 
 the utmost tenacity. These arms surround the 
 mouth, which is furnished with a parrot-like beak, 
 and below the arms are two huge staring eyes. As 
 the arms here apparently proceed from the head, the 
 creatures are called Cephalopoda. The body looks 
 Uke a large leathery bag, within which is a sac, con- 
 taining the branchiEB or gills. To this sac, water is 
 admitted, and, by forcibly contracting its walls, the 
 water can be violently driven out through a sort of 
 funnel, and the animals propelled rapidly backward 
 like a rocket. Some of these creatures attain an 
 immense size, such as the octopi or cuttle-fishes 
 which are said to exist in the West Indian seas 
 with tentacles ten feet long. The cuttle-fish has 
 two gills, and a leathery tody without any external 
 shell. 
 
 Other cephalopods have four gills, and a shell which 
 is divided into chambers. To this class belongs the 
 
MOLLUSCA— CEPHALOPODA. 
 
 161 
 
 paper nautilus, and in the paelozoic, or ancient 
 period, of our earth's history, cuttle-fishes of this 
 sort were very common, and some of them were of 
 immense size. Some of these had. straight shells such 
 
 Fig. -78.— Cephalopod. t, t', arms furniahed with suckers ; i, fiumel by wMcli the 
 water is expelled. 
 
 as the Orthocerata, and others, like the Ammonites, 
 formed beautiful spirals. Some of the Orthocerata had 
 shells six or seven feet long, and as thick as a man's 
 
 M 
 
162 LINKS BETWEEN MOLLUSCA AND VERTEBEATA. 
 
 body. Unlike the Orthocerata, the Ammonites do not 
 belong to the paleozoic but to the secondary period. 
 
 The octopus and its allies are highly developed. 
 Tliey have in their heads a large nervous ganglion, 
 which might be compared to a brain, eyes which 
 externally look almost like those of a vertebrate, and 
 powerful locomotive and prehensile organs, which they 
 are able to wield with great facility. They stand 
 distinctly at the head of the class of Mollusca, but it 
 is impossible to see any sort of likeness between them 
 and the class to which we next come, that of the 
 Vertebrata. 
 
 Just as in the case of the mollusca itself we were 
 unable to find any connecting link with the highest 
 members of the Annulosa, and were obliged . to go 
 far down in the chain before we could meet with any 
 resemblance, so must we do in the case of the Ver- 
 tebrata also. We can find no relationship between 
 the higher members of the Mollusca and Vertebrata, 
 the cuttlefish and the monkey, but there is a tolerably 
 close relation between the low molluscous Ascidian 
 and the Amphioxus, which is the lowest form of 
 vertebrate animals. 
 
LECTUEE IX. 
 
 GENERAL SKETCH OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM— 
 VERTEBEATA. 
 
 The Vertebrata are distinguished from all other 
 animals by the possession of a bony, jointed internal 
 
 Fig. 7^. — Single Vertebra seen from above ; re, neural canal ; c, body of the 
 vertebra; ax, one of the condyles or joints by which it is connected with the 
 vertebra in front of it (or above it in mar). 
 
 skeleton, the most important part of which is the 
 backbone or spine, consisting of a Vertebral column 
 
 M 2 
 
164 
 
 VERTEBRAL COLUMN. 
 
 composed of a number of small bones, or vertebrae, 
 jointed together. From each of those bones, projections 
 
 Fig. 80.— a, a diagrammatic view of the human body cut in half lengthways. C.S. 
 the neural canal consisting of the cavity of the brain and spinal cord. The 
 haemal canal consists of several cavities, N, that of the nose ; M, that of the 
 mouth ; AL Al, the alimentary canal represented as a simple straight, tube ; 
 E, the heart; D, the diaphragm. 
 
 B. a tranverse vertical section of tiie head taken along the line a & ; letters as 
 before. 
 
 C, a tranverse section taken along the line c d ; letters as before. 
 
 The black parts of the diagram represent bone. The thick black parts in front 
 of the neural canal C.S., correspond to the .bodies of the vertebrae (c, Fig. 79) 
 seen in profile. 
 
NEURAL AND HAEMAL CANALS. 165 
 
 or processes, as they are termed, proceed. Two 
 of these go upwards or backwards towards the back 
 of the animal, and unite, so as to form a bony bridge, 
 and the bridges of adjoining vertebrae lying close to 
 each other form a jointed bony canal, in which a 
 cord of nervous matter, the spinal cord, lies safely 
 enclosed. This canal is therefore called the neural, 
 or nervous canal. 
 
 Other processes project side-ways and a little for- 
 wards, and being prolonged by the bent bones termed 
 ribs, which are jointed on to them, together form a 
 second, but less perfect canal, in which the vascular 
 system is contained, and which is consequently termed 
 the haemal canal. 
 
 The vertebrates thus consist of a double canal, the 
 neural and the haemal, whereas all the other classes 
 have but the simple canal in which the nervous and 
 vascular systems are contained in common. 
 
 At the anterior end of the spine, the vertebrae 
 undergo a strange alteration, their parts being so ex- 
 panded and modified as to form a bony case, the 
 skull, which protects that collection of nervous matter 
 which is known as the birain, and also to form organs 
 for the seizure and mastication of food. 
 
 In addition to this we have two bony girdles, 
 partially encircling the body at two points. The first 
 is called the shoulder-girdle, and its position is 
 
106 
 
 SHOULDER AND PELVIC GIRDLES. 
 
 implied in its name. The second is called the pelvic 
 girdle, and is situated at the loins of the animal. 
 
 Fig. n.—Mn. the mandible or lower jaw; CI. the caTicle, or collar bone; H. tho 
 Inimenus ; Sep, the scapula, or shoulder blade ; St, the sternum ; R' the carti- 
 lages of the ribs ; J2, the ribs ; II, the ilium or hip-bone ; F, the femur. 
 
 Each of these girdles consists of several bones, 
 which form the limhs of the- animal, and unite them 
 
SCAPULA AND ILIUM. 
 
 167 
 
 to the trunk. We have in each girdle two large 
 flat bones, • which serve as an attachment for the 
 muscles which move the limbs. These in the shoulder- 
 
 Fio. 82.— Diagraramatio representation of the limbs in mammalia. The anterior 
 
 side is ■ light, and the posterior is ■ shaded, a and c are fore-limbs or arms. 
 
 E and D are hind limbs, s, scapula ; is, ilium ; A, humerus ; /, femur ; r, radius ; 
 
 t, tibia ; u, ulna ; /, fibula ; 1, pollex in fore and hallux in hind limb ; v, fifth 
 
 , digit. 
 
 girdle are called scapulae, or blade-bones, and in the 
 pelvic girdle, ilia, or hip-bones. 
 
 To each of these is jointed a single long strong bone, 
 
168 
 
 HUMERUS AND FEMUR. 
 
 which in the anterior extremity is called humerus 
 or arm-bone, and in the posterior, femur, or thigh-' 
 bone. 
 
 Fig. 83. — Diagrammatic representation of tlie limbs in mammalia, e and g are 
 fore limbs ; f, a hind li:Qb ; h, fore-limb of a cetacean ; i, hind limb of a seal. 
 The letters indicate the same parts as in Fig. 82. 
 
 Next come two bones which run side by side from 
 the lower end of the humerus and femur. Those in 
 the fore-leg, supporting the arm, are termed radius 
 and ulna, those in the hind leg are called tibia and 
 fibula. The ulna is jointed to the humerus closely, 
 
EADIUS AND ULNA— TIBIA AND FIBULA. 169 
 
 so as to give firmness to the forearm, while the radius 
 is less firmly attached to the humerus. The bones 
 of the hand or fore-foot ar6 attached to the radius, 
 and thus acquire a much greater mobility than they 
 
 Pig. 84.— Diagram of the fore-limb of an Fio. 85. — Manus of a marsupial. R, 
 
 amphibian. The dotted lines indi- radius; (7, ulna; s, scaphoid; , 
 
 cate the rays to which the different lunar ; c, cuneiform ; M, trapezoid ; 
 
 partsbelong. if, humerus ;i!, radius; Im, trapezium; m, magnum; u, 
 
 V, ulna : Tj radial bone of carpus ; uncinate. 
 «, ulnar bone; i, intermediate bone"; 
 en, double central bone. 
 
 would have if the radius were more firmly fixed to 
 the humerus, at the same time the radius is supported 
 in position by the ulna; and thus the steadiness is 
 given to it which is necessary for precision of movement 
 in the hand. 
 
170 
 
 MANUS AND CARPUS. 
 
 The chief bones of the wrist, or carpus, arc three : 
 one attached to the radius, anotlier to the ulna, 
 
 Fig. 86.— Skeleton of the manus or hand of various mammals, i. man ; it. dog ; 
 iii.piR; IV. ox ; V. tapir; vi. horse. ?, radius; «, ulna; a, scaphoid bone ; 
 6. lunar ; c, cuneiform ; d, tapezium ; e, trapezoid ; /, magnum ; g, uncinate ; 
 p pisiform. 
 
HAND AND FOOT. 
 
 171 
 
 and the third .lying between them. Attached to this 
 intermediate bone is another one or two, the central 
 bone or bones of the wrist (Fig. 84), and then, arranged 
 
 Fjo. 87.— Hinder extremity of a larva of salamander. The dotted lines are drawn 
 tlirough the rays to which the different pieces belong. F&, femur; T, tibia ; F, 
 Sbula; t, tibial; /, fibular bone of tarsns ; i, intermediate bone; c, central bone. 
 
172 HIND LEGS AND FORE LEGS. 
 
 like an arch beyond these are five other small bones, 
 from which proceed the five digits, each of which 
 contains four bones, or phalanges, except the first, 
 which contains only three. This may be looked 
 upon as the typical wrist, but it is almost always 
 much modified in various animals by the fusion 
 together of one or more of these bones in various 
 ways. 
 
 A similar arrangement may be looked upon as typical 
 in the foot also, but here the arrangement is even more 
 disturbed than in the hand or fore-foot (Fig. 87). 
 
 In most animals the hind legs are merely wanted for 
 steady progression and support, and the flat bones, or 
 ilia, of the pelvic girdle are usually firmly and closely 
 united to the vertebral column. 
 
 Fic. 88. — A front view of the pelvis. Sm, tlie sncrum ; Am, the acetabulum 11, 
 the ilium ; Pb, the pubis ; Is, the ischium. 
 
 But greater freedom of motion is required in the 
 fore-legs to enable them to overcome any obstacles in 
 the way of locomotion, or t© adapt them for the seizure 
 of prey. In them, therefore, we find that the blade- 
 
COLLAE AND BREAST BONES. 173 
 
 bones, or scapulae, are not so closely united to the spine, 
 but stand away from it at some little distance, and 
 may, indeed, have no bony connection with it whatever, 
 being attached to it simply by muscles, as in the 
 horse and sheep. In many animals, however, they 
 are attached, though only indirectly, by means of 
 thin bones, the clavicles, or collar-bones. At one 
 end these are jointed to the scapulae, but the other 
 ends do not go directly to the spine. They go to 
 the sternum, or breast-bone, a long flat bone which 
 we have not yet mentioned, which runs down the 
 centre of the haemal arch for some distance, and to 
 which the anterior extremities of some of the upper 
 ribs are attached. 
 
 Fig. 89, — A front view of the sternum, St, with the cartilages of the ribs, R', and 
 .parts of the rihs themselves, B. 
 
 The various pieces of this bony skeleton are moved 
 upon one another by means of muscles. 'These muscles, 
 known to us commonly under the name of flesh, con- 
 sist of bundles of contractile threads, or fibrils, which 
 
174 MUSCLES--NERVES, MOTOR AND SENSORY. 
 
 have the power of shortening, on the application of 
 certain stimuli. This may be noticed by anyone in the 
 muscles of the ball of the thumb. On striking them 
 sharply -with the back of a table knife they may be 
 seen slightly to contract, and the thumb to move. 
 This is much more evident if a current of electricity be 
 passed through them, but the u.sual way in which they 
 are made to contract is by a stimulus which they re-' 
 ceive from their nerves. 
 
 Fig. 90. — The Bones of the Upper Extremity with the Biceps Muscle. 
 
 The two tendons by which this muscle is attached to the scapula, ot shoulder-blade, 
 are seen at a, p indicates the attachment of the muscle lio the radius, and 
 h( nee the point of action of the power ; F, the fulcrums, the lower end of the 
 humerus on which the upper end of the radius (together with the ulnaa) moves ; 
 w, the weight (of the hand). 
 
 To each muscle, one or more motor nerves pass 
 down from the spinal cord, and by them the muscle 
 is set in action. One of the commonest occasions of 
 the action of muscle is the stimulation of a sensory 
 nerve, and yet sensory nerves have no direct 
 
SPINAL CORD— REFLEX ACTION— BRAIN. 175 
 
 connection with muscles, nor any power to make 
 them contract. 
 
 The sensory nerves are, however, indirectly con- 
 nected with muscles through the spinal cord. From 
 all parts of the spinal cord motor nerves pass to the 
 muscles, and to all parts of th§ spinal cord, sensory 
 nerves pass from the skin. When one of these 
 sensory nerves is stimulated, the impression passes 
 up to the corresponding part of the spinal cord, and 
 is thence transmitted, or reflected, as it is termed; 
 down a motor nerve, causing the muscle to act. 
 
 This is called reflex action, and one of the simplest 
 examples of it is given in tickling the palm of the 
 hand, the sole of the foot, or by touching the eyeball. 
 When the foot and hand are tickled, they are in- 
 voluntarily drawn quickly back, and when the eyeball 
 is touched, the eyelids close without any wish on the 
 part of their owner, or even against his will. 
 
 The reflex movements, effected by the spinal cord 
 alone, are simple in their character; while those 
 effected by the nervous masses, or ganglia, into which 
 the spinal cord enlarges at the head of the animal, are 
 more complex. These ganglia are contained within the 
 skull, and together are known as the encephalon or 
 popularly as the brain. The encephalon consists of 
 the cerebrum or brain proper, the cerebellum, the 
 basal ganglia and the medulla oblongata. It is 
 
176 BLOOD-VESSELS— BLOOD— DIGESTIVE CANAL. 
 
 through them that the movements of respiration, 
 and those necessary for prehension of food, are main- 
 tained, their complexity increasing with the develop- 
 ment of the brain. 
 
 To carry nourishment to the bones, muscles, and 
 nervous system, we have a system of vessels, con- 
 taining blood, which is propelled through them by 
 means of the heart. This blood always contains, swim- 
 ming in it, a number of little round or oval bodies, 
 called corpuscles. These have a red colour, and possess 
 to a very great extent the power of taking up oxygen, 
 and giving it off again, with great readiness. This 
 oxygen is obtained by the blood from the air or 
 water in which the animal lives, by means, either of- 
 gills, or lungs, through which the blood circulates. 
 
 To supply the animal with nutriment to repair the 
 waste of the tissues we have a digestive canal, 
 consisting of mouth, stomach, and intestines, with 
 various glands attached, which furnish secretions 
 necessary for digestion. The mouth is generally pro- 
 vided with teeth, which serve both to seize the food 
 and to break it up, so that it may be more readily 
 dissolved by the digestive juices. The first of these 
 is the saliva, which is poured out in the mouth; the 
 second, the gastric juice secreted by the stomach ; the 
 third is the bile, poured out by the liver ; the fourth 
 is the secretion of the pancreas, and the fifth that of 
 
PRODUCTS OF TISSUE-WASTE. 
 
 177 
 
 the intestine. By means of these the food is dissolved, 
 and it is then absorbed by a number of small vessels, 
 called lacteals, which carry it into the general circula- 
 
 ''Fig. 91. — Red and White Corpuscles of the Blood magnified. 
 
 moderately magnified. The red corpuscles are seen lying in rows like rolls of 
 
 coins ; at a and a are seen two white corpuscles. 
 By red corpuscles much more highly magnified, seen in face; C, ditto, seen in 
 
 profile ; D, ditto, in rows, rather more highly magnified ; E, a red corpuscle 
 
 swollen into a sphere by imbibition of water. 
 F, a white corpuscle magnified same as B.; G, ditto, throwing out 'some blunt 
 
 processes ; K, ditto, treated with acetic acid, and showing nucleus, magnified 
 
 same as D. 
 H, red corpuscles puckered or crenate all over. 
 J^ ditto, at the edge only, 
 
 tion, where it mixes with the blood, and goes to nourish 
 the tissues. 
 
 But the tissues, in their functional activity, yield 
 other products than simple carbonic acid, which can 
 
 N 
 
178 REPEODUCTION IN VERTEBRATA. 
 
 escape by the gills or lungs like the smoke from the 
 chimney of a furnace. Besides it, there is nitrogenous 
 waste, which may be compared to the ashes of a fur- 
 nace, and which requires to be carried off, as otherwise 
 it would choke the tissues, and stop their action. To 
 carry off this waste, we have special organs, the kidneys. 
 The vertebrata never reproduce themselves by bud- 
 ding. Reproduction is always sexual. Spermatozoa 
 and germ cells unite to produce ova, which grow into 
 the perfect individual. These ova are sometimes ex- 
 truded in the form of eggs, which are hatched either by 
 the heat of the sun or that of the parent animal. 
 When this is the case, the animals are called oviparous. 
 Others are retained until hatched within the body of 
 the parent animal, and the young are then brought 
 forth alive. Such animals are called ovoviviparous. 
 In the higher animals the eggs or germ cells are so 
 small as to require the aid of a microscope to see them, 
 and do not contain sufficient material for the develop- 
 ment of the young individual, which must therefore 
 receive a special supply of nutriment from the parent. 
 In such cases the ova being insignificant, and the 
 animals being brought forth alive, the animals are 
 called viviparous. 
 
LECTUEE X. 
 
 GENERAL SKETCH OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM — VERTE- 
 BRATA— COLD-BLOODED ANIMALS — WISHES— AMPHIBIA 
 — REPTILES. 
 
 The vertebrata have been divided by Professor Huxley 
 into three great orders — Ichthyopsida, or fish-like 
 animals; Sauropsida, or lizard-like animals; and 
 Mammalia, which have breasts, and suckle their young, 
 The Ichthyopsida are distinguished by the possession 
 of gills, either during the whole or a part of their lives, 
 which the sauropsida never have. The Sauropsida 
 are distinguished again from the mammalia by the 
 fact that they never suckle their young. But besides 
 this there are other characteristics. The blood corpu- 
 scles in the two first divisions have a nucleus, which 
 those of the mammals never have. The skeleton of 
 the sauropsida, too, differs from that of the mammals 
 in certain points, so that it is possible from one or 
 
 N 2 
 
180 ICHTHYOPSIDA— FISHES. 
 
 two bone's to ascertain to which class the animal be- 
 longs. In the sauropsida the skull is jointed to the 
 vertebral column by one articulating surface, or con- 
 dyle, while in the mammals there are two condyles. 
 In the sauropsida the lower jaw is composed of several 
 pieces, and is united to the skull by means of a 
 special bone called the os quadratum, or quadrate 
 bone, while in the mammals the lower jaw is composed 
 of only two pieces, and the quadrate bone is wanting. 
 
 Each of the first two divisions has been further 
 subdivided into two, the former into Fishes and 
 Amphibia, and the latter into Reptiles and Birds. 
 
 Fishes are entirely adapted for a watery life. They 
 breathe by means of gills, and their extremities are 
 modified into fins. The lowest member of the group is 
 one of very great interest, inasmuch as it supplies the 
 link connecting the vertebrata with the moUusca. This 
 little fish differs from all other members of the vertebral 
 kingdom in having no distinct head, and it is called the 
 amphioxus from the two ends being more or less alike. 
 It is about one-and-a-half inches to two inches long, 
 and from its lance-like shape has also been termed 
 lancelet. It burrows in the sands, more especially 
 about the Mediterranean shores. It has no vertebral 
 column, and so one might think at first that it ought 
 not to be reckoned as a. vertebrate at all ; but although 
 there is no bony spine, there is a spinal cord, and below 
 
THE AMPHIOXUjS. 
 
 181 
 
 o ? ft 
 * O 9 
 
 g3 OJ ^ 
 
 9 &« 
 HI 
 
 S§e" 
 
 fci « ■• 
 us ;-i 
 
 »«" 
 
 ■o'S'S 
 g..g> 
 
 |.2 
 
 till 
 
182 LINK BETWEEN MOLLUSC A AND VERTBBRATA. 
 
 it, where the spine ought to be, there is a rod of gristle. 
 As this same gristly rod or notochord is found in all 
 other vertebrates before the spinal column appears, and 
 as it is from this rod that the spinal column is developed, 
 we are fully warranted in classing the amphioxus amongst 
 the vertebrates. It has no proper extremities or fins> 
 but it moves by means of a membranous fin-like ex- 
 pansion running along the middle of the whole of its 
 back and part of its belly. Near its anterior end is a 
 longitudinal slit -like mouth which has no teeth, but 
 some gristly projections, and is surrounded by several 
 vascular filaments. It opens into a wide gullet in 
 which there are a number of slit-like openings. From 
 this gullet, an intestine proceeds, which opens externally 
 by a distinct anus. There is no heart, but the blood 
 vessels have pulsatile dilatations upon them, and the 
 blood itself is colourless. The water, which is taken 
 through the mouth into the dilated pharyngeal or 
 branchial sac, passes through the clefts into the abdo- 
 men of the animal, and is again ejected by a small 
 opening placed in front of the anus. 
 
 A little while ago I mentioned that the ascidians 
 were interesting as affording a connecting link 
 between the mollusca and the vertebrata. 
 
 It will be remembered that between the two necks 
 of the bottle there was a somewhat thicker layer of 
 tissue than in other parts of the body, and that in this 
 
ASCIDIAN AND AMPHIOXUS. 
 
 183 
 
 layer of tissue a ganglion was situated. But this is not 
 all. In the young ascidian, underneath the ganglion, 
 is situated a small cartilaginous rod, in the same 
 position as the vertebral column in vertebrata, or the 
 notochord in the amphioxus. If you imagine this part 
 of the ascidian greatly lengthened out until it forms 
 
 Fio. 98. — Dia^am of an Ascidian. o, mouth ; ?', respiratory sac ; c, ventral 
 groove ; n, ganglion ; d, digestive canal ; cl, cloaca,; 9, geneiatlve gland. 
 
 the whole of the back of the animal, you wiU see that 
 the ascidian type approaches very nearly to that of the 
 amphioxus. The single ganglion, thus elongated, will 
 form a spinal cord, and the little rod of cartilaginous 
 matter will form a notochord. In both animals there 
 is a mouth, opening into a large sac, perforated in the 
 ascidian with holes, and in the amphioxus with slita. 
 
184 FISHES-MYXINOIDS. 
 
 Through this the water pours into another sac, and 
 makes its exit through an aperture situated at or near 
 the anal aperture of the animal. 
 
 Allied to the amphioxus, but a good deal higher in 
 the scale than it, are the Myxinoids or hag-fishes and 
 lampreys. These have worm-like bodies, and are with- 
 out limbs. In them also the notochord persists during 
 life, and there is no proper vertebral column, but, unlike 
 the amphioxus, they have a head and a skull, the skull 
 being simply cartilaginous and not bony. They also 
 differ from the amphioxus in possessing a distinct 
 heart, consisting of two parts, an auricle, into which 
 the blood is received from the veins, and a ventricle, 
 through which it is propelled into the arteries. Their 
 pharynx is not wide and chamber-like, as in the amphi. 
 oxus, but narrow, and in either side of it there are 
 seven holes, which open into sacs, in which the gills 
 are contained, and which have also an external opening 
 by which water can enter them from without. These 
 gills consist simply of folds of the mucous membrane 
 lining the sac. In them the branchial vessels ramify, 
 and the blood is thus exposed to the action of the air 
 dissolved in the water, circulating in the sacs. The 
 mouth in these fishes is not a simple opening, like that 
 of the amphioxus, the inner side being provided with 
 jaws, like the mouths of the higher fishes. It takes the 
 form of a disc, or cap, like a boy's sucker, or like the 
 
nSHES— SHARKS. 185 
 
 . sufcker of a leech. By means of this the fish is able to 
 fix itself to any object, but after doing so the water 
 could not enter the mouth as it does in other fishes, and 
 the current is therefore not maintained from the mouth 
 through the branchial apertures, but the water enter- 
 ing instead at an opening in one side of the neck, 
 passes through both branchial sacs and ^ out , at the 
 other side. In hag-fishes, also, the nose is peculiar, the 
 nostrils being situated at the top of the head, behind 
 the mouth, and opening into two nasal sacs, which 
 communicate by a canal with the throat, as they do in 
 the higher vertebrates. In other fishes this is not so, 
 as in them the nose consists simply of close sacs, which 
 do not communicate with the pharynx. In this respect, 
 then, the hag-fishes, although so low in the scale of 
 vertebrates, resemble the higher members of this sub- 
 kingdom, more than fishes, which are really much more 
 highly organised than they. 
 
 Next come the Selachii or Shark tribe. In 
 them there is a vertebral column, which is very often 
 simply cartilaginous, although sometimes bony. They 
 have a distinct skull, and a lower jaw, but the. skull 
 is simply cartilaginous, and not composed of bones. 
 The gills resemble those of the hag-fishes in forming 
 a series of folds lining the inside of several pouches 
 which communicate internally with the pharynx, and 
 open externally , by means of slits. Unlike the hag- 
 
186 . FISHES-GANOIDS. 
 
 fish, the shark has distinct limbs, both fore and hind, 
 which appear in the shape of two pairs of fins. The 
 skin is covered with hard scales, in the form of 
 tubercles, or plates, from which they have received 
 the name of placoid, or plate-like. The tail is of 
 a somewhat peculiar shape, the vertebral column 
 being prolonged into the upper part of it, while 
 the lower part simply consists of a membranous ex- 
 pansion. The two sides of the tail are therefore 
 unequal, and tails of this sort are called heterocercal, 
 or unsymmetrical. 
 
 The next order is that of the Ganoids, which have 
 also an imperfect, generally cartilaginous skeleton, but 
 their skulls differ from those. of the sharks in being 
 composed of distinct bones. They have also two pairs 
 of fins, representing two pairs of limbs. These fins 
 are supported by a cartilaginous framework, and the 
 tail, like that of the shark, is heterocercal. Unlike the 
 shark, the gills are not arranged in separate chambers, 
 but are supported on a framework at the side of the 
 pharynx, and they are all covered by a single large 
 plate called the giU.-cover, exactly as we see it in 
 ordinary , fish. Their bodies, externally, are covered 
 with large bony plates, forming a complete armour, 
 as we see in the sturgeons. 
 
 The next order, the Teleostei, — so-called from their 
 skeleton being no longer cartilaginous, but completely 
 
FISHES— TELEOSTEI. 187 
 
 bony, — contains all the ordinary fishes. The vertebrat 
 column is completely ossified, but the body of each 
 vertebra is hollow before and • behind, so that- a 
 somewhat globular cavity remains between them,, 
 and this is filled with the cartilaginous or gelatinous 
 remains of the notochord. The vertebrae are thus 
 united by a sort of ball and socket joint, which gives 
 great flexibility to the whole column, and adapts 
 the fish for rapid and easy motion through the water. 
 They have generally, although not- always^ fins, which 
 correspond both to the anterior and posterior limbs. 
 These are supported by a bony f!ramework ; those 
 corresponding to the fore-limbs being termed pectoral 
 fins, and those corresponding to the hind-legs being 
 called ventral fins. The tail- difiers from that of the 
 shark and sturgeon in being symmetrical, both lobes 
 being equal, and it is therefore called homocercal. 
 The gills, like those of the ganoids, are comb-like, 
 and situate in the cavity at each side of the pharynx, 
 communicating with it by means of several slits, and 
 opening externally by a gill slit covered by a single 
 bony and membranous plate termed the gill-cover. 
 The heart consists of two cavities, an auricle and a 
 ventricle, and the skin is covered externally by more 
 or less rounded scales, generally with smooth, but 
 sometimes with fringed edges. 
 
 In aU fishes, excepting the amphioxus and the 
 
1'88 SWIMMING BLADDER AND LUNGS. 
 
 hag-fish tribe, ' there is what is usually called a 
 swimming bladder, which contains air. In some fish 
 this is completely closed, but in others it communi- 
 cates with the pharynx, and some kinds of fish 
 actually come up to the surface of the water and 
 take air into it. This swimming bladder in the 
 fish is the representative of the lungs in the higher 
 animals. 
 
 We have already seen that when we wished to 
 get a connecting link between two sub-kingdoms, we 
 were obliged to go low down in the scale in order 
 to find, it, there being an inseparable barrier between 
 the higher members of each kingdom ; and so it is in 
 the case of the fishes regarded in connection with the 
 next class of vertebrate animals, viz., the Amphibia, 
 for. here we find the connecting link in the mud- 
 fish, or lepidosiren. It is in appearance somewhat 
 like an eel, but it has no proper spinal column like 
 the higher fishes, the notochord being persistent, 
 although the skull is more highly developed, and 
 consists of distinct bones. It has two anterior and 
 two posterior limbs, but these do not take the form 
 of .fins, having rather the appearance of smooth 
 thongs. It has gills, contained in the branchial 
 chamber, opening externally by a single slit, but in 
 addition to these it has true lungs, the swimming 
 bladder or air bladder being double, and commu- 
 
LINK BETWEEN FISHES AND AMPHIBIA. 189 
 
 nicating witli the pharynx . by means of a regular 
 tube or wind-pipe. Occasionally it . has yet another 
 breathing apparatus, consisting of small, rudimentary 
 external gills outside the neck. 
 
 It differs from all other fishes except the myxinoids 
 in - having, like them,- nasal chambers, which are not 
 closed, but communicate with the pharynx. . In this 
 particular it resembles the . myxinoids, which ar6 
 amongst the lowest fishes, and in this' it resembles 
 also- the . higher vertebrata. 
 
 Fio. 94.— Lepidosiren Annectens. 
 
 ■ It resembles the amphibia in having a heart con- 
 sisting of three chambers, instead of two like the 
 fishes. Adz., a ventricle and two auricles. . 
 
 Its structure is well adapted to its mode of life, 
 for it inhabits rivers which during the , dry season 
 shrink greatly within their banks, and again swell up 
 during the rains. The mud-fish appears to burrow 
 in the mud, and remain there in a dormant condition 
 during the time that it is dried by the, sun, again. 
 
190 ICHTHYOPSIDA— AMPHIBIA. 
 
 coming out when the river, swollen by the rains, fills 
 its channel afresh. 
 
 The animals composing the class of Amphibia re- 
 semble the fishes in always having gills at one period 
 of their lives, but differ from them in always acquiring 
 true lungs at a later period. In some of them the 
 gills are retained during the whole of .life, but in others 
 they are cast aside wken the lungs become developed. 
 They all undergo a metamorphosis after, leaving the 
 egg. In their young state they are always more fish- 
 like, and this resemblance becomes less as they grow 
 older. Their limbs are never developed into fins, as in 
 fishes, and their gills are generally external, placed 
 outside the neck, instead of being situated in a cavity, 
 as in the fishes. 
 
 We have already mentioned, however, that in the 
 mud-fish we have both kinds of gills present, and 
 the same is the case in the early condition of frogs and 
 toads, both of which have external and internal gills, 
 and the external disappear first. 
 
 The nasal sacs always open into the mouth, and 
 there is a common cloaca, into which the intestine, 
 kidneys, and reproductive organs all empty themselves. 
 During the early part of the life of an amphibian, its 
 circulation resembles that of a fish, there being only 
 two chambers to the heart, but, as the animal deve- 
 lops, a third chamber appears, and then the condition 
 
PEOTEUS AND AXOLOTL. 
 
 191 
 
 I 
 
192 
 
 METAMORPHOSES OF AMPHIBIA. 
 
 is like that which we find permanently in the order 
 next above the amphibia, vi^., the reptiles. 
 
 Fig. 97.— Tadpoles in different stages of development, from those just liatched 
 (1) tm tlie adult form is attained (8). 2a is a magnified representation of 2. 
 
 One of the lowest amphibians is a curious animal 
 called the proteus, which is found in the caves of 
 Adelsberg, near Trieste. In appearance and size it is 
 
METAMORPHIC AND PEEMANENT POEMS. 193 
 
 not unlike a very clear, semitransparent earthworm, 
 but at each side of the neck are two gUls of a 
 fringe-like character, and of a bright scarlet colour, 
 and it has four very small and weak legs, the 
 fore-feet having three toes each, and the hind . feet 
 only two. 
 
 In the proteus the gills remain during the whole life 
 of the animal, but in the ordinary water-newt, which 
 we see swimming about our ponds, the gills are cast , 
 off as the animal grows, and the lungs develop. The 
 tail, however, always remains throughout life. 
 
 In frogs, on the contrary, both gills and tail dis- 
 appear in the adult animal. When the egg of the 
 frog is hatched, there proceeds from it at first a little 
 tadpole, which is fish-like, breathing both by internal 
 and external fins, and having a long, fish-like tail. It 
 might now be said to correspond to a low form of 
 fish. Next, small hind-legs appear, and then fore- 
 legs, but the tail and gills still remain. It is now 
 on a level with the proteus. Then the external giJls 
 disappear, and the lungs are developed, but the tail 
 remains, and the tadpole is now on a level with the 
 newt. Ultimately the tail also vanishes, and we have 
 a fully formed frog. 
 
 In the next class, that of Reptilia, we find a very 
 marked advance in the respiratory structures, for in 
 them no gills ever appear at any period of their 
 
 
 
194 SAUROPSIDA— REPTILIA. 
 
 existence. In reptiles and all higher animals, respira- 
 tion is effected entirely by lungs. . 
 
 Some amphibians, such as the salamander, are very 
 much like lizards, which are true reptiles, in appear- 
 ance. But salamanders always have gills at one period 
 of their lives, while lizards never have them at all. 
 
 There is, however, a sort of intermediate link in 
 the land salamander, for its young sometimes lose 
 their gills before their birth. 
 
 The reptiles also differ from amphibia and vertebrata, 
 and agree with birds, which form the other class in 
 the great division of the sauropsidse, in having a 
 skull united to the vertebral column by a single 
 joint, or condyle, as it is termed, while in amphibia 
 and vertebrata there are two condyles. 
 
 The jaw in reptiles is composed of several pieces, and 
 united to the skull by a special bone called the quadrate 
 bone — an arrangement which gives them power to open 
 their jaws to an enormous width. There are generally 
 four extremities, although sometimes, as in snakes, 
 these may be absent, and the skin is covered with 
 scales or bony plates. The heaxt generally contains 
 three chambers, two auricles and one ventricle. 
 
 In the first order, that of the lizards, or Lacertilia, 
 there are generally two pairs of distinct limbs, and 
 even when these limbs are not developed, as in the 
 common blindworm, which looks like a snake, there 
 
EBPTILIA—LIZAEDS--CEOCODILES— SNAKES. 195 
 
 is always a scapular arch present, and they have always 
 eyelids. They never have teeth with distinct sockets. 
 In the next order, that of the Crocodilia, the teeth are 
 
 Fio. 98.— Lizard. 
 
 always planted in distinct, separate sockets, and the 
 skin is partly covered by horny scales and partly by 
 large bony plates. 
 
 Fig. 99.— Crocodile. 
 
 In the next order, the snakes, or Ophidia, the body 
 is always long and cylindrical. There are no limbs, 
 nor is there even the rudiment of a scapular arch. 
 
 2 
 
196 REPTILI A— TORTOISES. 
 
 They have no eyelids, the skin of the head being 
 contimious right over the eye, although it becomes 
 transparent so as to allow the animal to see. It is 
 owBig to this peculiarity that snakes have such an 
 unwinking, extraordinary stare. The way in which 
 they crawl along is very peculiar. The body is covered 
 with scales, which on the back are small and roughly 
 triangular, but on the belly have the form of trans- 
 verse bands. The snake has a very great number of 
 ribs, and each end of these horny bands is attached 
 to a rib. Upon these bands the snake walks, in a 
 way which we can readily understand if we think how 
 a centipede would walk were a horny plate stretched 
 from side to side between each pair of feet. 
 
 The next order is that of the tortoises, or Chelonia, 
 in which the ribs and vertebrae are united so as to form 
 a complete bony mass, which is covered with horn, 
 composing a box within which the animal can entirely 
 hide itself. One great peculiarity of this, animal is, 
 that the ribs being quite outside the body, th'e scapular 
 and pelvic arches which support the limbs are within 
 the ribs instead of outside them. 
 
 Besides these orders of reptilia, representatives of 
 which exist at the present day, there have been others, 
 all the members of which have long ago become extinct, 
 although at one period of the earth's history they 
 were really the lords of crteation. These were gigantic 
 
REPTILIA-EXTINCT FORMS. 
 
 197 
 
 lizards, of tremendous power, some of which were 
 furnished with immense jaws and pointed teeth. 
 Some of them hved upon land, others were furnished 
 with paddle-like fins, and lived in the waters, while 
 yet others, the pterodactyls, had wings like bats, with 
 
 Fig. 100. — A Mud-tortoise (Trionyx\ showing the dorsal plates. 
 
 which they could fly through the air. Some of th6se 
 latter were small, but others were of stupendous pro- 
 portions, one of them measuring, as has been calcu- 
 lated, no less than twenty-seven feet across the wings 
 from tip to tip. 
 
198 
 
 EXTIKCT REPTILES. 
 
 In these flying lizards, the- wings were probably 
 somewhat like those of the bats of the present day, 
 
 Fig. 101.— Skeleton of Pterodactyl. 
 
 — ^leathery, membranous expansions, stretching from 
 the fore-legs to the hind-legs, and to the sides of 
 
THEIR LIKENESS TO BIRDS. ' 199 
 
 the body. These lizards had five fingers, one of which, 
 the outer one of the fore-paw, was enormously long, 
 and served to support the wing. Their heads were 
 large, and their jaws well furnished with teeth, but 
 their bones were hollow and very light, being filled 
 with air, and on the breast-bone there was a large 
 keel-like projection, serving for the attachment of 
 the great muscles which moved the wings. 
 
LECTUEE XI. 
 
 GENERAL SKETCH OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM — WARM- 
 BLOODED ANIMALS— BIRDS. 
 
 The lizards, now extinct, mentioned in last lecture, 
 remind us in some points of the Birds, which belong 
 to the next division of the sauropsidse, or lizard-Uke 
 animals. But the pterodactyl had no feathers, and its 
 skeleton was in most points that of a lizard rather 
 than that of a bird. 
 
 Birds, like reptiles, have the skull united to the 
 vertebral column by a single joint or condyle, and have 
 a lower jaw composed, at least in the young state, of 
 several pieces, and joined to the skull by a special bone, 
 the quadrate bone. But while birds are provided with 
 a covering of feathers, reptiles never have this, their 
 integument consisting only of horny scales and plates, 
 and never of feathers. 
 
SAUEOPSIDA-BIRDS. 
 
 201 
 
 The bodies of the vertebrae are also shaped differently ; 
 the sternum or breast-bone, has a prolongation in rep- 
 
 Fio. 102.— Skeleton of the foot of a reptile (lizaord) (A) and a bird (B). The latter 
 is in its embryonic state, in which the resemblance to the reptile is much 
 greater than in the adult state (cf. Fig. 103). /, femur; f, tibia; p, fibula; ts, 
 upper, t i, lower piece of the tarsus ; m, metatarsus ; i-v,, metatarsalia of the 
 
 tiles which it never has in birds; the hip-bones, or 
 ilia, project farther back in reptiles than in birds. 
 
202 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BEPTILES AND BIEDS. 
 
 There are more bones in the foot of the reptile, 
 and they are not fused together in the same way as 
 in the bird. All these arrangements of the skeleton 
 adapt birds better for flight. 
 
 Fig. 103. — Hinder extremity of bird (Buteo vulgaris), a, femur ; h, tibia ; V, fibula ; 
 c, tarso-metatarsus ; c', the same piece isolated and seen from in front ; 
 d d' d" d"\ four toes. 
 
 The heads of birds, too, although this cannot be 
 looked upon as of importance, are much smaller than 
 those of reptiles, and in none of the existing birds are 
 there teeth in the jaws, both of them being covered 
 with horn instead, which forms the beak. 
 
COLD-BLOODED AND WARM-BLOODED ANIMALS. 203 
 
 Another great distinction between reptiles and birds 
 is that the former, like the amphibia and fishes, have 
 the temperature very little above that of the medium 
 of the air or water in which they live, and they are 
 consequently called cold-blooded animals. Birds, on 
 the other hand, have, like the mammalia, a tempera- 
 ture very much higher than that of the media in 
 which they live, a temperature which is kept up by 
 constant oxidation or combustion in the body of the 
 animal, and which remains nearly constant, whether 
 the external temperature be high or low. They are 
 therefore called warm-blooded animals. 
 
 We have said that oxygen is carried from the lungs 
 to the tissues by means of the corpuscles of the blood. 
 Although birds are warm-blooded and reptiles cold- 
 blooded, yet the corpuscles in both have much the 
 same characteristics, being oval in shape, and pro- 
 vided with a nucleus, but the arrangements for the 
 circulation are quite different. 
 
 In reptiles, where less oxidation is necessary, the 
 blood which circulates to the tissues is imperfectly 
 oxygenated, and consists really of a mixture of venous 
 blood returning from the tissues, and arterial blood 
 returning from the lungs. These are mixed together 
 in the heart, which consists of two auricles and one 
 ventricle, and the mixture thence passes to all parts 
 bf the body. In the crocodile, where the circulatory 
 
204 CISCULATION AND RESPIRATION IN BIRDS. 
 
 apparatus is more perfectly developed than in other 
 reptiles, there are four chambers to the heart; two 
 auricles and two ventricles, but even there a provision' 
 is made for the intermixture of the two sorts of blood 
 by a communicating branch, joining the two large 
 vessels which spring from the heart. 
 
 In birds there are two auricles and two ventricles ; 
 the venous blood returning from the tissues, passes 
 into the right auricle, thence into the right ventricle, 
 which drives it through the lungs ; it then returns, 
 free from carbonic acid, and laden with oxygen, to 
 the left auricle, whence it passes to the left ventricle, 
 which drives it to every part of the body. 
 
 The lungs of birds consist of large sacs, into which 
 the air is drawn by the movements of respiration 5 
 these sacs extend along the greater part of the ani^ 
 mal's body, and from them prolongations pass to the 
 bones of the skeleton^ which are hollow, and filled 
 with air, so as to render the bird as light as possible. 
 
 In trying to find a connecting link between birds 
 and reptiles, we must not only go back to a low form 
 of bird, but to one which is now extinct. The ptero- 
 dactyl could fly, and had bones filled with air, like 
 the bird, but its skin was that of a lizard. In the 
 geological formations called the Trias and Jura, were 
 reptiles which resembled birds in having a beak,^ but, 
 after all, were reptiles and not birds. In the Jura 
 
LINKS CONNECTING REPTILES AND BIRDS. 205 
 
 formation, however, there occurs another creature, the 
 arche'opteryx, which was like a reptile in having a long 
 tail, but resembled a bird in having this tail fringed 
 
 ;Fig. 104.— Hesperomis regalis. Found Tjy Proiessor Marsh in the cretaceous rocks 
 in America. 
 
 with feathers. In the next formation, that of th« 
 chalk, a bird has been found in America called Hesper- 
 ornis regalis, the skeleton of which resembles that 
 
■206 CONNECTING LINKS-THE ICHTHYORNIS. 
 
 \ 1 ^1 it J 
 
 
 Fig. 105.— Jaw and vertebra of iuhthyornis. 
 
CONNECTING LINKS-THE COMPSOGNATHUS. 207 
 
 of a bird in every respect with the exception of the 
 jaws, which are furnished with rows of teeth. 
 Another bird, the Ichthyomis, has been found in the 
 same rocks as the hesperornis, and has' teeth situated 
 in distinct sockets, while those of the hesperornis are 
 only in grooves. In this respect the ichthyornis is 
 still nearer the reptiles than the hesperornis. 
 
 ^^^, 
 
 l''iG. 106 — Compsognathus longipes, a reptile resembling a bird in its long neck, 
 small bead, and partially-ereot posture.. 
 
 The skeletons of existing birds differ considerably from 
 that of reptiles, but in the skeletons of certain extinct 
 lizards, the Dinosaurs, we find intermediate forms. 
 
 On passing from the skeleton of the crocodile to 
 that of the dinosaur, and thence .to the skeleton of 
 
208 CONNECTING LINKS-THE DINOSAURS, 
 
 the bird, we find the haunch-bone becoming longer, 
 
 the thigh-bone shorter, and the bones of the leg and 
 foot more and more fased together. 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF BTRDS-GEALLATORES. 209 
 
 The' cbmpsognathns presents ^another intermediate 
 form. The neck is long, the head small, and it must 
 have walked about on its hind legs like a bird. We 
 do not know whether it had scales or feathers, and 
 yet the nature of its skin would probably determine 
 whether it should be called a lizard oi* a bird. 
 
 Fia. 108.— Woodpecker (Hontou). 
 
 The birds now living are divided into several orders 
 according to their' modes of life, and the adaptatioii 
 of their forms to them. First, the wading-birds, or 
 Grallatores, which have very long, naked legs, and 
 long, straight toes, adapted for walking about in shal- 
 low-water, such as berons and storks. Next -se have 
 
 p 
 
210 NATATORBS-RASORES-SCANSORES. 
 
 the swimming-birds, or Natatores, such as ducks aud 
 geese, which have toes connected by means of a mem- 
 brane, and very short legs placed very far back, so 
 that the bird is very awkward on land, but well 
 adapted for rapid swimming. The next order are 
 the scratching birds, or Rasores, fowls, pigeons, 
 pheasants, &c., which have strong feet with blunt 
 
 Fig. 109. — Foot of a woodpecker, 
 
 claws, suitable for scratching the ground in search 
 of food. 
 
 Next, we have the Scansores, or climbing-birds, 
 like parrots and woodpeckers, which have two toes 
 turned backwards and two forwards, so as to fit the 
 bird for laying hold of and clinging to the bark 
 of a tree-stem. Then come the perching-birds, or 
 Insessores, such as the linnet and nightingale, having 
 
INSESSORES— EAPTOEES. 
 
 211 
 
 three .toes in front, and one behind, adapting the 
 foot for perching on a branch. The next order, Rap- 
 tores, or birds of prey, such as the eagle and vulture 
 
 Fig, 110.— NigMingale. 
 
 have strong legs, with three .toes in front, and one 
 behind, armed with sharp crooked claws. Their 
 beak is also sharp and curved, so as to be fitted 
 
 P 2 
 
212 
 
 EAPTORES— CURSORES. 
 
 ^for .killing and tearing up the small atiimalg which 
 .serve them for food. The last order is that of the 
 running-birds, or Cursores, such as the ostrich, in 
 which the wings are no longer fitted for the purpose 
 of flight. The legs, on the contrary, are large, strong, 
 and well-developed, so as to fit the animal for running. 
 
 Fig. 111.— Vulture. 
 
 The other parts of the skeleton also become modified. 
 The bones, unlike those of other birds, have few 
 air-cells; and the .wings, being no longer required for 
 flight, do not need powerful muscles to move them. 
 Consequently, the projecting ridge or keel, so well 
 marked on the sternum of other birds, and which 
 serves in them as a point of attachment for the wing 
 
PECULIARITIES OF CURSOEBS. 
 
 213 
 
 muscles, is absent in the Cursores. In the rhea or 
 American ostrich there are three toes, but in the 
 African ostrich they are reduced to two on each foot. 
 The feathers, too, are different from those of other 
 birds. Instead of presenting that well-known remark- 
 
 FiG. 112.— Ostriches. 
 
 able structure, which gives the feathers of other birds 
 such lightness, elasticity, and strength, and adapts them 
 for the purposes of flight, the feathers of the Cursores 
 are loose and somewhat hair-like, the barbs being 
 unconnected by barbules. 
 
LECTURE XII. 
 
 GENERAL SKETCH OP THE ANIMAL KINGDOM — WARM- 
 BLOODED ANIMALS — MAMMALS. 
 
 We DOW come to the last division of the Vertebrata, 
 viz., the Mammalia, or animals which suckle their 
 young. It is this particular property of suckling their 
 young with milk secreted by a special gland in the 
 mother's body, which serves to distinguish the mam- 
 malia from all other animals. 
 
 The skin is always more or less covered with hair. 
 The skull is joined to the spine by two condyles, as in 
 the frog and other amphibia,, and not by a single one 
 as in reptiles and birds. The lower jaw is also jointed 
 directly with the skull, without the intervention of a 
 quadrate bone, and it consists of only two pieces united 
 in front. In the kind of joint between the skull and 
 the spine, the mammals remind us of amphibia. 
 
 In the circulation, however, they differ entirely from 
 fishes, amphibia, and reptiles, but agree with birds. 
 
MAMMALIA-MONOTREMATA. 215 
 
 The lieart consists, in both mammals and birds, of four 
 chambers, two auricles, and two ventricles ; but mam- 
 mals differ from birds in having blood-corpuscles 
 destitute of nuclei, and in the nature of their respira- 
 tory apparatus. 
 
 The lungs in mammals no longer estend, as in birds, 
 through both chest and belly, nor do they communicate 
 witb air cavities in the bones or other parts of the 
 body. They are confined entirely to the chest, and 
 this cavity is separated from the belly by a muscular 
 partition called the diaphragm or liiidriff. 
 
 The members of the lowest order of mammals re- 
 semble birds in the possession of a cloaca, or common 
 sac, into which the intestine and the ducts leading 
 from the kidneys and generative organs all open. 
 These animals also have no teeth, but one of them, 
 the ornithorhynchus, has a kind of beak like that of 
 the duck, and its feet are webbed so as to allow it to 
 swim with ease. From the fact that the intestinal and 
 all other ducts all open by one common aperture 
 instead of several, the animals have received the name 
 of Monotremata. 
 
 In the next order, that of the Marsupials or 
 • pouched animals, to which the kangaroos and opos- 
 sums belong, the young are brought forth in an 
 exceedingly imperfect condition, and they are placed 
 by the mother in a pouch, or marsupium, upon 
 
216 
 
 , MAMMALIA— MARSUPIALS. 
 
 the belly, within which her mamiriEe are situated. 
 These have a distinct nipple, but the young do not 
 obtain the mUk by the exercise of sucking, which is 
 spared to -them by the milk, being forced out of the 
 
 Tig. 113. — Ventral surface of mnominate bone of kangaroo (Maeropus major), jl. 
 si; supra-iliac border ; ss, sacral surface ; ts, iliac surface ; ab, acetabular bor- 
 der ; pb, pubic border of ilium ; pt, pectineal tubercle ; a, acetabulum ; ihf, 
 thyroid foramen; ti, tuberosity of ischium ; «, symphysis; m, "marsupial*' 
 bone. 
 
 nipples into their mouths by a muscle which covers ' 
 the mammse. In front of the belly are two bones, 
 which project upwards, and are supposed to be partly 
 intended to support the marsupium, or pouch, though 
 
APLACENTALIA— PLACENTALIA. 217 
 
 this can hardly be the only reason for their presence, 
 as they are present also in the monotremata, which 
 have no pouch. 
 
 Neither the monotremata nor marsupials have any 
 provision for the prolonged nutriment and growth of 
 the young within, the womb of the mother, and 
 consequently they are brought forth in an imperfect 
 condition. In all the remaining orders of mammalia, 
 on the contrary, a provision of this sort is made in 
 the presence of a structure called the placenta, by 
 which the young are attached to the mother's 
 womb, and draw from her the nutriment necessary, 
 for their growth, and development. The higher orders 
 of mammalia are therefore called Placental, while 
 from the absence of this structure in the monotre- 
 mata and marsupials, they are classed together as 
 Aplacental. 
 
 The two divisions of mammalia into aplacental and 
 placental have been further subdivided into fourteen 
 orders, which are here given in a tabular form : — 
 
 Division A. — Aplacentalia. 
 Order 1. — Monotremata. 
 „ 2. — Marsupialia. 
 
 Division B. — Placentalia. 
 Order ^.—Edentata. 
 „ 4. — Ungulata. 
 
2 1 8 MAMMALIA— EDENTATA . 
 
 Order 5. — Hyracordia. 
 „ Q. — Prohoscidea. 
 „ 7.- — Sirenia. 
 
 „ 8. — Getacea. 
 
 ,, 9. — Carnivora. 
 
 „ 10. — Bod^ntiq,. 
 
 „ 11. — Cheiroptera. 
 
 ,, 12. — InsecHvora, 
 
 „ 13. — Quadrumana. 
 
 „ 14. — Bimana. 
 
 The first order of the placental mammals is that of 
 the ant-eaters, armadillos, and sloths. In these the 
 teeth are imperfect, having no hard covering of enamel, 
 and no -proper roots. They also have only one set of 
 teeth, and not two, as the other orders have. In 
 most of them, too, the incisors, or cutting teeth, are 
 absent, and the order has received the name of Eden- 
 tata or Bruta. 
 
 The Teeth in mammals are important not merely 
 on account of their utility to the animal, but to 
 the naturalist, as ■ a means of distinguishing between 
 different orders and families. They are really de- 
 veloped from the skin, and consist of a root or fangs 
 which enter into the jaw and fix the teeth in position, 
 and of a crown which is used for cutting or grinding the 
 food. The crown is composed of a peculiar subsftince 
 
TEETH. 
 
 219 
 
 called dentine, covered by a very hard enamel. 
 There are generally two sets of teeth, one succeeding 
 the other, the first being ealled the milk or deci- 
 duous teeth, because they fall out after the animal has 
 attained a certain age, and the second set, called the 
 permanent teeth because, having replaced the others, 
 they remain during the animal's life. There are three 
 
 Fic. 114. — Great ant-ljpar. 
 
 kinds of teeth, one for cutting, called the incisors, one 
 for tearing, called the canines, and the third for grind- 
 ing, called premolars and molars. The premolars are 
 situated near the front of the mouth, and also appear at 
 an earlier age than the molars. The incisors are wedge- 
 shaped, and are situated in the front of the mouth. 
 They vary much in number. At either side of them 
 
220 MAMMA LIA— UNGULAT A . 
 
 is. situated a single canine toothy two in cither jaw. 
 These are sometimes called eyeteeth. They are conical 
 in shape, longer than the others, and form most power- 
 ful weapons of offence and defence in those animals 
 who have them highly developed, as the dog, from 
 which they take their name. Behind these come the 
 premolars and molars, or back teeth, which also vary 
 considerably in number. In animals which live upon 
 flesh, the grinding surfaces of the molars are more or 
 less divided into sharp prominences or cusps, which 
 cut the flesh up, whereas in herbivora the grinding 
 surfaces of the molars -are more or less flattened or 
 covered with elongated ridges suitable for grinding 
 vegetable food. 
 
 The next order, that of the Ungulata, or hoofed 
 animals, is a very large one, and one of the most im- 
 portant of aU, for it comprises most of the animals 
 which are useful to man. They are distinguished by 
 having the extremities of all their four limbs covered 
 by a horny casing. 
 
 In some, as in the horses, there is only one horny 
 toe ; in tapirs and rhinoceroses there are three, and 
 these animals are classed together as Perissodactyla, 
 or odd-toed ungulates. 
 
 In the pig, hippopotamus, ox, camel, &c., the toes 
 are either two or four, and these form the order of 
 Artiodactyla, or even-toed ungulates. 
 
DIVISIONS OF UNGULATA. 221 
 
 As this order is so large it inay be well to put its 
 subdivisions in a tabular form : — 
 
 OEDER— UNGULATA. 
 
 Section A.— Perissodaotyla. 
 
 Group 1. — Tapirs. 
 „ 2. -^Rhinoceroses. 
 3. — Horses. 
 
 Section B. — Aetiodactyla. 
 
 Group 4. — Swine. 
 
 „ 5. — Hippopotami. 
 
 „ 6. — Buminants In' 
 
 The tapirs may be looked upon as the connecting 
 link between the two sections of Perissodactyla 
 and Artiodactyla, for they have four toes on each 
 of the fore-feet, and only three on the hind-feet. 
 In external appearance they remind one of a large 
 pig, but they have a long, flexible snout, which 
 they use in stripping off the foliage of trees, or in 
 picking lip grass and herbs. They are natives of 
 warm countries, and, like the hippopotamus, gpend a 
 great part of their time in the water. - In the rhino- 
 ceros, each foot is furnished with three toes, and 
 
222 
 
 tJNGULATA— RHINOCEROS. 
 
 the large and heavy body is cased in a skin of great 
 thickness and hardness, which is sometimes thrown 
 into deep folds on the animal's shoulders and loins. 
 The upper lip is shorter than in the tapir, but is still 
 
 Fig. 115. — African black rhinoceros. 
 
 long and' flexible, and is also used for gathering leaves 
 or grass. 
 
 In the horse there is only one toe, although on each 
 fore-leg the traces of two others may be observed 
 
INTERMEDIATE POSITION OP TAPIR. 223 
 
 in the form of horny excrescences upon the skin. 
 Its external form, unlike that of the rhinoceros or 
 tapir, is exceedingly elegant, and the upper lip is 
 not elongated, although very flexible and capable of 
 great protrusion. The horse may be looked upon as 
 more highly developed or specialized than the rhin- 
 oceros and tapir, and, consequently, in passing from 
 this group to other groups of the order, we must 
 foUow the same course that we have taken in passing 
 from one great subdivision of the animal kingdom to 
 another, and look for the connecting link in their 
 lower forms. 
 
 In external appearance the horse is quite unlike the 
 hippopotamus, but the latter is not so unhke the tapir. 
 Both of them are covered with thick skin, they re- 
 semble one another somewhat in the form of the body, 
 and both pass a great deal of their time in the water. 
 The hippopotamus, however, has a large, broad head, 
 with a very slightly movable upper lip, while that of 
 the tapir ends in a snout, and is provided with an 
 elongated movable upper lip. 
 
 In the number of toes also the horse is unhke the 
 hippopotamus, the horse having only one, while the 
 hippopotamus has four toes on each foot. Between the 
 horse and hippopotamus, however, we find intermediate 
 forms in the tapirs and swine. The tapir has four toes 
 on the fore-foot and three on the hind-foot. Amongst 
 
224 
 
 UNGULATA— EUMINATIA. 
 
 swine we find generally four toes on both hind and fore 
 feet, but only two of them are used in walking, and two 
 are small, and placed too high up the le^ to be of much 
 practical use; and in the swine, as in the tapir, we 
 sometimes find the number of to6s on the hir J-foot 
 reduced to three. 
 
 Tapir 
 
 EMnoceros. 
 
 Horse. 
 
 Fig. 116.— Bones of the mantis of pig, tapir, rliinoceros, and of horse. The letter 
 in all are the same as in fig. 85', page 169. U, nlna ; R, radius , s, scaphoid ; 
 td, trapezoid ; (m, trapezium ; m, magnum ; u, uncinate ; c, cuneiform ; 
 p, pisiform ; I, lunar. J, II, III, IV, V, indicate the digits. 
 
 In the next group of the even-toed ungulates, nailiely. 
 Ruminants, comprising oxen, deer, &c., there are two 
 large toes on each foot, which look as if they had been 
 
PIGS AND OXEN. 
 
 225 
 
 originally one, aind had become divided or cloven, but 
 generally there are* also, as in the swine, two smaller 
 toes at the back part of the foot, and above the. others. 
 The group to which the oxen belong, although it 
 resembles pigs in the appearance of the foot, differs 
 
 Fig. lir. -Foot of deer. 
 
 from them in the digestive apparatus — a distinction 
 which was used by Moses to mark out the pigs as 
 unclean and not to be eaten, but the oxen as clean and 
 valuable for food. In the pig there is only one simple 
 stomach, while in the ox there are no less than four. 
 The first of these is a^ large bag termed the paunch or 
 
 Q 
 
226 
 
 CHEWING THE CUD. 
 
 rumen, into which the grass and other food of the animal 
 first passes without being chewed. After' a sufficient 
 quan|;ity has been collected the animal stops feeding 
 and lies down quietly^ and then proceeds to bring up 
 the grass again from the paunch in small quantities 
 at a time. To enable the animal to do this, the grass 
 
 Fig. 118.— Stomach of an antelope. A, from 'in front : B, 'opened from behind ; 
 03. ceaophagus ; /, paunch or rumen ; II, reticulum ; III, iiber or psalterium ; 
 IV, aboraasum ; p, pylorus; s, oesophageal groove. 
 
 or food is not thrown up directly from the paunch but 
 is passed into a second small stomach, the reticulum,' 
 so called from the net-like folds of its mucous mem- 
 brane. In this stomach the food is made up into 
 small pellets, and then forced upwards into the mouth ; 
 there it is thoroughly chewed and swallowed a second 
 
HORNS or EUMINANTS. 227 
 
 time. It now passes; neither into the paunch nor re- 
 ticulum, but into the third stomach, liber (pealt'erium) 
 or mahyplies, so called from the numerous folds; 
 rudely resembling the leaves of a book, into which 
 the mucous membrane lining its interior is thrown. 
 Then it passes into the 'fourth or true stomach, where 
 
 Fig. 119.— Section of cow's horn. 
 
 it is finally digested. This process is termed rumina- 
 tion, or chewing the cud. Most ruminants have horns. 
 In some of them, as oxen, sheep, goats, and antelopes, 
 they consist of a bony core, covered by a hollow horny 
 sheath. In deer the horns are entirely bony,' and 
 generally branched. They usually fall off, and are 
 
 Q 2 
 
228 MAMMALIA-OONBY— ELEPHANT. 
 
 reproduced ever}' year. In the giraffes the horns are 
 very short and are entirely covered with a hairy skin. 
 In camels the horns are entirely absent, and the feet 
 have no horny sheaths, but only two toes with very 
 imperfect hoofs. 
 
 The Hyracoidea is a small order containing the 
 coney mentioned by Solomon. This interesting 
 animal is about the size of a rabbit, and its teeth 
 resemble on the one hand those of the rhinoceros, and 
 on the other those of the rodents, such as the rat 
 and the rabbit. 
 
 In the next order, that of the Proboscidea,, the 
 feet are large and flat, and the five toes are 
 only indicated by the number of nails which aire ar- 
 ranged around the foot. The skin is thick, the body 
 heavy, and the nose much more elongated, flexible, and 
 strong than in the tapir, forming a cylindrical tube or 
 trunk, at the end of which the nostrils are placed. 
 They have no canine teeth, and very few inolars, but 
 these are exceedingly large. There are no lower in- 
 cisors, but the two upper incisors are very thick and 
 long, and form the well-known tusks of the elephant. 
 
 Elephants and rhinoceroses enjoy living in water. 
 Tapirs and hippopotami live more in water than upon' 
 land. 
 
 The next order, the Sirenia, is comprised of animals 
 which are adapted entirely for a watery existence, and 
 
MAMMALIA— SEA-COWS- WHALES. ' 229 : 
 
 unfit for life upon land at all. ■ The order embraces 
 dugongs and manatees, often known as sea-cows. In 
 external appi'arance they have an elongated fish-like 
 form, but their skin is not covered with scales. The 
 anterior limbs are converted into paddles ; the hind 
 limbs are completely absent, and the hinder end of the 
 body is converted into a bifurcated tail, in shape re- 
 sembling that of -a fish, but placed horizontally, and 
 not vertically. In these particulars they resemble the 
 whales, but their nostrils are placed a little further 
 forward instead of being at the crown of the head, and 
 the mouth is furnished with large molar teeth with 
 flat crowns, adapted for grinding vegetable food. They 
 frequent the mouths of large rivers, such as the 
 Amazon, and feed upon the grass and water-plants 
 growing in the water near their banks. 
 
 The animals of the next order, the Getacea, resemble 
 the Sirenia in appearance but are more fish-like. 
 Among them are whales, dolphins, and porpoises. The 
 back is sometimes furnished with a dorsal fin. The 
 nostrils are placed in the very top of the head, which is 
 closely joined to the body, and extremely large, and no 
 distinct neck can be seen. They feed upon animal food ; 
 some of them, such as the dolphin and sperm whale, 
 have conical teeth, but the Greenland whale has no 
 teeth at all in an adult condition, although when 
 young it has teeth, which, however, never appear 
 
230 MAMMALIA— CARNIVORA. 
 
 through the gums. Instead of them it has plates of a 
 substance called whalebone, which form a sort of fringe 
 to the mouth. This large animal feeds chiefly upon 
 jelly-fishes, which are caught and retained in the 
 mouth by the whalebone, as in a net. 
 
 Fig. 120.— Fore-limb of young dolphin, showing how the hones are modified to form 
 the so-called fin. s, scapula ; h, humerus ; r, radius ; u, ulna ; c, carpus ; 
 m, meta-carpus : p, phalanges. 
 
 The next order is that of the Carnivora, or beasts of 
 prey, which live almost entirely upon other animals. 
 Their teeth are suited for the purpose of killing and 
 tearing up their victims. They have generally six 
 incisors in each jaw, the canines are always four in 
 number, two in each jaw, and they are very long and 
 strong. The molars have generally sharp ed.ges for 
 cutting up the flesh on which they feed, their feet are 
 also provided with claws, which are usually sharp and 
 
SUBDIVISIONS OF THE CARNIVORA. 231 
 
 enable the animal readily to lay hold of its prey. . The 
 order is divided into three groups ; the first is that of 
 the Digitigrade animals, such as cats and dogs, so called 
 because they walk upon their toes. Weasels and otters 
 do so likewise, but they also put a part of the sole of 
 
 Fio. 121.— Polecat. 
 
 the foot to the ground, and thus form an intermediate 
 link between the Digitigrade and the next group, the 
 Plantigrade, such as bears which apply the whole of the 
 sole to the ground in walking. The third group, or 
 the Pinnigrade, contains those carnivora, such as seals 
 and walruses, which live in the water, and are fitted 
 by their external form for their mode of life, their hind 
 feet being placed far back, and nearly in a line with 
 the body, so that they serve the same purpose as the 
 tail-fin of a fish. 
 
 We now come to the next order, the Rodentia. In 
 all the orders yet considered, the placenta forms a band 
 around the uterus, but in those >we have now to con- 
 sider it forms simply a disc. 
 
 In both vegetable and animal kingdoms, when we 
 
232 
 
 MAMMALIA— RODBNTIA. 
 
 want to find out the affinities of different groups, we 
 must take them in their early or embryonic, and not in 
 
 Fig. 122.— Rat. 
 
 their fully-developed states. Thus, in classifying plants 
 we pay much less attention to the size of the plant or 
 the shape of its leaves than to the arrangement of the 
 
PECULIARITIES OF THE TEETH IN RODENTS. 233 
 
 parts in the flower ; and some of the most important 
 characters in classification are the nature of the ovary 
 and the position of the emhryo in the ovule. 
 
 In classifiying animals siinilar importance is given to 
 embryonic characters, so that, as we have already seen, 
 animals are divided into two great groups accordiDg to 
 the presence or absence of the placenta ; and, from its 
 shape in the rodents, the rabbit is classed as nearer to 
 monkeys thau the dog. 
 
 The rodentia, or gnawing animals, derive their name 
 from, their habits, for which they are well adapted by 
 the shape of their teeth. They never have any canine 
 teeth, but the incisors are of a peculiar structure. 
 They are not equally hard throughout, the front 
 being formed of hard enamel, while the back part is 
 of much softer dentine. They spring from a soft pulp 
 in the jaw of the animal, and grow continuously during 
 the whole of its life. In the act of gnawing, the fric- 
 tion of the hard wood, or other substance wears down 
 the soft dentine more than it does the hard enamel, 
 and thus a sharp, cutting edge is always maintained in 
 front, and the more the animal gnaws, the sharper 
 does this ridge grow. 
 
 The next order. Cheiroptera, or bats, are distin- 
 guished by the enormous elongation of four of their 
 fingers ; these support a leathery membrane, which is 
 always attached to the hind-legs and the sides of the 
 
234 
 
 MAMMALIA— INSEOTIVORA. 
 
 animal's body, and by means of which they are able to 
 fly about with ease. 
 
 The next order, the Insectivora, comprises moles 
 and hedgehogs. They resemble the rodents in many 
 respects, but differ from them in the nature of their 
 teeth, canines being present, and the incisors not 
 
 Fig. 123. — Hedgehogs. 
 
 presenting the peculiarity which we have noted in the 
 rodents. One would think that no difiiculty should be 
 experienced in saying whether an animal belonged to the 
 tribe of the hedgehog, of the bat, or of the monkey, 
 and yet there is one, called the, flying lemur, regarding 
 which naturalists have had much discussion, some 
 
MAMMALIA— QUADRUMANA. 235 
 
 classing it as allied to one, and some to another of 
 the^e animals. It. has a membrane stretching from the 
 neck to the arms, legs, and tail, and this is not suf- 
 ficient to allow it to fly, but only enables it to make 
 very long leaps from branch to branch. 
 
 The next order is that of the Quadrumana, or four- 
 handed animals, containing lemurs, baboons, monkeys, 
 and apes. They are distinguished by the power of 
 opposing, as it is termed, the thumb and great toe 
 to the ..rest of the, fingers or toes, so as to take a 
 firm grasp of any object. The meaning of this term 
 is most readily understoqd by laying one's,^and upon 
 the table or (floor, and ,r§gting. upon it.f'fThe thumb 
 will theri. be seen to lie .side by side with the fingers, 
 like the toes in the paw of an animal ; but if we now 
 lay hold of any object, the thumb will be seen not 
 merely to move away from the other fingers, but to 
 be drawn backwards and inwards towards the palm of 
 the hand, so that it comes to be opposed to the other 
 fingers instead of being alongside of them. This power 
 is markedly possessed by the thumb in man, but it 
 is almost lost in the great toe, at least in civilised 
 nations. The Hindoos, however, are said to be able 
 to take up snaaU objects from the ground with their 
 feet, and certain acrobats are believed to be able to 
 grasp a tight rope with the foot almost as well as with 
 the hand. In children, the power of opposing the toe 
 
236 OPPOSITION OF THUMB AND GREAT TOE. 
 
 is very much more nSarked than in the adult, as may 
 be noticed when a child's feet are being warmed before 
 the fire. The toes are then spread out in a fan-like 
 manner, and the great toe will be seen to perform the 
 movement of opposition much more perfectly than in 
 the adult. 
 
 Fig. 124. — Monkey. 
 
 The quadrumana are divided into three sections, dis- 
 tinguished by the position of the nostrils. The first 
 section, or Strepsirhina, containing lemurs and lories, 
 have the .nostrils twisted, and placed at the end of the 
 nose. The next section, or Platyrhina, have simple 
 nostrils placed widely apart. The thumbs are generally 
 wanting, or, if present, have not the power of oppo- 
 sition, and the tail is generally prehensile, so as almost 
 
SUBDIVISIONS OF QtJADRUMANA. 237 
 
 to serve the purpose of another hand. In the third 
 section, Catarhina, the nostrils ar'e close together, and 
 both thumbs and great toes have the power of oppo- 
 sition. The tail is never prehensile, and is sometimes 
 absent altogethei-. There are several families in this 
 section, the first being that of the macaques, so well 
 known to us from being carried about our streets by 
 organ-grinders. The .next is that of the baboons; in 
 which there is no tail, or only a very short one; but 
 the head is very large and elongated, and the fore-feet 
 are used more as paws for running upon than in the 
 other families. The next family is that of the anthro- 
 poid apes, so called from their resemblance to man; 
 this tribe contains the gibbons, chimpanzees, ourang- 
 outangs, and gorillas. 
 
LECTURE XIII. 
 
 GENERAL SKETCH OF THE ANIMA.L KINGDOM — MAN. 
 
 The first diflference that strikes one between man 
 and the' anthropoid apes is, that man walks upright and 
 securely, while the apes walk in a bent posture, and 
 insecurely upon their hind-legs. The difference in 
 skeleton corresponds to this. In man the pelvic bones 
 are much more spread out than in the ape, so that 
 he gets a much firmer basis of support. The bones of 
 the leg are also more developed, the joints of the knee 
 are much firmer, and the feet are placed so that the 
 sole comes more or less flatly upon the ground, while 
 those of apes have the soles turned inwards, so 
 that they are obliged to walk more or less upon the 
 outside of the feet. This position of the foot in apes is 
 advantageous for prehension, but unsuited for walking. 
 It may be noted, however, that even in man this pecu- 
 liarity is present to a greater or less extent. Many 
 people wear away the outside of the heel and sole of 
 
BODILY DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MEN AND APES. 239 
 
 the boot more than the inner part, and in infants this 
 ■position of the foot, like the power of opposing- the 
 great toe, is much more marked than in the adult. 
 For in the child warming its feet before the fire, the 
 soles may be seen to be almost opposed to one another, 
 as they are in apes. 
 
 Another marked differenbe is the size and form of the 
 skull. The upper part of it, which contains the brain, 
 is much smaller in apes than in man, whereas the jaws 
 are enormously large and powerful as compared with 
 his, the lower part of "the face projects much, and the 
 bony ridges for the attachment of the muscles of the 
 jaw are very prominent. The canine teeth, too, in 
 some of them, as in the gorilla, are -very large and 
 strong, forrning a powerful wea'pon of offence. 
 
 It is not in his bodily form, however, but in his men- 
 tal characteristics, that the difference between man and 
 the ape is most striking. As the brain is the organ of 
 the mind, we would naturally expect that the brain of 
 man would differ very much from the brain of the 
 ape ; this is not the case, however, to anything like the 
 extent we should imagine. The cerebral lobes are no 
 doubt larger in man, and the furrows which mark them 
 externally are deeper and more complicated, but still 
 the general arrangement of these furrows is much the 
 same in man and apes. It varies also in man; the 
 furrows, or sulci, as they are called, and the intervening 
 
240 
 
 SKULL AND BRAIN. 
 
 ridges, or gyri, being more complicated in the' higher 
 races of man than in the lower ; which are, in this 
 respect, intermediate between men and apes. But no 
 
 Fig. 125.^Coiivolutions of the brain. 
 
 doubt these complicated gyri of the brain in men are 
 only the external indications of a structure which our 
 present means of investigation have not yet completely 
 
MENTAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEN AND APES. 241 
 
 succeeded in elucidating. They are simply like the 
 case of a clock, which may contain either the simplest 
 mechanism, or the most complicated contrivance ■which 
 it is possible for man to devise. 
 
 The fundamental differences in the acts of men which 
 distinguish them from all thp lower animals, have been 
 said to be the power of cooking and the power of 
 drawing. Man is the only animal able to light a fire, 
 and man is the only animal capable of indicating his 
 thoughts to his fellows, either by pictorial represen- 
 tations or by written signs. Other animals are able to 
 communicate with each other by a language of their 
 own, and although the ideas they thus convey may be 
 few and simple, yet the method by which they do convey 
 them seems quite as intelligible to them as our language 
 is to us. But none of them, even the most highly 
 developed, can draw a figure, or write a line, whereas 
 some of the lowest tribes of mankind, such as the 
 Bushmen, draw figures with considerable accuracy, and 
 group them together so that their fellows who come 
 afterwards may understand the history or train of ideas 
 which the draughtsman meant to communicate. 
 
 Even in the early stages of the world, while men 
 were still unacquainted with the use of metals and 
 used implements of unpolished stone, they were able 
 to draw pictures with no little artistic skiU, as we see 
 from the sketch of a battle between rein-deer scratched 
 
 E 
 
242 ORIGIN OF MAN FROM A SINGLE STOCK. 
 
 by one of them with a flint upon a slab of slate 
 (Fig. 126). 
 
 The differences in appearance and anatomical struc- 
 ture between man and the highest anthropoid apes, are 
 not nearly so great as between these apes and the 
 lemurs. But in mental power there is a wide, impass- 
 able gulf between man and the highest apes, however 
 
 Fig. 126. — Sketch of a battle between rein-deer. 
 
 much they may resemble him physically. Great are 
 the differences between the civilised Englishman on 
 the one hand, and the barbarous Australian or Bushman 
 on the other, but they are not so fundamental as those 
 between the lowest man and the highest ape. The 
 words of Scripture are, " God made of one blood all 
 
CAUSES OF MIGRATION. 243 
 
 nations upon the earth," and, great as may be the 
 differences between them, we must regard them as 
 springing from one common stock and migrating from 
 one common centre. It is therefore of extreme interest, 
 not only to observe the points in which they agree 
 and those in which they differ, but also to try as far as 
 possible to discover in what way they have spread from 
 a common centre over the whole of the inhabited globe. 
 One of the great causes of the migration of man is 
 scarcity of food, as we have already seen exemplified in 
 the migration of the Jews into Egypt, and may see 
 constantly going on in the present day. The want of 
 corn in the land caused the Israelites to migrate into 
 Egypt, where they could readily get it, and the want of 
 money wherewith to buy it causes men at the present 
 day to emigrate to America, Australia, or New Zealand, 
 where, land being plentiful and men scarce, a livelihood 
 can be more easily obtained than amongst the dense 
 population and struggling masses of the mother country. 
 But after a race has emigrated and settled in a new 
 land, the population rapidly increases, as we can now 
 see in the Western States of America, and by and by 
 the land becomes too small for them, and new swarms 
 leave their homes, and go off to other countries as their 
 forefathers did. During this time, however, the popu- 
 lation of the original parent home, although lessened 
 by the emigration of the first swarm, has gone, on 
 
 B 2 
 
244 EACES OF MEN— SKULLS AND JAWS. 
 
 increasing, and after a T^hile a second swarm follows the 
 first aHd js not unlikely to settle, or attempt to settle, 
 in the same country. Here, however, they find the land 
 already more or less occupied by the descendants of the 
 first swarm, and with them they must combat for its 
 possession. The consequence is usually a bloody war 
 in which the second swarm is either beaten by the first, 
 and 'driven back to the country whence it came, or it 
 proves more powerful than its antagonists, and after 
 defeating them, occupies their country. It may either 
 drive many of them out to seek an easier existence in 
 other lands, where the same war may be repeated, or it 
 may drive them up into parts of the country which are 
 not easily accessible, such as mountainous ranges. Or, 
 finally, great numbers of both races having fallen in the 
 struggle, the survivors may make up their minds to Uve 
 amicably together, and may possibly found a new race. 
 
 The various races of man have been divided accord- 
 ing to the nature of their hair, the colour of their skin, 
 the formation of the skull, and the size of the jaws. 
 In some races the skull is longer than it is broad, and 
 these are called long-headed, or Dolichocephali ; in 
 others it is broader than it is long, and these are called 
 short-headed men, or Brachyce.phali. In others, the 
 form of the head is between these extremes, and these 
 are called medium-headed, or Meso-cephali. The 
 most marked examples of the long-headed class are 
 
CLASSIFICATION BY NATUBE OF HAIR. 245 
 
 Negroes and Australians, while the Chinese and Tartars 
 are types of the short-headed men; the Red Indians 
 are between the two. 
 
 Men have also been divided into those with pro- 
 jecting teeth, or Prognathi, and those with straight 
 teeth, or Orthognathi ; but these two forms are found 
 combined with every form of skull, so that men may 
 thus be divided into six types. 
 
 It is found more convenient, however, to divide 
 them, not according to the form of the skull, or pro- 
 jection of the jaw, but according to the nature of the 
 hair. Men may thus be divided into two groups, — 
 those with woolly hair, the Ulotrichi, in which each 
 hair, when cut across, presents an oval section, and has 
 therefore a disposition to curl, like the wool of a sheep ; 
 and Lissotrichi, in which the hairs are cylindrical, so 
 that they present a circular section ; and the hairs 
 dre consequently more or less straight, and they are 
 therefore called straight-haired men. Amongst the 
 lissotrichi the hair may sometimes become frizzled and 
 curly, but is never actually woolly. 
 
 WooUy-haired men, or Ulotrichi, are further sub- 
 divided into two groups, the Lophocotni and Erio- 
 comi, according as their hair grows in tufts, or covers 
 the head entirely. 
 
 There are two tribes of tuft-haired men, or Lopho- 
 comi, the Papuans and Hottentots ; the , former 
 
246 WOOLLY-HAIRED MEN— TUFT-HAIRED. 
 
 inhabit New Guinea, and the islands lying near it, 
 and formerly occupied the island of Van Diemen's 
 Land, or Tasmania, although now they are extinct 
 there, having vanished before the white man in the 
 same way that the natives of New Zealand and Aus- 
 tralia are now disappearing. There are also a few 
 isolated groups of Papuans to be found in the peninsula 
 of Malacca, and also in some of the mountainous parts 
 of other islands of the Malayan Archipelago. This 
 indicates that they formerly lived over a much larger 
 area, whence they have been driven by another race, 
 just as the Maori and American Indians have been 
 driven into mere corners of the countries which they 
 once roamed over. The Papuans aie black, with low, 
 narrow foreheads, large turned-up noses, and thick, 
 protruding lips. 
 
 The Hottentots and Bushmen, like the Papuans, 
 have tufted hair, but their skin is much lighter in 
 colour, being yellowish-brown, and the nose is small, 
 with large, dilated nostrils. 
 
 The next two groups of woolly-haired men, Kaffirs 
 and Negroes, have the hair covering the whole head 
 like a fleece, and are therefore called fleecy-haired, 
 Eriocomi. 
 
 The Kaffirs are very widely distributed over Africa, 
 and their colour, as might be expected, varies very 
 much, from yellowish-black to pure black. The face. 
 
STRAIGHT-HAIRED MEN— STIFF-HAIRED. 247 
 
 instead of being broad and flat, is long and narrow; 
 the forehead high, the nose prominent, and the lips do 
 not project very greatly. 
 
 The Negro tribe was formerly supposed to include 
 a great number of varieties which are now classed 
 with the Kaffirs and Hottentots, and the term is now 
 limited to the races which live around the eastern 
 and southern parts of the great desert of Sahara, and 
 the west coast of Africa between the Equator and the 
 tropic of Capricorn. The skin is pure black, oily, and 
 velvety, and emits a strong, disagreeable odour. The 
 forehead is low, the nose broad, and the lips very large 
 and protruding. Their arms are long, and the calves of 
 their legs very thin. 
 
 The groiip of straight-haired men, or Lissotrichi, 
 is larger and more important than that of the Ulo- 
 trichi. It contains eight tribes, in five of which the 
 hair is more or less stiff (Euthycomi), and in three 
 somewhat curly (Euplocomi). 
 
 The stiff-haired tribes, or Euthycomi, are the Aus- 
 tralians, the Malays, the Mongols, the Polar men, and 
 the Eed Indians. 
 
 The Australians, or Austral Negroes, somewhat re- 
 semble true negroes in appearance, having black skins, 
 an offensive odour, long and narrow skull, projecting 
 jaw, protruding lips, broad nose, and receding forehead, 
 and also in the want of calves ; - but they are much 
 
RACES 
 
 Ulotrichi 
 or woolly-haired men. 
 
 Lophocomi, j Papuans, 
 or tuft-haired. | Hottentots. 
 
 Eriocomi, f Kaffirs, 
 or fleece-haired. ] Negroes. 
 
 Australians. 
 Malays. 
 
 Euthycomi, 
 or stiff-haired. ( 
 
 Mongols 
 
 Lissotrichi 
 or straight-haired men. 
 
 Euploconii, 
 or curly-haired. 
 
 Polar men . 
 Red Indians. 
 Dravidas. 
 
 Nubians . . 
 
 Mediterranean 
 
OF MAN. 
 
 {Chinese. 
 Tartars. 
 Finns. ■■. 
 Turks.' 
 Hungarians. 
 
 r Esquimaux. 
 . '' Greenlanders. 
 1 Hyperboreans. 
 
 Nubians. 
 Foulahs. 
 
 Basques. 
 Caucasian. 
 
 Semitic. 
 
 Indo-Germanic. 
 
 {Egyptians. 
 Assyrians. 
 Jews. 
 Arabs. 
 
 ' Aryo-Eomanic . 
 
 Solavo-Germanie. 
 
 Indiaqs. 
 Persians. 
 Greeks. 
 Bomans. 
 
 .Sclaves. 
 
 Goths. 
 
 Scandinavians. 
 
 Germans. 
 
 Norsemen. 
 
 English 
 
 Americans. 
 
250 STRAIGHT-HAIRED MEN— STIFF-HAIRED. 
 
 smaller and weaker, and their hair is either lank, or 
 slightly curled, and not at all •woolly. 
 
 The Malays are a much higher race than the 
 Australian. They are widely spread over Malacca, 
 the islands near it, and the greater portion of the 
 Pacific Islands. Their hair is black, their skin 
 generally brown, though varying from a yellowish 
 to a dark colour ; their heads, instead of being 
 long, like those of the Australians, are generally 
 short, though medium and long heads are also found 
 among them. The face is generally broad, the nose 
 projecting, and the lips thick. The eyes are somewhat 
 slanting — but less so than in the Mongols — and larger, 
 in which respect they more resemble the Mediterranese. 
 
 The Mongol race is distinguished by the yellow colour 
 of the skin, stiff black hair, narrow, slanting, eyes, short 
 head, broad face, prominent cheek-bones, and thick 
 lips. It includes the Chinese, Tartars, and indeed the 
 inhabitants of the whole of Asia with the exception 
 of its north-east point, the Malay peninsula, and a 
 considerable portion of the southern part of the con- 
 tinent. The parts just mentioned are inhabited by the 
 Mediterranese, but the Mongols, on the other hand, 
 extend over a good part of the north of Europe. The 
 Finns and Lapps of Scandinavia and Russia, the 
 Osmanlis of Turkey, and the Magyars of Hungary, 
 are Mongols. 
 
STRAIGHT-HAIRED MEN— CURLY-HAIRED. 251 
 
 The Polar men are considered by Haeckel, from 
 whom this description of the races of men is taJsei), to 
 be a branch of the Mongols. This tribe includes the in- 
 habitants of the Arctic Polar lands of both hemispheres, 
 the Esquimaux and Greenlanders in America, and the 
 Hyperboreans in north-east Asia. Like the Mongols 
 they have narrow slanting eyes, prominent cheek 
 bones, and wide mouths, black hair, and skin which 
 is yellowish orbrown^ but sometimes inclines to red. 
 Their stature is low and square, . and their skulls 
 medium or long. 
 
 The Aborigines of America, called from the more or 
 less coppery tint of their skin, Red Indians, have, like 
 the Mongols, prominent cheek bones ; but the nose is 
 large, prominent, and often aquiline, and their lips are 
 rather thin than thick. Their skull is generally 
 medium, being rarely either short or long. 
 
 In all these tribes of Lissotrichi the beard is either 
 scanty or absent altogether, but in the next three 
 groups it is well developed, and the hair has a tendency 
 to curl more or less, instead of being completely lank 
 or stiff, as in the tribes already described. They are 
 therefore classed together as curly-haired men (Euplo- 
 comi). The three tribes in this class are the Dravidas, 
 the Nubians, and the Mediterranese. 
 
 The first tribe — the Dravidas— is very limited in its 
 distribution, inhabiting only the Deccan in Southern 
 
252 SUBDIVISIONS OF CUELY-HAIHED WEH. 
 
 Hindostan, and the mountains in the north-east of 
 Ceylon. It is~ supposed by Haeckel to be very closely 
 related to the primary form of curly-haired man, 
 and perhaps even to the primary form of th6 whole 
 race of Lissotrichi. " On the one hand," he says, 
 "it is related to the Australians and Malays, and 
 on the other to the Mongols and Mediterranese. 
 Their skin is either of a light or dark-brown colour, 
 in some tribes of a yellowish-brown, in others al- 
 most black -brown. The hair of their heads, as in 
 the Mediterranese, is more or less curly, neither quite 
 smooth as in the Euthocomi, nor actually woolly like 
 that of the Ulotrichi. The strong development of a 
 beard is also like that of the Mediterranese ; the oval 
 form of face seems to be partly akin to that of the 
 Malays, partly to that of the Mediterranese. Their 
 forehead is generally high, their nose prominent and 
 narrow, their lips slightly protruding." 
 
 The next tribe is that of the Nubians, including the 
 real Nubians who inhabit the countries of the Upper 
 Nile, and the Foulahs who have migrated to the west- 
 ward, and now live to the south-west of the Sahara. 
 Their skin is yellowish or reddish-brown, their hair 
 curly, but never woolly, their beard strongly deve- 
 loped, their faces oval, with high and broad 
 foreheads, prominent noses, and thick, but not 
 projecting lips. 
 
SUBDIVISIONS OF THE MEDITBEEANESE. 253 
 
 The last tribe is the most important of all— the 
 Caucasian, or, as it is now more generally palled, 
 Mediterranean ; the shores of this inland sea having 
 been the chief scene of their activity. The skin is 
 light, though varying much in shade, the hair thick, 
 and more or less curly, the beard well developed. 
 The skull is large and wide, the head is neither 
 broad nor long, but medium, though both short 
 and long heads are frequent. 
 
 It' is this race which has made the history of 
 the world. The Mongolian Chinese , have records 
 stretching far back into antiquity, perhaps farther back 
 than any records of the Mediterranese, and Mongolian 
 irruptions have from time to time immensely affected 
 the history of Europe and Asia, but still the records of 
 this race are as nothing compared with those of the 
 higher Mediterranean race. 
 
 The Mediterranese are subdivided, according to the 
 nature of their language, into the Basque, Caucasian, 
 Semitic, and Indo-Germanic groups. 
 
 The Basques now inhabit only a small portion 
 of the north of Spain, and the Caucasians are likewise 
 pent up in the valleys in and around the range 
 of the Caucasus, but it is probable that at some 
 earlier period they were spread over a much wider disr 
 trict. These two groups, also, have no great historipal 
 importance. 
 
254 PROGRESS AND STAGNATION. 
 
 The other two groups, the Semitic and Indo-Ger- 
 manic, are important, both on account of their wide 
 distribution and their history. 
 
 To the Semitic races belong the Egyptians, Assy- 
 rians, Jews, and Arabs, which must have branched 
 off from one another at a very early date, as the 
 affinities which exist between such languages as the 
 Egyptian and Hebrew are very slight. 
 
 The Indo-Germanic branch divided at a very early 
 
 period into two, the Aj'yo-Romanic and Sclavo-Germanic. 
 
 The Aryo-Romanic was the first to become civilised, 
 
 and to it belong the Indians, Persians, Greeks, and 
 
 Romans. 
 
 To the Sclavo-Germanic belong the Sclaves, Goths, 
 Scandinavians, Saxons, and their descendants — Germans, 
 Norsemen, English. 
 
 The latter race is now foremost in the van of 
 civilisation, and the former, the Aryo-Romanic, al- 
 though richly gifted, seems at present to be standing 
 still, or making but little progress. The same thing 
 appears to have occurred with other races, for ancient 
 Rome and Greece were both indebted for the germs 
 of their civilisation to the Semitic Phoenicians and 
 Egyptians, but while Greece and Rome rapidly de- 
 veloped, their instructors made almost no advance, and 
 were soon left far behind. 
 
LECTURE XIV. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS IN TIME. 
 
 At the time when Abraham left Babylonia and 
 went down into Egypt he found there a fully developed 
 civilisation, an established government, arts and manu- 
 factures, and all the provisions for comfort and luxury 
 of life as well marked as we now find them in the 
 capitals of modern Europe. And this civilisation was 
 no new one, as we learn from the monuments that it 
 must have existed for more than a thousand years 
 before Abraham entered the country, and possibly for 
 a very much longer time. 
 
 We find no trace in Egypt of a gradual develop- 
 ment. The civilisation seems to have arisen at 
 once, full fledged, although this could scarcely have 
 been the case, for we know that everywhere els6 
 civilisation has been a matter of slow growth, 
 requiring long periods for its perfection. In our 
 
256 CO-EXISTENCE OP IRON AND STONE IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 own country we can trace it backwards from its 
 present condition to the time when great parts of this 
 island were inhabited by men who simply stained their 
 bodies with wood, or went about clad only in the skins 
 of animals, whose weapons and implements were only 
 made of stone, and who were perfectly ignorant of the 
 art of smelting or working in metal. Amongst them, 
 too, we find suddenly starting up a full-grown civili- 
 sation, that of ancient Rome, whose troops, urged by 
 the lust of conquest, left their homes in the sunny 
 south to invade the naked hills and the bleak moors 
 of the far north, who tore the barbarians from their 
 families to send them to the wild-beast fights and 
 gladiatorial shows of the Coliseum, and rendered the 
 lives of those who were allowed to remain bitter with 
 hard bondage, but who, after all, more than repaid 
 them for all their sufferings, by the civilisation which 
 they brought to them, and which it would otherwise 
 have taken them ages to acquire. 
 
 In such a case as this, where barbarian tribes are 
 invaded and subdued by civilised people, or as at the 
 present day, when English traders visit the South Sea 
 Islands and exchange knives and' tools of Sheffield 
 manufacture for fruits and shells, we may find ex- 
 isting together the use of implements of iron . and 
 stone. 
 
 In most other instances, we find three stages of 
 
STONE AGE— PALEOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC. 257 
 
 civilisation, which, are distinguished as the stone-age, 
 the bronze-age, and the iron-age. v 
 
 The first tools that a man makes are of the 
 very simplest construction. His only weapon is the 
 pebble which he picks up and throws, or the sharp 
 stone which he holds in his hand, and with which he 
 wounds his enemy whether man or beast. He next 
 finds that by striking one stone against another he is 
 able to chip it into a particular form, and give to it a 
 
 Fir,. 127.— Celt or axe-head of flu I i 1 1 1_ 1 in 1 Paleolithic). 
 
 sharp cutting edge, but yet rough and angular. This 
 period is called the Paleolithic or old stone age. 
 
 He next attempts to improve the weapon or tool 
 which he has thus obtained by chipping it more finely, 
 and by grinding it smooth ; and weapons of this sort 
 are said to belong to the Neolithic or new stone age. 
 
 After this he acquires a knowledge of the fact that 
 copper, which he finds near the surface of the ground, 
 may be melted and worked so as to form weapons mo.re 
 convenient than those of stone, and may be still further 
 
 s 
 
258 
 
 BRONZE AGE. 
 
 improved by the addition to it of tin. The age, or 
 stage of civilisation, in which this occurs is termed the 
 
 Fie. 123.— Lance-head of finely-chipped Hint (Xeolithic;). 
 
 Fig. 129 A flint lance-point, showing two sides and edge. 
 
 Bronze epoch, and not till afterwards is he able to sur- 
 mount the greater difficulties involved in the smelting 
 
IRON AGE. 269 
 
 and working of iron, which is less easily fused, less 
 easily' wrought, but when once manufactured furnishes 
 him with implements immensely superior even to 
 those of bronze. 
 
 This stage is called the Iron epoch. These- three 
 stages of civilisation may all co-exist upon different 
 parts of the earth's surface, and the use of iron, 
 as in the South Sea Islands at the present day, may 
 succeed to the ajre of stone without the intervention of 
 
 Fig. 130.— Celt or axe-head of polished stone (Neolithic). 
 
 a bronze age ; but in former times, when the facilities for 
 intercourse between remote nations were not so great 
 as now, bronze has usually succeeded stone, and bronze 
 has been superseded by iron, the implements of the 
 better sort being gradually introduced, and slowly 
 displacing those of the inferior order. 
 
 In ancient Egypt also stone implements were 
 once used, although we have no historical record 
 of the. fact from the monuments, and do not know 
 what race it was that employed them. The sudden 
 appearance of a complete civilisation would lead 
 us to believe that, the ancient Egyptians whom we 
 
 s 2 
 
260 STONE AGE IN EGYPT. 
 
 know from the Bible, and from the records they 
 have left upon their monuments, were not the origi- 
 nal dwellers on the soil, but had, like the Komans 
 in Britain, come from elsewhere and taken possession 
 of the land, destroying ' or subjugating its former 
 inhabitants. Deep below the surface of the ground, 
 in a weU near Cairo, have been found flakes of flint, 
 evidently fashioned by the hand of man. How long 
 ago it is since these chips were struck off from the 
 parent block by one of the savage dwellers in the 
 Egyptian valley, it is impossible to say, but it may 
 have been as far remote from the age of Abraham as 
 his age is from ours.^ Yet, strange to say, this period 
 of time, immense though it be, is as nothing compared 
 with the age of the world in which we live. 
 
 The Egyptian valley, as I have already mentioned, 
 owes its fertility to the rich mud deposited by the Nile. 
 When we walk across the Nile valley, we come, at 
 either side, upon sea sand fringing the base of the hills 
 which inclose it, and spreading away from the edge ' 
 of the Delta, over the long expanse of the desert, on to 
 the Red Sea. If we were to dig through the Nile mud 
 
 ^ The use of stone implements in sacred rites continued up to the 
 time of Moses (Exod. iv. 25) in countries adjoining Egypt, if not 
 in Egypt itself. But, notwithstanding this fact, the use of stone 
 implements for the purposes of every-day life may have ceased for 
 centuries, for it is in religious ceremonies that traces of ancient customs 
 survive longest. 
 
GEOLOGY OF EGYPT. 
 
 261 
 
 we should find that lying underneath it is this same sea 
 sand, so we know that before the mud was deposited, 
 
 I \ P0ST-TER71ARY & RECENT. 
 
 mUMMULITIC LlMCSrONC 
 \^::': /lA sANDSTONE OF NUBIA ^ 
 ^T^CRyjrAti/AT RQCK5 
 
 Fig. 131.— Geological map of Egypt. The Nile mud mentioned in the text is white 
 in the map. The sand (miocene) is indicated by cross hatching. The map is 
 too small to show the- fringe of sand at each, side of the Nile valley. The 
 nummulitic (Eocene) and CretaceoiTs limestone is indicated hy parallel lines., 
 
262 NUMMULITIC HOCKS. 
 
 the sand was already there. Now sea sand implies a 
 sea, and therefore we conclude that long, long ago,' 
 the Nile valley and the desert of the Red Sea were at 
 the bottom of an ocean whose waters were not con- 
 fined to the narrow limits of the present Mediterranean 
 and Red Seas, but stretched over the whole of ancient 
 Egypt, and probably over the vast expanse of the 
 Sahara also. 
 
 But as we walk still onwards towards the steep 
 ridges which inclose the Nile valley, we leave the sand 
 and find underneath it a limestone rock, just as we find 
 the sand underneath the Nile mud. On examining this 
 rock, we notice that it presents regular layers or bands, 
 running horizontally, and that in it are embedded some 
 curious fossils, which are round and flat, like pieces 
 of money, and hence have been called nummulites. 
 Close inspection shows us that these fossils are the 
 calcareous cases of some of those lumps of protoplasm, 
 which we have already learned to know under the 
 name of foraminifera. As we know that these led an 
 oceanic life, they must at one time have been swim- 
 ming about in the sea, and only have sunk to the 
 bottom after their short life was over. Small as 
 those animals are, the limestone cliffs which their 
 chalky skeletons form, are hundreds of feet high, 
 so that a stupendous period of time must have 
 elapsed before the accumulated rer.?!ins of successive. 
 
GEOLOGICAL EPOCHS. 263 
 
 generations of foraminifera could possibly have built 
 them up. 
 
 Here, then, we have evidence of the existence of 
 a primseval ocean which rolled its waves over northern 
 Africa into Asia Minor and across Persia and India 
 on to the borders of China. The upheaved bottom 
 of this ocean formed the cliffs, against which was 
 dashed the spray of that sea whose sand now lies 
 around their foot, and which, gradually receding as 
 the land still rose, allowed the waters of the Nile, as 
 they poured onwards, to deposit, inch by inch, the mud 
 which forms the brown land of Mizraim. 
 
 Back, and yet further backwards, from age to age 
 we seem to go, until the mind refuses to grasp the time 
 required for these occurrences. And yet we are still 
 but on the threshold of geological time. For al- 
 though the time which elapsed between the deposition 
 of these rocks from the waters of the ancient sea, and 
 the first appearance of man upon the globe, was many 
 times greater than that which has elapsed from his 
 appearance until now, yet those strata belong only to 
 the tertiary epoch, as it is termed, of geology. 
 
 The immense ages which have been required to 
 give the earth's crust its present form have been 
 divided by geologists into five epochs. The first is the 
 Archeolithic, the second the Paleozoic or Primary, 
 the third the Mesozoic or Secondary, the fourth 
 
264 GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS. 
 
 the Cainozoic or Tertiary, and the fifth the Post- 
 tertiary or Recent. 
 
 Each of these again may be subdivided into three. 
 
 The Archeolithic into the Laurentian, Cam- 
 brian, and Silurian. 
 
 The Paleozoic or Primary into the Old Red 
 Sandstone or Devonian, the Carboniferous, and 
 the Permian. 
 
 The Secondary or Mesozoic into the Trias, Oolite 
 or Jura, and Chalk or Cretaceous. 
 
 The Tertiary into the Eocene, Miocene, and 
 Pliocene. 
 
 The Quaternary or Pleistocene may be divided 
 into Diluvial, Post-Diluvial, and Alluvial. 
 
 These divisions by no means represent periods of 
 equal length. If we judge by the thickness of rocks 
 deposited during them, the archeolithic or primordial 
 period alone occupies more than a half, the paleozoic or 
 primary period another third ; the mesozoic or secondary 
 period about a tenth ; the cainozoic or tertiary period 
 about a fiftieth ; and the quaternary period, during 
 which man has existed, only a mere fraction of the 
 whole time required for their deposition. 
 
 But these divisions are simply made for the sake of 
 convenience, and it must not be understood that each 
 of them marks any great break in the history of the 
 world. 
 
CHARACTEKISTIC FOSSILS. ' 265 
 
 In each of them, however, we find evidences of life 
 in the presence of fossil remains, and these are of such 
 a character as to show the predominance of certain 
 living forms in each of the divisions before mentioned. 
 
 In the Archeolithic period we find traces of sea- 
 weeds and of those low protoplasmic forms of life 
 which we have already found even in the rocks of 
 Egypt, and which still appear at the present day — 
 the foraminifera as well as of other invertebrate 
 animals. 
 
 In the Paleozoic we find higher types, both of 
 vegetables and animals, the characteristic forms being 
 ferns and fishes. 
 
 In the Secondary we get yet higher forms, the 
 gymnosperms and reptiles. 
 
 In the Tertiary we find angiosperms and mam- 
 mals. 
 
 In the Quaternary we find evidences of the exist- 
 ence of Man, either in human bones or in tools or 
 /weapons. 
 
 These forms of plant and animal life may be looked 
 upon as distinctive of thfe different periods, but in each 
 of them we also find other forms, which occupy, how- 
 ever, a mere secondary place. 
 
 The groups of strata belonging to each epoch, or 
 formations, as they are termed, are distinguished 
 from each other, and their ages are determined, by 
 
266 
 
 RELATIVE AGE OF FORMATIONS. 
 
 their relative positions, 
 contain. 
 
 One reason why we 
 older than another, is 
 underneath the other 
 as in sinking a well or 
 The greatest number 
 of sedimentary rocks. 
 
 and hy the fossils which they 
 
 believe that one formation is 
 simply that we find it lying 
 •when we drill through them, 
 coal-pit, or in cutting a tunnel. 
 
 of these formations consist 
 or, in other words, of rocks 
 
 Fig 132. — Quarry in sedimentary rocks. 
 
 which have been deposited from water, and when 
 they are lying flat and undisturbed those strata 
 which lie undermost are necessarily the oldest, for 
 otherwise the higher strata could not have been 
 deposited upon them. Sometimes their position is 
 disturbed, and instead of lying horizontally, they may 
 have been forced up by volcanic action into a slanting 
 or perpendicular position, so that the edges of the 
 
DETERMINATION BY POSITION. 
 
 267 
 
 strata appear on the surface, or crop out, as it is 
 termed. In such cases, as we walk across the country, 
 we find first one kind of stone and then another. We 
 notice the slope at which they lie, and see that one 
 appears to pass under the other, and as we often find, 
 
 
 jri^4»<i* M»>J ^,t&. 
 
 Fig.- 133. —View of contorted strata. 
 
 either by artificial shafts, or by the cuttings which are 
 made by streams, that this is really the case, we con- 
 clude that strata having such a relative position at 
 the surface lie upon one another even when we do not 
 confirm our belief by cuttings or shafts. • When rocks 
 assume a nearly perpendicular position, it may be 
 almost impossible to say which was orginally under- 
 
268 
 
 DETERMI^TATION BY COMPOSITION. 
 
 most, and in such cases we may be forced to rely upon 
 the contents to settle the point. If we find that one 
 of them contains broken up particles of another, we 
 may be quite sure that the latter is the older of the 
 two, for unless it had been previously deposited, 
 particles of it could not come to be present in the 
 other. 
 
 Fig. 134. — Vertical strata. 
 
 In this way we may settle the relative age of 
 the strata in one spot upon the earth's surface, 
 but how are we to determine the comparative ages 
 of the rocks in different countries ? This can only 
 be done by a comparison of the fossils which each 
 contains. 
 
 In former ages, just as at the present day, various 
 structures, animal and vegetable, such as sea-weeds, 
 bones of fish, shells of foraminifera and moUusca, 
 branches and leaves of trees, bones of animals, &c.. 
 
DETERMINATION BY FOSSILS. 269 
 
 fell into and became mixed with the sand of the 
 sea or ocean bed, or of the sea-shore, and the mud of 
 estuaries, lakes and rivers. These gradually became 
 firmly embedded or encrusted in the sand or mud, which 
 was by and by converted into stone by age and the 
 pressure of subsequent accumulations upon it, and these 
 remains, animal and vegetable, constitute fossils. 
 
 By comparing the shells found on the shores of dif- 
 ferent seas at the present day, the naturalist is able to 
 decide whether the waters in which a certain shell-fish 
 has lived belong to a tropical, temperate, or arctic 
 climate, for the animals found in each clime differ from 
 one another. 
 
 On going backwards in the earth's history we also 
 find that there are differences between the animals 
 now living at any particular place, and those which 
 formerly lived there, and which are now found as 
 fossils in the rocks. We also notice that the animals 
 which are found in the older and deeper differ from 
 those in the newer and more superficial strata. By 
 a comparison of these we are not only enabled to 
 form some conclusions regarding the climate of the 
 place at different geological epochs, but we can decide 
 upon the position and age of each formation from 
 the fossils it contains. For while certain fossils are 
 found in almost all formations from the oldest to the 
 newest, others are limited to particular strata and 
 
270 STRATA IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 
 
 are absent from the strata above or below them, so 
 that the existence of some of these latter fossils in 
 a certain formation enables us to fix the particular 
 epoch in the earth's history during which the rocks 
 composing this formation were deposited. 
 
 The comparative age of the fossils found in different 
 strata at any one place having been determined by 
 the relative position ,of the strata containing them, 
 these fossils help us to determine the age of the 
 strata as compared with that of strata in other 
 parts of the same country, or in other countries ; and 
 it is by this means that we are enabled to arrange 
 in regular order the various formations which com- 
 pose the earth's crust. At no one place can we 
 find the whole of them together, but we find some 
 in one place and some in another. Unless they pos- 
 sessed something in common, we could not compare 
 them or fix their relative age ; but if we find that 
 the fossils contained in the uppermost or newest of 
 the strata in one locality are the same as those in the 
 lowest or oldest of the strata found in another locality, 
 we conclude that all the strata lying above those 
 contained in the second group are newer than those 
 in the first group, and that if we were to dig through 
 the second group of strata we should in all probability 
 come upon those ofthe first group, although the depth 
 at which they may lie in the second locality may 
 
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF GEOLOGY. 271 
 
 render them practically inaccessible. It is by such 
 a knowledge as this that a geologist is able to say 
 beforehand whether coal is likely to be found in a 
 particular locality or not. If he finds that the strata 
 which lie on the surface belong to a formation only 
 slightly more recent than the Coal Measures, he knows 
 that it is probable coal will he found at a moderate 
 distance below the ground. If the surface strata 
 are very much more recent, it is probable that while 
 coal may be found by boring to a sufficient depth, it 
 will be so far below the surface as to render the 
 operations unprofitable. But if the surface strata 
 belong to an older formation than the Coal Measures, 
 the geologist knows at once that, however deep he 
 may sink a shaft, he will not succeed in finding coal. 
 
 When the geologist finds the same fossils in a par- 
 ticular strata in different parts of the earth's surface, 
 he assumes that these strata are of the same age. 
 Now this may not be absolutely true, because it may 
 have happened that strata containing particular fossils 
 were deposited in one place somewhat before or after 
 strata containing similar fossils elsewhere. But still we 
 find that in a general way the assumption is correct, 
 because the great periods of geological time are distin- 
 guished from each other by sufficient differences in the 
 fossils they contain to allow us to determine the age of 
 the respective strata with very considerable certainty. 
 
27-2 COMPARISON OF FOSSILS. 
 
 The fossils which are generally chosen to distinguish 
 the strata are the shells of mollusca, because these 
 are found everywhere over the earth's surface. They 
 afford, too, a means of comparing strata which have 
 been formed in the sea at one place with strata de- 
 posited from a river or lake at another. For it is evi- 
 dent that it would be of no use for the geologist to 
 compare the shells of one place with the fish-bones 
 found in another. He must compare shell with shell, 
 fish-bone with fish-bone. Nor can he compare the 
 shell-fish and fish-bones of marine origin with the 
 skeletons of land animals and the leaves of land plants. 
 We cannot compare strata containing seaweed or bones 
 of marine fish only, with strata containing leaves 
 or the bones of land animals, but we may do 'so by 
 using the shells of molluscs as a means of comparison. 
 Usually we find the shells of marine mollusca along with 
 seaweeds and fish-bones ; and along with the leaves of 
 trees and the bones of land animals we find the shells 
 of fresh-water molluscs which lived in the rivers into 
 which the leaves and carcases fell, and in whose bed 
 the shale containing them were deposited. We could 
 not compare the marine with the fresh-water molluscs 
 if they were always found separately, but the shells of 
 fresh-water mollusca are often deposited along with those 
 of marine ones at the estuaries of rivers. Thus we find 
 fresh-water and marine shells mixed together at some 
 
USES OF MOLLUSCOUS SHELLS. 
 
 273 
 
 particular placed and we thus know that they are of the 
 same age. At another place we can only find fresh- 
 water shells; and "at a third only marine ones. We 
 could not have compared the fresh water and marine 
 shells, unless we had had a mixture of the two at the 
 third place. Without the shells it would have been 
 impossible to fix the date of these three strata, because 
 along with fresh-water shells we should have had fresh- 
 water or land plants and fresh-water or land animals 
 
 Fig. 135. — Fossils, a, coral ; 6, part of encrinite : c, spirifer, a marine shell. 
 
 while in the marine strata we should have had the 
 remains of marine plants and animals, and these of 
 course could not have been compared with each other, 
 but by using the shells as a means of comparison 
 we get out of this difficulty altogether. 
 
 The archeolithic period, as we have said, is that of 
 sea-weeds and headless animals, the paleozoic of ferns 
 and fishes, the mesozoic of pines and reptiles, and the 
 cainozoic of angiosperms and mammals. But besides 
 
 T 
 
274 AECHEOLITHIC FOSSILS. 
 
 these we have other secondary forms, which we will 
 now proceed to consider more closely. 
 
 The Laurentian, or first subdivision of the Arche- 
 olithic rocks, was long supposed to be destitute 
 of life, but some years ago a kind of structure was 
 observed in it by Sir William Logan, which seemed to 
 him to indicate the former presence of a living animal. 
 The rock has been much changed by the action of heat, 
 and still some people are disposed to deny that this 
 structure is that of an animal at all, but Dr. Carpenter's 
 investigations render it extremely probable that it con- 
 sists of skeletons of foraminifera. 
 
 It is impossible to say how long before this epoch 
 life existed upon the globe, because any animals lower 
 in the "scale than the foraminifera, such as the naked 
 amoeba or monera, would leave no trace behind. Only 
 hard structures, such as the foraminiferous shell, could 
 be preserved. 
 
 As we ascend into the Cambrian, we find the bur- 
 rows of certain worms and crustaceans, nearly allied to 
 the wood-louse, which, from their appearance, have 
 been called trilobites, and there are also a few mol- 
 luscous shells and markings which possibly indicate the 
 presence of sea-weed. 
 
 In the Silurian we find representatives of the 
 hydrozoa, in the form of graptolites, which are the 
 hard cases of compound hydrse. These are supposed to 
 
PALEOZOIC FOSSILS— DEVONIAN. 275 
 
 have differed from the sertularians or sea-firs of the 
 present day by being able to swim about instead of 
 being fixed. Star-fishes and encrinites, or sea-lilies, 
 as well as sea-urchins, appear. Trilobites continue, 
 and in addition to the lower molluscs, such as the 
 brachiopoda and lameUibranchiata, the highest forma- 
 of the molluscous sub-kingdom, viz., the cephalopods 
 or allies of the cuttle-fish, may be seen. 
 
 It is only in the very highest strata of the Silurian 
 that we find traces of fishes, but -in the next forma- 
 tion, the first of the Paleozoic rocks, the Old Red or 
 Devonian, we find large fishes of very peculiar forms, 
 and covered with an arnaour of hard enamel. Coral, 
 ferns, and pieces of wood also occur. 
 
 It is in the next, the Carboniferous formation, 
 or Coal Measures, that we find the greatest develop- 
 ment of plant life. The seams of coal, to which, in 
 great measure, England owes her wealth and power, 
 consist of the stems, roots, and leaves of trees, Lepi- 
 dodendrons and Sigillarias. The former bore no 
 resemblance to the trees of our present forests, but 
 belonged to the same class of plants as the club- 
 mosses, which we now find growing about our Scotch 
 heaths and near our peat mosses. Sigillarias are the 
 stems of a kind of gigantic mare's tail. The roots of 
 Sigillaria were once supposed to be the stems of a 
 different plant, and were called Stigmaria. 
 
 T 2 
 
276 
 
 PALEOZOIC FOSSILS— CARBONIFEROUS. 
 
 During this formation, the climate must have been 
 warmei* than at the present day, and the same land on 
 which this luxuriant vegetation grew must have been 
 gradually subsiding, so that the accumulations grew 
 
 Fig. 136. —SigillaHa attached to stigmarian roots. 
 
 Fig. 137. — Stigmaria jicoides, a carboniferous Ibssil. 
 
 deeper and deeper, and at length, descending below 
 the sea-level, were covered with salt water, where a coat 
 of limestone gradually formed over them. 
 
 Pine trees grew on the land around those swamps, 
 air-breathiug reptiles and centipedes crawled along the 
 ground, and insects hummed through the air. In tlie 
 
PALEOZOIC FOSSILS— PERMIAN, 
 
 277 
 
 deep rivers, near the mouths of which many of those 
 swamps probably lay, were great fishes. 
 
 Fig. 138. — Section of a part of the Cape Breton coal-field, showing seven ancient 
 soils, with remains of as many forests. (B. Brown.) a, sandstones ; & and e, 
 shales ; c, coal-seams ;' d, underclays, or soils. 
 
 In the next formation, the Permian, so-called from 
 its being found much developed near the town of Perm, 
 in Eussia, comparatively few fossils have been found. 
 
278 MESOZOIC OE SECONDARY FOSSILS— TEIAS. 
 
 and it is distinguished by the footprint of a creature 
 like an enormous toad, but with a very remarkabl* 
 formation of teeth, so complicated that the name of 
 Labyrinthodon has been given to the animal. 
 
 FiQ. 139. — Section of tooth of Labyrinttiodon. 
 
 About this period there seems to be a long break, 
 and then comes the first formation of the Secondary 
 or Mesozoic period, the Trias. Here, in addition to 
 the labyrinthodon and huge saurians, we find the first 
 
MESOZOIC FOSSILS— TRIAS. 
 
 279 
 
 traces of mammalia, in tlie teett of a small animal, the 
 microlestes, belonging to the same tribe as the kangaroo. 
 In America large foot-prints have been discovered of 
 animals with three toes, and walking on two legs, which 
 were probably either enormous birds, four or five times 
 as high as the present ostrich, or reptiles which had 
 assumed this bird-like character. 
 
 S?isJi^ 
 
 IiG. 140.— Cycad. 
 
 Amongst the plants of the . Trias we still find the 
 enormous lycopods and horsetails which characterize 
 the carboniferous formation, but they are reduced in 
 number. Pines become more plentiful, and cycads, 
 which look somewhat like palms, but are in reality 
 naked seeded, like the pines, — make their appearance 
 for the first time. 
 
280 MESOZOIC possils-oolite: 
 
 In the next formation, the Jurassic or Oolitic, we 
 find plants resembling those of the trias. The lower 
 classes of the animal kingdom are abundant. But the 
 most characteristic molluscs of this period are two 
 forms of the cuttle-fish tribe — ammonites and belem- 
 nites. The ammonites first appear in the trias, but it 
 is in the Jura formation that they attain the greatest 
 development. Both ammonites and belemnites had 
 shells like the Portuguese man-of-war of the present 
 day, but that of the ammonite was curved so that 
 it had the appearance of a ram's horn, while that of 
 the belemnite was straight. Beetles, butterflies, and 
 dragon-flies crept and flew amongst the trees, spiders 
 fed upon them, and worms and crustaceans crawled 
 about the banks or lived within the waters of the seas 
 and rivers. Amongst fishes we find a number of the 
 ganoid or mailed fish, but sharks and rays have now be- 
 come very abundant. Lizards crawled about on the land, 
 crocodiles and turtles swam near the shore, but the most 
 characteristic reptiles of this age were huge saurians, 
 the ichthyosaurus, plesiosaurus, and pterodactyl. The 
 first was shaped somewhat like a whale or a dolphin, 
 with four paddles, a long tail, short neck, long head, 
 and a mouth armed with rows of long conical teeth. 
 The eyes were of enormous size, protected by a ring 
 of bony plates. The plesiosaurus had a much smaller 
 body than the ichthyosaurus, long paddles, a short tail. 
 
MESOZOIC FOSSILS— OOLITE. 
 
 281 
 
 and a small head, witli a long, swan-like neck. The 
 pterodactyl was a curious lizard, with a large head, and 
 a wing somewhat like that of a bat. Its skin, teeth, 
 and claws were like those of a reptile, but its bones 
 were hollow like those of true birds. 
 
 In this formation we first meet with the remains of 
 a true bird, the archseopteryx, but this was more like 
 
 Fig. 141.— Skeleton of Ichthyosaurua. 
 
 Fig. lis. — Skeleton of Plesiosaurus. 
 
 a lizard than any bird of modern days. In this forma- 
 tion we again find the remains of mammals, but only 
 those belonging to the low order of marsupials. Both 
 plants and mammals which then inhabited Britain 
 appear at that time to have been more like those of 
 Australia now than of any other country. 
 
 The next formation is the Cretaceous or Chalk, 
 of which the southern English coast is formed. Enor- 
 
282 
 
 MESOZOIC FOSSILS— CHALK, 
 
 mous as its cliffs are, they consist almost entirely 
 of shells of very minute species of foraminifera, and 
 
 Fig. 143.— Skeleton of Pterodactyl, 
 
 have been deposited at the bottom of a deep ocean. 
 At the present day the same sort of deposit is going on 
 
MESOZOIC FOSSILS-CHALK. 283 
 
 at the bottom of the Atlantic. The foraminifera live 
 upon the surface of the water, but after their death 
 the shells gradually sink until they reach the bottom, 
 and there form a thick layer. As this deposit cannot 
 be distinguished from that forming the cliffs of Dover, 
 
 Fia. 144. — Microscopic section of chalk Fig. 145. — Atlantic ooze from a deptli 
 
 from Sussex. Magnified about 220 of 2,250 fathoms. Magnified about 
 
 diameters. 220 diameters. 
 
 or example, it has been said that we are still living in 
 the cretaceous period, but this is not correct, for though 
 these chalky animalculse or globigerinse stiU exist, yet 
 other forms of life with which they were associated 
 during the cretaceous epoch have entirely vanished. 
 For, in the cretaceous seas, ammonites were stiU plenti- 
 ful, the ichthyosaurus and plesiosaurus still swam about 
 in their waters, and huge lizards, like the Iguanodon, 
 bird-like reptiles like the Compsognathus, or reptilian 
 birds like the Hesperornis, still walked about on the 
 
284 
 shores, 
 
 SECONDARY AND TERTIARY EPOCHS. 
 
 Pterodactyls, also, still flew about, but many 
 shells, somewhat resembling those of our present seas, 
 began to appear, and the myrtle, fig, walnut, and oak 
 began to grow side by side with Banksias and other 
 plants resembling those of Australia. 
 
 Fig. 146. — Compsognathus longipes,. a reptile resembling a bird in its long neck, 
 small bead, and partially-erect posture. 
 
 With the chalk closes the secondary, or mesozoic 
 period, and between it and the tertiary a long break 
 occurs. The first formation in the Tertiary is the 
 Eocene. 
 
 During this period an enormous ocean stretched from' 
 the Pyrenees to the borders of China, and we find the 
 large, coin-shaped foraminifera, or nummulites, of which 
 
CAMOZOIC OK TERTIARY FOSSILS— EOCENE. 286 
 
 we have already spoken, in the Egyptian hills and the 
 peaks of the Alps and Himalayas. In these seas fishes 
 were numerous, and amongst the American fossils of 
 
 Fig. 147.— Hesperornis regalis. 
 
 the period have been found the bones of a huge whale, 
 but the saurians of the cretaceous period have completely 
 disappeared. 
 
286 TERTIARY FOSSILS— EOCENE. 
 
 During a portion, at least, of the eocene period, parts 
 of England and France were raised above the surface 
 of the seas. The climate must have been warm, 
 almost tropical, for the plants which flourished at 
 that period near the present mouth of the Thames 
 resembled those of Polynesia at this day. At that 
 time a great river must have emptied itself into the 
 sea near where the Thames now meets the ocean. 
 Beside it grew fir-trees, palms, and plants like some 
 of the Australian ones ; turtles and crocodiles lived near 
 the banks, and in the waters swam sharks, sword-fishes, 
 saw-fishes, and sea-snakes, one of which, measuring 
 thirteen feet long, has been found. 
 
 Near Paris have been found the bones of a bird as 
 large as an ostrich, and animals of the hog tribe, , 
 but differing from any now living, walked about on the 
 site of the present Isle of Sheppey. Amongst these 
 were the anoplotherium, and the paleotherium, which 
 was formerly supposed to resemble the living tapir in 
 the form of its head and in the short trunk, but has 
 now been shown to be lighter and more elegant. 
 
 Some of these animals seem to stand half way 
 between the pachydermata and ruminants, and some 
 were probably light and graceful, like the gazelle. 
 Marsupials still occurred, and carnivorous animals, the 
 hyena, dog, weasel, as well as the squirrel and ape. 
 
 In the next period, or Miocene, the climate in the 
 
FiG.llS.-Palseotlierium magnum, from plaster quarry at Vitry-sur-Seine, from 
 
 La Nature* 
 
288 TERTIARY FOSSILS -MIOCENE— PLIOCENE. 
 
 northern hemisphere must have been very warm, 
 because the deposits of this period in Greenland, Ice- 
 land, and Spitzbergen, show that beeches, oaks', mag- 
 nolias, walnuts, and vines then flourished within the 
 Arctic Circle. At the same period, however, huge 
 icebergs must have been floating about in Northern 
 Italy. Amongst the animals, marsupials still occurred 
 in Europe, and, along with the carnivora, we find the 
 dinotherium and mastodon, huge creatures allied to 
 the elephant, as well as the rhinoceros, hippopotamus, 
 giraffe, and now, for the first time, monkeys. 
 
 During the next period, the Pliocene, the climate 
 seems to have been getting colder, although the ele- 
 phant, mastodon, and rhinoceros still inhabited Britain 
 at that time. With the pliocene ends the tertiary 
 epoch. 
 
 We now come to the Quaternary, or Recent 
 epoch, during which man made his appearance upon 
 the earth. This period is distinguished in Europe by 
 the evidence of extensive glaciers. In the preceding 
 period, that of the pliocene, the climate, at least in 
 Britain, was warm. In the Pleistocene, or Post- 
 pliocene, the first of the quaternary periods, this warm 
 climate seems to have alternated with cold, for we find 
 a mixed arctic and tropical fauna. The elephant, 
 rhinoceros, and hippopotamus, ranged as far north as 
 England, where we have at the same time the reindeer. 
 
RECENT FOSSILS— PLEISTOCENE. 289 
 
 musk ox, and mammoth, natives of cold climates. 
 
 Colder and colder the climate seems to have grown, 
 
 u 
 
290 GLACIAL EPOCH, 
 
 year after year the snow accumulated on the hills, 
 forming huge glaciers, which descended to the valleys, 
 and perhaps covered the greater part of Europe. 
 Onwards and onwards they pushed, carrying on their 
 surface or embedded within them huge blocks of stone, 
 which rasped and grated against the bottom and sides 
 
 Fig. 160.— Floating icebergs. 
 
 of their channels, planing the surfaces both of the 
 channel itself and of the glacial boulders, and then, 
 descending to the sea, the ends of the glacier finally 
 broke off and sailed away as icebergs, until by and 
 by they.gradually melted and dropped upon the spot 
 over which they happened to be, huge boulders, which 
 they had conveyed many miles from the parent rocks. 
 
ICEBERGS AND GLACIERS. 
 
 291 
 
 At this time Scotland was probably rauch higher above 
 the sea-level than it is now, and much more like 
 Greenland, which near the sea rises from 4,000 to 6,000 
 feet, and inland is much higher still. Its level then 
 gradually sank until a part of it was again submerged 
 below the sea, when another gradual rise, joined it for a 
 second time with the continent of Europe. At this 
 
 Fig. 151. — Boulder deposited from an iceberg. 
 
 time .glaciers lay upon its hills and filled its valleys, 
 but no longer of the same size as the first. Traces of 
 those glaciers are very common in Scotland. Over a 
 great part of it is to be found a stiff blue or yellow 
 clay, usually called till, which is the mud produced by 
 the grinding action of the glaciers upon, the rocks. In 
 the Grampians, and in the hills of the west of Ireland, 
 
 TJ 2 
 
292 BOULDERS— MORAINES. 
 
 traces of glacial action may be seen, as plainly as by 
 the very side of a glacier in Switzerland. 
 
 In Mareschal College, Aberdeen, lies a large stone 
 found in digging the foundation of a house in the 
 town. This block bears evidence of glacial action, 
 for it is planed and scarred by the frictioa it has 
 undergone against other blocks or against the sides 
 or bottom of the glacier bed while being carried along 
 imbedded in the ice of the glacier. The spot where 
 
 Fig. 162.— Boulder planed and scarred by glacial action. 
 
 the town now stands miist therefore have been itself 
 covered by a glacier, or more probably by a sea, on 
 which the detached iceberg floated away from the 
 glacier, carrying the huge stone with it, and dropping 
 it as it melted over the site of the town. 
 
 As each glacier moves down from the hill-tops, 
 it carries with it stones and mud. When it .gets 
 down to the valley, and there melts away with 
 the heat, it leaves at its end a heap of round stones 
 
Fig. 153.— Glacier of Zeraiatt. 
 
294 
 
 GLACIAL ACTION IN SCOTLAND. 
 
 termed the moraine. Such heaps are to be seen to- 
 day in many of our highland valleys, running across 
 their mouths, like a wall, through which an opening 
 has been cut by the stream which drains the glen. 
 
 
 
 i ''rf/ 
 
 
 Fig. 154. — Skull of old man of Cromagnon ; vertical view. 
 
 After the melting of the great glaciers, Scotland 
 England, and Ireland were probably all united to the 
 continent of Europe, but then another partial sub- 
 mergence took place, by which the shallow Northern Sea 
 was formed, separating them from the continent, and 
 
FIRST APPEARANCE OP MAN IN BRITAIN. 296 
 
 • 
 
 then anotherj by -which Ireland was divided from 
 England. 
 
 It was probably before the ipe began to cover 
 Europe so extensively that man first appeared in 
 Britain. How long a period elapsed between the time 
 
 Fio. 165.— Skull of old man of Cromagnon ; profile. 
 
 of his first creation in the east and his migration into 
 these northern latitudes we cannot say, but the first 
 inhabitants of Britain appear to have been a savage 
 race, using implements of chipped flint of the rudest 
 possible shape. Very few, if any, bones of these men 
 
296 UNION OF BRITAIN WITH THE CONTINENT. 
 
 have been found, but their flint axes, chipped in such 
 a manner as could only be done by the hand of man, 
 have been found along with the bones of the cave 
 hyffina, cave lion, woolly rhinoceros, and mammoth, in 
 such a way as to leave no doubt whatever that men 
 
 Fig, 156. — SkuU of old maji of Cromagnon ; front view. 
 
 were living at the same time as these animals. When 
 England again became united to the continent,* when 
 the climate had become warmer, and the glaciers had 
 contracte'd within narrower limits, another race seems 
 to have crossed the broad plain covered with forest 
 
FIEST INVASION OF BRITAIN. 
 
 297 
 
 trees, where the German Ocean now rolls, and to have 
 brought with them implements, still of stone, but of 
 
 Tio. 157. — Bones of old man of Cromagnon : sliia-bone ; flattened tibia ; femur : 
 profile view. 
 
 much finer workmanship, to which the term neolithic 
 
 has been given. 
 
298 
 
 NEOLITHIC SKULLS. 
 
 Although no skulls of the paleolithic age have 
 been found in Great Britain, one or two skulls 
 of that period have been discovered in Germany. 
 They are, no doubt, of a somewhat low type as regards 
 their shape, resembling in certain respects the skulls of 
 savages, such as the Australians, but still they differ 
 very widely from those of apes, and, as Huxley re- 
 marks, so far as capacity goes, they might serve to 
 contain the brain of a modern poet or savant. Some 
 
 Fig. 158. — Sculptured boue handle representing a reindeer. 
 
 skulls belonging to the neolithic period are not even of 
 a low type (Figs. 154, 155, 156). The men of the neo- 
 lithic period have left behind them evidence of no 
 mean artistic power in their drawings and sculptures 
 of such animals as the cave bear and mammoth, with 
 which they were contemporary, but which have now 
 vanished from the face of the earth (Figs. 158 — 160). 
 A man, even in these days, far removed as they 
 are from the present, luas a man, and not a monkey. 
 
-'iSSpcs^- 
 
300 MISSING LINK NOT IN THE WEST. 
 
 If man has been developed from any being lower in 
 the scale of existence than himself, it is not in the 
 
 Fip. 160. — The Maminotli (Eleplias primigenius^. 
 
 West at least that we are to look for the missing 
 link which is to connect him with the lower forms 
 of life. 
 
LECTUKE XV. 
 
 GENEEAL SUMMAKY. 
 
 We have now made a gdneral survey of the plants 
 and animals living at the present time, and of those 
 which have existed during previous periods of the 
 world's history. 
 
 We find that the relations of the animal and vege- 
 table kingdom to each other cannot be expressed by 
 parallel lines; that the lowest and highest members 
 of each kingdom respectively do not correspond to 
 each other, but that the highest members diverge 
 furthest, while the lowest are closely united, and, 
 indeed, we might almost say are identical. 
 
 We find the same thing in comparing the different 
 members of each kingdom amongst themselves. The 
 palm and the oak are totally unlike in the nature of 
 their foliage and the appearance of their trunks, in the 
 growth of their stems, in the number of parts of 
 their flowers, and in the germination of their seeds. 
 
302 BELATIONS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 
 
 We cannot bridge over the difference between them 
 by intermediate forms as highly developed as them- 
 selves, any more than we can connect the elephant 
 with the palm-tree'. To unite the elephant and the 
 palm we must trace their affinities backwards to the 
 lowest forms of animal and vegetable life, and to con- 
 nect the palm with the oak we must also trace the 
 affinities of these plants backwards, first through the 
 lowest forms of monocotyledons and dicotyledons to the 
 gymnosperms, cycads and pineS, and thence to the 
 lycopods. 
 
 But there is this difference in tracing the relations 
 of animal with plant and of plant with plant, of the 
 elephant with the palm, and the palm with the oak, 
 that in the case of the animal and plant we must 
 follow their affinities backwards until we come to the 
 very lowest forms of life, to the protista, whereas in 
 the case of plant with plant we do not require to 
 descend so low in the scale. In the case of the palm 
 and the oak we must trace their affinities through the 
 gymnosperms tb the lycopod, but in the case of the 
 gymnosperms themselves, pines and cycads, which are 
 more nearly related to one another than are the oak 
 and the palm, we do not require to go any further 
 back. The same link which connects the oak and the 
 palm connects the pine and the cycad. In both 
 instances we find a connection in the lycopod, 
 
REPEESENTED BY A GENEALOGICAL TEEE. 303 
 
 All through the vegetable kingdom it is the same. 
 The more nearly allied the plants are, the less distance 
 have we to go backwards or downwards in the scale of 
 development to find their relations to each other. We 
 are thus ablfe to represent the relations of all the 
 members of the vegetable kingdom by a .branching 
 tree, whose root represents the lowest forms of vege- 
 table life, and whose topmost twigs represent the high- 
 est developments. Some of the twigs are completely 
 united to one another, and to the main branches ; 
 others, however, must remain apart, the branch which 
 should connect them being absent. 
 
 In the same way, on comparing the members of 
 the animal kingdom, we find that the members 
 of the various sub-kingdoms diverge far from one 
 another at their highest extremities, and that it is 
 only when we take the lowest members • of one sub- 
 kingdom that we can find their affinities with those of 
 another. 
 
 We can see little or nothing in common between 
 the lion, the bee, the cuttle-fish, and the sea-anemone. 
 It is only when we trace the. lion down to the lowest 
 member of the vertebrate series, the amphioxus, and 
 the cuttle-fish down to one of the lowest members of 
 the moUusca, the ascidian, that we see the vertebrata 
 and the mollusca, so different in their highest develop- 
 ments, closely aUied in their lowest. 
 
304 EELATIONS OP PLANTS AND ANIMALS IN TIME. 
 
 We cannot trace the relation of either the verte- 
 brates or the molluscs with the bee, and the articulate 
 sub-kingdom to which it belongs, without going down 
 as low as the annuloida, but when we have once 
 done this, the relation of all to the sea-anemone is 
 not far to seek. 
 
 But in tracing all these classes of animals down to 
 their lowest forms, we find, as we did in the vegetable 
 kingdom, that we do not progress uninterruptedly, for 
 now and then we meet with breaks in the chain, miss- 
 ing links which we cannot supply, and here, as in the 
 vegetable kingdom, if we represent the relations of 
 animals by a branching tree, we must leave blanks 
 here and there between various groups, the forms which 
 would unite them being nowhere to be found. 
 
 On looking at the distribution of animal and plant 
 life during the various ages of this earth's history, we 
 see that here, too, the relations of animals and 
 plants in time can be represented by an irregularly 
 branching tree, in the same way as the relations 
 between the animals and plants now living. 
 
 In the lowest paleolithic rocks we find nothing but 
 the traces of an amceba-like animal, but the existence 
 of such an animal renders it probable that similar 
 animals, yet lower ip the scale, and not provided, like 
 it, with a distinct shell, but merely composed of 
 naked protoplasm, were living along with it. 
 
SIMPLICITY OP PRIMITIVE FORMS. 305 
 
 It is possible that along with the eozoon other 
 animals of higher types, but unprovided with soft parts, 
 were in existence. We might, indeed, have representa- 
 tives of almost every sub-kingdom which would entirely 
 disappear and leave no trace behind them. Hydrse, 
 and sea-anemones amongst the Coelenterata,^ various 
 soft-bodied worms amongst the Annuloida, and soft- 
 bodied marine slugs and ascidians amongst the Mol- 
 lusca, as well as such creatures as the amphioxus 
 amongst the Vertebrata, might all have lived and died 
 in those primitive seas without any possibility of our 
 ever knowing it. 
 
 As we proceed upwards we find that the first plants 
 whose traces have been preserved were of the very 
 lowest forms, viz., algse, and these were succeeded by 
 plants, allied, it is true, to the club-mosses of the 
 present day, but yet resembling pines in their size and 
 in the nature of their foliage. 
 
 Amongst the first animals which we find to succeed 
 the foraminifera were hydrozoa such as graptolites, 
 annuloida such as crinoids and star-fishes, and low 
 forms of the moUusca and annulosa. 
 
 As we ascend, we find higher forms of these orders 
 
 ^ In the lecture on the Coelenterata, pp. 133-142, or animals in 
 which the hody cavity and digestive canal are not completely separated 
 from each other, the subdivisions Hydrozoa and Actinozoa were given, 
 and the name of Coelenterata was omitted by an oversight. 
 
306 GRADUAL PROGRESSION. 
 
 gradually replacing the lower ones, for in the secondary 
 age the crinoids diminish, while the sea-urchins and 
 star-fishes become more numerous. • The brachiopods 
 are no longer the dominant molluscs, for higher forms of 
 molluscous life, the gasteropods and lamellibranchs are 
 now on the increase, and cephalopods begin to appear. 
 
 The lowest forms of fishes, also, such as sharks and 
 ganoids, are at first masters of the ocean, but after them 
 come the higher teleostian fishes. 
 
 The earlier reptiles, such as the ichthyosaurus and 
 plesiosaurus, although of enormous size, were of a type 
 intermediate between fishes and reptiles, for while 
 their general characters were reptilian, their paddles re- 
 sembled the fins of fish in the number of the bones com- 
 posing their skeleton. Others, like the pterodactyl and 
 ornosaurus, were reptiles possessing bird-like characters, 
 and creatures like the archseopteryx and hesperornis 
 were true birds, but with reptile-like characters. 
 
 As we ascend still higher we find pines and cycads 
 taking the place of the lycopods, and these again are 
 succeeded by angiosperms, until we come up to the 
 present day with all its varied vegetation. 
 
 Amongst the mammals, the first that we find belong 
 to the lowest groups of the marsupials. Then we find 
 forms, such as the paleotherium and anoplotherium, 
 which present characters common to the tapir, pig, and 
 horae ; and as we go higher still we find these replaced 
 
INTERMEDIATE FOEMS. 307 
 
 by more specialized forms more nearly resembling 
 still-existing animals, and it is not until we come 
 nearly to the top of the series that we find traces 
 of the highest groups of the animal kingdom, viz., 
 monkeys. Last of all come the bones and handiwork 
 of man. 
 
 We thus observe a gradual progression in the 
 life history of the earth, both in the type dominant 
 at particular periods, and in the development of the 
 animals belonging to that type. 
 
 It is true, indeed, that we do find examples of 
 animals which have lived on generation after genera- 
 tion almost unchanged from the beginning of the 
 world's history until now, but these have always been 
 low in type. It would appear that they found a groove 
 which suited them, and had run on constantly in it, 
 whilst animals higher in the scale of existence had 
 changed or disappeared, just as we find that the lowest 
 of the population, the hewers of wood and drawers of 
 water, go oh unchanged for many generations amidst 
 all the revolutions of a country's history, and all the 
 changes of dynasty or race in its rulers. 
 
 We have seen that in order to find a relationship 
 between the various groups of the animal kingdom we 
 have had to go to the lowest forms of each. We 
 have seen also that in tracing groups backwards in 
 time we find intermediate forms which no longer 
 
 X 2 
 
308 LIFE HISTORY OP THE EARTH. 
 
 exist, and are thus able to supply the missing 
 relations between them. 
 
 We find also that in the life history of individuals 
 we get something like the life history of the earth, 
 and that where we are unable to trace any great 
 likeness between the adult individuals, we can still 
 find a great resemblance between them in their 
 youthful, or still more in their embryonic, condition. 
 
 Two embryos, perfectly alike in their earlier stage, 
 seem to start on different tracks, and to go on until 
 at last they grow into forms utterly unlike each other. 
 
 Two railway trains, starting from the same station 
 for distant towns far apart from each other, may run 
 for a considerable time on the same line, or on two 
 lines quite close together, so that there may be 
 some little difficulty at first in determining to which 
 destination either train was bound. But as they 
 proceed further and further onwards, their directions 
 become more and more unlike, so that at last it is 
 . easy to teU in what directions they are going, though, 
 perhaps, hard to believe that they both started from 
 the same point, so utterly do their courses now diverge.. 
 The further apart their destinations, the sooner does 
 the divergence between their courses begin, though, 
 where the destinations are close together, the courses 
 may be the same for a long time. Something like 
 this is found in the life-history of animals. In the 
 
LIFE HISTORY OF INDIVIDUALS. 
 
 309 
 
 adult condition the leg of the bird is quite unlike 
 that of the lizard, but, as a reference to the adjoining 
 figures will at once show, there is considerable re- 
 semblance between them in the embryonic condition. 
 
 Fig. 161. — Hinder extremity of bird (Buteo vulgaris), a, femur ; &, tibia ; 6', fibula ; 
 e, tarso-metatarsus ; e', the same piece isolated and seen from in front ; 
 iJd'd''d"', fovirtoes. 
 
 The frog and newt are nearly allied to each other, 
 and we should therefore expect that the divergence 
 between them would not begin until later on in the 
 animal's development, and so we find it. In most 
 frogs the newt-like stage is passed through after the 
 
310 DEVELOPMENT WITHIN AND WITHOUT'THE EGG. 
 
 creature has emerged from the egg, but in some 
 frogs the process of development takes place com- 
 
 L-J. 
 
 Fia. 162.— Skeleton of the foot of a reptile (lizard) (A) and a bird (B). The latter 
 is in its embryonic state, in which the resemblance to the reptile is mueh^eater 
 tban in the adult state (of. Fig! 103) ; /, femur ; t, tibia ; p, flbnla ; is, -upper, ti, 
 lower piece of the tarsus ; m, metatarsus ; i-v, metatarssdia of the toes. 
 
 pletely within the 6gg, and the animals are hatched 
 as tailless frogs. The process of development has, 
 
SPORES AND OVA. 
 
 311 
 
 in the latter case, taken place completely within the 
 ovum, and the animal quits the ovum as a frog, and 
 not, as in the ordinary case, in the form of a newt 
 which is afterwards to develop into a frog. We are 
 reminded here, although the analogy is a very loose 
 one, of the difference between the spore of the lycopod 
 
 
 'A 
 
 Fro. 163.— 1. Egg of ifj/IoSes martinicensis, twelve, days old, lower,' surface ; 
 2. Young of Hylodes as it leaves the egg; c, tail. 3. Adult male Hylodes, 
 
 and that of a fern. The spore, of the fern develops 
 first into a prothallus, from which a plant resembling 
 the parent arises, whereas in the lycopod the prothallus 
 is developed in the spore itself, so that the plant 
 resembling the parent springs at once from the spore. 
 
 In figs. 164 and 165 we have diagrams representing 
 the development of an ascidian and of an amphioxus. 
 
MOLLUSC. 
 
 Fig. 164. — Development of an Ascidian. a, the ovum. 5 and c, fissure of the ovum with endnjrenous formation 
 of cells, ending in the formation of a spherical cellular mass. Inside this, fluid coUeets so as to fonn s 
 bladder with cellular Wall. Part of th^ cell wall becomes inverted like the finger of a glove, and 
 this inversion forms the rudimentary intestinal canal. At this sta^e the embryo reminds us of the 
 coelenterata. e, Here the neural tube. S, the beginning of the spinal marrow, is being formed, it* 
 cavity still opens externally in front. Between it and the intestine (I), the chorda dnrsalis (c), the axis o1 
 the inner skeleton has appeared. In the larvse of ascidlans this rod passes along the-.tail which is casi 
 off at a later stage. There axe some very small ascidians (append icularia) which retain it through life, 
 and swim about by its means. 
 
VERTEBRATE. 
 
 Fig. 165. — Developmentof Amphioxiis. a, the ovum ; S and c. Assure of the ovum with 
 endogenous formation of cells ; e, formation of a spherical cell mass. Inside this 
 fluid collects so as to form a bladder with cellular wall. This bladder is inverted 
 at one side so as to form a cavity — the intestinarcavity. e represents a further 
 stage, and /the fully developed Amphioxus. The letters indicating the different 
 parts are the same as in fig. 164. i 
 
314 SUCCESSIVE EELATIONSHIPS. 
 
 I have already mentioned the points of resemblance 
 between them, but you see that in the adult condition 
 they differ very considerably. Yet as we trace them 
 backwards, at each step they resemble each other 
 more and more, until we find that they are absolutely 
 identical. 
 
 Nor is this merely the case with low forms of life. 
 It occurs also in the very highest. It was formerly 
 imagined that every embryo, in its development 
 from an ovum, passed successively through the dif- 
 ferent types of the animal kingdom, that it was suc- 
 cessively protozoon, hydrozoon, mollusc, annulose, and 
 vertebrate. But it has now been shown that this 
 is not the case — each embryo does not move from 
 type to type ; it retains always its own type, but it 
 undergoes specialisation in function. A vertebrate 
 animal, during its development, does not become a 
 starfish, a worm, an insect, or a snail; but at one 
 stage or another of its growth it is much more closely 
 related to these than when fully developed. In its 
 first condition it is a simple cell, and may thus be 
 looked upon as related to the lowest forms of protozoa. 
 It next becomes an agglomeration of cells, and may 
 then be regarded as related to the higher protozoa, 
 or metazoa, and, through them to the molluscs, and 
 annuloids; and as development goes on, we come to 
 a stage when the embryo, for aught one can tell, may 
 
DIFFERENTIATION BEFORE AND AFTER BIRTH. 315 
 
 be that of a fish, amphibian, reptile, fowl, or mammal. 
 At successive stages we can distinguish the fish from 
 the others, then the amphibian, next the reptile, next 
 the bird, while still we could hardly say whether the 
 embryo was to develop into a pig, an ox, a rabbit, 
 or a man. At each successive stage as the character- 
 istics of the individual become more and more marked, 
 we can distinguish between the animals more and more 
 closely allied, until at birth there can be no possibility 
 of mistake. (Figs. 166 to 173.) 
 
 But even after birth, as development goes on, we 
 get greater and greater differentiation. Not to men- 
 tion such cases as that of the axoloti amongst the 
 lower animals, we find that at a comparatively early 
 period in embryonic life man becomes differentiated 
 as a vertebrate from the other animal sub-kingdoms; 
 later on he is differentiated as a mammal from the 
 other classes of vertebrata, and later still as a man from 
 1;he other orders of mammalia. 
 
 But it is only after birth that the racial differences 
 of men appear. For the first few days of its life 
 the negro infant has a reddish-brown skin, and then 
 the pigment which gives the black colour characteristic 
 of its race makes its appearance. Later on, individual 
 characteristics appear, and distinguish the men of one 
 country from another, and one individual from another. 
 
 We thus see that all living, beings, however 
 
316 
 
 EMBRYOS OF FOUR VERTEBRATES. 
 
 Showing their close relationship at an early stage of development and gradual 
 divergence as development proceeds. 
 
 Fia. 166.— Tortoise (4th week). 
 Magnified 7 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 167.— Fowl {4tli day). 
 Magnified 7 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 168.— Dog (4th week). 
 Magnified 5 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 169.— Man (4th week). 
 Magnified 6 diameters. 
 
EMBRYOS OF FOUR VERTEBRATES. 317 
 
 Fia. 170.— Tortoise (6tli week). 
 Magnified 4 diameters. 
 
 PiQ. 171.— Fowl (8tli day). 
 
 Fig. 172.— Dog (6tli week). 
 
 Fig. 173.— Man (8th week). 
 Magnified 4 diameters. 
 
318 WHY THESE RELATIONSHIPS ? 
 
 different their appearance may be, or however 
 diverse their qualities and endowments, have this in 
 common, that they are built up of simple masses of 
 protoplasm, or cells. They are related, though many 
 links of relationship are wanting, by various forms 
 which connect them, running from the highest plant 
 to the lowest animal, and thence to the highest animal. 
 They are also related in time, for, as we trace the 
 world's history backward, we come upon forms which 
 have long ago disappeared from the earth's surface, 
 but fill up the blanks amongst those now existing ; 
 and we find, too, that all animals, however different 
 in their adult condition, are not merely alike, but are 
 indeed almost indistinguishable from one another, at 
 the earliest period of their development. 
 
 All statements which I have hitherto made are facts, 
 discovered by careful observation, tested, tried and 
 confirmed by hostile criticism and renewed observa- 
 tions of various naturalists, and may be verified by 
 any one who likes to take the trouble for himself; 
 but these facts have led to a disagreement of opinion 
 regarding their interpretation. We cannot look at the 
 animal and vegetable kingdoms, and all their relations, 
 without asking, How did they come here, and why 
 should they present these relations to each other ? And 
 around this question there is at present raging a con- 
 troversy regarding Special Creation and Evolution. 
 
, SPECIAL CREATION. 319 
 
 According to the doctrine of special creation, 
 
 each species of plant and animal was created at once, 
 
 and has undergone no change since. According to 
 
 this, some animals have gone on reproducing their 
 
 kind from the Silurian age until now. Others have 
 
 completely died out, and new ones have been created 
 
 in their stead. All the higher forms of plant and 
 
 animal life belonging to the earlier epochs, the huge 
 
 lepidodendrons of the coal age, the enormous reptiles 
 
 of the lias and oolite were created, lived for a while, 
 
 and were then swept from the face of the earth; 
 
 while their places were taken by those animals which 
 
 we have already mentioned as resembling, yet differing 
 
 from, those of the present day. These again were 
 
 swept away wholesale, and new ones, those which we 
 
 now see; were created. The ideas entertained by many 
 
 persons regarding the mode of creation have probably 
 
 been derived from the great epic poem, and cannot 
 
 perhaps be better given than in the' very words of 
 
 Milton, as quoted by Huxley in his American 
 
 Lectures : — 
 
 "The sixth, and of creation last, arose 
 With evening harps and matin ; when God said, 
 ' Let the earth bring forth'soul living in her kind, 
 Cattle, and creeping things, and beast of the earth, 
 Each in their kind.' The earth obeyed, and, straight 
 Opening her fertile womb,. teemed at a birth 
 Innumerous living creatures, perfect forms, 
 Limbed and full-grown. Out of the ground up rose, 
 
320 MILTONIAN DOCTRINE. 
 
 As from his lair, the wild beast, ■where ho wons 
 
 In forest wild, in thicket, brake, or den — 
 
 Among the trees in pairs they rose, they walked ; 
 
 The cattle in the fields and meadows green : 
 
 Those rare and solitary, these in flocks 
 
 Pasturing at once and in broad herds, upsprung. 
 
 The grassy clods now calved ; now half appeared 
 
 The tawny lion, pawing to get free 
 
 His hinder parts — then springs, as broke from bonds. 
 
 And rampant shakes his brinded mane ; the ounce. 
 
 The libbard, and the tiger, as the mole 
 
 Eising, the crumbled earth above them threw 
 
 In hillocks ; the swift stag fi>om underground ' 
 
 Bore up his branching head ; scarce from his mould 1 
 
 Behemoth, biggest bom of earth, upheaved 
 
 His vastness ; fleeced the flocks and bleating rose. 
 
 As plants ; ambiguous between sea and land. 
 
 The river-horse and scaly crocodile. 
 
 At once came forth whatever creeps the ground, 
 
 Insect or worm." 
 
 According to the hypothesis of evolution, on 
 
 the other hand, the animals and plants now living are 
 simply the descendants of those which have gone 
 before them. Each generation, perhaps differing only 
 a little from that which preceded it, has transmitted a 
 slightly altered form to that which succeeded it, and 
 this again another alteration to its successors, until 
 by successive slight alterations the form has come at 
 length to be entirely altered. 
 
 Let us take a single instance, — that of the horse : ^ 
 
 ^ For this account of the pedigree of the horse the author is indebted 
 to Huxley's American Lectures. 
 
EVOLUTION. 321 
 
 In typical vertebrates we have in the fore-arm two 
 bones, the radius and the lilna ; and in the leg, also, 
 two bones, the tibia and fibula. In the hand, and- 
 foot we have five digits. 
 
 We find, however, that the horse differs from the 
 typical vertebrate in having only one bone, the radius, 
 in the fore-leg, and one bone, the tibia, in the hind-leg. 
 Instead of having five digits it has only one — the middle 
 finger or toe — which is immensely elongated and very 
 strong, the nail covering it being converted into a 
 hoof. In these particulars the horse differs very much 
 from other vertebrates, and if the doctrine of evolu- 
 tion be correct, and the horse be really descended 
 from a common ancestor with the other vertebrata, 
 we should expect the progenitors of the horse to have 
 characters more nearly allied to the typical vertebrate 
 than those which he now presents. As we go back- 
 wards in the course of the horse's development we 
 should find its ancestors gradually getting nearer and 
 nearer to the typical vertebrate, and this, in fact, 
 we find to be the case. 
 
 The single bone of the horse's fore-leg is not a 
 radius only, but consists of the radius and ulna fused 
 together, the upper part of the \ilna, being distinct, 
 and the lower end traceable, even in the adult horse, 
 and separable in the young horse, but the shafts of 
 the two bones are completely fused. In the hind-leg 
 
 T 
 
322 
 
 PEDIGREE OF THE HORSE. 
 
 we find a somewhat similar characteristic, for the head, 
 and the lower end of the fibula also^ are united to the 
 tibia, only here the shaft of the fibula, instead of 
 being completely united to the tibia, as the ulna is 
 to the radius, seems to have simply disappeared, leav- 
 ing, however, an indication of its presence in the shape 
 of a small splint at its upper end. 
 
 In the fore-foot there seems at first sight to be only 
 one finger, but on looking at it more closely we notice 
 
 Fig. 174. — Recent Equus. 
 
 at each side of it a splint-shaped bone which is 
 the rudiment of another finger. 
 
 In the hind-foot we see the same thing. 
 
 The teeth of the horse are also peculiar, as in them 
 three substances; viz. hard enamel, somewhat softer 
 dentine, and still softer cement, are arranged in com- 
 plicated folds, the consequence of which is tliat the 
 softer part, being more quickly worn away in the 
 process of mastication, the more the horse eats the 
 more do the ridges of enamel project and form a 
 
SIMILARITY OF IMMEDIATE PREDECESSORS. 323 
 
 grinding apparatus admirably adapted for the purpose 
 of masticating the food, just as, in the rodent, the 
 more the animal gnaws, the sharper do its teeth grow. 
 The remains of ho,rses found in. all _ the formations 
 
 hind- 
 foot. 
 
 Fig. 175. — Pliocene Pliohippus. 
 
 above the middle of the Pliocene epoch entirely re- 
 semble the animals now living ; but in the earlier part 
 of the Pliocene epoch we find a horse resembling that 
 of the present day in many particulars, yet having 
 
 fore- 
 foot. 
 
 hind- 
 foot. 
 
 fore- 
 arm. 
 
 leg. 
 
 tipper 
 molar. 
 
 lower 
 molar. 
 
 FiQ. 176. — Protohippus (Hipparion). 
 
 on both the fore- and hind- feet a distinct digit at 
 either side of the large middle one, in place of the 
 small splint-bones of the horse. These toes, however, 
 though distinct, were too small to be of much use. 
 
 Y 2 
 
324 INCREASING UNLIKENESS OF EARLY FORMS. 
 
 On going back to the Miocene period, we find in 
 the Miohippus that the toes are large enough for the 
 animal to have rested upon them. The ulna in the 
 
 fore- 
 foot. 
 
 Fig. 177. — Miocene Miohippus (^AnchitUenum). 
 
 fore-arm is distinguishable in its whole length from 
 the radius. The teeth are simpler, and have more 
 distinct double roots. 
 
 fore- 
 foot. 
 
 hind- 
 foot. 
 
 Fig. 178. — Mesuhippus. 
 
 In the earlier part of the Miocene period we find 
 the Mesohippus, which has the radius and ulna entire, 
 and the tibia and fibula distinct. It has three digits 
 on the fore -foot, and the rudiment of a fourth, and the 
 teeth are simpler still. 
 
RESEMBLANCE OF THESE TO THi; TAPIR. ^ 325 
 
 On going back still further, to the Eocene period, 
 we find the oldest form of the horse known — tho 
 Orohippus. In it we have a. well-developed ulna and 
 fibula, four complete toes in the fore-foot, and three 
 in the hind, and simple teeth with double fangs. 
 
 Here, then, we find distinct evidence . of the kind 
 we should expect if the evolution theory be true, and, 
 considering how small a portion of the earth's surface" 
 has yet undergone a thorough geological examination, 
 
 fore- 
 loot. 
 
 hind- 
 foot. 
 
 fore- 
 arm, leg. 
 
 upper 
 Tnolar. 
 
 lower 
 molai'. 
 
 Fig. 179.— Focene Orohippus. 
 
 and also the necessary imperfection of the geological 
 record itself, the wonder is that we have got so much 
 evidence of this sort, and not that there is so little 
 of it. 
 
 According to the doctrine of special creation we 
 must imagine that during the Eocene period particles 
 of earth became united together into a form like, 
 and yet unlike, that of the horse and the tapir of 
 the present day — the Orohippus ; and that those par- 
 ticles were not merely agglomerated so as to assume 
 
326 THE HORSE— MILTON VERSUS DARWIN. 
 
 the form of this animal, but that they were converted 
 into flesh, blood, and bone, and then sprang from 
 the earth a living animal. At the end of the Eocene 
 period, these animals all died out, leaving behind 
 them only their bones, which we still find in a 
 fossil condition. During the next period, the Miocene 
 epoch, a similar process was repeated no less than 
 three times, each successive race of animals, the 
 Mesohippus, Miohippus, and Protohippus, resembling 
 the horse more and the tapir less. Again must we 
 imagine these animals swept off the earth at the 
 end of the Miocene period. Again, during the 
 Pliocene period, another new creation takes place, 
 and the Pliohippus of this epoch in many particulars 
 very closely resembles the horse. Again, however, 
 we must assume that the Pliohippus, like all its 
 predecessors, was removed from the face of the earth, 
 and that particles of mud again aggregated together to 
 form the horse of the present day. 
 
 On the other hand, the believers in evolution, in- 
 stead of imagining that the horse was specially created 
 in the way that Milton describes, and that the animals 
 similar to it, but not specifically resembling it, died 
 out and left no successor, consider the horse of the 
 present day to be descended from the Pliohippus and 
 the Protohippus of the Pliocene, the Miohippus of the 
 Miocene, and the Orohippus of the Eocene, all of 
 
OBJECTIONS TO EVOLUTION. 327 
 
 wUcli somewhat resembled the horse, the resemblance 
 growing less, however, as we recede from the present 
 time, while at the same time the structural peculiari- 
 ties which distinguish the horse from other vertebrate 
 animals disappear, and the relationship between what 
 the evolutionists call its ancestors and other verte- 
 brates becomes closer. 
 
 Such arguments as these, together with the general 
 facts of classification and development in the animal 
 and vegetable kingdoms, have led many thoughtful 
 men of late years to believe in the hypothesis of 
 gradual evolution, rather than that of special creation . 
 
 One great objection to the doctrine of evolution is 
 that if it were true we ought to find evolution going 
 on at the present time ; and another is, that we 
 ought , also to discover intermediate forms between 
 the different animals and plants now living as we 
 go backwards in the history of the world. 
 
 Now it is quite true that we do not find all the 
 links in the geological record that we ought. There 
 are yet very many blanks, but, as I have already men- 
 tioned, intermediate forms do occur, and the number 
 of these is increasing every day, as new parts of the 
 rocks on the earth's surface are being examined, so 
 that this argument against evolution is daily becoming 
 weaker. The distinguished geologist. Sir Charles Lyell, 
 who at first opposed the doctrine of evolution, was led 
 
328 IMPERFECTION OF GEOLOGICAL EECOED. 
 
 by the accumulation of evidence to change his mind 
 and finally to give in his adherence to it. It has also 
 to be considered that the geological record is very im- 
 perfect, not merely on account of our lack of knowledge 
 of it, but on account of the incompleteness of the 
 record itself. We can understand this if we re- 
 member that all these rocks do not represent new 
 matter on the earth's crust, but that each one was 
 formed from those preceding it, just as the increase of 
 the heap of sand in the lower bulb of the hour-glass 
 corresponds to the diminution in the upper bulb. We 
 must take from the one before we can add- to the 
 other. 
 
 The second great objection is that we do 'not 
 find evolution going on at the present day. 
 
 But we do find evolution going on at the present 
 day. The Shetland pony, the race-horse, and the 
 dray-horse are all classed by naturalists simply as 
 varieties of horse, and yet how different are they. 
 By selecting and breeding from individuals of his 
 stock presenting different qualities or peculiarities, 
 the breeder is able to produce a race of animals 
 having the properties which he desires. Perhaps this 
 is seen even more markedly in the dog than in the 
 horse. To an ordinary eye, there certainly seems to 
 be a much greater difference between a pigmy Italian 
 greyhound or a King Charles's dog, and an enormous 
 
EVOLUTION AT THE PRESENT DAY. 329 
 
 bloodhound or St. Bernard, than between a shepherd's 
 dog and a fox or wolf, and, had their bones been found 
 by us simply as fossils, we should in all probability 
 have ranked them as distinct species, if not as distinct 
 genera, although we now consider them to be only 
 varieties. In pigeons, too, we find the sarne thing. 
 All the different kinds of domestic pigeons are de- 
 rived from the ordinary rock-pigeon, and yet there 
 is a much greater difference between the fantail or 
 the pouter and the rock -pigeon than there is between 
 it and most other wild species of pigeon. Yet we 
 know that the fantail and the pouter have been pro- 
 duced by breeders simply selecting birds which pos- 
 sessed certain slight peculiarities, and choosing from 
 each successive brood only those which presented 
 those peculiarities in the most marked form, until, 
 in the course of successive generations, they had 
 succeeded in completely- altering the appearance or 
 habits of the bird. 
 
 We find also that races of men differ very much 
 from one another at the present day, that the English- 
 man is immensely higher in point of development, 
 bodily and mental, than the Australian or tne Bush- 
 man; and yet all are agreed that Englishman and 
 Australian have sprung from a common stock, and 
 spread from a common centre. How is it, then, 
 that Englishmen and Australians or Bushmen, are so 
 
330 STRUGGLE FOE EXISTENCE. 
 
 different from each other ? The most natural answer 
 to this question seems to me to be that they have been 
 living under different conditions for many generations. 
 
 We can see how these conditions would tell if we 
 take a hypothetical case, and I take this especially 
 because it illustrates the struggle for existence 
 on which so much stress has been laid in the doctrine 
 of evolution. 
 
 Supposing that a ship sailing on the southern seas 
 were wrecked, and that the men and women built 
 themselves two rafts and tried to make for land. On 
 both rafts provisions were scanty, and gave out before 
 they reached the shore. Let us suppose that, maddened 
 by hunger, the stronger men snatched from the weaker 
 all the eatables they possessed, and left them to starve. 
 
 When the whole provision had been exhausted the 
 rafts grounded on land, but one of them stra,nded on 
 a barren shore where there was very little to eat, and 
 the other, driven by a contrary current, reached one 
 where there was abundance of food. In each case the 
 survivors who stepped on shore would be divided into 
 two classes. There would be a few of the stronger 
 men who had .wrenched the food from the others, and 
 there would also be in aU probability one or two others, 
 perhaps small and physically feeble, not strong enough 
 to hold their own in a struggle with the most power- 
 ful of their competitors, but who were yet capable of 
 
SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST. 331 
 
 mucli endurance, and had been able to sustain life 
 ■without food for a longer period than some of their 
 fellows who were larger and more muscular than they. 
 Amongst this latter class would in all probability be 
 one or two women. 
 
 The struggle for bare existence begun on the raft 
 would now be continued in the case of those who had 
 landed upon the barren island, but here they would 
 all be forced to separate in search of food. Berries 
 might be found here, shell -fish there, and upon these 
 the small but tough and enduring individuals could 
 manage to find an existence of which their stronger 
 neighbours could no longer deprive them, as they 
 would have dispersed in search of food for themselves. 
 Here the stronger, no longer able to support them- 
 selves, would die off. The small individuals would 
 marry and propagate, and of their children only the 
 toughest would be likely to survive. Hence would 
 arise a small race, capable of subsisting upon little 
 food, although probably ready to gorge themselves, 
 like the Australians and Hottentots of the present day, 
 whenever an opportunity occurred. 
 
 On the other island the case would be different. 
 Here the stronger, finding abundance of food, would 
 gain an easy livelihood, and, marrying the women, 
 drive away their weaker fellows, who would thus live 
 and die childless. In the next generation the same 
 
332 NATURAL SELECTION— TOWN AND COUNTRY. 
 
 thing would be repeated, and thus we should get a 
 large and powerful race such as we find inhabiting 
 the South Sea Islands at the present day. 
 
 The effect of natural selection was well seen in the 
 American Civil War. It is usually supposed that if 
 you take a number of men from the country, and an 
 equal number of townsmen, the countrymen would be 
 stronger and more enduring than their urban neigh- 
 bours, but in the American War it was found that the 
 •latter, although often smaller and apparently weaker 
 than the countrymen, endured the fatigues and priva- 
 tions of campaigning better than they. At first sight 
 this seems astonishing, but a little reflection will show 
 that it is just vs^hat might have been expected. It has 
 been calculated that the wear and tear of town Hfe 
 would in the course of a generation or two kill off all the 
 townspeople if they were not constantly recruited from 
 the country. All townsfolk are therefore descended 
 from country folk, and it is evident that in the course 
 of a generation or two only those will survive who are 
 best fitted to resist the deleterious influences of town 
 life, or, as we put it for simplicity's sake, only the 
 descendants of the toughest will survive. If we then 
 take, a batch of townsfolk and a batch of countryfolk, 
 and subject them to privation and fatigue, it is evident 
 that the townsfolk ought to have the advantage, because 
 amongst the countryfolk are a number of those whose 
 
ARTIFICIAL SELECTION. 333 
 
 parents or grandparents would have succumbed to the 
 conditions of town life and left no progeny behind 
 them. These persons owe their very existence to the 
 favourable conditions under which -their ancesto 
 have lived ; they inherit less robust constitutions than 
 the townsmen, and therefore break down before 
 them in a campaign where the conditions of life are 
 unfavourable. 
 
 The reason why we now find breeds of fantails and 
 pouters amongst pigeons, and Italian greyhounds, blood- 
 hounds, and St. Bernards amongst dogs, is that the 
 ancestors from which these breeds are descended pos- 
 sessed certain peculiarities which caused them to be 
 preserved by their owners when the other members 
 of each successive brood were destroyed. In the case 
 of these breeds of pigeons, and also in the cases of 
 some of the dogs, the selection was an artificial one, 
 certain qualities having been arbitrarily chosen by 
 the owners of the animals, and the individuals pos- 
 sessing them preserved and allowed to propagate, 
 without reference to their fitness for obtaining susten- 
 ance for themselves in the event of their being cast 
 adrift and compelled to wander, without a master, 
 alone in the wide world. In many cases, the peculi- 
 arity nurtured artificially by breeding would be a fatal 
 drawback to their ability to sustain themselves, and 
 the breed would probably die out so soon as the food 
 
334 NATURAL SELECTION. 
 
 supplied to them by their masters was stopped, and 
 they had t6 struggle for themselves. 
 
 The cases of the men whom we h^ve fancied to be 
 cast adrift upon *a desert island, and of those brought up 
 in town and country, are quite different from those of 
 the animals just referred to. The selection of the 
 men is not artificial and • arbitrary, but natural ; in 
 other words, it depends upon the fitness of the in- 
 dividuals to fight the battle of life, and to survive 
 amidst the circiimstances by which they are surrounded. 
 The reason why we get races differing in physical 
 strength or in power of endurance is that men multiply 
 quicker than their means of subsistence, that some, 
 consequently, must die off, and that those die who 
 are least fitted to obtain a livelihood in the circum- 
 stances which surround them. In the barren desert 
 island of which we have spoken, the small and 
 enduring race survived in the fertile island the 
 large and strong, and if we suppose that a part of 
 the population from each island were shipwrecked in 
 the same manner as their ancestors, but that the 
 small and enduring people from the barren island 
 were cast upon the fertile coast, and the large and 
 muscular people from the fruitful country were wrecked 
 on the barren soil, the members of each race would 
 undergo modifications, the toughest among the large 
 and muscular people surviving on the one hand. 
 
ADAPTATION TO CIRCUMSTANCES. 335 
 
 and the largest of the enduring and tough race on the 
 other. But the populations resulting from the modi- 
 fications of each race might be very different from 
 those descended from the original inhabitants. The 
 small and tough people would grow larger and more 
 muscular, but they inight never reach the size and 
 muscularity of the primitive population descended 
 from the original sailors of the raft ; after a residence 
 of many years on the barren island the large and 
 muscular people again would become smaller and 
 more enduring than before, though they might never 
 become so small, or attain to the power of endurance 
 of the original individuals descended from the small 
 sailors. 
 
 Let us suppose, again, that some members, from 
 whatever cause, were forced to migrate from any of 
 these settlements into an unhealthy district. There 
 some of them would die off, and others would survive. 
 Let us suppose that from some reason those who 
 were able to withstand the miasms were of a darker 
 complexion than were those who had died. Their 
 colour would then gradually grow darker and darker, 
 until at length they might become perfectly black, 
 when they would enjoy almost perfect immunity from 
 the fever poison, just as is the case amongst negroes. 
 
 In all these instances the large men, the tough men, 
 and the dark men, survived because they were best 
 
336 NATURAL SELECTION AND EVOLUTION. 
 
 able to obtain the means of living, and to resist 
 most' successfully the causes of death amidst the 
 circumstances in which they were placed. 
 
 This same struggle for existence goes on, not merely 
 amongst men; but (as has been the case for innumer- 
 able ages), amongst the lower animals and plants, and 
 is supposed by Darwin to be the chief, though not 
 the only cause, of the gradual evolution of the forms 
 of animal and plant life which exist upon the earth's 
 surface at the present day. 
 
LECTURE XVI. 
 
 THE MOSAIC RECORD AND EVOLUTION. 
 
 We have now seen that- the various forms of plant 
 and animal life are linked together, and that the 
 embryos of all animals pass through various stages, 
 in which they resemble lower forms of life before 
 they reach the one which they shall finally assume. 
 
 Now, the question arises, How did these things all 
 come to be so ? Is it not because a>nimals and plants 
 are all derived from one simple, common form of life, 
 and present these resemblances to each other because 
 they are members of one great family, all descended 
 from the same parent, and all more or less closely 
 related to each other ? We are accustomed to despise 
 the inquisitors who tortured Galileo in order to make 
 him assert that he had been mistaken in believing 
 that the earth went round the sun, instead of the 
 sun round the earth. The old philosopher is reported 
 to have said, even after he had been forced to sign 
 a recantation, " It moves for all that,!'; 
 
 z 
 
338 IS THE EVOLUTION THEORY ATHEISTICAL ? 
 
 Here the accused was wiser than his judges, who 
 had before them an example which they disregarded, 
 but which we ourselves would do well to follow. 
 Eighteen hundred years ago, when the new doctrines of 
 Christianity were beginning to be talked about, a 
 number of the Jewish rabbis were greatly exercised in 
 their minds regarding them, and thought it their duty 
 to put a stop to them. But the aged Gamaliel, at 
 whose feet Paul had sat, wisely warned them. " Let 
 them alone, for if this counsel or this work be of men, 
 it will come to nought; but if it be of God, ye Cannot 
 overthrow it; lest haply ye be found even to fight 
 against God." 
 
 Then, as now, the proverb was true, " Great is 
 truth, and it will prevail." If the doctrine of evolu- 
 tion be false, it will ere lojag be destroyed by the 
 advance of knowledge and the acquirement of new 
 facts, but if it be true, it will prevail, whether we like 
 it or no. 
 
 And now let us see what difference it will make 
 to us if it be true. One great objection to it is that 
 it is said to be atheistical, and that it ousts God 
 from His own universe. But is this so ? 
 
 The question is, how animals and plants now living 
 around us came to be here. Few, I presume, will 
 deny that if God pleased to make them by one grand 
 process of gradual evohition, iqstead of by numerous 
 
EVOLUTION OF MATTER. 339 
 
 acts of special creation, it was in His power to do so ; ' 
 and the question for us is, not whether the animals 
 and plants in question were made by God or not, 
 but how He made them. 
 
 Even when we consider the doctrine of evolution in 
 its very widest sense, including, not merely evolution of 
 living beings, but of matter in the. form in which we 
 are acquainted with it, the doctrine is not atheistical, 
 as some would have it to be. According to the notions 
 now generally accepted by physicists, there was a period 
 at which the solid masses of the earth, sun, planets, 
 and stars did not exist, and when the matter composing 
 ihem was widely diffused, in a nebulous condition, 
 through space. Nay, more : if the speculations of 
 Lockyer be correct — and the accumulated evidence 
 which he brings in support of them almost forces us 
 to believe that they are — the very chemical elements 
 themselves must be looked upon simply as one kind of 
 matter under differently aggregated forms. In the 
 very beginning, then, of this universe, so far as our 
 knowledge goes, matter was diffused equally through 
 space. Then atom coalesced with atom, singly or in 
 groups, and, then the most primitive of our elements, 
 such as hydrogen, were formed. Further and further 
 aggregation took place, the equally diffused matter 
 became more and more condensed, in certain parts 
 forming distinct nebulae, which went on shrinking morp 
 
 z 2 
 
3t0 FUTUEE OF THE UNIVERSE. 
 
 ;aiid more, and increasing in density as they diminished 
 in size, until, to take a single instance, the matter 
 ■which uniformly filled a space much greater than that 
 now occupied by the entire solar system became con- 
 densed into the bodies of the sun and planets, leaving 
 between them only that thin, impalpable substance to 
 which we give the name of sether. The shock of the 
 atoms, as they struck against each other, not only gave 
 them a motion of revolution, but raised them to a tem- 
 perature of which we have scarcely any conception, and 
 which rendered the very existence, not only of com- 
 pounds, but of many of the actual metals themselves, 
 impossible. Gradually the smaller planets cooled 
 dowjD, and as the cooling process went on the higher 
 metals were formed ; compounds of carbom, (oxygen, and 
 hydrogen became possible, steam condensed into water, 
 organic matter appeared, and, by and by, in the course 
 of long ages, some of these developed into living proto- 
 plasm. After this began the process of the evolution 
 •of the animals which we now see. 
 
 But now let us follow the same process into the 
 future. The sun, which is now the source of light, and 
 life, and energy to its subsidiary planets, '^iil in time 
 grow cold J but if there be, as experiments seem to 
 show, some friction in sether, the rate at which the 
 planets revolve around the sun will gradually diminish, 
 they will approach nearer arid nearer to it, arid liltiniately 
 
FATE OF MATTER AND ENERGY. 341 
 
 fall successively into it, the impact of each again raising 
 its temperature to an enormous extent. Untold ages 
 may be necessary for this process, but by and by the end 
 will come and the whole of the solar system will be 
 swallowed up in the sun. Nor is this all. The sun itself, 
 and all its attendant planets, appear at present to be 
 circling round some point in the Pleiades. The same 
 process will go on with them until the whole of the matter 
 in the universe shall be collected into one huge ball. 
 
 A similar change is going on with regard to energy. 
 No energy is lost any more than matter ; but yet, .at 
 every change of form a certain amount is converted into 
 radiant heat. When we transform heat into light, or 
 heat into electricity, or .heat into motion, or electricity 
 into motion or chemical action, or chemical action again 
 into heat, however we change its form we never get 
 back the whole of the original energy which we trans- 
 formed — a certain portion is always converted into 
 radiant heat. We may compare this to the process of 
 changing money. Each time that we convert pounds 
 into francs, francs into dollars, dollars into piastres, we 
 lose a little by the exchange^ The money-changer 
 always retains a certain percentage for his trouble, and. 
 such percentage is lost to v^s. ■ If we' went on changing 
 our money sufficiently often, we should finally have 
 none left, as the percentage of the money-changers 
 would have absorbed it alL In the same way, at each 
 
342 ORIGIN OP THE UNIVERSE. 
 
 change of energy in the universe, some is converted 
 into radiant heat. By and by the whole of the energy 
 in the universe ■will be converted into radiant heat, 
 and the whole of matter into one huge ball. Here, 
 then, we seem to have an arrangement which we 
 may compare to an enormous clock set going ages and 
 ages ago, which will go on for ages and ages to come, 
 but, at some remote period, will certainly run down. 
 And now the question naturally arises. Who wound it 
 up ? Matter and energy, such as we know them, 
 ■ appear to be practically coming to an end, and we seem 
 almost forced to believe that their original position and 
 properties must have been impressed upon them by 
 some power apart from either. Supposing this to be 
 the case, the Power who gave the atoms their position 
 and properties must, from a knowledge of these, almost 
 necessarily have been able, not only to declare the end 
 from the beginning (Isaiah xlvi. 10), but to know what 
 was going on in every space and at every time, and 
 must indeed be not only omnipotent, but omniscient. 
 
 Thus, in the doctrine of evolution, carried to its very 
 remotest limits, there is nothing atheistic, but the very 
 reverse. 
 
 The next objection is that we are told in the Bible 
 that God did make animals after a certain fashion, and 
 that it was the fashion of special creation, and not 
 of evolution. Here then, the Bible, and what seems 
 
MOSAIC RECORD. 343 
 
 to be the evidence of the Book of Nature, are in 
 contradiction. Here, again, we must ask. Is it so ? 
 What we read in Genesis is this, ".And God said, Let 
 the waters bring forth abundantly the moving creature 
 that hath life, and fowl that may fly above the earth in 
 the open firmament of heaven. And God created 
 great whales, and every living creature that moveth, 
 which the waters brought forth abundantly, after their 
 kind, and every winged fowl after his kind : and God 
 saw that it was good. And God blessed them, saying, 
 Be fruitful, and multiply, and fiU the waters in the seas, 
 and let fowl multiply in the earth. And the evening 
 and the morning were the fifth day. And God said, 
 Let the earth bring forth the living creature after his 
 kind, cattle, and creeping thing, and beast of the earth 
 after his kind : and it was so. And God made the 
 beast of the earth after his kind, and cattle after their 
 kind, and , everything that creepeth upon the earth 
 after his kind : and God saw that it was good." This, 
 it seems to me, is a wide, general description of crea- 
 tion, and the only argument that can be drawn from it 
 in favour of special creation of species, is from the 
 words "after his kind." But what does "kind" 
 mean ? Does it mean species, or does it signify type ? 
 I believe the word to be a general one, and that we 
 have no right to limit it to species. If we say that it 
 means type the statement is generally correct, and here 
 
344 EVOLUTION OP MAN. 
 
 I can see no discrepancy between the first chapter of 
 Genesis and the doctrine of evolution. 
 
 But by far the most serious objection to the hypo- 
 thesis is its necessary extension to man. If we accept 
 it, we must give up the belief which we all learned 
 in our childhood, that a single man was created out 
 of lifeless mud, became a living soul, and was the 
 progenitor of the whole- human race. We must 
 believe, instead, that men are descended, not from 
 any of the species or genera of monkeys now 
 living, but from creatures which were the cohimon 
 ancestors of man and monkeys, and much lower in 
 the scale of existence than either. If such progenitors 
 existed, they were probably somewhat like the lemurs 
 of the present day, though still lower in the scale of 
 existence than they. From these hypothetical common 
 ancestors of man and monkeys, two different races 
 started. Man developed onwards towards greater 
 and greater intellectual power; he learned to light 
 fires, and gained all the power which this could give 
 him ; learned to communicate with his feUows, not 
 merely by verbal signs, but by visible ones, either 
 in the way of drawing or writing, and thus was 
 enabled to pass on the accumulated knowledge of 
 one generation to another. The monkeys, on the 
 other hand, developed rather physically than intellec- 
 tually ; they became admirably adapted for an arborial 
 
MAN NOT A MONKEY. 345 
 
 life, but the satisfaction of their hunger, or the grati- 
 fication of their other appetites, were the utmost ends 
 to which their mental development enabled them to 
 attain. Believers in evolution do not, however, fancy 
 that a monkey can now become a man, or that 
 monkeys of the present day can ever develop into 
 men ; for between men and monkeys there is a great 
 gulf fixed. They may have started from a common 
 point long ago, but the races have now diverged so 
 far that it is perfectly hopeless for the one ever to 
 pass into the other. 
 
 The doctrine of a common descent of man and 
 monkey from some lower animal seems at first sight 
 to cut at the root of all religious beliefs. But again 
 we must ask the question, Does it do so ? Many 
 people seem to believe that, according to the theory 
 of evolution, men are monkeys, because men and 
 monkeys are descen,ded from a common ancestor. 
 But this is not the case. A man is a man, and 
 not a monkey, whether his first progenitors became 
 men by special creation from a lump of clay, or 
 whether they were developed from a man-like animal. 
 We are not pagans, robbers, murderers, manstealers, 
 living by rapine and dealing in bloodshed, and yet 
 it is almost certain that we are descended from 
 ancestors who were pagans, robbers, murderer?, and 
 manstealers. Nor does it matter now whether these 
 
346 DEVELOPMENT OP RESPONSIBILITY. 
 
 our ancestors were suddenly changed from heathen 
 pirates to Christian herdsmen and agriculturists, or 
 whether a generation or two elapsed during the 
 change. The change has taken place, and that is 
 enough. 
 
 But it may be said that this is no true analogy, 
 for this was merely a change of manners — the men 
 were still men, the pagans and robbers had souls 
 as well as the Christians, whereas the monkey and 
 lower animals have no soul. If we believe that man 
 was created from a lump of clay, we can clearly 
 see how he could have a soul, and an animal not, 
 whereas upon the hypothesis that he was developed 
 from a' monkey this is impossible. 
 
 But is it so ? 
 
 We are reasonable beings, responsible for our 
 actions, knowing good from evil, and awarding praise 
 to one and punishment to another, but we were not 
 always so. We were not responsible to the civil 
 law for our actions until we had attained the age 
 of twenty-one, though we were responsible to the 
 criminal law long before ; and even at an age when 
 a court of justice would hold us irresponsible, our 
 parents and teachers regarded us as knowing good from 
 evil, and punished or praised us as our actions de- 
 served. But even they would regard us as irresponsible 
 at one period of our existence. No one blames or 
 
EMBRYOS OF FOUR VERTEBRATES. 347 
 
348 EMBRYOS OF FOUR VERTEBRATES. 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF LIFE AND HUMANITY. 349 
 
 praises the new-'born child for its actions. Every 
 one blames and praises the same child when it has 
 grown up. 
 
 The man is responsible though the child was 
 not, and at some point in his life he passed 
 to the condition of responsibility from that of 
 irresponsibility, although it would be diificult 
 to say where the point was. 
 
 In the existence of every man there is a point at 
 which he becomes a living being, at which he is 
 regarded as passing from death to life, A child 
 born some months before its time is not looked upon 
 as a living. child, yet it would .be hard, or impossible, 
 to fix the precise period at which th.e child passes 
 from death to life. 
 
 Nay, 'more, there is a point in the existence of 
 every man in which he becomes a human being. 
 The ovum from which he is developed is not a human 
 being; the embryo which succeeds the ovum is, at 
 certain stages of its development, undistinguishable 
 from that of a fish, a tortoise, or a bird, and, at a later 
 period, from that of a dog or rabbit (Figs. 166-173). 
 
 It cannot be said, then, that the embryo which after- 
 wards develops into a man is a man, or has a soul, 
 and yet by and by it will so develop, although- wo 
 cannot fix the exact point at which it becomes a 
 human being. ' 
 
350 THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE RACE. 
 
 Now the question of evolution is simply whether 
 the race of mankind has been developed in the course 
 of time in the same way as that in which every in- 
 dividual man has developed from an embryo, and 
 the difEculties regarding the passage from an animal 
 to a man and the possession of a soul are the same in 
 the case of the individual man as they are in the 
 case of the race. 
 
 The fact that each man has been developed from an 
 embryo like that of the lower animals, and was at one 
 period of his existence a lifeless, irresponsible being, 
 does not lessen his responsibility now, nor would it in 
 the most infinitesimal degree alter man's duties or 
 responsibilities if it were proved that his first ancestors 
 were descended from apes, or animals lower than apes, 
 instead of being formed from a lump of clay. There 
 is a point in every man's life at whiqh he becomes 
 a human being, and similarly, if men were developed 
 from animals, there was a point in the existence of the 
 race at which the beings composing it ceased to be 
 lower animals, and began to be men, although it 
 might be impossible to fix the exact point. 
 
 But the next difficulty is that this assumption as to 
 the evolution of man from the lower animals is thought 
 by many to be in direct contradiction to the Bible 
 narrative, although, in the case of the lower animals, 
 the Biblical account and the record of nature may be 
 
PRIMITIVE MAN ACCORDING TO MILTON. 351 
 
 readily reconciled. But let us read the Bible nar- 
 rative again : " And the Lord God formed man of the 
 dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the 
 breath of life, and man became a living soul." Here, 
 again, it seems to me that this account is so general 
 that it may coincide equally well with evolution and 
 with the doctrine of a special creation, for the state- 
 ment is simply that God formed man out of the 
 dust of the ground. It does not say how He made 
 him : and out of the dust of the ground man certainly 
 is formed. Even supposing that evolution be true, it 
 was out of the elements which existed on the earth's 
 surface long before the advent of life that the first 
 amoeba-like creature was created, and every succeeding 
 being, beast, bird, fish, or reptile, was equally formed 
 out of the dust of the ground, and to the dust every 
 one must sooner or later return. 
 
 Again, it may be objected that, according to the evo- 
 lution doctrine, primitive man was an ape-like animal, 
 and that, according to the scripturar account, he was 
 higher and better than his descendants. But here, just 
 as ia the case of our notions regarding the mode of 
 creation of the lower animals directly from the earth, we 
 have, to a great extent, drawn our conclusions, not from 
 the Bible, but from Milton's Paradise Lost, where the 
 poet describes Adam and Eve walking about in the 
 garden : — : 
 
352 PRIMITIVE MAN ACCOEDING TO GENESIS. 
 
 "All kind 
 Of living creatures, new to sight and strange. 
 Two of far nobler shape, erect and tall, 
 God-like erect, with native honour clad 
 In naked majesty, seemed lords of all, 
 And worthy seemed ; for in their looks divine 
 The image of their glorious Maker shone, 
 Truth, wisdom, sanctitude severe and pure — 
 Severe, but in true filial freedom placed. 
 Whence true authority in men : though both 
 Not equal, as their sex not equal seemed ; 
 For contemplation he and valour formed, 
 Eor softness she and sweet attractive grace ; 
 He for God only, she for God in him. 
 His fair large front and eye sublime declared 
 Absolute rule ; and hyacinthine locks 
 Round from his parted forelock manly hung 
 Clustering, but not beneath his shoulders broad : 
 She, as a veil down to the slender waist, 
 Her unadornfed golden tresses wore 
 Dishevelled, but in wanton ringlets waved 
 
 As the vine curls her tendrils — " 
 # * . # ♦ # * 
 
 " So passed they naked on, nor shunned the sight 
 Of God or angel ; for they thought no ill : 
 So hand in hand they passed, the loveliest pair 
 That ever since in love's embraces met — 
 Adam the goodliest man of men since born 
 His sons ; the fairest of her daughters Eve." 
 
 This is a very beautiful picture, but it is not at all 
 the one given in Genesis, for there we find that maui 
 after the fall, -was a being in the condition of the savages 
 of the Stone age in Europe, clad in skins, and tilling 
 the ground with implements made either of wood or 
 
THE MOSAIC BECORD AND EVOLUTION . 353 
 
 stone, the use of metals being unknown until genera- 
 tions afterwards. And yet this being, low in the scale 
 as we would term him, is represented as being so much 
 higher in wisdom than Adam before the fall, that he 
 was to be reckoned almost as a God in comparison,, for 
 in Genesis, iii. 22, we read that "The Lord God said, 
 Behold ! the man is become as one of us, to know good 
 and evil." So that, although the Miltonic- account of 
 primitive man is an absolute contradiction of the 
 notions of evolution, the Mosaic account is in conformity 
 with them. 
 
 But a still more serious difficulty yet remains. Even 
 supposing that we reconcile the Scriptural account of 
 the creation of man with the theory of evolution, how 
 are we to reconcile the account of the creation of 
 woman ? For it is said that " The Lord God caused 
 a deep sleep to fall upon Adam, and he slept : and He 
 took one of his ribs, and closed up the flesh instead 
 thereof; and the rib, which the Lord God had taken 
 from man, made He a woman, and brought her unto 
 the man. And Adam said. This is now bone of my 
 bones, and flesh of my flesh : she shall be called 
 Woman, because she was taken out of Man ! There- 
 fore shall a man leave his father and his mother, and 
 shall cleave unto his wife ; and they shall be one flesh." 
 If we are to take the words of the Bible as an accurate 
 account of the creq,tion of woman, I do not see how 
 
 A A 
 
354 USE OF SCRIPTURE. 
 
 we are to reconcile it with the hypothesis of evolution. 
 If this be a true history, of which every word has a 
 literal signification, that hypothesis must he false, but, 
 if evolution be really a fact, we must consider whether 
 the interpretation we have been accustomed to place 
 upon this account be reaUy the true one. 
 
 First of all, let us consider what practical end was to 
 be served by the account given of the creation in Genesis. 
 The Scripture is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for 
 correction, for instruction in righteousness, that the man 
 of God may be perfect, thoroughly furnished unto all 
 good works. The use of Scripture is explained by St. 
 Paul as a practical one, and we know that the practical 
 doctrines which are drawn in the Bible from the first 
 chapters of Genesis are the observance of the Sabbath 
 day and the sanctity of marriage. Because God made 
 the earth in six days, therefore man is to remember the 
 Sabbath day to keep it holy ; and because woman was 
 taken out of man, therefore man and wife shall cleave 
 together, and shall be no longer twain, but one flesh. 
 
 Some years ago a fierce controversy raged regarding 
 the age of the earth, and the date of the appearance of 
 man. It was considered that the days mentioned in 
 Genesis must needs have been of the same length as 
 our days, and that therefore the accounts of Scripture 
 were irreconcilable with the teachings of geology, 
 but, thanks in great measure to Hugh Miller, people 
 
IS OUK INTERPRETATION CORRECT? 355 
 
 have now generally come to accept the days of Genesis, 
 not as periods of twenty-four hours, but as long epochs 
 of thousands, perhaps millions of years. 
 
 The time has now arrived when we must consider 
 whether our interpretation of the story of the creation 
 is true or not. We are accustomed, too much, perhaps, 
 to consider the Bible as written entirely for us, and to 
 judge it exclusively by our own standards. We forget 
 that it was not written even chiefiy for us ; that the 
 books of Moses were first of all written for the chosen 
 people, and were for them sacred guides for a very 
 much longer period than they have ever been to us of 
 the western nations. It is marvellous how wonderfully 
 they do suit us, belonging to a different race, living 
 under different circumstances, and having a very dif- 
 ferent degree of knowledge from the ancient Jews; 
 but we must always remember for whom they were 
 written, and consider that what was written was 
 primarily for their instruction in righteousness. 
 
 But Paul, in teaching the Corinthians, did not begin 
 by telling them everything at once. He " fed them 
 with milk, and not with strong meat, as they were 
 able to bear it, for strong meat belongeth only to 
 them who are of fuU age, even those who by reason 
 of use have their senses exercised to discern both good 
 and evil." 
 
 Now, supposing that the hypothesis of evolution be 
 
 A A 2 
 
356 A COMMON QUESTION AND PEAGTICAL ANSWER. 
 
 true, what good would it have done to have taught the 
 early Jews all these things that we hear of now? 
 What did it matter to them whether rocks were sedi- 
 mentary or igneous, whether they contained fossils or 
 not? What use was it for them to know that the 
 first forms of life were simple protoplasm, which 
 afterwards became developed into higher types untU at 
 length man was reached ? It would simply have con- 
 fused them. The great lesson for them was that in the 
 beginning God created the heavens and the earth ; 
 that He created man, and therefore they must obey 
 Him ; that He had rested when His work was over, and 
 therefore they must keep the seventh day ; and that 
 He had made woman out of man, and therefore man 
 and wife must cling to one another. 
 
 One of the first questions that every child asks its 
 parent is, " How did baby brother come ? " and the 
 parent answers, not by giving a full explanation of 
 all the mysteries of birth and development, but by 
 saying, " God gave baby brother to papa and mamma, 
 and therefore you must be kind to him." A full 
 explanation would to the child be unintelligible, 
 and if intelligible injurious; and is it not possible 
 that the Bible account of his own creation, given in 
 his childhood to man for his guidance, is like the 
 account given to children now of the baby brother's 
 birth for their guidance ? 
 
LITERAL INTERPRETATION IMPOSSIBLE. 357 
 
 It may be said that this is playing with Scripture ; 
 that the words of the Bible must be taken literally, 
 cr else we may give up the whole book. 
 
 But it is impossible always to take the language of 
 the Bible literally ; we must, in some instances at 
 least, take it generally. As an example, in the 
 book of Judges we find, "And the Lord was with 
 Judah ; and He drove out the inhabitants of the moun- 
 tain; but could not drive out the inhabitants of the 
 valley, because they had chariots, of iron." If we 
 take the verse literally we must believe that the 
 power of the Lord was unable to overcome the chariots 
 ,of iron. In the fifth chapter of Genesis also we 
 read, " In the day that God created man, in the like- 
 ness of God made He him ; male and female created 
 He them, and blessed them, and called their name 
 Adam, in the day when they were created." Here 
 we find that Adam appears as a plural noun, whereas 
 ;m the next verse it seems to be a singular one ; 
 tut we find that singular and plural nouns are uSed 
 indiscriminately. In the tenth chapter we find, " And 
 the sons of Ham ; Gush, and Mizraim, and Phut, and 
 Canaan. And Canaan begat Sidon his firstborn, and 
 Heth, and the Jebusite, and the Amorite," and so on. 
 
 Here we find individual names, and names of tribes, 
 mixed up promiscuously. In the first chapter of 
 Judges, too, we find it written : " And Judah said unto 
 
358 PERFECTION RELATIVE, NOT ABSOLUTE. 
 
 Simeon his brother, Come up with me into my lot, 
 that we may fight against the Canaanites ; and I like- 
 wise will go with thee into thy lot. So Simeon went 
 with him." Here we seem to have a very definite 
 account of two brothers speaking to one another, but 
 in the next verse we find that the brothers Judah 
 and Simeon were not meant at all, as they had been 
 dead hundreds of years, but the tribes of Judah and 
 Simeon were meant. In all these passages the words 
 cannot be taken in their literal signification. 
 
 Another objection, however, may be raised — that 
 because the Bible is the Word of God, it must be 
 perfect; and that, therefore, it must be perfectly 
 adapted not only to those to whom the record was 
 first addressed, but for us also living in later times. 
 
 This assumption, however, is incorrect; because we 
 find that the laws given by Moses to the children of 
 Israel in the name of God were not perfect, but were 
 adapted to them in the condition in which they were 
 at 'the time. For Christ says : " Moses, for the hard- 
 ness of your heart, gave you this precept, but from 
 the beginning it was not so." 
 
 Seeing, then, that Paul graduated his instructions 
 to the people whom he was addressing, first giving 
 them milk, and afterwards strong meat; that Moses 
 modified his laws to the people whom he was ruling, 
 giving them laws which were not perfect, but suited 
 
OBJECT OF THESE ARGUMENTS. 359 
 
 to their circumstances ; that in some parts of Scripture 
 at least we cannot assign a literal meaning to the 
 words without destroying the meaning of the passage ; 
 may it not be allowable to believe that the account 
 of the creation of woman given in the first chapter 
 of Genesis is not a literal description of fact, but a 
 parable, such as those so freely employed by Christ 
 in His teachings to those whom He addressed 1 For 
 though Christ gave full explanations to His disciples 
 when alone and apart. He spoke to the multitude only 
 by parables, according as they were able to bear it. 
 
 To many a one the explanations and arguments I 
 have just adduced will seem perfectly inadequate, and 
 they wiU unhesitatingly reject the doctrine of evolu- 
 tion ; to others they may seem very doubtful, and not 
 to be accepted at present — at the very utmost to be, 
 looked upon only as provisional. If this doctrine of 
 evolution be false, they are not required ; but if the 
 facts already accumulated, and which are being added 
 to .every day, should lead some to believe it to be 
 true, what I have just said will show that they need 
 not therefore cast aside their former' religious beliefs, 
 any more than they have done so because they may 
 now believe the seven days of creation to be long 
 epochs, and not periods of twenty-four hours each. 
 
 Now it is very remarkable that the doctrine of 
 evolution, be it true or no, exactly agrees with the 
 
360 EVOLUTION IN PARADISE. 
 
 Mosaic account in reference to the place where man 
 was created, whether this creation took place by 
 special act, or by evolutionary process. It took 
 place in a paradise, where the air was balmy, where 
 fruit-trees were plentiful, and where there were no 
 furious carnivorous animals to prey upon or attack 
 man. For man differs from the lower animals in 
 the absence of a furry or hairy coat (although curi- 
 ously enough such a coat is possessed by unborn 
 children). Now, if for a moment we suppose ourselves 
 driven to conclude that, in respect of his physical 
 nature, man was evolved from a lower form of life, he 
 could not have lost his hairy coat unless the air had 
 been soft and balmy, for the essence of the doctrine is 
 that the fittest only survive, and the fittest to survive 
 exposure to heat or cold would not have been the 
 naked, but the hairy individuals. Had not food been 
 abundant and easily masticated, like the fruit of trees, 
 man would not have lost the projecting muzzle and 
 larger jaw of the apes, as a small jaw would be less 
 fitted for the mastication of hard and innutritions food. 
 Had man been liable to the attacks of wild animals 
 in this paradise, he could not have lost the large 
 canines which form such powerful implements of 
 defence in the gorilla. Nor would he have remained 
 so long helpless, and unable to take the least care of 
 himself, unless in such a paradise as we have supposed. 
 
SITE OP PARADISE. 361 
 
 where all the conditions of life were favourable. The 
 children, which were long in developing, would have 
 been at a disadvantage in the struggle for existence ; 
 they would have died oif ; and the progenitors of the 
 human race could never have developed into men. 
 
 The site, too, of the paradise, according to the evolu- 
 tion theory, agrees exactly with that indicated in the book 
 of Genesis, and, indeed, until I saw a map by Haeckel, 
 the most prominent defender of the evolution theory 
 in Germany, I was puzzled to understand the Mosaic 
 account. It reads thus : " And the Lord God planted 
 a garden eastward in Eden ; and there He put the man 
 whom He had formed. And out of the ground made 
 the Lord God to grow every tree that is pleasant to 
 the sight, and good for food'; the tree of life also in 
 the midst of the garden, and the tree of knowledge of 
 good and evil. And a river went out of Eden to water 
 the garden; and from thence it was parted, and 
 became into four heads. The name of the first is Pison : 
 that is it which compasseth the whole land of Havilah, 
 where there is gold ; and the gold of that land is good : 
 there is bdellium and the onyx-stone. And the name 
 of the second river is Gihon ; the same is it that com- 
 passeth the whole land of Ethiopia. And the name of 
 the third river is Hiddekel : that is it which goeth 
 toward the east of Assyria. And the fourth river is 
 Euphrates." 
 
362 FOllMER EXTENT OP ASIA. 
 
 Now the river Euphrates to some extent fixes the 
 position of the garden, but many commentators, un- 
 able to find the other three rivers, place the garden 
 near the source of the Euphrates, although it does not 
 there part into four. Other commentators, however, 
 after a careful discussion of the former notions, have 
 decided that Eden must have been somewhere near 
 the place where the Euphrates emptied itself into the 
 Persian Gulf, for the only river that could be identified 
 with the Hiddekel is the Tigris, which, like the 
 Hiddekel, "goeth toward the east of Assyria." The 
 name also is nearly identical, for^ cutting off the aspirate, 
 we get Dekel, Diglath, Diglis, Tigris. My great diffi- 
 culty, however, in accepting this explanation was that 
 no river which joined the Euphrates before it entered 
 the Persian Gulf could by any possibility compass 
 the land of Ethiopia.^ Let us suppose, however, that 
 at the time when man was put into the Garden of 
 Eden the continents of Asia and Africa extended much 
 further than they do now ; that they reached, in fact, 
 to the line of islands which we see dotting the Indian 
 Ocean, from beyond the Cape of Good Hope to Ceylon. 
 Then the Euphrates and Tigris, continuing their course 
 to the sea in the same direction that they do now, 
 
 ' The position of the land of Ethiopia, or Gush, is by no means 
 definitely settled, but the balance of evidence seems to point to a 
 position south of Egypt. 
 
EXPULSION FROM PARADISE. 3G3 
 
 might be met by such a river as the Zambesi, or one 
 which, like it, might be said to compass the land of 
 Ethiopia. Whethor the Pison were the Indus or not 
 does not greatly matter. It was probably either the 
 Indus or some river passing down from the country 
 of the Amalekites ^ through the present Red Sea, which 
 would then be dry land. 
 
 The site thus indicated with the utmost precision 
 by Moses is perhaps the only one upon the surface 
 of the whole earth which fulfils the demands of the 
 doctrine of evolution. For, as we have already seen, 
 according to this doctrine man must have been de- 
 veloped in a genial climate, in a spot where abund- 
 ance of food existed. Now such a place might perhaps 
 be found in a similar latitude in America, but it is 
 agreed by aR evolutionists that man could not possibly 
 have been developed in the new world, because his 
 affinities are altogether with the monkeys of the 
 old world and not with those of the new. This is 
 the only point, too, from which man eould have 
 spread in such a way as would agree with the dis- 
 tribution of races which we now find. 
 
 But man did not always continue to live in this 
 Paradise. He was driven out. According to the theory 
 of evolution, he was probably forced to migrate from 
 
 ' In exploring the Dead Sea, Lieutenant Maury found a valley like 
 a river channel running southwards from the Dead Sea. 
 
364 INCREASING POPULATION— WANT OF FOOD. ' 
 
 this sacred spot' for the same reason that races have 
 been forced to migrate ever since, namely, want of food 
 due to increasing numbers. These increasing numbers 
 would, first of all, consume the natural fruits of the 
 trees; they would then be forced to tiU the ground, 
 and, finally, some of them would be obliged to leave 
 altogether. We read in Genesis that the woman was 
 cursed by her conception being multiplied, and that 
 the man was cursed by having to till the ground by 
 the sweat of his brow. While in Paradise he was 
 naked, but after he left it he wore coats of skin. 
 He had not yet learned the use of metals, and his tools 
 and implements must have been of wood or stone. 
 For, according to Genesis, it was not until several 
 generations afterwards that Tubal-Cain taught men the 
 use of brass and iron. 
 
 However man was formed, then, the Mosaic account 
 corresponds with what we find in the progress of civili- 
 sation — the Stone age precedes that of bronze and iron. 
 The Paradise whose locality was indicated by Moses 
 has now disappeared beneath the waters of the Indian 
 Ocean. Whether its disappearance was preceded by 
 some great volcanic eruption or not, and whether such 
 an eruption is referred to in the mention of the flaming 
 sword which turned every way, we cannot tell, but we 
 have no indication in Genesis of the submergence of 
 Paradise until the time of the flood. 
 
THE DELUGE. 365 
 
 Althougli the waters of the deluge suddenly burst in 
 upon man at the last, yet it was not a sudden event, for 
 we are told that Noah had been preparing an ark for 
 120 years before. We read that God said unto Noah, 
 " I, even I, do bring a flood of waters upon the earth, 
 to destroy all flesh, wherein is the breath of life, from 
 under heaven ; and everything that is in the earth 
 shall die ; " but how He said this we are not told. We 
 usually imagine, although there is no record whatever of 
 it, that Noah was warned in a dream, but it may have 
 been that he was made aware by the evident sinking of 
 the land, which would sooner or later bring it beneath 
 the level of the ocean. We are misled by the picture- 
 books and narratives with which we become familiar ifi 
 childhood. We are apt to think of the rain which fell 
 for forty days and forty nights as being the chief 
 element in the flood, but a little reflection will show 
 that this is impossible, and that only the breaking up 
 of the fountains of the great deep, or, in other words, 
 the submergence of the land, and consequent rush of 
 the waters of the ocean over it, could have produced 
 such a deluge as is described. And this rush, according 
 to the hypothesis which we have been considering, was 
 just such a one as would carry the ark towards the 
 point in4icated by Moses, viz. Mount Ararat, for if the 
 land on which we have supposed Paradise to be situated 
 sank along with that part of Asia lyin;^ to the northward 
 
366 PARADISE SUBMERGED IN THE INDIAN OCEAN. 
 
 of it, Ararat is the first high land which would be 
 likely to come at all near the surface of the water, and 
 upon which the ark might therefore strand. After a 
 certain period, the land again rose, until the face of it 
 was dry, but we do not know that the whole of the 
 submerged land again appeared above the level of the 
 waters, and probably it was at this time that Paradise 
 for ever disappeared from the eye of man. 
 
 Long afterwards, however, and even to our own 
 day, traditions have survived of a paradise situated 
 somewhere in the far east, and this paradise is nearly 
 always spoken of as an island. You will remember, 
 too, that in the account, I gave you of the Egyptian 
 funeral, the deceased was judged before he was allowed 
 to cross the lake or river to' his place of sepulture, 
 and in our own day we speak of crossing the river 
 of death before the soul can enter into bliss. Whether 
 the expressions so common in our hymns are realJy 
 remnants of the time when men talked of Paradise, 
 from which they had once come, and to which they 
 hoped one day to return, but which was separated 
 from them by the deep waters, we cannot tell, but 
 I think it is evident, from the Egyptian custom already 
 alluded to (page 18), that they are not simply derived 
 from the crossing of the Jordan into the Promised 
 Land by the Israelites, but have come down from a still 
 earlier period. 
 
TEADITIOXS OF THE FLOOD. 367 
 
 After the ark stranded on Ararat, and its occupants 
 
 dispersed, men spread from a fresh centre over the 
 
 earth. It is perfectly astonishing in how many different 
 
 parts of the world we find traditions of the flood and 
 
 of the ark, and it almost seems that all those nations at 
 
 least which have spread to the north, east, aad west of 
 
 Mount Ararat, have preserved some such legend, but 
 
 whether such is the case with the natives of Australia 
 
 and Africa I do not know. If, however; they should 
 
 have no tradition of the flood, this might, on the one 
 
 hand, be put' down to the low character of the race ; 
 
 but on the other hand, there is a possibility that these 
 
 races might have migrated so far from the original site 
 
 of Paradise as not to be involved in the deluge which 
 
 destroyed it, and which swept from the face of the 
 
 earth aU the nations living around it. 
 
LECTURE XVII. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF INDIVIDUALS. 
 
 Ethnologists and philologists are generally agreed 
 that men have spread from a common centre, but 
 they differ considerably in their notions regarding 
 the geographical position of this centre. Some phil- 
 ologists at least are inclined to fix this point in the 
 central tableland of Asia, not very far from the sources 
 of the Euphrates, or from Mount Ararat ; but if this 
 be the centre from which man has spread, it is 
 difficult to account for the presence of tuft-haired 
 men in two districts only, and those so far apart as 
 Papxia and Southern Africa. But if we believe that 
 man spread really from two centres, viz., the original 
 cradle of the human race, or Paradise, from Avhich 
 early forms of man, such as the Papuans and Hottentots, 
 had migrated before the deluge, and again from a 
 second centre in the highlands of Armenia, the diffi- 
 culty will disappear. 
 
DEVELOPMENT OP INDIVIDUALS. 369 
 
 In discussing the early history of onr race I have 
 given much that is speculative, and we may now 
 turn with advantage to a » more practical view cf 
 the subject — the development of individuals, and the 
 causes which affect such development. However much 
 we may differ in opinion regarding the manner in 
 which man was created, ail are agreed that the different 
 nations spread from a common centre, and rose from 
 one common stock. The qualities which every indi- 
 vidual possesses are ascribed, both by evolutionists 
 and their opponents, to hereditary descent. Non- 
 evolutionists must believe in this to a greater extent 
 than evolutionists, for they hold that in aU animals 
 specific qualities have been transmitted from parents 
 to children without variation, ever since the original 
 creation of the species. Evolutionists, on the other 
 hand, believe that while these qualities are trans- 
 mitted from parents to children, they may be modified 
 by external circumstances, and both evolutionists and 
 non-evolutionists believe that external circumstances 
 modify the qualities hereditarily transmitted, to such 
 an extent as to lead to the formation of varieties at 
 least, if not of species. In the case of mankind, some 
 might call Negroes and Englishmen distinct species, 
 while others would call them only varieties. The differ- 
 ence here is reaUy in regard to the idea with which the 
 word "species" is associated in the mind of each. 
 
 B B 
 
370 EXTERNAL CONDITIONS BEFORE BIRTH. 
 
 We have already seen how the conditions of life may 
 lead to modification in the size, strength, and mental 
 qualities of a race, and there can be no doubt whatever 
 in the mind of any one, that external conditions have 
 much to do with the development of every individual. 
 
 An alteration in the external conditions to which the 
 egg of the fowl is subjected during incubation will 
 modify the form of the chick so, that the local appli- 
 cation of. warmth to certain points on the surface of the 
 egg' will lead to the production of a monstrosity instead 
 of to the growth of a well-formed bird. In human 
 beings, also, external circumstances may exercise a 
 powerful influence upon the individual previous to 
 birth, and the fright of a mother during gestation has 
 not unfrequently left its melancholy impress upon the 
 character and mental faculties of her offspring. If 
 the doctrine of evolution be true, and the various 
 stages of development in men and animals before 
 birth correspond to various stages in the evolution of 
 the races to which they belong, it is only natural to 
 believe that a similar process takes place, to some 
 extent, after birth. We appear to see this, indeed, 
 in the case that we have already mentioned, of the 
 negro, where the black pigment, so distinctive of the 
 race, does not exist in the skin at birth, but only 
 appears afterwards. Before birth the changes which 
 would correspond to enormous periods of time in the 
 
ANCESTEAL INFLUENCES. 371 
 
 progress of the race are run through very rapidly in 
 the individual. After birth the changes are much 
 slower, and the slowness increases -with increasing age. 
 It may be pushing the analogy too far to say that an 
 English boy, for example, corresponds in his mental 
 characteristics to the pagan Saxon ancestors from whom 
 he is descended, and yet, to some extent, we seem to 
 find in boys the same delight in fighting, the same 
 restless activity, and the same heedless cruelty which 
 distinguished those old pagans. In a novel, called 
 The Guardian Angel, Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes has 
 illustrated, with his usual felicity, the idea that a man's 
 character is, to a great extent, compounded from that of 
 his a.ncestors, modified, of course, by the conditions to 
 which he himself has been subject. The heroine of 
 his story, while floating down a river, passes an old 
 burial-place, and is supposed to see, dancing around it, 
 a number of ghostly figures. Some of them are solid 
 and distinct, while others are so vague and shadowy 
 as to be barely visible. Between these two kinds of 
 figures are intermediate forms. All thesQ are recog- 
 nised by the girl to be her ancestors. They are more 
 or less all represented in her own being, and, so to 
 speak, live in her. The solid and distinct forms re- 
 present her immediate ancestors, whose individuality, 
 transmitted to her, makes up a great portion of her 
 whole being, while the vague and shadowy forms 
 
 B B 2 
 
372 RESEMBLANCES TO ANCESTORS. 
 
 are her remote forefathers, whose qualities, diluted 
 by much admixture through successive generatibns, 
 take hut a small part in the composition of her 
 being. 
 
 A second idea illustrated by Professor Holmes in the 
 same work is that the qualities of different ancestors pre- 
 dominate in a man's character at different periods of his 
 life. _ One frequently notices this in regard to children, 
 and sees also that such changes take place very rapidly in 
 them. One week an infant may be said to be like his 
 father, during another like his mother, and in another 
 like his grandfather, or some other distant relation. 
 If the doctrine of evolution be true, it seems probable 
 that at this early period of the child's life the re- 
 semblances which he shows are not really to father or 
 mother, but to distant ancestors from whom his father 
 and mother have derived certain traits, and that later 
 on in his life he approximates more and more nearly 
 to his immediate ancestors. There can be no doubt 
 that in many men the personal appearance at one 
 period reminds one of their maternal ancestors, and at 
 another of their paternal ones, and it does not seem 
 unlikely that changes in the individual of which these 
 are the outward signs may be transmitted more or less 
 to any children they have during these periods, and 
 that this may be one reason of the diversity in appear- 
 ance and character between the children of one family. 
 
EXTERNAL CIECUMSTANCES AFTER BIRTH. 373 
 
 But external conditions, even after birtt, have a great 
 deal to do witli the development of the individual, and 
 may lead to the production of entirely different 
 characters, even when they act upon individuals having 
 characteristics almost exactly identical. Look at a 
 chubby-faced boy and say, if you can, what he 
 will turn out. Look at a venerable man, honoured 
 and respected, whose hoary head is found in the way 
 of righteousness, and at a decrepit beggar, crouching, 
 squalid, and despised. How truly different are the two, 
 and yet they may have started from the same point. 
 But, supposing them to do so, w© see that every 
 step of their course leads them farther and farther 
 apart. At the stage of boyhood you stiU feel 
 that the reclamation of the one and the downfall of 
 the other are alike possible. At early manhood you 
 feel that though the one who has started fairly may 
 yet fall, the one who has taken the wrong turning has 
 not much chance of recovery, and that it is nearly 
 impossible in complete manhood for the depraved sot 
 to become the honoured citizen, and that in old age 
 there is between the bad and the good a great gulf 
 fixed, over which neither can pass to the other. The 
 man who has sown tares cannot reap wheat. "For, 
 as a man soweth, that shall he also reap; he that 
 soweth to. the flesh shaU of the flesh reap corruption, 
 but he that soweth to the spirit shall of the spirit 
 
374 PEOCBSS OF DEGRADATION. 
 
 reap life everlasting." Now, how has the man whom 
 we have figured to ourselves sown to the flesh ? He has 
 yielded to all the merely animal impulses of his nature, 
 he has lived for the present and not for the future. 
 He is typified by Bunyan in Pilgrim's Progress as 
 Passion, and not as Patience. He will have his 
 good things now, and will not wait for them here- 
 after. In boyhood he will not learn because it involves 
 confinement, attention, and labour, all of which are 
 more or less disagreeable to him, and he will rather 
 play about in the streets, an occupation which yields 
 him pleasure for the moment. At first he may have 
 had some slight power of self-control, but day by day 
 he loses it, arid his will grows weaker and weaker for 
 want of exercise. His animal passions daily increase 
 in strength; until his' power of self-command is 
 entirely gone, and he is no longer the ruler but the 
 slave of his appetites. He now takes to drink, because 
 it makes him feel stronger and happier for the moment, 
 and he continues to take it, regardless of the conse- 
 quences. He dislikes work more and more, and is only 
 forced to it by want. The work which he occasionally 
 does he gets through as perfunctorily as possible. He 
 cares not for reputation, he recks not that he loses his 
 chance of future employment by his negligence, all he 
 thinks of is the present moment. And so from bad to 
 worse he goes, becoming weaker, more demoralised. 
 
PKOGRESS TOWAEDS PERFECTION. 375 
 
 and more miserable at every step, until finally, lie sinks 
 into a drunkard's grave. : 
 
 The other, on the contrary, follows the example 
 of Patience, and not of Passion ; he is content with 
 discomfort now in order that he may have pleasure 
 hereafter. In his home he learns to submit to the 
 lawful authority of his parents, to control his natural 
 impulses in accordance with their commands. .He 
 sees cake on the table, and he knows that preserves 
 are in the cupboard. His natural instincts lead 
 him to take both, because they are very pleasant 
 to his palate, and would give him momentary enjoy- 
 ment, but he foregoes the present pleasure, not only for 
 the sake of avoiding the pain of punishment, but for 
 the greater pleasure of the approbation of his parents. 
 At school he learns to sit still, although he would much 
 rather be running about. He learns to fix his attention 
 upon his lessons, although it would be very much 
 pleasanter for him to draw pictures upon his slate, or 
 propound riddles to his companions. He learns to rule 
 his temper, and to keep quiet even when irritated. 
 Day by day his power of self-control increases by 
 exercise. Day by day he becomes more accustomed 
 to act, not on account of the pleasure or pain of the 
 present moment, but with an eye to future advantage 
 or safety. He looks not only at his own things, but 
 also at the things of others, and in doing this he 
 
376 UPWARD DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 realises the truth of the Scripture, " Give, and it shall 
 be given unto you ; good measure, heaped up, pressed 
 down, shaken together, and running over, shall men 
 give into your bosom. For with what judgment ye 
 judge, ye shall be judged ; and with what measure ye 
 mete, it shall be measured to you again." He judges 
 himself, he examines his actions whether they be right 
 or wrong ; he chooses the good, and refuses the evil ; 
 thus he escapes the condemnation of his fellows, and 
 thus, loved and honoured, he passes through life, and 
 his hoary head becomes to him a crown of glory. 
 
 How different have been the courses of these two men, 
 starting, as they apparently did, from the same point. 
 Why was it that the one took the wrong course, and 
 the other the right one ? Partly, no doubt, it was 
 due to the force of external circumstances, and partly, 
 also, to powers and deficiencies in the boys themselves, 
 which were inherited from their parents. 
 
 In the instance we have just considered, we have sup- 
 posed the child. in each case to be exactly the same, and 
 the different courses to be entirely due to external cir- 
 cumstances. In the one case the boy has a happy home, 
 is well taught, is kept out of the way of temptation ; at 
 school he is well trained and has good companions. As 
 a young man, circumstances are favourable ; he is kept 
 from vice by home influences, by the example of good 
 companions, and still more by the influences of religion. 
 
DOWNWARD DEVELOPMENT. 377 
 
 Trained up as a child in the way he should go, when 
 he is old he does not depart from it. He passes 
 through the temptations of youth, and the trials of 
 business in middle life. Possibly, like Agur, he had 
 neither poverty nor riches, but was fed with food con- 
 venient for him, so that he was neither full and denied 
 God, saying, " Who is the Lord ? " nor so poor, that he 
 stole, and took the name of his God in vain. So he 
 passed safely, successfully, and happily through life, 
 because the external conditions under which he was 
 placed were favourable to him ; while, if they had been 
 adverse, he would have taken the o^her road by 
 which we see the chubby and innocent child, left to 
 itself by no fault of its own, but, let us suppose, by the 
 grievous misfortune of its parents' death, going down to 
 disgrace and ruin. With no one to guide it, it seeks the 
 pleasure of the present moment. Thrown with others 
 like himself, or worse than himself, to play in the 
 streets, he learns to steal, to lie, to swear ; he knows 
 that if he steals he may be imprisoned, but thinks 
 it rather manly and noble to do so if he could only 
 avoid detection. He learns to swear, to drink, to 
 smoke, because he sees men around him doing the 
 same, and wishes to be manly. He seeks the pleasure 
 of the present moment, at first because he knows 
 no better, and afterwards because by habit he has 
 lost the desire to do otherwise. He has shirked 
 
378 INHERITED CONSTITUTION. 
 
 the discomfort of learning and preferred the pleasures 
 of play, and so as he grows up he can find no profitable 
 employment. His labour is worth little, and what he 
 does earn he is apt to expend in the pleasure of getting 
 drunk. He may be married and have children, but he 
 looks to his own things and not to the things of others ; 
 he selfishly cares for his own pleasures, and leaves 
 them to exist as best they can. They in turn care 
 nothing for him ; his home is uncomfortable, his wife 
 constantly quarrels with him, his very children despise 
 him. He cared nothing for them while they were 
 young and helpless, and so when he becomes old and 
 decrepit they leave him to his fate. And now, to 
 modify the words of one of the paraphrases — 
 
 " . . . . mark his end : want doth assail 
 When all his strength and vigour fail ; 
 Want like an armed man doth rush 
 The hoary head of age to crush." 
 
 In these two examples we have been considering 
 the case of two persons whom we have supposed to 
 start with the same qualities, bodily and mental, and 
 whose different courses and different nature have 
 been entirely due to the effect of different external 
 circumstances 
 
 But we must now consider that we very rarely 
 find two persons with exactly the same bodily and 
 mental constitution. One may start with strong 
 
MORAL INVERTEBRATES. 379 
 
 passions, and may proceed through life without a 
 corresponding increase in his power of self-control, 
 and he will therefore be liable to succumb to many 
 temptations. Another may likewise have strong pas- 
 sions, but, having a strong will and much self-control, 
 he may successfully resist the temptations which prove 
 too strong for the other. A third may have neither 
 strong passions nor much self-control, and may there- 
 fore under favourable circumstances easily follow a 
 correct course, while, if temptation arises, he has little 
 or no power to overcome it. A moral jelly-fish, with- 
 out backbone, he adapts himself to any mould into 
 which he may be put. 
 
 The late M. de Metz, of Mettray, had a Keformatory 
 for children belonging 'to the criminal classes, and his 
 experience was that it cost more trouble to reform a 
 lymphatic than an energetic ruffian. When once the 
 latter got into the right groove he was not likely to 
 leave it, but the sluggish nature was liable to relapse 
 if left to itself or placed within the reach of bad 
 influences. The will is a potent influence for good or 
 evil, and its exercise and training is perhaps the most 
 valuable lesson in education. As Tennyson says :-^ 
 
 " well for him whose will is strong I 
 He suffers ; but he will not suffer long ; 
 He suffers, but he cannot suffer wrong ; 
 Tor him nor moves the loud world's random mock, 
 Nor all Calamity's hugest waves confound. 
 
380 POWBE OF T^E WILL. 
 
 But ill for him who, bettering not with time, 
 Corrupts the strength of heaven-descended Will, 
 And ever weaker grows thro' acted crime, 
 Or seeming-genial venial fault 
 Recurring and suggesting still." 
 
 As M. de Metz found, and as we see every day, some 
 children have strong and others weak wills. But how 
 ■4s^t that they thus come to differ ? On inquiry we 
 probably find that the parents of the one were likewise 
 strong, and those of the other weak. Step by step 
 backwards, when we know their ancestry, we are often 
 enabled to trace the same thing, modified in one direc^ 
 tion or another by the influences to which the child's 
 ancestors have been subjected. As Mrs. Harriet Beecher 
 Stowe remarks, in one of her works, " we are the sum 
 of a number of factors, stretching back to all eternity." 
 If we picture to ourselves what the children of the 
 two men whose course we have mentally followed will 
 be like, we shall at once see that the children of the 
 good man are likely to be good, not only because they 
 are placed in more favourable circumstances, but be- 
 cause his own good tendencies, strengthened by use, 
 have been transmitted to them. And that the chil- 
 dren of the bad are likely to be bad, not only because 
 of their unfavourable surroundings, > but because they 
 have inherited from their father the evil tendencies 
 which he has strengthened by custom, and the feeble 
 will, which he has rendered yet feebler by want of 
 
SURVIVAL OF THE GOOD. 381 
 
 exercise. If the children of each of these men were 
 put into the very same circumstances from which each 
 started, the children of the good man would have a 
 chance of being even better than their parent, while 
 the children of the bad man might become worse 
 than he. Every day, looking around us, we see veri- 
 fied the words of Scripture, that the sins of the father 
 are visited upon the children, even unto the third and 
 fourth generations. It, perhaps, may never have 
 occurred to us why God is said to visit the sins unto ■ 
 the third and fourth generations, whereas He is said to 
 show mercy unto thousands of those who love Him 
 and keep His commandments ; but if we only look at 
 the two faces, we shall see that the descendants of the 
 sot are likely to become extinct in the third or fourth 
 generation, whereas those of the good man may go on 
 until the end of world, if each succeeding generation 
 follows in the footsteps of its parents. 
 
 It may seem very hard that some are thus pre- 
 destined, as it were, to destruction, while others are 
 predestined to happiness, and that not for any fault 
 or virtue of their own. It was not the fault of the 
 drunkard's children that their father was a sot, 
 nor is it any virtue in the children of the good 
 man that their father has been good. However far 
 we follow the race back, generation by generation, 
 still we find the same thing, that each generation 
 
382 PREDESTINATION. 
 
 inherits from the preceding one qualities, mental, moral, 
 and physical, which determine its power to follow any 
 course, and the start in life which determines the 
 direction of that course for good or evil, although such 
 course may be afterwards modified by other circum- 
 stances. It may seem to us unjust that such should be 
 the case, but so it is ; and even now, when we seek to 
 explain it, we can say no more than Paul did to the 
 Eoman with whom he was arguing, that so it is. The 
 Roman says, " Why doth he yet find fault ? for who 
 hath resisted his will ? " Paul answers, " Nay, but, 
 man, who art thou that repliest against God ? Shall 
 the thing formed say to him that formed it. Why hast 
 thou made me thus ? Hath not the potter power over 
 the clay, of the same lump to make one vessel unto 
 honour and another unto dishonour ? " This is a hard 
 saying, but still it is the teaching alike of physiology 
 and of Scripture. Many a man is apparently doomed 
 from his birth to a course of crime and of misery, 
 unless some external force be applied which will change 
 the direction of his career ; and it is one of the great 
 privileges of ministers of the Gospel that they have 
 in such cases a great and exceptional power to effect 
 this desirable' result. But how are they to do this? 
 There can be no doubt whatever of the power which a 
 firm religious belief wiU exercise over man's conduct, 
 but on this part of the question I will not enter. It 
 
CAUSES OF INTEMPERANCE. 383 
 
 is dealt with fully and completely by others more 
 competent than I. I shall rather restrict myself to 
 those points with which I am more particularly con- 
 versant. 
 
 And first let us take up the question of the use of 
 strong drink, a custom which does more to ruin men, 
 body and mind, than almost aU others put together. 
 Why does a man drink ? We very frequently use 
 the expression "thirsty soul," without thinking in 
 the least of its meaning. I remember once reading a 
 story of an old drunkard who complained bitterly that 
 his neighbours "aye spoke o'm drinking, but they 
 never spoke o' his drouth." Yet it was the drouth 
 that impelled him to drink. Now this drouth is, I 
 believe, of two kinds. The craving for drink may 
 depend either on a condition of the body generally, or on 
 a condition of the stomach alone. Where it is a condi- 
 tion of the stomach, a substitute may, I believe — nay, 
 I know — sometimes be used in the form of' a Httle 
 sal-volatile with tincture of red pepper, which causes in 
 the stomach a sensation of warmth like that produced 
 by the action of alcohol, but lacks its ruinous aftej- 
 efifects. Where the craving proceeds from a condition 
 of the body generally, and not of .the stomach alone, we 
 must try to find out the causes of it, and remove them 
 if possible. Now the bodily condition which causes 
 desire for alcohol is generally one of depression. It 
 
384 TREATMENT OF INTEMPERANCE. 
 
 may be that a man at first takes it in order to stimulate 
 him above his natural powers — to make him more 
 witty, more attractive, more lively, more apparently 
 intelligent than he naturally is ; or he may take it 
 simply for the sake of custom or companionship ; but 
 even in the case of these persons, and in many cases, 
 from the first, the habit is -generally due to their feeling 
 below par — or not up to the mark, as they term it. 
 They have a sinking at the pit of the stomach, a feeling 
 of languor and depression, of melancholy, sometimes 
 withovit apparent cause, and they take alcohol to cheer 
 them up, and to remove or make them forget their 
 misery, to do away with their apparently causeless 
 despondency or their real misery. Where the habit of 
 drinking has once been acquired, the only safety for 
 the drunkard is for him to leave off entirely, and he 
 may be aided in this by taking something, such as I 
 have mentioned, to relieve the craving, and at the 
 same time a tonic to strengthen his body generally. 
 The case of the author of the Sinner's Friend is one of 
 the most striking, and has not, I think, received the 
 attention which it deserves. He struggled and strove 
 in vain to break himself of the habit of drinking. 
 Every now and again, in spite of prayers, tears, and 
 penitence, he yielded to temptation ; resistance seemed 
 vain, until at length he began to take a simple 
 tonic medicine, and firom that time to the day of 
 
DIMINISHED TEMPTATION. 385 
 
 his deatli a drop of alcoholic liquor never passed 
 his lips. 
 
 But another thing is to remove temptatioli. Some 
 men are able to remain sober so long as drink is kept 
 away from them ; but when it is brought near them 
 they cannot resist it, and even when they can do so, 
 once, twice, or thrice, they may succumb to repeated 
 temptation, as a poor woman complained, " I can get 
 my husband past three public-houses, but I cannot get 
 him past sixteen." We ought, I think, to do some- 
 thing to lessen the number of public-houses; but 
 the mere diminution of public-houses will not stop 
 drinking. So long as the wish to drink exists men 
 will gratify it, and the chief thing is to remove the 
 desire for drink. But this depends on several different 
 causes. Many men go to public-houses because their 
 homes are uncomfortable, and they have no amusement 
 or employment there to occupy them after their hours 
 of labour are over. Others are driven to these houses 
 because they feel a want arising from ungratified 
 appetite. Their food is, perhaps, good of its kind, but 
 it may be badly cooked and unsavory, and they do not 
 care, perhaps, to eat so much of it as they would other- 
 wise do ; and they resort to the public-house to supply 
 the craving thus occasioned. 
 
 We cannot all at once make homes comfortable and 
 teach wives to cook, but, as far as possible, we should at 
 
 C C 
 
386 COOKERY CLASSES 
 
 once set to work to do this. Classes for cookery ought, 
 I believe, to be established in every school, and a know- 
 ledge of cookery should be as imperatively required in 
 the education of every girl as a knowledge of A B c. 
 
 Much has already been done to make evenings 
 comfortable by awakening in men and women new 
 interests by the diffusion of useful knowledge, by 
 cheap and at the same time interesting and attractive 
 periodicals, magazines, books, and papers. Colportage 
 has done much to carry these into homes where they 
 would otherwise have been unknown, and much yet 
 remains to be done in this way. 
 
 Lectures, too, are another- most valuable means to this 
 end. I know a clergyman in a wretchedly poor district 
 of London, who, every week, if not oftener, has lectures 
 for the men and women in his parish — lectures on 
 various subjects, history, travel, chemistry, natural 
 philosophy, natural history, various branches of science 
 illustrated by experiments, diagrams, or the magic- 
 lantern. By these he not only keeps numbers of men 
 out of the public-houses for the time during which they 
 are present at the lecture, but he awakens in them, to 
 some extent, higher tastes. 
 
 But men are not to be raised all at once. Homes 
 cannot be made all at once happy. Some men do not 
 care for lectures or reading, but wish for social com- 
 panionship; They like to smoke a pipe along with 
 
BEER-HOUSES AND COFFEE-TAVERNS.- 387 
 
 their neighbours,* and drink a glass of beer. Now, for 
 such men the establishment of coflfee-houses and tea- 
 taverns is most valuable. There they can smoke 
 their pipes, and discuss with their friends either the 
 occurrences happening in their own street or the politics 
 of the kingdom. 
 
 But some of them will not be content with drinking 
 either coffee or tea : they want beer. Now if they were 
 supplied with beer alone, of good quality, and were pre- 
 vented from drinking spirits, I believe they would be 
 kept out of harm. In Germany I have seen men and 
 women sitting for hours playing dominoes and drinking 
 beer, while the men, at least, smoked; but the beer 
 was light, not like our heavy ale, and they arose in 
 two or three hours from their amusement and from 
 their beer-jugs nothing the worse. I believe that 
 while tea-taverns and coffee-houses will supply the 
 wants of some, if we want to keep others from be- 
 coming sots we must establish for them beer-houses 
 where they can have light sound beer to drink while 
 they are smoking, where they can discuss politics, and 
 where, possibly, they may have the intervals of con- 
 versation enlivened by music. We must, so far as it 
 is possible, put. down the drinking of whisky, gin, and 
 brandy ; and if we can only do so by replacing them by 
 light, wholesome beer, let us have the beer-houses by. 
 all means. But let us not be content with them ; let 
 
 c c 2 
 
388 EFFECTS OF LIGHT., 
 
 lis seek to lead those that frequent them to something 
 better. Remembering that Moses did not give to the 
 Israelites a perfect law, but only one which was as 
 good as they could bear, and that Solon did the same 
 for the Athenians, let us lead them on step by step, ' 
 not running the risk of utter failure by trying to make 
 them all at once take a step towards perfection to 
 which they are quite unequal. 
 
 But even if we partly succeed in reclaiming 
 drunkards by these means, shall we be able bo 
 keep them from returning to their former habits ? 
 We have seen that M. de Metz could reclaim the 
 energetic criminal, who had the vigour to continue 
 the right course when once he was in it; but that 
 those limp, lymphatic individuals — creatures without 
 a backbone, as they are sometimes termed — were 
 always liable to fall back. Now what makes people 
 '.limp and lymphatic ? They have, no doubt, more or 
 less inherited the tendency from their parents, but 
 in many instances this inherited tendency is greatly 
 increased, and the limpness and weakness may even 
 be generated by unfavourable conditions to which the 
 child has been exposed. 
 
 Now, one of these is want of light. Even in frogs, 
 light has ah effect upon the changes which take place 
 in their tissues. They live more quickly, they breathe 
 more actively, when exposed to light than when kept 
 
DISLIKE TO FAT. 389 
 
 in darkness. The same thing has been noticed in some 
 of the lower animals, and light is really a true tonic. 
 
 Improper food is another cause. We sometimes see 
 children, even of apparently healthy parents, growing up 
 weak and flabby, and perhaps dying off in early manhood 
 from consumption and other causes. One great cause 
 of this is improper food, and notably a deficiency of 
 fatty food. Fat meat implies abundant feeding in 
 oxen, and fat meat is a dear article of food ; but still 
 more so is butter, and the dearness of butter is one 
 of the most common causes of weakness in childhood 
 and consumption in adolescence. Instead of butter, 
 the child gets marmalade and jam, but these are not 
 fat. Sometimes you will find that children will care- 
 fully cut away the fat from their meat, and refuse to 
 eat it. They suffer in consequence, and yet the child's 
 instinct is right. If it were able to run about in the 
 open air the whole, day, it might possibly take the fat 
 with pleasure, but it finds that to eat solid fat is to 
 bring upon itself nausea, harder to be borne even than 
 pain. This tendency in the child is not to be counter- 
 acted by corporal punishment. Fat it ought to have, 
 but it should have fat in the form in which it can 
 digest it. If we were asked to eat a lump of butter 
 without bread, we should probably say that we could 
 not do so without being sick. But if we spread the 
 butter upon bread, or mash it up with potatoes, wo 
 
390 IMPERFECT DRAINAGE.— BREAD-AND-SCRAPE. 
 
 oan eat it with enjoyment, and so it is with 'the child. 
 It cannot eat the fat of meat because this consists of 
 solid lumps, but if you take the same fat and make it 
 up into a dumpling, or cut it into fine pieces and mash 
 it with potatoes, the child may be able readily to 
 digest it, and the more finely it is divided, the more 
 easily will it be digested. Where one fat is not 
 tolerated, another can sometimes be taken. If the fat 
 of beef or mutton disgusts the child, it may stiU be 
 able to take bacon fat with- ease, and if the circum- 
 stances of the parents will not allow them to buy 
 butter, they may still be able to afford dripping. Let 
 bread -and-scrape be abolished, and let children have 
 a free supply of fat ; and if they do not thrive, despite 
 abundance of ordinary food, give them cod-liver oil. 
 Often, perhaps generally, children are irritable because 
 they are ill, and the father goes to the beer-house 
 because the children are fretful. If they were good- 
 tempered, he might stay at home, and enjoy himself 
 by his own fireside, and they would often be good- 
 tempered if they were simply better fed. By having 
 fat prepared for them in a propfer manner, it may thus 
 be possible to make home happy, and to keep the 
 parents away from the public-house. 
 
 Another cause of depression, often unsuspected, is 
 imperfect drainage. You will sometimes hear a man 
 complain that he is feeling ill and out of sorts, without 
 
WEATHER AND DEATH-EATE. 391 
 
 his being able to give a reason for it, and that not 
 only he, but everybody in his house has been suffering 
 in the same way, and the chances are ten to one that 
 it never occurs to him ttiat his drains are out of order. 
 From imperfect drainage a man feels languid and 
 weak, and for his languor and weakness he has re- 
 course to stimulants. The proper plan is, not to take 
 stimulants, but to remove the cause of the languor. 
 Now another cause of depression, generally unsus- 
 pected, is barometric fall, or an alteration in atmo- 
 spheric conditions. The influence of atmospheric con- 
 ditions upon mortality is very marked indeed, different 
 diseases proving more fatal at one time of the year than 
 another, and sudden alterations in the atmosphere being 
 rapidly followed by an increased number of deaths. 
 This is readily seen, not only from an examination of 
 elaborate tables such as those of Mitchell and Buchan, 
 but even from a cursory inspection of the daily 
 papers. Let any one during the winter simply measure 
 the length of the column of deaths in the TiTnes, 
 and he will almost invariably find that a few days 
 after a severe frost the column is considerably 
 lengthened. Most probably, too, he will observe that 
 in this long column a large number of names are 
 those .of children or of aged persons, the two extremes 
 of Hfe being most readily affected by cold. Nor is 
 it merely the death-rate that is affected by atmos- 
 
392 RAIN AND RHEUMATISM. 
 
 pheric conditions. Diseases which are not fatal are 
 also influenced. In a poem on the signs of rain, 
 two of the lines run — 
 
 "Hark how the chairs and tables crack, 
 Old Betty's joints are on the rack." 
 
 The same atmospheric alterations which caused 
 the tables and chairs to crack by altering the length 
 and thickness of the parts of which they are com- 
 posed in the same way as in the well-known barometers 
 in which one figure comes out in dry and the other 
 in wet weather, likewise caused the rheumatic joints 
 to ache and twinge. Corns, also, as almost everybody 
 knows, become painful, and shoot and sting during 
 atmospheric changes. It is curious, too, that some- 
 times pains may be felt when no change of atmosphere 
 is to be observed, except by careful instrumental 
 measurement. After the American Civil War the 
 soldiers who had been engaged in it returned to 
 their homes in all parts of the United States. 
 In many cases nerves had been injured by gun-shot 
 wounds, and Dr. Weir Mitchell noticed that a con- 
 siderable number of such patients were liable to 
 attacks of pain from time to time. A great number 
 of them had been under his care, and afterwards 
 communicated with him frequently. The information 
 which he thus received from all parts of the States 
 
RAIN AREAS AND PAIN AREAS. 393 
 
 enabled him to come to the conclusion that every 
 now and again a wave of pain swept over the 
 continent, or, to put it very roughly, if one patient 
 were suffering from pain at San Francisco on a 
 Monday, another would suffer in Denver ' on the 
 Tuesday, a third in St. Louis on Wednesday, and 
 perhaps a fourth in Philadelphia on Thursday or Friday. 
 On comparing this wave of pain with meteorological 
 observations, he found that to a certain extent it coin- 
 cided with the wave of rain, but that it was much more 
 extensive, that is to say, that each area of meteor- 
 ological disturbance might be divided into two parts, 
 concentric with each other ; the inner part is called 
 by Dr. Mitchell the " rain area," and within this the 
 patients felt pain in the sites of their wounds. They 
 would see a connection between the pain which 
 they felt and the change of weather. In the outer 
 area, which he designates the " pain area," which was 
 concentric with the rain area, but with a radius nearly 
 one hundred miles greater, the patients likewise felt 
 pain, but did not see the connection between it and 
 the atmospheric disturbance, although such connection 
 nevertheless existed. Already we have in our news- 
 papers regular notices of approaching storms, and it 
 seems highly probable that by the extension of such 
 observations as Weir Mitchell's, we may have, before 
 very many years, warnings to all rheumatic persons to 
 
394 FROG AND LEECH BAEOMETERS. 
 
 "put on extra flannel, as a pain-storm is approaching." 
 Animals are also affected by changes of atmo- 
 sphere, as is seen in the frog and leech barometers. 
 The frog barometer, which is more used in Germany 
 than in this country, consists of a small glass jar 
 in which a tree-frog is confined, and which con- 
 tains a small ladder. So long as the weather is good, 
 the frog sits quietly at the bottom, but when it is 
 about to rain it walks up the ladder and sits at the top. 
 The leech barometer is a tall glass jar about three 
 parts full of water, in which a leech is placed. In 
 dry weather the leech remains at the top of the jar, 
 in dull and wet weather sits at the bottom, and when 
 wind is expected it moves rapidly about from one part 
 of the jar to another. Even the colour of frogs is 
 altered by atmospheric change, as is also expressed 
 in the poem above alluded to : — 
 
 " The frog has lost his yellow vest,. 
 And in a russet coat is drest." 
 
 These changes in death-rate, in pain, and in the move- 
 ments of animals, are probably not due simply to the 
 Increase of watery vapour in the atmosphere, nor yet 
 to barometric pressure, but, as Dr. Weir Mitchell 
 thinks, to a combination of these, along with alterations 
 of an unknown character in the electrical conditions 
 of the atmosphere. 
 
 But atmospheric conditions do not act only in 
 
INFLUENCE OP WEATHBE ON INTELLECT, &c. 395 
 
 increasing the human death-rate, or in causing pain in 
 diseased conditions, — they also affect, to a great extent, 
 the feelings and acts of the individual. 
 
 Kingsley illustrates this most vividly in Yeast, where 
 his hero makes the following entries in his diary : — 
 
 "Monday, '21st. — Wind S.W., bright sun, mercury at 30^ 
 inches. Felt my heart expanded towards the universe. Organs of 
 veneration and benevolence pleasingly excited ; and gave a 
 shilling to a. tramp. An inexpressible joy bounded through 
 every vein, and the soft air breathed purity and self-sacrifice 
 through my soul. As I watched the beetles, those children of 
 the sun, who, as divine Shelley says, 'laden with light and odour, 
 pass over the gleam of the living grass,' I gained an Eden- 
 glimpse of the pleasures of virtue. 
 
 " N.B. Found the tramp drunk in a ditch. I could not have 
 degTaded myself on such a day — ah I how could he ? 
 
 " Tuesday, 1%id. — Barometer rapidly falling. Heavy clouds in 
 the south-east. My heart sank into gloomy forebodings. Bead 
 ■Manfred, and doubted whether I should live long. The leaden 
 weight of destiny seemed to crush down my aching forehead, 
 till the thunderstorm burst, and peace was restored to my 
 troubled soul." 
 
 Goethe also, in his conversations with Akerman, 
 remarks that when the barometer was high' he could 
 do his work Avith ease, but that when low, although by 
 steady determination he could get through his work, yet 
 it gave him much trouble. By watching the barometer 
 we are able in some measure to foretell the probability 
 of a series of colliery explosions, and it is just possible 
 that by carefully observing atmospheric conditions we 
 
396 POSSIBLE PREDICTION. 
 
 may by and by be enabled to predict an outbreak 
 of drunkenness amongst those who are addicted to 
 liquor. Should this be the case, it may prove a 
 most useful means of prevention. For just as we 
 take increased precautions in a coal-pit to prevent an 
 explosion, when we know that barometric conditions 
 are likely to lead to one, so in those who are liable 
 to drunken fits we may use additional precautions 
 when we suspect their advent. 
 
 In some men we find alternations between a perfect 
 condition of temperance, lasting perhaps for many 
 weeks or months, and outbreaks of the maddest 
 drunkenness. After lasting a few days, these attacks 
 pass off, and again the subject of them will remain 
 sober for a time. He regrets and bewails his tendency, 
 but seems unable to help himself. 
 
 In these cases a tonic, like that used by the author 
 of the Sinner's Friend, may be useful, but often 
 perhaps the best remedy is bromide of potassium. 
 For these cases seem akin to epilepsy, and between 
 this disease and drunkenness there is a close asso- 
 ciation. While a tendency to nervous derangement 
 may appear in one member or branch of a family 
 in the form of epilepsy, in others it may show 
 itself as a tendency to inebriety. The children of 
 drunkards are often epileptic, and vice versd. If 
 the parents are epileptic, additional care should be 
 
EPILEPSY AND DRUNKENNESS. 397 
 
 taken to prevent the acquisition of a taste for alcoholic 
 liquor by the children. It has been noticed that the 
 progeny of first cousins are often epileptic, and that 
 among them also the tendency to inebriety is strong. 
 Wherever we suspect this, we ought to watch the 
 children, and prevent their nervous system from being 
 weakened by overstraining their education at school, 
 while we should endeavour to strengthen them by 
 open-air exercise, and diminish the risk of their acquir- 
 ing a taste for liquor by inducing them to take the 
 pledge of total abstinence in childhood, and to keep 
 it at least until they are twenty-one. Strength of 
 body and soundness of mind go more or less together, 
 and by weakening the one the healthiness of the other 
 may be, impaired. 
 
 But we are apt to forget sometimes that we cannot 
 eat our cake and have it too ; boys cannot work to the 
 full extent of their powers and grow at the same time. 
 
 Many growing boys become apparently stupid while 
 their bodies are growing, and if we try to force their 
 minds at that time we may permanently weaken them. 
 During growth we must remember that the great 
 essentials are abundant food, open-air exercise, and 
 not too much to do. After growth has ceased, we 
 may allow children to work, and they will then work 
 with both pleasure and advantage. 
 
 We are sometimes apt to forget this, and in the 
 
398 WORK AND GROWTH. 
 
 hurry and struggle of modern life there is too great; 
 a tendency to- force the education of children — to 
 store their minds with facts and methods by constant 
 and assiduous teaching, to the great detriment of their 
 bodifes, and not otily of their bodies but of their minds. 
 This is shown by an interesting experiment of Mr. C. 
 Paget, who made a portion of the .children in a school 
 work only half-time at their lessons and spend the other 
 half in garden-work. In a short time these children 
 completely outstripped the others in their school-work ; 
 so that they actually acquired more knowledge as well 
 as gained in health and strength by the abbreviation of 
 their tasks. And even after the body has apparently 
 ceased to grow, we must remember that the brain has 
 not yet attained to its full power, and that forcing 
 the brain in youth may ruin the power which ought to 
 be fully developed only in manhood. 
 
 It is strange how often teachers forget the old pro- 
 verb' that " you may take a horse to the water, but you 
 cannot make him drink." Great harm is done by per- 
 sistent attempts to force children to learn, which renders 
 knowledge utterly distasteful to them. If, instead of 
 cramming the child's mind with facts in which he is not 
 at all interested, and which he will therefore soon forget, 
 his curiosity be awakened, he will learn the facts for 
 himself, and remember them with advantage. 
 
 It is well to give a child a slight knowledge of a range 
 
EDUCATION. 399 
 
 of numerous and varied subjects, so that he maylearn 
 how wide the fields of knowledge are, and choose for 
 himself those studies which he will afterwards prosecute ; 
 but at the same time it is necessary to give him a 
 thorough training in one subject at least, whether a 
 language or a science, in order to instruct him in the 
 methods of learning. Nor is such thorough instruction 
 as this useful only to train the child in the method of 
 learning, although this is- of very great importance • 
 indeed; it is also useful as a moral training. How- 
 ever much we may try to simplify the process of 
 education, there will always be in it many things that 
 are unpleasant to the child, and the training undergone 
 by him in learning to face and surmount obstacles by 
 patience and perseverance, and in doing things, dis- 
 agreeable at present, for the sake of future advantage, 
 cannot but be to him of great benefit as a preparation 
 for the duties and trials of life. 
 
 The power of prevision is one of the great character- 
 istics by which man is distinguished from the lower 
 animals, and the power of acting in the present so as 
 to secure future reward or avert future evil is a charac- 
 teristic by which the wise man is distinguished from the 
 foolish one. As Solomon puts it (Proverbs, xxii.S), 
 "A prudent man foreseeth the evil, and hideth himself; 
 but the simple pass on and are punished." The laws 
 of nature are invariable, and any breach of them is 
 
400 PREVISION AND PREVENTION. 
 
 followed by punishment, whether such breach be in- 
 tentional or accidental. If a man falls from a height 
 involuntarily, he is just as much bruised as though he 
 had purposely thrown himself down. 
 
 The advantage gained by the study of science, or, in 
 other words, by the study of natural phenomena, is that 
 by a more intimate acquaintance with nature's laws we 
 are able to regulate our actions in more exact accord- 
 ance with thern. For many centuries the fisherman 
 has studied the appearance of the clouds and the 
 direction of the wind before venturing to leave the 
 harbour, but all the knowledge so acquired could not 
 secure him against a storm which might be crossing 
 the sea, and might strike his boat in four or five 
 days' time. It is only of late years that we have 
 become able to predict the occurrence of storms some 
 time before they arrive on our coasts, and even now, in 
 planning an excursion in the country a week hence, we 
 cannot foretell whether the day will be dull or rainy, 
 dry or sunshiny. Ships about to sail for foreign lands 
 now delay their departures in order to avoid being 
 struck in mid-ocean by squalls which have been pro- 
 phesied by the meteorologist, but we, because of the 
 insufficiency of our knowledge, are liable to become 
 drenched while out on a pleasure expedition. As 
 knowledge increases, we may be able so to fix our 
 plans as to avoid such a disappointment, but if we 
 
RELIGION AND DEVELOPMENT. 401 
 
 should wilfully disregard the information when once it 
 had been obtained, we should suffer the same penalty 
 as if we had remained in ignorance. 
 
 What is true of physical laws is also true of 
 moral laws, and the penalties for the transgression 
 of the latter, although, perhaps, less evident and not . 
 so immediate, are no less certain than are those 
 consequent upon the breach of the former, and 
 the benefits resulting from obedience are no less 
 sure in the one case than in the other. 
 
 In these days religion is often sneered at ; but the 
 moral laws given in the Ten Commandments represent 
 truths which cannot be disregarded . without being 
 followed by inevitable punishment, and one of the 
 great advantages of a religious education is the habit 
 which it induces of not weakly yielding to the tempta- 
 tion of a moment, but of regulating one's life each day 
 in accordance with the good and the true, and thus 
 day by day developing more and more unto the stature 
 of the perfect man. 
 
 D r> 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Abraham, 25S, 260 ' 
 
 Acid, carbonic, 99, lOS, 104, 177 
 
 Acotyledons, 56 
 
 Aerogens, 70 
 
 Acrogenous stems, 60 
 
 Actinia, 137 
 
 Actinozoa, 137, 142 ; circulation in, 142 
 
 ActinospliEeTiiim, 127 
 
 Activity, functional, of animal tissues, 177 
 
 Actual energy, 102, 122 
 
 Adaptation in roots and iiowers, 107 
 
 Adelsberg, 192 
 
 Africa, 216, 247, 263, 362 
 
 Age, bronze, 257-269, 364 ; iron, 257, 259, 
 364 ; neolithic, 257 ; paleolithic, 267 ; 
 stone, 257 ; of formations determined 
 by composition, 268 ; by fossils, 269 
 
 Ahab, 48 
 
 Ai, 35, 36, 40 
 
 Air tubes, 151 
 
 Ajalon, 39 
 
 Akermann, vide Errata and Eckermann 
 
 Alexander the Great, 5 
 
 Algse, 70, 72, 80, 81, 306 ; cilia of, 116 ; 
 cUiated embryo of; 117 ; reproductive 
 power of, 117 ; subdivision of' cells in, 
 76-78 
 
 Alimentary canal of moUuseoida, 155 
 
 Almond tree, 47, 50 
 
 Alluvial epoch, 264 
 
 Alps, 285 
 
 Alternation of generations, 80 
 
 ATDfl-zon 229 
 
 America', 243, 279 ; civil war in, 332, 392 
 
 American Indians, 246 
 
 Americans, 249 
 
 Ammonites, 161, 162, 280, 283 
 
 Amoeba, 120-123, 125, 126, 128, 129, 143, 
 149, 274 ; colonies of, 129 ; differentia- 
 tion in, 123, 124 ; in sponges, 131 ; dif- 
 ferentiation of, in sponges, 131; vacuoles 
 of, 142, 143 
 
 Amphibia, 180, 188-1 90, 194, 214 ; difference 
 between mammalia, reptilia, and, 194 ; 
 link between fishes and, 1S9 ; structure 
 of, 190 
 
 Amphioxus, 162, 180, 181-183, 805; de- 
 velopment of, 311, 313 ; uotochord In, 
 183 ; structure of,. 182 
 
 Anarthropoda, 148 
 
 Anatomical difference between man and 
 apes, 242 
 
 Ancestors, resemblance to, 372 
 
 Ancestral influences, 371 
 
 Angiosperm, 87, 98, 265, 273, 306 
 
 Animals, cold-blooded, 179, 203 ; difference 
 between plants and, 103, "115, 116 ; 
 digitigrade, 231 _; distribution of plants 
 and animals in time, 255 ; fish-like, 179 
 likeness between low plants and low 
 animals, 116 ; lizard-like, 179 ; planti- 
 grade, 231 ; pinnigrade, 231 ; oviparous, 
 178 ; ovoviparous, 178 ; relation of plants 
 to, 301-305 ; warm-blooded, 203 ; vi- 
 vii)arons, 178 ; motion of, 122 
 
 Animal kingdom, 120, 179, 231, 304 ; dis- 
 tinction between vegetable and, 117 
 
 Animal tissues, 177 
 
 Annuloida, 143-147, 805 
 
 Annulosa, 148, 163, 164, 162, 305 
 
 Anoplotherium, 286, 306 
 
 Ant bear, 219 
 
 Ant eater, 218 
 
 Anthers. 66, 92, 107, 108 
 
 Antheridium, 78, 80 
 
 Anthropoid apes, 237, 238 
 
 Ants, 154 
 
 Apes, anthropoid, 238.J anatomical differ- 
 ence between man and, 242 ; mental 
 difference between man and, 241 ; feet 
 of, 238 
 
 Aphides, 154 
 
 Apices of stamens, hairs of, 92 
 
 Aplacental mammalia, 217 
 
 Arabs, 249 ; encampments of, 36 * 
 
 Arachnida 153 
 
 I) D 2 
 
404 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Aroheolithic epoch, 263, 264, 265, 278, 274 
 
 Arolieopteryx, 206, 281, 806 
 
 Arctic circle, fossilH in, 288 ; polar lands, 
 
 261 
 Aristotle, his nee of Solomon's writings, 5 
 Aristolochia, 92 
 Armadillos, 218 
 Armenia, 368 
 Arm bone, 168 
 Artesian well, 29 
 Arthropoda, 148 
 Articulata, 148 
 Artiodactyla, 220, 221 
 Aryo-Romanic, 249, 264 
 Ascidians, 117, 156-168, 162, 182, 183, 311, 
 
 312 
 Ascidian molluscs, 166, 167 
 Afienath, 8 
 Asia, 260, 251, 362 
 Asia Minor, S63 
 Aspidium lilix-mas, 80 
 Aspidium fern, 76 
 A»ayria, 861 
 Assyrians, 249, 254 
 Astronomy, Moses' Icnowledge of, 26 
 Atlantic, 283 
 Atolls, 139 
 
 Atoms, aggregation of, 339, 340 
 Australia, 248, 246, 281, 284 
 Australians, 242, 246, 247, 248, 260 
 Austral negroes, 247 
 Axil of branch, 85 
 Axolotl, 191 
 
 B. 
 
 B»BOON, 237 
 
 Babylonia, 255 
 
 Banian, 76 
 
 Banksia, 284 
 . Barak, 47 
 
 Barbery, stamens of, 91 
 
 Bark of trees, 67-59 ; tissue of, 60 
 
 Barometer, frog, 394 ; leech, 894 ; predic- 
 tion by, 396, 096 
 
 Basal ganglia, 175 
 
 Bashan, oaks of, 96 
 
 Basques, 249, 253 
 
 Bats, 197, 238, 244 
 
 Bees, 45 
 
 Bee orchid, 94 
 
 Beenh-trees, 69 
 
 Beer-houses, 387 
 
 Beetles, 280 
 
 Belemnite, 280 
 
 Bethel, 86 
 
 BetMehem, star of, 47 
 
 Bible lands, 1 
 
 Bile, 176 
 
 Himana, 218 
 
 Birds, 180; circulation of, 203, 204; 
 
 classification of, 209, 212 ; climbing, 210 ; 
 
 • perching, 210 ; link between reptiles 
 
 and, 204-208 ; of prey, 211 ; respiration 
 of, 203, 204 ; running, 212 ; swimming, 
 210.; scratching, 210; wading, 209; 
 structure of, 200-?03 
 
 Blade-bones, 167» 172, 178 
 
 Blood, 176 ; corpuscles, 177, 179, 203 ; 
 vessels, 176 ; use of, 160, 176 ; circu- 
 lation of, in branchiae, 161, 163 
 
 Body cavity, of actinia, 188 ; of ascidians, 
 158 ; of moUuscoida, 155 
 
 Bond£^e of Israelites, 24 
 
 Bones, of arm, 168 j blade, 167, 173 ; 
 breast, 173 ; collar, 173 ; foot, 172 ; of 
 hand, 170, 171, 224 ; hip, 167 ; haunch, 
 of bird, 208 ; of crocodile, 208; quadrate, 
 180 ; thigh, 168 ; of bird, 208 ; of croco- 
 dile, 208 ; of dinosaur, 208 
 
 Boulders, 290-292 
 
 Bracken, 67, 69 
 
 Brachiopoda, 156, 275, 306 ; shells of, 
 166 
 
 Brachvcephali, 244 
 
 Brain, 175, 176 ; of man, 239, 240 
 
 Branch, 73 ; axil of, sa ; of carices, 75 ; 
 of horseradish, 76 ; of strawberry, 73 
 
 Branchiae, 161 
 
 Brass, 364 
 
 Bread and scrape, 390 
 
 Breast-bone, 173 
 
 Brick-like ceDs, 69 
 
 Brick-maldng, 13, 14 
 
 Britain, 281 ; first invasion of, 297 
 
 Bronze age, 257-269, 364 
 
 Brute, 218 
 
 Buchan, 391 
 
 Buds, of cellular plants, 76 ; growth of, 
 96, 97 ; of hydra, 135, 138 ; multiplica- 
 tion by, 77 ; propagation by, 75 ; of 
 strawberry, 75 
 
 Bulbiferous lily, 76 
 
 Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, 374 
 
 Bushman, 242, 246 
 
 Buttercup, 89 ; root fibre of, 106 
 
 Butterflies, 280 
 
 Cainozoio epoch, 264, 273 
 
 Cairo, 7, 8 ; flints in, 260 
 
 Caleb, 30 
 
 Calyx, 84 
 
 Cambium, 69 
 
 Cambrian epoch, 264, 274 
 
 Camel, 220, 228 
 
 Canaan, 30, 36, 49 ; wheat of, 51 
 
 Canaanites, 47 
 
 Canadensis, comus, 91 
 
 Canal, alimentary, 156 ; digestive, 187, 
 
 142, 176 ; neural, 168 ; haemal, 166 
 Canine teeth, 220, 228, 280, 233, 234, 360 
 Cape of Good Hope, 362 
 Capricorn, tropic of, 247 
 Carbon, 100, 108 
 
INDEX. 
 
 405 
 
 Carbonic acid, 99, 103, 104, 17T 
 
 Carboniferous epoch, 101, 264, 275j climate 
 of, 276 
 
 Camivora, 218, 230, 231 
 
 Civrpenter, Dr., 274 
 
 ( arpus, 170, 171 
 
 Garices, brandies of, 75 
 
 Cartilaginous rod in ascidian, 183 
 
 Cat, 231 
 
 Catarhina, 237 
 
 Caterpillar, 153 
 
 Cattle stealing, 21, 22 
 
 Caucasian race, 249, 253 
 
 Caucasus, 253 
 
 Caudiole of orchis, 93 
 
 Cedar of Lebanon, 62, 96 
 
 Celandine, 86 
 
 CeUs, 62-72, 86, 107 ; absorbing, 99, 100 ; 
 bricklike, 69 ; differentiation of, 70, 73, 
 81, 124 ; elongated, 68 ; of feiii leaves, 
 81 ; of fungi, 76 ; germ, 178 ; growtli of, 
 68, 72, 99 ; hexagonal, 60, 62 : of leaves, 
 104, 105 ; multiplication of, 64, 71, 72 ; 
 muriform, 69 ; nutrition of, 99 ; origin 
 of, 74 ; pitted, 68 ; pollen, 84 ; sperma- 
 tozoa, 178; spindle-shaped, 67, 68; of 
 stems, 60 ; wall of, 63, 66, 120 
 
 Cellular plants, 70, 71 ; buds of, 76 
 
 Cellular tissue, 69 ; of style, 89 
 
 CeUular structure, the ovule a, 84 
 
 Cellulose, 96, 106, 116, 117, 156 
 
 Centipedes, 149, 276 
 
 Centres of distribution of man, 368 
 
 Cephalopoda, 160-162, 275, 306 ; branchia 
 of, 160 ; mode of progression of, 160 
 
 Cerastes, 11 
 
 Cerebellum, 175 
 
 Cerebrum, 175 
 
 Cetacea, 218, 229, 230 
 
 Ceylon, 262, 362 
 
 Chalk animaloulsB, 284 ; cliffs, 126 ; foriiia- 
 tion, 205 ; epoch, 264, 281-284 
 
 Channel of Jordan, 33 
 
 Uheiroptera, 218, 233 
 
 Chelonia, 196 
 
 Chemical energy, 100 
 
 Chemistry, Moses' knowledge of, 26 
 
 China, 284 
 
 Chinese, the, 246; Mongolian, 249, 250, 
 263 
 
 Chimpanzee, 237 
 
 Chrysalis, 154 
 
 Cilia, 78, 127 ; of sponges, 129 ; of as- 
 cidians, 158 
 
 Circulation, 121 ; in amphibia, 190 ; in 
 birds, 204 ; in crocodiles, 203 ; in mam- 
 malia, 214 s in reptiles, 203 ; of water 
 in ascidians, 158 
 
 Cistus, 47 
 
 Classification of animals by placenta, 217 ; 
 by teeth, 218; of birds, 209; of man 
 by hair, 245-252 ; by skulls, 244, 245 ; 
 by teeth, 245 ; of plants by root-leavc-s, 
 56 
 
 Clavicles, 173 
 
 Climate, of formations, 209, 278, 286, 288- 
 290 ; of Palestine, 46 
 
 Cloaca of ascidians, 158 ; of au)phib!a, 
 190 ; of monotremata, 215 
 
 Club moss, 81, 83, 276, 805 
 
 Coal, 101 
 
 Coal measures, 271, 276 ; climate of, 276 
 
 Coelenterata, 133-142, 805 
 
 Cold-blooded animals, 203 
 
 Coflee-taverns, 387 
 
 Collar-bones, 173 
 
 Qolosseum, 256 
 
 Column of flowjer, 91, 93 
 
 Column, vertebral, 163, 164, 172, IPO, 183, 
 184, 185; of shark, 185; of teleostei, 
 187 
 
 Commentary, Italian, on Joshua's com- 
 mand to sun, 38 
 
 Composition, of formatiolDS, 268 ; determi- 
 nation of age of formations by, 268 
 
 Compsognatlius lon^pes, 207, 209, 284 
 
 Condyles, 180, 204 ; in mammalia, ISO ; in 
 sanropsida, 180 
 
 Conferva, 77 
 
 Coney, 228 
 
 Connecting link between amphibia and 
 hshes, 189 ; between annulosa and inol- 
 lusca, 154 ; between moUusca and verle- 
 brata, 162, 180-163 ; between reptile and 
 bird, 204-208 
 
 Conquest of Palestine, 41 
 
 Conteactile tentacles, 138 ; vacuole, 123 
 
 Cookery classes, 386 
 
 Copper, use of, in weapons, 257 
 
 Coral, 116, 138, 139 ; islards, 138 ; reefs, 
 139-142 
 
 Comus canadensis, 91 
 
 Corolla, 84, 91, 93 
 
 Corpuscles, blood, 176, 177, 179, 208; 
 nucleus of, 179 
 
 Cotyledons, 65 
 
 Couch grass, 75 
 
 Countries, mutual relations of plants and, 
 61 
 
 Grabs 149 153 
 
 Creation, Milton on, 319, 320, 326, 3r6 : 
 special, 318, 319 ; of woman, 353, 356 
 
 Creeping stems, 75 • . 
 
 Cretaceous epoch, 264, 282-284 
 
 Grinoids, 146, 305, 306 
 
 Crocodile, 196, 280 ; circulation of, 204 ; 
 haunch bone of, 208 ; structure of l.tait 
 of, 204 
 
 Croesus, 39 
 
 Crustacese, 163, 2^4, 280 
 
 Cucumber, 50 
 
 Gursores, 212, 213 
 
 Cusps, 220 
 
 Gnttleflsh, 154, 161, 162, 276 
 
 Cyaxares, 39 
 
 Cycads, 87, 279, 306 
 
 Cydippe, 141, 142 
 
 Cypress, fc9 
 
40G 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 D. 
 
 DiBKNBis, plague of, 27 
 
 Darwin on coral islands, 139 ; on evolu- 
 tion and natural selection, 336 
 
 Dead, judRment of, 18, 366 ; Sea, 43 
 
 Death of Moses, 31 
 
 Death-rate and weather, 391 
 
 Deborah, 47 
 
 Deccan, 251 
 
 Deer, 221, 224 ; horns of, 227 
 
 Desradation, process of. 374 
 
 Delta, 9, 10, 60, 260, 261 
 
 Deluge, 366 ; traditions of, 367 
 
 Description of Egypt, 9''; of Palestine. 42-49 
 
 Development, downward. 377; of em- 
 bryos, S08-317 ; of individuals, 369 ; 
 upward, 376; and religion, 401; of 
 type. 307 
 
 Devonian epoch. 264, 275 
 
 Diatoms, 76, 116 
 
 Dicotyledons, ,65, 56 ; section of, 58, 59 
 
 Difference, anatomical between man and 
 apes, 242 
 
 Differentiation of amoeba, 123. 124 ; of 
 amcebse in sponges, 131 ; of embryos, 
 814, 345i of infusoria, 126 ; of plants, 81 
 
 Diffusion of intbrmation, 1 
 
 Digestion, 122, 123 ; in plants. 111 
 
 Digestive canal, 176 
 
 Digestive juices, 176 
 
 Digestive cavity, of infusoria, 127 ; of 
 paramcecium, 128 ; rudimentary, 127 
 
 Digits, 172 
 
 Disitigrade animals, 231 
 
 Diluvial epnch, 264 
 
 Dinosaur. 207, 208 
 
 Dinotherium, 288 
 
 Uionea, 112, 118 
 
 Dislike to fat, 889 
 
 Distinction between animal and vegetable 
 kingdoms, 117 
 
 Distribution of man, 368 ; of plants and 
 animals in time, 256 
 
 Dividing waters of Jordan, 32, 33 
 
 Dogs, 231, 233 
 
 Dolichocephali, 244 
 
 Dolpliins. 229, 230 
 
 Dover, cliffs of. 283 
 
 Dragon flies, 280 
 
 Drainage, imperfect, 390 ^ 
 
 Dravidas, 248, 251 
 
 Drosera, 111, 114 
 
 Drought, 48 
 
 Drunkenness and epilepsy, 397 
 
 Dugongs, 229 
 
 E. 
 
 BAGLf, 211 
 
 Karth. life history of, 301-307 
 Earthquakes near Jordan, 33-35 
 Efirf.hworm, 148 
 Ka^tern tours 6, 7 
 E.:liinodermata, 146-148 
 
 Echinus, 144 , 
 ■Eckermann, 395, vide Errata 
 
 Eclipse of sun. 38, 39 ; effect of, 40 
 
 Edentata, 217, 218 
 
 Education, 398, 399 
 
 Egypt, 60, 243, 265 ; ancient, 259, 262 
 colour in, 62 ; description of, 9 ; em 
 balming in, 16 ; famine in, 10, 20 
 fossils of, 262 ; foreign embassies to, 14, 
 20 ; Hebrews in, 22 ; importation into, 
 14 ; irrigation of, 13 ; mourning in, 16, 
 17 ; pyramids of, 126 ; reaping in, 14 
 shape of, 9 ; use of stone in, 269 ; war 
 in, 22 ; wheat of, 61 
 
 Egyptian funeral, 17-19 ; garden, 15, 53 ; 
 hills, 286 ; houses. 15 ; religion, 26 ; 
 tombs, 19 ; valley, 260 
 
 Egyptians, 249, '254; learning of, 26; 
 length of year fixed by, 26 
 
 Ehrenberg, microscopist, 128 
 
 Electricity, 100 
 
 Elephant. 228 
 
 Elijah, 48 
 
 Embalming in Egypt, 16 
 
 Embassies, foreign, 1^ Egyp^, 14, 20 
 
 Embryo, 90, 97, 9S ; sac, 86, 90 
 
 Embryos, resemblance of, 308-317 ; de- 
 velopment of, 308-317 ; differentiation 
 of. 314-317 
 
 Encampments, Arab, 36 
 
 Bnoephalon, 176 
 
 Bncrlnites, 146,^275 
 
 Endogens, 69, 70. 81, 95, 99 
 
 Endogenous stems, 59 
 
 Energy, 100, 104, 122, 340; actual, 102, 
 122 ; changes of, 341, 342 ; chemical; 100 ; 
 convertible, 100 ; mechanical, 100, 103 : 
 potential, 102, 122 
 
 England, animals of, 28Q ; climate of, 286 ; 
 in Eocene period, 2S6 ; glaciers in, 288 ; 
 plants of, 286 
 
 Bnglisll, the, 242, 249, 264 
 
 Eocene epoch, 264, 284-288, 325, 326 
 
 Eozoon, 274, 304, 305 
 
 Epilepsy and drunkenness, 397 
 
 Epochs, alluvial, 264 ; glacial, 290-295 ; 
 geological, 263 
 
 Equator, 247 
 
 Eriocomi, 245, 246, 248 
 
 Esdraelon, 50 ; plain of, 44 
 
 Esquimaux, 249, 261 
 
 Ethiopia, 25, 861-363 
 
 Ethiopian king, conquest of, by Moses, 
 25 ; daughter of, 25 
 
 Euphrates) 361, 362 
 
 Buplocomi, 247, 251 
 
 Europe, 265 
 
 Euthycomi, 247, 248, 262 
 
 Evolution, at present time, 329 ; future 
 of, 340 ; in dog, 328, 329 ; hypothesis 
 of, 320, 326, 327-338 ; in horse, 328 ; in 
 man, 329-336, 344 ; in pigeons, 329 ; in 
 par^ise, 360 ; Mosaic record of, 343 ; 
 not atheistical, 338, 339, 366 ; of matter, 
 
JLNDBX. 
 
 407 
 
 S39; ol(jectionB to, 327, 328, 838, 342, 
 
 344 
 Existence, struggle for, 330-332 
 Exodus, tbe, 25, 28 
 Exogens, 69, 70, 81, 95, 99, 114 
 Exogenous stems, 58 
 Expulsion of Hebrews from Egypt, 23 , 
 External conditions, influence of, before 
 
 birth, 370 ; after birth, 373 
 Extinct reptiles, 198, 199 
 
 Famine in Egypt, 10, 20 
 
 Famines, 49, 243 
 
 Fat, dislLko to, 389 
 
 Fauna, 50 
 
 Fellah, 13 
 
 Fellaheen, hovels of, 7. 
 
 Femur, 168 
 
 Fern, aspidinm, 80 ; bracken, 57 ; bnlb- 
 iferous, 76 ; leaf, SI ; maidenhair, 67 
 
 Ferns, 52, 53, 55-57, 69, 70, 80, 81, 96, 265, 
 273 
 
 Fibula, 168, 169 
 
 Fig, 284 ; tree, 60, 52 ; Indian, 75 
 
 Fins of fishes, 180 
 
 Fisn, 179, 180, 273 ; ganoid, 186, 280, 306, 
 fins of, 180 ; gills of, 180 ; hag-fish, 184, 
 185 ; link between amphibia and, 189 ; 
 limgs of, 188 ; myxinoids, 184, 185 ; ray, 
 28U ; shark,; 186, 280, 306 ; sturgeon, 
 186 ; swimming bladder of, 188 ; teleostei, 
 186, 187, 306 
 
 Fleecy-haired men, 246, 248 
 
 Flora of Palestine, 60 
 ' Flpwer, 84 ; adapi^tion in, 107 ; classifica- 
 tion of, 52 ; effect of rain on, 108 ; fer- 
 tilization of, 91-94 ; formation of male 
 organ of, 85 ; of china primrose, 88 ; 
 of nettle, 92 ; of spotted orchis, 93, 
 94 ; of yew, 84 ; petals of, 85 ; placenta 
 of, 88 ; iprotection from rain in, 108 ; 
 structure of, 84, 85; style of, 85 ; sun, 
 107 
 
 Foot, bones of, 172 
 
 P'ootmen, running, 8 
 
 Foramen, 89 
 
 Foraminifera, 125, 126, 262, 265, 274, 282- 
 284 ; shells of, 126, 135, 262 
 
 Forked veined leaf, 64 
 
 Formations, 266 ; chalk, 205 ; climate of, 
 
 269 ; composition of, 268 ; fossils of, 269, 
 
 270 ; Jura, 204 ; of vegetable tissue, 67 ; 
 of vessels, 68 ; position of, 267 ; re- 
 lative ages of, 265-268 ; Trias, 204 
 
 Fossils, 269 ; determination of. age of 
 formations by, 269, 270 ; of I'rance in 
 Eocene period, 286 ; of Mesozoic epoch, 
 278-284 
 
 Fonlahs, 249, 252 
 
 Fox, 154 
 
 France, fossils of, in Eocene period, 266 
 
 Frog, 193 
 
 Frog barometers, 394 
 
 Fronds, 67 
 
 Functional activity of animal , tiBStfea; 
 
 177 { 
 
 Funeral, Egyptian, 17 ; feasts, 20 
 Fnngi, 62, 70, 72, 73, 76, 78, 104, 116 
 Fnnicle, 86/ 
 Future life, 19, 20 
 
 G. i . 
 Galileo, 337 
 Gamaliel, 338 
 Gamopetalee, 95 
 Ganglion, 148; basal, 175; of .ascidians, 
 
 168, 182 ; in cephalopoda, 162 ; in in- 
 sects, 148 
 Ganoids, 186, 306 
 Gardens, Egj-ptian, 15, 53 
 Gasteropoda, 159, 160, 306 
 Gastric .iuice, 112, 176'. ' 
 Gemmee in liverwort, 76 
 Genealogical tree of animals'^and plants, 
 
 303 
 Generations, alternations of, 80 
 Geological epochs, 263-265, length ofy 263. 
 
 264; record, 325, 327 
 Geometry, Moses' knowledge of, 26 
 Germans, 249, 254 
 Germ cells,' 178." ' 
 Germination of .monocotyledon, 55 ; of 
 
 dicotyledon, 55.. 
 Gibbon, 237 
 Gibeon, 39 ■ ■ 
 Gihon, 361-363 
 
 GiUsjlSl, 169, 178; of iish, 180 
 Giraffe, 228 
 Girdle, shoulder, 166, 167; 'pelvic, 166, 
 
 167 
 Glacial epoch, 290-294 
 Glaciers in England, 288 
 Glands, honey, 92 
 Globigerinse, 283 
 
 Glutinous secretion in plants. 111, 112<j 
 Goats, 227 
 Goethe, 118, 395 
 Gonidia in lichens, 76 
 Gorilla, 237. 239, 360 
 Goths, 249, 254 
 Gourd, creeping, 99 
 Grafting, 74 
 
 Grains, pollen, 84 ' 
 
 Grallatores, 209 
 Graptolites, 274, 305 
 Grass, couch, 75 . 
 
 Grasshopper, 47 
 Greece, 284 
 Greeks, 249, 264. 
 Greenland, fossils in, 288 ; height o^ 291 ; 
 
 whale, 229, 230 
 Greenlanders, 249, 251 
 Growth, in children, 397'; in siunmer, 69; 
 
 versvs work, 398 
 Gymnosperms, S3, 87-90, 98, 266 ■ 
 Gyri, 240 . . ■ 
 
408 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 H. 
 
 Umokel, 119, 261, 262, 361 
 
 Hffimal arch, 1?S ; canal, 165 
 
 Hagflsh, 184, 186 
 
 Hand, bones of, 171, 172, 224 
 
 Hair, classification of man by, 245-263 ; 
 
 moss, 79 ; of apices of stamens, 92 
 Haunch bone, of bird, 208 ; of crocodile, 
 
 208 ; of dinosaur, 208 
 Haur^n, 43 
 fiavilah, 361, 863 
 Heartsease, 90 
 Heat, 101, 104 
 Hebrews, in Egypt, 22 ; eicpulsian from 
 
 Egypt, 23 
 Hedgehog, 234 
 Hermon, 46-48 
 Herons, 209 
 vHesperomis regalis, 205, 283, 306 ; teeth 
 
 0^207 
 Heterocercal tails, 186 
 Hexagonal cells, 60-62 
 Hiddekel, 881-363 
 Hills, Lybian, 19 ; Syrian, 63 
 Himalayas, 285 
 Hindoo, 235 
 Hip-bones, 167 
 
 Hippopotamus, 220, 221, 223, 228 
 History, 2 ; of individuals, 308 : of life of 
 earth, 307, 308; of Moses, 25-31 ; natural, 
 2, 3, 60 
 Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 371, 372 
 Homocercal tail, 187 
 Honey, 46, 62, 94 ; glands, use ot, 92 
 Horned snakes, 11 
 Horns, 227, 228 
 
 Horse, 220-224 ; in Eocene period, 325 ; in 
 Miocene period, 324 ; in Pliocene period, 
 323 ; pedigree of, 321-326 
 
 Horseradish, 75 
 Horsetails, 279 
 
 Hottentots, 245-248, 
 
 House of Joseph, 8 
 
 House of Egyptians, 15 
 
 Hovels of Fellaheen, 7 
 
 Hugh MiUer, 354 
 
 Humanity, development of, 349, 350 
 
 Humerus, 168, 169 
 
 Humility of Blijah, 8 
 
 Humming-bird orchid, 94 
 
 Hungarians, 249 
 
 Hungary, 250 
 
 Huxley,' American lectures," 319. 320 ; on 
 sponges, 130 ; on vertebrate 179 
 
 HydrK, 155, 305 
 
 Hydra, 133 ; buds of 135, 186 : colonies of, 
 135 ; manubrimn oi^ 136 ; reproduction 
 of, 134-137 
 
 Hydroid polyp, 137 
 
 Hydrbzoa, 103, 133, 143, 274, 305 
 
 Hyksos, 21, 23 
 
 Hylodes, 311 
 
 Hyracoidea, 218, 228 
 
 Hyperboreans, 249, 261 
 Hyssop, 6, 52 
 
 I. 
 
 loEBEBOs In Italy) 288 ' 
 
 Iceland, fossils in, 283 
 
 Icthyopsida, 179, 180 
 
 Icthyomis, 206, 207 
 
 Icthyosaurus, 280, 2S3, 306 
 
 Iguanodon, 283 
 
 Ilium, 167 
 
 Imago, 164 
 
 Implements, coexistence of, iron and 
 
 stone, 266 
 Importations into Egypt, 14 
 Indian fig, 76 
 Indians, 249, 254 
 Individuals, development of, 369 
 Indo-Germanio groups, 249, 253, 254 
 Indus, 363 
 Influences, ancestral, 371 : external, afl«r 
 
 birth, 373, 376 ; before birth, 370 
 Information, diffusion of, 1 
 Infusoria, 126-128 
 Inherited constitution, 378 
 Insessores, 211 
 Insects, 149, 168, 154 ; fertilization of 
 
 plants by, 114 ; resemblance of, to 
 
 orchids, 113 
 Inseotivora, 218, 234 
 Intemperance, causes of, 383 ; treatment 
 
 of; 384, 385 
 Intermediate forms of life, 307, 327 
 Intestines. 176 
 
 Invasion, first, of Great Britain, 297 
 Invertebrata, 143 ; moral, 379 
 Invertebrate animals, 265 
 Irrigation of Egypt, IS 
 Irritability, 117-119 
 Irritable stamens, 91 
 Iron, age, 364 ; epoch, 257, 269 
 Iron implements, coexistence of, with 
 
 stone, 256 
 Islands, coral, 139-142 
 Isle of Sheppey, fossils of, 286 
 Israelites, 243 ; bondage of, 24 ; journey 
 
 of, 28, 41 
 Italy, icebergs in, 288 
 
 J, 
 
 Jaw, of man, 244 
 
 Jellyfish, 136 ; moral, 379 
 
 Jericho, siege of, 36 
 
 Jews, 243, 249 
 
 Jordan, 42, 43, 48 ; nature of channel ot, 
 33 ; dividing of waters of, 32, S3 ; earth- 
 quakes of, 33-35 ; passage of, 32 ; valley 
 of, 33 
 
 Joseph, house of, 8 ; marriage of, 14 ; 
 journey of, 11-14 ; public life o^ 20 
 
INDEX. 
 
 4Q9 
 
 Joshua, 30 ; hia command to snn, Italian 
 
 commentary, 37-39 
 Journey of Israelites, 28 
 Jndes, 44 
 
 Judgment of dead, 18 
 Juices, digestive, 176 
 Jura, epoch, 264 ; fossils in, 280 
 Jura formation, 204 
 
 K. 
 
 KiFFlBS, 246-248 
 Kangaroo, 215, 216, 279 
 Kemer, 114 
 Kham&s'in, 28 
 Kidneys, 178 
 
 King, Ethiopian, daughter of, 25 ; con- 
 quest of, by Moses, 25 
 Kings, shepherd, 21 
 Kingsley, Charles, 395 
 Kishon, 47 
 
 L. 
 
 Labybibthodon, 278 
 
 Lacertilia, 194 
 
 Lagoon, 189-141 
 
 Lake, salt "water, 139 
 
 LameUibranchiata, 159, 275, 306 
 
 Lampreys, 184 
 
 Lands, Bible, 1 
 
 Land of Promise, 35, 42 
 
 Lapps, 250 
 
 Larva, 153 
 
 Laurontian epoch, 264 
 
 Leaf, fern, 81 ; type of plant, 57 ; venation 
 
 of, 63, 57 
 Leaflets, 84 
 Leaves, 52, 73, 104 ; classification by, 62, 
 
 64 ; root, 55 ; veined, 55, 56 
 Learning of Egyptians, 26 
 Lebanon, 44 ; cedar of, 62, 96 
 Lectures, 386 - 
 Leech, 148 ; barometers, 394 
 Leek, 60-53, 96, 99 
 Lemur, 234, 235 
 Lepidodendron, 275 
 Lepidosiren, 188, 189 
 Libyan Hills, 19 
 Lichens, 52, 63, 56, 62, 70, 96 ; gonidia in, 
 
 76 
 Life, development of, 349 ; future, 19, 20 
 Ijfe history of the earth, 301-307 
 Light, 101, 104 ; effect of, 388 
 Lily, bulbiferous, 76 
 Links between amphibia and fishes, 189 ; 
 
 between annulosa and mollusca,' 154 ; 
 
 between mollusca and vertebrate, 162, 
 
 180-183 ; between reptiles and birds, 
 
 204-208 ; missing, 325, 327 
 Lingula, 166 
 Linnet, 210 
 
 Lissotrichi, 245, 247, 248, 251, 252 
 
 Liver, 176 
 
 Liverwort, 76 
 
 Lizard, 194, 195, 197-199, 280, 283 ; flying, 
 
 198 ; structure of, 199 
 Lobworm, 148 
 Lobsters, 149-168 
 Lockyer, N., speculations o^ 3S9 
 Locomotive engine, 122, 123 
 Logan, Sir W., 274 
 Lophocomi, 245, 248 
 Lotus, 50, 61 
 Lungs, 151, 178 ; of birds, 204 ; of fishes, 
 
 188 ; of mammalia, 216 
 Lycopods, 81, 82, 98, 279 ; prothallium in, 
 
 82, 83 ; spores of, 63 
 Lydians, 39 
 Lyell, Sir Charles, 327 
 
 M. 
 
 Macaques, 237 
 Magyars, 250 
 Maidenluiir fern, 67 
 Malacca, 246, 260 
 Malayan archipelago, 246 
 
 Malays, 247-262 
 
 Male organ of flower, 85 
 
 Mammalia, 179, 180, 265, 273, 306 ; apla- 
 contal, 217 ; circulation of, 214 ; con- 
 dyles in, 180 ; first traces of, 279, 281 ; 
 lungs of, 215 ; placental, 217 ; teeth in, 
 218, 219 
 
 Mammoth, 289, 299. 300 
 
 Man, adaptation to circumstances of, 335, 
 336 ; anatomical difference between ape 
 and, 242 ; a reasonable being, 346 ; 
 bones of, 238 ; brain of, 239 ; centres of 
 distribution of, 368 ; classification of 
 by hair, 245-252 ; by skulls, 244, 246 ; 
 common descent of monkey and, 345, 
 346 ; development of, 344 ; evidences in 
 quaternary epoch of early, 266; evolution 
 of, 344 ; feet of, 238, 239 ; first appear- 
 ance of, in Britain, 295 ; fleecy-haired, 
 246 ; jaw of, 244 ; mental differeiice be- 
 tween apes and, 241 ; natural selection 
 in, 332-335 ; origin from single stock, 
 242 ; races of, 244 ; skulls of, 239, 244 ; 
 stiff-haired, 247 ; sti'aight-haired, 247, 
 248; teeth of, 239, 245; tuft-haired, 
 246 ; woolly-haired, 246, 248 
 
 Manatees, 229 
 
 Manepthah, 27 
 
 Maori, 246 
 
 Maple tree, 69 
 
 Marah, 28 ; waters of, 29 
 
 Marriage of Joseph, 14 . 
 
 Marsupials, 216-217, 281, 286, 288, 306 
 
 Marsuplum, 215, 216. 
 
 Mastodon, 288 
 
 Mechanical energy, 108 ; power, 101 j 
 
 Medes, 39 
 
410 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Mediterranean, 42, 43, 4S, 24S 
 
 Mediterranese, 250-253 
 
 Medulla oblongata, 175 
 
 Medullary rays, 61 
 
 Medusae, budding, 136, 137 
 
 Melon, 50, 52, 68 
 
 Mental difference between man and apes, 
 
 241 
 Hesohippus, 324, 326 
 Meso-eephali, 244 
 Mesozoio epoch, 263, 264, 273, 278, 284 ; 
 
 fossUs of, 278-234 
 Metamorpbosis of amphibia, 190, 192 
 Metz, M. de, 379, 380, 388 
 Microlestes, 279 
 Microscopist, Ehrenberg, 128 
 Migration, causes of, 49, 243 
 Miller, Hugh, 354 
 
 Milton, on creation, 319, 320; on primi- 
 ' tive man, 351, 353 ; Paradise Lost, 351- 
 
 353 ; v&rsus Darwin, 326 
 Miocene epoch, 264, 286, 326 
 Miohippus, 324, 326 
 MitoheU, Dr. Arthur, 891 ; Weir, 392 
 Mizralm, 263 
 Mole, 234 
 Mollusca, 154, 158, 162,.272, 305 ; ascidian, 
 
 156, 157 ; comparison of, 273 ; link be- 
 tween vertebrata and, < 162, 180-183 ; 
 
 nervous system of, 158 ; fiubdivisions 
 
 of, 169, 160 
 Molluscoida, alimentary canal of, 155 ; 
 
 body cavity of, 154 156 ; nervous system 
 
 of, 165 
 Molluscous shells, 274 
 Monera, 119, 121, 123, 149, 274 
 Mongolian Chinese, 253 
 Mongols, 247, 248, 250-252 
 Monkeys^ 162, 233-235 ; common descent 
 
 of man and, 344, 345 ; development of, 
 
 344, 345 ; first appearance of, 288 
 Monocotyledon, 105 ; germination of, 56 ; 
 
 section of, 59 
 Monotremata, 215-217 
 Moraines, 294 
 'Mosaic record of creation, 351, 353 ; of 
 
 evolution, 343, 344 
 Moses, 24, 225 ; death of, 31 ; history of, 
 
 24-31 ; his knowledge of astronomy, 26 ; 
 
 of chemistry, 26 ; of geometry, 26 
 Moss, 63, 56, 66, 62. 70, 72, 76, 78, 79, 82 ; 
 
 club, 81 : lesser club, 83 ; reproduction 
 
 of, 79 
 Motor nerves, 174 
 Mount Ararat, 365-367 
 Mourning, Egyptian, 16, 17 
 Mouth, 176 
 
 Movement, implies energy, 122 
 Mud fish, 188, 189 
 Mulberries, 45 
 Multiplication, by buds, 77 ; by cells, 64, 
 
 65 
 Muriform cells, 69 
 Muscle, 173-176 
 
 Mushroom, 78, 79 
 Musk-oz, 288 
 Mycelium, 78 
 Myrtle, 284 
 Myxinoids, 184, 185, 189 
 
 N. 
 
 Natatobes, 210 
 
 Natural history, 60 ; its nature, 2 ; its 
 subdivisions, 3 
 
 Natural selection, adaptation of to cir- 
 cumstances, 335 ; effect of, in civil' war, 
 332 ; Darwin on, 336 ; in man, 334 
 
 Nature of species, 369 
 
 Nautilus, paper, 161 
 
 Negroes, 246-248 ; Austral, 247 
 
 Neolithic age, 257 ; skulls, 298 ; race, 297 
 
 Nerves, motor, 174 ; sensory, 174 
 
 Nervous system of molluscoida, 165 ; of 
 mollusca proper, 168 
 
 Netted veined leal; 54 
 
 Nettle, flower of, 92 ; stamens of, 91 
 
 Neural canal, 165 
 
 New Guinea, 246 
 
 New Zealand, 243, 246 
 
 Nightingale, 211 
 
 Nile, 10, 60 ; mud of, 261, 262 ; valley ot, 
 260-262 ; waters of, 263 
 
 Nitrogen, 63 
 ■ Nitrogenous waste, 178 
 
 Norsemen, 249, 254 
 
 Northern Sea, formation of, 294 
 
 Notochord, of amphioxus, 183, of hag- 
 fishes, 184 ; of lepidosiren, 188 ; of 
 teleostei, l'^7 
 
 Nubians, 248, 249, 252 
 
 Nucleolus, 63 
 
 Nucleus of blood corpuscles, 179 ; of pro- 
 toplasm, 62 
 
 Nummulites, 284 
 
 Nummulite rocks, 262 ■ 
 
 Nutrition, 117, 118 ; in infusoria, 128 ; of 
 plants by flies, 113 
 
 O. 
 
 Oak, 57, 58, 68, 69, 71, 284 ; of Bashan 
 
 96 
 Observatories, pyramids astronomical, 26 
 Octopus, 180, 162 ; gills of, 160 ;' nervous 
 
 ganglion of, 162 
 Oil, 46 
 
 Old red sandstone epoch, 264, 275 
 Olive trees, 45, 50, 62 
 Onions, 50, 62, 63, 96 
 Oogonium, 78, 80, 84 
 Oolitic epoch, 264, 280 ; fossils in, 280 
 Ophidia, 195 
 Opossum, 215 
 
 Opposition of thumb and great toe, 236 
 Orchids, bee, 94 ; humming-bird, 94 ; 
 
 resemblance of insects to, 113 
 
INDEX. 
 
 ■ 411 
 
 Orchis, fertilization of, H ; flower of 
 
 spotted, 93 ; shape of, 94 
 Otigih of cell, 74; of man from single 
 "dtook, 242 
 Orhosaurus, 306 
 Omithorhynchus, 215 
 Orohippus, 325 
 Orthooerata, 161, 162 
 Orthognathi, 245 
 Osmanlis, 250 
 
 Os quadratnm in sauropsida, 180 
 Ostrich, 212, 213; African, 213 ; American, 
 
 213 
 Otter, 231 
 Ourang outang, 237 
 Ova, 178 
 Oval cells, 60-62 
 Ovary, 87, 88, 98 
 Oviparous animals, 178 
 Ovoviviparous animals, 178 
 Ovule, 84-91, 98 
 Ox, 220, 221, 224, 225 ; rumination of, 227 ; 
 
 stomach of, 225, 226 
 Oyster, 169 
 
 PaohtdebmaTa, 288 
 
 PaciBo Islands, 250 ' 
 
 Pain area and-tain area, 393 
 
 Paleolithic, age, 257 ; skulls, 298 
 
 Paleotherium, 286, 287, 306 
 
 Paleozoic epoch, 263, 264, 275 ; fossils of, 
 266, 275 
 
 Palestine, 42, 43 ; climate of, 46 ; con- 
 quest of, 41 ; fauna of, 60 ; flora of, 60 ; 
 ■winter in, 46 
 
 Palm tree, 50, 62, 66, 68, 59, 96, 99, 106 ; 
 growth of, 70 ; stem of, 69, 70 
 
 Pancreas, 176 
 
 Papuans, 246, 246, 248 
 ' Papyrus, 60 
 
 Paradise, account of, 361-363 ; disappear- 
 ance of, 364 ; evolution of man in, 360 ; 
 expulsion fi-om, 363, 364 ; site 6f, 361 ; 
 submergence of, 366 ; traditions of, 366 
 
 Parallel veins, 56, 95 
 
 Paramoeciura, 128 
 
 Paris, fossils near, 286 
 
 Famassia palustris, 114 
 
 Parrots, 210 
 
 Passage of Jordan, 32 
 
 Pelvic bones, 238 ; girdle, 166 
 
 Penstemon, 114 
 
 Perching birds, 210 
 
 Periwinkle, 109, 159 
 
 Perfection, process of, 375 
 
 Perissodactyla, 220, 221 
 
 Perm, 277 
 
 Permian epoch, 264, 277 
 
 Persia, 263 
 
 Persian Gulf, 362 
 
 Persians, 249, 254 
 
 Petals, 108 
 
 Phalanges, 172 
 
 Pheasants, 210 
 
 Phoenicians, Semitic, 264 
 
 Pigeons, 210 
 
 Pine, the, 273, 276, 279, 306 ; ovules of, 
 87 ; pollen grains of, 91, scales of, 64, 
 87 
 
 Pingulcula, 114 
 
 Pinnigrade animals, 231 
 
 Pison, 361-363 
 
 Pistils, 91 
 
 Pith, 61, 62, 66, 67 
 
 Placenta, 217 ; of flpwers, 88, 89 
 
 Placental mammalia, 2 17 ; teeth of, 218 
 
 Plague of darkness, 27 
 
 Plain of Esdraelon, 44 ; of Sharon, 44 
 
 Plantigrade animals, 231 
 
 Plants, cellular, 70, 71, 76 ; difference 
 between animals and, 103, 115, 116 ; 
 differentiation of, 81 ; digestion in, 111 i 
 distribution in time of animals and, 
 266 ; exogenous, 58, 114 ; fertilization of, 
 by insects, 114 : glutinous secretion in, 
 111, 112 ; growth of, . 96, 98 ; leaf type 
 of, 57 ; male element of, 97 ; male organ 
 of, 78 ; mutual relation of countries and, 
 61 ; nutrition of 96 ; by flies, 113 ; re- 
 lation of animals to, 301-305 ; repro- 
 duction of, 72 ; sensibility in, 110 ; sleep 
 in, 109 ; structure of, 60, 51 ; tissue of, 
 100 ; twining, 107 ; vascular, 70, 71, 76', 
 
 Platyrhina, 236 
 
 Pleistocene epoch, 264, 288 , 
 
 PlesiosauruSij280, 283, 306 
 
 Pliocene epoch, 264, 326 ; climate of, 288 
 
 Pliohippus, 323, 326. 
 
 Polar men, 247, 248, 261 
 
 Pole cat, 231 
 
 Pollen, 86, 88, 94, 97, 107 ; cells, 84, 86, 
 87'; grains, 84, 86, 87, 89, 91, 97 ; tube, 
 89 
 
 Polygastrica, 128 
 
 Polynesia, 286 
 
 Polypetalse, 95 
 
 Polyps, 139, 140, 142, 165 
 
 Polyzoa, 166, 156 
 
 Pomegranate, 50 
 
 Porpoises, 229 
 
 Position of formations, determination of 
 age by, 267 
 
 Post-diluvial epoch, 264 
 
 Post-pliocene epoch, 288 
 
 Post-tertiary epoch, 264 
 
 Potential energy, 102, 103, 122, 123 
 
 Power, mechanical, 101 
 
 Predestination, 382 
 
 Predictions by barometers, 395, 396 
 
 Prevention and prevision, 400 
 
 Prey, birds of, 211 ; beasts of, 230 
 
 Primary epoch, 263, 264 
 
 Primitive man, Milton on, 361 
 
 Primaeval ocean, 233 
 
 Primrose, flower of China,' 86 
 
412 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Probosoidea, 218, 228 
 
 Process of degradation, 374 ; of perfec- 
 tion, 375 
 
 Productions of countries, 50 
 
 PrognatW, 246 
 
 Progression, mode of, of amphioxus, 182 ; 
 of cephalopoda, 160 ; of periwinkle, 
 169 ; of snail, 169, 160 ; of whelks, 169 
 
 Progression of life history of the earth, 
 301-307 
 
 Promised land, 36, 42, 45 
 
 Proteus, 191, 192, 193 
 
 Prothalium, 80, 82 
 
 Protista, 119 ,149 
 
 Protohippus, 323, 326 
 
 Protoplasm, 63-68, 72, 78, 96, 97, 116, 119, 
 120, 122,, 123, 129, 131, 262 ; differentia- 
 tion of, in amoeba, 123, 127 ; in the body, 
 124 ; in inftasoria, 126 
 
 Protozoa, 132, 133, 135, 149 
 
 PseUdopodia, 122, 124-127, 135 
 
 Pterodactyl, 197, 198, 200, 280, 281, 284, 
 306 ; link between reptile and bird, 204 
 
 Public life of Joseph, 20 
 
 Pupa stage, 154 
 
 Pyramids, the, 126 ; use of, 12-26 
 
 Pyrenees, 284 
 
 Q. 
 
 QCJACBAMGULAR Cells, 60-62 
 
 Quadrate bone, 180 
 Quadruraana, 218. 236 ; thumb of, 236 
 Quaternary epoch, 264, 288 ; evidences 
 of man in, 266 
 
 R. 
 Rabbit, 228, 233 
 Races of man, 244 
 Radiata, 147 
 Radius, 168, 169 
 Rain area and pain area, 393 
 Rain and rheumatism, 392 
 Rain, elTeot on flowers of, 108 ; protection 
 
 of flowers from. 108 
 Rameses II., 26, 27 
 Tiaptores, 211, 212 
 Rasores, 210 
 Rat, 228, 232 
 Rays, 280 ; meduUaiy, 61 
 Reaping in Egypt, 14 
 Recent epoch, 264 
 Record, geological, imperfection of, 326, 
 
 327; Mosaic, 337 
 Red Indians, 246-261 
 Red Sea, 260-262 
 Reefs, coral, 139-142 
 Reflex action, 176 
 Reformatory for children, 379 
 Reindeer, 288 
 
 Helation of plants and animals, 301-30j 
 Relative ages of formations, 266 
 
 Religion and development, 401 
 
 Religion of Egyptians, 26 
 
 Reproduction, 118 ; of algse, 73 ; of funjri 
 73 ; of hydra, 134 ; of infusoria, 128 
 of molluscoida, 156 ; In mosses, 79 
 sexual, 178 ; of sponges, 130-133 ; of 
 trees, 72 ; of vertebrata, 178 
 
 Eeptilia, ISO, 192-199, 201-208, 266, 278 
 
 Rf semblances to ancestors, 372 
 
 Respiration, 121-123, 149, 160; external, 
 161 ; internal, 163 ; in birds, 20S, 204 
 
 Respiratory sac of ascidians, 168 
 
 Bespiratory system, of myxinoids, 185 ; 
 of oyster, 169; of periwinkle, 159; 
 of reptiles, 193; of snails, 169; of 
 whelks, 169 
 
 Rhea, 213 
 
 Rheumatism and rain, 392 
 
 Rhinoceros, 220-223, 288 
 
 Rings in wood', 69 
 
 Rocks, 266-270, 274 : nummulitic, 262 
 
 Rodentis, 218, 228, 231-233 
 
 Romans, the, 249, 264 
 
 Rome, 264, 256 
 
 Root-leaves, 55 
 
 Roots, 73, 106 ; adaptation in, 107 ; adven- 
 titious, 105; function of, 106, 107 
 
 Rose of Sharon, 47 
 
 Rudimentary digestive cavity, 127 • 
 
 Ruminants, 221, 224-227, 286 
 
 Running, birds, 212, 213 : footmen, 8 
 
 Russia, 260, 277 
 
 8. 
 
 Sac, embryo, 86, 90 
 
 Sahara, 247, 262, 262 
 
 Salamander, 194 
 
 Saliva, 176 
 
 Salt water lake, 139, 141 
 
 Sandworm, 161 
 
 Sarracenia, 113 
 
 Sanrians, 278, 2«0, 286 
 
 Sauropsida, 179, 180, 194, 200 ; structure 
 
 of, ill reptiles and birds, 200-208 
 Saxons, 264 
 
 Scale, of cypress, 89 ; of Scotch flr, 67 
 Scandinavia, 250 
 Scandinavians, 249, 254 
 Scansores, 210 
 Scapulae, 167, 173 
 Sclaves, 249, 264 
 Scotch fir, staminal scale of, 87 
 Scotch heath, 276 
 Scotland in glacial period, 291 
 Scratching birds, 210 
 Scripture, literal interpretation of, im- 
 ' possible, 367-359 ; our interpretation of. 
 
 356 ; St. Paul's teaching of, 355 ; use of, 
 
 354 
 Sea anemone, 137 
 Pea cows, 229 
 Sea fir, 276 
 
INDEX. 
 
 413 
 
 Seals, S31 
 
 Bea lilies, 275 
 
 Sea mats, 155 
 
 Sea mosses, 155 
 
 Sea weed, 62, VO, 265, 273, 274 ; white, 
 
 155 
 Sea urchins, 143, 144, 147, 306 
 Secondary e^och, 263-265, 278 
 Section, of dicotyledon, 68 j of monocoty- 
 ledon, 59 
 Seeds, 90; airangement of, 52; growth 
 
 off 90 : difference between spores and, 
 
 84 
 Selachel, 185 
 Selection, artificial, 833 ; natural, 332, 334 ; 
 
 Darwin on, 336 
 Semitic tribes, 249, 253, 294 ; Phoenicians, 
 
 254 
 Sensitive plants, 110 
 Sensory nerve, 174 - 
 
 Sepalj 84 
 
 Septa of actinozoa, 138 
 Sertnlarians, 275 
 Seti, 27. 
 
 Sexual reproduction, 178 
 Shape of Egypt, 9 
 Shark, 185, 186, 306 
 Sharon, 50 ; plain o^ 44 ; rose of, 47 
 Sheep, 227 
 Sheffield tools, 256 
 SheU-flsh, 159 
 Shells of foraminifera, 125 
 Shepherd kings, 21 
 Sheppey, fossils in Isle of, 286 
 Shoulder girdle, 165, 166 
 Biege of Jericho, 35 
 Sigillatja, 275 
 Silica, spicules of, 124 
 Silk-worm, 45 
 
 Silurian epoch, 264, 274, 275 
 Sirenia, 218, 223, 229 
 Skull, 165, 176 ; of man, 239, 240, 244 ; 
 
 neolitliic, 298 ; paleolithic, 298 ; of 
 
 sauropsida, 180 
 Sleep in plants, 109 
 Sloths, 218 
 Snails, 159, 160 
 Snakes, 195, 196 ; homed, 11 
 Solomon, 4, 22B 
 Soath Sea Islands, 256, 332 
 Spain, 253 
 
 Special creation, 318, 319 
 Species, nature of, 369 
 Spenn cells, 97 
 Spermatozoa, 178 ; cells, 178 
 Spermatozoids, '78, 83, 84, 97 
 Spermatozoon, 97 
 Spicules of silica, 124 
 Spies, return of, 30 
 Spiders, 280 
 Spinal cord, 174, 175 
 Spine, 165 
 
 Spindle-shaped cells, 62, 68 
 Spitzhergen, fossils in, 288 
 
 Sponges, 129 ; buds in, 131 ; cUia in, ISl, 
 142 ; flinty spicules in, 131 ; gemmules 
 in, 131 ; Huxley on, 130 ; intermediate 
 position of, 132 ; nutrition in, 130, 132 ; 
 ova in, 131 ; protoplasm in, 131 ; proto- 
 plasmic cells in, 132; reproduction in, 
 131-133 ; spermatozoa in, 131 
 
 Spores, 80, 97, 98 ; cases, 81 ; difTerenoe 
 between seeds and, 84 ; propagation by, 
 77, 78, 80 
 
 Spotted orchis, 93 
 
 Stalk, 67 
 
 Stamens, 86, 92 ; irritable, 91 ; of barbery, 
 91; of nettle, 91 
 
 Staminodes, 114 
 
 Star-flsh, 144, 145, 147, 275, 306 
 
 Star of Bethlehem, 47 
 
 Stems, 57, 73 ; acrogenous, 60 ; cells of, 
 60 ; endogenous, 59 ; exogenous, 68, 69 ; 
 growth of, 105 ; hairs on, 114 ; micro- 
 scopic structure of, 60-65 ; of palm, 69 ; 
 vegetable tissue of, 69 ; vessels of, 60 
 
 Sternum, 178 
 
 Stiff-haiied men, 247, 248 
 
 Stigma, 88, 8», 91, 94, 107 
 
 Stigmaria, 275, 276 
 
 Stomach, 176 
 
 Stomata, 104 
 
 Stone age, 266-269, 352, 364 ; in Egypt, COO 
 
 Stone lilies, 146, 147 
 
 Stone of fruit, 67 
 
 Stowe, Mrs. Beecher, 380 
 
 Storks, 209 
 
 Straight-iiaired men, 247, 248 
 
 Strata, compailson of, 270^278 
 
 Straw, for making bricks, 14 
 
 Strawberry, 75 
 
 Strepslrhina, 236 
 
 Structura, of amphibia, 190 ; of amphi- 
 orus, 182 ; of birds, 200 ; of ardieop- 
 teryx, 205 ; cellnlar,'84 ; of cetacea, 229, 
 230 ; of cold-blooded animals, 203 ; of 
 compsognathus, 209 ; of crocodiles, 196, 
 204: of flowers, 84; of heart of reptiles, 
 203, 204 : of lacertilia, 194 ; of lepi- 
 dosiren, 188, 189 : nf lizards, 199 ; of 
 mammalia, 214 ; of microscopic stem, 60 ; 
 of myxinoids, 184, 189; of plants,'60, 
 51 ; of proboscidea, 228 ; of protons, 193 ; 
 of pterodactyl, 204 ; of reptilia, 194 ; of 
 running birds, 213 ; of sirenia, 196 ; of . 
 sharks, 185, 186 ; of snakes, 195 ; of 
 teeth, 219 ; of tissues, 73 ; of tortoises, 
 196 ; of trees, 60 ; of reptiles compared 
 ■with birds, 201-208; of warm-blooded 
 animals, 203 
 
 Struggle for existence, 330-332, 336 
 
 Sturgeon, 186 
 
 Style, cellular tissue of, 89 
 
 Stylidium, 91 
 
 Sulci, 289 
 
 Summer, growth in, 69 
 
 Sun, eclipse of, 88, 89 ; Joshua's command 
 to, 37-39 
 
414 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Sun-dew, 111 
 Sunflower, 107 
 Survival of the good, 381 
 Swine, 220, 221. 224, 225 
 Swimming birds, 210 
 Swinuning-bladdei of fish, 188 
 Syrian desffli;, 42 
 Syrian hills, SS 
 Syncoryne, 136 
 
 Tubal Cain, 364 
 
 Hubes of leaves, 105 
 
 Tnft-haired men, 246 
 
 Tunicata, 117, 166-158 
 
 Tuikey, 250 
 
 Turks, 249 
 
 Turtle, 280 
 
 Twigs, 68, 106 ; growth of, 62.«6 
 
 Twining plants, 107 ■ 
 
 Tadpoles, 192, 193 
 
 Tail, heterocercal, 186 
 
 Tape-worm, 147, 148 
 
 Tapir, 220, 221, 228, 286, 325 ; intermedi- 
 ate position of, 223 
 
 Tartars, 246, 249, 250 
 
 Tasmania, 246 
 
 Teeth, 176; classifleation by, 218, 245; 
 structure of, 219 ; kinds of, 219 ; of car- 
 nivora, 230 ; of hyraooidea, 228 ; of in- 
 sectivora, 234; of mammals, 218, 219 ; 
 of man, 245, 360 ; of proboscidea, 228 ; 
 
 '■ of rodents, 233 
 
 Teleostian fish, 306 
 
 Teleostel, 186, 187 
 
 Tennyson, 379 
 
 Tentacles, contractile, 138 
 
 Tertiary epoch, 264, 284 
 
 Thames, the, plants of, 286 
 
 Thigh bone, 168; of bird, 208; of croco- 
 dile, 208 ; of dinosaur, 208 
 
 Thumb, of catarhina, 237 ; of man, 235 ; 
 of quadrumana, 236 ; of platyrhina, 
 236 ; of strepsirhina, 236 
 
 Tibia, 168, 169 
 
 Tigris, 362 
 
 Tin, use of, in weapons, 258 
 
 Tissue, 71 ; animal, 177 ; of bark, 60 
 cellular, 69; formation of vegetable, 67 
 . functional activity of, 177 ; of plants, 
 100 ; structure of, 73 ; of stems, 61 
 vegetable formation of, 67 ; waste, 178 
 woody, 67 
 
 Tombs, Egyptian, 19 
 
 Tools, man's first, 257 
 
 Tortoises, 196, 197 
 
 Tours in the East, 7 
 
 Transformation of energy, 101 
 
 Tretf, the age of, 68 : almond, 47, 50 ; bark 
 o^ 57, 68 ; beech, 69 ; fig, 50, 284 ; 
 growth of, 50, 96 ; maple, 69 ; myrtle, 
 . 284 ; nutrition of, 96 ; oak, 57, 58, 
 71, 284 ; oUve, 45, 50 ; pahn, 60, 67-69 
 105 ; reproduction in, 72 ; structure of, 
 60 ; walnut, 284 ; willow, 67 
 
 Trias epoch, 264, 278 ; footprints in, 279 
 lycopods in, 279 
 
 Trias formation, 204 
 
 Tribute, 14 
 
 TrJlobites, 163, 274, 276 
 
 Tropic of Capricorn, 247 
 
 V. ■ 
 
 Ulna, 168, 169 
 
 Tllotrichi, 245, 247, 248, 252 - 
 
 Ungulata, 217, 220-224 
 
 Union of Great Britain with France, 294, 
 
 296 
 Universe, future of the, 340-342 
 Upper Nile, 252 
 
 Vacuolfs, contractile, 123 
 
 Valley, the Egyptian, 260 ; Jordan, 33 ; 
 Nile, 260 
 
 Van Diemen's Land, 246 
 
 Vascular plants, 70, 71 ; buds of, 76 
 
 Vegetable kingdom, the, 231 ; distinction 
 between the animal and, 117 ; relations 
 of, 303 
 
 Veined leaves, 65, 56 
 
 Venation of leaf, 53, 67 
 
 Venus' fly-trap, 112 
 
 Vermes, 147 
 
 Yertebrata, 164, 168, 162-165, 178; 179, 
 214; Huxley on, 179; link between 
 mollusea and, 162, 180, 182, 183 ; re- 
 production in, 178, 180 
 
 Vertebral colunm, 163, 164^ 180, 183-185 
 
 Vessels, 62, 78 ; blood, 176, 177 ; bundles 
 of, 69, 70 ; formation of, 68 ; of stems, 
 60 ; tubular, 61, 62, 68 
 
 Viviparous animals, 178 
 
 Viper, homed, 11 
 
 Vulture, 211, 212 
 
 W 
 
 WADisa birds, 209 
 
 Wahiut, 284, 288 
 
 Walrus, 231 
 
 War in Egypt, 22 
 
 Warm-blooded animals, 203 
 
 Waste, nitrogenoqs, 178 ; of tissue, 178 
 
 Water-newt, gills of, 198 
 
 Waters of Marah, 29 
 
 Water vascular system, 143, 144 
 
 Waxy surface, 114 
 
 Weapons, man's first, 257 ; his first use of 
 
 copper in, 257 ; of iron in, 269 ; of tiu 
 
 in, 268 
 
INDEX. 415 
 
 Weasels, 231 •Woolly-haired men, 245, 247-249 
 
 Weather, and death-rate, 391 ; influences Work vermt growth, 398 
 
 of, on intellect and temper, 895 Worms, 147, 274 
 
 Weir MitoheU, Dr., 392, 393 Wrist, bones of, 170, 171 
 
 Well, artesian, 29 
 Whales, 229 ; fossil, 2S5 
 
 Wheat, 50, 51 Y. 
 
 Whelk, 169 
 
 Will, the, power of, 380 Year, length of, fixed by Egyptians. 26 
 
 Wisdom of Solomon, 4 Yew, flower of, 84 
 
 Woman, creation of, 353, 354 
 Woodlouse, 274 
 
 Wood, rings in, 69 Z. 
 
 Woodpeckers, 210 
 Woody cells, 68 ; tissne, 61 Zambesi, 863 
 
 THE END. 
 
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12 SCIENTIFIC CATALOGUE. 
 
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PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 13 
 
 Huxley (Professor).— lay SERMONS, ADDRESSES, 
 AND REVIEWS. By T. H. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. New 
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 Fourteen Discourses on the following subjects: — (i) On the Advisable- 
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 it: — (4) ScieniificEducaiion : — (5) On the Educational Value of 
 the Natural History Sciences: — (6) On the Study of Zoology: — 
 (7) On the Physical Basis of Life: — (8) The Scientific Aspects 0/ 
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 INTRODUCTORY PRIMER. i8mo, is. [Science Primers. 
 
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14 SCIENTIFIC CATALOGUE. 
 
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 Master in the Grammar School, Manchester. 
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PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 15 
 
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PHYSICAL SCIENCE 17 
 
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 B 
 
i8 SCIENTIFIC CATALOGUE. 
 
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PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 19 
 
 Rendu. — the theory of the glaciers of savoy. 
 
 By M. LE Chanoine Rendu. Translated .by A. Wells, Q.C, 
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 B 2 
 
SCIENTIFTC CATALOGUE. 
 
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23 SCIENTIFIC CATALOGUE. 
 
 Thomson — continued. 
 
 who wish to be pleasantly introduced to the subject, and rightly 
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 ORIGIN, NATURE, AND VARIETIES OF WINE. 
 
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 — Wine Trade Review. 
 
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 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE THEORY OF NATURAL 
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PHYciICAL SCIENCE. 23 
 
 Wallace (A. 'R.)—conHnued. 
 
 The Times says : ' ' Altogether it is a wonderful and fascinating 
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 design by Sir Noel Paton. Crown 8vo. 8j. id. 
 
34 SCIENTIFIC CA TALOGUE. 
 
 Wilson (Daniel) CALIBAN : a Critique on Slaakespeaie's 
 
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 SCIENCE PRIMERS FOR ELEMENTARY 
 SCHOOLS. 
 
 Under the joint Editorship of Professors Huxley, Roscoe, and 
 Balfour Stewart. 
 
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SCIENCE CLASS-BOOKS. 25 
 
 Science Primers for Elementary ^<z:i\oo\&— continued. 
 
 Physiology — By Michael Foster, M.D., F.R.S. With 
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 Illustrations. New Edition. l8mo. is. 
 
 Botany — By Sir J. D. Hooker, K.C.S.I., C.B., F.R.S. With 
 numerous Illustrations. New Edition. i8mo. \s. 
 
 Logic — By Professor Stanley Jevons, LL.D., M.A., F.R.S. 
 New Edition. i8mo. is. 
 
 Political Economy — By Professor Stanley Jevons, LL.D., 
 M.A., F.R.S. i8mo. is. 
 
 Others in preparation. 
 
 ELEMENTARY SCIENCE CLASS-BOOKS. 
 
 Agriculture. — elementary lessons in agricul- 
 tural SCIENCE, By H. Tanner, F.C.S., Professor oif 
 Agricultural Science, University College, Aberystwith. 
 
 [/« preparation. 
 
 Astronomy By the Astronomer Royal. POPULAR AS- 
 TRONOMY. With Illustrations. By Sir G. B. AlRY, K.C.B., 
 Astronomer Royal. iNew Edition. l8mo. 4J. dd. 
 
 Astronomy .—ELEMENTARY LESSONS IN ASTRONOMY. 
 With Coloured Diagram of the Spectra of the Sun, Stars, and 
 Nebulse, and numerous Illustrations. By J. Norman Lockyer, 
 F.R.S. New Edition. Fcap. 8vo. 5^.60'. 
 QUESTIONS ON LOCKYER'S ELEMNTARY LESSONS 
 IN ASTRONOMY. For the Use of Schools. By 'John 
 'Forbes Robertson. i8mo, cloth limp. is. dd. 
 
 Botany lessons in elementary botany. By D. 
 
 Oliver, F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in University 
 - College. London. With nearly Two Hundred Illustrations. New 
 Edition. Fcap. 8vo. 4f. dd. 
 
 Chemistry LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY, 
 
 INORGANIC AND ORGANIC. By Henry E. Roscoe, 
 F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Victoria University, tiie 
 Owens College, Manchester. With numerous Illustrations and 
 Chromo-Litho of the Solar Spectrum, and of the Alkalies and 
 Alkaline Earths. New Edition. Fcap. 8vo. 4J-. dd. 
 
26 SCIENTIFIC CATALOGUE. 
 
 Elementary Science Class-books — continued. 
 
 A SERIES OF CHEMICAL PROBLEMS, prepared with 
 Special Reference to the above, by T. E. Thorpe, Ph.D., 
 Professor of Chemistry in the Yorkshire College of Science, Leeds. 
 Adapted for the preparation of Students for the Government, 
 Science, and Society of Arts Examinations. With a Preface by 
 Professor RoscoE. New Edition, with Key. i8mo. 2s. 
 
 Practical Chemistry — the OWENS COLLEGE JUNIOR 
 COURSE OF PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY. By Francis 
 Jones, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., Chemical Master in the Grammar School, 
 Manchester. With Preface by Professor RoscoE, and Illustrations. 
 New Edition. i8mo. 2s. 6d. 
 
 Chemistry. — QUESTIONS on. a Series of Problems and 
 Exercises in Inorganic and Organic Chemistry. By F. Jones, 
 F.R.S.E., F.C.S. i8mo. 3^. 
 
 Electricity and Magnetism. — By Professor Sylvanus 
 Thompson, of University College, Bristol. With Illustrations. 
 
 [/« preparation. 
 
 Physiology LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 With numerous Illustrations. By T. H. Huxley, F.R.S., Pro- 
 fessor of Natural History in the Royal School of Mines. New 
 Edition. Fcap. 8vo. 4^. td. 
 
 QUESTIONS ON HUXLEY'S PHYSIOLOGY FOR 
 SCHOOLS. By T. Alcock, M.D. i8mo. is.dd. 
 
 Political Economy political ECONOMY FOR BE- 
 GINNERS. By Millicent G. Fawcett. New Edition. 
 iSmo. 2J. (>d. 
 
 Logic ELEMENTARY LESSONS IN LOGIC ; Deductive and 
 
 Inductive, vrith copious Questions and Examples, and a Vocabulary 
 of Logical Terms. By W. Stanley Jevons, LLD., M.A., 
 F.R.S. New Edition. Fcap. 8vo. 3^. 6d. 
 
 Physics LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY PHYSICS. By 
 
 Balfour Stewart, F.R.S. , Professor of Natural Philosophy in 
 the Victoria University the Owens College, Manchester. With 
 numerous Illustrations and Chromo-Litho of the Spectra of the 
 Sun, Stars, and Nebulse. New Edition. Fcap. 8vo. 41. td. 
 
 Anatomy LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY ANATOMY. By 
 
 St. George Mivaet, F.R.S., Lecturer in Comparative Anatomy 
 at St. Mary's Hospital. With upwards of 400 Illustrations. Fcap. 
 8va 6j. (>d. 
 
SCIENTIFIC CLASS BOOKS. 27 
 
 Elementary Science Qlass-hooks— continued. 
 
 Mechanics — an elementary treatise. By A. B. 
 W.Kennedy, C.E., Professorof Applied Mechanics in University 
 College, London. With Illustrations. [In preparation. 
 
 Steam — an elementary treatise. By John Perry, 
 B.E., Whitworth Scholar; Fellow of the Chemical Society, Lec- 
 turer in Physics at Clifton College. With numerous Woodcuts and 
 Numerical Examples and Exercises. New Edition. i8mo. 4^. (>d. 
 
 Physical Geography. — elementary lessons in 
 
 PHYSICAL geography. By A. Geikie, F.R.S., Murchi- 
 son Professor of Geology, &c., Edinburgh. With numerous 
 Illustrations. Fcap. 8vo. 4J. dd. 
 QUESTIONS ON THE SAME. u. Sd. 
 
 Psychology. — elementary lessons in psycho- 
 logy. By G. Croom Robertson, Professor of Mental 
 Philosophy, &c., University College, London. [In preparation. 
 
 Geography CLASS-BOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. By C. B. 
 
 Clarke, M.A.. F.G.S. New Edition, with eighteen coloured 
 Maps. Fcap. 8vo. 3^. 
 
 Moral Philosophy. — AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE. 
 By Professor E. Caird, of Glasgow University. {In preparation. 
 
 Natural Philosophy. —natural philosophy for 
 
 BEGINNERS. By I. Todhunter, M.A., F.R.S. Part L 
 The Properties of Solid and Fluid Bodies. i8mo. 3^. 6d. Part 
 II. Sound, Light, and Heat. i8mo. 3^-. 6d. 
 The Economics of Industry. — By A. Marshall. M. A., 
 late Principal of University College, Cheltenham, and Mary P. 
 TMarshali, late Lecturer at Newnham Hall, Cambridge. Extra 
 fcap. 8vo. 2j. 6d. 
 
 " The book is of sterling value, and will be of great use to student?, 
 and teachers." — Athenaeum. 
 
 Sound.— AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE. By Dr. W. H. 
 Stone. With Illustrations. i8mo. 3^. (>d. 
 
 Easy Lessons in Science. — Edited by Professor W. F. 
 Barrett. 
 I. HEAT. By C. A. Martineau. Illustrated. Extra fcap. 
 8vo. 2f. hd. 
 II. LIGHT. By Mrs. W. Awdry. Illustrated. Extra fcap. 
 
 Svo. 2.S 6d. 
 
 Others in Preparation. 
 
38 SCIENTIFIC CATALOGUE. 
 
 MANUALS FOR STUDENTS. 
 
 Crown 8vo. 
 
 Cossa. — GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF POLITICAL 
 ECONOMY. By Dr. Luigi Cossa, Professor of Political 
 Economy in the University of Pavia. Translated from the Second 
 Italian Edition. With a Preface by W. Stanley Jevons, F.R.S. 
 Crown 8vo . 4J. dd. 
 
 -Dyer and Vines — the STRUCTURE OF plants. By 
 Professor Thiselton Dyer, F.R.S., assisted by Sydney 
 Vines, B.Sc, Fellow and Lecturer of Christ's CoUege, Cambridge. 
 With numerous Illustrations. \in preparation. 
 
 Fawcett a manual of political economy. By 
 
 .Right Hon. Henry Fawcett, M.P. New Edition, revised and 
 enlarged. Crown 8vo. I2J. 
 
 Fleischer a system OF volumetric analysis. 
 
 Translated, with Notes and Additions, from the second German 
 Edition, by M. M. Pattison Mtjir, F.R.S.E. With lUustra- 
 tions. Crown 8vo. "js. dd. 
 
 Flower (W. H.) — an INTRODUCTION TO THE OSTE- 
 OLOGY OF THE MAMMALIA. Being the Substance of the 
 Course of Lectures delivered at the Royal 'College of Surgeons of 
 'England in 1870. By Professor W. H. Flower, F.R.S., 
 F.R.C.S. With numerous Illustrations. New Edition, enlarged. 
 Crown 8vo. 10s. 6d. 
 
 Foster and Balfour the elements OF EMBRY- 
 OLOGY. By Michael Foster, M.D., F.R.S., and F. M. 
 Balfour, M.A. Part I. crown 8vo. ^s. 6d. 
 
 Foster and Langley.— a COURSE OF elementary 
 PRACTICAL PHYSIOLOGY. By Michael Foster, M.D., 
 F.R.S. , and J. N. Langley, B.A. Fourth Edition. Crown 
 8vo. 6s. 
 
 Hooker (Dr.)_THE STUDENT'S FLORA OF THE BRITISH 
 ISLANDS. By Sir J. D. Hooker, K.C.S.L, C.B., F.R.S., 
 M.D., D.C.L. New Edition, revised. Globe 8vo. ims. 6d. 
 
 Huxley PHYSIOGRAPHY. An Introduction to the Study of 
 
 Nature. By Professor HuXLEY, F.R.S. With numerous 
 Illustrations, and Coloured Plates. New and cheaper Edition. 
 Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
MANUALS FOR STUDENTS. 29 
 
 Manuals for Students — continued. 
 
 Huxley and Martin — a COURSE OF PRACTICAL IN- 
 STRUCTION IN ELEMENTARY BIOLOGY. By Professor 
 Huxley, F.R.S., assisted by H. N. Martin, M.B., D.Sc. New 
 . Edition, revised. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
 Huxley and Parker.—ELEMENTARY BIOLOGY. PART 
 II. By Professor Huxley, F.R.S., assisted by T. J.. Parker. 
 With Illustrations. \In freparation. 
 
 Jevons — MANUALS. By Professor W. Stanley Jevons, LL.D., 
 
 M.A., F.R.S. :— 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF SCIENCE. A Treatise on Logic and 
 
 Scientific Method. New and Revised Edition. Crown 8vo. I2j-. dd: 
 STUDIES- IN DEDUCTIVE LOGIC. A Manual for Students. 
 
 Crown 8vo. 6ji 
 
 Kennedy. — mechanics of machinery. By a., b. w. 
 
 Kennedy, M. Inst. C.E., Pirofessor of Engineering; and 
 Mechanical 'Ttechnology in University College, London. With 
 lUustratimis. Crown 8vo. [/« the Press. 
 
 Kiepert. —a manual of ANCIEN T geography. From 
 the German of Dr. H. Kiepert. Crown .8vo. [Tmmediately. 
 
 Oliver (Professor) — first book of Indian botany. 
 By Professor Daniel Oliver, F.R.S., F.L.S., Keeper of the 
 Herbarium and Library of the Royal Gardens, Kew. With 
 munerous Illustrations. Extra fcap. 8vo. 6s. 6d. 
 
 Parker and Bettany — the morphology of the 
 SKULL. By Professor Parker and G. T, Bettany. Illus- 
 trated., Crown 8vo. los. 6d. 
 
 Tait — AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON HEAT. , By Pro- 
 fessor Tait, F.R.S.E. Illustrated. \In the Press. 
 
 Thomson zoology. By Sir C. Wyville Thomson, 
 
 F.R.S. Illustrated., [Inifreparation. 
 
 Tylor — ^ANTHROPOLOGY : An Introduction to the Study of Man 
 and Civilization. By E. B. Tylor, M.A., F.R.S., Illustrated. 
 
 [In the. Press. 
 
 Other 'volumes of these Manuals will follow. 
 
30 SCIENTIFIC CATALOGUE. 
 
 SCIENTIFIC TEXT-BOOKS. 
 
 Balfour.— A , treatise on compakative embry- 
 ology. With IllustratioDs. By F. M. Balfour, M.A., 
 F.R.S., Fellow and Lecturer of Trinity College, Camlvidge. Tn 
 2 vols. 8vo. Vol. I. i8^. now ready. [ Vol. II. in the Press. 
 
 Ball (R.S., A.M.)— EXPERIMENTAL MECHANICS. A 
 Course of Lectures delivered at the Royal College of Science for 
 Ireland. By R. S. Ball, A.M., Professor of Applied Mathema- 
 tics atid Mechanics in the Royal College of Science for Ireland. 
 Royal 8vo. los. ()d. 
 
 Clausius. — MECHANICAL THEORY OF HEAT. By R. 
 Clausius. Translated by Walter R. Browne, M.A., late 
 Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Crown 8vo. los. 6d. 
 
 Cotterill.— A TREATISE ON APPLIED MECHANICS. 
 By James Cotterill, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Applied 
 Mechanics at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich. With Illus- 
 trations. 8vo. \In prefaration. 
 
 Daniell. — a TREATISE ON PHYSICS FOR MEDICAL 
 STUDENTS. By Alfred Daniell. With Illustrations. 8vo. 
 
 \In preparation. 
 
 Foster. — a TEXT-BOOK of physiology. By Michael 
 Foster, M.D,, F.R.S. With Illustrations. Third Edition, 
 revised. 8vo. 2IJ. 
 
 Gamgee.— A TEXTBOOK OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE ANIMAL BODY. Including an 
 account of the chemical changes occurring in Disease. By A. 
 Gamgee, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in the Victoria 
 University and Owens College, Manchester. 2 vols. 8vo. With 
 Illustrations. Vol.1. \%s. [Vol. II. in the Press. 
 
 Gegenbaur. — elements of comparative ana- 
 tomy. By Professor Cabl Gegenbaur. A Transliiion by 
 F. JEFFEEV Beli , B. A. Revised with Preface by Professor E. 
 Ray Lankester, F.R.S. With numerous Illustrations. 8vo. 
 
 2IJ. 
 
 Geikie. — TEXT-BOOK OF GEOLOGY. By Archibald 
 Geikie F.R.S., Professor of Geology in the University of Edin- 
 burgh. ' With numerous Illustrations. 8vo. [In the Press. 
 
SCIENTIFIC TEXT- BOOKS. 31 
 
 Scientific Text-Books — continued. 
 
 Gray. — STRUCTURAL BOTANY, OR, ORGANOGRAPHY 
 
 . ON THE BASIS OF MORPHOLOGY. To which are added 
 
 the prmciples of Taxonomy and Phytography, and a Glossary of 
 
 Botanical Term?, By Professor Asa Gray, LL.D. 8vo. tos. 6d. 
 
 Newcomb.— POPULAR astronomy. By S. Newcomb, 
 LL.D., Professor U.S. Naval Observatory. With 112 Illustra- 
 tions and S Maps of the Stars. 8vo. i8j. 
 
 " It is unlike anything else of its kind, and will be of more use in 
 circulating a knowledge of astroncmy than nine-tenths of the books 
 which have appeared on the subject of late jears." — Saturday 
 Review. 
 
 Reuleaux. — the kinematics of machinery. Out- 
 lines of a Theory of Machines. By Professor F. Riuleaux. 
 Translated and Edited by Professor A. B. W. Kennedy, C.E. 
 "With 450 Illustrations. Medium Svo. 21s. 
 
 Roscoe and Schorlemmer. — INORGANIC CHEMIS- 
 TRY. A Complete Treatise on Inorganic Chemistry. By Pro- 
 fessor H. E. Roscoe, F. R.S., and Professor C. Schorlemmer, 
 F.R.S. With numerous lUustration.s. Medium Svo. Vol. I. — 
 The Non-Metallic Elements. 21s. Vol. II.— Metals.— Part I. 
 lis. Vol. II. Part II.— Metals. i8j. 
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. A complete .Treatise on Organic 
 Chemistry. By Professors Roscoe and Schorlemmer. With 
 numerous Illustrations. Medium Svo. {In the Press. 
 
 Schorlemmer.— A MANUAL OF THE CHEMISTRY 
 OF THE CARBON COMPOUNDS, OR ORGANIC 
 CHEMISTRY. By C. Schorlemmer, F.R.S., Professor of 
 Chemist! y, the Victoria University the Owens College, Manchester. 
 With Illustrations. Svo. 14.'., 
 
 Thorpe and Riicker.— A TREATISE ON CHEMICAL 
 PHYSICS By Professor Thorpe, F.K.S., and Professor 
 RiJCKER, oif the Yorkshire College of Science. Illustrated. Svo. 
 
 [In preparation. 
 
32 SCIENTIFIC CATALOGUE. 
 
 WORKS ON MENTAL AND MORAL 
 
 PHILOSOPHY, AND ALLIED SUBJECTS, 
 
 Aristotle. — an introduction to aristotle's 
 
 RHETORIC. With Analysis, Notes, and Appendices. ByjE. 
 M. Cope, Trinity College, Cambridge. 8vo. I4J-. 
 
 ARISTOTLE ON FALLACIES; OR, THE SOPHISTICI 
 ELENCHI. With a Translation and Notes by Edward Poste, 
 M.A., Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford. 8vo. %s. ()d. 
 
 ARISTOTLE.— The Metaphysics, Book I. Translated, into: English 
 Prose, with Marginal Analysis, and Summary of each Chapter. 
 By a Cambridge Graduate. Demy 8vo. sj-. 
 
 Balfour.— A defence of philosophic doubt : being 
 an Essay on the Foundations of Belief. By Aj J. BALFOUR, 
 M.P. 8vo. lis. 
 
 "Mr. Balfour's criticism is exceedingly brilliant and suggesHvt" — 
 Pall Mall Gazette. 
 
 " An able and refreshing contribution to one of the burning-questions 
 of the age; and deserves to make its mark in the fierce'^aiile now 
 raging between science and theology." — Athenaeum. 
 
 Birks Works by the Rev. T. R. Btrks, Professor of Moral Philo- 
 
 sophy, Cambridge :— 
 
 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF MORAL SCIENCE ; or, a First 
 Course of Lectures delivered in the University of Cambridge. 
 Crown 8vo. 8j. dd. 
 
 This work treats of three topies all preliminary to the direct exposi- 
 tion of Moral Philosophy. These are the Certainty and Dignity 
 of Moral Science, its Spiritual Geography; or. relation, to other 
 main subjects of human thought, and its Formative Principles, or 
 some elefiientary truths on whuh its whole development must 
 depend. 
 MODERN UTILITARIANISM; or. The Systems of Paley, 
 
 Bentham, and Mill, Examined and Compared. Crown 8vo. ds.dd. 
 
 SUPERNATURAL REVELATION; or. First Principles of 
 Moral Theology. 8vo. 8^. 
 
 Boole. — AN INVESTIGATION OF THE LAWS OF 
 THOUGHT, ON WHICH ARE FOUNDED THE 
 MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF LOGIC AND PRO- 
 B ABILITIES. By George Boole, LL.D., Professor of 
 Mathematics in the Queen's University, Ireland, ic. 8vo. i+f. 
 
MENTAL AND MORAL PHILOSOPHY, ETC. 33 
 
 Butler.— LECTURES ON THE HISTORY OF ANCIENT 
 PHILOgOPRY., By -W. Archee, Butler, late Professor- of 
 M.9ral.,PhiIosop!iy in Ae .Uniyersity of Dublin. Edit«d from the 
 Author's MSS., with Notes, by "WitLlAM; Hepworth Thomp- 
 • SON,. M.A., Master: of Trinity College, and Regius , Professor of 
 Gjeek in the, University of Cambridge. New and Cheaper Edition, 
 revised by the Editor. 8vo. 12s. 
 
 Ciaird. — an intropuction to the philosophy OF 
 
 RELICTION. . By John Caikd, . D.D., Principal and Vice- 
 ChapceJlQir of the University of Glasgow, and one of Her Majesty's 
 Chaplams for Scotland. Svo. lOf. 6d. 
 
 Ca;ik-d.'r— A CRITICAL ACCOUNT OF THE PHILOSOPHY 
 OF 'KANT. ,, With an Historical, Introduction. ,By E, Caird, 
 M.A., Professor of Moral Philbsophyin the University of Glasgow. 
 Svo. i%s. 
 
 Calderwood. — Works by the Rev.. Henry, Calderwood, M.A., 
 LL.D., Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Edin- 
 burgh : — • 
 
 PHILOSOPHY OF , THE INFINITE : A Treatise on Man's 
 
 Kiiovitledge of the Infinite Being, in answer to Sir W. Hamilton 
 
 and Dr., Mansei, i.Cheaper Edition., ,8vo. Is.Sfi. 
 
 "A hook' of great kiility . . . . written in a cUar stle,. and may 
 
 be easily understood by even those who are not versed in such 
 
 dMcussions." — British Quarterly Review. , . , . . , 
 
 A HANDBOOK OF M6RAL PHILOSOPHY. Sixth Edition. 
 
 Crown 8v6. '6ls. , 
 
 "It is, we feil convinced, the best handbook on the subject, tntellectually 
 and morally,, and, do(s if^niie credit to its fl:«^i4OT-."^=Standard.r- 
 "A. compoft and useful work, going- aver a .great deal of grofind 
 in a manner. adapts to s^ggesl and facilitale^Surtker study-. ■ . 
 His book will be an assistance to many students outside his own 
 University of Edinburgh. — Guardian. 
 THE RELATIONS OF MIND AND BRAIN. Svo.. I2J. 
 
 " It should be of real service as a clear exposition and a searching 
 — -criticism of cerebral pyscKology. '!— Westminster Review. 
 
 " Altogether his work is probably the best combination to ^e found 
 at present in England of exposition and criticism on the subject 
 of physiological psychology "^-ly^e^ Aeademyj 
 
 Ciffbrd.— LEC^;URES AND ESSAVS. , By the late Professor 
 W. K. Clifford, 'F..R.S., Edited, by Leslie Stephen and 
 Frederick Pollock^ with Introduction by F. Pollock. Two 
 Portraits. 2 vols. Svo. 25^. 
 
34 SCIENTIFIC CATALOGUE. 
 
 C lifford — continued. 
 
 " The Times of October 2.znd says : — "Many a friend of the author 
 on first taking up these volumes and remembering his ■versatile 
 genius and his keen enjoyment of all realms of intellectual activity 
 must have trembled, lest they should be found to consist of fragmen- 
 tary pieces of work, too disconnected to do justice to his powers of 
 consecutive reading, and too varied to have any effect as a whole. 
 Fortunately these fears are groundless. . . . It is not only in 
 subject that the various papers are closely related. There is also a 
 singular consistency of view and of method throughout. . . . It 
 is in the social and metaphysical subjects that the richness of his 
 intellect shows itself, most forcibly in the rarity and originality of 
 the ideas which he presents to us. To appreciate this variety it is 
 necessary to read the book itself, for it treats in some form or other 
 of all the subjects of deepest interest in this age of questioning." 
 
 Fiske. — OUTLINES OF COSMIC PHILOSOPHY, BASED 
 ON THE DOCTRINE OF EVOLUTION, WITH CRITI- 
 CISMS ON THE POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY. By John 
 Fiske, M.A., LL.B., formerly Lecturer on Philosophy at 
 Harvard University. 2 vols. 8vo. 25J. 
 
 " The work constitutes a very effective encyclopcedia of the evolution- 
 ary philosophy, and is well worth the study of all who wish to see 
 at once the entire scope and purport of the scientific dogmMism of 
 • the day." — Saturday Review; 
 
 Harper. — THE METAPHYSICS OF THE SCHOOL. By the 
 Rev. Tho.mas Harper (S.J.). In 5 vols. 8vo. Vol. I. 8vo. \%s. 
 
 [ Vol II. in the press, 
 
 Herbert.— THE REALISTIC ASSUMPTIONS OF MODERN 
 SCIENCE EXAMINED. By T. M. Herbert, M.A., late 
 Professor of Philosophy, &c., in the Lancashire Independent 
 College, Manchester.' 8vo. 14-?. 
 
 ' ' Mr. Herbert's work appears to us one of real ability and import- 
 ance. The author has shown hiniselfwell trained in philosophical 
 literature, and possessed of high critical and speculative powers." — 
 Mind. 
 
 Jardine.— THE ELEMENTS OF THE PSYCHOLOGY OF 
 COGNITION. By Robert Jardine, B.D., D.Sc, Principal of 
 the General Assembly's College, Calcutta, and Fellow of the Uni- 
 versity of Calcutta. Crown 8v6. ds. dd. 
 
MENTAL AND MORAL PHILOSOPHY, ETC. 35 
 
 Jevons.— Works by W. Stanley Jevons, LL.D., M.A., F.R.S. 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF SCIENCE. A Treatise on Logic and 
 Scientific Method. New and Clieaper Edition, revised. Crown 
 Svo. I2J. dd. 
 
 "No one in future can be said to have any true knowledge of what 
 has been done in the way of logical and scientific method in 
 England without having carefiilly studied Professor Jevons' 
 iffO/4. "-^Spectator. 
 THE SUBSTITUTION OF SIMILARS, the True Principle of 
 Reasoning. Derived from a Modification of Aristotle's Dictum, 
 Fcap. Svo. IS. 6d. 
 ELEMENTARY LESSONS IN LOGIC, DEDUCTIVE AND 
 INDUCTIVE. With Questions, Examples, and Vocabulary of 
 Logical Terms. New Edition. Fcap. Svo. y. 6d. 
 STUDIES IN DEDUCTIVE LOGIC. A Manual for Students. 
 
 Crown Svo. 6s, 
 PRIMER OF LOGIC. New Edition. iSmo. is. 
 
 M'Cosh — Works by James M'CosH, LL.D., President of Princeton 
 
 College, New Jersey, U.S. . 
 
 ' ' He certainly shows himself skilful in that application of logic to 
 psychology, in that inductive science of the human mind which is 
 the fine side of English philosophy. His philosophy as a whole is 
 viprthy of attention." — Revue de Deux Mondes. 
 
 THE METHOD OF THE DIVINE GOVERNMENT, Physical 
 and Moral. Tenth Edition. Svo. 10s. dd. 
 
 "This work is distinguished from other similar ones by its being 
 based upon a thm'ougli study of physical science, and an accurate 
 knowledge of its present condition, and by its entering in a 
 deeper and more unfettered manner than its predecessors upon the dis- 
 cussion of the appropriltte psychological, ethical, and theological ques- 
 tions. The author keeps aloof at once from the a priori idealism- and 
 dreaminess of German speculation since Schelling, and from- the 
 onesidedness and narrowness of the empiricism and positivism 
 which have so prevailed in England." — Dr. Ulrici, in "Zeitschrift 
 fiir Philosophie." 
 
 THE INTUITIONS OF THE MIND. A New Edition. Svo. 
 ■cloth, los. 6d. 
 
 "The undertaking to adjust the claims of the sensational and in- 
 tuitional philosophies, and of the a posteriori and i priori methods,, 
 is accomplished in this work with a great amount of success." — 
 Westminster Review. "I value it for its large acquaintance 
 with English Philosophy, which has not led him to neglect the 
 great German works. I admire the moderation and clearness, as 
 well as comprehensiveness, of the author' s views." — Dr. Dorner, of 
 Berlin. 
 
36. . SCIENTIFIC CAT4LOG,UE. 
 
 M'Cosh- — continued. 
 
 AN EXAMINATION OF MR. J. S. BIILL'S PH^LOSQPHV; 
 Being a Defsnce of Fundamental Trutli. Second edition, with 
 additions. loj. 6rf, l ■■- ■ - ■- ■ •■'"",, 
 
 "Stick a work greatly needed to be done, and the author -was the man 
 
 to doit. TKisvolume is important, not merely lA ref^ence to the 
 
 viems of Mr. Mill, but of the whale school of writers, ^past and 
 
 present, British and Continental, he so ably ^represents. "^-Princeton 
 
 , Jieview. r -- i . • - i .::•;'•■ ^ ■ "r ' ^"■ 
 
 THE LAWS OF DISCURSIVE THOUGHT : Being a Text- 
 book of Formal Logic. Crown Svo. 5^. , 
 " The amount of sufnmarized information which it contains is very 
 great; and it is the only work on the '•oery important subject with 
 which it -deals: 'Never was'sui^h a iDdrk sd ' much needed as in 
 the present day." — London Quarterly Review: - i - j 
 
 CHRISTIANITY AND POSITIVISM : A.Series of Lectures to 
 the Times on ' Natural Theology and Apologetics. Crown 5vo. 
 ^s.6d. . - ■ . ' '-■■='^' '"'■'' 
 
 THE SCOTTISH PHILOSOPHY FROM HUTCHESOJV TO 
 HAMILTON, Biographical, Critical', Expository. ' Royal 8vo. I&p, 
 THE EMOTIONS. Crown 8vo, gj, 
 
 MasSOn.— RECENT BRITISH PHILOSOPHY: A Review 
 with Criticisms ; indluding some Comments on'Mr. Mill's' Answer 
 to Sir William Hamilton. By David Masson, M. A. , Professor 
 of Rhetoric and English Literature in the University of EcKiitnrgh. 
 Third Edition, with an Additional Chapter. Crown 8vo.'' 6j 
 
 " We can nowhere point to a work which gives so clear an exposi- 
 tion of the course of philosophical speculation in Britain during 
 the past century, or which indicates so instructively the mutual in- 
 fluences of philosophic and scientific thought." — Fortnightly Review. 
 
 Maudsley. — Works by H. Maudsley, M.D., Professor of Medical 
 
 Jurisprudence in University College, London.. •'" ■ 
 
 THE PHYSIOLOGY. OF MIND ;. being the First Part of a Third 
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