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 3 1924 001 689 276 
 
 Hours of Work 
 
 as Related to Output and Health 
 
 of Workers 
 
 COTTON MANUFACTURING 
 
 Research Report Number 4 
 March, 1918 
 
 National Industrial 
 Conference Board 
 
THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 NEW YORK STATE SCHOOL 
 
 OF 
 
 INDUSTRIAL AND LABOR 
 
 RELATIONS 
 
 AT 
 CORNELL UNIVERSITY 
 
HOURS OF WORK AS RELATED 
 
 TO OUTPUT AND HEALTH 
 
 OF WORKERS 
 
 Cotton Manufacturing 
 
 Research Report Number 4 
 March, 19 18 
 
 Copyright 1918 
 
 National Industrial Conference Board 
 
 15 Beacon Street 
 Boston, Mass. 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tiiis bool< is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31 924001 689276 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Foreword . ... . vii 
 
 Introduction . . 1 
 
 Statistical Basis of this Report ... . . 1 
 General Features of the Cotton Manufacturing In- 
 
 ' DUSTRY .... . . 3 
 
 Principal Processes in Cotton Manufacture ... 5 
 
 Present Hours of Labor in Cotton Mills 11 
 
 Saturday Half Holiday ... 12 
 
 Nominal and Actual Hours 13 
 
 Time Actually Spent in Physical Effort . . 13 
 
 Hours and Output — Northern Mills 15 
 
 Establishments Maintaining Production under Shorter 
 
 Hours ..... 17 
 
 Establishments Reporting a Decrease in Output 
 
 Under Shorter Hours .... . . 19 
 
 Important Factors Bearing on Efficiency 
 
 Machine Time Feature of Work .... .20 
 
 Size of Establishment . 23 
 
 Influence of Piecework System .... .24 
 
 Attitude of Workers 25 
 
 Attitude of Northern Manufacturers towards a 
 
 54-Hour Week : 25 
 
 Hours and Output — Southern Mills 28 
 
 Statistical Data as to Output 
 
 Difficulties of Securing Comparable Data ... 31 
 
 Output Comparisons .... 33 
 
 Comparison of Output at a Northern Spinning Mill 33 
 Comparison of Output of a Weaving Room of a 
 
 Northern Mill 35 
 
 Comparison of Output at a Northern Piece Goods 
 
 Mill ... 36 
 
 Comparison of Output at a Mill Where the Char- 
 acter of the Product was Less Uniform . . 37 
 
 Other Comparisons 40 
 
 Comparison of Output of Three Workers under 
 
 Varying Schedules . . . 41 
 
 Improvements in Equipment Following Reductions in 
 
 Hours , . 43 
 
 Conclusions as to Output Data 43 
 
Hours and Health of Workers page 
 
 Difficulties of the Problem 45 
 
 General Lack of Statistical Data 45 
 
 General Health of Cotton Mill Workers 46 
 
 Reports of Massachusetts State Board of Health 46 
 Metropolitan Life Insurance Company's Sickness 
 
 " Survey in North Carolina 49 
 
 Leijpzig Insurance Fund Data 50 
 
 Mortality Statistics 51 
 
 United States Census Data 51 
 
 Reports of United States Bureau of Labor ... 53 
 
 Summary of Health Data . . 55 
 
 Accident Hazard in the Cotton Industry 56 
 
 Summary and Conclusions 57 
 
 Appendix — Individual Replies of Manufacturers 
 
 Northern Mills ... 59 
 
 Southern Mills 63 
 
LIST OF TABLES 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Table 1 : Geographical Distribution of Establishments Replying 
 
 to the Schedule of Inquiry, 1917 2 
 
 Table 2: Number and Percent of Establishments Replying to 
 the Schedule and Number and Percent of Employees, 
 Grouped According to Prevailing Hours per Week, 1917 . . 12 
 
 Table 3: Number and Percent of Northern Establishments Re- 
 plying to the Schedule and Number and Percent of Employees, 
 Grouped According to the Effect on Output Accompanying 
 Reduction in Hours 15 
 
 Table 4: Average Hours After and Before Reduction, and Aver- 
 age Reduction in Hours of Northern Establishments Reply- 
 ing to the Schedule, Grouped According to Effect which 
 Accompanied Reduction 16 
 
 Table 5: Number of Northern Establishments Replying to the 
 Schedule and Number of Employees, Grouped According to 
 Present Hours and the Effect on Output Accompanying 
 Reduction of Hours 16 
 
 Table 6: Principal Products, Number of Employees, and Hours 
 After and Before Reduction, in Six Northern Establishments 
 which Reported that Production Was Maintained When 
 Hours Were Reduced 17 
 
 Table 7: Number and Percent of Northern Establishments 
 which Reported Effect on Output Accompanying Reduction 
 in Hours, Grouped According to Effect and to Number of 
 Employees 23 
 
 Table 8: Number and Percent of Southern Establishments Re- 
 porting Reduction in Hours and Number and Percent of Em- 
 ployees, Grouped According to the Effect on Production 
 Accompanying Reduction in Hours 28 
 
 Table 9: Average Hours After and Before Reduction, and 
 Average Reduction in Hours of Southern Establishments Re- 
 porting Reductions in Hours, Grouped According to Effect on 
 Output which Accompanied Reduction 29 
 
 Table 10: Comparison of the Average Output per Spindle per 
 Week, for a Northern Spinning Mill, for a Six-Months Period 
 ending April 29, 1916, under a 58-Hour Week, with that for a 
 Similar Period ending April 28, 1917, under a 54-Hour Week 34 
 
FACE 
 
 Table 11: Comparison of the Output of a Weaving Room in a 
 Northern Mill for May, October, and August, 1911, under 
 Weekly Schedules of 56, 54, and 51 }i Hours, Respectively 35 
 
 Table 12: Comparison of Output of a Northern Cotton Mill 
 Making Piece Goods under a 60-Hour Schedule with that 
 under a. 54-Hour Schedule, 1912 36 
 
 Table 13: Comparison of Output of a Northern Cotton Mill 
 Making Piece Goods, under Work Schedules of 58, 56, and 54 
 Hours per Week 38 
 
 Table 14: Rate of Sickness per Thousand Exposed of all White 
 Persons; White Persons Exclusive of Textile Workers; and 
 Textile Workers Only, in a Survey Made by the Metropolitan 
 Life Insurance Company in North Carolina for Week of April 
 17,1916 49 
 
 Table 15: Average Number of Days of Sickness per Hundred 
 Members of the Local Sick Benefit Society of Leipzig, 1887- 
 1904, by Leading. Occupations 51 
 
 Table 16 : Percentage of Deaths of Males Due to Certain Causes, 
 for Cotton Mill Operatives and for Workers in All Manufac- 
 turing and Mechanical Pursuits, by Age Groups. U. S. Census 
 Mortality Statistics, 1909 52 
 
 Table 17: Comparative Compensation and Liability Insurance 
 Rates in Cotton Manufacturing and Various Other Industries, 
 in Massachusetts, 1917 56 
 
Foreword 
 
 THE National Industrial Conference Board is con- 
 ducting an investigation into the relationship between 
 different hours-of-work schedules, efficiency of production, 
 and health of workers. The basis of this study is the 
 experience of employers in the principal industries of the 
 country. The data are being obtained in part through 
 formal questions and in part through personal field study 
 by the Board's experts. 
 
 The purpose of the investigation is to establish the 
 facts of this controversial subject and to present such 
 conclusions as are clearly warranted by a scientific 
 analysis of these established facts. The investigation 
 was not undertaken with the intention of attacking or 
 defending a workday of any specific length, but instead 
 to assemble the available results of actual- experience with 
 various hours-of-work schedules. 
 
 The discussion of hours of work should be sharply dis- 
 tinguished from that of a basic workday. The latter is 
 primarily a wages problem, but is often confused with the 
 problem of determining what number of hours of work 
 per day or per week will be most productive without 
 Impairing the health of workers. 
 
 Conclusions as to the proper length of workday, more- 
 over, must take into account not only the effect on 
 output and on health, but also the need of the worker 
 for a reasonable period of leisure for recreation, home 
 life, and self-development. 
 
 The problem varies so widely In different industries — 
 because of differences In type of worker, in character of 
 product. In management, and particularly In the extent to 
 which automatic machine processes influence results — 
 that the experience of any one industry must not be taken 
 as representative of industry In general. 
 
 On account of the timeliness of the subject, the report 
 will be issued In sections, one for each major Industry, as 
 rapidly as the necessary Information can be assembled and 
 analyzed. The first section, presented herewith, deals 
 with experience in the cotton manufacturing industry. 
 
Hours of Work as Related to Output 
 and Health of Workers 
 
 COTTON MANUFACTURING 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 This analysis presents the essential facts gathered in the 
 course of an investigation of experience with reductions 
 in hours of work in the cotton manufacturing industry. 
 The principal purpose of the study was to determine the 
 effect of such reductions in work-hours on output and on 
 the health of workers. The data were gathered in part 
 by means of schedules of inquiries addressed to members 
 of the National Association of Cotton Manufacturers and 
 of the. American Cotton Manufacturers' Association, and 
 in pairt by field investigation covering both employers 
 and representatives of- labor. 
 
 STATISTICAL BASIS OF THIS REPORT 
 
 r 
 
 Replies to the schedule of inquiry were secured from 
 166 manufacturers, employing ]>16,000 workers. A classi- 
 fication, by states,of establishments' making standard lines 
 of product,' and of employees follows. 
 
 ••Throughout this report the word "establishment" is used to designate a 
 corporation, partnership, or individual submitting a schedule. When a. single 
 management operating several plants returned a consolidated schedule, this is 
 necessarily treated as one establishment. The terms "operatives," "em- 
 ployees," etc., designate all factory employees, but do not include office, sales, 
 or engineering forces. 
 
 'Returns from bleaching and dyeing, and from other establishments whose 
 product was not characteristic of the industry proper (for example, elastic 
 webbing) have been excluded from the statistical compilations in this report. 
 
TABLE 1: GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ESTABLISH- 
 MENTS REPLYING TO THE SCHEDULE OF INQUIRY, igi?-' 
 (National Industrial Conference Board.) 
 
 NoKTBEKN Mills 
 , EtttUishmevts Employeet 
 
 Tota l 109 82,036 
 
 Maine 6 3.794 
 
 New Hampshire S 5,662 
 
 Vermont 1 „ 263 
 
 Massachusetts _ . . . 55 46,067 
 
 Rhode Island 12 11,063 
 
 Connecticut 11 4>117 
 
 New York 6 3,126 
 
 New Jersey 2 1,487 
 
 Pennsylvania 8 4,590 
 
 Maryland 2 1,622 
 
 Indiana 1 245 
 
 Southern Mills 
 
 Total 57 34^47 
 
 Virginia 1 5,895 
 
 Nbrth Carolina 18 8,777 
 
 South Carolina 11 5,685 
 
 Geoi^ia 11 6,912 
 
 Alabama 6 3,426 
 
 Kentucky 1 384 
 
 Tennessee 2 941 
 
 Mississippi • 2 885 
 
 Louisiana 1 600 
 
 Oklahoma 1 90 
 
 Texas 3 752 
 
 In addition to the information received through replies 
 to the schedule, many northern cotton establishments 
 were visited by field investigators. Six of these, which 
 did not file schedules, employed approximately 21,000 
 operatives; therefore the investigation covers approxi- 
 mately 103,000 northern workers. This is about 48% of 
 the total for this section as reported by the U. S. Census 
 of Manufactures (1914). 
 
 Ninety-five northern establishments reported that they 
 had reduced hours within recent years. A substantial 
 basis of experience with such reductions is therefore 
 available. Because of new methods of management,; 
 shifting of race of workers, and other fundamental change^ 
 since the last reduction in hours (which in many cases 
 occurred in 1912), it was necessary to compare results for 
 periods shortly before and after the change in hours. 
 
 'In a very few cases the figures are for 1918. 
 
 2 
 
On account of the rather small nunjber of southern 
 establishments which replied to the schedule, and the 
 fact that as yet the Board has made no field study in the 
 South, results for these are somewhat tentative. Such 
 data on output as were obtained from southern mills are 
 treated in a separate chapter.' 
 
 GENERAL FEATURES OF THE COTTON 
 MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY 
 
 In a study of the hours-of-work problem in cotton 
 manufacturing several distinctive characteristics of the 
 industry should be pointed out. 
 
 1. Automatic nature of the work. A visitor in a cotton 
 mill is at once impressed by the great amount of 
 machinery as compared with the number of workers. In 
 a weaving room, for instance, there are long rows of looms, 
 with an operative for perhaps every six to twenty looms. 
 In a spinning room a single operative tends to the frames 
 on both sides of an aisle, sometimes taking care of as many 
 as a thousand spindles. Many rooms have a more or less 
 deserted appearance, and operatives often will be seen 
 seated for several minutes at a time at some distance from 
 their machines. These conditions are in sharp contrast 
 to those in most factory industries. In a shoe factory, for 
 instance, practically every machine has an operator and 
 one is impressed by the large number of workers and their 
 almost constant manipulation of the material in hand. 
 
 This "machine tending" feature of the work in a cotton 
 mill is one of the most distinctive characteristics of the 
 industry and one which has a vital bearing on the hours- 
 of-work problem. Not only is the work highly automatic, 
 but much of it is very light. 
 
 2. Heavy investment required. A modern cotton mill of 
 any considerable size represents a very heavy investment, 
 often running into several millions of dollars. This, of 
 course, has an important bearing on the hours-of-work 
 problem, since overhead expense per unit of product 
 increases rapidly if total output is reduced. 
 
 3. Speed of machinery. Cotton spindles frequently 
 make from eight thousand to ten thousand revolutions per 
 minute and still higher speeds are not uncommon. Al- 
 
 »See page 28. 
 
though weaving machinery is operated at a slower rate, 
 high speed of machinery is a feature of the cotton nianu- 
 facturing process as a whole. This may, of course, 
 have a direct bearing upon the hours-of-work problem, 
 but clear distinction should be made between speed of 
 machinery and speeding of the operative. An attendant 
 feature of this speed is the noise which characterizes many 
 of the processes, especially weaving. 
 
 4. Proportion of women workers. Another feature of 
 the industry is the extensive employment of women and 
 minors. In the establishments submitting replies to the 
 schedule, the composition of the working force was as 
 follows: 
 
 Northern Mills Southern Mills 
 
 Number Percent 
 
 Total 82,036 100.0 32,036^ 100.0 
 
 Men . . 
 
 Women . . . 
 
 Boys . . . . . , 
 
 Girls . 
 
 The percentages above given agree closely with those 
 of the United States Census of Manufactures (1914), which 
 showed that of 393,404 wage-earners employed in the 
 cotton goods industry, 38.2% were women and 53.4% 
 men. The census percentage for minors was 8.4.' 
 
 5. Wages. Wages have been relatively low. From 
 compilations made from the United States Census of 
 Manufactures (1914) it appears that the average annual 
 earnings of workers in cotton mills were 33% less than 
 the average for workers in twenty-three leading industries. 
 It must be remembered, however, that owing to the 
 automatic character of the operations, the mass of cotton 
 mill workers represent a rather unskilled grade of labor. 
 Since 1914, wages have, of course, increased rapidly in 
 cotton manufacturing, as in other industries. 
 
 43,845 
 
 53.5 
 
 19,297 
 
 60.2 
 
 34,656 
 
 42.2 
 
 10,545 
 
 32.9 
 
 1,860 
 
 2.3 
 
 1,204 
 
 3.8 
 
 1,675 
 
 2.0 
 
 990 
 
 3.1 
 
 'Excludes 2,311 employees in one establishment which did not furnish 
 details. 
 
 The difference in the percentage of minors reported is largely due to the fact 
 that the census figures were influenced by the southern cotton industry, where 
 the percentage of minors was relatively high. The percentage of minors and 
 women employed in the cotton industry has decreased in recent years. Further- 
 more, the actual number of minors has decreased; the actual number of women, 
 however, has increased. 
 
 The number and percentage of minors has presumably been further reduced 
 recently as a result of the Federal Child Labor Law, which went into effect on 
 September 1, 1917. 
 
6. Changes in race of workers. The nationality of 
 northern cotton mill operatives has shiftjed considerably 
 in recent years. The proportion of American, Scotch, and 
 Irish workers has greatly decreased and even French 
 Canadians, who ten years ago made up a large percentage 
 of the employees in cities like Fall River and Lowell, have 
 been extensively replaced by Greeks, Syrians, and the 
 Slavic races of middle Europe. This shifting in races 
 of workers, in some cases at least, has been accompanied 
 by a deterioration in average efficiency. Where compari- 
 sons of output are made for periods directly before and 
 directly after a reduction in hours, however, this con- 
 sideration does not appreciably affect results. 
 
 PRINCIPAL PROCESSES IN COTTON 
 MANUFACTURE 
 
 The elaborate machinery required in the manufacture 
 of cotton goods forbids anything approaching a technical 
 description of processes in this report. Brief mention 
 will be made of major processes, with special reference to 
 the amount of physical exertion required of workers and to 
 certain health hazards involved. 
 
 Opening and Picking. In the opening and picking de- 
 partments, the bales of cotton are broken open, the grades 
 mixed, and the staple thrown into the opener — a 
 cylindrical apparatus with teeth — which loosens up and 
 beats the fiber, removing dirt, leaf, and seed. A system 
 of suction fans at the same time removes much of the 
 dust. From the opener the cotton is fed into a lapper, 
 which, after further cleaning, leaves it in the form of wide 
 ■sheets or laps, rolled loosely into cylindrical shape. 
 
 In the main these operations are performed by ma- 
 chinery and the comparatively few operatives required are 
 nearly always men. In some mills mixing is done by 
 hand, and in such cases the workers pick up the cotton 
 in armfuls, break it into smaller masses, and at the same 
 time mix it. 
 
 Except in the handling of the bales of cotton, the work 
 in the opening and picking departments is not heavy, but 
 the operatives are constantly employed. A feature is the 
 frequent cleaning of the machinery. The processes are 
 very dusty, but in most modern mills the use of exhaust 
 systems has greatly reduced this hazard. 
 
Carding. In carding machines, cylindrical rolls covered 
 with wire teeth further clean and straighten the staple and 
 remove much of the short fiber. In the most common 
 type of carding machinery the cotton comes off in the 
 form of an extremely thin web several feet wide, and is 
 immediately drawn through a funnel-shaped apparatus 
 into loose, narrow strands called slivers. The silvers are 
 coiled by automatic machinery in tall cans like an ordinary 
 coil of rope, except, of course, that the fiber is extremely 
 loose. 
 
 The work is almost entirely a machine process. Except 
 in handling the cans of coiled sliver, it is not particularly 
 fatiguing, but, as in opening and picking, there is much 
 dust and fine lint. Where subsequent processes are car- 
 ried on in the same room with carding, this ■ dust hazard 
 extends beyond the workers engaged in carding alone. 
 Most of the operatives in carding rooms are men. 
 
 Combing. This process, which is used only in the 
 manufacture of the finer grades of yarn, does more per- 
 fectly what the carding machine has started. The slivers 
 of fiber are more thoroughly cleaned, short; fibers removed, 
 the remaining ones laid smoothly in parallel rows, and the 
 sliver again coiled in cans. But little physical effort is 
 required of the operative, who may from time to time 
 remain seated without interruption of the process. 
 Women and girls, as well as men and boys, are employed 
 in this operation. 
 
 Drawing. In the process of drawing, the slivers from the 
 carding or combing machines are run through a series of 
 rolls, geared at successively increasing speeds; several 
 slivers are combined and drawn into one, no larger but 
 more uniform in weight than any of the original ones, 
 and again automatically coiled in cans. The work of 
 drawing demands constant attention of the operator and is 
 fatiguing. Women, as well as men and boys, are em- 
 ployed in this work. 
 
 Roving. In roving, which is an intermediate process 
 between drawing and spinning, the sliver as received in 
 cans from former processes is run through fly frames, 
 where it is further drawn out and also given a slight twist. 
 For coarse yarn, the sliver is passed through two frames — 
 the slubbing frame and the roving frame — but for finer 
 yarns intermediate frames and sometimes jack-frames are 
 also used. Each of these draws the sliver out finer and 
 
finer and imparts additional twist. When it leaves the fly 
 frames, the cotton, now called roving, is wound on bobbins 
 and is ready for spinning. 
 
 Women are employed in this work, which is com- 
 paratively light, permitting the operatives to remain 
 seated a part of the time. An exception occurs in the 
 case of slubbing, where, on account of the weight of the 
 bobbins and the fact that they have to be lifted to some 
 height, the work is rather difficult for women. However, 
 the bobbins become smaller and lighter as the process of 
 roving advances from one set of machines to another, and 
 in the final stages of roving they are so light that women 
 can easily handle them. 
 
 The roving machines are sometimes called speeder 
 frames and the operatives speeder tenders. 
 
 Spinning. Up to this point practically all that has been 
 done is to clean the staple, straighten it, comb it so that 
 the various fibers are parallel, and then draw It out into 
 a coarse strand, with practically no more twist than to 
 give it the strength necessary to prevent breaking. 
 In the process of spinning, this strand is drawn out to 
 the desired size by rollers and twisted while being wound 
 on bobbins or cops which are rotated on spindles fre- 
 quently eight thousand and sometimes more than ten 
 thousand times per minute. 
 
 There are two methods of spinning: mule spinning, the 
 older method, which is very extensively employed in 
 England, and ring spinning, which is employed in a great 
 majority of cotton manufacturing establishments in the 
 United States. In 1914 about 88% of the total spindles 
 in this country were ring spindles; the percentage has 
 increased steadily for many years. 
 
 In mule spinning the spindles are mounted on traveling 
 carriages, which alternately back away from, and return 
 to, the drawing rolls. During the process the yarn is 
 drawn, twisted, and wound on cops mouhted on the 
 spindles. 
 
 In ring spinning the spinning frames are provided with 
 additional drawing rolls, and each spindle is equipped with 
 a stationary ring, around the upper flange of which a wire 
 device, called a traveler, is revolved by the yarn as it is 
 spun or twisted. The traveler does not revolve as rapidly 
 as the spindle and so winds the yarn on the bobbin. 
 
 7 
 
The work of the spinner consists chiefly of joining 
 together the ends of any yarns which may b&soiae broken. 
 The work is not heavy, and there is some opportunity 
 for the operatives to sit down, although they are required 
 to stand most of the time because of the large number 
 of spindles attended by one operative and the fact that 
 all of them cannot be seen from a single position. 
 
 Women, boys, and girls are generally employed in ring 
 spinning, but mule spinners are almost exclusively men, 
 largely because of the intricate nature of the machinery 
 and the danger of women having their clothing ientangled 
 in it. The work of the boys largely consists in doffing, 
 that is, replacing full bobbins with empty ones, but in 
 some mills they also assist in joining broken ends. Since 
 in doffing the entire spinning frame is stopped, doffers are 
 required to work rapidly. They ordinarily have con- 
 siderable leisure, however, between doffing periods. 
 
 Spooling. Warp yarns, that is, the yarns which are to 
 run lengthwise in the finished cloth, are rewound on large 
 spools which hold the product of several bobbins. Girls 
 are employed at this work, which is not laborious, but 
 demands constant attention^ a mechanical knot-tying 
 device worn on the right hand is commoiJy used. 
 
 Warping and Beaming. This is a simple process, which 
 consists of unwinding the warp thread from the spools 
 just described and rewinding it evenly on a long spool 
 or beam. In some mills the productof two or more beams 
 is rewound on a single larger beam. 
 
 The work of a warper tender consists chiefly of tying up 
 broken threads and necessitates considerable standing 
 while at work, and some bending over the beam. While 
 women and girls are usually employed in this process, the 
 heavy work of changing the beam is done by men. 
 
 Slashing. This process consists of unwinding the yarn 
 from the beam, passing it between rollers covered with a 
 solution containing starch, tallow, and other ingredients, 
 in order to give it greater strength, to set the twist, and 
 to coat it so thai; the chafing in the loom will not weaken 
 it. The yarn is then dried by being run over heated 
 cylinders and rewound on another beam. Usually the 
 product of several beams of yarn, as it comes from the 
 warping process, is handled at one time and rewound on 
 a beam called the loom beam, later placed in the loom, the. 
 
different threads being kept from stjcting together by- 
 passing the yarns between rods. 
 
 Because of the constant handling of the beams the work 
 of slashing is heavy. The temperature of the slashing 
 room, moreover, is often high; men are almost exclusively 
 used at this work, 
 
 Lhazving-in. This process, which is preliminary to that 
 of weaving, consists of passing the warp threads, as wound 
 on the beam just described, through the harness of the 
 loom. The harness, which is detached from the loom dur- 
 ing, the process of drawing-in and placed in front of the 
 worker about on a level with her eyes, consists of pairs 
 of parallel bars with cords stretched vertically between 
 them; sometimes strips of metal are used instead of 
 cords- In the middle of each cord or strip is an eye 
 through which a warp thread is passed. The warp threads 
 must also be drawn between parallel upright wires closely 
 set into a frame called a reed. The process, which is 
 similar to that of threading a very large needle and passing 
 the yarn between the teeth of a comb,, involves very close 
 attention and considerable eye strain. The operatives, 
 usually women and girls, are required to sit continuously 
 at their work. In the case of plain goods the operation is 
 often performed by machine. 
 
 Because of the constant attention required, the posture 
 of the worker and the monotony of the work, drawing-In 
 by hand is one of the most fatiguing processes in the 
 manufacture of cotton goods. 
 
 Weaving. While modern weaving machinery is to a 
 novice extremely complicated, its fundamental principle 
 is practically the same as that of darning a stocking or 
 weaving a basket. Plain weaving consists of the auto- 
 matic raising and lowering of the alternate threads of the 
 warp, and the shooting between them, while thus sepa- 
 rated, of an automatic shuttle containing filling or cross- 
 wise thread, the process being constantly repeated. In 
 the mean time the reed moves forward, beating or pressing 
 each weft thread into place so as to make a close fabric. 
 In the case of more complicated weaving various com- 
 binations of warp yarns are raised and lowered, thus 
 weaving a design into the product.' 
 
 'The most complicated designs are woven on Jacquard looms, which control 
 each thread of the warp separately by the use of perforated cards similar in 
 principle to those used in a player-piano. 
 
 9 
 
Both men and women are employed in weaving. The 
 work requires constant attention, and is exacting. 
 Weavers have some opportunity to remain seated during 
 their work; they are not, however, obliged to re- 
 main seated, as in the case of the hand drawing-in 
 processes. A weaver tends several looms, in the 
 case of automatic looms, sometimes as many as 
 twenty, and in addition to mending broken threads, in 
 some cases refills the shuttles with bobbins, draws the 
 filling yarn through the eye of the shuttle, and places the 
 shuttles in the looms. Looms which automatically per- 
 form the last three operations are rapidly coming into 
 general use. The weaver also sometimes cleans the 
 looms. 
 
 Loom fixers, as the name suggests, are mechanics who 
 keep the looms in order and make necessary repairs; they 
 also put the warps on the loom. Men are exclusively 
 employed at this work. While comparatively few in 
 number, their efficiency has much to do with the efficiency 
 of the weaving room as a whole. 
 
 Finishing and Converting. The product of the loom is 
 cloth. The various warp threads have been interlaced 
 with the filling so as to make a close fabric. For those 
 mills which sell the goods in this form, known as "grays," 
 the process of cotton manufacture is now complete, except 
 for inspection. For the cloth goods of ordinary use, how- 
 ever, the various processes of bleaching, starching, and 
 in the case of most colored goods dyeing' and printing, 
 are yet to be performed. These processes are collectively 
 referred to as converting. Few mills do their own con- 
 verting. Most of this work is performed by men. 
 
 From what has been said, it is clear that heavy labor 
 in a cotton mill is in the main limited to lifting, either of 
 bales of cotton, cans of sliver, or beams of yarn. Most 
 of the other work is light, but in some processes constant 
 attention or great agility is necessary, and this must be 
 considered in estimating the degree of fatigue involved. 
 In the case of drawing-in, there is the added factor of eye 
 strain and the constant sitting required. In numerous 
 occupations, on the other hand, the worker does not have 
 to give constant attention and there is considerable 
 opportunity for relaxation and even for rest. 
 
 iln some cases the yarn is dyed before weaving. 
 
 10 
 
The heavy work is almost invariably done by men. 
 That the work of women in a cotton mill is compara- 
 tively light is also indicated by the following excerpt 
 from a special report of the U. S. Bureau of Labor on 
 Woman and Child Wage-Earners, issued in 1910: 
 
 The only occupation in which women are engaged 
 that requires much lifting is that of speeder tending. 
 The bobbins of roving must be lifted to the top of 
 the speeder frames, from five and one half to six feet 
 above the floor. The bobbins which must be placed 
 on the first speeder vary in weight from one to four 
 pounds. They are heavier when coarse yarn is made, 
 hence in the South men are generally employed in 
 this occupation, and in New England, where fine 
 yarns mostly are spun, women are more commonly 
 employed. 
 
 The only occupations in which women are engaged 
 that require much bending over are beam warping 
 and to a less extent weaving. There is no other 
 occupation in which women have strained positions 
 in working. 
 
 Against this lightness of the work is to be considered 
 the noise, the rather high temperatures of certain rooms, 
 and the monotony. 
 
 PRESENT HOURS OF LABOR IN COTTON 
 MILLS 
 
 In the following table is given a statement of the number 
 of cotton manufacturing establishments which filed 
 replies to the schedule, together with the number of em- 
 ployees, classified so as to show the number working on 
 each weekly schedule of hours. Because of marked differ- 
 ences in the length of the work-week and in other respects, 
 northern and southern mills are grouped separately. 
 
 The table shows that over 76% of employees in 
 northern cotton mills covered by the investigation were 
 working on schedules of 54 up to 55 hours per week, in 
 nearly every case 54 hours. About 18% more were in 
 establishments where the hours were 55 up to 56, usually 
 55 hours. In other words, 94% of the employees in 
 northern mills covered by replies to the schedule were 
 
 U 
 
TABLE 2: NUMBER AND PERCENT OF ESTABLISHMENTS 
 REPLYING TO THE SCHEDULE AND NUMBER AND PERCENT 
 OF EMPLOYEES, GROUPED ACCORDING TO PREVAILING 
 HOURS PER WEEK, I917. 
 
 (National Industrial Conference Board.) 
 
 No&THE&N Mills 
 
 
 E stablishmeiits 
 
 Employees 
 
 HoviTS pievEulicg 
 
 
 
 
 per week 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Number 
 
 Percent 
 
 Number 
 
 Percent 
 
 Toted 
 
 109 
 
 100.0 
 
 82,036 
 
 100.0 
 
 Under 52 . 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 0.0 
 0.9 
 
 
 1,340 
 
 0.0 
 
 52 and less than 53 . 
 
 1.6 
 
 53 " " 
 
 • 54 . 
 
 1 
 
 0.9 
 
 1,566 
 
 1.9 
 
 54 " " 
 
 ' 65 . 
 
 79 
 
 72.5 
 
 62,474 
 
 76.2 
 
 65 " " 
 
 ' 56 . 
 
 23 
 
 21.1 
 
 14,777 
 
 18.0 
 
 66 " " 
 
 ' 57 . 
 
 2 
 
 1.8 
 
 1,379 
 
 1.7 
 
 57 " " 
 
 ' 58 . 
 
 
 
 0.0 
 
 
 
 0.0 
 
 58 •• ", 
 
 ' 59 . 
 
 
 
 0.0 
 
 
 
 0.0 
 
 59 " " " 60 . 
 
 
 
 0.0 
 
 
 
 0.0 
 
 60 
 
 3 
 
 2.8 
 
 500 
 
 0.6 
 
 Southern Mills 
 
 Total 
 
 57 
 
 100.0 
 
 34,347 
 
 100.0 
 
 56 and less than 57 . 
 
 2 
 
 3.5 
 
 6,279 
 
 18.3 
 
 57 " " *■' 58 . 
 
 2 
 
 3.5 
 
 941 
 
 2.7 
 
 58 ' 59 . 
 
 1 
 
 1.8 
 
 56 
 
 0.2 
 
 59 ' 60 . 
 
 1 
 
 1.8 
 
 57 
 
 0.2 
 
 60 " " " 61 . 
 
 51 
 
 89.4 
 
 27,014 
 
 78.6 
 
 in establishments where hours were 54 or 55 per week. 
 Only two establishm,ents were operated less than 54 hours 
 per week, and only three operated more than 57 hours. 
 
 This practical uniformity of the work-week in northern 
 mills is largely the result of state legislation restricting 
 hours for women. On account of the high proportiorr of 
 women workers this legislation has the indirect effect of 
 fixing hours for men as well. 
 
 The southern mills make a very different showing. 
 Here approximately 79% of the workers were in estab- 
 lishments where the prevailing nominal hours were 60 or 
 more per week; only 18.3% were in establishments where 
 the hours were as few as 56 per week. None was on a 
 shorter schedule than 56 hours. The prevailing work- 
 week in southern cotton mills is 60 hours. 
 
 Saturday Half Holiday 
 The Saturday half holiday is almost universal in the 
 cotton manufacturing industry in the United States. Of 
 
 12 
 
109 northern establishments filing replies to the schedule, 
 no less than 108 closed at noon on Saturday. While the 
 proportion among southern mills was somewhat smaller, 
 50 out of the 57 establishments filing replies to the 
 schedule observed the Saturday half holiday. 
 
 Nominal and Actual Hours 
 
 Because of tardiness, sickness, and other causes, there 
 is in any industry, of course, a margin between the nominal 
 or schedule hours and the actual hours spent at work. 
 In many industries this margin, averaged over the entire 
 working force, amounts to several hours per week. Except 
 for this normal loss of time, actual hours of work in 
 northern cotton mills are fairly close to the nominal or 
 schedule hours. It is the general practice for operatives in 
 a northern cotton mill to appear at the factory at the 
 stated hour for opening and to remain there until the 
 stated hour for closing. This applies to pieceworkers as 
 well as to dayworkers. There are some exceptions in par- 
 ticular occupations. 
 
 In southern mills the margin of lost time appears to be 
 considerably larger, a fact which may be significant in 
 connection with the longer nominal hours in the South. 
 
 Time Actually Spent in Physical Effort 
 
 As already pointed out, in many processes cotton mill 
 operatives are not engaged in actual physical effort for the 
 entire time that they are in the mill. One manufacturer 
 stated : 
 
 Employees in textile plants are actually at work 
 only from 60 to 76% of the time they are in the mill. 
 
 Another manufacturer gave the following estimates of 
 percentages of time spent in the factory in which opera- 
 tives were actually working. 
 
 Dofiing 50% Spinning .... 75% 
 
 Speeder-tending . 60% Spooling .... 100% 
 
 Warping .... 60% Beaming .... 100% 
 
 These figures are not presented as typical, but merely 
 to illustrate the fact that operatives In many departments 
 in a cotton mill have considerable leisure time during 
 factory hours. 
 
 13 
 
In the case of boys engaged in various processes, it was 
 stated in a report of the Public Health Service^: 
 
 An effort to estimate the spare time of boys ex- 
 amined indicated that ordinarily the duties of 
 sweepers, back boys, doffers and cleaners, duties 
 which most of the boys under sixteen years old are 
 found performing, involve a total of about five 
 hours of actual labor out of the eight they are per- 
 mitted by law to work. 
 
 ' M. Victor SafFord. Influence of Occupation on Health During Ado- 
 lescence. Public Health Bulletin, No. 78. 
 
 14 
 
HOURS AND OUTPUT— NORTHERN MILLS 
 
 The broad results of the investigation with respect to 
 output under different weekly hours of work, as reported 
 in replies to the schedule, are given in the appendix tables 
 which present in concise form the experience of those 
 cotton manufacturers who had reduced hotirs and who 
 stated the results; the information applied to the most 
 recent reduction in hours unless otherwise stated. The 
 tables, and particularly the quoted statements of the 
 individual manufacturers, should be examined in detail. 
 A summary table of results is given below; the full 
 significance of the figures, however, cannot be appreciated 
 without reference to the text. 
 
 TABLE 3: NUMBER AND PERCENT OF NORTHERN ESTAB- 
 LISHMENTS REPLYING TO THE SCHEDULE AND NUMBER 
 AND PERCENT OF EMPLOYEES, GROUPED ACCORDING TO 
 THE EFFECT ON OUTPUT ACCOMPANYING REDUCTION 
 IN HOURS. 
 
 (National Industrial Conference Board.) 
 
 Effect on output 
 
 accompanying reduction 
 
 in hours 
 
 Establishments 
 
 Employees ■ 
 
 Number 
 
 Percent 
 
 Number 
 
 Percent 
 
 Total 
 Maintained .... 
 
 Decreased 
 
 Effect unreported . . 
 
 95 
 
 6 
 
 64 
 
 25 
 
 100.0 
 
 6.3 
 
 67.4 
 
 26.3 
 
 73,417 
 
 5,640 
 
 43,545 
 
 24,232 
 
 100.0 
 
 7.7 
 
 59.3 
 
 33.0 
 
 This table includes only 95 of the 109 northern mills, 
 the others not having reported a reduction in hours. The 
 mills here included manufactured a wide range of product, 
 including cotton piece goods, lawns, duck, cotton and 
 silk mixtures and sateens. The processes of manufacture, 
 however, are so generally similar that the group can be 
 studied as a whole.' 
 
 The average hours of the three groups before and after 
 the reductions are shown in the following table : 
 
 ^See footnote 2 on page 1. 
 
 15 
 
TABLE 4: AVERAGE HOURS AFTER AND BEFORE REDUC- 
 TION, AND AVERAGE REDUCTION IN HOURS OF NORTHERN 
 ESTABLISHMENTS REPLYING TO THE SCHEDULE, GROUPED 
 ACCORDING TO EFFECT WHICH ACCOMPANIED REDUCTION. 
 
 (National Industrial Conference Board.) 
 
 Effect on output , 
 
 accompanying reduction 
 
 in hours 
 
 Average hours 
 after reduction 
 
 Average hours 
 before reduction 
 
 Average reduction 
 in hours 
 
 Maintained 
 
 Decreased 
 
 Unreported 
 
 54.5 
 54.3 
 54.1 
 
 57.3 
 57.2 
 56.5 
 
 2.8 
 2.9 
 2.4 
 
 There was, therefore, no significant difference between 
 the reporting groups in average present hours, or the 
 average previous hours. Average hours, however, do not 
 afford a satisfactory basis for comparison. The following 
 table presents the results for each weekly hours-of-work 
 schedule : 
 
 TABLE 5: NUMBER OF NORTHERN ESTABLISHMENTS 
 REPLYING TO THE SCHEDULE AND NUMBER OF 
 EMPLOYEES, GROUPED ACCORDING TO PRESENT HOURS 
 AND THE EFFECT ON OUTPUT ACCOMPANYING REDUCTION 
 OF HOURS. 
 
 (National Industrial Conference Board.) 
 
 
 EstabUshments 
 
 Employees 
 
 Hoots prevail- 
 ing per week 
 
 Effect on output 
 Maintained Decreased ported 
 
 Effect on output 
 Maintained Decreased reported 
 
 Total 
 52 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 64 
 
 49 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 1 
 1 
 
 19 
 4 
 
 5,640 
 
 2,192 
 3,448 
 
 43,545 
 
 24,232 
 1,340 
 1,566 
 
 15,356 
 5,970 
 
 53 
 
 
 54 
 55 
 56 
 
 37,096 
 5,070 
 1,379 
 
 _ Only 6 of the 95 establishments reported that produc- 
 tion was maintained when hours of work were reduced, 
 while 64 reported a decrease in output. The employees 
 embraced in the group maintaining output numbered 
 5,640, while the group reporting a decrease in output 
 included 43,545. 
 
 16 
 
Maintenance of output when hours were reduced was 
 therefore very exceptional. Moreover, as shown below, in 
 some of these cases special considerations qualify the 
 evidence. 
 
 ESTABLISHMENTS MAINTAINING PRODUCTION 
 UNDER SHORTER HOURS 
 
 Of the northern establishments reporting that produc- 
 tion was maintained when hours were reduced, all were 
 operating either 64 or 55 hours a week. The entire group 
 may therefore be discussed as a whole. 
 
 The following table (which should be studied in con- 
 junction with that in the appendix) shows the principal 
 product, the number of employees, and the present and 
 previous hours of each mill reporting that output was 
 maintained under reduced hours. 
 
 TABLE 6: PRINCIPAL PRODUCTS, NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES, 
 AND HOURS AFTER AND BEFORE REDUCTION, IN SIX 
 NORTHERN ESTABLISHMENTS WHICH REPORTED THAT 
 PRODUCTION WAS MAINTAINED WHEN HOURS WERE 
 REDUCED. 
 
 (National Industrial Conference Board.) 
 
 Principal product 
 manufactured 
 
 Number of 
 employees 
 
 Hours after 
 reduction 
 
 Hours before 
 reduction ^ 
 
 Plush 
 
 Turkish towels 
 
 Cotton dress goods 
 
 Satin, marseilles, and dimity quilts 
 
 Lace goods, rugs . . 
 
 Fine cotton goods 
 
 173 
 87 ■ 
 1,932 
 
 558 
 1,420 
 1,470 
 
 54 
 54 
 54 
 55 
 55 
 55* 
 
 55 
 55 
 66 
 58 
 60 
 60 
 
 *54 hours in the case of women. 
 
 The first establishment in this group was a compara- 
 tively small concern and its reduction was only one hour 
 per week. The results of a previous reduction by this 
 company, from 60 to 55 hours per week, are shown by 
 the following statement: 
 
 When our hours of work were changed from 60 
 hours to 55 hours per week, it was necessary to pur- 
 chase extra machinery and hire extra help all 
 through the factory. Our looms run so many picks 
 per minute and had we not secured extra help, the 
 output would have been lessened very nearly 10%. 
 17 
 
This mill manufactured plush. It was stated, however, 
 that: 
 
 In the manufacture of plush and velvets it is not 
 more feasible to maintain output in reducing hours 
 than it would be in ordinary cotton manufacturing. 
 
 The second manufacturer who maintained output when 
 hours were reduced from 55 to 54 said : 
 
 Our employees, on the 54 hour basis, went to work 
 on the minute, and stopped on the minute, and 
 really worked faster all day. We also use the 
 premium bonus system in our plant, and when we 
 shortened the hours, we increased the bonus some- 
 what. This might have had something to do with it. 
 
 It will be noted that this was a small establishment. 
 
 The third establishment stated that pieceworkers 
 turned out practically the same amount of work under 
 the 54-hour schedule as under the 56-hour schedule and 
 that this substantially offset a loss in production by time 
 workers. In further investigation, however, it developed 
 that there had been a radical change in the management 
 of this mill by which modern methods were introduced at 
 the time hours were reduced. Because of this fact, it is 
 obvious that the results obtained cannot properly be 
 attributed to the reduction in the length of the workday. 
 The reduction in hours may have been a contributing 
 influence, but in view of the much more important factors 
 involved, it is impossible to say definitely that this was so. 
 
 The fourth establishment submitted no additional 
 information. 
 
 The fifth establishment in the list, which reported that 
 production was maintained when hours were reduced from 
 60 to 55 per week, stated in explanation : 
 
 We know the employees appreciated very much 
 the Saturday half holiday, and we think this was the 
 incentive to them to work more steadily so as not to 
 let the change interfere with their accustomed wages. 
 
 About 80% of the employees in this mill were piece- 
 workers. An official of the company stated, however, that 
 no particular change in production of time workers was 
 observed. The company manufactured a rather special- 
 ized product. 
 
 18 
 
The sixth establishment stated that it was unable from 
 its records to furnish further information. 
 
 Summing up, it will be observed that several of these 
 mills were manufacturing special lines of product, and it 
 seems possible that the opportunity for the workers to 
 influence output may have been somewhat greater in these 
 than in the case of mills making more common lines. In 
 one case, there was a change in management and in two 
 cases the reduction in hours was very slight. 
 
 The evidence that production was maintained on a 
 54-hour schedule is, therefore, not only limited, but 
 inconclusive. 
 
 ESTABLISHMENTS REPORTING A DECREASE IN 
 OUTPUT UNDER SHORTER HOURS 
 
 Of 70 establishments reporting the effect of reductions in 
 hours upon output, no less than 64 reported a decrease. 
 In most cases the reduction in output was stated to be 
 about proportional to the reduction in hours. The pre- 
 ponderance of evidence is so marked that extended 
 analysis of the data is unnecessary. 
 
 The following data, taken from the detailed tables given 
 in the appendix, show the percentage losses in output 
 reported by representative northern mills compared with 
 the percentage reductions in hours of work. 
 
 Percentage decrease 
 in hovas 
 
 From 56 to 54 hours 
 
 3.6 
 
 From 58 to 55 hours 
 
 From 58 to 55 hours 
 From 60 to 54 hours 
 
 5.2 
 
 5.2 
 10.0 
 
 Reported percentage decrease 
 m output per employee 
 
 Proportional. 
 
 3^%. 
 
 3 to 4%. 
 
 Proportional for time workers 
 
 — a little less than proportional 
 
 for pieceworkers. 
 Proportional reduction. 
 About proportional. 
 3X%. 
 1K%. . 
 Proportional. 
 4%. 
 
 Approximately proportional. 
 [ Proportional. 
 f5%. 
 5%. 
 3% for pieceworkers, 5% for 
 
 time workers. 
 
 J 10% 
 
 Proportional. 
 
 19 
 
This summary shows striking unanimity of opinion 
 among cotton manufacturers that reduction of two or 
 three hours to 54 or 55 per week in the cotton manufac- 
 turing industry has involved an approximately propor- 
 tional reduction in output. Substantially similar reports 
 were made as to the effects of reductions from 58 to 56 
 hours per week, but only a comparatively small amount 
 of information was obtained as to the effect of reduc- 
 tions from 58 to 56 hours. 
 
 Practically similar statements were obtained fropi 
 those establishments, covered by field visit, which did 
 not file replies to the schedule. 
 
 While the statements alone are fairly convincing, it is 
 desirable to compare them with statistical evidence. Be- 
 fore doing this a few special considerations may be noted. 
 
 IMPORTANT FACTORS BEARING ON 
 EFFICIENCY 
 
 Machine Time Feature of Work 
 
 Undoubtedly one chief explanation of the results just 
 presented is the importance of "machine time," or 
 machine tending in many processes. As an illustration 
 of the extent to which machine time dominates certain 
 processes in cotton manufacturing, as, for instance, 
 spinning, it may be noted that in ring spinning a single 
 operative frequently tends from about 700 to 1,200 
 spindles, and even then ordinarily has considerable 
 leisure. Except for time lost in doffing, breakdowns, 
 and accidents, the only thing which interferes with the 
 maximum production of a spindle is breakage of the 
 yarn, in which case only individual bobbins are affected. 
 The principal duty of the spinner is the joining of broken 
 threads. 
 
 Since the number and incidence of these breakages is 
 beyond the control of the operative, the chief opportunity 
 to increase efficiency is in the more prompt discovery and 
 repair of broken yarns. The number of breakages is 
 usually small, and the machine time feature dominates 
 to such an extent that, provided operatives are ordinarily 
 attentive to their duties, the opportunity to affect the 
 
 20 
 
day's output by greater personal efficiency is very limited. 
 During most of the time all bobbins are winding, and 
 while several under the care of one operative may be 
 out of service simultaneously, the average time lost from 
 breakage of yarn probably represents less than 1% of the 
 total spindle time. 
 
 A representative of one mill estimated the total loss of 
 productive time on spinning frames due to breakage of 
 yarn at not over J/^ of 1%. Others stated that they had 
 no figures, but that they were satisfied that the amount of 
 lost time due to this cause was almost negligible. 
 
 In this connection it is interesting to point out that for 
 a yarn as fine as size 100, on a frame with a front roll 
 1 inch in diameter revolving 70 times a minute, a spindle 
 making 9,400 revolutions per minute would in a week of 
 60 hours wind only one quarter of a pound of yarn. The 
 effect of a few minutes more or less of lost time on an 
 occasional spindle can, therefore, hardly be measured. 
 
 Weaving presents a somewhat greater opportunity for 
 the operative to increase output by his own effort, al- 
 though here again the machine controls. In some modern 
 looms the process is almost wholly automatic. The 
 mere fact that a single weaver frequently tends as many 
 as twenty automatic looms gives a fair idea of the limited 
 extent to which weavers can increase the hourly rate of 
 output. 
 
 It is necessary to discriminate sharply oetween different 
 kinds of automatic machinery. For instance, one of the 
 experts of the British Health of Munition Workers Com- 
 mittee said of the highly automatic work of boring top 
 caps ip a munitions factory: 
 
 Cursory observation of the youths boring top 
 caps would suggest that by no possibility could they 
 increase their hourly output however short their 
 hours of work, but the data adduced show that this 
 view is erroneous, and that a more persistent and 
 continuous application to their machines could 
 effect an improvement of 29% or more.' 
 
 'Health of Munition Workers Committee, Memorandum No. 18. 
 The increase was ascribed by the British report largely to elimination of 
 Sunday work and other reductions in hours. As pointed out in "Analysis of 
 British Wartime Reports on Hours of Work as Related to Output and 
 Fatigue" (N. I.C.B. Research Report No. 2) only a part of the increase 
 should be attributed to this factor. 
 
 21 
 
The process referred to in this statement, however, in- 
 volved the hand feeding of an automatic machine, whereas 
 much of the machinery in a cotton mill is automatically 
 fed and is equipped with automatic stop-motions. In 
 automatic looms a battery of bobbins is placed in a 
 circular drum which revolves and drops a full bobbin in 
 the shuttle whenever necessary, the empty one being 
 thrown into a receptacle. 
 
 Where machinery must be fed by hand output ceases 
 whenever the operative is away. In the case of most 
 cotton machinery, on the other hand, the operative 
 frequently is away for some little time. If there is no 
 breakage of yarn, or accident, the output is not affected 
 by temporary absence of the worker. Indeed, automatic 
 looms are sometimes run without attendance during the 
 noon hour and for a period after the closing hour. If the 
 yarn breaks or runs out, the loom automatically stops.' 
 
 The difference between efficiency of workers on such 
 machines and on machines which depend absolutely on 
 continuous attendance of the operative is apparent. 
 
 It should not, however, be assumed that cotton mill 
 workers cannot affect output by increased personal effort. 
 The varying number of looms assigned to different weavers 
 indicates a difference in individual efficiency and shows 
 that the machinery does not completely control. The 
 statements presented elsewhere as to the smaller loss in 
 production by pieceworkers than by dayworkers also 
 are suggestive.^ Moreover, a substantial increase in 
 hourly output was at times reported, but in only a few 
 instances was It sufficient to offset the effect of shortened 
 hours for the mill as a whole, and, as already shown, con- 
 ditions in some of these cases were so exceptional that the 
 results are of very limited significance. 
 
 In certain processes where it was possible to offset the 
 effect of reductions in hours, the number of workers en- 
 gaged was often small, a fact which must be taken into 
 account in considering the best arrangement of hours for 
 the force as a whole. Roughly speaking, in a cotton mill 
 doing both spinning and weaving 20% of the workers 
 are engaged in spinning processes and 30% in weaving. 
 On the other hand, drawing-in, which when done by hand 
 
 ^This practice does not enter into -the statistical comparisons given later 
 in this report. 
 
 'See page 24. 
 
 22 
 
is one of the most fatiguing processes in cotton manufac- 
 ture, ordinarily does not include over 2% of the total force. 
 
 So far as machinery is concerned, maximum speed 
 practically obtainable with present equipment probably 
 has been attained in most northern mills. Manufac- 
 turers were almost unanimous in the opinion that at- 
 tempts to increase the speed of spindles or looms in their 
 establishments would result in such an increase in break- 
 age of yarn as to reduce efficiency rather than to increase 
 it. 
 
 It. 
 
 The president of a northern spinning mill said i 
 connection : 
 
 The speed of the machinery depends so much on 
 the stock and quality needed to be produced that it 
 is practically impossible to increase speeds to any 
 extent to offset shorter hours. 
 
 in this 
 
 Size of Establishment 
 
 It is difficult to determine how far the size of the 
 establishment influences the ability of cotton mills to 
 maintain production when hours of work are reduced. In 
 the following table results are compared on the basis of 
 the number of employees per establishment: 
 
 TABLE 7: NUMBER AND PER CENT OF NORTHERN 
 
 ESTABLISHMENTS WHICH REPORTED EFFECT ON OUTPITT 
 ACCOMPANYING REDUCTION IN HOURS, GROUPED ACCORD- 
 ING TO EFFECT AND TO NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES. 
 
 (National Industrial Conference Board.) 
 
 
 Nmnber 
 
 Percentage 
 
 Number of Employees 
 
 Production 
 Maintained 
 
 Production 
 Decreased 
 
 Production 
 
 Maintained 
 
 Production 
 Decreased 
 
 Total 
 
 Under 100 . . 
 100 to 1,000 . 
 1001 to 2000 
 2001 and over . . 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 
 
 64 
 
 3 
 
 49 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 1000 
 
 16.7 
 
 33.3 
 
 50.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 4.7 
 76.5 
 14.1 
 
 4.7 
 
 Average number of employees in establishments which reduced hours 
 
 without a decrease in production .... . . . 940 
 
 Average number of employees in establishments in which a reduction in 
 
 hours was accompanied by a decrease in production 680 
 
 23 
 
This table shows that of the six companies reporting,^ 
 that production was maintained when hours were reduced," 
 three, or 50%, employed over 1,000 operatives each. On 
 the other hand, of those companies reporting a decrease 
 in output, only twelve out of sixty-four, or but 19%, 
 employed 1,000 operatives or more. 
 
 On the surface, these figures indicate that the larger 
 establishments were better able to offset the effect of 
 reductions in hours of work than were the smaller ones, 
 although they were seldom able to offset it completely. 
 
 One advantage of size, of course, is the opportunity for 
 a better division of labor and the greater efficiency of 
 management possible in large mills with ample capital. 
 
 Influence or Piecework System 
 
 The average proportion of pieceworkers in northern 
 cotton mills reporting on this point was approximately 
 55%. The proportion varied from practically nothing to 
 90% or more, and the average is applicable to only a 
 small number of concerns. 
 
 As in the case of several other industries studied thus 
 far in the course of the Board's investigation, there 
 seems to be a rather definite relationship between efficiency 
 and the piecework system. Several of the reports show 
 that reduction in output was less marked for pieceworkers 
 than for dayworkers. In a few cases, pieceworkers practi- 
 cally maintained production when hours were shortened, 
 although the output for the factory as a whole usually 
 decreased. The following statements, taken from replies 
 to the schedule, are representative : * 
 
 Piecework was not affected to any extent, as em- 
 ployees were able to produce practically the same 
 amount as formerly. 
 
 In the case of pieceworkers, total output per em- 
 ployee was reduced a small percentage less than the 
 ' reduction in hours; in case of dayworkers the re- 
 duction in product was proportional to the reduction 
 in time. 
 
 'See table, page 59. 
 
 24 
 
Labor cost per unit increased for piecework 2%; 
 for daywork, 3J^%. 
 
 A slight gain in production per hour by piece- 
 workers but not commensurate with the reduction 
 of hours. 
 
 Where costs were governed by piecework the cost 
 of production did not increase the full 10% due to 
 shorter hours, about 8% covered the average in- 
 creased costs, showing that pieceworkers improved 
 their effort. With the dayworkers this did not 
 obtain. 
 
 Loss in production of about 3% for pieceworkers 
 and 5% for time workers. 
 
 In" connection with this question of the relative effi- 
 ciency of piecework and daywork, it may be noted that 
 an official of a textile union said : 
 
 Under present conditions daywork is much fairer 
 to the operatives than piecework. Much time is 
 lost in the average mill through causes for which 
 the operatives cannot be held responsible and it is 
 not fair to keep them at the mills when they are not 
 actually being paid for their time. If a system 
 could be installed whereby a certain rate was paid 
 for idle time which was not due to inattention or 
 other act on the part of the operative, then piece- 
 work would unquestionably be the fairer, both to the 
 manufacturer and the operative. 
 
 ATTITUDE OF WORKERS 
 
 Several manufacturers reported that reduction in hours 
 exerted a favorable effect on the attitude of workers. 
 Others stated that the effect had been adverse. In most 
 cases, no significant effect was reported. Reports on this 
 point, however, were not sufiiciently general to warrant 
 conclusions. 
 
 ATTITUDE OF NORTHERN MANUFACTURERS TOWARDS 
 A 54-HOUR WEEK 
 
 Despite the fact that it was the general experience of 
 cbtton manufacturers that reductions in hours of work 
 to 54 per week had involved a reduction in output, many 
 northern manufacturers made no objection to such a 
 work-week. 
 
 25 
 
One manufacturer who reduced from 60 to 54 hours, 
 and who reported a decrease in output, said: 
 
 We find the 54-hour schedule worked out to our 
 satisfaction; employees were also pleased with new 
 schedule. 
 
 A representative of a group of important mills likewise 
 stated that although the 54-hour week had reduced out- 
 put, he did not favor a longer week in northern cotton 
 mills. 
 
 On the other hand, several manufacturers saw no 
 advantage in a shorter week. The following statement is 
 fairly representative of several obtained during the course 
 of the investigation : 
 
 We do not think that reducing hours benefits the 
 operatives either physically or morally, or in their 
 efficiency. 
 
 The machinery in a cotton mill is run at a certain 
 speed and in a great many cases must either give 
 product or produce waste. With the decrease in 
 hours, we do not see any improvement in the waste 
 made or product per hour, or the quality of the work. 
 
 A manufacturer operating on a 54-hour schedule said : 
 
 We do not think that a decrease in the hours of 
 labor increases the efficiency per hour of the opera- 
 tives. In our judgment, reducing the hours of labor 
 and increasing the earning capacity of the opera- 
 tives, as a whole means rather decreased general 
 efficiency, as the operatives are not apt to work as 
 steadily. 
 
 The head of a spinning company who also found that 
 production was reduced under a 54-hour schedule, ex- 
 pressed himself as satisfied with a 54-hour week and 
 said in this connection: 
 
 We have noticed this difference when hours have 
 been shortened. More kinds of people are willing to 
 work in the mill at 54 hours than at 56,58, or 60, 
 and in ordinary times we feel that it would be easier 
 to keep a full crew than when working longer hours. 
 
 26 
 
. . . We feel that the economic side of. shorter 
 hours is not understood by most people and that 
 any shortening of hours and lessening of output 
 means that it is going to cost more to live. It is 
 better to work longer and harder and have enough 
 to eat and a comfortable home than to work less 
 and not be properly nourished or housed. The same 
 pay for less hours of work is really a reduction in 
 pay measured by what a dollar will buy. Each 
 time that hours in a mill are reduced the product 
 costs more. We do not believe that it is necessary 
 to reduce the working hours in mills further to safe- 
 guard the health of the employee and do believe 
 that any further reduction would injure both the 
 industiy and the buying public. 
 
 These are, of course, statements of employers, and 
 while the Board accepts them as made in good faith, 
 conclusions on this point cannot in fairness be drawn 
 without considering views of workers as well. 
 
 27 
 
HOURS AND OUTPUT— SOUTHERN MILLS 
 
 Although particular effort was made to obtain repre- 
 sentative data for southern -mills, only 57 southern 
 establishments, employing 34,347 operatives, submitted 
 replies to the schedule of inquiries. The geographical dis- 
 tribution and prevailing hours of these mills has already 
 been presented, i A large proportion of southern opera- 
 tives are now working under a nominal schedule of 60 
 hours. 
 
 Thirty-five of the southern establishments reported a 
 recent reduction in hours, and of these_ 20 stated 
 the results of such reduction on output. This number is 
 too limited to permit of satisfactory conclusions and the 
 results presented in this chapter for southern mills 
 should, therefore, be regarded merely as a matter 
 of information. Although the data may faii;ly reflect 
 conditions in the South, it would be quite unscientific to 
 assume this in the absence of a broader basis of experi- 
 ence. It is hoped to obtain more extensive data for 
 southern mills later. 
 
 A comparison of results for the 20 mills which reported 
 that hours had been reduced is given in the following 
 table: 
 
 TABLE 8: NUMBER AND PERCENT OF SOUTHERN 
 ESTABLISHMENTS REPORTING REDUCTION IN HOURS AND 
 NUMBER AND PERCENT OF EMPLOYEES, GROUPED AC- 
 CORDING TO THE EFFECT ON PRODUCTION ACCOMPANYING 
 REDUCTION IN HOURS. 
 
 (National Industrial Conference Board.) 
 
 
 Effect pi output 
 
 Establishments 
 
 Employees 
 
 in hours 
 
 Number 
 
 Percent 
 
 Number 
 
 Percent 
 
 Total 
 
 Maintained .... 
 
 Decreased 
 
 Effect unreported . . 
 
 35 
 
 4 
 16 
 15 
 
 100.0 
 
 11.4 
 45.7 
 42.9 
 
 22,042 
 
 1,797 
 
 13,162 
 
 7,083 
 
 100.0 
 
 8.2 
 59.7 
 32.1 
 
 This table shows^ therefore, that only 4 southern es- 
 tablishments reported that production was maintained 
 
 'See pages 2 and 12. 
 
 28 
 
when hours were decreased. Three of these reduced from 
 a 66 to a 60-hour schedule. 
 
 The average hours of these three groups before and 
 after the reductions are shown in Table 9. 
 
 TABLE 9: AVERAGE HOURS AFTER AND BEFORE REDUC- 
 TION, AND AVERAGE REDUCTION IN HOURS OF SOUTHERN 
 ESTABLISHMENTS REPORTING REDUCTIONS IN HOURS, 
 GROUPED ACCORDING TO EFFECT ON OUTPUT WHICH 
 ACCOMPANIED REDUCTION. 
 
 (National Industrial Conference Board.) 
 
 Effect on output 
 ui hours 
 
 Average hours 
 after reduction 
 
 Average hours 
 before reduction 
 
 Average reduction 
 in hours 
 
 Maintained 
 
 Decreased 
 
 Unreported 
 
 60.0 
 59.4 
 59.7 
 
 65.5 
 63.8 
 64.7 
 
 5.5 
 4.4 
 5.0 
 
 In the case of the 16 companies which reported a 
 decrease in output, the reduction was from an average of 
 about 63.8 hours per week to about 59.4 hours. As already 
 noted, these averages are not satisfactory as a basis for 
 analysis. Reference should, therefore, be made to the 
 detailed table in the appendix which gives the impor- 
 tant facts furnished by each of the southern establish- 
 ments. 
 
 A southern company which reduced from 60 to 57 hours 
 said: 
 
 We have reached the limit where hours can be re- 
 duced, without reducing production. Fifty-seven 
 hours per week is satisfactory to employer and em- 
 ployee in this section at present time. To make a 
 safe and economic condition in textile plants, taking 
 into consideration, the rights of the employer, 
 employee, and the public, the minimum hours of 
 labor should not be reduced much below the present 
 standard, and should be arranged so as to give a half 
 holiday on Saturday. 
 
 A southern manufacturer who reduced from 60 to 56 
 hours by stopping at one o'clock on Saturday said: 
 
 The operatives appreciated the change and we 
 think that many of them are now more punctual and 
 regular in attendance at their work than before. 
 
 29 
 
There has been no change thus far in rate of pro- 
 duction and the stoppage of four hours means that 
 much production lost. 
 
 Another southern manufacturer said: 
 
 Cotton manufacturing does not afford a very 
 promising field for reduction of hours withovi in- 
 crease in costs. Cotton manufacturing is a highly- 
 capitalistic industry; in the case of machine labor, 
 the law pf diminishing returns does not hold. Any 
 reduction in the hours of cotton mill operatives 
 must come through legislation of universal applica- 
 tion. Reduction of hours under these circumstances 
 would be welcomed by manufacturers with a social 
 interest. Such legislation, however, calls up the 
 most complex problems in the economic realm, inter- 
 national as well as national in their scope. 
 
 Although a majority of southern establishments re- 
 ported a decrease in output when hours were reduced to 
 about 60 per week, apparently a 60-hour week is regarded 
 as satisfactory by many southern cotton manufacturers. 
 
 For instance, one manufacturer who estimated that 
 output had decreased 8 to 9% after a reduction in hours 
 from 66 to 60, nevertheless said : 
 
 If the schedule can be so arranged as to give 
 Saturday afternoon for half holiday, 60-hour running 
 time as worked in southern mills seems entirely 
 satisfactory to employees and employed. 
 
 Another manufacturer who also reduced from 66 to 60 
 hours, and who reported some loss in production, said: 
 
 In view of the fact that a plant such as ours works 
 a number of hands who have not yet fully developed > 
 physically, we are of the opinion that the change 
 from 66 to 60 hours per week was a good one, but 
 wish to state that when we reduced the hours 
 9% we reduced our production in like proportion. 
 
 Another manufacturer also reducing from 66 to 60 hours 
 said: 
 
 Cost naturally went up, but production did not 
 drop 9%. The general attitude and results were 
 satisfactory to us. 
 
 30 
 
STATISTICAL DATA AS TO OUTPUT 
 
 DIFFICULTIES OF SECURING COMPARABLE 
 
 DATA 
 
 The unit of measure in most cotton manufacturing 
 establishments up to the process of weaving is the pound. 
 It might, therefore, seem an easy matter to compare the 
 product of a cotton mill under different hours-of-work 
 schedules. As a matter of fact, great difficulty was en- 
 countered in efforts to secure data which were strictly or 
 even reasonably comparable. One reason for this is the 
 great range in sizes (counts) and strength (twists) of yarn 
 and in the great variety of weaves in cloth. For instance, 
 a pound of cotton yarn of size 24 represents approximately 
 20,160 yards, whereas a pound of size 80 represents 
 67,200 yards. Obviously a spindle revolving at a given 
 rate of speed, say 7,000 revolutions per minute, will wind a 
 pound of the coarser yarn in a much shorter time than it 
 will wind a pound of the finer. Unless the product of a 
 mill is nearly uniform, this factor alone introduces serious 
 difficulties into statistical comparisons on the pound basis. 
 The difficulty is increased because in most mills various 
 sizes of yarn are in process of manufacture at one time 
 and changes from one size to another are very frequent. 
 
 The product of the weaving mill is often measured in 
 yards, but in close comparisons it is necessary to take 
 account of the number of picks (cross or weft threads) per 
 inch and per minute. Output for a cloth running 72 picks 
 per inch is not strictly comparable with that for a cloth 
 running 144 picks, as a measure of the effect of changes in 
 hours. Still greater difficulty would be encountered in 
 making a comparison of plain and fancy weaves. 
 
 Again, in many weaving mills a number of looms often 
 are idle; not only because of lack of orders, but also 
 because of changes from one weave to another. For 
 comparative purposes, periods of full loomage should 
 
 31 
 
where possible be used, since this reduces the element of 
 uncertainty due to changes in the proportions of looms of 
 different types or pickages. Moreover, it was the general 
 opinion of manufacturers that operatives work more nearly 
 to their abilities when the mill equipment is operated to 
 full capacity.! A representative of a textile union ex- 
 pressed, a similar opinion. 
 
 Atmospheric and climatic conditions also present a 
 complicating factor. Cotton fiber absorbs and throws oflF 
 moisture very readily within a considerable range. For 
 instance, one manufacturer stated that in ordinary 
 weather 5.35 yards of a certain cloth would weigh a 
 pound, whereas in damp weather 5.20 yards would weigh 
 as much. Still wider variations are by no means un- 
 common. It is difficult for a mill to maintain uniform 
 temperature and humidity under atmospheric and seasonal 
 changes. Extremely accurate comparisons of output by 
 weight would, therefore,- necessitate correction for such 
 differences in moisture content. 
 
 In practically no case is it safe to compare the output of 
 one mill with that of another as a measure of the effect of 
 different hours-of-work schedules. Differences in the 
 methods of operation and in efficiency of management 
 may exert a much more important influence than differ- 
 ences in the number of hours of work. 
 
 If special or "control" experiments were made for the 
 particular purpose of measuring the effect of changes in 
 hours on output, such factors could be observed and either 
 allowed for or the uncertain data excluded from considera- 
 tion. On the other hand, such "control" experiments 
 involve other difficulties perhaps quite as serious; for 
 example, the mental effect on the operative which, on the 
 one hand, might stimulate him to unusual effort, on 
 the other hand might so disturb him as to reduce his 
 efficiency. 
 
 Most of the latest changes in hours-of-work schedules 
 in northern cotton mills occurred about January 1, 1912. 
 It is quite out of the question to compare figures of output 
 in 1917 under a 54-hour schedule with those in 1911 under 
 a 56-hour schedule as a measure of the effect of the reduc- 
 tion in hours on output, since during this interval changes 
 in character of product, in machinery, in methods of 
 
 'See page 40. 
 
 32 
 
operation, and in the character of the working force often 
 have been so great as to make such comparisons meaning- 
 less. Where comparison of output for a period shortly 
 before a reduction in hours is made with that for a 
 period shortly after such reduction, however, these factors 
 can ordinarily be disregarded. 
 
 OUTPUT COMPARISONS 
 
 For these and numerous other reasons precise data 
 which would permit of accurate mathematical deductions 
 as to the effect of different hours-of-work schedules on 
 production can be secured, if at all, only after most 
 painstaking efforts involving much time. Elaborate data 
 of this sort, however, are not absolutely essential. Several 
 mills furnished comparisons of output for periods im- 
 mediately before and after reductions in hours of work, 
 when the character of product and general operating con- 
 ditions were substantially similar. ' The uniformity with 
 which the figures thus obtained indicated a loss in output 
 when hours were reduced to 54 per week, taken in con- 
 nection with the marked unanimity of opinions submitted 
 by manufacturers, as already shown, made nice allowances 
 for minor factors unnecessary. 
 
 Comparison of Output at a Northern Spinning Mill 
 
 One comparison of output was furnished by a spinning 
 mill employing approximately five hundred operatives, 
 with complete production records kept over a period when 
 hours were reduced (in 1916) from 58 to 54 per week. 
 This mill was located in a small community and was a 
 modern establishment both in equipment and manage- 
 ment. The important results are given in the following 
 table, showing the average output per spindle per week for 
 each size of yarn manufactured during a six-months 
 period under each schedule, and the percentage loss for the 
 second period. ' The president of the company stated 
 that there were no changes in management, labor, or 
 machinery during or between the periods compared which 
 would invalidate the comparison. The same calendar 
 months were taken in each case so as to reduce differences 
 due to climatic factors as much as possible. 
 
 'Figures for a few sizes manufactured during only one of the periods are 
 omitted. 
 
 33 
 
TABLE lO: COMPARISON OF THE AVERAGE OUTPUT PER 
 SPINDLE PER WEEK, FOR A NORTHERN SPINNING MILL, 
 FOR A SIX-MONTHS PERIOD ENDING APRIL 29, I916, 
 UNDER A 58-HOUR WEEK, WITH THAT FOR A SIMILAR 
 PERIOD ENDING APRIL 28, I917, UNDER A 54-HOUR WEEK. 
 
 Size of Yarns' 
 
 Average pounds per spindle per week 
 
 Percentage loss 
 
 First Period 
 58 Hours 
 
 Second Period 
 54 Hours 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 12 
 15 
 19 
 20 
 
 22K 
 
 24 
 
 26 
 
 30 
 
 33 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 60 
 
 80 
 
 13.80 
 
 6.54 
 
 5.68 
 
 4.04 
 
 3.00 
 
 2.44 
 
 .1.97 
 
 1.94 
 
 1.67 
 
 1.32 
 
 1.21 
 
 1.02 
 
 .80 
 
 .68 
 
 .50 
 
 .34 
 
 11.84 
 
 5.84 
 
 5.18 
 
 3.69 
 
 2.71 
 
 2.15 
 
 1.74 
 
 1.65 
 
 1.34 
 
 1.28 
 
 1.12 
 
 .97 
 
 .76 
 
 .60 
 
 .47 
 
 .33 
 
 14.2 
 
 10.7 
 
 8.8 
 
 8.7 
 
 9.7 
 
 11.9 
 
 11.7 
 
 14.9 
 
 14.6 
 
 3.0 
 
 7.4 
 
 4.9 
 
 5.0 
 
 11.8 
 
 6.0 
 
 2.9 
 
 This table shows a decrease in the production per 
 spindle under the 54-hour week as compared with the 
 58-hour week for every, size of yarn manufactured. There 
 was considerable variation in the percentage of decrease, 
 however, several sizes showing reductions roughly of 10 
 to 14%, while in two cases the loss was as low as 3%. In 
 general, the smaller decreases occurred in the higher 
 counts, i.e., the smaller sizes. 
 
 The reduction in hours was 6.9%. 
 
 This comparison indicates clearly and conclusively that 
 in this instance the reduction in the number of hours was 
 accompanied by a decrease in total output per spindle. 
 The percentages of loss shown, however, should not be 
 taken as a precise or even a very close measure of the 
 decrease due solely to the shortening of the day. It often 
 happens that there are considerable variations in the 
 same mill with the same schedule of hours. For instance, 
 a comparison for this company for two periods under the 
 58-hour schedule indicated a variation in average weekly 
 output per spindle ranging from zero to as high as 8%; 
 the latter occurred in the coarser yarn and was exceptional. 
 
 'See footnote page 33. 
 
 34 
 
While, however, the decreases shown in the above table 
 may not have been due solely to the single factor of a 
 shorter work-week, the amount of the decreases and the 
 fact that they occurred for every size of yarn leaves no 
 room to doubt that the reduction in hours from 58 to 54 
 was largely responsible. 
 
 Comparison of Output of a Weaving Room of a 
 Northern Mill 
 
 A comparison of the product of a weaving room in a 
 northern mill which had produced a substantially 
 standard line of goods for a long time is given below. 
 This was a modern establishment well equipped, with 
 efficient management and a relatively good class of 
 operatives. 
 
 TABLE 1 1 : COMPARISON OF THE OUTPUT OF A WEAVING 
 ROOM IN A NORTHERN MILL FOR MAY, OCTOBER, AND 
 AUGUST, 191 1, UNDER WEEKLY SCHEDULES OF 56, 54, 
 AND SiX HOURS, RESPECTIVELY. 
 
 
 May, 1911. 
 
 56 hours 
 2,750 looms 
 
 October. 1911. 
 
 S4 hours 
 
 2,753 looms 
 
 August, 1911. 
 51K houra 
 2,760 looms 
 
 1st week 
 2d " 
 3d " 
 4th " 
 
 206,500 lbs. 
 203,000 " 
 204,000 " 
 210,000 " 
 
 202,800 lbs. 
 200,000 " 
 200,000 " 
 201,000 " 
 
 182,000 lbs. 
 187,500 " 
 185,600 " 
 187,900 " 
 
 Total 
 
 823,500 lbs. 
 
 803,800 lbs. 
 
 743,000 lbs. 
 
 This comparison shows that the output in October, 
 1911, under a 54-hour schedule was about 234% less than 
 that in May under a 56-hour schedule. The reduction in 
 the number of hours worked was 3J^%. The number of 
 looms and the number of employees were practically the 
 same in each case. 
 
 In August, 1911, when a 51J^-hour schedule was tem- 
 porarily in force, there was a further pronounced decrease 
 in production, which fell to about 90% of that obtained 
 in May under a 56-hour week; or nearly in proportion to 
 the reduction in hours worked. The experience with a 
 513^-hour week was brief and perhaps not sufficiently 
 representative to v/arrant conclusions, but it indicates 
 clearly that such a reduction in hours involved a 
 serious loss in output. Climatic influences may have 
 ■contributed to the loss. 
 
 35 
 
Comparison of Output at a Northern Piece 
 Goods Mill 
 
 •1*^. 
 
 A comparative statement of the output of a northern 
 mill making cotton piece goods under a 54-hour schedule 
 with that under a 60-hour schedule follows : 
 
 table 12: COMPARISON OF OUTPUT OF A NORTHERN COTTON 
 MILL MAKING PIECE GOODS UNDER A 60-HOUR SCHEDULE 
 WITH THAT UNDER A 54-HOUR SCHEDULE, I9I2. 
 
 
 First period 
 
 Second period 
 
 
 From 
 
 From 
 
 
 June 1, 1912, 
 
 August 24, 1912 
 
 
 to August 3, 1912 
 
 to October 26,1912 
 
 
 60-hoUT schedule 
 
 54-hour schedule 
 
 Average number of employees 
 
 347 
 
 347 
 
 Units of product (pounds) .... 
 
 267,225 
 
 227,727 
 
 Average number of looms in operation 
 
 863 
 
 804 
 
 Units per loom 
 
 309.6 
 
 283.2 
 
 Actual hours of operation' . . 
 
 577.5 
 
 505.4 
 
 Units per loom per hour . ... 
 
 0.536 
 
 0.660 
 
 Units per loom per week 
 
 32.16 
 
 30.24 
 
 Reduction in hours 
 
 Increase in average hourly output 
 
 Decrease in average output per loom per week 
 
 Percent 
 
 10.00 
 
 4.48 
 
 5.97 
 
 This indicated an average output of 30.24 pounds per 
 loom per week under the 54-hour schedule as against 
 32.16 pounds under the 60-hour schedule, or a decrease of 
 5.97%. The hourly rate of output increased 4.48% under 
 the shorter schedule, but this, of course, was not enough 
 to offset fully the reduction of 10% in the number of 
 hours worked. The figures of output per employee indi- 
 cate a substantial decrease, but a satisfactory comparison 
 on this score cannot be made, since in the second period 
 the full number of looms was not in operation. 
 
 A representative of this company stated that by 
 changing to automatic looms, installing additional ma- 
 chinery and putting more employees in the carding and 
 spinning departments, the output per loom has since 
 
 'Excluding time lost because of holidays, temporary breakage of ma- 
 chinery, etc. 
 
 36 
 
been brought up to the average secured under the 60-hour 
 schedule, but that this involved an increase in cost.* 
 
 Comparison of Output at a Mill where the Char- 
 acter OF the Product was Less Uniform 
 
 The preceding comparisons relate to establishments 
 where operating conditions, and especially the character 
 of product, were substantially similar under different 
 hours-of-work schedules. The influence of other factors 
 which might affect the efficiency of production was thus 
 minimized. Comparatively few mills, however, thus run 
 on standard lines of product for considerable periods of 
 time. Where the character of the product varies ma- 
 terially, an accurate measure of the effect of changes in 
 hours alone is, for the reasons pointed out at the begiii'ning 
 of this chapter, exceedingly difficult. Nevertheless a 
 comparison will be presented for one large mill where 
 there was more or less change in character of product; 
 operating conditions in this establishment are in this 
 respect fairly representative of those in a large number 
 of cotton mills. It must, however, be kept clearly in 
 mind that the comparison is less scientific than those 
 previously presented where the product was more uniform. 
 
 For mills of this general type one of the most reliable 
 tests of relative efficiencies is that based on the number 
 of picks, that is, the number of cross or filling threads 
 woven. 
 
 Comparison may also be made of the actual efficiency 
 obtained under different hours-of-work schedules as 
 compared with theoretical maximum efficiency of 100%, 
 that is, a comparison of the actual number of picks woven 
 with the total number of picks which could have been 
 woven had the looms been operated for the full number of 
 nominal hours without stoppage from any cause what- 
 ever. It should be clearly understood, however, that 
 100% efficiency in the case of a 56-hour schedule represents 
 a larger number of picks than 100% efficiency under a 
 54-hour schedule. 
 
 A comparison of the output of this mill based on these 
 methods is given in the following table: 
 
 'See page 43. 
 
 37 
 
TABLE 13: COMPARISON OF OUTPUT OF A NORTHERN COT- 
 TON MILL MAKING PIECE GOODS, UNDER WORK SCHEDULES 
 OF 58, 56, AND 54 HOURS PER WEEK. 
 
 Reduction from 58 to 56 Hours per Week 
 
 PERIOD 
 
 58 HouTB 
 
 4 weeks 
 October. 1909 
 
 56 Hours 
 
 2 weeks 
 November,1909 
 
 2 weeks 
 December, 1909 
 
 Percent 
 Decrease 
 
 LOOMS RtJNNING l6o PICKS PER MIKUTE 
 
 Average number looms operating 
 Average number picks per loom . 
 Percent of maximum possible pick- 
 age efficiency attained .... 
 
 2,619.6 
 1,729,388 
 
 77.6 
 
 2,585.2 
 1,671,892 
 
 77.6 
 
 3.3 
 
 LOOMS RUNNING I7S PICKS PER MINXTTE 
 
 Average number looms operating 
 Average number picl^s per loom . . 
 Percent of maximum possible pick- 
 age efficiency attained . . 
 
 846.7 
 2,133,153 
 
 87.6 
 
 1,067.1 
 1,915^58 
 
 81.5 
 
 10.2 
 
 Reduction from 56 to 54 Hours per Week 
 
 PERIOD 
 
 56 Hours 
 
 4 weeks to 
 Nov. 18, 1911 
 
 54 Hours 
 
 2 weeks 
 December, 1911 
 
 2 weeks 
 January, 1912 
 
 Percent 
 Decrease 
 
 LOOMS RXn^NING l6o PICKS PER MINUTE 
 
 Average number looms operating 
 Average number picks per loom . . 
 Percent of maximum possible pick- 
 age efficiency attained 
 
 2,040.4 
 1,545,353 
 
 72.5 
 
 1,784.1 
 1,417,848 
 
 68.4 
 
 8.3 
 
 LOOMS RUNNING I7S PICKS PER MINUTE 
 
 Average number looms operating . 
 Average number picks per loom . . 
 Percent of maximum possible pick- 
 age efficiency attained 
 
 1,378.5 
 1,807,119 
 
 76.8 
 
 1,478.5 
 1,737,349 
 
 76.6 
 
 3.9 
 
 This table shows that in every case the number of picks 
 per loom in operation decreased when hours of work were 
 reduced. It further shows that the percentage of maxi- 
 mum possible efficiency attained was not increased; in 
 
 38 
 
two cases it decreased sharply and in the other two it was 
 practically unchanged. Since maximum product obtain- 
 able under a 56-hour schedule is less than that obtainable 
 under a 58-hour schedule, a constant percentage of 
 operating efficiency means a loss in production propor- 
 tional to the reduction in hours. The fact that the per- 
 centage of operating efficiency at times decreased indicates 
 that other factors than the change in hours were also 
 in operation. 
 
 It will be noted, moreover, that the number of picks 
 per loom in 1911 under a 54-hour schedule was less than 
 in 1909 under a similar schedule, and this notwithstand- 
 ing the fact that a considerable number of new and 
 improved looms had been installed during this interval. 
 In this case, obviously, some other factor than that of 
 the number of hours of work was responsible. 
 
 While a comparison of output at this mill based on the 
 number of yards is less conclusive than that based on 
 pickages or efficiency percentages, it is nevertheless of 
 interest to note that when hours were reduced the number 
 of yards woven per loom also showed a decrease in 
 every case except one. 
 
 This is indicated by the following summary: 
 
 
 58 Hours 
 
 October, 
 
 1909 
 
 56 Hours 
 Nov.-Dec 
 1909 
 
 Percent 
 Decrease 
 
 160 pick looms 
 
 175 pick looms 
 
 Yards per loom 
 
 503 
 
 1,051 
 
 Yards per loom 
 476 
 
 1,000 
 
 5.4 
 4.9 
 
 
 56 Hours 
 
 Oct.-Nov. 
 
 1911 
 
 54 Hours 
 December, 1911 
 January, 1912 
 
 Percent 
 Decrease 
 
 160 pick looms .... 
 
 175 pick looms . ... 
 
 Yards per loom 
 
 496 
 995 
 
 Yards per loom 
 
 459 
 
 1,025 
 
 7.5 
 
 By comparison with Table 13 it will be seen that in the 
 single case when the yardage per loom increased there 
 was a substantial decrease in the number of picks woven, 
 which indicates that there was an important change in 
 character of product or in some other respect. 
 
 ' Increase, 
 
 39 
 
Attention should also be called to the great difference 
 in the average yards of cloth woven on the two different 
 types of looms. This well emphasizes the importance of 
 comparing average pickages where different grades of 
 product are made in the same mill. It also illustrates the 
 importance of limiting comparisons, for mills of this class, 
 to the same type of loom or to periods of full loomage in 
 comparisons of total product. 
 
 From the detailed figures obtained from this mill it 
 appeared that in certain weeks the number of yards 
 woven under a 56-hour schedule when the full number of 
 looms was in operation was as large as in certain weeks 
 under a 58-hour schedule with a smaller loomage; the 
 same was also true at times of a 54-hour schedule as com- 
 pared with a 56-hour schedule. When, however, periods 
 where substantially the same number of looms were in 
 operation were compared, a decrease per loom under the 
 shorter schedule was shown in nearly every case. This 
 seems to confirm the contention that the amount of 
 loomage in operation has a definite bearing upon effi- 
 ciency. However, changes in the character of product 
 may in this case have had a more important bearing. 
 
 It is clear, therefore, that comparison of yards of cloth 
 woven, or of pounds, in a mill where the character of 
 product varies considerably would, by itself, be incon- 
 clusive. The decrease in total pickages, however, indi- 
 cates definitely that in this case the reduction in hours 
 both from 58 to 56 per week, and from 56 to 54, resulted 
 in a relative loss in output, although it may not have been 
 wholly responsible for this loss. 
 
 Other Comparisons 
 
 Another company, making ginghams, submitted the 
 following comparison for periods where conditions of 
 operation were as nearly similar as could be found for 
 any considerable number of weeks : 
 
 April 1 to July 1, 1911, 56 hours, 3,824 looms . . 507,023 yards 
 April 1 to July 1, 1912, 54 hours, 3,757 looms . . 478,885 yards 
 
 This shows a reduction of 1.8% in the number of looms 
 and of approximately 5)^% in output. The output per 
 loom fell 3.8%. The reduction in hours was 3.6%. It ' 
 will be noted that the periods covered the same calendar 
 months in each year. 
 
 40 
 
The percentage of pieceworkers in this mill was high — 
 about 80% for beaming and weaving and nearly 65% for 
 carding and spinning. The equipment was modern. 
 
 The agent of another mill submitted the following 
 comparison of production for the last quarter of 1909, when 
 the weekly schedule was 58 hours, with that for the first 
 quarter of 1910, when a 66-hour week was in force. 
 
 Last quarter of 1909, 58-hour schedule (two holidays) 1,236,972 lbs. 
 First quarter of 1910, 5&-hour schedule (one holiday) 1,158,305 lbs. 
 
 Decrease 78,667 lbs. 
 
 Here Is a loss of approximately 6.3% in output against 
 a reduction of less than 3J^% in hours. Making correction 
 for the extra holiday in the last quarter of 1909, the 
 shrinkage in output would be about 5%. 
 
 The output of a southern Massachusetts mill making 
 plain goods for the last two months of 1911 under a 
 56-hour schedule compared with that for the first two 
 months of 1912 under 54-hour schedule as follows: 
 
 Last two months of 1911, 56-hour schedule (two holidays) 346,955 lbs. 
 First two months of 1912, 54-hour schedule (one holiday) 317,296 lbs. 
 
 Decrease 29,659 lbs. 
 
 In this case there was a loss in production under the 
 54-hour schedule (after allowing for the extra holiday) of 
 10%, as compared with that under the 56-hour schedule; 
 the reduction in hours was about 3.6%. 
 
 Comparisons of different quarters of the year are some- 
 what less satisfactory than a comparison for the same 
 quarter in two different years, since seasonal or other 
 conditions may differ sufficiently at different periods of 
 the year to materially affect results. 
 
 Comparison of Output of Three Workers under 
 Varying Schedules 
 
 The preceding comparisons cover either the entire 
 product of the respective establishments or that of entire 
 departments. Figures were furnished by one mill which, 
 although covering only three workers, are of interest 
 because the conditions were unusually uniform. These 
 workers were engaged on the first intermediate roving 
 frames and were paid on a piece-rate basis. The sizes of 
 yarn were practically the same in each period covered by 
 
 41 
 
the comparison. The data cover a period immediately 
 after the reduction in hours and also periods some months 
 later. Results are given below. 
 
 Hanks per hour 
 1.920 
 1.830 
 1.915 
 1.85 
 1.95 
 1.915 
 1.90 
 1.92 
 
 6 weeks 
 
 3 weeks 
 
 4 weeks 
 
 4 weeks 
 
 5 weeks 
 4 weeks 
 4 weeks 
 4 weeks 
 
 ended Oct. 30, 1909. 
 ended Dec. 18, 1909. 
 ended Jan. 29, 1910. 
 ended Mar. 26, 1910. 
 ended April 30, 1910. 
 ended Jan. 27, 1912. 
 ended Mar. 30, 1912. 
 ended May 25, 1912. 
 
 58-hour schedule 
 55^-hour schedule 
 56-hour schedule 
 56-hour schedule 
 56-hour schedule 
 54-hour schedule 
 54rhour schedule 
 54-hour schedule 
 
 This comparison shows no pronounced and definite 
 change in hourly output under the different hours-of-work 
 schedules. Total output, therefore, in most cases fell 
 practically in proportion to the hours worked. The in- 
 crease in the hourly rate in April, 1910, was not sufficient 
 to offset the reduction in the number of hours. 
 
 A change in the hours of the same workers from 60 to 54 
 when on a night shift, however, brought a rather marked 
 response in the hourly output, although not enough to 
 offset the loss in time. The comparative output under, 
 the two schedules was as follows: 
 
 Hanks per hour 
 Four weeks in March and May, 1917. 60-hour night schedule 1.915 
 Four weeks in May and June, 1917. 54-hour night schedule 2.045 
 
 Figures for so small a group cannot be given much, 
 weight, but they are of interest as suggesting that a more 
 intensive study of output for selected groups of workers 
 under varying lengths of workday would be profitable. 
 
 Because it is impossible to isolate completely the effects 
 of changes in hours, no one of these comparisons would 
 by itself warrant general conclusions. The agreement in 
 results for so many establishments, however, leaves no 
 doubt that the reduction in output shown was due, at 
 least in part, to the shortening of hours. Figures show- 
 ing substantially similar results were secured from various 
 other mills in the course of the investigation, but since in 
 these cases other factors clearly entered into the com- 
 parisons, the results are not presented. 
 
 In no instance were book figures obtained which showed 
 an increased or even a maintained output for the entire 
 factory force under a 54-hour schedule where all condi- 
 tions were the same, although this point was taken up 
 
 42 
 
with all of the mills which reported that their output was 
 maintained under such shorter schedule. 
 
 Improvements in Equipment Following Reductions 
 
 IN Hours 
 The fact that, in general, reductions in hours in northern 
 cotton mills to 54 or 55 per week resulted in an immediate 
 reduction of output does not mean that production per 
 employee is less today than under the longer sched- 
 ules previously in force. One effect of shortened hours is 
 to stimulate improvement in methods of management, in 
 machinery and other respects; such improvements, more- 
 over, are constantly being made independently of changes 
 in hours. In many mills, total production per employee 
 today for the same class of product probably is greater 
 than under any previous hours-of-work schedule. In 
 most cases, however, this has been accomplished only by 
 a heavy increase in investment. 
 
 For instance, in the case of the company referred to on 
 page 35, where a reduction to a 54-hour schedule in 1911 
 resulted in a loss of about 2}4% in product in October as 
 compared with that in May, the production in 1917, with 
 about 1,100 operatives, was as large as that in 1911 with 
 1,500. One reason for this is that new and improved looms 
 were introduced. Today an operative' tends about ten 
 automatic looms and with a rated efficiency of 95% of 
 possible product, whereas in 1911 the average number of 
 looms per weaver was about four and the percentage of 
 efficiency at times as low as 80. New routing systems 
 have been introduced, and the "layout," as the agent 
 expressed it, improved in generaL 
 
 Another company, for which figures of output were 
 given on page 36, stated: 
 
 At this particular plant we changed the looms 
 from plain to automatic, and put in additional card- 
 ing and spinning machinery, with the result that we 
 are today getting about the same pounds per loom 
 from a 64-hour week that we did from a 60-hour 
 week, but of course not at the same cost per pound, 
 due to the increased number of employees required 
 in the carding and spinning departments.. 
 
 CONCLUSIONS AS TO OUTPUT DATA 
 It is certain, therefore, that reductions in hours of work 
 in the cotton manufacturing industry to 54 per week have 
 
 43 
 
usually resulted in a loss in total output per employee and-*. 
 in a relative increase in cost of production. In a majority 
 of cases the decrease in output was at least proportional to 
 the reduction in hours. 
 
 The results here .given, however, should be read 
 broadly and not as an exact quantitative statement of the 
 effect of reductions in hours of work on output. If a 
 precise measure of the effect were desired, much more 
 extensive data and a much more detailed analysis of col- 
 lateral factors would be necessary. An exact evaluation 
 of numerous factors involves so many difficulties, however, 
 that it is exceedingly doubtful whether the results would 
 be of much greater value than those here presented. 
 
 It was the opinion of some manufacturers that a 58- 
 hour week in northern mills was about as productive as a 
 longer week. Some evidence indicating that this view is 
 correct was secured during the investigation, but not 
 enough to warrant conclusions. 
 
 It is, however, important to observe that the desira- 
 bility of any further reduction in hours of work in 
 northern cotton mills depends somewhat, although by 
 no means entirely, on the point at which maximum 
 product per employee is attained. For instance, a reduc- 
 tion of say 3 or 3H% in output in going from a 66-hour to 
 a 54-hour week is perhaps not vital in itself. As already 
 shown, many cotton manufacturers raised no objection to 
 a 54-hour week. But if such a reduction in output has 
 followed a similar reduction in the change from 68 to 56 
 hours, and possibly also from a still longer week, it is 
 apparent that there has been in process an accumulation 
 of reductions in output. This point should receive at- 
 tention in considering further reductions in work-hours. 
 In any case, the evident reduction in output as a result 
 of the reduction from a 66-hour to a 54-hour schedule 
 makes it clear that, under present conditions, any further 
 shortening of work-hours in northern cotton mills must 
 involve a substantial addition to cost of production which, 
 in most cases, presumably would be passed on to the 
 consumer. 
 
 The problem resolves itself into determining whether 
 such further reduction in hours is desirable regardless 
 of increase in cost. Obviously, a prime consideration 
 in reaching conclusions on this point is the effect of a 
 54-hour schedule on the health of workers. 
 
 44 
 
HOURS AND HEALTH OF WORKERS 
 
 DIFFICULTIES OF THE PROBLEM 
 
 Because of the larger number of contributory influences 
 and a lack of statistical information, the difficulties in- 
 volved in a study of relative health conditions under 
 .different hours-of-work schedules are even greater than 
 those encountered in attempts to measure the effect of 
 changes in hours of work upon production. 
 
 An enumeration of the causes of sickness among indus- 
 trial workers is unnecessary in a report of this character. 
 It is worth pointing out, however, that the causes which 
 may be directly attributable to conditions in industry are 
 numerous. I In addition to industrial factors bearing 
 upon the health of workers, there must be considered the 
 equally important group of social and personal factors dis- 
 tinct from industry itself, such as housing conditions, per- 
 sonal hygiene, scale of living, and character of recreation. 
 All of these are elements of vital importance in any study 
 of health, yet the great difficulty of measuring and properly 
 evaluating them is obvious. 
 
 General Lack of Necessary Data 
 Practically no evidence was obtained In the course of 
 the Investigation which would justify conclusions as to 
 the effect of changes in hours of work upon the health of 
 cotton mill workers. As between so long a week as 66 
 hours and a week of 60 hours or less, there were Indica- 
 tions that health conditions were distinctly better under 
 
 'The following list taken from the Interim Report of the British Health of 
 Munition Workers Committee indicates chaxacteristics of industry which may 
 contribute to impaired health of the workers: 
 
 (1) Excessively long hours of work, particularly by night. 
 
 (2) Cramped and constrained attitudes or postures during work. 
 
 (3) Prolonged or excessive muscular strain, e.g., the lifting of heavy 
 weights, prolonged standing. 
 
 (4) Unventilated or insufficiently ventilated workshops. 
 
 (5) Extremes of temperature or humidity. 
 
 (6) Imperfect lighting. 
 
 (7) Gases, vapours, poisons, and irritating substances. 
 
 (8) Dust. 
 
 45 
 
the shorter schedule. Some opinions were expressed, 
 both by manufacturers and by representatives of labor, 
 that the health of workers was better under a 54-hour 
 schedule than under a 60-hour schedule. No statistical 
 or other tangible evidence was, however, obtained. As 
 to relative health conditions under a 58-hour, a 56-hour, 
 and a 54-hour week, practically no information whatever 
 was secured. 
 
 Apparently no comprehensive records of sickness 
 among cotton mill workers in this country are to be had. 
 Few companies keep absence records of any kind, and of 
 those which do, only a very limited number record the 
 causes of absence, except that in some cases absences due 
 to accidents are separately noted. Out of 109 schedules 
 received from northern mills in the course of the investiga- 
 tion, only 13 indicated that sickness records of any sort 
 were kept; and of these not one had records in a form, 
 or for a period, significant for the purposes of the study. 
 
 Broadly speaking, therefore, it may be said that the 
 inquiry by schedule and correspondence indicated that 
 practically no recorded data were in existence, either 
 among cotton mills or elsewhere, which would supply 
 information as to relative health conditions among opera- 
 tives under different hours-of-work schedules. Even if 
 extensive statistical data were available, the task of 
 determining just how far any single factor was contri- 
 butory to the conditions revealed would, in view of the 
 many causes of ill health, be extremely difficult. 
 
 GENERAL HEALTH OF COTTON MILL WORKERS 
 
 Aside from the question of the health of cotton mill 
 operatives under different hours-of-work schedules, it is 
 desirable to determine, if possible, whether general health 
 conditions in this industry are favorable or unfavorable 
 as compared with other industries, and if unfavorable, 
 whether or not this is due to conditions inherent in the 
 industry itself. Data bearing upon this point, while 
 somewhat extensive, are for the most part not up to date, 
 nor entirely satisfactory lor other reasons. 
 
 Reports of Massachusetts State Board of Health 
 
 In 1905 and 1906 the Massachusetts State Board of 
 
 Health conducted an investigation of conditions affecting 
 
 46 
 
the health and safety of industrial workers of the state. 
 In its investigation of the textile industry, 93 establish- 
 ments, comprising several hundred mills, were visited; 
 nearly all of these were cotton -mills. In a report on this 
 survey, published in March, 1907, it was stated: 
 Of these 93 manufacturing establishments, 19 
 carry on their manufacture under nearly ideal con- 
 ditions, and 23 under conditions which may be 
 designated as good. The condition in all of these, 
 including, as they do, nearly half of the number of 
 establishments and much more than half of the 
 number of operatives employed, and the condition 
 of the health of those employed, as determined by 
 their appearance, the testimony of the physicians 
 prescribing for them and the vital statistics of the 
 cities and towns where located, raise the hygienic 
 condition of those employed far above "the most 
 unhealthy classes of wage-earners," with which 
 hygienists have been wont to associate textile 
 workers, even to a very favorable position among 
 wage-earners who are congregated in large numbers 
 within doors. 
 
 It would be a source of great gratification if the 
 condition of the minority be raised to so satisfactory 
 a standard. Of these, moderately bad conditions 
 were observed in 35 and distinctly bad in 16 estab- 
 lishments. In all of the two latter classes it seems 
 possible to secure marked improvement in condi- 
 tions, with not unreasonable expenditure. 
 
 In discussing health hazards in the respective processes, 
 special attention was called to the factor of dust in the 
 carding room, as follows: 
 
 Since the amount of cotton dust thrown out into 
 the room by carding machines is greater in propor- 
 tion to the amount of low-grade cotton used and the 
 large output per card, it follows that all of the 
 operatives in such rooms are exposed to considerable 
 cotton dust, although the men attending to the cards 
 are subjected to the greatest quantity. In some of the 
 coarse-goods mills the carding room contains carding 
 machines only. These rooms are exceedingly dusty. 
 Considering these conditions from a hygienic 
 point of view, it may be said that a carding room 
 with either excessive heat or excessive moisture Is 
 seldom found. The practical questions to be met 
 in the carding room are two, viz. : (1) how to dimin- 
 ish substantially the amount of dust in the room; 
 and (2) how to ventilate the room properly, — both 
 
 47 
 
t» be accomplished: in oltJ mills, with "reasonable" 
 expenditure. Emphasis is laid upon "old" mills, 
 for the reason that in these the rooms are comnisonly 
 low studded, with small windows, and devoid of 
 modern means of ventilation and heating. The 
 modern card room is very large and high studded 
 (.e.g., 15 feet), with good-sized window glass, and 
 transoms which are easily opened; it is well lighted 
 with arc or incandescent lights, and is heated and 
 ventilated by modern means. In some of the 
 rooms are two or more large exhaust fans. The 
 ceiling and walls are clean and white, and the floor 
 is kept reasonably clean during working hours. 
 
 Of the work of ring spinning, the report stated : 
 Except for the continuous noise of the machinery, 
 which is very great, but in an uninterrupted, un- 
 varying tone, and for the loose cotton dust inthe air 
 of the room, the spinners in a modem, well-regu- 
 lated, ring-spinning room work under favorable 
 conditions. 
 
 Of the work of weaving, it was stated : 
 
 Weaving necessitates constant attention, although 
 the weaver finds time to sit at intervals. 
 
 The finer and more ornamented the fabric is 
 woven, generally speaking, the more care and skill 
 are demanded in the weaver. Some kinds of work 
 require great strength and endurance; some kinds 
 are repugnant, because of the conditions under 
 which the work must be done, as in weaving dark- 
 colored fabrics, or when dust arises from dyestufF or 
 from shoddy; some kinds demand an unusual de- 
 gree of perfection in the product, calling for constant 
 and minute attention. 
 
 Thus it is clear that not only good light, evenly 
 distributed, is a reasonable requirement in the 
 weave room, but that good ventilation and proper 
 regulation of heat and moisture are also hygienic 
 essentials. 
 
 Finally, should be mentioned the monotony of 
 tending the machine day in and day out, the roar 
 and buzz and the sharp, jerky noise of the machin- 
 ery, which is deafening, and, to those particularly 
 sensitive, "nerve-racking." 
 
 A bad, unhygienic habit, common to all weavers 
 who tend old-fashioned looms, is that of drawing the 
 filling through the shuttle eye with the mouth. The 
 weaver puts his mouth close to the shuttle, and, by 
 means of a quick intake of breath, sucks the end of 
 48 
 
the tkiead through the shuttle eye, thus drawtng 
 ' iato his mouth more or less fine lint and dust, which 
 giv«s rise to spitting, and sooner or later may cause 
 irritation of the mucous membrane of the throat. 
 This practice is especially bad because of the fact 
 that, if out for a day a spare hand substitutes. The 
 so-called Northrup loom is gradually replacing the 
 others. In this loom, after the drum is filled with 
 shuttles,' the action is entirely automatic. 
 
 It will be noted that this report was issued more than 
 ten years ago. Since then numerous improvements in 
 factory conditions have been made. In 1911 a state law 
 was passed forbidding the use of suction shuttles, but 
 some worbers still continue to draw the thread in this 
 manner on hand-threading shuttles. 
 
 Metropolitan Life Insurance Company's Sickness 
 Survey in North Carolina 
 
 In the course of a sickness survey made in 1916 by the 
 Metropolitan Life Insurance Company of New York, in 
 North Carolina, an attempt was made to determine the 
 relative health conditions of white textile workers as 
 contrasted with odier white persons (wage-earners and 
 their families) in the same locality. The study covered 
 43,468 white persons. 
 
 The results of this comparison are summarized in 
 Table 14 below: 
 
 table 14: rate of sickness per thousand exposed of all 
 WHITE persons; white persons exclusive of textile 
 workers; and textile workers only, in a survey 
 made by the metropolitan life insurance company 
 
 in north CAROLINA FOR WEEK OF APRIL IJ, l^l6. 
 
 
 Males 
 
 Females 
 
 Age period 
 
 
 Total ex- 
 clusive of 
 
 Textile 
 
 
 Total ex- 
 clusive -dl 
 
 Textae 
 
 
 Total 
 
 textile 
 workers 
 
 workers 
 
 Total 
 
 textile 
 workers 
 
 workers 
 
 No. exposed 
 
 20,340 
 
 15,067 
 
 5,238 
 
 22,468 
 
 18,653 
 
 3,778 
 
 AH ages . . 
 
 26.1 
 
 26.3 
 
 21.4 
 
 32.6 
 
 34.2 
 
 25.1 
 
 Under 15 . . 
 
 15.3 
 
 15.6 
 
 10.1 
 
 14.8 
 
 14.8 
 
 15.1 
 
 IS to 24 . . 
 
 15.8 
 
 20.0 
 
 11.7 
 
 24.8 
 
 25.2 
 
 24.2 
 
 25 to 34 . . 
 
 22.6 
 
 22.1 
 
 23.3 
 
 36.7 
 
 38.5 
 
 28.7 
 
 35 to 44 . . 
 
 28.1 
 
 31.4 
 
 21.4 
 
 55.0 
 
 56.7 
 
 41.5 
 
 45 to 64 . . 
 
 42.8 
 
 48.1 
 
 30jO 
 
 58.8 
 
 60.8 
 
 22.5 
 
 65 to 64 . . 
 
 70.1 
 
 67.8 
 
 76.6 
 
 75.0 
 
 77.5 
 
 22.2 
 
 65 and over . 
 
 163.6 
 
 180.4 
 
 93.8 
 
 123.9 
 
 126.1 
 
 
 'This slioald be bobbins Attead of ehtrttlesi 
 
This indicates that the sickness rate per thousand per- 
 sons was at nearly every age period lower among the white 
 textile workers than among the other white persons in- 
 cluded in the survey. The conclusion reached by Doctors 
 Frankel and Dublin, who conducted the survey, was that 
 "no untoward cbnditioris of sickness prevail in this 
 industry as compared with the general group of the in- 
 dustrial classes enumerated in this survey." 
 
 Too much confidence must not be placed, however, on 
 this single group of data, inasmuch as it covers conditions 
 in a limited area for only one week. It does not neces- 
 sarily follow that the relatively favorable results shown 
 for textile workers are due to the industry. It suggests, 
 however, that the health of southern cotton mill operatives 
 is relatively favorable as compared with that of the indus- 
 trial population in the same general section. 
 
 Leipzig Insurance Fund Data 
 
 Of less value, yet suggestive of the relative position of 
 cotton mill workers from a health standpoint, are the 
 well-known statistics of Leipzig, Germany. These sta- 
 tistics are based on a careful study of the reports of sick- 
 ness from 1887 to 1904; in 1902 the membership in the 
 fund included approximately 141,000 persons. Because 
 of the considerable period which has elapsed since they 
 were compiled, the statistics lose much of their original 
 importance. Although conditions of industry, home life, 
 and racial habits forbid their acceptance as representative 
 of the same industries in the United States, they afford an 
 opportunity for comparing health hazards in cotton manu- 
 facturing with those in other industries which may be 
 assumed to have changed, to some extent at least, syn- 
 chronously with the cotton industry itself. From Table 
 15, summarizing the Leipzig data, it appears that the 
 health of the male textile mill workers as evidenced by the 
 number of days of sickness per hundred members was 
 considerably better than that of workers in a number of 
 other industries listed, and that male weavers lost less 
 time per 100 members than any other workers listed, save 
 bookkeepers and accountants. For females, the experi- 
 ence was less favorable, but generally better than that for 
 female workers in the other occupations here listed. 
 
 50 
 
TABLE 15: AVERAGE NUMBER OF DAYS OF SICKNESS PER 
 HUNDRED MEMBERS OF THE LOCAL SICK BENEFIT 
 SOCIETY OF LEIPZIG, 1887-I904, BY LEADING OCCUPA- 
 TIONS. » 
 
 
 No. of days sickness per 
 annum perlOO members 
 
 Occupation 
 
 Males 
 
 Females 
 
 Iron and steel workers . . : 
 
 1256 
 
 1215 
 
 1189 
 
 1155 
 
 1124 
 
 1123 
 
 1049 
 
 1028 
 
 1020 
 
 1002 
 
 947 
 
 878 
 
 876 
 
 851 
 
 827 
 
 722 
 
 650 
 
 642 
 
 620 
 
 557 
 
 511 
 
 
 Metal polishers and grinders . . ... 
 Iron founders and machinists . ...;... 
 Compositors and typesetters .... 
 Hatters ... . . . 
 
 Hide industry workers 
 
 Tanners and leather dyers 
 
 Rubber goods workers 
 
 1456 
 1666 
 
 1978 
 1494 
 
 Agricultural laborers ... 
 
 Blacksmiths 
 
 Chemical industry workers ; 
 
 Leather, artificial, and oilcloth workers . . 
 
 Textile mill workers 
 
 Printers, lithographers, and pressmen . 
 Paper goods factory workers ... 
 Electric apparatus factory workers . . 
 Lithographers 
 
 1159 
 
 1342 
 
 1229 
 1130 
 1202 
 
 Boot and shoe makers and repairers 
 
 932 
 910 
 
 Weaving mill operatives 
 
 Bookkeepers and accountants . . 
 
 560 
 
 MORTALITY STATISTICS 
 
 Mortality rates are a dangerous criterion for the judg- 
 ment of relative health hazards in that diagnosis and 
 reporting of the causes of death are often faulty and 
 records frequently are incomplete. In addition, attempts 
 to compare the mortality of workers in various occupa- 
 tions is rendered especially difficult by the infrequency 
 with which mortality by occupation is reported. 
 
 United States Census Data 
 
 In 1908 and 1909 the United States Census made a 
 study of causes of death by occupation, which affords 
 perhaps the best data on relative mortality at present 
 available in this country. Table 16, compiled from the 
 census data for 1909, shows the percentage of deaths from 
 
 'From "Diseases of Occupation and Vocational Hygiene," by Kober and 
 Hanson, pp. 749-761 inc. 
 
 51 
 
certain causes, by selected age groups, among male cotton 
 mill workers, as compared with wage-earners in all 
 manufacturing and meahanical pursuits combined. 
 
 TABLE l6: PERCENTAGE OF DEATHS OF MALES DUE TO 
 CERTAIN CAUSES, FOR COTTON MILL OPERATIVES AND 
 FOR WORKERS IN ALL MANUFACTURING AND MECHANICAL 
 PURSUITS, BY AGE GROUPS. U. S. CENSUS MORTALITY 
 STATISTICS, 1909. 
 
 CAUSE 
 
 25 to 34 years 
 
 Cotton 
 mill 
 oi3era- 
 
 tiv«s 
 
 All 
 
 mfg. 
 
 and 
 
 xnech. 
 
 35 to 44 years 
 
 Cotton 
 
 mill 
 opera- 
 tives 
 
 AU 
 
 mfg. 
 
 and 
 
 mech. 
 
 Cotton 
 mill 
 opera- 
 tives 
 
 45 to 54 years 
 
 AU 
 mjg. 
 and 
 laech. 
 
 Tuberculosis of the lungs . . 
 
 Heart disease 
 
 Apoplexy and paralysis . 
 
 Bright's disease . . 
 
 Pneumonia ... 
 
 Cancer 
 
 Other diseases of the circulatory 
 system 
 
 Other diseases of nervous system 
 
 Cirrhosis of the liver . . 
 
 Alcoholism .... 
 
 Diabetes . 
 
 Typhoid fever 
 
 Occupational and chronic poison- 
 ings . . ... 
 
 Suicide ... 
 
 Accidents 
 
 Unclassified and unknown causes 
 
 37.8 
 9.2 
 2.5 
 3.4 
 5.9 
 1.7 
 
 2.5 
 3.4 
 0.8 
 0.0 
 0.8 
 3.4 
 
 0.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 6.7 
 
 16.8 
 
 30.8 
 4.8 
 1.1 
 3.8 
 7.0 
 1.5 
 
 1.4 
 2.2 
 0.8 
 0.8 
 0.8 
 4.7 
 
 0.1 
 
 4.0 
 
 20.8 
 
 15.7 
 
 27.1 
 
 a.9 
 
 3.4 
 7.6 
 6.8 
 4.2 
 
 3.4 
 0.8 
 4.2 
 1.7 
 0.8 
 3.4 
 
 O.D 
 
 5.9 
 
 10.2 
 
 14.7 
 
 25.0 
 7.2 
 2.6 
 6.5 
 9.1 
 3.6 
 
 2.2 
 2.7 
 1.9 
 1.6 
 0.8 
 2.5 
 
 0.2 
 
 3.6 
 
 15.6 
 
 14.7 
 
 19.4 
 11.2 
 6.7 
 8.2 
 6.0 
 8.2 
 
 2.2 
 1.5 
 3.0 
 3.0 
 1.5 
 1.5 
 
 0.0 
 
 4.5 
 
 3.7 
 
 19.3 
 
 15.6 
 10.7 
 5.7 
 9.6 
 9.0 
 6.8 
 
 3.4 
 2.6 
 2.S 
 1.4 
 1.1 
 1.4 
 
 0.1 
 
 3.8 
 
 10.1 
 
 7.3 
 
 From this table it appears that for certain leading 
 causes the death rate among cotton mill workers is higher 
 than it is among the industrial population in general. It 
 is especially to be noted that the percentage of deaths 
 from tuberculosis of the lungs was relatively higher in 
 almost every instance for cotton mill operatives than 
 the combined average for workers in all manufacturing 
 and mechanical industries combined. The death rates 
 from pneumonia and from accident, on the other hand, 
 were relatively low. 
 
 However, it by no means follows that the industry itself 
 is responsible for the conditions recorded. Nationality, 
 inherited physique, personal habits and hygiene, and home 
 conditions are of enormous importance in determining 
 
 3St 
 
the death rate, and it would be wholly unscientific to 
 ascribe results to any one of these causes without con- 
 sidering the possible effects of all. For instance, it may 
 easily be possible that the cotton industry, because of 
 the lightness of the work, attracts a class of workers who 
 do not have the strength and endurance demanded by 
 many other occupations. This, however, is by no means 
 a demonstrated fact. Again, the nationalities composing 
 cotton operatives as a class may be exceptionally pre- 
 disposed to such diseases as tuberculosis, so that the 
 death rate among them from those diseases would be 
 relatively high, regardless of the occupation in which they 
 were found. 
 
 Reports of United States Bureau of Labor 
 
 The United States Bureau of Labor in a special in- 
 vestigation of the condition of woman and child wage- 
 earners undertaken in response to an Act of Congress 
 approved January 29, 1907, devoted one volume to the 
 causes of death among such workers in cotton mills 
 in Fall River, Mass., Pawtucket, R. L, and Manchester, 
 _N. H. Without attempting to set forth in detail either the 
 methods or the results of this study, it may be noted that 
 the evidence indicated a high death rate from tuberculosis 
 among female operatives in cotton mills. For instance, 
 this report, issued in 1912, stated: 
 
 It seems impossible to escape the conclusion that 
 operative work is prejudical to the health of females, 
 that the combination of operative work with matri- 
 mony is especially harmful, and that, while the 
 general hazard of the female operative is greater 
 than that of the nonoperative, she is in most danger 
 from tuberculosis. Whether the harmful effects of 
 operative work are greater than those of other indus- 
 trial employments, and whether they inhere in 
 cotton textile work as a whole or are due to certain 
 occupations carried on within the mills, are ques- 
 tions for further investigations to answer. This 
 has established the fact of the high mortality among 
 female cotton operatives and of their special sus- 
 ceptibility to tuberculosis. 
 
 The report, furthermore, stated: 
 
 An examination of different factors which might 
 affect the death rate, especially from tuberculosis, 
 such as native or foreign birth, tuberculous kindred 
 53 
 
or intimates,, overcrowding, sanitafy conditions of 
 homes, etc., fails to show any such massing of unfor- 
 tunate conditions among the female operatives as 
 would explain their unvaryingly higher death rate. 
 
 In a study of "Mortality from Consumption in Dusty 
 Trades," published as a bulletin of the United States 
 Bureau of Labqr in 1908, Dr. Frederick L, Hoffman, 
 statistician oi the Prudential Life Insurance Company of 
 America, took the ground thaf the mortality rate from 
 tuberculosis among cotton mill workers, and among 
 textile workers in general, was excessive. He cited various 
 English statistics which indicated higher death rates 
 among male operatives in cotton mills than among males 
 in all occupations combined. The excess, as a rule, was 
 most marked in the more advanced age groups; frequently 
 the age groups under forty-four showed a death rate from 
 tuberculosis rather lower than that for all occupied males. . 
 For spinners and weavers the British death rates were 
 very much higher than those for all occupied males. 
 Moreover, comparisons of the death rates in the United 
 States, as furnished by industrial insurance company 
 records, with the death rates for males as reported in the 
 United States Census* indicated on the average that the 
 death rate from tuberculosis among spinners was double 
 the average for all males; a substantially similar excess 
 was shown for weavers. 
 
 Dr. Hoffman's conclusions as to spinners were in part 
 as follows: 
 
 The mortality from consumption among spinners 
 is known to be high, both among men and women, 
 and no doubt, in a large measure this is the direct 
 result of the employment. The degree of consump- 
 tion frequency among spinners, however, is possible 
 of a material reduction under satisfactory condi- 
 tions of light, temperature, and ventilation. Modern 
 American cotton mills, especially in the South, are 
 in many respects more hygienic than the old type 
 granite structures typical of New England. Com- 
 pared with certain foreign countries, the mortality 
 of cotton spinners, at least, would appear to be 
 somewhat lower in the United States, due, no 
 doubt, largely to the more recent development of the 
 industry and the generally more satisfactory con- 
 ditions of labor and life in this country. 
 
 The preceding statistical data, including the in- 
 dustrial insurance mortality experience, confirm the 
 54 
 
conclusion that the mortality of spinner« from con- 
 sumption is considerably above the average through- 
 out practically the entire active working period of 
 life. 
 
 With respect to weavers, he concluded that the mor- 
 tality from consumption is excessive at all ages. 
 
 The figures given for Great Britain, however, were in 
 most cases for the years 1900 and 1902. Conditions in 
 British mills at that time were radically different from 
 those now prevailing in the United States. Again, the 
 comparisons given for the United States were for periods 
 from 1897 to 1906, since which time marked improve- 
 ments in ventilation, dust-removing devices, and in other 
 respects have been introduced. 
 
 SUMMARY OF HEALTH DATA 
 
 The evidence is, therefore, fairly convincing that tuber- 
 culosis is exceptionally prevalent among cotton mill 
 workers, particularly for workers in certain processes, 
 and that the death rate from this disease is relatively high. 
 Furthermore, there is considerable evidence that this 
 excess in the death rate is at least partly attributable to 
 the industry itself. On the other hand, there is a tendency 
 among students of tuberculosis to use increased caution in 
 fixing the responsibility for its occurrence. This is not 
 presented as an argument that the cotton manufacturing 
 industry is not partly responsible for the wide prevalence 
 of the disease among cotton mill operatives, but simply 
 to show fairly the present diversity of scientific opinion on 
 this important subject.' 
 
 The most significant fact brought out by these frag- 
 mentary data is that apparently there is no conclusive 
 information as to the health hazards to which cotton mill 
 operatives are exposed. The absence of satisfactory figures 
 upon which to base conclusions is a powerful argument 
 
 ' In this connection it may be noted that in a report of the United States 
 Public Health Service Upon tuberculosis among approximately 20,000 industrial 
 workers in Cincinnati (Health Bulletin, No. 73, March, 1916) the general con- 
 clusion was reached that poverty, poor housing, and hereditary predisposition 
 were more important factors than occupational hazards. In 204 hospital cases 
 of tuberculosis specifically investigated, the conclusion was reached that 
 "occupation per se has been a relatively unimportant factor." It should be 
 noted that these 204 cases did not include any cotton mill operatives. They 
 covered 75 occupations, however, although frequently there was only a single 
 case of the disease for a given occupation. 
 
 55 
 
for the keeping, by employers, of careful and complete 
 records of all cases of illness among their employees. 
 Indeed, unless such records are kept there is little prospect 
 of reaching valuable conclusions as to the extent and 
 particularly as to the causes of ill health among industrial 
 workers. 
 
 ACCIDENT HAZARD IN THE COTTON INDUSTRY 
 
 The accident hazard in the cotton industry is rather 
 low. In Massachusetts, where over 112,000 operatives 
 are employed in the industry, only seven fatal accidents 
 were reported by the state Industrial Accident Board for 
 the year ending June 30, 1915, and of these only one could 
 be ascribed to the industry itself. Of 7,214 non-fatal 
 accidents reported, about one-third resulted in a disability 
 of less than one day, and only two-fifths in disability of 
 more than one week. 
 
 The following table, compiled from the Massachusetts 
 Rate Manual of Compensation and Liability Insurance, 
 compares the rates for cotton manufacturing with those 
 for other industries. 
 
 TABLE 17: COMPARATIVE COMPENSATION AND LIABILITY 
 INSURANCE RATES IN COTTON MANUFACTURING AND 
 VARIOUS OTHER INDUSTRIES, IN MASSACHUSETTS, I917. 
 
 Silk manufacturing .29 
 
 Linotype and hand composition .35 
 
 Boot and shoe manufacturing .41 
 
 Cotton yarn manufacturing .66 
 
 Printing _. ^ .66 
 
 Rubber boot and shoe manufacturing ' .72 
 
 Wool spinning and weaving .79 
 
 Cotton spinning and weaving .88 
 
 Cloth printing .97 
 
 Shoe findings manufacturing 1.00 
 
 Shoe stock manufacturing 1.16 
 
 Rubber tire manufacturing 1.28 
 
 Electric apparatus manufacturing 1.28 
 
 Machine shop, without foundry 1.47 
 
 Wool pulling 1.47 
 
 Wool scouring 1.47 
 
 Textile dyeing, finishing, and printing 1.59 
 
 Iron foundry 1.68 
 
 Wool combing 1.99 
 
 Steel castings 3.33 
 
 Rolling mills 3.33 
 
 Pulp manufacturing, sulphite process, no saw or barking mills . . . 4.38 
 
 Saw and barking mills 6.64 
 
 Blast furnace operatives 6.95 
 
 56 
 
This rating alone is reasonably convincing evidence 
 that the accident hazard in the cotton manufacturing 
 industry is comparatively low; this is not to say that it 
 cannot be reduced. A low accident rate was also shown by 
 the Census Statistics in Table 16. 
 
 In a later report it is intended to discuss the relation- 
 ship between accidents and fatigue in industry. Con- 
 siderable study of this problem has not as yet led to 
 results which warrant conclusions. 
 
 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 
 
 Reductions in hours of work in northern cotton mills 
 from 58 or 56 to 55 or 54 have in a great majority of cases 
 resulted in a substantially proportional decrease in out- 
 put. The fact of a decrease is indisputable. Because of 
 the large number of influences involved, a precise measure- 
 ment of the effect of any one is almost impossible, but the 
 evidence establishes beyond a doubt that the reductions 
 in hours were largely responsible. In some instances a 
 part of the loss was promptly made up by increased 
 efficiency of workers, but this experience was not general. 
 Eventually improvements in equipment, in methods of 
 management, and in other respects, often brought total 
 output per employee up to that previously attained under 
 a longer week. This, however, necessitated a material 
 increase in investment. 
 
 Such limited data as are available for southern mills 
 indicate that hours in excess of 60 per week do not neces- 
 sarily yield a materially larger output than 60 hours. 
 Reductions below a 60-hour schedule, however, usually 
 resulted in substantial decreases in output. 
 
 There is no convincing evidence that a shortening of 
 hours appreciably affected the morale or attitude of 
 workers. 
 
 Where machine time controls to such an extent as in 
 cotton manufacturing, comparisons of output under 
 different hours-of-work schedules are not a reliable meas- 
 ure of changes in fatigue. 
 
 There is no available evidence of a significant difference 
 in health conditions as between a 54-hour, a 56-hour, or a 
 
 57 
 
58-hbur schedule. Certain evidence indicates that the 
 health of cotton mill workers is above that for industrial 
 workers in general. Other evidence, equally important, 
 indicates just the reverse. In particular, there is evidence 
 of a relatively high occurrence of tuberculosis; the extent 
 to which the industry itself is res,ponsible, however, is, not 
 clear.. Where results of careful investigation are so con- 
 flicting, it is obvious that still more extensive research 
 must be undertaken before definite conclusions are war- 
 ranted. Any scientific study of relative health conditions, 
 moreover, must take account not merely of conditions 
 associated with or inherent in the industry studied, but 
 also of housing conditions, nationality, physical types, age^ 
 sex, and habits of the workers. It Is hoped, to secure d|ata 
 on these points for discussion In a later report coverljhg 
 various major Industries. 
 
Appendix 
 
 The following tables give the important data for those establish- 
 ments which, in their replies to, the Board's schedule of inquiries, 
 stated the effects on output accompanying reductions in hours. 
 
 NORTHERN MILLS 
 
 PftODUCTION MAINTAINED 
 Reduced to 54 Hours 
 
 No. of Establishments 
 Total No. Employees 
 
 No. 
 
 employees 
 
 PfCVlOllB 
 
 hours 
 
 Change in wages 
 
 173' 
 
 55 
 
 No change in piece or 
 weekly rates. 
 
 8!P 
 
 55 
 
 No change. 
 
 1932 
 
 56 
 
 Piece and hourly rates in- 
 creased proportionally. 
 
 . . 3 
 
 2192 
 
 Statement of Bstablishmeat 
 
 No noticeable change ta output ptr em- 
 ployee or in labor cost. Employeei 
 welcomed the change. 
 
 Better production or at least just as muck 
 at before. Employees better tatisfied. 
 
 Piecewotk was not affected to any extent, 
 as employees were able to produce 
 practically the same amount ai for- 
 merly, while dayworkers of coune 
 remained at about the same cost; would 
 say that the loss on. one was o^;et by 
 the gain on the other. 
 
 Reduced to 55 Hours 
 
 No. of Establishments 
 Total No. Employees 
 
 558 58 No change. 
 
 1470 60 Piece rates increased 10%. 
 
 (707 women reduced 
 to 54 hours.) 
 
 1420 60 No change. 
 
 ^Manufacturers of pile fabrics. See page 17. , 
 "Mantafacturers of Turkish towels. 
 
 59 
 
 3 
 
 3448 
 
 Production has been maintained and cost 
 has not increased. 
 
 Have not been able to note any direct 
 effects. 
 
 Did not seem to affect Output of tost of 
 production. 
 
PRODUCTION DECREASED 
 Reduced to 54 Hours 
 
 No. 
 employees 
 
 1348 
 699 
 702 
 
 389 
 
 724 
 
 No. of Establishments 
 Total No. Employees 
 
 Previous 
 hours 
 
 66 
 
 Change in wages 
 No change. 
 
 66 No change in piece or 
 
 hourly rates. 
 66 None. 
 
 66 Pi£ce and hourly rates 
 advanced, proportion- 
 ately. 
 
 56 No change in piece or 
 hourly rates. 
 
 628 
 
 66 
 
 Increased 10%. 
 
 349 
 
 66 
 
 Increased proportion- 
 ately. 
 
 466 
 
 66 
 
 Wages increased. 
 
 766 
 
 66 
 
 Piece and hourly rates 
 proportionately in- 
 creased. 
 
 308 
 
 66 
 
 Piece and hourly rates 
 advanced in proportion. 
 
 370 
 
 66 
 
 Wages increased 10%. 
 
 166 56 No change in piece or 
 
 weekly rates. 
 
 444 56 Hourly and piece rates 
 
 raised 3>^%- Speed of 
 machinery increased 
 2%. 
 67 66 No change in wages. 
 
 637 56 10% increase in piece and 
 
 hourly rates. 
 
 60 
 
 49 
 37,096 
 
 Statement of Establishment 
 Output decreased for both piece and 
 time workers. 
 
 Output per employee proportionately re- 
 duced, costs increased. 
 
 No change in labor cost per unit of 
 product, total output per employee de- 
 creased about 3}4%' 
 
 Total output per employee 3% to 4% 
 less, labor cost increased about 3%. 
 Employees less efficient. 
 
 In case of pieceworkers, total output per 
 employee was reduced a small percent- 
 age less than the reduction in hours; in 
 case of dayworkers the reduction in 
 product was proportional to the reduc- 
 tion in time. 
 
 Output per employee decreased and labor 
 cost increased 4%. 
 
 Output per employee decreased and labor 
 cost increased 3}4%. 
 
 Practically no change in output per em- 
 ployee or labor cost for piecework. For 
 time work output decreased and costs 
 increased. 
 
 We do not see any improvement in the 
 product per hour or the quality of work 
 produced. Costs increased. 
 
 We do not see any improvement in the 
 product per hour or the quality of work 
 produced. Costs increased. 
 
 We find that the output in our plant 
 varies about in proportion to the hours 
 run. We cannot speed up or make 
 changes in machinery to offset the re- 
 duced running time. 
 
 Total output per employee decreased 
 Zyi%. Labor cost per unit increased 
 for piecework 2%, for daywork 3J^%. 
 No other effect reported. 
 
 Total output per employee decreased 
 1J^% and labor cost increased 1^%. 
 Employees did less and poorer work. 
 
 Output per employee decreased, and labor 
 cost increased in direct proportion to 
 hours worked. 
 
 Output decreased 4%,labor cost increased 
 15%. No other change noted. 
 
No. Previous 
 
 employees hours 
 
 135 56 
 
 1174 
 
 56 
 
 Change in wages 
 No change in weekly or 
 piece rates. 
 
 Increased. 
 
 2234 
 
 56 
 
 No change. 
 
 623 
 
 56 
 
 Reduction 3.57% in 
 
 wages. 
 
 1095 
 
 56 
 
 10% increase in piece and 
 hourly rates. 
 
 532 
 
 56 
 
 No change-. 
 
 375 
 
 56 
 
 No change in total wages. 
 
 327 
 
 56 
 
 No change in daywork- 
 ers; pieceworkers in- 
 creased 3>^%. 
 
 504 
 
 66 
 
 No change. 
 
 863 
 
 56 
 
 No change. 
 
 1041 
 
 56 
 
 No change in rate. 
 
 1714 
 
 56 
 
 No change in piece or 
 
 weekly rates. 
 1616 56 Increased 10% to 15%. 
 
 Advanced proportionally. 
 
 Piece rates advanced 
 Zyi%, hourly rates un- 
 changed. 
 
 Advanced proportionally. 
 
 No change in piece or 
 hourly rates. 
 
 No change in weekly rate. 
 
 Piece and time rates ad- 
 vanced proportionately 
 to reduction. 
 
 No change in weekly 
 wages. 
 
 No change in day wages; 
 piece wages propor- 
 tionately increased. 
 
 No change in piece or 
 weekly rates. 
 
 Increased to offset re- 
 duction in hours. 
 
 61 
 
 233 
 
 56 
 
 4751 
 
 56 
 
 590 
 
 56 
 
 2239 
 
 56 
 
 1077 
 
 68 
 
 675 
 
 58 
 
 731 
 
 68 
 
 353 
 
 58 
 
 197 
 
 58 
 
 513 
 
 58 
 
 Statement of Establishment 
 Loss of output. 
 
 From standpoint of mill, change in hours 
 resulted in less production and in- 
 creased cost. 
 
 Increased cost of production and lower 
 factory output. 
 
 Decrease in production. 
 
 Output per employee decreased same per- 
 centage as reduction in hours. Costs 
 increased; no other change perceptible. 
 
 Loss of production. Increase in cost. 
 
 Reduces our production and increases our 
 cost accordingly. 
 
 Reduction in production equal to reduc- 
 tion in hours. 
 
 Proportionally less product; higher costs. 
 
 Less production. 
 
 Loss of production. 
 
 A slight gain in production per hour by 
 pieceworkers but not commensurate 
 with the reduction of hours. 
 
 Production is about in proportion to time 
 machinery is operated. 
 
 Output decreased. 
 
 Total output per employee decreased and 
 labor costs increased. Attitude of em- 
 ployees not improved. 
 
 Output decreased. 
 
 See pages 37 to 39. 
 
 No greater proportional output. Attitude 
 of workers improved. 
 
 Additional cost was about 1}4%- Labor 
 more independent. 
 
 Loss of product. Desire for higher wages 
 and less hours. 
 
 Reduced our production approximately 
 the same amount. 
 
 Reduced production and increased cost. 
 
 New machinery and better routing sys- 
 tem and some time clocks installed. 
 Output per employee decreased and 
 labor cost increased about 7%. 
 
No. 
 
 Previous 
 
 
 employees 
 
 hours 
 
 Change in. wages 
 
 789 
 
 58 
 
 Wages advanced about 
 7.4%. 
 
 47 
 
 667 
 1299 
 
 80 
 269 
 
 116 
 
 302 
 
 952 
 617 
 
 425 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 60 
 
 60 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 Increased proportion- 
 ately. 
 
 10% increase in piece and 
 hourly rate. 
 
 No change in dayworkers, 
 piece rates increased. 
 
 10% increase. 
 
 No change in hourly or 
 piece rates. 
 
 No change in piece or 
 hourly rate. 
 
 Statement of Establishment 
 Less production and increased labor cost. 
 
 Less output but really better work. Im- 
 provement in health and attitude of 
 employees. 
 
 Production reduced about in proportion 
 to reduction in hours. 
 
 Increased cost of production and de- 
 creased output about 10%. Em- 
 ployees better satisfied. 
 
 Less production and increased cost of 
 goods. 
 
 As regards the workers, noted no change in 
 their physical condition or morale. As to 
 cost, found that in departments where 
 costs were governed by piecework the 
 cost of production did not increase the 
 full 10% due to shorter hours, about 
 8% covered the average increased cost, 
 showing that pieceworkers improved 
 their effort. With the dayworkers this 
 did not obtain. Also note that our 
 employees are absent more days than 
 before change of hours and rate of 
 
 — No change. 
 
 Output per hour the same, but the 54- 
 hour schedule worked out to our satis- 
 faction, and our employees were also 
 pleased with the new arrangement. 
 
 Simply reduced wages, output, time, etc. 
 in the proportion of hours reduced. 
 
 Output proportionately reduced. 
 
 Loss of production and increased costs. 
 
 Loss in production. 
 
 355 
 
 416 
 291 
 646 
 318 
 197 
 
 58 
 
 68 
 
 58 
 
 58 
 
 ately. 
 
 Increased 
 ately. 
 
 Increased 
 ately. 
 
 No change in 
 weekly rates. 
 
 No change in 
 hourly rates. 
 
 proportion- 
 proportion- 
 piece or 
 piece or 
 62 
 
 Reduced to 55 Hours 
 
 No. of Establishments . . 
 
 Total No. of Employees . ... 
 
 58 No change in hourly 
 
 rates; piece rates ad- 
 vanced 5%. 
 
 58 Increased 
 
 13 
 5070 
 
 Total output per employee decreased 5%, 
 and labor cost per unit of product in- 
 creased 5%. 
 
 proportion- Output decreased and costs increased. 
 
 Output decreased 6%. Quality of work 
 poorer. Labor cost increased 6%. 
 
 Output decreased. Labor cost increased. 
 
 Output decreased and labor cost in- 
 creased about 5^%. 
 
 Loss in production of about 3% for piece- 
 workers and 5% for time workers. 
 
No. 
 
 Previous 
 
 employees 
 
 hours 
 
 Change in wages 
 
 361 
 
 68 
 
 No change in weekly- 
 rates; piece rates in- 
 creased 5%. 
 
 499 
 
 58 
 
 Proportional increase. 
 
 221 
 
 58 
 
 No change in day wages; 
 piece rates increased 
 5%. 
 
 415 
 
 58 
 
 Hourly and piece rates 
 increased. 
 
 135 
 
 58 
 
 Wages increased 8% to 
 10%. 
 
 779 
 
 58 
 
 
 437 
 
 60 
 
 Increased 5%. 
 
 Statement of Establishment 
 Our product when last reduction in hours 
 was made immediately decreased 6% 
 and our labor cost increased 6%. 
 
 Less production, higher cost. 
 
 Production has been about the same per 
 hour as before the reduction, or 5% 
 less as a total than we were getting 
 before. 
 
 Output per employee decreased and labor 
 cost increased about 2%. 
 
 Output per employee decreased 2%, labor 
 cost increased 12%. 
 
 Costs increased. 
 
 Output per employee decreased 15%. 
 Employees generally indifferent. 
 
 Reduced to 56 Hours 
 
 No. of Establishments ... . 2 
 
 Total No. Employees . . 1379 
 
 1116 57 Increased 10%. The output was cut down in about the 
 
 same proportion. 
 
 263 58 Piece and hourly rates Total output per employee decreased and 
 
 increased. labor cost per unit of product increased 
 
 .0345%. No other change noted. 
 
 Over 
 1000 
 
 SOUTHERN MILLS 
 
 PRODUCTION MAINTAINED 
 
 Reduced to 60 Hours 
 
 No. of Establishments 
 
 Total No. Employees 
 
 4 
 1797 
 
 No. 
 employees 
 
 Previous 
 hours 
 
 Change in wages 
 
 Statement of Establishment 
 
 432 
 
 64 
 
 No change. 
 
 No change. 
 
 598 
 
 66 
 
 No change. 
 
 We get as much production, if not more, 
 after reducing to 60 hours weekly. 
 
 497 
 
 66 
 
 Piece rates increased. 
 
 No effect. 
 
 270 
 
 66 
 
 
 It seems to make the helo more efficient. 
 
 for they get better production now on 
 the 10-hour basis than they used to get 
 on the 11-hour basis. 
 
 PRODUCTION DECREASED 
 
 Reduced to 56 Hours 
 
 No. of Establishments 1 
 
 Total No. of Employees over 1000 
 
 60 
 
 There has been no change thus far in rate 
 of production, and the stoppage of four 
 hours means that much production lost. 
 
 63 
 
No. 
 employees 
 
 286 
 655 
 
 Reduced to 57 Hours 
 
 No. of Establishments 
 
 Total No. Employees 
 
 Previous 
 hours 
 
 58 
 58 
 
 Change in wages 
 
 No change in wages. 
 No change in piece or 
 weekly rates. 
 
 2 
 
 941 
 
 Statement of Establishment 
 
 Decreased production and increased costs. 
 Small decrease in output, 2% increase in 
 labor cost. 
 
 Reduced to 60 Hours 
 
 No. of Establishments 
 
 Total No. Employees 
 
 13 
 6326 
 
 745 62X None. 
 
 229 ' 63 None. 
 
 572 63 No change in piece rates. 
 
 Same pay for 10 hours 
 as for lOJ^. 
 
 212 63 No change in piece or 
 
 hourly rates. 
 
 823 66 None. 
 
 355 66 .No change in piece or 
 
 weekly rates. 
 
 350 66 No change. 
 
 250 66 None. 
 
 429 
 
 66 
 
 
 300 
 
 66 
 
 None. 
 
 1100 
 
 66 
 
 No change in piece or 
 hourly rates. 
 
 809 
 
 67 
 
 No change in hourly or 
 piece rates. 
 
 152 
 
 
 Wages reduced with 
 hours. 
 
 Reduction of approximately 3% produc- 
 tion per machine unit. Increase of cost 
 of production of approximately the 
 same percentage. 
 
 Found output and cost about the same — 
 but since, the cost has increased and 
 production has decreased. Do not be- 
 lieve we are getting as good production 
 per employee now as a year ago. 
 
 Total output per employee decreased 
 2^%; 7% increase in labor cost. 
 
 Total output per employee decreased 7 % 
 for both piece and day work. Labor 
 cost increased 10%. 
 
 Increase in cost of production. 
 
 Th^help tried to maintain production on 
 shorter hours as far as possible but pro- 
 duction fell off 5% for pieceworkers 
 and 7% for time workers. 
 
 No records available for percentage state- 
 ments. Costs naturally went up but 
 product did not drop 9% and general 
 attitude and results were satisfactory 
 to us. 
 
 No noticeable change in total output per 
 employee. Labor cost per unit of 
 product increased 8%. 
 
 Total output per employee decreased 
 8 to 9%. Labor cost as before. 
 
 Output same per hour. Labor cost per 
 unit changed only in overhead. 
 
 Production was decreased about 8%. 
 
 Output per employee decreased 10% and 
 labor cost increased 12%. 
 
 Decreased output and increased cost. 
 
 64