Parallel Grammar Series ELSH GRAMMAR ^___ ^- BOUGHT WITH THE ENCOMB FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF flenrs W. Sage 1S91 %..%.5.mi.'-^. i.D.'\r[r..\\.\ 1357 Cornell University Library arV15042 A Welsh grammar for schools ... 3 1924 031 694 973 olln.anx Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031694973 PARALLEL GRAMMAR SERIES EDITED BY E. A. SONNENSCHEIN, M.A., Oxon. Professor of Classics and Dean of the Faculty of Arts in the University of Birmingham WELSH The PARALLEL GRAMMAR SERIES now includes the following Volumes:— CREEK GRAMMAR, by Prof. E. A. Sonnenschein, M.A. Oxon., 4s. 6d. Or sepa- rately : Accidence, 2s. ; Syntax, 2s. 6d. Exercises in Creeic Accidence, by J. E. Sandtb, Litt.D., Fellow and Tutor of St. John's College, and Public Orator in the University of Cambridge. LATIN GRAMMAR, by Prof. E. 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London: SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO., Ltd. New Yobk : MAOMILLAN & CO. Ipiarallel (Brammar Series A Welsh Grammar FOR SCHOOLS BASED ON THE PRINCIPLES AND REQUIREMENTS 01 THE GRAMMATICAL SOCIETY ,, ■ " BY e! ANWYL, M.A, Oxon. Professor of Welsh at the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth; Late Classical Scholar of Oriel College, Oxford; Vice-Chairman of ihe Central Welsh Board for Intermediate lidiicatioii PART I— ACCIDENCE TIIIFD EDITION London: SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO. 1/iu New York: THE MACMILLAN CO. 1907 T First Edition, November. 1897; Second Edition, February, i8gi Third Edition, March, igai ; Fourth Edition, August. 1907. PREFACE The present Welsh Grammar is designed to meet a long-felt want both for a short practical grammar of the language, and for a condensed and systematic summary of the results of Modern Comparative Grammar as applied to the study of Welsh. The Author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to previous Welsh Grammars, and to the Report of the Committee upon Welsh Orthography, as well as to the writings of Zeuss, Rhys and other Celtic philologists. To Prof. Sonnenschein, the General Editor of the Parallel Grammar Series, the Author feels that he is specially indebted for the cordial and willing aid which he has given at all stages of the book's progress. The Author's best thanks are more- over due to Prof. Rhys, Prof. Powel, and Prof. John Morris Jones for their many valuable suggestions and aid in the correction of proof-sheets. To Prof. Rhys' lectures on the Mabinogion at Oxford the author owes his first scientific introduction to Welsh Philology, and many a conversation with him and with Profs. Powel and Morris Jones has been of valuable service in the composition of the present work. E. ANWYL. Aberystwyth, November i, 1897. The Author has availed himself of the opportunity of a Second Edition, which has been called for almost immediately on publi- cation, to make a few corrections and additions. December i^iA, 1897. E. A. CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION . . . , » i ACCIDENCE 18 Parts of Speech i8 Nouns and Adjectives 18 Number of Nouns ..••■ 19 Plural of Nouns- .......... 20 Plural of Adjectives ....... ..24 Gender of Nouns 26 Comparison of Adjectives .3° Numerals (Adjectives and Adverbs) 32 Pronouns and Adjectives connected therewith . . .34 Personal 34 Possessive 35 Demonstrative 36 Interrogative and Indefinite ........ 38 Relative 39 Definitive . 40 Adverbs 40 Verbs 41 The verb wyf 44 ,. .. dysgaf . , 48 Contracted Verbs 5' The Verb-noun 54 Irregular Verbs 57 Questions and Negations 69 Prepositions 71 APPENDIX 75 Quantity 75 Initial Mutation 76 Spelling 7<) INTRODUCTION. 1 Welsh belongs to the Celtic branch ot the Indo-European family of languages. 2 The Celtic branch falls into two groups : — I. The Goidelic, consisting of Erse or Irish Gaelic, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx Gaelic. 3 The Brythonic, consisting of Welsh, Breton, and Cornish (now extinct). 3 The languages within each of these groups resemble one another closely, but the two groups themselves, in spite of their kinship, present many important points of difference. N.B. — The Welsh with which this grammar deals is that of the Modern Literary language. Welsh grammar Alphabet. A (a) F(eO LI (ell) S(es) B(bi) Ff (eff) M(em) T(ti) C(ec) G(eg) N(en) Th (eth) Ch (ech) Ng (eng) 0(0) U(u) D(di) H (aitshor hi) P(pi) W (w) Dd (edd) I(i) Ph(ffi) Y(y) E(e) L(el) R (er) Obs. — In the Welsh settlement in Patagonia, V is frequently used for F, and F for Ff. On Sounds. A. Individual Sounds. Letters are signs or symbols representing sounds. In Welsh, the symbols used in the written language represent the sounds of the spoken language far more accurately than in English : ch, dd, if, ng, 11, ph and th, being counted for this purpose as single letters. Welsh may, therefore, to all intents and purposes, be said to be phonetically written. The only letters which have more than one sound are e, u, and y : — e has, in some diphthongs, the sound of y,* in others the sound of u * ; y has, under certain circumstances, the sound of u * ; and both u and y have in some words the sound of i. Classification of Sounds. Articulate sounds are of two kinds : — I. Vowel Sounds, produced by vibration of the vocal chords, accompanied by the articulation proper to each vowel. II. Consonant Sounds, produced by means of the lips (Labials), teeth (Dentals), palate (Palatals), throat or back part of the palate (Gutturals), tongue (Linguals), nose (Nasals), or some combination of these parts, with or without vibration of the edges of the vocal chords. In North Wales only. INTRODUCTION Comparalive Table of Welsh and English Sounds. («) Simple Vowel Sounds. (/>) Consonant Sounds. Sounds. English Examples. Welsh Examples. in Q 2 D O en < mirnma father Short in mam Long in tad 1 (i.)Open g (ii.)Half- 'J} open wet Short in nertli Long in lie a (i.) Open 1 (ii.) Close bit (nearly) machine Short in ciiro Long in cur Long in blin Short in pin 1 (i.) Open g (ii.jHalf- t^ open O h6t Short in t6n Long in son xn O p rule, fool (nearly) good Long in swn Short in liwm OS M SI misery curl Short in ffyddlon Long in fy '^S' Observe that the sounds of a in English man, and of o in English no (close o) ; of open o as in cause ; of open e as in tkere ; of close « as in fa/e, are wanting in Welsh, or appear only in dialects. Sounds. English Examples. Welsh Examples. 3 < bay byd < pay pen hJ way gwynt S^3 vine afon Clocli achos . low alaw "r, (wanting) Haw s < row erw J ,, rhaw (wanting) mhen 3 nhad <: )* ugbael < my mam a nigh nes sing ngwr K M H o ?^S2 house hen ^S ' Open ' means formed with a wide passage for the voice. 'Close' ,, ,, ,, narrow „ „ „ WELSH GRAMMAR 8 Note i. — y is pronounced like Welsh n : — (a) In monosyllables : e.g. sydd, is; dyn, man; except in the prochtics* yr (ydd) ; y ; ys ; fy, wjy ; dy, thy ; and myn, by (used in assevera- tions). ifi) In the final syllable of a word of more than one syllable : e.g, sefyll, standing: estyn, reaching; perthyn, belonging. (c) In the last syllable but one of a word, before a vowel : e.g. hyawdl, eloquent ; dyall, understanding, {d) In the last syllable but one, or the last syllable but two of many words, when it is preceded by w : e.g. gvf-jweh, face ; gwyddau, ^«j-< ; gwyntoedd, winds. 9 Note 2. — In the greater part of Mid- Wales and South Wales n is pro- nounced as i, and sometimes as y. jQ Note 3. — n is pronounced as i throughout Wales in— ngain, deugain, union, rhywnn, cynnull, bngail, duwiol, annuwiol, ieuenctid, dilnw, trueni, Dehendir, cnddio. 11 Note 4. — y is pronounced as 1 throughout Wales in — disgybl, disgyn, diwyg, diwygio, diwygwyr, dilyn, gilydd, megys, dinystr, disgwyl, gyda, meddyg, gloywi, tebyg, ceryg, llewyg, Uewys, plisgyn. dychymyg, amryw, rhywun, cyw, yw, ydyw, efengyl, gwylio, dryw, cyfryw, ystryw, distryw, heddyw, benyw, rhelyw, llinyn, menyg, diddym. This occurs either (a) when the vowel of the preceding syllable is 1 ; or (6) when the y is preceded or followed by g ; or (c) when the y is followed by w. Note 5. — 11 seems to be pronounced by pressing the lower side of the front part of the tongue against the roof of the mouth and emitting the breath over its sides, without vibration of the vocal chords. Note 6. — w and i are used both as vowels and as consonants: e.g., in gwynt and laith w and i are consonants. Diphthongs. 12 I. A diphthong is produced by running two different vowel sounds together so as to make a single syllable. 13 2. The first of the two vowels of a diphthong may be short or long. 14 3. The sounds a, e, 0, y, form diphthongs with i, u, w, I) i> ■'> ^ >i )i )> w- „ sound w forms „ „ ti. Remarks. In N. Wales. — In the diphthongs written ae, oe, e is pronounced as n. » ,. .. .. .. ei. en, • „ „ y.t wy. yw, y „ „ u. * A proclitic is a word which has no accent of its own, but is joined for the purpose of accentuation to the word which /fl//ijz«j it. + Except in a few words, chiefly monosyllables, when e has its own sound. IWTKODUCTION 15 Tables of Diphthongs. A-Diphthongs. O-Diphthongs. W-Diphthongs. E Diphthongs. Sounds. Examples. Hi ai gwaith a'i au 7) au t J' aur hiraeth gwaudd cae aw awt awr Haw Sounds. Examples. ei ein eu gweu teyrn * 6w ewt blewyn Hew I-Diphthoug. Sounds. Examples. 6i troi 6u out O'u oerach oed 6w dowch Sound. Example. iw Hiw T-Diphthongs. Sounds Examples. yit einioes ^ut gweunydd y-^ bywyd U-Diphthongs. Sounds. wu ■ wu Examples. bwydo rhwyd Sounds. Examples. uw Duw byw Note. — yw is not unfrequently pronounced as ow ; e.g. Howel for Hywel. * The name of the district Lleyn is pronounced Lliin. t In N. Wales only. Obs. — Rules for determining the quantity of a vowel or a diphthong are given in the Appendix. N.B. — In the sequel, the quantity of only long vowels and diphthongs wiH be indicated, where necessary, thus : — tad, mae, a. Short vj;yels and diphthongs will be left unmarked. WELSH GRAMMAR Further Classification of Consonants. 16 Consonant Sounds may also be classed as : — 1. Voiced, i.e. Accompanied by vibration of the edges of the vocal chords. 2. Voiceless, i.e. Not accompanied by vibration of the edges of the vocal chords. Contrast the sound b (voiced) with the sound p (voiceless). 17 Or again as : — 1. Momentary, i.e. formed by a kind of explosion, when the breath is again set free after a momentary closure of the mouth. During this momentary closure there is a very brief interval of silence ; hence their common name, ' mutes ' : e.g. b, p, d, t, g, c. 2. Continuous, i.e. formed by a stream of air rubbing against a narrow passage of the mouth. The continuous sounds repre- sented in Welsh by i, w, f, ff (pb), dd, th, ch, s, are generally called ' spirants.' The continuous sounds represented by 1, U ; r, rh ; m, mh ; n, nh ; ng, ngh, are generally called ' liquids,' but 11, rh, mh, nh, ngh have also a marked resemblance to the spirants. Classified Table of Consonants. 18 Lab- ials. Labio- dentals. Dentals. Palat- als. Gutturals. CO Voiceless Voiced pen byd tad dyn Palatal. Velar. Ces ger cath gwr «[2 Voiceless Voiced gwyn phen, flFydd fyd thad, sel Sibi ddyn eisio lants iaith Ohath Q 3 a 2 < % Voiceless* Voiced mhen myd nhad nyn union (?) nghath ngwr 2 O Z .J Voiceless* Voiced Haw, rhaw law, raw • The voiceless liquids are pronounced with considerable consonantal force, and the strong emission of breath which accompanies them gives them a spirant character. INTRODUCTION 19 20 21 22 B. Sounds in Connected Speech. 1. Speech consists, as a rule, not of isolated words or sounds, but of groups of words, or more properly, ' breath-groups ' — i.e. a certain number of words connected by sense and uttered in one breath. The unit of connected speech is then, not the word, but the word-group ; e.g., in English, ' what-do-you-want ? ' 2. It must be remembered that in any language the same word has at least two pronunciations : (i) when isolated or empha- sized ; (z) when used in ordinary connected speech : e.g. fy becomes f j^ and even y in colloquial Welsh, as in ' j^mh^n, my head. 3. In many languages, form (2) of a given word differs from form (i) in its ending; but, in the Celtic languages, Welsh included, it is the beginning of a word that changes. 4. The laws which regulate these changes will be given under 'Initial Mutation.' § 57, etc., and Appendix. I. Articulation. 23 Care should be taken to pronounce the vowels, even of un- accented syllables, clearly. The consonants should be pro- nounced somewhat more lightly than in English, yet with perfect distinctness. The long vowels are never diphthongized as they are in English. 2. Accent (Tonic). (a) Word Accent. 24 I. The Accent or Tonic Accent is the stress laid upon a par- ticular syllable in a word. As in English, the Accent may be Principal (') or Secondary (*), or the syllable may be unaccented : e.g. bfendig^dig, d\-lyw6draeth. 25 2. The Principal Accent, in Welsh, almost invariably falls on the last syllable but one. This syllable is generally called the penult or penultima ; the syllable before it is called the ante- penultima, and the last syllable the ultima. Note. — Some small words (except when emphatic) have no accent : e.g. i> y> yi y"i fy. ^tc. if joined for purposes of accentuation to the word which follows it, such a word is called //-^clitic ; if joined to the word which precedes it, it is called ««clitic, WELSH GRAMMAR Words Accented on the Last Syllable. 26 The accent falls on the last syllable : — I. In words whose last syllable is the result of contraction : e.g. ymdrdi (for drd-i) ; Cymraeg (for -i-eg) ; bywhant (for -hd-ant). 27 2. In some words the first syllable of which is ys- or ym- : e.g. ysten, ystdnc, ymlyn, ymwel. 28 3. In the emphatic reduplicated pronouns, myff, tydi,* etc. 29 4. In some combinations of prepositions with nouns : e.g. hebldw, isldw, drachdfn. 5. In some English words, as apSl, appeal, and sometimes in dyled, debt. 30 Words Accented on the Last Syllable but Two. These are : — 31 I. Words in which an w, the remnant of the Old Brythonic termination, -uos, -ua, uon, has become a separate syllable : e.g. m^ddw-dod, gwdddw-dod, bddw-lwyn. In spoken Welsh w in such words is frequently elided. 32 a. Words ending in 1 and r after b, d, or g. Here 1 and r are practically treated as vowels, or as consonants accompanied by a very slight vowel sound : e.g. bdnadl, ffdnestr. In spoken Welsh they are often elided. e.g. perig (for perygl), ffenest (for ffenestr). 33 3. Certain words borrowed from English, which preserve the English accent : e.g. m^lodi, hdresi, phildsophi. H before the Accented Syllable. 34 I. When the syllable before that which bears the accent ends in a vowel, or in m, n, ng, or r, the accented vowel is often pre- ceded by h : e.g. cenhedloedd, ohe'rwydd, cynghdnedd. 35 2. As this takes place somewhat irregularly and dialectally, care should be taken to observe carefully in what words h is thus used. N.B. — For the same use of h before individual words see § 68. The Accent in Compound Words. 36| I. Most compound words are accented regularly ; I e.g. trj^mlais, blinfyd. * Rarely myfi, tydi, etc, INTRO D UCTION 37 2. In some compounds, chiefly those having for their first element a prepositional prefix, the component parts have not per- fectly coalesced, and the prefix in consequence bears a strong secondary accent : e.g. cjrn-lj^wydd, dl-fldio, rh^g-arweiniad, cjrd- f^ned, (b) Group-Accent. 38 I. Owing to the tendency in Welsh to rhythmical intonation, the correct pronunciation of breath-groups is not easily acquired. 39 2. This intonation varies very considerably with different dis- tricts, but it usually causes the last syllable of a breath-group to be pronounced with a higher tone than the rest, while the chief stress-accent of the group tends to fall upon the last accented syllable. (c) Thought-Accent. 40 The Thought-Accent is the stress or emphasis laid upon a word or syllable, in order to bring out the meaning of the sentence. It corresponds to italics in print : e.g. Dengys ef wybodaeth, ond ei frawd ««wybodaeth. ' He shows knowledge, but his brother lack of knowledge.' 41 42 43 3. Word Binding. (a) Within the breath-group, which is the unit of speech, there is no perceptible pause. Word binding of this kind is common to English and Welsh. ib) In Welsh, however, the close connexion ot the words which form a breath-group, has caused the initial consonants of many words to undergo phonetic changes similar to those which have taken place in individual words : e.g. Old Welsh o pen, from a head, has become o hen ; just as Old Welsh, aper, estuary, has become aher. (c) These changes of initial consonants, which play a very important part in Welsh, as in the other Celtic languages, will be given under "Initial Mutations." §§ 57, 58, 59, etc. 44 Note. — In their origin, these changes were phonetic, but, as is often the case, the working of analogy has played an important part in determining their modern employment. 10 WELSH GRAMMAR PHONETIC LAWS AND TENDENCIES. Changes of sound in language are due — 45 A. To phonetic causes proper, depending upon the mechanism of the organs of speech and hearing. These causes mainly operate in bringing about assimilation : (a) Of vowels to vowels, {b) of vowels to consonants, (c) of consonants to vowels, (d) of consonants to con- sonants, all with a view to economy of effort. 46 B. To mental causes, whereby one sound is sometimes sub- stituted for another, when some real or fancied analogy seems to require it, mainly in order to bring about greater regularity. The mind continually tries to classify the facts of language, namely, sounds and forms, on the basis of certain characteristics, which they have in common. The basis of this classification often changes, so that what was regular under the old classification may be irregular under the new, and hence a frequent tendency to bring that which is irregular into accordance with rule. Vowel-Changes. 47 1 The vowel-changes which take place in Welsh may be seen I from the following tables : — I. Change due to the influence of the vowel of the following syllable. Sounds. Examples. a. S nant nentydd >j »» gardd gerddi a e can ceni au yi maen meini aw gw taw tewi INTRODUCTION II 2. Change due to the influence of a lost vowel a. Sounds. Examples. u w 6 byr trwra ber trom 3. Change due to the influence of a lost consonantal i. Sounds. EXAMPLHS. a ai bychan bychain a ei sarff seirff au ai maen main e u hen hyn 6 u porth pyrth 6u wu oen wyn (6u) (au) (troed) (traed) 4. Change in one vowel due to change in that following it. Sounds. Examples. a w y dafad cwmwl defaid cymylau 5. Change due to the simplification of a diphthong in an unaccented syllable. Sounds. Examples. au aw ei e 6 u caffael , marchawg busteich caffel marchog bustych 12 WELSH GRAMMAR 6. Change due to the addition of an ending. Sounds. Examples. a a e* a plant man plent-yn man-ach e 6 6 gwen mor gwen-u mor-oedd w u ai 1 bwrdd ffydd main byrdd-au ffydd-lon mein-ach au yu haul heul-iau au aw 6 maes llawr meus-ydd Uor-io uw u buwch buch-od iiw wu ^w wu Uyw bwyd llyw-ydd bwyd-o Noi E I. — In words borrowed from Latin accented a has become aw, and later 6 ; e has become wy ; close o has become u ; e.g. ymherawdr (imperator), cardod (caritat-em), cwyr (cera), urdd (oido). Note 2. — The terminations of borrowed Latin words, like the termina- tions of old Brythonic words, have now been lost in Welsh. Consonant-Changes. 48 !• The consonant-clianges of Welsh are mostly those of mutes, when preceded and followed by continuous letters, either in individual words or in breath-groups. They arise from a tendency to preserve an unbroken continuity of sound within the word or breath-group. For example, a voiceless sound may be- come voiced, when it stands between two vowels, i.e. the vibration of the vocal chords continues, while the consonant is being articulated. If the mute be already voiced, it tends to pass into the corresponding spirant, i.e. instead of momentarily stop- ping the flow of breath, as is done in the case of a mute, we allow the flow to continue. 49 2. The consonant-changes of Welsh should be carefully ob- served, not only because they illustrate the phonetic tendencies of the language, but also on account of their practical application in the formation of compound words and in initial mutation. ■ 50 3- These changes can often be conveniently illustrated by means of \yords borrowed from Latin during the Roman occupa- tion of Britain. * Only when the ending contains the vowel i or y. See § 47, I. INTRODUCTION 13 51 A. Assimilation of Mutes to Continuous Letters. ,1. To vowels. Sounds. Examples. P b capistrum cebystr t d pater pader c g locus Hog b f taberna tafarn d dd prudens prudd g (lost) sagitta saeth PP flf cippus cyflf Pt th captus caeth ct th doctus doeth cc ch peccatum peohod 2. To spirants. Sounds. Examples. P t c ph th ch is * pen is tafod is calon ei phen ei thafod ei chalon 3. To nasals. Sounds. Examples. mp mh tempor- tymhorf nt nh contend- cynhenf nc ngh cancell- canghellf mb mm ambiguus ammeuj nd nn candela cannwyll ng-g ng angelus angel * The precise sound of this sibilant is uncertain. It has now been every- where assimilated. t h in these words is now frequently omitted, except on the addition of an ending, when the syllable which it introduces becomes accented. } Now frequently written ameu. M WELSH GRAMMAR 52 4. To 1 (lingual). Sounds. Examples. IP Iff AlpTnus Elphin Ic Ich calc- calch lb If gilbin* gylfin Id 11 caldarium callawr » lid, lit so](i)d- (swlld) swUt 5. To r (lingual). Sounds. Examples. I-P rft serpens sarflf rt rth part-em partli re rch area arch rb rf turba torf rd rdd ordo urdd rg n argentum arian m It Im rm rl mn thb has B. Other Changes, become f : e.g. remus, rhwyf, oar. lit ; e.g. altum, allt(also 11 : «.^.altare, allawr). If: e.g. palma, palf. rf : e.g. arma, arf. rll : e.g. iarl : iarll. fn : e.g. lam(i)na, Uafn. thp : e.g. daethpwyd for daethbwyd. f has been lost in plu for pluf.f „ „ „ „ Haw „ Uawf. ,, „ ,, „ cael ,, caiel. dd„ „ „ „ rhoi ,, rhoddi. By dissimilation we have caflfel for cafel. Initial v has become gw in Welsh : e.g. gwener from vener-is. * Old Welsh. + The loss of final f is one of the most marked characteristics of the colloquial Welsh of N. Wales. INTRODUCTION 15 Consonant Changes in Compound Words. 53 If the first element of a Compound be that which gives it its distinctive meaning — in other words, if it be of the nature of an attribute — the initial letter of the second element undergoes the changes described in § 51, A, i. 54 2. The second element of some few compounds undergoes the changes described in § 51, A, 2. 56 3- These changes, due originally to purely phonetic causes, are now treated as signs of composition, and must be made when- ever a new compound is formed : e.g. arf-bais, coat of arms (from pais) ; gwerth-wr, seller (from gwr) ; palas-dy, palace (from ty). gg 4. The spirant change is shown in dy-chryn, terror; tra-ohas, exceedingly hatefid, and a few more words. Note. — For the purpose of composition the voiceless sounds 11 and rh are often voiced to I and r. Consonant Changes in Breath Groups (Initial Mutation). 57 The Consonant changes which take place in breath-groups are analogous to those which, in course of time, have taken place in individual words and in the first element of compounds. These changes, like those of individual words and compounds, are, in their origin, the result of purely phonetic causes, operating when the consonant at the beginning of a word included in a breath-group followed and was followed by a continuous letter. This would occur for instance in the case of an adjective following a fem, noun ending in a. 16 WELSH GRAMMAR 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 Table of Initial Mutations. 1. The unchanged consonant is called the Eadical. 2. Mutations, from the point of view of sound- change, are of three types, Voiced, Spirant and Nasal. Sounds. Examples. Radical. Voiced. Spirant. Nasal. P t c pren tad cam bren dad gam phren thad cham mhren nhad ngham b d g baich dyn gwr faich ddyn Awr* maich nyn ngwr 11 rh Uais rhes lais res m mam fam Employment of the Initial Mutations. (a) Certain types of mutation correspond in usage to each other : The ' spirant mutation ' in the case of b, d, g and m cor- responds in usage to the ' voiced mutation ' in the case of p, t, c, 11 and rh. {b) Where p, t, C undergo the ' spirant mutation,' b, d, g, 11, rh, m, undergo no change. f {c) Where p, t, c, b, d, g undergo the ' nasal mutation,' 11, rh and m undergo no change. Mutation of p, t, c into b, d, g ; of b, d, g into f, dd, — ; of 11 and rh into 1 and r : of m into f. This is the most common form of mutation, and is commonly known as the soft mutation ; for a list of the cases where it occurs, see Appendix (Initial Mutations). The following points should be noted at the outset : — (i) After a verb or noun (including the verb-noun) a pronoun is mutated. * The sound here lost resembled the soft ' g ' of German, t Except after ni, na, not : here b, d, g become f, dd, — I, r. f. 11, rh, m become INTRODUCTION IJ 66 67 68 69 70 71 (2) After adjectiTeSj (including ordinal numbers, possessive adjectives and s. and 3rd s. (masc), some indefinite adjectives and the interrogative adjective), a noun is mutated. (3) After a parenthesis a word is mutated. (4) After a finite verb the object-noun is mutated, the sabjeot- noun is not. (5) After a noun fem. sing., an adjeotive is mutated, after a noun maso. sing, it is not. (6) After the definite article a noun fem. sing, is mutated, a noun masc. sing, is not. (7) After a irerb the object-noun is mutated, after a Yerb-noun it is not. (8) After the pre-verbal particle a, a verb is mutated, after y it is not. (9) After the predicate particle yn a noun or adjective is mutated. Mutation of p, t, c into ph, th, ch. This occurs : — 1. After tri (masc), three ; chwe, six ; ei (fem.), ker. 2. After tra, exceedingly, in the case of adjectives and verbs, and after ni, na, not, in the case of verbs. 3. After the prepositions a*, tua, gyda, efo, with. 4. After the conjunctions a*, and; na, nor, than; 6 ( = os), if. Mutation of p, t, c into mh, nh, ngh : of b, d, g into m, n, ng This occurs : — 1. After the poss. adj. fy, my : e.g. fy mhen (fr. pen, head). 2. After the numerals, pum, saith, wyth, naw, deng, ugain, can ; in the case of diwrnod, day ; blynedd and blwydd, year. 3. In nouns after the preposition yn, in. Prefixing of h to Initial Vowels. This process, which is analogous to the insertion of h before the accented syllable in an individual word (see§ 34), occurs as follows : — 1. In nouns following the poss. adjectives 'm, ei (fem.), sin, eu (but not eich) : e.g. ei henw, her name ; eu hysbryd, their spirit. 2. In verbs following the postvocalic ace. pers. pron. 'i : e.g. fe 'i hewyllysiodd, he willed it. 3. In ugain, twenty, when used in compound numerals after the preposition ar, on : e.g. tri ar hugain, twenty-three. Note. — It is by this process that we have the form pa ham? whyt i.e. pa a.xa.t for Tvhatl lit. what fori * The preposition a, ag, and the conjunction a, ac, are in origin the same word. 1 8 WELSH GRAMMAR ACCIDENCE. Accidence is the part of grammar which tells how words are declined (nouns, adjectives, pronouns), compared (adjectives), or conjugated (verbs). Declension of nouns and adjectives in Welsh is limited to the formation of Singulars (in the case of nouns only). Plurals and Feminines. To some prepositions pronominal suffixes are added. Obs. — The Definite Article, yr, y, will be found under " Demonstrative Adjectives," § 145. Caution. — In parsing, each word should be parsed separately. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. 1. Welsh nouns and adjectives have two Numbers — the Sin- gular and the Plural — but no Case-endings. 2. The relations conveyed in Latin, and at one time in Welsh, by the Genitive, are now mainly expressed by putting the noun (uninflected) immediately after the noun on which it depends. 3. Other relations conveyed by the Genitive, as well as those conveyed by the Dative or Ablative, are expressed by using a preposition. The Nominative and Accusative are alike in form. Obs. — The adjective generally follows the noun in Welsh. See Syntax, § 337. N.B. — Note carefully under pronouns, verbs and prepositions the use made of the noun in supplementing the pronominal, verbal and prepositional forms. ACCIDENCE 19 76 76 77 78 79 Number in Welsh Nouns. Welsh, in the case of nouns, has two modes of expressing number :— (i) Where objects are most familiarly known in their collective aspect ; in this case, the collective noun, treated in Syntax as a plural, is the undeclined form, and the singular is formed from it by adding a singular ending. (ii) Where objects are best known individually ; in this case the singular is the undeclined form, and the plural is formed from it, either by internal change of vowel or by the addition of a plural ending. Formation of the Singular from the Collective Noun. 1. The singular is formed from the collective by adding the ending -yn to form singulars masc. : -en to form singulars fem. Some collective nouns have a masc. singular, others a feminine singular. 2. On adding a singular ending, the vowels of the collective form must undergo the changes necessary when an ending is added. See § 47, i, 6. Examples : — adar, birds, ader-yn ; plant, children, plent-yn ; gwellt, grass, gwellt-yn, Made of grass ; yd, corn, yd-en, a grain of corn ; plu, feathers, plu-en ; ser, stars, ser-en ; mellt, lightning, mellt-en, a flash of lightning. Note i. — The singular and thecoUective forms sometimes differ in meaning; e.g. caws, cheese, cos-yn, ' a cheese.' Note 2. — To some singulars of this type, no collective form corresponds; such singulars generally form plurals, for which see § 86. Formation of the Plural of Nouns and Adjectives from the Singular. Nouns and Adjectives, which have plural forms, form them either : — (i) By internal change of vowel ; e.g. sant, saint, pi. saint ; bychan, small, pi. bychain, or (ii) By the addition of a plural ending : e.g. Hong, ship, pi. llong-au ; du, black, pi. du-on. Note. — Most adjectives have no plurals, and the singular form, even of adjectives which have plurals, is not unfrequently used with plural nouns. See Syntax, § 336. 20 WELSH GRAMMAR 80 Plural of Nouns. I. Internal Change of Vowel. This internal change of vowel is due to the influence of a lost ending of an " i " character. It occurs — (a) In an accented syllable, in monosyllabic nouns. \b) In an unaccented syllable, in disyllabic nouns. {a) In an accented syllable. Sounds. Examples. a ai sant saint a ei sarff seirff a ai bran brain au ai draen drain 6 u ffon fifyn 6 6i 116 lloi 6u wu croen crwyn w wu gwr gwyr ip) In an unaccented syllable. Sounds. Examples. a ai dafad defaid a u* bustach bustych e iit cyllell cyllyll w ii asgwrn esgyrn Note i . — Like defaid are formed the plurals of many derivative nouns in ad, and -iad. Note 2. — ty, house, makes plur. tai; Ixo&A foot, pi. traed. Note 3. — a is changed into e in defaid and esgyrn on account of the change fif fVl*. final ciiIl^V.]* Qoia R Ai A in the vowel of the final syllable. See § 47, 4. * Before ch, dr, 11, n, rch. f Not unfrequently 1. ACCIDENCE 21 II. Addition of a Plural Ending. 81 The following are the pUiral endings " in most common use : — -au (and -iau); -on (and -ion); -aid and -laid; -oedd, -ydd; -1 ; -od : e.g. pen, head, pi. penn-au; helbul, trouble, pi. helbul-on ; Cesar, Caesar, pi. Cesar-laid ; mor, sea, pi. mor-oedd ; afon, river, pi. afon-ydd ; gardd, garden, pi. gerdd-i ; Hew, lion, pi. llew-od. 82 Note i. —When a plural-ending is added to nouns containing certain vowels or diphthongs, these sounds must change according to the rules given under '■ Phonetic Laws and Tendencies, Vowel Changes," § 47, i, 6. e.g. nant, brook, pi. nent-ydd ; saer, carpenter, pi. seir-i ; bwrdd, table, pi. byrdd-au. 83 Note 2. — In the following forms, the root vowel appears in the plural — celanedd (S. celain, corpse) ; dannedd (S. daint and dant, tooth) ; dagrau (S. deigr, tear) ; gwragedd (S. gwralg, woman) ; Uadron (S. Ueidr, thief) ; nadroedd or nadredd (S. neldr, snake) ; rhianedd (S. rhiain and rhiali, maiden) . 84 Note 3. — cawg, ewer, has pi. cowg-iau j angel, angel, pi. angyl-ion ; blynedd, year, pi. blynydd-au ; meddiant, possession, pi. meddiann-au ; crafanc, claw, pi. crafang-au. Change of Stem in the Plural. 85 Some nouns add the plural ending, not to the ordinary singular form, but to a derivative of it : — {a) To a noun of cognate form and similar meaning. (1^) To a verbal noun, formed from the singular by adding -ad or -lad. {c) To the singular form with an adjectival ending. Examples : — (a) cam, step, pi. camr-au ; chwaer, sister, pi. chwiorydd ; dychryn, terror, pi. dychrynfe-ydd ; nos, night, pi. nosweith-iau. {b) can, song, pi. caniad-au ; addurn, ornament, pi. addurn- iad-au ; (c) Cristion, Christian, pi. Cristionog-ion ; gwlaw, rain, pi. gwlawog-ydd; gxz.^, grace, pi. grasus-au. • The plural endings were originally the stem endings of the old Brythonic declensions, which, on the loss of the case-endings, served to distinguish the plural forms of many words from the singular. When, in course of time, these stem-endings were mistaken for plural endings proper, they were employed to form new plurals. t In some cases the vowel change has taken place in the singular form : e.g. the Modern Welsh haul, sun, pi. heuliau, had the form ' haul ' in Mediaeval Welsh. 22 WELSH GRAMMAR Plural of Nouns in -yn and -en. 86 Rule ; — Substitute the required plural-ending for the singular- ending -yn or -en : e.g. difer-yn, drop, pi. diferion ; cwning-en, rabbit, pi. cwning-od; meddw-yn, drunkard, pi. meddw-on. Plural of Compound Nouns. 87 Compound nouns, in which the element that gives them their distinctive meaning comes first, are made plural by giving its plural form to their second element : — e.g. gwerth-wr, seller, pi. gwerth-wyr (like gwyr) ; trig-fan, dwelling-place, pi. trig-fannau (like mannau). Note. — i of the suffix -iwr is dropped in the plural, but where it is part of the root as in ysbi-wr, spy, it is kept. Nouns with Double Plural Formations. 88 116, calf, pi. lloiau (also Hoi) ; neges, errand, pi. negeseuau (also negesau) ; can, song, pi. caneuon (and caniadau) ; gwas, servant, pi. gweisionj mab, son, pi. meibion. Nouns with Two Plurals. The following are the most important : — 89 I. Without diflFerence of meaning. — blwyddyn, year, pi. blyn- yddoedd and blynyddau ; castell, castle, pi. cestyll and castelli ; mynydd, mountain, pi. mynyddoedd and mynyddau; plwyf, parish, pi. plwyfi and plwyfydd ; tref, town, pi. trefi and trefydd. 90 2. With difference of meaning. — bron, breast and hillside, pi. bronnau breasts, bronnydd, hillsides; cynghor, counsel and council; pi. cynghorion, counsels, cynghorau, councils; Uwyth, tribe and load, pi. llwythau, tribes, llwythi, loads. Nouns used in the Plural only. 91 ymysgaroedd, entrails ; gwartheg, cattle ; cyfreidiau, needs ; teleidion, charms ; ceinion, beauties. Anomalous Plurals. 92 brawd, brother, pi. brodyr ; cefnder, first cousin, pi. cefndyr ; cyfyrder, cousin once removed, pi. cyfyrdyr ; ewythr, uncle, pi. ewythredd ; niodryb, aunt, pi. modrybedd* ; cyfnither, female cousin, pi. cyfnitherod ; ewin, finger nail, pi. ewinedd ; daint (or dant), tooth, pi. dannedd; bys, finger, pi. bysedd; car, relative, friend, pi. ceraint ; gof, smith, pi. gofaint ; nai, nephew, pi. neiaint ; nith, niece, pi. nithoedd ; ych, ox, pi. ychenf ; merch, girl, daughter, pi. merched; pryf, worm, insect,^ pryfed; ci, dog, pi. cwn. * N. Wales modrabedd. f Also ychain. ACCIDENCE 23 Employment of the Chief Plural Endings. 93 au and iau, the most living plural endings in modern Welsh, are used to form the plural : — («) Of most names of implements, articles of furniture, diet, dress, etc., whose plurals are not formed by internal change of vowel. {b) Of derivatives in -aid, -der, -did, -dod, -edd, -yd, -aeth ; -ad and -iad (forming verbal nouns) ; also of feminines (denoting instruments) in -adur, -ur, -in, -nc. 94 oedd forms the plural of many nouns denoting: — (a) The larger divisions of time : e.g. biynyddoedd, years ; canrifoedd, centuries ; oesoedd, ages, {b) The larger divisions of land : e.g. ardaloedd, districts ; tiroedd, lands; bydoedd, worlds. (c) The larger classes of natural phenomena : e.g. moroedd, seas; gwyntoedd, winds; tymhestloedd, storms. (d) The larger divisions of numbers : e.g. cannoedd, hun- dreds; mil oedd, thousands. (e) large masses of people : e.g. pobloedd, peoples ; Uuoedd, hosts ; byddinoedd, armies. 95 on and ion form the plural : — (a) Of many nouns denoting the more painful personal experiences : e.g. helbulon, troubles ; treialon, trials ; clefydon, diseases. (b) Of many abstract nouns denoting such ideas as cy nghorion, counsels; rhybuddion, warnings; esgusion, excuses; bendithion, blessings; melldithion, curses, etc. {c) Of many adjectives used as nouns : e.g. cyfoethogion, rich ; tlodion, poor. (d) Of derivatives in -ai, -og, -or, -ydd denoting persons : e.g. gwestai, guest, pi. gwesteion ; marchog, knight, pi. marchogion ; drysor, door-keeper, pi. drysorion ; ysgrifenydd, secretary, pi. ysgrifenyddion. (e) Of nouns denoting persons and certain classes of per- sons I e.g. dynion, men ; meibion, youths ; trigolion, inhabitants ; apostolion, apostles. 98 ydd forms the plural : — (a) Of nouns ending in -fa : e.g. llosgfa, conflagration, pi. Uosgfeydd; ^^o^iz, pasture, pi. porfeydd. (b) 0{ many nouns denoting objects seen in a landscape : e.g. afonydd, rivers ; ffosydd, ditches ; magwyrydd, stone walls without mortar; rhosydd, moor^ 24 WELSH GRAMMAR 97 98 99 {() Of some other nouns : e.g. diodydd, drinks ; bwydydd, foods. od is mostly used for the plural of nouns denoting animals : e.g. camelod, camels ; llwynogod, foxes ; llygod, mice ; pysgoi, ^s/i. Also in eilunod, ido/s ; Uebanod, louts; Ffrancod, Frenchmen ; Gwyddelod, Irishmen. aid and iaid form the plural : — (a) Of many adjectives used as nouns : e.g. trueiniaid, wretched ones ; gweiniaid, weak ones. {b) Of nouns in -ad, -iad, -adur, -ur, (denoting persons) : e.g. ceidwad, keeper, ceidwaid; pechadur, sinner, pechaduriaid. (<■) Ot nouns denoting religion, nationality, proper names : e.g. Protestaniaid, Protestants ; Syriaid, Syrians ; Cesariaid, Caesars. N.B. — Haw, hand, has no plural; difrylaw, d\fryIo, two hands, is in all cases used instead. Plural of Adjectives. Adjectives, which have plurals, form them as nouns do : — (a) By internal change of vowel. {/>) By adding a plural- ending to the masculine singular. Note. — On adding a plural-ending, care must be taken to change the vowels of the word according to the rules given under Phonetic Laws and Tendencies, Vowel-changes, § 47, 6. a becomes ei ; e.^. dall, dtmd, pi. deillion. (a) By Internal Change of Vowel. I. In accented syllables. Sound. Examples. n ei J) hardd Hall heirdd lleill 2. In an unaccented syHable. Sounds. Examples. a e ai ii (before rn) ii buan cadarn caled buain cedyrn celyd ACCIDENCE 25 I B. Plural formed by adding a Plural-ending. Rule ; — Add -ion. After br, dr, gr, thr, u, w, add -on. Note i. — \.&vi,fat, pi. tewion ; glew, strong, pi. glewion ; gwan, weak, pi. gweiniaid. Note 2. —Derivative adjectives ending in -edig, -og, -ol, -us, usually form a plural only when used as nouns. Feminine of Nouns and Adjectives. Formation of Feminine of Nouns. 100 General Rule : — Add -es ; if tlie masc. sing, end in -yn, change -yn to -en : e.g. dyn, man, dynes, woman ; asyn, ass, asen, she-ass. Note. — Ueidr, thief, has fem. Uadrones ; Sais, Englishman, fern. Saesnes. 101 1 The following pairs of words denoting Persons, Male and I Female, should be noted. Masculine. Meaning. Fkminine. Meaning. bachgen boy geneth girl brawd brother chwaer sister cefnder cousin cyfnither cousin chwegrwn father-in-law chwegr mother-in-law daw son-in-law gwaudd daughter-in-law ewythr uncle modryb aunt gwas man-servant morwyn maid-servant gwr husband gwraig wife man J) woman mab son march daughter nai nephew nith mece tad father mam mother taid grandfather nam grandmother tadcQ )> mamgu ft 26 WELSH GRAMMAR 102 103 104 105 106 Formation of Feminine of Adjectives. Most adjectives have no feminine form, and the growing tendency is to use the masculine for both genders. With a few exceptions, the adjectives which have feminine forms are monosyl- lables containing the vowels y and w. N.B. — Feminine forms are used in the singular only. 1. General Rule ; — Change y to e ; w to o. (See § 47, 2). e.g. cryf, strong, fern, cref ; llwm, bare, fern. Horn. 2. Similarly ; — brych, speckled ; byr, short ; gwlyb, wet ; gwyn, white; gwyrdd, green; Uym, sharp; syth, straight; sych, dry; crwm, stooping ; crwn, round ; dwfn, deep ; tlws, pretty ; and a few others. 3. Also the compounds. — pengrych, curly- headed ; talgrych, tall and curly-headed; hirgrwn, elliptical; pendrwm, top heavy; pengrwn, round head. 4. One adjective brith, speckled, has fem. braith. 5. The disyllabic adjectives : — bychan, small, and melyn,. yellow, have fem. bechan and melen respectively ; tywyll, dark, sometimes has fem. tywell. Gender of Nouns. 1. In Welsh there are two genders,* Masculine and Feminine. 2. There is no Neuter, and very few nouns are common. In the following paragraphs on Gender : — Masculine nouns are printed in Clarendon type. Feminine nouns are printed in italics. To discover the gender of a noun, ask : — I. Does the noun denote a person? If so : — Nouns that denote a Male person are Masculine: Nouns that denote a Female person are Feminine : e.g. cigydd, ' butcher ' ; bachgen, ' boy ' ; geneth, 'girl'; morwyn, 'maiden.' By this rule we are able to simplify all other rules, by first ex- cluding from consideration the nouns that denote persons. perthynas, ' relation,' cyfyrder, * cousin once removed,' and some adjectives used as nouns, are of common gender, i.e. masculine or feminine according to their application. • Care must be taken not to confuse grammatical gender (of nouns), with sex {of persons or animals). ACCIDENCE 27 Obs. I. — The above rule of Natural Gender does not apply to collective nouns : e.g. y fyddin, ' the army ' ; y jverin, ' the com- mon people,' y gynnulleidfa, ' the congregation.' Since these do not denote " a male person," or " a female person," their gender follows the rules for sexless things given below. Obs. 2. — baban, 'infant,' plentyn, 'child,' tyst, 'witness,' are masculine whether denoting a male or female. Obs. 3. — Certain abstract nouns, used to denote persons, have their own gender, irrespective of their application : e.g. meichiau, ' surety ' ; cydnabod, ' acquaintance ' ; mawrhydi, ' majesty ' ; arglwyddiaeth, ' lordship.' 107 II. If the noun does noi denote a person, then ask : Does THE NOUN DENOTE A SEXLESS THING? If SO, its gender will generally depend upon its form. The main rules and exceptions are given m §§ log-iii. 108 There are some classes of nouns, chiefly proper names of sexless things, in which the gender is determined, not by the form, but by the meaning of the word. (a) Proper names of Rivers ar« mostly feminine (corresponding to the gender of afon, 'liver') : e.g. Y Ddyfrdwy, ' the Dee. ' (*) Proper- names of Days of the Week, Months, Seasons, Winds, Car- dinal Points are masculine, corresponding to the gender of dydd, ' day ' ; mis, ' month ' ; tymor, ' season ' ; gwynt, ' wind ' ; respect- ively. {f) Proper names ot Feasts are masculine : e.g. J Pasg, ' Easter ' ; y Sulg- wyn, 'Whitsuntide'; y Grawys, 'Lent'; y Wadollg, 'Christmas.' {d) Proper names of Parishes, Towns, Cities, Countries are feminine, corresponding to the gender of Han, ' church ' ; tref, ' town ' ; dinas, 'city'; and gw/ad, ' country,' respectively. («) Proper names of letters of the alphabet are feminine. (/) Nouns denoting kinds of wood (not trees) are masculine, correspond- ing to the gender of pren, wood. 28 WELSH GRAMMAR Rules for Nouns Denoting Sexless Things. All indeclinable parts of speech used as nouns (except names of letters of the alphabet^, including all verb-nouns are mascnline : e.g. yr OS, 'the "if"; y bwyta, ' the eating.' Also adjec- tives denoting colour, ideas, numbers, and language used as nouns : — e.g. y melyn, ' the yellow ' ; y gwir, ' the true ' ; y pedwar, 'the tour'; Cymraeg da, 'good Welsh'; but y Gymrdeg {(tm.), 'the Welsh language,' corresponding to the gender of iaith, ' language." For determining the gender of nouns denoting sexless things by their form, the following rules may be given : — Rule i. — Simple nouns of one syllable having as their vowel or diphthong, a, a, ae, ai, au, aw, aw are masculine. Rule 2. — Simple nouns of one syllable having as their vowel or diphthong, ei, i, i, iw, u, u, w, w, wy, wy, y, y, are masculine. Rule 3. — Simple nouns of one syllable having as their vowel or diphthong, 0, 0, oe, e, e are feminine. Rule 4. — Simple nouns of two syllables, whose last vowel is a, w, u, or y, are masculine. Rule 5. — Simple nouns of two syllables, whose last vowel is ai, e, 0, wy, are feminine. Rule 6. — Derivative nouns, ending in -ad (-iad), -ad (h&d), -adur, -ai, -ant, -aint, -deb, -der, -did (dyd), -dod, -dra, -edd, -i, -iaint, -ineb, -ioni, -ni, -rwydd, -ur (and -yr), -wch, -wy, are mas- culine. Rule 7. — Derivative nouns, ending in -ach, -aeth, {-iaetk), -ain, -as, -eb, -ed, -ell, -en, -fa, -tar, -ig, -in, -og, are feminine. Rule 8. — Derivative nouns ending in -aid, -an, -od, have the same gender as the nouns to which the ending is added. Rule 9. — The gender of a Compound noun is the same as that of the noun to which it gives a special meaning : e.g. colomendy (like ty), dove-cot, lit. dove-house ; mammaeth, nurse, lit. nursing- mother (like matn). ACCIDENCE 29 111 (a) Exceptions to Rule l. — arch, barn, fflam, glan, lamp, llan, safn ; bath, cad, can, gwlad, lldth, rhaff ; cdcr, sdeth, del ; craith, ffair, iaith, llain, naid, plaid, sail ; awr, dawn, dawns, gwawr ; Haw, rhdw. (i) Exceptions to Rule 2. — cist, glin, gwisg ; punt ; cliist ; gwyrth gwystl ; ffyJd, tyb ; clwyd, cwyn, ffrwyn, gwyl, hwyl, hwyr, rhwyd. (<■) Exceptions to Rule 3. — com, corph, gogr, ofn, porth (gate) ; clod, cof, gro, tio, modd, nod; croen, oed, toes, troed; cefn, edn, elw, gwerth mefl, north, pen, serch ; bedd, gwellt, gwres. He, lied, medd, mel. (a) Exceptions to Rule 4. — crafanc, talar, daear, dinas, civfpan* ardd- wrn ; erthygl, ynys, ergyd ; natur, pladur, gwefus. («■) Exceptions to Rule 5.— enaid, abertli, amser, angen, (camwedd), (car tref), castell, cawell, halen, hanes, pared, bore, preset ; (anwyd) awyr, (gorchwyl), (gwobrwy), (cyfrwy). (/) Exception to Rule (i.^galwad. \g) Exceptions to Rule 7. — prynedigaetb, darfodedigaeth, gwasauaeth. 113 III. — I. If the noun denotes neither a person nor a sexless thing, ask lastly : Does the noun denote a kind of animal? (i.e. one of the lower animals). If so, remember that names of animals in Welsh, are rarely, if ever, of common gender, being either masculine or feminine : e.g. eryr, ' eagle ' is maiculine ; colomen, ' dove ' is feminine. 2. In the case of some animals there are pairs of nouns to denote the male and the female respectively : e.g. adiad, ' drake,' hwyaden, ' duck ' ; carw, hydd, 'stag,' ewig, 'hind' ; hwrdd, ' ram,' dafad, ' sheep ' ; ceiliog, ' cock,' idr, 'hen.' 3. Where it is necessary to denote the sex, it may be indicated by adding gwrryw, ' male,' benyw, 'female ' ; the name of the animal preserving its own gender, as indicated by the mutation, if it be feminine, (or non-mutation, if it be masculine) of the initial letter of the adjective : e.g. cdth wrryw, eryr benyw. Diminutive Nouns. 113 The endings added to the singular to form diminutive nouns are -an, -ig, -yn, -cyn ; to the plural, -ach and -os. e.g. dynan (com. gend.) 'Httle person '; oenig, 'little lamb ' : dernyn, 'little piece' ; bryncyn, 'little hill' ; dynionach (com. gend.), 'poor mortals' (fr. dynion) ; plantos, 'little children' (fr. plant); gwrageddos, 'poor women ' (fr. gwragedd). • In the Welsh translation of the Bible cwppan is masculine. 30 WELSH GRAMMAR 114 115 Comparison of Adjectives. 1. In addition to the Comparative proper, and the Superlative, there is in Welsh a Comparative of Equality, of the same mean- ing as the Positive in English preceded by so, as or how : e.g. wyned yw, so white is it; wyned a'r eira, as white as the snow; Wyned ydyw ! How white it is J 2. The usual endings are : — {a) For Comp. of equality, -ed : lb) For Compar. proper, -ach : \c) For Superlative, -af : e.g. du, black ; du-ed, as black ; du-ach, blacker ; du-af, blackest. Note i. — If the positive end in b, d, g (alone or followed by a liquid), these sounds are changed respectively into p, t, c, in both comparatives and the superlatives : e.g. gwlyb, wet, gwlyped, gwlypach, gwlypaf ; hagr, ugly, hacraf. Note 2. — If the last syllable of the positive have ai, aw, or w, these must be changed respectively into ei, 0, or y (see Phonetic Laws and Tendencies, § 47, 6) : t.g. main, slender, meinach*; trwm, heavy, trymach. Note 3. — Sometimes (especially after -dd), -ach, -ed, -af, become -iach, -ied, -iaf. In the following adjectives, -ed, forming the Compar. of Equality, and -af, forming the Superlative, are added to the Comparative form, in which the old Brythonic comparative ending -ios ( = Latin -ior, -ius) has now been lost. Note. — agos, hawdd and ieuanc may also be compared regularly. Positive Mean- ing Compar. Proper Mean- ing Compar. OF Equal. Meaning Super- lative Meaning agos nigh nes nearer nesed as near nesaf nearest bach small llai smaller Ueied as small lleiaf smallest buan swift cynt sooner cynted as soon cyntaf soonest drwg bad gwaeth worse gwaethed as bad gwaethaf worst hawdd easy haws easier hawsed as easy hawsaf easiest hen old hyn older hyned as old hynaf eldest isel low is lower ised as low isaf lowest uchel high uwch higher uched as high uchaf highest ieuanc f young lau younger ieuaf youngest hirf long hwy longer hwyaf longest mawrf large mwy larger mwyaf largest * Where the diphthong is ' ai ' the change has, historically, taken place in the positive form. ' Main ' stands for Mediaeval ' mein.' t Ieuanc, hir, mawr, have Comp. of Equality ieuenged, hired, cymmaint, respectively. ACCIDENCE 31 Note I. — da, ^ood, has Comp. gwell, 6«W«c ; Superl. goreu, 6«<. Compar. of Equality, daed or cystal, as aiell. In goreu, the Superlative ending has probably been lost. Note 2. — gwerthfawr, valuable, has Comp. of Equality, gwerthfawroced, as valuable. Comp. gwerthfawtocach, more valuable ; gwerthfawrocaf, most valuable. Note 3. —The Comparative of equality was originally an abstract noun in -ed. By its use in such expressions as gwelwch hardded y wlad, lit. see the beauty of the country, it came to be considered as meaning 'mor hardd,' and was gradually employed accordingly. 116 From the nouns blaen, point; diwedd, end; 61, track; pen, head; are formed the Superlatives hlsitnaS, first ; diweddaf, last; olaf, last of all; pennaf, chief; respectively. 117 The Compar. trech, stronger, Superl. trechaf, strongest; and the Superlative eithaf, furthest ; have no corresponding Positive forms. Remarks. 118 I. As well as by means of the bare Comp. of Equality (rarely used alone), as — as may be expressed as follows : — {a) By means of the Comp. of Equality preceded by cyn or can, and followed by a : e.g. cyn wyned a'r eira, as white as the snow. (b) By means of cy-, cyf-, oys-, cyn-, prefixed to certain nouns : e.g. cyhyd, as long (fr. hyd, length) ; cyfled, as broad (fr. lied, breadth) ; cystal, as well (fr. tal, pay- ment) ; cymmaint, as large, (fr. maint, size) ; cynddrwg, as bad (fr. drwg, evit). In cyfuwch, as high, Q.'jl-, is prefixed to the Comparative uwch, higher. (c) In the case of words which do not take -ed, by means of the Positive preceded by mor, as : e.g. mor fendithiol a'r goleu, as blessed as the light. 119 2. Where no Comparative or Superlative form exists, mwy, more and mwyaf, most, put before the Positive, are used to express the Compar. and the Superl. respectively. e.g. mwy gobeithiol, more hopeful ; mwyaf gobeithiol, most hopeful. 120' 3. Note the following expressions : — y cyntaf a'r diweddaf, the first and the last; y blaenaf a'r olaf, the former and the latter; y gwyr mwyaf eu clod, the men of most fame; po fwyaf— mwyaf oil, the more— the more ; o hynny yn fWy, by so much the more. 32 WELSH GRAMMAR 121 NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. J < a a: O 1 ■=- -i 1 il«illllililf='^ a i z 5 •< u II .si -i ? 1 ? ill mil aiSlj-i iSTSS'S a.gSJ= 3.^ «io-7 '-»-' 3 ^ ? S5g,^^§-*a5R-« N r<< ^ invo r«*co c* O w « fO -^ \r>\o t^ ACCIDENCE 33 122 I- ^ noun immediately following the cardinal numeral is put in the singular : e.g. pedwar dyn, four men ; in the compounds triwyr, three mm, seithwyr, seven men, the noun is in the plural. 123 2. A noun qualified by a composite cardinal number contain- ing two separate numbers, or any composite ordinal number is placed after the first number : e.g. un dyn ar ddeg, eleven men ; y trydydd dyn ar ddeg ar hugain, the thirty third man. j.24 3- -ff t^^ cardinal number contain more than two numbers, the preposition o,from, may be placed between it and the noun : e.g. tri ar ddeg ar hugain o ddynion, thirty-three men. 125 4- cyntaf, first, is never used in combination with other numerals : in such combinations unfed is used. 126 S- deg, again, cant, mil (f.), when used as nouns, have the plurals, degan, ugeiniau, cannoedd, miloedd, respectively. 127 6. Cardinals are used for ordinals, (i) of pages and hymns (2) of years (in dates) : e.g. tudalen cant ac ugain, page 120; y flwyddyn pedwar cant, the year 400. Caution. — The initial mutations which take place after numbers should be carefully noted. See Appendix (Initial Mutations). Cardinal Nnmhers used with Possessive Adjectives. 128 Note the use of the possessive adjective in the following expres- sions : — ni ein dau, tri, tair, etc., %ve two, three, etc., chwi eich dan, tri, tair, tX.z.,you two, three, etc. For the third person ill is used. Similarly fy hun, hunan. See § 139, note. e.g. hwy ill tri, they three : in this expression ill trioedd is sometimes used. 129 Note the following adverbs and adverbial expressions— II. Unwaith, dwywaith, teirgwaith, etc., once, twice, thrice, etc. 2. Yn gyntaf, yn ail, yn drydydd, sic, firstly, secondly, thirdly, etc. 3. Ar unwaith, at once. 4. Y tro cyntaf, yr ail dro (or elltro), y tiydydd tro, the first, second, third time. 5. Ar ddwywaith, ar ddeudro, in two attempts. 6. Yn awr ac eilwaith, now and then. 7. Bob yn un ac un, one by one. 8. Bob yn ddau, bob yn dri, etc., two by two, three by three, etc. 9. Bob yn ail, alternately. D 34 WELSH GRAMMAR 130 131 132 PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES CONNECTED THEREWITH. (See also Syntax, §§ 561-589.) Personal Pronouns. 1. Personal Pronouns in Welsh are of four kinds. (a) Postvocalic (ace), used before the verb after certain words ending in a vowel. (5) Simple, (c) Rednpli- cated Emphatic, (d) Conjunctive. 2. The Conjunctive is used to express — ' I also,' ' thou also,' ' he also,' etc. 3. For b, c, d, the nom. and ace. are alike in form. Obs. — A Conjunctive and Emphatic form is occasionally found e.g: myfinnau, tydithau, etc. a First Person. Second Person. Third Ferbon. S.'m P. 'n S. 'th P. 'ch S. 'i (M. and F.) P. 'u (M. and F.) b mi ni ti chwi ef (M.) M (F.) hwy, hwynt c myfi nyni tydi chwychwi ef§,(M.) hyhi (F.) hwynthwy d minnau ninnau tithau chwithau yntau (M.) Mthau (F.) hwythan 133 Note i . — efe stands for ef-ef. As a formal personal pronoun with verbs of all persons and numbers, the form fe is used : see § 194, and Appendix to Syntax. e.g. fe welodd y dyn, the man saw, lit. there saw, i.e. the man. Similarly e is used for ef in poetry. 134 Note 2. — The Nom. ' I,' ' thou,' ' he,' etc. is not usually expressed unless emphatic. See Syntax, §§ 561-568. 135 Note 3. — myfl, tydi, efe, etc. in the nom. are now chiefly used with verbs in the Srd pers. sing., in such sentences as — myfi yw, it is I ; efe oedd yno, it was he that was there ; tydi a alwodd, it was you who called. See Syntax, § 319, and Appendix to Syntax. ACCIDENCE 35 136 137 138 139 140 If the accus. pronoun is emphasized, in addition to the pro- noun before the verb, a simple personal pronoun is added after it : in this case i is used for fl. See Syntax, §§ 565, 566. e.g. fe 'th welais, ' I saw thee ' ; fe 'th welais di, ' I saw thee.' Similarly, fe 'th welais dithau, ' I saw thee also.' Pronouns governed by prepositions are, in many cases, de- noted by pronominal SuflSxes attached to such prepositions. See §§ 292-296 : e.g. ataf, to ftie ; drostynt, over them. The pronoun of the 2nd pers. sing, ti is used in addressing the Deity, a very intimate friend, a child, or an animal. But, except to the Deity or to an animal, the growing tendency is to use chwi. There is in Welsh no reflexive pronoun. As substitutes, the nouns S. hun,* hunan, self, P. hunain, selves, qualified by a poss. adj., are used : e.g. tj hun, myself; ein hunain, ourselves. Note. — Several verbs have a reflexive form, made by prefixing the prepo- sition ym, another form of am, 'around.' Sometimes, as in ymladdaf, I ighi, this form has a reciprocal meaning : e.g. golchaf, ' I wash ' ; ym-olchaf, ' I wash myself. ' Possessive Pronouns. Instead of a pronoun the noun ^xiAa, property , with pronominal sufiBxes, preceded by the article is used. Siniilarly the number tin preceded by a possessive adj. and followed by a simple personal pronoun, referring to a singular ; the noun rhai to a plural, and the noun eiddo either to a singular or a plural. Singular. Plural. yr eiddof, mine yr eiddot, thine yr eiddo, his yr eiddi, hers yr eiddom, ours yr eiddoch, yours yr eiddynt, theirs. Also fy un i, fy rhai i, mine ; dy un di, dy rai di, thine ; etc. Note i.— For emphasis a pers. pron. may be added : e.g. yr eiddo ef, his. Note 2. — Eiddo is now often used for S. 3 fem. * Probably the numeral un, one, with 'h ' prefixed, used as a noun, pare the Breton un, unan ; see § 128. Com- 36 WELSH GRAMMAR 141 Possessive Adjectives. These are of two kinds : (a) Postvocalic, (b) Normal. The postvocalic forms are used after words ending in a vowel (if no pause intervene). Singular. Plural. Postvocalic. Normal. Postvocalic. Normal. 'm 'th •i,'w fy,* my dy * thy ei, his, her 'n 'ch 'u, 'w ein, our eich, your eu, their 142 Note i. — The form S. and P. 3, 'w, is only iise'l after the prep, i, into : e.g. i'w, into his^ her, their. 143 Note 2. — For emphasis a personal pron. may be added after the noun : e.g. dy lun di, 'tky likeness.' See Syntax, §§ 568, 569. 144 Note 3. — A poss. adj. agrees in gender with the noun to which it refers. Demonstrative Adjectives and Pronouns. yr, y. (The Definite Article.) (See also Syntax, §§ 581-589.) yr (before vowels and h), y (before consonants) : e.g. yr achos, the cause : y gwaith, the work. When, however, after words ending in a vowel, the y of yr is elided, the form 'r is used, even before consonants \ : e.g. o'r tfjfrom the house. Note.^ — Before consonantal w, y is used : e.g. y wraig, ihe woman. „ ,, i, yr ,, : e.g. jr iechyd, the health. (a) hwn, this. {b) hwnnw, that. 145 146 147 148 Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. hwn (M.) hon (F.) hyn (indecl.) hyn hwnnw (M.) honno (F.) hynny (indecl). hynny Note.— hyn and hynny (S.) are used with peth, thing. See Syntax, §580. e.g. Y peth hyn, this t/iing ; y peth hynny, tJiat thing. This use is parallel to the dialect use of hyn in y mynydd hyn, this mountain. * Occasionally mau and tau are found for my and thy ; e.g. y Ilyfr mau, my book y ty tau, thy house. + This is a survival from the Old Welsh use of ir ( = yr) before both vowels and consonants. ACCIDENCE 37 1. When used as adjectives, hwn and hwnnw follow the noun preceded by the definite article : e.g. y wraig hon, this woman ; y dynion hynny, those men. 2. To express a demonstrative adjective of the ist, 2nd or 3rd person, for hwn, liwniiw, are substituted the adverbs, yma, here ; yna, ' there (near you) ' ; acw, yonder: e.g. y dyn yma, ' this man (near me) ' ; y dyn yna, 'that man (near you)'; y dyn acw, 'the man yonder.' 3. acw is also sometimes used idiomatically for the demonstrat- ive of the 1st pers. : e.g. y ty acw, ' that house of mine.' 4. h.wa and hwnnw, hyn and hynny, are used as demonstrat- ive pronouns. The plural then is y rhai hyn, y rhai hynny. As pronouns, hyn and hynny in the singular correspond to the nenter demonstrative pronoun of other languages. 5. To form demonstrative pronouns of the ist, 2nd, and 3rd person, yma, yna, acw are added to hwn, hon, hyn in the singular : e.g. hwnyma, 'this one (m.)'; honyna, 'that one (f.)'; hynacw, ' that thing (yonder) .' In the plural the adverb is substituted for hyn after rhai : e.g. y rhai yma, yna, acw. 6. rhai is in origin a sing, noun, being Latin 'greg-em,' ace. of ' gxex,' flock, borrowed. arall, pi. ereill. As adjective, arall means another, other-, e.g. dyn arall, another man ; J dyn arall, the other man. As pron. arall, means another ; ereill, others. y naill — y Hall. 1. This pair of words means, the one — the other; pi. y naill — y lleill. y naill is both demonstr. adj. and pron. ; y Hall a pro- noun only, the corresponding adjective being arall, used after the noun preceded by the article. 2. ' One another ' is expressed by the plural possessive adjec- tives, ein, eich, eu, with gilydd, the mutated form of an old noun cilydd, companion ; for ist, 2nd and 3rd pers. respectively : e.g. ein gilydd, eich gilydd, eu gilydd. Note. — Ei gilydd (sing.), corresponding to his fellow, in such an expression as each his fe.How, was the original form, but was mistalcen for ' eu gilydd. ' 38 WELSH GRAMMAR Interrogative Pronoun and Adjective. 1. (a) Interrogative pronoun, pwy ? whol (b) Interrogative adjective, pa? what} 2. {a) " Whose" is expressed by putting pwy after the noun : e.g. Whose book ? llyfr pwy ? {b) The interrogative pronoun = English whatf is expressed by pa 1)6111? orbeth? lit., ivhat thing? How many? by pa sawl? pa gynnifer ? Bow much ? by pa faint ? * 3. What kind ? is expressed by pa fath ? pa ryw? 4. pwy and pa are used for both genders and numbers. Examples : ty pwy ydyw? whose house is it? pwy yw? who is he ? pa dy yw ? which house is it ? beth y w ? what is it ? pa fath yw? what kind is it? pa ryw ddyn oedd ? what kind of man was he ? Indefinite Pronouns and Adjectives. (See also Syntax, § 579.) 1. neb, sotne one, diira., something, are used in negative sentences as pronouns : e.g. ni welais neb, r saw no one; ni chefais ddim, / got nothing. In questions and answers neb and dim are used without the negative : e.g. A oedd neb yno ? Nac oedd, neb ; Was no one there ? No, no one. 2. neb followed by rhyw is used in negative sentences to denote ' no — at all ' : e.g. neb rhyw ddynion, no men at all. N.B. — dim is also used as an adjective in negative sentences : e.g. ni chefais ddim bwyd, I got no food. In questions and answers the negative is usually omitted : e.g. A oes dim He ? Nac oes, ddim. Is there no room ? No, none. 3. In affirmative sentences the adjective rhyw denotes some : e.g. rhyw ddynion, some man ; rhyw beth, some thing. 4. Where some means " a portion of," it is expressed by peth : e.g. peth goleu, some light. 5. To express the pronouns, some one, some; S. rhywun, some one, P. rhywrai, some, are used. Note. — Historically, dim and rhyw, like peth, are nouns, and the noun following them was put in the genitive case. * Pa gynnifer and pa faint are followed by the prep. o. ACCIDENCE 39 Relative Pronouns. (See Syntax, §§ 570-578 and Appendix.) In idiomatic Welsh a relative clause is frequently expressed without a relative pronoun to introduce it. In this case the verb is generally preceded, in affirmative clauses, by one of the pre-verbal particles a or yr (y) ; a when the Relative Pronoun, if expressed, would be the Subject or the Object of a finite verb, yr (y) in all other cases. (The form yr is that employed before vowels and h) : e.g. y dyn a aeth, the man who went; y ty a welais, the house which I saw ; y dyn y gwelais ei dy, the man whose house I saw. Obs. — The origin of *a' and 'yr (y) ' is wrapt in considerable obscurity. ' a ' may possibly be the Welsh equivalent of the Irish relative pronoun a n, but it should be noted that there is in Welsh no trace of the nasal. As for its employment, it is noticeable that in Mediaeval Welsh it was often employed where we should now use yr (y). For the use of a relative clause without a relative pronoun, compare Irish, where the verb is often preceded by ro- or do- in such clauses. N.B. — Usually, where in English the relative is governed by a preposition or a verb-noun, the construction described in § 167 is employed, the verb being preceded by the pre-verbal particle yr (y), while the required preposition or verb-noun is placed at the end of the relative clause ; the preposition with a pronominal suflQx, the verb-noun qualified by a possessive adjective, agreeing in person, number and gender with the antecedent of the relative : similarly a noun following whose in English : e.g. y ty yr euthum iddo, the house into which I went. „ „ yr „ i'w adeiladu, the house to build which I went. ,, ,, y gwelais ei d5, the house whose roof I saw. ,, ,, y ,, ei adeiladu, the house the building of which I saw. The place of single relative forms is largely supplied by means of the combinations yr hwn (S. m.), yr hon (S. f.), y rhai (P. com.) ; y neb, y sawl, who, whoever; pwy bynnag, whosoever, beth bynnag, whatsoever. (For the use of these forms, see Syntax, §§ 573-578.) Obs. — In such a sentence as ' gwelais yr hwn a geisiwch,' / saw the one whom you, seek, the use of ' yr hwn ' seems to have arisen through the substitution of a demonstrative pronoun for a noun in such an expression as ' gwelais y gwr a geisiwch,' J saw the man whom you seek. Hence, in its origin, ' yr hwn ' 40 WELSH GRAMMAR is no more a relative pronoun than ' y gwr ' would be. Still, the confusion of thought which has obscured its origin and which has led Welshmen to regard it in course of time as a relative pronoun has many parallels in the history of language, and is a factor which must constantly be taken mto account in studying linguistic development. The confusion of thought m question took place the more easily as ' yr hwn ' was not employed, as time went on, except in conjunction with relative clauses. The interrogative adjective pa, in the combination pa — ^bynna^, is separated from bynnag by the noun : e.g. pa ddyn bynnag, wAai man soever. bynnag may be a mutated form of py nag ? who not ? hence pwy bynnag means who? who not? pa ddyn bynnag, what man ? who not ? Obs. I. — a is frequently omitted, but the omission of yr (y) is rare. Obs. 2. — In Negative Clauses, na, not (sometimes ni) is sub- stituted for a, yr, y. Caution. — Each word in these expressions should be parsed separately, in order to make their history clear. Definitive Adjectives and Pronouns. 1. 'Self in 'myself,' 'thyself,' etc., when used as a definite pronoun is expressed by means of the nouns hun, hunan, self, pi. hunain, selves, preceded by the required possessive adjectives : see § 139. e.g. dy hiin, thyself; ein hunain, ourselvts. 2. ' The same ' is expressed by yr un : e.g. the same men, yr un dynion. ADVERBS. 1. There are in Welsh no adverbs derived from adjectives by adding a suffix as in English. An English adverb like happily is expressed in Welsh by putting before the required adjective the word yn, used also to introduce a predicate noun or adjective. e.g. dedwydd, happy, yn ddedwydd, happily ; dedwyddach, happier ; yn ddedwyddach, more happily ; dedwyddaf, happiest ; yn ddedwyddaf, most happily. 2. The comparative of equality is the same both as an adjective and as an adverb. 3. Note the following expressions — gw^Uwell, better and better; gwaethwaeth, worse and worse; Ueilai, less and less; mwyfwy, greater and greater. ACCIDENCE 41 VERBS. 177 The Welsh verb has :— («) Two Voices * : — The Active conjugated with distinct personal suffixes for 1st, 2nd, and 3rd person, singular and plural. The Passive conjugated with one suffix for all persons, singu- lar and plural. 178 Note. — The Passive Voice in Welsh appears to have been originally a form of the verb expressing merely the occurrence of a given action, leaving its sub- ject unexpressed. The object of the action — in present day Welsh, to all intents and purposes, the subject of the Passive Voice— was put in the Accusa- tive Case. That the Welsh linguistic consciousness of the present day tends to look upon what was originally the object of a verb with subject unexpressed, as the subject of a verb in the Passive Voice, seems to be indicated by the fact that the initial letter of the word in question, like that of the subject of an Active Verb, undergoes no mutation, whereas the initial letter of the object of a verb^ whether noun or pronoun, always does. With pronouns, however, the older construction is quite clear in the use of the aeons, postvocalic form of the pers. pron. after certain words ending in a vowel : e.g. fe 'm gwelir, / am seen, lit, there is seeing {in respect to) me, by the side of gwelir fi. The old impersonal use, too, is exemplified in the case of intransitive verbs like wyf, lam ; deuaf, / come ; af, I go. 179 {b) Three Moods : — Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative. 180 (c) Pour Simple Tenses of the Indicative.t Name of 181 182 183 f he learns ) , _ ( he is learning ] ■' ° fe; « f he learnt dysgodd he was learning dysgai he had learnt dypg;isai Welsh Tense. Present. Aorist. Past Imperfect. Pluperfect. Note. — In the irregular verb wyf, / am, and its compounds, we have also a Present Habitual and a Past Imperfect Habitual : e.g. byddaf, I am wont to be ; byddwn, I was wont to be. The name Aorist is short for Past Aorist {=Past Indefinite). The name Pluperfect is short for Past Perfect. The Future is the same in form as the Present. In the verb wyf and its compounds, it has the same form as the Present Habitual ; and in the case of other verbs also the Pres. Habitual (see Compound Tenses, below) may be used as Future. See Syntax, §§ 480-483. * Many verbs acquire a reflexive and some a reciprocal sense by the pre- fixing of the prep, ym = am, around. Cf § 139, and Syntax, §§ 463-466. t For the use of these forms, see Syntax, §§ 467, 525. 42 WELSH GRAMMAli By means of the verb wyf and the verb-noun preceded by the prepositions yn, in, or wedi, after, the following Compound Tenses are formed : — Name of Welsh Tense. ""^^ ?> learning mae yn dysgu Present Con- u S tinuous. P ^« iV ze/(7«/ to learn bydd yn dysgu Present Habit- ual. in he has learnt mae wedi dysgu Perfect. he has been learning bu yn dysgu Perfect Con- f^ k tinuous. 'he was learning yr oedd yn dysgu Past Imperfect F^ Continuous. s he used to learn byddai yn dysgu Past Imperfect ^. Habitual. [;; he had learnt yr oedd wedi dysgu Pluperfect. <3 he had been learning (buasai yn dysgu)* Pluperfect Continuous. he will have learnt bydd wedi dysgu Future Perfect. hS- he will have been bydd wedi bod yn dysgu Future Perfect £^ learning Continuous. The Present Habitual, bydd yn dysgu, is also used as a Future. Note.— Carefully observe the future aspect often given in Welsh to the Past Imperfect and Pluperfect. For example, just as the present form dysg may mean he will learn, so the Past Imperfect dysgai may mean he would learn, and the Pluperfect dysgasai tie would have learnt. The latter is the most common meaning of the simple Pluperfect form in Modern Welsh. See Syntax, §§ 467, 469, 501, 521. For the use of the compound tenses, see Syntax, §§ 475, 477, 494. 496, 515. 517. 523. 524- Caution,' — In parsing, it is important to parse the component parts of the compound tenses separately. See Syntax, §§ 524, 525. * See Syntax, § 503. ACCIDENCE 43 188 (rf) Two Numbers (Singular and Plural). 189 {e) Three Persons in each number, corresponding to the three persons of pronouns. 190 From the verb-stem are also formed — (a) The verb-noun (indeclinable), dysgu, learning. [b] The verb-adjective, dysgedig, learned, erudite ; (dysgadwy), that can be learnt. Obs. I. — The verb-adjective is used only as an attribute. In the case of most verbs it does not exist. See Syntax, §§ 557-560. Obs. 2. — The Welsh language has now no participles. To form participle-equivalents, the verb-noun governed by prepositions is used. See Syntax, §§ 546-556. 191 Caution. — In order to illustrate the structure of the participle- equivalents, the component parts should be parsed separately. Tenses of the Subjunctive. 192 The Subjunctive has only one simple tense — the Present : * e.g. dysgwyf, I may learn. 193 For the Past Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, the Past Imperfect and Pluperfect Indicative are used, in all verbs except wyf and caf. See Syntax, §§ 355, 526. 194 Note.- — The Welsh verb is frequently preceded by one of the following proclitics : — fe (ml) (see § 133) ; a, yr (y). See Syntax, Appendix. 1. fe (in the spoken Welsh of N. Wales, mi), is often used before the verb at the beginning of a sentence; e.g. fe redodd y dyn, the man ran. 2. a is used when the subject or the object of the sentence is put first for the sake of emphasis ; e.g. dyn a ddaeth (it is) a man who came ; a man came. 3. yr (before a vowel), y (before a consonant) are used: — (a) before forms of wyf Pres. (cont.), Past Imperf. (cont.), Pers. and Impers. at the beginning of a sentence; e.g. yr wyf yma, / am here. (b) before forms of wyf (auxiliary), when the verb-noun is placed first ; e.g. gweithio y bum, / have been working. (c) before all verbs when an adverb, or a noun governed by a preposi- tion is placed first, for emphasis ; e.g. yma y gwelaf, here I see. (d) after many prepositions used as conjunctions ; e.g. cyn 3rr af, before I go. * This form was often employed in Mediaeval Welsh as a Future Indicative. 44 Wyf, ' I am '—Personal Forms and Verb-Noun. INDICATIVE. Present. Present Habitual and Future. wyf, ydwyf, I atn wyt, ydwyt, thou art mac, oes, sydd, sy, yw,* he is ym, ydym, we are ych, ydych, you are maent,ynt, ydynt, they are byddaf, J am byddi, thou art bydd, he is byddwn, we are byddwch, you are byddant, they are 8 or I shall be, thou wilt be, etc. Past Imperfect. Past Imperfect Habitual. oeddwn, I was oeddit, thou wast oedd, ydoedd, he was oeddym, we were oeddych, you were oeddynt, they were byddwn, I was byddit, thou wast byddai, he was byddem, we were byddech, you were byddent, they were ■ wont to be AoRisT AND Perfect. Plupebfect. bum, I was or have been b)Uost, thou wast or hast been bu, he was or has been buom we 1 ^^^^.^ ^^ K"°'^w . T have been buont, buant, they ) buaswn, / had been buasit, thou hadst been buasai, he had been buasem, we had been buasech, you had been buasent, they had been SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Past Imperfect. byddwyf, bwyf, I be byddych, bych,t thou be byddo, b5, he be byddom, bom, we be byddoch, boch, you be byddont, bont, they be Same as Past Imperf. Habitual Indie, or contracted — bawn, I were baet (bait), thou wert bae (bai), he were baem, we were baech, _>», 1 Added to "• -"-"^ r Past Stem. 3. -a -nt J Past Imperfect. Pluperfect. S. I. -w-n\ g 2. -i-t 2^ 3- -ai I -a .g P. I. -e -m [ -o g 2. -e -ch I ^ S 3. -e-nt) pin S. I. -w-n 2. -i -t 3- -ai P. I. -e-m 2. -e-ch 3. -e nt Added to Past Stem. SUBJUNCTIVE (Pres.). S. I. -wy-f ; 2. -y-ch, -e-oh ; 3. -0 P. I. -o-m; 2. -o-ch; 3. -ont IMPERATIVE. S. 2. (No ending)* ; 3. -e-d P. Same as Pres. Indie. VERB- NO UN. VERB-ADJECTIVES. Sometimes consisting of Pres. Stem only, sometimes with an ending added. -edigr -adwy * Sometimes the ending -a is used. For Pres. Ind. S. 3, -ith in N. Wales and -iff in S. Wales are often used in colloquial Welsh. 48 WELSH GRAMMAR 208b3b Table of Endings - -Impersonal Forms INDICATIVE. Present and Future. AORIST. -i-r (added to Pres. stem) -wy-d (added to Pres. stem) Past Imperfect. Pluperfect. id- (added to Pres. stem) -i-d (added to Past stem) SUBJUNCTIVE (Pres.) AND IMPERATIVE. -e-r Remarks. I. In the suffix -nt, t is sometimes omitted in poetry. 2. The following forms are also sometimes four (a) For Past Imperf. Indie. P. i, 2, 3, fo (*) „ Aorist ,, S. 3, V) .. » „ P. I, 2, 3, (d) Pluperfect ,, P. i, 2, 3, (e) Pres. Subjunctive S. 2, (/) ,. „ S. 3, (g) Aorist Indie. (Impers. ) (A) Imperative S. 3, {() Pres. (Impers.) ,d: ms in -ym, -ych, -ynt. „ -t, -th, -as, -es, -is, -wys. ,, -asam, -esoch, -esont. ,, -esym, -esych, -esynt. „ -ych. .. -wy. „ -ed, -ad, -s.* „ -awt, -awd. otor, -itor, -ator. * In lias, woi slatn : e.g. pan las Crist, when Christ was slain. Dysg-af, ' I learn ' — Personal Forms and Verb-Noun. 209^ b INDICATIVE. Present and Future. Aorist. dysg-af dysg-i dysg dysg-wn dysg-wch dysg-ant dysg-ais dysg-aist dysg-odd dysgas-om dysgas-och dysgas-ant ACCIDENCE 49 209/^ Past Imperfect. dysg wn dysg-it dysg-ai dysg-em dysg-ech dysg-ent Pluperfect. dysgas-wn dysgas-it dysgas-ai dysgas-em dysgas-ech dysgas-ent SUBJUNCTIVE (Pres.). S. I. dysg-wyf; 2. dysg-ych, dysg-ech; 3. dysg-o P. I. dysg-om; 2. dysg-och; 3. dysg-ont IMPERATIVE. S. 2. dysg, dysg-a; 3. dysg-ed P. Same as Pres. Indie. (Also P. 3. dysg-ent.) VERB-NOUN. dysg-n Dysg-af, ' 1 learn '- -Impersonal Forms. INDICATIVE. Present and Future. Aorist. dysg-ir dysg-wyd, dysg-ed Past Imperfect. Pluperfect. dysg-id dysgas-id, dysges-id SUBJUNCTIVE (Pres.) AND IMPERATIVE. dysg-er 50 WELSH GRAMMAR Change of Vowel in the Stem. If the last syllable of the Stem, present or past, have the vowel a it is changed to e {e.g. in car-, caras-)— {a) In Pres. Indie. S. and P. 2 : e.g. cer-i, thou lovest ; cer-wch, you love, (b) In Aorist Indie. S, i, 2 : e.g. cer-ais, I loved; cer-aist, thou lovedst. (f) In Past Imperf. Indie. S. 2 : e.g. cer-it, thou wast loving. (d) In Pluperf. Indie. S. 2 : e.g. eares-it, thou hadst loved. (e) In Pres. Indie. (Impers.) : e.g. cer-ir, one loves, there is loving. (/) In Past Imperf. Indie. (Impers.): e.g. cer-id, one loved, there was loving. (g) In Pluperf. Indie. (Impers.) : e.g. cares-id, one had loved, there had been loving. Formation of Pres. Indie. S. 3. Rules : i . If the last syllable of the Present Stem have or e substitute y : e.g. -elo-, -ely ; coll-, cyll ; dod-, dyd ; ffo-, ffy ; golch-, gylch ; llosg-, llysg; rhodd-, rhydd ; torr-, tyrr; tro-, try; ateb-, etyb ; gwared-, gweryd ; cyflfro-, cyffry ; cyfod-,* cyfyd ; deflfro-, deffry ; diffodd-, diffydd. 2. In disyllahic present stems having a or in the last syl- lable but one, on making the change described in Rule i, for a or substitute e : e.g. gwrandaw-, gwrendy ; taraw-, tery ; gosod, gesyd; aros, erys ; gwared, gweryd ; ateb, etyb. 3. In monosyllabic present stems having a as their vowel, for a substitute ai or ei. (N.B. — Stems like cadw-, ending in w, are counted as mono- syllabic) : e.g. saf-, saif; par-, pair; tafl-, teifl ; cadw-, ceidw ; galw-, geilw ; dal-, deil. 4. In disyllabic present stems having a for their last vowel, before consonants, change a to ei, elsewhere to y : e.g. gwahardd-, gweheirdd ; para-, pery ; bwyta-, bwyty ; atal- also makes etyl. * The contracted form of the pres. stem cod- makes pres. Ind. S. 3 cwyd. ACCIDENCE 51 Remarks. 1. In gwant, he pierced; cant, he sang; cymerth, he took, we have remains of an old Aorist in -t (corresponding to the -t preterite of Irish). 2. gwel-, see, clyw-, hear, tal-, fay, have Past stems, gwels-, clyws-, tals-. 3. Occasionally the Pres. Subj. of a verb is employed like the Greek Optative to express wish : e.g. gwel-wyf, tnay I see I 4. In some verbs whose present stems end in 1, n, air, id, yg, iw, a consonantal i is inserted before endings other than i, and before -as- of the past stem : e.g. dal-, dal-iaf, dal-iasom ; arwain-, arwein-iaf, arwein- iasom ; cynnyg-, cynnyg-iaf, cynnyg-iasom ; erfyn-, erfyn-iaf, erfyn-iasom. To the contrary, tal-af. 5. To the verb-noun bwrw, casting, corresponds the present stem bwri-, past stem bwrias-. 6. From taw-, be silent, comes Pres. Indie. S. 3, tau, he is silent. Obs. — Forms like macco (Pres. Subj. S. 3. Pers.) and maccer (Pres. Subj. Impers.) of magaf, / nurses have arisen from mag-ho and mag-her, respectively ; ho and her being the regular forms of these suffixes in Med. Welsh. Contracted Verbs. In conjugating the verbs clyw-, hear; taw-, be silent, where two w's would otherwise come together, one is usually dropped : e.g. Pres. Indie. P. i, clywn, we hear, for clyw-wn. Similarly in the ease of ciniaw-, dine; galw-, call; gwrandaw-, listen ; enw-, name. The contractions of verbs whose present stems end in 6- or hd will be seen from the following paradigms (pp. 52, 53). Note. — The forms enclosed in brackets are uncontracted. 52 Stems in 6— Personal Forms and Verb-Noun. 223a INDICATIVE. Present and Future. Aorist. trof, I turn trois troi troist try trodd trown troisom * trowch troisoch tront troisant Past Imperfect. Pluperfect. trown troiswn * troet (troit) troisit troe troisai troem troisem troech troisech troent troisent SUBJUNCTIVE (Pres.). s. I. (trowyf); 2. (troech) P. 3. tront IMPERATIVE. s. 2. tro ; 3. (troed) troed 1 P. Same as Present Indie. VEXS-NOUN. troi Stems in 6 — Impersonal Forms. 223b INDICATIVE. Present and Future. troir Past Imperfect. troid AoRrsT. (trowyd), trowd, troed Pluperfect. troisid * SUBJUNCTIVE (Pres.) AND IMPERATIVE. (troer) * For tro-ysom, etc. ; tro-yswn, etc. ; tio ysid, etc. Stems in ha— Personal Forms and Verb-Noun 53 INDIC Present and Future. cryfhaf, T strengthen cryfhdi cryfha cryfhawn cryfhdwch cryfhant ATIVE. AORIST. (cryfheais) (cryfheaisi) (cryfhaodd) cryfhdsom cryfhdsoch cryfhdsant Past Imperkkct. cryfhawn cryfh^it cryfhai cryfhaem cryfhaech cryfhaent Pluperfect. cryfhdswn cryfhasit cryflidsai cry f has em cryfhasech cryfhasent SUBJUNCTIVE (P (cryfhawyf) ;es.) S. 2. cryfha ; IMPER 3. cryfhaed (cry fhaed) ATIVE. P. . same as Pres. Indie. VERB-NOUN. cryfhau Stems in ha — Impersonal Forms. INDIC A TIVE. Present and Future. cry f heir Aorist. (cryfhawyd) cryfhaed Past Imperfect. cryfh^id Pluperfect cryfhdsid SUBJUNCTIVE (Pres.) AND IMPERATIVE (cryfhaer) 54 WELSH GRAMMAR Expression of the Passive. 1. To express the Passive, the impersonal forms of the verb are employed 2. If the subject of the passive verb in English be a personal pronoun, the pronoun can be expressed in Welsh in two ways — (a) After certain words ending in a vowel, such as na, fe, oni, y, by means of the postvocalic accns. form, immediately preceding the impersonal form of the verb : e.g. fe 'm gwelir, / am seen ; lit : there is seeing {in respect to) me. (p) By means of the simple form of the personal pronoun placed immediately after the verb : e.g. gwelir fi, / am seen. 3. Foim \d) makes it highly probable that the apparent subject of a passive verb in Welsh is, in its origin, the object of an impersonal verb with subject unexpressed. 4. In colloquial Welsh, which tends far more than the literary language to employ compound forms, the verb caf, / obtain, governing a verb-noun qualified by possessive adjectives, is largely used to express the passive : e.g. yr wyf yn cael fy mlino, =fe 'm blinir or blinir fi, / am troubled, (lit. I am getting my troubling.) Obs. — For the use of the verb-noun qualified by possessive adjectives, see § 241, and Syntax, §§ 544, 545. The Verb-Noun. The Verb-noun, answering partly in usage to the gerund, partly to the infinitive of other languages, is treated in the Celtic lan- guages much more like a noun than it is, for example, in Latin or even in English (see Syntax, §§ 536-549). For instance, in the parent Celtic speech, a noun depending on a verb-noun was put, not in the accusative, but in the genitive case, and hence it is, that the initial letter of a noun ' governed ' by a verb-noun, like that of a noun depending on a noun, is unchanged, while that of the object of a verb changes. (See Initial Mutations, § 61) : e.g. clywais gan, I heard a song; wedi clywed can, after hearing a song. Note. — The Welsh construction in such an expression, for example, as drwy ddarllen llyfr, by reading a book, corresponded more closely in its origin to such a phrase as ' by the reading of a book,' than to the Latin construction 'legendo librum,' or the English 'by reading a book.' The Genitive in question would correspond to the Objective Genitive. See Syntax, § 346!). ACCIDENCE 55 Endings of the Verb-Noun. 230 In some cases the verb-noun is identical in form with the present stem : e.g. ntwiA, changing ; hyvf, living ; cynnuW, gathering. 231 In many cases, however, the verb-noun is formed by adding to the present-stem an ending, sometimes terminating in a con- sonant, but usually consisting of one of the vowels, a, i, O (or io), u. These present stems are frequently identical in form with nouns or adjectives. Rules for the Formation of Verb-Nouns. 232 Rules : i. Present stems having in their last syllable, au, iw, wy, and some with i, n and ai, take o : e.g. Wii-o, flowing ; heul-o, shining (used of the sun) ; briw-o, hurting; mwyd-0, soaking; twyll-0, deceiving; hud-o, enticing. 233 2. Many present-stems having in their last syllable ei (fr. ai), y or n (when pronounced as i), take -io (with consonantal i) : e.g. seil-io, founding; gwib-io, darting; ffug-io, feigning; lliw-io, colouring; gwyl-io, watching. 234 3- Present stems, whose last syllable has the vowel or the diphthong oe, or which end in w, take i : e.g. llog-i, hiring ; crog-i, hanging ; poer-i, spitting ; oer-i, growing cold; sylw-i, observing; also cyflawn-i, ful- filling. On the contrary, hoel-io, nailing; coel-io, believing. 235 4. Most present stems having in the last syllable vowels or diphthongs other than those enumerated, take u, but i is not uncommon after syllables with e or ei : e.g. {jan-w., drawing ; crynn-u, trembling; penn-u, appoint- ing; on the contrary, med-i, reaping; per-i, causing; gen-i, being born ; gwein-i, serving ; gwaedd-i (pro- nounced gweidd-i), shouting. 236 5. Many causative and inceptive verbs derived from uouns and adjectives take the ending hau : eg. dyfr-hau, watering; dydd-hau, becoming daylight; Uwfr- hau, becoming timid. 237 6. Some verb-nouns denoting to gather derived from plural and collective nouns denoting fruits, etc., take the ending a. e.g. afaleu-a, gathering apples ; cneu-a, gathering nuts. Simi- larly, cardot-a, begging; ceinioc-a, collecting perue ; and also bwyt-a, eating. 56 WELSH GRAMMAR 338 Other endings of the verb-noun are — an (ian) and fan, found in a few frequentative verbs ; ed (ied) ; ain; eg; yll: e.g. sefyll-ian, loitering ; hed-fan, hovering ; clyw-ed, hearing ; ystyr-ied, considering; Uef-ain, crying; rhed-eg, run- ning; ehed-eg, ^ying ; sef-yll, standing. 839 The present stem ysgydw-, shake, has the verb-noun, ysgwyd ; the present stem chwardd-, laugh, has the verb-noun chwerth-in ; the present stem diang-, escape, has the verb-noun dianc. 240 241 The Verb-Noun after Prepositions. The verb-noun governed by prepositions is extensively em- ployed in Welsh, to supply the place of participles, and to form phrases equivalent in meaning to temporal, final, concessive and other clauses. (See Syntax 346b) : e.g. yn dyfod, gan ddyfod, coming; wedi dyfod, having come; ar ddyfod, about to come; dan ddyfod, while coming ; erbyn dyfod, by the time that {he) came ; er dyfod, though {he) came. In these and similar phrases, in order to indicate who or what performs the action implied in the verb-noun, two forms of ex- pression are used : — (a) As in 'wedi (i'r-dyn) ddyfod,' ' wedi (i-mi) ddyfod,' where the required noun or pronoun preceded by the prepo- sition i, to, is inserted between the preposition governing the verb-noun and the verb-noun which it governs. [b) As in ' wedi-dyfod o'r dyn,' ' wedi-dyfod ohonof,' where the required noun or pronoun is introduced by the preposition o,from, and placed after the verb-noun. Caution. — In parsing expressions of this kind each word should be parsed separately. Note i. — If the agent of the action expressed by the verb-noun is denoted by a pronoun, the possessive adjective may also be employed : e.g. wedi ei ddyfod, after he came, lit. after his coming ; wedi ei hwyrhau hi, after it had become late. Note 2. — The verb-noun qualified by a poss. adj. and governed by the prep, wedi, after, is frequently used to express the equivalent of the English perfect participle passive : e.g. mae y dyn wedi ei ladd, the man has been mUed, lit. , the man is after his killing. ACCIDENCE 57 Irregular Verbs. 242 These may be classified as follows — I. Compounds of wyf, illustrated by their verb-nouns, thus— (a) Prepositional, can-fod,/frc«z;/«^; han-fod, existing; dar- fod, ending; gor-fod, overcoming; cyf-ar-fod, meeting. For can, han, gor, see Syntax, §§ 446, 449, 450. (fi) Adjectival, ad-iia-bod,,4w7OT>^ [Latin, cognoscere] ; cyd- na-bod, recognizing; gwy-bod, knowing [Latin, scire] ; cly-bod, hearing. Obs. — Ad-na-, is for ad-gna- ; gna- being the same root as yvu>- in Gk. yt-yvai-trKa) ; and gno- in Latin co-gno-sco .; gwy-, is for gwydd-, the same root as Latin vid-eo, Gk. Ih-uiv for FiS-co)/ ; cly- is the same root as Greek kXv-w, to hear. Similarly cyd-na- for cyd-gna-. N.B. — In the compounds bod becomes bod. 243 2. Verbs from old stems in ag-(-og) [Latin ag-o, Greek ay-w] and el- [Gk. iX-Buv\ ■ Pres. Ind. S. i, a-f (a contr. from ag-a), I go; Pres. Subj. S. i, el-wyf, I may go \ d-eu-af, d-6-f (6 contr. fr. -ogo-), / come ; d-el-wyf, / may come ; gwil-3.-f, / make (ft for aga-) gwn-el-wyf, / may ?nake. 244 3- Two verhs which in some forms omit the last consonants of the present stem, and in others make it voiceless, namely, caf, / obtain (present stem caf-, and in some forms caflF-) ; rhoddaf, I give (present stem rhodd-, occasionally rhoth-) ; also arhosaf, / wait, present stem aros-, which occasionally omits s.* e.g. Pres. Ind. P. i, cawn, we obtain; rhown, we give. Pres. Ind. S. I, arho-af, T remain. Pres. Subj. S. 3, caffo, he may obtain ; (rhotho), he may give. 245 4. dygaf, I bring, and adolwyn, (obs.) beseeching, in which the final consonant of the stem dwg- is obscured in the verb-noun, dwyn makes Aorist S. 3. dug. adolwyn is now used only in the Imperative S. 2. attolwg, pray ? From attolwg has been formed a new verb attolyg-u, beseeching, with regular conjugation. 246 S- piau (impers.) // belongs; vaoea, give / hwde, receive I (used only in the Imperative, S. 2) ; meddaf, / say ; ebe, he says (both used in introducing quotations); tawr (impers.), it matters; dylwn, I ought (used in Past Imperf. and Pluperf. only). 247 6. The nouns rhaid, necessity ; dichon, sufficiency ; which are treated partially as verbs. * The hi.story of this apparent omission probably is, that a new method of conjugation based upon the verb-noun aros has been developed. 58 WELSH GRAMMAR Compounds of ' wyf.' A. Prepositional. 248 i^ can-fod. — This verb is treated throughout as a compound of wyf : similarly, dar-gan-fod, io discover. e.g. Pres. and Fut. Indie. S. i, can-fyddaf, I perceive or shall perceive; Past. Imperf. S. i, can-fyddwn ; Past Iraperf. (Impers.), can-fyddid ; Aorist Ind., cin-fum. The following forms were once used :— Pres. Ind. S. I, can-wyf ; S. 3, cen- yw ; Past Imperf. S. 3, can-oedd, older canhoedd, 249 2. han-fod. — The verb-noun here given is now used only as an abstract noun, meaning essefice. This verb is occasionally used in Past Imperf. S. 3, han-oedd, he was descended; Pres. Subj. S. 2, hen-ffych ! hail / 250 han-oedd having been mistaken for han-odd, Aorist S. 3 of a stem han-, a verb-noun han-u has been formed, and the stem han-is conjugated regularly like dysg-. 251 3. dar-fod. — This verb is conjugated as a compound of wyf: e.g. Pres. and Fut. Indie. S. i, dar-fyddaf ; Past Imperf S. I, dar-fyddwn ; (Impers.) dar-fyddid. The following forms were once used : — Pres. Ind. S. I, dar-wyf ; S. 3, der- yw; Past Imperf. S. 3, dar-oedd ; Pres. Subj. S. i, dar-ffwyf; Past Imperf. Subjunctive S. 3, dar-ffai ; Imperative, S. 3, der-ffld. 252 4- gor-fod. — This verb is conjugated mainly as a compound of wyf: e.g. Pres. and Fut. Indie. S. i, goir-fyddaf ; Past Imperfec S. I, gor-fyddwn. The following forms were once used : Pres. Ind. S. I, gor-wyf ; S. 3, gor yw ; Pres. Subj. S. i, gor-ffv7yf ; Past. Imperf. Subj. S. 3, gor-ffai. 253 Obs.— gorfod is now largely used to express the idea of obliga tion : e.g. in such an expression as 'yrwyf yn gorfod,' I am obliged though literally this sentence should mean, / am com- pelling, or overcoming. The sentence in question is probably a condensed form of 'yr wyf yn fy ngorfod,' / am being compelled. The original forma- tion of gor-fod having been forgotten, a new verb- noun gor-fodi, to compel, has been formed, with regular conjugation : e.g. gorfodir fi, I am compelled. ACCIDENCE 59 254 S- oyf-ar-fod. — This verb has Present and Future Indie. S. I, cyf-ar-fydd-af, etc. ; Past Imperfect S. i, cyf-ar-fyddwn, etc. ; Aorist S. I, cyf-ar-fum, like bum. The remaining forms in use are conjugated like wyf. Note. — The forms canwyf, etc., hanwyf, etc., darwyf, etc., gorwyf, etc., were mostly used with Perfect meaning, possibly on the analogy of the Perfect forms of af, deuaf and gwnaf. B. Adjectival. ad-na-bod, cyd-na-bod, gwy-bod, cly-bod. 255 I. ad-na-bod, ^«(;ze//«^ [Latin, cognoscere]. adnabod is treated partly as a compound of wyf, partly as a regular verb from present-stem adwaen-. INDICATIVE (Pres. not FuT.). SUBJUNCTIVE (Pres.). adwaen (also ad wen) adwaen-ost edwyn adwaen-om adwaen-och adwaen-ant adwaen-wyf, etc., also adna- byddwyf, and contracted adna-pwyf adne-pycb adna-po adna-pom adna-poch adne-pynt Note i. — The other forms are conjugated like wyf: e.g. Fut. adna-byddaf ; but, in addition, we have, from adwaen-, Past Imperf., adwaen-wn ; (Impers.) adwaen-id ; Aorist Indie. S. 3, adwaen-odd : Pres. Indie. (Impers.) adwaen-ir ; Aorist (Impers.), adwaen-wyd ; Pres. Subj. and Imperative (Impers.), adwaen-er. Note 2. — For Past Imperf. Indie. (Pers.) S. 3, adwaen-ad was at one time used. Note 3. — adwaen is probably an old Perfect form. 2. cyd-na-bod, recognizing. 256 cydnabod is conjugated as a compound of wyf ; Pres. and Fut. Ind. cydna-byddaf, etc. Aorist Indie. S. i, cydnd-bum. 6o WELSH GRAMMAR 3- gwy-bod, knowing [Latin, scire]. 257 gwybod is treated mainly as a compound of wyf, but partly as a regular verb from present stem gwydd-. INDICATIVE (Pres. not FuT.). SUBJUNCTIVE (Pres.). gwn gwydd-ost gwyr gwydd-om gwydd-och gwydd-ant gwy-byddwyf, etc., also con- tracted, gwy-pwyf, eta Note i. — The remaining tenses are conjugated like wyf: e.g. Fut. Indie, gwy-byddaf ; but, in addition, we have — Past Imperf. Indie, gwydd-wn ; (Impers.) gwydd-id ; Pres. Indie. (Impers.) gwydd-ir, gwydd-ys, or gwydd-is (also contracted into gwys). Note 2. — For Past Imperf. Ind. S. 3, gwydd-lad was at one time used. 4. cly-bod, hearing. 258 (a) cly-bod, the verb-noun (rare), is now used only as an abstract noun, vi\e.z.vim% hearing. {b) The following forms parallel to this verb-noun are used side by side with the regular forms from clyw-, hear Aorist Indie. S. and P. i, 2, 3, cly-bum, -buost, -bu, -bixom, -biioch, -buont- or biiant. Note. — From the stem cly- comes the only remnant of the old Reduplicated Perfect in Welsh, namely, the obsolete Perf. S. 3, cigleu (cigle), he has heard. From this stem also came an Imper. S. 2, de-gle, hear. Verbs containing the roots ag- (og-), and el-. af, I go; deuaf, I come; gwnaf, I make. 259 The verb-nouns are — myned, going ; dy fod, dod, coming ; gwneyd or gwneutliur, making. (For myned, mynd is also used.) (a) The present stems of these verbs are — a-: e.g. a-f( = a-af) el-: e.g. el-wyf d-eu- : e.g. d-eu-af (d- for dy-) d-el- : e.g. d-el-wyf gwn-a- : e.g. gwnaf ( = gwn-a-af) gwn-el-: e.g. gwn-el-wyf. (^) The past stems of these verbs are — aeth- : e.g. euth-um els- : e.g. els-id d-aetb- : e.g. d-euth-um d-els- : e.g. d-els-id gwu-aeth- : e.g. gwn-euth-um gwn-els- : e.g. gwn-els-id. af, deuaf, gwnaf — Personal Forms. 6i 3360 INDICATIVE. Present and Future. af ei a, el awn ewch ant deu-af or dof deu-i or doi daw, del deu-wn or down deu-wch or dowch deu-ant or dont gwn-af gwn-ei gwn-a, gwn-el gwn-awn gwn-ewch gwn-ant Past Imperfect. awn, also el-wn, etc. (reg.) ait, or aet ai, or ae aem aech aent deu-wn, etc., down del-wn, etc., doit, or doet (reg.) doi, or doe doem doech doent gwn-awn, also gwnel- -wn, etc. (reg.) gwn-ait, or gwn-aet gwn-ai, or gwn-ae gwn-aem gwn-aech gwn-aent AORIST. Pluperfect. S. 3. aeth, daeth, gwn-aeth ] S. I. -nm euth- 2. -ost deuth- VP. I. -om gwn-euth- 2. -och J 3. -ant aeth- ] daeth- -wn, etc. (reg.) gwnaeth- ) SUBJUNCTIVE (Present). el- 1 del- Kwyf, etc. (reg.) gwnel-J IMPERA TIVE. S. 2. (dos)* 3. aed; el-ed (P. as Pres. Indie.) S. 2. (ty-redf) S. 3. deu-ed del-ed doed (Plural J as Pres Indie.) S. 2. gwn-a S. 3. gwn-aed gwn-el- ed (Plural as Pres. Indie.) * dos is of doubtful origin. X P- 2- dewch is often found. t ty-red is tlie Itnper. rhed, run, with prefix dy : d being hardened to t. 62 WELSH GRAMMAR af, deuaf, gwnaf — Impersonat Forms. 261 INDICATIVE. Present and Future. eir deu-ir gwn-eir Past Imperfect. eid or elid deu-id, del-id, or doid gwn-eid, or gwn-elid AORIST. aed or aeth-pwyd deuwyd or daeth- pwyd gwn-aed or gwn-aeth- pwyd Pluperfect. aeth- or els- \ daeth- or dels- V-id gwn-aeth- or gwnels-j SUBJUNCTIVE. el- del- gwn-el- -er Note i.- — The forms el, del and gwnel have arisen by the loss of the suffix from elo, delo, gwnelo, respectively. In Modern Welsh they are seldom employed except to express the Future Indicative, but in Mediaeval Welsh they were constantly employed as Subjunctives also. Note 2. — In the forms aeth-pwyd, daeth-pwyd, and gwnaeth-pwyd, pwyd, with hardening of b to p (cf. § 52), stands for bwyd, a contracted form of bu-wyd, Aorist and Perfect Impersonal of wyf. Compare the Mediaeval Welsh form, ducpwyt, was led; gorucpwyt, was made; gwanpwyt, was pierced; dywespwyt (for dywed-pwyt) was said. ACCIDENCE 63 Obs. I. — The forms aeth, daeth, gwnaeth, are probably old deponent perfect participles, which have served as bases for the Aorist forms S. 1, euth-um, S. 2, euth-ost, on the analogy of bum, buost. Obs. 2. — In addition to the forms already given, the following may be noted — (a) Perfect forms— from af: Perf. S. i, edd-wyf; 2, edd- wyd ; 3, edd-yw. „ gwn-af: Perf. S. i, gwn-edd-wyf; 3, gwn-edd-yw. „ deu-af : Perf. S. 3, dodd-yw, doth yw, dedd-yw. (Jb) Pluperfect forms— from af : Pluperf S. 3, ath-oedd. „ deu-af : Pluperf. S. 3, dath-oedd ,, gwn-af: Pluperf.S. 3,gwnath-oedd. „ „ (Impers.), gwnath-oeddid. (f) Aorist forms — corresponding to dy-fod, are the Aorist forms — S. 3, dy-fu, P. 3, dy-buant. Obs. 3. — In the forms edd-yw, dodd-yw (doth-yw), gwn-edd-yw, ath-oedd, dath-oedd, gwn-ath-oedd, and gwn-athoeddid, we have in single words, forms which are periphrastic : The last syllable in each case clearly consists of S. 3, Pres. and Past Imperf. of wyf. The first syllable appears to be an old participle, but its precise original form is not certain. Verbs omitting the last consonant of the Present- Stem. caf, / obtain ; rhoddaf, / give ; arhosaf, / remain. 262 In the verbs caf and rhoddaf, the assimilation of a consonant coming between two vowels has been carried to a point further than is normally the case in Welsh with b and d, but regular in the case of g, until at last the consonant has disappeared. In these two verbs, by the side of the phenomenon just described, we have also the contrary phenomenon of dissimilation, whereby, for example, caf-el has become caflf-el (also caff-ael). 64 Caf— Personal Forms and Verb-Noun. INDICATIVE. Prksknt and Future. AORIST. caf cef-ais, (ces) cei or cai, ceff-i cef-aist, (cest) caiff caf-odd, cadd, caf-as, cas cawn caws-om cewch caws-och cant caws-ant Past Imperfect. Pluperfect. cawn caws-wn, etc (reg.) cait, ceit or caet cai or cae caem caech caent SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Past Imperfect. caff-wyf, etc. (reg.) Same as Past Imperf. Indie. also caff-wn, etc. IMPERATIVE. S. 3. caed, caff-ed 1 P. 3. cant VERB-NOUN, cael, caffael, (caffel). Caf— Innpersonal Forms. INDICATIVE. Present and Future. ceir, ceff-ir Past Imperfect. ceid /.CRIST. caed, caf-wyd (cahat, cahad) Pluperfect. caws-id SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Past Imperfect. caff-er Same as Past Imperfect In- die, also ceflf-id IMPERATIVE. caff-er ACCIDENCE 65 Rhoddaf— Personal Forms and Verb-Noun. (The forms given in this and the following paradigm are found side by side with forms regularly conjugated). INDICATIVE. Present and Future. AORIST. rhof rhois rhoi rhoist rhy, dy-ry rhodd, rhoes rhown rhois-om * rhowch rhois-och rhont rhois-ant Past Imperfect. Plupejifect. rhown rhois-wn,* etc. (reg.) rhoit, rhoet rhoi, rhoe rhoem rhoech rhoent IMPERATIVE. S. 2. rho, dy-ro ; 3. rhoed P. Same as Pres. Indie. VERB-NOUN. rhoi Rhoddaf— Innpersonal Forms. INDICATIVE. Present. rhoir AORIST. rhoed, rhowd Past Imperfect. rhoid Pluperfect. rhois-id * Obs. — For Pres. Subj. S. 3, rhotho is found, illustrating the process by which the corresponding form caffo from oaf-, has been produced. * These forms are for rho-ysom, etc. ; rho-yswn, etc. ; rho-ysid, etc. F 66 WELSH GRAMMAR Arhosaf. 267 In this verb, when the accent falls upon -os, it is usually pre- ceded by h : e.g. Pres. Indie. S. i, ar-hos-af. 268 The following forms, with omission * of s, are sometimes found — Pres. Ind. S. 3, ery ; Past Imperf., arhown, arhoit, arhoi (oe), etc., like trown ; Imperative S. 2, aro, in cyf-aro. Dygaf and Adolwyn. 269 The peculiarities of these verbs have been already explained, § 245- Obs. — The old auxiliary goruc, gorug, he'did, is an Aorist S. 3 of this forma- tion. Piau. 270 I. (a) piau, used impersonally to express it belongs, is em- ployed as follows — Present C S. i, mi, 2, ti, 3, ef, hi ) , . _r .. Indicative \ P. i, mi, 2, chwi, 3, hwy ] °'^"' -^/«'«' ^^"^ ^ ' > ' ) o> / ; ownest, etc. (b) Who owns ? is expressed by pwy biau ? {c) A noun may take the place of the pronoun : e.g. leuan biau, leuan owns. 2. For the other tenses, one of the following compound forms is placed after the pronoun, — For Past Imperf. Continuous, oedd „ ,, „ Habitual, fyddai „ Future, fydd i . , . „ Aorist, fa ^piauorbiau „ Pluperfect, fuasai „ Pres. Subjunctive, fo or fyddo e.g. mi oedd biau, / owned. I I Moes and Hwde. 271 moes, give ; hwde, accept, are used only in the Imperative S. 2, moes ; P. 2, moeswch ; S. 2, hwde ; P. 2, hwdiwch. Meddaf and Ebe. 372 I- meddaf, I say, and ebe, he said, are employed in introducing quotations. * The omission is probably only apparent. See § 224, Note. ACCIDENCE 67 2. meddaf is conjugated in Pres. and Past Imperf. Indie, for all persons and numbers. 3. ebe (also found as ebai, ebr, ebra) is used in Past Imperf. Indie. S. 3 only. Note. — In Mediseval Welsh the form heb yr was used as two separate words, yr having been mistaken for the definite article : hebyr, the correct spelling, is an old deponent form ending in -r. Tawr or Dawr (Impersonal). 273 dawr is found in ni'm dawr, it does not matter to me. From the intensive form di-ddawr, come the common words, dy-ddor-ol, interesting; dy-ddor-deb, interest. Note. — In Mediseval Welsh a personal form, dorwn, I should care, was also employed, Dylwn, ' I ought.' 274 dylwn, used only in the Past Imperf. and Pluperfect to express obligation, takes a verb-noun as its direct object : e.g. Ni ddylai fyned, he ought not to go. Ni ddylasai fyned, he ought not to have gone. Note. — In Mediseval Welsh a present form, dylyaf, was also employed. Rhaid and Dichon. 275 rhaid, necessity, and dichon ( = digoii), sufficiency, are in reality nouns, but, owing to the omission of yw in the expressions, ' rhaid yw,' ' dichon yw,' they are treated partly as if they were imper- sonal verbs. For instance, like verbs, they may be preceded by the negative adverbs, nl, na, not. Rhaid. 1. In sentences denoting present time, rhaid may be used either alone, or in conjunction with yw : e.g. rhaid i mi fyned, or, rhaid y w i mi fyned, / must go : lit. going is a necessity for me : the predicate-noun rhaid being put first in the sentence for the sake of em- phasis. 2. For the Past Imperfect and other tenses, three forms of expression are possible : e.g. (for Past Imperf.) rhaid oedd; yr oedd yn rhaid j yr oedd raid. 3. Negative sentences are expressed as follows : — Pres. Indie, ni raid ; Past Imperf. nid oedd raid \ and simi- larly with other tenses. 276 68 WELSH GRAMMAR Dichon. 277 I. Dichon is employed — (a) In affirmative statements to express the possibility that something took place (in the Pres. Indie, with or without yw). {b) In negative sentences and questions, to denote the impossibility, or to question the possibility that some- thing should take place. N.B. — The construction is the same as that of rhaid. § 276. e.g. dichon i mi fyned, it is possible that I went. ni ddichon i mi fyned, it is not possible for me to go. A ddichon i mi fyned ? is it possible for me to go 1 2. Tenses other than the Present Indicative are expressed by using a form of wyf in the tense required : e.g. dichon oedd, etc., it was possible, etc. ; nid oedd dichon. 3. Instead of the construction with the preposition i given above (e.g. dichon i mi, it is possible for me), dichon is also not un- frequently found followed or preceded by a subject * : e.g. A ddichon ffydd ei gadw ef ? Can faith save him f Pwy a ddichon sefyll ? Who can standi Verbs denoting phases of the weather, etc. 378 1. Such verbs have as their subject the simple personal pro- noun hi, S. 3, Feminine: See Syntax, § 316. e.g. y mae hi yn gwlawio, it rains. „ ,, „ ,, oer, it is cold. 2. hi is also used in such impersonal expressions as : — y mae hi yn hawdd siarad, it is easy to talk. Some tendencies shown in the modern treatment of the verb. 279 In colloquial Welsh, and also, to no small extent, in Literary Welsh, in spite of its conservative instincts, there is now a strong analytical tendency, owing to which the conjugation of the verb tends to be modelled on a new basis, by means of auxiliaries, as a rule either taking a verb-noun as their direct object or followed by a verb-noun governed by a preposition ; so that, for example, the Pluperfectf Indicative is now almost entirely supplanted by the corresponding compound expression. See Syntax, §§ 472, 525. * In this construction a form dichyn was at one time frequently employed, t When employed to express / had ; thou hadst, etc. ACCIDENCh. 69 280 For this purpose the following verbs are largely used as auxiliaries : — (a) cafj ' I get,' ' I obtain,' —to express the passive voice, with a verb-noun as its direct object. e.g. cafodd ei weled, he was seen^ lit., he obtained his seeing. (b) gallaf, ' I am able ' ; medraf, ' I am able,' with a verb- noun as direct object, and also dichon, ' it is possible, to express a kind of potential mood : e.g. nis gallaf fyned ; ni fedraf fyned ; nid oes dichon i mi fyned, / cannot go. (For the construction of dichon see §§ 276, 277.) {c) gwnaf, 'I do,' — with a verb-noun as direct object, to express an imperative mood : e.g. gwnewch frysio, do make haste, lit., make a hastening. (d) wyf, followed by a verb-noun governed by a preposition to form compound tenses as shown in § 184. (e) gwnaf, with a verb-noun as direct object, to express an aorist and a future : e.g. Wnaethost ti fyn'd am dro ? Did you go for a walk 1 Wnewch chwi aros yno yn hir ? Will you stay there long ? (/) darfu, in Aorist S. 3 ; followed by i mi, i ti, iddo, etc., and a verb-noun as subject to express a perfect : e.g. A ddarfu i ti orphen ? Have you finished ? lit., Has a finishing taken place for you ? 281 Obs. — In writing Welsh, these analytical modes of expression should be used sparingly, and only for the purpose of expressing shades of meaning which the simple forms cannot easily express. 282 Caution. — Parse the component parts separately. See Syntax, §§ 524- 525- QUESTIONS AND NEGATIONS. I. Questions. 1. In Welsh the emphatic word is usually placed first in the sentence ; this applies to questions as well as to statements. 2. If the emphasis fall on the verb, the interrogative particle IS a: e.g. A wnaethost ti hynny? Did you do thai? 3. If the emphasis fall on some other word, the interrogative particle is ai : e.g. Ai dyn welodd y bachgen ? Was it a man that the boy saw ? Ai yno y mae efe ? Is it there that he is i 4. The particles a and ai are not unfrequently omitted. •JO WELSH GRAMMAR II. Negations. The negative adverb ( = no/) is — 1. In negative statements, nid before vowels, ni before con sonants. See Syntax, §§ 590, 593-596. 2. In answers* to questions and in prohibitions, nac before vowels, na before consonants. 3. With the Subjunctive "Inad before With the Indicative in indirect statements I vowels, nabe- In temporal, causal, consecutive, concessive, j fore conson- final, and hypothetical clauses ) ants. Obs. — Before c, g, t, d, in i and 3, nis and nas are often used.f 4. To negative a verb-noun, the verb-noun peidio, ceasing, is employed, with or without the preposition a, ag : e.g. gwell peidio a rhuthro \ -^ .^ ^,^^,^,,^^ /, ^„,^ gwell peidio rhuthro j For the use of the negatives, see also Syntax, §§ 590-597. III. Negative Cluestions. In Negative Questions, oni, onid, onis are used as interrogative particles. Where some word other than the verb begins the question onid alone is used. e.g. Oni fa efe yno ? Onid y dyn oedd yno ? JVas he not there ? Was it not the man that was there ? Answers. ' Yes ' and ' No ' are expressed as follows : — 1. In answers to questions introduced by ai, by ie, yes ; uage, no. 2. „ „ „ „ „ a, the form of answer depends upon the tense of the verb : — (a) If the verb of the question (auxiliary or other) be in the Aorist, yes is expressed by do ; no by naddo. (d) In all other cases the verb of the question (auxiliary or other), with the required change of person, must be repeated in the answer : e.g. A weli di y ty ? Gwelaf ; do you see the house i I do ; yes. A ydwyt ti yn gweithio ? Nac ydwyf. Are you workiftgl I am not, no. N.B. — The negative in these answers is nac before vowels, na before c onsonants. * Chiefly before forms of wyf, such as wyf, ydwyf, oes, oedd, ydoedd. + The ' s ' of nis and nas is an old postvocalic pers. pion. S. and P. 3. ACCIDENCE 71 288 PREPOSITIONS, simple prepositions in Welsh fall into two main I. The classes : — (a) those to which pronominal suffixes can be added : e.g. dros, over ; dros-o-f, over me. {b) those to which pronominal suffixes cannot be added. 289 290 291 Class A, with pronominal suffixes. Class B, without pronominal suffixes. cyn, before (of time) er, since ger, by, near gerfydd, by heibio, past is, below mewn, in myn, by (in asseverations) uwch, above Note. — Js and uwch are the com- parative forms of the adjectives isel and uchel ; mewn is an old noun meaning middle, while heibio is an adverb used as a preposition. am, about ar, on at, towards er, for the sake (of) gan, with, by heb, without hyd, as far as i, to, into 6,* out of, from rhag, before, from before rhwng, between tan, dan, under tros, dros, over trwy, drwy, through wrth, to, close by yn, in 2. In addition to the simple prepositions, Welsh has several compound prepositions consisting of two or more prepositions combined together : e.g. am-dan ; o-ddi-ar ; o-ddi-am-dan. 3. There are also several prepositional expressions, consisting of prepositions in construction with nouns : e.g. ger Haw, near ; lit. by the hand {of) — : o achos, on account (of) ; lit. from the cause (of). 4. In some cases the nouns forming part of these prepositional expressions are no longer used separately : e.g. plegid [Latin, ' placitum '] in o blegid, because (of) ; pyn (the old Dative form of pen) in er-byn, against. Caution. — The component words of such expressions should be parsed separately. * o in combination with suffixes takes the form ohon-. ,, ,, other prepositions takes the form oddi-=o+di, compounded of o and an old prep. A\,froiii. 72 WELSH GRAMMAR 293 Combination of Prepositions with Pronominal Suffixes. 1. In the Celtic, as in tiie Semitic languages, pronominal suffixes are added to prepositions : e.g. wrth, by ; wrthyf, by me. 2. These pronominal suffixes in Welsh bear a marked resem- blance to those used in the conjugation of the verb. 3. The connecting vowels or diphthongs in each case should be carefully noted, and compared with those of the verb. 4. The suffixes for S. i are, -af, -of, -yf : e.g. at-af, to me ; heb-of, without me ; wrth-yf, by me. I. at-af, to me. 2. heb-of, without me. S. I. at-a-f P. I. at-o-m S. I. heb-o-f P. I. heb-o-m 2. at-a-t 2. at-o-ch 2. heb-o-t- 2. heb-o-ch 3. (m.) at-o 3. at-y-nt 3. (m.) heb-dd-o 3. heb-dd-y-nt 3- (f) at-i 3. (f ) heb-dd-i 3- wrth-^ ji, by me. S. I. wrth-y-f 2. wrth-y-t 3. (m.) wrth-o 3. (f ) wrth-i P. I. wrth-y-m 2. wrlh-y-ch 3. wrth-y-nt 294 295 (a) Like at-af we have dan-af, ar-n-af (fr. ar, on, with n inserted). {J)) Like heb-of we have rhag-of, rhyng-of, er-of, yn-of, tros-of, trw-of, o-hon-of, (hyd-of). (c) Like wrth-yf we have genn-yf. Remarks. 1. For rhyng-of, yn-of, tros-of, we have also rhyng-wyf, yn-wyf, tros-wyf 2. tros-of makes S. 3 (m.) tros-t-o, (f.) tros-t-i, P. 3, tros-t-ynt. 3. trw-of makes trw-of, trw-ot, trwy-dd-o, trwy-dd-i, trw-om, trw- och, trwy-dd-ynt. 4. genn-yf makes genn-yf, genn-yt, gan-dd-o, gan-dd-i, genn-ym, genn-ych, gan-dd-ynt. For S. 3, are sometimes found gan-th-o, gen-th-i, for P. 3, gan-th-ynt. ACCIDENCE 73 296 5- '■ ''"^''> niakes S. 3 (m.) i-dd-o, (f.) i-dd-i, P. 3, i-dd-ynt. For the other forms, in place of the suffixes proper, the personal pro- nouns, mi, ti, ni, chwi are used for S. and P. i and 2 respectively, either separately or as enclitics ; e.g. imi, iti, ini, ichwi. Obs. — -The final i of these combinations is often elided, and we have the forms im, it, in, iwch : e.g. nos Az.\sz\\, good night =xiO% da iwch, goodnight to you. Nouns used as Prepositions. 297 Achos, cause, used as a preposition, meaning on account (of) ; serch, affection, used as a preposition, meaning in spite {of), are employed in construction with verb-nouns : e.g. achos iddo fyned, on account of his going, because he went. serch ,, „ in spite of his going, though he went. These nouns are probably old ablatives. Prepositional Expressions. 298 I- The following is a list of common prepositional expressions, the second part of which is a noun. am ben, over blegid, on account {of) ar ben, upon herwydd „ „ ar gyfer, over against gylch, around ar hyd, along amgylch, around ar draws, across ddeutUj about ar 61, after gwmpas, around ar warthaf, down upon ran, for the matter {of) er mwyn, for the sake {of)* uwch ben, above er gwaethaf, in spite {of) uwch law ,, ger bron, in front {of) wrth law, near ger Haw, near yn erbyn, against heb law, besides yng ngwydd, in the presence {of) is law, beneath yng nghylch, about i blith, into the midst {of) ym mhen, at the end {of) i fysg ym mhlith, among fiaen, before ym mysg, among fewn, within yn 51, cfter achos, on account {of) * Note that ' of in this and similar cases has nothing to correspond to it in the Welsh prepositional expression, but is implied in the genitive relation of the noun following the expression to the noun contained in the expression. 74 WELSH GRAMMAR 2. The noun which followed one of these prepositional expres- sions was originally put in the genitive. 3. Such phrases as ^ on account of me, thee, etc.,' are expressed as follows : o'm plegid, o'th blegid, etc., where 'm, 'th, are the post- vocalic possessive adjectives. 4. Similarly, ger dy fron, in front of thee ; ar ei ol, after him. 5. With ger Haw, heb law, is law, uwch law, wrth law, the con- struction with possessive adjectives is not employed, but in its place the preposition i, in one of its pronominal combinations, is used : e.g. ger Haw imi or im', near me. is law iddi, beneath her. Caution. — The component words of these prepositional ex- pressions should be parsed separately. For the meanings of prepositions, see Syntax, §§ 388-452. Prepositions governing Verb-Nouns. 299 For the various expressions formed by means of prepositions governing verb-nouns, see Syntax (Part II. of this Grammar), §§ 346a, 346b, 546-556. Conjunctions. 300 Conjunctions belong not to Accidence but to Syntax, and will be found in Part II. of this Grammar (§§ 314, 346,* etc.). APPEN DIX. I. ON SOUNDS. Quantity. 1. Simple vowels and the first vowels of diphthongs in Welsh may be either long or short. 2. A diphthong is counted long when its first vowel is long. 3. The second vowel of a true diphthong is always short. 4. A simple vowel or the first vowel of a diphthong in Welsh is never long except — (i.) in a monosyllable. (ii.) in the accented final syllable of a polysyllabic word. (iii.) in an accented syllable, whose vowel is immediately followed by a vowel or h. (iv.) in certain prefixes such as di- and tra- when they have a strong secondary accent. Quantity of simple vowels in monosyllables and accented final syllables. 1. The vowels of monosyllables ending in more than one con- sonant are short : e.g. plant, pant, porth, parth, wrth, cant : Except in North Wales, in the case of words ending in st, sb (sp), sg, lit : e.g. clust, gwisg, cosb, mellt. 2. The vowels of monosyllables ending in the voiceless mutes p, t, c; in the nasals m, ng ; and in the voiceless lingual 11 are short : Except — ym, we are; b5m, we may be ; bot, thou mayest be; oil and hoU ; and, in South Wales, most monosyllables ending in 11. 3. The vowels of monosyllables ending in the voiced mutes b, d, g ; in the voiceless spirants, ff, th, ch ; in the voiced spirants f, dd, and in the sibilant s are long. N.B. — In North Wales, prepositions and conjunctions of this form are generally short : e.g. heb, ag. 4. If a monosyllable end in a vowel, the vowel is long. Note. — The only exceptions are a few unemphatic proclitics, a, y, fy, dy, etc. , in connected speech. When emphasized these are pronounced long. 5. If a monosyllable end in 1, n, or r, its vowel may be long or short ; in words of this type, if the vowel be i or u, it is long, except in prin and pin ; if the vowel be a, e, o, w, y, there is no rule for determining its quantity. 76 WELSH GRAMMAR Cluantity of the first vowels of diphthongs in monosyllables and accented final syllables. 1. In monosyllables and accented final syllables, the first vowels of the diphthongs ai, ei, oi, au, eu, ey, aw, ew, iw, ow, uw, yw, are short : e.g. saih, ein, troi, crynhoi, haul, gweu, dweyd, clawdd, mewn, rhiw, trown, duw, llyw. N.B. — In North Wales, a and e in aw and ew, when not followed by a consonant, are pronounced long : e.g. rhaw, tew ; also the diphthongs ai, 6i (ae, 6e), in the forms gwnai, troi ( = tr5ai), also written troe, gwnae, and pronounced trou and gwnau in North Wales. 2. In similar cases a, o, w in the diphthongs ae, oe, wy are long. The 'Epenthetic' Vowel.* 1. Where a word which is monosyllabic or accented on the last syllable ends in a consonant + 1, n, or r (or in some words in m borrowed from English), the final consonant tends to form a separate syllable. 2. Since Welsh, in contradistinction to English, requires in the final syllable a distinct vowel, the final syllable formed by 1, n, or r receives a distinct vowel-sound, through the repetition of the vowel of the preceding syllable : e.g. budr becomes budur ; pobl, pobol. 3. If the accented syllable preceding the consonantal combina- tions in question contain a diphthong, the second vowel of the diphthong (in its written form) is repeated as an epenthetic vowel : e.g. brwydr becomes brwydyr ; hoedl becomes hoedel. N.B.^ — In North but not in South Wales, words ending in fl, fn and fr remain monosyllabic. Initial Mutation of Consonants. Initial mutations, in point of usage, are of three types — A. The change of p, t, c into b, d, g ; of b, d, g into f, dd, — ; of 11, rh into 1, r ; of m into f. (The ' soft ' mutation.) B. The change of p, t, c into ph, th, ch. (The 'aspirate' mutation.) C. The change of p, t, c into mh, nh, ngh , of b, d, g into n, ng. (The ' nasal ' mutation.) This vowel is also known by its Sanskrit name ' swarabhakti ' vowel. ACCIDENCE 77 Type A. (The 'soft' mutation.) This is the most common type of initial mutation in Welsh, and occurs — 1. In a word following a parenthesis : e.g. gwelwyd (yn y lie) rai dynion ; wedi (i mi) fyned. 2. In address : e.g. gyfeillion hoff, dear friends. 3. In the second element of word-groups of the following forms : — (a) X + noun. \l)) noun + X. (c) X + verb. (d) verb + x. (e) X + adjective. (a) X + noun. In this case x may be : — (i) a proper name, when followed by an agnomen: e.g. Dafydd frenin, David the king. (2) the common nouns, eglwys, teml, ty, teyrnas, before Duw ; ty and eglwys before Mair and Dewi ; llan before names of saints. (3) an adjective in the positive or the superlative degree ; to- gether with ambell, ami, rhyw, and its compounds amryw, cyfryw, unrhyw ; dy, 'th, ei (masc.) ; pa ; yr hwn ; dau ; dwy ; y fath and pa fath ; and — before nouns fern. sing, only — un and the ordinal numbers. (4) the definite article y, before nouns fern sing. only. (5) the word yn, used to introduce a predicate-noun. (6) one of the prepositions am, ar, at, gan, heb, hyd, i, tan (dan), tros (dros), trwy (drwy), 6, wrth. (7) one of the adverbs dyma,* dyna, dacw. (8) an interjection. {b) noun + x. In this case x may be — (i) an adjective (or a noun used as an adjective) after a noun fern. sing, only : e.g. dynes ddu, allt goed. (2) a personal pronoun : e.g. dy lyfr di. * dyma, dyna, dacw, stand for wel di yma, see thou here ; wel di yna, see thou there ; wel di acw, see thou yonder ; respectively. 78 WELSH GRAMMAR (3) an adverb, modifying an adjective which qualifies a noun fern. sing. : e.g. y ddynes dra hardd. (c) X + verb. In this case x may be — (i) the interrogative particle a ; e.g. A ddaw ? win he cotne 1 (2) the pre-verbal particle a : e.g ddydd a ddaw, a day that will come. (3) a personal pronoun (where a is omitted). e.g. ti redodd oreu. (4) a noun (where a is omitted) : e.g. John gafodd y wobr. (5) an adjective used as an adverb: e.g. syn fyfyriai. (6) the adverbs ni, na (not"), oni, only before verbs beginning with b, d, g, II, rh, m : e.g. ni ddaw, he will not come. (7) the conjunction pan, when: e.g. pan ddaw, when he comes. {d) verb + X. In this case x may be — (i) a personal pronoun : e.g. gwelodd fi, he saw me. (2) a noun or verb-noun as object ; e.g. ceisiodd droi, he tried to turn. (3) a noun or verb-noun as subject, only after oes S. 3. Pres. Indie, of bod : e.g. nid oes ddyn, there is not a man. (4) a predicate-noun or predicate-adjective after forms of wyf. (5) words denoting duration, point of time, distance and measure : e.g. aeth filltir, he went a mile. (e) X -I- adjective. In this case x may be — (i) a noun fem. sing. : eg. dynes dda, a good woman. (2) the definite article before an adjective qualifying a noun fem. sing. : e.g. y fwynaf ferch, the gentlest maiden. (3) one of the adverbs go, rhy, and (except as a general rule usually before 11 and rh) pur, cyn, mor : e.g. go lawn, rather full. (4) the word yn, introducing a predicate-adjective or an ad- jective used as an adverb : e.g. yn dda, well. Note i. — After eithr, ond, onid, oddieithr, oddigerth, namyn and heblaw, bod and darfod often undergo mutation of type A. Note 2. —After ni and na mutation in the case of forms of wyf is optional. Note 3. — The word yn used to introduce predicate nouns and adjectives, and adjectives used as adverbs is possibly a remnant of the old Brythonic article. ACCIDENCE 79 Type B. (The ' a^irate ' mutation.) This type of mutation occurs in a few word-groups as follows : — (i) after the conjunctions a, and; na, nor, than ; o, if. (2) ,, prepositions a, gyda, tua, efo, with. (3) ,, possessive adjective ei (fern.). (4) ,, cardinal numbers tri and chwe. (5) ,, adverb tra. Type C. (The * nasal ' mutation.) This type of mutation occurs in a few word-groups as follows : — (i) after the possessive adjective fy, my (older fyn). (2) „ preposition yn, in (except in the case of the verb- noun). (3) after the cardinal numbers, saith, wyth, naw, deng, deu- ddeng, ugain, can, when followed by diwrnod, blynedd, blwydd. II. ON SPELLING. Some difference of opinion still exists with regard to Welsh spelling, especially in the matter of doubling consonants. It is impossible to formulate entirely satisfactory rules on this subject, because the practice even of good writers varies very considerably. The Orthographical Committee of the Welsh Language Society in its Report (Welsh National Press Co., Carnarvon, 1893) re- commends doubling only in the case of n and r in accented syllables, and then only in cases where the n or r closes the accented syllable. As it is not always easy to determine the correct division into syllables, the student will do well to avoid doubling these consonants except where it is the universal practice of good writers to double them. Obs. — When an ending is added to a word terminating in n or r whose vowel is short, the n or r is often doubled. N.B. — In Welsh a consonant following an accented vowel is not pronounced with so much force as a consonant in a corre- sponding position in English. parallel (Braminai* Series Welsh Grammar FOR SCHOOLS BASED ON THE PRINCIPLES AND REQUIREMENTS OF THE GRAMMATICAL SOCIETY BY E. ANWYL, M.A. Oxon. Professor of Welsh at the University College of IVales, Aberystwyth Late Classical Scholar of Oriel College, Oxford PART II— SYNTAX London: SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO. Ltd New York : THE MACMILLAN CO 1907 J'irst Edition, April, 1899. Second Edition, August, 1907. PREFACE The need has long been felt for a Welsh Syntax which would exhibit, in a lucid and systematic manner, the characteristic features of the language, without doing violence to its history •on the one hand, or, on the other, ignoring the present state of its development. With this in view, the Author of this work has endeavoured throughout to distinguish clearly between the probable constructions of the parent Celtic speech and the actual constructions of modern Welsh, as shown, for example, in the ■difference between the extinct and the living uses of such words as niai, pe, and the pre-verbal particles a and yr {y). In Welsh philology a clearer distinction between the probable origin of forms and their present uses is urgently needed. To obscure •divergences between earlier and later meanings of forms, in the case of any language, is to lose sight of the principles which have governed its whole history. The Author wishes to express his best thanks to the General Editor of this series, Prof Sonnenschein, for invaluable assistance in the preparation of this book; to those previous Welsh grammarians, without whose diligent and faithful care in pre- serving the tradition of the literary language this work would not have been possible ; to Principal Rhys and Professors Powel and John Morris Jones, whose conversations with the Author on these matters have always afforded him many valuable suggestions, which he has carefully treasured in his memory ; to Dr. J. A. H. Murray, of Oxford, whose clear exposition of some of the principles of language has been a help in many difficulties ; and to his brother, the Rev. J. Bodvan Anwyl, for valuable help in the preparation of the Index. Aberystwyth, 1899. E. ANWYL. CONTENTS OF SYNTAX PAGE INTRODUCTION 8i Sentence Construction : Subject . 89 Predicate ..,..,.,.... 90 Predicate Adjective or Noun 92 Object 94 Two Objects 97 Predicate Adjective or Noun referring to the Object ... 99 Attributes 99 Kinds of Sentence 100 Complex Sentence : Adverb Clauses and Phrases 108 Adjective Clauses .......... 122 Noun Clauses and Phrases 126 Reported Speech ,....,.,.. 134 Meanings of Forms : Dependent Noun 136 Prepositions 139 Voices IJ3 Tenses 15^ Tenses of the Indicative 155 Moods : Subjunctive 162 Imperative l6j Verb-noun and Verbadjeclives . jg^ Pronouns, etc i6g Article 1^2 Adverbs . 173 Words Representing Sentences, etc. ...... 171- Appendix 175 Index ly^ INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX. Syntax is the part of grammar which treats of the construction of sentences. For the classification of sentences see §§ 339-345- 82 WELSH SYNTAX 301 302 303 304 ANAL YSIS OF SENTENCES. Subject and Predicate. The sentence usually consists of two main parts, the Subject and the Predicate. The Subject is the word or group of words denoting that about which something is said in the Predicate ; the Predicate is what is said about that which is denoted by the Subject, and it includes not only the Verb, but also any Predicate- adjective or Predicate-noun or Object or Adjunct (or combin- ation of these) with which it may be joined. Such additions to the Verb will be spoken of as the Remainder of the Predicate. Note that in all cases the Predicate includes the whole of what is said about that which is denoted by the Subject. These two parts of the sentence may be contained in a single word : e.g. canant, they sing. The Normal Order of the Welsh sentence is Verb — Subject — Remainder of Predicate. The Predicate may assume any of the following five forms : — FORMS OF THE PREDICATE. I VERB. SUBJECT. REMAINDER OF PREDICATE. can y dyii II III mae y dyn Predicate Noun or Adjective. yn* frenin or yn* clda gwelodd t y dyn Object, y bachgen IV rhoddodd f y dyn Two Objects, lyfr i'r bachgen V galwodd t y dyn Object, ef Pred. Noun or Adjective, yn* frenin or yn* dda * Tlie word ' yn ' which usually precedes the Predicate-noun or Predicate- adjective is probably a remnant of one of the forms of the Biythonic definite article. A Fi-edtcate-no\xn or adjective is a noun or adjective predicated of the Subject or the Object. t Verbs which generally take an Object are called transitive. Verbs which generally take no Object are called intransitive. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 83 Inverted Order. (See Appendix.) 305 The normal order of the sentence is frequently changed for the sake of emphasis, the emphatic word or group of words being put at the beginning of the sentence. — Thus the Subject or the Object or the Predicate-adjective or the Predicate-noun or the Adjunct may be put before the Verb. In such cases the word a or yr (y) is put immediately before the verb as shewn in the following examples.* (Cf. Accidence, § 194, 2nd ed.) With Predicate of Form I : — • y dyn a gan, ' the man sings ' ; ' it is the man who sings.' y dyn sydd yma, ' the man is here ' ; ' it is the man who is here.' With Predicate of Form II : — brenin yw y dyn, 'the man is a king' ; ' It is a king that the man is.' da yw y dyn, ' the man is good ' : 'it is good that the man is.' Similarly with a Predicate-pronoun : myfi yw, ' it is I ' ; pwy yw ? ' who is it ? ' With Predicate of Form III : y bachgen a welodd y dyn,t ' the man saw the boy ' ; ' it was the boy that the man saw.' With Predicate of Form IV : — (a) llyfr a roddodd y dyn i'r bachgen, ' the man gave the boy a book ' ; ' it was a book that the man gave the boy.' (I') i'r bachgen y rhoddodd y dyn lyfr, ' the man gave the boy a book ' ; ' it was to the boy that the man gave a book.' With Predicate of Form V : — (a) ef a alwodd y dyn yn frenin, ' the man called him king ' ; ' it was he whom the man called king.' (l') yn frenin y galwodd y dyn ef, 'the man called him king' ; 'it was a king that the man called him.' Similarly where an Adjunct is emphasised : e.g. yno yr aeth, ' he went there ' ; ' it was there that he went' * When the Subject or the Object is put first, a is employed, in other cases yr or y ; yr before vowels and h ; y before consonants. I'he forms from wyf etc., oeddwn etc. and sydd, do not lake a. f Observe the possible ambiguity between Subject and Object in sentences of this type. 84 WELSH SYNTAX Attributes. 306 Any noun (whether standing in the Subject or in the Predicate) may be qualified by an adjective (or adjective-equivalent, § 310) ; e.g. gwr doeth, a wise man ; cyfeillion hoff, dear friends. Such a qualifying part of the sentence is called an Attribute. Adjuncts. 307 Any verb, adjective or adverb in the sentence may be qualified by an adverb (or adverb-equivalent, § 311) : e.g. ymladdodd y dyn yn ddewr, the man fought bravely. mae yn weithiwr tra diwyd, he is an exceedingly diligent workman. cerddodd yn Mr gyflym, he walked rather rapidly. Such a qualifying part of the sentence is called an Adjunct. Equivalents. 308 The noun, the adjective and the adverb may be replaced by other parts of speech doing the same work in the sentence, or by a group of words doing the work of a single part of speech. A word or group of words which replaces a noun, an adjective or an adverb is called an Equivalent (Noun-equivalent, Adjective- equivalent or Adverb-equivalent). A group of words forming an Equivalent and not having a Subject and Predicate of its own is called a Phrase. A group of words forming an Equivalent and having a Subject and Predicate of its own is called a Subordinate Clause (cf. § 312). For a list of noun-, adjective-, and adverb-equivalents see §§ 309-311. Noun-, Adjective-, and Adverb-Equivalents. NOUN-EQUIVALENTS. 309 A noun-equivalent may be — (a) A pronoun ; e.g. buost ti yno, thou hast been there. \b) An adjective, with or without the article : e.g. cyfoethogion, rich men ; y cyfoethogion, the rich ; y gwir, the true. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 85 (f) A verb-noun * : e.g. hyfryd ydy w gweithio, it is pleasant to work (lit. ivorking is pleasant) ; ceisiaf weled, I shall try to see. {d) A phrase consisting of a verb-noun and words connected therewith : e.g. dywedodd foi dynion yno, he said that there were men there (lit. the being of men there). (e) A verb-adjective preceded by the article : e.g. yr anfonedig, the person sent. (f) A clause in a complex sentence : e.g. dywedodd nad oedd dynion yno, he said that there ivere no men there, {g) A word or group of words quoted : e.g. heb 'os' nac 'onibae,' without ' if or ' were it not.' ADJECTIVE-EQUIVALENTS. 310 An adjective-equivalent may be^ {a) A verb-adjective : e.g. gwelliant addawedig, a promised improvement, {b) A noun depending on another noun, corresponding to the genitive of Greek and Latin : e.g. llais dyn, the voice of a man. (c) A noun or verb-noun used as an adjective : e.g. wal gerrig, a stone wall ; carreg ateb, a« echo, (lit. an answering stone ; i.e. a stone for answering^ (d) A noun in apposition ; e.g. ni ddynion, we men. (e) A noun governed by a preposition : e.g. llain frethyn, a piece of cloth. (/) An adverb : e.g. y dynion gynt, the men of old. \g) A clause in a complex sentence : e.g. pell yw y He y bum ynddo, /«/■ is the place where I have been. ADVERB-EQUIVALENTS. 311 An adverb-equivalent may be — (a) A noun corresponding to an oblique case of Greek and Latin : e.g. arhosaf dridiau, / shall stay three days; cerddasant filldir, they walked a mile, (i) A noun governed by a preposition : e.g. af at y ty, 7 shall go towards the house ; trwy drais, by force ; gyda thrafferth, with difficulty. * The verb-noun, though in many respects treated as a noun in Welsh, yet, in some important respects, takes the construction of a verb : e.g. dan alw y dyn yn ffol, calling the man foolish, lilie geilvv y dyn yn ffol, he calls the man foolish. 86 WELSH SYNTAX (c) A phrase formed by means of a verb-noun governed by prepositions : e.g. cyn dyfod, de/ore coming ; er dyfod, in spite of coming. {d) A clause in a complex sentence : e.g. synnodd pan welodd, he marvelled when he saw. The Simple and the Complex Sentence. 312 I. aeth i'w dy, he went into his house. 2. aeth i'w dy, pan orphenodd, he went into his house, when he had finished. A sentence like (i), which contains only one group of words having a Subject and a Predicate, is called Simple [Lat. simplex = onefold\. A sentence like (2), which contains — {a) a Principal group, having a Subject and a Predicate of its own, \b) a Subordinate group, having a Subject and a Predicate of its own, is called Complex, and each of the groups is called a Clause (cf. §§ 308, 313). Principal Clanse. Aeth i'w dy. Subordinate Clause, pan orphenodd. Kinds of Subordinate Clause. 313 Subordinate Clauses may be classified according to the part of speech to which they are akin :— 1. Noun Clauses: i.e. Clauses playing the part of a noun. 2. Adjective Clauses : i.e. Clauses playing the part of an adjective. 3. Adverb Clauses : i.e. Clauses playing the part of an adverb. Obs. — It should be borne in mind, in studying Welsh Syntax, that :— (i) Some sentences now treated as simple sentences of ' Inverted Order,' were probably in origin complex sentences. See Appendix. (2) Some sentences which express the meaning of a complex sentence are simple in form : e.g. dywedodd ei fod yn glaf, he said that he was ill, lit. he said his being ill. On the other hand, dywedodd nad oedd yn glaf, he said that he was not ill, is a complex sentence. ANALYSIS Of SENTENCES 87 Co-ordinating Conjunctions. 314 I. Two or more sentences, clauses, phrases or single words jinked together by one of the following conjunctions are called Co ordinate, and the conjunctions which link them together are called Co-ordinating conjunctions : — nac, na, nor canys, "i oherwydd, 1- for oblegid J a, ac, and ond, eithr, but neu, j ai, > or ynte, ) Obs. — The forms ac and nac are generally used before words beginning with a vowel and frequently before adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions beginning with f, h, m or n. 2. It sometimes happens that the first member of a group linked together by one of the above conjunctions may be intro- duced by a word which serves to bring out more clearly its relation to what follows. Thus we get the following pairs : — naill ai ynte or neu, either or nac nac neither nor Subordinating Conjunctions. 315 I. All conjunctions other than those given above are Sub- ordinating conjunctions, introducing either Noun Clauses or Adverb Clauses. 2. In almost all affirmative subordinate clauses of normal order, the verb is preceded by the proclitic particle yr (before vowels and h), y (before consonants). 3. In many Adverb Clauses, the subordinating conjunction is identical with some preposition. 4. In affirmative subordinate clauses of inverted order, the emphatic word of the clause is preceded by the conjunction mai. (For the probable explanation see Appendix.) 5. In negative subordinate clauses, nad (na) is substituted for yr (y), nad for mai of the corresponding affirmative clause. Examples : — dywedais yr awn yno, ' I said I should go there.' (Aff.) „ nad „ ,, 'I said I should not go there.' (Neg.) „ mai yno yr awn ' I said I should go tliere.' (Aff.) „ nad „ „ „ ' I said I should not go M^r^.' (Neg.) 88 WELSH SYNTAX gan y byddwch yno, galwch, ' as you will be there, call.' (Aff.) ,, na fyddwch „ peidivvch, 'as you will not be there, [do not.' (Nag.) „ maiynoy byddwch, galwch, 'as it is there you will be, [call.' (AflF.) „ nad ,, ,, ,, peidiwch, ' as it is not there you [will be, do not.' (Neg.) 6. A word like felly, so, is a sentence-adverb, i e. an adverb affecting the sentence as a whole. Obs. — Sometimes a clause introduced by a relative may be used in Welsh as equivalent to a co-ordinate sentence : e.g. ym mhen peth amser daeth rhyw lane yno, yr hwn, wedi cryn drafferth, a'u hachubodd, after some time a youth came there, who, after some trouble, rescued them. The two parts of Syntax. Syntax has to answer two questions : 1. How are meanings expressed in sentences and parts of sentences'} The answer is given in §§316-371, which deal with Sentence Construction. 2. What are the various meanings of the inflected forms of words? The answer is given in §§ 372 foil., which deal with the Ileanings of Forms. N.B. — In dealing with Sentence Construction, those construc- tions which are peculiar to the Complex Sentence will be treated after those which are common to the Simple and the Complex Sentence. SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION 89 SYNTAX. PART I. SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION. THE SUBJECT. 316 I. In a sentence of normal order in Modern Welsh, the Sub- ject follows the Verb, so that it may be looked upon as the word which indicates the source of the action denoted by the Verb, the Verb in a sentence of normal order occupying the more prominent position. 2. The Predicate could, therefore, be very naturally discussed first, but as it assumes various forms, it is convenient first to discuss the Subject. 3. In Welsh, as in other languages, the Subject is either a noun or a noun-equivalent. 4. Subject not expressed by a separate word. As in Greek and Latin and some other languages, the Subject is not expressed by a separate word when it is sufficiently indicated by the verb-ending : e.g. gwelais, / saw. ymddengys, it appears. chwiliodd, he searched, aethom, we went. Obs. I. — If the Verb is preceded by a post-vocalic accus. pronoun (see Accidence, § 130), the Subject, if a pronoun, is practically never expressed in Welsh -. e.g. yno y'm gwelsant, it was there that they saw me ; not— yno y'm gwelsant hwy. Obs. 2.— On the other hand, in a negative sentence, the post-vocalic pers. pron. S. 3 cannot be used after ni, so that ef (following the verb) must be employed instead : e.g. ni clieir ef, he is not foitnd ; not, ni'i cheir. 5. Not unfrequently, when the Subject is already sufficiently obvious, or where it would be expressed in English by they ( = people in general), p«if( = French on, German man), things or it ( = the situation in general, French //, German es), or where 90 WELSH SYNTAX 317 318 the intrinsic interest of the action lies in itself, Welsh employs the impersonal forms of the verb : e.g. cychwynir, a start will be made: eir yno yfory, some ont jvill go there to-morrow. This impersonal use was probably the only original use of the impersonal forms of Welsh. (See Accidence, § 178.) Cf. Latin Grammar, P.G.S. § 316* 6. Verbs denoting phases of the weather. — In the case of verbs denoting phases of the weather, the impersonal forms are not employed in Welsh. Such, verbs take the personal form with the simple personal pronoun hi (S. 3. Feminine), as Subject. The Subject is not unfrequently omitted : mae hi yn gwlawio, it rains; fe t wlawiodd ddoe, it rained yesterday. Note. — The origin of this form of expression is unknown. Possibly it may have been due to a practice among the Celts of attributing such phenomena as rain, thuniler, etc., to a goddess. THE PREDICATE. Agreement of the Verb with the Subject in Simple Sentences. WHEN THE SUBJECT IS SIMPLE. Here it is necessary to consider whether the sentence be of normal or inverted order. I. In sentences of normal order (see § 303). aeth y wraig i'r ty, the tvoman has gone into the house. aeth y gwragedd i'r ty, the women have gone into the house. gweithiodd y dynion yn rhagorol, the men worked excellently. aethom ni gartref, we went home. maent hwy yno, they are there. a gawsant hwy ddigon ? did they get enough 1 Rule, — In sentences of normal order, when the Subject is a noun, the Verb is always in the singular, whether the noun be singular or plural. When the Subject is a pionoun, the Verb agrees with the pronoun in number and person. t For 'fe' see Accidence, § 133 and Appendix. 319 320 321 SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION 9 1 2. In sentences of inverted order (see § 305). y pendefigion o'r Aipht draw | a ddaw ac Ethiopia (E. Prys), the noblemen will come from distant Egypt and Ethiopia. y merched (a) gaiff * fyned gyntaf, the women shall go first. ai chvvi (a) roddodd yr arian ? was it you that gave the money 1 hwy (or hwynthwy) ni fuont yno, they were not there. Rule. — In affirmative sentences of inverted order, the Verb stands in the 3rd pers. sing. In negative sentences the Verb agrees with the Subject in number and person ; see Appendix. Obs. — Even in affirmative sentences, when the Subject, though placed before the Verb, is not emphatic, the Verb often agrees with it in number and person : e.g. mi a glywais y chwedl, I heard the story. pawb a'i bendithiant ef yn wlr, all will verily bless him. (E. Prys.) N.B. — A collective noun from which a singular is formed (§§ 76, 77) is treated in Syntax as a plural. WHEN THE SUBJECT IS COMPOUND. _ A Compound Subject is a Subject made up of two 01 more nouns (or noun-equivalents) linked together by the con- junction ac, and, or united in thought without a conjunction. Here again it is necessary to consider whether the sentence be of normal or inverted order. I. In sentences of normal order (see § 303). daeth John a "WWW&ra, John and William came, daeth John a minnau, John and I came. daethost ti a minnau, you and I came. daethosfti a John, you and John came. Rule. — In sentences of normal order, if the Compound Subject be a noun + noun or a noun + pronoun, the Verb is in the 3rd pers. sing. ; if the Compound Subject be a pronoun + pronoun or a pronoun + noun, the Verb agrees in person and number with the pronoun nearest to it. The same rule applies to words joined together by neu, or. * Cf. the Breton m^ a gar, / love. 92 WELSH SYNTAX 322 *• Iji sentences of inverted order (see § 305). John a minnau sydd yma, it is John and I that are here. ef a'r bachgen (a) aeth yno, it was he and the boy that went there. Rule. — In affirmative sentences of inverted order, the Verb, even when the Subject is Compound, stands in the 3rd pers. sing. Obs. — In negative sentences and sometimes even in affirmative sentences tlie Verb is made to agree with the Subject : e.g. ef a minnau ni aethom, he and I did not go ; hi a thithau a aethoch, she and you went. In that case, if the words composing the Subject are of different persons, then the plural Verb is of the 1st person rather than the 2nd or 3rd, and of the 2nd person rather than the 3rd. Reason.— ef a minnau = m (ist pers. plur.). hi a thithau = chwi (2nd pers. plur.). Agreement of the Verbs with the Subject in Co-ordinate Sentences. 323 aeth y brenin i'r llys ac eisteddodd ar ei orsedd, the king went into the court and sat on his throne. eisteddodd y gweithwyr a gorphwysasant, the workmen sat and rested. aethom i'r ty ac eisteddasom, we went into the house and sat do7vn. Rule. — In a seiies of co-ordinate sentences 7vith the same Sub- ject, the Verbs, in all the sentences after the first, agree in number and person with that Subject. N.B. — Sometimes, in such a series of sentences, only the first sentence has a finite verb, while the others have each a verb- noun : e.g. aethant i'r ty ac eistedd a bvvyta, they went into the house, sat down and ate. SECOND FORM OF THE PREDICATE. (predicate = VERB + PREDICATE- ADJECTIVE OR PREDICATE-NOUN, § 304. II.) The same kind of verb may stand in a Predicate of the Second Form as in English : — I. wyf, / am : e.g. yr wyf yn ddedwydd, / am happy ; mae yn frenin, he is a king. deuaf, / become : e.g. daw y bachgen yn ddyn, the child will become a man. 324 SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION 93 325 arhosaf, / remain : e.g. ni erys yn ieuanc, he will not remain young. ymddanghosaf, / appear : e.g. ymddanghosaf ya drist, / appear sad. 2. The Passives (cf. Accidence, § 178 ; § 327, note) — creir fi, I am created; penodir fi, / am appointed; etholir fi, I am elected; gelwir fi, / am called ; cyfrifir fi, / am accounted ; ystyrir fi, / am considered : e.g. penodir y tywysog yn frenin, the prince is appointed king; cyfrifir fi yn dlawd, I am accounted poor. Rule. — The Predicate-noun or the Predicate-adjective is pre- ceded by the predicative proclitic yn (for which see § 304, note). When, however, the Verb is a form of \vyf, / am, and the Predicate-noun or Predicate-adjective precedes the Verb, yn is not used : e.g dyn wyf, I am a man, 3. With other verbs the Predicate-adjective or the Predicate- noun referring to the Subject denotes : — either (a) the result of an action : e.g. fe gyfyd yr afon yn uwch, the river will rise higher. or (3) what the Subject is, was or will be at the time of the action : e.g. dychwelodd yn fyw ac iach, he returned alive and well. 4. This use of the Predicate-adjective has been greatly extended in Welsh so as to supply the place of adverbs : e.g. gweithiodd yn egniol, he worked vigorously. Cf. the Latin invitus (imprudens) fecit, he did it unwillingly [un- wittingly). Agreement of the Predicate-adjective. mae yr afon yn ddofn, the river is deep. ymddengys y tai yn wynion, the houses appear white. mae y dillad yn ddu iawn, the clothes are very black. Rule.— As in Latin and Greek, the Predicate-adjective, if capable of undergoing change of form to express gender or number, generally agrees with the noun or pronoun of which it is predicated, but sometimes the Predicate-adjective, though capable of taking a plural form, is left in the singular, even when the noun of which it is predicated is in the plural. 94 WELSH SYNTAX Obs. I. — When the Subject is plural and the Predicate-adjective singular, the masculine form of the singular is always used : e.^, mae y dolydd yn wyrdd, the meadows are green. (not — yn werdd, though dol is feminine.) Obs. 2. —When the Predicate-adjective is equivalent in meaning to an English adverb ending in -ly, it always has the form of the singular masculine. 326 327 THIRD FORM OF THE PREDICATE. (predicate = VERB -f OBJECT, § $0 ^.j III.) The Object. 1. In Welsh, as in other languages, (a) the Object is either a noun or a noun-equivalent ; \b) if the Object be a declinable word, it stands in the accusa- tive case : e.g. fe'm gwelodd, he saw me. N.B. — The only words of accusative /<7r;;/ in Modern Welsh are the postvocalic personal pronouns. See Accidence, §§ 130, 132. 2. The Object of a verb is often of kindred meaning to the verb. In this case it is called Cognate. As in Latin and Greek, a Cognate Object is usually qualified by an adjective : e.g. canodd gan ragorol, he sang an excellent song. Passive Construction. ACTIVE. Uaddodd y teithiwr lew, the traveller killed a lion. dychrynodd y tarw y bechgyn, the bull frightened the boys. PASSIVE. lladdwyd Hew gan y teithiwr, a lion was killed by the traveller. dychrynwyd y bechgyn gan y tarw, the boys ivere frightened by the bull. Rule. — In the Passive construction of verbs taking an Object, what Was the Object in the Active becomes the Subject ; what was the Subject in the Active is connected with the Passive verb by the preposition gan, by (lit. with). Note.— Owing to the peculiar history of the Welsh Passive (see Accidence, § 178), it is often difficult to determine, when the sentence is of normal order, whether the apparent Subject is a Subject of a passive verb or the Object of an impersonal verb ; when the sentence is of inverted order and the Subject precedes the verb, tlie passive character of the verb is much clearer : e.g. gwelwyd dyn (Normal order) I dyn a welwyd (Inverted order) ' a man was seen ' (unemphalic) | ' a man was seen ' (emphatic). SENTENCE CONSTRUCTtON 95 Verbs constructed with a fixed preposition. 328 Where a language like Greek, Latin, or German, in other words an inflexional language, uses fixed cases in dependence upon certain verbs, in Welsh, as in English, a fixed preposition often becomes necessary. 329 The chief verbs taking such fixed prepositions are the fol- lowing : — (a) Verbs taking the fixed preposition ag (a), with. cydymdeimlaf [ag] I sympathize \witH\ cynefinaf [ag] I grow accus- tomed \to\ cytunaf [ag] Iagree\witK\ ymddiddanaf [ag] / converse \wit}i\ (6) Verbs taking the fixed preposition ar, on. ymheliaf [ag] I meddle \with'\ ymladdaf [ag] r fight \tvitH] ymrysonaf [ag] T quarrel \witli\ ymyraf [ag] / interfere [with] achwynaf [ar] beiaf [ar] blinaf [ar] boddlonaf [ar] cefnaf [ar] cwynaf [ar] daliaf [ar] dialaf [ar] edrychaf [ar] galwaf [ar] l lorh [at] I call [upon] gwaeddaf [ar] fcrji [to] gweddiaf [ar] I pray [to] I complain [of] I blame I am tired [of] I am content [until] I forsake I complain of] I pay heed to] I take vengeance [upon] dylanwadaf [ar] I influence (c) Verbs taking the fixed preposition at, towards. gwenaf [ar] [ar] / smile [on] gwyliaf [ar] I watch llefaf [ar] I cry [to] rhagoraf [ar] I excel sylwaf [ar] I notice ymosodaf [ar] I attack agoshaf [at] cadwaf [at] cyfeiriaf [at] / approach I keep [to] r refer \to] neshaf [at rhyfeddaf synnaf [at at] (d) Verbs taking the fixed preposition wrth, cenfigenaf [wrth] I envy digiaf [wrth] / am angry [with] dywedaf [wrth] /tell glynaf [wrth] llefaraf [wrth] tarawaf [wrth] tosturiaf [wrth] / approach I wonder [at] j» J) to, close to. I cling [to] I speak [to] I meet [with] I pity Add also : atebaf [i], / answer ; ymroddaf [i], / devote myself [to] ; cyfranogaf [o], / partake [of] ; arid ymogelaf [rhag], / beware [of]. 96 WELSH SYNTAX Verbs taking a verb-noun as Object. 330 Some verbs take a verb-noun as their Object : e.g. gallaf weithio, / ca?i work. declireuaf ysgrifenu, /" sha/l begin to write (lit. / shall begin writing). addawodd ddyfod, he Promised to come (lit. he promised coming). dysgwn ddarllen, let us learn to read (lit. let us learn reading). The following verbs may take a verb-noun as Object in a Pre- dicate of the Third Form : — addawaf / promise dysgat / learn anghofiaf I forget dymunaf I desire anobeithiaf T despair ewyllysiaf I wish anturiaf I venture gallaf I can arferaf I am accustomed gobeithiaf I hope arswydaf T dread gochelaf I avoid beiddiaf I dare gorphenaf I finish brysiaf I hasten gwrthodaf I refuse bwriadaf I intend haeddaf I deserve bygythiat I threaten hoffaf I like caf I obtain medraf I am able caraf I love methaf I am unable cashaf I hate mynnaf I am determined ceisiaf T seek nacaf I refuse cofiaf I remember oedaf I delay cychwynaf I start ofnaf I fear cynygiaf I attempt osgoaf I avoid chwenychaf J desire osiaf I attempt dechreuaf I begin paliaf I fail dewisaf I choose rhyfygaf I risk digwyddaf I happen trefnaf I arrange disgwyliaf I expect ymdrechaf I endeavour dylwn T ought Caution. — The verb-noun after these verbs must not be pre- ceded by the preposition i. After troaf [i], F turn [to] ; llwyddaf [i], / succeed [/«] ; and cytunaf [i], / agree to, tlie verb-noun is correctly preceded by that preposition. [C*'. § 333, Cautions 1 and 2.] SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION 97 331 FOURTH FORM OF THE PREDICATE. (predicate = VEBB + TWO OBJECTS, § 304, IV.) Welsh has no verbs which take two accusatives (like Latin doceo te linguam Latinam, / teach thee the Latin language); and, owing to the absence of dative inflexions, no verbs which take a dative and an accusative. It has, however, a considerable number of verbs which take an Object and a fixed preposition governing a noun or pronoun (or combined with a pronominal suffix) in place of a second Object : e.g. rhoddaf arian i'r llanc, I shall give the youth money. amddifadodd ef o'i eiddo, he deprived him of his property. talasant ei gyflog iddo, they paid him his salary. 332 {a) Verbs taking the fixed preposition i, to. addawaf [i] atebaf [i] cynygiaf [i] danghosaf [i] dysgaf [i] edliwiaf [i] gadawaf [i] / promise I ansiver I offer I show I teach T taunt I leave gofynaf [i] gosodaf [i] maddeuaf [i] mynegaf [i] rhoddaf [i] talaf [i] / ask I assign [to] T forgive I indicate \td\ I give \t6\ I pay \to\ {b) Verbs taking the fixed preposition o, from. amddifadaf [o] argyhoeddaf [o] / deprive \of\ I convince [of] cyhuddaf [o] llanwaf [o] / accuse [of] I fill [ivith] (c) Verbs taking the fixed preposition wrth, to. addefaf [wrth] T admit [to] cyffesaf [wrth] / co7ifess [to] cyfaddefaf [wrth] / confess [to] (d) Verbs taking the fixed preposition ag (a), with. cymysgaf [ag] / mix [with] cysylltaf [ag] I join [to] cynysgaedda {[2.^\I endow [with] {e) Verbs taking the fixed preposition at, to, toward. cymhwysaf [at] chwanegaf [at] I apply [to] [ add [to] gosodaf [at] ysgrifenaf [at] / add [to] I write [to] (/) Verbs taking the fixed preposition rhag, from. achubaf [rliaj;] cadwaf [rhag] / save [f om] I keep [from] diogelaf [rhag] gwyliaf [rhag] I protect [from] 98 WELSH SYNTAX 333 Verbs taking a verb-noun as one of two Objects. Some verbs take a verb-noun as one of two Objects : e.g. dysgodd i mi ganu, he taught me singing. gofynais iddo fyned, / asked him to go. gadewch i'r bwyd oeri, allow the food to cool. The following verbs may take a verb-noun as one of their Objects in a Predicate of the Fourth Form -.-^ addawaf / promise ewyllysiaf T wish arbedaf I save goddefaf I allow archaf I request gofynaf I ask awgrymaf I suggest gorchymynaf I command bvvriadaf T intend gwaharddaf I forbid caf * I obtain gwarafunaf »» »» ceisiaf * I seek gwnaf / make caniataf I allow gwrthodaf I refuse cynghoraf I advise nacaf )' j> cynygiaf I offer paraf / cause deisyfaf * I beseech rhwystraf I prevent dymunaf * I desire trefnaf I arrange erfyniaf * I beg Cautions. — i. The verb-noun after these verbs must not be preceded by the preposition i (cf. § 330, Caution) : e.g. gofynaf iddo ddyfod, / shall ask him to come (not, gofynat iddo i ddyfod). The unnecessary use of the prep, i before the verb-noun in Predicates of the Fourth Form (in imitation of the English ' to ' before the infinitive) is one of the commonest mistakes of in- experienced writers, and should be carefully avoided. 2. After the following verbs, however, which govern a noun or pronoun as one of their two Objects, the verb-noun is correctly preceded by i : — cynghoraf / advise dysgaf I teach galwaf I call galluogaf heriaf / enable I challenge * caf and ceisiaf take the preposition gan, with ; deisyfaf, dymunaf, erfyniaf, the preposition ar, on, before the word denoting the person : e.g. ceisiaf gan y dyn fyned, / try to get the man to go ; deisyfaf arno ddyfod, / beg nf him to come. S£NtMNcM construction 99 FIFTH FORM OF THE PREDICATE. (predicate = VERB + OBJECT + PREDICATE ADJECTIVE OR PREDICATE-NOUN, § 304, V.) 334 As in other languages, the chief verbs that take a Predicate- adjective or Predicate-noun referring to the Object are verbs lienoting to make, choose, call, think, show, leave — the verbs whose passives take a Predicate-adjective or Predicate-noun referring to the Subject : e.g. coronwch ef yn ben, croivn Him Lord. galwant ef yn wynfydedig, they call him blessed. profodd ei hun yn fTyddlon, he proved himself faithful. 335' With other verbs, the Predicate-adjective or Predicate-noun referring to the Object denotes (as in § 324, 3) — either {a) the result of an action : — e.g. codasant y mur yn uwch, they raised the wall higher. or (p) what the Object is, was or will be at the time of the action : e.g. OS dy wedi y gwir, cei y gwr yn gyfaill, // you speak the truth, you will find the man a friend. fel, megis, as, may be added : e.g. mae yn ei drin fel caethwas, he treats him as a slave. ^^ For the use of yn, see § 324, Rule. For the agreement of the Predicate-adjective, see § 325, Rule. 2. mentyll llydain, broad mantles merched ieuainc, young women ATTRIBUTES. Agreement of the Adjective as Attribute, 336 T. tair carreg drom, three heavy stones fTordd fer, a short road caseg wen, a white mare Rules : i. An adjective which has a feminine form in regular use must agree in gender with the fem. noun which it qualifies. 2. An adjective which has a plural form does not always agree in number with the plural noun which it qualifies. If the adjective qualifying a plural noun stands in the singular, the masc. form of the singular must be used, even with plural nouns of the femi- nine gender. 106 WELSH SYNTAX Obs. — The adjectives — arall, other cyfan, whole llydan, broad bychan, small gwan, weak marw, dead cadani, strong ieuanc, young tlawd, poor as well as most adjectives which denote colours, almost always take the plural form with plural nouns. N.B. — A cardinal numeral adj. is always followed by a singular noun. Place of the Adjective as Attribute. )37 The adjective generally comes after the noun which it qualifies, but the following adjectives are exceptions : — {a) All the indefinite pronominal adjectives. {b) All numerals— except cyntaf, _/?ra /. (c) prif, chief {U. Latin primus). (d) cam, when it means false. (e) unig, when it means only. (f) Usually, gau, false ; gwir, true ; and hen, old. When, however, these adjectives are qualified by one of the adverbs go, rather, iawn, very, tra, exceedingly, they follow the noun. 338 339 The Noun as Attribute. In Welsh, as in English, the noun is often used as an Attribute, especially to denote material : e.g. wal gerrig, a stone wall ; sarff bres, a brazen serpent. Note. — In Modern Welsh such nouns are treated partly as nouns, partly as adjectives : — like nouns they may stand in the plural, like adjectives they undergo initi.il mutation after feminine nouns. For example, 'genig' in 'wal gerrig ' is the mutated form of the plural of carreg, stone, c changing to g according to the regular rule for initial mutation in adjectives following feminine nouns. Historically, it is not improbable that such nouns were once in the genitive case. Though a noun depending on a noun does not undergo initial mutation in Modern Welsh, in Mediecval Welsh such mutation was common in the case of a noun depending on a feminine noun. KINDS OF SENTENCE. Sentences may be classified as : — I. Statements; 11. Will-speech, i.e. Commands, Wishes, Concessions; III. Questions; IV. Exclamations. SENTEIVCE CONSTRUCTION 10 1 I. STATEMENTS. 340 A. Statements of fact (Mood, Indicative: Negative nid, nl, nis, = Greek ov, Latin non) : e,g. dywedodd y gwir, he spoke the truth. B. Conditional statements. These statements may be regarded in Welsh as Conditional sentences with the if-clause omitted : e.g. (i) carvvn ddvveyd, I should like to say: understanding pe cawn, if I were permitted. (2) ho^AS-^n iyntd, I should have liked to go : understand- ing pe cawswn, if I had been permitted. Rule. — Conditional statements (including hesitating or cautious assertions) are expressed by the Indicative ; Neg. nid (nl) : by the Past Imperfect Indie, used as a Secondary Future, if referring to present time, as in (i) ; by the Pluperfect Indie, used as a Secondary Fut. Perfect, if referring to past time, as in (2). Note i. — There is a strong tendency at the present day, especially in North Wales, to use the Pluperfect form in both cases. Note 2. — The 2nd pers. sing, is often indefinite (ti, yoti = " one," Gk. tii, Fr. cm, Germ. man). Statements in co-ordinate sentences. For the use of a verb-noun in place of a verb in a series of Co-ordinate Sentences see § 323, N.B. II. WILL SPEECH : i.e. commands, wishes, concessions. According as the will-speech is more or less peremptory, it becomes a command or a mere expression of wish. Commands. 341a I. Commands are expressed by means of the Imperative, the plural of which is the same as the Pres. Indie. P. 2 : e.g. dywed, speak (thou) ; dywedwch, speak (ye). 2. A pressing request may be expressed by means of the Im- perative of gwnaf, followed by a verb-noun as its Object : e.g. gwnewcli aros, do stay. N.B. — A polite request which would be expressed in English by the Imper. Act. S. 2 is generally expressed in Welsh by the. Imper. Impers. S. 3; e.g. please read = darllener. 102 WELSH SYNTAX Prohibitions (Negative Commands). 341b I, Prohibitions are expressed by nac (na) with the Imperative : e.g. nac ofna, do not fear ; na ladd, do not kill. 2. They are also very commonly expressed by using the Imperative of peidiaf, I cease, followed by a verb-noun, with or without the preposition ag (a), with : e.g. peidiwch a myned, do not go, lit. cease to go: cf. Lat. nolite Ire. Wishes. 342 I . Wishes as to the future may be expressed by using the Pres. Subjunctive : e.g. gwelwyf y dydd ! may I see the day ! Duw a'n bendithio ! may God bless us ! Cf. Lat. vivat, Gk. ^coiy, may he live I Fr. vive le roi ! long live the king ! 2. Wishes that something were (at the present* time) other than it actually is, are expressed by the Past Imperfect Indicative, used as a Past Imperfect Subjunctive, with 6 nad (na) ! lit. oh that not I but corresponding in usage to the English oh that I Cf. Lat. utinam viveret, Gk. iSi l^iy : e.g. 6 na bai yn fyw yn awr ! would that he were alive now I na byddai 'n haf o hyd ! would that it were always summer I 3. Wishes that something had been (in the past) otherwise than it actually was, are expressed by the Pluperfect Indicative, used as a Pluperfect Subjunctive, with 6 nad (na) ; cf Lat. utinam illis temporibus vixisset, Gk. iiBt. Ton IjHia : e.g. 6 na buasai yn fyw y pryd hynny ! would that he had been alive then I 5 na chawsai ei ddymuniad ! would that he had been granted his desire I Obs. I. — The Pluperfect is frequently used at the present day, especially in the Welsh of North Wales, to express wishes as to the past, present, or future : e.g. o na chawswn i fyn'd yfory ! oA that I may go to-morrow ! o na buasai yn fyw yn awr ! would that he ivere alive now ! o na buasai yma ddoe ! would that he had been here yesterday I Obs. 2. — Wishes as to the future are sometimes expressed by using o am, oh for, followed by a verb-noun : e.g. o am gyfeirio fy ffyrdd i gadw dy ddeddfau, oh that my ways might be directed to keep (i.e. to keeping) thy statutes. Ps. cxix. 5. * This form may also be used with reference to future time. SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION I03 4. As the negative adverb nad (na), not (Greek /on;, Lat. ne), is used in affirmative expressions of wish, negative wishes as to the present and the future are usually expressed by means of the Pluperfect of wyf followed by the verb-noun peidio, ceasing, with the preposition yn ; the verb-noun peidio being followed by the verb-noun denoting the action required, with or without ag (a) : e.g. o na buasai yn peidio (a) myned ! oh that he would not go ! lit. oh that he would be a-ceasing from going t Similarly, by the substitution of the preposition wedi, after, for yn, in, a negative wish as to the past may be expressed : e.g. 6 na buasai wedi peidio (a) myned I oh that he had not gone ! lit. oh that he would be after ceasing from going ! 5. A negative wish as to the past may also be expressed by using 6 nad (na) with the Pluperfect of wyf followed by the required verb-noun with the preposition heb, without : e.g. 6 na buasai heb fyned ! oh that he had not gone ! lit. oh that he were without going ! Concessions. 343 Concessions are expressed by the Imperative. The negative is nac (na) = Gk. /i^, Lat. ne : e.g. boed felly, be it so. (Cf. Lat. esto, Gk. loro), Fr. soit.) III. QUESTIONS. 344a Questions may take the form of a sentence of normal or inverted order: see Accidence, §§ 283, 285, 286, 287. For the mode of expressing 'Yes ' and ' No ' see Acciilence, §§ 286, 287. e.g. a welodd y gwas y ceffylau ddoe ? did the servant see the horses yesterday ? ai y ceffylau (a) welodd y gwas ddoe? was it the horses that the servant saw yesterday ? a (Idaw y mab adref yfory ? will the son come home to- morrow 1 ai y mab (a) ddaw adref yfory ? is it the son that will come home to-morrow ? ai adref y daw y mab yfory ? is it home that the son will come to-morrow ? ai yfory y daw y mab adref? is it to-morrow that the son will come home 1 I04 WELSH SYNTAX Deliberative Questions. 344b a ydwyf i fyned ? atn I to go i beth wyf i'w wneyd ? what am I to do 1 a oeddwn i dewi ? was I to be silent ? beth oeddwn i'w ddweyd? what was I to say ? Rule : Deliberative questions (i.e. questions as to what is or was to be done) are expressed by using the verb wyf (ydwyf), lam, followed by a verb-noun with the prep, i, to, as in English ; when the question refers to present or future time, the Pres. Ind. is used : when the question refers to past time, the Past Imperf. Ind. (Continuous) is used. Ons. — A deliberative question referring to the future may also be expressed by using the Future (= Present) Indicative : e.^. a ddywedwn ni wrthynt ? s/m/t we tell them ? Double Deliberative Guestions. 344c ^ ^y^ * fyned ynte aros ? am I to go or stay ? a lefarwn ynte tewi ? shall we speak or be silent 1 a oedd i fyned ynte peidio? was he to go or not? Rule. — ^Where a deliberative question contains two alternatives, the second is expressed by means of a verb-noun preceded by the conjunction ynte, or : or not is expressed by ' ynte peidio.' Note. — The answer corresponding to the finite verb in the case of a double deliberative question is in the Imperative, the answer corresponding to the verb-noun is a verb-noun : e.g. a lefarwn ynte tewi ? Ans. Uefarwch (verb), or tewi (verb-noun). Modes of introducing questions. 344d I. For the modes of introducing questions which may be answered by 'Yes' or 'No,' see Accidence, §§ 283, 285. 2. Questions which cannot be answered by ' Yes ' or ' No ' are introduced, as in other languages, by interrogative pronouns, interrogative adjectives or interrogative adverbs, without any in- terrogative particle. Such questions always take the form of a sentence of inverted order. IV. EXCLAM.4TI0NS. 345 Many of the above-named modes of speech may become ex- clamatory {i.e. may be used to express emotion) : — deceH ydyw ! how beautiful it is 1 mor wyn ydyw ! how white it is I gymmaint y'th gashif ! how { = how much) I hate you t SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION IO5 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 346a In a Complex Sentence the Principal Clause and the Sub- ordinate Clause have each a Subject and Predicate of its own ; but in Welsh the place of the Subordinate Clause is often taken by a Phrase (§ 308) formed with a verb-noun, which is equiva- lent in meaning to a Subordinate Clause. Such sentences, though expressing the meaning of Complex Sentences, are in form simple: e.g. — (a) dywedodd fod dyn yno, he said that there was a man there, lit. he said the being of a man there. (Noun Phrase.) Contrast : — dywedodd nad oedd dyn yno, he said that there was not a tnan there. (Noun Clause.) {b) gan iddo orphen, since he finished, lit. owing to him finishing. (Adverb Phrase.) Contrast : — gan na orphenodd, since he did not finish. (Adverb Clause.) In {a) fod is grammatically the Object of dywedodd, and in {b) orphen depends on the preposiiion gan. For the limitations to the use of a Clause in special cases see §§ 347l». 349^, 3S8b, 367. 368a, 368b. 346b Verb-noun phrases (Clause-equivalents). The following rules as to the construction of these verb- noun phrases apply to all the cases in which they are used (whether as equivalent to Adverb Clauses or to Noun Clauses) : Rules. — i. In the case of all verb-noun Piirases, a verb noun takes the place of the verb in a Clause : e.g. gwelais ei ddyfod, I saw that he came, lit. l saiv his coming. Contrast : — gwelais na ddaeth, I saw that he did not come. cyn ei fyned, before he went, lit. before his going. Contrast : — cyn ) r aeth, before he went. I06 WELSH SYNTAX 2. The Subject of the corresponding Clause is, in Active con- structions, generally represented by placing the required noun or pronoun (or pronominal suffix) — either (a) with the preposition i, to, before the verb-noun, or {b) „ „ o*/rom, after „ e.g. gwn iddo orphen, / know that he finished, lit. / hio^v to him a finishing. gwn orphen ohono, / know that he finished, lit. / know a finishing from him. cyn i'r dyn orphen, before the man finished, lit. before to the man a finishing. cyn gorphen o'r dyn, before the man -finished, lit. before a finishing f?-otn the man. But, where the verb-noun is bod, being,^ the Subject of the corresponding Clause may be represented, if a noun, by placing the noun immediately after the verb-noun, or, if a pronoun, by employing the corresponding possessive adj. with the verb-noun ; these rules, however, apply only when bod represents a finite verb in the Pres. Indie. Continuous or the Past Imperf. Indie. Con- tinuous: e.g. gwn fod y dyn yn hen, / know that the man is old, lit. / know the being of the man old. gwyddwn ei fod yn hen, / kneiv that he was old, lit. / knew his being old. Similarly — er fod y dyn yn hen, though the man is old, lit. in spite of the man's being old ; er ei fod yn hen, though he is old, lit. in spite of his being old. 3. The Object of the corresponding Clause in Active con- structions and the Subject in Passive constructions are alike represented, if a noun, by placing the noun immediately after the verb-noun, or, if a pronoun, by employing the corresponding possessive adjective with the verb-noun : e.g. wedi iddo weled y dyn, after he saw the man. wedi iddo fy ngweled, after he saw me. clywais golli y dyn, I heard that the man was lost. clywais ei golli, I heard that he was lost. * The use of the prep, o for this purpose is now almost obsolete in Welsli prose. t A few other intransitive verb-nouns such as dyfod, coming, myned, coming, machludj setting, hwyrhau, growing late, and marw, dying, have a similar construction. SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION IO7 Passive verbs (impersonal forms) are most commonly repre- sented in verb-noun phrases by the verb-noun cael followed by another verb-noun depending upon it. See Accidence, § 280 : e^. dywedodd iddo gael ei flino gan anwyd, he said that he was troubled {once) with a cold, lit. that he got his troubling, etc. Note. — The use of the genitive case after tlie verb-noun in Irish, the non- mutation of a noun following a transitive verb-noun, and the use of possessive adjectives with the verb-noun, all point to the fact that in Welsh the verb- noun was followed by a noun in the genitive case. The genitive following a transitive verb-noun and expressing what would be the Object of a transitive verb would correspond to the objective genitive of Greek and Latin, while the genitive following an intransitive verb would correspond to the subjective genitive. These constructions arose at a time when the affinities of the verb- noun to the noun were clearly felt. At the present day, however, we are, on the whole, more conscious of the affinities of the verb-noun to the verb, and, if it were possible for Welsh to develop new case.endings, the case which was once an objective genitive would doubtless become an accusative, and this might possibly also happen to the subjective genitive. N.B. — In Noun Phrases of Statement and the Equivalents of Causal and Concessive Clauses, when the doer of the action ex- pressed by the verb-noun is denoted by the aid of the preposition i or o, the verb-noun generally corresponds to a finite verb in the Aorist or the Pluperfect in a Clause : e.g. gan iddo ddyfod, since he came. gan na ddaeth, since he did not come. Contrast : — gwn ei fod, / know that he is, and s;wti iddo fod, I hio7u that he was. io8 WELSH SYNTAX ADVERB CLAUSES AND PHRASES (§ 313). Adverb Clauses are classified according to the adverbial meaning which they express. Thus we have Adverb Clauses of — {a) Time, introduced by — pan, when "1 r t ,. i pryd, „ }[ = Lat.cumJ er pan, since [ = Lat. ex quo] pryd bynnag, whensoever gynted ag. as soon as\_ = Lat. ut primum] gydag (%yda), just as tra, ivhile [ = Lat. dum] nes "I hyd nes oni * until [ = Lat. donee] hyd oni tan (dan), cyhyd ag, as long as [ = Lat. quoad] cyn, before [ = Lat antequam, priusquam] gwedi, wedi, after [ = Lat. post- quam] (b) Place, introduced by — lie, where [ = Laf. ubi] He bynnag, wherever (c) Reason, introduced by — gan, since, as [ = Lat. quoniam, cum] am, because, as [ = Lat. quod, quia] pan, since, as [ = Lat. quando- quidem, siquidem] {d) Purpose, introduced by — fel "1 moddr'' "*'''"' '^"^ ^='^^^- "'] nadV) }^«^[ = Lat.ne] (e) Result, introduced by — nes|w//w/[ = Lat. ut] (/) Condition, introduced by °^g}./[=Lat.si] oni, if not [ = Lat. nisi] am, if only [ = Lat. dum, dum- modo] (£) Concession, introduced by — er "X although [ = Lat. quam- serch > quam, quamvis, licet, cyd 1 ) ut, cum] pe,* even if [=Lat. etsi, taraetsi] {h) Comparison, introduced by fel, as\ — Lat. sicut, ut, quemad- modum] p5, by how much, in proportion as [ = Lat. quo] nag (na), than [=Lat. quam] Comparison + Condition, intro- duced by — fel pe, asif\ — Lat. quasi, velut- si, tamquam, tamquam si] N.B. — Whenever one of these conjunctions (except nad, os, po, oni and sometimes pe) introduces an affirmative clause of normal order, the verb must be preceded by the proclitic particle yr (y) : > Bare, ' Often preceded by le, yes, yea. i^ENTEMCE COMSTkVCTtON t09 if the clause be of inverted order, the conjunction mai (S. Wales taw) is put after the conjunction which introduces the Clause (except after nad, p6, oni and pe). In Negative Clauses nad (na) is substituted for yr (y) or mai, but mai nid is also occasionally used. (After pan, er pan, tra and tan, the use of yr (y) and that of mai after os, are optional.) e.g. gan y byddai yno, since he rvould be there. (Aff.) „ na „ „ „ „ „ not be there. (Neg.) „ mai yno y byddai, since it was there that he would be. (Afif.) „ nad „ ,, „ „ ,, „ not there that he ivould be (Neg.j Note. — Where the conjunction introducing an adverb clause is identical in form with a preposition, the clause in question may be viewed, historically, as a noun clause governed by a preposition. Temporal Clauses (§ 346* a). 347a !• Those whose action is marked as fact : — pan orphenodd, aeth adref, when he finished, he went home. mae yn ddig, er pan y daeth yn 61, he is angry ever since he has come back. ni chafodd lawer o gysur tra (y) bu yno, he did not get much cojn/ort while he was there. rhoddwch eich enwau, cyn yr ewch allan, give your names before you go out. 2. Those whose action is marked as (a) prospective, i.e. merely contemplated as a future contingency 1 ; or (b) general : — (a) Prospective : nes machludo yr haul, until the sun shall set. Ch. Edwards, Hanes y Ff)dd, 167 1. erbyn yr eloch i'ch llety, by the time that you go (= shall go) to your lodging. Elis Wyn, Bardd Cw8g, 1713. wedi yr elo y bechgyn a'r genethod i'r adeilad newydd, after the boys a?id girls shall have gone to the new building. " Y Genedl," Dec. 28, 1897. ni bydd y sedd yn cael ei chyhoeddi yn wag hyd onid ymgynhullo y Senedd, the seat will not be declared vacant until Parliament meets ( = shall have met). " Y Faner," Dec. 29, 1897. ' It is the contingency of these prospective actions that is mainly suggested by the Subjunctive in Welsh. no tVELSff SYNTAX (b) General [£'z/^/'-clauses of Time] : mi allaf, pan fynnwyf, gael genthynt bob peth a berthyn, etc., I can, whemvei I wish, obtain from them everything that belongs, ttc. Gr. Roberts, Milan, flor. 1567. pan byddo fy ngelynion | yn edliw beiau foes, whetieven my enemies taunt me with the faults of my life. Emrys. cewch fyned pan y mynnoch, you can go whenQij&c you wish. cenir cloch pan fyddo cystadleuaeth gorawl i ddechreu, a bell is rung when { = whenever) a choral competition is to com7nence. Prof. D. M. Lewis in "YGeninen," April, 1893. Rules ; — i. Temporal Clauses take the Indicative, as in English, when the action is to be marked as fact \ Negative nad (na). 2. When the action is to be marked as prospective or general, the Temporal Clause takes the Present Subjunctive in present or future time; in past time the Past Imperfect Subjunctive, which is identical, in almost every verb, with the Past Imperfect Indicative (wyf, I am, has Past Imperf. Subjunctive S. i. byddwn and bawn ; oaf has Past Imperf. Subj. S. i. caffwn and cawn) : Neg. nad (na). Obs I. — The use of the Subjunctive has become rare in current Welsh prose, and many of the expressions in which it occurs are stereotyped expressions like, fel y mynno, as he pleases ; doed a ddelo, come what m ty, etc. Obs. 2. — The conjunctions pryd bynnag, gydag (gyda), nes, hyd nes, oni, hyd oni, cyn and gwedi (wedi) do not take a negative clause, and gwedi (wedi) rarely takes a clause of past time. Equivalent Phrases. 317b '^^^ place of an affirmative Clause of Time is often taken by a verb-noun phrase introduced by one of the prepositions cyn, before; erbyn, by (of time); gwedi (wedi), after; gydag (gyda), with ; nes, hyd nes, until ; wrth, at ; and sometimes er, since : e.g. erbyn imi gyrhaedd, yr oedd y drws wedi ei gau, by the time that I arrived, the door 7vas closed. cyn i'r dyn ddyfod, yr oeddwn yn canu, before the man came, I was singing. af allan nes i'r cerbyd ddyfod, / shall go out unHl the carriage comes. SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION IH wedi inii edrych, yr oedd wedi myned, when T looked, he had gone. cyn fy mod wedi gofyn, yr oedd ef wedi dweyd, before I had asked, he had spoken. wrth iddo redeg, yr oedd yn gwaeddi, as he ran, he shouted. The Subject and the Object of the corresponding Clause are represented according to the rules given in § 346b, p. 106. Compare with these equivalents the French use of aprfes, after, jusqu'k, up to, avant de, before, with the infinitive (where there is no change of Subject) : e.g. aprfes avoir lu, il s'endort, after having read, he falls asleep. aprfes avoir lu, il s'endorrait, after having read, he fell asleep. Also en, in, with the gerund : e.g. en lisant, while reading = wrth ddarllen. Local Clauses (§ 346 * b). 348 I- Local Clauses (Clauses of Place) take, for the most part, the same constructions as Temporal Clauses (Clauses of Time). The word lie which introduces them probably represents an old ablative or locative (= in the place), and it is not unlikely that it was once the antecedent of the proclitic yr, which may have meant in which: see Accidence, §§ 167, 16S. 2. In Modern Welsh Prose, the Subjunctive is only occasionally found in Local Clauses, and then, as a rule, only before forms like byddo (bo), gallo, and mynno, in certain stereotyped ex- pressions : eg. lie y bo, wherever he may be ; lie y mynno, wherever he ivill. 3. The Ne.nauve is nad (na), but nid (ni) is not unfrequently used, especially where the action is emphasised as a fact. 4. The following are instances of the Subjunctive in Local Clauses : — (i) Prospective : ni feiddia hi ddywedyd ei meddwl lie bwyfi, she will not dare to speak her mind ivhere I shall be. Morgan Llwyd, c. 1653. aed He y mynno, let him go whithersoever he shall wish. arhosed lie y caffo lonydd, let him stay where he shall have peace. 112 WELSH SYNTAX 349a 349b (2) General (^we/'-Clauses of Place) : He pallo'r gryra, ewyllys da a haedda gloJ, w/terQ^ev strength fails a good will deserves praise. Gr. Roberts, Milan, 1567. gwir felly a ddywed y philosophydd na bydd uniawn barn He bo cariad ne gas yn rheoli, the philosopher therefore says truly that iudgment will not be sound, wherttyei love or hate rules. Gr. Roberts, Milan, 1567. lie bo dolur y bydd Haw, wherevev there is a wound there is a hand. Welsh Proverb. Causal Clauses ( § 346 * c). af allan, gan nad yw yn gwlawio, / shall go out, since it is not raining. gorphenwch eich gwaith, gan y bydd yn nos yn fuan, ■finish your work, as it will soon be night. ysgrifenwch yn fuan, am y carwn gael ateb, rvrite soon, as I should like to have an ansicer. Rule. — Causal Clauses take the Indicative : Neg. nad (na). The use of the Causal Clause is practically limited (as in the case of Concessive Clauses and Noun Clauses of Statement) to cases in which the clause is negative, or when its tense is — either a Present used as a Present Habitual or as a Future, or a Past Imperfect used either as a Past Imperfect Habitual or as a Secondary Future (§§ 501, 502), or a Plupeifect used as a Secondary Future Perfect (§§ 521.523)- Equivalent Phrases. The place of affirmative Causal Clauses is largely supplied in Welsh by verb-noun phrases depending on one of the prepositions gan, am, oherwydd, oblegid (§§ 288, 298). When the verb of the corresponding Clause is in the Aorist or the Pluperfect (sometimes also in the Perfect), the doer of the action is denoted by the aid of the prep, i or o : e.g. oherwydd i mi orphen, because I finished. aeth ailan oblegid iddo gael digon, lie went out because he had had enough. a ydych yn ddig am i'r llanc ddyfod ? are you angry because the lad has come ? When the verb of the corresponding Clause is in the Present SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION II3 Tense and marks an action as noiv going on or a state as now existing, or is in the Past Imperfect and marks an action as going on in the past or a state as then existing, bod is employed, followed by the required verb-noun with yn : ^ e.g. gan ei fod yn gweled, since he sees ; gan na wel, since he does not see. gan ei fod yn gweled, since he saw ; gan na welai, since he did not see. Similarly bod followed by a verb-noun with wedi, expresses a Perfect or a Pluperfect : e.g. gan fod y dyn wedi myned, since the man has (or had) gone. The Subject of the corresponding Clause is represented with bod in these cases as described in § 346^. Cf. the French Clause-equivalents (without change of Subject) : pour avoir, ^r having; en voulant, liy ivishing, because one wishes. Final Clauses (§ 346 * d). 350 ^^ y° y gwna i'r newynog aros, fel y darparont ddinas i gyfaneddu, and there lie maketh the hungry to dwell, that they may prepare a city for habitation. Ps. cvii. 36. tyfiant gwastad yw bywyd cenedl : y mae iddo ei wreiddiau yn y gorphenol, fel y gallo ddwyn fifrwyth yn y dyfodol, the life of a nation is a steady growth, it has its roots in the past, that it may be able to bear fruit in the future. Dean Howell in " Y Geninen," April, 1893. nid gwiw i ddynion garu Duw fel y gallont gashau dynion, it is not right that men should love God in order that they may hate men. " Y Genedl," Dec. 28, 1897. gweithiai fel y gallai enill ei fara beunyddiol, he worked that he might earn his daily bread. Rules. — i. Final Clauses properly take the Subjunctive; but this use of the Subjunctive is now being more and more supplanted by the Indicative Negative nad (na). 2. in order that . . . not is rhag, fel nad, nad : lest . . . not is rhag nad (na). ' If the verb of the Clause be one of the following : adwaen, I knoiv ; clywaf, / iear ; gallaf, /am able ; gwelaf, / see ; gwn, I know ; raeddaf, / possess; and medraf, I am able ; this meaning may be expressed by means of a clause. D 114 WELSH S YNTAX 351 352a Equivalent Phrases. The place of affirmative Final Clauses is very largely supplied in Welsh by verb-noun phrases introduced by the prepositions i, er, rhag, and the prepositional phrase er mwyn. (Where the verb- nonn phrase contains the preposition i, another preposition i is not added ; one i does duty for both.) af ir ty er mwyn imi gael gorphwys, / shall go into the house to have rest {=in order that I may have rest). aeth i'r ty er mwyn iddo gael gorphwys, he went into the house to have rest {=in order that he might have rest). daeth i'r ystafell i ysgrifenu, he came to the room to write. ewch allan i thwi gael gweled rhy wbeth, go out that you may see something. gofalwch rhag i chwi gael anwyd, take care lest you should get a cold. Cf. the Frencli equivalents of a Final Clause (without change of Subject): pour aller, in order to go; afin de vivre, in order to live ; Gk. ^ovXtveadai, Tov PovXevtudai, in order to deliberate ; Lat. ad deliberandum, deliberandi causa, deliberatum (supine), in order to deliberate ; Germ, zu geben, um zu geben, in order to give; as well as the English infinitive with to, in order to. Consecutive Clauses (§ 346 *e). fel ■) arhosodd yn y gwlaw, w gwlychodd drwyddo, he stayed in the rain, so that he got wet through. mae ei ddewrder yn gyfryw, fcl nad yw yn ofni dim, his courage is such that he fears nothing. a ydych chwi mor ddeillion nas gallwch fy ngweled ? are you so blind that you cannot see me ? yr hwn sydd yn cynhyrfu y ddaear allan o'i lie, fel y cryno ei cholofnau hi, 7uhich shaketh the earth out of her place, and { = that) the pillars thereof tre7nble. Job ix. 6. Rules. — i. Result is expressed by means of fel and nes : fel may take the negative nad (na), but nes is never used with the negative. Fur fel nad (na), nad (na) alone is somelinies used. 2. The mood is the Indicative, but instances with the Sub- junctive are occasionally found. 352b 353 SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION II5 Equivalent Phrases. Consecutive verb-noim phrases are introduced by the pre- position nes : e.g. arhosodd yn y gwlaw, nes iddo wlychu, he stayed in the rain, so that he got wet. edrychai yr athravv mor ddig, nes i'r plentyn ddychryn, the master looked so angry that the child it'as frightened. Cf. the French equivalents of a Consecutive Clause (without change of Subject) formed by means of en sorte de, de manifere k, de fagon k, with the infinitive. Fr. Gram. § 352.* If-Clauses (§ 346 */)• I. A Complex Sentence, consisting of an Adverb-Clause of Condition (the If-clause, sometimes called the Protasis) and a Principal Clause (sometimes called the Apodosis), is called a Conditional Sentence. 2 Conditional Sentences maybe divided into two main classes — A. Those in which the Principal Clause does not speak of what would be or would have been, and the If-clause implies noihing as to fact or fulfilment : e.g. if this is correct, that is incorrect : os yw hyn yn gywir, mae hynyna yn anghywir. B. Those in which the Principal Clause speaks of what would be or would have been, and the If-clause contains an implication as to fact or fulfilment : e.g. pe delai y brenin, llawenycheni, if the king were to come (implying ' I do not say that he will come '), we should rejoice. pe delsai y brenin, Uawenychasem, if the king had come (implying ' he did not come '), we should have rejoiced. Obs. — In some languages there is a less important class (Cla^s C) resembling Class A, in which the Principal Clause is the same as in Class A, but the If- clause contains a slight implication as to fact or fulfilment. In Welsh this implication can be indicated only by the tone of the voice. Il6 tVELSir SYNTAX Class A (Conditional Sentences containing os clauses). 354 Past time : os gweithredodd felly, yr oedd ar fai, if he acted so, he was in the wrong. Present time : os yw yn gwiethredu felly, mae ar fai, if he acts so, he is in the wrong. Futuie time : os gweithreda felly, bydd ar fai, if he acts { = shall act) so, he will be in the wrong. OS na weithreda felly, bydd ar fai, unless he acts (^= shall act) so, he will be in the wrong. Rules. — i. When the Principal Clause does not speak of what would be or would have been, 'if is expressed by os,* and the mood of the If-clause is the Indicative. Negative nad (na) : but for os nad (os na) we sometimes find onid (oni).t 2. The time referred to need not be the same in both clauses : e.g. OS gweithredodd felly, ni Iwydda, if he acted so (in the past), he ivill not succeed (in the future). OS yw wedi cychwyn, fe ddaw, if he has started, he will come. 3. The Principal Clause of this class is free, i.e. may contain a Statement in the Indicative, or an expression of Command or Wish : e.g. OS wyt yna, tyr'd yma, if thou art there, come here. OS yw yn foddlon, boed felly, if he is ivilling, be it so. 354b' General Conditions are a subordinate variety of If-clause with- out implication, in which 'if = 'if ever'; the Principal Clause expressing a habitual action or a general truth : — OS Uadda neb, fe'i cosbir, if any one kills, he -will be punished. OS lladdai neb, fe'i cosbid, if any one killed, he was punished. In clauses of this type, os byth is often used for ' if ever.' Class B (Conditional Sentences containing pe clauses). 355 Past time : pe gwnelsai hyn, buasai ar fai, if he had done this, he would have been in the wrong. Present time : pe gwnelai hyn, byddai ar fai, if he were doing this, he would be in the wrong. Futare time : pe gwnelai hyn, byddai ar fai, if he were to do this, he would be in the wrong. * For OS, 6 and od are sometimes found. f =o + m. SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION II7 Rules. — i. When the Principal Clause speaks of what would be or ivould have been, 'if is expressed by pe,* and the tense of both the Ifclause and the Principal Clause is — the Past Imperf.t when referring to pres. or fut. time, the Pluperf. when refeiring to past time. The Neg. is nad (na) ; but for pe nad (pe na), we sometimes find onid (oni). Obs. — These tenses may possibly be regarded as tenses of the Subjunctive in the If-clause, corresponding to the English Subjunctive {e.g. were); in the Principal Clause they are tenses of the Indicative, the Past Impf. being used as a Secondary Future and the Pluperfect as a Secondary Fut. Perf. cor- responding to the so-called " Conditionnel " in French (see §§ 501, 502, 521, 522). In most verbs the Past Imperfect and the Pluperfect Subjunctive are indistinguishable in form from the corresponding tenses of the Indicative, but a distinction seems to have been developed in the Past Imperfect of wyf and caf; and the instances in which these verbs are used maybe considered as determining the rule for all other instances. So too in English, "if I had" might be Indie, but "if I were" can only be a Subjunctive. 2. An If-clause referring to past time may be joined to a Principal Clause referring to present time and vice versa : e.g. pe na buaswn wedi ei weled, byddai yn anhawdd gennyf gredu, ty I had not seen him, I should find it hard to believe. 3. ' if-only ' is expressed by means of am, followed by a verb in the Present Subjunctive or in the Future Indicative, if the verb in the main clause be in a tense of present or future time ; in the Past Imperfect Subjunctive, if the verb of the main clause be in a tense of past time : e.g. fe fydd yn dawel, am y caiff ddigon o arian, he will be content if only he has {= shall have) sufficient money. fe fyddai yn dawel, am y caffai ddigon o arian, he used to be content, if only he had sufficient money. 356 N.B. — am, if only, is not used to introduce negative clauses. Equivalent Phrases. 357 I. Conditional verb-noun phrases introduced by the pre- positions oddieithr, oddigerth, except, are used to express a negative condition : ^'^' °j j'^' J^ }-fy mod, or imi fod yno, unless I be there. * pe, if (occasionally ped and pes), has arisen from pei (an old form of the Past Imperf. Subjunctive S. 3. of wyf )=bei=bai, were it. See Appendix, t The Past Imperf. Habitual in the case of wyf. Il8 WELSH SYNTAX 358a 2. ' if only ' may be expressed by the conjunction ond, but, followed by a verb-noun phrase : e.g. ond imi gael hamdden, if only I have {= shall have) leisure. 3. Sometimes a verb-noun phrase introduced by one of the prepositions wrtb, bji, drwy, through, may be considered as the equivalent of a Conditional Clause : e.g. ni Iwydda neb wrth ddiogi, no one will succeed by idling {= if he idles). Cf. the possible French equivalent of a Conditional Clause (without change of Subject), formed by means of ' en ' with the Gerund: e.g. en agissant, by acting = if he acts. Fr. Gram. § 357. Concessive Clauses (§ 346*^). The Principal Clause corresponding to a Concessive Clause has an adversative meaning, i.e. it expresses what is true in spite of what is granted or conceded : ■*■ ] |na bydd ef ei hun yno, bydd ei galon yno, though ' he will not be there himself his heart will be there. er nad yw y tad yma, mae y mab yma, though the father is not here, the son is here. fe erys yn yr un fan, er y bydd hynny yn anfantais iddo, he will stay in the same place, though that toil I be a disadvantage to him. Rules. — i. The mood in clauses introduced by er and serch is the Indicative. Neg. nad (na). 2. pe, even if, (often preceded by ie, yes, yea) is used with the Past Imperfect as in § 355. The main clause generally has a verb in the Past Imperfect Indicative used as a Secondary P'uture, or in the Pluperfect Indicative used as a Secondary Future Perfect (see § 522), but the Future is also sometimes used. Neg. nad (na): e.g. ie, pe rhodiwn ar hyd glyn cysgod angeu, nid ofnaf niwed, yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil Ps. xxiii. 4. 3. cyd, though (rare), takes the Subjunctive Mood. Neg. nad (na) : e.g. cyd na byddo ond ammod dyn, though it be but a man's covenant. Gal. iii. 5. N.B. — Concessive Clauses are subject to the same limitations of usage as Causal Clauses (§§ 349a, 349b). 358b 359a SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION II9 Equivalent Phrases. 1. The place of Concessive Clauses is very largely supplied by the use of verb-noun phrases : '*■ h ( ^y ^^^ y^ myned, though I am going (was ^^^^ ^ going). „ fy mod wedi myned, though I have gone (had gone). er ") serch 1 *™^ fyned, though I went (had gone). N.B.— Concessive phrases are employed under the same con- ditions as Causal phrases (§ 349b). 2. Sometimes Concessive Clause-equivalents are introduced by the preposition dros, over : e.g. fe ddaw yma, dros iddo orfod cerdded, he will come here, though he might have to walk. 3. Cf the French equivalents of a Concessive Clause (without change of Subject) formed by means of pour with the infinitive and en with the gerund (Fr. Gram. § 358) : e.g. pour aimer un mari, Ton ne hait pas ses frferes, though one should love a husband, one need not hate one's brothers. tout en aimant ses enfants, elle les neglige, though she loves her children, she neglects them. Comparative Clauses (§ 346*/;). Comparative Clauses fall into two divisions, according as they are introduced by words meaning (r) 'as,' (2) 'than,' thus corre- sponding to the Comparative of Equality and the Comparative proper respectively. A. Introduced by words meaning 'as': e.g. ag (after Com- paratives of Equality), fel, fel ag, megis, megis ag : nid yw cyn gyfoethoced ag y bu, he is not so rich as he was. mae y peth fel yr wyf yn dweyd, the thing is as I say. aeth yno fel ag yr oedd, he ivent there just as he was. gwnaeth megis y dywedodd, he did as he had said. Rules. — i. Words meaning ' as ' almost always take the Indicative in Modern Welsh, though the Subjunctive is sometimes found in such expressions as — fel y mynno, as he may wish ; fel y gallo, as he may be able ; fel y bo, as it may be : 120 WELSH SYNTAX e.g. boed hynny fel y bo, be that as it may (Sul)j.). Contrast : mae hynny fel yr oedd, that is as it was (Indie). pwy ohonoch a draethodd y gellwch 'i orchymyn angylion Duw fal y mynnoch eych hunan ? who of you stated thai you can command the angels of God as you yourselves wish {=shall or may wish) 1 M. Kyffin, 1595. megis ag y byddo p5b un wedi darfod, just as each shall ■ have finished. C. Edwards, 167 1. pob un fel y gallo allan o'r Ysgrythyrau Sanctaidd, each as he may be able out of the Holy Scriptures. C. Edwards, 167 1. 2. If the same verb belongs to both clauses of the sentence, it is often omitted in the Comparative Clause : e.g. derbyniasant eu gilydd fel brodyr, they received each other as brethren. 3. The more the more is expressed by using the Superlative preceded by p6 (the old Ablative of the interrogative pronoun) at the beginning of the one clause, and at the beginning of the other the Superlative alone : e.g. po iachaf y bo dyn, cryfaf 611 fydd, the healthier a man is, the stronger he will be. Contrast Latin quo . . . eo with Comparatives. ^g° After po with the Superlative, the Subjunctive is not unfrequently used. B. Introduced by nag (na), than : gwell (yw) tewi na siarad yn ofer, it is better to be silent than to talk vainly : for nag ydyw siarad, etc. Rule. — nag (na), than, takes the Indicative, which is often omitted when the same verb is used in both clauses. Equivalent Phrases. 359b Sometimes the word uwch, the Comparative of uchel, high, used as a preposition,* introduces a phrase which is equivalent in meaning to a Comparative Clause : e.g. maent uwch eu prisio, uwch eu deall, they are too exalted to be appraised or understood (lit. above appraising, above understanditig. Cf. Lat. Gram. § 360 : Gk. Gram. § 360. 2.) * The word following uwch was doubtless originally in an oblique case cor- responding to the Greek Genitive of Comparison and the Latin Ablative of Comparison, SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION 121 Combinations of ' as ' and ' than ' (represeniinT; a Comparative Clause) with a Clause of Condition. 360 I. mae yn cerdded, fel pe bai yn frenin, he walks as if he were a king. rhedodd fel pe buasai am ei fywyd, he ran as if it had been for his life. mae cyn galeted a phe buasai yn gaireg, it is as hard as if it had been a stone. Rule. — as if ( — as would be the case if) is expressed by a phe (after the Comparative of Equality), or fel pe, with the same construction as pe, if § 355 [Latin: quasi, velut si, tamquam si; Gk. uxTirep (i or (ScTTrcp av ei]. 2. meddalach .ydyw na phe buasai yn ymenyn, it is softer than if it had been butter. Rule. — than if ( = than would be the case if) is expressed by na phe (after the Comparative proper) with the same construction as pe, if § 355. 361 Absolute Phrases (for Absolute Clauses). The Welsh equivalent for the so-called Absolute Clauses of other languages (Latin Ablative Absolute, Greek Genitive Absolute, English Nominative Absolute) is a phrase in which the participle of Latin, Greek and English is replaced by a verb-noun with one of the prepositions yn, in ; wedi, after ; ar, on ; am, about; heb, without (see § 240) ; the phrase as a whole being preceded by the word ac (a) : e.g. aeth i'r ystafell a'r dynion yn bwyta, he went into the room while the people were eating [Lat. hominibus edentibus : Gk. TUiV dvOpunruiV i(76i,6vTUiv]. arosasant yno a'r tan wedi diffodd, theji stayed there after the fire had gone out. buont yn ymdroi a'r tren ar gychwyn, they loitered while the train was on the point of starting. dywedasant wrtho ac yntau heb ofyn, they told him, though he had not asked. Note. — As ac, and, and ag, with, are only the same word applied to differ- ent uses and differently spelt, it is highly probable that ac, iii the phrases in question, should be looked upon as the preposition ag, with (with its old spelling ac preserved). Hence the Welsh mode of expression is parallel with the Latin idiom in its original meaning, the Ablative Absolute having origin- 122 WELSH SYNTAX ated in an Ablative denoting Accompaniment or Cause or Time ; for instance, the Latin, ' Troja stante,' Troy standing, and the Welsh 'a Chaerdroia yn sefyll ' may both have originally meant ' with Troy standing.' The place of the preposition and the verb-noun may be taken by a Predicate-noun or a Predicate-adjective : .^.aethallan ^.^^^ ^^^^ he went cut [f"S'l f ^'M was cold, ytlwugh it was cold. Obs. I. — In Absolute Phrases, the conjunctive personal pronouns (see Accidence, §§ 130, 131, 132) are largely employed. Obs. 2. — In meaning, an Absolute Phrase may be equivalent to a Temporal, Causal, Conditional or Concessive Clause. 362 ADJECTIVE CLAUSES (§ 313). 1. Adjective Clauses are introduced by Relative pronouns, yr hwn, y neb, y sawl, pwy bynnag, referring to a noun or noun- equivalent called the Antecedent, expressed or implied in the Principal Clause, or by one of the quasi-relatives ag, ar, or by one of the proclitics a, yr (y). 2. A Relative Clause takes the form of a sentence of inverted order ; hence, if the Subject or the Object precede the verb, the verb will be immediately preceded by the word a ; if some other word or group of words comes first, by the word yr (y). (See p. 83, note, and Appendix). Obs. I. — a is frequently omitted ; with the ormswyf etc., oeddwnetc, and with sydd it is never used. Obs. 2. — In Relative Clauses where yrhwn, yneb, y sawl or pwy bynnag are expressed, it is certain that the modern Welsh mind attaches the relative force to these words and not to the a or yr (y) which immediately precedes the verb. The latter are, from the point of view of Welsh descriptive grammar, mere ' form-words,' and, in the words of Dr. Davies, a is an adverb or particle of no meaning prefixed to verbs ( " A item est adverbium seu particula verbis preposita nihil significans "). So strongly is this felt that, when the proclitics a and yr (y) are used alone in Relative Clauses, a Welshman ignorant of their history naturally imagines the omission of yr hwn. See § 573, 576. 363 SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION I23 3. In place of yr hwn and y rhai, pa un and pa rai (cf. Breton ' pdr^ ') are sometimes used, but these forms are not considered very elegant. Even yr hwn and y rhai sliould not be used too frequently, especially after prepositions. The form of expression given in Accidence § 168 will often be found useful in translating English Relative Clauses. Agreement of the Relative. 1. In idiomatic Welsh every relative introducing an affirma- tive clause is looked upon as of the 3rd pers. sing, and the verb of which it is the Subject is made to agree with it; in negative Relative Clauses the Relative agrees with its Antecedent in person and number : e.g. gwelsom y dynion y rhai a fu yno, we saw the men who were there. yr wyf yn eich hoffi chwi, na fuoch yn gas wrthyf, / am fond of you, who were not unkind to me. pawb sydd yn pwyso atat ti | a wrendy weddi doslur, all incline towards thee, who hearest a prayer for mercy. E. Prys. ni a'th adwaenom di a'th ddawn | i'r rhai sydd uniawn galon, 7tie know thee and thy bounty to them that are upright in heart. E. Prys. 2. For a long time, however, there has been a strong and perfectly intelligible tendency, especially where the linguistic consciousness is bilingual, to make the verb of the Relative Clause agree with its Antecedent as in Latin and English. This tendency is strongest and most natural in cases where it seems desirable to call attention to the person and number of the verb in the Relative Clause : e.g. ein Tad, yr hwn wyt yn y nefoedd, our Father, who art in heaven. Here the use of wyt rather than sydd forcibly reminds the reader that the clause in question is used in address and not in narrative. 124 WELSH SYNTAX 364 Moods in Relative Clauses. 1. Relative Clauses whose action is marked 2a fact : — gwelais y ty y buoch ynddo, I have seen the house in which you have been. dyma y Uyfr a ddarllenasom, here is the book which we have read. y wlad na welais, the country ivhich I did not see. J _ ( dros vr hwn y daethom, ) ., ■ ., dyna y gwr I y ^^ ^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ \ there ts the man on whose behalf we have come. 2. Relative Clauses whose action is marked as {a) prospective, i.e. merely contemplated as a future contingency ; or {b) general: {a) Prospective : heb genfigen wrth neb a wnelo yn well nag ef, without envying anyone who should do better than he. Gr. Roberts, Milan, 1567. nid ofni rhag dychryn nos na rhag y saeth a ehedo y dydd, thou shall not fear from dread by night nor from the arrow thatflieth ( = shall 7?j') by day. Psalm xci. 5. efe a wna yr hyn a fynnwyf, he will do whatex'er I shall wish. na friwa'r Haw a estyno, hurt not the hand that stretches out (= ^iX\. stretch out). Charles Edwards, 167 1. (b) General : (Here ar, y sawl, y neb and pwy bynnag are mainly employed to introduce the Relative Clause) : i ddyscu helpu, diddanu a pherpheiddio gwyr fy ngwlad ymhob peth a fo golud iddynt, to teach, help, interest and perfect my countrymen in all that may be a boon to them. Gr. Roberts, Milan, 1567. pwy bynnag ar a laddo, whosoever hills. M. Cyffin, 1595. a'r sawl ni phlycco iddo a ddryllir, and whosoever does not submit to him will be destroyed. Morgan Llwyd, 1653. yn rhoddi ei drugaredd i'r neb a fynno, giving his mercy to whomsoevex he wishes. C. Edwards, 167 1. y sawl a ddiango o'i bachau hi, gwyn ei fyd byth, whosoever escapes from her clutches, may he be for ever blessed. Elis Wyn, 17 13. dyweded y neb a fyno, let whosoever will speak. "Y Faner," Dec. 29, 1897. nis gall godi rhyw lawer ar syniad y neb a'i darlleno, it cannot make the opinion of whoever reads it much higher. "YGenedl," Dec. 28, 1897. SEMfENCk CONSTkUCTiON t25 Rules. — Relative Clauses almost always take the Indicative Mood in Modern Welsh. The Subjunctive is now rare, but is sometimes found in clauses where the action is to be marked as prospective or general. The general is often combined with the prospective meaning. The negative is generally nid (ni), especially where the action is to be marked as fact, in clauses introduced by ar, yr hwn, y neb, y sawl and pwy bynnag : in negative clauses corresponding to affirmative clauses in which the a or yr (y) would be used alone, the negative is nad (na), but nid (ni) is also sometimes used. In all negative clauses a and yr (y) are omitted. 3. Final and Consecutive Relative Clauses ; — anfonwn genad yno, yr hwn a rydd derfyn ar yr ymrafael, we shall send a messenger there, who shall put an end to the dispute. (Final.) nid oes undyn a allai oddef peth felly, there is no one who could stand such a thing as that. (Consecutive), dechymyger rywbeth arall a fo gwell nag ef, let something else be imagined that shall be better than it. Dr. J. D. Rhys, 1592. lie bo gwr o ddysg a wypo ei deilyngdod, 7C'here there may be a man of learning who knows his worth. E. Samuel, 1674-1748! Rule. — In the special kinds of Relative Clause called Pinal and Consecutive the Indicative Mood is employed, but instances of the Subjunctive are found. N.B. — A Relative Clause which cites an act only to exhibit the character of the Antecedent may be called a " Characterizing Relative Clause " : e.g. nid oes neb nad yw yn pechu^ there is no one that does not sin. 126 WELSH SYNTAX NOUN CLAUSES AND PHRASES. Noun Clauses may be divided into two main classes : A. That-clauses : (i) Those which express that something w, was or will he (Dependent Statements) : e.g. gwn y bydd yn ufudd, / know that he ivill be obedievt. (ii) Those which express that something shall be or should be (Dependent Will-speech *) : e.g. gofalaf y bydd yn ufudd, I shall take care that he shall be cbedient : gorchymynaf na byddo yn anufudd ; / order that he shall not be disobedient. B. Those which are introduced by an interrogative or ex- clamatory word : (i) Interrogative (Dependent Questions) : e.g. gofynaf a ydyw yn ufudd, I ask whether he is obedient. (ii) Exclamatory (Depandent Exclamations) : e.g. rhyfedd mor ufudd ydyw heddyw, // is strange Iiow obedient he is to-day. Rule. — As a general rule, the mood in Noun Clauses is the Indicative : but in Dependent Will-speech after verbs of com- manding, entreating, praying, wishing, which are followed by negative clauses only, the Present or Past Imperfect Subjunctive is used. Negative nad (na). N.B. — Whether a Noun Clause is a Dependent Statement or Dependent Will-speech, or a Dependent Question or a Dependent Exclamation does not depend upon the verb of the Principal Clause, but upon the nature of the Subordinate Clause itself, i.e. whether that clause is a Statement (i.e. a statement of fact or a conditional statement) or an expression of aim, command, or request, or a question or an exclamation. (See § 340.) Thus ' that it is {was or will be) ' is always a Dep. Statement. ' that it shall be (or should be) ' is always Dep. Will-speech, ^what (or how) it is' is a Dep. Question when the 'what ' or 'how' is interrogative, and a Dep. Exclamation when the ' what ' (or 'how') is exclamatory. In certain cases phrases formed with verb-nouns are used as substitutes for Dependent Statements and Dependent Will-speech, but not for Dependent Questions and Dependent Exclamations. * By Dependent Will-speech is only meant a clause which expresses that some- thing shall be or should de. Such a clause differs from a Dependent Statement (whether of fact or conditional! just as Will-speech in the Simple Sentence differs from a Statement. SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION 127 Dependent Statements and Dependent Requests. Modes of introducing Noun Clauses of Statement and of Will-speech. .J66 Noun Clauses of Statement and of Will-speech are introduced as follows: (a) When affirmative and of normal order, by the proclitic particle yr (y), placed immediately before the verb of the clause : e.g. dywedodd ) ,^; he said | ^^^^^^^ would \ go gofalodd 3 •' ^ ' he took care ) should J there. (d) When affirmative and of inverted order, by the conjunction mai ; for the history of mai see Appendix : ^■S'- y^^ f mai yma y deuai, , . 1 > /hai it was gofalodd 3 "■^ ^""^ ^^''^ J here that he , ,', >• come, should j (c) When negative and of normal order, by nad (na) ; when negative and of inverted order, by nad (before both vowels and consonants), or, less elegantly, by mai nid : e.g. dywedodd nad elai gartref, he said that he would not go home. dywedodd nad gartref yr elai, he said that it was not home that he would go. Employment of Noun Clauses of Statement and Equivalent Phrases. 367 Noun Clauses of Statement are employed as follows (as in Causal and Concessive Clauses, §§ 349a, 3S8a) : — 1. In all cases in which the Dependent Statement is negative. 2. In all cases in which the Dependent Statement has inverted order. 3. In some cases in which the Dependent Statement is affirma- tive and of normal order, viz. when the tense of the Clause is — either a Present used as a Present Habitual or as a Future ; or a Past Impeifect used as a Past Impeifect Habitual or as a Secondary Future ; or a Phiperfect used as a Secondary Future Perfect. Occasionally, also, when the tense is Aorist. 128 iVELSH SYNTAX In all other cases Noun Phrases are employed, the doer of the action being denoted as follows : — (a) by the aid of the preposition i or o (§ 346b, 2), when the verb- noun corresponds to a verb in the Aorist or the Plu- perfect with past meaning : e.g. gwn iddo orphen, I know that he finished ; gwyddwn iddo orphen, I knew that he had finished. (p) without the aid of a preposition, by means of a dependent noun or a possessive adjective, when the verb-noun is bod corresponding to the true Present wyf, wyt, mae, etc., or to the true Past Imperfect oeddwn, oeddit, oedd, etc., in a Clause (§ 346b, 3) : e.g. gwn fod y dyn yn myned, I know that the man is going ; gwn ei fod wedi myned, I know that he has gone. Obs. — If the verb of the dependent clause be one of the following : adwaen, adnabyddaf, I recognise [Lat. cognosce] cly waf, / hear gallaf, I am able a clause may be employed even when t gwelaf, / see gwn, / /fKffze/ [Lat. scio] meddaf, I possess medraf, / am able le Present tense marks an action as «i77t/ going on or a state as now existing, or the East Imperfect marks an action as going on in the past or a state as then existing, or, less frequently, when the Pluperfect refers to past time. Employment of Noun Clauses of Will-speech and Equivalent Phrases. After Verbs of Effort (§ 369a, 9). 368a I- A verb of Effort may take either a Noun Clause (affirmative or negative) or a Noun Phrase : e.g. gofalaf y bydd y gwas yno \Itake (or shall take) caretha. gofalaf fod y gwas yno j the servant shall be there. gofelais y byddai y gwas yno)/ took care that the servant gofelais fod y gwas yno | should be there. 2. A Noun Phrase depending on the verb gofalaf, I take care, is generally preceded by the fixed preposition a.m, for: e.g. gofelais am iddo fod yno, I took care that he shou/d be there. 3. In Noun Phrases depending on a verb of Effort the doer of the action is generally denoted — either (a) by means of a dependent noun or a possessive ad- jective (§ 346b, 3) when the verb noun is bod , or (1^) by means of the prep, i oro in the case of all verb-nouns (bod included). (§ 346b, 2). SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION 12$ After Verbs of Will and Desire (§ 369a, 10). 368b I. A verb of Will or Desire takes a Noun Clause only when the Dependent Will-speech is negative or of inverted order : e.g. gorchymynodd nad elwn yno, he ordered thai I should not go thither. dymunaf mai John a gaiff y wobr, 'I wish that John should have the prize.' 2. If the Dependent Will-speech is affirmative and of normal order, many verbs of Will or Desire take neither a Noun Clause nor a Noun Phrase, but simply two Objects in a Simple Sentence with a Predicate of the Fourth Form (§ 333) ; so too in English ; e.g. gorchymynaf iddo fyned, I order him to go. crefais arno ddyfod, I begged of him to co?iie. In dependence on the verbs anogaf, / exhort, and cynghoraf, / advise, the verb-noun is introduced by the preposition i, to : e.g. cynghoraf ef i ddyfod, T advise him to come. 3. In some cases a verb of Will or Desire may take after it a Noun Phrase introduced by the fixed preposition ar, on. The verbs which may take this construction are, crefaf, I beg ; deisyfaf, / entreat; dymunaf, / desire; gorchymynaf, / command; and gweddiaf, I pray : e.g. dymunaf ar i'r dyn dewi, / desire the man to be silent. With the use of these Noun Phrases of Statement and Will- Speech compare the French use of the infinitive (without change of Subject) in place of a Clause after croire, pretendre, vouloir, ordonner : e.g. je crois I'avoir vu, I believe that I saw him ; je lui ordonne de venir, / order him to come. A Noun Phrase, formed with peidio, ceasing (see Accidence, § 284.4), or with bod followed by heb with another veib-noun, may be equivalent to a negative clause : e.'^. addefodd iddo beidio (a) myned, he admitted that he did not go (lit. that he ceased to go). cyffesodd ei fod heb ateb, he confessed that he had not answered (lit. that he was tvithout answering). iSt^ tVELSH SYNTAX 36Sa List of Verbs taking: Dependent Statements and Will-Speech. / believe dywedaf, gwadaf, tyngaf, gobeithiaf, disgwyliaf, meddyliaf, tybiaf, darganfyddaf, gwelaf, 1. Verbs of ' saying ' : — addawaf, /promise addefaf, / admit awgrymaf, / suggest bygythiaf, / threaten 2. Verbs of ' thinking ' : — credaf, ) coeliaf, J dychymygaf, / imagine dyfalaf, I guess 3. Verbs of ' perceiving ' : — caf, I find canfyddaf, / perceive cly waf, / hear 4. Verbs of ' knowing ' : — anghofiaf, T forget cofiaf, / remember 5. Verbs of ' showing ' : — amiygaf, I reveal cyhoeddaf, I announce danghosaf, I show 6. Verbs of ' rejoicing,' ' grieving Uawenychaf, 1 rejoice gofidiaf, I grieve (N.B.— These verbs of are rarely followed by an affirmative claus 7. Verb of ' fearing ' : — ofnaf, I fear. 8. Certain impersonal expressions denoting possible,' ' it is right,' etc. : — dichon,* it is possible mae yn digwydd, it happens rliaid, // must needs be efallai, ^ feallai, j 9. Veibs of Effort : — gofalaf, I take care gwelaf, / see to it gwnaf, T bring it about cymeraf arnaf, I pretend I say I deny I swear T hope I expect I think T suppose I discover I see gwn, egluraf, profaf, / knoiv I show I prove and ' wondering ' : — rhyfeddaf, I wonder synnaf, I marvel rejoicnig,' 'grieving,' and 'wondering' of normal order.) ierchance hwyrach, ond odid, diammeu, gwir, diau, paraf, sicrhaf, ' it happens,' ' it is perhaps undoubtedly {it is) true {it is) certain I cause I make certain * dichon is also not unfrequently used in a personal construction, when it means can, is able. See Accidence, § 277, 3. SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION I31 10. Verbs of Will or anogaf, T exhort bwriadaf, I intend crefaf, / beg cynghoraf, T advise deisyfaf, I entreat Desire :- dymunaf, ewyllysiaf, gorchymynaf, gweddiaf, T wish I desire I command I pray Note carefully that after verbs of Effort, Will or Desire the dependent clause or clause-equivalent expresses that something shall be or should be (not that something is, was, or will be) : e.g. gofalwn y bydd rhywun yno, we shall take care that some one shall be there. bwriadvvn iddo fyned, I intended that he should go. Sequence of Tenses in Dependent Statements and Will-Speech. 369b In dependence on a tense of past time a primary tense [i.e. a Present or Future or Perfect or Future Perfect] is generally changed into the corresponding secondary tense, viz. : — ■ a Present into a Past Imperfect Future Secondary Future Perfect Pluperfect Future Perfect Secondary Fut. Perf. e.g. dywed mai John yw y cryfaf, he says that John is the strongest. dywedodd mai John oedd y cryfaf, he said that John was the strongest. dywed mai John fydd y cryfaf, he says that John will be the strongest. dywedodd mai John fyddai y cryfaf, he said that John would be the strongest. dywed mai John sydd wedi gweithio, he says it is John that has worked. dywedodd mai John oedd wedi gweihio, he said it was John that had worked. dywed mai John fydd wedi gweithio, he says it vuill be John that will have ivoi ked. dywedodd mai John fyddai wedi gweithio, he said it tvould be John that ivould have worked. The secondary tenses (Past Imperfect, Pluperfect, and Aorist) remain unchanged 132 WELSH SYNTAX Dependent Questions. I. Dependent Questions are introduced either (a) by interrogative particles (see Accidence, §§ 283, 285) : a, in affirmative questions of normal order ; ai, in negative questions of normal order, and in affirmative and negative questions of inverted order. pa un ■ 1- ai, whether or. e.g. gofynaf a yw John yno, / ask whether John is there. gofynais ai John oedd yno, / asked whether it was John that was there. gofynodd ai ni chafodd John y Uyfr, he asked whether fohn did not receive the book. gofynodd ai nid y Uyfr a gafodd John, he asked whether it was not the book that John received. gofynent pa un a fyddai John yno ai peidio, they were asking whether John would be there or not. gofynent pa un ai John ynte William oedd yno, they tvere asking whether it was John or William that was there. Obs. I. For pa un, p'iin, and also p'r'iin (=pa ryw un) are used, especially in colloquial Welsh. 2. In Dependent Questions of inverted order, the conjunction ynte, or, is generally used to introduce the second alternative. or {b) by interrogative pronouns, adjectives, or adverbs, such as pwy, pa, pa sawl, pa gynnifer e.g. gofynais pwy fu yno, / asked who was there. gofynais pwy na fu yno, I asked who was not there. holent pa fath ddynion oeddym, they enquired what kind of men we tuere. holais paham nad aethent yno, / enquired why they had not gone there. The mood in {a) and {b) is the indicative. In {a), the negative, in questions of normal order, is nid (ni), in questions of inverted order, nid, before both vowels and consonants ; in (p), the negative is nad (na), but nid (ni) is also sometimes used. who pa fath, what ki?id which, what (adj.) pa faint. ho7v much how many pa le (p'le). where )) jj paham, why SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION I33 Deliberative Dependent Questions. 370b Deliberative Dependent Questions (i.e. Dependent Questions as to what is or was to be done) are introduced in the same manner as other Dependent Questions : ig- gofynais a oeddvvn i fyned, / asked whether I ivas to go. gofynodd ai nid oedd i fyned, he asked whether he 7vas not to go. petiuswn pa un a awn yno ai peidio, / hesitated whether I should go there or not. The mood is the Indicative. The negative is nid (ni). Dependent Exclamations. 370c Dependent Exclamations are introduced by exclamatory ad- verbs such as mor, how, or without an exchimatory adverb when the Dependent Exclamation begins with an adjective in the comparative of equality : e.g. gwelwch ,. , , ° [ yw yr adeilad, see how splendid the building is. rhyfeddent a- a \ oedd y daith, they marvelled how tedious the journey was. Sequence of Tenses in Dependent Questions and Exclamations. 370* The same rules of sequence apply to Dependent Questions and Exclamations as to Dependent Statements and Will-Speech (§ 369^). e.g. (1) Dependent Questions. gofynaf ai John yw y cr)faf, / ask whelher John is the strongest. gofynwn ai John oedd y cryfaf, / tvas asking whether John was the strongest. gofynaf a fyddwch yn y cyfarfod, / ask whether you will be at the meeting. gofynais a fyddech yn y cyfarfod, / asked whether you would be at the meeting. (2) Dependent Exclamations, rhyfedda hardded yw y wlad, he marvels at the beauty of the country (lit. how beautiful the country is). rhyfeddai hardded oedd y wlad, he marvelled at the beauty of the country (lit. how beautiful the country was). 134 WELSH SYNTAX REPORTED SPEECH. 371 Two methods may be employed in reporting : A. The person reporting may quote words or views in their original independent form (Direct Speech, Oratio Recta) : e.g. dy wedodd " nid oes neb yma," he said " there is no one here." B. The person reporting may use the form of a clause or clauses (or clause-equivalents) dependent on a verb of saying, thinking, etc., called the leading verb (Indirect Speech, Oratio Obliqua) : e.g. dy wedodd nad oedd neb yno, he said that there was nu one there. DIRECT SPEECH. Hwn yw yr ail o'r mesurau a ddygwyd yn mlaen i'r dyben o ledu rhan o Ffordd Haiarn Caer a Chaergybi er cyfarfod a'r drafnidiaeth gynnyddol. Ynddo ei hun, y raae yr ymgynimeriad yn un o'r fath fwyaf dymunol ; a phe cerid ef allan, er ystyriaeth briodol i fanteision masnachwyr Gogledd Cymru ac eiddo aw- durdodau lleol y rhanbarthau hyny He y mae eangiad y Uinell yn yinyraeth a hawliau cyhoeddus, nis gallai neb godi gwrthwynebiad iddo. Y mae yna amryw ddarpariaethau yn eisieu yn y mesur yn ei ffurf wreiddiol, er sicrhau hawliau y ffyrdd ac awdurdodau eraill yr effeithir amynt. Y mae trafodaeth faith wedi cymeryd lie rhwng y cyrff hyn a chwmni y ffordd haiarn ; a chanlyniad hyny ydyw fod trefniadau lied ffafriol wedi cael eu gwneyd." INDIRECT SPEECH. Dywedodd Mr. Herbert Lewis — mai hwn oedd yr ail o'r mesurau a ddygwyd yn mlaen i'r dyben o ledu rhan o ffordd Haiarn Caer a Chaergybi er cyfarfod a'r drafnidiaeth gynny- ddol. Ynddo ei hun, yr oedd yr ymgymmeriad yn im o'r fath fwyaf dymunol ; a phe cerid ef allan, er ystyriaeth briodol i fanteision masnachwyr Gogledd Cymru ac eiddo awdurdodau lleol y rhanbarthau hyny lie yr oedd eangiad y Uinell yn ym- yraeth a hawhau cyhoeddus, nis gallai neb godi gwrthwyneb- iad iddo. Yr oedd yna amryw ddarpariaethau yn eisieu yn y mesur yn ei ffurf wreiddiol, er sicrhau hawliau y ffyrdd, ac awdurdodau eraill yr effeithid amynt. Yr oedd trafodaeth faith wedi cymeryd lie rhwng y cyrff hyn a chwmni y ffordd haiarn ; a chanlyniad hyny ydoedd fod trefniadau lied ffaf- riol wedi cael eu gwneyd." " Y Faner," Aug. 3, 1898. SENTENCE CONS/RUCTION 135 " This is tJie second of the Bills which have been brought forivard for the purpose of zvideniiig a part of the Chester aftd Holyhead Railway in order to tneet the increasing traffic. In itself, the undertaking is one of the fnost welcome ; and if it should be carried out with due regard to the interests of the business men of North Wales and those of the local authorities of those districts where the ex- tension of the line interferes with public claims, no one could raise any objection to it. There are several provisions lacking in the Bill in its original form, in order to secure the claims of the roads and other authorities that are affected. A lengthy correspondence has taken place between these bodies and the raihvay company, and the result is that fairly favourable arrange- Mr. Herbert Lewis said — that that was the second of the Bills ivhich had been brought forward for the purpose of ividening a part of the Chester and Holy- head Railway in order to meet the increasing traffic. In itselj, the undertaking ivas one of the most welcome ; and if it should be carried out with due regard to the interests of the business men of North Wales and those of the local authorities of those districts where the extension of the line interfered with public claims, no one could raise any objection to it. There were several provisions lacking in the Bill in its original form, in order to secure the claims of the roads and other authorities that were affected. A lengthy correspondence had taken place between these bodies and the raihvay company, and the result was that fairly favourable ar- ranmnents had been made. ments have been made." Rules. — i. Simple Sentences and Principal Clauses of Direct Speech become Dependent Noun Clauses or Noun Phrases in Indirect Speech, according to the rules given in §§ 367-370. 2. Noun Phrases in place of Clauses of normal order are generally employed only in proposals and resolutions and in the opening sentences of speeches reported in Indirect Speech. Hence proposals and resolutions generally begin with the word fod (the mutated form of the verb-noun b5d). 3. Change from Indirect to Direct Speech and vice versa is not uncommon. 4. As it is often difficult to render verbs in the Imperative PI. 2 into Indirect Speech, owing to the ambiguity of the Past Imperfect Indicative PI. 3, the sentence containing the Impera- tive is not unfrequently allowed to stand in Direct Speech with the word nieddai, said he, used parenthetically to indicate that the sentence is a quotation, 372 373 374 375 PART II.— MEANINGS OF FORMS. Owing to the loss of the old case-endings and the fusion of the old conjugations of the verb into one, Welsh does not possess a large number of inflected forms like Greek and Latin. In many respects, therefore, the language is in a stage of development similar to that of English or French. There are in Welsh no cases distinguished by difference of case-ending ; but the noun, by being placed after another noun, may express many of the meanings of the genitive; or, by being placed after the verb, may have the same force as the accusative of Greek and Latin. A noun depending on another noun. The following are some of the chief meanings of a noun dependent on another noun, like a genitive case in Greek or Latin. 1. The dependent noun may denote ' belonging to,' ' connected with' : e.g. palas y brenin, the kin^s palace ( = Possessive Genitive). llais y wlad, the voice of the country. delw Cesar, the image of Ccesar. gwyr Eryri,* the men of Eryri. merched Mon, the maidens of Anglesey. 2. The dependent noun may denote what might have been expressed as the Object of a verb ( = Objective Genitive) : e.g. llofrudd y brenin, the murderer of the king { = he who murdered the king). ysgrifenwr y llyfr, the writer of the book. chwiliwr y calonau, the searclier of hearts. Oes. — When the dependent noun denotes the person who acts or feels, it corresponds to what is somethnes called by contrast the Suhjectwe Genitive : e.g. cariad mab, a son's affection ; trallod y wraig, the wife's distress. * The place to which a person belongs is expressed without a preposition only after plural nouns. 136 376 377 378 MEANINGS OF FORMS I37 The dependent noun can express meanings (i) and (2) without a preposition only when the noun upon which it depends is definite in meaning. 3. The dependent noun may be used to define more closely a given occupation : e.g. gof aur, a goldsmith. saer maen, ) , . ' \ a stone mason. saer cerrig, 3 4. When the dependent noun has initial mutation after a femi- nine noun, its adjectival character is clearly seen ; such a noun may denote ; — {a) age : e.g. geneth deirblwydd, a girl of three {years). (b) material : e.g. ysgubor goed, a wooden barn ; ty cerrig (pi. carreg, stone), a stone house ; wal gerrig, a stone wall. \c) price : e.g. canwyll ddimai, a half-penny candle ; Uyfr swllt, a shilling book, (d) time: eg. y seren ddydd, the day star; y seren foreu, the morning star. Occasionally, too, tlie dependent noun may be mutated in such expressions as y wal derfyn, the boundary wall (Elis Wyn, Bardd Cwsg). 379 Note. — The initial mutation after a feminine noun in these expressions is prolialjly a survival from IVIediteval Welsh, in which a dependent noun was often mutated after a fentiinine, but not after a masculine noun. The practice has survived in these uses of the dependent noun owing to their affinity to those of the adjective. REMARKS. 38Q I. After the adjective llawn, full, what was probably an old Partitive Genitive, has survived in the dependent noun in such expressions as: llawn cysur, full of comfort ; llawn maeth, full of nourishment ; also, with the dependent noun placed first, bwyd ddigon, plenty of food. 381 ^- After uwch, higher, is, loiver (now generally classed with prepositions^ the dependent noun probably corresponded originally to the Genitive of Comparison of Greek and the Ablative of Comparison of Latin (Gk. Gram., § 411, Lat. Gram. § 359, 2. Obs. I) : e.g. uwch y nefoedd, ahove the heavens, lit. higher than the heavens ; ychydig is angylion, a little lower than angels (E. Prys). 000 3. In such expressions as rhai gwyr, some men ; y fath ddyn, such a man ; rhyw fachgen, some boy ; dim lie, no place ; pelh rheswm, some reason ; the words gwyr, dyn, bachgen, lie and rheswm were originally in the genitive case depending on rhai (see Accidence, § 154), rhyw, dim and pelh re- spectively. See Accidence, § 166. 138 WELSH SYNTAX 383 4. In the following expressions the dependent noun is placed first : daeat lavvr (=llawr daear), the plain of earth. boreu wawr (=gwa\vr boreu), the vioniing itawn. gwyneh pryd (=pryd gwyneb), the form of the face, angeu loes (=loes angeu), the agony of death. Seion sail (=sail Seion), the foundation of Zion. Caersalem byrth (=pyrth Caersalem), the gates of Jerusalem. Salem dir (=tir Salem), the land of Salem. Eden ardd (=gardd Eden), the garden of Eden. bwyd ddigon (=digon o fwyd), plenty of food. merched rai (=rhai merched), some women. dynion lawer (=llawer o ddynion), many mefi. (For the use of the prepositions i and o see §§ 389-404.) A noun depending on a verb. 384 I. A noun placed after a transitive verb may be its Object : eg. gorchfjgodd y gelyn, he conquered the enemy. 385 2. A noun placed after a verb may have an adverbial meaning, denoting time (either duration or point of time) Or distance : e.g. arhosodd ddiwrnod, he stayed a day. cerddodd filltir, he walked a mile. bydd yno drennydd, he will be there the day after to- morrow. a edrych blygain bob pen awr | a welo'r wawr yn codi, ivho looks at daybreak at every hour to see whether day is dawning. (E. Prys.) 386 Used predicatively with the verb wyf, T am, a noun may express age, measurement, or price : (a) age : e.g. mae yn ugain (mlwydd) oed, he is twenty years of age. (b) measurement: e.g. mae yn ugain troedfedd o hyd, o led, etc., it is twenty feet in length, breadth, etc. (c) price : e.g. mae y Uyfr yn bedair ceiniog a dimai, the book is four-pence half-penny. REMARKS. 387 I" sVlQ^ an expression as y mae hi yn drwm ei chlyw, she is hard of hearing, where the adjective trwm agrees with clyw, we have probably a fusion of two constructions : (a) y mae yn drwm ei chlyw, her hearing is hard (lit. heavy) ; {d) y mae hi yn drom ei chlyw, she is hard as to her hearing ; clyw in (b) corresponding to (he accusative of nearer definition of Greek and Latin. See Gk. Gram. § 383; Lat. Gram. § 383. MEANINGS OF FORMS 139 PREPOSITIONS. 388 Owing to the change which Welsh has undergone from being a language with case-endings into one in which the relations of words to each other are mainly determined by their order and arrangement, the prepositions have risen into great prominence, as words which serve to express these relations with precision. Some of these prepositions have a more general meaning than others, and are used to enable the nouns which follow them to convey the meaning expressed in inflected languages by the genitive, dative and ablative cases. The two chief prepositions of this type in Welsh are i, to, into; Q),from, of. For the verbs which take fixed prepositions see §§ 329, 332. The preposition i, to, into. 389 In addition to the use of the preposition i in its fundamental sense of to, into, it is employed to enable a noun or pronoun to express what would, as a rule, be expressed in Greek or Latin by the Dative Case. 390 (i) As a fixed preposition after certain verbs, mainly those of ffn'!//g{see § 332rt). 391 (2) In the case of personal pronouns only, to enable the pronoun to convey a meaning like that of the so-called Ethical Dative, i.e. to mark a person as interested in, or sympathizing with, what is said, as distinct from the action spoken of: e.g. wrth fyned ymlaen, iti, fe ddaeth pethau yn well, as we went on, you see, things got better. 392 (3)* To denote possession. This is the regular method of expressing possession after nouns which are indefinite in meaning : e.g. llyfr i'r bachgen yw hwn, this is a book belonging to the boy. mae y gwr yn gyfaill imi, the man is a friend of mine. yn un pen i'r dref, at one end of the toivn. 393 (4)* To mark the doer of the action denoted by a verb-noun : e.g. wedi i'r gwr fyned, after the man had gone. 394 (5)* Occasionally after ami, ambell and llavver : f e.g. ami i ddyn, many a man; llavver i greadur, many a creature. 395 (6) Before the verb-noun, to denote destination or purpose : e.g. amser i hau, time for solving. aeth yno 1 weithio, he went there to work, i.e. Jor the purpose of working. (For the limitations to the use i before the verb-noun in Welsh, see Cautions, §§ 330, 333). * In (3), (4), and (5) i probably slands for Ai,fiom. See § 397. f Now generally omitted after these words by good writers. 140 WELSH SYNTAX Compound prepositional expressions introduced by i, to, into. 395 i erbyn, against (used only with possessive adjectives) : e.g. rhuthrasant i'w herbyn, they rushed against them. i blith, i fysg, into the midst {of) — used only with plural nouns and plural possessive adjectives : e.g. dychwelodd i blith ei bobl, he returned into the midst of his people. aeth i fysg y defaid, he ivent into the midst of the sheep. i gano!, into the midst {of) — used with singular or plural ; eg. i ganol yr afon, into the midst of the rirer. i ganol y milwyr, into the midst of the soldiers. No IE. — i blith generally implies closer proximity than i iysg. Remarks. qgy !■ The preposition i stands for an older di, which, at one period in the history of the language, meant both^o ^xtA from. Di meaning /d is frequently found in the Book of Llandaf : e.g. dir pant to the valley. In the sense of ')•»;«, di still survives in the double preposition oddi (=o+ddi), combined with ar, on, as in oddiar (o + ddi+ar), from on ; or with tan, under, in odditan ( = o + ddi + tan),y™;« uniler ; o\- \\\\\t wrth, by, near, inoddiwrth(=o + ddi + wrth), //OT« near. In Mediaeval Welsh, through the loss of initial d, di, from, had become y ( = i), identical in form with the preposition y {=i), to, and still survived in the sense oi from in such expressions as y gan, from association luith ; y dan, fom under ; y ar, from on. For the use of i in llawer i ddyn, etc., compare the partitive use of the French de.^ See Fr. Gram. P.G.S. § 397, 398. 2. In Mediteval Welsh the preposition i, to, into, was sometimes used where the preposition at, to, to7vards, would now be employed : e.g. a pheri yr kigyd . . . dyuot idi a tharaw bonclust arnei beunyd, and ordered the butcher . , , to go to her and strike her a blow on the ear daily. (Mabinogi of Branwen, Rhys and Evans, p. 34, 1. 9. 10). Also, not infrequently, in the sense of yn, in. The Preposition o, from ; with pronominal suffixes ohon-. 398 In addition to its regular meaning from, from within, the pre- position o is mainly employed to en.ible a noun or pronoun to express what would, as a rule, be expressed in Greek or Latin by the Genitive Case : (i) To introduce a noun of closer definition : e.g. gwr o saer, a carpenter: lit. a man {consisting) oj a carpenter. gwr o atlirylitli a man of genius. Sais o genedl, an Englishman by race. cloff o'i ddeudroed, lame in both feet. 399 400 MEANINGS OF FORMS I4I (2) Conversely, to introduce the more general of the two nouns thus brought together : e.g. cawr o ddyn, a giant of a man. truan o ddyn, a ivretch of a man. cywilydd o Leh, a shameful thing: lit. a shame of a thing. Cf. Gk. /xe'ya xPVf-"'' "'^o^i ^ monster of a boar. (3) To express a meaning corresponding to the Partitive Genitive of Greek or Latin : (a) After interrogative pronouns and superlative adjectives ; e.g. pwy ohonoch ? who of you 1 y talaf o'r bechgyn, the tallest of the boys. {b) After the following words denoting quantity : cymmaint , as much llawer,* much, many cynnifer, as many Uiaws, a number chwaneg (ychwaneg), more mwy. more digon, sufficient nemmawr but Utile dim, something pa faint. how much gormod, too much peth. some hyn, this much rhagor, more hynny, that much ychydig, a little Similarly after numerals ; e.g. ugain o ddynion, twenty men. 401 (4) After certain veibs (see§ 332<^) and the following adjectives : amddifad (o) destitute (of) Uawn (o) full (of) annhebyg (o) unlikely (to) prin (o) short (of) balch (o) proud (of) rhwym {o) bound to cyfrannog (o) sharing (in) sicr (o) sure (to) euog (o) guilty (of) tebyg (o) likely (to) hoff (o) fond (of) \.tih\ng{o) worthy (of) 4.02 (S) ^^'^'^ ^^ adjective, after one of the adjectives hynod, rhyfeddol, wonderful; nodedig, remarkable; dychrynllyd, terrible : e.g. ty hynod o gysurus, a remarkably comfortable house. yr oedd yn ddychrynllyd o oer, it was terribly cold. 4Q3 (6) In such expressions as o fachgen, for a boy, etc., used to quahfy statements of praise : e.g. siaradai Saesneg yn dda iawn o Gymro, he spoke English very well for a Welshman. o fachgen yr oedd ei waith yn rhagorol,>r a boy his work was excellent. ' Also in Elis Wyn, y Bardd Cwsg, before singular nouns after myrdd and aneirif in the sense of an inde^imie amowil. This use is a survival from Mediasval Welsh. 142 WELSH SYNTAX Compound prepositional expressions introduced by o, from. J04 oddiallan i, outside : e.g. oddiallan i'r ty, outside the house. oddiar ( = o + ddi + ar), from off: e.g. oddiar y Uawr, from off the floor. o dan, odditan ( = o + ddi + tan), beneath, under : e.g. odan ugain, under twenty; odditan y ddaer, beneath the earth. oddiwrth ( = o + ddi + wrth),/ww, from near, opposed to at, towards : e.g. ewch oddiwrth y ceffyl, go away from the horse : derbyniodd lythyr oddiwrth y brenin, he received a letter from the king. o achos I o blegid > on account {of) : e.g. o achos y gwres, on account o herwydd j of the heat ; oblegid y draffci th, 07i account of the trouble; oherwydd yr hin, on account of the weather. o blaid, in favour of: e.g. o blaid y llywodraetli, in favour of the Government. o fewn, oddifewn i, ivithin . e.g. o fewn y cylch, within the circle ; o fewn ychydig, within a little ; oddifewn i'r ty, , within the house. o fesur, by (used distributively) : e.g. o lesur y dwsin, by the dozen. o flaen, before (n:iostly of place) : e.g. o flaen yr orsedd, before the throne ; o flaen yr amser, before the time. o gylch \ J, °^ \ around, about: Of place ; e.g. o gylch y lie, I around the place ; o atngylch y ddinas, around * ^ 'the city ; oddeutu 'r drws, about the door ; o gwmpas y ty, around the house. Of time : (oddeutu, o gylch, and o gwmpas only) : e.g. bu yno oddeutu wythnos, he was thereabout a week; o gwmpas dwyawr, about two hours ; o gylch tridiau, about three days. o 61, behind, used only with possessive adjectives : eg. o'm hoi, behind me. o X3M,for the matter {of), as for : e.g. o ran hynny, for the matter of that. MEANINGS OF FORMS 143 Other Prepositions. 405 ag (a), ivith, mostly used to express the instrument : e.g. torri a chyllell, to cut with a knife. Other meanings ; aeth ymaith a'r fwyall, he ivent away with the axe ; mae wedi darfod a mi, he has done with me ; crefodd arnaf a dagrau, he begged of me with tears. 408 am, around, for, with pronominal suffixes amdan- j Of place : am ei arddwrn, around his turist; am y pared, on the other side of the wall. Of time : am yn \nr,for a longtime ; am oriau, for hours ; am dros flwyddyn,/^;^ over a year. Other meanings : ni soniodd air am hynny, he did not say a word about that ; am y tro, for the time ; am y cyntaf, for the first ; am reswm neillduol, for a certain reason ; am ei fywyd, for his life; garw am arian, eager for money ; am geiniog, /(7r a penny; anfon am ddvvfr, to send for water ; nid awn yno am lawer, / should not go therefor anything ; am y testyn, mae yn ddigon hawdd, as for the subject, it is easy enough. amdan ( = am + dan), about, is mainly used with nouns in the expressions gwisgo amdan, to dress ; tynu amdan, to undress. am ben, upon, at: e.g. chwerthin am ben, to laugh at. 407 ar, on, witli pronominal suffixes am- : Of place : ar y fTordd, on the road ; ar farch, on horse- back ; ar dir a mor, 07i land and sea. Of time : ar y foment, at the moment; ar unwaith, at once ; ar ddwywaith, in two attempts. Other meanings ; ar frys, quickly ; ar yr ammod, on condition ; ar y tir, on the ground {that) ; ar sail y dystiolaeth, on the basis of the evidence ; ar ei oreu, with all his might; ar gyfartaledd, on an average ; ar log, at interest; ar werth, on sale; ar osod, to let; ar neges, on an errand ; ar gynghor, by advice _; ar gam, wrongly ; ar yr iawn, in the right; ar ddecbreu, at the beginning ; ar ddiwedd, ar derfyn, at the end {of) ; ar gyfyng gynghor, in perplexity ; ar y plwyf, on the parish ; mae arno arian, he owes money. Occasionally after math, ki?id ■• e.g. math ar liw, a kind of colour. 144 WELSH SYNTAX ^^Va In certain compound prepositional expressions : — ar ben, upon : Of place : ar ben y ty, on top of the house. Of time : ar ben pob awr, at the end of every hour. Other meanings : ac ar ben y cwbl, dechreuodd wlawio, and, on top of it all, it began to rain ; mae ar ben ei ddigon, he has ample means, lit. he is at the end of his sufficiency. ar draws, across : Of place : ar draws y fford, across the road; ar draws y lie, all over the place. Other meanings : rhedodd y cerbyd ar ei draws, the car ran over him ; peidiwch a siarad ar draws y dyn, do not interrupt the man. ar gyfer, opposite : Of place : ar gyfer y ty, opposite the house. Of time: ar gyfer yr adeg, for, { = to meet) the occasion ; ar gyfer y gauaf, for the winter. ar gyfyl, near: mainly used in negative sentences : Of place : ni ddaeth ar gyfyl y lie, he did not come near the place. ar hyd, o^'er : Of place ; ar hyd y ddinas, over the city. Of time : ar hyd y nos, all night long. ar 51, after : Of place : aeth ar 51 ei feisir, he went after his master. Of time : ar 51 yr amser, after the time. Other meanings : eich gardd chwi yw y (wyaf ar 61 un John, your garden is the largest after John's. ar warthaf, down upon ; e.g. ar warthaf y geiyn, upon the enemy. at, to, toivards (opposed to oddiwrth, _/r(7//2 by) : 408 Of place : af at y ty, I shall go to the house; y nesaf at yr heol, the next to the street. Of time : at y gauaf, towards winter ; at y n5s, towards night; at yr adeg, to the 7-ight~time. Other meanings ; aeth at ei waith, he 7vent to his work ■ mae at ei ddewis, at ei ryddid, he is free to choose ; at eich g\v3Lsa.na.e.th, at your sen'ice; chwaetli at, taste for- at ein chwaeth, to our taste; at bwy yr ydych yii cyfeirio? to whom do you refer? anfonaf 1) thyr atoch / shall send you a letter; a.t yr unwyd, for a cold ; cyme'raf hynny at fy ystyriaeth, I shall take that into consideration MEANINGS OF FORMS 145 409 cyn> before : — Of time : cyn dydd, before daybreak ; cyn cinio, before dinner. 410 dan (tan), under, until : Of place : dan y to, under the roof; dan y ddaear, under the earth. Of time : dan y nos, until night; dan yfory, until to- morrow. Other meanings : dan gerydd, under a rebuke ; dan warth, in disgrace ; dan glefyd, in sickness ; mae dan anwyd, he is suffering from a cold, lit. he is under a cold ; dan orfodaeth, under compulsion ; dan amod, on condition ; dan rwymedigaeth, under an obligation ; dan esgus, with the excuse. (For dan in amdan, o dan and odditan see §§ 406, 404). 411 dros (tros), over : Of place : gwaeddodd dros y lie, he shouted all over th place ; dros y ffordd, over the way. Of time : dros y diwrnod,/(?A-/^« day ; dros y tro, for once. Other meanings: dros fesur, beyond measure; dros gant, over a hundred ; ymladdant dros eu gwlad, dros ryddid, they fight for their country, for freedom. drwy (trwy), through : 412 Of place: drwy Ffrainc, through France; drwy y ty, through the house. Of time : drwy'r flwyddyn, throughout the year. efo, with, sometimes used for gyda. See gyda. This preposition, 413 regularly used in the spoken Welsh of N. Wales to express with, was not originally a preposition but a personal pronoun S. 3, and has developed into a pre position through a mistake. Its original use was in such expressions as ^fo a mi, he and I, or he with me, which became contracted into ^fo mi, and dfo (also pronounced hefo) was taken to mean with, and used accordingly. cr, since : — Of time : er y boreu, since the morning; er yn blentyn, 414 since childhood. ers ( = er ys), since* : — Of time : er ys oriau,/cr hours ; er ys talm, since long ago. er, in spite (of) : — Adversative : er hynny, in spite of that ; er ei 415 gystudd, in spite of Ids illness. •ers, er ys, is employed where since implies continuance : ys is probably the old form S. 3. Pres. Indie, of vvyf, meaning it is (Irish ' is ') : hence er ys criau meant originally since it is hours, i.e. since hours have elapsed. F 146 WELSH SYNTAX er gwaetliaf, lit. in spite of the worst: er gwaethaf y tywydd, in spite of the weather. 416 er, for the sake of: er sicrwydd, for the sake of certainty ; er mantaisj^o^ the sake of an advantage. er mwyn, for the sake {of) : er mwyn ta.we\wch, for the sake of peace. 417 ^'^ffor, to (implying result) : bu y peth er clod, er cysur iddo, the thing was to h's credit, to his comfort; er ei syndod, to his surprise. 418 erbyn, by. — Of time : erbyn tri o'r gloch, by three o'clock. 419 gan, with, by .- Of place * (rare in Modern Literary Welsh) : fel miaren gan lawr, like a briar along the ground (Elis Wyn) ; a'li trwynau gan lawr, with their noses on the ground (Elis Wyn). Of time (obsolete) : gan wawr, with the dawn (Gododin) To denote the agent, in passive constructions : gwelwyd ef gan fachgen, he was seen by a boy. With the meaning/ww, where gan stands for the older y gan, frojn association with: — e.g. cafodd gan y dyn fyned, he got the man to go, lit. he got frotn the man a going ; dysgodd gan ei athraw, he learnt from his master; cafodd lyfr gan ei dad, he got a book from his father. phrases: gan mwyaf, for the most part ; gan hynny, therefore; gan fyned, ^w«^, (see §§ 547, 556), da gennyf glywed, I am glad to hear, gan is largely employed in the expression mae gan, lit. there is with, denoting possession : e.g. mae gan y dyn arian, the man has money. Note. — The use of gan by some writers in such expressions as yr apostol gan 13edr, the apostle Peter, is by no means elegant and should be avoided. 420 ge^^i (^ose by : Of place : ger y llif, near the flood ; ger y tan, near the fire. ger Haw, close by, lit. near the ha?id {of) : Of place : ger Haw y drws, near the door. ger bron, before, lit. before the breast {of) : Of place : ger bron y brenin, before the king. 421 gerfydd, by, in such expressions as dal gerfydd ei draed, to hold by his feet. ' In the Dimetian dialect of S. Wales this use of gan is not uncommon. MEANINGS OF FORMS 1 47 422 gydag (gyda), with (in N. Wales, the correspjnding prep, efo is generally employed) : Of place : gyda glan yr afon, along the bank of the rii'er. Of time: gyda'r wawr, with the dawn; gyda'r nos, at nightfall. Other meanings : aeth gydag ef, he went with (i.e. accompanied by) him; gyila'ch cennad, by your leave; gyda Haw, by the way; gyda hynny, in addition to that; gyda brys, ivith speed ; gyda'r cyntaf, with the first ; gyda bloedd, with a shout; gyda gwen, with a smile; gyda bendith, with a blessing ; gyda phob parch, with all respect; gyda thraiferth, with diffi,culty. 423 gogyfer ag (a), opposite to : Of place : gogyfer a'r drws, opposite the door. gyferbyn ag (a), opposite to : Of place : gyferbyn a'r llys, opposite the court. gyfeiryd ag (a), opposite to (rare) : Of place : gyfeiryd a hyn, yr oedd seler fawr, opposite to this there was a large cellar. Elis Wyn, Bardd Cvvsg. 424 heb, without (Med. Welsh, past) :— heb lyfr, without a book ; heb achos, without a cause. heb law, besides: — heb law hynny, besides that; heb law fi,* besides myself. heb waethaf (i), in spite of (rare) : heb waethaf Holland, in spite of Holland. Elis Wyn. 425 heibio (i), past : — heibio 'r ty, past the house ; heibio i mi, past me 426 hyd, along, until : Of place : daeth adref hyd y ffordd, he came home along the road. In this sense ar hyd (see § 407*) is mostly used. Of time : hyd drannoeth, until the following day; hyd angeu, //// death. hyd at, as far as : hyd at y ty, as far as the house : hyd at y diwedd, as far as the end. hyd i, as far as, implying ' entrance into': hyd i'r ddinas, as far as the city. * Note that heb law does not require the preposition i, to, after it befoip pronouns. 148 WELSH SYNTAX 427 is, beloiv, beneath : Of place: is y nefoedd, beneath the heavens; is y don, beneath the wave. is law, beneath : Of place : is law y ty, beloiv the house. Other meanings ; raae y gwas is law ei feistr, the servant is below his master ; is law sylw, beneath on^s notice. 428 inewn, in : Of place : mewn ystafell, in a room ; mewn cerbyd, in a car. Of time : mewn awr, in an hour; mewn blwyddyn, in a year. Other meanings : mewn ofn, in fear ; mewn perygl, in danger; mewn angen, in need. See §§ 437, 438. 429 rhag,/w/«, implying the avoidance of some danger or discomfort : eg. cadw rhag y tan, to keep from the fire; achub rhag angeu, to save from death. Phrase: t\\z.%'^v>i, forthwith; rhag ofn, from fear. 430 rhwng, between : Of place : rhwng Rhyl a Bangor, between Rhyl and Bangor. Of time : rhwng nos a boreu, between night and morning. Other meanings : rhanasant yr arian rhyngddynt, they divided the money between thetn ; rhyngom, ni a wnawn yn rhagorol, between us, we shall do excellently ; rliyng- ddynt hwy a'r peth, bet7veen them and the matter. 431 tuag (tua), abont, towards. This preposition is a compound of tu, side, and ag, with : Of place : tua'r ty, about the house ; tua'r dref, towards the town. Of time : tua naw o'r gl5ch, about nine o'clock ; tua thri, about three. Other meanings : tua chant, about a hundred; tua phum ceiniog, about fivepetice ; tua milldir, about a mile. tuagat, toivard, towards : daeth tuagatom, he came towards us ; rhoisant rywbeth tuagat y treuliau, they gave some- thing towards the expenses. 432 uwch, above : uwch y don, above the wave ; uwch y byd, above the world. goruwch, above, is more commonly used to express these meanings than the simple uwch. uwch ben, above : uwch ben y ty, above the house. uwch law, above ; uwch aw y cyfan, above all. MEANINGS OF FORMS 1 49 433 wedi, after : Of time : wedi nos, a/ier 7iightfaH ; wedi 'r frwydr, af/er the battle. Of succession : y talaf wedi John, the tallest after John. 434 wi-th, by, to : Of place : safai wrth y ty, he stood by the house. After verbs of ' binding ' : cadwyno wrth y mur, to chain to the wall. Similarly — rhwym wrth y mur, bound to the wall. After verbs of speaking ; Uefaru wrth y dorf, to speak to the multitude. Other meanings : cerdded wrth ei bwysau, to walk at his leisure ; rhodio wrth ei ffon, to walk by the help of his stick ; gweithio wrth reol, to work by rule ; rhoddi wrth fesur, to give by tneasure; gwertliu wrth y pwys, to sell by the pound; wrth raid, if need be; wrth ei swydd, in virtue of his office \ wrthyf fi a'm bath, compared with me and my sort. 435 yn, in : Of place : yn y wlad, in the country ; yng nghysgod craig, in the shelter of a rock ; ym mhob man, in every place ; ym mha le, /// what place ; yn ei holl ardal, in his whole district. Of time : yn y flwyddyn, in the year ; ym mis Chwefror, in February. Other meanings : yn angeu, in death ; yn Gymraeg, in Welsh ; ym mhawb, in every one. yn is the first element of the following compound prepositional 436 expressions : yn erbyn, against : yn erbyn y gelyn, against the enemy. yng ngwydd, in the presence (of) : yng ngwydd tystion, in the presence of witnesses. yng nghylch, about: yng nghylch ugain, about twenty ; yng nghylch tridiau, about three days, ym mhen, at the end {of) : ym mhen pythefnos, at the end of a fortnight ; ym mhen y ffordd, at the end of the road. i.e. this end, hence this expression generally means at the beginning of the road. yng nghanol j in the midst of among : yng nghanol yr afon, in the yni mhlith > midst of the river; ym mhlith y tlodion, among ym mysg ) the poor ; ymysg y Saeson, among the English. ym mhlith and ym mysg are used only with plural nouns or plural possessive adjectives, yn 51, after (rare in Modern Welsh) :— yn ol hynny, after that. I50 WELSH SYNTAX Distinctions between yn and mewn. 437 y"> ^''^2 P"^- d'^ns, is generally employed before words defined by means of the definite article or otherwise : mewn, like Fr. en, is generally employed before words not so defined : e.g. yn y ty, in the house ; mewn ty, in a house. 438 Proper names of places, and expressions such as angeii, death, tragwyddoldeb, eternity, as well as pob, every, pawb, every one, yr hwn, y neb, y sawl, ivho, which (relative), pvvy, who'i, pa, what?, holl, whole, and all pronominal suffixes take yn : e.g. ynddynt, in them ; yn yr holl wlad, in the whole country. 439 Note. — In the expressions yn tan, in (or into) the fire, yn ty, in the house, the article is omitted. Note also the initial mutation in tlie expression yn Gymraeg (not yng Nghymraeg), in Welsh. Distinctions between prepositions meaning from. 440 °> /'"''"'i means from within: e.g. o'r iy, from (\.q. from within) the house, as opposed to i, into. 441 oddiwrth,/w;« near, means from a position of close proximity to : e.g. oddiwrth y \.y,from (i.e. from the outside of) the house, as opposed to at, to^vards. Verbs of ' separating ' mostly take oddiwrth. 442 rhag, from before, implies the avoidance of some danger or dis- comfort : e.g. cadw rliag y gwres, to keep from the heat. 443 gan, from association with, after verbs of 'receiving' etc. implies immediate and direct transmission : e.g. caf lyfr gan fy athraw, / shall get a book from my teacher. 444 oddiwrth, from ?tear, after verbs of ' receiving ' etc. generally calls attention to the transmission of the object in question through intermediaries : e.g. caf lyfr oddiwrth fy athraw, / shall get a book from my teacher (i.e. transmitted through the agency of some other person). Remarks. The following old prepositional forms deserve notice : 445 (l) behet, bet, up to, found in the Bool< of Llandafif, and even in Wiliam Lleyn in the mutated form fed. 446 (2) cant, Tt/zVA, of which gan (for gant) is the mutated form, can still survives as a prefix in canfu, he beheld, and canmolaf, I praise. The existence of tliis form explains the initial mutation in such expressions as a chanddo, and with him. Cant is probably cognate with Gk. koto. 447 (3) cyd, with, of which gyd in gyda is the mutated form. This preposition in the forms cyf-, cy-, cyd-, cys- is a common prefix, having the force of the Gk. aiv, with, Lat. cum, con-, with. 448 (4) go (for g"o-. under, = Gaulish vo-, Irish fo, Gk. iir6 *), is now used as a prefix and as an adverb, to express rather : e.g. go-drwm, rather heavy ; go gynes, rather warm. It is also found as a prefix in many nouns and verbs^ MEANINGS OF FORMS I5I 449 (S) gor (fof gi'Of-i cz'^'', = Gaulish vor-, ver-, Irish for, Gk. vwip*), is now used as a prefix to express exceedingly : e.g. gorddwfn, exceedingly deep, gor is found as a prefix in many Welsh words. 450 (6) han, from, is the first element in the word han-fod, essence. In the form hon it is the second element in the forms ohonof, Ac, from me, etc. 451 (7) Py> '" (°=C>- Itish CO, ttp to) occurs in the expression o ben bwy gilydd, for o ben by 'i gilydd, yVtfw one end to the other, lit. from one end to its fellow. 452 (^) '''^' o^^''> occurs in the expression ben dra-mwnwgl, head over heels ; lit. head over neck, tra is now used as a prefix and as an adverb meaning exceedingly. SUPPLEMENT TO PREPOSITIONS. Expressions of Place. 453 yr oeddwn yn Llundain, / was in London. „ „ „ y ty _ „ „ the house. euthum o Lundain, T went from London. o'r ty ,, „ ihe house. oddiwrthyty „ ,, „ „ i Lundain, „ to London. i'r ty ,, into the /to use. at y ty „ towards the house. Rule : — " Place where," " place whence," and " place whither" are expressed as in English by using prepositions. 454 Note : — gartref, home (mutated form of cartref f) is used without a preposition. Expressions of Space. cerddodd bymtheng milldir, he walked fifteen miles. mae Bangor driugain milldir o Gaerlleoii, Bangor is sixty miles f 7-0 m Chester. Rule ; — Distance is expressed by a noun without a preposition with verbs of motion and of rest. Note. — "How long," "how high," "how broad" are expressed by using the nouns hyd, length, uchder, height, lied, breadth, respectively, preceded by the preposition o,from, of: e.g. mae y ffordd yn ddeng milldir o hyd, the road is ten miles long. * Original p of Indo-European has disappeared in the Celtic languages. f cartref, home is probably from car, relative and tref, settlement,, homestead, anil would thus mean originally the common settlement of relatives under the Old Welbh System of land tenure. 455 456 152 IVELSH SYNTAX Expressions of Time. TIME WHEN. 457 (f) y^ Rhagfyr y cychwynodd, it ivas in December that he started. (b) fe'm ganwyd ar y pummed o Awst yn y flwyddyn i8 — , / IV as born on the ^th of August in the year i8 — . (c) bydd y cyfarfod yn dechreu am saith o'r gloch, the meeting will begin at seven o'clock. {d) bu yma boreu heddyw, he was here this morning. daw adref y flwyddyn nesaf, he will come home next year. aeth yno y Nadolig, he went there at Christmas. Rule: — "Time when " is expressed by using the preposition yn, in, to mark the year or the month ; ar, on, to mark the day ; am, for, to mark the hour. In other cases the noun is employed eitlier without a preposition or with the preposition yn, in. TIME HOW LONG. 458 arhosodd yn Llundain ddyddiau lawer (or am ddyddiau lawer), he stayed in London many days. bu yno bum wythnos (or am bum wythnos), she was there for five weeks. Rule :— " Time how long " is expressed either by using a noun preceded by the preposition am, for, or without a preposition. 459 Note : — " How old " is expressed by a Predicate-noun followed immediately by the noun oed, age (possibly with the omission of o,from, of, before oed) : e.g. mae y plenty n yn bum mlwydd oed, t}u child is five years of age. (Note that blwydd is the form employed here). Time within which. ychydig ddyddiau cyn y frwydr, a few days before the battle. rhyw dridiau wedi (or ar ol) y Pasg, sotne three years after Easter. ddeng mlynedd (or ym mhen deng mlynedd) wedi hynny, ten years after. ychydig yn gynt, a little sooner. gryn amser ar ol hynny, a considerable time after that. 460 Rule : — " Time how long before or after " is generally expressed by means of a noun without a preposition. (For a list of adverbs of time see § 598.) MEANINGS OF FORMS I53 MEANINGS OF J-HE VOICES. 461 Owing to the peculiar history of the Passive Voice in Welsh (see Accidence, § 178), it is not always easy to say, in sentences with normal order, whether or not the verb has completely passed over into the Passive Voice ; in other words, whether or not the sense of the original construction still survives in our grammatical consciousness. In sentences of inverted order, however, if the Subject precedes the verb, the verb then seems to be viewed as distinctly passive : e.g. gwelwyd dyn, a man was seen (originally, there was seeing as to a man). dyn a welwyd, ' a man was seen.' 462 The Active voice often has an intransitive meaning, even in the case of verbs which are capable of taking an Object : e.g. cyfodaf, / rise, as well as / raise. dysgaf, I learn, „ ,, I teach. The Substitute for a Middle Voice. 463 In the case of many verbs a reflexive form, equivalent in meaning to the ' Middle Voice' of Greek, can be made by prefix- ing the preposition ym* (another form of am, around) : eg. golchaf, I wash; ym-olchaf, I wash inyself. 464 Sometimes, verbs of this formation are not used in a direct reflexive sense, but, by means of the prefix in question, suggest a relation of the action to its agent, as involving his interest, etc. : e.g. gwelaf, I see ; ymwelaf, I visit {= I see for myself). 465 In the case of some verbs, ym appears to have a reciprocal force : e.g. ymladdwn, we fight (lit. we strike t one another). [Cf French se battre, to fight.] pan el liadron i ymgyhuddo, y caiff cywiriaid eu da, when thieves proceed to accuse one another, honest men come by their own. Welsh Proverb. 466 Note : — ym and am (Irish imm), are cognate with Latin ambi-, and Greek afupl, around [for original anibhi-]. * The corresponding Irish preposition imm is also similarly used. t Uaddaf, now = / kill, meant originally / strike. 154 WELSH SYNTAX MEANINGS OF THE TENSES. 467 Some of the Welsh tense-forms have pairs of meanings as follows : dysgaf, / learn (Present), and / shall learn (Future) ; dysgwn, / was learning (Past Imperfect), and / should learn (Secondary Future) • dysgaswn, / had learnt (Pluperfect), and / should have learnt (Secondary Fut. Perf.) • dysgais, / /^a:;-«/ ( Aorist), and / have learnt (Perfect). 468 From these forms it will be seen that the peculiarity whereby the Present tense-form has both a present and a future meaning is not confined to this tense-form alone, but shows itself also in the case of the tense-forms of the Past Imperfect and the Pluperfect. 469 "^^^ Past Imperfect, when used as a Secondary Future, corresponds in meaning to the Secondary Future of French (the so-called ' Conditionnel Present '), while the Pluperfect, when used as a Secondary Future Perfect, corresponds to the Secondary Future Perfect of French (the so-called ' Con- ditionnel Passe '). Welsh differs from French in having, in nearly all verbs, only one form for the Present and the Future ; only one form for the Past Imperfect and the Secondary Future ; and only one for the Pluperfect and the Secondary Future Perfect. 470 In the case of wyf, / am, the pairs of tense-forms are as follows : byddaf, I am wont to be (Pres. Habitual), and I shall be (Fut.) ; byddwn, I was wont to be (Past Imperf. Habit.), and I should be (Sec. Fut.) ; buaswn, / had been (Pluperfect), and / should have been (Sec. Fut. Perf.) ; bum, / was (Aorist), and I have been (Perfect). 471 N.B. — Note that the tense-forms which have these pairs of meanings are all derived from the root bheu [Lat. fu-i, / have been \ Gk. ^C-yat, to grow]. 479 MEANINGS OF FORMS 1 55 Tenses of the Indicative. The Present. The Present (Simple Form) has two chief meanings :— {A) as a true Present; \B) as a Future : e.g. gwelaf, / see or 1 shall see. (A) As a true Present, the simple form of this tense has two chief uses : (i) In the case of verbs denoting a state, to mark the state as 710ZV existing: e.g. wyf, I am ; gallaf, l ean, I am able. So with verbs which denote states of mind rather than actions : e.g. gwelaf, I see ; ystyriaf, /consider; teimlaf, I feel. The corresponding meaning of verbs which denote an action is expressed by the compound form of the Present, which marks the action as now going on : e.g. yr wyf yn ysgrifenu, / am ivriting (now), lit. T atn in writing, I am a-writing. y mae yn rhedeg, he is running (now), yr wyt yn myned, thou art going, thou art a-going. (2) In the case of verbs denoting an action and those denoting a state, to mark the action or the state, as recurring habitually in the present : e.g. ysgrifena'r awdwr hwn bob amser yn dda, this author ahvays writes well. teimlant ambell waith yn boeth, they sometimes feel hot. Very frequently this habitual meaning, whether of verbs de- noting an action or a state, is expressed by using the compound form with byddaf, I am habitiially : e.g. byddaf yn myned, / am in the habit of going, lit. I am habitually in going (a-going). byddaf yn teimlo, / am in the habit of feeling. As a true Present, the simple form of this tense may also denote what is true at all times (including the present) ; e.g. y plentyn yw tad y dyn, the child is father to the mati. bid* lawen iach, the healthy man is joyous. (Welsh Proverb.) dihunid a brydero, he that is anxious is sleepless. „ In vivid narration the Present may be used of past events I instead of the Aorist : in this use the Present is called Historical : e.g. yna gwelir ef yn rhedeg, then he is seen running. * A Pres. Indie. 3rd S. ending in -id, is sometimes fovind with this meaning, especially in old proverbs. 156 WELSH SYNTAX (B) As a Future, the Present tense-form is employed like the Future of Greek and Latin : (i) To mark an action as about to occur, or a state as about to exist, hereafter : e.g. ysgnkna.f, ] shall write ; byddaf yn ddedwydd, [shall be happy. In the case of verbs of action the Future meaning, especially in Principal Clauses, is often expressed by means of gwnaf, / shall make , followed by a verb-noun ; e.g. gwnaf fyned, / shall go, lit. I shall make a going ; similarly in the case of verbs oi perceiving and thinking, the Future is generally expressed by caf, / shall obtain, followed by a verb-noun : e.g. caf weled, / shall see ; caf wybod, / shall know. I shall be writing, etc. is expressed by byddaf yn ysgrifenu, etc. Note. — The use of gwnaf to express the Future meaning is very common in sentences of inverted order, when the verb-noun precedes the verb which governs it : e.g. rayned a wnaf, I shall go. (2) To imply command or prouiise (in the 2nd or 3rd person, where English has shall, not will) : e.g. cei fyned, you shall go, ni chei fyned, you shall not go. Note on the Present Indie, of wyf, 3rd pers. sing, (pers.) The five forms mae, yw, ydyw, oes and sydd which correspond to the English is are distinguished in use as follows : 1. In the sentence of normal order (see §§ 303, 304) : — mae is used in affirmative clauses : e.g. mae John yn y ty, fohn is in the house. jvr (yd/w) is used iu negative clauses when the Subject is definite : oes ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, indefinite : e.g. nid yw y dyn yn y ty, the man is not in the house. nid oes ddyn yn y ty, there is no ?nan in the house. Similarly in interrogative sentences introduced by a, and also after os, if, in the subordinate clauses of conditional sentences : e.g. a yw y dyn gartref ? is the man at home ? a oes rhy wun gartref? is someone at home ? OS yw y dyn gartref, if the man is at home. OS oes rliywun gartref, if someone is at home. The dinerence between yw and ydyw is mainly one of euphony, but ydyw is used in preference to yw in answers. 2. In the sentence of inverted order (see § 305) :^ sydd is used when the Subject precedes the verb in affirmative sentences, affirmative relative clauses and affirmative interrogative sentences and clauses introduced by pwy ? who ? ;\>a.} ivhat ? ; pa beth ? (or beth ?) what thing ? e.g. John sydd yn canu, it is John that is singing. yr hwn sydd yn canu, he who is singing. pwy sydd yn canu ? who is singing ? I (The reasons for the use of sydd in these cases are given in the Appendix.) MEANINGS OF FORMS l^l yw (ydyw) is employed : — ia) wherever the verb of the sentence or clause is negatived : e.g. pwy Bid yw yn gorfoleddu? who does not rejoice ? {b) whenever the Predicate-noun, Predicate-adjective or Predicate-pronoun is placed first : e.g. dyn y w, he is a man ; da y w, he is good ; my f i y w, it is I. Similarly in questions like— pwy yw y dyn ? who is the man ? and relative clauses like — yr hwn yw y dyn (where y dyn is definite), pwy and yr hwn are treated as Predicate-pronouns. mae is employed where the verb-noun of a compound tense is placed first. In these cases yn is generally omitted : e.g. myned y mae, he is going, for mae yn myned. Oiis. The plural form corresponding to mae is maent ; the plural forms corresponding to yw (ydyw) are ynt (ydynt). The Past Imperfect. The Past Imperfect (Simple Form) has two chief meanings : {A) as a true Present of the past ; {ti) as a Secondary Future (Future of the past) : e.g. gwelwn, / was seeing, or / should see. Both of these meanings are meanings of the Present transferred to past time. As a true present of the past the Past Imperfect is employed, like the Past Imperfect of Greek and Latin — (i) To mark an action as going on in the past or a state as then existing : e.g. ysgrifenwn, I was writing (then), rhedwn, I was running ,. awn, I was going ,, oeddwn, [was ,, gallwn, I was able „ teimlwn, J felt ,, N.B. — The use of the simple form of the Past Imperfect is not subject to the same limitations as that of the simple form of the Present; see §§ 473-475. In this sense the Past Imperfect is often used in the description of scenery and localities : e.g. arweiniai y llwybr i'r mynydd, the path led to the mountain. In the case of wyf, / am, the form oeddwn, [ was, has this meaning ; and it is regularly used to make a compound form of the Past Imperfect Continuous : e.g. yr oeddwn yn rhedeg, / was running. yr oeddwn yn teinilo, f was feeling. 158 WELSH SYNTAX 497 (2) To mark an action or a state as recurring habitually \n the past : e.g. ysgrifenai yr awdwr hwn bob amser yn dda, this writer always used to write luell. teimltnt aniljell waith yn boeth, they sometimes felt hot. 498 Very frequently this habitual meaning is expressed by using the compound form with byddwn, / was habitually : e.g. byddwn yn myned, I used to go. byddwn yn teimlo, / used to feel. 499 (3) The Past Imperfect was the old Indo-European narrative ;ense, and is so used in some expressions in Welsh, as it also is occasionally in Attic Greek, and, to a much larger extent, in Homer : e.g. wedi myned i mewn, gwelem y dyn ar ei eistedd, after going in, we saw the man sitting. 500 This use of the Past Imperfect is especially common in the case of the verbs gwelaf, / see, clywaf, / hear, and verbs of kindred meaning : e.g. ynghanol hyn, clywn rydwst tu a phen isa 'r stryd, in the midst of this, I heard an uproar at the loiver end of. the street. Elis Wyn, Bardd Cwsg. 501 (^B) As a Secondary Future, the Past Imperfect is used : (i) To describe a future action or state from the point of view of the past : eg. gwyddai yr ysgrifenwn, he kiiem that I should write ; gwyddai y teimlwn, he knew that I should feel ; corresponding in past time to— gwyr yr ysgrifenaf, he knoivs that I shall write \ in present gwyr y teimlaf, he knows that 1 shall feel j lime. 502 (2) In the Principal * Clause of a Conditional Sentence that speaks of what would be (§ 355) : awn yno, pe byddai eisieu, / should go there, if there were need. (For these uses of the Secondary Future in French, cf. Fr. Gram. §§ 485, 486.) 503 '-'^^ '■ — When this meaning is expressed by means of a Compound Tense, it should be noted that buaswn, the Pkiperfect or Secondary Future Perfect form of wyf, is generally employed : e.g. buaswn (not byddwn) yn myned yno, pe byddai eisieu, / should go there, if there were need. * For the Past Imperfect in the Subordinate Clause of a Conditional Sentence see § 526. MEANINGS OF FORMS Iq^ 504 Obs. 2. -This tendency to use Uie Pluperfect foim Tor the Secondary Future seems to have sprung from a desire to avoid the ambiguity that would arise if byddwn were employed, inasmuch as byddwn yn myned miglit mean / used to go. In present day Welsh the tendency to use the Pluperfect form as a Secondary Future and as a Past Imperfect Subjunctive is very marked. Similarly in Spanish, what was historically a Pluperfect Indicative has now become a by-form of the Past Subjunctive. See Span. Gram. P.G.S. § 503. KQc Obs. 3. — In the case of gwelaf, I see, clywaf, / hear, gwn, / know, this meaning is often expressed by means of the Past Imperfect form of caf, 1 obtain, with the verb- noun : e.g. caem weled, lue should see; caech wybod, yon would know. 506 Obs. 4.^ — In the case of many verbs denoting an action this meaning is sometimes expressed by using the Past Imperfect form of gwnaf, I do, with the verb-noun : e.g. mi wnawn fyned yno, pe cawn, / should go there, if I were allowed. 507 508 509 The Aorist. The Aorist has two chief meanings in Welsh : (/4) as a true Aorist; \B) as a Perfect : e.g. ysgrifenais, / wrote or / have tvritten. (A) as a true Aorist: (i) To mark an action or state as simply occurring in the past ; this is the commonest meaning of the tense : e.g. gwelais, I saw, ysgrifenais, I wrote; biim, I ivas; teimlais, I felt. As the narrative tense (i.e. as the tense answering the question What happened next?'), the Aorist is used to recount a number of past actions which occurred in succession, by marking them each separately as simply past : e.g. aeth i'r ty a chwiliodd y I'e, he went into the house and searched the place. 510 The Aorist is sometimes used, as in Greek, in an ingressive sense : e.g. wylais, / burst into tears. — Contrast wylwn, / was weeping or kept weeping. 611 (2) To mark an action as then past, i.e. as having occurred before some other action in the past ; here English generally has the Perfect Participle Passive with had : e.g. pan ganodd yr udgorn, cychwynasant, when the trumpet had sounded, they advanced. 512] N.B. — The English Past Tense of verbs denoting an action is I generally to be translated by the Aorist (e.g. Ueferais, f spoke), but, 160 WELSH SYNTAX when it denotes past habit or describes the action as then going on, it must be translated by the Past Imperfect : e.g. yna torodd allan gytlirwfl digyifelyb ; wylai rhai, gwaeddai eraill, a rhuthrent fel y gallent am y pyrth, then there broke out a great uproar ; some wept, others shouted, and rushed, as best they could, for the gates. 513 Obs. — gwneuthuin, / did, followed by a verb-noun, is oflen employed to express an Aoiist, especially where the verb-noun is placed first in a sentence or clause of inverted order : e.g. rhedeg a wnaeth, he ran. 614 (i5) As a Perfect, the Aorist may be used to describe an action as now completed : e.g. bum yn Rhufain, / have been in Rome. deuthum adref, I have come hoine. gwelais y dyn, / have seen the man. dysgais fy ngwers, / have learnt my lesson. The Perfect. 515 The Perfect meaning is most commonly expressed by means of the Present of wyf, followed by the verb-noun with wedi, after, or by means of bum, I have been, the Perfect of wyf, followed by the verb-noun with yn, in, to express a Perfect Continuous : * e.g. yr wyf wedi myned, / have gone (lit. I am after going). btim yn myned, / have been going (lit. / have been in going, i.e. in the act of going). 516 Note. — The Perfect forms of af, I go ; deuaf, I come; gwnaf, Intake; are now obsolete. The old Present forms darvvyf, hanvvyf, canwyf, and gorwyf (see Ace. p. S^). were mostly used with Perfect meaning, possibly on the an.ilogy of the Perfect forms of af, deuaf and gwnaf. The Futtire Perfect. 517 The Future Perfect meaning is expressed by means of byddaf, I shall be, followed by a verb-noun with wedi, after: e.g. byddaf wedi gweled, / shall have seen. The Pluperfect. 518 The Pluperfect form, like that of the Past Imperfect, has two distinct meanings : {A) as a true Perfect of the past (Past Perfect) ; {B) as a Secondary Future Perfect (Future Perfect of the past) : e.g. gwelswn, I had seen or I should have seen. * The Perfect meaning is also commonly expressed by using daifu. See Accidence, § i?>of. MEANINGS OF FORMS I6l {A) As a true Perfect of the past — The Pluperfect is used to describe an action as completed at some point of time in the past, or a past state as the result of an action completed in the past : e.g. y pryd hynny ysgrifenasai ddau lyfr, af that time he had written tivo books. buasai yn glaf cyn i hynny ddigwydd, he had been ill before that happened. In Principal Clauses, the Pluperfect meaning is usually expressed by means of a Compound Tense : e.g. yr oedd wedi gweled, he had seen. ( buasai yn gweithio, he had been working (rare) (Pluperf. \ Continuous) ( yr oedd wedi bod yn gweithio, „ „ „ {E) As a Secondary Future Perfect — (i) To describe the completion of a future action from the point of view of the past : es. gwvddai I '"' ^^'''^" C''^':^) \ ^ ^'^^ '^<^^ ^ should '^' ° ' \ y buaswn wedi myned, j have gone. (2) In Principal Clauses of Conditional Sentences that speak of what would have been : e /aethai ) ^^^^^j (he jvould have gone, if he ■*■ \buasai wedi myned, j^ '\ had been allowed. This meaning of the Pluperfect is generally expressed by means of buaswn, the Pluperfect of wyf, followed by the verb- noun with wedi. For the use of buaswn, cf. § 503. Kote on the parsing of Compound tenses. The so-called ' Compound Tenses ' of Welsh form, strictly speaking, only a portion of a system whereby the verb wyf, followed by a verb-noun with a preposition, is used to express various meanings : c^. yrwyfyn myneA, I am going (lit. J am in going). ,, ,, wedi ,, I have gone (lit. J am after going). „ ,, ar fyned, T am about to go (lit. I am on going). ,, ,, am ,, /intend to go (lit. I am about going). ,, ,, heb ,, 1 have not gone (lit. I am without going). In order, therefore, to keep clearly in view the structure of these modes of expression and the principle upon which they are formed, yn and wedi in ' Compound Tenses ' should be parsed, not as mere signs of tenses, but as prepositions governing the verb-nouns which follow them. a 1 62 WELSH SYNTAX MEANINGS OF THE MOODS. The Subjunctive Mood. 526 The Subjunctive Mood, so far as it is used in Modern Welsh, is very largely a survival. It has only one special form, namely, that of the Present Subjunctive. The Past Imperfect Subjunctive and the Pluperfect Subjunctive are the same in form as the Past Imperfect Indicative and the Pluperfect Indicative, in all verbs except wyf and caf * 537 In Mediaeval Welsh and even in the translation of the Bible the Subjunctive vi^as much more frequently used than it is now. Several of the instances where it survives in modern Welsh prose are expressions such as fel y mynno, as he pleases ; doed a ddelo, come what may ; cyn bo hir, before (it shall be) long ; costied a gostio, cost what it may ; dyweded a ddywedo, say what he will. 528 N. B. — Distinguish carefully the use of the Past Imperfect and Pluperfect tense-forms as Subjunctives from their use as Secondary Futures and Secondary Future Perfects (see §§ 501, 502, 521, 522)- The chief uses of the Present Subjunctive are : — 529 (i) Like the Latin Present Subjunctive and the Greek Optative, to express wish : e g. Duw a'n bendithio ! May God bless us / 530 (2) In Clauses expressing purpose : e.g. fel y byddo byw eich enaid, that your soul may live. modd y caffo hi'r blaen ar lawer o'i chymydogesau, that she may be ahead of many of her neighbours. (Elis Wyn, Bardd Cwsg.) 531 (3) Occasionally, in negative Noun Clauses after a verb mean ing to command or to beware : e.g. gwel na'th orchfygo, see that he do not overcome thee. 532 (4) In Concessive Clauses after cyd (rare) and after Com- paratives of Equality : e.g. cyd gwichio'r fenn, hi a ddwg ei llwyth, though the waggon creak, it carries its load. er pereiddied a chyflawned fyddont, however fragrant and perfect they may be. (Chas. Edwards.) * The forms bawn and cafifwn from wyf and caf (see A'-ciilence §§ 195a, 263) are employed as follows : bawn is used after pe, if; oni, if not; fel, so that (in Consecutive Clauses) : caffwn is used wherever the clause requires the Past Imperfect Subjunctive. MEANINGS OF FOHMS 163 533 (5) In Relative Clauses and Adverb Clauses of Time, Place, and Comparison, when tlie action is to be marked as prospeclive (implying future Contingency*) or general : also not unfrequently in Characterizing Relative Clauses : e.g. abl i bawb a'i bodlono, sufficient for each is that which satisfies ( = shall or may satisfy) him. (Prospective Rel. Clause, g 364.) a fynno iechyd, bid lawen, whosot'^iiX desires health, let him be joyful. (General Rel. Clause, § 364.) Ihvm tir ni phoro dafdd, bare is the land ivhich a sheep does not graze. (Characterizing Rel. Clause, § 364.) nes machludo yr haul, until the sun shall set. (Prospective Clause of Time, § 347a.) lion fydd y llygoden, pryd ni bo'r gath gartref, the mouse is merry, ^cheneveT the cat is not at home. (General Clause of Time, § 347a.) . . ". hawdd cymod lie bo cariad, reconciliation is easy w/i«/-ever there is love. (General Clause of Place, § 348.) .minnau attebaf yn oreu mettrwyf (Gr. Roberts, 1563), / shall answer as best I can ( = shall be able). (Prospective Clause of Comparison, § 359.) pob un fel y gallo allan o'r Ysgrythyrau Sanctaidd (C. Edwards), each as he shall be able out of the Holy Scriptures. (Prospective Clause of Comparison, § 359.) 534 (6) Occasionally in Indirect Questions, v^fhen the action is marked as contingent : e.g. nld gwaeth imi beth a ddywedo ffyliaid, it makes no difference to me what fools may say. (Morgan Llwyd.) The Imperative Mood. 535 The Imperative marks an action as demanded. Neg. nac (na). It is used : (a) In Commands: e.g. dywed, say ; na ddywed, say not. ib) In Suppositions and Concessions : e.g. dyweded a fynno, ni newidiant, let hint say what he will, they will not chatige. * It is the contingency of the action that is chiefly suggested by the Subjunctive in Welsli. 164 WELSH SYNTAX THE VERB- NOUN AND VERB-ADJECTIVES. 636 The verb-noun in Welsh, inasmuch as it is the name of an action, is treated in many respects like a noun ; but, as it is the name of an action some of its constructions resemble those of the verb. 537 Modern Welsh, doubtless largely influenced in the course of centuries by the practice of translating from other languages, tends to be conscious rather of tlie verbal aspect of the verb-noun as the name of an action, than of its nominal aspect as the name of an action. The student of the language, there- fore, often finds it difficult to reconcile his treatment of the verb-noun from the point of view of accidence, where it has very largely the construction of a noun, with his inner consciousness of its verbal aspect. The Welsliman of the present day is still more inclined to lay emphasis upon the verbal affinities of the verb-noun, owing to the fact that he habitually makes use of the verb- noun in translating the English Infinitive. To the student of language, nothing can be more interesting than the adjustment of the categories of one language to those of another, when the linguistic consciousness is of necessity bilingual. It is always interesting, too, to observe the discrepancies which sometimes arise between the subjective classifications of forms by those who speak a language, and the objective classifications based upon a study of the inherited forms themselves. The verb-noun without a preposition. The verb-noun may stand — 538 I. As the Subject of a sentence : e.g. mae canu da yn werth ei wrando, good singing is ^iwrth hearing. ac mae'n ddyled eu canmawl, and it is our duty to praise them: \\\.. the praising of them is a duty. (E. Prys.) aeth eu bod ac aeth eu henwau, their being and their names have vanished. Note. — When the verb-noun is separated by means of a Predicate-adjective from the verb to which it is Subject, the verb-noun does not undergo initial mutation : e.g. mae yn anhawdd myned, it is difficult to go (lit. going is difficult. ) 539 2. As the Object, depending on certain verbs (see § 330, where a list of verbs taking a verb-noun as their Object is given) : e.g. gall fyned, he can go ; medr ysgrifenu, he can write. MEANINGS OF FORMS 1 65 540 3. In dependence upon a noun and forming with it the equiva- lent of a compound noun in English. e.g. araser hau, the time of sowing. ysgol ganu, a singing school. For the initial mutation in ' ganu' see §§ 376-379. 541 Sometimes the dependent verb-noun is qualified by an adjective used adverbially : e.g. plentyn newydd eni, a newly born child. dau o bendefigion newydd ddyfod, two noblemen just arrived. (Bardd Cwsg.) The noun depending on a verb-noun. e^o JW The analogy of Irish, the use of possessive adjectives with the verb-noun, together with the non-mutation of the initiil consonant of a noun depending upon it, all point to the fact that in Welsh such .1 noun was originally in the genitive case. This was a natural construction when the noun character of the verb-noun was prominent in consciousness, and the forms of the language are a survival from this stage of its history. To the Welshman of the present day, however, in whose mind the verbal aspect of the verb-noun has the greater prominence, the noun following a verb-noun of transitive meaning is viewed more as the Object of a verb than as a noun depending on a noun. At the same time, the student should make it clear in parsing that he understands the original construction. 543 A noun depending on a verb-noun may denote either the doer of the action expressed by the verb-noun (such a noun being originally a Subjective Genitive), or else the Object of the action (originally an Objective Genitive). If the verb-noun be intran- sitive, the dependent noun denotes the doer of the action ; if transitive, its Object : e.g. cyn dyfod y dyn, before the man came ; lit. before the man's coming. cyn gweled y dyn, before seeing the man ; lit. before the seeing of the ma?i. The verb-noun ciualified by possessive adjectives. 544 A possessive adjective corresponds to a genitive case. Hence, before an intransitive verb-noun, the possessive adjective denotes its Subject ; before a transitive verb-noun, its Object : e.g. cyn fy nyfod, before my coming. cyn fy ngweled, before I was seen \ lit. before my seeing — the seeing of me. 166 WELSH SYNTAX 545 The use of the possessive adjective before a verb-noun of transitive meaning is very common when the verb wyf is followed by a verb-noun with a preposition ; see § 524 : e.g. mae rhywun yn ei weled ; lit. there is someone in (^ = in the act of) seeing him. ,_ ,. . ,_, J ( (a) the man has slain him. mae y dyn wedi ei ladd = \ ),!. ^, , , , ■ ' ^ \ (b) tiie man has been slain. If the person denoted by the possessive adjective be the same as the Subject of the form of wyf, we have the second meaning (b) ; if it be different, then we have the first meaning (a). Obs. —Note the use of the possessive adjective with sefyll, standing, eistedd, silting, goi'vvedd, reclining, in the following and similar expressions : yn ei sefj'li, standing; ax fy eistedd, silting; ar ei orwedd, reclining. The verb-noun with prepositions. 546 By means of the verb-noun governed by prepositions are formed participle-equivalents or verb-noun phrases equivalent in meaning to Adjective or Adverb Clauses ; see § 346b : e.g. yn myned, going; wedi myned, having gone; ar fyned, about to go ; gan ei fod, since he is ; wedi (iddo) fyned, after he has gone. Obs. — 'I'he verb-noun governed by the prep, i, to, and qualified by possessive adjectives is often used to convey a meaning equivalent to that of the Latin gerundive : e.g. mae y dasg i'w gwneyd ar unwaith, the lesson is to be done at once. Employment of gan, dan and yn with the vert-noun. The accurate use of phrases formed by means of the prepositions gan and dan with the verb-noun can only be acquired by observation and practice. 547 gan with the verb-noun is employed in such expressions as the following : — (a) aeth y gwr i'r ty, gan dybied fod rhywun yno, the man wen into the house, thinking that sojiieone was there. {b) gan farw ti a fyddi farw, verily {\.\t.dji7ig) thou shall di gan with the verb noun generally forms a Present participle equivalent, referring to the Subject of the principal verb, and serves to explain an action expressed by that verb. In expressions similar to ifi), gan with the verb-noun has been regularly em- ployed in the Welsh Bible to translate the 'Infinitive Absolute' of Hel>rev, when added to the finite verb for the sake of emphasis. MEANINGS OF FORMS 167 548 dan with the verb-noun is chiefly employed to form Present participle-equivalents which have a similar force to the predicate participles of Greek (see Gk. Gram. § 324, 4, 5, 6). Such ex- pressions generally imply, as in the case of gan, that the action denoted by the verb-noun is contemporaneous with that of the verb of the sentence, and are especially common when the verb- noun expresses some emotion such as grief, joy, fear or the like :— e.g. aetli yno dan ganu, he went there singing. ., ,, „ wylo, „ ,, „ weeping. „ ., 1, Sfynu ^. )i I, trembling. „ „ „ chwerthin ,, ,, „ laughing. „ „ ., gerdded * ,, „ ,, walking. 549 y^ followed by a verb-noun often forms a phrase equivalent in force to an Adjective Clause, or to a Predicate-participle (see § 550 foil.) or to an Absolute Clause (see § 561) : e.g. dyna ddyh yn x\\&Atg, yonder is a man running { = who is running). Verb-noun equivalents of participles as Predicate-adjectives. 550 The place of a Present participle used as a Predicate-adjective is most commonly supplied in Welsh by means of a verb-noun with yn, in ; the place of a Perfect participle, by means of a verb- noun with wedi, after. 551 (") Wi''i verbs of ' being ' (wyf, /am, byddaf, I am habitually) and verbs denoting some modification of being, such as ymddang- hosaf, I appear : e.g. y raae yn gweithio, he is working. bydd yn gweithio, he is in the habit of working. yniddengys wedi heneiddio, he appears to have aged. 552 (f>) With verbs of 'continuing,' 'holding out' and ' wearying ' : arhosaf, / remain \ blinaf, / am tired e.g. arhosaf yn siarad, I shall remain speakifig. blinaf yn gwaeddi, I become tired of shouting. 553 (1?) With verbs of ' perceiving,' ' knowing ' and ' showing ' \ e.g. gwelaf ef yn agoshau, I see him approaching. nis gwn am neb yn cashau y sawl a'i canmolant, / know of no one that hates those who praise him. dangoswch y bachgen yn rhedeg, show the boy running. * rhedeg, ritjining, recjuires the preposition ar, on. l68 WELSH SYNTAX 554 After the verbs daliaf and parhaf, / continue, the verb-noun is usually preceded by the preposition i, to : e.g. daliaf i ysgrifenu, I continue to write. parhaf i weithio, I continue to work. 555 After verbs of ' doing well or ill ' and verbs of ' rejoicing ' and ' grieving,' the verb-noun is usually preceded by the preposition wrth, by : e.g. yr ydych yn pechu wrth ddweyd celwydd, you are sinning in speaking falsehood. ni Iwyddwch wrth fod yn esgeulus, you will not succeed by being negligent. llawenhaf wrth eich gweled yn iach, / rejoice to see you well. 556 After verbs of ' going ' and 'standing' the verb-noun generally takes gan and dan (see §§ 547, 548). Verb-adjectives in -edig and -adwy. 557 Welsh has now no participles (though it has participle-equivalents, §§ 546-556). But it has two verb-adjectives, one ending in -edig, the other ending in -adwy. 558 The verb-adjective in -edig marks an action as either (i)done or (2) do-able (rare). e.g. (i) gorphenedig, ^«w//«(f ; (2) gweledig, visible. 559 The verb-adjective in -adwy generally marks an action as do-able, like the Latin Gerundive : e.g. annileadwy, that cannot be blotted out. credadwy, that can be believed. canfyddadwy, that can be perceived. In some verb-adjectives, however, such as safadwy, stable, and teimladwy, sensitive, the ending -adwy seems to have an active force. Many verbs have no corresponding verb-adjectives. The present-stem employed as a verb-adjective. ggO A few present-stems are employed in Welsh as verb-adjectives correspond- ing in meaning for the most part to those ending in -edig : e.g. carreg nadd, a heiun stone. bara pryn, bought bread. creigiau llosg, burnt rods. mynydd llosg, a burning vioimtain^ a volcano. creigiau crog, overhanging rocks. Similarly : — fel helyg plan | oddeutu glan yr afon, like planted •willows nhtit the river bank. (E. Prys. ) MEANINGS OF FORMS 1 69 PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES CONNECTED THERE WITH. (Sections 561-600 are supplementary to Accidence §§ 130-176). Personal pronouns and possessive adjectives. 561 I. When the post- vocalic form of the personal pronoun in the accusative precedes the verb, the Subject of the verb, if pro- nominal, is rarely expressed : e.g. yno y'm gwelodd, it was there that he saw me (not yno y'm gwelodd ef). 562 2. hwynt (simple pers. pron. 3rd pers. pi.) is now never used as Subject, or after a combination of a preposition with a sufifix 3rd pers. pi., or as Object after verbal forms ending in -nt. 563 3- The following limitations to the use of certain forms of the ])ersonal pronouns should be carefully noted : — 564 (a) For the pronoun of the ist pers., if it be the Subject of the verb, the forms fi, finnau are employed after verbs ending in d, f, or r; the forms i, innau after verbs ending in m, n, s : e.g. gwelwyd fi, / have been seen ; gwelir fi, / am seen ; gwelaf fi, I see; but bum i, I have been; gwelais i, I have seen. (After impersonal forms the pronoun following the verb may be viewed as its Object : see §§ 178, 461). 565 (b) For the pronoun of the 2nd pers. (Simple and Conjunctive) the forms ti, tithau, are employed after verbal forms ending in t: e.g. gwelaist ti, thoii hast seen. gwelaist tithau, thou too hast seen. 566 (0 But if a verb is preceded by a post-vocalic pers. pron. S. i, and a supplementary pers. pronoun be added after the verb, the forms i, innau must be employed : e.g. fe'm gwelsant i, they saw me. fe'm gwelsant innau, they saw me also. Similarly, for the 2nd pers. the forms di and dithau must be employed. 567 (d) After combinations of prepositions with pronominal suffixes, the supplementary personal pronouns take the following forms : for ist pers. sing, fi, finnau ist pers. plu. ni, ninnau. „ 2nd ,, ,, ti, tithau 2nd ,, „ chwi, chwithau „ 3rd „ ,, ef, yntau(m)3rd „ „ hwy, hwythau lii, hithau (1) 170 WELSH SYNTAX 5G8 4. Sometimes the simple personal pronoun added to a verb, or to a noun preceded by a possessive adjective or to a preposition with a pronominal suffix is not emphatic. In that case it is an enclitic : e.g. gwelais i = gwelaisi, / saiv. fy nhad i = fy nhadi, my father. arnaf fi = ^rnafi, upon me. 569 5- "y ''^'^i thi^^ own, etc. are expressed by adding fy hun, dy hun, ein hunain, etc., to a noun qualified by a possessive adjective : e.g. fy nhy fy hun or fy nhy i fy hun, my own house. dy dy dy hun or dy dy di dy hun, thine own house. ein ty ein hunain or ein ty ni ein hunain, our own house. Relative- Pronouns. 51JIQ iS" The relatives of Welsli consist partly of survivals like the proclitics a and yr (y), or ag and ar followed by a, and partly of demonstratives preceded by the article, like yr hwn, y neb, y sawl, or of interrogative forms like pwy liynnag, which, by their frequent association with the old relatives a and yr (y), have ultimately acquired a relative force. Thus the history of these relatives in Welsh is the history of a transference to them of a relative meaning which they did not originally possess.* Such a transference is not unknown in language {e.g. the development of the relative meaning of the English ' that ' = ' which '), and it was doubtless facilitated in Welsh by the weakness and evanescence of the proclitic relative a. The proclitics a and yr (y), which always preceded the verb, came to be classed with meaningless verbal par- ticles, and so completely has their relative origin sunk into oblivion in the minds of modern Welshmen, that a before the Aorist may be emphasized and lengthened to express a Perfect ; e.g. mi a welais, ' I have seen . ' Even where yr (y) have undoubtedly retained their relative force in expressions in which yr hwn etc. never were employed, the tendency of a Welshman ignorant of the history of these proclitics is to imagine that yr hwn etc. have been omitted. See Appendix. 571 ar, in Med. Welsh or (a), ar (a), is used in General Relative Clauses ; e.g. pawb ar a welais, everyone that 1 saiv. 573 ag, in ISIed. Welsh oc (a), is used chiefly after y lath and y cyfryw, stich, after nouns qualified by Comparatives of Equality, and sometirne.<; in General Relative Clauses : e.g. y fath ag a welais, such as I saw. y cyfryw ag oedd)nt, such as they were. cystal dyn ag a welwyd erioed, as good a man as was ever see?i. pawb ag sydd mewn angen, everyone that is in need. * In such a sentence for instance as — cyfrenwch i'r hwn y derbyniasoch ganddo, give to him from whom you have received, yr hwn is preceded not by the preposition of the relative clause, but bv the preposition of the antecedent, MEANINGS OF FORMS 171 573 yr hwn generally refers to & particular or individual antecedent : e.g. ein Tad, yr hwn wyt yn y nefoedd, 07ir Father who art in Heaven. 574 ar, ag, y neb, y sawl and pwy bynnagf are usually general : e.g. gwyn ei fyd y neb sydd foddlon, blessed is he that is con- tented, i.e. whoever is contented. 575 yr hyn (like the demonstrative pronoun hyn) generally refers to some fact, circumstance or statement : e.g. dywedodd ei fod yn flinedig, yr hyn sydd yn ddigon tebyg, he said thai he was tired, ivhich is not unlikely. 576 yr hwn, yr hon and yr hyn are sometimes used as adjectives : e.g. yr hwn ddyn, which man ; yr hon ddynes, which woman ; yr hyn beth, which thing. 577 Sometimes pa un (like Breton 'pehini') is used for yr hwn, and pa rai (like Breton 'per6') for y rhai ; but hitherto these forms have been generally avoided by good writers. 578 N.B. — In Relative Clauses, when yr hwn is expressed, the negative is generally nid (ni) : where a and yr (y) would be used alone in affirm itive sentences, nad (na) is used, but nid (ni) is also sometimes found. Indefinite pronouns and adjectives. 579 By their constant use in negative expressions neb, someone, and dim, ?iothing, have acquired a negative meaning, like the French aucun, personne and rien : e.g. pwy sydd yno ? neb ; who is there 1 no one. beth a wnaeihoch ? dim; what did you do? nothing. neb corresponds to the Irish nech, someone (cf Fr. aucun for Lat. aliquis unus, someone). dim was originally a noun meaning 'a bit,' as in — y dim lleiaf, the least bit {cL Latin hilura, 'a whit,' from which ne-hilum = nihil, nothing. Similarly the Fr. rien, nothing, is derived from Lat. rem, ace. of res, thing). not — any, no, is expressed by yr un : e.g. ni welais yr un dyn, / saw no man. Demonstrative pronouns and adjectives. 580 The demonstrative hwn (hon, hyn) is sometimes employed after a noun qualified by a possessive adjective : e.g. (y mab hwn, this my son. hyn and hynny are generally employed for hwn and hwnnw after the nouns peth, thing, and pryd, time. 172 IVELSH SYNTAX The Definite Article. 581 The chief uses of the article are the same as in other languages (especially French, German, and Greek) : (i) To mark off or distinguish particular individuals : e.g. y tri brawd, t^e three brothers. (ii) To denote the whole of a class or species : * e.g. mae y Hew yn greadur ysglyfaethus, the lion is a beast of prey. cofiwch y morwyr, remember the sailors. 582 Welsh employs the article in the following expressions where no article is employed in English : — I. With the demonstrative adjectives hwn, hwnnw, and the demonstrative adverbs, yma, yna, acvv : e.g. y dyn hwn, this man (cf. Gk. 6 di/^p oBros). ,, ,. hsMMT^iN, that man. „ ,, yma, this man {here). „ , yna, that man {near you). „ „ acw, that man (yonder). 583 2. With certain words denoting fractions, when they denote a definite part of a known or previously mentioned whole : e.g. yr hanner, a ^a^ (sometimes the half). y traian, j drydedd ran, a third. 584 3. With certain names of places : e.g. Yr Abermaw, Barmouth Yr Amwytliig, Shrewsbury Y Bala, Ba/a Y Drefnev/y ddjJVewtoitin Y Rhyl, J?hyl Y Trallwm, Welshpool Y Wyddgrug, Mold 585 4- With the names of certain festivals e.g. Y Grawys, Lent Y Nadolig, Christmas Y Pasg, Easter 586 5- ^" ^^ following idioms (cf. German Gram. P.G.S. § 471) :— yn y dref, in town yn yr ysgol, in school yn yr eglwys, in church yn y nefoedd, in heaven yn y capel, in chapel ar y ddaear, on earth Similarly i'r dref, to town ; o'r dref, from to7vn, etc. * In Welsh, as in English, the article is often omitted with a plural noun denoting the whole of a class or species. Yr Affrig, Africa Yr Aipht, Egypt Yr Alban, Scotland Yr Almaen, Germany Yr Amerig, America Yr Eidal, Italy Yr Hispaen, Spain Yr India, India Yr Iwerddon, Ireland Y Sulgwyn, Whitsunday Yr Ystwyll, Epiphany MEANINGS OF FORMS 1 73 587 Where a noun is followed by a dependent noun, with or without the article, the first noun does not take the article in Welsh ; it is felt to be already sufficiently defined by the dependent noun : e.g. mab y brenin, the son of the king (German, des Konigs Sohn). mab brenin, the son of a king. 588 Note, however, y pen teulu, the head of the family, where pen teulu is treale'i like a compound word. Employment of the article with 611 and hoU. 589 611 is used as a noun meaning whole, hence yr 611 means the whole : e.g. yr oil ohono, the whole of it. h6ll is an adjective meaning whole {entire), all (adj.). e.g. yr h6ll fyd, the whole world, the entire world. yr hoU ddynion, all the men. Obs. — The Welsh for everyone is pawb „ „ „ each one „ pob un „ „ „ each man,, p6b dyn AD VERBS. A. The Negatives. 590 nid (ni) is employed in Statements and Questions. 591 nac* (na) ,, „ Answers. ,, „ „ Prohibitions. 592 nad (na) is employed in negative clauses corresponding to those affirmative clauses in which the verb would be preceded by a or yr (y). In Local Clauses and clauses with yr hwn or y sawl, nid (ni) is generally employed, nad (na) is also employed after OS, as well as in expressions of wish and interrogative clauses introduced by paham ? why ? 593 To negative individual words in Principal Clauses, nid is used ; in negative Subordinate Clauses, where the corresponding affirm- ative clause would have raai, nad is employed (with the omission of mai). 594 In modern colloquial Welsh the negative employed in State- ments and Questions takes the form nid (ni) ddim, used in a manner similar to the French ne pas, ne point, not. From this construction nid (ni) is frequently omitted : e.g. (ni) fum i ddim yno, / have not been there. * Chiefly before forms of wyf, such as wyf, vdwyf, oes, oedd, ydoedd. 174 WELSH SYNTAX 595 The expression ddim o, nothing of, has been conuacted into nio : e.g. welais i mo'r dyn, I did not see the man, for ni welais i ddim o'r dyn, I saw nothing of the man. Similarly 'ddim oliono ' has become mohono, often contracted in spoken Welsh into mono. Employment of the negative with certain adjectives. 596 The negative is sometimes employed with an adjective as follows : ni waeth gennyf pwy ddaw, I do not mind who comes (lit. not worse with me who comes). ni wiw iddo fyned, he must not go (lit. not ft ting for him to go). Note. — .Similarly in Mediaeval Welsh ni moch, not soon ; ni phell, no I far ; ni well, not better ; ni mad, not good, were used like ni waeth, ni wiw in the preceding examples. 597 These instances are perhaps to be explained by an ellipsis of yw, is, between the negative and the adjective, or by an ellipsis of the old form ys, // is, before the negative. B. Adverbs of Time. 598 Some adverbs of Time are interesting as preserving old gram- matical forms : — y w, - / I he = an old demonstrative meaning this. he-no, to-ntght J " y fory, to-morrow (lit. the morning) ; fory is for mory = morg-, akin to the Germ, morgen, Eng. morrow. yn fore, early \ yn hwyr, late > yn is here an old form of the definite article, yn awr, now ) e-leni, this year ; e = he, this; leni is from vleni = flynedd, year. y llyiiedd, last year (lit. the year) for yr flynedd. trannoeth, next day from Lat. trans noctem, over night. trennydd, the day after to-morrow. The origin of the first part of this word is doubtful, tradwy, = the day after trennydd. doe, yesterday. neithiwr, last jiight echdoe, the day before yesterday ; ech is cognate with Lat. ex, from, Gk. l^. echnos, the night before last. beunydd, daily, for beb-n-dydd ; beb = bob for pob, every ; n in beb-n is probably a remnant of the old accusative endii.g. gynne^, just now MEANINGS OF FORMS 175 byth, ever^for ever, referring to the present or to the future. erioed, ever, referring to the past, erioed, stands for er i ( = ei) oed, since his life (began). In Medireval Welsh a form ermoed = er m oed = er fy oed, sirice my life {began), was used. weiihion, weithian, by this time,={y) weith hon, this time. eisoes, already, in Mediseval Welsh =j'f/, nevertheless. trachefn, mutated into drachefn, again, lit. over her back, for dra ei chefn. In Mediseval Welsh a corresponding form draegeuyn = dra ei gefn, over his back, was employed. er ys VA^Vvjn, for a long time, lit. since the morning : meityn is from the Latin matutlnus, belonging to the morning. C. Adverbs of Place. 599 The following adverbs of place, which are derived from pre- positions by the addition of asuflix, should be noted : — tanodd, underneath from tan (dan), under trwodd, through „ trwy (drwy), through trosodd, over „ tros (dros), over uchod, rti^i?w = uchot, over thee, from uwch, over. isod, below = \%o\., under thee, „ is, under. WORDS REPRESENTING SENTENCES OR PARTS OF SENTENCES. 600 The following words, representing sentences or parts of sen- tences, are found in Welsh : — wele, behold i nachaf (obs.) ,, ( nycha (obs.) „ llyma, here is (rare), for syll yma, look here. Fr. voici. llyna, there is (rare), ,, syll yna, took there. Yx. voilL dyma, here „ wel di yma, see thou here. Fr. voici. dyna, there is „ wel di yna, see thou there. Fr. voilk. Aacw, yonder is ,, vit\ ^i a.zvr, see thou yonder. Fr. voiia. ie, yes „ i ef, it is (?) nage, no „ nag ef, not it aie, is it sol ,, a i ef, is it? onide, ynle,isitnotso?,, o nid ef, is it not ! sef, that is, namely „ ys ef, it is. tyhed, I wonder, used parenthetically : derivation unknown, do, yes, when the verb of the question is Aorist. naddo, no, „ „ ,, ., ,, „ „ „ ef in all these ex- pressions represents the old neuter pro- noun S. 3. APPENDIX. NORMAL AND INVERTED ORDER. The sentences described in §§ 303, 305 as sentences of normal and inverted order respectively are so described according to their natural classification, from the point of view of Descriptive Grammar, in the mind of a Welshman who forms them at the present day. In modern Welsh prose, good writers, in accordance with the regular practice of the spoken language, have more and more confined the use of a simple sentence or principal clause of inverted order to those statements or questions in which the words placed before the verb are emphatic. The emphatic words thus standing in the most prominent position in the sentence constitute what Paul, in his Principles of Lan^uage^ calls " the psychological predicate," i.e. the words which express the inform- ation which the sentence in question is primarily intended to convey. In Mediaeval Welsh, on the other hand, and even later, the Subject of the sentence was not unfrequently placed before the verb, even where it (the .Subject) had no special emphasis laid upon it. At the present day sentences of inverted order are formed by simple inversion ; but it is highly probable that, historically, one of the inherited types upon which they are modelled (at any rate, when the words placed first in the sentence are emphatic) was not itself the product of mere inversion. The use in such sentences of the pre-verbal particles a ( = Bret, a, Corn, a) and yr (y) ( = Bret, ez (e), Cornish yth (y) ), probably in their origin pronominal (see § 167), coupled with the fact that the verb of such a sentence, like that of a relative clause,* stands idiomatically in the 3rd pers. sing., forcibly suggests, as Zeussf has pointed out, that the type of sentence in question is parallel in its origin to the Irish construction, in which the sentence as a whole is complex, beginning with the word 'is' ( = Welsh ys, it is) or with a noun standing absolutely. Since ys, in Welsh MSS., is rare before nouns, it is probable, unless we are to suppose the early omission of ys, that Welsh preferred the type of sentence in which the words specially emphasized stood in the absolute construction : e.g. dynion | sydd yma, rather than ys dynion sydd yma. The closer coalescence, in course of centuries, of the elements of disguised complex sentences like these has no doubt ultimately given the sentence of inverted order the aspect of a simple sentence. This view of the origin of these sentences is, however, not entirely free from difficulty. It would be a mistake to suppose that Mediaeval Welsh always required the use of one of the particles a or yd (=ydd, modern yr), when the order of the sentence was inverted. In mediaeval poetry, especially, sentences of inverted order are often found, whose verb is preceded by no particle or by one of the particles ry (Irish ro, Gk. irpb) or dy (Irish do). * The use of the form sydd, when the subject precedes the verb, is a further confirmation of this view, sydd being the form of the Pres, Indie. S. 3 of wyf, which is used in a relative clause. + Zeuss, Grammatica Celtica (2nd Edit. , p. 926) : ' ' Est autem hsec constructio sine dubio eadem solutio sententise, per quam in vetusta lingua hibernica vox aliqua cum emphasi proferenda e regulari ordine vocum ad initium transfertur vcrbo sulistantivo prsemisso, vel sine eo posita absolute." 176 APPENDIX 177 Even in mediaeval prose we occasionally find a sentence of inverted order with ry before the verb, without ' a ' : e.g. coet ry welsom ar y weilgi, ' we saw trees on the sea' (referring to the ships of Bran), Mab. Rhys-Evans, p. 35. In view of these considerations and the general tendency of the earlier stages of language to allow variation in the order of words, together with the fact that in Gaulish the Subject seems, in accordance with the regular Indo- European practice, to have generally preceded the verb, it would be rash to assert that simple sentences of inverted order did not continue to exist in Welsh side by side with the complex sentences to which reference has already been made. The student of Welsh historical Syntax should note carefully all survivals of the Celtic practice, here indicated, of expressing a statement by means of a complex sentence beginning with a form of wyf, rather than by means of a simple sentence in the usual manner of most other languages. The tendency of Welsh, it is true, has been to eliminate or disguise, as far as possible, this somewhat cumbrous mode of expression ; but, even in the modern language, there survive several instances of it, though most Welshmen are no longer aware of their history. Such survivals show themselves in the use of mai (in S. Wales taw) before noun and adverb clauses of inverted order, as well as in the forms pe, ?/, and canys,/»n The word mai, now dissociated, in the mental linguistic groupings of Welshmen, from the verb wyf, is identical in origin with the form mae, there is ; while taw, the verbal origin of which could only be guessed by a comparative grammarian, had a like meaning, and corresponded to the Irish ta, from the root sta-, cognate with Latin sta-re, to stand. Hence the sentence gwn ™*J | ef oedd yno, meant originally, literally translated, I knmu it is he that was there. Similarly pe, if, stands for pei = bei = bai, mere it, so that pe bai would literally mean, were it that he (she or it) were, and canys stands for can-)-ys, since it is. Likewise the Mediaeval panyw, equivalent in force to mai, stood for pan+yw, that it is. In reading Mediaeval Welsh prose and poetry, the use of these complex sentences, though even then disappearing, should be carefully noted. Such sentences illustrate sporadically in Welsh a very common phenomenon in Irish syntax. For exainple, in the story of Kilhwch and Olwen, we have, the sentence — yny uyd kaer uawr a welynt, until they saw a great fort, literally, until it is a great fort which they saw. The use of sentences of this kind is familiar as one of the most noticeable characteristics of English as spoken by uneducated Irishmen, and corresponds to a marked tendency of Irish Gaelic. It is not impossible, too, that the French method of beginning questions with • est-ce que ' is a survival of a similar tendency of Celtic speech. In sentences of normal order, the verb is sometimes (chiefly in the colloquial Welsh of S. Wales) preceded by the word fe, a shortened form of efe, used as a formal pronoun (see § 133), where fe probably represents an old neuter pro- noun .S. 3. In Mediaeval Welsh the corresponding simple form ef is used, in prose with a, in poetry often without a. The following instance illustrates the prose use — ef a dyuu y hiawnbwyll idi, her right mind returned to her. It is not easy to say, in the case of sentences of this kind, whether 'a' was originally used in them or not, since it may have crept in only by false analogy. The underlying principle of the construction is, however, clear enough: the 'ef acts the part of a formal preparatory Subject, while the real Subject is put H 1 78 APPENDIX after the verb in apposition to it, being added as a kind of explanatory after- thought. . In other cases the statement begins with a formal Predicate in combination with a formal Subject. For instance, a. similar combination is found in the case of sef=ys+ef, frequently used in MediEeval Welsh prose (but rare in poetry) to introduce statements of the following form — sef a oruc ynteu yna | ryuelu arnafi, this is (lit. it is) what he then did \ he fought (lit. fighting) against me, Mab. Peredur. sef yw ynteu | owein uab uryen, this is (lit. it is) who he is \ Owen son of Urien. Mab. Owein and Lunet. Here the information which the statement is especially intended to convey is expressed as a kind of afterthought by means of a word or group of words standing in apposition to the formal Subject or Object of the opening sentence. In connexion with the development of the sentence (whether of normal or inverted order), the student of Welsh historical Syntax should carefully observe the use of the pre-verbal particles. In modern Welsh, fe (in S. Wales) and mi (in N. Wales), though probably both of pronominal origin, practically play the part of pre-verbal particles before a verb which is not in a subordinate position, while a and yr (y), probably also of pronominal origin, are now mentally grouped as pre-verbal particles, which mark the verb as subordinate, either as a subordinate element of the sentence in which it stands, or as the verb of a subordinate noun clause, adjective clause, or adverb clause. The student of Comparative Grammar can trace earlier functions of these particles, especially their relative^ force ; but to those who now speak the language they have developed new functions. In Mediaeval Welsh the uses of a and yd = ydd = yr and y before verbs do not always exactly correspond to their uses at the present day. All such differences of usage the student should carefully note, especially the use of ydd (y) before the verb even in a sentence of normal order, a use which now survives only in the case of some forms of wyf : e.g. yr wyf, yr oedd. In the older stages of the language certain other pre-verbal particles were used which have now been lost or obscured. For example, one may note the particle yd (for older yt, and not to be confused with yd = ydd = yr), now represented only by the 'yd ' of yd-wyf, yd-oedd, etc., and by the ' d ' in nid ( = nH-yd), nad ( = na-fyd), ped (=pe-t-yd), od (=o-l-yd). Another pre- verbal particle of frequent occurrence is neu, corresponding in force to the modern fe or mi, and often combined with yd as neud. The particle nu (rare) may be a weak form of neu. In addition to these, the particles ry (=Irish ro) and dy (=Irish do) were once extensively used. Modern spoken Welsh is characterised by an almost complete elimination of pre-verbal particles ; a. the most common in Literary Welsh, is almost always omitted, and y is evanescent. In spoken Welsh, the determining factor in the use of the particles which remain, seems to be the prominence or non-prominence of the verb as the leading element in a statement ; where the verb takes a prominen^ position, as in a sentence of normal order, it is preceded by the particle fe or mi ; on the other hand, if it be subordinate in its own sentence to an Adjunct, yr (y) is placed before it, and simil.arly when it is clearly subordinate as the verb of a subordinate noun clause, adjective clause, or adverb clause. INDEX TO SYNTAX. ^^ The references are to the sections except when p. (=^page) precedes. A.— ENGLISH JNDEX. Absolute Phrases, 361. Accusative of nearer definition, sub- stitute for, 387. Active Voice, with intransitive mean- ing, 462. Adjective, as Attribute, agreement of, 336 ; followed by prep, o, 401 ; place of, 337. Adjective Clauses, 313, 362-364. Adjective-equivalents, 310. Adjuncts, 307. Adverbs, 590-599 ;Negative,5go-597; of Place, 599 ; Time, 598 ; Sentence- adverbs, 315 (6); Predicate-adjec- tive for, 324 (4) ; noun as, 385. Adverb Clauses and Phrases, 346*. Adverb-equivalents, 311. Age, how expressed, 386. Agreement of Adjective as Attribute, 336; of Verb with Subject, 317- 323 ; of Predicate-adjective, 325 ; of Relative, 363. Although, 35Sa, 358b. Answers, 286, 287, 600. Aorist, meanings of, 5°7-S ' 3 ! ^^ Perfect, 514 ; contrasted with Past Impf., 512. Apposition, 310 (cl). Article, 581-589 ; with names of festivals, 585 ; with place-names, 584. As if, 360 (i). Attributes, 306, 336 ; noun as Attri- bute, 338. Cases, substitute for, 372-387. Causal Clauses, 346*c, 349a. Causal Clause-equivalents, 349l>. Clause, Principal, 312 ; Subordinate, 308, 312. Clause-equivalent, Construction of, 346b ; Noun, 367-368b ; Causal 349b ; Concessive, 358b ; Condi tional, 357 ; Consecutive, 352b Final, 351. Commands, 341a. Comparative Clauses, 346*/?, 359a. Complex Sentence, 312, 346a. Compound Subject, 320-322. Compound prepositional expressions, introduced by i, 396. Compound Tenses, parsing of, 524, 525- Concessions, 343. Concessive Clause-equivalents, 358b. Concessive Clauses, 346*^, 358a. Conditional Clauses, 346*/, 353-356 ; OS-clauses, 354 ; pe-clauses, 355, 356. Conditional statements of possibility, 340, B. Conjunctions, co-ordinating, 314 ; subordinating, 315. Consecutive Clause-equivalents, 352\ Consecutive Clauses, 346*^, 352a ; Relative, 364. Dative, "Ethical," equivalent of, 391- Deliberative Questions, Single, 344b ; Double, 344c; Dependent, 370b. Dependent Exclamations, 370c, 370*. Dependent noun, placed first, 383 ; with initial mutation, 378, 379. Dependent Questions, 370a, 370b, 370*. Dependent Statements, 365 A, 366 i8o INDEX TO SYNTAX Dependent Will-Speech, 366. Distance, how expressed, 455. Equivalents, 308 ; Noun, 309 ; Adjective, 310; Adverb, 311. Equivalents of clauses, see Clause- equivalents. Ever-Azx&ti, Time, 347a; Place, 348 ; Relative, 364. Exclamations, 345 ; Dependent, 370C. Final Clause-equivalents, 351. Final Clauses, 346*(r', 350. For, 314. Fixed prepositions, verbs taking, 329, 332- Future, Indie, 480-483. Future Perfect, 517. General-clauses, see ^ww-clauses. General Relative Clause, 364. Genitive, equivalent for, 374-383, 392, 398-402 ; Objective, 375 ; Possessive, 374 ; Partitive, 380 ; Subjective, 375, obs. ; of Compari- son, 381. " How broad," i,<^(>. "How high," 456. *' How long" 456. "How old," 459. If-clauses, 3467, 353-356; Class A, 354 ; Class B, 355 ; General Conditions, 354b. Imperative, 535. Impersonal Construction, 316 (5). Impersonal verbs, 316 (5). Indefinite, 2nd pers. sing., 340 (note 2) ; Pronouns and adjectives, 579. Indirect Speech, 371, Interrogative Particles, 283. Intransitive, 304 (note). Inverted order, 305, and Appendix. Local Clauses, 346*1^, 348. Meanings of forms, 372, foil. Measurement, how expressed, 386. Middle Voice, substitute for, 463-466. Moods, meanings of, 526-535. Negative Commands (Prohibitions), 341I'. Negative, 590-597 ; with certain ad- jectives, 596, 597. Noun, as Attribute, 338 ; depending on a noun, 374-383 ; depending on a verb noun, 542, 543 ; depend- ing on a verb, 384-387. Noun Clauses, 365. Noun Phrases, 367. Noun-equivalents, 309. Object, 304, 326 ; Cognate, 326 (2); single, 304, III., 326-330 ; two Objects, 304, IV., 331-333 ; verb- noun as single, 330 ; verb-noun as one Object, 333 ; Predicate-noun and Predicate-adjective referring to, 304, v., 334, 335. Objective Genitive, 375. Oratio Obliqua and Recta, 371. Order of words, 303, 305, and Appen- dix. Participle-equivalents as Predicate- adjectives, 550-556. Partitive Genitive, 380. Passive Construction, 327. Passive Voice, 327, 461. Past Imperfect, meanings of, 491- 500; as Secondary Future, 501- 506 ; contrasted with Aorist, 512 ; Subjunctive, 355, 526, 528. Perfect, 514-516. Phrase, definition of, 308. Phrases, Absolute, 361 ; Noun, 367 ; Verb-noun, 346b ; Adverb, 346*. "Place whence," 453; "where," 453 ; " whither," 453. Pluperfect Indie. 518-520; as Se- condary Future, 503, 504; as Se- condary Fut. Perf., 521-523 ; Sub- junctive, 355, 526. Predicate, 301, 304, 317-335 ; Second Form, 324, 325 ; Third Form, 326-330 ; Fourth Form, 331-333 ; Fifth Form, 334, 335 ; Remainder of, 301, 303, 304. INDEX TO SYNTAX l8l Predicate-adjective, 304, II. ; agree- ment of, 325 ; for Adverb, 324 (4). Predicate-noun, 304, II. Prepositions, 388. Present Indie, 472 ; as true Pres.i 473-478 ; as Future, 480-483. " Price," how expressed, 386. Proliibitions, 341b. Pronouns, Demonstrative, 580 ; In- definite, 579 ; Personal, 561-569 ; Relative, 570-578. Prospective, Time Clauses, 3471 ; Local Clauses, 348 ; Relative Clauses, 364. Purpose, 346^?, 350, 351. Qualifying parts of sentence, 306, 307. Questions, 344ar-344d ; Dependent, 370a. Reflexive verb, substitutes for, 463- 466. Relative Clauses, 364. " Reported" speech, 371. Requests, 339, 3410-343 ; Depen- dent, 366. Sentence-adverbs, 315 (6). Sentence-construction, 316-371. Sentence, normal order of words in, 303 ; inverted order, 305, and Appendix ; Simple and Complex, 312 ; Analysis of, 301-315 ; kinds o'j 339 ; words representing parts of, 600. Sequence of Tenses, 369b, 370I). Simple Sentence, 312. Space, Expressions of, 455, 456. Statements, of fact, 340, A ; Con- ditional S., 340 B ; Dependent, 365 A, 366. Subject, 301, 303, 304, 316,317-323 ; agreement of verb with, 317-323; not expressed, 316 (4). Subjective Genitive, 375, obs. Subjunctive, 526-534 ; uses of, 529- 534. Subordinate Clause, kinds of, 313. Subordinating Conjunctions, 315. Temporal Clauses, 346(7, 347a. Temporal Clause-equivalents, 347b. Tenses, Meanings of, 467-526 ; of Indie, 472-525 ; of Subjunctive, 526. Than if, lifi'h, 360 (2). The more — the more, 359a (3). They=one, 316 (5). Time, 457-460 ; " How long," 457 ; " Time when," 457 ; "Time with- in which," 460. Transitive, 304 (note). Verb, forming a complete Predicate, 304. I- Verb-adjectives, 557-560. Verb-noun, 536-556 ; as Object, 330, 333 ; standing alone, 538-541 ; noun depending on, 542, 543 ; qualified by possessive adjectives, 544, 545 ; governed by prepositions 546 ; verb-noun phrase, constru; tion of, 346b. Verbs of saying, 369a (i), ,, ,, thinking, 3690(2). ,. ,, perceiving, 369a (3). ,, ,, knowing, 3690(4). ,, ,, showing, 369a (5). , , , , rejoicing, grieving and won- dering, 369a (6). „ „ fearing, 3690(7). ,, ,, EfTort, 369a (9). ,, ,, Will or Desire, 369a (10). ,, in Predicate of Second Form, . 324. „ taking "fixed prepositions, 329, 332- Voices, meanings of, 461, 462. Voice, Middle, substitute for, 463- 466. ,, Passive, 327, 461. Wishes, 342. l82 INDEX TO SYNTAX B — WELSH- INDEX. a (interrogative), 370a. ac (a), 314 ; in Ahsolute Phrases, 361. achubaf [rhag], 332/. addawaf, 330, 333, 369a ; [i], 332 fl. addefaf, 369a (i) ; [wrth], 332 c. adwaen, 349b (note), 367 (obs.). ag (a), 405 ; verbs taking, 329 a, 332 rf. ag, in Relative Clauses, 572, 574. agoshaf [at], 329 c. ai (interrogative), 370a. ai, or, 314. aie, 600. am, 406; after Verbs of Effort, 368a (2). am ben, 406. am, if only, 346*/. am, because, 346* c, ambell, 394. amdan, 406. amdrlifad [o], 401. amddifadaf [o], 332,5. ami, 394. amlygaf, 369a (5). aneirif [o], 400 (note), angeu loes, 383. anghofiaf, 330, 369a (4). annhebyg [o], 401. anogaf, 333, 369a (10). anobeithiaf, 330. anturiaf, 330. ar, on, 407 ; verbs taking, 329 b ; in Noun Fhrases of Request. ar, in Relative Clauses, 571, 574. ar ben, 407I). ar draws, 407b. ar gyfer, 407b. ar gyfyl, 40?^- ar hyd, 407b. ar warthaf, 407b. arall, 336, 337. arbedaf, 333. archaf, 333. arferaf, 330, 349b (note), argyhoeddaf [o], 332 b. arhosaf, 324 (i). arswydaf, 330. at, 408 ; verbs taking, 329 ,:, 332 e. atebaf [i], 332 a. .awgrymaf, 333, 369a (i). balch [o], 401. beiaf [ar], 329^. beiddiaf, 330. bet, 445. beunydd, 598. blinaf [ar], 329 15. boddlonaf [ar], 329 b, boreu wawr, 383. brysiaf, 330. bwriadaf, 333, 369a (10). bwyd ddigon, 383. bychan, 336. bygythiaf, 330, 369a (i). byth, 598. cadarn, 336. cadwaf [at], 329 c ; [rhag], 332/. Caersalem byrth, 383. caf, 330, 333, 369a (3). 481. cam, 337. caufyddaf, 369a (3). caniataf, 333. cant, can, with, 446. canys, 314, and Appendix. carat; 330. cartref, 454. cashaf, 330. cefnaf [ar], 329 b. ceisiaf, 330, 333. cenfigenal [nrtli], 329 d. clywaf, 349b (note), 369a {3). coeliaf, 369a (2). cofiaf, 330, 369a (4). cychwynaf, 330. chwaneg [o], 400. chwanegaf [atj, 332 e. chwenychaf, 330. credaf, 369a (2). crefaf, 368 B (2), 369a fio). creir, 324 (2). cwynaf [ar], 329 b. cyd, with, 447. cyd, though, 346,?-, 35Sa (3). cydymdeimlaf [a], 329 a. eyfaddefaf [wrth], 33 z c. cyfan, 336. INDEX TO SYNTAX 183 cyfeiriaf [at], 329 c. cyfrifir, 324 (2). cylTesaf [wrth], 332 c, cyfrannog [o], 401. cyfranogaf [o], 329. cyhoeddaf, 369a (5). cyhuddaf [o], 332 b. cyhyd ag, 346* a. cymeraf (arnaf), 369a (i). cymhwysaf [at], 332 e. cymmaint [o], 400. cymysgaf [a], 332 d. cyn, prep. , 409 ; in Time Clauses, 346* a. cynefinaf [a], 329 a. cynghoraf, 333, 369a (10). cynnifer [o], 400. cyntaf, 337. cynygiaf, 330, 333 ; [i]. 332 a. cynysgaeddaf [a], 332 d. cysylltaf [a], 332 d. cytunaf [a], 329 a. dacw, 600. daear lawr, 383. daliaf [ar], 329 b ; [i], 554. dan, 410 ; with verb-noun, 548, 556. danghosaf [i], 332 a, 369a (5). darganfyddaf, 369a (3). deisyfaf, 333, 368 B (2), 369a (lo). deuaf, 324 (i). devvisaf, 330. dialaf [ar], 329 b. diammeu, 369a (8). diau, 369a (8). dichon, 369a (8). digiaf [wrth], 329 d. digon, 380, 400. digwyddaf, 330, 369a (8). dim, 382, 400, 579. diogelaf [rhag], 332/. disgwyliaf, 330. do, 600. doe, 598. dros, 411, 3S8b (2). drwy, 357, 412. dychrynllyd [o], 402. dychymygaf, 369a (2). dyfalaf, 359a (2). dylanwadaf [ar], 329 b. ilyma, 600. dymunaf, 330, 333, 369a (10). dyna, 600. dynion lawer, 383. dysgaf, 330; [i], 332 a, 333. dywedaf [wrth], 329 d ; followeil Liy Noun Clause, 369a (i). echdoe, 598. echnos, 598. Eden ardd, 383. edliwiaf [i], 332 a. edrychaf [ar], 329 b. efallai, 36ya (8). efo, 413. egluraf, 369a {5). eisoes, 598. eithr, 314. eleni, 59S. tt, for the sake of, 416. ex, for, to, 417. er, /« spite of, 415. er, since, 414. er, though, 346* g, 358a. er gwaethaf, 415. er pan, 346* a. erbyn, 418. erfyniaf, 333. erioed, 598. ers, er ys, 414. etholir, 324 (2). euog [o], 401. ewyllysiaf, 333, 369a (lo). fe, see Appendix, fcallai, 369a (8). fel, as, 335 ; in Comparative Clauses, 346* h. fel, in order that, 346* d. fel, so that, 346* e. fel pe, 346* /;. felly, 31S (6). gadawaf [i], 332 a. gallaf, 330, 349 b (note), galwaf [ar], 329 h, 333. gan, prep., 327, 419, 443; with verb- noun, 547, 556. gan, since, 346* c. gau, 337. gtlwir, 324 (2). ger, 420. 1 84 INDEX TO SYNTAX ger bron, 420. ger Haw, 420. gerfydd, 421. glynaf [wrth], 329 d. go, 337, 448. gobeithiaf, 330, 369a (2). gochelaf, 330. goddefaf, 333. gofalaf, 369a (9). gofidiaf, 369a (6). gofynaf [i], 332a. gogyfer ag, 423. gor, 449 . gorchymynaf, 333, 369a (10). gormod [o], 400. gorphenaf, 330. gosodaf [at], 332 e ; [i], 332 a. f;wadaf, 3693(1). gwaeddaf [ar], 329 d. gwaeth, 596. gwaharddaf, 333. gwarafunaf, 333. gwan, 336. gweddiaf [ar], 329 6. gwelaf, 349b (note), 369a (3), 369a (9).. gwenaf [ar], 32915. gwir, 337, 369a (8). gwiw, 596. gwn, 349b (note), 369a (4). gwnaf, 333, 369a (9). gwr o saer, 398. gwrthodaf, 330, 333. gwyliaf [ar],329 i ; [rhag], 332/ gwyneb pryd, 383. gydag (gyda), wilA, 422. gydag igyda), just as, 346* a. yyfeiryd ag, 423. gynneu, 598. gynted ag, 346* a. haeddaf, 330, ban, 450. heb, 424. heblaw, 424. heb waethaf, 424, heddyw, 598. heibio (i), 425. hen, 337. heriaf, 333. hi, 316. hoff [o], 401. hoffaf, 330. hoU, 589. hwn, 580. hwyrach, 369a (8). hyd, 426. hyd at, 426, hyd i, 426. hyd nes, 346* a. hyd oni, 346* a. hyn, 580 ; [o], 400. hynny [o], 400. hynod [o], 402. i, 389-397 ; denoting the agent in verb-noun phrases, 346b j lor di, 397 (i); foryn, 397(2). i bllth, 396. i erbyn, 396. i fysg, 396. i ganol, 396. iawn, 337. ie, 600. ieuanc, 336. is, 381, 427. is law, 427. isod, 599. llanwaf [o], 332 i. llawenychaf, 369a (6). llawer, 394, 400 ; [o], 400. llawn, 380 ; [o], 401. lie, in Local Clauses, 346* i. Ilefaf [ar], 329 i. llefaraf [wrth], 329 d. lliaws [o], 400. llydan, 336. llyma, 600. Uyna, 600. Uynedd, 598. maddeuaf [i], 332 a. mae, 484, 490. mai, 315 (4), 346* N.B., 366, and Ap- pendix, marw, 336. meddaf, 349b (note); meddai, 371 (4). meddyliaf, 369a (2). medraf, 330. megis, as, 335, meiddiaf = beiddiaf, 330. JNDEX TO SYNTAX I8,S iiierclied rai, 383. niethaf, 330. mewn, 428, 437. mo, 595. mocid, in P'inal Clauses, 346* d. mwy [o], 400. mynnaf, 330. mynegaf [i], 332 a. myrdd [o], 40& (note). nad (na), not, 592. nid (nl), 590. nac (na), not, 591. nac (na), nor, 314. nag (na), than, 346' /;, nacaf, 330, 333. nachaf, nycha, 600. naddo, 600. nage, 600. nail I ai, 314. neb, 579. neilliiwr, 598. nemmawr [o], 400. nes, in Time Clauses, 346* a ; in Consecutive Clauses, 346* e, 352a, 352\). neshaf [at], 329 c. neu, 314. nodedig [o], 402. o, from, 398-404 ; verbs taking, 332 b ; after words denoting quan- tity, 400 ; after adjectives, 401 ; denoting the agent in verb-noun phrases, 346b. o. if, 354 (note). o achos, 404. o amgylch, 404. o blaid, 404. o blegid, 404 ; =for (conj.), 314. o dan, 404. o ddeutu, 404. o fesur, 404. o fewn, 404. o flaen, 404. o gwmpas, 404. o gylch, 404. o herwydd, 404 ; = for (conj.), 314. o ol, 404. o ran, 404. oddiallan, 404. oddiar, 40 j. oddieitlir, 357. oddigerth, 357. odditan, 404. oddiwrth, 404, 441, 444. oedaf, 330. oes, 486, 487. ofnaf, 330, 369a (7). oil, 337, 589- end, 314, 357 (2). ond odicl, 369a (8). onid (oni), interrogative particle,370i.- onid (oni), in Time Clauses, 346* a. onid (oni), in If- Clauses, 346* /, 354,. 355- onide, 600. OS, 346'/. 354, 354'^. OS byth, 354b. osgoaf, 33J. osiaf, 330. pa, 370a. pa fath, 370a. pa gynnifer, 370a. paham, 370a. pa le, p'le, 370a. pa sawl, 370a. pa faint [o], 400. pa rai, 577. pa un, 577. pallaf, 330. pan, in Time Clauses, 346' a. pan, in Causal Clauses, 346* c, paraf, 333, 369a (9). pawb, 589 (obs. ). pe, 346*/. 355, Zi(>; = evm if,. 346* g- paid, peidiwch, 341b (2) ; peidlo, 342: (4). penodir, 324 (2). peth, 382 ; [o], 400. po, 346* h. pob, 589 (obs.). pnf, 337- prin [o], 401. profaf, 369a (5). pryd, 346* a. pryd bynnag, 346* a. p'un, p'tun, 370a. pwy, 370a. pwy bynnag, 574. i86 INDEX TO SYNTAX py. 451- rhag, fiom, 429 ; in Final Clauses, 346* d ; verbs taking, 'iyif, rhagor [o], 400. rliagoraf [ai], 329^. rhai, 382. rhaid, 369a (8). rhoddaf [i], 332 a. rhwng, 430. rhwym [o], 401. rhwystraf, 333. rhyfeddaf [at], 329 c, 369a (6). ihyfeddol [o], 402. rhyfygaf, 330. rhyw, 382. Salem dir, 383. sef, 600, and Appendix. Seion sail, 383. serch, though, 346* g. sicr [o], 401. sicrhaf, 369a (9). sydd, 4S8. sylwaf [ai], 329 b. synnaf [at], 329 c, 369a (6). talaf [i], 332 a. tan, 410. tan, in Time Clauses, 346' a. tanodd, 599. taw, 346* and Appendix. tebyg [o], 401. teilwng [o], 401. teilynj;rit, 330. tlawd, 336. tosturiaf [wrtli], 329 d. tia, over, 452 ; = exceedingly, 337. Iva, ill Time Clauses, 346' a, tvachefn, 598. tradwy, 598. trannoeth, 598. trefnaf, 330, 333. tiennydd, 598. tros, 411. trosodd, 599. truan o ddyn, 399. trwodd, 599. trwy, 412 1 1 tuag(tua), 431. I I tuag at, 431. tybed, 600. tybiaf, 369a (2). tyngaf, 369a (i). uchod, 599. unig, 337. uwch, 381, 432. wedi, 433 ; in Time Clauses, 34^* "> 347a, (obs. 2). weilhian, weithion, 598. wele, 600. wrth, 357,434; verbs taking, 329;/, 332 c. wyf, Pres. Indie. S. 3, 484-490. y fath, 382. yfory, 598. y gan. 397- y neb, 574. y sawl, 574. ychwaneg [o], 400. ychvvanegaf [at]. 332 e. ycliydig [o], 400. ym, reflexive, 463-466. ym rahen, 436. ym mhlith, 436. ym mysg, 436. ymddanghosaf, 324 (l). ymddiddanaf [a], 329 a. ymdrecliaf, 330. ymheliaf [a], 329 a. ymladdaf [a], 329 a, ymogelaf [rhag], 329. ymosodaf [ar], 329 b. yraroddaf [i], 329. ymrysonaf [a], 329 a. ymyraf [a], 329 a. yn, in, 435-439 ; with verb-noun, 549-553- yn (predicative), 304 (note), 324. yn awr, 598. yn erbyn, 436. yn fore, 598. yn (Jymraeg, 439. yn hwyr, 598, yn 51, 436. yn tan, 439. yn ty, 439. yng nghanol, 436. INDEX TO SYNTAX 187 yng nghylch, 436. in Adjective Clauses, 362 (2) ; in. yng ngwydd, 436. • Noun Clauses, 366 ; and ApiJuiJ.x. ynte, or, 314. yr hwn, 362, 573, 576. ynte = onide, 600. yr hyn, 362, 575, 576. yr (y), the., 581-589. ysgrifenaf [at], 332*. y (y). preverbal particle, 305 (note), ystyrir, 324 (2). 315 (2) ; in Adverb Clauses, 346* ; yw (ydyw), 4i>5, 4S9. BuUer & Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Frome, and London. RA MARITIMA SERIES EDITED BY PROFESSOR E. A. SONNENSCHEIN, D.Litt. Published by Messrs. Swan Sonnenschein & Co., Ltd., London, and The Macmillan Co., New York. Each of the Readers in this series consists of a continuous story written in the language to be studied, and so constructed as to form the basis of a systematic study of Grammar. They thus combine the interest and vitality of a real story with a thorough training in the fundamentals of the language concerned. The grammatical terminology Is uniform throughout the series. The series at present contains the following volumes : — ORA MARITIMA: a Latin Story for Beginners, with Grammar and Exercises. By Professor Sonnenschein. {Thirtieth Thousand, crown ?>vo, price zs., subject to discount.) The scene of the story is laid on the South Coast of England, and includes a sketch of the ancient Britons and of Caesar's invasions of Britain. PRO PATRIA: a Latin Story, being a sequel to Ora Maritima, with Grammar and Exercises to the end of the Regular Accidence. By Professor Sonnenschein. {Tenth Thousand, crown 8vo, price 2S. 6d., subject to discount.) The story includes a sketch of the history of Britain under the Romans and Saxons, down to the introduction of Christianity. The latter part of he story recounts the history of the Boer War down to June, igoo. OPINIONS " The books are admirable, and under the guidance of a skilful teacher their use ■1 class is followed by excellent results."— ^Professor Michael E. Sadler, LL.D., Vlanchester. " We have adopted both Ora Maritima and Pro Patria in our Latin classes at 1. ichester Grammar School, and have never had reason to regret their adoption. Both books have interest and continuity, and both lend themselves excellently to oral practice." — J. L. Paton, M.A., High Master of the Manchester Grammar School. " The book (Ora Maritima) is just Ai, clearly right in conception and admir- ably executed." — P. A. Barnett, M.A., H.M. Chief Inspector for the Training of Teachers. [P.T.O. " I have had both books prescribed for use in our earliest standards. They were acknowledged by the Committee which passed them to be unequalled for the interesting way in which they presented the subject. I think no praise is too high for them." — W. G. Wedderspoon, M.A., H.M. Inspector of European Schools and Training Colleges, Burma. " I have started my own small boys in Latin with Ora Maritima and Pro Patria, and am delighted with both books : they indicate a method which is attractive to the child without being superficial." — Sir Arthur Hort, M.A., Harrow School. " In a long exrerience I have found Pro Patria quite the best book which I have ever come across for arousing and sustaining the interest of small boys in their elementary stage oi Latin Translation." — The Rev. Philip Crick, M.A., St. Ronan's, Worthing. " This is a charming book. We know no better epithet by which to describe such an introduction to the Latin tongue. ... It is giving a strong recommendation to say, as we gladly do, that our author has given us the ideal book which he for- merly described." — Secondary Education. " The drill exercises are specially to be commended. In the presence of the impending campaign against classical education, it behoves its defenders to furbish up their weapons." — Saturday Review. THE GREEK WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. The Story of the War of Independence (1821-1827) is told in classical Greek for the use of beginners, with Notes and Exercises. By C. D. Chambers, M.A. [Crown 8wo, price 35., subject to discount.) OPINIONS " Felicitous in design and able in execution. There is, in our opinion, a future for books of this type — books classical in language and modern in subject-matter. As a specimen of Mr. Chambers' skill in reproducing the grave Thucydidean style, the account of Byron's arrival in Greece and of his too early death is excellent." — journal of Educa'.ion. "A most valuable schoolbook. The narrative is bright and interesting, and well illustrated with maps and photographs. We strongly recommend the book to all schoolmasters." — The Oxford Magazine. RECENTL Y PUBLISHED AM RHEIN : a German Story for Beginners, with Grammar and Exercises in Conversation, Free Composition and Translation. By Professor Karl Wichmank, Ph.D. {Crown Svo, price 9S., subject to discount.) The scene of the story is laid in a country parsonage on the Rhine ; in the latter part of the book the story of Siegfried and the Nibelungen is recounted. IN PREPARATION A FRENCH STORY FOR BEGINNERS, on similar lines to the above.