ar Y 1274 -- »^i . ^- ^;^ .IS^ wfe W\jf: ■^- *-r:. "^'i/ ^ ■^'■'^^t^~ ■v <«•.»' OfarncU Intuetatta Slihtarg itljata, SJem lark BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF HENRY W. SAGE 1891 arY1274 Interim report . Cornell Unlvaralty Library 3 1924 032 188 751 olin,ar)x The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924032188751 MINISTRY OF RECONSTRUCTION. INTERIM REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON ADULT EDUCATION. INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN RELATION TO ADULT EDUCATION. ^refiitntelj to ^arltanunt bp Commanl)i of ^ts( M^jtaty* LONDON: PUBLISHED BY HIS MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE. To be purchased through any Bookseller or directly from H.M. STATIONERY OFFICE at the following addresses : Impekial House, Kingsway, London, W.C.2, and 28, Abingdon Stbeet, London, S.W.I ; 37, Petek Street, Manchester; 1, St. Andrew's Crescent, Cardiff; 23, Forth Street, Edinbttrgh; or from E. PONSONBY, Ltd., 116, Grafton Street, Dttblin. [Cd. 9107.] 1918. Price 3d. Net. Contents. ParagrapL 1 Scope and Pui-pose of the Reporb 2 Nature of the Demand for Adult Education - 3 The Present Position of Adtdt Education 4 Adult Education and Industrial and Social Conditions (A) — iNcrsTEiAL Conditions : 5 Hours of Labour 6 Overtime 7 The Shift System, &o. ... Night Work - Recommendations regarding Hours of Labour (a) A Shorter Working Day (6) The Reduction of Overtime (c) Shorter Working Week for Workers, with Regular Hours (d) Short Shifts - (e) Limitation of Night- Work ' Monotonous Work Heavy and Exhausting Work Recommendations regarding Heavy Forms of Woi-k Unemployment Recommendations regai'ding Unemployment Holidays - - Recommendations regarding Holidays The Effects of the Industrial Background The Need for a New Industrial Outlook 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Social Conditions: Housing ... Housing and the Housewife Town Planning Recommendations regarding Housing The Rural Problem The Problem as it affects Women Local Authorities Summary of Recommendations Conclusion Appendix A : Hours of Labour and Overtime - Appendix B : Hours of Lalsour Worked by a Locomotive lEngine Fireman over a number of Weeks PAGE 3 3 4 6 10 11 11 12 12 13 13 13 15 16 16 17 17 18 19 21 21 22 23 23 24 26 27 27 28 3a Members of the Committee. The master of BALLIOL {Ghairman). Mrs. J. Baker. Sir GrRAriAM Balfour. Mr. E. Bevin. Mr. W. Clapton. Mr. E. Climie. Mr. C. T. Ceamp. Mrs. T. Huws Davies. Mr, J. H. Donoastee. Mr, R.-G. Hatton. Mr. F. Hodges. Sir Henry Jones. Mr. A. Mansbrihge. Sir Henry Miers. Mr. J. Morton. The Rev. Canon Parry. Mr. R. H. Tawney. Mr. T. H. J. Underdown. Mr. B. A. Yeaxlee. Mr. Arthur Greenwood, Mr. E. S. Cartwriqht, Secretaries, MINISTUY OF EEOONSTRUCTION. Adult Education Committee. INTERIM REPORT ON INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN RELATION TO ADULT EDUCATION. TO THE RIGHT HONOURABLE CHRISTOPHER ADDISON, M.D., M.P.. MINISTER OF RECONSTRUCTION. Sir, We have the honour to present the following Interim Report : — Scope and Pdrpose of the Report. In view of the preparations which are being made for industrial and social reconstruction, we have felt it our duty to set out the conclusions we have already reached in so far as they bear upon such reconstruction. The terms of our reference are — " To consider the provision for, and possibilities of, Adult Education (other than technical or vocational) in Great Britain, and to make recommendations." We have, however, found it impossible to consider adult education apart from those social and industrial conditions which determine to a large degree the educational opportunities, the interests and the general outlook of men and women. In the course of our inquiries it has been forced upon our attention that education is hampered in many directions by economic obstacles, that industrial and social 'reform are indispensable, if the just claims of education are to be met, and that the full results of these reforms will be reaped only as education becomes more widespread. The quality of an educational system must always depend to a large'exteht upon the economic framework of the society in which it is placed. The object of this Interim Report, therefore, is to indicate briefly some changes in industrial organisation which are desirable in order that the widening intellectual interests of a growing number of our citizens may obtain fuller opportunities of development. Nature of the Demand foe Adult Education. 2. We reserve for a subsequent report a discussion of the important educational problems raised by our terms of reference, and we do not desire to anticipate now what we shall have to say then. But we would point out here that there is a wide and growing demand among adults for education of a non-vocational character. It is true, indeed, that among a considerable section of the working population, " technical " education is regarded with suspicion — a suspicion which, indeed, is not. altogether unnatural in present circumstances but which we hope it will be possible to overcome — on the ground that the advantages of the economic efficiency which it promotes accrue mainly to employers of labour. But tbe terms of our reference confine us to "non-vocational adult education," and for such education there is undoubtedly an increasing desire. The motive which impels men and womea to seek education is partly the wish for fuller personal development. It arises from the desire for knowledge, for self-expression, for the satisfaction of intellectual, aesthetic and spiritual needs, and for a fuller life. It is based upon a. claim for the recognition of human personality. This desire is not confined to any class of society, but is to be found amongst people of every social grade. The motive is also partly social. Indeed, so far as the workers are concerned, it is, we think, this social purpose which principally inspires the desire for education. They demand opportunities for education in the hope that the power which it brings will enable them to understand and help in the solution of the common problems of human society. In many cases, therefore, their efforts to obtain education are specifically directed towards rendering themselves better fitted for the responsibilities of membership in political, social and industrial organisations. That a social purpose should so lai-gely be the force underlying the demand for adult education is a fact which will be regarded, we think, with general sympathy and approval. It is evidence of an appreciation of the responsibilities of citizenship, of the existence of political, social and industrial ideals, and of a growing determination to realise them. It will be universally admitted that the successful working of a democratic society implies a wide diffusion of a sense of responsibility and the intelligent participation in public affairs by the rank and file of the population. In view both of the grave problems with which the country will be confronted in the generations after the war, and of the ever-increasing complexity of social organisation, the need for the intelligent interest and the active co-operation of the mass of citizens will be greater than ever before. Women as well as men must make a direct contribution to the solution of future problems. The extension of the franchise to women is a significant expression of this need. X (.33)7681—1 Wt 17224 -727 3000 3/19 . A 2 The citizens of the country cannot fully contribute their experience or ideals to its service unless they are articulal e, and possess knowledge. In other words, democracy can only he operative through an educated community. Though we reserve for a subsequent report a discussion of the general question of adult education, we wish to emphasise our view that the development of education among children and adolescents, so far from superseding the need for educational oppor- tunities for adults, will lend additional emphasis to it. Those questions in which more mature minds are particularly interested have little meaning for young people, and can be grasped only after experience in the world. This experience school pupils do not possess, and school training, however advanced and however wide in its outlook, though an invaluable preparation, is not in any sense a substitute for it. In any case education is a continuing process, differing in its forms and methods with the age and experience of students, but expressing a permanent human need. Facilities for adult education must therefore be regarded as permanently essential, whatever developments there may be in the education of children and adolescents. The Present Position of Adult Education. 3. It is beyond our immediate purpose to deal' at all fully with the demand for adult education, or to give an adequate account of the results of our survej'' of the work now being carried on. This we shall do in another report. All we need do here is to indicate as briefly as possible the present extent of that type of adult education with which we are concerned. While for many jears past a number of agencies h.-^ve been at work in this particular field, it is since the opening of the 20th century that the development of adult education has been most marked. This period has been one of growing edticational activity, and it is significant that the rise of the new universities has synchronised with the spread of- educational effort among voluntary organisations of working people. Varied and widespread as such educational work amongst adults has been in recent years, much of it has, we believe, escaped the notice of the general public. The University Extension Lecture System, which dates from 1873, is well known. These courses of popular lectures for large audiences (as a rule organised locally by voluntary bodies) are now part of the extra-mural work of most Universities*, and are attended every year by many thousands of people. Class work, reading, and written exercises are a recognised part of the system, providing opportunities for serious study. In many centres continuity of study is secured by the formation of " Stiidents' Associations." During the past fifty years valuable pioneer work in adult education has been done by the Gilchrist Educational Trust. From 1868 to 1909 the Trust expended nearly 40,00OZ. on lectures to working men and women in various parts of Great Britaia and Ireland, whilst it has in other ways forwarded the cause of adult education, as, for example, by making grants to bodies such as those concerned with University Extension work, and to the National Home Reading Union. The Adult School Movement dates back to the end of the 18th century, although the modern movement really began in 1845. It has expanded rapidly, especially in recent years, and it now covers a wide range of educational activities. The number of adult schools in existence at the outbreak of war was 1,883, with a membership of over 80,000 (both men and women). In addition to the usual Sunday meetings, there are often week-day lectures, classes, and study circles, whilst week-end lecture schools and summer schools are now an established feature of the movement. ^ In 1903, the Workers' Educational Association (hereafter referred to in this report as " the W.E.A.") was founded by a small group of Trade Unionists and Co-operators, to arouse and satisfy the desire for education among working men and women. The reality of the demand among working people which the Association set out to meet has been amply proved by the rapid growth of its activities. According to its last published annual report (July 1917) it then consisted of 186 branches in all parts of England and Wales, and four in Scotland, comprising in all 2,333 affiliated societies, and 10,700 individual members, inde- pendent of the membership of its affiliated societies. One-j^ear classes, study circles and courses of lectures form a regular part of the work of the Association, and in addition to educational work in its own branches, it supplies lecturers and teachers to other organisations. It was as a direct result of this organisation of the adult demand for education by the W.E.A. that the University Tutorial Class Movement was established in 1907. The University of Oxford was the first to set up a Joint Committee (consisting of an equal number of repre- sentatives of the University and of working-class organisations) to arrange for the provision of tutorial classes. The demand rapidly expanded, and each University and University College in England and Wales has participated in the work. A tutorial class consists of not more than 32 men and women (mainly working people), pledged to undertake a three years' course of study which "must aim at reaching within the limits of the subject covered the standard of University work in Honours."! Methodical reading and essay wOrk, as well as regular '* During the Micliaelmas Term, 1917, e.g., 104 courses were provided by Oxford, Cambridge and London Universities. f Minute of the Board of Education, dated 24th October 1917, modifying Part III. of the Regulations for Technical Schools, Schools of Art, and other forms of provision of Further Education in England and, Wales (Od. 8797), p. 2. attendance at class, are required from the students. Tlie classes are conducted by tutors approved by the University Joint Committees, and are reported on and inspected by the Board' of Education and the Universities. It is a testimony to the reality of the demand that men and women, the greater part of whose time is given up to their daily occupations, should have been willing to fulfil these conditions. The subjects studied include general and industrial history, economics, political science, philosophy, biology and literature. In 1914 there were 152 University tutorial classes in operation, containing 3,110 students. The effect of 'the war was to reduce the number of classes, which in the winter of 1916-17 had fallen to 99. During file session of 1917-r8, however, the number rose to 121. Mention must be made of institutions for adult education, such as Ruskin College in Oxford, founded in 1899, and the Labour College in London, founded in 1909. These provide residential courses (temporarily suspended, during the war) to fit working men to take an active part in their Trade Union and other organisations. During the year 1913-14 46 students (including 12 foreign students) were in residence at Ruskin College, and 12 at the Labour College. Each college also provides instruction for external students by means of correspondence in such subjects as industrial history, economics, English grammar and literature. In 1913-14 the Labour College had 119 such students under instruction, and Ruskin College about 300. The Labour College has also recently established classes in , •industrial districts for the teaching chiefly of social history and economics, attended, we are informed, by about 3,000 students, whilst Ruskin College is arranging for short residential courses in July and August next for Trade Union officials. The co-operative movement also has its educational side. Most local Co-operative Societies have an Education Committee and Education Fund. The educational work of the local societies is organised with the help of the Education Committee of the Co-operative Union, and is carried on chiefly in the large and middle-sized towns. The subjects studied include co-operation, industrial history, citizenship, and economics. Courses of instruction by corres- pondence in these subjects are also provided by the Co-operative Union. Leaving aside the, junior and intermediate grade classes and technical classes, there met in 1917-1918 about a hundred classes, attended by some 2,000 students. A brief reference must be made to the important educational work done by such well- known institutions as the Working Men's College and Morley College in London, and by the various types of settlements and institutes. There is also a good deal of quiet and often valuable work being accomplished throughout Great Britain by the numerous Field Clubs, Naturalist, ArchiEological and other Scientific Societies, by Literary and Philosophical Societies and similar associations and institutions. There is an increasing amount of educational work now being done by various bodies not primarily concerned with education, for example, by religious bodies of various kinds. The Working Men's Clubs, with the encouragement of the Club and Institute Union, often include lectures and study groups among their activities. We cannot deal here with the field of Music, Art and the Drama, nor with the provision of Libraries, except in connection with the last-named, to note the valuable auxiliary to adult education provided by the recent establishment of the Central Library for students in London, and the Village Library Scheme inaugurated by the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust. Summer Meetings and Vacation Courses are an important feature of adult education. Among the better known of these are the Summer Meetings for University Extension Students, which were commenced some thirty years ago, and which have become increasingly popular. There are also residential Summer Schools for University Tutorial Class Students. The first of these was held in Oxford in 1910, and similar schools have since been started by other University Joint Committees. The length of stay by students has ranged from one week to two months. The first summer school organised by the National Council of the Adult School Union was held at Woodbrook Settlement, Birmingham, in 1911. These schools are increasing in numbers, and are now attended annually by several hundreds ot students. There has been a great development on the same lines in the Co-operative Movement, and each, summer sees several residential schools held in various parts of the country for co-operators. It is clear that there is a considerable and increasing demand for Summer Courses, which existing provision does not fully satisfy, though the demand is as yet confined to what is only a relatively small section of the community. The greater part of the work which we have sketched above has taken its rise in the industrial centres and urban districts, where the conditions are perhaps more favoiirable than they are in the rural areas. At the same time, adult education is by no means confined to the towns, and during the past few years there has been a decided development in the villages. The reality of the demand in rural districts may be illustrated by the movement which, beginning in a Kent village in 1915, has now spread to about a dozen villages and small towns, where there are classes or study circles with a total membership of about 200. The number of educational centres in this district could be considerably increased but for the shortage o? teachers. It should be pointed out that by far the greater part of the educational work amongst adults which, is now being carried on is purely voluntary. A typical illustration is the case of the North Staffordshire Miners' Higher Education Movement. In the winter of 1916-17 it conducted 30 classes, the teachers and organisers of which were voluntary workers, X 7681—1 A 3 6 mostly tutorial class students, who, after a full day's work, travel to outlying villages to meet ■ their classes. Ill this brief review of educational opportunities of a non-vocational character, we have omitted any reference to the work of Local Educational Authorities. Their activities .are much better known, and there is, moreover, considerable difficulty in drawing any sharp distinction between vocational and non-vocational education. The great part of their work is vocafional in character, though this is nqt always the case Local Authorities have also in many cases given linancial and other assistance to voluntary organisations undertaking educational work. The extent and variety of the educational activities among adults bear witness to a volume of enthusiasm and determination which augurs well for the future. A teacher writes, "I never " cease to marvel at the efforts and sacrifices made for the sake of education by the women " and men who attend my classes, considering that in most cases they have been active for " 12 to 15 hours of the day before coming to the class in the evening. It seems to me, therefore, " that the first point to emphasise is that where a sufficiently strong desire exists obstacles " count for comparatively little. For example, in one of my classes, now in its third year, " I have had seven students who walked from 2 to 4 miles each way to come to the class, " several others walked lesser but considerable distances. At present T know of 10 or 12 " students who come to my classes straight from work without tea. For two years I had a " class which gave up Saturday afternoons to the work, because they were less tired and " sleepy than in the evening." Though at the beginning of the war there was a temporary set-back to the work of adult education, it is significant that the present volume of educational activity is larger than it Avas before the war. This awakened interest has been shown in the course of lectures, study circles, and classes arranged by a large number of organisations. A large part of this activity has been directed towards the study of the historical background and causes of the war, but attention is now being turned to the problems of Reconstruction. We are informed that organisations find great difficulty in coping with the demand for know- ledge on these questions. An illustration of the educational work which is being carried on during the war is to be found in the activities of the Y.M.C.A., both in the camps at home and abroad and in munition centres. Lectures and study circles, arranged by it in co-operation with the Universities, Extension Boards and other educational bodies, are meeting with a response which indicates in some degree the possibilities of adult education in the future. It is undeniable that a great mass of people are still untouched by the desire for education, and therefore make no response to the opportunities already provided. As, liowever, we show later, many are debarred through no fault of their own. But there can be no doubt that, in spite of the existing obstacles, education is making a wider appeal, and that there is need for an extension of facilities to meet the growing demand. Valuable work has been done Avith the resources at present available, but it has neither the universality nor the financial stability of a national system. What is needed is some organisation sufficiently comprehensive and systematic to bring facilities for higher education within the reach of the inhabitants of every town and village in the country. The main body of our subsequent report will be occupied with making practical recommendations as to the ways in which such an organisation may be created. » Adult Education and Industri.a.l and Social Conditions. 4. The standard attained, the character of the studies pursued, and the methods adopted in tlie educational work carried on by adults, vaiy considerably, but on all hands it is agreed that certain industrial and social conditions both hamper the fullest use of existing educational opportunities and deter or even prevent many people from seeking to take advantage of these opportunities. We have obtained the views of men and women, both students and tutors of long experience in all branches of non-vocational adult education throughout the country. The evidence we have obtained shows that prevailing industrial and social conditions even before the war were only too often of such a character as. to form in many cases almost insuperable obstacles to adult education, and so to prevent individual workers from realising fully their powers and capacities. Taking all the circumstances into consideration, we are impressed with the enthusiasm and the strength of the desire which must animate those who under such unfavourable conditions pursue courses of serious study. (A.)— INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS. Hours of Labodk. 5, Excessive hours of labour form one of the greatest obstacles to adult education. It is true that the State has laid down for some classes of workers maximum hours of employment, so far as men are concerned the only case of direct legal limitation of hours is to be found amongst the miners.* The hours of labour of women are regulated by the Factory and Workshop Aot and the Shops Act. Women and yonng persons engaged in domestic occu- pations and in clerical Avork, however, enjoy no protection by law in regard to hours. The hours worked by men are often indirectly^limited by the laws regulating the employment of women and young persons, though this is by no means universal.! In our judgment the existing legal limitation of working hours, confined, as it is, to certain industries, though these are amongst ^he more important, and inadequate in the stringency of its regulations, even in the case of those to which it applies, is an obstacle to the pursuit of intellectual and other interests the seriousness of Avhich can hardly be exaggerated. It is pointed out by many of those whom we have consulted that the absorption of so large a part of each working day in wage-'fearning employment leaves little time for the duties of the home, social intercourse, public duties and study. It has been represented to us that " after ten or twelve hours oE " work there is some excuse if the mind turns to rest or pleasure." We have the statement of a railway drayman that " long hours of laboiir sap vitality more than the intensity of work." "My hours of work during the past ten years," states a goods checker in the service of a railway company, " during which time 1 have been a student of non- " vocational subjects, have been between sixty and seventy a week. These hours " have hindered study. After twelve hours' work one cannot mentally concentrate to " any extent." The same fact is illustrated by the case of a young woman working in a Newcastle-on- Tyne milliner's shop : — " Her hours are : Monday, Tuesday, Thm-sday, 9 till 7 ; Friday, 9 till 9 ; Saturday, 9 till 10 or 11. On a Wednesday she is finished at 1 o'clock. It is clear that it is almost impossible for a girl of 19 to pursue any subject with success when there are only three evenings in the week, each after a 10 hours' day, which is spent mostly standing, and one clear afternoon and evening. In spite of enthusiasm, the mere phj'sical side of the question demands eventually that study must be dropped." Shop assistants, both male and female, suffer from the disadvantages following from long hours of labour, some of which are onlj'' too often wasted' through an enforced idleness : — " Many establishments close at 8 p.m., during normal times, which renders it quite impossible for those engaged therein to take advantage of educational facilities. Even when the time of closing is 7 p.m. it is rare that an assistant gets away promptly, it being no unusual thing for him to be at work for half an hour or an hour after the shop is closed." The writer, who is secretary of a Trades and Labour Council in the South of England, goes on to point out that owing to earlier closing during the war he is able to get away from work at 6.20, and, in spite of " the extra strain of work occasioned by the reduction of the staff to a fifth of its normal number, I feel mentally more able to take advantage -of the class I attend and can give keener attention to the business of the various committees and organisations in which I take part. This I put down to the longer break between the time of leaving work and the meetings, which permits of some rest and a decent meal." The statement received from a locomotive engine fireman, and printed as an Appendix, throws a strong light, not merely upon the hours of labour, but on the allied question of irregular spells of employment.^ The hours of labour are often, indeed, even longer in reality than they appear to be. A North Staffordshire colliery surface labourer referring to the position of surface workers says : — " they check on at 6 o'clock a.m. and leave at 5 o'clock p.m. You generally find the collieries are outside the towns and are miles away from social activity. This means to the workers that they have to rise at 3 o'clock and they arrive home between 6 and 7 o'clock at night." As to the miners, he says : — " Two-thirds of the miners I know at the colliery I work at are out oF their homes 11 to 13 hoiirs per day. They have to rise at 3 o clock to be at the pit-head at 5 o'clock, as they have to begin to descend the shaft to work soon after 5 o'clock. The last man has to be down by 6 o'clock so that the pit can begin to draw coal. He begins to come up the shaft at 2 o'clock, and the last one arrives at the surface at 3 o'clock in the afternoon." Other classes of workers dwell considerable distances from their place of employment. Workers on the Clyde, for example, often have to travel many miles to and from work. * 8 Edw. VII. o. 57. We are informed by a miners' agent that since the passmg of the Bight Hoars Aot miners have taken greater advantage of technical edncation. t For particulars ctf hours of labour, see Appendix A. J See Appendix B. A i 8 Thfe same is true of many of the ironworkers in Durham. It is clear, therefore, that in a large number of cases the time spent in travelling, added to the hours of labour, leaves little leisure. The results of these long hours naturally render educational work difficult, if not impossible, and the effects upon the minds of men and women must be detrimental.- A University Professor writes : — " What has struck me most is the ' tired ' nature of the leisure my W.E.A. men ■ enjoy. Overtime. 6. Closely associated with hours of labour is the evil of overtime.® Overtime, where it constantly occurs, is for our purpose even worse than long hours of labour, because of its uncertainty. In seasonal trades, where the period of pressure happens to be the winter months (when educational facilities are most readily available), there is an additional hindrance. An employee in a London white-lead works gives his experience in the following quotation : — " I was employed by from 7 a.m. till 7 p.m., Avith two hours overtime nightly, which I had very little chance of escaping, making it 9 p.m. before my work was ended. Rising at 6 a.m., returning from work at 9.30 p.m., does not leave me with much strength to study The only time I found of value to read .... was in the half hour allowed for breakfast. Qnder a dirty arch, surrounded by empty white-lead casks and near a refuse heap, I managed to learn something in conjunction with what I learnt at the class in three years." A miinicipal employee in a Yorkshire town gives interesting illustrations : — " The two classes of which I have been a member have together lasted nine years. I am the only man member who has been in regular attendance from the first, and I work a forty-eight hour week, and do no overtime worth mentioning. There are three women who joined the class at the first and still remain. As women are precluded from overtime and night-work in textile factories, these instances suggest the essential requirements for adult working-class education." The opinion of tutors of adult classes is unanimous regarding the effects of overtime. " Long continued overtime," writes a University Tutorial Class tutor with south country experience— "overtime, that is to say, which is another name for long hours, and not merely a means of meeting a temporary boom — is a very serious hindrance to adult education. Even when overtime does not prevent actual attendance at a class one night a week, it interferes disastrously with home work and the writing of essays, which is an essential of solid tutorial class work. Moreover, and this is a matter which I wish especially to emphasise, the value of special training such as that given in tutorial classes is to a great extent lost, if the students have little time for general i-eading." A London Tutor, who declares overtime to be " a most serious drawback," makes three points : — " (a) The course of study is interrupted and the student is apt to grow discouraged if he is prevented from attendance. " (h) I have many cases where, when a worker insisted on leaving work early enough - to go to the class, open or veiled threats have been made by the foreman of the shop. " (c) Fatigued students cannot profit fully by instruction." A Tutor in Wales writes : — " I find that several members of my classes have not been able to attend for several weeks owing to this cause. It is almost impossible for such students to maintain interest in the work of the class under such conditions. In addition to ' overtime ' interfering with attendance at classes, it has the bad psychological reaction of converting potentially good citizens into mere money-earners, with no interest outside their special vocation.' The Shift System, &c. 7. Another grave difficulty is to be found in irregular hours of work, the shift system and." split turns." Large groups of workers are affected by these conditions, e.gr., railway and tramway workers, postal servants, policemen, miners and restaurant and hotel employees, whilst for domestic servants and housewives it is notorious that their " work is never done.'"'"" * For particulars as to legal regulation of overtime see Appendix A 9 The table given in Appendix B illustrates the disability under which railway workers suffer. Owing to irregular hours of employment, the work of domestic servants (thoagh they may have short intervals of rest) is generally spread through the whole day and evening, and regular periods of freedom from duty are either too few or too short to be of much educational benefit. Tramway employees may be taken as an example of " split " turns. It is common for them to work approximately from 5.30 to 8 a.m., from 12 noon to 1.30 p.m., and from 4 p.m. to 8.30 p.m. A group of London students have clearly expressed the objection to broken periods of labour : — " Split turns mean little or no actual leisure .... it is essential that leisure hours be regular and taken when the majority of workers are at leisure. To have spare time when the majority are at work means no opportunity for association.'' The effects of split periods of work are not confined to the workers themselves, but react upon the conditions of home-life, add immensely to the cares of the already overburdened housewife, and make impossible any opportunities which otherwise she might have had for recreation and education. The " shift systein" is far more common than the "split turn" system, and affects in the aggregate a large number of workers. Certain classes of railway workers are subject to alternation of turns. A locomotive fireman says : — " My principal difficulty is because one week I am on early turn and on the next week late turn, which means that I can only attend [the class] alternate weeks." A Derbyshire railway worker writes : — "I am employed as a railway signalman, and work eight hours, either from 6.0 a.m. to 2 p.m., 2 p.m. to 10 p.m., or 10 p.m. to 6 a.m. The shift system upsets your mode of life, and also debars you from taking much interest in the social and political life of our towns." Practically all miners work on the " shift system." The following account by a Staffordshire collier explains the situation : — "In many mines the three-shift system already obtains, and in every instance this largely interferes with the attendance of workers at any educational classes in that district. In fact it leaves those concerned but one week out of three in which they may attend evening classes. The same system also upsets the general home-life of the worker's family. When there are three or four workers in one house it is quite a usual thing to find all three shifts being worked during one week in one family. Hence three men wiU start out to work each at a different hour of the day, and of course will return at different times. So the womenfolk in that house at any rate simply live to prepare meals." A Newcastle-on-Tyne witness says : — '' The effect of this [the shift system] will be shown " by an example — that of a teemer in a .coal dock. The man is well-read, intellectual, perse- " vering, with a considerable talent for music. For some years past his studies have been " carried on as follows : — During the day-shift week he is able to work in the evenings. On " the night-shift week the labour is so exhausting that he generally finds it impossible to do " any study at all ; he simply works and sleeps. When the shift is changed there comes a " fortnight of this sort of thing. He is a man who would be invaluable in such work as that " of a chxirch organist, the conductor of a choral society, the organiser of singing classes . . . " and the like,.but such occupations are impossible as night-shifts would prevent him from " attending more than once a fortnight." A miner in the Durham coalfield thus explains the difficulties placed in the way of would-be students by the shift-system : — " For those who are willing to attend classes diffi- " culties are awaiting in the shape of inconvenient shifts. ... If the student is a coal " hewer he can attend two weeks out of three ; the third week he has to be at work during " class hours. . . . For the rest of the miners anything like regular attendance at evening " classes is practically an impossibility. The coal hewer's working hours for three working " shifts in most collieries in this county (Durham) are generally from 4 a.m. to 10 p.m. ; " one shift finishes at -11 a.m., the second shift 4 p.m., and the third shift 10 p.m. Other " classes than the coal hewers work different hours and shifts. . . . The first class who " are prevented from attending regularly are those who do work down the mine other than " coal-hewing, a large number of whom are between the ages of 14 and 22. There is in " every mine a number between 18 and 22 years of age who, if they were not prevented by " their shift system, would make suitable students. This class of labour works under a two- " shift system, generally commencing about 5.30 a.m. and finishing about 9.30 p.m. The " first shift ends about 2 p.m. and the second shift commences about 1.15 p.m. The result is " that as fortnightly turns are the general practice attendance at an evening class would " mean two attendances alternated by two absences. Then there are the men who always " work during the night. For them attendance at any class in the evening, except Saturday 10 '' ' evening, is impossible ; and yet I know men belonging to botli the former and the latter " desirous of attending classes."'" Tlie position is summarised by a tutorial class organiser as follows : — • " It ia no exaggeration to say tliat in any industrial district hundreds of would-be students are prevented from taking up courses of study owing to the fact that they work on a shift system, which means generally that they are only able to attend classes once in two weeks, or once in three weeks, according as they are employed on the two-shift or three-shift system, and that therefore they cannot secure any continuity of study. Yet so keen, are some that rather than be shut out altogether they will join a class and attend when they can, which means a very considerable effort oE will. It is difficult enough with a two-shift system, but a three-shift system is perfectly demoralising, . as it leaves a man free first in the morning, then in the afternoon, and then in the evening, in consecutive weeks ; and this carried on throiighout the year really sh^^ts him out from any continued participation in the higher things of life. For many reasons part-time education for those engaged in earning a livelihood takes place almost invariably in the evening hours, and the writer has seen groups of would-be students who have wished to take up serious study denied the fulfilment of their desire for a fuller life through education owing to the conditions of their daily work." The effect of the shift system on the domestic life of the worker, and therefore on the opportunities for education of himself and the other adult members of his family, must also be considered. It is clear that the working of the household is determined by the conditions governing the employment of the male members. There can consequently be no opportunities for leisure for the women folk to ciiltivate wider interests. Those domestic conditions, the outcome of the shift system, react also upon the men in destroying what opportunities there otherwise might be for home study. This vicious circle perpetuates a system within which it is difficiilt to develop permanent intellectual and social interests. Night-Work. 8. "Shift work" means, as a rule, frequent periods of night-work, though it is well to remember that there are many who regularly work during the night. This is true not merely of people like night watchmen (who are usually elderly men), but of groups of workers like night wool-combers. The opinions we have received on the question of night-work indicate a strong opposition to it. Perhaps no set of industrial conditions is so strongly conden^ned. ft is described with unfailing regularity as "unnatural." A member of the Amalgamated Society of Engineers speaks of the night-worker as living under " the blackened sky of ever- lasting night." Strong objection is taken to it on the ground that it requires too great a sacrifice of individuar freedom and the normal methods of life to industrial purposes. A raihvay worker expresses himself as follows : — "To be engaged upon night-work is the greatest of all handicaps to tlie student. Most of the ordinary educational opportunities are closed to him, and even when chance brings to his door a morning or afternoon lecture he usually has to forego sleep to attend. Night-workers suffer from an insufficiency of sleep in an attempt, Avhich is usually a failure, to live an ordinary life .... The inability to take part in civic and social activities creates a grave grievance." A Camberwell workman says : — " It would seem upon the surface that the night-worker has a better opportunity for study. I have been a night-worker on alternate weeks for two years, and have • found that sleeping by day is far from being as restful as sleeping by night. The noises of the day interfere terribly with sleep, causing it to be broken, and all whom I have met say the same. Night-work is certainly against the Avorking-class student." Another writes : — "Continuous night-work is unnatural. It is impossible to adapt oneself to it. Without a doubt it is degrading, and lias a deadening effect upon the mental faculties." A printer's manager in a northern town says : — " It seems to me a topsy-turvy sort of world that sends one mass of men to toil and the rest to bed at the same time. It is possible to devise classes to fit a shift system, but it strikes me as a ridiculous sort of proceeding— putting the cart before the horse. To produce a highly developed personality, which education really stands for, is more important than producing a night wool-comber, and instead of making the more * Previous to the war we underBtand atout a third of the collieries in Northumberland, and rather more in Dra-ham, worked the three-shift system. Many of these wei-e the larger collieries, so that the number of men so affected would be greater pi-oportionally than the number of collieries 11 important subservient to the lef« important, as we have done for so long, we should insist on industrial arrangements being made to fit in with our educational require- ments." Mr. Alfred Williams, in his "Life in a Railway Factory," writing of his o-svn experience, says : — " The workman, unless he is well seasoned to it, cannot summon up any energy at all, and he cannot conquer habit, not after months, or even years, of the change. Wben, by the rule of nature, he should be at his strongest, and the exigencies of the night- shift require that he should sleep, that strength, bubbling up, keeps him awake, dead tired though he be, and when he requires to be active and vigorous just the reverse obtains. The energy has subsided, the sap has gone down from the tree. Nature has retired, and all the coaxing in the world wiU not induce her to come forth until such time as the day dawns and she steals back upon him of her own free will. That is what, most of all, distinguishes the night from the day shift, and makes it so wearisome for the pale-faced toilers."*" Mr. Williams writes of the losses suffered by the night-worker through the reversal of the normal order of life, and continues : — " The knowledge of the loss lies like lead at the beart, and fills one with regret, a poignant sense of the cruelty of the industrial system and your own weakness with it ; yet one miist live. But there is real tragedy in working the night shift at the forge."t Tbe general evidence shows that night-work is more exhausting than day-work, that the nigbt-worker requires longer hours of sleep, that the noise of traffic and the performance of domestic duties interfere with sleep, and that night-workers are either periodically or permanently cut off from the normal life of the community and participation in its organised activities. Public work and education become well nigh impossible. We arg therefore inclined to agree with a Birmingham mechanic who says : "Of all the evils which infest industrial life night-work is the most damnable." Recommendations regarding Hours of Labour. 9. It is outside the terms of reference of the Committee to examine in all their bearings the probleips of industrial reconstruction, but we wish to draw attention to the grave educational disability under which so large a proportion of the working population live owing to the conditions and circumstances of industrial life. It is difficult, indeed impossible, and at the same time illogical, to attempt to consider economic conditions purely from the point of view of their influence on adult education and apart from the other just claims of the individual to opportunities for a full life. We are aware that many complicated considerations must be taken into account, but we are convinced that long or irregular hours of labour, night work, and the " shift system " deprive those who suffer from them of the freedom that all men prize and the community of the full service of its citizens. The moral loss, both to the individual and society, from conditions which thwart the desire for self-expression and public service, it is impossible to calculate. (a) A Shorter Working Day. From the point of view of education and of participation in public activities (which wo regard as one of the most valuable means of education), we ai-e of opinion that one of the greatest needs is the provision of a greater amount of leisure time ; this is the more necessary because of the increasing strain of modern life. The view sometimes held that the community must necessarily suffer economic loss as a result of a shortening of working hours is not one to which modern economic science lends any confirmation, and has, indeed, received an impressive practical refutation from the enquiries into the relation between output and working hours conducted on behaK of the Ministry of Munitions during the present war. The unduly long hours which still obtain in many industries are, in fact, but a legacy from the traditions of half a century and more ago, and persist in the face of scientific proof of their uneconomical results. , In order, therefore, that people may have better opportunities of devoting themselves to the things of the mind and to interests outside the daily round of toil, we recommend a reduction of the working day. It is obviously impossible for the Committee to enter here into the many economic questions involved, but from the point of view of opportunities for education * " Life in a Bailway Factory," by Alfred Williams (Duckworth & Co., 1915, pp. 206, 207). The whole of ' dhapter XII. is devoted to a description of the work of the night shift at the forge, t md., p. 224. 12 and self-development, it regards a general shortening' of the working-day as indispensable in wage-earning occupations in the manufacturing, distributive and commercial employments of the country.* We think that the maximum legal working day should not be more than eight hours if men and women are to take part in the intellectual and social activities of the community. We recognise the difficulties with regard to agriculture and certain other occupations where, though there is need for a considerable reduction of hours, great elasticity will be required in adopting any general schemes. In certain heavy and exhausting kinds of work, and those accompanied by special disabilities, eight hours appear to us too long. {h) Thk Reduction of Overtime. The limitation of the working day would not in itself yield th(5 desired result unless at the same time steps were taken to minimise overtime employment (which, as many point out, is often another name for long hours). In certain industries, the further limitation of overtime would be attended by considerable difficulties, but perhaps the greater part of the overtime worked in the past was the result, not so much of inherent conditions, as of a lack of adequate industrial organisation. In some trades overtime during certain periods of the year has become stereotyped as part of the normal system, and we cannot but feel that, in some degree at least, it would be possible to spread work more uniformly throughout the year. It is well known that in the past industry has with considerable success adapted itself to the restrictions imposed by the State in the interests of the community. We see no reason to believe that a stricter limitation of overtime Avould not be followed, in many cases, hj the discovery and adoption of more effective methods of regularising employment. The present Factory Act, which allows an aggregate number of days overtime per year does not, in our judgment, sufficiently safeguard the leisure of the workers.f As overtime prevents the full participation of working people in intellectual and social pursuits, we recommend that, side by side with the shortening of the normal working day, overtime should be more closely regulated and reduced to a minimum. Otherwise the advantage gained by reduced hours would be largely neutralised. We believe that -with the improved industrial organisation which is foreshadowed, the eradication of chronic overtime does not present insuperable difficulties, though .special arrangements would probably heed to be made to meet sudden emergencies. (e) Shokteu Workikg Week fok Workers avith Irregular Hours. Those workers whose hours of labour are irregular need special consideration. While we realise the difficulties in regularising hours of employment in all occupations, it is probable that much might be done to ensure much greater regularity of hours than now prevails. ' Where, however, the work is of such a kind as to seem to render this impossible in the present stage of industrial organisation, we are of opinion that workers whose hours of labour are irregular should be compensated by a working week less than the normal, which would allow them two days in seven free from wage-earning emplojmient. * The following quotation from the Interim. B/eport .of the Health o' Munitions "Workers Committee en Industrial Efficiency and Fatigue (Od. 8511, p. 13) gives an illustration of the practicability of reducing hours without injury to production : — '■ In a specific instance before the Committee, a group of five male voluntary Sunday workers in a certain munitions factory were able in eight hours (or seven hours free of meals) to exceed the average day's output of eight weekday men, who work 14 hours (or 124 hours free of meals). These five men worked, no doubt, at a ' spiint ' which perhaps could not have been maintained daily. But there can be little doubt that they could repeat their eight hours' effort pn, say, four days in a week ; and, if so, the startling result follows that they could do in those four days rather more than the whole week's work of an equal set of men adopting the other system of hours. With this, moreover, they could enjoy not only longer nights and more recreation time in each working day but could also have three whole holidays in the week. Would these five volunteers be ' slackers ' if they did a full week's work, judged by the 14-hour standard, or more, but had three holidays a week (available perhaps for a change of work), and slept longer at night ? It is impossible to resist the conclusion that the paid weekday workers at this faotoiy, who have been working their long hours for many months, might have greatly improved their output and their comfort under a better chosen system of special efforts alternating with suitable rests. The work in question was work of a uniform ' repetitive ' kind, involving moderate physical exertion." See also " Health of Munition Workers,'' a handbook prepai-ed by the Health of Munition Workers Committee (1917, Is. 6^.). Reference may also be made to the following Memoranda of the Health of Munition Workers Committee : — No. 5. — Hours of Work. No. 7. — Industrial Fatigue and Its Causes. No. 12 — Statistical Information concerning Output in reference to Hours of Work, Report by H. M. Vernon, M.D. (This has been reprinted in the Interim Report, "Industrial Efficiency and Fatigue," referred to above.) No. 20. — Supplemental Memorandum to No. 5. — Weekly Hours of Employment. The two Interim Reports on "An Investigation of Industrial Fatigue' by Physiological Methods," by A. F. Stanley Kent, M.A., D.Sc. (Cd. 8506, 1915, 4^. ; Cd, 8335, 1916, Is. 6d.). ■if See Appendix A. 13 (d) SuoiiT "Shifts." The case of "shift" workers presents a somewhat different problem. Where workers are employed on continuous processes, and in. essential services, (e.g., .railways and postal service), " shift " working appears to be inevitable. In these circumstances, the interests of the community will be best served by a reduction of the normal working day. A good many shift workers, however, are not engaged upon continuous processes. The choice here appears to lie between the satisfaction of the claims of maximum production and the claims of the human being. We frankly say that if the desire for maximum output cannot be realised without robbing the human being of his opportunities for full participation in the organised life of society and its educational facilities, we would unhesitatingly give preference to the satisfaction of the claims of the human beiiig. It may be argued, indeed, that the satisfaction of his claim depends upon the amount of production. But whilst there is a close connection between wealth and welfare, we do not regard material wealth as being so large a factor in welfare as the argument assumes. If the question of production were one of supplying the elementary needs of human life, the argument might be regarded as valid, but the productive capacity of modern industry has carried us far beyond that stage of economic development. What we wish to emphasise is the importance of having regard in the first place to the human factor in industry. We therefore think that on educational grounds where "shift" working continues, the length of the shift should be reduced to less than the normal working day.* (e) Limitation of Night-Work. We also recommend that, except where it is absolutely essential, regular night-work, whether periodical or continuous, should be prohibited by law. Monotonous Work. 10. We have also considered how far employment in certain monotonous industrial processes is a drawback to adult education. There is a large amount of repetition work in industry which may take the form either of semi-automatic hand processes (such as filling, packing, and labelling, in the soap, chocolate, cocoa, tobacco, and other industries) or of minding automatic or semi-automatic machines which in many industries have superseded hand* labour.f Two theories hold the field. There are those who consider that monotonous forms of labour which require no intellectual application, leave the mind of the worker free and unexhausted by his duties, and that whilst pursuing his daily task the intelligent worker browses upon those subjects in which he is interested. On the other hand, it is held that monotonouu work dulls the mind, destroys initiative, and gradually stifles all intellectual interests, with the result that educational facilities offer little or no attraction. A London social worker says : — • " It is the monotony that kills. This is the verdict of the majority of adults with whom I have come into contact and whose work is monotonous. It produces minds that are inactive and unimaginative." A Yorkshire printer puts forward the following : — " Feeding a printing machine, like so many other processes in mechanical production, is awfully monotonous ; and in general tends to produce mental inertia by stifling initiative. To a student, such work for short periods can be useful, as it gives time for thought. But to a person constantly engaged on such tasks (which is the usual thing), the dullness of the work casts its spell over the operative, and a lower mental vitality almost inevitably results." A student from the Midlands writes that he " gave up a well-paid job because of the mind-destroying power of its monotony." A Swindon engineer says : — "If work of a monotonous sort is excessive, it will dull the wits of. elderly men unless the physical motion required becomes purely mechanical and the brain is trained to be active in another direction .... It should be possible, if education was continued from the elementary school onward, to make monotonous occupation an educational advantage." * It should be noted that the Board of Education has endeavovired to meet the difficulty of attendance at classes in the case of shift workers, by means of special regulations. fin her. well-known book, "Fatigue and Efficiency: a Study in Industry" (The Russell Sage Foundation, Third Edition), an American writer, Miss Josephine Goldmark, discussing the subject of monotonous processes, writes as follows : — " Not machine workers only, mere feeders of large automata, but handworkei-s, too, suffer from the blight of monotony. The girls and women who pack the innumerable small objects which must be wrapped before they reach the retail stores — such as all sorts of glass objects, lamps, crackers, candy and other food stufEs — ^have an occupation of unrelieved monotony. It requires no more judgment or skill than to tend a machine, only speed and the indefinite repetition of dull mechanical movements " (pp. 66 and 67.) ■ 14 A London class student says : — " This is an extremely difficult question. Monotonous work can generally be performed more or less mechanically, which enables a keen student to think while at work. • This is providing the hours are not excessive. Thus one may say that with an ordinary day's work, monotonous work could be utilised by the keen student. Attendance at a class would also help to break the monotony of the student's life. The results under this heading may depend on the duration of the working daj' and the enthusiasm of the student." An ex-tutorial class student in the Midlands writes : — " There are some industrial processes which are excessively monotonous, and which make no demand upon the mind or initiative of the woi'ker, such as, for instance, the turning of a wheel, or the treading of a lathe all day, in which occupation the worker is nothing more than a mere animal used for his muscular strength, with the result that all mental activities seem to be deadened and almost paralysed. The writer has experienced the enormous difficulty of getting persons in such employment to take any interest whatever in things of the mind, and has in the cases of those few who took up courses of study seen with what difficulty the mind was awakened. Sitting beside these workers in a class for several years, and comparing them with the normal worker, it seemed as if their minds were sunk in a kind of stupor. In all other respects the circumstances of these workers were those of their fellow students ; sometimes they were brought up in the same homes ; so that as a result of a long experience the writer is convinced that these differences in mental alertness were the result of the daily occupation. Indeed, to one who has constantly seen these people at their work, it is clear that in nine cases out of ten this must be the effect." A considerable amount of scientific research has been made into the various aspects of industrial fatigue, and there is now a large body of evidence with regard to the relation between monotonous work and fatigue. It has recently been pointed out that — " Monotonous work — and much industrial work is monotdnoiis — offers some special problems. It has been seen that uniformly repeated acts tend to become in a sense ' automatic,' and that the nerve centres concerned become less liable to fatigue — the time ratio of necessaiy rest to action is diminished. But when monotonous series are repeated, fatigue may appear in what may be called the psychical field, and a sense of monotony may diminish the capacity for work. This is analogous to, if it does not represent, a fatigue process in unrecognised nervous centres. Conversely, ' interest ' may improve the working capacity even for a uniform monotonous activity."'''''' Writing on this subject in her book " Fatigue and Efficiency " (p. 59), quoted above. Miss Goldmark says : — "If concentration and subdivision are part of the new efficiency, thej"^ are part, too, of its new strain. So far as the workers are concerned, subdivision and concentration are added hardships of the long day. For they lead to that monotony which results from the endless repetition of the same operations, and against which the human spirit innately revolts. Monotonj'^, indeed, may make highly taxing to our organism work which is ordinarily considered light and easy. This may be observedin many different occupations." From a careful consideration of the information we have received, we have arrived at the conclusion that the effects of monotonous work depend largely upon the strength of the intellectual interests of the worker and upon the nature of the worker's temperament. Some- thing also depends upon the pace of working, as where the process is performed with great rapidity the effects of monotony are intensified. Young workers ehaployed on monotonous processes easily succumb to the deadening influences of their daily work. And if they continue upon work of this character, the evil results pointed out above appear almost inevitable. On the other hand, workpeople who already possess wide interests strongly developed when they enter upon monotonous work, may, if the hours be not excessive, not only survive the crushing effects of their labour, but may find counterbalancing advantages in the opportunity for reflection. In many cases, as some Avitnesses explain, people of sensitive temperament, however wide their interests — and, indeed, because of them— will regard regular monotonous labour with the greatest distaste. Recommendations regarding Workers engaged on Monotonous Work. We have already recommended the establishment of a shorter working day, which will go far to relieve the worker from the worst consequences of monotonous toil. In addition, we think that alternating forms of employment should be encouraged, in order to give interest and variety, which would counteract the depressing effects of continuous engagement on * Interim Report on Industrial Efficiency and Fatigue [Cd. 8511], p. 11. 15 monotonous processes.* Opportunities for the exercise of initiative should also be looked for. In •the establishment of works' committees in places of employment we see possibilities of the creation of new industrial interests and the development of a machinery for a full considera- tion of matters affecting workshop life, amoagst which we may specify those concerning monotony of employment. Repetition work is likely to become more and more prevalent, and it will require the best efforts of those engaged in industry to devise ways by means of which its extension shall not be accompanied by a progressive deterioration in the interests 'and intellectual quality of the workers engaged upon it. The more industry becomes a matter of machinery, the more necessary it becomes to humanise the working of the industrial system. Heavy and Exhausting Work. 11. In spite of the development of mechanical appliances, there still remains in many industries a considerable amount of work of a very heavy and exhausting character. It is not necessary to labour the point that work which requires the constant expenditure of an excessive amount of physical and nervous energy must necessarily deprive the workers of the vigour which might otherwise be devoted to the pursuit of personal interests and public affairs. Clearly none but the strongest spirits can prevail against the effects of protracted heavy toil. It is not merely a question of muscular fatigue but also, and even more particularly, one of nervous exhaustion. As is pointed out by the Health of Munition Workers Committee : — " The fatigue is fatigue of the nervous system, though in sensation its effects may be referred to the muscles themselves. The problems then of industrial fatigue are principally, and almost wholly, problems of fatigue in the nervous system and of its direct and indirect effects."| Where a workman has completed a day's work of reasonable length and not too arduous in character, he may turn with zest and profit to other pursuits ; but if his hours have been too long or his work too exhausting his fund of nervous energy will be too depleted for him to engage in any kind of serious study. This is borne out by the evidence of an experienced student in the Potteries, who having recently undertaken exhausting work as a furnace labourer has been obliged to give up the greater part of his studies and intellectual interests. He writes : — "' The nervous energy that is required for mental effort is used iip in muscular activity." A South Wales worker referring to the steel indiistry states that " smelters and other men and those who handle the steel work eight hours. We find them, as a class, less keen on education than the miners, perhaps because they work in excessive heat and are more exhausted." A group of students consulted by a tutor on tlie question of exhausting work agreed that, on the whole, certain groups of workers rarely show an interest in education, and this they attribute to the nature of their employment, e.g. : " Forgemen, chemical workers, glass workers and stokers seldom take up systematic educational work." One University Lecturer has found that — " excessively arduous tasks such as steel workers and moulders ' or tinplate workers perform . . . make it difficult, if not well nigh impossible for good work to be done ; whereas cobblers, shopkeepers and quarrymen, carpenters, clerks, and farm labourers could benefit considerably and wrote striking essays." The evidence is not to be taken as meaning that in the heavier trades the workers are all too sunk in the torpor of excessive exhaiistion to be alive to intellectual and other interests ; but rather that it is only the exceptional workers who retain sufficient energy to occupy- their minds with intellectual and similar pursuits. There can be no doubt that excessive labour regularly pursued degrades those who follow it We do not think that any economic reasons can be urged in justification of its continuance. The sacrifice of healtli, of vigour, or of both, and of opportunities for engaging in the full round of educational, social and political activities, to the supposed needs of industry would not, we are convinced, be tolerated in this country if the facts were more generally known * " When once monotony is recognised as a real hardship, and as in itself a souroe of fatigue, rational means of relieving it may Be sought in shortening hours of monotonous labom- and alternating work of different kinds Enlightened employers in various industries have found such alternations of work practically beneficial in stemming fatigue." — (" Fatigue and EflSoiency : a Study in Industry," by Josephine Goldmark, quoted above, p. 67.)r t Interim Report on Industrial Efficiency and Fatigue (Cd. 8511), p. 9. Itj Recommendations regarding Heavy Forms of Work. » We recommend that, after inquiry, particularly exhausting occupations should be scheduled and moi'e closely regulated by law. The hours of labour should be shortened to much below the maximum day that we have suggested. Special regulations are also needed in order to minimise the effects of arduous processes and trades. It appears that in the same processes, whilst machinery is used in some places, in others, manual workers are still employed to do- the work. We strongly urge that wherever possible mechanical devices should be introduced, so that these heavy degrading forms of labour shall be altogether superseded. Unemployment. 12. The evil effects of unemployment, upon both the individual and the community, are sc obvious and well known as to need no elaboration here. It is clear that a period of unemploy- ment, especially if prolonged, unfits a man for any participation in educational and intellectual pursuits, and in social activities. The urgent need of finding work, the wearing anxiety as to the present and future maintenance of himself and his family, make mental concentration upon anything else than the striiggle for existence an impossibility. It is the decent, self- respecting citizen who, finding himself unemployed by no fault of his own, but through the exigencies of industry, suffers most ; and it is precisely this kind of man, because of his very self-respeot, who cannot bring himself to take advantage of the means (so often savouring of " charity " and the poor law) provided for alleviating distress caused by unemployment. As all observers are agreed, the result is, save in very exceptional cases, physical and mental deterioration. Moreover, should unemployment be prolonged beyond a certain point, it is often found that the process of deterioration has gone too far for the victim entirely to retrieve his position, and thus a permanent loss is inflicted on the nation's citizens. All the statements submitted to the Committee on this point are unanimous in stating that the inevitable result of unemployment upon even the keenest student is to cause him to relinqtiish his studies, and to lose touch with his formeir intellectual and social interests. A class secretary, speaking of his many years' experience in a large industrial town, says : — " Unemployment, when all the future is uncertain, is even more distressing and demoralising. The writer has seen^ keen, able students suddenly unemployed throiigh no fault of their own, steadily deteriorate with the long anxiety and the daily fruitless search for work — which means a search for means of subsistence for them- selves and families — until they are no longer able to continue, or to take pleasure in his studies ; and it has been distressing to see such stiidents who foniierly were moved by the strongest educational desire, fall to pieces as it were, and eventually lose touch with the movement. A class secretary in constant touch with his fellow students is made to realise as very few others can, the evil effects to the individual and the great moral loss to the community of some of the finest of its citizens, caused by the workers' insecurity of tenure giving rise to unemployment — " A-Derbyshire miner, a W.E.A. and Adult School student, writes as follows : — " The effect of unemployment is to divert the attention of any working man, how- ever enthusiastic, from educational work to the pressing problem of obtaining the bare necessities of life. . To offer or press upon him education would be an insult at such a time . . . ." A London District Councillor, employed on the railway, says : — ' " When a man is out of work his mind is usually absorbed in trying to find another job ; it is the most miserable time of a man's life." A tutorial class student, formerly employed as a railway porter at Reading, and now on the railway clerical staff, says : — " Unemployment and short time are both fatal to non-vocational education. A man's time and thought are spent in seeking work so that he can live ; for he must live, and have at least the bare necessities of life secured before he can devote time to education." There is, in fact, general agreement among tutors, organisers, and students that the result of unemployment is to deplete the membership of classes in which students are affected, and to withdraw them entirely from their normal social and educational activities ; and a number of those who have submitted evidence point out that in their experience workers engaged in trades peculiarly liable to periods of unemployment veiy seldom undertake any kind of educational work. Several give it as their opinion that security of tenure in employment is necessary if full opportunities for personal development are to be realised. The following 17 IS the opinion on this point submitted by a University Tutorial Class lecturer on behalf of his students in various parts of the country : — " Security of^ employment. — This removes the need to worry over a livelihood, and permits one to think of the way to improve oneself. No man can plan any study if he has not got security of this kind." A joiner in fixed employment, a W.E.A. student, makes the same point : — " One compensating condition favourable to education is security of employment. To this single fact alone I attribute all my past and present interest in non-vocational studies. No man can plan his future studies or give educational authorities guarantees of attendance in class work until he himself is assured of a regulated life and a minimum of leisure." The uncertainty of employment which is so marked a feature of modem industry, is by no means confined to workers in the towns. In the rural areas it is often intensified because so much agricultural employment is dependent upon climatic conditions and is often dispensed with when the weather is not suitable for outdoor work. Recommendations regarding Unemployment. This question of unemployment will, no doubt, be under the consideration of the Govern- ment in their plans for industrial and social reconstruction, and in view of its importance, not only from the point of view of the individual but in the interests of national welfare, the ■Committee recommend that steps should be taken to guarantee to the worker some reasonable security of livelihood, either by such a reorganisation of industry as may prevent or minimise fluctuations in the volume of production, or, where that is impossible, by some extension of the principle of insurance which would protect the wage-earner against the ruinous effects of such fluctuations as cannot be prevented. It is not within the Committee's province to suggest in, detail the means by which this should be accomplished, but they believe that recent investigations have gone to show that unemployment could be largely, if not entirely, eradicated by means of better industrial organisation, with results that would be of advantage to the w:orker and all others concerned in industry, as well as to the community at large. Holidays. 13. In pursuing their inquiries the Committee have had brought under their notice the limitation qf the educational opportunity of the manual worker owing to the inadequate provi- sion of holidays. While in the North the annual week's holiday has become the rule rather than the exception, in the South the reverse seems to be the- case. For a large number of workers there is no customary holiday allowed, except Bank Holidays. Even Bank Holidays, however, are not universal, as for . example in the case of agri- cultural labourers. The nature of the work on the farm, particularly that concerned with the care of live sfcjck, seldom or never allows the farm worker any considerable period of leisure. ' It has been reported to us from several quarters that amongst large sections of the agricul- tural labourers the very idea of a holiday is remote from their minds. Nevertheless in some counties (^such as Lincolnshire) the May hirings of the "yearly men " -are regarded as an annual holiday ; and it is becoming the practice, more or less by general consent to extend this to a week. At the best the average town worker can only look forward to not more than one week's leave, and this is often subject to the demands of industry permitting, and has almost always to be taken at his own expense. In fact, it has been pointed out to us that, " the worker, as " a general rule, does not have holidays but periods of unemployment." That is to say, if he is allowed to tajce a holiday he loses his "Wages for the period, and thus' very often is unable to use a holiday to • advantage. During the past few years the facilities for adult education have been enlarged by the establishment iof Summer Schools and Vacation Courses, held under the auspices of the Universities, the Workers' Educational Association, the Co-operative Movement, the Adult School Union, and other bodies. While these schools are well attended by working people it is usually only the more fortunate who are able to take advantage of them, and there is little doubt that the number of these schools would largely increase if adequate^rovision were made for an annual holiday. Many of those who do attend at present do so at a-sacrifice to themselves and very often. to their families. Indeed, the fact that these sacrificeBi akould be made is one of the most convincing pieces of evidence of the realityspf the demand for non-vocational education. It means in many cases that the student has to suffer an economic loss by foregoing his wages, and in practically every case that he gives up tq study his one brief period of leisure in the year, which he would otherwise have devoted to a much-needed rest and relaxation from strenuous pursuits. Referring to the difficulties under which students labour in attending Summer Courses, a Shefiield railway fireman says': — " I attended the Oxford Simimer School—July 1917 — for one week, but was only able to do so by making a special application for the necessary leave : as X 7681—1 ■ 15 18 I was only allowed four days' leave with pay, I actually lost eight working days, and missed a booked Sunday turn of duty, and, in wages, including overtime and war bonus, lost IZ. 195., and that is a serious consideration to many workers." A. London student says, speaking of his own case : — " An annual holiday of six consecutive days after 15 years' service certainly does not allow any margin for attending Summer Schools .... Speaking for myself, T would forego a week's wages if the State and the employer agreed upon a fortnight with facilities once a year for adult education. The approximate value of such would be difhciilt to judge. Adult education, I am sure, creates a healthy environment, not only in the home circle, but in a healthy citizenship." A Tutorial Glass Tutor referring to the students in his classes says that : — "attending anything in the nature of a Summer School is regarded by most as out of the question. Many in Morley and Dewsbury have Bank Holidays only. Some have a week. Men have actually approached the masters to ask for the usual two days rather than a week (August) as they did not know how they were going to live without a week's pay .... Many urge the necessity of a holiday of one week a year with pay, as necessary for attendance at Summer Schools." A Southall working-man engaged in voluntary educational work states that : — " Few workers know what a holiday is. Southail is an industrial centre, yet outside the railway workers not 5 per cent, of the 5,000 male woi-kers enjoy a holiday once a year." The Committee's enquiries show clearly tlie disabilities under which the average working maii and woman suffer either from (1) the want of provision for an annual holiday of reasonable length, or (2) the economic disability which accompanies holidays when such arc allowed, due to stoppage of earnings for the period. In this latter connection many point out that the salaried employee gets usually at least a fortnight's leave on full pay. This view is expressed as follows by a group of students who have recently been considering this question : — " We- are willing to accept the view that brain workers are productive workers as a view wholly and finally reasonable. But we cannot see why officials should receive salaries through their holiday periods, or long-period salaries that recognise holiday rights, while work-people must forego their wages in the same circumstances. Emphaticall}'', regularly employed workmen should have a right to — saj' — two weeks' or a dozen working days of holiday on full-time pay every yeai'." Recommendations regarding Holidays. While we are primarily concerned with the effect of the inadequate provision of holidays .upon opportunities for education, we regard the matter as one of general importance and of nmch wider application. We believe that if a reasonable holiday without stoppage of pay were provided it would have a beneficial effect upon the national life. Not only would those ■who had definite intellectual interests be able in much larger numbers than at present to pursue them at Summer Schools, Vacation Courses, &c., but others would be provided with increased opportunities for travel and the pursuit of those things whicli make for enlargement of the mind, while the gain to the public health would certainly be considerable. It may be that the question of holidays will, in the future, be the subject-matter of agreements between employers and employed,* but in any case Ave think it important that the present custom among salaried workers with regard to payment during holidays should be extended to wage- earners and incorporated in the Factory Acts and similar laws. We are fully awar^ of the great practical difficulties tc be overcome in providing a tmiversal annual holiday, but they do not appear to us to be greater than tliose which have already been overcome by factory legislation. ' The case of the agricultural labourer is worthy of special consideration. Not only is the agricultural labourer at present without an annual holiday — in which respect he is no worse off than many town workers— but he does not even enjoy the weekly half-holiday. AVith the exception of special groups of Avorkers, such as those engaged in tra,nsport work, continuous i)rocesses, &c. the weekly half-holiday is universal in the .manufacturing and distributive trades. The annual week's holiday is as necessary to the agricultural labourer as to the town worker. It is equally important in our view that the weekly half-holiday should be extended by law to vrorkers engaged in agriculture, and that rural workers who are engaged regularly on Sunday work should be given a weekday off in compensation. * We understand that an agreement has recently been an-ived at in the chemical industry whereby thes workers engaged in it will obtain an annual week's holiday with pay. 19 The Effects of the Industrial Backqiiound. 14. So far we have been concerned with specific industrial obstacles to adult education. But beyond this there is the important question of the relation of the whole industrial organisation to tlie intellectual, aesthetic and spiritual life of the nation. It is precisely with these aspects of the life of the community that adult non-vocational education is primarily concerned. The problem of the reaction of industrial organisation upon the character and intelligence of the people is, therefore, one of the iitmost importance to the Committee. The modern industrial system has undoubtedly solved the problem of supplying the material needs of the world's population. To that task the energies of the past centuiy and a half have beeii largely devoted. It will be generally agreed that this is the primary function of econo- mic society. The progressive increase in productivity has not, however, been an unmixed gain. The gross evils of a century ago, when large masses of the working population lived in abject misery and laboured under conditions of the most i-evolting and degrading character, have been largely overcome. But there still remain serious evils which must be eradicated in the interests of social well-being. Several causes, the growth of voluntary combinations, the action of far-sighted and enlightened employers, and the intervention of the State, have already, led the way towards Vastly improved industrial conditions. But, largely as the heritage of an evil system which was tolerated in the past, evil conditions still, too often, obtain. The rising standard of life, the spread of knowledge, the developing aspirations of labour, and the increasing sense of responsibility among employers, will most certainly involve a reorganisation of the industrial system. It would take us far beyond the scope of our inquiry if we were to embark either on a detailed analysis of the extent and degree to which industrial life conflicts with the trend of social and political thought, and with the growing desire of men and women for the satisfaction of other than material needs, or on speculations as to the precise methods by which the industrial system can be woven harmoniously into the general design of our social and political institutions. The defects of the industrial organisation of society and the need for a readaptation to meet the requirements of a new epoch are now generally recognised. The Reports of the Chief Inspector of Factories, the Reports' of the Health of Munition Workers Committee, and other official documents, together with the inquiries of private investigators, are convincing evidence of the drain on physical health and strength which still continues from day to day in industry. It has recently been pointed out that " our national experience in modern industry is longer than that of any other people. It has shown " clearly enough that false ideas of econoinic gain, blind to physiological law, must lead, as " they led through the nineteenth centuiy, to vast national loss and suffering."® The revulsion against long hours, exliausting forms of labour and monotonous employ- ment is fully justified by the results of scientific research. The fear of imemployment which hangs like a heavy cloud over so many breadwinners brings a sense of insecurity into the life of the worker, and deprives him of all incentive to take a whole-hearted interest in the various activities which are a necessary accompaniment of a complete life. In such circumstances, is it not surprising that he makes so much response to the appeals of science, literature, music, art, and the drama, and exerts so much effort to equip himself for the responsibilities of citizenship ? The same is true of the worker whose wages are inadequate to supply the necessaries of life to himself and his dependents, or at any rate to enable him to provide the comforts and refinements which are indispensable to any real participation in the advantages of membership of a civilised society. As a University lecturer points out : " The workman " demands (a) security of tenure, (b) adequate wages, (c) freeing from the limitations which " our present specialism imposes upon him. To hand out doses of education while these " things are ungranted will be to play with the problem. Yoii cannot ' educate ' a man whose " uppermost thought is the economic ' Struggle for Existence.' " Nor can a spirit of intelligent and responsible citizenship be readily developed in those whose mainsprin^g to activity is a continual struggle for the bare necessaiies of physical existence. These are not the only defects of industry which react unfavourably upon the life of the community. Whilst the physical conditions which obtain over a considerable section of the industrial field are seen to be injurious to both individual and social well-being, the subtle mental influences of industrial life are only too often anti-social in their effects. We are thinking of the long evolution which has subjected man to mechanism. It is true that men control machines; but those who control are few as compared with the many who • are controlled. The age of mechanical development, with its necessary accompaniment of the growth of large firms as units and of a centrally controlled administration, has effectively degraded the worker until, as the common saying is, he has become " a mere cog in the machine." There can be no doubt that the degradation of human beings to the position of mere "hands," and the treatment of labour as a commodity to be bought and sold, has created a revolt in the minds of a large section of the community. The conditions of industrial life have only too often outraged human personality. Long hours of labour, it is true, are * Interim Report of the Health of Munition "Workers Committee on Industrial Efficiency and Fatigue [Cd. 8511], p. 16. B 2 20 economically unjustifiable, but the real objection ol those who suffer from them is that they are both the cause and the consequence of conditions adverse to the realisation of personal .freedom. We have made no specific investigation into the effects upon character and mentality of the sacrifice of sound workmanship to rapidity of' production, or of work which is manifestly dishonest. Nevertheless, it seems to us to bo undeniable that these conditions cannot exist without reacting upon the minds and characters of those engaged in such work. Whilst a very large proportion of the working population has not clearly formulated its fundamental objections to the conditions and circumstances of industrial life, the articulate rainority is placing an increasing emphasis upon what may be called the moral factors. There is undoubtedly a growing feeling of dissatisfaction on the part of workpeople with what they ■ regard as their position of inferiority. This inferiority, it is urged, is due to a forced submission to undesirable conditions, to the subjection of the worker both to the machine and to the Avill of others, who are vested with an authority in which the workers have no share. The new currents of thought, which during the past few years have increasingly agitated Labour, are a sign of a deep-seated reaction against the de-humanising influences surrounding industrial life. One of the most insistent demands made by the rising generation of workers is for what is called " industrial control." The view which they hold is that the subordination of the worker to an industrial policy and to regulations for which they are not themselves directly responsible is unjustifiable, because it is inconsistent with the rights and obligations which ought to be inherent in membership of any organised group within society. They believe that industrial democracy is as essential to individual freedom as political democracy. The movement is significant, because it gives evidence of a growing desire for new responsibilities. It is true that existing obligations are not by any means always fulfilled. But that fact, it is argued, is no valid reason for refusing to recognise the existence of a demand for new responsibilities. Such considerations raise large and difficult problems on which we do not propose to enter. But it is generally admitted, we think, that from the point of view of both the individual and the community it is desirable that the new claims should somehow be met. We are not concerned with the methods which should be adopted, -but with the problem of the reaction upon human personality of the conditions of industrial life, and with the fundamental criticism that the present industrial system offers little opportunity for the satisfaction of the intellectual, social, and artistic impulses. If that issue be approached from the standpoint suggested by the terms of our reference, it is not possible, in our view, to accept the suggestion sometimes advanced that the exigencies of industrial efficiency are of such paramount importance that the development of personality must inevitably and rightly be subordinated to them. We do not admit, indeed, that there is any necessary antithesis between the interest of the community in industrial efficiency and its interest in strengthening the character and developing the intelligence of its citizens, for it is on their character and intelligence that even its material wealth ultimately depends. But industry exists for man, not man for industry, and if it be true, as it is, that modern industrial conditions have often tended to deprive the worker of the education which he previously derived from the intrinsic interest offered by his work, that fact makes it doubly important, we suggest, to supplement their deficiencies by a humane and generous educational policy. Many workpepple are realising the need for education, and are now meeting together for this purpose under the auspices of various organisations. Evidence was brought before the Committee showing that certain employers, who have themselves enjoyed the benefits of a wide education, have approached the question of non- vocational education in a highly commendable spirit, and have provided for their workpeople facilities for humanistic studies. It is much to be hoped that the immediate future will witness a growth of this spirit among employers generally. Before the rise of the present industrial system the craftsman had pleastire in his handiwork. It was, indeed, the main source of his education. With a simpler economic mechanism, the, relation between the producer and the consumer was far more intimate than it is to-day. There was, therefore, a closer connection between the production of commodities and their use. Society was but slightly differentiated, and little artificial distinction was drawn between the economic and other activities of the community. Whilst modern industry has multiplied the commodities within the reach of the consumer, it has imdoubtedly lost many of the humanising and educative features which were characteristic of the earlier economic organisation. The introduction of mechanical power, the rise of the large factory and the joint stock company, the subdivision and specialisation of processes, the development of foreign trade and the separation of the producer of a commodity from the consumer, the gradual social differentiation between the employer and his workpeople, have tended to deprive large numbers of workers of living interest in their work. It is not surprising that workpeople engaged upon a narrow specialised process, or in the manufacture of commodities which give little satisfaction in their production, should find little real interest in their work. They come to regard industry as being carried on for private gain rather than for the service of the community. Technical instruction, therefore, which might seem to offer opportunities for fuller self-expression is, only too often, as we have already pointed out, deemed to be a device not so much for the better satisfaction of the community's material needs as for the further exploitation of the worker. It was, perhaps, inevitable that with 21 the growth of large-scale industry evils of this kind should arise. It is important, however, that the community should realise that the specialised, mechanical and monotonous laboiir, which forms so large a part of our industrial activities, has robbed society of one of the most powerful instruments of education. Whilst it is undoubtedly true that the modern consumer eajoys products unknown to his forefathers, and that there has been a considerable rise in the standard of life in the course of the last half century, it is nevertheless equally true that the people of to-day are surrounded by articles of use and ornament which have few claims to utility or beauty. Thus economic activity tends too often to revolve in a vicious circle. On the one hand, sound and careful handicraft has been superseded in a large degree by the wholesale production of things which have degraded public taste ; on the other hand, the public demand continues to support the production of articles which add little or nothing to the beauty of the environment, and which sometimes do not even satisfactorily fulfil their purpose. The producer, himself a member of the army of consumers, is thus required to co-operate in the manufacture of commodities which make little demand upon his creative powers and supply little stimulus to good workmanship. The ideal industrial system would, in a large measure, obliterate the sharp distinction now made between "technical" and " humane " education, for it would offer means of self-expression and development which under the existing industrial organisation are too often lacking, and would recognise the educational value of manual processes and the influence of soundly manufactured commodities upon public taste and social values. If such a system seems remote, it is the more important to encourage through education every development which may tend towards the elevation of public taste, the growth of a new pride in workmanship, and the rise of a new spirit of service in industry. The Need for a new Industrial Odtlook. Adult education and, indeed, good citizenship depend in no small degree, therefore, upon a new orientation of our industrial outlook and activities. Improved conditions and the diffusion of responsibility for the proper conduct of industry will strengthen the need for educational opportunities. In so far as that need is fulfilled, industry will gajn by a more effective " industrial citizenship," and will itself become more truly educative. Thus increased opportunities for adult education and the stimulus of a freer and finer industrial environment are correlative, and help to develop each other. Education is to be measured essentially in terms of intellectual accomplishment, power of aesthetic appreciation and moral character, and these have little or no opportunity for realisation except through a harmonious environment. Nor is the environment likely to be substantially modified except in response to the higher ideals of social life stimulated by a more prolonged and widely diffused education. (B.)— SOCIAL, CONDITIONS. Housing. 15. Opportunities for education depend to a considerable degree upon the character of the houses in which the people live. The unsatisfactory condition of working-class housing, as regards both quality and quantity, in town and country alike, is now realised on all hands. This problem, though accentuated by causes arising out of the War, existed even before the War in an acute form. Nearly half the population of England and Wales (48 ' 2 per cent.) before the War were living in houses with more than one person per room. There were .S9 ■ 1 per cent, of the population housed in tenements with over one but not more than two persons per room, whilst one in eleven of the population (9 " 1 per cent.) were crowded more than two in a room.* Serious as these figures are, the Scottish returns are even more serious. In Scotland^ 43 '6 of the population were in 1911 living more than two in a room, over a fifth (21 '1 per cent.) were living more than three in a room, whilst one in every twelve (8 ' 3 per cent.) were living under such conditions of overcrowding that there were more than four persons per room.! It is clear, therefore, that the majority of the people are badly housed. Even the best type of workman's dwelling is only too often inconvenient in its arrangement and lacking in reasonable accommodation. In the older houses, which so large a proportion of the working population inhabit, there is little privacy and comfort. Home-life, in consequence, must suffer. A Birmingham cabinet-maker says : — " We are not housed. There are only sleeping and eating compartments. Usually everything has to be done in one room, especially in the winter, as the expense of keeping more than one room warmed could not be considered." Such conditions, it is only too obvious, militate against the full use and right enjoyment of life. It is difficult, often indeed impossible, for badly-housed men and women' to develop intellectual interests, and where, such interests have been developed, almost insuperable obstacles are offered to their full realisation. The information submitted to the Committee on this question is unanimous in condemning existing housing conditions ; and students, teachers, and social workers are in full agreement as to the very serious handicap imposed "^ ; ~ * Census of 1911 (Cd. 6910), Vol. VIII., p. i. ' t Census of Scotland (1911) (Cd. G896), Vol. II„ p. 568. X 7681—1 " 3 22 on those who would wish, as one piits it, " to do ]nore than work, eat and sleep." An educational organiser in an industrial district says : — " Wretched housing conditions are a great hindrance to students Htudents very rarely come from the more squalid parts of the district. And no wonder. The wretched surroundings so damp a man's aspirations that his whole outlook is dull and sordid. He becomes attuned to his fate, which if to exist as well as he can, to indulge in the handiest diversions— and these are not very intellectual." A certain amount of privacy and seclusion are necessary if a student is to read, to write essays, and generally to follow up a course of study or engage in any intellectual pursuit. In a workman's cottage, with its one living-rooai in which all the domestic activities take place, and which is usually the dining and sitting room as well, such .privacy and quiet are impossible until after the other members of the household have retired to rest. Many students are so keen and determined that they stri'^e to overcome the difficulty by sitting wp after the rest of the family have retired to bed, but this imposes a serious strain on health, and in many cases ends in a breakdown. Mr. J. W. Headlam, H.M!!., and Professor L. T. Hobbouse, in their report to the Board of Education on Certain Tutorial Classes,"''- referring to the difficulties of the working-class student, write : — " We must recollect that it is in many cases almost impossible for them to get any quiet time or place. An operative told us that in order to get a time when the house was quiet for working in, he went to bed at seven, got up at midnight, worked for two hours, and then went to bed again." A teacher engaged in non-vocational education in the North says : — "Housing conditions are perhaps the greatest obstacle to actual students. With only one living room .... study is often almost impossible. To m}^ own knowledge many students who start work at 6 a.m. wait till 9 or 10 p.m. when the children have gone to bed before starting reading or essay-writing, and injure their health by stajdng up late." Another tutor says : — "The housing question meets one in the fact that the ordinary workman's dwellmg contains no pi'ovision for serious study. It is too much to ask a workman to do in the niidst of general family activities that for which a professor demands a study and perfect calm. Yet we do this." The evidence of a Leeds Tutorial Class student, a wooUen-fettler, is to the same effect : — "Housing conditions are against the worker being able to do justice to any subject that he would like to study. Even now . . . after the famil}' lias gone to bed, I am writing these few remarks. Ours like many thousands more in Leeds is one of the back-to-back houses ; one living room and that is all. It is my study, and the dining-room, kitchen, and all combined ; and. I am writing now after working 14 hours without a stop. . . . Ours is a dirty, greasy job, and, as generally is the case, we who ought to have baths are without." Housing and the Housewife. Housing is essentially a woman's question. Bad as may be the effects of present housing conditions for the man, they.are worse for the woman, since she has to endure them the whole day long. The Committee have already dealt with the subject of excessive hours of labour in some departments of modern industry. It is often overlooked that the housewife engaged in domestic duties is in some ways one of the worst sufferers from long hours of work, and is consequentlj- largely debarred from participation in educational and social amenities. With the extension of the franchise to some six millions of woman, for both parliamentary and local government purposes, it is to be expected, and indeed highly to be desired, that in future women should take a much larger interest and a more active part in public affairs ; and that as a result they will to a much greater extent than in the past turn to the acquisition of knowledge to fit them- selves for the exercise of their new responsibilities. For many women, under present conditions, -it will not be possible to find time for these new interests, as even under good conditions, household duties, especially if there is a family of young children, are exacting. In some districts — e.g., agricultural and certain mining areas — the burden of the housewife is increased by the system under which she is often virtually compelled, or any rate expected, to provide for a lodger or lodgers. Where the shift system prevails, and to a less degree in the case of workers employed at irregular hours, the dislocation of domestic life, the diiplication of meals, &c. add to the labours and anxieties of the housekeeper. Where any of the members of the hoxisehold are engaged in occupations such as mining, working in clay, &c. there is more than ordinary need for adequate bathing provision, failing which the woman of the house is * Special Report on Certain Tutoi-ial Classes in connection with the "Workers' Educational Association Board of Education Special Reports, No. 2, p. 6. 28 oftea put to considerable inconvenience.* Her difficulties are aggravated by the present cramped, ill-arranged houses, built without thought of convenience, and innocent of labour- saving devices. For these reasons, an adequate scheme of housing reform is of vital importance to women, and upon it will depend in no small measure the extent to which they will be able to play their part in public affairs, and to develop the intellectual and social interests which will arise therefrom. Town Planning. The question of housing is intimately concerned with that of town-planning. The pix)blem is to sepure that the whole physical environment shall be healthy and beautiful. Tq build improved dwellings ou the old sites in the least healthy, and the most depressing and crowded, quarters of the town, cheek by jowl with the factory and the mine, is to defeat the object in view. We are, therefore, strongly of opinion that in urban districts schemes of housing reform should be considered in relation to town planning. Too little attention has been paid in the past to the reaction of the physical environment upon the aesthetic and moral standards of the people. Contact with ugly and depressing siirroundings tends gradually to dull the finer senses, and people who, under more favourable circumstances, would shrink from the drab and so^rdid environment of large areas m all our towns, become through familiarity oblivious of its ugliness. It is as important not to overlook the subtle degradation of mean and sordid surroundings as it is to remember the educational influence, none the less real because unconscious, of a clean, healthy, dignified and beautiful environment. Reoommbndatioks regarding Housing. We think it of the utiuost importance, therefore, that the preparation of schemes of housing and town planning should be accelerated and that such schen^es should be drawn iip in consultation with the best expert advice available, and in close co-operation witlx repre- sentatives of the people for whom such schemes are intended. Particularly, we consider it important that representatives of women, who are the persons naost concerned, should be included in the Housing and Town Planning, Public Health and other Committees dealing with this question. With a view to relieving the housewife of quite unnecessary burdens, and increasing the comfort of the home, We recommend that the provision of adequate washing facilities should be required in all places of employment where the nature of the work makes it desirable.! * In a pamphlet entitled " Baths at the Pithead and the Works," published by the Women's Laboui* League, and oflBciaUy endorsed by the Miners' Federation of Great Britain, Mr. Robert Smillie, the President of the Federation, writes of his own experience as follows : — " I myself have been one of seven persons, five adults and two pit lads, juveniles, who have tad to wa^h in a Small kitchen, one little tub serving all of us as our only bath, and a change of water only taking place when that remaining in [the tub would not any longer serve its pm'pose of removing dirt, but was more likely to act as a paint and cover the skin with some inky-coloured matter. I have seen the siek mother, or little childi-en under the care of the doctor, living in the compartment where this ' bathing ' operation rectuired to be done, and where the foul smelling pit clothes had to be dried before the common fire. I have been told by medical men that in many of our miners' houses in Scotland, Serious and even minor Opei-aitions which had to be performed in the' homes became a very difficult majiter, because Of the poisonous fumes from germ-laden pit clbtbes dried in the house. 1 halve been assured that many deaths have occurred which, in all probability, could be iaiaced to the impossibility of keeping wounds clean because of the surroundings, traceable chiefly to the presence of the pit clothes." (p. 7.) The Health of Munition Workers Committee were informed by a representative of the National Federation of Blast Fumacemen, that " not more than 5 per cent, of the members of his Union have a house with five or " six rooms and a bath. In Lancashire and South Yorkshire many are living in houses of three small rooms ■" with no scullery. Considering the dirty state into which men's bodies aind clothing get when working, baths '• should be general." (Health of Munition Workers Committee, Memorandum No. 14, Washing Facilities and Baths [Cd. 8387], 1916, li.. p. 4.) f Clause 77 of the Coal Mines Act, 1911, provides that " where a majority, ascertained by a ballot of ■" two-thirds of the workmen employed at any mine . . . desire that accommodation and facilities for " takin" baths and drying clothes should be provided at the mine, and undertake to pay half the cost .... " the owner shall forthwith provide sufficient and suitable accommodation." The recommendations of the Welsh Commission of Inquiry into Industrial Unrest include " the provision of baths at mines and factories . . . " of overalls for men and women employed in dirty occupations — these are some of the improvements which, " in our judgment, ought to be set up wherever practicable." (Commission of Inquiry into Industiial Unrest, No. 7 Divisioni Report of the Commissioners for Wales, including Monmouthshire [Cd. 8668], 1917, 6rf., p. 33, Recommendation (gr).) In their Memorandum on Washing Facilities and Baths, the Health of Munition Workers Committee deal with the necessity for suitable washing accommodation in factories. They quote the -evidence given by a representative trade unionist before the Committee, which shows how washing accommodation increases the worker's leisure time and opportunities for education and relaxation. "* " It would be a great " help if a worker could have the opportunity for really washing up and putting himself in a condition to go " out with his family without having to r,etiu-n home first. Anything in the nature of evening recreation is " rendered almost impossible if a worker has to travel all the way home, perhaps right through the city, and " get cleaned up before returning to the city with his family." B 4 24 The Rural Problem. 16. Tke rural aspect of social and industrial conditions is one of considerable difficulty and complexity, and needs separate mention. The rural population is very largely connected with, some form of agriculture.* The social conditions of country life are so inextricably bound up with the whole •tradition of rural industry that it is impossible to consider them apart. We have urged the heed for conditions and opportunities which will enable the individual to develop his interests and his powers through educational opportunities and social intercourse. From this point of view the rural pop\ilation suffers from special disabilities. The character of a great part of agricultural work is such that there is not that close contact between workers which is possible in factory life, and which does so much to develop common interests and interchange of opinion. The same isolation of the individual tinges the Avhole character of the industry, and has always made the organising of the rural_ population for any purpose exceedingly difficult. Unless the future policy adopted involves either (a) an increase in small holdings ; or (b) the closer grouping of cottages, this isolation must to some extent be permanent. A rural organiser in the W.E.A. mentions the " little development of corporate life " in the villages, and goes on to say : — "I found, especially in smaller villages with scattered populations, a strong class prejudice, almost feudal in its intensity. Without being able to express reasons, many were convinced that there was no point of contact between landed proprietor, farmer, labourer, and the trades craftsman of the urban cities." After long hours of work in the open air it is only natural that a rural audience teiids to be " if not downright tired, at aU events somewhat sleepy." Those workers who tend animals, and who are generally the most -active intellectually amongst agricultural workers, are especially tied by their duties, and have to work seven days in the week. In an industry dependent on seasons, long hours are at times unavoidable, but, generally speaking, these periods of especial effort are not rewarded hy a holiday in slacker times. A Saturday half- holiday for rural workers is very rare. Indeed, Christmas is generally the only recognised holiday, except times of unemployment, A rural worker writes : — " 1 have often been told by agricultural workers that they would not know what to do with a day off if they hadn't got the ' spuds ' to dig, so unused are they to the idea of a holiday." It must be remembered that, though the garden is one of the countryman's chief benefits, he returns home after a full day's work only to prolong that working-day until he can no longer see ; so that what would be to the townsman a relaxation and change of occupation is really a vital part of the countryman's livelihood. The lack of organisation, coupled with lack of initiative and movement on the part of the rural worker, is largely responsible for the very low rate of wages prevalent throughout the industry. In the majority of cases it is true to say that wages have been so low that the vitality of the agricultural worker, who is subject to constant muscular strain, has suffered through inadequate feeding. The rural organiser before quoted says :— - " Those beyond 25 years of age were usually so absorbed in making both ends meet that they had little inclination to take part in work of an educational character. Villagers below that age did not seem to regard village life as a permanency." The development of Continuation Schools, properly adapted to the circumstances of rural life would do much to stimulate the rising generation to educational effort, and to take their part in the common activities of the village. The rural worker has not only the ever-present worry of how to subsist, he has often the dread of unemployment in long spells of wet weather. The result only too often is general depression and lack of interest. "The rate of wages in agricultural districts," says a class tutor from the Eastern counties, " is so low that individual workers will be able to contribute very little " [towards educational developments.]"! * The Census of 1911 gives the-foUowing particulars regarding agricultural employment : — England and Wales. Scotland. Farmers, Graziers (and Crofters in Scotland; - - - 228,788 50,678 Farm Workers (Employees) - - - 833,048 130,170 Woodmen - - - - 12,303 3,636 Nurserymen, Seedsmen, &c. - - - 29,906 1,879 Market Gardeners - - 38,267 2,597 Other Gardeners (not Domestic) - 76,132 6,543 V Agricultural Machine (Proprietors, Attendants) - - 7,346 321 Others in Agriculture - - . . . 9,447 2,922 1,235,237 198,746 f The establishment of a minimum wage in agriculture must tenjl to improve the position of rural workers in many parts of the country, and if we may judge by the experience of the existing Trade Boards", will indirectly assist the growth of organisation and machinery for collective bargaining. 26 Low wages have accentuated another disability. The housing accommodation in rural areas is very deficient in quantity and very defective in quality, because the countryman cannot afford to pay an economic rent. The lack of cottages is very largely responsible for the position of dependence in which the country worker finds himself. Country workers can neither formulate their demands nor move about freely. The fear of being without a cottage is always prevalent in many districts. The over-crowded and insanitary conditions of many cottages, not only react on physical well-being, but render impossible the privacy which at times is a deep human need. This state of things is also open to great moral objections. _ The home-life of a nation is one of the most powerful factors in determining its social and ethical standards. Rural housing, as evidence undoubtedly shows, must be classed as bad and totally inadequate. The housing problem is still further complicated by the prevalence of the " tied" cottage system. In many parts of the country it is the policy of farmers to acquire not only cottages near the farmyard for their stockmen, but every available cottage in the neighbourhood. This ha^ placed the farm-worker in a position of still greater dependence upon his employer, and it has limited his freedom considerably. " Freedom of speech is an almost unknown thing in most villages of which I have " any experience," writes a social worker in Oxfordshire. " In the majority of cases where we have started rural study groups, tbe principal " farmer in the neighbourhood has attempted to upset it in hisvilkige by coming down " and protesting in person," writes a local rural organiser from the South. These conditions apply more particularly in the South, the Midlands, and the West of England. Even in these districts, where a class of fi-eeholders exists, a noticeably inde- pendent spirit is found. In general, the spirit of independence amongst the rural workers of Great Britain bears a close relation to their economic position, being more marked wJiere wages are relatively liigh, and less observable where wages are low. Unless the whole problem of housing in the ruj-al areas is taken in hand, the rural population and the nation as a whole will continue to be subject to a steady drain of part of its physical, n\ental and spiritual resources. We therefore consider it vital tliat a com.prehenBive housing programme should be adopted, which will ensuj-e to the whole rural population the housing accommodation necessary for a free and civilised life. It is unfortunate that so large a number of villages are without any meeting-place under • public control. Church and Chapel buildings are by no means always available for "secular " purposes. Village institutes are few, and are usually under private control. The schools, which the local managers largely control, afford a very inadequate meeting-place at the best of times. The Secretary of the W.E.A. in a Wiltshire village writes : — " Here we had quite a decent parish room, but unfortunately its management was largely in the hands of several very narrow-minded and unprogressive people .... Through their influence the W.E.A. was debarred fi-om all further use of the room, because a perfectly impartial survey of village life from early times was given in which the Enclosures and the work of Joseph Arch were referred to." Frona Hampshire comes the same testimony : — " The attitude of those set in authority, who were steeped in tradition, discoun- tenanced change of any kind." Again, as a class tutor from the West country writes': — " At present in thousands of places, the public-house is the only place where men can meet for social intercourse. Being a social animal he must have these opportunities, and if he cannot get them under good conditions, he will get them under bad ones." As to women, it is very rare to find a suitable meeting-place provided in the village, except under some form of patronage. Religious differences and social cleavages are, on the whole, much more clearly defined in the villages than in the towns, at any rate in England and Wales: They have done much to paralyse social effort, and have tended to perpetuate the economic status of the rural worker. As Mr. Prothero has Avritten, " the sense of social, inferiority has impressed the " labourer with the feeling that he is not regarded as a member of tbe community, but as its " helot." ■■•■' It is interesting, to observe that where educational activities have been recently introduced, they have generally succeeded in overcoming class prejudices and religious differences, and in improving social relationships. Good village libraries are few and far between. Indeed, the surroundings of the rural worker are notably lacking in any facilities for educational and social development. The result is that the younger members of the village and the more energetic seek their relaxation in the nearest town, which has been made possible by the advent of the cheap cycle. They never learn to realise themselves as an essential part of their little village community. I/While the general conditions of rural life are unfavourable to the development of adult education, there are parts of the country in which the village is still a centre of popular * " Eaglish Farming, Past and Present," by R. E. Prothero (Longmrins & Co., 1912), p. 413. 26 culture. In Scotland, the village school has for centuries been a potent educational influence. In Wales village life is humanised and elevated by contact with religious organisations, which are in their different ways democratic, and is rich in literature, in music, and in educational effort. If in the villages of most parts of England the outward symptoms of a vigorous intellectual life are less conspicuous, the difference must not be ascribed to any inherent incapacity on the part of English people to respond to the appeal of spiritual influences, and to give coi-porate expression to them in social institutions. For centuries the village was the centre of English civilisation, and was the home of popular religion, of art, and of a literature and music which are gradually being re-discovered to-day by the .esearchesof scholars. Where the social environment of a peasant civilisation survives, the spiritual expression of its quality survives with it. The explanation of the apparent torpor and stagnation of many English villages is not any lack of intelligence among the villagers, but the series of social catastrophes which during the past 300 years have turned the peasant into a landless labourer^ They have broken up the communal organisation of village life, and have subordinated the English village to an extent unknown in most other parts of Europe to the economic domination of the large farmer and the landlord. It /appears to us that the problem of citizenship and the provision of opportunities for a fuller life, so far as the population of the countryside is concerned, is one which goes to the roots of rural society. Its solution lies primarily with the people of the countryside. We believe that, given the opportiinities, which they have been for the most denied in the past, they will actively seek to improve the conditions and standards of rural life. There can be no doubt that the countrymen now serving with the colours will return to the villages with a wider outlook, wider interests and a wider experience, and we may reasonably expect that they will exercise an influence on niral life. They will feel a very strong need for oppor- tunities for which they did not press in the past. Certain reforms are needed in the immediate future. We recommend the provision of a hall xmder public control in every village.* The accommodation would of course depend on the size of the village, but even a single room might form the nucleus of a new social life in the \illage. The ideal to be aimed at, however, as we shall show in a subsequent Report, is a village institute with many-sided activilies standing as a centre of the intellectual and social life of the community for whom it exists. To aid the revival and further development of this village community itself is an imperative need The Problem as it affects Women. 17. In the various suggestions we have made we had in our minds both men and women. The intellectual and spiritual needs of women are as insistent as those of men. The industrial and social conditions which bear heavily on men are equally injurious to women. But there are problems specially affecting women. In the past the lot of domestic servants as a class has been far from satisfactory. Their work is irregular and generally spi'ead over the greater part of the waking hours. There is often, therefore, little freedom and leisure in the life of the domestic servant, especially where she is alone in a household,^ and in such cases she may live in an undesirable isolation. During the war, conditions haA'e improved considerably, and it appears certain that the change in conditions will, in large part, continue after the war. The shortage of domestic servants, and the new opportunities for women in other walks of life, offering greater leisure and independence, are a more reliable road to reform than attempts at legislation, the administration of which offers peculiar difficulties where the private house is concerned. Further, a large body of women workers take their part in those domestic duties from which the male workers are in general relieved. The double strain of industrial ^nd domestic work leaves little time for relaxation. It may be that in the future the tradition that the duties of the home are exclusively women's duties will pass away. The shorter hours x)f labour, which we have already recommended, will diminish the burden upon the women working outside the home, and the construction of houses designed with a view to conve- nience and fitted with labour-saving devices will be a boon to all women. Ho work. * Went to bed in afternoon, up at 6 o'clock to attend Tutorial Class. Arrived home 10.30. Up again 12.5. * Signed on duty twice on this date, signing on and ofE Viuty at London, but only short period of nine hours off there. But note I signed off at home at 9 . 40 on the Sunday morning. Attended Tutorial Class at 10.30 aftei' finishing at 1 . 20. ♦Attended Tutorial Class 7.45. 32 Day. Date. On Duty at Off Duty at Total Time on Duty. Time ofE Duty. Remarks. a.m. p.m. H.M. H.M. Friday - Not. 2 6.45 5.5 10.20 10-5 Saturday - ,. 3 8.0 6.0 10.0 14.55 Sunday - „ 4 % p.m. — — — Monday - „ s 12.10 a.m. 10.10 10.0 42.10 Tuesday - 6 ■7.10 5.10 10.0 9.0 "Wednesday V 3.55 1.55 a.m. 10.0 10.45 Thursday ,. 8* 12.65 p.m. 10.65 10.0 11.0 Thursday 8 10.30 10.10 • 11.40 11.35 — Attended Tutorial Class at 10 . 45. *Signed on duty twice on this date. Printed under the authority of His Majesty's Stationery Office By Eybe and Spottiswoode, Ltd., East Harding Street, E.C.4, Printers to the King's most Excellent Majesty. MINISTRY OF RECONSTRUCTION. SECOND INTEEIM REPORT OF THE ADULT EDUCATION COMMITTEE. *--^' -^s EDUCATION IN THE ARMY. Presented to Parliament bv Command of His tTlajcstv. LONDON: PUBLISHED BY HIS MAJESTY'S STATIONEEY OFFICE. To be purcliased throucfli any Bookseller or directly from H.M. STATIONERY OFFICE at the following addresses : liiPERiAij House, Kingsway, London, W.C.2, and 28, Abingdon Street, London, S.W.I; 37, Peter Street, Manchester; 1, St. Andrew's Crescent, Cardiff; 23, Forth Street, Edinburgh; or from E. PONSONBT, Ltd., 116, Grafton Street, Ddblin. ' [Cd. 9225.J Price 2d. Net. 1918. 5t MEMBERS OE THE OOMMITTMI The Master of Balliol {Chair man). Mrs. J. Baker. Sir Graham Balfour. Mr. E. Bevin. Mr. W. Clayton. Mr. R. Climie. Mr. C. T. Cramp Mrs. T. Huws Davies. Mr. J. H. DONCASTER. Mr. R. G. Hatton. Mr. F. Hodges. Sir Henry Jones. Mr. A. Mansuridge. Sir Henry Miers. Mr. J. Morton. The Rev. Canon Parry. Mr. R. H. Tawney. Mr. T. H. J. TJnuerdown. Mr. B. A. Yeaxlee. Mr. Arthur Green wooj) ■ ,-, , . } becretanes.. Mr. E. S. Cartwhight MINISTRY OF RECONSTRUCTION. ADULT EDUCATION COMMITTEE. REPORT ON EDUCATION IN THE ARMY. To TiiK Rt. H0N0U11A13LE CHRISTOPHEll ADDISON, M.D., M.l'., Minister of Recoustructiou. Sir, We have the honour to present a second Interim Report. On this occasion we desire, to deal with the education of men in the forces. Early in our enquiries, we became aware of the considerable volume of ^^jl^f'^^ional work which was being earned on, under difficult conditions, in the camps both at home and abroad. We feel the importance of utilising the period between the cessation of hostilities and demobilisation in the best possible way, and of giving those who have served their country an opportunity of obtaining a foundation of knowledge which will enable them to fulfil their responsibilities as citizens in the critical years aft-er the war. We thought it our duty, therefore, to present this Report in the earnest hope that steps will be taken without delay to assist and develop the educational work which has been so well begun. 2. The period of the war has been a time of educational experiment. One of the most valuable fields of activity is the Army itself. The seeds of this awakened interest are probably to be found in the fact that men of varied antecedents, experience and outlook have been thrown together into closer association than is usual in civil life; whilst the war itself, the issues involved, the changes it has precipitated, thei problems which are arising out of it, have led many who previously thought but little about the larger problems of life and society to seek knowledge and understanding. 3. But apart from the influence which the collapse of our normal peace activities has had, the conditions cf army life have themselves created opportunities for the development of a desire for education. Men on entering- the Army have been cut adrift from their old interests and old associations, and cast into an entirely new environment and method of life. In such circumstances, education has made a new appeal. The regular life, with its accompaniment of regular leisure time, and the lack of counter attractions, have led many men to attend classes and lectures or to undertake a course of reading. Whilst military training, continued over a long period, will tend in many cases to make men less responsive to intellectual stimulus, owing largely to its monotonous character and the necessity of rigid discipline, it is undoubtedly true that the present conditions of military life and training have awakened new interests. The fact of assembling large numbers of men to share a common life has also been an important factor, for not only has it led to that fre« interchange of thought and opinion which is a vital part of education, but it has increased the possibility of bringing together men with common interests, and the most thoughtful men. 4. That there are certain counter influences in military life and organisation we think must be fully admitted, though we have no doubt that the considerations referred to above have in some degree facilitated the educational work which has been carried on in the camps. But the real driving force has been the enthusiasm of those who have taken up the work of education among soldiers. Unless this is preserved schemes of training will be sterile of results. 5. The work which has already been undertaken is varied in character. We may refer specially to the facilities which have been provided by the 23rd Army Corps, by the Kent Force, and at Brocton Camp, particulars of which are given in the Appendix to this Report. Special interest attaches to the educational arrangements made under these schemes for men in graded battalions or A. IV. men {i.e., recruits of eighteen). The three experiments have many features in common. The training provided for young recruits is compulsory and takes place during parade hours. The curriculum followed is planned on broad and general lines, and includes citizenship, history, and the elements of economics and natural science. The teaching staff in each case is almost entirely supplied from the existing personnel of the establishment. In addition to compulsory classes, attendance at voluntary classes and study circles is encouraged. The plan of giving educational training to A. IV. recruits has been recognised as a success by the highest military authorities. Unfortunately however, the various efforts which have been made have suffered to some extent from a lack of co-ordination and from the uncertainty consequent upon changes of personnel. The work is not confined to young recruits. In the schemes referred to above every encouragC'ment is given to the older men to attend lectures and classes. Usually permission is also given for men to attend classes arranged by local education authorities'. In some towns men in khaki are conspicuous members of classes under the local authority. In addition to this more formal work, there is an immense amount of educational activity of a le«s intensive character, carried on in the various home camps, very largely under the aiispices of the T.M.C'.A. Universities Committee. All the British Universities have nominated representatives to this Committee, which also includes members representing some other bodies dealing specifically with Adult Education. Between 500 and 600 lectures a month have been arranged by the Y.M.C.A. headquarters alone, and in the different divisions of the Association others have been added, bringing the total up to at least 1,000 a month at home. In some camps classes also have been held or short courses of University Extension lectures delivered. Much educational work has also been done in convalescent hospitals, and at the King's Lancashire Military Convalescent Hospital at St. Anne's-on-Sea, for example, great developments have taken place. (1885?.) Wt. 18676—112. 6000 12/18, D & S. G. 2. A 2 6. So far we lia-ve referred only to wori; carried on in this country, but throughout the war th© T.M.C.A. has organised lectures and classes among the troops, to a greater extent in France and other theatres of war than at home.* In addition to its permanent workers a large number of lecturers have visited camps abroad for short periods. In many Y.M.C.A. centres the work has developed beyond the provision of lectures. Classes and study circles have been formed, and the necessary books supplied. The jDrogramme which has already been carried out, under the most difficult conditions, is sufficient proof of the opportunity which there is for a great development of educational activity, more particularly on the cessation- of hostilities. 7. Of a quite different character from the educational experiments referred to above is the Overseas Sailor and Soldier Scholarships Scheme for providing facilities for members of the Overseas Forces to attend a British University or School of Technology. An account of this scheme is given in the Appendix. Though still in its early stages the experiment has been very successful. Enquiries and applications from men of the Overseas Forces, even under the present disturbed conditions-, are rapidly increasing S'n number, showing that the scheme, as might have been expected, is meeting a genuine want. It is evidently capable of immense and immediate development as soon as the necessary funds are provided. It is almost superfluous to point out the far reaching importance of this means of bringing into residence at British universities, citizens from the Dominions. Under an Instruction of the Army Council, it is now possible for officers in reserve units, command depots, and hospitals to be attached to certain educational institutions, provided they are reported by a medical board as unlikely to be tit for general service in less than sis months. This scheme is being carried out by the Appointments Department of the Ministry of Labour, and already it is evident that it meets a real demand and is capable of great development. 8. It is interesting to observe that arrangements have been, or are being, made to provide educational facilities for the Canadian, Australian, and New Zealand Forces. 9. The extremely varied experiments which have been initiated are sufficient indication of the possi- bilities of educational work in the Army. We recognise that during the war, military needs must determine the opportunities which are given for education, and that the conditions of active service impose limitations upon what is practicable, but we believe that the success which has been achieve-d isi sufficient to justify further provision of educational facilities and the adoption of a comprehensive policy. Particularly we regard it as important that the training of a general character, given in the camps referred to shotild be provided for all young soldiers in graded battalions. Attendance at classes of the kind already described should be an essential part of the course of training for A. IV. men. And though it is important that no attempt should be made to stereotype the work carried out at the various camps, it appears to us equally important that the educational side of the training of young soldiers should follow a common policy. 10. Attendance at classes within parade hours is of primary importance in the case of young soldiers. But experience shows that opportunities can be provided for older men to attend classes and lectures and to obtain the use of siiitable books, and it is desirable that facilities should be provided. Voluntary courses should be carried on side by side with the courses for A. IV. men and as part of a general scheme. 11. In each battalion there will usually be a few men both able and willing to act as teachers, under the direction of a responsible officer. In addition to this, considerable help may be obtained thiiough voluntary organisations, some of which can provide skilled lecturers and teachers accustomed toi the type of audience they would meet in the camps. The fullest use should be made of voluntary leffort, which should as far as possible be brought into organic relation with the general scheme of education being carried out in a particular camp. Often also the classes of local education authorities will be suitable for soldiers, and it might be that local authorities would organise special classes where there was a demand for them. What is required is a permanent resident officer attached to each area whose duty would be to co-ordinate the work of voluntary bodies with that of the military and civil authorities, especially of course the Local Education Authorities. Such a system is of special importance at the present moment, but ^ might well be continued in peace time as a part of the regular organisation of the Army. 12. In the case of the convalescent hospitals, particularly in time of war, it is suggested that without in any way destroying interest, the lectures which are provided might be made more systematic, and where circumstances are favourable classes might be arranged. It is improbable that the military authorities woiild be able in all cases to undertake the provision of lecturers and teachers, but some assistance might be obtained from local authorities and -s-ohmtary agencies. On thei other hand the Army Council should see that full facilities aie gi^'en to local education authorities and responsible organisations. In the larger convalescent hospitals, however, it should be found possible to appoint a permanent staff of qualified officers. It is understood that in some of ihe largest hospitals for officers, lecturers and libraries are now provided by the Y.M.C.A. Provision should also be made for the teaching of handicrafts, which in certain cases would be of curative as well as educational A^alue. 13. The excellent work which has already been begun under the Overseas Sailor and Soldier Scholar- ships Scheme undoubtedly meets a great need, and it is essential that the scheme should be widely extended. Reference has been made to the Army Council Instruction permitting officers who are disabled or temporarily unfit, to attend courses of instruction at a university. We feel that this plan is capable of much wider application and that, in co-operation with the University authorities, a national scheme on a bold scale should be prepared whereby during the war and the period of demobilisation officers, non-commissioned officers and men of proved capacity desirous of pursuing a course of study at a place of higher education, and able to benefit by such a course, should be given an opportunity to do so, and the necessarj'- financial assist- ance should be provided for this piiriwse. Leaving aside soldiers whose education was interrupted by the war, to whom adequate facilities should be given, there are many who, prior to re-entei-ing civil life, would willingly devote some time to study. In the national interest, it is desirable that} this opportunity shoidd be given them. 14. On the Western Front and in other theatres of war, it has been found possible to provide lectures for soldiers. Arrangements have now been made by the Y.M.C.A., whereby the provision of lectures and the arrangement of classes and study circles, at any rate so far as the base camps and the lines of communica- tion in France are concerned, will be put on a more satisfactory basis. Similar arrangements are being made in Italy and Salon ica. In spite of the many obvious difficulties in the way of carrying out an educational programme in a theatre of war, the testimony of lecturers and others shows conclusively the * A summary of its activities will be found in the Appendix. interest wkick kae attended the efforts of tke Y.M.C.A. Universities Committee and the value of the work which has been done. The immediate need is to ensure an extension of the present work. It should now be possible to make the lectures more systematic and to make fuller provision for more intensive work by means of classes and study circles, and for the supply of literature. 15. On the cessution of hostilities the opportunities for education will be far greater than during thfl war. In the event of an armistice, and during the period of demobilisation, we realise that there will be a considerable amount of military work of one kind and another to be done. At the same time, particularly as regards the men in the theatres of war^ there will be more leisure time. The soldiers will be looking forward to returning tO' civil life under new circumstances and conditions, and many of them will be jinxious for a knowledge of the new problems tiiey will have to face and of the efforts which have been made to meet them. When hostilities cease it will be necessary to be prepared with an adequate educational programme. As demobilisation proceeds the size of the problem will be gradually reduced to smaller dimensions. On the other hand the education provided will naturally become more intensive, by means of tutorial classes, study circle.^, and individual tuition. The problem of securing an adequate number of lectureors and teachers will therefore be most acute during the first months following the end of actual hostilities. The army will to a large extent be able to supply its own needs, but as the professional teachers in the army become demobilised civilian help will become increasingly necessary. We regard it as essential that steps should be taken to select and train suitable officers, non-commissioned officers and men, for teaching work in connection with these schemes. 16. Something may be said concerning the range of studies. Technical and vocational education is not within o\ir terms of reference. It may be pointed out, however, that so' far as graded battalions undergoing training in this country are concerned, there are difficulties in the way of providing teachers and equipment for technical subjects. The variety of occupations ordinarily followed by the men in graded battalions is so great that any serious attempt to supply technical instruction would appear to be out of the question during the war, because of the elaborate arrangepients which would need to be made. Moreover, it is to be remem- bei-ed that these young men represent almost the entire youth of the natiom. They . include, besides those engaged in occupations for which technical education is necessary, the larger number for whom no technical education is required, as well as those who have entered, or will in future enter, professions where a long specialised training is regarded as essential. As to the men who are serving "overseas, there are obvious obstacles to the provision of courses of technical instruction, more especially during the war. After the cessation of hostilities, however, there may be opportunities for vocational classes in certain directions, through probably it will be found that even here it will be advantageous to provide courses of study in the subjects which also serve a wider purpose and possess a strong humanistic side. We are thinking of such studies as modern languages, the natural sciences, and economics. 17. We believe however, that the main provision must needs be for non-vocational education, and that where facilities are available for technical studies, they should be combined with courses of a more general character. With regard to the young soldiers in graded battalions, who it is to be remembered are full citizens with citizens' responsibilities, but with less experience than that of older men, the subjects which have been studied in some of the camps are admirably suited to their needs, and we would urge their con- tinuance. It is, indeed, in our opinion greatly to be desired that in the standing Army of the future, in the Royal Navy and the Royal Air Force, continuation education of a general kind should be a normal part of the training provided. Whilst we are anxious to encourage the widest possible extension of subjects we believe that at the present time the studies more directly associated with citizenship will probably make the strongest appeal, and in view of the complex changes which are taking place in the national life, it is particularly important that citizens should be equipped for their duties. A general background could, we think, be provided by courses in history and economics, both industrial and social, and in political science. The courses arranged will naturally vary with the demand for particular fields of study and with the interests and qualifications of the teachers and lecturers, and, therefore, whilst we have emphasised the studies having a 'direct bearing upon citizenship, we hope that provision will be made for purely literary and scientific studies. It is important that the more general courses designed to give a background of knowledge should lead to the consideration of new political, social and economic developments. By the time the order for demobilisation is given, the country will have embarked upon definite lines of policy in certain directions. The Reptesentation of the People Act, and other recent legislation should, therefore, be brought under review and the Reports of Committees on which the public policy will probably be based should be considered. Bv these means interests' would be widened and men in the army would return to civil life better equipped with knowledge and more fitted to resume their social responsibilities and to pass judgment upon the proposals which in the last resort must be accepted or rejected by the electorate. 18 We do not wish in this Report, dealing with a specific question, to treat at any length the question of methods of teaching and study, as this large subject will be more fully dealt with m our mam Report. We would however, emphasise the need for bearing in mind that the methods which are generally associated lith the teaching of the yoilng are not applicable to the education of adults. It must he borne m mmd also Sa^he sXec^ to wMc™ we have refe^ed and which past experience shows to be of especial interest to adults are full of controversial questions. It is clear, therefore, that untrammelled discussion must play an important part and that freedom of expression must be allowed to both teacher and student There is ampKvidence to prove that, in an atmosphere of friendliness and m a spirit of enquiry to reach the truth, frank interchange of opinion and experience are the essence of adult education. 19 We would also draw attention to the need of libraries, where the men can obtain the loan of books ^^.lino-' with the questions in wMch they are interested and where it will be possible to puraue quiet study^ We have no doXS T.M.O.I and other huts would be available tor these purposes^ Ewy camp and .We ?f]^}^^jp°^ adeauate suDplv of books. Theie are already several agencies through which books ar£g s^^^g ^mp^^^^^^^^ and we think that the fullest possible use shouldbe made of these deal with the teaching of Natural Science to adults. A 3 18862 voluntary sources. For tlie traiuiug classes we liave suggested, considerable assistance would, we feel sure be forthcoming from the Central Library for Students, and possibly from the Universities. It will be necessary however, to supplement voluntary provision by State provision, in order to secure an adequate supply of suitable books.* Moreover, we hope that official publications, accompanied by brief and clear abstracts, will be distributed to camp libraries, and would suggest that brief and clear statements of Grovernment policy should be printed and circulated in the same way. The libraries department will form an impoi'tant part of the educational organisation. 20. Adequate organisation will be necessary if the large programme which we have suggested in the briefest outline is to be carried out. It is clear that so long as a man remains in the Army he will be unde?" niilitary discipline and subject to military authority. The amount of time which he can devote to educa- tional pursuits will be determined by his military duties. Though for a part of the day he may be a student attending classes, he is nevertheless a soldier. It would appear, therefore, that the authority ultimately responsible for education in the army must be the War Office. On the other hand, it is clearly advisable that the purely educational side of the work should be under the supervision of the Board of Education. Special financial provision will need to be made for the scheme, and it is suggested that whilst the cos* should be placed upon the War Office vote, the grants should be distributed in accordance with regulations (or a scheme) made by the Army Council with the co-operation and approval of the Board of Education as regards the matters specified in the instrument under which the grants are distributed. These matters would include the qualifications and fitness of teachers and lecturers, the allocation of time to different studies, the syllabuses of lectures and outlines of courses, methods of study, &c. The attention of the Board would be directed to the attainment of definite standards and the fulfilment of the necessary conditions of sound educational work. It is not intended that these proposals should disturb the present arrangements with regard to the payment of grants to local education authorities for classes held in connection with military camps. 21. We are not sufficiently acquainted with the organisation of the War Office to make detailed proiDOsals as to the administration of such a scheme of education as we have outlined. We are clear that the work should be under the direction of a specially qualified military officer of academic distinction and with educational experience, assisted by an officer of the Board of Education and by some person familiar at first hand with the problems and methods of adult education. There should also be attached to every General Headquarters staff a responsible education officer, with subordinate officers in charge of education in divisions, brigades, &c. Teachers and lecturers, both military and civilian, would work under the direction of the responsible officers. We are of opinion that, as the scheme of education we have outlined will reach its period of maximum activity during demobilisation, it should work in the closest touch, with the Mobilisation Directorate, wLich we understand will be responsible for demobilisation. In our judgment, the proposals we have made necessitate the establishment of a new branch of the War Office. 22. We also recommend that an Advisory Council should be appointed to assist the Education Branch of the War Office. This Council should comprise representatives of organisations carrying on educational work among adults (such as the T.M.C.A., the W.E.A., the Adult School Union, &c.) as well as of the Universities, the Trade Union Congress, and organisations of discharged soldiers, together with persons of experience in adult education. 23. In this Eeport we have had more particularly in mind men in the niilitary and air forces, but we think that similar provision should be made for men in the naval service, and for the women enrolled by the War Office, the Air Ministry and the Admiralty. 24. Our recommendations may be summarised as follows: — (a) Education of a general character should be regarded as an essential part of the training of A.IV. men. (Par. 9.) (b) Voluntary provision on similar lines should be made for older men. (Par- 10.) (c) A permanent resident officer should be attached to each area to give continuity to the work and to co-ordinate the work of voluntary bodies with that of the military authorities and of the local education authorities. (Par. 11.) (d) During the period of the war the existing facilities should be developed and co-ordinated. (Pars. 9 and 14.) (e) Facilities should be given by the Army Council to local education authorities and responsible voluntary organisations to carry out systematic courses of study in convalescent hospitals.^ In the larger convalescent hospitals a permanent staff of qualified officers should be appointed wherever possible. (Par. 12.) . _ (/) During the war adequate facilities should be given for the education of suitable disabled or temporarily disabled officers, non-commissioned officers and men at a place of higher education. (Par. 13.) ((/) On demobilisation officers, non-commissioned officers and men of proved capacity, desirous oi pursuing a course of study at a place of higher education should be given an opportunity to do so, and the necessary financial assistance should be provided for this purpose. (Par 13.) _ (h) Ample provision for education should be made for the period after the cessation of hostilities. (Par. 16.) (i) Wliilst this provision might, where opportunities permit, include technical training, the curriculum should be baseid iipon those subjects associated with citizenship. (Pars. 16 and 17.) (j) Training courses shoxild be arranged in connection with these schemes to provide teachers for the demobilisation period. (Par. 15.) (k) Adequate provision should be made for the supply of suitable literature. (Par 19.) (I) The authority ultimately responsible for education in the Army will be the War Office, and the necessary financial provision should be included in the War Office Vote. The schemes and regulations should be submitted to the Board of Education for their approval and carried ou^i with their co-operation. (Par 20.) (77Z-) An education branch of the War Office should be established. (Par. 21.) (n) An Advisory Council should be appointed to assist the Education Branch of. the War Office. (Par. 22.) ______^ The Committee will be dealing with the general question of the provision of libraries in a subsequent report. (o) An officer responsible -for education should be attacbed to each General Headquarters Staff, with subordinate officers in cbarge of education in divisions, brigades, &c. (Par. 21.) (p) Similar provision should be made for men in the Naval Service and for women enrolled l),y Uip War Office, the Air Ministry and the Admiralty. (Par. 23.) We have the honour to be, Sir, Your obedient Servants,* AiiTiiUE L. Smith (Chainiiunj. H. Jennie Bakek. (iiiAiiAM Balfuuii. Wilson Clayton. EOBEKT ClIMIE. (J. T. Ciisuv. Alice Huws Davies. J. H. Don CASTER. Konald G. IIatton. Frank Houges. Henry Jones. Albert Mansbridge. Henry A. Miers. James Morton. R. St. John Parry. 11. H. Tawney. T. H. J. Underdovvn. Basil A. Ye.'VXlee. Arthur Greenwood E. S. Cartwright July 3rd, 1918. Secretaries. * Mr. Bevin did not attend the meetings of the Committee when the subject matter of the Report was under consideration, and therefore does not sign the Report. APPENDIX. The following notes deal with certain schemes providing educational facilities for soldiers. The examples referred to are by no means the only experiments which have been successfully undertaken. The notes do not give an adequate account of the work which is being carried on by the agencies mentioned. Their purpose is rather to di-aw atten- tion to the pui-pose and scope of the education they provide, and the comprehensive view which they take of their oppor- tunities. A IV MEN (AGED 18 YEARS TO 18 YEARS AND 8 MONTHS). The following are short notes explanatory of a few of the ^schemes for providing education for young recruits, -(a) Cawrwch Chase. During 1917 a scheme of educational training was or- ganised at the Cannock Ohase Reserve Centre at Brocton Camp, and was in full and successful working from February, 1917, until June, 1918, when other arrangements were made by the military authorities. Instruction was given to half a battalion at a time in classes of 50, graded according to ascertained standard. This necessitated 16 teachers for a battalion, supplied mainly from the existing personnel of the establishment. Ten hours per fortnight were set apalrt dui-ing parade hours for educational purposes. The syllabus was as follows : — Literature (History, Geography, Composition) 4 hours. Science and Mathematics 6 ,, Ethical and Hygienic instruction ... ... 1 hour. (6) 23rd Army Corps Scheme. In November, 1917, the Southern Army, now the 23rd Army Corps, adopted a scheme on somewhat similar lines to that at Cannock Chase. Briefly the scope of the scheme is as follows : — (a) Regular classes in parade hours for 10 hours a fort- night. (&) Voluntary evening classes in Technical, Industrial and Commercial subjects, (c) Voluntary continuation classes, in specialised and more advanced subjects, unsuitable for parade lessons. {d) The formation of small libraries, specialised study groups, elementary discussion classes, etc. (e) Classes and lectures for teachers. (/; Courses of short lectures for the battalion geiiBially upon various questions of tho day, including social and economic questions. ((/) Classes on broad military subject,-. The syllabus for the Regular Classes includes history, economics and literature. It is said that an initial outlay of £20 would provide the books, maps, etc., necessary for starting this work in a battalion. (c) Independent Force Scheme. — An educational scheme has also been carried out in the Independent Force (the head- quarters of which are at Canterbury), providing for a six months' course of training for A. IV recruits and others. Eight hours educational trainiiig each fortnight was given to all A. IV men and the time allotted to education was regarded as part of the programme of training and not as an addition to it. It is a matter foi- regret that the number of hours allotted to educational training from parade time has now been reduced in all cases to six a fortnight. Teacliers have been obtained from among the officers, N.C.O.s and men. The ■ necessary expenditure for material has been borne by the Regimental Institutes. The syllabus is of a broad and general character including history, citizenship, the elements of economics and natural science. OLDER MEN IN HOME CAMPS. Provision for older men has been made in the schemes outlined above. Usually also permission is given during the winter months for any men to attend educational classes arranged by Education Authorities. It is interesting that the scheme of the Independent. Force provides for a lecture per week, to other than A. IV men, in parade hours, so far as possible. Work of the Y.M.G.A. in Home Gamps. A large amount of work, mainly of a less intensive charac- ter than that referred to above, has been done by the Y.M.C.A. Universities Committee in the various Home Camps. Between 500 and 600 lectures per month on such subjects as Travel, History, Biography, Populai- Science, Music Literature, et«., have been arranged by the Y.M.C.A Head- quarters alone, and in the different Divisions others have been added, bringing the total up to at least 1,000 a month at home. General elementary classes have been held at Shoreham, Historical Lectures at Newark and Chatham Agricultural Lectures at Park Royal, Commercial and Non- Vocational classes at St. Anne's-on-Sea. At one camp an Extension Lecturer remained for a period of six weeks carrying on concurrently, in five different huts, five short extension courses of six lectures each. At home, as in France, classes in modern languages have been a standing feature of Y.M.C.A. work. The Y.M.G.A. state that they have felt the need of some central military authority, at the War Office or elsewhere, with which they could deal on educational questions. Changes of command, the removal of officers who have organised the work locally, the difficulty of finding soldier teachei's, their impermanence when found, and the lack of books and money for other material are the chief obstacles to purely military efforts of this nature. They are, how- ever, prepared to find more money for increasing the supply of books that they are already putting at the disposal of the troops in the Home Oamps. They state that their educa- tional work done in these Oamps has been more fragmentary and less far-reaching than in Trance. Much has, never- theless, been accomplished, and their Committee is now securing the appointment in every area of a fully qualified, whole-time educational Secretary to develop the work in the huts and lend any assistance that may be required. Work of the Y.M.C.A. Abroad. Throughout. the War the Y.M.O.A. has organised lectures and classes among the troops in France and other theatres of war. It has sought to co-operate with the armjr authori- ties. The most notable instance of such co-operation is that from January to March, 1917, and again from January to March, 1918, it provided university lecturers who paid visits of from two to four weeks to the troops on the Western Front. They addre.ssed Army Schools, special groups of officers and men, and general meetings of troops in Base Oamps on ti variety of subjects, special facilities being given by General Headquarters, and lectures being arranged in both official buildings and the huts or cinema theatres of voluntary associations. Military arrangements did not permit of more than single lectures under this scheme, though short courses were constantly asked for, especially at Army Schools behind the lines. The success of the work done within these limitations, however, has led to the very far-reaching developments referred to below. The Y.M.O.A. has now appointed a Director of Educa- tion for educational work throughout the lines of com- munication. It is hoped to appoint a sub-dii'ector for each base and to maintain a staff of teachers. The Universities have agreed to provide special extension courses. Personal tuition will also be given to men who are pursuing in their leisure time studies along special lines, such as engineering, agriculture, law or medicine. Educational Libraries are also to be developed by the Association. The Y.M.O.A. will bear the whole cost of the scheme. The controlling body is the Y.M.C.A. Universities Com- mittee, comprising official representatives of all the Uni- versities of Great Britain (or of their Boards for extra- mural work), and of working-class educational bodies. Tliey are in close touch with the Board of Education. In France, as at home, classes in modern languages have been a standing feature of the Y.M.O.A. work. At Calais a house has been taken providing for a Library and Reading Room on the ground floor, and 8 or 9 class rooms above, which are constantly filled with men taking elementary classes in French, English, Arithmetic, Shorthand, Book- keeping, etc. A similar Institute is being opened at Abbe- ville. At Etaples over 1,000 men are in French classes, while commercial subjects are being taught also. At several Base Oamps special continuous courses of lec- tures have been organised in view of- local needs. Thus at Rouen there have recently been courses in Biology, Anatomy and similar subjects for medical students, given by officers of the R.A.M.6. at the invitation of the Y.M.O.A. At Havre courses on the Allied Countrii'« have been carried through. In other ])laces courses iii Mathematics have been conducted for the benefit of Artillery Units. In addition to the provision of an ordinary library of recreational books in every hut at home and abroad, an effort is being made by the Y.M.O.A. to meet the definite educational needs of individuals and groups by the purchase of such books as men require for study purposes. Nearly 35,000 books given by the public were sent to France during Februai-y, 1918; but in addition to this Cl,O0O per month is being spent on books for France, at least one-third of i\hich is being used for the provision of books on history, biograjjhy, science, etc., definitely asked for by the men. In France there is a com))lctp libi-ai-y organisation at the French Headquarters of tlie Y.M.O..\. and district library buildings are being opened at tlic Y.M.O.A. Headquartei's in the various Base Oamps, such as Abbeville, Etaples, Havi'e, etc. With the Siilonica Forces educational work is being car- ried on at 36 out of the 48 centres. Tlici'e are 30 French classes, 15 Literai-y and Debating Societies, 4 cla.ssen for the study of Social problems. Libraries arc being developed and applications by soldiers for books on a wide variety of educational subjects are being met. In addition to the classes lectures of a popular type are arranged. The replies to a questionnaire sent to Y.M.C.A. secretaries in the various theatres of war bring out clearly certain points of importance. Attendance at lectures is by no means confined to the more studious type of men. Whilst single lectures draw large audiences, courses of lectures are also very successful where circumstances are favourable. The men spontaneously form groups, or study circles to discuss questions in which they are particularly interested. There is a considerable demand for books, especially for those recommended by lecturers. The work which has already been carried out, under tho most difficult conditions, is sufficient proof of the opportunity which there is for a great development of educational activity, more particulai'ly on the cessation of hostilities. CONVALESCENTS. Much educational work has been done in convalescent hospitals by means of lectures. Tho following scheme of the work carried out by the King's Lancashire Military Convalescent Hospitals at St. Anne's-on-Sea, based on a similar institution founded by the Canadians in Surrey, is a particularly highly developed example of experiments in this direction. A man usually stays in the convalescent camp for a period of eight weeks and the principle acted upon has been to provide .opportunities of the kind desired by the men. Between February, 1918, when the scheme was started, and May, 1,286 applications had been received. Owing to military exigencies only 700 were able to join, and in the middle of June there were 300 on the books. The subjects asked for and supplied include Latin and Greek, French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and Art, as well as Business Methods and Publicity, Agriculture, Poultry Farming, Motor Mechanics and Driving, Cotton Spinning and Weaving. A fee of 2s. 6ck for officers and Is. for other ranks is charged, the financial cost of the scheme being met from the centi-al fund of the hospital. It is stated that it is hoped to erect suitable premises in the camp itself, thereby obviating the necessity for officers and men, in some instances, to come several miles to attend. It is expected that, if this can be done, there will be 2,000 students at the end of this year. Up to the present, tho War Office has not given its official recognition to the scheme, and though there are . said to be plenty of qualified teachers among the con- valescents, they, like the students, are constantly coming and going.. It is suggested that this state of affairs could be remedied by the Home Command posting to the camp seven or eight thoroughly and diversely qualified officers or men who were unfit for further military service. The re- sponsible officer has, in the meantime, been in communica- tion with the Y.M.C.A. who have expressed their willino-- ness to supply teachers and books. UNIVERSITY TRAINING FOR DISABLED OR TEMPORARILY UNFIT BRITISH OFFICERS. Under Army Council Instruction 517 of 1918 arrange- ments are now made through the Appointments Department of the Ministry of Labour for officers in (1) Reserve Units, (2) Command Depots, (3) Hospitals, to be attached to cer- tain centres of University, Technical, Business or Workshop Training, provided they are reported by a medical board as unlikely to be fit for general service, category A., in less than six months. Officers taking advantage of this instruction are subject to the rules of the university or other training centre to which they are attached and, for the purpose of military discipline, to an officer specified for each area. THE OVERSEAS SAILOR AND SOLDIER vSOHOLARSHlPS SCHEME. Tho Overseas Sailor and Soldier Scholarships Scheme is of considerable interest. It was found that there ^vere in the naval and military forces now on active sei'vico many officers and men from the Dominions ^^■ho have — (a) Graduated at an Overseas University; (b) Had their studies at an Ovei'seas University inter- rupted by the call to serve ; (c) Passed examinations of university entrance stan- dard, but have not attended a university; (c/) Had practically no education since leaving" school at an early age, bat have developed considerable charactcj- and power of thought, and would bene- fit greatly by a course of study at a university; (e) Attended technical schools t^ .M.r,'^ >7^*. MM^i. f'i%:#