3^r V :, a.. jiiiiiiS]ii« l,P rJ :i I? SliiiiiiflmiiiapBMlitf'S I BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME EROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF Henrg W. Sage 1891 .A/Al.tZ-S f./y./../.q.j>S.. Cornell University Library arV10547 The home Hfe. of. .the, ancient, GKK^^^^ "3 1924 031 237 518 olln,anx The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31 924031 23751 8 THE HOME LIFE OF THE ANCIENT GEEEKS. THE HOME LIFE ANCIENT GREEKS TEAN8IATED FKOM THE QKBUAN OP PROF. H. BLUMNER ALICE ZIMMEEl^ Late SGholar of Girton Collecie, Cambridge asiit^ i^umerous Illustrations NEW AND REVISED EDITION CASSELL AND COMPANY, Limitkd LONDON, FARIS ^ MELBOURNE 1895 ALL Rion're BESERVED TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. The following pages do not claim to be an ab- solutely literal translation of Dr. Bltimner's text. Such slight alterations have been made as the diiferent and more concise character of the English language seemed to demand, assuming that, in a work of this character, the most faithful trans- lation is that which clearly presents the author's meaning in the different dress of another language. In one or two cases I have ventured to make some slight alterations. Thus, on page 277, my translation of the passage from Lucian (Philo- pseudes 18) describing Myron's Discobolus differs slightly from Dr. Blunmer's, and, as a result, the inference drawn as to the original position of the head is also different. This interpretation is in accord with more recent criticism, and has the support of Dr. Murray, Head of the Antiquities Department at the British Museum. The list of VIU GEEEK LIFE AT HOME. authorities consulted is printed on pages 533 to 63t). The illustrations are taken from the German work, and a list is given on pages xi to xv. I take this opportunity to express my warm thanks to those friends who have kindly helped me with the proof-sheets, and in particular to Mrs. Henry Unwin for her very welcome assistance. Alice Zimmern. Tunbridge Wells, October, 1893. CONTENTS. List op Illustrations ... ... ., xi Introduction ^ .. xvii ChAPTEK I. COSTCUH ... ... ... 1 CuAPTBK II BiBTH AND INFANCY „ ... 78 Chaptek III Education ... 99 Chapter IV. Markiagb and Women „ ... 133 Chapter V. Daily Life Within and Without the House... 176 Chapter VI. Meals and Social Entertainments 202 Chapter VII. Sickness and Physicians, Death and Burial 233 Chapter VIII. Gymnastics „ .„ ... 265 Chapter IX. Music and Dancing ... .„ ._ ... 306 Chapter X. Religious Worship .. . ... .„ 323 Chapter XI. Public Festivals 349 Chapter XII. The Theatre 392 Chapter XIII. War and Seaparino ^ ... 460 Chapter XIV. Agriculture, Trade, and Handicraft ... 489 Chapter XV. Slavery ... ._ .„ ... .„ .„ 619 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. Ancient Male and Female Costumes. Vase-painting from iSlite ceravwgrapMgue, II. 27 . . . . . . , . . . . . 5 2. Antique Male Chiton with Hvmation. Vase-painting from Gerliard. Etruskische und campaniscTbe Vasenhilder. Plate 21 . . . . 6 3. Antique Costumes (Dance) from the Francois Vase. From the Wiener archceoktgiscke Vorlegehldtt&r. Series II. Plates 3 and 14 . . . . 8 4. Costumes of the Fifth Century b.o. (Rape of Helen.) Vase-painting hy Hiero. From Gerhard. Trinksehalen urid G^asze. Plates 11 and 12.. 10 5. Short Male Chiton with Kolpos. Vase-painting from Gerhard. (See 2.) Plates 6 and 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 6. Warrior in Exomis. Relief on a Tombstone. Prom BuZletin de corre- spondence JielUnique, IV. Plate 7 . . . , . , , . . . 14 7. Statue of Sophocles in the Lateran. From a Photograph. . . . . 16 8. Citizen in Chiton and Himation. Terra-cotta from Bull, de corr. hell. , VII. Plate 12 37 9. Costume of Ephebos (Adoration of a Hermes), Vase-painting from Schreiber. KuUurhistorischer Atlas, Altertuvi. Plate 14, 3 .. 18 10. Dress of Attic Ephebos (Farewell of a Young Warrior). Vase-painting from Baumeister. Denkmdler des classichen AUertums. Fig. 421. .. 19 11. Antique Female Costumes from the Francois Vase. From Wiemr arch. VorlegeU. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2S 12. Antique Female Costume, Vase-painting by Exekias. From Mon. d'Inst. ArcUol.,ll.22. .. .. .. .. .. ..24 13. Antique Female Costume. Vase-painting from Stephani. Kampf des 2'heseus and Minotaurus. Plate I. ., .. .. .,25 14. Antique Female Dress, from the Frangois Vase. (See 3.) Plate V, . . 26 15. Antique Female Costumes. Vase-painting from El. ceram., HI. 36, B. . . 27 16. Ancient Fem^e Costume with Kolpos. Vase-painting from Gerhard. Auserlesene Vasenbilder, III. 727 . . . . . . . . . . 29 17. Dress of the Fiftli Century B.C. From a Vase-painting by Eupbronios. From the Wie^ier arch. Vorlegebl. Series V. Plate 7 . . . . 31 18. Female Costume of the Fifth Century b.c. (Maiuads), from a Vase by Hiero. Idem. Plate 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 19. Female Costume of the Fifth Century b.c., from a Vase by Brygos. From Mon. d'Inst., v. I'i .. .. .. .. .. Zi 20. Modes of arranging Chiton. V.-P. frora-Tischbein. Vases Hamilton, I. 7 35 21. Putting on the Chiton and arranging the Bib. Bronze Statue from Herculaneum. From a Photograph. ,. ., ., . . 3G 22. Caryatid froin the Ereehtheum. From Baumeister. (See 10.) Fig. 535 . . 37 23. High-girt Chiton with Himation. Statue of a Daughter of Niobe in the Museo Chiaramonti in the Vatican. From a Pliutograph . . 38 24. Ungirt Cliiton with Himation. V.-P., Gerhard. (See 2.) Plates 6 and 7 40 25. Open Chiton with Mantle. Vase-painting from the Wieiier arch. VwUgehl. Series II. Plate 6, 2 .. .. .. .. ..41 Xll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FAOB 26. Open Chiton with Mantle. Vase-painting from K. ctem,, III. S6 .. 42 27. Lady in 'Wallung Dress. Terra-cotta Figure from- Stackelberg. Grciber der Hellenen. Plate 67 .. .. .. .. .. 41 and 45 28. Lady in Wallcing Dress. Idem . . . . . . . . . . 46 29. Sandals. Collected from Works of Art (chiefly Vase-paintings) . . 49 30. Sandals with High Straps. Idem . . . . . . . . , . 50 31. Antique Men's Shoes. Idem.. .. .. .. .. ..51 32. Men's and Women's Shoes. Idem , . . . . . ■ . . . 52 33. High Boots (Endromides). Idem . . . . . . . . . . 53 34. High Boots with Overhanging Lappets. Idem .. .. ..54 35. Various Shapes of the Putasos. Idem . . . . . . . . 56 36. The Common Forms of Petasos Idem . . . . . . . . 57 37. Uncommon Forms of Petasos. Idem . . . . ... . . 58 38. Youth in Travelling Costume. Vase-painting from Overbeck. Gallerie Tieroischer Bildwerke. Plate 2, 1 . . . . . . . 59 39. Exomis and Pilos. Statuette of Odysseus. From VVinckelmann. Monumenti medUi, No. 154 . . . . . . . . . . 60 40. Sailor's Costume. V.-P. from Weloker. AlteDenkmaler,!!!. Plate 39, 1 61 41. Lady with Petasos. Terra-cotta Figure from Kekul^. Terra-coUen von Sicilien. Plate 33 . . . . . . . . . 62 42. Lady witli Sunshade. V.-P. from Gerhard. Vases grecs. Plate 8 .. 63 43 and 44. . Antique Modes of Dressing the Hair. Vase-painting and Marble Head from Schreiber. (See 9.) Plate 85, 3 and 14 . . . . 66 45 and 46. Antique Coiffures . Marble Heads from Mitteilungeii des Deutschen archdohgischen Ifistituts in Allien, VIII. (1883.) Plate X. 12a and XI. 1 67 47. Antique Coiffure. Marble Head. Idem. Plate XII. 4a and 4b . . .. 68 48. Antiqlie Coiffure. V.-P. by Euphronios. Idem, Plate XI. 5 .. 69 49. Antique Coiffure. Bronze Head from Pompeii. From a Photograph . . 70 (iO. Antique Mode of Wearing the Beard. Belief from Nuove memorie deW Inst. Arckeol. Plate 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 51 and 52. Female Coiffure. Terra-cotta Heads from Keknl^. (See 41.) Plates 161 and 22, 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 53 and 54. Female Coiffure. Idem. Plates 16, 5 and 162 . . . . . 75 65, 56, 67. Female Coiffure. Idem. Plates 17, 1 ; 18, 5 ; and 19, 5 76 and 77 58. Relief from a Tomb representing Child in Swaddling-clothes. From Ann. d' Inst. 1830. Add. Plate, G .. ,. .. ..79 59. Hermes in the Cradle. V.-P. from Arch. Zeitg. for 1844. Plate 20 . . 81 60. Child'sBed on Rollers. V.-P. from Jfwm-e mem. deif 7m*. .4rcfc. Plate 15, 2 82 61. Mother giving her Child the Breast. Terra-cotta Figure from Serhard. Gesammelte Abhandlungen. Plate SO, 2 .. .. ,. ..83 62. Mother and Child. Relief from a Tomb at Athens. From a Pho- tograph .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 86 63. Boy with small Cart and Dog. V.-P. from Stackelberg. (See 27.) Plate 17 87 64. Child's Cart. Vase-painting from Compte-reiidtt de la commission archhlogique dc St. Pitersbourg. 1871. Plate 5, 4 ... . . 88 65. Child with Cart drawn by Dogs. V.-P. from Baumeister. (ScelO.) Fig. 766 89 66. Jointed Doll. Terra-cotta Figure. From Antigu. du Bosph. Cimmir. Plate74, 8 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. go 67. Boy with Hoop. Vase-painting from M. dram., I. 18 . . . . 91 68. Toy Quiver. From Comspie-rendn de St. Petersb. for 1873. Plate 38 . . 92 69. Girl flying a Kite. Vase-painting from Arch. Ztg. for 1896, p. 125 .. 93 70. Boy with Wheel. V.-P. from Benndorf. Griedt. ■». Stcii. l^oseaMMcr, p. 62 94 71. Woman with Wheel. Vase-painting from Gerliard. Vases grecs. Plate 10 .. .. ..' 95 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. XUl PAOB 72. Child's Swing. \.-F.tTom Ann. cCInst. 1357. Add. Plate, A .. 96 78. See-.saw. Vase-painting from Schreibev. (See 9.) Plato 79, 6.. .. 96 74. See-saw on the Foot. V.-P. from Baumeister. (See 10.) Fig. 834 . . 97 75. Attic School Instruction. Vase-painting by Duris, From Arck. Ztg. for 1869. Plate 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . .105 76. Ephebi racing on Horseback. V.-P. from Solireiber. (See 9.) Plate 24, 9 125 77. Female Racer from Blis. Statue in the Vatican. From a Photograph 131 78. Reception of Bride at Bridegroom's House. Vase-painting from Staclcelberg. (See 27.) Plate 32 .. .. .. .. ..143 79. Women at the Well. Vase-painting from Gerhard. (See 16.) IV. 308, 9 150 80. Woman Spinning. Vase-painting. Idem, IV. 302 and 3, M 3 .. .. 163 81. Woman at the Loom (Penelope). V.-P. from Jlfon. d'JmsJ., IX. 42, 1 .. 154 82. Women at Bath and the Toilet, Vase-painting from Staelcelberg. (See 27.) Plate33 .. ,, ,. .. ,, ,, ,, 165 83. Women Washing. Vase-painting from Gerhard. (See 16.) III. 218 . . 166 84. Folding-up Clothes. Vase-painting. Idem, IV. 301 . . _, , , , 157 86, Women's Toilet and Bath. V.-P. from Baumeister. (See 10.) Fig. 220 168 86. Washing at the Well and Completion of Toilet. (Athene and Hera before the Judgment of Paris.) V.-P. from Mors. ti'/iis(., IV. 18 .. 160 87. Women's Public Bath. Vase-painting from E/. ciram., IV. 18 . . .. 161 88. Toilet Scene. Vase-painting from Gazette arcMologique for 1879. Plate 23 . . . . . , , . , . , . Frontispiece 89. Lady Arranging her Hair, Terra-cotta from Tanagra, Idem. 1878, Plate 10 163 90. Lady (Bride?) at her Toilet. V -P, from Bcnndorf, (See 70.) Plate 45, 1, 164 91. Soenefromthe Life of Women. V.-P. from Gerhard. (See 4.) Plate 14, 1 166 92. Toilet Scenes. From Gompte-Tendu de St. Pitersbourg. 1860. Plate 1, 3 168 93. Diagram of a Water-clock . . , , , , , . , , , , 187 94. Bronze Razors, from Helbig, Das hovierische Epos. Fig. 49 . . . . 188 95. Hair-dresser, Terra-cotta Group, from Tanagra, From Arch. Ztg., XXXn. Plate 14 189 96. Men's Public Bath, Vase-painting from Schreiber, (See 9,) Plate 21, 9 193 97 and 98, Drinking Scenes, V,-P, from Mon. d'Inst., IIL 12 , , 210 and 211 99, Female Juggler. Vase-painting from JWiis,' ,Bor&o?tico, VII, 36,. .. 217 100. Female Juggler, from Baumeister. (See 10.) Fig. 631 . . , . 218 101. Cottabus. Vase-painting from Moil, d'7jis(,, VIL 61, 2 .. ..222 102. Playing "Board-games." Terra-cotta Group from Arch. Ztg., XXI. Plate 173, 1 224 103. Girl Playing Astragals. Terra-cotta Figure from Tanagra ; from Baumeister. (Sec 10.) Fig. 1.56 .. ., ,. .. ..226 104. Morra Players, Vase-painting from Arch. Ztg., XXIX. Plate 66, 1 . . 227 106, Cook-flghting, Vase-painting from Baumoi.ster, (See 10.) Fig. 696 . . 228 106. Consequences of Intemperance. Vase-painting from Arch. Vorkgebl. Series VIIL Plate 5 229 107. Scene at a Nocturnal Comus (Hercules and Satyrs). Vase-painting from Benndorf. (See 70.) Plate 95 . . . . . , . , 231 108. Funeral Lament, Vase-painting from Jlfoii, li'lM*., III. UO , , ,,247 109. Funeral Lament. V.-F. from Ann. d'Inst. 1869. Plate 299, O. P. .. 248 110. Burial. Vase-painting from Mon. d'Inst., VIII. 4, lb . . . . 262 111. Corpse in the Tomb. V.-P. from Stackelberg. (See 27.) Plate 38 . . 253 112. Extinguishing the Funeral Pile. V.-P. from Mon. d'Inst., IV. 41 . . 256 113 and 114. Athenian Reliefs on Tombs. From Arch. Ztg., XXIX. Plates 43 and 44 ' . . , , . , , , ■ ■ ., 267 and 259 115, Care of a Grave. Vase-painting from Stackelberg, (See 27,) Plate 44 ,. 260 XIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PACE 116. Care of a Grave. Vase-painting from Benndorf. [See 70.) Plate 25 . . 261 117. Relief from an Athenian Tomb. From a Photograph . . .. ..263 lis. Gymnastic Exercises. V.-P. from Baumeister. (See 10.) Fig. 611 .. 267 119. Exercise with Dumb-bells. Engraving from a Bronze Discus. From Ann. d'Inst. Plate B 268 120. Racers. Vase-painting from itfon. d'Jwf., X. 4Sm .. .. ..272 121. Rnnnera and Jumpers. Vase-painting from Gerhard. (See 16.) IV. 259 273 122. Armour Race. Vase-painting from Mon. d'Inst, X. 48e, 3 . . . 274 123. Standing Discobolus of the Vatican. Marble Statue. From a Pliotograph 276 124. Throwing Discobolus (after Myron) in the Vatican. Marble Statue. From a Photograph . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 125. Discobolus after the Throw. Bronze Statue at Naples. From a Pliotograph .. .. .. ..' .. .. .. 280 126. Speai'-thrower. Engraving. Reverse of Pig. 119 . . . . . . 282 127. Running, Jumping, Spear - throwing. Boxing. Vase-painting by Pamphaios. From Mon. d'Inst., XI. 24 . . . . . . . . 283 128. Wrestlers. Marble Group in the Uffizzi at Florence. From a Photograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 129. Wrestlers. Vase-painting from Mon. d'Inst., II. 24 . . . , , . 288 130. Wrestlers. Vase-painting. Idem, X, 48e, 1 . . . . . . . . 289 131. Wrestlers. Vase-painting from Gerhard. (Ste p. 4.) Plate 20.. .. 291 132. Boxers. Vase-painting from Mon. d'Inst. 48e, 2 . . , . . . 294 133. Boxers. Vase-painting from Benndorf. (See 70.) Plate 31, 2a . . 295 134. Gymnastic Exercise with a Sphere. Bas-relief from Schreiber. (See 9.) Plate 23, 2 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 300 135. Archery. Vase-painting from Schreiber. (See 9.) Plate 80, 7 . . 301 136. Women playing Musical Instruments. V.-P. from Ei. ceram., II. 86 .. 310 137. Woman playing the Trigonon. Vase-painting from Mon. d'Inst., V. 37 313 138 and 139. Flute player. Bronze Statuette from Dodona. From Carapanos. Dodone et ses mines. Plate 10 . . . . . . . . 314 and 315 140. Flute-player. Vase-painting from ilfou. d'7iis(., X. 10 .. ,. 317 141. Performance of a Flute-player. Vase-painting by Euphronios. From , IViener areli. Vorlegehl. Series V. 4 .. .. .. ..318 142. Female Flute-player and Dancer with Castanets. Vase-painting by Hiero. Idem. Series C. 5 . . . . . . . . . . 319 143. Lustral Sacrifice. Vase-painting from Heydemann. GriecMselie Vaseii- bilder. Plate 11, 3 .. .. .. .. .. ..331 144. Presentation of Sacrificial Offerings. Vase-painting from JWou. d'In.st., VI. and VII. Plate 37 332 145 and 146. Presentation of Saciificial Offerings. Vase-paintings from Benndorf. (See 70 ) Plate 4-5, 2 . . . . . . . 333 and 334 147. Sacrificial Scene. Vase-painting from Mon. d'Inst., IX. 53 . . , . 339 148. Leaden Tablet with Question addressed to the Oracle of Delphi. From Carapanos. (See 138.) Plate 36, 2 . . . . . . . . . . 345 149. Putting Horses to a Chariot. Vase-painting from Gerhard. (See 16.) IV. 249 and 260 . . .... . . . . . . '. 355 150. Plan and Section of the great Theatre of Dionysus at Athens. From the ZeitsGhriftfiir BLldende K^lnst for 1878, p. 193 . . . . . . 393 161. Theatre of Syracuse in its present Condition. From a Photograph .. 395 162. Theatre of Syracuse : Ground plan. Prom Straok. Grleehisehes Theater. Plate V. 1 . . . . . . . . . . 396 153. Theatre of Sogesta, Reconstructed. Idem. Plate I. . , . . . . 397 154 and 155. Tragic Mask. Terra-cotta from Vulci. From Ann. d'Inst. 1881. Plate] 427 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. XV pagl: 156 and 157. Comic Ma.sk3. Idem. Plato J . . . . . . . . 431 158. Comic Actor. Terra-ootta from ^i-c/i. .Zfi;. for 1854 Plate G9 3 .. 432 159. Comic Actor. Terra-eotta from Kekul6. (,,See 41.) Plato 51, 5 .. 433 160. Masks from the Andromeda-myth. Pomijeiin Wall-painting from Arch. Ztg. fov isn. Plate 3 .. ., .. .. ..435 161 and 162. Tragic Actor. Ivory Statuette from ilfoti. d'Jmsf., XI 13 .. 437 163. Scene from Comedy (The Sick Chiron?). Vaso-painting fiom El. drum., II. 94 . . . . . . . . . . . . 439 164. Scene from Comedy. (Adventure of Hercules.) Vase-painting from Arch. VorlegeU. Series B. Plate 82, a . . .' . . . . 441 165. Scene from Comedy. (Soldier and Parasite.) Pornpeian WuU-painting from Mus. Borhon., IV. IS . . . . . . . . . . 443 160. Military Chariot. Vase-painting from Ckmpte-rendu, for 1874. Plate 5 . . 453 167 and 168. Warriors putting on their Armour. From Gerhard. (See 16.) IV. 269 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 458nnd459 169. Murder of Dolon. Vase-painting from Gerhard. (See 4.) Plate C 1 .. 460 170. Achilles binds up the Wounds of Patroclus. Vase painting from Man. d'lTist., I. 25 .. .. .. .. .. ..401 171. Farewell of Amphiaraus. Idem, III. 54 . . . . . . . . 403 172. Equipment of a Warrior. Vase-painting by Dnris. Idem, VIII. 41 .. 464 173. 174, and 175. Ancient Greek Helmets. Prom Helbig. (See 94.) Figs. 70— 72 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 460 176. Warriors playing Draughts. Vase-painting from Jlfon. d'/)is(., II. 22 .. 407 177. Death of Meninon. Vase-painting from Gerhard. (See 4.) Plate D . . 469 178, 179, 180, 181. Spear-heads from Dodona, From Carapanos. (See 138.) Plates, 67, 8 ; 58, 1 ; 3 and 5 . . . . . . . . .. 471 and 472 182, 183, 184. Swords from Mycenae. Prom Helbig. (See 94.) Figs. 90, 86and87 473 185 and 186. Swords from Italian Lake-dwellings. Idem. Figs. 88 and 89.. 474 187. Head of an Arrow from Megalopolis . . . . . . . . 477 138 and 189. Greek Spurs from Dodona. From Carapanos. (See 138.) Plate 62, 1 and 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479 190. Sailing Vessel. Vase-painting from Schreiber. (See 9.) Plate 45, 11 .. 481 191. Ship of Odysseus. Vase-painting from Mon. d'iTisf., I. 8 .. .. 482 192 and 193. Antique Ships with Spurs at the Prow. Vase-painting from Helbig. (See 94.) Figs. 3 and 4 . . . . . . . . . . 483 194. Ship with two Bows of Oars. V.-P. from Schreiber. (See 9) Plate 45, 12 484 196. Attic Trireme. Relief from .47wi. d'Jitsi. 1861. Plate M, 2 .. ..485 196. Men Ploughing. Vase-painting from Berickte der Sdchsisehan Gesellscliaft der Wissenschaft for 1807. Plate I. 1 . . . . . . . . 494 197. Olive Harvest. Idem. Plate HI. 2 . . . . . . 495 198. Artisan in Exomis. Terra-cotta from Bidl. de carr. hell., VII. Plate 12 602 199. Shoemaker. Vase-painting. (See 190.) Plate III. 6.. .. ..603 200. Shoemaker's Workshop. Vase-painting from Mon. d'Inst., XI. 28, 1 . , 505 201. Smithy. Idem. Plate 28, 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 507 202. Brass Foundry. Vase-painting. (See 196.) Plate V. 4 .. . . 508 203. Vase Factory. From Ann. d'Inst. 1876. Plates D, B . . . . 609 204. Cook(?). Terra-cotta from Tanagra. From .4rcfc. ;?(!?. for 1874. Plate 14 611 205. Trade in silphium. Vase-painting from Jtfbro. d'77is<., I. 47 .. .. 515 206. Slave. Tetm-eottA liota BuU. de cor. hellen. . . ,, ,. .. 52S INTRODUCTION. If the account of Greek life and customs given in this work does not present all sides of life in due pro- portion, we must lay the blame on the insufficiency ot the sources whence a description of this kind is derived. These are of three kinds : literary, artistic, and epigraphic. The Uterary sources supply us with a large amount of detail for the work in hand, but seldom give complete pictures or descriptions of social conditions. Those writers of the Free Age of Greece whom we still possess entirely, or in consider- able fragments, are not all equally in a position to touch on matters of private or domestic life. The Homeric Epics give a good deal of insight into the life of those early times; but after Homer epic poetry disappears from the ranks of available testimony, and what remains to us of the Alexandrine Epic, which was essentially a learned style of poetry, supplies no useful material, if only because it seeks its subjects in the mythological period, and describes them on essenti- ally Homeric lines. The lyric poets, too, afford little help ; now and then they enable us to add a few details to our picture, but, as a rule, the results are small, and not till we reach the Alexandrine period, and there chiefly in bucolic and epigrammatic poetry, do we obtain richer results in this domain. Here the XVlll INTRODUCTION. poems of Theocritus are of especial xalue. Unfortu- nately, very much of this period, which would have thrown most interesting lights on different aspects of Greek life, has been entirely lost, or survives only in small fragments. Tragedy again, which usually takes its subjects from mythology, cannot be considered at all. Ancient poetry possesses no " middle-class epic " like modern poetry, which will assuredly some day supply valuable material for the social historian. But ancient comedy is of the greatest value for our pur- pose, and may indubitably be regarded as the most fertile source of our knowledge of private life. The comedies of Aristophanes deal with the immediate present, and, although full of extravagant notions and fantastic inventions, yet treat of actual circumstances, and thus supply a mine of wealth for the student of Attic life. We can only judge, from numerous frag- ments of their comedies, how valuable would have been the other poets of the so-called "Older Comedy" of the fifth century B.C., who are, unfortunately, lost to us. Even though' we must exercise some caution in the use of these authorities, distinguishing comic inventions and poetical exaggeration from actual fact, yet in the majority of cases it will not be very difficult to come to a decision on such questions. No less valuable, perhaps even more useful, for our purpose would be the so-called " New Comedy " of Menander and others, if we possessed more than a few scattered fragments of it. The imitations of Plautus and Terence compensate to some extent for the lost originals, yet even here we must be on our guard, since the Roman poets in their adaptation often introduced traits from Roman life. Still, as a rule they adhered to Greek, or, rather, Attic manners, upon which the original comedies were based. INTRODUCTION. XIX Among prose writers we must chiefly consider the historians and orators. The former are of comparatively little use. They deal with great poHtical and military events ; the daily life going on around them gave them no subjects for description ; apart from the fact that it probably never occurred to them that anyone in later ages would ever care to hear about the social conditions of that time. A writer like Herodotus, who introduces not only, political history, but also geographical, ethnological, and social information, directs his attention for this very reason chiefly to foreign nations, and gives his countrjmaen a great deal of information about the life and customs of the Egyptians, Assyrians, and Persians; concern- ing the Greeks themselves he is absolutely silent. It is quite natural that historians should only mention by the way facts which we could use with advantage in a description of Greek life. The orators, on the other hand, supply richer material, not so much in political speeches as in private orations dealing with law-suits, of which a considerable number have come down to us. Here side-lights fall on many events of daily life, and we obtain an insight into private aflairs such as we seldom gain elsewhere. Philosophical writings supply some material, though comparatively little ; especially those that take actual life as their basis and deal with philosophical problems in connection with existing circumstances. Among these may be included such writings; as the "Characters" of Theophrastus, and here we can but regret that we possess only mutilated fragments of these admirable descriptions of character, based on much accurate observation, and taken direct from real life. The Greek literature of the Roman period can only be utilised in selections and with care, to illustrate XX INTRODUCTION. the period with which we have .to deal. After Greece came under Roman dominion, new manners and customs took root there, unknown during the period of Greek freedom and the Hellenistic epoch. This diminishes the value for our purpose of the writings of Plutarch, and even more of Lucian, that excellent delineator of the customs of the second cen- tury A.D. But even in this later literature there is a good deal which we have a right to use in our description, for some of its habits and customs obtained through the whole of antiquity ; besides which, the later writers often turned to past centuries for descriptions, and sought their material in older sources or old historians and other authors, on whose accuracy we cannot, however, always depend. The same was the case with the materials which we are able to use in Roman literature. From all this it is plain that the account given here deals especially with the real " classic " period of Greek antiquity from about the sixth to the third century b.c. It is impossible to give a connected history of the development of Greek civilisation from the beginning, if only on account of the nature of our authorities and the incompleteness of tradition. Between Homeric culture and that which we meet with afterwards in the poets and prose writers of the best time, lies a period of several centuries, about which we know very little, and that little chiefly in a legendary form. We can only determine in a few cases how the conditions of the sixth and fifth centuries gradually developed, for instance in the rise of the constitution, while it is impossible for us to trace the genesis of manners and civilisation. We shall, therefore, not attempt to give a separate account of Homeric civilisation, but content ourselves INTRODUCTION. XXI with introducing a few of its details in appropriate places ; nor shall we go beyond the period of Hellenism, since even here foreign, and especially Oriental, influence produced many alterations, while Roman influence afterwards made many essential changes. The artistic authorities are also chosen in accord- ance with this scheme. The vase paintings, of which so many have been preserved to us, supply a great quantity and variety of pictures of Greek life, and we have drawn largely on this valuable source of inform- ation, which supplies most of the pictures chosen as illustrations. Compared with this there is little else of importance. The statues to which we have access are chiefly figures of gods and heroes, or portraits. These we can only use to illustrate Greek costume. But a few genre pictures are preserved to us in the artistic productions of the best Greek period, and some of these we shall have occasion to discuss. For this purpose the small terra-cotta figures are more useful, which often represent with vigorous truth subjects from real life. Here, too, as in the case of the statues, we must always remember the difference between Hellenic and Roman work, and it is just this consider- ation which greatly limits our choice of sculptures ; for the great majority of those which would be suit- able for our purpose date from the Roman period, and usually represent Roman life. For this reason mosaics and frescoes can scarcely be regarded, since none have come down to us from the Greek period. Un- doubtedly many of them imitate Greek models, or, at any rate, those of the Alexandrine epoch, but it is not always easy to decide in particular cases ; and, moreover, the greater part are mythological pictures. It is obvious that works of Etruscan art, such as XXn INTRODUCTION. sarcophagi, pictures on mirrors, and the like, cannot be regarded. Thus the works of art suitable for supple- menting our literary sources are limited in number. Of these the vase paintings constitute the great majority, and this is entirely in accordance with the chronological limits which we have set to our descrip- tion; for they almost all belong to the centuries mentioned above, and only a few that would be suit- able for our purpose are of greater antiquity. The nature of our authorities not only sets a limit of time, but also one of space. When we speak of Greek life we ought to include in it not only life in actual Greece or Hellas, but also that in the numerous colonies on the Aegean and Black Seas, in Southern Italy, Northern Africa, etc. But we know very little of the conditions in those Greek settlements outside Greece, and even in Greece itself, where, in con- sequence of the political and racial differences, these circumstances are by no means everywhere identical, our knowledge is limited in many ways. Even though the difference in manners and customs was greater in early times than afterwards, when increase in trade and greater facility of travel produced more equal conditions, yet certain local and national peculiarities always prevailed. Life at Sparta differed in many respects from that at Athens. The other large towns of Greece — Corinth, Sicyon, Thebes, not to speak of the colonies of Miletus, Syracuse, and Gyrene — doubt- less showed many local peculiarities which are entirely hidden from our knowledge. Our literary sources are for the greater part Athenian. The majority of our monuments, too, are of Attic origin, or, at any rate, influenced by it, though Southern Italy supplies some of the vases, and in many cases the customs of Magna Graecia are represented in these pictures. Most of our INTRODUCTION. XXUl knowledge of Greek life, then, refers to Athens, and to be quite accurate we ought to call our description " Life in Ancient Athens." Every now and then we are enabled to enlarge our pictures by details from other parts of Greece. Still, we must beg our readers to remember that most of the traits here introduced relate to Athens between the sixth and fourth centuries B.C. We have scarcely the remotest con- ception of the mode of life at that time in any small Greek city or in the country. Here the ttird class of our sources comes in to help us, viz., the inscriptions. These not only give us most of our material for a knowledge of poUtical con- ditions, legal and religious antiquities, etc., but they also supply interesting details of private life ; and as they are found not only in Attica, but all over Greece, the islands, and the colonies, they supply much very valuable information about matters which our literary sources entirely ignore. As in most cases the period of the inscription can be ascertained by the character of the writing or by other peculiarities, we are not so hable here to make chronological mistakes and refer customs of a later period to earlier times. Compared with our literary sources, the inscriptions are also far safer material ; for the accuracy of a writer may be sometimes called in question, especially when his information is supplied at second-hand. GREEK LIFE AT HOME. CHAPTER I. COSTUME. Costumes, Stitched and Draped — The Chiton — The Himation or Chlaina — Drapery — The Uniform Male Dresses of Sparta— The Chlamys — Similarity Between Male and Female Costumes— The Difference Between Doric and Ionic Garments — The Fashion at Athens in the Fifth Century B.C. — The Materials — Footgear — Leggings — Head-Coverings — Mode of Dressing the Hair. To obtain a complete insight into the life of former ages we require primarily a knowledge of the historical and geographical, pohtical, and religious conditions of the people in question, as well as of its intellectual development in art and science. These, however, it is not our purpose to consider here. The second requi- site for a vivid picture is a clear notion of the sur- roundings in which the people of that time lived : their dwellings, furniture, utensils, etc. And lastly, there is another point, the knowledge of which is no less indispensable in order to obtain a clear image of the past, and that is the costume. Our know- ledge of the customs and habits of daUy Ufe appears far more real, and stands out more vividly, if we can also form in our minds a picture of the people of that time. Thus no one can expect to form a clear picture of mediaeval Hfe without at least a general B 2 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. notion of the costume of that period. This is equally true of every epoch of civilisation, even of a period so little distant from us in time as the eighteenth century. We therefore preface our description of Greek life with an account of the details of Greek costume, and of its historical development; and our reasons for going into greater detail here than in other domains is that there are so many wrong, or at any rate in complete, notions extant concerning it. For when we speak to-day of Greek costume we may generally assume that the majority of people, if female dress is in question, think of the drapery of the magnificent female figures in the Parthenon marbles ; while, as re- gards male costume, their minds wiU at once recur to the classic figure of Sophocles in the Lateran or of the Aeschines of Naples, and form their notion of Greek male costume accordingly. It is, however, absolutely wrong to regard these as typical of Greek dress. They represent neither the costume of aU Hellas nor that of the whole Greek age. That " noble simplicity and quiet greatness," which is as conspicuous in the dress of the age of Pericles as in its art, is, like the latter, the product of slow development through various phases, concerning which, with the exception of a few literary allusions, the monuments give us all the information we possess. Generally speaking, we may distinguish, both in male and female Greek costume, two kinds of garments— those which are cut in a certain shape and partly stitched, and mantles of various shapes which are draped on the figure and only acquire their form by means of this draping. This distinction holds good with few exceptions throughout the whole COSTUME. 3 history of Greek costume ; and, generally speaking, it is the under garments which are stitched, while the upper garments are draped. Yet we must obsei-ve that, while male clothing is, as a rule, confined to two garments, we very often find in female costume a third, or even a fourth, belonging sometimes to the first and sometimes to the second of the above- mentioned classes. The names which were used throughout almost the whole of Greek antiquity for the two chief articles of dress are, for the under garment, chiton j for the upper garment, himation. These terms are used for both male and female garments, but several other designations are used, and the word himation is not found in the Homeric period, but the cloak which is worn over the chiton is called chlaina. We may treat first of male costume. As re- gards the chiton of the oldest period, we infer, from allusions in epic poetry, with which the oldest monuments agree (for the discoveries at Mycenae give us no distinct notion of pre-Homeric costume), that both the short and the long kinds were in use. The short chiton seems to be the usual dress of daily life ; it was especially worn when free movement was re- quired, and was therefore the suitable garment for war or hunting, for gymnastic exercises or manual labour. The long chiton, which was afterwards regarded as espe- cially Ionic, and certainly maintained itself longer in Ionia and in Attica than in the rest of Greece, was not, however, unknown to the Doric races. It was the usual dress for men of advanced age and good position ; it was also worn by young people on festive occa- sions. We therefore find on the monuments of the oldest style that not only the older gods wear a long chiton, but also that young men are clothed in it on 4 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. festive occasions, or if they are in any way connected with religious functions, as, for instance, priests, harp- players, flute-players, charioteers, etc. This use of the long chiton remains up to the classic period. Thus, for instance, we see the figure known as the Archon BasUeus in the central group of the Eastern Par- thenon frieze in this dress ; and tragic actors, if they represented men of good position and in peaceful circumstances, also continued to wear the long chiton. Epic poetry itself gives us no direct information about the shape of the chiton in the Homeric period. Helbig maintains, basing his assertions on some casual indications, and chiefly on the- oldest monuments, that it differed from the dress of the classic period in being close-fitting and free from folds. It is true that the old vase paintings show us the short chiton fitting closely round the body and drawn quite firmly r6und the legs. It is girt fast round the hips, and as a rule does not go below the knee. However, it is not safe to draw conclusions of this kind from ancient pictures, for much which might be regarded as characteristic of ancient costume may be due only to the incompleteness of art, which was not yet capable of representing fuU garments with folds. Thus, in ancient works of art, the long chiton also appears quite narrow in the upper part, but then falls perpendicularly from the waist, some- times gradually, but more often straight without any folds to the feet. (Compare the figure of ApoUo in Fig. 1 and of Priam in Fig. 2.) Both the long and short chitons as a rule have no sleeves, but only an armhole ; we sometimes find short sleeves not quite covering the upper arm. Unfortunately, we cannot form a clear notion from the pictures of the mode in which it was put on. It is, however, probable that the 6 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. short chiton was sewn together all round and thrown over the head, where there may have been an addi- tional slit connected with this opening, and fastened with a pin. There are, however, no traces of this on the monuments, nor are fibulae or brooches mentioned in the Homeric descrip- tions in connec- tion with themale chiton. Probably the long chiton was cut in the manner of a chemise. Helbig's hypothesis that there was a slit down the middle of the front is just as uncertain as his similar as- sumption with re- gard to Homeric female dress. Besides the chiton, the older male costume also had a sort of loin- cloth or apron. It is not at all improbable that at one period the Greeks wore merely the apron and cloak, and no chiton. When the latter became universally fashionable (which, according to recent surmises, was due to Semitic influence) the cloth dis- appeared, or continued only as part of miUtary dress. The himation, or chlaina, appears on ancient monu- ments stiff and free from folds, like the chiton. This is Fio. 2. COSTUME. 7 a garment resembling a mantle, which appears in many archaic vase pictures in two distinct forms ; either as a wide cloak covering the greater part of the body, or as a narrow covering lightly draped. The first form, corresponding to the later male himation, is most commonly combined with the long chiton. The cut of this cloak is four-cornered, probably oblong, and it is worn in such a way that the greater part of it falls behind and covers the back and part of the legs, while in front it is thrown over the shoulders and arms, and falls down over the body, two of its points falhng. within the arms and the other two without. The other form, which may be in general compared with the later chlamys, is found with both the long and the short chiton, and is also sometimes worn as the only covering, without any under garment. This may, however, be regarded as the ideal clothing, which does not correspond to real life, just as in later monuments we find the chlamys alone without the chiton. It is put on in such a way that the lower arm is left uncovered, and the two points fall down in front over the shoulder and upper arm, while behind it either covers only the upper part of the back, or else the cloak falls down so far that its edge is almost as low as the points in front. (Compare Eig. 3, repre- senting a dance from the Fran9ois vase.) We cannot pronounce with certainty on the shape of this cloak. It appears, however, to have been oval or elliptical, and to have ended in two points ; it was folded in such a way that the folded part was worn inside, while the edges, which were ornamented with wide borders, fell outside. In Fig. 2, where the shape of the cloak is that of an ellipse cut through the long axis, the folding is also evident. I should there- fore differ from Helbig in regarding this narrower 8 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. chlaina as the garment called in epic poetry diplax. Neither 4,uid of cloak is fastened, and they both differ from that of later periods in being worn open in front. . In Homeric poetry another kind of chlaina is also mentioned, which corresponds more closely to the later one; since it is stated that the folded chlaina is fastened on the shoulder with a brooch. No proof of this, however, has as yet been found in the older monuments. As a remnant of the most primitive dress, clothes made of skins, such as were afterwards worn only by country people, huntsmen and the like, still existed in the ' Homeric age. Homer several times mentions skins as the dress of soldiers; on the older monuments we see them drawn over a short chiton, and sometimes even fas- tened with a girdle. How long this ancient dress continued in use we caBifiot determine with any certainty ; but the majority even of vase pictures with black figures show a different dress. It is true, as we mentioned just now, that the long chiton stiU continued in use besides the short one, but the cut and the mode of wearing it changed. eoSTUMll. § !rhe monuments of this period almost always show signs of drapery, and this is, moreover, of an artificial, exaggerated, and pedantic kind. It must have been the fashion at that time, that is, from the sixth tUl nearly the middle of the fifth century, to lay the folds of men's dress, as well as of women's, in sym- metrically parallel lines. In pictures the lower edges of dresses and cloaks show various regularly cut-out pqints, while on the inner side there are many small zigzag folds arranged with laborious symmetry. (Compare Fig. 4, " The Rape of Helen," after a vase picture by the vase painter Hiero.) This may be partly due to the artistic style, which at that period inclined to over-elaboration; yet it is impossible to doubt that we find here not only an expression of archaic art, but also the representation of a dress laboriously and artificially folded, stiifened, and ironed, in which the folds were produced by external aids, such as ironing, starching, pressing, even stitching of the stuff laid in folds, or sewing such folds on to the material. We cannot determine when this custom began in Greece. In works of art we find it comparatively late in the sixth century b.g.; yet, as Helbig remarks, it is by no means impossible that this fashion existed at a far more ancient period, since the custom of laying material in artificial folds by means of stiffening or ironing was already known in Egypt in 4000 B.C. ; and it therefore seems extremely probable that the Phoenicians adopted the practice at a very early period, and introduced it into Greece. It is a very natural assumption that this mode of draping would in the first instance be adopted for linen material, and that it would therefore be iatro- duced among the Greeks with the linen chiton, which took the place of the wpoUen one formerly worn. COSTUME. 11 On the other hand, however, it is probable that, as woollen clothing was afterwards worn as well as linen, they attempted to ornament this in similar fashion by artificial folds ; the works of art, however, show that these folds were far less in quantity and less sharply defined in wooUen clothing than in linen, which is naturally much better adapted for the purpose. Apart from the folds, the clothes now became wider and more comfortable, and were less closely girt round the hips. The chiton is still a garment made by sewing, and the long differs from the short only in length, not in shape. Both are, as a rule, so cut as to be sewn together regularly below the girdle ; above the girdle they are sometimes provided with a slit on one side to facilitate putting on. They usually have sleeves, sometimes short, sometimes long; these are either fastened all round, or, as is also the case in female dress, open at the top and fastened by pins or buttons. In this case the chiton is sewn in such a manner as to be all in one above the girdle as far as the sleeve, and open at the top, so that the slits for the arms and rieck are connected ; the wearer puts the chiton over his head, draws up the sleeve on the upper arm, and thus supplies the opening for the neck. Besides this, there is ojten an ornamental arrangement such as we find in the female dress of the same period a puff of regular folds {IcoVpos), formed by drawing up the dress over the girdle and letting the piece drawn up all round fall again over the girdle ; and, in addition, a bib falling over the breast in zig-zag folds, which appears, as a rule, to be a separate piece sewn on the dress at the opening of the neck. In Fig. 4 we observe the kolpos and bib over the short chiton of Hermes in the centre, the bib 12 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. also over the long chiton of Paris (on the left), and of Tyndareus (on the right). In this dress we already find the elements of the male costume common throughout classic Greece in the fifth century. It is modelled on the ancient elaborate style, and the sewing is reduced as much as possible, while the garment falls in regular free folds, and fits closely to the figure. According to Thucydides, it was at Sparta that it first became customary to adopt a uniform dress for the whole male population, and thus to do away with a distinction which had hitherto prevailed between the dress of poor and rich. This distinction, at any rate, held in so far that at Athens the richer people, as Thucydides states, wore the long linen chiton, the poorer people the short woollen one. At Athens and in Ionia the long linen chiton remained as the dress of older people till shortly before the time of Thucydides ; but then it was universally discarded, or rather reserved for the classes mentioned above, and for festive occasions; whUe the short woollen chiton from that period became the universal dress. This is usually found in the form of a widish garment sewn together below the girdle, and above it divided into two p,arts, a front and back piece, put on in such a manner as to be fastened together by pins or fibulae on the shoulder. If the chiton was allowed to fall quite free it usually fell down about as far as the knees ; but it was customary, especially when unim- peded and free movement was necessary, to draw up a part above the girdle and let it fall in folds below it. (Compare Fig. 5.) Workmen, countrymen, sailors, and others whose occupation required free movement of the right arm, used only to fasten the two pieces of the chiton on the left shoulder, then the points of the other side hung down in front and behind, and left the COSTUME. 13 right breast, shoulder, and arm exposed. This costume, of which the relief in Fig. 6 gives a representation, Fio. 5. was called exomis. Strictly speaking, it is no actual garment, but only a particular way of wearing the chiton ; but special tunics for labourers were made in Fig. 6, COSTUME. 15 this fashion. Besides this, chiton^ were afterwards made with the upper part also sewn together, and with armholes or short sleeves, which, however, never covered more than a part of the upper arm. Long sleeves falling to the hand belong exclusively to barbarian costume. Yet the bib, which as late as the first half of the fifth century was worn with the male chiton also, is not a part of later costume. From this time onward the name " himation " was used for the cloak worn with the chiton, while " chlaina'' was only retained for a special kind, distinct rather by its material than by its shape. The himation was often worn in the oldest period in the way described above, that is, with two points falling on the two sides in front. (Compare the Hermes in Fig. 4.) But it became more and more common, and from the classic period onwards quite universal, to fold the cloak tightly round, and this was done as follows. One point was drawn from the back over the left shoulder and held fast here between the chest and arm, then the cloak was drawn round over the back in wide folds reaching to the shins, and from there back again to the front on the right side. This was done in two ways. If the right arm was to be kept free the hima- tion was drawn through under the right shoulder and in front folded across the body and chest, while the last piece was thrown back across the left shoulder (compare the Paris in Fig. 4 on the left), or else over the left arm (compare the man on the right in Fig. 4). The other mode, and the one common in the dress of an ordinary citizen, was to draw the cloak over the right arna and shoulder, so that at most the right hand was exposed, and then to throw it back again over the left shoulder. This arrangement was facilitated- by small weights of clay or lead sewn on COSTUME. 17 the points, which helped to keep the cloak firm in its place. It was, however, a special art, which required practice, and probably also assistance, to produce a beautiful and harmonious drapery in this kind of dress; and the position of the wearer showed itself in the way in which he wore his himation, which ought neither to be drawn up too far, nor fall too low. It was also regarded as in- elegant to wear the cloak from right to left. There is no nobler or more perfect example of this costume, in which the chiton is com- bined with the himation, than the portrait statue of Sophocles in the Lateran given in Fig. 7. Here the wide cloak with its many folds covers the form in such a way as not to hide the shape of the body, and the various folds caused by the position of the arm and the mode of draping vlj the cloak are combined together in the most har- monious manner. A humorous counterpart of this ideal figure is Fig. 8 in terra-cotta, representing a vulgar citizen in chiton and himation. The " chlamys " was a special kind of cloak which originated in Thessaly, but from the fifth century Fig. 18 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. onwards became cammon in Greece. Originally it was a soldier's or rider's dress, and is, therefore, only seen on statues worn over armour. It is a short cloak of light material and oval shape, fastened by means of a brooch either in front at the neck, or more commonly on the right shoulder, thus covering the left arm and leaving the right free. (Compare Figs. 9 and 10, of which Fig. 9 shows the former mode of wearing the cloak, while in Fig. 10 the youth with the spear has his whole left side covered by the chlamys.) The chlamys was the common dress of youths as soon as they attained their majority {e^rjj^eia) and entered the cavalry ; tUl that age they wore no upper gar- ment over the chiton in the ancient period, but in later times a wide himation, in Avhich they usually en- veloped themselves entirely. It was regarded as correct for modest boys not to have their arms ex- posed. Hermes also, the divine representative of youth, usually appears in the chlamys, but this is COSTUME. 19 generally lightly folded and thrown over the left arm. Apollo too, except where he wears the long chiton as harp-player, is usually represented on works of art with the chlamys. It is, however, unusual in male dress, with the exception of military costume, and is never found in combination with the long chiton. Fio. 10. At home, as a rule, only the chiton was worn. It was, however, not considered correct to be seen thus in the street : only artisans or eccentric people went out without a cloak ; but it was just as incorrect to appear without the chiton, only in the himation or chlamys. It is true this is very common on works of art : Zeus, Poseidon, and some other gods are represented without the chiton, and only in the himation, and Hermes and Apollo only in the chlamys ; and even in representations of daily life we very often see. in statues, reliefs, vase pictures, etc., 20 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. men without under garments, clad only in the cloak (compare the youth in Fig. 9), and also in portrait figures. This is, however, a liberty taken by artists in order to avoid concealing the body entirely by the" dress, but by no means corresponding to reality. Only those who specially desired to harden their bodies, and also poor people and certain philosophers who wished to proclaim their cynic principles by exceed- ingly scanty dress, went but, even in winter, in a cloak without an under garment. Shirt and trousers were unknown in Greek male dress ; the latter are Oriental, and therefore only appear on monuments representing barbarous persons. As regards female dress, it may be stated at once that the strong contrast found in modern times between the dress of men and women is foreign to Greek antiquity : both have essentially the same elements, sometimes even the same shape ; and this similarity becomes greater the nearer we get to antiquity. This was not carried so far that a woman could simply have put on a man's under garment ; in fact, even the Homeric epics distinguish the woman's peplos from the man's chiton. Un- fortunately, both the shape and the mode of wearing the Homeric peplos are matters of dispute which cannot be satisfactorily settled by the words of the epic. According to Helbig, it was not essentially different from the long male chiton ; like this, it descended to the feet, fitting closely and without folds to the figure, and was provided with an opening for head and arms. The girdle was worn rather low down, not immediately under the breast or round the waist, but round the hips, and fell down somewhat in front. The peplos was put on by means of a slit between the breasts, which often descended as far as COSTUME. 21 the feet, and was fastened by a large number of fibulae, or books. Helbig thinks that this fashion was due to Oriental influence, since such openings are very commonly found on monuments representing Oriental nations. There is much in favour of Helbig's hypothesis, especially the circumstance that a dress similar in many respects appears to have maintained itself for several centuries. The vase pictures, as well as several works of art, show, as Boehlau has remarked, that in almost all the Greek states (especially Corinth, Chalcis, Athens, Megara, Sparta, as well as Ionian and Sicilian towns) a closely-fitting chiton was worn by women as late as the seventh, perhaps even the sixth, century. This was not drawn over the head, but put on like our dress of the present day, and open in front. Numerous monuments of the oldest style show that slit in front, and it appears to be seldom wanting in very ancient pictures of the deities. This chiton is provided with tight sleeves falling down to the elbows, and is generally adorned at aU the edges (accordingly round the neck and armholes, as well as round the hem) with broad stripes and patterns of various colours; and as a further peculiarity it has folds drawn up over the girdle and falling on each side over the hips. Helbig's hypothesis concerning the Homeric pep- los : that it had a long opening in front extend- ing to the feet, has been energetically combated by Studniczka, who attempts to explain differently all the passages quoted from the epics in support of the other theory, and regards the strips down the front found on monuments as merely meant for ornamental purposes, and not a reminiscence of that opening. Studniczka, for his part, considers the Homeric female 22 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. dtess identical with the so-called Doric, which is described to us by writers as the oldest Greek female dress, in place of which the Ionic afterwards came. His first assumption, therefore, is that the dress was not sewn and arranged for slipping on, but rather consisted in a shawl-shaped piece of stuff fastened on the shoulders by means of pins. This is not the fitting place to discuss this controversy ; we must therefore content ourselves with alluding to it, and refrain from deciding in favour of either opinioh, since this would not be the purpose of our book. Herodotus informs us, concerning the female dress of the historic period, that the Athenian women in olden times wore the Doric dress, a woollen chiton fastened with fibulae, but afterwards, instead of this, adopted the Ionic dress, a stitched linen chiton. However simple this statement may sound, it is by no means so easy to trace this change of dress on the works of art. These show us female dresses in ancient times which appear to have been sewn rather than pinned together; while the chiton which we find in the classic period of Greek art may really be traced back to the Doric type. It is, therefore, com- prehensible that attempts lately made, especially by Boehlau and Studniczka, to trace the transition from the ancient Doric to the later Ionic costume on works of art, should have led to very different results. If we look at the female dress on the oldest vase pictures (compare Figs. 1, 3, 11-15), we ahnost always find a stiff chiton descending without folds to the feet (the Homeric name " peplos " gradually falls into disuse), which could, however, in no case be as narrow as it is depicted, else it would be impossible to walk in it ; the feet as a rule are uncovered, but sometimes the dress is lengthened behind in the form -^ COSTUME, 23 of a train, and there touches the ground. (Compare Fig. 15.) The girdle is regularly worn with this chiton, FlO. 11. rather high up, and so as to be visible. There is also a second garment covering breast and shoulders, and falling down nearly as far as the girdle. How this 24, GREEK LIFE AT HOME. chiton was put on, and how the upper garment was connected with it, is not clear. When we see long borders descending from the girdle to the feet on some figures, and also continued above the girdle (as in the case of two women in Fig. 11), we might assume that here was an opening for putting on the dress; but we have already shown above that these borders are often of a purely ornamental char- acter, and have no structural importance; and, indeed, they are entirely wanting on many chitons. It is, therefore, gener- ally assumed that the garment represented here was sewn to- gether below, and thus fastened all round, but above the girdle was open at the side, and that the bib was produced by mak- ing this upper part double, and fastening the folded ends on the shoulders with pins, thus corresponding to that style which is commonly called Doric. In fact, the point of the dress, passed from the back to the front, is often visible on the shoulder (com- pare Figs. 1, 3, and 11) ; sometimes even the long pin which fastened both points can be plainly recognised (Fig. 11) ; but in spite of this there is a great deal that this hypothesis does not explain. It is true we may re- concile with it the occasional appearance of different borders at the neck of the bib, for these might be sewn on, and thus this garment would be constructed ready for the wearer, while in the corresponding dress of the COSTUME. 25 later period it rested with the wearer to draw down a shorter or longer piece of her chiton. But how are we to explain that upper part of the chiton in such a case as Fig. 12 ? Here it is closely fastened at the side. Clearly the artist wished to re- present an armhole. These two facts are in opposition to the previous hypothesis, unless we assume that the upper part also was sewn together on one side, and its open side with the pins must be sought on the left side of the woman, which is not visible here. It is stiU more re- markable when, as in Fig. 13, the painter represents the lower part of the chiton with a pattern and the upper plain ; or, as in Fig. 14, gives different patterns to the two parts. If we do not attribute this to the arbitrary fancy of the artist, or assume that the upper part of the chiton was ornamented with a different material behind, we are reduced to the opinion which, in view of simUardevelopmentsin the dress of a later period, is not improb- able — that this upper part was sometimes quite separate from the chiton, and was put on as a special garment. With this costume we sometimes find an over garment, which must not, however, be confused with the himation. This is worn over the chiton, but i^^ Fio. 13. 26 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. fastened in by the girdle also, and is usually open on one side. (Compare Fig. 15.) This upper garment, which usually is only seen below the girdle, is some- times made of the same material as the bib, some- times of a different one, but it usually differs in colour and pattern from the garment worn under it. It is not very evident from the vase pictures how this was put on, but it seems to have been draped and not sewn, and worn over the chiton for more elaborate dress, and fastened to- gether with it by means of the girdle. With this antique costume thehimationwas worn as a cloak, which,bothinits shape and in the mode of wearing, corresponded abso- lutely to the large himation worn by men ; like this, it specially covered the back and fell over the arms in two points. There is, however, this distinction between the male and female costume, that the women often drew this cloak up so high as to cover the back of the head (com- pare Fig. 1), a faishion which also continued inlatertimes. The change which we see gradually produced in this costume on works of art has been often regarded as a real change in the fashion, but was probably Fig. 14. 28 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. in great part only a consequence of tlie development of art, which rendered it possible to represent a great deal which at an earlier stage could not be depicted. As in the case of male dress, the dresses on the Tase pictures gradually become wider with fuller folds. At first, it is true, they are still so narrow that if a long step is taken the shape of the body becomes very distinct; but the cylindrical form, quite free from folds, which the earliest vase style gives to the woman's dress below the girdle, disappears entirely. Besides this we find, instead of the ' outer wrap, a puffing, or kolpos, which henceforth is the character- istic of the female dress. This was arranged in various ways, though in later times it was sometimes dispensed with altogether. There are different modes of pro- ducing this kolpos : sometimes it belongs to the dress itself; the length of the dress then so far exceeds that of the body that, in order to prevent the hem from dragging on the ground, a piece must be drawn up above the girdle, which then falls down in folds below it, and in the fashion of the time, which we have first to deal with, often descends a long way, not, however,, equally all round the waist, but only in front, and probably also behind. But as the vase pictures often represent this upper part as of an entirely different material from the under dress, it is possible that it was sometimes not connected with the chiton, but was a distinct garment worn over the under dress, and, hke the chiton, fastened in by the girdle. (Compare Fig. 16.) If we remember that in the ancient dress of the previous period, the bib was sometimes a distinct garment, we may surmise that this gradually de- veloped into the kolpos close round the waist, and that the fashion of constructing this girding by means of the chiton itself, and not by a separate piece, was a COSTUME. 29 further stage in this development. With this cos- tume we usually find longish sleeves, reaching below the elbow, as a rule wide and puffed, though very narrow round the armholes. It is evident that a chiton of this de- scription, as well as the upper garment, if it was separate, was entirely con- structed by sewing, and was put on over the head by passing the arms into the sleeves; for we nowhere find an opening above the girdle in this dress. We do, however, find, when the upper garment is separate, that the chiton hasanopen- ing on one side be- ' low the girdle. If \^ we remember the Fig. 16. remark of Herod- otus previously quoted about the introduction of the stitched Ionic linen chiton, it is a natural assumption that this chiton, which was entirely put together by sewing, and worn without pins, was an Ionic garment; and in accordance with this we find this particular form of sleeve on Athenian reliefs as well as on those of Asia Minor. Contemporaneously with this change in female dress, the elaboration of the folds mentioned above 30 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. with cut-out corners and regular zigzag folds, pro- duced by stiffening and ironing, becomes more and more apparent, especially round the hems of the lower garments. It is true we must not depend too much on the monuments, for we often observe on these that only the ftont hem of the garment has the zigzag folds, while the back hem is quite plain, with only a suggestion of the necessary stiff folds. . (Com- pare Figs. 17 and 19.) It is evident, therefore, especially in the case of the vase painters, that this drapery is not so much an imitation of actual costume as a peculiarity of the artist's style. If we may draw any conclusion from the above- mentioned facts as to the differences between Doric and Ionic costume, these do not appear to be funda- mental, affecting the shape and appearance of the whole dress, but rather to have depended essentially on the mode of wearing, for the Doric chiton was shaped by pinning, the Ionic constructed by sewing. There is, however, a difference of material, since the Doric chiton was woollen and the Ionic linen. Nor must we understand Herodotus to mean that the Doric dress disappeared entirely after the introduction of the Ionic, for the monuments show us clearly that both kinds existed side by side ; so that just at the time of Herodotiis the chiton, which, at any rate in its upper part, was not sewn, but fastened by pins or buttons, was the more common. It is true that fashion, which was just as important in antiquity as now, is apparent in various changes, and these are especially conspicuous in pictures by the vase painters of the fifth century, such as Hiero, Duris, Brygos, etc. On these monuments (compare Figs. 4, 18, 19) the female dress is much wider and fuller than before, the kolpos goes all round the COSTUME. 31 body, and falls down below the hips almost to the knees. There is a sort of mantle, which falls a little way below the breast ; there are almost always sleeves, as there were in the previous fashion, but they are generally less puffed and have no narrow armhole, but a wide opening at the arms. The mode of putting on the chiton is also different, and corresponds to the Doric fashion ; the sleeves are not sewn together all round, but have a slit at the top, so that when the chiton is put on it is q^uite open there. 32 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. The drawing together of the sleeve openings by little fibulae or buttons fastens the chiton together at the neck, and gives the whole dress consistency. Fig. 17, a cithara player about to tie, or possibly Fio. 18. to unloose, the girdle which fastens her upper gar- ment, shows this method of putting on and fastening the upper garment very plainly. However, the bib, which is usually found, is absent here. But if we look somewhat more closely at this costume, we find in it a sort of combination of the COSTUME. 33 Doric and Ionic. The mantle is due to the former, the kolpos to the latter: the fastening with fibulae is characteristic of the former, the sewing of the latter. For we must regard a chiton like that worn by the Maenad on the left in Fig. 18 as one connected piece, one wide garment, more than twice the length of the body, sewn together round the sides, open at top and bottom, out of which the wearer constructed the bib and sleeves by drawing up the folds and letting them fall over the girdle, and by fastening or buttoning on the arms and shoulders. There is, however, reason to suppose that parts of this dress were sometimes separ- ately constructed of different material On the vase pictures of that period the various parts of the dress are sometimes characterised by different drapery. As a rule, the folds of the dress are marked by unbroken black lines; but, besides these, we sometimes find reddish brown, zigzag, or wavy lines (thus in Fig. 17, the upper part of the woman's dress ; in Fig. 18, the kolpos of the Maenad on the right ; in Fig. 19, the kolpos and the sleeve). When we observe (as in Fig. 18) that in other figures the corresponding parts of the dress are all marked by the same lines, we find ourselves almost forced to the conclusion that the artists wished to represent distinct garments separ- ately put on, especially as this distinction of unbroken and zigzag folds can also be traced in sculpture. It would be very easy to imagine it in such a dress as that in Fig. 17 ; for if in Fig. 16 the upper garment above the girdle is distinct, it might also be the case in Fig. 17. But such"an assumption would be more diffi- cult, nay, almost impossible, for Fig. 18. If we assume distinct material for the kolpos, the woman would be wearing three separate garments — the long chiton, which simply covers the whole body, the kolpos, and c 34 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. over that a distinct upper garment with sleeves. The dress in Fig. 19 would be no less complicated. It seems, therefore, that we ought not to lay too much stress on that treatment of the folds ; probably the artists made use of it in order to distinguish some- times between the wavy folds of full garments, sleeves^ etc., and the stiff folds of the per- pendicular skirt. For we may observe that the wavy folds are never found in these perpen- dicular garments, such as the chiton and the bib. If the vase painters are to be relied on, especially in the arrangement of the girding, the fashion at Athens in the middle of the fifth century B.C. was stiU rather heavy and awkward. It . was not until the excessive ful- ness of the girding was limited that it developed that regular and truly noble dress which we admire in the female figures of classic art and the following period. Still the dress is by no means uniform, for the same chiton can be worn in various ways, according to the arrangement of the girding and bib. The vase picture in Fig. 20 gives examples of this. There were, in particular, two methods. The one was to cover the body from the feet to the shoulders with a piece of stuff, and to fasten this by drawing the points of the folded back piece over the shoulders and hooking them to the points of the front piece, which was also doubled Fig. 19. COSTUME. 35 back. Then the extra piece fell down at the back and front, and the girdle was passed over it. The stuff was then drawn up a little over the girdle, while the ends of the garment fell down over the Fig. 20. hips. Strictly speaking, the kolpos here fell over the bib. (Compare the figure on the left.) The second plan was to take a longer piece of the chiton than was required below the girdle, so that the remainder fell on the ground ; the upper part was drawn up to the shoulders and fastened there by fibulae, either in such a way that these were visible (in that case the doubled pieces were fastened together), or so that the pins were hidden by the front piece 36 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. Fia. 21. (then tlie doub- led piece at the back was fas- tened to the under layer of the front piece, as in Fig. 20). The bib then fell freely over the breast and back till a little above the waist, the su- perfluous piece below, was drawn up over the girdle. The manner of ar- ranging thiskind of dress, which is the commoner, is very clearly seen in the bronze statue from Her- eulaneum repre- sented in Fig. 21. The girl, who is in the act of dressing herself, has already girded the chiton, and is now arranging the bib ; she has fastened it on the left shoulder COSTUME. 37 and is now drawing the folded back piece over the right shoulder with her right hand, in order to pin to it the front piece, which she holds in her left hand in such a way that the back piece may fall over the front piece. The points of both then fall over the hips to right and left a little more than half-way down the front breadth. To com- plete her dress, the girl will then draw up part of the garment, which is too long for walking, over the girdle, and this will appear below the bib. In the dress of the best period this puff- ing does not fall as low as before (or as that on Fig. 20). It is so arranged that the folds fall lower on the sides than in the middle, so that its lines may follow the outline of the bib, the points of which fall lower at the sides. Thus origin- ated that beautiful costume, inspired by a truly artistic spirit, which we admire in ^ the best Attic works of the age of Pheidias. As an ex- ample of this, compare Fig. 22, a Caryatid, from the Erechtheum at Athens. Fio. 22. Fia. 23. COSTUME. 39 With this dress sleeves, like those above described, are sometimes, but not always, worn. They are usually half-sleeves, with openings fastened by buttons or fibulae, not pieces separately sewn on, but part of the actual chiton. The last-described form of the chiton, which formed the' kolpos and bib by means of the girdle and pins, continued in the next period, and seems not only to have extended throughout Greece, but also throughout later Greek antiquity down to the Roman period. But there were also several other styles of dress, distinguished partly by their shape, partly by the manner of wearing. Thus, for instance, the general form of the chiton was retained, but the dress was made more comfortable by the separate con- struction of the bib, which, as we observed, was probably the case at an earlier period too, and by sometimes omitting it altogether. Sometimes, again, only a light chiton was worn without, any kolpos or bib, either with a girdle which was some- times worn above the waist (compare Fig. 23, "A Daughter of Niobe"), or sometimes falling quite freely (compare Fig. 24). Afterwards it was not unusual for the bib to fall below the girdle, while the kolpos was entirely absent (compare Fig. 25), or else fell above the bib (compare Fig. 20). In the graceful female figure in Fig. 26 there is another peculiarity. Here, as in Fig. 25, the chiton is open at one side, even below the hips, which was not the case with the ordinary dress, especially that worn out of doors. It is probable that this was the original form of the so-caUed Doric chiton, for it is thus that the Doric maidens were dressed, and on this account were mockingly described as " showing their hips." In the ideal figures the chiton of Artemis and the Amazons, 40 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. though shorter, is of the same kind. The form of tho chiton fastened together all round originated so early Fio. 24.- that . we only find the kind open at the side in rare instances on the oldest monuments. This COSTUME. 41 chiton corresponds in shape most closely to the short male chiton; like this, it often only ex- tends to the knees, and is fastened on the shoulders by pins without forming the bib. The dress with regular sleeves is also found in the later costume, either connected with the under garment or specially con- structed so as to cover only the upper part of the body. It was fastened to- gether all round, and opened at the sleeves, which were constructed by buttons. The himation continued to be the usual upper gar- ment. In the older costume of the sixth and fifth centuries it is often treated as a scarf in the manner above de- scribed, with two points fall- ing down in front over the shoulders (compare Figs. 4 and 24), but afterwards women began to wear the himation in the same way as men, either enveloping the arms entirely or leaving the right arm free (compare Fig. 23). A third mode of wearing the himation, which, however, is commoner in older than in later costume, is to draw it from the right shoulder across the breast to the left hip, leaving the left breast un- covered, and letting the points fall down on the right Pig. 25. 42 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. side of the body. In the pictures it often looks as though the himation were fastened on the shoulder Fig. 26. by pins, or even stitched together. We also find a light kind ot shawl, put on something in the manner COSTUME. 48 of the scarf worn by ladies some forty or fifty years ago. In fact, there seem to have been many varieties of female dress in the Alexandrine period, but we are not intimately acquainted with the details, as our principal authorities, the vase pictures, at that time no longer confined themselves as strictly as in the older periods to the prevaiHng fashion. In one of Theocritus' idylls a woman puts on first her chiton, then a peronatris (a robe fastened by clasps) of costly material, and over that an ampechonion. It is not clear what sort of garment this peronatris was. On the other hand, the terra-cottas of that period often represent graceful female forms in walking dress, that is, in the chiton and himation. Thus in Fig. 27, a and b, we see a woman in a long dress with a train, wearing over it a cloak drawn over her head in such a manner that only her face is visible. To pro- mote freedom of motion her cloak is drawn up over both arms, which are closely enveloped. In a similar matron-like dress is the lady represented in the terra- cotta figure. No. 28. She holds up her long himation daintily with both hands, to enable her to walk more easily. We cannot with certainty prove the existence of a chemise, since those expressions which are generally thus interpreted appear to relate to different kinds of chitons. Sometimes we see in vase pictures repre- senting scenes from the baths short garments with little sleeves, which cannot well be anything but chemises, worn under the actual chiton. We must not, however, assume that these were universally worn ; far commoner was the band caUed stropMon, corresponding to the modern corset, used to check the excessive development of the breasts, or to hold them up when the firmness of youth was gone. 44 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. We know very little about the colour and pattern of the dresses. The clothing worn by men, or, at any rate, those of the lower classes who laboured in the workshop or in the field, was cer- tainly dark, either of the natural colour of the wool or dyed brown, grey, etc. Otherwise the com- monest colour for the chiton and himation was white, and, as such garments natur- ally soon got ^ dirty, they were often sent to the fuller, who washed them and gave them fresh brightness by means of pipeclay and similar niethods. On festive occasions gaily-coloured dresses were usually worn, and then even simple people indulged in the luxury of bright colour; though, as a rule, to display this in ordinary, every - day Em. 27a. life was regarded in the better ages of Greek antiquity as a mark of vanity or characteristic of a dandy. Naturally, women were more inclined to COSTUME. 45 bright hues, and they were especially fond of saffron- coloured dresses, and also of materials with coloured borders and rich designs. Generally speaking, we may infer from the works of art that bright colour and rich ornamentation were most popular in the oldest period, and afterwards again in the epoch of declining taste; while the classic period made but a sparing use of either. The older vase pictures almost always re- present materials with coloured patterns, either purely ornamental designs (compare Figs. 10, 11, 13), or with representations of figures. Sometimes whole scenes full of figures in coloured embroidery were part of the dress, and this was sometimes arranged in rows, like the decorations on pots in ancient art. (Compare Fig. 12.) This is quite natural if we consider that in the more ancient costume there was scarcely any drapery ; both the chiton and the cloak were drawn tightly round the figure, and, therefore, the pictures could be fully developed and seen without any interruption Fio. 27*. 46 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. from folds. Purely ornamental patterns are also very common^ and show great variety, but very seldom good designs. Checks and dia- monds were especi- ally popular. As the fashion in dress changed, so did the use of ma- terials with patterns ; for garments worn at religious cere- monies, or by actors, the coloured em- broidery was re- tained; but in ordinary life the men, and even women, gradually discarded it, or at any rate reduced it to moderate propor- tions compared with the rich fulness of ornament in the older fashion, which almost concealed thereal colour of the dress. ThLs is especi- ally noticeable in the chiton when it falls in free folds, whUe the old-fashioned chiton, which had very few folds, bore bolder designs. It is also the case with the himation, which even in the classic period, when Fio. 28. COSTUME. 47 it no longer fell stiff and straight over the babk, but was drawn round the body in plentiful drapery, was often richly adorned with embroidery. The reason i^ probably because such shawl-like gar- ments are more loosely related to the body, and therefore the introduction of a pattern which weakened the impression of the figure is less dis- turbing here than in the chiton. However, these bright-coloured cloaks were exceptional luxuries. The fashion of the better period shows its classic sense of beauty in forming chiton and cloak from materials of one colour, and merely introducing orna- ments at the seams and edges, and these such as are of especial beauty and noble simplicity. In the fourth century B.c. a gradual decline is again observable, and after the time of Alexander the Great rich designs, sometimes introducing figures, become commoner, even in purely Hellenic dress. Numerous examples on works of art show us the unaesthetic and absurd side of this fashion. The elaborate patterns give a disturbing appearance to the whole figure ; the outline of the body is com- pletely hidden by the dress ; and when the drapery is disturbed or folded, in the case of borders or materials covered with figures, the result is some- times very ridiculous. As regards the material of the dresses, we men- tioned above that when the change described by Herod- otus was made, the linen chiton was introduced, but woollen materials were not on that account dis- carded ; and as men ceased to wear the chiton long, it became commoner to make it of wool. The oldest sculpture as a rule represents two distinct materials when once we get beyond the tight-fitting costume of the earliest period. One of these shows fine and flat 48 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. folds, while the other falls in large, deep folds. We cannot always maintain with certainty that these are two distinct materials, the former wool, the latter linen ; sometimes it seems as though there were only two qualities of the same material, one being fine and thin, and the other coarse and thick. Yet the .fre- quent use of linen is proved by the regular parallel and zigzag folds so common in the older art, which could only be produced in linen by artificial means. As a rule, they wore, as we do, lighter stuffs in the summer and heavier ones in the winter ; but though we very often find on archaic monuments transparent garments showing distinctly the outline of the body (compare Figs. 18, 24), we are scarcely justified in assuming a very widespread use of really transparent garments. Even though such thin materials may have been worn at that time, especially by hetaerae, their extensive use in vase painting is probably due to the fact that the painters, not knowing how to represent the outline of the body and the movements of the limbs under the dress, and yet desiring not to hide them completely by the clothes, resorted to this expedient of letting the outline appear through the dress malerial. These thin stuffs were always common in the dress of the hetaerae, but respectable women used them only as under garments. We may, how- ever, assume that this was also a matter of fashion, since materials from the looms of the island of Amorgos, which were especially noted for their fine- ness and transparency, were only fashionable for a short time in the period of the older Attic comedy. Later allusions to these stuffs are made chiefly by the learned, and do not refer to actual reality. Moreover, it is natural that the circumstances of the persons concerned played a part in the choice of coarser or COSTUME. 49 finer materials. The stufis introduced from foreign parts, such as cotton and muslin, could only be worn by the rich, as also silk, which, even in the Alexandrine period, was very rare and expensive. On the other hand, common men wore felt -like materials, and countrymen even tunics of skin or leather. In Greek antiquity coverings for the feet were not Fig. 29. so essential an article of clothing as at the present day, at any rate not for the male portion of the population. At home, and in summer, men as a rule went barefoot ; artisans and other members of the lower classes and slaves did so out-of-doors also, as well as people who desired to harden their bodies, like Socrates, or those who perhaps only affected an ascetic mode of life, like some of the Cynic philo- sophers. At Sparta, where the State took cognisance of the dress and food of the citizens, young men were actually forbidden to wear shoes, and many adhered to this habit even in old age, as, for instance. 50 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. Agesilaus, who, even as an old man, used to go without shoes and chiton, dressed only in his cloak. StiU, it was unusual for men to go out of doors in winter barefoot, as Socrates is said to have done during his campaign in Macedonia. Fig. 30. Generally speaking, the footgear of the Greeks was of two kinds: sandals, that is, mere soles tied under the foot, and actual boots. Between the two, however, there were a great number of transition stages, so that it is sometimes impossible to say to which of the two classes some kinds belonged. Sandals, which were j)robably the oldest kind, and in Homer apparently the only one, were worn by men and women alike, though far more commonly by the COSTUME 51 latter. They consisted of a sole made of " several thicknesses of strong leather, with sometimes a layer of cork ; to this straps were fastened, which passed across the foot and held them firm. For this purpose (compare the selection in Fig. 29, taken from works of art) a pair of straps passing over the instep and Fig. 31. heel were often sufficient, and these were either tied or fastened in such a way that another strap, passing between the first and second toes, was connected with the other two, which were fastened to the edge of the sole and buckled on the instep, the buckle usually having the shape of a heart or a leaf But these straps were often more numerous, and so complicated as to cover almost the whole foot, and thus resemble a perforated shoe. Sometimes they were continued as far as the ankle, or even the shins (compare the examples in Fig. 30), but this is only the case in 52 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. men's dress. Costly and brightly-coloured leather, with gilt and other ornaments, made this footgear, which was naturally simple, both ornamental . and expensive. The boots were something like ours ; they covered Fig. 32. the whole foot, and were laced or buttoned in front, over the instep, or at the side. In the older period men's boots generally went above the ankle, and at the front edge had a more or less pointed tongue bent forwatd. (Compare examples in Fig. 31, which also show us how this tongue gradually became smaller, and at last disappeared entirely.) Afterwards, low shoes, generally stopping short of the ankle, were the rule, especially for women, if they did not wear sandals. Fig. 32 gives various examples of this : they COSTUME. 53 are usually pointed at the toes, and old Spartan reliefs even represent shoes with points in front as part Fio. 33. of female dress. Huntsmen, countrymen, and the like wore high boots reaching to the shins (eV Spo^£Se:^^^>^^^^^>:^^::<^^ ^^.^<<^.^^^^.^:y.^<^^ ^x^xNyyy^ Fio. 111. by hollowing out the rocky ground below or above the earth, or by the artificial building up of a tumulua The curious tholos buildings of Mycenae, Orcho- menus,- Attica, etc., are generally supposed now to be nothing but large vaults of this description; and, indeed, throughout the whole of Greece, Sicily, and Lower Italy, numerous tombs, either vaulted out of the rock or constructed of large blocks of stone, have been discovered, not to speak of the temples and towers which are chiefly- found in Asia Minor, and usually appear to he due to-non-Grieek origin or influence. In 254 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. these vaults, which often served for whole families, they laid their dead, either in coffins or without them, merely in their grave clothes, generally resting on a flat stone. Thus the Attic vase picture in Fig. Ill represents the dead man in his tomb, the vaulting of which the painter has imitated, wrapped in a white cloth, a cushion under his head ; fiUets hang down from above. In Attica it was the custom to place the bodies so that their heads turned to the west and their feet to the east, while the opposite position was usual at Megara, where the customs differed in other ways, and three or four corpses were sometimes put in the same coffin. The custom of placing various objects required in daily life in the grave by the side of the dead man was universal, chiefly the things with which he had been occupied in his lifetime, or which belonged to his profession; clothes, money, oil-flasks, and other vases were put in, and besides them, in the case of a child, his toys ; in the case of a warrior his arms ; a woman's spindle or orna- ments and mirror ; a young man's strigil and oil-flask ; a musician's flute or lyre. We owe nearly all the small art treasures which have come down to us from antiquity, such as vases, terra-cottas, cameos, gold ornaments, caskets, etc., to this custom of adorning the graves of the dead with the objects used in daUy life. Many of these, especially vases, lamps, candlesticks, arms, etc., seem to have been specially made with a view to being placed in the grave, since they were often of no use for practical purposes. There were no doubt special places outside the walls devoted to burning the bodies, though it is quite possible that some people were burnt on their own land if that happened to be large enough. Wood, twigs, and" other easily-com- bustible substances were used for erecting a pile ; the body was laid on it, alpng with the cushions destined SICKNESS AND PHYSICIANS, DEATH AND BURIAL. 255 to be burnt, among which, besides the objects already mentioned, the favourite animals of the dead were often included ; and the pile was lighted with a torch. Round about stood the mourners, who called aloud many times on the dead, bidding him farewell. There do not appear to have been any other ceremonies connected with the funeral, nor did it bear a specially religious character, such as would be given it by the presence of priests or the offering of sacrifices; still, we must not forget that the mere act of burying or burning was regarded as a religious one. Funeral orations were only pronounced in the case of soldiers who had fallen in war, or men who had deserved specially well of