OORNELb UONIVERi,ITY library: Cornell University Library PK 1983.F69 1855 A grammar of the Hindustani language 3 1924 023 098 332 Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924023098332 THS XIEMENTS Of THE DEVAITAGAlil CBAMACTER . XS^Ti \ <>/-l>i^6c^T fN r. ^-r . ^ ^\ ^■ he ^ b (_^ - -^ : * ^r- J ^^ pe (--) p 1 " V ¥ V ^ 9 J te LU t ^ =• ^ j c ^ V *5 ta dL, t iJU s ll. :: 1 — ^ se LLi _« e-v * I'^.-i- ^ rr Jim ^ j t JS SJ- / ^ ^ che 5 eh t • < 1^^. ^ ^ he khe t h t t »- ^ ^ >■ J^^ ddl J d A Jk J ju« u ^ » da :: d u J St.J> JlS Ji'i M i 2 s A j a£K jsi re ^j re J r J J J J^ •ir C-^ t; ra It J r J J 1) J f > 1^ t« a ^j %e J % J j J / ^y- JJ THE ALPHABET. I. u. Nam*. III. Detached Form. IV. Power. GomMned Form. TI. Exemplifications. Final, Medial. Initial. FinaL Medial. Initial. ^J zhe J %k * J * J * J '^Ji ^ sin u- s U^ •Ua ^ ^maJ ^ shin sh A (^ A A jw£j jL sdd ^ s U^ a2 *a t/»j >Xtf jU sdd J> z l> *a *h L/*^ ^ 3w ^^> toe \= t k k k L^ > u> ^> we li z la k k l^B^ > ^ cr^' a'in t fl, etc. t X £ e- J^ 1^ ghain c gh t X £ i=f >^ J^ i ; fa <_J f i_d i. i Lji >- 4 > ;^'ii t w J h (i A )) iM yL. Iji , ^i^ Mf cS A tl^ i. r c^. J^> P ^^ir g^f ^ ^ ^ i r ^j A }^ r^ Idm J I J 1 1 J r^ ^ rv mim r m r ^-* •^ rt cr^ cT* uy n&n li) n i:? - y" i ^-^ H ib todw J w,etc. H i i y. >y. ^J ^ he 2 ^ i. v« jb ij ^ / ^ ■ v^- ye »/ y,eto. LS - -<: i ^- m 4 OP THE ALPHAT^EX. The alphabet here described is used, more or lem modified, by all those nations who have adopted the religion of Muhammad ; viz., along the north and east of Africa, ia Turkey, Arabia, and Persia, and by the Musalman portion of the people of India and Malacca. In pronouncing the names of the letters (column II.) let it b& remembered that the vowels are to be uniformly sounded as follows : — The unmarked a is always short, as a in woman, adrift, etc. ; d is always long, as a in war or art ; i is short, as in pin ; i is long, as in foUce ; u is short, as « in hull, pull, etc. ; ix is the same so and lengthened, and pronounced as u in rule, etc. ; e is sounded as ea in hear ; o is always long, as in no ; ai is pronounced as ai in aisle ; and au is sounded as in German and Italian, or very nearly like our ou in. sound, or ow in cow. 2. Perhaps the best mode of learning the alphabet is,. First, to write out several times the detached or full, forms of the letters in column III. Secondly, to observe what changes (if any) these undergo, when combiaed in: the formation of words, as exhibited in column Y. Lastly, to endeavour to transfer, into their corresponding English letters, the words given as exemplifications in column VI. a. It may be here observed that the letters 1 J J J . ? j ? and , do not alter in shape, whether initial, medial, or final. Another peculiarity which they have is, that they never unite with the letter following, to the left ; hence, when the last letter of a word is pre- ceded by any one of these, it must have the detached form, column III. The letters is and b, in like manner, do not alter, though they always unite with the letter following on the left hand. 3. In the foregoing table, most of the characters are sufi&ciently represented by the corresponding English letters : it will therefore be necessary to notice only thosa whose sounds differ more or less from our own. POWERS OF THE LEriEES. S >JL3 The sound of this letter is softer and more dental than that of ^he English t ; it corresponds vdth the t of the Gaelic dialects, or that of the Italian in the word soito. It represents the Sanskrit 1^. el> This letter represents the Sanskrit ^; its sound is much nearer that of the English t than the preceding In pronouncing it, the tongue should be well turned up towards the roof of the mouth, as in the words tip, top. Cj is sounded by the Arabs like our th hard, in the words thick, ihin ; but by the Persians and Indians it is pronounced like our « in the words siclc, sin. -- This letter has uniformly the sound of our ck in the word ^ihwch. _ is a very strong aspirate, somewhat like our h in the word haul, "but uttered by compressing the lower muscles of the throat. -i has a sound like the ch in the word loch,, as pronounced by the Scotch and Irish, or the final eh in the German words schaeh and luch. This letter will be represented in Eoman characters by hh, with s. -stroke underneath ( M ). J is much softer and more dental than the English d; it represents the Sanskrit ^, and corresponds with the d of the Celtic dialects, and that of the Italian and Spanish. J This letter represents the Sanskrit ^, and is very nearly the ■same as our own d. The tongue, in pronouncing it, should be well turned up towards the roof of the mouth. j is properly sounded (by the Arabs) like our id soft, in the words < > tU (JL> _ _ a 3 ? cLi* and c^/; as in the words 1^, pha ; Iff, tJia, etc. In such cases the learner must be careful not to sound the ph and th as in English ; the Ji is to be sounded separately, immediately after its preceding letter, as in the compound words up-hill, hot-house. In most printed books the rouud form of the h (JS and ^) is employed to denote the aspirate of the preceding letter, otherwise the form .^, is used ; but this rule does not apply to manuscripts, particularly those written before the days of Dr. Gilchrist, under whose auspices the distinction was first adopted. e. Much might have been said in describing the sounds of several of the letters ; but we question whether the learner would be greatly benefited by a more detailed description. It is difficult, if not impos- sible, to give in writing a correct idea of the mere sound of a letter, unless we have one that corresponds with it in our own language. When this is not the case, we can only have recourse to such languages as happen to possess the requisite sound. It is possible, however, that the student may be as ignorant of these languages as of Hindustani. It clearly follows, then, as a general rule, that the correct sounds of such letters as differ from our own must be learned iy ^^« ^''^ — we may say, by a ffood ear ; and, consequently, a long deseription is need- less. This remark applies in particular to the letters ClJ _ ^ J ^jD (ja ^ J) and the nasal j^. OF THE PRIMITIVE VOWELS. 4. In Hindustani, as in many of tte Oriental lan- guages, the primitive vowels are three in number. They are represented by three small marks or symbols, two of which are placed above and one beneath the letter after which they are sounded, as in the following syllables, J da, J di, and j du ; or J^ sar^j^ sir, and^ sur. 8 WEAK CONSONANTS. a. The first is called i^ fatha (by the Persians^J zdbar), and u written thus, — over the consonant to which it belongs. Its sound is that of a short a, such as we have it in the word calamus, which is of Eastern origin, and of which the first two syllables or root, calam or Jcalam, are thus written, ♦li. In such Oriental words as we may have occasion to write in Eoman characters, the a, unmarked, is under- stood always to represent the vowel fatha, and to have no other sound than that of a in calamm or calendar. h. The second is called by the Arabs kasra HjiuSi (by the Persians J J %er), and is thus — written under the consonant to which it belongs. Its sound is that of our short t in the word «^ and fin, which in Hindustani woujd be written i_..,~! and ^. The unmarked i, therefore, in the course of this work, is understood to have the sound of i in sip and fin, in all Oriental words written in the Eoman character. e. The third is called by the Arabs zamma (or dhamma) ba, c_j bi, and tl> bu. Eiaally, the 1 may be considered as the spiritus lems, or weak aspirate of the consonant a. a. The consonant c has the same relation to the strong aspirate _ that \ has to a; that is, the s , like the 1, is a spiritus lenis or weak ■aspirate; but the makhrcy, or 'place of utterance' of c, is in the lower muscles of the throat. Hence the sound of the letter c , like that of the letter \, df^pends on the accompanying vowel ; as i_-v= 'ah, i »c 'ib, ■^^ 'ub, which in the mouth of an Arab, are very different sounds from t_!| ah, (_Jl ib, and <—>\ tib. At the same time, it is impossible to explain in writing the true sound of this letter ; as it is not to be found in any European language, so far as we know. The student who has not the advantage of a competent teacher may treat the c as he does the 1 until he has the opportunity of learning its true «ound by the ear. In representing Oriental words in the Eoman ■character, the place of the c will be indicated by an apostrophe, thus, (J-u*£ 'asal. b. Of the consonants J and t/ very little description is necessary. The letter . has generally the sound of our w in we, went; but occa- eionally in words from the Sanskrit it has the sound of our v, which must be determined by practice. The sound of the consonant |_j is our own y in you, yet, or the German/ in j'ener. c. It appears, then, that the thirty-five letters constituting the Hindustani alphabet are all to be considered as consonants, each of which maybe uttered with any of the three primitive vowels, as \ a,\ i, and \ «; ^_>, ha, i—J hi, and *— >, bu, etc. : hence the elementary sounds of the language amount to one htmdred and five in number, °ioh corsonant forming three distinct sj'llables. 10 CONSONANTS MOVEABLE AND INEET. 6. When a consonant is accompanied by one of th.e three primitive vo-wels, it is said-to be lLS/sI< mutaharrik, that is, ' moving or moveable,' by that vowel. Oriental grammarians consider a syllable as a step or move in the formation of a word or sentence. When, in the middle or at the end of a word, a consonant is not accompanied by a vowel, it is said to be ^L sakin, ' restiag or inert,' and then it is marked with the symbol - or - called |»J:>- jasm^ which signifies 'amputation or cutting short.' Thn& m the word »>^j^ mardum, the mim is moveable hj fatha ; the re is inert,^ having no vowel ; the dal is moveable by samma ; and, finally, the mim is inert, ks, a general rule, the last letter of a word is inert^ and in that case the mark jazm - is unnecessary. 7. When a letter is doubled, the mark — , called tasMid, is placed over it. Thus, in the word tjuJLi shid-dat, where the first syllable ends with o {d) and the next begins with j (c?), instead of the usual mode cl:3^ the two dais are thrown into one, and the mark tashdid — indicates this coalition. The student must be careful to utter each of the letters thus doubled, dis- tiactly — the first letter ends the preceding syllable, and the second begias the following; they must not be slurred over as we do it, in such words as mummyy summer. The meaning of the term tashdid, is, * strengthen- ing or corroboration.' ' The term inert is here employed for want of a better. In most Arabic Persian and HinddstEmi Grammars, a letter not followed by a vowel is called quiescmt which is objectionable, as it is apt to mislead the beginner, the term quiescent beino- already applied in the English Grammar in the sense of not sounded. For instance the letter g is quiescent in the word phlegm; we cannot, however, say that m is quiescent in the same word, though wo may say that it is inert. The student will be pleased to bear in mind, then, that a letter is said to be inert when it is not followed by » vowel. LONG VOWELS. U or THE LETTERS \ ^ AND ^ VIEWED AS VOWELS OE LETTERS OF PROLONGATION. 8. The letters \ j and ^j when inert, serve to prolong- the preceding vowel, as follows. When \ inert is pre- ceded by a letter moveable by fatha, the fatha and alif together form a long sound like om: a in war, or au m. haul, which in Hiadustani might be written jlj and J Is-.. Now it so happens that the \ inert is always preceded by fatha : hence, as a general and practical rule, alif not beginning a word or syllable forms a sound like our a in war, or au in haul. In the Eoman character, the sound, of long \ will be represented by a, whilst the unmarked a is always understood to represent the short primitive- vowel fatha. 9. When the letter ^ inert is preceded by a consonant moveable by the vowel zamma, the samma and j together form a sound like our oo in tool; which ia Hindustani might be written jyj, or, which is the same thing, like- our u in rule, which might be written J)J. The same combination forms also another sound, like our o in mole,^ which would in the same manner be written J^^, or,, perhaps still nearer, like our oa in coat, which might be written <3^. In the Arabic language, the latter sound of . viz. that of in mole, is unknown ; hence Arabian grammarians call it Majhiil, or 'AJamt, i.e. the Unknown or Persian . ; whereas the former sound, that of w in -ule. is called MaWuf, the Known or Familiar ^ . If th& 12 LONG VOWELS AJSTD DIPHTHONGS. letter J be preceded by a consonant moveable by fatha^ HoBfathi and J united will form a dipbtiong, nearly Kke our ou in sound, or ow in town, bat more exactly like tbe au in tbe German word ^aum, wbicb in Hindustani migbt be written j.^. In tbe following pages tbe Ma'ruf maud wQl be represented by u; tbe Majhid by o, -and tbe dipbtbong by au. If tbe ^ be preceded by tbe vowel kasra, no union takes place, and tbe ^ preserves its natural sound as a consonant, as in tbe word \^ ■siwa. h. "When the letter j in words purely Persian is preceded by ^ (moveable by fatha), and followed by \ ; the sound of . is scarcely perceptible ; as in the word i\yS~ pronounced khdh, not hkawdh. "When we have occasion to write any such words in the Boman character the w will be written with a dot under ; thus, iljrl. khwuk. 10. "Wben tbe letter ^f inert is preceded by a con- ^sonant moveable by Icasra, tbe kasra and tbe ^ tmite, and form a long vowel like our ee in feel, wbicb ia Hindustani migbt be written jli ; or, wbicb is tbe same tbing, like oai i m. machine, wbicb migbt be written ^j^Xi*^. Tbe same combination may also form a sound like our ea in. hear, wbicb would be written Jlj or Kke tbe Frencb e in tbe words pre, donn'e, but longer; or tbe 'German e followed by A in tbe words sehr, gelehrt. In tbe Arabic language, tbe latter sound of ^ is unknown: bence, wben tbe ^ forms tbe sound of ea in bear etc. it is called Yae Majhul, or Yae ^Ajami, tbat is, tbe Unknown or Persian ^j; wbilst tbe former sound— tbat of ee m feel, or i m macbine — is called Yae Ma'ruf ibe Known or Familiar ^. Wben the letter ^ inert is ^preceded by a consonant, moveable by fatha, tbe fatha ^nd tbe ^ unite, and form a dipbtbong, like at in tbe LONG VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS. IS German word Kaiser^ which, in Arabic, Persian, and Hindustani, is written J^. This sound is really that of our own i in wise^ sise^ which we are pleased to caU a. vowel, but which, in reality, is a genuine diphthong. When the letter ^j is preceded by samma, no union takes- place, and the ^^ retains its usual sound as a consonant,, as in the word y^ muyassar. Lastly, if the letter |_^ be followed by a vowel, the above rules do not hold ; and- the ^ is to be sounded as a consonant, as in the words ^^,Uj iayan, and ^\ij siyan^ not lai-an and si-an, to represent which latter sounds the mark hamza (No. 15) would bo' requisite. A similar rule applies to the j . a. It must be observed, that there are very few Hindustani works^ printed or manuscript, in which all the vowels are marked as we have just described ; the primitive short vowels being almost always omitted, as well as the marks Ji- ja%m and _=_ tashdid. This omissioa occasions no serious inconvenience to the natives, or to those who know the language. To the young beginner, however, in this country, it is essential to commence with books having the vowels carefully marked ; otherwise he will contract a vicious mode of pronunciation, which he will find it difScult afterwards to unlearn. At the same time, it is no easy matter in printing to insert aU the Towel-marks, etc. in a proper and accurate manner. In the present ■work, a medium will be observed, which, without over-crowding the text with symbols, will suffice to enable the learner to read without any error, provided he wiU attend to the following rules. 11. The short vowel fatha ^- is of more frequent occurrence than the other two ; hence it is omitted in the printing ; and the learner is to supply it for every consonant except the last, provided he see no other vowel, nor the markytf^^m, nor the ^ {butterfly) form of the letter he (par. 3, i) accompanying any of the eonsonantsi aforesaid. 14 PKACnCAL EUIES. a. The letter j at the beginning of a word or syllable is a con- sonant, and generally sounded like our w, as in the words {jm^ wis, ^) watan. When j follows a consonant, that has no vowel-mart or Jazm accompanying it, the j has the sound of o long, as in the words ^-j so, ^ ho. When the consonant preceding the j has the mark %amma -L. over it, the j has the sound of « in rule, or oo in fool, as in the words •».■ sk or soo, and jS Tcii, or hoo ; and if the preceding con- son ant has the vowel mark fail^a -£- over it, the . forms the diphthong au> as ;-: sau or sow, ^ kau or cow. b. The letter ^ at the beginning of a word or syllable is a con- sonant like our letter y, as in ^j i/ih, jb j/dd. When the letter ^ is medial or final, if the consonant preceding it has no vowel-mark or j'azm, the ^ is sounded like ea in hear, or ai in fail, as in the words _j her, and rr-» ««?"• If the consonant preceding the ^ has the mark kasra —r under it, the i^ has the sound of i in machine, or ee in /eeZ, as —J h'vr or i«er, and -wj «ir or seer ; and if the preceding consonant has the mark fatha _c over it, the ^ forms the diphthong ai as -o -Jaw* or hyre, and _.-: «a«V or sire c. There are a few instances in which the letters . and ^ unite with the preceding consonant, as in the words i<«V-j swdmi, and L^ hjd; but such combinations being of comparatively rare occurrence, •they may safely be left to the student's own practice. Lastly, in a few Arabic words the final t_f occurs with an \ alif written over it in which case the \ only is sounded, as in the words I -or ukhd; ULu ta'dld. 12. We shall no-w at one view exhibit the practical lapplication of the principles treated of in the precedinff iparagraphs. The vowels ia Hindustani, as the student may have ere now perceived, are ten ia number the manner of representing which may be seen in the fol- lowing ten words. The upper line (1) contains ten English words in common use, in each of which occm-s the corresponding sound of the Hindustani word beneath. The lower line (3) shews the mode in which the Oriental EXAMPLES OP VOWELS MEDIAL OR FINAL. 15 Towels will be uniformly represented in Eoman cha- racters in the course of this work. 1. fun fin foot fall foal fool fowl fail feel fiU '^ ^ Jt- "^^ J^ Jy Jy Jj^ <-M J:?^ i-U ■3. fan fin fut fdl fol ful faul fel f'll Jail 13. We have now, we trust, fully explaiaed how the vowels are to be represented when they follow an audible consonant, such as the letter i_j / in the foregoing list of words. In order to represent the vowels as initial or commencing a word, it will at once occur to the student that we have merely to annihilate or withdraw the letter ^ from the above words, leaving everything else as it : stands, and the object is effected. This is precisely what we do in reality^ though not in appearance. The Arabian grammarians have taken into their heads a most subtle crotchet on this point, which is, that no word or syllable can begin with a vowel. Therefore, to represent what we call an initial vowel, that is, a vowel com- mencing a word or syllable, they employ the letter '\ alif as a fulcrum for the vowel. "We have already stated (No. 5) that they consider the \ as a very weak aspirate or spiritus lenis ; hence its presence supports the theory, at least to the eye, if not to the ear. In order, then, to exhibit the vowels in the preceding paragraph as initial, we must, after taking away the letter u_! substitute \ in its place, which \ being nothing, or very nearly so, the process amounts in reality to the with- -drawal of the letter i_i /, and the substitution of what may be considered as mere nothing, thus — 1. un in 66t all 61 661 owl ail eel aisle ^. J^ ul ^^' J" J^^ ^^^ Jj^' ^J ^l ^} ■3. an in ui dl ol id aul el il ail 16 INITIAL VOWELS. Instead of writing two alifs at the beginning of * word, as in J\l al, it is usual (except ia Dictionaries) to- write one alif with the other curved over it ; thus JT. This symbol — is called »3^ madda, ' extension,' and denotes 1 h'xt \^a.i: alif is sounded long, Kke our a in water. M. de Sacy (V. Grammaire Ardbe, p. 72) considers the mark madda — to be nothing else than a * mm, the- initial of the word madda; but our business is simply with its practical use, and the reader if he pleases may" view it as a contraction of our letter m, meaning ' Make- it long.' 14. If, instead of \ in the above series, we substitute- the letter £, we shall have virtually the same sounds, only that they must be uttered from the lower musoles- of the throat, thus — ^ cj^ ^-^-^ J^ Jy=- Jy^ J^ J:?^ Ji-c Js^ 'an 'in 'ut 'dl 'ol '•dl 'aul 'el 'il 'ail a. It appears, then, that -when in Hindustani, a word or syllable- begins with what we consider to be a vowel, such word or syllable^ must have the letter ^ or t to start with. Throughout this work, when we have occasion to write such words in the Eoman character, the corresponding place of the s will be indicated by an apostrophe or apiritus lenis; thus, J-iu£ 'dsal, JjIc 'ubid, jjo la'd, to distinguish the same from J-j1 asal, JjI abid-, Ja lad, or jlj had. In other respects the reader may view the \ and t in any of the three following lights. 1 st. He may consider them of the same value as the spiritm lenis (' ) in such Greek words as av, iv, etc. 2ndly. He may con- sider them as equivalent to the letter h in the English words hour herl, honour, etc. Lastly. He may consider them as mere blocks whereupon to place the vowels requisite to the formation of the syllable. Practically speaking, then, \ and ,c when initial, and the •I and ij when not initial, require the beginner's strictest attention-, as they all contribute in such cases to the formation of several sounds. or THE MAJJi HAMZA. 17 15. "We have stated that, according to the notions of the Arabian grammarians, no syllable can begin with a vowel. In practice, however, nothing is more common, at least according to onr ideas of such matters, than to meet with one syllable ending with a vowel, and the next beginniag with one also. When this happens in Persian and Hindustani, the mark s- called hamsa is in- serted between the two vowels a little above the body of the word, as in the words ^j\>- jd,un, ^'\> P^i^) ^^^ sometimes there is a vacant space left for the hamza, Kke the initial or medial form of the ye without the dots below, thus [j] or [-] as ia the words ^(jJli fd^ida ; ^J~^ kiji-e. The hamsa, then, is merely a substitute employed in the middle of words for the letter 1, to serve as a com- mencement (or as the Orientals wiU have it, consonant) to the latter of two consecutive vowels. Practically speaking, it may be considered as our hyphen which serves to separate two vowels, as in the words co-ordinate, re-iterate. It serves another practical purpose in Persian, ia the formation of the genitive case, when the governing word ends with the imperceptible a h, or with the letter t^ as in the words (_/u1j ^joJ dida-i-ddnish, 'the eye of intelligence,' where the hamsa alone has the sound of the short i or e. a. The sound of the mark ham%a, according to the Arabian gram- marians, differs in some degree from the letter \, being somewhat akin to the letter c, which its shape £ would seem to warrant; but in Hindustani this distinction is overlooked. "We have here confined ourselves solely to the practical use of this symbol as applied in Persian and Hindustani; for further information on the subject, the reader may consult De Sacy's Arabic Grammar. 16. Before we conclude the discussion of the alphabet, 3 18 LECTEES PECULIARLY ARABIC, PERSIAN, ETC. it may be proper to inform the student that the eight letters e^ _. ^ ^ Is b c and j are peculiar to the Arabic ; hence, as a general rule, a word containing any one of these letters may be considered as borrowed from the Arabic. "Words containing any of the letters ^ J j or 4 may be Per sian or Arabic, but are not of Indian origin. The few words which contain the letter J are purely Persian. Words containing any of the letters <_j _ or i^ may be Persian or Indian, but not Arabic. Lastly, words con- taining any of the four-dotted letters to 3 J are purely Indian. The rest of the letters are common to the Arabic, Persian, and Hindustani languages. 17. As words and phrases from the Arabic language enter very freely into the Hindustani, we cannot well omit the following remarks. Arabic nouns have fre- quently the definite article Jl 'the' of the language pre- fixed to them ; and if the noun happens to begin with any of the thirteen letters cjij^jijjjj.U(ji(_^ ^\s)o or ^j , the J of the article assumes the sound of the initial letter of the noun, which is then marked with tashdid ; thusjjjl 'theHght,' pronounced an-nur^iaot al-nur. But in these instances, though the J has lost its sound, it must always be written in its own form. Of course, when the noun begins with the J, the J of the article coincides with it m like manner, as in the words iLUl al-lailat, ' the night ;' and in this case the J of the article is sometimes omitted, and the initial lam of the noun marked with tashdid, thus, - Mhmatan; or when the word ends in i_S ye, surmounted by \ [ Jc ] (in which case the \ only is pronounced), LiXa huian. In Hindustani the occurrence of such words is not « ■ . . . . . t^ ^.. common, being limited^ to a few adverbial expressions, such as liX^is kasdan, ' purposely,' UIrjI ittifdkan, ' by chance.' In the Eoman character the letter n, with a stroke underneath [re], wOl be used for the 'nunation.' 19. "We may here mention, that the twenty-eight 20 NXTMEEICAL VALUE OP THE LETTERS. letters of tlie Arabic language are also used (chiefly iu recording tlie tar'ikh, or date of historical events, etc.), for the purpose of numerical computation. The numerical order of the letters differs from that given in pages 2 and 3, being, in fact, the identical arrangement of the Hebrew alphabet, so far as the latter extends, viz., to the letter LU 400. The following is the order of the numerical alphabet with the corresponding number placed above each letter; the whole being grouped into eight un- meaning words, to serve as a ' Memoria technica.' sii ill i ii§ dJ^ c:^ V where \ denotes one. *- « m -* <_j two, ^ t£re.e, j four : etc. a. In reckoning by tte preceding system, the seven letters peculiarly Persian or Indian, viz. <_> <-l> _ 3 J J, and (.sJ*, have the same value as their cognate Arabic letters of which they are modifications, that is, of t_> lU _. ^ j, and lL5^ respectively. The mode of recording any event is, to form a brief sentence, such that the numerical values of all the letters, when added together, amount to the year (of the Hijra) in which the event took place. Thus, the death of Ahli of Shfraz, who may be considered as the last of the classic poets of Persia, happened in a.h. 942 (a.d. 1535). This date is recorded in the sentence ^Xits\ Jjj Ijti isLijli 'Ahli was the king of poets;' where the sum of all the letters he, alif, ddl, etc., when added together, will be found to amount to 942. The following date, on the death of the renowned Haidar 'AH of Maisiir (a.h. 1196), is equally elegant, and much more appropriate: CL-vj^ CL>\^% yls»- The spirit of Balaghd,t is gone.' h. Sometimes the title of a book is so cunningly contrived as to express the date of its completion. Thus, several letters written on various occasions by Abu-l-Pazl, surnamed 'AUamf, when secretary to the Emperor Akbar, were afterwards collected in one volume by 'Abdu-s-samad, the secretary's nephew, and the work was entitled OP DATES. 21 je^lLc cuLjIL^ muMtahdt-i 'alldmi, ' The letters of 'Allami,' which at the same time gives the date of publication, a.h. 1015. We may also mention that the best prose work in Hindustani — thejl^j j ?b ' Bagh o Bahar,' by Mir Amman, of Delhi, was so called merely because the name includes the date ; the discovery of which we leave as an ■exercise to the student. e. It is needless to add that the marks for the short vowels count as nothing ; also a letter marked with tashdid, though double, is to be reckoned but once only, as in the word 'alldmi, where the Idm though double counts only 30. The Latin writers of the middle ages some- times amused themselves by making verses of a similar kind, although they had only seven numerical letters to work with, viz., i, v, x, l, c, D, and ir. This they called carmen eteostichon or chronostichon, out of which the following effusion on the Eestoration of Charles II., 1660, win serve as a specimen : Cedant arma olese, pax regna serenat et agros. Here the numerical letters are c n m l x =1660. d. In Arabia, Persia and India, the art of printing has been, till recently, very little used ; hence their books, as was once the case in Europe, are written in a variety of different hands. Of these, the most common are, 1st, the NasTM ^.s*^, of which the type employed in this work is a very good imitation. Most Arabic Manuscripts, and particularly those of the Kur'an, are in this hand ; and from its com- pact form, it is generally used in Europe for printing books in the Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and Hindustani languages. 2ndly. The Ta'l'ik fj-^, a beautiful hand, used chiefly by the Persians and Indians in disseminating copies of their more-esteemed authors. In India, the Ta'lik has been extensively employed for printing, both Persian and Hindustani works ; and within the last twenty years, a ^ew Persian books, in the same hand, have issued from the Pasha of Egypt's press at Biilak. 3rdly. The Shikasta 1^ rdt, the night Genitive i- ^^- K CL>\j rdt-M, -he, -kk, of the night Dative ' S CLi\j rdt-ho, to the night Accusative 5 ^ , ' , } ( jS cu\j rat-ko, ) Ablative ^-j CJm rdt-se, from the night Locative J- jttr* i-^\j rat-men, -par, in, on, the night Agent (J clj rdt-ne, by the night Tocative ClS\j ijs\ ai rdt, night ! Plural. Nominative t^]j ^"■i^^t the nights I Genitive ^S- iS- ^ oy\l *'"^<"* ^4 -^^> -^K of the nights- S r^y\j rdton-ko, to the nights ^h '"«^*'^' j the nights <^ LL)}^\y '''"■ion-se, from the nights J- ;I^ ilivL" rdton-mm, -par, in, on, the nights ,_j r^^\j rdton-ne, by the nights Ji\j ^\ ai rdto, nights ! Peminine nouns ending in ^j- i, add ^- an in the nominative plural; thus ^Jjjj rott, 'bread,' 'a loaf,' nom. plur. ^j^jjj rotiydn^ In the oblique cases plural, they add ^.jy on as above. In like manner a few words in j- ii, add j^l dn, as jj jj^f- jorii^ 'a wife,' nom. -plax. joruwdh oijorii,dn. a. We may now take a brief view of the formation of the cases. CO Dative o Accusative 3 Ablative o Locative .Agent Vocative 28 DECLENSION, It will be seen that in the singular, the oblique cases are fonned •directly from the nominative, which remains unchanged, by the addi- tion of the various post-positions. The genitive case has three forma of the post-position, all of them, however, having the same significa- tion, the choice to be determined by a very simple rule which belongs to the Syntax. The accusative is either like the nominative or like the dative ; the choice, in many instances, depending on circumstances which will be mentioned hereafter. The nominative plural adds en to to the singular (rfre if the singular be in zj. The oblique cases plural in the first place add on to the singular, and to that they affiv the various post-positions ; it wiU be observed that the accusative plural is ■either like the nominative or dative plural. The vocative plural is always formed by dropping the final n of the oblique cases. Let it also be remembered that the final r, added in the formation of the cases of the plural number is always nasal. Vide letter r^ page 6. Class II. — Including all Masculine Nouns, with the exception of such as end in 1 d (purely Indian), .u\ dn, and is h. Example, J^ mard, man.' Plural. J-» mard, men. ^-\^-^ o'^*^ ^ardon-M, etc., of men. Singular. -N. iiyt mard, man. G.^. ^ -l^ J^ ma/rd-M, etc., of man. D. ^ 0^ mard-ho, to man. Ac. ( lir^ mard, \ \ ^ < , , man. ( jS J^ ma/rd-ho, ) Ah. ^^ liy* mard-se, from man. ^■A- ^^j^ tiy mard-men, -par, in, on, man. Ag. tj C>y »»(W(?-«e, byman. T. ^_^ ^\ ai mard,0 man ! / dyic to ji- mardon - ko, men. (X^ mard, ) ^ ji (215*^ mardon-lco, ) fl ij~j loj'^r* mardoh-se, from men. -par, in, on, men. (3 liij'V^ tnardoh-ne, by men. j\ aimardo,OmsD.\ jJ^ This class, throughout the singular, is exactly like class I., and in the plural the only difference consists in the absence of any termination added to the nominative, and consequently to the first ■form of the accusative, which is the same. DECLENSION. 29 All the other oases in the plural are formed precisely as before. It must be admitted that the want of a distinct termination to dis- tinguish the nominative plural from the singular, however, ia Class II. is a defect in the language. This, however, seldom occasions any ambiguity, the sense being quite obvious from the context. The German is liable to a similar charge, and sometimes even the English, in the use of such words as deer,' sheep,' swine,' and a few others. Class III. — Including Masculine Nouns purely Indian ending in \ a, a few ending in rj\ dh, and several words, chiefly from the Persian, ending in the imperceptible s or short a. Example, \^ huttd, a dog.' Singular. N. ^ huttd, a dog. G. ^- fS- ^ 15=^ hutte-hd, etc., " of a dog. -? D. S ^J^ Teutte-Jco, to a dog. Ac. Ab. a dog l::^ huttd, ^ ^i hutte-ko, ^^ j:^ hutte-se, from a dog. Loc. J- ij^ ^J^ hutte-men, -jpa/r, "in, on, a dog. i, by a dog. Ag. sit/ Voc. ^^ u?l ai hutte, dog ! Plural. ^S hutte, dogs. ^- ^- 1^ /j)^ hutton-hd, etc., of dogs. ^ ^j^ kutton-ho, to dogs. ^ hutte. II /^^ hutton-ho, 1 ' ^ ^^ hutton-se, from dogs. J- '.^ M}^ hutton-men, -par, in, on, dogs. (J r^cSi hutton - ne, ly dogs. fi i_s\ ai kutto, dogs ! a. In like manner may be declined many words ending in S, as jf jcj landa, ' a slave,' gen. lande-kd, etc., nom. plur. lande, slaves,' gen. landon-hd, etc. Nouns in dn are not very numerous, and as the final n is very little, if at all, sounded; it is often omitted in writing ;. thns ^jLiJ haniydn or Lj haniyd, ' a trader,' gen. laniyen-hd or laniye- Id which last is the more common. In the ordinal numbers, such as /jl^J daswdn, ' the tenth,' etc., the nasal h generally remains in the inflection, as ijj t-"^ daswen-kd, etc., ' of the tenth.' In the obliqna- ■30 GENEEAL RULES FOR DECLENSION. cases plural, the r^\ an, is changed into ^^j on. With regard to this third class of words, we have one remark to add ; which is, that the vocative singular is ^often to be met with uninflected, like the mominative as lio i_f\ ai hetd for ^^ i_j\ , son ! ' b. The peculiarity of Class III. is, that the terminations \ d and 2r a, of the nominative singular, are entirely displaced in the oblique cases singular and nominative plural by ^ e, and in the oblique cases plural by ^^ on. This change or displacement of termination is called inflection,' and it is limited to masculine nouns only with the above terminations ; for feminines ending in \ rj* or i, are never inflected, nor are all masculines ending in the same, subject to it. A consider- able number of masculine nouns ending in \ a, purely Arabic, Persian, or Sanskrit, are not inflected, and consequently belong to Class 11. On the other hand, masculine nouns purely Indian, such for example as the infinitives and participles of verbs used substantively or adjec- tively, are uniformly subject to inflection. In like manner, several masculine nouns ending in the imperceptible s are not subject to inflection, and as these are not reducible to any rule, the student must be guided by practice. 0. Masculines in a from the Persian often change the s into \ in Hindustani ; thus i-''5 dida-i hash men, ' in the eye of prudence ; ' ^-^ "^^isT, ^^jj zahdn-t ■rekhta men, in the Bekhta or mixed dialect.' 26. General rules for the Declension of Nouns. — 1. In classes I. and II. the nominative singular remains ■unaltered throughout, the plural terminations being superadded. 2. In class III. the nominative singular is changed or inflected into ^ e, for the oblique singular and nominative plural, and the terminations of the ■olDlique cases plural are substituted for, not added to, the termination of the singular. 3. AU phu-als end in POST-POSITION. 31 ^j oh in the oblique cases, that is, whenever a post- position is added or understood. 4. The vocative plural always ends in ^ o, having dropped the final ^ h oi the oblique. 5. "Words of the first and second classes, con- sisting of two short syllables, the last of which being Jatha^ drop the fatha on receiving a plural termiaation ; thus i_J^ prcif, 'aside,' nom. plur. ^J), prfeh, gen. 1^ i^^^jo tarfoh-k'a, etc., not tarafeh, etc. a. A few words are subject to slight deviations from the strict Tule, among which we may mention the following. 1. Words ending •J nw, preceded by a long vowel, as y Ij ndnw, ' a name,' J\i pdnw, 'the foot,' and y IT ganw, ' a village ;' reject the y nw, and substitute the mark hamaa on receiving a plural termination : thus, l^ m!'^^ pd,oh lea, etc. of the feet.' 2. The word w?'^ 9°;^, ' a cow,' makes in "the nominative plural ^f€ gd,en, and in the oblique plural ^y'€ gd,on, thus resembling the oblique plural of yli gdnw, 'a village.' 3. A few feminine diminutives in u_ iyd, like randiyd, chiriyd, etc. form the nominative plural by merely adding a nasal n, as /.l) y>- cMriydn, which is evidently a contraction for chiriyd,en, the regular form. 4. Masculines of the third class ending in lO ya, may follow the •general rule, or change the ,_$■ y into a h,am,%a before the inflection ; thus i)L; say a, ' a shade (of a tree),' gen. l^ ^Lj sdye-kd, or l^ ,_j*Lo sd,e-M. 5. The word ^ }j riipiya, a rupee,' has generally ^^j irwpa,e, for the nominative plural. 27. Post-position. — In this work, to avoid confusion, we apply the term post-position only to those insepar- able particles or terminations which invariably follow the nouns to which they belong. They may be united -with their substantives so as to appear like the case terminations in Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit, or they may be written separately, as we have given them in the ■examples for declension. The most useftd and important of them are the following, viz. : '^ Jed, ^ Jce, ^ ki, 82 ADJECTIVES. ' of,' the sign of the genitive case ; f ho 'to,' the sign of the dative, and sometimes of the accusative or objective case; ^-j se 'from,' or 'with,' (also ^y^ son, ^^^ sen, ^ji^y siti, are occasionally met with), the sign of the ablative- and instrumental ; ^ par (sometimes in poetry '<.ii-»«/7.n. 'base-born, 3 34 PRONOUNS. .' ' . I to us. jS |oy*^ hamon-ko, j ^ *ii Aam «e, ) Sr 1 . } from us ^^ C^y^ hamon se, ) i\j^ i»J6 ham-men, ) jj >Ji> ham-ne, j • " ' , . ? by us. (_J |j^-*jti hamon ne, ) . ) m us. In this example we have three forms essentially •distinct from each other, viz., the nominative, genitive, and oblique modification in the singular, as ,jJ^ maih, \.^ mem, .^ mujh ; and in the plural ^ ham, l^Ufc hamdrdi and ^ ham or ^yM^hamoh. From the oblique modifications, — .^ mujh, and ^ ham or ^^^ hamoh, — ^the 36 DEMONSTEATIVE PRONOUNS. other oblique cases are formed by adding tbe requisite post-positions, except tbat tbe case denoting tJie agent is in the singular J ^^ main ne. 9 • The second personal pronoun J tk or ^-J tain is declined in a similar manner. Singular. N. \y^ or jj til, or tain, Thou. G. ^-^ \j^ terd, etc., thy. D. & L^ ^^Jf^' to thee, Ac. ( if .xsr tujh-Tco, ) or thee. v. ^_j-. -^isr tujh-se, from thee. L. ^-.^ ..jrsT' y» hon-men, in you> (ii>^ tj *J tum-ne, or tumhoh- i3 ne, by you. *J 1^1 a« turn, ye ! Demonstrative Pronouns. 31. In Hindustani the demonstrative pronouns, 'this, 'that,' 'these,' and 'those,' at the same time supply the place of our third person 'he,' ' she,' ' it,' and ' they.' They are the same for both genders, and the context alone determines how they are to be rendered into English. The word ^j yih, ' this,' ' he,' ' she,' or ' it,' is used when reference is made to a person or object that is near ; and jij wuh., ' that,' ' he,' ' she ' or ' it * Wnen we refer to that wliich is more remoie. Tne DEMONSTRATIVE PEONOTJNS. 37 proximate demonstratiTe ^^_ yili^ 'he,' ' she,' 'it,' ' this,' is declined as follows : — ■ Singular. JST. ^^_ ^jih, this, he, eto. G.^-^S-'o(jm\ is-Jcd, -ke,-M,oi this, him, etc. D. ^-^1 »i (juul is-^o or w«, to this, to him, etc. Ac. ji (juul _(jj y«^ M-^o, ise, this, ^-oi him, «fo. Ab. (j-o (juj\ w-««, from this, him, etc. L. ^2^-.^ jjjj\ is-men, in this, or in him, «fo. ■^S- ci C>"^ *'«-»«, by this, or by him, o^p. Plural. ^^ ye, these, they. j_j^- i-S^- 1^ (jl «ra-/ia, -Jce, TA, of these, of them. \^\ A .\ \in-lco or inhen, or " ^ T 1 ^''^^^''^^'Of to these, ^ li}^ / "'" t° them. _jS (J I |j ye, «'»-^o, or inhen, ^,^ \ these, them. . s»j ^ in-se, from these, from them. ij--^ (jl in men, in these, in them. (S f^\ in-ne, by these, by them. In this example we see that the nominative yih is changed into is for the oblique cases singular, and the nominative plural ye becomes in for the oblique plural, just as in the English 'he' becomes 'him,' and 'they' ' them.' In the oblique cases plural, it may be men- tioned that besides the form ^\ in, we sometimes meet with ^j\ inh and ;^^\ inlioh, though not so commonly. The dative singular has two forms, one by adding ^o, like the substantives, and another by adding ^? e, as is-ho or is-e ; in the plural we have in-lto and in-heh. The accusative is generally like the dative, but often the same as the nominative, as in the declension of substantives. 32. The demonstrative n^, ' that,' ' he,' ' she. ' it ' the interrogative ^^ Jcaun, ' who ? ' ' what ?' the relative 38 INTEREOGATIVE PRONOUNS, ETC. fr JO: ' te who,' ' she who,' etc., and the correlative ^ so, ' that same,' are precisely similar ia termination to ^ in the foregoing example ; hence it will suffice to give the nominatives, and one or two oblique cases of each^ thus : — Remote Demonstrative. Singular. IS. it wuh, he, she, it, or that. Gr. ' Vi ijm] us-lcd, etc. D. |^»)1 ^i ijm\ us-lco, or use. Plural. !_?« «>«, they, those. G. IS G. Is jijiil ^ 1^1 un-kd, OT unhon-hk. /j-AJl »i ^j\ un-lco, or unhen. Interrogative (applied to persons or individuals). 1^^ kaim, who, which^ o jo^^ li ^^ Icin-M, or kinhon- kd, etc. Interrogative (applied to matter or quantity). ^^ Icaun, who, which. o ^_^ Icis-hd, etc. LS Aya, what. ^alS hdhe-kd, etc. Same as the singular. Relative. Singular. N. )=>- yo or (jj^=r /oare, He who, she who, that which. G. ^ i/*i^ jis-kd, etc. Plural. ji>- yo oTJaun, They who, those who, (>»• which. u (^\irr^ ^ f.^jin-M,jinlwh-kd, etc. ■D- i.s'"^ y^ U*^ yw-Zto, etc. I jj-f^ ^ (^ y»«-fo, or jinheh. Correlative. N. •-: so or (jjj iflMM, That same. G. l^ ijj^ tis-kd, etc. D. ig^ y ^/>*j tis-ko, tise. ^ so or ^,y taun, These same. " i^^yi^ " i^fj /('«-Z-d or tinhon-kd, etc. tl'^r*-' _)^ ^•^' tlx-ko, tinhcn. * Sometimes l> (juuj wis Ad, etc. ; and in the plur. \^ • ,iij . or .;j , ^j. win-, winh-, or tvinhon-, kd, etc. POSSESSIVE PEOSOUNS. 39 I'OSSESSIYE PRONOUNS. 33. The genitives singular and plural of the personal and demonstrative pronouns are used adjectively as pos- sessives, like tlie meus^ tuus, noster, vester, etc., of the Latin, and in construction they follow the rule given respecting adjectives in I a. There is, however, in addi- tion to these, another possessive of frequent occurrence, viz. L)l apm, ^\ apne, ^\ apnl, 'own,' or 'belonging to self; which, nnder certain circumstances, supplies the place of any of the rest, as will he fully explained in the Syntax. The word i_>T aj», ' self,' is used with or without the personal pronouns ; thus, i_;T ^\p^ main ap, ' I myself,' which meaning may be conveyed by em- ploying L_;T ap alone. Bui the most frequent use of w_>T dp is as a substitute for the second person, to express respect, when it may be translated, 'you,' 'sir,' 'your honour,' 'your worship,' etc. When used in this sense, c_jT dp is declined like a word of the second class of substantives under the singular form, thus : — dp, your honour. dp-U, -Ice, -let, of your honour. I ap-ho, to your honour, your honour. i apse, from your honour. dp-men, in your honour. dp-ne, by your honour. T dp denotes ' self,' it is declined _j| dp, self, myself, etc. [ij\ apnd, apne, apn'i, own, of g«lf, «««- V D. & Ac. i—J A. L. Agt. 4 (—J i >' V W hen the word as follows : — G. ^:' J^ 40 rNDEFINITE PRONOUNS. D. & A. " ST^' / ■'<-, ,. to-self, self. Tlie phrase ^^^ j^jT apas-meh denotes ' among our* selves,' ' yourselves,' or ' tliemselves,' according to the nominative of the sentence. INDEFINITE PEONOTJNS. 34. Under this head we class aU those words which have more or less of a pronominal signification. The following are of frequent occurrence : — CS^\ ek, ' one ; \j^.^ dicsra, 'another ;' jjjj dono^ or ^,y>j'^ donoh, 'both ;' jj\ aur, ' other (more) ;' jS ghair, ' other, (different) ;' ^^^^ixj ha'se, 'certain;' ^.^^^^^ bahut, 'many,' 'much;' , -^ sab, ' all,' ' every ;' jb /lar, ' each ;' or -^ U-^i^) 'some other,' t_x)l "0 <— -^.^j ' orasi or •other,' i^^ j^, 'some one else,' .^ j^, 'something else,' i ^-=jj^, " '' -^ ? ' the rest,' i^^ ij"^ "^ Ji'' us*^' 'some others,' CS-i\ i-:^-vJ, 'many a one,' .^ '-^^-v^ 'much,'jj'; tj^-^^fJ, many more,' ^^ '-r^ or JiiS Jb, everyone,' .^ i_^^«j or .^ Jb, every thing,' CS-{\ t_-v-:, CS^\ Jb or fjjj^ ji>, 'every one,' lIXjJ ^j^-Jy whichever,' jjl i^_^> p » '' .. -' 'some other,' ^^ ^ 'whoever,' .fs-* ^, whatever,' ^f ^ lt^J- '< ^ '< '< ' ••' ' ••"'^ 'some one or other,' lLxjI -fs^ or ..^ -ff^ > somewhat,' jjl -f^'j " ^y, some more,' .4^ ij -fs^, something or other. The use and application of all the pronouns will be fully explained under that head in the Syntax. 42 SECTION ill. OF THE VERB (ji,i FI'l). 35. All verbs in Hindustani are conjugated in ex- actly tie same manner. So far as terminations are concerned, there is not a single irregular verb in tbe language. There is, strictly speaking, but one simple tense (the aorist), which is characterized by distinct per- sonal endings ; the other tenses being formed by means of the present and past participles, together with the auxiliary ' to be.' The infinitive or verbal noun, which always ends in U na (subject to inflection), is the form in which verbs are given in Dictionaries ; hence it wiU be of more practical utility to consider this as the source from which all the other parts spring. 36. From the infinitive are formed, by very simple and invariable rules, the three principal parts of the verb, which are the following : — 1. The second person singular of the imperative or root, by rejectino- the final U na; as from Uj^ lolna^ 'to speak,' comes J^ hol^ 'speak thou.' 2. The present participle, which is always formed by changing the final L) na of the infinitive iato I; Ki as U^j lolna^ ' to speak,' U^ loltd^ ' speaking.' 3. The past participle is formed by leaving out the ^, n of the infini- tive, as Uj.' holna^ 'to speak,' Hy hola^ 'spoken.' If however, the li no, of the infinitive be preceded by the long vowels \ a or^ o, the past participle is formed bv changing the ^ n into ^ y, in order to avoid a disagree- able hiatus ; thus from Uil Idmi, ' to bring,' comes Li Idya (not 1'^ Id-d) 'brought;' so U.^, rond, ' to weep,' makes AUXILIiRT VERB. 43 Vljj ^^y^ i^ ^'^ P^s^ participle. These three parts being thus ascertained, it will be very easy to form all the various tenses, etc., as in the examples which we are about to subjoin. 37. As a preliminary step to the conjugation of all verbs, it will be necessary to learn carefully the following^ fragments of the auxiliary verb ' to be,' which frequently occur in the language, not only in the formation of tenses, but in the mere assertion of simple existence. Present Tense. Singular. /,»j» ij*^ main him, I am. ,jb y tii, liai, thou art. " ^ 9 ^ itt wuh, Jiai, h.e, she, it is. Past Tense. Ijj -w.^ main thd, I was. UJ jj tu thd, thou wast, ^j ij wuh thd, he or it was. Plural. (%-ji) *i> ham hain, we are. »i> »j turn ho, you are. • ,-JS i_ji ive haiii, they are. ^^ *a ham the, we were, ^j *j turn the, you were. ^Si ,_>• we the, they were. a. The first of these tenses is a curiosity in its way, as it is the only present tense in the language characterized hy different termi- nations, and independent of gender. Instead of the form Jb hai, ia the second and third persons singular, IxJi haiga is frequently met f^ -■ " .. ^ ... with in verse ; and in the plural, ^-^^ hainge for ^-Jb hain in the first and third persons. In the past tense, \^ thd of the singular becomes ,# thi when the nominative is feminine, and in the plural \j^ thin. We may here remark that throughout the conjugation of all verbs, when the singular terminates in d (masculine), the plural becomes e; and if the nominative he feminine, the d becomes i for the singular, and in (contracted for iydn) for the plural. If several feminine terminations in the plural follow in succession, the in i&- edded only to the last, but even here there are exceptions. 44 CONJUGATION. 38. "We shall now proceed to the conjugation of an intransitive or neuter verb, and with a view to assist the memory, we shall arrange the tenses in the order of their formation from the three principal parts already explained. The tenses, as will be seen, are nine in number — ^three tenses being formed from each of the three principal parts. A few additional tenses of comparatively rare occurrence will be detailed hereafter. a ■a Infinitive, U^j bolna, To speak. ' Imperative and root Jy bol, speak (thou). Present participle liljj boltd, speaking, k Past participle ^jJ hold, spoke or spoken. L. TENSES FORMED FEOM THE EOOT : Aorisf. English — 1 may speak,' ete. j^jliJ ^j^ main lolun. ^•J .J' til hole. J jj ij wuh bole. ^y, />Sb ham bolen. turn boh. ^3 we boleh. Future. English — ' I shall or will speak,' etc. yy ij^ main bolungd. IxJv jj til bolegd. oLljj Sj wuh bolegd. fern, bolungi, etc. Imperative. English — ' Let me speak, speak thou/ etc. \^_f^y. |»^ ham bolehge. \^yy. (W turn bologe, i^S^y !_>• we boletige. fern, bolengin, etc main boliiii. J^ y til bdl. ^jj ij wuh hola ^y *i! ham bolen, yji l«j' turn boh. ^^JtJ t/« "'<•" bcl«n. CONJUGATION. 45 2. TENSES EOEIVIED FEOM THE PRESENT PAKTICIPLE : Indefinite. English (as a present tense) — I speak, thou speakest,' etc. ; (conditional) — If I spoke, had I spoken,' etc. ; (habitual) — ' I used to speak.' Ujj j^-» main loltd. Isljj y til loltd. y«j *« wuh loltd. '-^y. h ij^y *!!> hata lolte. ^d»j *j' turn lolte. i_S^J^ ijj «"« lolte. Present. English — I speak or am speaking,' eto. ^.^ \i\%> •,-.< main loltd Mm. , JS cj»j ^j til loltd hai. i!) U jj ^j towA loltd hai. ■yja f^y> fr^ ham lolte hain^ Imperfect. English — I was speaking, thou wast,' etc. ^j U»J ^y^ main loltd thd. [^ U»j y til loltd thd. \^ y»j !Sj wuh loltd thd. ^ ^y> «Jb ham lolte the. ^^' ^J^jy, *J' turn lolte the^ 3. TENSES EORMED FROM THE PAST PARTICIPLE: Past. English — ■ I spoke, thou spokest,' etc. ^»j /j-»« main lold. S»j y til lold. iy Hj wuh lold. ^ jj *£) Aa»j lole. Jjj ^5j tee iofo. English — I have spoken, thou hast,' etc. •,Jb 'ijj ^f*^ main lold hibh. /j-jis ^y ^ ham lole hain. -^ i!y »J' til. lold hai. Jb ly S^ wan DVWt iril. ys ^^y («J tum lole ho. I ^jj-Ji jJjJ (^j we lole hain. 4G FORMATION OF TBNSKS. Phjperfeot. EngliBhr— I had spoken, tiou hadst spoken,' etc. i^ ISy -t-^* main hold. thd. \ii Jjj »i' tu hold thd. l^ ^ jj «. wuh iold thd. ^g^ J»j *a Afl»» SoZe the, ^^ ^.j *J' turn hole the. ^u ^ jj ^j we hole the. 4. MISCELLANEOUS VERBAL EXPRESSIONS : Respectful Imperatwe at Precative. ^LSjj loliye OT J^%> holiyo, 'Tou, he, etc., he pleased to speak' ,$U u holiyegd, ' Tou, he, etc., will have the goodness to speak.' Infinitive (used as a ge'rund or verhal noun). 'N'om. U )j ioW, ' Speaking : ' gen. ^ is^y. hohe-M, etc., ' Of speaking,' etc., like substantives of the third class. JVbun of Agency. SI) ijJy holne-wdld, and sometimes Ijlb i^yi lolne-hdrd, ' A speaker,' one who is capable of speaking.' Participles, used adjectively. Singular. Pres. UjJ holtd or IJi lil^ JoWd W,d, fern. hoWi or Past. 5!tJ Jo?d or Vji iLj ioM M,a, fern. ioZi or hoVi hii,,L Plural. •- , I. i_ji!^ ioZfe or ^ys ^jsljj io/fo AjI,«, fern. hoJtih or ioZ^j jj^ hole or o^ ^^jl... ioZ« h{i,i, fern. Jo?ire or JoZi hv,,'ih. Conjunctive (indeclinable). Jjj Jo/, ^Jy JoJe, ^^»j io?/^, ^jj holhar, ^y JjJ ioZ iaj--A«, or J^ J^ JoZ Aar/tar, ' having spoken.' Adverbial participle (indeclinable). ^ is^y. holte-hi, 'On speaking, or on (the instant of) speaking.' a. "We may here briefly notice how the various portions of the verb are formed. The aorist, it will be seen, is the only part worthy of the name of tense, and it proceeds directly from the root by adding the terminations iiu, «, e, for the singular, and eh, o, wi, for the yOEMATION OF TENSES. 47 plural. The future is formed directly from the aorist by adding go, to the singular and ge to the plural for masculines, or by adding gi and giydn (generally contracted into gin) when the nominative to the verb is feminine. The imperative differs from the aorist merely in the second person singular, by using the bare root without the addition of the termination e. Hence, the future and imperative are mere modifications of the aorist, which we have placed first, as the tense par excellence. It is needless to ofier any remark on the tenses formed from the present participle, as the reader wiU easily learn them by inspection. The three tenses from the past participle are ■equally simple in all neuter or intransitive verbs ; but in transitive verbs they are subject to a peculiarity of construction, which will be noticed further on. The proper use and application of the various tenses and other parts of the verb will be fully treated of in the Syntax. 5. As the aorist holds the most prominent rank in the Hin- dustani verb, it will be proper to notice in this place a few euphonic peculiarities to which it is subject. 1. Wten the root ends in a, the letter w is optionally inserted in the aorist between the root and those terminations that begin with e; thus US land, 'to bring,' root ^ Id, Aorist, ^J Idwi or ^i■'^ ld,e. 2. When the aorist ends in o, the letter w is optionally inserted, or the general rule may be observed, or the initial vowels of the termination may all vanish, as will be seen in the verb hand, which we are about to subjoin. Lastly, when the root ends in e, the letter to may be inserted between the root and those terminations which begin with e, or the w being omitted, the final e of the root is absorbed in the terminations throughout- Thus UjJ dend, 'to give,' root ^^0 de, Aorist, deiin, deive, dewe ; dewen de,o, dewen; or, contracted, dun, de, de; den, do, den. It is needless to add that the future and imperative of aU. such verbs are subject to the same modification. With regard to the respectful form of the imperative and future, we see at once that it comes from the root by adding iye, iyo, or iyegd ; if, however, the root happens to end in the long vowels i or i,, the letter j is inserted between the root and i;he termination. Thus L-J pind, ' to drink,' root, pi, respectful form, .p'ljiye, p'ljiyo, and pijiyegd. 48 THE TEEB ' TO BE.' 39. We now come to the verb ljyi> hond, ' to be, or become,' -which, being of frequent occurrence, is worthy of the reader's attention. It is perfectly regular in the formation of all its tenses, etc., and conjugated precisely like bolna, already giyen. The past participle changes the of the root into u, instead of retaining the o and inserting the euphonic y (No. 36), thus \\i> hu,a, ' been or become,' not bys hoyd; so the respectful imperative is liujiye^ etc. ; but these slight peculiarities do not in the least affect the regidarity of its conjugation, as will be seen in the paradigm. Infinitive, l)y& hond^ ' To be, or become.' Root jA ho, present participle uys Iwta, past participle Ita hu,a^ Aorist. ' I may, or shall be, or become.' (jys- ^ii^ ijry* main ho,kn, or hon. ojiys y tu howe, ho,e or ho. ^•JS i» wuh howe, ho,e, or ho. (ji,jy> *i> ham howen, ho, en, or hoh. _.Jji> aJ turn ho,o or ho. ijy*' drfi^' li'^JJ^ '^ ^* howen, ho,en, or hon. Future. 'I shall or will be, or become.' vx-ijA- Uw'jijJ!! -j^^ mam. ho,ungd, or Minga. \Sy6- lioys- "V.^y y' ^" howegd, ho,egd, or Ao^d. ITji)- Uvjys- "V.jy ^_5 «"«'» howegd, ho,egd, or Ao^a. c o t- LS^y"" \S^-i^' Li^'J^ (*^ '"'^'" howchge, ho,eiige, or hohgt,, ^_j*>i_^- i^_f~^,,^- 15^.;^ wr'j) '»''' howenge, ho,ciige, or holtgs. J*- ^JA. y- t^jjls- w^- o'?J^' y>. THE VERB 'to BE.' 4P Imperative. Let me be, be thou,' etc. ■*'.-• j.,»Jfc- f\j^i^ i\f!:^ main ho-kn, or hon. y& a tii ho. y*- (_^ift- ^i^ ^} '"^^ howe, ho,e or S" ^jtt- jj:*.)^- iJrfliy' i*^ ^''™ howen, ho-ek, or »««rt. ^- J yd *)' <«» Ao,o, or ho. 1^1 j^- My.jy" t^j *"* howen, ho, en, or Aow. >»J»- Liy& ' 'I am, J might be, I used to be, or become.' j2j-^ «z»i» \ ( *& ham y til [ hot&. *j' f?<«» ij jtiwX ) S^J *** Present. 'I am, w I become,' etc. ^^ • jjs bys |^»».^ main hotd him. ^i b'»i) y til hotd hai. ^a (jjJJ) ^j ««mA Aoia to'. •^^ is^j^ (*^ ^''''* ^"^^ ^am. ji) L hotd thd. \yc> Xj wuh /-^ main p •J M 2j wu^ r". 'I became,' ete. hiifd. ^J^i ^j we ) 50 THE TERB 'TO BE.' Perfect. 'I have become,* eta. Smgular. ^jii) 1J» /~»^ main nu,a nun. -& ]Ji i> til Mijd hai. ^b \^ ii wuh h,i,,d hai. •-j^ mam \£j \^ ) yi tu \hu,dthd i^ touk PluraL •_js ,_5ts) *& ham h{i,e ham. I had become,' etc. ift^ ham \ jj) turn \ hu,e the. ^j ive ) Respectful Imperative, etc. , (,.5" Jb hiijiye, j^j^*^ hiy'iyo, or ULLs-jii hiijiyegd, be pleased to be, or to become.' Infinitive, or Verlal Notm. l;»a Ao»(J, ' being,' hone-M, etc., of being.' iVoMre 0/ Agency or Condition. ^l)-j )JS honewdM, ' that which is, or becomes.' Pres. Liys Aoiii, or V^ byn ^oW A4,d, ' being, becoming.' Past. \tfi) hii,d, ' been, or become.' Conjunctive Participle. ^jjb j^jJfc yb ho, hoTcwr, hoke, etc., ' having been, or become.' Adverbial Participle. ^to iJj!" hote-M, on being, or becoming.' a. "We may here observe that the aorist, future, and iudefinite of Ij ys hand, to be,' are sometimes used as auxiliaries mth the present and past participles of other verbs, so as to give us three additional tenses. These, from their nature, are not of very frequent occurrence, and some forms of them we confess we have never met with in any work, printed or manuscript, except in grammars. They are, how- ever, considered as distinct parts of the verb by native grammarians. ADDITIONAL TENSES. 51 therefore it is but rigHt that they should find a place here. "We therefore subjoin them, together with their native appellations, re- serving the account of their use and application till we come to the Syntax. 1. JSdl-i mutasTiaiM, 'iiteTaHy; present dubious.' English — ' I may or shall be speaking.' uj • )A- io_5 j^ ^y. Jjs^ main ioUd ho,{in or l)o,ungd. o Ixj i|)Jb- iJji^ ^i^. y t'^ loltd hows or howega. 00 !»£>- i-5jy* ^ y ^5 '^'''^ Jo?<<£ ^0M>« or Jiowegd. ^XiJJ»J^- : jjjJs jc^jJ *tt) ham lolte howen or howenge. .. " ** .. (^ I ^ ^jjA- jta L^J jJ |«J" <«»» JoZi« M" or Jw,oge. LS^-ii^' '^••i^ LS^y- '-^i ^* ^"^^^ howen or howenge. 2. Mdzi mutashaMi or Mashhuk, past dubious.' English — I may or shall have spoken.' uOjjis- ^jjj^ ^y, (^f* main hold ho,iin or hoiuigi. uj jjJi- (-^^y* ^J^ y ^'^ ^"^^ howe or hotoegd. ^jy- "-Oy* ^J^ *5 ^''^ ^"^^ ^""'^ °'-' ^oieegd. j-xij .jJi- ij;; jy> lJ)J I** ^<^»* ^oZa howen or howenge. ?iam j^ ium, \ lolte iiote, or hole hatf. (_fj we 52 TRANSITIVE VERBS h. Of these three tenses, the first is of rare occurrence ; tha dsoond is more common, and the future form of the auxiliary is more usual than the aorist in both tenses. The third tense, or past conditional, is of very rare occurrence under the above form, its place being generally supplied by the simpler form IJjJ ^yy main loltd, the first of the tenses from the present participle, which on account of its various significations we have given under the appellation of the Indefinite Tense. In the ' Father of Hindustani Grammars,' that of Dr. Gilchrist, 4to. Calcutta, 1796, and also in two native treatises in our possession, the various forms main holtd,'' main loltd hotd,' main holtd hii,d hold,' and main iold hotd,' are all included imder the appellation of mdzi sharti, or md%i muiamanni, that is. Past Conditional.' It is true, the form main loltd' has occasionally a present signification, but to call it a present tense, as is done in some of our grammars, is leading the student into a gross error, as we shall shew hereafter. 40. "We shall now give an example of a transitive verb, which, as we have already hinted, is liable to a peculiarity in those tenses which are formed from the past participle. The full explanation of this anomaly belongs to the Syntax. Suffice it here to say that the construction resembles to a cevtaia extent the passive voice of the corresponding tenses in Latin. Thus for example, the sentence, ' He has written one letter,' may in Latin, and ia most European tongues, be expressed in two different ways, by which the assertion amounts to exactly the same thing, viz., ' Ille unam epistolam scripsiV or ' Ab illo una epistola scripta est.'' Now these two modes of expression convey the same idea to the mind, but in Hiadiistani the latter form only is allowed ; thus ' us-ne ek chitKi likKi hai,'' literally, ' by him one letter has been written.' Hence, in Hindustani those tenses of a transitive verb which ai-e formed fi-om the past CONJUGATION OF A TBANSITrVE VEKB. 53 participle, will have tlieir nomiaative cases changed iato that form of the ablative expressive of the agent. "What ought to be the accusative of the sentence will become the real nominative, with which the verb agrees accord- ingly, except ia some instances when it is requisite that the accusative should have the particle ho affixed, ia which case the verb is used ia its simplest form of the masculine siagular, as we have given it below. a. It is needless to say that in all verbs the tenses from the root and present participle are formed after the same manner, and the peculiarity above alluded to is limited to transitive verbs only, — and to only four tenses of these, — which it is particularly to he wished that the student should well remember. In the following verb, liiU* mama, to beat or strike,' we have given all the tenses in. ordinary use, together with their various oriental appellations, as given in a treatise on Hindustani Grammar, compiled by a munshi in the service of Mr. Chicheley Plowden. It is a folio volume, written in Hindustani, but without author's name, date, or title. Infinitive (masdar) UjU mdrna, ' To beat.' jL» mar, 'beat thou; bjL* mdrtd, 'beating'; liL« mdrd, 'beaten.' 1. TENSES OE THE EOOT : Aorisi (muzdri'). Singular. /,^)V« |S-^ I may beat. i_f;L« y thou mayst beat. t^L« Hj he may beat. Plural. iW,j^ i*-5> we may beat. jjt» *j you may beat. ^jL» tjfj they may beat. Future {mustalcbil). \>JijJ\^ I shall or will beat. l$j iL« y thou Bhalt or will beat. ^ jl* Hf he shall or will beat. (isjj^t* *ft we shall ()>• will beat. i^jjL* *j you shall or wiU beat. J-jjU t?j they shall or will beat. 54 CONJUGATION OV A TRANSITIVE YEKB. Imperative (amr). Singular. ,tU let me beat. Plural. ijlX^ ♦*> let us beat. (^ sl^ J beat thou. t^j\^ ij let him beat, Sespectful form — M&rvye, mdriyo, or mdriyegd 2. TENSES OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE :■ jj\^ l«j beat ye or yon. j^t« ^j let them beat. Indefinite, or Past Conditional fmdzi sharti or mdzi mutamannij^ \jjt» j-..^ I beat, etc. ti;l«« *A we beat. (3;t« |»j ye beat. (j;t« ^ they beat. Ij^L* jj' thou beatest. \ij\y* «j he beats. Present QidV). ; jA lj^t« -...^ I am beating. ^i> bjU J thou art beating. ^ UjL< i^ he IS beating. j2^ sI/*^ (*^ ^® ^® beating. jA (J; U» |»j you are beating. j^t-j!> tJ;t» ^ they are beating- Imperfect {istimrdri). cW-* I was beating. Iff lj;t» jj thou wast beating, l^ bjt* 4j he was beating. i_5f ti;^ I*-'* we were beating i__5f' iJ;^ (W you were beating \J^ (J;t» (^j they were beating. Present Dubious fhdl i mutashakkij. English — I may, shall, or will be beating.' UsJjjA UjLn Ji* uojiii \jj\.t y 3. TENSES OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE : Peculiarity. — Ail the nominatives assume the case of the a^ent characterised by the post-position i_j ne, the verb agrees with the object of the sentence in gender and number, or is used impersonally in the masculine singular form. PECTJLIAEITIES OF A TRANSITIVE YERB. 56 Past Absolute (mdii mutlaJc). English. — I beat or did beat,' etc. Literally, ' It is or was beaten by me, thee, him, us, you, or them.' Plural. \jl. Singular. ' <-^ liI:^^ main ne (_J )j' til ne m&r&. \J^ (J Mi) ham ne tj *J' turn ne r/ un ne Perfect or Past Proximate {mdzi kar'ib). English — I have beaten.' Literally, ' It has been, (is) beaten, by me, thee, him,' etc. / (3 -^^ main i ^ } iji y tiine mdrd ij *J» ham ne (J *j turn ne I i ,yunne mara Pluperfect, or Past Remote {mdzi ba"id). English — I had beaten.' Literally, It was beaten by me, thee, him,' ete. \jl* U^ ..y* mam ne (_J y tu ne cJ (jwl us ne mara thd. (J (iJi) ham ne \ . ■ ? i wara (J *J' twm ne I tu (_j ,.,1 %n ne ' Past Dubious {mdzi mashhuTc). English — I shall have beaten,' i.e. It shall have been beaten by me, thee,' etc. (3 *i) hum ne l> l^ ' (^ ^j^ mam ne (3 jj" tit ne (J, (jm) us '. mara hogd. \jl. Z^ w tum ne mdrd hogd. (J (^1 «« «« All the other parts formed as in the verb bolnd. 41. We have now, we trust, thorougiily explained the mode of conjugating a Hindustani verb. There is no such thing as an irregular verb in the language ; and six words only are slightly anomalous in the formation of the past participle, which last being knovm, the 56 ANOMALOUS PAST PAKTICIPLES. various tenses unerringly follow according to rule. "We here subjoin the words to which we allude, together with their past participles. IMTNlTlVisS. PAST PA SiBgular. Mas. Fem. ETICIPLES. Plural Mas. Pem. \j \s>- j'dnd, To go \S gayd ^ ga,k. ^J>i ga,e ^ffa,in UjS Icarnd, to do U Uyd J. Ik J^ Vi,e ^^ im \>j^ marnd, to die Vy* mk,d i_syt mii,l i^'y mii,,e \j>_^y mu,ih uyj) hand, to be VySb h{i,d ^ySbM,i ^Li> hu,e ^jiji M,in Uj J dend, to give bj diyd ^^0 di ^_ji(0 di,e ^^_J din liJ lend, to take U Uyd ^ li ^ ihe ^lin a. Of these, jdnd and marnd are neuter or intransitive, and con- jugated like bohid. The conjugation of hand we have already given in fuU, and that of Icarnd, dend, and lend, is like marnd, to beat.' It would be utterly ridiculous, then, to call any of these an irregular verb ; for, at the very utmost, the deviation from the general rule is not so great as in the Latin verbs, do, dedi, datum ; or cerno, crevi, etc., which no grammarian would on that account consider as irregular. h. The peculiarities in the past participles of Tiond, dend,^ and lend, are merely on the score of euphony. The verb Jdnd takes its infinitive and present participle evidently from the Sanskrit root '^T yd, the y being convertible into /, as is well known, in the modem tongues of Sanskrit origin. Again, the past participle ffayd, seems to have arisen from the root TTJ^^ which also denotes ' to go.' In the case of karnd, to do, make,' it springs naturally enough from the modified form iar, of the root ^ kri, and at the same time there would appear to have been another infinitive, kind, directly from the Sanskrit root, by changing the ri into i, ; hence the respectful impe- rative of this verb has two forms, kariye and Jd/iye, while the past participle Myd comes from kind, the same as piyd from pind, *to The verb dmd makes dlfiye, etc., and lend, lljiye, etc., in the respectful iniperatiTe. PASSIVE VOICE. 57 drink.' Lastly, mama, mar, is from the modified form of f^ mri ; at the same time the form miina, whence m'h,d, may have been in use ; for we know that in the Prakrit, which is a connecting link between the Sanskrit and the present spoken tongues of Northern India, the Sanskrit vowel ri began to be generally discarded, and frequently I'hanged into u, and the Prakrit participle is mudo, for the Sanskrit mrito ; just as from the Sanskrit verbal noun pricJihana, we have the Hindustani pkchhnA, to ask,' through the Prakrit puchhana. 42. Passive Voice. — In Hindustani the use of the passive voice is not nearly so general as it is in English and other European languages. It is regularly formed by employing the past (or passive) participle of an active or transitive verb along with the neuter verb 1)1=- jdnd, ' to go,' or ' to be.' The participle thus employed is subject to the same inflection or variations as an adjective purely Indian {v. page 33), ending va.\ a. Of the verb jdnd itseK, we have just shown that its past participle is gayd, which of course will run through all the tenses of the past participle, as will be seen in the following paradigm. Infinitive, 1)Ip- \j\^ mdrd jdnd, 'To be beaten.' Imperative, \^ \J^ mdrdj'd, 'be thou beaten.' Present Participle, lj'l=^ \jVi mdrdjdtd, ' being beaten.' Past Participle, L^ \j\^ mdrd gayd, ' beaten." TENSES OP THE ROOT. Aorist. Singular. •.f\s^ \X^ (jty* I may be beaten. t^.l:^ V)t» J thou mayest be beaten. beaten Plural. beaten, beaten, beaten. 58 PASSIVE VOICE. Future. Singular. iJlijls^ !^t« ^j-J» I shall or mil be beaten. ISjjU>- Ijt* y thou shalt or wilt be beaten. lL_jU- I^Lt »^ he shall ormU. be beaten. Plural •will be beaten. will be beaten. jLijjU- i^t» ^j they shall or will be beaten. Imperative. j^jls>- l^Ui ^f;y^ let me be beaten. \s>- \j[y* y be thou beaten. ijjjl^ \X/* *j let him be beaten. ^jls»- (_f;t* *a let us be beaten. yj>- i_^t» *if be ye beaten. ^jjjlis- 1.5;^ Lij let them be beaten. TENSES OF THE PRESENT PAETICTPLE. Conditional. i)^ c;:? 51 if I be, or had been, beaten. bU>- 5)t« »J' jii if thou be, or hadst been, beaten. li'U- l^t» i^ j^l if he be, or had been, beaten. vj^- ,j?;t« *Jb jSl if we be, or had been, beaten. ijvsj- (_f;>^ *J S\ if you be, or had been, beaten. (J^- c5;^ i^j ^\ if they be, or had been, beaten. Pr«se«<. • jj6 1j\-j- \^t» j^^ I am being beaten. J» IjUf l)t» jj thou art being beaten. Jb \j'ls»- IjLf i(j he is being beaten. ij:?* S^W" 1-^^ (»:*' ^6 are be- ing beaten. y> sJW" •^j^ ^ you are be- ing beaten. ing beaten. PASSIVE VOICE. Imperfect. 59- Sinfjular. Plviral. 1^ uc»- UL* ^..-.^ I was beaten or being beaten. ^j ulsj- l^t* y tbou wast beaten. l^ b'lsj- l^L« jiTj he was beaten. ,M (Jls- i_Sjt» j»ji we were beaten. i5«j tiW" ij£;^ (»-' you were beaten. 1^^' ijl;»- siL)^ Srj they were- beaten. Li 1^L» ij-^ I was beaten. Us ljt« y thou was beaten Li ^L« ^ he was beaten. TENSES OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. Past. jjji) LS" LL« j^-^ I have been beaten. ^A Ls 1;L» jj' thou hast been beaten. ^ Ls' 1 it» ^ he has been beaten. ^li ^\^ *£> we were beaten. rc-" 1-?;^ (*^ you were beaten. _xi (_;?;L» t^ they were beaten. Perfect. \y^ 'iS"^ i-?;^ (»^ we have been beaten. ^^ \ ' ' y* LT*^ -f;*^ (»-' you have been beaten. O^ Li"*^ S^ "-O ^■'^oy have been beaten. Pluperfect. l^' Ls' 1^L« |2^ I had been beaten. \^ Ls' 1)L» y thou hadst been beaten. l^j L^^jLi ij he had been beaten. i__jfi ^_5-»S' L^L» *JS we had been beaten. ^_^-fi ^_jJo u5;t» *j' you had been, beaten. beaten. a. Muhammad Ibrahim Munshi, the author of an excellent Hin- dustani grammar entitled ' Tuhfae Elphinstone,' printed at Bombay, 1823 would seem to conclude that the Hindustani has no passive voice at all. He says, p. 44, "Dr. Gilchrist and Mr. Shakspear arsi of opinion that there is a passive voice in Hindustani, formed by com- pounding the past participle of active verbs with the verb U U- ; bu6 60 PASSIVE VOICE. the primitive signification of this verb (' to go') seems so irreeoncileabla with, the simple state of ' being,' as to render it improbable that it could ever be used in the same manner as the substantive verbs of other languages." Now, the fact is, that the worthy Munshi is carried too far, principally from a strong propensity to have a slap at his brother grammarians, Messrs. Gilchrist and Shakespear, whom he hits hard on every reasonable occasion; and, in addition to this, the passive voice in his native language is of rare occurrence. But there is undoubtedly such a thing as a regular passive voice occasionally to be met with, and it is formed with the verb U U- jdnd, to go,' as an auxiliary. Nor is the connection oij'dnd, to go,' with the passive voice so very irreconcUedble as the Munshi imagines. In Gaelic, the very same verb, viz., to go,' is used to form the passive voice, though in a different manner, the verbal noun denoting the action being used as a nominative to the verb ' to go ;' thus the phrase, he was beaten," is in Gaelic literally the beating of him went," i. e., took place,' which is not very remote from the Hindustani expression. Again, in Latin, the phrase, I know that letters will be written," is expressed by Scio literas scriptum iri," in which the verb 'to go,' enters as an auxiliary: to say nothing of the verb veneo {ven + eo), ' to be sold.' h. We have seen in the conjugation of mdrnd, ' to beat,' that those tenses which spring from the past participle, have a construction similar to the Latin passive voice. This construction is always used when the agent is known and expressed; as ^Jb 1 iL. Ji_< tl^l ^ ^L-; im\ us sipdJd-ne eh mard mdrd hai, ' that soldier has beaten a man,' or (more literally) by that soldier a man has been beaten.' Again, if the agent is unknown or the assertion merely made in general terms, the regular form of the passive is used ; as, eh mard mdrd gayd, ' a man has been beaten,' and even this might be more idiomatically expressed by saying eh mard-ne mar khd,i hat, ' a man has suffered a beating.' c. One cogent reason why the passive voice does not frequently occur in Hindustani is, that the language abounds with primitive simple verbs of a passive or neuter signification which are rendered active by certain modifications which we are about to state. Thus lils- j'alnd signifies ' to bum,' or ' take fire,' in a neuter sense ; and becomes an active or transitive verb br inserting the vowel 1 d between DERIVATIVE VERBS. 61 the root and the termination li nd of the infinitive as, o5Lp- jaldnd, ' to kindle or set on fire ;' and this becomes causal or doubly transitive by assuming the form lilji^ jahodnd, to cause to be set on fire,' as will be more amply detailed in the next paragraph. DERIVATIVE VERBS. 43. In Hindustani a primitive verb, if neuter, is ren- dered active, as we have just hinted, by certaia modifica- tions of, or additions to, its root. In like manner, an active verb may, by a process somewhat similar, be rendered causal or doubly transitive. The principal modes in which this may be effected are comprised under the following Rules. 1. By inserting the long vowel \ d between the^root and the U nd of the infinitive of the primitive verb ; thus, from L^o paknd, — a neuter verb, ' to grow ripe,' ' to be got ready ' (as food), — becomes li iLi paJcdnd (active), ' to ripen, or make ready,' to cook.' Again, this active verb may be rendered causal or doubly transitive by inserting the letter . w between the root and the modified termination ul dnd; thus, from Ulili pahdnd, 'to make ready,' inserting the letter . w, we get the causal form I) \Sj pahwdnd, to cause (another) to make (any thing) ready.' To show the use of the three forms of the verb, we will add a few plain examples. 1. ^Jb \::Sj Ijl^i hhdnd paMd hai, the dinner is getting ready, cooking, or being cooked.' 2. ^^ Ij'l^^ Ul^ \.s?~Ji^. Idwarchi Jchdnd pahdtd hai, ' the cook is ( himself) cooking the dinner or food;' 3. ^Js \j\S~i 1)1^ jiAJu.!.^ mihmdnddr Mdnd palwdtd hai, ' the host is causing dinner to be cooked.' These examples show the copiousness of the Hindustani verb as compared with the English. For whereas we are obliged to employ the same verb both as neuter and active, like the word ' cooking ' in the first and second examples, the Hindustani has a distinct expression for each. And the form l) ^ *^ pakwdnd in the last example is much more neat and concise ■62 DERIVATIVE VERBS. than the English 'is having,' 'is getting,' or 'is causing' the dinner (to be) ' cooked.' In like manner, the neuter liLs- jalnd, to bum,' jaland, 'to kindle,' ani jahvdnd, ' to cause to be kindled ;' for example, lattij'aUi hai, ' the candle bums ;' a man will say to his servant, iatti- Jco JaUo, ' light the candle (yourself),' but he may say to his munshf, hatti-ho jahodo, 'cause the candle to be lit (by others).' 2. When the root of the primitive verb is a monosyllable with any of the long vowels \ a, . o or ii, and i^ e ov i, the latter are shortened in the active and causal forms, that is, the \ of the root is displaced by fatha, thej by zamma, and the i_s by hasra ; as, UsU- jdgnd, 'to be awake,' ljl$^ jagdnd, 'to awaken,' or 'rouse up,' \j\S^ jagwdnd, ' to cause to be roused up ;' U •.' holnd, ' to speak,' u ib huldnd, ' to ■caU,' \i\Xi luhcdnd, 'to cause to be called, to send for;' so Uj.-j Ihdlnd, 'to forget,' li^ hhuldnd, 'to mislead,' Uljlij Ihulwdnd, 'to cause to be misled;' UIJ letnd, ' to lie down,' UliU litdnd, to lay down,' l)l»2J litwdnd, 'to cause to be laid down;' L£»i! hhignd, 'to be wet,' l)lS^ bhigdnd, 'to wet, V)ljXaj hhigwdnd, 'to cause to be made wet.' When the vowel-sound of the root consists of the strong diphthongs • — au, and ,js — ai, these undergo no change, and con- sequently such words fall under Eule 1; as, Ij'fiO daurnd, 'to run,' UljjJ daurdnd; \jj^^ pairnd, 'to swim,' Ul_y pairdnd. The verb u.^.l.,) haithnd, to sit,' makes u^iL lithdnd or l)l^2-J baithdnd, also liS^ lithldnd, etc. F«(?« No. 4, belovr. 3. A numerous class of neuter verbs, having a short vowel in the last syllable of the root, form the active by changing the short vowel into its corresponding long ; that i°, fatha becomes I d ; as %amma becomes J o' (or i), and hasra becomes ^ e (or i) : as, Uj poind, 'to > The forms t and o are by far the most common; the .• and i comparatively raro. DEEIVATTVE VERBS. 63 thrive, or be nourished,' li!l> pdhid, 'to nourish;' Ll^ Ichulnd, 'to open (of itself), li!»^ Icholnd, to open (any thing).' These form their causals regularly, according to Eule 1 ; as, l) \^^ hhuhodnd, ' to ■cause (another) to open (any thing).' 4. A few verbs add l)^ land to the root, modified as in Eule 2 • thus, \^4^~.j sikhnd, 'to learn,' u\^^ sihhdnd, and vJiL^L-: sihhldnd, 'to teach;' \)\^ hhdnd, to eat,' \jt^ Miildnd, 'to feed;' lj»-o «o/8d, ' to sleep,' IjiLj suldnd, 'to lull (asleep);' liflo laithnd, ' to sit' ' to be placed,' has a variety of forms, viz., biihdnd, haitkdnd, lithldnd, and haithldnd ; also Imtkdlnd and haithdrnd, ' to cause to sit,' 'to set,' or cause to be seated.' 5. The following are formed in a way peculiar to themselves : — 'iiO ItMd, 'to be sold,' Lsnj bechnd, 'to seU;' \ijbj rahnd, 'to stay,' Vil^ . rakhnd, ' to keep, or place ; ' Lj.'J tiitnd, ' to burst,' ' to be broken,' li?J forwd, 'to break;' li%5~ chhutnd, to cease,' to go off (as a musket, etc.), Ij ?)*>• chhornd, ' to let off,' ' to let go ;' [ilp phatnd, ' to be rent,' l)?lf) phdrnd, ' to rend,' Ujj^ pMtnd, to crack, ^r split,' IJMfi phornd, ' to burst open ' (actively). 6. Verbs are formed from substantives or adjectives by adding '\j\ and or Ij nd; as from ^jli pdni, 'water,' ljl;jiJ paniydnd, 'to irrigate;' so from Ijj^, 'wide,' chaurdnd, to widen.' A few in- ftiitives spring, as Hindustani verbs, regularly from Arabic and Persian roots, by merely adding \j nd. If the primitive word be a monosyllable ending with two consonants, a fatlia is inserted between the latter, on adding the li nd; as from (ji*y' tars, 'fear, pity,' comes \iij taras-nd, ' to fear ;' so from J) larz, ' trembling,' \jjj lara%-nd ; ■and from Li-^=£C iahs, ' argument,' hahas-nd, to dispute,' etc. General Rule. — Primitive words consisting of two short syllables, the last of wHcli is formed by tbe vowel fatha, on the accession of an additional syllable beginning 64. COMPOUND VERBS. with, a vowel, whether for th.e purpose of declension, con- jugation, or derivation, reject the fatha of the second syllable. Conversely, primitive words ending in two consecutive consonants, on adding a verbal termination begimiing WitK a consonant, generally insert a fatha between ''Ha two consonants, as we bave just seen in Eule 6. COMPOXJin) VERBS. 44. The Hindustani is peculiarly ricb in compound verbs, though it must be admitted that our grammarians have needlessly enlarged the number. "We shaU, bow- ever, enumerate them aU in the following list, and, at the same time, point out those whicb have no title to the appellation. Compound verbs are formed in various ways, as follows : — I. FROM THE ROOT. 1. ImENsivEs, so called from being more energetic in signification than the simple verb. Ex. U13 jU mdr-MJad, 'to kill outright,' from l^t* mArna, to strike,' and U]13 ddlnd, 'to throw down;' L)J ^j rakh-dend, to set down,' from lili , rahJind, ' to place,' and L)i> dend, ' to give ; IjU- l^ IcM-jdnd, ' to eat up,' from \j\S khdnd, 'to eat,' and liU- jdnd, to go,' etc. The main peculiarity of an intensive vsrb is, that the second member of it has, practicEdly speaking, Uli aside it« own primary signification, while at the same time the sense of the first member is rendered more emphatic as in our own verbs ' to run oif,' ' to march on,' ' to rush away,' etc. ; thus, wuh hdthi par so gir-pard, ' he fell down from ofi' (or, as the Hin- dustani ''vsa it, more logioally, from upon) the elephant.' 2. J' -cmf TiALS, formed with U
  • - jd-aahtd, ' to be able to go/ COMPOUND TEEBS. 65 etx;. The using the root of a verb in composition with saknd in all its tenses may be viewed as the potential mood of such verb ; thus, main bol-saUd likn, I am able to speak,' or ' I can speak;' so main lol-sakd, I could speak.' o 3. CoMPLETiTES, formed with LX=- chukna, ' ' to have done ;' as oXi- [p Ichd-chuhid, to have done eating,' \:S.=~- ^ likh-ohuhnd, ' to have finished writing.' The root of a verb with the future of ehuknd, is considered, very properly, as the future perfect of such root; thus, jab main likh-ehulcungd, when I shall have done writing,' that is, when I shall have written,' postquam scripsero.' So, agar main Uhh-chukiin, ' if I may have written, or have done writing,' ' si scripserim.' II. FHOM THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 1. CoisriiNTrATivEs, as ljl>- \zLi lahtd jdnd, or Lto^ IuXj haMdrahnd, to continue chatting.' This is nof a legitimate compound verb ; it is merely a sentence, the present participle always agreeing with the nominative in gender and number, as, wuh mard haktdjdtd hai, ' that man goes on chatting ;' we mard hakte jdte hain, these men go on chatting;' wuh randi lakt'ijdti hai, that woman goes on chatting.' 2. SiATisiiCALS, 1)1 , 5J0 gdte and, 'to come singing,' or 'in singing ;' U? .J iJjj fote daurnd, to run crying.' Here the present participle always remains in the inflected state, like a substantive of the third class, having the post-position men, ' in,' understood, hence this is no compound verb properly speaking. ni. FROM THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 1. Peequkntatives : liji ijL* mdrd-karnd, to make a practice of beating;' \j~£ \j\s^ jdyd-kdrnd, 'to make a practice of going.' 2. Desideeaiives, as LaU- ^^ hold-chdhnd, to wish, or to be about, or like to speak.' rV. FROM SUBSTANTIVES OR ADJECTIVES, HENCE TERMED NOMINALS. From substantives, as from ^-♦^ jam', collection,' \jj> j-^Jf 5 66 COMPOUND VERBS. iam! karnd, ' tx) collect, or bring together,' and \jyi> r-^*^ jam' hand, ' to be collected, or come together ;' also from i)]sj-i ghota, a plunge,' UjL< - chhotd karnd, 'to diminish;' illS MM, black,' UJS )!o MW ^(jr«'D OEDINAL NUMBERS ^DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION OP "WORDS. I. ADVERBS. 45. The adverbs in Hindiistam', like the substantives, adjectives, and verbs, are to be acquired mainly by practice. Hence it would be a mere waste of space to swell our volume with, a dry detached list of such words, which ia all probability no learner would ever peruse. We shall therefore notice only those which have any peculiarity ia their character or formation. As a general rule, most adjectives may be used adverbially when requisite, as is the case in German, and often in English. A series of pm^e Hiadiistani adverbs of frequent use is derived from five of the pronouns, bearing to each other a similar relation, as wiU. be seen ia the foUowiag table. Dr. Gilchrist's old pupUs will no doubt recollect with what paias the learned Doctor used to impress upon them the necessity of learning this ' quiatuple series,' or, as he called it, ' The philological harp.' a. Adjectives and adjective pronouns, when used adverHally, remain uninflected in the simplest form, viz., that of the nominative singular masculine ; as, ^glu h^ 1^1 ^^^-V^ *J ^"^ hahut aohehhd UMitd hai, ' he vprites very well.' This is exactly the rule in German, ' er schreibt sehr gut.' In the following series, accordingly, numbers 5 6 and 7, are merely the aajec«v« oi- indefinite pronouns, formerly enumerated, employed as adverbs. 68 QUINTUPLE SERIES. ^1 15 j^- P p rt .j^i-IJ, 3-j. J-j= .1 % '^ 5 \ ^- A ^ re 3. a -^,<'fe1 3 J "a '^^ '^ "^ !- .t; /v. o % s ^ ^ .a C3 •a -s o a g a ^ ^ \3 > -"^ '^'^y ^^3= ^'0"^= I S "1> •a S ^ 03 •a S3 S C3 •2 -c _ ~o -e i i 1 I I ■:3' o a o < 1^ "S a -a _a J ^^5. -3 ^= ADVERBS. 69 a. Erom the first class we have other adverhs rendered more «mphatic by the addition of ^J^ hi, etc. Thus: ^^\ ahhi, 'just mo-w,' ^j^ Tcabhi, ^^ Icabhii, or ^JH'^ TcadJa, ' ever/ etc. From the ■Bscond class, by changing j^\ an into ^_ in ; thus, ^J^^^J yahin, ex- actly here,' Ay^ kaMh, whereabouts, somewhere,' etc. Prom the T . ^ . . * fourth, by adding j-.J!) hin ; ^^^ji yiinMn, in this very way,' ^ . . » ^ ^ j»»^jj wunhin, thereupon, at that very time, exactly, the same ^.s before,' etc. h. From among these may also be formed, by means of post- positions, etc., a number of useful compounds ; as lLnj '~j\ ab-tah, or LLiJj c_j1 ab-talah, ' till now ;' uJo »_^ kah-tak, ' till when,' etc. i ^^ j<€r^ ^aJAi AaiAJ, ' sometimes ; ' 15^ ^ lj^ Icahhi na JccibJit, ' some time or other •' ^oh-' liiMr^ jahan tahdn' here and there ;' •_^^ liiW^ /aAara kdhm, ' wherever ;' /j*^jj\ awr Jcahin, somewhere £lse ;' (c^ 1 ^ y«5 &JA2, ' whenever ;' ^£ ^,j^ kyiin har, ' how ?' c. A^few adverbs of time have a twofold signification, i.e. past or •future, according to circumstances ; thus, Ji hal, to-morrow, or yesterday ;' ^\^y parson, the day after to-morrow, or the day before yesterday;' lov^y tarson, ' the third day from this, past, or to come ;' j^j— -J narsoh, 'the fourth day from this.' The time is restricted to past or future by the tenses of the verb and by the context of the sentences in which such words are found. d. Many adverbs occur from the Arabic and Persian languages ; as \ iLai Tcazdrd (or .l^LiJ 'ka%dTcdr), ' by chance,' from Lai hazd, fate,' *tc., and \j rd, the sign of the objective case ; ^f^ chiguna, ' how;' ^X) Idre, 'once, at last;' l&;lj Idrhd {-g\.), 'often (times);' Jou' ^hdyad, ' perhaps (Hindustani jjs y yt> ho io ho, it may be) ;' s\j^ i\^ (tj khtadh na Ichwah, volens-nolens, positively, at all events.-' ij^ • wa ghaira, et-cetera,' etc. ; laiij falcat, merely, finis.' e. Adverbs purely Arabic occur chiefly as follows: 1. Simply a noun with the article; thus, iZiAi\ alhissa (literally, 'the story'); and iP^\ algha/ra% (literally, 'the end, purport,' «fo.), 'in short;' Jls! (the j"?esent), at this time;' icJi\ alhatta, certainly;' etc. 70 PEEPOSITIONS. 2. The Arabic noun in the accusative case, marked with the termina- tion 1- an (p. 20); thus, li'lij'l iUif&kan, 'by chance,' (from jUi'V ittif&k, ' fortune, accident,' etc.) ; iUl aslan (or 1«1 asld), ' by na means ; ' h^ mislan, ' for example,' (from JL» mid, parable, Bimilitude ' ) ; Lsyai- lihwkmn, ' especially,' etc. Lastly, a noua with a proposition ; as, Jjtillj li-l-fil, 'in fact;' JLs' I ^ fi-l-hdlf (in the present), .^ I ^J fi-l-favr (in the heat), all signifying. ' instantly, immediately ; ' tli-.JL&s' 1 ^ fi-l-hahikat (in truth),, really ;' ij^JU ya'ni, ' that is to say, to wit, viz.' y. Many adverbial expressions occur consisting of a pronoun andj substantive governed by a simple postposition understood, as, —Js i^\ is tarah, ' in this manner ;' —Jo (j,m^ Ms tardh, ' how ? ' etc. ; ^f^^]} (_/»> kis waste, why ? ' i.e. for what reason ? ' and so on, with many other words of which the adverbial use is indicated by the inflection of the accompanjdng pronoun. g. The pluperfect participle may also very often be elegantly applied adverbially ; as, J>*«xte hanskar, laughingly,' i>.=-j_: soch- kar, deliberately,' from U-lJJi) hansnd, ' to laugh,' Lj>-»-; sochnd, ' to ...CO. y (* think,' \^i jLuiSJi ^ (j^'i us-ne hjinskar kahd, he laughingly (or having laughed) said.' n. PEErosrrioxs. 46. The prepositions in Hindustani are mere sub- stantives in the locative case, having a postposition imderstood and sometimes expressed. Most of them are 9xpressive of situation with regard to place, and thence figuratively applied to time, and even to abstract ideas. Hence as substantives, they all govern the geni- tive case, those of them which are masculine (forming the majority) require the word which they govern to have the postposition ^ he after it ; as, iT ^ j",* mard- ke age, ' before the man,' literally, * in front of the man ' ; while those that are feminine require the word ther govern to liave ^ ki; as, U>J= ^ J^ shahr-Ici taraf^ PEEP0SITI0K8. 71 * towards the city,' literally, ' ia the direction of the city.' It is optional to put the preposition before or after the noun which it governs ; thus m the foregoiag example we might have said affc mard-ke, or mard-ke age^ with equal propriety. The following is an alphabetical list of masculine prepositions requiring the nouns which they govern to have the genitive with Tee, for reasons explained in the beginning of the Syntax. ^Sl^ age, before, in front. jjij\ andar, within, inside. J .1 iipar, above, on the top. Li-^li hd'is, by reason of. Ji>\j hahar, or lahir, without (not within.) ^tf'UsT ha-jd,e, instead. J Jo ladle,0T^} Jj badal, instead, j^jjo Mdun, without, except. j|j lardhar, equal to, oppo- site to. («1 J lard,e, for, on account of. Ojw la'd, after (as to time). jjti lagJiair, without, except. J lin, Lj lind, without, ^j I'lcTi, in or among. Xi par, over (other side). IjuKi pds, by, near. ^lS^J piehhe, behind, in the rear. Jj tale, under, beneath. ^^! ta,in, to, lip to. _ ,L>- khdrij, without, outside. ijL-«iO dar-miydn, in the midst, between, among. ^\^ sdth, with (in company). L) sdmhne, before, in front i_ — sabab. by reason of. i»-j siwd or siwd,e, except. ij3»£ 'iwaz, instead, for. Jli Icabl, before, (time). \.,^jji Icar'ib, near. ^i^ hane, near, with. t>.i gird, round, around. Jo liye, for, on account of. i^j\^ mare, through (in conse- quence of). ^Ik.^ mutdbih, conformable to. tji^Y* mkdflh, according to. \^„^Y* miijib, or i_^j4J ia- mujib, by means of. l1^_J',J na%dik, near. i^sXj niche, under, beneath. jja-jlj wdste, for, on account of. ^\jii hdth, in the power of, by means of. 72 PREPOSITIONS. The following prepositions being feminine, require the words they govern to have the genitive with ki. Jb\s- Tihatyr, for the sake of. jb lalat, respecting, con- cerning. Ci-JjJo ha-dmdat, by means of. JiX^ la-madad, by aid of. c:i-%.^j»- jihat, on account of. _ Ja tarah, after the manner *- " of, like. (_J;t taraf, towards. ijX^ maWifat, by, or through. J nislat, relative to. Some of the feminine prepositions, when they come hefore the word they govern, require such word to have the genitive in ke, instead of hi. This is a point well worthy of examination, and we reserve the investigation of it till we come to the Syntax. a. "We have applied the term preposition to the above words with a view to define their use and meaning, not their mere situation. In most grammars they are absurdly called Compound Post-positions, on the same principle, we believe, that lucus, ' a dark grove,' is said to come from lucere, to shine/ or lux, 'light.' But in sober truth, what we have called prepositions here, are neither compounds, nor necessarily post-positive ; and we make it a rule never to countenance a new term unless it be more explicit than those already established and familiar. In Greek, Latin, and Old English, the prepositions frequently foUow the word which they govern, but this does not in the least alter their nature and use. b. Besides the above prepositions, the following Arabic and Persian prefixes are occasionally employed with words from those languages. j\ a%, from, by. Ill illd, except, besides, y Id, with (possessed of). <0 or J ia (or It), in, by. ^j le, without (deprived of). J lar, on, in, at. ^j:\ji bard,e, for (on account of). jL' Hid, without {sine), jii dor, in, wilhin. Jjlx 'aid, upon, above. fjC' 'an, from. Axc 'ind, near, with. ^^ A in- CS lea, according to, like. J ^ or li, to, for f-^ ma', with jj^ min, from. CONJUNCTIONS INTEEJECTIONS. in. CONJUNCTIONS. 47. The conjunctions have no peculiarity about them ; we shall therefore add a list of the more useful of them in alphabetical order. idj \\ az has-M, since, for as muoli as. _/\ agar, ^ gar, if. i,s~J,\ agarchi, although. L»\ ammd, but, moreover. j^\ aur, and, also. - s\j wdhj'i, ^ CLi\i \^ kyd hat hat 'what an affair !' all express joy, admiiation and encouragement, like 'bravo! well done!' etc. But ijj L-i\j Up re {lit., father) 'astonishing! dreadful!' ^^'U i_f'U h,de h,de, or ^ ^_J> hai hai, ^^ ^\j wd,e wd,e, Lj t^'lj wd,e waild, ' alas, alas ! alackaday ! woe is me !' ci-J!.- hat, ^^ ^jfs- chhi ohhi, 'tush, pshaw, pish, fie fie!' ^J dwr, ' avaunt !' express sorrow, contempt, and aversion. ^^1 ai, ji o. Oh !' i^j re or o i^ are, ' holla you !' are used in calling attention : the two last in a disrespectful way. i^j re (m.) or ^j r'l (f.) agrees in gender with the object of address ; as, i^ i^'^} launde re, ' you boy !' t^Aijl ^j laundi ri, you girl !' NUMEEALS. 49. The Hindustani numeral adjectives, ' one,' ' two* ' three,' etc., up to a hundred, are rather irregular, at least in appearance, though it would not be very difELcult to account for the seeming irregularity on sound etymological principles. This, however, would not greatly benefit the student, who mnst, in the meantime, learn them by heart as soon as he can. PiaURES. NAMES. PIGUKES. NAMES. 1 ABABIO. IHDIAir. lJA eh. 6 Aailic. rWDIAlf. ^1 iUis. w 12 \r l'^ iSj\i bdrah. 32 rr ^'^ (j*-ij Ja&. 13 \r \^ ij^ tirah. 33 rr ^^ Wi^i? t^fis. 14 IP \8 »J^ chaudah. 34 rp ^a fjM^yy~ chautis. 15 u \^ CO *)Jiij pandrah. 35 re ^1 ^J.k.-ii-J paint'ts. 16 n \^ .'».v...- saintis. 18 lA l^ 4)1^51 athdrah. 38 rA ^^ f^jtU^'A atht'is. 19 n \^- 39 r\ ^^~ 20 r* ^o U^ Jzs. 40 p* 8° ^^JU- ohdlis. 21 n "{X j_^»«,^l «Hfs. 41 PI n o 22 rr w (_^'b Jd,{«. 42 |Cp 8^^ ^^JLj le,dTis. 23 rr w (j*<-«-j i^,4«. 43 pr «^ ^jxiJXi^ Utdlis. 24 rp \2 ^^^juk^^^ chaubis. 44 pp 88 (_^J1^=- chau,dlis. 25 re \\ U^^~*<» r LA*^ <{«. 50 6* V (_^lsrj:)«(!Ads. 76 NUMERALS. FIGUEES. NAMES. riGUBBS. NAMES. 51 ABABIO. iiroiAi ^j^\ iMiean. 71 ABASIC. rSBiiif, ^^^\ ikhattar. c\ y.1 VI >o\ 52 or ^'^ ^j\j bdwan. 72 vr >a5^ j^ hahattar. 53 cr y.^ ^J^ tirpm. 73 vr ^^ J^ tihattmr. 54 of y.8 f^y>- ehauwan. 74 vf ■08 J^^ chauhattm. 55 cc ^^ ^^^., pachpan. 75 VCi .' sathatta/r. 58 CA 15 ijjlj'Ji athdwan. 78 VA ^■c J''^^ athhattar. 59 Cl y£- -jiLuJl umath. 79 v- chausath. 84 AP ^8 i^^jy^- chaurdsi. 65 1c 4"< 85 AC ^1. ^^^J\=f^pachdsl. 66 11 44 ,.fL:U^ chhl,dsath. 86 A1 ^4 i_^L^ chU,dsi. 67 IV 4^ 87 AV c^a ie«j\i«j ja^d«:. 68 1A 4^ -ji-A^jl athsath. 88 AA ■cc j^l^l o^Aasi. 69 11 4^- ^:iy\ unhattar. 89 Al ^£- i_^ly na«,asS. 70 V 1 1 1 J^^ satiar. L 90 1 1* L-° i^-y nauwi. NDMEEAIS. 77 FIQUMiS. NAMES. PIGtTRES. NAMES. 91 ABABIO. nTDiAir. i^jj^\ iMnawi. 96 aba:bic. IKBIAH. i^jjLjs-tfM?,awaW '\\ £.\ ^^ ^4 92 ir ^'^ t^Jb hdnawi. 97 W £_vO i_fyli-j satdnawi. 93 ^r ^^•^ i_5yly' tiranawe. 98 ^A £.t; i^y l^J 1 athdnawL 94 ^p £-8 ^y \jy>-chaurdnawe 99 ^^ £-£. (.jyuj nindnawi. 95 ^6 ^"i i_jy UiJ pachdnawi. 100 1" a oo y^ sau or 1^-0 sa» 11 ». Some of ttese have names slightly differing from the preceding, which we here suhj"'" ■ !Sj\^ gydrah )ioin : 18 Ijlfil athdrd. 9 19 \j^^ unnis. 21 ^/u^.^ ^^^*- 31 (j--:i.C)l ^^i5s. 33 (^u.^"..;_a" taintis. 34 /j*k-ij *>• chaunth. 38 L/*^ji «rfe. 39 (ij/.Jlsrl MweAa?2S. 41 luJli^.l ihtdlis. 43 (uj-JlsioJ taintdlh. 46 jmj\-|;~~ chhatdlis. 48 (J**:r t.iv"' artdlis. 51 UJ ..^ ilcdwan. 54 ijj »»- chawpan. 55 ^^)^^^ pachdwan. 61 ...^.w-Gl ehsath. tJ>^~-l^-9- chhdchhat or .^";...i,.g. ~- cKha-sath. ..^i>j;l arsath. il^J ilchattm-. jiji^' tirhattar. ^J&,^s~ chha-liattar ^J^\ ilcdsi. ^jujlj Jds{ or or 5 or 82 85 jj-;lsnj panchds'i. 86 ^-jI^js- chhdsi. 90 J)J nauioad. i_£y\ij\ iMnawi ^jjlil ilcdnauwi. i_Sy b hdnauwi ( ,_fjjLi lirdnauwi. i^y\p tirdnauwe. ^JUs^j panchdnaioi^ 96 i_fjj\^s- ohhdnmci. t^yly nau,dnaweot ^«j\ij mnanauice. FBACnONAL NXJMBEE8. a. The numbers above one hundred proceed Bome'what lite our own, only the conjunction is generally suppressed ; as ^b ^ clXil ek sau pdnch, one hundred (and) five ;' {jjjii t^ jJ do sau das, two hundred (and) ten,' etc. The present year, 1855, may be expressed as with us, 1^-^, j-j ^1 iha klSj} ek haadr dth sau paehpan, or ^-;^, j-j «j^jl atJidrah sau paehpan, that is, one thousand eight hundred,' etc., or eighteen hundred,' etc. J. The following are used as collective numbers : J$L-j saikrd, a hundred. jUtti lia%dr, a thousand. 1 ixIS gandd, a group of four, i^ir ^d^i, a five. i^'j^ kori, a score. LuJl=>- cMlisd, a forty. ^i IdM, a hundred thousand. Jyp karor, one hundred lakhs, or ten millions. c. The Ordinals proceed as follows : l^j pahld or pahild, | I W' t*~ chaicthd, 4th. o ' . I 1st. <.J 1,^ ori^aaZd, ; I ^\y^\j^ pdnchwdn, 5iii. \j^.L> diisrd, 2nd. I ^^\_^i^ chhatwdn, LuA-j iisrd, 3rd. 4^^rJ" ehhathd. The seventh' and upwards are regularly formed from the Cardinals by the addition of ^^ wdn. The ordinals are aU subject to inflection like adjectives in \ d or dn, that is, d becomes e for the oblique mas- culine, and i for the feminine. In like manner, dii becomes eh and in. 6th. d. Fractional Numbers. jb pd,o \ ^^ chauth, ' 1 ,^j'\^^ ohauthd,i, J i_S'\^ tihd,i, 5. UjT « TJ * 1 U^ paund ij-s sated, 1^. i|j3 d^rh, li. In the use of the fractional numbers, a few peculiarities oocut DERIVATION OP "WORDS. 79 ■wnich it will be wt il to notice ; thus, ijy paune, when prefixed to a number, signifies a quarter less' than that number; lj~i sawd, 'a quarter more ;' ^AjLj sdrhe, one half more,' etc. To the collective numbers for a hundred, a thousand, etc., they are similarly applied ; thus, _j»j ijy paune sau z= 75 ; »-j \y^ sawd sau = 125. The words do'h and arhd,i denote multiplication; as, jllfc jrbj derh hazdr = 1500, i. e. (1000 x li) ; j\jJb ^'\£>j\ arhd,i hazdr = 2500, or (.1000 X 2i). e. It will be seen then, that altogether the management of the numerals, whole and fractional, is no easy matter. The sure plan is to commit them carefully to memory up to 100. As a check upon this the learner should get the first ten, and the multiples of 10, as 20, 30, 40, etc. ; then, if he is not quite certain of any number (not an unlikely occurrence), for example 35, he may safely say #:r^l) j (>u->J' t'ls par pdnch, 'five over thirty.' Lastly, let him get the first twenty thoroughly, and then count by scores tijjS hori ; thus, 35 is eh hori pand/rah ; but the more scientific mode is, of course, to carry the hundred numerals in his head, and be quite independent. DERIVATIOKT OF WORDS. 60. Tke Handustani abounds with. derivatiTe words Tjoth. of native origia and of foreign importation. Those from tte Arabic are generally single words modified from a triliteral root, according to the grammatical rules of that language. From the Persian, on the other hand, not only derivative words are freely borrowed, but also a multitude of compounds, for the formation of which the Persian language has a peculiar aptitude, and to the number of which there is no limit. In like manner, compositions ia the Hindi dialect abound in Sanskrit words both derivative and compounded according to the genius of that highly-cultivated language. Hence, in oraer w unow Hindustani on sound etymological prm- ciples, a slight knowledge of Arabic, Persian, and 80 DEEIVATITES. Sanskrit is absolutely requisite. To the majority of students in this country, however, this is impracticable, their time being necessarily occupied in the acquisition of those essential branches of knowledge usually taught at schools. As a general rule, then, we may take it for granted that an acquaintance with the words of the Hiadustani language, whether native or foreign, primi- tive or derivative, must be ultimately acquired by prac- tice in reading, with the aid of a vocabulary or dictionary, together with exercises in composition. This being the case, it will not be necessary for us to enter deeply into the subject of derivation or composition; the reader, if inclined, may consult Dr. Gilchrist's quarto Grammar, edit. 1796, where he wiU find twenty -nine goodly pages devoted to this department. NOUNS DENOTING AGENCY OR POSSESSION. 51. We have already seen that the agent of a verb is denoted by adding the termination Xl^ wdld (sometimes IjU hard) to the inflected form of the infinitive, as holne- wdld or holne-hdrd, ' a speaker.' The same termiaationa added to a substantive denote in general the possessor of such substantive, real or temporary; as i!ij ^ - tji^j land, J ~ La>^ iron, Ji- Jj bad. /- jj gold. ,ir- jfliS' crime, jb - S^\ hope, ^S- jti door, ^ — ifLwj army. ^^ as J-J rolling, U — *; playing, ^ — >^ clipping, J — J W sweeping, ^Ljj J«?fl!?j, a rolling-pin. li-o) ramnd, a park. (_JjiS kata/rni, a pair of scissors. • yl^^ jhdriL, a broom. Others are formed from nouns, by affixing iJjS ^'^ hour, ::-^**:J the hand, 1 ' ^ — JLs- the eye. |l.::.f J — cu->-:0 the hand. jj^ ghariydl, an hour-bell, lU 1:l-o J dastdna, a glove. lI^-^jIi-s^ chashmai, spectacles. Ui' or ^ — l^ a child, ^■j hrak-pan, childhood. U" — ^^^ sweet, (jw\^!L» mithds, sweetness. jeT — ijlj fre-sh, 1^^' f piyds, desire to drink, thirst. ^_ — ^^ know(Pers.)(_/ajlo ddnish, knowledge. — Jr>- burn, ^^^1^ jalan, a burning. \» — I4J deceive, U^^ Ihuldiod, a deception. ti;. — Ui^ prepare, cHjjIs^ sajdwat, preparation. ^\ — Jj^ feed, tjh^ TchUd,l, a feedin Ju) a daughter, ISb litiyi, a little daughter. j:^qt: is>- — t^ J a cauldron, , -sPV.J degeM, a kettle. o oj — i^S^ a bedstead, tj?5^ palmgri, a small bed- stead. . '< " — i— ')J a^ cannon, CSj y na/riii,,a, a little man. li) — .r*^7^ a brahman, liLwKftj brahmanetd, a young brahman. 0. — ^ J!) a deer, ^ji/* hiranotd, a fawn. ib or Jj — j»-< a peacock, ^jj^ moreld, a pea-chickeiL (IsT — pli a garden, ^i^lf^^ baffhicha, a kitchen- garden. rEMININES FORMED FROM M A SCULDTES. 57. Names of males ending in 1 a or \ji hrdhman, a Brahman, ^i^iJislj hrdhmani. \ ' . I I* ^ J *■**''■' j\i-o «M»ar, a goldsmith, ) a. A few are irregular in their formation; thus, from ^^^l^ IhdX ' brother,' ^^ lahin, ' sister ;' i^jLi leg or ^^Ui- Mdn, ' lord,' *Lj Je^(j»w or *jli- Ichdnam, 'lady;' l=f-lj »'4/") ting,' 15-J^ raraj, queen;' ijfilfi" hdthl, m. an elephant,' (^^^^^^ hathni, f. In other cases, as u-j\j hap, ' father,' L» wjd, mother,' the words are totally different, as in our own language, and often taken from different tongues, as J^ mard, man ' (Persian), "-^ jc ^aurat, woman ' (Arabic). ADJECTIVES. 58. Adjectives are formed from substantives by the addition of certaiu terminations, most of whicb will be found in the following alphabetical list : their ordinary meaning will be obvious from the various examples ; thus, by adding \ to -4^^ hunger, ^j^J IhMhd, hungry. A3\ — Jiij a child, iJlMs tifldna, childish. ijl — I .J strength, Ji^Ji) '^of-dwar, strong. AiJ — )Ugr>ai arms, OojiL^xto hathydr-land. armed. jlt> — U. fidelity, J^'^^J wafd-idr, faithful, h — '-^.^j foreign country, U-^.^j ivildyat-%d, foreign-born •Lj — J(ji a mountain, jUuJiji Icoh-sdr, mountainous. -^ — (J J the heart, rr^'^ dil-g'vr, grieved. ^^ — *c sorrow, ,^ *i gham-g'in, sorrowful 3 or jS — W?y behind, ^Ifsi pichhld, hindermost. jii^ — uiJjJ wealtli, Jki^jJ daulat-mand, wealthy. 86 DEEIVATIVES. U to jb- X — Jj orL — ,ti two, Jy» terror, jljjt) view, t^^ grief, >U name, JL.-jJ two years, iljlj a market, 1j tooth. ^ i^j or - chau-kond, ' quadrangular, tCiiji (_/u-i> shash-gosha, hexagonal,' eto. iLt wash and j^. icdr are added to express likeness ; as, ij ^ j lark-wash, like lightning,' .1. ~[j nd-^hush, displeased. /•^ — y*- age, j^wvKi ham-'umr, coeval. 59. In coucluding our remarks on the derivation of ■words, we would particularly direct the student's atten- tion to the various uses of the termination i. 1. It may be added to almost every adjective of the language, simple or compound, which then becomes the corres- ponding abstract substantive. 2. It may be added to all substantives denoting country, city, sect, tribe, physical substances, etc., which then become adjectives, signifying of or belonging to, or formed from, etc., the primary substantive. Lastly. It is used in forming feminines from masculines ; and it is the characteristic of the feminine gender in all present and past participles, as weU as in all adjectives purely Indian ending in 1 a. COMPOUND WORDS. 60. In all works written in the Urdu or mixed dialect of Hindustani, a vast number of compound words from the Persian may be met with in almost every page. These are generally formed by the union of two sub- stantives, or of an adjective with a substantive. Many of them are given in dictionaries, but as there is no limit to their number, the student must not place much re- liance on that source. A few weeks' study of Persian wiU make the matter clearer than any body of rules we could lay down on the subject ; we shall therefore notice here only the more important compounds, referring the student for further information to our Persian Grammar, last edition. 88 COMPOUNDS. SUBSTANTIVES. a. A Persian or Arabic substantive with its regimen is of fre> quent occurrence in Hindustani ; as, tuLi- c_>l dl-i-haiydt, water of immortality;' \Juj\ii''SSiti dida,i-ddnish, the eye of discernment ;' i^K^'jLSyj rii-e-zamin, the face of the earth.' In a similar form a Persian substantive with its adjective occasionally occurs; as, Sj J_» mard-i-niM, 'a good man;' i^^ (J^ ' dlam-i-fdni, 'the perishable world.' These, when introduced into Hindustani, are viewed as single words, and form their various cases by adding the post-posi- tions like nouns of the first or second classes; as, dh-i-haiydt M, dh-i-haiydt se, etc. h. A numerous class of Compound Substantives is formed by the mere juxta-position of two nouns ; as, (Ulri- ,5=^3 V idwar-cJA- hdna, cook-house, or kitchen,' from ^»-)il) ' cook,' and - j ci-vau^- just o j&, searching ;' jj ; Liu^ii ^uft ff{i, conversation.' The conjunction • in such cases is occa- sionally omitted ; as, JJb ,x^\, ^ ^^:^J>^, the same as ^.i j S^\, etc. d. There are a few compounds similar to the preceding, consisting of two substantives, sometimes of the same, and sometimes of different signification ; as, ajJ _j jyt or j_jAi ^ J _^ mar% o biim or marz o kisJiwar, ' an empire ' or kingdom,' literally, ' boundary and region ;' sc, lyi J (— ->! ab hatvd, climate,' literally, water and air;' Uj J yjHJ nashv o namd, rearing or bringing up ' (a plant or animal). In these, also, the conjunction j may be omitted, as L*_i *Jij~J, e. Compounds purely Hindustani or Hindi are not nearly so numerous as those borrowed from the Persian ; the following are occasionally met with : 1st. A masculine and feminine past participle, generally the same verb, though sometimes different; as, ^^^ lys Icahd-Jcahi, ' altercation,' J.^ l^^ kahd-suni, ' disputation.' 2nd. Two nouns of the same, or nearly the same signification; as, .bl»- /jj servants,' j^j s-i^^ . a custom or mode,' etc. Such expressions are very common in the Bagh o Bahar,' which is the standard work of the language. 3rd. Two words having something of alliteration about them, or a similarity of rhyme ; as, aUS J 1*^"^ hurly-burly,' jjjj j^ 'uproar,' iCr^iL* 'trickery,' etc., all of which we should of course vote to be vulgarisms, only that they occur in the very best 'writers. Lastly, the Hindustani is particularly rich in imitative sounds, such as |jf=r ijT^ 'jingling,' ^^ ^^ 'simmering.' /. Arabic phrases, such as we described in p. 19 (No. 18), are occasionally met with, such as <__>L»j)!! i_»-au^, the Causer ol causes,' ' God,' etc. ; but we believe that aU such are explained in good dictionaries. 90 COMPOUNDS. ADJECTIVKS. a. A very numerous class of epithets is formed by the union of two substantives ; as, ^j i]'i Mia ruM, having cheeks like the tulip;' i_?V» t_fjJ pdri-rii,e or pari-ri,, 'having the face of a fairy;' J J (.^.^x-j sang-dil, 'having a heart like stone;' l_J ili shakwr-ldby having lips (sweet) as sugar.' In English we have many instances,, in the more familiar style, of this kind of compound ; as, ' iron- hearted,' ' buU-headed,' lynx-eyed,' etc. h. Another numerous class, similar to the preceding, is formed by prefixing an adjective to a substantive; as, ^J'*) <^y^ Mub-rli.,e, ' having a fair face ;' i^\) CS\) pdk-rd,e, ' of pure intention ;' J J i^S^ tang-dil, distressed in heart.' We make use of many such compounds in familiar conversation and newspaper style, such as clear-sighted,' long-headed,' sharp-witted,' ' hard-hearted,' etc. c. Perhaps the most numerous class of the epithets is that com- posed of verbal roots, joined to substantives or adjectives; as, -j^ JLc 'dlam-ffir, world-subduing;' J-iJi "liiJ fitna-ange%, strife-exciting;' LiT ^^U- jdn-dsd, 'giving rest to the soul;' ^Jci^ J J dil-sitdn, ravishing the heart;' ^ <" ^-^ subuk-raw, moving lightly.' Our best English poets freqaently indulge in compounds of this class ; thus, ' the night-tripping fairy,' ' the temple-haunting martlet,' ' the clond- compelling Jove,' etc. d. A knowledge of these Persian compounds -nnll be absolutely necessary, in order to peruse with any advantage the finest productions of the Hindustdni language. The poets in general freely use such terms; nor are they of less frequent occurrence in the best prose works, such as the 'Bagh o Bahar,' the 'Ikhwanu-s-safa,' the 'Khirad COMPOOWDS. 91 Afroz,' etc., for the thorough understanding of which, a slight know ledge of the Persian is absolutely requisite. In proof of this, we could point out many compounds which occur in our own selections from the Khirad Afroz,' not to he found in any dictionary, the meaning at the same time being quite obvious to any one who knows- Persian. Such, for example, are \^j (^r* niwrham-lahd, 'medicine- money ; ' (c-^ (./*Ai nafas-kusht, mortifying of the passions ; ' _y* is^y° sufl-miidj, of philosophic disposition,' e. We may reckon among the compounds such expressions as <_jb L» md-idp, parents,' iv>j j^ lar-hapur, Lar and Kapiir,' names of two brother minstrels who lived at the court of Akbar. It is barely possible that this may be an imitation of the Sanskrit compound called Dwandwa ; though the probability is in favour of its being an idiomatic omission of the conjunction nl and,' between two such words as are usually considered to be associated together. In works purely Hindi, translated from the Sanskrit, such as the ' Prem Sagar,' it is most likely that such phrases as iJ.*ui5- Avj nanda-jasodd, ' Nanda and Jasoda ;' aLIj ^j-i^ krishna-lala/rdm, ' Krishna and Balaram,' are bona-flde Dwandwas ; but it would savour of pedantry to apply the term to such homely expressions as .^rf^ ft>jj ' bread and butter,' or the very un-clasmal beverage commonly called ^Ju t^'^At- videlicet, " brandy and water.' 92 SECTION V. SYNTAX, OR THE CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 61. In all languages a simple sentence must necessarily consist of three parts, expressed or understood : 1st, a nominative or subject ; 2nd, a verb ; and 3rd, a predicate or attribute ; as, ' fire is hot,' ' ice is cold.' In many instances the verb and attribute are included in one word ; as, ' the man sleeps,' ' the horse runs,' ' the snow falls,' in which case the verb is said to be neuter or intransitive. When the verb is expressive of an action, and at the same time the sense is iacomplete without statiag the object acted upon, it is called an active or transitive verb, as, ' the carpenter made a table,' ' the masons built a church.' In each of these sentences it is evident that something is required beyond the verb to complete the sense, for if we merely said ' the carpenter made,' 'the masons built,' the hearer would instantly ask, 'made what?' 'built what?' In Hindustani and several of its kindred dialects, it is of the utmost import- ance that the learner shoidd discriminate the active or transitive from the neuter or intransitive verb, in order that he may adopt that mode of construction peculiar to each. In a sentence whose verb is active or transitive, we shall designate the three parts as agent, verb, and object ; thus, the carpenter is the agent; made, the verb; and a table, the object. a. In the arrangement of the three parts of a sentence, different ilanguages follow rules peculiar to themselves; for instance, in the ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 93. sentence, ' the elephant killed the tiger,' the Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit languages have the option of arranging the words in any order. The Arabic and the Gaelic put the verb first, then the nomi- native, and lastly the object. The English and French follow the logical order as we have given it, and the Hindustani and Persian have also an arrangement of their own, which we shall now proceed to explain, as our first rule of Syntax or construction. 62. The general rule for the arrangement of the parts of a sentence in Hindustani is, first, the nominative or agent ; secondly, the predicate or object ; and, last of all, the Terb; thus, ^_y> j^t^T ag garni Jiai, 'fire is hot,' ^ Ij J ^ji^\ J-J^;J parhez achchhi dawd hai, ' abstinence is good physic,' ^ V\3 j\^ ^ ji:^ '4 \^^ hdtki-ne sher-ko mdr-ddld hai, * the elephant has killed the tiger.' a. Though the above rule holds in short sentences, such as those we have just given, yet it is by no means of stringent application. In the first place, poets are freely allowed the proverbial license of the genus ; that is, to adopt that arrangement of the words which best pleases the ear, or suits the metre. In prose, also, it may sometimes be more emphatic to put the object first; as, \iJ \y>- ii S ^f^J i^\ thou hast stolen those images.' Sometimes the object is, for the sake of contrast or emphasis, put last, in the place usually occupied by the verb; as follows, ^ J^i ij^^ jj\ — j^ d^'' 15^ ^y i_.^ iJ^W" the fool seeks for wealth, and the sage for excellence,' where mdl-lm and Icamdl-Tco are put last. h. The Hindustani makes no difference in the arrangement of a Bentence, whether it be interrogative or affirmative. In conversation, the tone of the voice, or the look, sufloes to indicate whether or not a question is asked, and in reading it must be inferred from the context ; thus, 1/5^^- p ™ay signify ' you wiU go,' or ' will you go ? ' There are, however, several words which are used only in asking a question, auch as those given in the middle column of p. 68. These, when used, come immediately before the verb, as ^_^y^ ^j\^ *j ' where y4 CONCORD OF ADJECTIVES. will you go ?' The word U^ is sometimes employed at the beginning of a sentence to denote interrogation, like the Latin num or an; as, ^i-j --y J^ -^^_ tj *J' U^ 'have you not heard this proverb f ' CONCORD OE ADJECTIVES WITH SUBSTANTIVES. 63. The adjective, as in Englisli, generally precedes its substantive. If the adjective be capable of inflection, that is, if it be a purely Indian word ending in \ d, the following rule holds : The termination \ a is used before aU mascuHne nouns in the nominative (or first accusative) case singular ; the termination t/ e is used before mas- culine nouns in any other case singular, or in the plural number ; and the termination ^ - i is used before aU feminine nouns, in any case, singular or plural ; thus, ^ j,.^ \^ ij wuh IJiald viard hai, ' he is a good man,' i_j-j j-» ^£j hhale inard-se, ' from a good man,' Sy* ^1^ bhale mard, ' good men,' ^^ u^-^" ^J^. i^ale mardon-se, 'from good men,' ■■^jy^ ^J^ hhali ^aiirat, 'a good woman,' ^ ufJi^ L^ ^^^^^ ^d-uratoh-M, ' of good women.' a. The same rule applies to such adjectives in : ,\ d» and « a, as admit of inflection ; as, J^ (J'y^-^ ' the tenth man,' l^ O^ iVr-"-* 'of the tenth man,' ol^ ^)i)^^'^ 'the tenth night;' so, JUui i\s^ 'the helpless traveller,' f Ji\^-, ^?;lsnj 'to the helpless traveller,' |jlj t,5j\.su ' the helpless queen.' I. If adjectives, capable of inflection, be separated by means of the particle ^ from the noun which they qualify, and united with the verb, they undergo no change; as, .^.^ YS> ^ ^ ^J^\ 'blacken his face ; ' but in this sentence MId-kamd is to be reckoned a com- pound verb (p. 66, i). Adjectives, ending with any letter except \, i and ^}, restricted as above, do not undergo any change GEXITIVE CASE. 95 *s, |^y»'iT i>L> I) ' a pure man, '-^j^ CS\j ' a pure woman,' LS\j li ' an unclean thing.' c. As a general rule, adjectives, when followed by their sub- stantives, never receive the nasal terminations (an, en, or on) of the plural ; and the same rule applies to such tenses as are formed of participles with or without an auxiliary verb, it being deemed sufficient to add the nasal n to the last word only; as i^lii ijf^^ achchJii (not aohchM,dn) Jdtdien, 'good books;' (J ^j^ii\ ^I^ hhale (not Ihahn) ddmiyon-ne, 'by good men;' /j-.^ 13-^ Ly . L_s^ S^ ^^ chaVi jdt'i raht'i thin, they (females) continued going along.' Sometimes, however, the participle takes the plural termination ; as : --.A rj^ ^ and ^,■^i> tj ^ ■ ^^en the adjective comes last (which may happen in verse), it sometimes receives the plural termination; as, jjV.jW^ il;:?^'!^ 'heavy (tedious) nights.' (Yates's Giammar). d. If an adjective qualify two or more nouns, some of which are masculine, and others feminine, the adjective is used in the masculine form, and the same rule applies to the participles and future tenses of verbs; as, j-Jb i^'y i-r-'^ ^ l5^"^ ' '^^^ mother and father are dead;' L^ jiL-Go It^ ^ ^JLi ^JLj ^ij\ is^— '^ '^^ seeing his son and daughter dead, said,' etc. If, however, the substantives be names of inanimate things, the adjective generally agrees with that to which it stands nearest; thus, j^-Jb ^_J^1 *-::-— ifJ o'-^ -J->^ cT^. "r^jk^ ' the clothes, plates, and books are very good.' COlSrCOIlD OF THE GENITIVE WITH ITS EEGIMEN ; ETC. 64. We have seen (p. 27, etc.,) that the genitive case has three distinct terminations, M, Ice, and k'l, and the rule which determines the choice of these is exactly similar to that which regulates the termination of the 96 GENITIVE CASE. adjective ; in fact, all genitives in. Hindustani are pos- sessive adjectives, subject to inflection, and, like adjectives, they are generally placed before the substantive which governs them. If the govemiug word be masculine and in the nominative case (or first form of the accusative} singular, l^ M is used, as, j^ l^ ^y mard-ka ghar, ' the man's house,' or 'the house of the man,' ^jIjUj li^ l^ j^ mard-hd Jcuttd wafdddr hai, 'the man's dog is faithful,' , jU 1.::-^ \^ l^ Sjy, mard-hd Jcuttd mat mdro, ' do not beat the man's dog.' K the governing word be mascu- line, and iu an oblique case singular, or iu any ease plural, ^ ke is used, as, ^^ ^ ^ l\^ mard-ke ffhar-se, 'from the man's house,' ^ ujjy^u/ '^'^ mard-ke gharoii- ho, 'to the man's houses.' Lastly, if the govemiug word be feminine, in whatever case or number, ^ hi is used; as, ^^ ^ J^ mard-ki beti, 'the man's daughter,^ ^2j-jli^ ^ S'y mard-ki hitabeh, ' the man's books.' a. Although the general rule is to put the genitive case heforo its regimen, yet the reverse is of frequent occurrence, particularly in such works as have been translated or imitated from the Persian; as j^ ^^Jo j*-j 'the thraldom of the body,' l^ .Ci j^J^sr" 'the worship of thanksgiving.' We may here state that the Persian genitive is formed by placing the governing word first, having its last letter marked with the vowel Aasro; as, (_/olj ^-^ ganj-i ddnish, the treasury of wisdom,' where the short vowel « is the sign of the genitive, similar in its use to our particle o/in English. Persian words ending with « and ^5- take •; and those ending with \ or j take ^ for the sign of the genitive ; as, Idkii. jjoj ' a servant of Gfod,' ^sT t^ly^ air of the sea.' h. The genitive sign is employed idiomatically in sucb expressions GENITIVE CASE. 97 as I — ^ Is i_,^ sah-kd sal, ' one and all,' l::.^ K e:-^ /tAa^-ytd M«<. ' the whole (field) of the field,' i-lJb ^ cuL I&t-IA hat, ' mere talk;' and adjectivehj to convert a substantive into an attributive; thus, (tiji: Is ij^ sone-M taWita, ' a golden plate,' or ' plate of gold ;' \rJ^ J^ s£j^ ' ^ ^°y '^'^ a large head.' c. In some cases it is idiomatically omitted ; as uf lU^ Ui J (?aryd handre, on the river bank,' for ^^^ S^^ i_s^ ^J'-' daryd-ke kandre-men, on the bank of the river.' It is also omitted in many expressions in which the governing words denote weight or measure ; as, Ci->^jr J.*-) s-l^,^ 'one pound of flesh,' -^v^j V^ '—^.^ '^ bigha of ground,' where the words are used merely in apposition, the same as in German. d. The genitive is also used to signify possession, value, etc. ; as, Uj uLj lL5o1 ^^ i(LiijLj pddshdh-KE \_pds or yahdn understood] ek betd thd, the king had a son ;' in like manner, jc^' fJ~^ I— ^.^ ij^ i_5^^ MS-KE [^ds, etc.] Mi ek beti thi, ' he had also a daughter;' Jy'^ *> ,s^J-J '"-^.^ *^ nl^z,e-Ad ehdhwal, one rupee's (worth of) rice.' «. Compounds formed of two common substantives in English will in Hindustani be expressed by the genitive case ; as J*^ ^ i<^ likhne-ki me%, a writing-table ;' ^-ii-^ij « (_jlji khdne kd wakt, ' dinner time ;' and sometimes the genitive sign is used in Hindustani when in English it is inadmissible, as liiJ li Sj fikr kd lajk, the word rrcE.' /. Instances sometimes occur in which a genitive case is used in ' /"f ' consequence of a noun or preposition understood ; such as y^ i<^' ^ ' hear ye him,' i. e. tub ^J^ ' tis word ;' so in the tale of the First Darwesh ( Bagh o Bahar,' p. 34,) we have (_f;l^' t^tU) L-)\ ,_5'jii J\s>- ''^JXi^jO (where the word ^-u or j^L^J is understood), * betweeii you and me there has arisen a sincere friendship.' The 7 98 PfiLrosrnoiirs. editors of a recent Calcutta edition have made an amendment here, by using hamdr'i tumhdri ! GOVERNMENT OF PEEPOSITIONS, ETC. 65. The list of prepositions, page 71, begirming with ^T dge^ etc., govern the genitive "with ^ ke ; as ^_X\ tj' j^ ghar-ke age, ' before (in front of) the house ;' jlj j_jf bjj daryd-ke par, ' over (on the other side of) the river,' etc. The less numerous list, beginning with vj^'l' bdbat, etc., page 72, govern the genitive with ^ kl; as, ^Jo ^ ^^ shahr-ki taraf, 'towai'ds (in the direction of) the city.' All the prepositions may be optionally put before or after the word which they govern, their effect on the substantive, with few ex- ceptions, remaining the same. a. The prepositions being all substantives in an oblique case whose termination is (No. 64, c) idiomaticaUy omitted, it is easy to see from what we have just stated why they should govern the genitive in Ae or hi, but never in kd. There is however one pecu- liarity attending some of the feminine prepositions which custom seems to have established ; though the rationale of it be not at aU evident. We have excellent authority for saying that the words JJ>^, .^^j-ijA^, i—ijo, and AX'U, when they precede the sub- stantive, require the genitive in ^ ke ; and when they foUow, they require ^ lA. In the second volume of the ' Ehirad Afroz,' p. 277, we have ^ Jac J^i^ lamadad 'akl-ke, ' by aid of the understanding.' In the 'Bagh o Bahar,' ' p. 40, we have J ...ia- ^1, j — " '^'^ ^rT-^ '^ 1 Whenever reference is made to the ' Bfigh o Bah&r," it is understood to be the edition recently edited by me, at the desire and expense of the Honourable the East- India Company. It is not only the cheapest, but in every respect the best work that the student can peruse, after he has gone through the Selections appended to this Grammar. — D. F. rRErosiTioNS. 99 ie-marzi huziir-he, without consent of her highness the princess;' ■and in page 188 of the same work, we have S jy^ u-J-t CSj\ ek taraf shahr-ke, ' on one side of the city ;' all of them with ke in every edition and copy, printed or manuscript. The wonder is, how it escaped the critical amendments of the Calcutta editors already alluded to ; but so it has, for even they have here followed the established reading. I. The preposition JoJv^ mdnand or m,dnind has been amply discussed by Dr. Gilchrist in several of his works, but it must be confessed that the learned doctor does not in this instance appear as a sound and fair critic. He assumes that one of the Munshis used ke instead of ki by mistake, and that he had sufS.cient influence with all the other learned natives of the country to make them take his part, •and sanction the error. This argument is so very ridiculous that refu- tation is superfluous. Use is everything in language, and if in Hin- dustani custom has ordained that several of the prepositions when they precede the word which they govern, require the genitive with ke, ■and when they follow require ki, then it is the duty of the grammarian fairly to state the fact. It is quite probable that many iastances of this mode of construction, in addition to those which we have shown above, may yet be detected. 0. The adverbs (jl^j ' here,' and ^jliSj ' there,' govern the genitive with ke, like nouns or prepositions. "When thus used, they convey idiomatically the signification of at, to, or in the house of,' or ' in the possession of.' jU- ,^1^ ^ t_-^=-l.^ go to the gentleman's house,' which is not unlike the use of the French particle ch^. The pre- positions (w^ and CSji^jI are used in the same general sense as im\) JL:\ 'near or with him,' and more generally in his possession,' ' cTie% lui.' The word (Jjvjt3jj denotes idiomatically in the opinion of,' as ijSjtijJ ^S ^^jiJ^i^iiiic 'in the opinion of the wise;' 'apud 100 DATIVE CASE. d. Several of the prepositions, when they follow their substantives^ may dispense entirely with the genitive signs ke and M, thus shewing a tendency to become real postpositions; as, (j*ih |_c«»li near of before the judge.' If the word they govern be a noun of the third class, or a pronoun, the inflected form remains the same as if ^ or Ai had been expressed ; as, (jwU ^^Ji ' near the boy ; ' lij (jm\ with- out him or her ; ' and if the word governed be the first or second personal pronoun, when the genitive is thus dispensed with, the oblique forms mujh and %'A are used ; as, (juuli .^^ near me ; ' (_^l) ..^isr' near thee.' DATIVE CASE. 66. The use and application of this case is very nearly the same as in most European languages. As a general rule, an English noun, governed by the pre- positions to or for, will be expressed in Hindustani by means of the dative case. a. The Hindustani dative sometimes corresponds with the Latin accusative, expressive of motion to a place ; for instance, ^ ^T • ,-.< iLJjLs- ' I will go home,' ' ibo domum.' In this last sense also, the- sign ko is often omitted, which brings it still nearer the Latin ; as, i\jyS) \j\:^ j^ • .-.^ ' I am going home,' ' eo domum.' The dative case is also used to express time when ; as, ^ ^^ ' by day ; ' »i Cij\j 'by night;' «^ *Lj) 'at evening.' In such expressions the post-position ko is frequentiy and even eleganfly omitted; as, ^ J tliol one day ; ' and if the word expressive of time be accom- panied by an adjective or pronoun subject to inflection, the infleoted form of the latter remains the same as if ko had been expressed : as, ij J lj*i\ on that day ; ' ^—^j ij^ ' at what time ? ' ACCUSATIVE CASE. 101 ACCUSATIVE CASE. 67. The accusative in Hindustani, as in English, is generally like the nominative, but when it is desirable to render the object of an active verb very definite or specific, then the termination Tco (of the dative) is added to the object. a. "We believe tliis rule to be quite sound as a general principle, though by no means of rigid application. Many words are sufficiently ■definite from accompanying circumstances, such as an adjective, a genitive case, a pronoun, etc., so as not to require any discriminative mark. Others again, though sufficiently definite in themselves, gene- rally require the particle ho; such are proper names, names of offices, professions, etc.; as, j^L ^ CS^\^ 'call Manik;' j'lb ^ j^^r' ' call the Sardar.' In these instances, however, the Hindustani assimilates with the Greek, which would employ the definite article in like cases. h. The use of the particle Ico to denote the object of an active verb forms one of the niceties of the Hindustani, which can only be arrived ^t by practice. A weU-educated native, and many Europeans who have studied the language and associated much with natives, will without effort supply the particle ko in its proper place, and nowhere else. It follows then that there must be some principle to regulate all this, though it may be difficult to lay hold of, or to express within a short compass. The rule given by Muhammad Ibrahim of Bombay, and we assuredly know of no better authority, is in substance the same as we have just stated. — Vide 'Tuhfae Elphinstone,' page 80. e. When a verb governs an accusative and also a dative, both being substantives, the first or nominative form of the accusative is generally used, as the repetition of ko in both cases would not only sound ill, but in many instances lead to ambiguity; thus, _jJ \j^ ^ 0^ give the horse to the man.' If, however, it be deemed essential to add ko to the accusative, even this rule must give way ; as in the following 102 ABLATIVE AND LOCAllVE. sentence : U J ^ ^^^ \S^ f ^J^^^^ ^ s/'^ isH' S^ O"^ ' ^* gave his brother's share to his (brother's) wife.' When the dative is a pronomi, the repetition of Ito is easily avoided by using the termination « or e« for the latter; as, L^ '^j~f' 15-=^ J^ l5V^ '^ lS^^ ' *^* judge gave up to her the child.' ABLATIVE AND LOCATITE. 68. The ablative denotes the source from ■which any thing proceeds; the locative, as its name imports, denotes situation. In their use and application, they generally correspond with the Latin ablative. a. The ablative sign ^^ se signifies from ' and ' with.' It is applied to the instrument with which, but very seldom to the agent hy- whom, any act is done, unless in connection with a neuter verb. Examph : y i_5^^lr^ r 4^'"^ S^ i-*4»- ' the executioner smote the prisoner with a sword.' In Dr. Gilchrist's Story-TeUer (No. 97), we have an instance of se denoting the agent, the only one we have ever met with in our reading; ^ ^ i_s'\^ ^^ ^jj ^,j _= .isT 'how is it that stale bread was eaten by thee ? ' With a neuter verb se may be used to denote the source or origin of the event described ; as foUows, lys JJ^ jyJi j^ ^^ ^Li ^^^ ' by some poet {or through some poet) a fault took place.' I. With the verb U^ lahna, ' to say' or 'tell,' the particle ^- «» seems to be used idiomatically, and must often be translated in Eno-lish. by to ; ' as, ^^ ^S ^ ^^ (^\ ^,^ I am saying to him,' or telling him, truth ; ' because the sentence : ,yb lil^ ^ X i^\ - ,^, vrill mean, ' I declare him {or her, or it) to be true,' or ' I call that truth ; ' so ^ji^ -^^j J^ i^^ ^\ means ' people do not call- him a man.' The use of ^_g^ se with [:^S therefore is obvious. c. The locative sign ^^ men generally denotes in, sometimes te- IHE AGENT WITH ' NE.' 103 or into ; as, ^i ^^t ^^J^i 'he is in the city;' LT \,^ ^ ij 'he is gone to (into) the city.' The locative signs : ^ and j have fre- quently the post-position ^^ joined to them; as, ^^j\ji^ ^ ^,^y^ ' he brought a sword from in the city;' ]jJ^,_<-=y i-^^ lW^ *J he fell down from on his horse.' Here the English idiom is ' from off' his horse, which is less logical. CASE OF THE AGENT. 69. The case of tLe agent, charactemed by the par- ticle J, ne, is never used except with transitive verbs, and when, used it is confined to those tenses only which are formed of the past participle (K'o. 40, page 56). The verb then agrees with the object in gender and number, unless it be deemed requisite to render the object definite by the addition of the particle _j^ ko (No. 6 7 J, in which case the verb remains in. the simple form of the third person singular masculine. a. In farther Ulustration of this very simple rule, we here sub- join a sufficient number of examples ; 1^0 hi '--^^ ci U^^ ' ^^ saw a dog,' or, UteraUy, ' by him a dog (was) seen ;' likewise, ^^J ^Jj^^-j ^ (jjul 'he saw three horses,' or, 'by him,' etc.; jc^;J i^^jliJJol ij, ■^jm\ ' he saw afox;' jj:^.^ ijVjK^ ^-^^-^ S^ t^^ he saw many foxes ;' in all which phrases the construction agrees precisely with the Latin passive voice. Again, if it be deemed necessary or elegant to add io to the object, then the verb wOl be always the same, that is, the masculine singular form ; thus, ^^,0 ^ ^Si iJ (*^ ' we have seen the dog ;' l^J ^ Ujjj^ Sr (*"' ' ^^^® ^°^ ^^^^ *^® horses ? ' U^ J ^ s£/^J^ S^ 'ir^ U*'^ S-^ ' ""'lien that man saw the fox ;' l^i-^ ^ c)iO^^ ^ "'w (ui-ne) kahd, ' she quickly returned and said.' e. This very peculiar use of the particle ne to denote the agent prevails, with slight modifications, throughout an extensive group of dialects spoken in Hindustan Proper. It is found in the Marathi, the Guzerati, and the Panjabi, in the West. In the Nepalese it assumes the form J le; and it may be inferred that it prevails in most of the intermediate dialects of Hindi origin, amounting to nearly twenty in number. It does not exist in the group of dialects connected •with the Bengali, nor in those of the Deccan. In the grammars of the Marathi language, it is called the Instrumental case, a term inapplicable in Hindi, as it never is used with the instrument, but solely with the offent. What is called the instrumental case in Sanskrit, is applied indifferently to the agent or instrument ; but in the modern dialects above alluded to, particularly the Hindustani, ne is restricted to the agent only. /. Our ffreat grammarians have succeeded wonderfully well in mystifying the very simple (though singular) use and application of this particle ne. Dr. Gilchrist, in the first edition of his grammar, seems to have felt greatly embarrassed by it, without exactly knowing what to make of it. Those who have merely foRowed the learned doctor, with very few ideas of their own, have contented themselves by calling it an expletive, which luminous explanation has stood for years in one of the books hitherto read by beginners. Now, the term ' expletive ' in philology is as convenient, in its way, as that of the humours in the jargon of quack doctors ; it solves every difficulty, and forms a ready answer to all questions : it may mean anything or nothino-. To account philosophically for the mode in which this particle is applied does not fall within our province ; suffice it merely to say, that it is a form of construction very common in Sanskrit. "With regard, however, to its practical use and application, we trust that all diflS-Culty has been removed. The fact is, that the only real difficulty likely to arrest the progress of the learner consists, not in the use of ne to express the agent, but in that of ko to define the object of a transitive verb. 106 NUMERALS. NUMERALS. 70. When a noun is accompanied by a numeral adjective, the plural termination on of tlie oblique cases is generally dispensed with. If the noun be of the third class, the inflected form in e is generally used. a. Thus, \)t* j^ liyt j\i>- tj 15^ V**" 1^ 'three soldiers beat four men.' "We have reason to believe that the addition of the termination on would render the substantives more pointed or definite; thus, tin sipdhiyon-ne would signify the three soldiers (aforesaid).' In the grammar prefixed to Dr. Gilchrist's Dictionary (London ed.), we have \ii ^j^/J ^S '-r'\j^ ^Ji^ i~^ ' * hundred horses were at the Nawwab's,' which ought to be translated a hundred horse,' i. e. a troop or collective body of one hundred,' whereas, a hundred horses,' or ' a hundred boys,' would be i_Sj^j~' and j<^ v-;. b. Collective numbers add on to denote multiplication or repe- tition ; as, jjV.'lii^ ujjf"^ ' liiiii<^reds of battles ; ' _y-i ; tj\\s> thousands of cities.' Any numeral by adding on. becomes more emphatic or definite ; as, ^j^^-s:^ OJ'J v ^' those four persons.' "Words expressive of time, as year, month, day, etc., add on in the nominative plural; as, lJj^ Ui^ years have passed away.' c. In Hindustani the conjunction, etc., is idiomatically omitted in such phrases as ^^j jj 'two (or) three,' ,j^ (j^j '(from) ten (to) twenty.' A doubtful number is expressed by adding CJi<\ to the numeral ; as, CS-A (^o ^^i ' about ton men ;' ^^_j ijSi} ^ ' about a hundred years.' To signify ' fold,' Jc^- or iif is added to numerals; as ^^ ;J 'two-fold;' \i^ ,j^C! 'ton-fold.' Distributives are formed by doubling the number ; as, j J jJ ' two by two,' or ' two COMPARISON OF ADJECnVES. 107 apiece.' Thus, suppose we wish to say, ' give these men threfr rupees each,' or three rupees apiece,' the Hindustani will be * ' - ■• < ''" ^ « •jii ^_5«i^ 1^ ij^ y i^^r*'^' ijf to these men, three three rupees give." COMPAEISON OF ADJECITTES. 71. We have already observed that adjectives in Hindustani do not admit of comparison by any regular or systematic terminations. The comparative degree is indicated by merely putting the standard of comparison in the ablative, and the superlative by prefixing to that the word sab, 'all.' a. The comparative and superlative are to be inferred in general from the context, as the adjective has only one form, that of the positive or simple word, thus <-_jI^^ ,_? J CUJ ^ Aj.' a^-j ^^ ^^s**" ' the miser is better than the liberal man if he (the miser) give an answer quickly.' It is obvious that if the standard of comparison should include the whole class spoken of, the adjective will express the superlative degree. Ex. ^^ '-r'y^ j'^ i^ ^^r"* u^r* t_-^-o ' of aU accomplishments two are best ' (viz. learning and the art of war). b. To express the comparative degree, the particles jjl our, and i jLi 1 ziydda, more,' may also be employed exactly as in Prench and English; as, ^j^ S-'l/i- ijljj i^s"" d'^^ ^^ Si 'those people are worse than dogs.' The adjective is sometimes doubled to express, the superlative degree; as, \^\ l^s-l 'very good;' but the wordsi most commonly used and prefixed for this purpose are \v "great, very;' l::^>*j much;' 0*=- 'beyond bounds;' lz.^jL(J extremely;' 1 " Ji^ ' very ' (generally in a bad or disagreeable sense! ; and U: ' most, very,' which last is added. It is to be further observed that 108 PERSONAL PEONOUNS. \'j, thoTigh thus used apparently as an adverb, agrees in genda and number with the substantive ; as, ^ ^)> ^]/>- ^ »j 'he is a very ■wicked boy ;' and again, ^ ^ij! ^J[/5- ^gj^ *j ' she is a very •wicked girl.' e. The particle L sd (««, si), when added to a substantive, con- verts such substantive into an adjective denoting similitude; as, .yU- cS\j\j U li^ 'a dog-like unclean animal.' When added to an adjective, it seems to render the same more intensive, though fre- quently it is difficult to find for it an equivalent English expression; as, JT J ijj^ ^ U^' 'bring a little water ;' ^ j^^ljSj j^!^ i^ '■^^^ 'there were many weapons there.' "When the comparison made by Lj alludes to one thing out of many, it governs the genitive case ; as in the sentence ^ j,mjs>- L> l^ ^^\ ^^ J^W*^' yoi also have a body exactly Uke theirs ;' f-^jy ^ l^ J^ ' * ^""^ ^^^ *^^* °^ ^ tiger.' trSE OP THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 72. The personal pronotms, as in Latin, are very often merely understood, particularly before such tenses of the verb as possess distinct personal terminations ; and as a general rule, the pronouns need not be expressed when the sense is quite clear without them, except it be by way of contrast or emphasis. a. "When the third personal pronouns become the object of an active verb, they are generally used in the second (or dative) form of the accusative ; as, jj[^ yL;i 'beat him;' .'1 ^\ 'call them;' '\sX , j-ji take this away.' If, however, they are employed as aqeotives, along with their substantives, they may be used in the nominative form: as, _y» ijii-j Cub ^ >J'' 'you hear this word.' With the conjunctive participle, they are elegantly used in the PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 109- nominative form ; as, J~^ ^j ' having said this.' Sometimes, though rarely, the nominative form may be used when a dative follows ; as, jjjO leFf^ *j :^p^ I "^ill gi'^e that to thee.' "When the first or second personal pronouns are governed by an active verb, the dative form IS always used ; as, ^Ji UjU ^J-fsT* a^ or ^Jti UjU. ^fs^ Jj- •' ? p " ** he IS beating me ;' ^^ ^'^^..'^ ( J^^f^) i#f^ c-'S-^ I s^® thee.' 5. It may be observed that the personal, relative, and interrogative pronouns have two distinct terminations for the dative and accusative cases, viz. ho or e for the singular, and h> or en for the plural. Hence, when an active verb governs an accusative (second form) and dative at the same time, it will be easy to avoid a repetition of the termination h) by employing e or en in the one case, and Tio in the other; thus, 9 P Us)_j J ^L^J 1^1 \y^ I will giveitto you ; US J^ ^-j| r lA? <-^l5^^ ' the judge gave up the child to her.' In sentences of this kind, the accusative is generally put before the dative, but not always ; thus, in the ' Baital Pachisi,' a very sagacious young lady says to her p p p father, f^'j^ (j-jI ijf?^ _jJ» Ij U- ^ ( .^ y>- Isj ' father, who- soever may be acquainted with all the sciences, give me to him,' or ' bestow me upon him in marriage,' but then, in another part of the same work, we have a similar expression differently arranged, as p p Uj J i#=^ Lj-il ^ where the dative is placed first. c. When the first and second personal pronouns are accompanied by a qualifying word, the genitive of the whole expression is made by kd, Ice, M, not rd, re, ri, and the pronouns are used in the inflected p . p, forms mujh and tujh ; as, ^ j;M .^s^ ' of me wretched ;' IS^ lilt) ■.jtsT ' of thee wise.' This oblique form is also used when the particle sd, p se, SI is added to denote similitude ; as, Ax.«liic Lj .^ssT ' a sensible man like thee.' ^, In Hindustani, as in English, it is customary to address an 110 PERSONAL PRONOXmS. individual generally in the second person plural, the singular being used in prayer to a deity, or to express familiarity or contempt; but -in the vulgar tongue they go a step further, and the speaker uses the plural *& we,' when it really refers to no more than himself. This abuse has led to the nesessity of adding the word i^Si people,' to denote a genuine plural, as ham log, ' we (people),' turn log, ' you (people).' Thus, /-<.i!) .jijlp- *& 'I know' (literally 'we know'); and if a real plural is meant, then they say ham log jdnte hain ; so, jj jS^ »Ji t—jliS^ 'give me (us) the book.' To testify great respect, the third person must also be used ia the plural when speaking of a king, saint, or any illustrious or respected man in general; as, (^ S^^/ '^ i-^J '^"3 is speaking truth' (Uterally, 'they,' etc.). "When the plural is thus used for the singular, it is generally im- inflected ; but when a stiU. higher degree of respect, or a more decided plural is intended, it receives the inflection; as, Li^ ^i lo*^! 'they or he (his honour, majesty, etc.) said.' e. This confusion of numbers may have given rise to the following idioms: ^U t^J^ -^J"^ 'into our and your hands,' that is, ' into the hands of us two ; ' ^J^ s^ *j ^ ham turn chalenge, ' we and you {i.e. I and thou) will go,' meaning, ' we shall go.' The speaker politely assumes precedence to himself ; and when two diflferent persons thus occur in a sentence, the verb agrees with the first person in preference to the second, and with the second in preference to the third; as, jJlijjU- »j »& 'we and you will go;' ir'j^ t/j (^ yon and they wiU go.' /. We here subjoin the rules laid down by Muhammad Ibrahim of Bombay respecting the etiquette to be observed in the use of the pronouns. "1. When the speaker and the person whom he addresses are of the same rank, each should speak of himself in the singular number, and address the other in the second person plural. 2. A person of superior rank may speak of himself in the plural number, but this is not considered to be polite, nor is it thought con-ect to address even the lowest rank in the singular number. 3. The pronouns of the third person may be used in the singular when speak- PERSONAL PEONOUNS. Ill ing of any person in their presence, unless ttey be of superior rank, when they ought to be spoken of in the plural. 4. When one person of rank addresses another of the same or superior rank, or speaks of him in his presence, it is most correct to make use of the respectful pronoun c-jT, or the great man's title, or some respectful phrase, as AjjIJl>- your honour,' dJ^-as- honour, highness,' etc., and the like, with the third person plural (of the pronouns and yerbs) ; and when an inferior addresses a superior, he ought at all times to use similar expressions of respect, suitable to the rank of the person addressed." We may further add, that an inferior at the same time speaks of himself in the third person singular, under the appellation of ^ai. your servant' or slave;' tij"^:? your devoted ;' iAij your bondsman ;' (^^ijs" your sincere friend,' etc. g. "When a person relates the speech of another, he makes use of "the identical words which the person whose speech is reported is supposed to have used. Example, He said he should go next day, ILjj Ip- J.^ ^^ a^ ^i" (J (jju \ {lit. 'he said, I will go to-morrow.') So in the sentence. He told me to go home, j*^- .^ \j^ jj\ • ,-^ ' I and my father wiU go to our own country.' Here main aiir merd hap is the nominative of the sentence, and apne mulh men is the complement ; in the former, the regular possessive merd is used, and in the latter, apnd, according to our rule above stated. d. When in the first clause of a sentence there occurs the conjunctive participle, the possessive in it wOl be apnd ; as IxJj \=^ ^\y^ CS^-t ,jij\ XJ ^'L: ^ L-A) ^^\ ^^ 'I, having taken my father with me, will go to my own. country.' Here, the use of apnd is strictly according to rule, for the sentence is equivalent to ' I will take my father with me ; and I will go to my own country.' e. We occasionally meet with apnd used irregularly instead of the other possessives ; as, LS ilS^ Tt]/* l5^ W^ ™y "^"^ disposition even was led astray.' ('Bagh o Bahar,' p. 21.) In ordinary discourse, according to Dr. Gilchrist, we may hear such expressions as the following, namely, lj\i wl liLj {uA y>- ' if my son had done so.' Lastly, apnd is used substantively in the general sense of ' one's people, friends,' etc., like the Latin expression 'apud sues ;' thus, l-^ aj J^ ^^ J OT^^A — V.^ t/*^ ^ U)^-} *-' ' he came to his own, but his own received him not.' demonsteahye pronouns. 74. The demonstratives .^ yih, 'this,' and sj wuh, 'that.' together with their plurals, are sometimes used in the same sense as our definite article ' the.' They are applicable to both genders, and agree with their sub- stantives in case, and generally in number. 114 INTEEEOGATIVES. a. We have seen it stated in some grammar, 'that a demon- strative pronoun in the singular may be used with an Arabic plural,' etc., from which the reader is left to infer that it is not ased with any other plural. Now, the fact is, that y«A and umh are frequently used with any plural, and represent the plural even without the substantive ; as, ^J^S {jjAj ^^ f^^ >-^'W^ il!>'J'^ "Vi ' these two brothers went to the magistrate ; ' and again, j,-j!> 15SJ J 4^ 15^ i-uL»ri- (J^.)" ^. *j ' *^^y ^y ^^y °^ sima give something.'^ It would be needless to multiply examples, as they may be met with in any author. We have reason to believe, how- ever, that when the singular is thus used, it is either to denote a collective group, or in a disrespectful sense ; on a principle analagous . to that of applying the plural to one person in order to denote respect or reverence. rNTEEEOGATIVES. 75. The interrogative ^^ kaun, when used by itself, generally applies to persons, and \J ]tya to irrational or lifeless beings ; but if the substantive be expressed, haun wiU agree with it adjectively in case and number, whereas the inflection of kyd is never used adjectively. a. Eor example, in the phrase ^ ^^ ' who is there ? ' the inference is, ' what person ? ' so, ^^ys li' signifies ' what (thing) is i.t ?' At the same time we may not only say o_» -.A ' what man ? ' •f "^ U^ 'to what man?' but alsoj^s- ^ 'what thing?' ^ J^ U^ ' °f ■^^^ tli™g ^' We can also say, J^ \J ' what thing?' but we cannot say \^ j^ ^\i to denote 'of what 1 Here is another instance oi a feminine preposition requiring tlie genitive in ;!■<■ agi^eeably to what we stated page 98, a. The example is from the ' Bfigh BahEir,' p. 144. It is the reading of half-a-dozen different copies (two of tliom mnn)iscript\ BS well as of the Calcutta edition, 1836, printed in the Roman charactei-.— D. F. RELATIVE AND CORRELATIVE. 115 thing.' The oblique form IcAJie is used only as a substantive ; as, ,_Sj^ iS i^^ ' ^ watch, of what (substance, etc.)?' the answer to which may be ^S ti^ of gold,' etc. Sometimes kyd is applied to a person or thing by way of exclamation ; as, iiCi\y*\j^ \A what « rogue !' Cij\i L^ ' what an affair " "When Icyd is repeated, it seems to convey the idea of 'what various'"' us, i_^Ls^ L^ \^ 'what various wonders ?' Sometimes, kyd is tised as a conjunction, meaning 'whether,' 'or;' like the Latin rive;' as, ^^^ '-^^^^ ^ ?^ ^ whether in the garden or in the field.' h. The interrogative ig used for the relative in such sentences as ^Jt> r^^ ii i^jA Isjlp- ^J^ 'l know who it is.' Also adverbs derived from the interrogative (vide page 68) are in a similar manner substituted for those fi:om the relative; for instance, Uj'I^ i_^ Sj i^ fUtii lii \s>- ^K-fr^ jj^ ' I do not know when he wiU go.' 0. Sometimes a question is used to denote negation or surprise ; as, lili^l 1*^ ijM^ i_Sj^ U jp- l!J1/« lij'l 'aU the territory which thou hast taken wiU be of no use to thee ;' literally, ' of what use wiU it be to thee?' and again, Xj^ -^, jj^^ lii-J l^ U-|; i^\^ ^ where is the king's son? and where this report?' meaning the king's son has nothing to do with this report.' RELATIVE AND CORRELATIVE. 76. Strictly speaking, the Hindustani does not pos- sess a relative pronoun corresponding with, our 'who,' ' which,' and ' that,' and as this want is a source of much perplexity to the learner, we shall endeavour in the following paragraphs to explaia fully how the place of the relative is supplied. 116 EELATIVE AND COfiEELATIVE. a In page 38 we have given the declension of _j^ and ^ which from want of a better term we called relative and correlative^ respectively. The word y>- signifies ' he who,' she who,' or that which,' and refers, not to an antecedent, like our relative 'who,' but to a noun following, Uke our words ' whosoever,' ' what- soever,' 'whoso.' Hence y>- usually begins the sentence, and is- followed in a second clause by j-j and the use of the two together generally forms a substitute for our relative pronouns ' who,' ' which,' and ' that,' as will be seen by the following examples ; J^ ^ eu^ J \^\j r' - ^ L5f^ 4 (^' ^JJ^ )=r ' the king much approved of the horses which you sent,' literally, ' what horses you sent, the king much approved of the same ; ' JJ> ^ k_,-s y^ _ ^Jb US i^ *;i js^ that is all true which you- have said,' literally, 'whatever you have said, that is all true.' In like manner, the relative and correlative adverbs usually accompany each other ; jU- ^^\.^ J^ uW^ - J^ uV ■^^ U V^ ' ^^i^re the treasure is, there is the snake ; and where there is a flower there is a thorn.' h. Sometimes, the remote demonstrative may be used instead of the correlative, both pronominally and adverbially; as follows, j_^' |_jCj\ ^_J i^^LIjs- 'he who has the pot has the sword' (he who pays best, is best served) ; ^Sj'^ ^J ijS^ J Lu-^ ' as you. shall give, so shall you get.' In the following sentence, thfe demon- strative adverb j^,lbj is used; whereas in a few sentences before, the author uses the correlative j^^ly for the same expression {vide Selections in Devanagari, page 8, lines 3 and 10); \>j\sr ^ ^ ' where there shall be ninety-nine pitchers of milk, how wiU a single pitcher of water bu there discovered?'- We may here at INDEFlNITliS. 117 the same time see the negative effect of the question, as the speaker means that ' there is no chance of detecting one pitcher full of water among ninety-nine of milk.' e. The conjunction ii frequently accompanies the relative, and sometimes occupies its place entirely ; as in the phrases, /j.^ ij -t*.^ isls- Jk ^^uj ^ Mjb ^ '-^.'^^ yr 'i^t ^^ ^"^ bring into mind the trouble which has come upon us ; ' so also, -=>-^ ^ jl^ ^aLstI X^ ^^ Jt\^ ii Jb Hj lilj 'he is a wise man, who, before the commencement, thinks of the end of his work ; ' l^ ki- 1^ 1/*^ '^ U^^^ ^ 'the man who wrote the letter.' Sometimes, the demonstrative is substituted, in imitation of the Persian; thus, /,-Ji ^ ,U»3 ls-o -jo /^ (jjjI ii ^Jb Sj\^\.j there is a temple in which there are several idols of gold.' d. In many instances the relative y^ corresponds with our who,' which,' or that,' but the student must be careful not to consider this as a rule, for it is only the exception ; as follows, ^f^ (^[p ^J^ j^ Lshj 3'^ ' ^^^ ^^° loaves which my children eat.' Here the word y>- is not put first, because there is another word J J already used to define rati; but suppose the sentence were the bread which I ate was very good,' we should have to say in Hindustani, Jo rati main-ne hh,d,i, so (or wuh) hahut achchM tM.' INDEFINITES. 77. The indefinite ^'^ ko,z, 'somebody' or 'anybody/ when used alone, refers to a person, whereas ^ kuchh, "'something,' 'anythiag,' refers to matter in general. As an adjective, howerer, 1co,\ may agree with any sub- -stantive, as, ^"Si ,^' M. maj be affixed to many of the pronouns ; as,, (JS L-j\ my (your, etc.) own self;' ^^j 'this same;' ^JSj 'that same.' Also in the oblique cases ^j-jI, i^-jI etc., as in ^ i^\, S i^-sl 'to this or that self-same person or thing.' Some- times j«J!> is added with the same effect. CONCORD OF THE TERB WITH THE NOMINATIVE. 78. As a general rule, the Hindustani verb agrees^ with its nominative in number, person, and gender, subject, however, to the following exceptions : 1. To mark respect, a singular nominative has a verb in the plural ; 2. If the nominative consist of different irrational objects in the singular number, they may take a singular verb ; 3. If the nominatives be of various genders, the verb takes the masculine form, or agrees with that next to it ; Lastly. If the verb be transitive, and in any tense formed of the past participle, the nominative assumes the case of the agent, and the verb follows a special rule- already illustrated, p. 103, No. 69, etc. a. We shall here add a few examples in illustration of the G0VET5NMENT OF VERBS. 119 preceding rule, embracing, as it does, the whole subject of verbal concord, which differs in some respects from that of the European languages. Thus, ^^ h^ ^J he is wnting;' ^ ^^^ h •• I, ^ ••••'■ she is dancing ; ' ^j^ {J^ti ^J ' ^^^J (»*<''^«*) a^re talking ; ' and j,-J» i is plural, expressive of respect to 'the king," which is in the singular nomiuative. In like manner we have i^,S i-fJT'^ *^ UTT^ ^ cTMr* i-:--^'^ ' it is not proper that your majesty should submit.' 2. In the following sentences we have two nouns in the singular number, coupled by a conjunction, whilst the verb is in the singular, agreeing with the nearest noun ; as, ^Jb \^:^^ ^j^ j}^ (Jr?^ 15^^ the bullock and horse have just now arrived;' —\ US l_,^-) ij ^^^ \j^ -r^J Ji^ c!^"^ ^^fT 'my people, my wealth, and my kingdom, why are they not all gone (from me) this day?' 3. Several nouns of different genders occur in the next two sentences, but the verb takes the mascuKne plural in preference to the feminine ; as, ^^ ;\^ ^ ^ i^jLi i_5^^ d!>^ ^'^ '-^^ ^ i_S^^ 'her father, mother, and brother, were all three meditating the accom- plishment of her marriage ;' ;\^ l^ '^ '^'^ Sr^J " '— -^j' LS^'^ \S^ ' his elephant, camel, and carriage are being loaded.' GOTEENMENT OF VEEBS. 79. In this department tlie Hindustani differs very little from the English. Actives or transitives naturally govern the accusative case, which, as we have shewn, is generally like the nominative, and sometimes like the dative (vide p. 101, 'No. 67.) a. Causal verbs, verbs of clothing, giving, etc., may be considered 120 GOVERNMENT OF TERES. aa governing two accusative cases, or the accusative and the dative ; 0.9, ^\s^ j^ Jl^ \j\4 ^ 15^ 'having given the child food, go home;' \\C^ hlf ^^_ ^J\ ' put on him these clothes;' andjJ ^jj ciioljC-jl give him a rupee.' I. Some neuter verbs, as lil 'to come,' lilj 'to become,' Uljj ' to suit,' \iy ' to fall,' l^^si^j ' to arrive,' UI^ ' to become,' Lfcl»- ' to be desirable,' Li^ ' to remain,' li^ »») ' to appear,' UiJ ' to unite,' liL» ' to meet, to occur,' and \j^ 'to be,' govern the dative case, and are frequently used impersonally ; as foUows, ^a u 1 *>-j ijf?^ I feel compassion;' ^t> .^^ --^ CUb jj.gl l5^?^ -'- li^^^ some doubt in this matter;' ^jJj^- ^j^j ''^ if-^^ yl.*J!> 'it is desirable that we should go there.' "We may here observe that the form ^IjiUs- from chdhnd, is frequently used impersonally in the sense of "it is proper,' it is fit;' like the Latin decet,' oportet.' When thus em- ployed, governs the dative of the person, and either the past participle or the aorist of the accompanying verb, as in the preceding example, which might also be expressed ^A&lis- IjIj>- ^ *> ' we must go.' Sometimes, it may be used personally ; as, jusIs- \^ ^ Jj which may mean what is proper for you,' or 'what do you require,' etc. We could in this way say |^JJbl>- Lilp- cj^j »C*J" 'you must go there,' or ' to go there behoveth you.' c. Verbs meaning to sell,' or implying gain,' have jI'U 'hand,' connected with them; as ^^ W],j ^'U ^SSLi ls~*^ 'to whom have you sold it?' liT -filfc ^^ l::,.o..s-^ '-^^V I*^ *j 'that busi- ness was accomplished with great difficulty;' in like manner, \j\ ^'U iJissT J^ lI^.^ 1^1 ' he gained a flower as his prize.' In such expressions the word .^'l& is used in the sense of 'possession.' d. Verbs which iu English require ' with,' ' from.' or ' by' after them, govern the ablative, and those which require ' in,' TENSES OF THE ROOT. 121 ■■ within,' ' into, ' the locative case ; as in the following sentence : ^^Jj^s>- ^-j this IS better, that by means of his friendship I should escape from the hand of my enemies ;' in like manner 13 i^^jis-^ j2^ Jo^U- ^\j^j^ ^^\ bj ' going into his house, he began to think within himself.' Verbs of fear and caution require the ablative case ; as, ^Jb Ijj J j-») j^! iSj Jo Vi perhaps he is afraid •of you;' ^_ji> \:iJ!>j j^^^jt^ i^ U}'^]j^\f" <-^^ ^^^ ^^S^ keeps on his guard against reprobates.' TENSES OP THE EOOT. 80. "We have already given, the general signification of each tense, in the various paradigms of the verb, pp. 44 to 59. "We shall now, following the same order, briefly notice such peculiarities as some of them present. The reader will recollect that they are three in number • — ^the aorist, future, and imperative, of which the aorist is the most important, on account of its extensive use and appHeation. a. The Aorist generally corresponds with the present subjunc- tive of the Latin, or what in English grammar goes under the name of ' present potential' ; hence the conjunctions i^ and ^\j 'that,'^l and ^ 'if,' -ts^l 'although,' lL^ L_-v=r 'until,' and ^t)L^ 'lest,' generally require the use of this tense after them; as, ^ L5«^ y ^J^ 'J ^^ ^-^ ^- ""^^ ^ i^^V C-'^ /' 'if I desire that he should stay till I come, what is it to thee?' It farther implies possibility or obligation; as in the sentences, .^ Jb. jL) ys -fs ^ _! whatever it may be possible to do to-day, that do;' i_Sj^ (*^lr' |*^ "V. ''^ l5* '^^ d-:^^^ '°"' hope is that this business may be brought to a conclusion;' 122 TENSES OF THE ROOT. y'JJ^ ujVj JJ^ ^^"^ 15***;^ 'i^ ^ ^^°S sends an ambassador to any place, it is desirable that he should be the wisest and the most eloquent man of his tribe.' Wien the power of doing a thing is designed to be expressed, the verb lix-: ' to be able, ' is used in all its parts, with the root (or sometimes the inflected infinitive) of the principal verb ; as, ^Jt> cL- ^eV ^- i*j or less frequently,. -- '' . ^ , "' ^Jk liLj ryy^ lJ^- ^ ' he cannot go.' i. The aorist is very frequently employed to denote present time when general and unrestricted, hence it is used much in proverbial expressions, with which the language abounds; as, t^ U- ^J^\ Jt* 1^ |jjI) 'the wealth of the wicked goes for nought.' It also expresses time future or past, conditionally; as, ^j^ i^IsauI^ JJj y ^j^ ijlS' ^fjb jTI ' if the nightingale find thy abode, then will the rose-garden be forgotten;' or, 'if the nightingale found thy abode, then would the rose-garden be for- gotten.' On the subject of this tense, Muhammad Ibrahim has given several sound remarks in his grammar, already alluded to ; p. 59, etc. He gives it the name of ' future of the subjunctive or potential mood.' We have discarded the term mood altogether, as utterly inapplicable to the Hindustani language, and infinitely more perplexing than useful. Lastly, the aorist is sometimes accompanied by the present auxiliary tense ^^, etc., page 43, the precise efiect of which it is difficult to determine ; as, ^^ ^r,. i --^ ' I may speak ;' ,Jc: iSV ''^j-^'*^ 'Jasoda is or may be saying.' 0. The Future presents few peculiarities, save that in respectful language it is often employed for the imperative, and occasionally for the aorist ; as, ^^^^^^ t-jls^ i-^^ i?*^ ^^ e: ^'l-r i ^>r^L» ' have the kindness. Sir, to give me a book ; ' so, likewiset TENSES OP THE PEESEXT PARTICIPLE. 123. am thinking that whatever they say may be from envy.' Our Second Future or Futitre Perfect is formed by the future of L^ls- ' to finish,' to the root of the verb ; as, iLi^^ls- [^ /\^ ' I shall have eaten,' ^^Ij^^ ^ *j ' ^^ ■will ^^'^^ eaten,' etc. d. The Imperative is confined in its application, strictly speaking, to the second person, singular and plural. The honorific form addresses itself as to a third person by way of respect; as, j&j i— ^ be silent;' J t J»J^ come hither;' ^Arsp (_iU^ jC*Ji) pardon me,' or ' may he pardon me.' It is not considered polite to use the second person singular of the imperative to any one, however low his con- dition. The adverb c:^^* is applicable to the imperative mood alone, ij is applied to it in common with the other modes, ^^:^^j is never used with it; as, ^j«J <-::-^ or li^^ ^^ 'don't forget;' Jo UujI 'don't do so.' The imperative mood is sometimes used idiomatically, as in the following expressions : ^ y yb perhaps it is,' or ' it may be; ' jl y j\ come, if you mean to come.' TENSES OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 81. Of these, the Indefinite claims most attention^ The name and signification given to it in most gram- mars, is ' Present Indefinite Tense. ' The epithet of present is misapplied, as the tense generally refers to the past. a. Among the tenses of the present participle, the Indefinit» holds the same rank that the aorist does in those derived from the root. Its most ordinary significations are, first, to denote conditional past time, in which case it is generally preceded by ^\ or c>- 'if,' and followed by y 'then;' as in the sentences, b'.J!) - ' If our days were at all lucky, then we should have some- where found Hatim, and having seized him, we should have carried him to Nauful, then he would have given five hundred ashrafls,' etc. The conjunction is frequently omitted in the iformer or latter part of the sentence, and sometimes in both; as, AjiL* ^-Jjii- ij-J^ y Ij'lsj- j^^ or b;l^ '~r^ i«-»^ \i\s^ ^j^ ^ . 'had I gone, I should have beaten him soundly;' in like manner, \jI) aj J«4=>- ^1^ ^'y> ^yr* 'li^ I lisen present, the horse should not have been allowed to escape.' J. In the second place, the indefinite is employed to denote continuative past time, or to express an act or event that was habitual ; as the reader may observe in the following passage : ^yS |__jd t^ j^ ii bU-y> Jili Lu\ t_^ liLp- ^J\^ t_--»- lj»a Cy^ ^ i_<^^ i_S^y ^ J^^ 'When the gamester used to win (Jittd) he used to become {Tw-jdta) so careless, that any one might take off {utdr-letd) his clothes ; then even it would not be (na hofd) known to him.' In like manner, ' Bagh o Bahar,' p. 9 : li^y ij (Jji - d^^ -AJl night the doors of the houses used not to be fastened, and the shops of the market used to remain open ; the "travellers used to go along,' etc. TENSES OF THE PEESEJMT PABTICIPLE. 125. e. Q'he indefinite is occasionally used for the present by omitting the auxiliary; as, Uji Ui Hj 'what is he doing?' The student must be careful, however, not to fancy that this tense corresponds with our present indefinite, as some of our grammars inculcate. Its use as a, present tense is the exception, not the rule. d. The Present Tense is used both to express the precise point, of time when the action takes place, and also to denote a continuous or habitual state of action ; hence it corresponds with both our forms- of the present tense ; as, ^J!> \}\s^ j^ Hj 'he is (now) going home;' but in the sentence j-to \j\s>- ^ iLli^^JS ^ CuK ^^ it must be translated, ' he always goes home at night.' The present is frequently used for the future, when it is meant that the action will be done quickly ; as, r^^ b'l! li ^s ji^ ^y^ ' I am bringing (shall bring) the dinner quickly.' e. In vivid descriptions, when the narrator represents a past occurrence in the same manner as he or the person of whom he speaks originally saw it, and as if it were still apparent to the view, the present is frequently used; as in the following passage: ^^ ^13 CJS\ jH^ 1^ I^J ^-((J c>"V, ^ ^^:-'^j'i O^l i_^o- <-^^.^ L5^ l/*^^ Ji" - ^ 'J^ ^ ^^'^'^ J^ U^J^ ^'^ -to blp- iLs- k— iJa '"Wien he arrived at the tree, he saw that on every branch of it are hanging hundreds of human heads; and under it is a beautiful tank fuU of water, and the stream of it is flowing towards the desert.' In such instances the past tense may be used, but it is less animated and impressive ; a» jb ^Jbii .S y*y* tS-^i-i J-s 'lie went near the tree, and svhat does he see but a marble slab was placed at the bottom of it' 126 TENSES OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. / The Imperfect denotes a past action in progress, and corresponds ■witt our own compound tense formed in a similar manner; as, Iff t^ ij 'he was writing.' In most of our English grammars, the Indefinite Past Tense, such as ' he wrote,' ' he spoke,' is very improperly called the Imperfect. It is needless to state that these -expressions in Hindustani must be rendered by l^ l<~^^ ^^^ I.' ^ - ^ i^\ that is, the simple past, of which we shall say more immediately. g. The tense called the Present Dubious (page 51) is generally employed to denote a future action of uncertain occurrence ; as, Ujjiyi or J;)j-& 4;U |2pr* (perhaps) I may beat,' or be beating;' so in ' Bagh o Bahar, p. 38 : l^ys li^ Li" ^^y^ ^j>- .^\ ij ' What will he (or may he) saying in his own mind ? ' TENSES OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 82. The main peculiarity in the use of these is, that when the verb is transitive, the nominative must be put in the case of the agent, as explained p. 103, etc. The Fast Tense corresponds with what is improperly called the imperfect in most English grammars ; as, US' L^ 4. ' he went away ; ' l^ ij |»j you wrote ; ' which expressions, though inde- finite as to time, convey the idea of a complete or perfect action ; hence the absurdity of calling it the imperfect tense. In addition to its common acceptation, it is sometimes used with a present, and sometimes with a future meaning ; as in the following : iwT y ii»^ Ls't) li* • '•4J^^ y ^si"^ b y^ ' if she is found, then my life remains ; if not, it is gone ; ' Ul^ ^wo Ij y .:»- ' what he sows, that he reaps.' We have already stated that the present is sometimes used for the future to denote speed ; the past is employed for the same purpose. Thus a man says to his servant, A j\j TENSES OP THE PAST PAETICIPLE. 127 bring water,' and tie answer will probably be iiJj\ A=i. W ' I have arougbt it, Sir,' meaning, I wiU bring it immediately.' It is some- times applied in an idiomatical manner, ; as, lys jj" iyt if it be so, why be it so.' h. The verb ' to be ' has, in. Hindustani, two tenses expressive of "the past, viz. ^j' was,' and \Jis was' lor became'), which may often be translated by the same word in English. In many -cases these appear to be synonymous in their application : the student, however, must pay particular attention to the following rule. l^' is used in reference to simple existence at a distant tune or particular place, while lys is applied to time or circum- stances less remote, in the sense of ' became ; ' as follows : \^ sliJli lLn^J ^j^ lLW.-* ijm^ 'there was a king in that country;' IjJS i^U:r=^ Jj 'he was (became) confounded.' In short, l^' de- notes permanent existence, and Ijii that which was, or became ■existing, through circumstances generally stated in, or easily in- ferred from the context. c. The Ferfect answers to the Perfect tense in English, being used to denote an action newly past and finished ; as follows, ^i) Isriy .-f'^ ^jlr^ ' ™y brother has arrived ;' ^ \j[^ if ,Jf» ^J ^^p^ ' I have eaten the fruit.' Sometimes it is used with adverbs of time, in a manner that cannot literally be rendered in English ; as jjjji U^ (2,Uj J^ ^yf^ ' I have gone there yesterday,' for ' I went there yesterday.' In this case, the usage of the Prench 'je suis aSli,' would have come nearer the Hindustani. d. The Pluperfect in English will generally be expressed by -the Pluperfect in Hindustani, representing a thing not only as past, but as prior to some other event ; as in the sentence, Uj U$3 k=5- ci fU^ iS \ iS i<-?-V 15^^ ' ■^ ^^ written the ietter previous to his arrival.' But the converse of this rule 128 TENSES OF THE PAST PAETICIPLE. does not hold, the pluperfect being frequently used in Hindu- stani where in English we employ the simple past; thus in Story 16, a learned Kayath orders his slave to get up during the night, and see if it rains. The slave, feeling himself very com- fortable where he is, concludes, without getting up, that it doe& rain : and gives the following ingenious process of reasoning : ^ l_5^ — V ^J^^ ^^ s/ iIJ^ — L5*^' S/'' LS^ ' ^^ °^* °*™® in, I put my hand upon her, she was wet' {ergo, it rains) ; but the literal meaning is, ' the cat had come in, I had put my hand upon her, she had got wet.' The general rule is, that when one definite past even precedes another past event in point of time, the former is expressed in the pluperfect. It may happen that the latter of the two events is not expressed, but merely passing in the speaker's mind; as in the above example, where the slave might have added, as he no doubt meant, ' thence, I have ascertained that it is raining,' which would have completed the chain of reasoning. «. The tense called the Past Dubious (p. 51), formed of the past participle and the aorist or future of lijA is used to express remote probability past or future ; as in the following examples : ISji) LS |2)l^ a J <^ 0^ liJ Us- - j\ 2j y l!f«Jl> Uj^ hs^j i3 -.^^ S\ 'if I had opened the cage, then it would have flown.' A kind of expression like the Paulo-post-futurum, is expressed by liJ!>l>. ' to desire, ' with the past participle of another verb ; as, ^ tJi\^ \j^ n^ 'he is about to die,' 'is dying,' or 'wiU soon die.' There are also other ways of expressing the same idea: thus, ^ J^ iJr» *j or ^ Jlij ^J^. ij or ^^^ IS ^j., i, . INFINITIVE. 129 INFINITIVE. 83. The infinitive is used as a substantive to denote tlie state or action of the verb ; it is frequently used for the imperative, and occasionally it is employed adjec- tively in connection with another substantive. a. All Infinitives used as substantives or adjectives are subject to inflection like nouns of the third class ; thus, Js ^^,^-)li^ lilss- lX-)\ 'his departure is proper;' ^Jb ^^^J ijV. ^ lS^ /•Uijl 'this is the very time for taking revenge ; ' bl «^ ^i^ J j^ ij or 111 (Ja-J^j iJ is^^.'^ tP *J '^® ^^^ come to see the house.' The infinitive is often used as an imperative, and as such it may even have the negative mat before it ; as, u Uki *«J JS-& swear not at all;' liU>- c:-^» ^i)^^ don't go there,' or you must not go there.' Sometimes it is used with the verb \jth, instead of the regular tenses of the verb which it represents ; as follows, Iji) 1)1 . --J CSj-^ ijjuLi 'from what country are you come?' instead of «J» ^^'1 ^^^ LliX* (j*o. It is also used with the verb ' to be,' like the Latin gerund, to denote necessity or obligation ; as, ISyi lilp- ,2)^j ^ (»J' 'you must go there;' so, likewise, jJb \j\s^j^^ ,fs^ i_^»->jjl _ ^ \jj^ J}j l1$o1 ^p-T 'one must die {moriend/iim est) some day at last, and must give up every thing.' h. Sometimes the infinitive, together with its complement (that is, the noun which it governs, along with its circumstances), may form the subject or predicate of a proposition; as follows, U^J>^. ^'^^ ^J^ ^^^^'^ '-r-f-'i^ u<^ jr^ ^J (jy-^^V 'to laugh (lit. to display the teeth) in the presence of kings ie unmannerly.' In the following sentence from the ' Khirad A&oz,' both the subject and the predicate are of this description : ^J> ^'J S-'ir^ ^j ilr^ e:-.;.sr-' ^_s^>-^ / ^^} 'to keep 130 rNPINITIVE. children in the society of the vile, is to effect their rain.' When an infinitive thus used has a feminine noun for its complement, it generally agrees adjectively with the substantive (like the Latin participle in d/us) by changing Ij into ^ or ^ ; thus, J:^ ^j ^y> ^Jjj ^J^ d t^ ' I tave not learned to speak your language;' ^JLL^ [_s^J \J^^ J^J^'^ '^* ^^ ^^^ *° put one's finger on a lancet.' So, in the ' Ba^ o Bahar,' p. 32 : }^ jj^J, U ^y ^ ^y .^\^^^^^j is^i'. il)^ ''^ '^^^^^^ ^^J-' Lastly, the verb hand, denoting obligation, may govern the inflected infinitive ; as, l^ (J^- )^' ' you must go ; ' \S^ ^_^ U jdj ' you must write.' PARTICIPLES. 84. The present and past participles, when used par- ticipially and not forming a tense, generally add V^ (p. 46), and agree, like adjectives, with the noun which they qualify. In many instances they are used adverbially 132 PAETICIPLES. in the masculine inflection, or, more strictly speaking, they are verbal nouns in an oblique case. a. The following examples will iUustrate what we have jiist stated regarding the participles when accompanied by huyd;. one in Braj who will stop the departing Gopal ? ' So likewise^ ^liiia ^S j^ (_5'y> ^'r* ' the bones of a dead tiger ; ' and, kettledrum suspended in a tree.' Sometimes the past participle is used Uke a mere adjective; as, l^' iL ilf) 1^ i-^-^l 'there was a flowery and fruitful garden' (not flowered and fructified'); but the words pkkla and iphalA here may be real adjectives (not participles) derived from pkkl, a flower,' and pkal, 'fruit,' by adding &, which is agreeable to analogy. In expressions like the following, they ar& used adverbially; as, i^y* *^^— ■ when it was morning;' (3y* i*^ ' when it was evening ; ' ^^i^j lJt^ ' while I remain ; ' j^^^. J [S^^ at the sight of whom ; ' ^j^i^*~' Uj without understanding ; ' c:-.jj i^,^ at the time of giving.' The present participle is doubled, to express the continuation or frequency of the act; as, iji ij ijfcb ijjj!) *o ljL«Jb our work being and being, was not,.' i.e. continuing to be done, was not completed.' i. From the present participle is formed the compound verb called statistical (p. 65), by using the masculine inflection of the participle together with some verb of motion ; as, ^a ^'T iJlT Hj ' she comes singing.' The present participle in this case is employed precisely like the ablative of the Latin gerund. Dr. Gilchrist has suggested that ki Mlat men should be considered to be understood • thus, wuh g&ti hi hdlat men dti Jiai, she comes in the state or condition of (a person) singing;' but a moment's consideration will shew PARTICIPLES. 133 that this theory is more ingenious than sound. Por instance, J!> Ij'l ((j;j^ (j:^U>- ^) |jir*j ' he comes (in the state of ) one singing,' is all very well, hut, on the other hand, when the nominative is feminine, as, ^a ^'T {,j*^ i-i-JU^ ^) ^^ Hj she comes (in the state of) one singing,' the expression is absurd ; because she is a female, and the one singing is a male ; and we leave the authors of the theory to account for the curious fact of her coming in the state of (a male) singing, at that particular juncture. We believe that in these instances the present participle is a verbal noun in the locative ■ case, similar to those Sanskrit verbals in ti, etc. (corresponding to the tio of the Latin), which denote the abstract action or condition of the verb. In fact we could add many instances where the participle is clearly used like a mere substantive, as ^-j i^y^ from sleep ' evidently the same as -«j tij-i. c. From the past participle are formed the compound verbs called frequentative and desiderativy, by adding Ica/rna and chdhnd respectively to the simple masculine form of the participle. The only peculiarity about these is, that the verbs \jy* 'to die,' and 1)^- 'to go,' employ the regular forms of the participle mard and jay a, in preference to the usual forms j»ii,o and gayd; as, wuh mard chdhtd hai, he is about to ■die,' or ' wiU. die,' or ' wishes to die ; ' so, wuh jdyd hartd thd, 'he was in the habit of going.' The past participle with hu,d in the inflected state is sometimes used like the conjunctive participle, or, indeed, it may be a compound form of the latter, for ought we can say; thus, ^ IfLJ ^'^ ^W ^yt>^ s^f^ *— ^.^ '^ •'^"Si having applied the smoke (by way of penance) is seated ; ' so likewise, laving put on various coloured garments, were dancing.' Some- times the past participle of a neuter verb is used adjectively (that 134 PAETICIPLES. js, agreeing with the nominative), along with another verb ; a^ LiU- ILj-; thus, r~Jt> ijl:^- ^_J^- iJj 'they go along;' aOy ^^ 15-^;^ >-l}! ^jhj^ '—^J ' ^ ^°^ ^^^ roaming about.' d. The conjunctive participle, by connecting the similar numbers of a sentence, saves the use of verbs and conjunctions; it commonly refers to the agent, sometimes to the object of the verb; as, j\ j^ J^ i—3\£ ^sj^^^ ^^ ^^^j ^' 'having gone there to-day, and having taken my book, return ; ' and again, regret has come upon me (through) making haste in this business.' The student will recollect that this participle has several forms, the first of them the same as the root; the second, the same as the masculine inflection of the past participle, or the second and third persons singular of the aorist; but the context generally suffices to prevent any ambiguity. e. The masculine inflection of the present participle with the- addition of the particle ^Ss hi, forms what may be called the adverbial participle. Its signification is very nearly the same as that of the conjunctive participle above described; the adverbial form conveying perhaps the idea of more speed or precision; as, i_ji» ^^J^^^^^ i-^'V v. (immediately) on hearing this statement. This participle may be applied in three ways, all of them tending to prove what we have stated above, that it is merely a verbal noun. Thus we may say, ^^ji) ^^ii-) CJu ^_ where yih bat is the first form of the accusative; we may also say, ^Jt> --•■,■■ ^ cub ^jm\ where is hdt-Ico is the second form of the accusative ; lastly, we may say, j^ ^J^^-^ t_/ "-^'V U-^^ * oil tlie hearing of this statement.' Here, we see sunte in the first two expressions soting the part of a transitive verb, and in the last that of a substantive. CnivcLUSION. 135 85. We have littlb more now to add on the syntax of the Hindustani language, which, we believe, we have discussed more fully, and we would fain hope, more intelligibly, than has yet been done. The following few remarks may be stUl added, as belonging to no particular department of the subject. a. Sometimes a verb plural is used without a nominative case, some such word as they ' or people ' being understood ; as in the following examples : ^^ ij^ i^H ^^^^ ^"^^J ^^J >' ^^^ (2;s^ (3;L« ji i^jj^j^ 1^ J\^ '--^. I ™eii Ji^ill thousands with one sword.' In negative sentences, the verb 'to be ' is generally under- stood; as, ^^y^ J^5! ^ ^jLi ^j^ >Us oppression (is) not becoming your dignity.' The particle <« M is frequently used after verbs of speaking, asking, etc., in the sense of thus,' as follows,' etc. ; as, Li <0 ti (Tjs-^ ^ ^[^ ci ^j"'^ ' te said he had not done it ;' lit. ' he said thus, I have not done it.' This is very like the use of the particle ort as it frequently occurs in the Greek text of the New Testament. In a sentence consisting of two or more clauses, it is not necessary to repeat the auxiliary verb in each ; as ^S .^jj aJj *i. jj\ _ ^b ^ ^^Si iXJ t_5^U»o sick- ness is the thraldom of the body, and sorrow that of the spirit.' 5. We may here state in conclusion, that throughout this long section on Syntax, it has been our principal aim to illustrate those peculiarities in which the Hindustani language differs from our own. Such rules and principles as completely accord with those of the languages supposed to be familiar to the reader, we have either passed over unnoticed, or handled very briefly. It may further be stated that there remains a difficult department of the language which must be overcome by practice, viz., the use of idiomatical expressions. These do not constitute the subject of grammar, and a knowledge of them is to be acquired by reading the best authors, and by free mtereourse with the natives of the country. X>JU SECTION YI. THE NAGAIti OE DEVAJ^AGAEI ALPHABET. 86. This is the character generally used by the Hindus. It is read and written from left to right, like our own. The alphabet, as used for the Hindustani, consists of eleven yowel sounds, and thirty-three con- sonants, all arranged as follows : — Votvels. ■^ ^T T t ^ ^ ^ T[ t ^ d d ! i tL u rl ^ at au Consonants. ^ ^ ^ "^ ^• ^ W 51 ^ 5T z k kh 9 gh n ch chh J y^ » t ■z •^ S W fT "sr T V T tl ^ th d dh n t th <; (^A n P ph w ^ ^ ^ T ■^ ^ ^ ^ >J ^ b bh m y r I j^>,t; ,9;i sh s k a. To the above letters may be added tlie symbol *, called anuswdra, ■which represents the nasal n (page 6), and the visarga * , which corresponds with the final weak 5 (p. 6) of the Persian character. We would at the same time draw the student's attention to two compound characters, of which the elements are so disguised as to have the semblance of single letters ; viz. '^ ksh, compounded of ^ and tf, sounilcd like our x in fluxion, or ct in faction ; and '^ jn, sounded like our gn iij hagnio, or the French gn in ligne, champagne, etc. The mark | is used in poetry to indicate the first member of a iloka or couplet : and at the end of a sloka it is generally doubled || . TME DAVAAjdAKJ AXTJiAMJi T Vowels. Consonants. Jnitia./ Secondary ^ ^ T T f ft 7Z- ZC •■ r7 ri -ri ir ^ --^ "1 "r ^ ^ IT 'sr 3- ^ "^ "^ ^ 1^ Tcsh j'n COMI>l) IT ffn T.ISTTBRS t)' '^' »' 7 iii^ "''" liy '^ "^ '''"''' 'J^'^ ^-t^fi 'irj /'»■ iiv tlJi f/ p-n ^y ps bd hfiy U OF THE VOWELS. 137 In prose the same marks serve to denote stops. In many books lately published in India, in the Devanagari character, the English stops have been very properly and successfully introduced. J. In naming the consonants, the short vowel d (the fatha of the Persi-Arabic alphabet, p. 8) is inherent in each ; thus M, MS., gd, ■etc. : and in reading, this vowel is to be supplied after every letter (except the final letter of a word), provided it be not accompanied by any other symbol ; thus, '^'^^ Mnah, 'gold,' •Tl'^ nagar, 'a city.' If a word terminates with a compound consonant, the short & may be frequently supplied at the end, as in ^'^ putra, ' a son.' Whenever a consonant in the middle of a word is not to be uttered with the short a, the consonant is marked underneath with the symbol (v) called virdma or rest ' (the same as the ja%m, of the Persi-Arabic, p. 10), as afT^TT liUj to speak;' or the In may be combined into one compound character, as ^«T ; but in works circulated among the natives this nicety is not attended to. c. The first of the vowels, ^ &, is never written except it begin a word or syllable. With regard to the remaining vowels, they have each two forms : that given above, which may be called their primary form, is used only when they begin a word or syllable ; but when they follow a consonant, they assume a totally different shape, which may be called secondary forms ; thus, j a, I^j, "^ i, — «, — it, — ri, — e, — ai, *Y 0, ^ au, as may be seen in the following ex- emplification of them with the letter 'T ga : thus, -»T, TT, f^, 7ft, ^, ■^, ■5, ^r, 7i, ^tY, •^. ■ga, gd, gi, gi, gu, g'k, gri, ge, gai, go, gau. And the same rule applies to the rest of the consonants. d. It will be seen that the secondary form of \, viz, f^ is ■written before its consonant 'T, though sounded after it ; and 138 COMPOUND LEITBRS the student will do well to bear in mind this apparent anomaly. The T and t take their place after the consonant ; the — — and ~ are fixed to the letter beneath ; the ^ and ^ above ; and the Y and T are merely the T surmounted by the H and ^ The vowels" and X in combination with the letter '^ r, are written ^ ru, and ^ or "^ ri,; and the vowel ^ joined to "^ h, is written "% hri. 87. The strict rule in Devanagari writing is, that when two or more consonants come together, without the intervention of a vowel, such consonants unite inta one compound group ; thus, in the word \\r^ matsya^ ' a fish,' the Tf ^ and ^ are blended as it were inta one character. For the formation of the compoimd letters no general rule holds, except that the last of the group remains entire, and the rest are more or less con- tracted by omitting the perpendicular stroke, and some- times by changing their primitive fonn. a. The letter '?[' , being of frequent occurrence in compounds^ is subject to two special rules of its own ; 1st. It is written over a letter, or group of letters, in the form of a crescent c C') when it is to be sounded first, as in the words f1^ faria, reasoning,' and ^T"^ pdrshwa, a side' ; 2nd. When the ^^ follows another letter, or group of letters, it is represented by an oblique stroke (^) underneath, as in "^^ sutra, 'rule,' and '^'^ chandra, the moon.' b. In books recently printed at Calcutta, such as the Prcm Sdgar, the Baitdl PacMsi, the Adventures of Sdtim Td,i, etc., all in the Devanagari character, very few compound letters occur ; and as a general rule they are very little used in any of the spoken languages \ T \ A y 9 il h i' ^ iV 140 COKBESPONDING NAGARI AJ^D PERSIAN LETTEBS. II. Consonants. III. Seconda/ry Vowels. WT WT^ f%^ Wt^ -^ ^ Jj jU Jo Juj Jj iiti ^^ %^ %^ wV^ wVt W: O ^f .^ 0^ J>:rJ J^ "^J: tV 'l-' «. In the preceding table it will be observed that the ten aspirated letters of the Bevanagari alphabet are uniformly represented by the corresponding unaspirated letter, together with the round or hutierfly form of the letter Js, ^ A ; thus, '^'^ g^r, a house,' .j-i ; '^^ ihar, a place,' J60. The real A ^ of the Devanagari is represented in the middle of the word by .^.j as, ^'^T 'he said,' l^i^: if, however, the letter preceding the Js be J, j, or j, then the form Ji must be used, and the preceding letter marked with the appropriate vowel ; as, ■^^TT dahdn, ' the mouth,' ^lfi>J. The cerebral letters 2' and '^ are represented by db and J, or lU and 3. Sometimes the ^ and ^ have the sound of a cerebral r and rh respectively; in which case they are generally marked with a dot beneath, thus '^ and f, and and with J or j in the Persian character; as, ^^T hard, 'great,' V-J, The various nasals of the Devanagarf are represented by the Persian ^, which will be found sufficient for all useful purposes. PERSIAN AND ARABIC LETTERS. 141 5. The letter ^ is sometimes represented by ^ : the letter "IT generally by (^ , sometimes by fjM ; and the letter ^ is more frequently ^ than ^Jii . The compound '^ is generally represented by -^ or ^, seldom by {Jij£ , its proper sound. The compound ■W is represented by ^; as, ^T'WT dgyd {djnd), LS'T ; its real sound, as already stated, is that of gn in the French words champagne, ligne, etc. 89. It appears, then, that the Devanagari alphabet may be represented with tolerable exactness in the Persian character ; but the converse does not hold, as the Persi-Arabic alphabet has fourteen letters which have no exact counterpart in the Devanagari. The plan adopted in this case is to represent the letters in question with such Nagari letters as approximate them in sound, which in some printed books are distinguished with a dot underneath ; thus, ¥ L uP W J J J t c 7T ^ ¥ m ^ W ^ ^5 • • ♦ ' « ♦ • • J (-J ^ t ^ ^ tR f[ ^etc. W a. In a few printed books, attempts have been made to invent distinct letters for the various forms of the Persian and Arabic z, which, it wUl be observed, are all represented by ^ ; but in reality the subject is not worth the labour. In the first place, the Hindus, who alone use the Devanagari character, are sparing in the use of Persian or Arabic words, to one or other of which the various forms of the letter z belong ; and, secondly, such words as they have in the course of centuries adopted have become naturalized, or, if the critic wiU have it, corrupted, so as to suit the elements of the Nagarf; 142 PERSIAN AND ARABIC LETTERS. thus, t^^ is written aad sounded 'fTl^Tt hdjiri. In a new- edition, in the Devanagari character, of the ' Adventures of Hatim Ta,i,' which we have lately received from India, almost aU dots and douhle letters are discarded, as a useless incumbrance. h. The letter c is generally represented in Mgari by employing the vowel with which it is connected, in the initial form, with a dot under it; as, ^_ W^ Wd; ^s- \^ 'am;^^ ^^ 'umr. This method is sufScient for practical use; but it is by no means satis- factory, as may be seen in the monosyllable af^^j which in Persian •and Arabic is sounded la'd (the a uttered from the bottom of the throat) ; but, according to the rules of the Devanagari alphabet, it makes M'M, unless we use the virdma (v) under the '^ , as ^'^^ > ■which would amount to something like an absurdity. 0. When, in a word, two vowels follow each other, the rule is, to write the second vowel in the initial form ; for though not at the beginning of a word, it is the beginning of a syllable ; thns, "^■^T hu'd ; '^T'^ T ho'o. This is precisely the same in principle as "the use of the mark hamza (p. 17) in the Persi- Arabic alphabet. d. The best mode of learning the Devanagari character is to write out several times the whole of the single letters in Plate II. The various elements of each letter will be found in Plate I. fronting the title page; the small dot accompanying each shews where the pen starts from in their formation. When the student has made himself tolerably familiar with the letters, he may commence with the first story, which is the same as the third story of the Extracts in the Persian character. In like manner he wiU. find that the Devanagari Stories, from 2 to 7 inclusive, are old acquaintances. Stories 8, 9, and 10 also occur in the other Extracts, but some of the words differ, viz., those of Persian or Arabic origin ai-e displaced in the Devanagari for words purely Indian and Sanskrit. The rest of the Extracts in OF MANUSCRIPTS. 143 this character are taken from the scarce and valuable ' Hindustani ;and Hindi Selections,' edited by Tarini Charan Mitr, head Munshl in the College of Fort "WiUiam, Calcutta, 1827, in two vols. 4to. In their style and grammatical construction they offer no peculiarity differing from those of our Hindustani Extracts in the Persian character. OF MAlSrUSCRIPTS. 90. We briefly alluded, at page 21, to the three most prevalent handwritings in use among the Arabs, Per- sians, and Musalmans of India. Of these, the Naskhi, being lilie the type used in this country, requires no explanation ; and the Shikasta, from its extreme iiTegu- larity, scarcely admits of any. "We shall therefore con- fine ourselves at present to the description of the TaTik^ ■of which we have given fourteen plates of engraved specimens at the end of this work. a. Plate I. Division 1st presents aU the simple elements of this character, the small cross mark shewing the commencement of each. The 2nd elementary form, here marked <_> , with one dot subscribed, ■so as to be equivalent to le, may, by a mere change of its dots, become <__> CLJ iJl> {p, t, s). The third form, now a _ /, becomes in the same manner ^ ^ ^ {ch, Mi, h). The 4th makes two letters, li . The 5th, j j j and J . The 6th is represented as con- sisting of two forms; one an indented, the other a protracted line, may in either shape form the sin and sMn (s and sh), as the only distinction ■between them is that the sin («) wants, and the sMn {sh) has, three ■dots superscribed, whether short or protracted. The 7th form, ^ ■and ^ . The 8th, L and li {t, a). The 9th, ^ and ^ . The jQext letters are i_J J ti/ J j» ^^ _j and i . Then follow the initial, medial, and final forms of the is ^ ^ or he linked together. 14 1 EXPLANATION OP THE' PLATES. Lastly, the 51 ' v_s {Id, hamza, and ye), the latter under two varietiee- of form, the last of which is now conventionally used hy the natives to denote the yae m(yhid (p. 13). I. Division 2nd exMhits the second elementary form (viz. that of (__> L_j LLJ tU ), and likewise that of ^^ and ^ , as they appear initially, when combined with each of the others following them. Division 3rd shews the -. (i.e. r- k- r °' T^' P^^^^^^ ^ *^^ same manner to each of the others. Division 4th (PI. II.), the iju ip . Division 5th, the jp ^ . Division 6th, the L b ^ Division 7th (PL III.), the c c . Division 8th, i_j and j . Division 9th, the lLS i^X, and hy leaving off the top part we shall in most instances have the initial J . Division 10th (PL IV.),- the /» . Division 11th, the J!i combined initially with the rest of the elementary forms. The tail of the he is given only in hd, M, Kk, M, and hU, but omitted in all the rest, according to the practice of Oriental writers. Hence the initial form of this letter is often too apt to be mistaken for tha mim. The 12th Division contains the combi- nation of the characters jis arranged in alphabetical notation, noticed in p. 20, forming the fanciful words, Aljad, hawa%, hutti, Icaliman, sa'/as, harashat, salchat, %a%agh' and the last line may be read thus, indicating the name of the chirographer : AVahd ul muznib, al fakir 'ulaid ulldhi hmaim sMrin ralcam ghxffara %unlibahu. e. Plates V. to XIV. inclusive, consist of a series of words in alphabetical order containing combinations of three or more letters. The student should endeavour to transcribe these into the Roman character, and after some time retranscribe them, as an exercise, into their original state. Thus, the first Hne of Plate V. forms the combinations hlcM, Ihjt, hhsht, pnj, lllch, and llnd, and so on with regard to the rest. Coming now to complete words, we may premise, as a general MtTHAMMADAN CALENDAE. 145 remark, that when these contain of the letters i-r> <--> (-^ '^■J ^^ lJ in the middle of a combination, it is usual to give the middle one « bold dash upwards, terminating in a sharp point vertically, like the n in .«ij' tnhw (Plate V. Une 8), or like the y in i—^^^ syh (Plate VII. Hne 1). d. Conoluding remarhs. — In manuscripts the short vowels and other marks seldom make their appearance ; and even the diacritical dots are often either altogether omitted or irregularly placed. It may be useful to observe, then, that when from the ambiguous position of a dot, it may apply to more letters than one, it should of course be assigned rather to the letter, which is not complete without a point, than to one which may dispense with it. Thus the third combination Plate I. Fo. 2, should be read Ih, and the eighth ns, though the dot be over the last letter as if it intended to be a ^_;a. But in many cases the sense alone can determine the point. Thus the last word of No. 2 may be either he or pe ; and the dot over the ninth word of ISo. 3 is so equivocally placed between that and the word above it, that it may be read either (_^ii- \ja='- or i—a^, according as the dot is conceived to belong to one or the other, above or below. The grand key, however, to the reading of manuscripts, is to know the language ; at the same time many useful hints may be gleaned from Ouseley's 'Persian Miscellanies,' 4to. London, 1795; Stewart's 'Persian Letters,' 4to. London, 1825; and 'Essai de CaUigraphie Orientale,' in the Appendix to Herbin's ' Developpments des Principes de la Langue Arabe,' 4to. Paris, 1803. See also a work entitled ' Oriental Penmanship ; an Essay for facilitating the Eeading and "Writing of the Ta'lik Character,' by the author of this Grammar. London: "Wm. H. Allen & Co. 1849. MtfHAMMADAN CALENDAR. 91. The Musalmans reckon by limar time, their sera called the Hijra, commencing from the day on wliich Miihammad departed, or rather retreated^ from Mecca to in 146 MUHAMMADAN CALENDAE. Medina; wHch., accordiag to the best accounts, took place on Friday, the 16th of July (18th, new style), A.D. 622. Their year consists of 12 lunations, amounting to 354 days and 9 hours, very nearly ; and hence their New-year's Day will happen every year ahont eleven days earlier than in the preceding year. a. To find tte Christian year corresponding to tliat of the Bijra, apply the following rule : — Prom the given numher of Mnsalman years, deduct three per cent., and to the remainder add the numher 621.54, the sum is the period of the Christian sera at which the given current Musalman year ends. For example, we mentioned (p. 20), that the death of the poet Ahli happened, a.h. 942 ; from this number deduct three per cent, or 28.26, and the remainder is 913.74. To this last add 621.54, and the sum = 1535.28, which shows that the Musalman year 942 ended in the spring of 1536. This very simple rule is founded on the fact that 100 lunar years are very nearly equal to 97 solar years, there being only about eight days of difference. A more accurate proportion would be 101 lunar to 98 solar years, but this would lead to a less convenient rule for practical use. I. When great accuracy is required, and when the year, month, and day of the Muhammadan sera are given, the precise period of the Christian sera may he found very nearly, as follows : — Rule. Express the Musalman date in years and decimals of a year; multiply by .97; to the product add 621.54, and the sum will be the period of the Christian asra. This rule is exact to within a few days, and if in the Musalman date the day of the week be given, as is generally the case, the very day is easily determined. e. The Muhammadan or lunar months are made to consist of thirty and twenty-nine days alternately, but in a period of thirty years, it is found necessary to intercalate the last month eleven times so as to be reckoned thirty days instead of twenty-nine. The months retain their Arabic names in all Muhammadan countries, as foUows : — MXJHAMMADAN CALENDAIt. 147 LUNAE MONTHS. DAYS. I *-s'' muharram jLe safar Jjil 1 ^^j rabk, ul-awwal .1-11 ' rahius-sani 30 29 30 30 rabi' ul-akhir jJjS 1 jU>5j- jumdi-al-awwal 30 ^lill jUj»- jumdd-as-sdni yi-^ \ oU^ j'umdd-al-dMir 29 ^_^p- 1 rajah ^Li-i sha'bdn i^\'^j ramatdn JL^ shawwdl i^s^ (_f J zi A^a DATS. 30 29 30 30 29 d. "We here subjoin the days of the -w^eek; on the left hand are the names in use among the Musahnans of India, next those of the Hindus ; and on the right, the Persian names, which last are much Tised in the dates of letters, ete. DATS OF THE WEEK. musalmXn. hindtJ. ENQ. PERSIAN. j\y\ itiodr. jLoj rahi-hdr. Sun. t M j-j or j^j'^y somwdr or plr. iL^j-j som-hdr. Mon. JUL* mangal. jLliLx^ mangal-ldr Tues. o ndj budn. jJkiX) ludh-Mr. "Wed. i:Li\j ijiy^jum'ardt. .' ■-■ ....lyi Irihaspati- Idr. Thur. jb^ suJira-hdr. Pri. AyJl ^^i-j smkhar. jLji-.: sanl-ldr. Sat. - May. «JL)i June. ...L UJ ui^V July. jjjjl^ August. ^\ orj\^ September. cj:j\^ October. ij^l November. i^y^ December, •ji Ui January. U^V. ) ) February. March. 'q?:!^. fiw ^'^ ^WT ■wt^j; wt^T, f^% ¥^ %, ^'it^ • * ^W^ ^ ^^T, ^'fTT TTilT^! ^Ti^ '^^TT ^T Tl" ^T^, W=(^ TT'T. ■51'? ^^T 'i^T ^'f ^. ^^ ^ ^^T, ^»ft ^^ '5%^ 7f\ ^^ -^t, ^^T t^T ? f^^TI ^^ if f%«rT^ 'f^ ^TTT, Wti: Wt ^'^TW irtfl f^T '^T^- ^^3^ ^ i ^^ ^ ^IT^^T^ ^ ^TfT, f% ^m^ ! Wf ^^^H Tl", ^'IT f%¥ f%^ Tff ^^ ^W ? '?rm ^ ^^^ irft, It ^ wrt ^^ ^^ ; trf^ ^q^ ^ ^ TT^ Trap ^T ^^TTT ^flT. TT^ t^T f^^ f^ft^TT ^ ^'^ ^ 5T ifrfT. fi^ ^f TT ^ ^f T, f% If ^ ??r^ ^ ?5% ^T f^^T, -^^ T^ Wf wit art^fTT ; ^^T, ¥^ If ^Tt ^TfT ^ ti Iffftrl ^^ ? gr^T T^ ^, If ^ Tff ■o ^^TT ^T ^T ^. T^ ^ ^'f T, ■^ «fr 'iff, t?T ^ f5; ^^ f% ^ WTrT ^^ ^ ^ ^* ^Tt %• ^T^^ ^WT, f% ^'WTTT^ ! ^^ ^'ft WTfT I, Wr ^ f%^T^ T?:H|f Tlrf. ■SXT'^ ^ ^'fT f%, ■^Tf ^^T^fT ^ ■JTT3: %, €»• f%T f%T '^W, '^ ^fT i ^T^ 'ft ^T^W ^ ITT ^' i ^ ^f^^TiT ^^T m^ 'ft ^r ^mT. €t^^ ^ ^r? ^ frwr^ ; tt? f^^ ^ ^T^ wtw wtN ^iTT ^^T, f^ ^rwTTTsi ! -^rfV ^^t f%TT^^ '51% ^«r i- ^^^t, ^^t ^^ 'SJ^T tlT^ ^T ^T f%^TW -q^ TlrTT. ^T irW •%, TTfT ^ TWT 'SFt W^ 71^ 5TT^ TT^ ^ ftjT^, ^TT ^T^ WTT'f WTW W ^'WT^ ^ WW^ gfr fw^^T I, srrt t^ fr fi- ^^ i5t€ Tft %. ^^ wf?r ^^ w ^ ^T. 'S^^ ^^T, ^TT W^ft "Ttft ^ I^T %, ^¥ fTlft ^ ¥1^ «ft^ ^1 ^^ TT^ liti TT ^^ HTT^ ^ ^ ^* '^TT^T f% ^T3I ■Jf^R ^TffT 1 ? f%^5T ^T'f n: ^ ^^^ 7??T f%ir f%^ ^ ^r? ^T?T^ l?ti ^t ^ft f%T?rT ^1T Tt. T ^i H^ ^ii' ; ^ f^'^ #|- 1" ^^* ; ^ ^^ ^ f^T ^tI" t^t, ffr T^^ ^T^^T. TfTTT ^^, ^W T^ ^' ^T??, ^^^ ^^TT '^^^ 71^ Tf ^T^ Wtl" t^^T. ^^^ TTT ^' ^T V^ ^. ^^ 5T7i^ i ^^rf ^ SIT qT^^TT'f ^ ^it 3^n:T ?ft- lITf ^ ^^T, ^^ f^'? ^T "m^ % ? f%^ ^ ^T ^^T, ^'flTT^ ! "^Tf ^^T ^T. '^IT'^T ^ fir '^%* ^^T'^. ^^^ ^ ^T^ ^ ^ ^TT ^Tif%fT -^xr. -^^^ ^ ^V mTJ ^W i 'f T^ f^T, T^ f%^ f% ^T^^T'ft TIT 1, ^f^nTT, f% WT^T ! WWTT ^ "^TTfl ^T TITW TTT^frf ^TrfT %, '5^^ f^^ft ^ ^TT? ^^ ^TrfT. ^^ ^ ffl- ^W ^5 'T'ft W5T ^T(ft. f^^TTK TT ^T wI-^T, ^,£- f^^ zVt '^T ^ ^T %■?! ^T^ tiTTm ^ ^f%^ ! ^ i^ 5fV -^m ^ ^^ ^ f^^T^T ^mj ; ^^, '33^fT^ ifr^ft ^ ^T^ ^■% ^WrlT f^TfJT %, ^^ i^T ^^T 5T^ TITTrTT. TrT^ WTrf W ^T^ 'ft f^^t ^ T^WgpT ^^T, f% '^t ^, ^^ ^T^T^ ^^'^ ^Tf%^. ^ ^N: (jTi ^ w^ ^m ^^> "^j^ ^§ fjTi ^ ^^ ^^ tiT^ ^Trf ^ ^ ?!% TT^ ^^ ^, f^ If ^ fJ'^TT ^T^ ^ 3^ '^TT ^^f%rl ^Jl, ^i: '^T^ WTT^T ^^3 t^ f^t ^ ! f51rl% ^t}^ ^Tf%^ ^i, 'IVt ^^ 'it 1^ ^ ^^^ t^ ^ t%^ ^ '^^j fir{ ^ 'ftl, it? ^ ^j ^ WT ¥ ^T^ fri^ %', T^ ^ \^^ ^ I'ff irTT ? ^^ ^??^, T% ^1 i ^'fT, ^'^^ ^^ Ti"' '^T 1^ ^ ^tV ^T'^. TT^ ^T^ ^t f^T ^T^r ^qf%fT -^TT. ^5T ^ t^^ tt f%^ ^ ^ ^r^, f% ^ f|-5T qf ^ '?rm ' - V" '^^^^ s?*/ drr* U^\ "^^ s?j" dw^ LsT i^ ii)^j!;V uJ^''-^^" 9 9 O -.'/o-'o oo^ - JW JV^ Jj-J^Jf- Jj-^V* LS^b l/ ii!>i:?ll«^^ J liJJ^'.^li/Jj n ^. J ur'J- jjw. * L5«9 ujHjf.ji "=-^ ^^y W^-'* lH*^ jj^ * u^ L^^ jV n:^ >vr^ t^ t^" 4^5^ dr^^ U-^ ir«V rr* y^ cP - li^ (^ Ls=^-^ ^ \jj^ ^/\ ^ji- f^ , ^ , _ y <-^ . y " - -- ' ii>^:^ i^.^ u^r*^ ^59^ ^ ^"*^ i-^^J^ ^^ -'^^ * ^^ u^-*^-^- L5^ L5^ v^ l-S*^ "^ }^ J^i" - ^)^J V'^ !r^ '^j (j^ y <, f * u^ i/'i' ^^- '■^^-^ ^/ diJi/, s?y- ii>S L5* tj^J L5*^ - b^"^ ^^ li*". J^ ^y* c^'lrr * ^=-~! ^9 ^ C>'>' ^ t^ ^ <^9 bb >■ lj^-4^:>- _ ^^ \yb AJ^ LS ^i J^ (jug\ _^ * ^\^0 \jLSii fj^ ^- -«LP' - -/'^ lT*^ Uji LSt? l/ L5^ "J J^ * ^S- ^-^^ ^J>^ '^.^ TA ujjy^ ^ J^ jj^ - L5«^ s^ u*^ J^ / L^JJ*) yoJr' '^J^ O O ^ C.O ^ •CO G •■ i-;:--*:?^ dr^y-" jj^ - ilr;^ li^- i^ i_sf^ i^y 4/ V~^ 't^ O ^ S. P ^ i^9 ^ 1^ _ j2;-J6 ^_^ ^_5i-i ^1 _ ^2^ Jyi> J>i^ iX:^- ^ J-J tT • - ^ G • O / G ^ G. f G -^ t' t. / G? ^ V ll;^'' t>"^ l^ ^/f"* - L5^ S|/ (^ u5- L5-^-i L5^-5^ l/-^ 3 'J'-i^j^ ^- ^'^^ Lii ^^ >^. t/"' ^- J^ -y^ * ii>^ s^^ ij^ jl>^-f G G^ ^ G >- ^ G , U ^ P P im *t w rv LS'iO *jjj ^^ jy^ **^W * W^ ^y ^^ u;^ ''^ i?^ f \J^ J^ ' ' ' j> * EXTEACT PEOM THE 'abI,ISH-I MAHFIL.' (JL^; JjJ Jj J _ ^y^ ^A^^ J_U^\ jLi. ^jjL * li ^ -/^^ jyjj ^^'^V -'^ ^.^ry* cu^U _, ji _ c^^'lj_^^ n " ft _ IfJ JJJ j_^ |_^ JL:». J J yjjO 1^-^ (Jii <-->l ^jjT ^^1 i^ V.^/ ' - mP f F P ^ l/jV ju**^" jjl ^ -«>'^J'^ ^ ^ J 4j^ ^.^ '^J^. ^ L^W. -' • <.' pp / J^jVsgry^*^ *jy)ljjjl JUj cub ,_/ c?J^ ^j ^<^ ^ f r f ^ f - f ^^^-^ LS-^ JJ^ - 1^ u^'j ^Irr* *^J ^5^ l'^ ^/-l ^s-> ^ <^j ^\_^ J^ ^J ^ J^^jr ^ u^j ^ ^V W cT* >- ^jr ^ jV w^vri »_s!/ r *^ V.'^ '-^Vr * LS^ ^^l^ ilrn-" W V si 9 9 9 9 ■^ J' -^ ^ (jay= jjl V.^ ^j«^ l^ <-^W*- '-r^ "^^ 15-' S-^ (*^^ ^''^ l^A ^99 9 9 ^ 9 ' ■' * i ^ ' ^ - ^ ^ " •• ^ ^ "^ '^ ^9 9 ^^ |«li (_/J U.^ j_^l j2;-^ Jj ^^U-L- ClJ^-a^ # LSt^-^ ^-J^ jjl UIj ^^^ (jwl *^ I L-.-> ■->- * ,_5-^^ ^ CLJjjJij^ j_j-) j^^jJC-^liic 9 9 ^ P ' , 9 f ^ 9 c:^jt> ^y** jJiJ ^_ 1^ -^j 1^1 J-ffU- * jj*(f^ (O'-'V '''->*^ J'^ ,9 99 - ^J Ji" - L?!^^'?^ ^- d>W^ Lf- L/"^ l/ Ja^ '^^ ^ LS^ LUjiis- i^ lJj^^ |_f|fi i^!; l/ V^ U°J^ * L5*?^ J^'^ l_/l'^^ rr ilry 4:f - '^ LS^Jf" lir^* 4f u»^ ^^ Jj^ ;jr* LS*' "^^^ t/^J^j^ - W" ^ > f f ■' \^ i_^vmj l^ L_-»»j i^L» i.::->^ bb^ ^ (*J^-*^ lI^Jj "-r^ - \^ \^. (j*ii v^j*^^ i; * ^Ji li^ Ls^ Ibj! ^j«j /,jsj|j *j jji — jJi icoiJ U^^ i=Lrr^ ^ d^ W^-^^ !^ -rt 'k^ il;:r« J*^ JJ^ ^^ \J'^ ^ ^ fir , _, , ^ y ^"i"^./ ""^^s^J, ^'^jj^* ¥j Wr>^=i^v/ i/i^ k- lrr=if^- 1^ y S-J^ ^" J'^jJLr- JJ^ r^ J^ J=r ];r« ^ i^- J^ ■^ ^ y 9 9 < l^i J>Jjl^ / Jj! Jj.^ ? ^' Liy^ ^Vj u!^ ^V cA^ rr ys j^^ *^ »^ ^^j^ iJLo Lli3j (»_.,J^ l irl-jlj ,_5j/ J;-^ JUj jjifl <);^ ^_j& Jaj 1 u-^ l/ S^k '-i^ j^Ji^ ^W i;li.jlj j^,-^ j_^l # l^ Ls^.. Ai * ^i^jii '»i4jj^ - uy t^ ui^ u^'^ ^ d^j=r ^P sc"^ / J^ jf, >j* ^*=^ vj- ^^j^ u^i 4 i^'jv * ^j - ' ' ^ ^ - /- .. *v f f f ^_ji^_ii Li)Uj ^j!^ Jjj tlX;l * \jjit> ^^ Ji ^6 (t;-^^ u'V^V _ 9 f .^j^ <)jLiT 1^-^ y ^^jJ cub ;_//;l ,_5f^ s&sIj'^lAP' ^?;^ .f^ ^99 ~ 9 b^ k^ si U^ * lC^-^ V^ J -^J^ y^ ^l L5«^'* sT' ifOy-T u-i ^1 1^,-^ ^ J - jj ^y- \^ ^^ i/ajj o^ -^ i_5r- y ^r= JJ^ -J'^'^ lT" '^^ (^^ J^ --^ -^ - ^ ^ ^ « .. ^ ^ 9 ^ ^ - 99 J)rj ^i^ ^■^ W^'S k^} *^ -v^ ?j** - d^ Jf L0 J)"^^ ^J^\ \^ li^ |2,j^ ^Ut) ^jJ\ \JmJ ^ e:-Jii t_j5r^ ^ JUs «j 9 ' « ' ' ' ' ^ ^jj jjf _ ijl- ^ li^l^l^ jL^j l^" l^ ^iir ji^ ^^j ^^ TA ^ ^ f f P ^ ti-At. j_^l^ ^2;-^ ^\^_ J\ [^ ^\ # l«>jj l^ ^s^J^ s-r- ^_^b3 ij ^ i;i^^ji ^\ ;^ \^^ ^ ^ 'Jj'-'^ ^ '^l'^ ^ ^ n ^ ^ ^bi^Ji" - (_s^W i^ r^'* s/^ <-^l (1j^ €^ ^-J 1-5^ ^ ''^-^^ l, ' ' ' •* jjwl^ ^ u-^ jj' ^5»' ^5^ '-ir" il«^ ^'^ LTii^ '■^^^ (*^" (^ ^ ' ' ' ~ ' ' rv Ji y. ^/--^^-J^ V^ L5-y, jV. ^ ¥^ '•^} drr* L/"j * i^J j^\ J *b ci^T L^^ ^ ^J^ * lil/j^l ^ ^/ ^ ^\ ^ " ' o u;:?^" LTi^ s^*^ l/ u^^ J^^ s5=r^ S^ 'i;^ J"^^ l/ i/V J^^ -^ ^ ^ ^ m ^ » c, / /Vf il;?^ u^J*^ ^ s^j JJ^ - ilr^j^ LS- tf^ i-::f v/j^ rr ^. jj\ Us i^J^ ^2^ j^jy^ ^\ 0^ ^jl <^ UbU J j_,^l k_,^ 49 APPENDIX. It has been suggested to me that a more detailed explanation of the following fourteen engraved plates in the Ta'lik character would be very desirable for beginners. I have discussed the subject rather briefly in page 143, etc. ; and now, at the risk of a few repetitions, T deem it advisable to enter upon it again more fully, by giving a literal transcript of each plate in the Eoman character, together with a few additional explanatory notes and observations. PLATE ii. TEANSCKIPI INTO THE EOMAN CHAEACIEK. Drv. 1, — a, J, j, d, %, r, z, s, sh, z, t, ^, f, k, k, Ic, I, m, n, w, h, hhhi, Id, y, y. „ 2. — hd, ht, hh, Id, hr. Is, bsh, Is, It, l^, If, lie, Ih, M, bm, In, iw. Is, hhi, bid, by, by. „ 3.—jd, jt, jh, jd. hr, hr, js, jsh, hz, hi, h^ jf, jk, §k, jl, hm, hn, hw, ji, jhs, jld, hy, jy. Drvisioif 1. — The first division of this Plate shows the mere elements •of the ta'lih alphabet ; the small cross mark indicates the spot where the pen starts from in the formation of the letter, and a double cross denotes an additional formation. The first elementary form on the right hand is the alif, which differs very little from the printed character. The second form is the letter be (J), which by a mere ciange of its dots may become p, t, s. The third form, now a,jm {j), jccomes, in the same manner, ch, M, h. The fourth makes two letters, 18 50 APPENDIX. d and z. The fifth, r, z, %h, and r. The sixth is represented as con- sisting of two forms — one an indented, the other a protracted line, and either may be used as sm and sMn (s and sh), as the only distinction between them is, that the sm («) wants, and the sJnn {sh) has, thre© dots superscribed, whether short or protracted. The seventh form, sad and zdd. The eighth, t, z. The ninth, 'ain and ghain. The next letters are /, k, k, I, m, n, w, and h, which are nearly the same as the printed type. Then follow the initial, medial, and final forms of the he linked together ; then the la and hamza ; and lastly, the letter ye under two varieties of form, the latter of which is now conventionally used by the natives to denote the yd,e majhul. a. The dal may at first sight appear to resemble the w ; the dis- tinction consists in this, that the ddl has an angular top, whereas the w has it round. }. As the letters 'ain and the imperceptible he have no exact repre- sentatives in the Eoman character, they have been allowed to stand in the transcript of the plates in their proper form. c. The fe and last form of yd are written above the line to show the mode they adopt where there are more words than the line will contain. d. The bottom of the kdf may be protracted, as in the second example, to fiU up the Une, a liberty frequently taken with letters by the Oriental penman. This letter is formed by two sweeps of the pen, the first commencing from the top of the vertical line at the angle (marked in the plate with a single cross) ; the slanting top is put on afterwards. In old NasJdii MS8. the slanting top is never used but instead thereof the mark s is written over the letter. e. The yd (y) has two forms in the Plate. The former was appro- priated by Dr. Gilchrist for the sound i, the latter for the e (or yd,« ma/'hdl), a distinction still observed by the natives of India in writing Hindustani. APPENDIX. 01 DrrasiON 2 exhibits the second elementary form, viz. that of i, p, i, g, n, and y, as they appear initially, when combined with each of tha others followitig them. Here are given all the combinations of the letter he, with each of the elementary forms of division first. It will be seen that many of tne nuktas, or dots, are omitted ; as, for example, those necessary to form hs, It, ic. , J/, hm, In, hh, ly, and without them the linear portion of the le, in these compounds, has no meaning. It may, of course, become 5, p, t, s, n, or y, ad libitum, by the addition (above or below it) of one, two, or three dots. Division 3 shows the initial form of the j, ch, h, and kn, prefixed to each of the elements in their order. Here a similar irregularity of punctuation occurs, but as the form _ constitutes a perfect letter in itself, without any dots, it is transcribed into the Eoman character by h. It may be observed once for all, that the object of these Plates is to exhibit the combinations of all letters of a certain form, independent of the adventitious dots which each form may necessarily require. PLATE II. Div. 4. — «jf, st, sj, sM, sr, as, shs, s%, st, s^, if, s, sTclc, si, sm, sn, shw, Si, s,h!S, sld, sy, sy. „ 5. — sd, st, SJ, sd, sr, ss, ssh, si, st, s^, sf, sk, sh, %l, sm, sn^ %w, a, zn, zld, sy, sy. „ 6. — td, tt, tj, td, tr, ts, tsTi, tz, ft, t^, tf, th, th, %l, tm, m, tw, ts, %!s, tld, ti/, ty. Division 4 represents the sin or sMn in combination with the rest of the letters. It is needless to c.bserve that the letters alif, ddl, re, and wow, never joia to the left — consequently they have no distinct initial form. Divisions 5 and 6 show the sdd and to,e followed by each of th» •elementary forms. 52 APPENDIX. PLATE III. DiT. 7-—id, ^, ^j, ^, •jT, £«, £«A, j^z, <^, ^^, ^f, ^Je. f*, J./, jM. c78, j^w, j^ir, ^Aif, j7a, ^y, ^. „ 8.— /d, >?, fj, fd, fr, fr, fs, fsh, fs, ft, /j., /, fk, fk, fl, fm, fn. fw, fs, fhi, fid, fy, fy. „ 9, — M, M, hj, M, hr, ks, ksh, lea, kt, k^ kf, kk, kk, kl, km, kn, kw, ks, khs, kla, ky, ky. Plate III. stows the letters 'am, fe, and kdf in combination with, all the rest ; and, with the exception of Id, the initial form of the Idm is found by omitting the bent top stroke of the letter kdf. Division 8. — The dots of the fe are again omitted in fd, fd, fr (2nd), fs, f%, ft, f^, etc., leaving the letter imperfect. It may become Mf, by superscribing two dots. Dmsiow 9. — The formation of the kd (made by two sweeps of the pen) commences from where the four lines meet ; the pen stops at the top of the alif, made upwards, and then forms the slanting top. Kid is made by three strokes of the pen, the alif, made downwards, being the second, the slanting top of the kdf the third. PLATE rv. Div. 10. — md, mt, mj, md, mr, ms, msh, m%, mi, m^, mf, mk, ml, ml, mm, mn, miv, mh, mhs, mid, my, my. „ n.—hd, M, hj, hd, hr, hr, hs, hsh, hs, ht, h^, hf hk, hk, hi, hm, hn, hw, hh, hhhhhs, hid, hy, hy. „ 12. — aljd, hwi. Mil, klmn, Scfs, krsht, sHz, zz^, id. al^d, almmh, alfleyr, ^byd, allh lisyny shyryn rkm ghfr %nwbh. Division 11.— The taU of the he is given only in hd, hd, hk, hi, and hid, but omitted in all the rest, according to the practice of Oriental writers. Hence the initial form of this letter is often too ji^*^yt ^/ c4 ^f ^^ ^ ^^i^ l/-' Li- JV jjl V L5«^, ^ ^^-ji *^5^ ^ ^5-1 ;:,r« ^:^^ f > ' * Wi^V ^^ ^\4 ^\ ^j^j ^', ^,^^ ^<^, ^^^ ^^_^ ^^ » li;^ si/ Jrv ^j ^ ^ uVj JU^l^ir- ^L^ ^.^ Lb J__^ - LS«-" s^^^J- L^,J L5*< ^ LI^r-T *^- ^ LT" "^^^^^ si EXTRACTS FROM THE 'KHIRAD AEROZ.' f ^ 9 ^ ^ P ^ ■V^ ^ ;j^ U^^ b J^ - ^=^^% uV. l/ ^^. lljf' vj-" ijtr' t/**^ -«^'i !;€ / uJj^iD't^^ * ^"^ ^J c--^ UJj^ ^y Ji" ^/ ^^ y* LS^ L^ lT" U>^ i_S^' Otr^ L/^ U*"^ - v^y> ^ L-^^ ri^ jlkc * (Jot* i^^lkc .yjj jj\ _1>T^ JkXJ 1^ C:JJc< ^^-^} * ^ 9 ' t' o>'_ p ^ ^ P^ f ^ Ujjt L_i;l5 (_^1 j;-^ ^^J i^"^ * -V^ -O ^ ^ (j/j1 _ ^2-j (jjjIj • o c - ^ f p^ -^ ^-^ Ji" - ^ ^'' ^ <-^^. s5/^ Jfr^ ' J}^. ^^ ^^ rr , ^ o <- ^ / S:?;^' lir:^' ^J^ - t^:*^ t^^v ^ l5^,^ / urir^^ u] * ls* l^ i^ / / *» O ^ (- o UJjly* K^^ - L^"^ ^-J«t 'V' V u^ i:;i/ ^.^ '^ - ^-^ O o o ^y y Li^ uiH= lA^ j^^ - ^^ ^S^ ^5^ >rr» v«^, * W^.*^ A O 1,1./ f ^ APPENDIX. '\5 Divisiotf 12 contains the combination of the characters as arrangca in aiphaoetical notation, noticed in p. 20 of the Grammar, forming the fanciful words, ' Aljad, Jiawa%, hutti, Tcaliman, sa'fas, Icarashat, saihaz,. zapa^; and the last line may be read thus, indicating the name of the chirographer : AV aid ul tnmnih, al fakir 'ubaicki-l-ldM liusaini sUrin rakm gkaffara %unklahu. PLATE V. Consists of words beginning with letters of the he class ; i.e., 4, p, i, a, in which might be included « and y. L. 1. iMt, hhjt, bhsht, pnj, blkh, hind. 2. h^yd, bstr, py^mbr, blghys, bJAshsh, bgh%. 3. byz, bsytj by^ bkWc, pink, bJJiyl. 4. bltikm, bykm, bin, byn, bychw, byzH, bnkU, byshky. 6. t^jb, tsbyh, tklyd, tlmy%, tksyr, tksyr. 6. tfyr, ij'ss, tftysh, tldnys, tMdys, tsU. 7. tjm^, tsnyf, tlAfyf, tJikyk, tmsk, t^jyl. 8. tfzl, tksym, tmkyn, tlkyn, tnbw, thnt, tky. Plate Y. — Coming now to complete words of more than two con- sonants; we may premise, as a general remark, that when these contain any of the letters b, p, t, s, n, y, consisting of a horizontal or sloping line, with one or more dots, for each letter there should be an incurva- tion in the continued running line, and at least two bends for the short indented sin or sMn. "When several such letters come together, for the sake of distinction it is usual to give the middle one a bold dash upwards, terminating in a sharp point vertically. L. l.^The n of bind is protracted to fill up the line, according to CTifitom. The pink of line 9, bykm of line 4, with a dash on kdf, here wanting, are intended for pdlang, ' a tiger,' and begam, ' a princess,' this being a very usual omission, especially where the word cannot be mistaken. In some works, indeed, the kaf is never distinguished from. the gdf, neither is b from p, nor jim from che. 5 t APPENDIX. PLATE VI. ■ContainB a list of words commencing with letters of the third form, viz. J, rh, h or hi. L. 1. jnt, hshmt, hhmt, UyM, TMkt, Uislt. 2. jlyj, j'^, hmyd, hmi, TMd, j^r, hTt,yr, hshr. 3. Tdi/mpr, Idinjr, yjwzr, jlys, Jibs, jhy%, jit. 4. IMt, hf%, jmy^, jyf, Wifyf, jkjh, TMk. 5. chyehlt, Idishlc, jlyl, jmyl, jnkl, hml. G. jhnm, hlym, hkm hkym, Idishm, jbyn, jstn. 7. hsn, lAftn, jlw, hpw, chmcAs, Ichlyfn, hlki. 8. hs^i, hkrih, khymn, Mitn^,jhly, hhyky, Ichsmy. PLATE Vn. Consisting of words beginning with stn or shin. L. 1. syl, sib, snj, slh sth sfyd. 2. stbr, slys, sylsh, s^fs, skyt, sm^ 3. s^/, syf, sbk, slk, sjnjl. 4. smsm, shm, shkyn, shw, sfynH, ssfy. 5. shkst, fhfkt, sjiykh, shhjd, shyr, shimhyr, ihms. 6. sWi, shTchs, shmytj shm^ shny^, sA^z/, shfyh. 7. shlk, shkyl, shkl, s Mgh m. shkm, shlnm, shkstn. 8. shstn, shfw, shknja, sJiyshu, shkykn, shky, shkfigy. PLATE Vin. Words beginning with sdd, zdd, .(o,e or .«),«. L. 1. s^S, slyi, sjibt, shyh, slh, syd. 2. md, s^r, sfyr, mgh, s^f, skyk. 3. smkyk, sykl, smym, sJin, s^w, shyp, ijyloy. 4. tlh, thyl, thyut, tyM. tpyd. 5. hjr, tn%, tshysh, tni^, tb^, tfyf. €. tbk, tlyk, ink, tjl, thjl, tlsm. 7. thw, tbkchs, tntna, Um, My, tUy APPENDIX. 66i PLATE TX. Words bcgiuning with a«», ghntr., /» or leaf. ^ -• ij9^> tflt' tf"^*' tM' t^>, IkmS, Ihy, lyly. PLATE XL Words beginning with mim, L. 1. mshb, mtlb, mnsf, mktl, mht&b. 2. mtcjb, mtyb, mslkt, mhlt, msht. 3. mmlkt, mldms, msls, mbtJy, mth, myM. 4. mlkh, mtbM, mhmd, msj'd, m^kd, m^nni- 5. mnjmd, mfsd, mstfJ, mtfJcr, m^fr, mzfr. 6. mntshr, mJMsr, m^skr, mn%r, m^tbr. 7. mfjfi; m^Jr, nimj%, mks, mjls. 8. mfls, mnsh, mMls, mshkhs, mnsh%. 56 APPENDIX. PLATE Xn. Words beginning with mlm — continued. L. 1. mnMz, mhyt, mmtn'^, mtj/^, mjm^ fi>ii\- 2. me gh , mb lgh , mlditlf, mmf, mtfk. 3. mt^h, mnjnylp, mshJc, mile, mmsh. 4. mahh, mhml, mfsl, myl, mshtgM. 5. mMml, m^tj, mt^m, mikl/m, mnjm, mkym. 6. mstKkm, mslm, mtmhn, msmn, mt^n. 7. mtsmn, mmkn, mhw, mhkmn, mntki, msh^hf 8. matlcy, mfty, mnshy, m gh ny. mkhfy, mfky PLATE Xin. Words beginning with nim. 1. nsh. nsyh, njyh, nshyh, nkh. 2. wimi, nsyM, nhht, nyst, nsj. 3. nlij, nM, nshr, nyshlcr, n%r. 4. nlchs, nfys, nfs, nysh, n^sh. 5. nksA, n gh %, nmt, nf^, nsf, nth. 6. nhnk, n^, nkl, nsym, nylm, nkyn. 7. nmkyn, nhftn, nshstn, nhw, nfkn, n^-m? 8. nhfiis, nfz, nfshis, nfy, nliy, nysty. PLATE XIV. Words beginning with he and -jt. "L. 1. Timt, hyht, Tift, hsM, hnkft. 2. hyoh, hnd, hjr, hmnfs, hshysh, hht. 3. hmy^, hlf, hyk, hshnk, Jikhk, hykl. 4. hmm, hftm, hmsn, hjic, hli/h, hiiy ^- y^iPi yfth ytid, ysyr, yksr. 6. yknfs, ytfz, ylm^, yU; yUc. 7. y<^mi, yshm, ykyn, ymyn, ymn. 6. ykstP, ykhohl, ymns, yky, ykjtUy rr J:^^ CSj\ * LT^Vv^ ^^ ^hj'^ ^ - \J}i ^ LS^ LSr! A'^J/ >=r t/'Ai^t^'^^ '■^.^<^ * L5f^.€^ j^ L5*ijy ir:?;^' i^-* l/-^ Ls5^ d;^ lari- y - HIj ^"U j^^ t_-vj5r j_yjl ^5^-1 ^_-^^r j_jl n *l4/ lP^' <-r^'^ Ir-J'^' u:^^ - ^J^, 4s^^ ' W^ -^^ ^ ''^ ^ o / u t- c l^j j2^ ^^yj ^^- !^L ^ "-^yj ^J ur» J Wr cfj W j=r •>» j^l^ y l^C^ ^j^ t.::^^ j^^^l ^ JJ^ - L5^^^tA^ ^ ^^^-ft^ tl^*^ > > (, ^ *^_ ^ Ji^ 4^1 jilj^ _^y, ^^jU ^_5^U^ y _ ^jU ^_^ ' - - .- ^ ■• ^ - , ^ • (Iff* L^^y* cr^'^ Lif'^. l/ Jb J^*^ JJ^ - l/j* m y ^ it ^ 9 9 ^x^ ^}^ ^ ^j^ * "^ ^^ "^ "^ ^ -^' "^ i^y K-^l *^ ' "' " 13 "' t « . » r 9 „ ^ * ky W=- ilrr* crrV C^^ ls^ u^ * >! J^ u^ "^^-^ i^^ ''^ ^_j-j ^^l-«jil ^1^ ^Jr:4 ^j^ J^ ^ ij^ -^T U*^ tl^U l^ ^JJUiS ,^jsr*^ t/J^ 'r^ -irf - k(^ L5^ *— ^^ * ^^y^ ^ ""^ k^ ^^?- \A ^ jbj _ i/j^i ^ ij\^ »Li.jij * ^ ^J ^' v» ^1/, ^ ^^ s^>=r -^ - ^i uV' ^^ • o-V, di>^ ^r!5/ Ls^.' *i Vy, -AJjlAsi. <_jt _ Iff lii^fJ tjfj-^ ,_5*^^ W" *^ iji^ ^"^ ^ Ji"^ 4^^ J^^ - ^J) -^^ ^ -V^ / li»^* U.Jf^J'^* LS^ u:-^ O o u ^ • » / o «,_ o/ * o o o ^ o o •■ O o ^^ tlh^j ju^jji'^ ^^ IV 4^- U V (js- ^sT ^/i' '^^- •^-'^ "^ i^-'J'* ^^ * ^ "^ Job ^_j*uj1 ^_^jj jj\ VJ> v-f*^ ^ ■«^'J i^ ^r" '^ l/ ijs:!'*' fi i, ^ u ^ ;, > <^ f ^ <- ^T * L-iJi ^_5-. |^\ -Iff*- ^JIjJ / Jy .,5;-. d J^'JV * ^^ J (j;^ J^ ^ "^"^V jijj * l/''' ^ uS k-ii-^jJ J- ^^ ut^y ts-^ /j^^ s/y^ jjAs'* ^^UaLo ^ ^}iji^ - ^^ ^t¥- ifi /I\ A^ _\J^ / jXJ tlX.^ J^i) l4^ J ^^'iV ^5^ ^^ c ^ c. o ^ / _ *C - ^^ "^-^ ^ «^^ ^^ ^ ~ ^-^ ^-'^ '^^ ^> w,^^ - t^ jj'U J jJ!! ^2;-^ (»^ t_>\ »j[^ ! »^wV^ /- / c c t ^ rbj- Jrf^ i^\ _ ^ U JjS JjS 4se ! j^ jui^ ^ u^ s> o C O # «< b/ <« ^1* ^ f r / VV 4 ^-^ i/^ ^V -v^. * uij^ J^ y^^l' l/ Ji^ l^ (2;-^ -v^ tlXi^ :f^^ J' ^^ .^ l^ (jwl 13 jjl _ l«% » ^^^ ^_^ jijiS ^_y/ |2^ t/«! * Iff W-i lt" '-^l 4 '^-^ * i/ ^ij ^I ^ v/ Ji^r^* 1>^ ^sf-j^ ^X-al t/ J^_;*> v--.'»-« » )^ J^r^ ^/--^ '-^^ tlr?^ cuJj ,^_j«*^ To j^y.Li jU w_-o- L^ J ^jyj^ji « '^jr\f ^^ ybj! ^_^ ,_jfsaj bj-^ JLs- ^ bKj IJ' ^_j-> .yi^ }?^ I/- 'i^'^ ^ 7l' ST^l - ^^' ST" lii^^^W 1/-^ si ^T-^ * w ^_5:^U lir^ uj*^''^ l/ ^^ o*' ''^^ j'^ J- i^ sij^ ''^^J / '^j^ " ^ " ^1' ^^ ^ y' o O C C* 0/ err* uV^ JJU *--^.^ l/*'^'^ '^ - ^ jb '^^'it* - *^ l5^ ^'Irr^ ^ 'i^^ O^ 9 9^ L5^ i/«^.'^ ^r-^ * ^je^^ ^/ cn-i ^/^ ^yl-^ ^i?^ tJ^rf^ ,j_j,^ * klA* '^^ "^"^ JJ^ ^-^ t/"^ 1-5^^ ~ LS^ (*;^^ Li^^ *-T-^" * ^ L5^ lijs^ t=£j?^ LTi^ ^r^ ,x-UuMj - Ifioy^ e)^>iv=-"* Ji (tS" bj ^-r^l^ si ^^^>*»^^t> • (^ l::-->^^ \J> ^ti> ^^y (V*^^ f,^ ^T * L.U j;-v r^ *-^'^ - ^" ^^ ^?'-^ us^. ^^-5?^ ''^l^. ? ' • Ij^ -^^-^ ^'^ n ^ f 9 f o ^ fc "^ L5^ ^■'i' / v''^ L5f? ^>e ■^ t_^u y^ -\4 ^ ^^^x^ ^ * l/ '^Vy.r" s£;^ LsH^ ur-*^ '^ ^1^^^ cjljs- LA"1 - ^ ^trA^vi - ^^^;:?-^" c^;j ^ -^r . ^J JJ^ - k-^ ,>« ^"bi J Jlj^ / 1- » I. o L^ tirfv* r" - ilfif L5^ i:;^'^ i^ jb i^ '-^^-^ *^ - l«^ ^2;-^. i* O / ^ to M ^ O^ . / ^ o u ^_j-. cjU (jwl • i_s*> ^__ e;jd ti (irr» ""^ ^ (♦J^ C^ U*^y ^ - O >- »• -m ^ W ^ ^ P U y P P 9 O ^ ^j:^9^ '-'^! ^"^ P -J "^^^ ^j^ J*-* J W*^ uir^ J'^-d^y^ W'^^TJ^i _?^ - uy^ W^ J^*^ *-^^ - \b^ ^J Jr^* lT:'.'^ J^-^ b- ^ J'^ U"^ s£;^ ls^JJ '^.^ * u)^ ^^ * WJ* W*^ J>J> "3 - ^1)1^ J'^ kJi^ fr ^iJi"^ * Ui^ ^J^ o C O *, o .W - r Ls- 1^> sg;:r« V, - cs^ ^s^ J^r" j"^ 4 y ^ 4 >=r ir-j'^ JJ^ - ^ i/^Je L5^ J- - V" ^^ -aje ^5- dr^* u^ '^'' tf» « o o o / o ^ >- ^ ^ y& ^^^ ^ y^ -^'ji* j^ /♦i^ ^1 j^l - ^ ^^ ^y^ ^ y^^ V „f _ ^ Jl^' J .^^j\j ^ J> ^j^ CSA ^\ J - tfjl^ uS;}^ J=r * ^iJ • y J^ (*^ W' L5^ S^ V <-^^ ~ ^ uV..4.\.o.r. ij\ %^ ? l^ Uw^ .0 L"^ 1^^ ^'T ^ ^\j ^\ ! c^-o-L ^1;^ t)*J jj^ - c^y* ^^ cy^ i^ u^ '^ -^ '•^=-~* *^J^^ i/^j! t t i- f ^ ^ - G G • t,?;^ t»^ Uu-J jC^ fc_j| ^ i/- :i^ <>• -14 t^y 's^ V «i *^'5V * :.r^ d\^ J>^ y\-^ ^_5^ U_ IQ ^_5i^^jjl 1> uJ-i:^ (Ji-ol^J i_^^ Jj ?_jJ!, ^^T ^^^ * ^y* VJ J^ jr^ SrS) W i_P (jw^ - y> \J^ ^ o ^ ^ ^ f _ t/i> Ijl l^jJ C_-»- f^\ (^ i_s^-r» cPH J*^ s/ '-^1 * (J * Ifi 1^4^^ j^^ ^ ^jl ,_/ ijfjj^tliol t^l^ (.^iisr^ il$ol r \ ' '' ' y - ^^ * l^" L^ - V^" ^yJJ iJ tir^ / U"' - ^5«? '^^^ LS^v " ^ ^ 1^1 ! ^-r^ * uj«(^ c/«^ ^5^l ii;-^ y ./ * fc * / 4?;^ t/- kj'^ U5^ *^ - ^'^ *^>?^ L^. "f ~ ^"^ "^'-^ ^_^ (^\ -/ l^L J - 1^ ^ * ^> ^y>. ^" ^^, Ju-^ - ^^ u- ^y>, uKi- (X^ c^ - ^y> ^ - i!y u^ * ^5^ i>" ^^;ie -yl^jl _ \«^ uio -«V, ^r^» llA^ - LS* ^> r^ U^" LS«^ - l/" ft # * > ij-* *^J u^J • I, o ^ ^ As, J L-JJs # ^ blis? ^ .-^^ *-^^-^ ^^^ JJ^ ^ 1 VOCABULAET. [N.B, — ^The letter m. signifies masculine, f. feminine, a. active, n. neuter. It has not been deemed necessary to give the names of the different parts of speech, except when a vrord helongs to more than one division. In the HinddstSinl words and phrases, k. stands for kamd; h. for hand ; d. for dend ; / for j'dnd ; and I. for knd. The letters a, p, », and A, at the end of each definition, denote respectively the Arabic, Persian, Sanskrit, or Indian origin of the word explained.] \ t_jl ah, now, presently; ai tak, till now ; ab-M, of now, of the present time, s <_>T dh, m. water, lustre, p \iisj\ ihtidd, f. beginning, a i^l^l alMgi, ill-starred, wicked. « ^§j1 alM, just now, immediately, s j^\ aber, m. time, delay. A t_jT dp, self, selves ; your honour, s t^i^l aputrah, childless, s JsjLiI apardih, m. fault, trans- gression, a ilujT dpas, our-, your-, orthem-,selves, one another ; dpas - men, among themselves, etc. s \ji T^"...'^ vpasthit, arrived, present. » UjI apnd, belonging to self, own. s LsLj I d pahunchnd, n. to arrive at. h [strip off. s \i )\ji utdrnd, a. to cause to descend, jj'l uttar, m. an answer; the north. < \jji\ utarnd, n. to descend, to alight. » Ulftji ittifdhan, accidentally, a lij'l «<»a, so much, so many, s ^■J 1 tf^A, eight, s. Ul^l M-\ aji, an interjection to caU or bespeak attention, as: Sir, hark you! h Ifs-I achchhd, good, excellent, well, s iA)\ A/^.s-i Ahmad-dldd, the capital of Gujerat. p 15 r ( 2 ) .\ fZ*.a~\ ahmak, very foolish, a fool, a jJLa. \ ahwdl, m. condition, circum- stances, events, a cLx^-l ikhtird ', m. contrivance, in- vention, a ^Li-i.\ ilchtitidr, m. choice, power, a j>. \ dlchir, last, at last, the end. a ClJyi.1 dltki/rat, f. futurity, a future state, a joyii- 1 dlchiin, m. teacher, preceptor. ^ I(J1 add, performance; payment; hlan- dishment. a jju«1j\ udds, grieved, dejected. « i—J j1 a(f«}, m. institute ; politeness, manners ; plur. dddh, ceremonies, etc. a ij^Jl ddmi, m. f. a descendant of Adam, a human being (man or woman), people, a UijT ddhd, half, s yJSjl udhwr, thither, h J»J^ ji^Aar, hither, h, tlisiJi a(K«i, more, exceeding, s uL&Ji adhydnd or adhyd-hnd, a. to halve. A *j1^' »rrfl is-liye, on this account, h ^L«y.j| dsmdn, m. the sky, the firma- ment, heaven, p jlj-il aswdr, riding, mounted ; aswdri, act of riding, s j^^jla-j'_y-!l istodste, for this reason , tuicdste, for that reason. (_/»»--sl asis (or dsis), f. a benedic- tion, s »)Liil ishdra, m. & hint, a signal, a J 1^1 ashrdr, miscreants, scoundrels, d i_JyJ>i ashrdf, nobles, grandees ; ashrdf-iddi, daughter of a grandee. -; .^ ( s ) ^\ 4Sr^' ttshrafi, f. a gold coin bo called. The Calcutta ashrafi is wortli a guinea and a half, a <\iJia\ dshnd, an acquaintance, lover, firiend. p j \ ungal, m. a finger's breadth, t jJIjI mw^K, f. a finger. « i^jfijijl akgiitJA, f. a ring worn on. the finger. « jjSli 1 angiir, m. a grape. ^ liiJl dnand, m. joy, happiness. «. ^1 and ^4^1 tViA and inhon, same as j^! in ; unh and un^on, same as un, (q.y.) A j\j\ dwdz, i. noise, sound, voice, p /libjl auhdsh, dissolute, depraved, a jij] iipar, up, upwards, upon. « ijl or, f. direction, side. A jji awr, (conj.)and, but; (adj.) more, other ; aur kuchh, anything else, h ^jL^i amdn, m. courage, presence of mind. h. tulijl aukdt (pi. of wakt), times (of devotion), a L^-Ojl A»<, m. a camel, h IsTjl A/ksAa, high, height, h ^ I (f A, f. a sigh. p. jUit dhdr, m. food, subsistence. » (.2-^1 aAa^, f. a sound, noise. A. Jjbl oA;, m. people, a. ij\ at, 0, Oh. p A jUl Ayyd%, a man's name, a u (5) w ,|»y aiydm (pl.ofyaM»i),days, seasons, a \mA aisd, such as this, so. A •CS^\ eh, one ; (art.) a, an, frequently joined to its substantive, as ^^\ elc-ddn, one day. «. ^j\Sj\ ekhdragl, all at once, p ijUjI imdn, m. faith, belief, religion, conscience, a. ^^JoL«j\ i»«(fw-(?(ir, faithful, honest; imdn land, to believe, p jj-j1 d,iw, m. rule, law. p l)lj 2d3d, father, son, sir. A ■L-j\i hap, m. father, h .'.ju\j hat, f. a word, ajGfair; hdt leahte hi, on the speaking of a word, im- mediately ; hdt-cMt, f. conversation, chit-chat, h -jU Jd«?, f. wind. p. jLioL hddshdh, m. a king; hddshdM, royal. _p. ^^jb id(?{, m. a complainant, speaker, s Us^b hdjnd, n. to sound, to ring, s ill hdr, m. load; fruit; time; door; water, p h ^b hdrah, twelve, h il^b hdrgdh, f. a king's court. ^ jl) idz, back; hdz-dnd, to decline, reject; ha%-ralchnd, to keep from, to prevent; (s.m.) a hawk. p. \\i hdzdr, m. a market; Idzdri, one ^£jb hdii, f. play, sport, a game, p ^J^\ '; m. a basin, plate, dish, jy' ■who attends a market, p goblet, pot, etc. A ib hd gh . m. a garden. ^ i^Uib hdgM)dn, m. a gardener, p Jb idZ, m hair. s. ear of com. A. wing, p i!b id?d, above, up, high, p tUJb idW, m. a boy. » ■lb hdlk, f. sand. « ijbb hdndtk, made of broad cloth, wooUen. h, Ui)b idwiwd, a. to share, to distri- bute, to divide; hdht-l. to divide and take. » liJiJjb hdndhnd, a. to bind, to shut up ; to frame, s lilib hdnkd, foppish, impudent, s t>yp-.b hd-wujud, notwithstanding J? a j.b hdwar, m. credit, faith; hdwar-h. to believe, p -ab idAw- or hdhar, without, outside. « >Jlib bdham, together. ^ jLj hihdd, m. quarrel, fight, s c:-^ J^a#, f. misfortune, calamity. ( bbj hatdnd, a. to point out, to teach. A |J:j iaWi, f. a candle, lamp. s. [jifij hithdnd, a. to cause to sit, to seat, h UliLsr ha-jd land, a. to perform, carry into effect, h ulsT iajdnd, a. to sound, to play on a musical instrument, t \ssf ( 6 ) ,^\jsr ba-jde or ha-j'd, in place, in- stead of. p ^^xsT b^'li, f. lightning, h. LsT bafnd, n. to be sounded, to sound, s. \j l^sr^ liyhdnd, a. to explain ; to extin- guish (a candle), h 1 ilsr; bichdrd, helpless, wretched, p. L1W7 bachdnd, a. to save, protect, h 'Ua£^ bachnd, n. to be saved, to V • ' ' escape. Ti ij^fl bachoha, m. an infant, a child, the young of any creature, p. Ul^sT biohhdnd, a. to spread, s. 'Jl J^=< ia-hdl and, to recover, a. (jIulksT boMishnh, f. gift, grant, for- giveness. ^ »Vi*i"V7 bakhashnd, or baihsh-d. or baihsMsh-k a. to give, to bestow. ^ i^j'i'ir; balchsM, m. a general, a com- mander in chief, p Jj=£7 i^M^i ni- avarice, stinginess, parsimony, a (J-isT baMil,a, a miser, niggard, a Aj bad, evil, bad ; used in compounds, as bad-zdt, a rascal ; bad-Jcho, ill- disposed ; bad - «itro^, ngly, Ul- fa^oured. p c^iic^Jo iai - baJcht, unfortunate, ■wicked, p ^> jLo Ju bad-suliiki, f. ill-usage. ^ a ^j^Jj badan, m. the body. ^ '..i^jja ba-daulat, by favour of. y} bar-Murddr, happy ; a terms applied to a son (p. 22). p {jjjji boras, a year. s. CjL^ barsdt, rain, the rainy sea- son, s. L-^ barasnd, n. to fall (as rain), t» shower, s. i^ji baran, m. colour, complexion. »■ j^j3 barham, offended, confused, angry, p ^i^.ji biriydh, f. time, h \y bard, large, great, (adv.) very. « v^hj bardfi, greatness, s. uuk^j barhdnd, a. to increase, to pro^ mote. «. UJkJj barhnd, n. to increase. ». jyuj ia«, enough, abundantly. j». (7 ) ^ jli*uj bistdr, m. extent, latitude. « ^Ji^ hasti, f. an abode, a village, t \j^ i^jm) la-sari Icarnd, a. to pass, to spend (one's time), p iXf |^.cuj hisan-pad, a song in praise of Vishnu, s Ijm*uJ hisiirnd, n. to weep, to sob. A iZJj\^ lasdrat, f. sight, vision, a jsUaj Ja-zdAir, ostensibly, a JceJ ifl'flf, after, afterwards, at the end. a ijoxi la'%, some, certain ones, a ^«aj«j ld%e or ia'zi, some, certain, a Jk-jti Ja'W, remote, far off. a Jki laghal, s. f. the arm-pit. p jJu laghair, ad. without, besides, except, a JUj haikdl, m. a grain-merchant, a shopkeeper, a \jLi lahrd, m. a he-goat. « i_sSj laTcrl, f . a goat, a female goat. « j^l^ lakhdn, m. explanation, s ^ Jfl^Zd, m. a crane, a heron. » Jj HI, m. a hole. « \i laid, f. calamity, a U ib luldnd, a. to call for, to summon. lilldnd, to cry. A JJj ^mZSmJ, f. a nightingale. i> <^^ lalU, yea, on the contrary, p iXiij Inland, high, lofty. i» Jj JjZK, f. a cat. I JJi.^ la-madad, with the help of, by means of. p a ^ytJ la-martala, in a degree, con- siderably, p a (^..o^fc^j la-miijil, by reason, on account of. p a jjj lin, without, not having, s Uuj landnd, a. to make, to form, h ^i lanaj, m. trade, trafSc. « Jcj land-h. to shut up, to make fast. ^ A ^iJCj lamdagi, f. slavery, service, devotion. ^ W W>A:j lanihwdnd, a. to cause to be fastened. A liij lannd, n. to be made. A lil^ lanwdnd, a. to cause to be made. A i^ij iarei, pi. sons, children; lank Isrd'il, the IsraeKtes. a UiJ lanyd, m. a shopkeeper, mer- chant, s J lii or Jo, f. smell, fragrance, p •^j^ lojh, m. a load, weight. A ,^^y liijh, f. understanding, idea, s U^^ lujhnd, a. to understand, comprehend, s li!»j io?«d, to speak, say. A Ij jj Jo»d, a. to sow, plant, s ij la, by, with, in ; la-nislat, with regard to. p ^j lahd, m. price, value, p Liil^ Ihdshd, see Ihdhhd. s Lilj; Ihdshnd, to speak, say. « l^\^ IMIM, f. language, dialect. A (^/^j JAd^, m. good luck; destiny. « \'- ( 8 ) liTl^ IMgnd, n. to flee, to run away; Ihdg-j. to run off. h iji-jl^ bhdnti, m. manner, mode, way h -~3 bheri, f. an ewe. « Ij >^ Iheriyd, m. a wolf. « ^jM^ MeM or bheg. m. garb, habit. « UL^ JAi^a, wet, moist (past part, of LSLaj, to be wet). ^ i« (also abe), an interjection of reproach, as : sirrah ! you rascal ! A |j J«, (prep.) vrithout; much used in forming negative adjectives, as be-adab, unmannerly, and these again become substantives by adding 2, as be-adabl, rudeness, p (jLj bay an, m. explanation, relation, a irUj byah, m. marriage. « ^jt^,iJ be-bas, helpless, destitute, p i_j--j bibi, f. a lady; (vulgarly) a wife, h l::-~»j bait, f. a couplet, poetry, a c-Jc-j be-tdb, powerless, without endurance; be-tdbi, helplessness, p ^JXxj^g) be-ta' alluki, f. freedom from worldly ties, immediate communion with God. p a (^) lOU ilLj beta. m. a son, a child. A \j\^Li iaithdnd, a. to set down, to place, h \'(i;} haithnd, n. to sit, to be placed, h -*vj MJ, m. seed ; principle. » Isy he-j'd, iU-timed, ill-placed, im- proper, p Xsnj he-jigar, cowardly ; le-jigarl, cowardliness, want of pluck.' p .-jo h'lch, (prep.) among, between, during, h ; the middle, s ; blch- hiehdte, mediation, intermediate means, h -ir.lsnLj lechdra, helpless, p lisnj hechnd, a. to sell, h jiji»-j leshtar, generally, for the most part, p i1j>-j heddr, awake, wakeful, p (Jj-»j B'lrhal, name of one of Akbar's ministers. A ij^^ Vis, twenty, h j\^^Jl^ he-skumdr, incalculable, p. j\j ^ le-Tcmdr, uneasy, restless, ap <)jlx-j legdna, strange, undomestic, foreign, p A-j legam, (fem. of leg), a lady, p pdrsd, devout, pious, p (jwli pas, near, before, h (JLujI) pdsbdni, f. keeping watch. ^ Jlo u pdkiza, clean, fine, elegant, p jJU pal, m. a shade, shelter, (jflb ^(iZ^i, f. a sedan-chair common in India, h [cept. s lib, pdnd, a. to get, find, reach, ac- ^U pdnch, five. «. Ijub panda, a master ; priest, s jju pdnw, m. leg, foot, s (J I) pdni, m. water; lustre. « laj ^«w(fe«S), a stranger. « *— >.j parisram, m. care, labour. « ^«sj prasanna, pleased, content, s Lu.v.»)-) prasamd, f. praise. » (^ij pwrush, man, a person. «. il^ prakdr, m. mode, manner. » (JL-^Sy pragat, current, well-known. « iJjjj parania, m. a bird. ^ iPjjy parwarish, f. breeding,nourish- ment. j> J-Jkj parhe%, m. temperance, conti-^ nence, control of the passions, p (jsy pari, f. a fairy. ^ cu~ij ^rW, f. love, fiiendship. s (jLio J pareshdn, scattered, ruined, distressed, p ^jXijjji pareshdni, f. destruction, dis- tress, p Ujj parnd, n. to fall, to happen, h j^jjj ^aro«{, m. a neighbour. « Ijljs^y parMnd, a. to teach to read, to instruct, s. \iMj parhnd, a. to read, to repeat, to say, to speak, s (j*j pas, hence, therefore, p (\\m] pasand, f. choice, approbation, p * pwi, f. a kind of cake, s (ju^-jy ^o«<, m. poppy ; posti, one wko' intoxicates himself with infusion of poppy, p C/tiiy poshdk, f. vestments, dress, habits, garments, p jl(j pahdr, m. a mountain, h • IjJ^j phdrnd, a. to rend, to tear. « 1%J j»^fl^ rent, torn (from phatndy n. to be rent), s uilnsrlfi pahchdnnd, a. to know, to recognize. « j^^ pahar, a space of about three hours, a watch (of the day or night), p ^ phir, again, back, h U^ phimd, n. to turn oack, return h J4^ (11) ■^' J^ phal,m. fruit; effect; adrantage; progeny, s 3Lj pahld or paMld, first, before ; rather; pahle, at first, previous to. h liJi^ phahd, n. to bear fruit, to be produced, s \j IsL^j pahuncMnd, a. to convey ; ha-ham pahuncMnd, to get together, to store up. h us^.(j pahunchnd, n. to arrive. A Lm>:^ phansnd, n. to be caught in a noose, to be strangled. A lii^^ pdhannd, a. to put on, to wear, h UJ »^ pMMd, n. to blossom, to bloom, s L.^j pahiyd, m. a wheel (of a chariot, etc.) h j^ pher, back, again, h Ij—^ phernd or pher-dend, a. to turn, to circulate, to give back. A UL^ phailnd, n. to spread, to be divulged, h ifjLo piydda, m. a pedestrian, an attendant on foot ; piydda-pd, on foot, as a pedestrian. ^ iLj pydr, m. affection. « 1 iL) piydrd, dear, beloved. « LjLj piydsd, thirsty, s ij^-^ pet, m. the belly, stomach, womb, s ^io jiJ^A, f. the back, s 'i'.|f"-i paithnd, n. to rush in, to enter. « IfsX) p'lohhd, m. pursuit, following. A tijljsaj pkhhdri, f. the hinder part, h (_jfsnj piehhe, after, in the rear, i« pursuit of. h Uji liXj paidd-h., a. to produce, t« procure; paidd-h., to be bom; t(t be found, h p •iJ^j^ j^ pir mv/rshid, your highness,. sire, your worship, p a cL> U-J pairdk, m. a swimmer, h U-y pairnd, n. to swim. A Lu-j paisd, m. a copper coin, money, cash. A Uau-j pisnd, a. to grind, triturate, s -lj/»j)lj toZa!OtcM»-»tiz(f;i, f. fickle- ness of disposition, a *j' turn, you (reA and tumhoh in the inflection). A L^Uj tamdshd, m. an entertainment, show, spectacle, sight; tamdsha'i, a spectator, a 1^ i/j^^ tamdsh-bin, a spectator. ^ *L*j (.sJ^" tang-dasti, f. distress, poverty. j> ( 13 ) cjV- y to or tau, adv. tten; ti, pron. ' thou, k \jy tord, m. a purse containing 1000 rupees, h. IjJ jj tomd, a. to break, to change (as coin), s I jj>*sjj' taufik, f. divine direction, a Ujj foZwd, a. to weigh. « ^j»j icmorfoMW, then, in that manner, h j Ifi tJhd, was (verb auxil.). A ; ^ than, m. breast, s \jj^ thord, little, scarce, seldom, less, few. h ^Lfi thaili, f . a purse tied round the waist, a bag. h iUj taiydr, ready, prepared, finished, . complete, a t^Lj" taiydr'i, f. preparation. ^ ,_f;:~J titr'i, f. a butterfly. A ^ tir, m. the bank of a river. « jJ tir, m. an arrow, p -J iez, sharp, p ( L/*^ '^*) thirty, s. Liu*!i ii«j-a (f. ^2«?-i), the third. « j^' ly sawdh, m. the future reward of ' virtue, a 1?Ip- /iir(f, m- cold, winter. « US^l;>-y(f^»rf, n. to awake, to be awake. » A\s^ j&l, m. net. « i^\>-jdma, m. a garment, robe, vest. j> ^^\s^ jdn, f. m. life, soul, spirit, dear, beloved ; jdn pahohdn, an intimate friend, p J^ (14) Ou^ ij\s^Jdnd, n. to go ; to be ; to pass ; to reach; to continue, jdtd-rahnd, to yanish. s A:>a£^ls»- jdnchnd, a. to test, to try, prove, s j\^\£>- jdn-ddr, a living being, p Lils>- jdnnd, a. to know, to under- stand, to consider, s jii Us- jdnioar, m. an animal, a bird, p ,Jj!>U- jdhil, m. a fool ; (adj.) barba- rous, brutal, a -(_.c»- jab, when, at the time when ; jab-na-tab, now and then, s Ls>- jubd, young, youthful. « ^^Sj i..,.^ jabtah ov jdb-talak, so long as, till when. « h lij»- y«-jaU, expeditious, quick, quickly .j> t^ jl:>- jaldi, f. quickness, rashness, p \A>-jalnd, n. to bum, to be kindled; to get into a passion, s sSs^ jahoa, m. light ; jahoa-gar, brilliant, beautiful, a )Jjs- jalev, f. retinue, attendance, h «.<♦;>- jam', f. a congregation, collec- tion ; sum total, number ; jam'- k. oi -rdkhnd or -Tcar-rahhnd, to collect ; -^wd, to be collected, a ^j»- jan, m. person, individual. « {jMiJ>- jins, f. genus; goods, com- modity, a Jliuf- jangal, m. a forest, a wood. » Uiif- jannd, a. to bear, to bring forth, s ^jo, (rel. pron. ) he who ; jo-h>,i, who- soever ; jo-huchh, whatsoever. A •^ _/««, m. barley ; j6, if, when ; jk, searching, p s \^ ju,d, m. a yoke ; dice, gambling. « t_ju;»- jawdb, m. an answer, a ij\^:5- jawdn, young, a young person; jawdn-mardi, valour, p (Jl^ss- jawdni, f. youth or rather that period of life to which the Eomans applied the term _/«»«»<««. p. ^lys- jawdhir, f. (plur. of J^Jp-), gems, jewels ; jawdhir-Ichdna, a jewel-house or treasury, a i_SjJty>- jauhari, m. a jeweller, a ljjj>- yii- jotnd, to yoke, h Ijj^ jornd, a. to join, clasp, h ^,i>- jon or jaun, •when, as ; jon-Mn, OT jawh-Mn, the instant when, h •vj y>- Jaunpiir, name of a city, s J l^yAdr,m. hushes; continued rain. A jjjp- J l^Jf- jhdr-jMir, i. a thicket, h jLj>- jahdz, m. a ship, a Ci-Jl^ jahdlat, i. ignorance, a J\^ jhdlwr, f. a fringe ; jhdlar-ddr, possessed of a fringe, fringed. j^Lj»- jahdn, m. the world ; jahdni, of or helonging to the world, man- kind, p j%^j>- jahdn, where, in whatever place, h Jilij ,0^.^ jahdn pan&h, m. refuge of the world ; your majesty ! p .jssT'l^js- jhanchh, f. a cymhal. s liSLi \^ jhdnknd, a. to peep, to spy. h ijU^ jhat, quickly, h Ij rfij- jharnd, n. to ooze, to flow, h \^,j^s>- jharokhd, m. a lattice, a window, s Iji^ jhagrd, m. wrangling, quar- relling, h ijj$!^ jhagmrnd, n. to quarrel. A 1j'U^jsrH^y^a»j;'AoM- ehdhuh, m. a horsewhip. ^ UjUs- chdlnd, a. to gnaw. A jjXiU- cAa«A«i, f. taste. ^ Jl&- cAaZ, f. way, practice, s t^^ls- chdldh, active, fleet, p (JjJW- tfAare(?«{, f. a kind of cloth; moonlight, s liJ»l»- chdhnd, a. to love, to like, to desire, to choose ; chdhiye (in Braj. chdhiyatu), it is fit, proper, neces- sary, etc. s 'j Ls- chabdna, a. to gnaw, h iL;>- chibiUd, stupid, impudent, h ICjs- chupM, chatur, clever; ehatwd^i, ex- pertness. « chatTcdnd, a. to rend, split. A ij^iis- chitM, f. a letter, an epistle. A 9\j>- chird^, m. a lamp, a light, p silent, speechless, h \ (16 ) n^^jf- ohardgdh, f. a pasture, a meadow, p UL=>- ehardnd, to graze; ehwdnd,a. to steal ; dnhheh chv/rdnd, to with- draw the eyes. « Ufc^*- charhnd, n. to ascend, to come up. h \j\i>j^- charhdnd, a. to raise up. h L 'is^ chiriyd, i. a bird, h iUj 'I*- ehirimdr, a bird-catcher, a fowler, h Ajijs- ehashm, the eye. ^ X»- chakit, astonished. » V L^l»- chuknd, n. to have done, to have completed, h (Vide Gram, p. 65). fS-^- ehakM, f. a mill, a mUl-stone. « lji>- chilldnd, n. to scream out. A V liLs- chalnd, n. to move, to go, pro- ceed, go off, pass (as coin), to be discharged (as a gun) ; chald-j. to go; chald-dnd, to come, s lLC«js- ehamak, f. brUliancy, glitter, beauty, h ^^f^ chamnn, m. a lawn, a meadow, p ifcsr'Ur*- chundnchi, thus, accordingly.^ \ii*- chintd, f. care, anxiety. « Jkia- changul, m. a claw; changul mdmd, to grasp with the claw. ^ <^^ chop, f. desire, selfishness, h ^U^s>- «Aat raped. « l^^> ehauthd, the fourth. < j»s». cAw, m. a thief, a robber. < l)liy>- ehordnd, a. to steal. « i^jjs^ ehor't, f. theft, robbery. «. clil>- «Aii, f. defect, error; ehaukp an open place in a city. A i/M^ys- chaukas, expert, alert, t liS^>- ohaugund, a. fourfold, j f^^ choneh, f. beak, bill, s jj • jc ys- chaundol, m. a kind of sedaa or palki. s LSyy^ chaunri, f. a whisk, a fly- flapper, h \to^ch-lihd, m. a mouse; chihe- mar, Si kind of haw£ which feeds on mice, h ,^»- ehha, six. h (Jlf»- ehhdti, f. the breast ; chhdti se lagdnd, to embrace, h l : >*^ -^ ehhipnd, n. to be concealed,, hidden, absent. A ijy,5^.&- ohhatri, f. a covering or hood;: chhatri-ddr, covered, hooded. « Ijl^^s- ehhutdpd, m. smaUness. A -((-sir^ chahchaha, m. warbling. A »,.^j>- chihra, m. the face. ^ Ijyp- chhotd, little, small. A Uj"^^ ehhutnd, n. to escape. A j^f>- o/jAw, m. end, extremity, h Uj^^ chhornd, a. to release, leave, let go. k cJJj^ ( 17 ) IjSj^i*- chholcard, m. a boy, k Ju^s- chhed, m, a hole, an opening, s lj-«s- cAi^d, m. a leopard, s chk, f. a thing. ^ chaind, m. a kind of corn. s. ohend, millet, h c i_>^vs>- hdj'ib, m. an usher, a li-vs^ls- lidjat, need, want. » J-flU^ Ads«7, m. produce, result, pur- port, profit, revenue ; hdsil-i-Tcaldm, in fine, in short; hdsil-h., to be obtained; hdsil-Tc., to obtain, a jj\^~. hdzir, a. present, willing ; hdzir- jawdbi, ready wit. a *^U- Mhim, m. a ruler, a JU- ^a?, m. state, condition, busi- ness, afiair; present time, a Ci-JU- hdlat, f. state, condition, a ^j.^s>- kahsM, m. Abyssinian, Cafire. a ^^x^ hujjati, cavilling, arguing the point, n Jis- hadd, extreme, extremely, a cfij^- ttirs, avidity, greediness, a iS^jO- haralcat, f. proceeding, con- duct, a (__i) ■*- har'tf, an opponent (in play), a rival, an associate, a fS^\ i_^*u»- hasbu-l-hukm, according to command, a Tutsad, t. envy, malice; emula- i^as- hma, m. share, lot, portion, division, a jusa~ liawr, m. rest, repose, a (JUj^ds- hmrat, your or his majesty, your or his excellency, etc. a jyi=- huwiir, m. presence, appearance ; a regal court ; his majesty, a fls~ hakk, just, true; the Deity; right, justice; lot. hakk-hini, per- ception of right, a CJ,liis>. hikdrat, f. contempt, dis- grace, baseness, a i-i^iLftr>. hakikai, f. truth, a true statement, an account. ^s.^\i-='- Mkdyat, f. a history, tale, narration, a S-=^ hukm, m. order, decree, a L::_^.♦Xr^- fdkmat, f. wisdom, know- ledge, skill, contrivance, a L::-v»j$i^ huk{imat, f. reign, rule, a >-|i>r- hakim, m. a sage, a philosopher, a physician, a ^l)i=- JmlwdX m. a confectioner, a ijm\^ hawdss, (pi.), senses, a Jl»s- hawdle-k. to give in charge, to consign, a Ci>Ur>- haydt, life, a j^I.ao- ha-irdn, confounded, per- plexed, a LlJ-«=- hairat, f. confusion, a i—sus- haif, (interj.) ah ! alas ! m. iniquity, a pity ; Jiaif-k. or -khdnd, to sigh, to express one's sorrow, a la.*s- Mia, m. artifice, ruse, a .W-..^- hrtiinA/it. Tn nnimiil, /z U^"^ ( 18 ) ifi\S- Mass, select, peculiar, a jLUi. MdHr, f. tte heart, mind ; Widtir Mmdh, cheerfuUy, heartily ; jAdtir jam', with heart at ease, contented, a ti/Ui- lAdk, f. earth, dust ; Tchdh-h. to he destroyed, p uA\s>- Mdlis, pure, a JU>- khdli, bare, empty, a ^^Iri- M,dn, a lord, a grandee ; khdn- daurdn (p. 29), a man's name ; khdn-khdndn, a man's name, a }/>- khardbi, f. ruin, destruction, a jc i^ kharch, m. expenditure, p U^ J>- r*' Mm-'id-k. a. to purchase, hp ijms>- Mas, m. grass, straw, p ^..^<. Musi-s, especially, a kr^ Matt, m. a letter ; a line ; mous- taches, heard, a Iks- Mfltd, defect, error, missing, deficient, a \k~- Mafd, angry, p ^$lari- Mafagi, f. displeasure, anger, p 'i. '';°^ Mafif, vilified ; Mafif-h. to feel one's self affronted, a - Muldsa, essence, the upshot or finale ; the moral (of a tale, etc.) a (_^\s~ khald,ih, people, mankind, a (ji^ Malk, m. people, the world, creation, a Lii ^i\.< Milkat, f. people, a yi~ Mo, f. disposition, p t-jl^ri- Miodi, m. sleep, p t_>y=i- Mkl, good, excellent, well; M&b-surat (adj.\ beautiful, well- favoured, p i^y^ khuU, f. beauty ; comfort ; good deed, virtue, p fj^y>- Mush, pleased, cheerful ; ele- gant ; Mush-dnd, to be agreeable ; Mush - dyand, comely, elegant ; Mmsh-usluh or Mush-daul, weU- proportioned, elegant, p '-rj^ U^y^ kli'Ush-Mdbri, f. good news, pleasing tidings, p i^^xJj t^y>- Mush-fab'l, f. pleasan- try, mirth, p o-J= ( 19 ) ^J^ iJii^ Mosha, m. a cluster of grapes, etc. p i_S^i^ MmsAz, f. delight, pleasure, p i_j»si- Mauf, m. fear ; khauf-k. or -Jchdnd, to fear, a «J»=*-M"'*i a murderer; sanguinary.^ tJW" MiyaZ, m. thought, considera- tion ; phantom, vision ; kha/dl-k. to fancy ; khiydl-rakhnd, to keep in mind, a ti-jUri. Tdiiydnat, f.perfidy, treachery, embezzlement, a khair, good, best, well ; m. good- ness; health; Miair-ldmdh, well- wisher, a tljA J.ri-lj di]Jiil-h., n. to enter, to arrive, h a jIj dad, justice, p • i';l> ddru, f. medicine, p 41 J dd^, spot, stigma. ^ *',J (?d«, m. a snare, p ^.^Ij daman, m. skirt. ^ (^1j ia», m. alms, charity. « Ulj (?d«(i, wise, learned; a sage, p ^UIj ddnd,i, f. wisdom. ^ UU-vilj ddnt, m. tooth. « ^uJIj ddnish, f. knowledge, science, wisdom, p \:^.':.\\.^ ddnishmand, wise, a learned man. p ylj -_;J darkAwdst, f. application, request, wish, desire, p tijti dard, m. pain, affliction, pity, p ^JiJ daridri, poor, miserable. « jl^J darkdr, useful, requisite, p h^jl) dargdk, f. a regal court, p ftjii diram, m. money ; a coin about sixpence in value, p (^U.^ J da/r-miydn, in the midst ; be- tween, p JJiJ daranda or darinda, m. a beast of prey, p 2(jl}i J darwd%a, m. door, gateway. ^ i J iJ darogh, m. a He. j» fjujjjii dartvesh, m. a deivise, a beggar, p \jjii daryd, m. the sea, a river, p ^j' (20 ) jA3 \j£ i-:i-^V. t"^ darydfi-k., a. to con- ceive, understand. A p flii das (or dash), ten. s ■.j,.^ii dast, m. the hand; daat-lar- ddr-h., to forbear, to desist, p ijljiiyX-jJ dastar-Tchwdn, m. the cloth on which orientals eat. p ^.4-i L> dushman, m. an enemy. ^ ^i.*»iiL> dushmani, f. enmity. ^ (♦lii J dushndm, f. abuse. « ^ IcJ (fe ' d, f . benediction, prayer, wish, a Ll^tc J (fa 'tea/, f. entertainment, ban- quet, a ^J dukh, m. pain, labour; dukhi, grieved, afflicted, s 1)1^ J dikhdnd and dikMdnd, a. to shew, to point out. s J J - iji^ diI-jam'-i,{.ea,Beo{inmd.p J, J J (?aSZ, f. argument, proof, a *J (?a»i, m. breath, life, p *0 dum, f. tail, end. ^ joO (?««, m. a day, s LjJ dunyd, f. the world; people, o ^J (?o, a. two. p ij J rfawrf, f. medicine ; a remedy, a jljii (^(fr, m. a door, a gate. « jrJjO diidh, m. mUk. s I 1.1- (fir, f. distance ; distant : diir- andesh, far-sighted, wise ; d{ir- andesM, prudence, foresight. liijjj damdnd, a. to cause to run, to drive, a Ufjii dawnd, n. to run. « l.:i-^-)J J (?osi, m. a friend, lover ; ios/- ralehnd, to hold dear, to love, p ^i«;j J (fo« diiard, the second, other, next. « /^jJ (fo«A, m. fault, defect. « ^jlSjJ diiikdn, t. a shop. ^ ci-JjJ daulat, f. riches, fortune, em- pire; daulat-mand, a. wealthy, a l^jJ (ZAra, low, vUe, abject; dim- himmati, low-mindedness a yjO or lUyj'^ ^''^° o'" donon, the two, both, h /»yii J (?Affrw,ni. virtue; dharm-avatdr, incarnation or personification of virtue ; sire, your majesty, s UjjiJ dharnd, a. to place, to lay. t KjsJ dhakkd, m. a push, jolt. A j^J dhan, m. wealth ; rfAanf, wealthy, s. U-LkAiJkJ dhandhalpand, m. fraud, trickery. A j^jiytJ dhu,dn, m. smoke. « i^ybO rfAoSi, a washerman ; dliolin, a washerwoman. A /♦jAO rfAilff!, f. noise, tumult. A U^J (fAona, a. to wash ; dho-dhdnd, to wash thoroughly, $ 21 ) ^\ U io^Au> dhydn, m. mind, thought. » ui^bo diydnat, f. conscience,hoiie8ty, piety; diydnat-dar, honest, just, a ^_j J dail'i, f. fate, by chance, s iIjoO diddr, viewing, seeing, p HtXiO dida, m. the eye. p J J der, f. a long time, late, p /vujj dei, m. country, region, s li^J deJchnd, a. to see, experience, s Uj J dend, a. to give, grant, s ! ilijti dindr, m. the name of a coin, a \ " i ducat. « i i^JCJj dinddr, faithful, true, p jljjj dvwdr, f. a wall, p j^^ jj J diwdn, m. a hall of audience.^ ijl3 ddrh, f. a tooth. A ^5>J13 ddrhi, f. the beard, s U!13 ddlnd, a. to throw down, to pour out, to rush forth ; ddl-d., a. to throw away. A. Ailj rfare dil, m. stature ; dtl-daul, size and shape ; del, a clod, h ^)J %arra, m. an atom, a little ; the least bit. a ^3 %ihr, m. remembrance; %ikr-l., *-» mention, to praise, a J ClS\j rdt, f. night, s vs^'j rdjd or i^\j rdja, a king. « jd:,.As>-\j rdj-mandir, m. a palace, s j|__i rdz, m. a secret, a mystery. ^ c^^wjij rdst, right, true ; rdst-go,i, speaking truth, veracity, p \^\j rdkhnd, to keep, stop. ,t rj (22) iV. ' -o- »\ rdm-eherd, a name frequently given to slaves. « l::-.»-1j rdhat, f. quiet, ease, a il 1 rrfA, f. road, way. p ^_f\j rd,e, f. sense, opinion, a ijjj rutla, m. rank, dignity, a ^j rath, m. f. a chariot (four- wheeled). » ijj rati, f. a weight of ahout eight barley-corns. « ui^-ari- 1 ruMisat, f. leave, discharge, rukhsat-h., to depart, a Uc»-i raJchnd, m. rent, hole. ^ Lj 1 rassd, m. a rope. A ULy nsdreff, n. to be enraged, h iz^j rasta, m. a road, way, mode, p \yjj ruswd, exposed, disgraced, p ij^y^j ruswd,i, f. ignominy, dis- grace, p ^~j) rassi, f. a string, cord, p CSJ^j rashh, m. envy, jealousy, p LJ) ri%d, f. favour, a \^j ra'kjyat, f. subjects, people, a ei-^-i 1 ragMiat, f. desire, liking, a ^-i) ra/i^, m. a friend, ally, a ^Sxjj ruh'a, m. a letter, note, a jl^'Uj rikdb-ddr, m. a stirrup-holder, groom, ap U^ raJchnd, a. to place, possess, save; rahh-d., to put down, to place ; rakh-l., to establish. « lilj^ rahhwdnd, a. to cause to be placed, or put. « «^i rfljf/', pain, grief. j> i^JusTi ranjida, annoyed, vexed. j» a. „ t^Jkj 1 rowaz, a woman. A 4^^ I raw^, m. colour ; pleasure, p ^jSjfj rangin, coloured, gaudy, p .1 ri,, m. face, surface, p %j)*j rii-ba-ru, in the presence of ; fece to face, before, p \jjj ripd, m. silver, s i^jj rupiya, m. a rupee, s _j 1 riiA, f. soul, spirit, a jjj ro%, m. a day. p {jMjj ros, m. anger; ros-L, to feel wroth. » ^^j 1 roshan, clear, iUumined. ^ ij^jj roshni, light, brightness, y Ijj 1 rona, n. to weep ; m. lamenta- tion, grief, s ij,y>>j rahzani, f. robbery, plunder, p />y.Jii rahas, m. witticism. « UjS) rahnd, n. to stay, be, live, con- tinue ; rahne-wdld, an inhabitant, h j\^j rahwdr, swift ; (lit., fit for th» road.) p CU.O J r«<, f . sand, filings ; rit, custom, h ^A>i fiti, f. custom, habit, s lifsT, rijhnd, n. to be pleased, satis- fied, s J * jU %dda, m. a son, child ; (used in; composition, as shdh-zdda, a king's son, a prince.) j) ^J (23 ) f. life, existence,^ ^^bj sahdn, f. the tongue, language, dialect ; zabdn-i reMita, the Urdu or mixed Hindustani, p ^ji^Jjjj sahar-dasti, f. tyranny, op- pression, p jj %ar, m. gold, wealth, money, p fj^j zamin, ground, a field, p (_Juj zandni, belonging to women, p jyfjj zamhur, m. a bee. p ^^Ju! zindaffi, 1 iJiTiAJJ zindaffdni ) i^SJj zang, m. a small bell, p jjj zor, m. force, strength, p Ji^jjj zordwar, powerful, strong, p yt>j zahr, m. venom, p Jr Ju J ziydda, m. addition, additional ; (adv.) more; ziydda-lc. to increase, a ^^u J ziydn, m. loss, damage, p j>j zer, under, beneath, p ci-vmjJ zist, life, p L) sd {se, si), a termination added to substantives or adjectives to denote similitude or intensiveness. A /ijLs sabilc, formerly, a ^\^ sdth, (prep.) with, s ^j'Li sdthi, m. a companion, s ijLi sdda, plain, unadorned, p iiLo sard, all, the whole. « l&j Lj sdrhd, with a half added. « iL»- sdz, m. furniture, harness, etc.^ (jduL; stJ«, f. a mother-in-law. • jjL) S(f^, f. the leg, thigh. (JLj «Li shddmdni, f. joy, gladness, ^ e:,,.^Li) shdmat, f. spot, blemish, a J>^'vi shdmil, comprehensive ; ex- tending to. a «Lii shdh, m. a king, prince; sMh- zdda, a royal son, a prince. ^ ^l,,.s^l^ shdhj'ahdn, name of one of the Emperors of Delhi. JoLii shdt/ad, possibly, probably, perhaps, p •Juk^ shaid, m. a voice, sound. « <»...>.,i,i shabik, f. a picture, likeness, a jli^Ji shitdli, f. quickness, haste ; quickly. ^ j;>.ij shutur, m. a camel. «) L::,.^£ls~' shujd'at, f. bravery. « (^is;-^ sJialiha, m. a person, indivi- dual, a CUJi-i> sMddat, f. violence, force ; adversity, affliction, a (_jl_i shardi, f. wine, a L-i) sAfl?-^,' f. condition, stipulation, wager, a r^ sharm, f. bashfulness, modesty. shame ; sharm-dnd, n. to feel ashamed, p ijc^-i) sharmandagi, f. bashful- ness, shame, p i^Ai^-i sharmanda or sharniinda- ashamed, abashed, p cj,.^ shurk\ f. beginning, commence ment. a J _i) sTiar'ir, vicious, wicked, a c:.-Jii-i shafakat, f. kindness, affec- tion, a ,1^ shikdr, m. hunting, prey ; shiMr-gdh, f. hunting-field. ^ t?,l^i shikdri, relating to hunting ; m. a fowler, hunter, p j^ shukr, m. thanks, gratitude, a J.x.ii s/ja^Z, f. shape, figure, a f^Ji: sMkam, m. the belly; sMkam- parwar, a pamperer of his belly, p JL! ( 26 ) X.^i5 jjJti shor, m. cry, noise, disturbance, p ^yia shauh, m. desire, love, a ,Jj ji shauJcin, desirous ; amateur fanciers, a Ju.-ii shahd, m. honey, p j^ shahr, m. a city, p »olU-ii shahidda, a prince ; shahioM, K princess. ^ rj^ «A«r, m. a tiger, a lion. ^ ti_wi sA«rre5, f. a tigress, p J^,j^ sMrini, f. sweetness ; elo- quence, p sMgra, quickly, s ,_,,5>.Ls sahib, m. a lord, master; companion ; possessed of, as, sdhih- Midna, the master of the house ; sdhih-i 'isOTa<,possessedofchastity.a i__jLa sdf, clean, clear, candid, a ^.e sulh, f. morning, dawn, a ->«o sabr, f. patience, endurance, a c^-s^ suhhat, f. society, a i_iLtf> sarrdf, m. a banker, a money- changer. (J ^-a sarf, expenditure; sarf-h., to spend, a ,_i-.tf Sir/, merely, only, a ^li-a sfl/d,i, purity, beauty, a ^s^'sue sifat, f. praise, quality, a ii^'*^ so/Adi, face, surface, a —iLo saWA, f. counsel, advice, a wiLo saldhan, peaceably, advisably, by way of advice a , ••Ax.f sandiJc, m.f. a box, a trunk, a <__>l«.o sawdh, m, rectitude, a virtu- ous action ; success, a LlJ.}«tf sirat, f. form, face, a jL«3 saiydd, a hunter. J>^ «aif^, f. game, hunting, chase, a ji-ij zorir or %iiru,r, necessary, ex pedient. a %a"if, frail, bedridden, a jLj ziydfat, f. entertainment. 1 Jjlb ,Js tarik, f. way, path, a iAiJo farila, m. way, rule of life, a u:-vu«l3. tasht, m. a basin, p *\jto ta'dm, m. food, victuals, a iCwel? i!M'ma, m. food, bait. Jils fyfi, f. infancy, a c- '.>" talah, f. search; demand, sum- moning; pay; talab-L, to seek lor, to send for. a «^^ iam'. f. avarice, greediness. » J. )J^ ( 27 ) .Js tour, m. mode, manner, a iJ'Jo tiiH, f. a parrot, p •Uy? iiifdn, m. a storm of wind and rain, a Jjls iSii?, m. length, a I <*ij)i' tawUa, m. a tether, footband; tawela, a stable, stall, a ]i Li^ JsUj zcJA»V-^., a. to manifest, dis- play, a h J Us zdlim, an oppressor, a tyrant, a JJa smZot, m. injustice, violence ; %ulm- guddz, a melter of injustice, a crusher of oppression, a t l^ls 'djiz, weak, helpless, a iCJs-lc 'dj'izi, f. weakness, helpless- nesB. a Jilc 'aM, wise, a sage, a JU 'diam, m. the world, universe; ' dlam-pandh, the asylum of the universe, his majesty, a JLc 'dlim, a. learned, knowing. « ClJ^Uc 'ibdrat, f. term, expression. « I jLs-^ 'ajd,ib, m. wonders, curiosi- ties, a ^^^ 'ajdb, m. wonder, admiration; a. wonderful, rare, a Ajys^ 'ajiiba, a. wonderful, a strange thing, a k.iJiiXc 'aidht, f. justice, a *A;r 'ai^aw, non-existence, a jiXc 'Mzr, m. excuse, a ijiif- 'an, f. representation ; a peti- tion, request, a V j£ 'aiszz, precious, eminent, dear ;. (used substantively, like mon cher,' my dear friend.') a CLijiLc 'ishrat, enjoyment, a (Jjij^ 'ishh, m. love, a l«ac 'asd, m. a stick, a jlkc 'atfAr, m. a perfumer, druggist. » JiLc '»/<;?, f. wisdom, opinion, a ja.*ljic 'aklmand, a. wise. « —ilc 'ildj, m. cure, remedy, a _^l.i ghd.ib. missing, a \.i. gharra. impudence, a ^J- gharaz. f. design, view; (ad.) in short, in fine, a »— -^ -c (ihar'ib, poor ; a stranger, a ^r^ ghuraba, the poor; pi. oi ghar'ib. a ^_5 Jli ghaznam, a. residing at Ghazna. ^ o-^Lii ^aflat, f. carelessness ; moral torpor, n jLi ghilaf. ra. a covering. j» >3,i; ghulam, m. slave, a «_: gh am, m. grief, sorrow. « ,_,^-.i; ghail, the invisible world, a r»i ghair. other, different, a <-^-^ gh airat. f. jealousy, a iS.Ki fa,ida, m. profit, ga-in.; fd,ida- mand-li., to benefit, a ^<\i Jd,ik, superior, excelling, a jSf fajr, f. morning, dawn of day ; early, a ,_fitXJ fidwi, devoted, loyal subject or slave, a LiL^-sAj! faraghat, f. comfort, leisure, a 'ijy (_/-^-* V /'"'"■'"osh-k. to forget, p h ^jji farzand, m. a son, boy. p ij:^-^ji fwsat, f. opportunity, a jji j far%-Tc. to grant, assame. a Ij [,»j farmdnd, a. to order, say, speak. ^ Ou J farydd, f. complaint, j) i_f Jy ji farydd'i, a. complainanl^ plaintiff. ^ y__.o^ /are J, fraud, a trick, p jLj fasdd, m. depravity, violence, d J..^ /a«?, f. time, season, harvest, a iJ-^ fazl, bounty, munificence, a kii fakat, merely, only, no more, a ^— iii fakir, m. a beggar, dervise ; poor, indigent, a J^ filer, m. f. thought, reflection, a \iij fuldnd OT fuldna, a certain one. i -.yi faiij, f. a-rmy, a multitude, a \jy fauran, quickly, instantly, a ^_ji fi, in (used in Ar. phrases, as, fi,l-waM, in truth ; fi,l-faur, in- stantly; fi,l-hakikat, of a verity;, a Jjij ^-aJj?, fit, worthy, a ^^U Z:as5, m. a judge, a ^^^-^^^i kdmat, f. bulk, height, size, n jj'lji Mni\ contented, frugal, a ''-^' kalzn, m. grasp, possession, a J^ kabul, m. consent; kabul-k, to agree, accept, a Jij katl, m. slaughter, killing, a •xi kadd, m. stature, size, a jSj kadr, f. worth, price, a ^tXS ( 29 ) ♦ jj Icadam, m. foot, footstep, a ».'jj kad'im, ancient, old. a il _■ karar, confirmation, rest, a j J karz, m. a loan ; karz dend, to lend a ,m3 kasam, f. an oath ; kism, kind, species, a yds ktinir, m. want, fault, a i^ kixsa, m. a story, a ^ kazd, m. decree, a •;L;j ka%zdk\ m. a robber; (hence Cossack). ,l^Lij kazdkdr, by chance, a j? i.„^ kazii/a, m. a quarrel, a J 1l! katra, m. a drop, a iuJj /,:;7'a, m. a fort, palace, a -i^cLi hind' at, f. contentment, a J J Asm/, m. a statement, a word, « o,^Lj kiydmat, f. the general resur- rection; calamity, c jk-j kaid, i. fetter, imprisonment. « Li_,,«-j ,ti»iai!, f. price, value, a jilS /;((/(?, m intiUel. a J IS A:a?, m. time, s *b /-a;;*, m. business, action, use ;. desire ; kdm and, to be useful, of service, .s p (3V'''-' kdmrdn'i, f. hap])iness. p ^ I O'li /;a!!!J, m. a writer, a UjI^ X-a/jid, a. to cut. s ^K kdr, m. use, business, service, work, deed, p ^■i=r ,1^ kdr-choU, embroidered cloth, p Lj^ Urigar, skilful; a cunning workman. iilS kdgha%, m. paper, a scrap of paper, j* l_jlS /;a?j, m. tlio cai'. s \:^\^lMmpnd,\\\. to tremble, to shiver, f liSijOlS^ kdndhd, m. the shoulder. 5 ^jli kdnkh, the armpit. 7j ^^^\i kdnhkuhja, the city'of Kanoj. a> ■^^ kdycdh, m. name of a caste of Hindus ; a scribe, a copyist, s I ^ X'aJ, when r s ^_»S /i)a()j, m. a poet, s y^ kalhu, ever, some time or other ; hihhu-kabJiu, occasionally ; ,_^'^' kahhi, same as kahliix. s I'US kaprd, m. cloth, clothes. « i-IL-'v^ kaput, unfiliul. s l:;i kuttd, m. a dog. s v__jI:jj hitdl, f. a book, writing, a \:.~S kitnd, how much ? how many ? « (jlj:ii kutivdl, an officer of police, s i_^ Icangdl, poor, wretched. A. . -iS Zcawe, near, beside. A \i^ hauwd, m. a crow ; k{i,d, a well, a draw-well, a pit. s i\i^ Icotdh, short; kotdh-L to hold back, to refrain, p iJ^^y Jcotdhi, smallness, deficiency.^ O^^y leotwdl, m. the chief ofScer of police. LSji^y Icothri, f. a room, i _ jS kiich, departure, p ij>-y liiicha, m. a lane, a street, p \j^ hyra, m. a whip, a lash; Tcbra, rubbish. % i^if Tcomal, soft, weak, s ^yji kaun, who ? which ? what ? h l)ji kond, m. a comer. « L£<^y kiindi, f. a mortar, h LuJji &Mre«a, what-like ? of what sort ? Ji , ay koh, a mountain, p ^y ko,i, any, some one; (artic.) a or an, a certain (person, etc.). * i^ ki, that, thus, as follows (some- times a relative, who ? wnich ?) p L(P kahd, m. bidding, order; kaha- suni, f. altercation, s Jl^ khdl, f. skin, hide, s ^jl^^i kahdn, where? whither? A \j\^ khdnd, a. to eat, suffer ; m. food, dinner, s CJjl^ kahdwat, f. a byword, a saying, s Ijlsr kJmjldnd, a. to tickle, to rub. » U^ kharahd, m. a hare, s jjf^ A/jord, erect, standing, h ^^ khirki, f. a window, h J4^ ( 31 ) Li^ khulnd, n. to be opened, to be revealed ; to clear up after rain. « lii^ hhildnd, a. to give to eat, to feed, s \]\^ J.^ khil-khildnd, n. to laugh, h. lii^ khilnd, n. to blow (a flower), h l^^ IcaJmd, a. to tell, say, bid, call, affirm, s \jjj^ khodnd, a. to dig. h Ijj^ kholnd, a. to open, untie, let loose, s tij^ khond, a. to lose, to waste, s ci-^-.^ M«i, m. a field, s ^i^ tteiJ, f. husbandry, crop. « .J.^^ khel, m. play, game, sport, s id*^ khelnd, n. to play, to sport, s ■jy^ kahln, somewhere, anywhere, somewhat, s ^•-'g^.^s kkenchnd or khainohnd, a. to delineate, draw. A ^^ ka,i or ^«,«, some, a few. A 'U^ tytf, (pro.) what? how? why? whether (or not) ; kyd TM.I, how glorious ! what fun ! s \Ji kiyd, done, a deed ; (past part, of karnd, to do, make.) s \^ kaisd, how ? in what manner ? of what sort ? what like ? h .^c_-^-i»^ kaifiyat, f. nature, state, con- dition, pleasure, a r.y^ kykn, kyam, why? how ? well? what ? kyhii M, because ; kyun-kar, how? h {^j^ gdrl, f. a chariot, cart, h |Jli gdli, f. abuse, s U IT gdnd, a. to sing, s ^^ gdnth, a knot ; gdnth-kd piird, very rich, h jj b gdnw, m. a village. « jlT ^dio, f. a cow. ^ v_%i (_-^ yfl^ shap, chit-chat, con- versation. A i^\j^ gujardti, belonging toGujerat. 7* IjS JiT gadhd, m. an ass, (metaph.) a fool. « LiJ ixT gudaryd, a shepherd, h Ujki guzdrd, m. passing, p \:^''\jdS gmardnnd, a. to forward, p \jj ^ guzarnd, n. to pass ; dmr-guzarnd, to refrain, to forbear, p f gur, m. a preceptor. « t^S ^«rIl>p girddh, m. a gulph, whirl- pool. ^ j^t5^ gardan, f. the neck. ^ . 1:;J^ giriftdr, captive, p \j\y> girdnd, a. to cause to fall, to throw down. A »^ garm, hot ; ga/rmi, i. heat, hot season, p \j^ girnd, n. to fall, to drop down. A H^ji guroh, m. a troop, a class, p IjjT gwrnd, n. to be buried. « 'f ( 82 ) ijS yarh, m. a fortress, palace, h y^ gijifigk, conversation, p •Jfi gul, m. a rose ; gul-lcarnd, to ex- tinguish, p 'is gala, m. a flock of sheep, a herd of cattle, p. the neck, h L^'iS guldh, m. a rose, p uS galla, m. a flock, p |J^ ^aZi, f. a lane. A *r ^Mm, lost, p IjjS jjl,*S ^Mjreare Tcarnd, a., to imagine, fancy, opine, p h ijT gun, m. skill ; guni, skilful, s i(LS gundh, m. fault, crime, sin. p U UfiiS gunthwdnd, a. to cause to be fixed (as a string), s yi^ ganwdr, m. a villager, a peasant. A i]S gawdh, a "witness; gawdhi, evi- dence, testimony. ^ (Ju jS Gopdl, one of the names of Krishna. « •jT yor, m. the grave, tomb, p l:l^J, gosM, m. flesh, p l^i Id-jawab, silent, silenced, a jU-i Id-chdr, helpless, destitute, p. (J-«Ls-j) Id-hdsil, useless, without result, a UOjl Iddnd, a. to load, to embark, h jyfi ji Ldr Kapiir, two celebrated minstrels at the court of Akbar. h AjS ld%im, necessary, urgent, a, ^i Idkh, one hundred thousand, h M Idld, m. master, sir. h ,2i Idlach, m. avarice, desire. « J^ (33 ) JU -si Idkhi, covetous, greedy, s Ji land, a. to bring; to breed, pro- duce, make, s ^S ld,ik, ■worthy, befitting, perfect, a liiJ lipatnd, n. to cling, to stick to. A liiLJ lapetnd, a. to wrap up. h Uuii! lathdnd, a. to suspend, h UW ley and, n. to be ashamed. « l::--.£? lajjit, ashamed, s o jj ladnd, n. to be loaded, to ride. A jj jj la%i%, delicate, delicious, a ^IjJ lardji, f. battle, quarrel, war. h Kll Zar^d, m. a boy, child, babe, s ijj-i larnd, n. to fight, to quarrel, s liUjJ lurhdnd, a. to spUl, upset. « U^"J lurhuhnd, n. to be spilt, upset. 8 iliiJ lasKkar, m. an army. ^ w-aL! ?M^/, m. pleasure, enjoyment, a ijL-^ la'nat, a curse, a ;_%&] Wfl5,,m. a surname, a (jUiU iMkmdn, name of a famous Eastern fabulist, a UiJ luhmd, m. a morsel, mouthful, ct ^£jJ3 Mri, f. wood, a staff, stick, h li^xJ likhnd, a. to write. » l)Wd likhwdnd, a. to cause to be written, s /♦ICJ Zo^dw, bridle, bit. s UlC] lagdnd, a. to attach, to apply. « lilS %Mrf, n. to touch ; to begin; to reach or come up to. s \j\^ lagwdnd, a. to cause to be applied. « ui! lamhd, long, tall. « h$H langrd, lame. ^ A U.j»! Iritnd, a. to rob, plunder : fo^wfl, to roll on the ground, s l^j! I'kkd, m. spark, flame. « Cjll fo^, m. people. « ^y*i lomri, f. a fox. s ^^Juj! laundi, f. a slave. A »J»j! foM, blood. Uy ZoAd, m. iron, s UiU Z«^W(i, n. to repose, to lie down, h IjlsJ lejdnd, a. to take away, to carry off. s ijLJ lehin, (conj.) but, yet, however, a l^O leMid, m. account, reckoning, s tl.5v^^ lekhdk, m. a writer, one who is writing. « iluj L! UU-pild, blue and yeUow ; (applied to the appearance of the eyes of a person enraged), s UJ lend, to take, accept ; set ; buy. « i_J %«, for the sake of. k [^ md, f. a mother ; md-bdp, parents, a |j»-L» mdjard, m. state, circumstance, incident, a li! 1 J J t» mdr-ddlnd, a. to smite, to kill.« (^^L« jwdrj', m. a road, path. « U_)L» wdrwd, a. to smite, strike, s tjf)t« mare, by reason of, in conse quence of. s Jt* mdl,va.. property, wealth, goods. Mrt-« musibat, f. calamity, afflic- tion. « ^Lj*.-i^ mufid, profitable, useful, a (JjI(L» mukdlil, opposite, a (»UL» makdm, m. place, occasion, a jJL* muharrar, assuredly, a i^lx^ maMn, m. a place, dwelling, a ,.§C» muih, m. mouth, s ^^~* mahlcht, a fly. A X« magar, but, except. « 1^1/* muldzim, an attendant, o CuUL» muMMt, f. meeting, inter- view, a iJjX» mwffi, m. a country, kingdom; malik, a king; (pi. Ar.) muliJc, kings, a UL» malnd, a. to rub, to tread on, to anoint, h liL* milnd, a. to be found, to meet, s ijL4^ mumkm, possible, a 1^ man, m. the mind, soul, s ; name of a certain weight, a maund. p ^'^^'■^ manddi, f. proclamation, a ( 36 ) c^U iCjLsX^ muntaihatdt, selections, extracts, a \jCv« mundd, open, exposed, h J jfSV* manjholi, f. a small chariot. A j_^ij^ manish, f. dignity, rank. ^ (jIki-» manmh, a person. «. rj^z:^ mantik, m. logic, a iiki.^ waw^iJJ, m. logician, a «_:^ msn', m. prohibition, a Ijlyo^ mangw&nd, a. to cause to be brought. A -1^ OTM»A, m. the mouth, face ; muhh- %or, headstrong, obstinate, s Y* mil, a hair, p \yt »»il,(f,dead, (past part, otmarnd). s iji^y muwafih, conformable to. a '-^y* maut, death, a Jy« moti, m. a pearl. « \jy moid, gross, coarse, h t_-^^ mujib, cause, means, a ^j!^y mooM, m. a cobbler ; saddler, h ijyt mkr%, m. a fool. « ff^y* mausim or mausam, m. time, season, a ^ l^^ w.ii.sh-g'ir, a kind of hawk which feeds on mice, p !__» ij^OTaM/cii/, depending on; maMM/- 4., to conclude, to stop, a ^y* mol, m. price ; mol-lend, to buy. A fty* mom, wax ; mom-j'dma, cloth covered with wax, oil-cloth. ijti*y mom-dil, soft-hearted, p UiX)j-« mindhd, m. a footstool. A iXi\^ mahdhali, powerful. « ^jS^\y* mahdjan, a rich merchant, t jjjjl^ makddol, a large sedan. A _ljl^ mahdrdj, great king ! sir ! sire! r LUj\^ mahdrat, f. proficiency, skill, a Sjy* muhra, m. the thigh bone, p lxi.(^ mahngd, dear, high-priced. iS^'-Y* ^"^'"^^ °' moA»«yJ, f. dearth,, scarcity. lU;;.^ OTflAJMa, m. a month, p ^^^y miydn, a master, gentleman, p ij\y miydna, m. a palkf. ^ j-.^ »8{r, m. a chief, a leader, p \j^ mird, lord, heir, p A,-c7 ->^ ffjSr iaihshi, m. the pay- master-general. ^ 1 Jr^ wirza, a noble, grandee. ^ Jy me%, f. a table, p ju*^ muyassar, a. attained, attain- able, a \y maild, a. dirty, defiled ; meld, a fair ; mela iheld, m. a crowd of people, s -Y'y menh, m. rain, rainy season, s ^^-.»-u nd-chh, worthless, useless, p i^y>-\j nd-Mush, displeased, p ^_j-i)^=^U nd-JAushi, f. displeasure, p yMU nd-ddn, a. ignorant, simple. ^ ijl Ju nd-ddnl, f. ignorance, p l^l) ndkd, m. a lane, avenue. A C^l3 (37 ) u^^ ^ )S^ ndgaurd, m. a kind of bullock (of the country Nagaur). A j^l^li nd-gaMn, suddenly, unex- pectedly, p jo^lj ndldn, complaining, lamenting.^ ^jiJli ndlish, f. complaint, lamenta- tion, p ^jiJl) ndlisht, complaining, a com- plainant, p jj3li ndlM, f. a sort of sedan for princes, etc. h ■^\j ndh, m. weeping, lamentation.^ *lj ndm, m. name, fame, reputation, s (♦^"Ij nd-mahram, unprivileged, ap- plied to such males as are not entitled to visit the harem, a ■iij^\i nd-mard, unmanly, a coward, p j^j!y\j nd-mardi, f. unmanliness. p .,S.A~*\j nd-munikin, impossible, p a jjwmU ndm.'ks, m. f. honour, dignity, the female part of a family, a «jU ndnw, m. name. « .Ij ndw, f. a ship, p >\j nd,ib, m. a deputy, a, nibedan, m. representation, statement, s tL^J nipai, very, exceedingly, h (*j=^ najiim or nujiim, astrology, (Ut., stars), a ■ i.::.-^..^ naj'ib, noble; najih-zdda, noble- bom, a gentleman; najih-zddi, daughter of a tioblo. a c:.->y»l Jo naddmai, i. repentance, con- trition, regret, a ,,]jj niddn, at length, at last, s i_f Aj nadi or nadd'i, f. a river. « {j*i\ji nirds, hopeless, despair. « 'i\jj nirdld, apart, aside, s Jiji nir-uttar, without an answer. « l!JOiJj nazdik, (prep.) near; used idiomatically like the Latin apud, as ddndjOn - he nazdik, apud sapientes,' in the opinion of the wise.' p LU nashd, f. intoxication, a ^Ji^ U«aj nisfd-nisfi, by halves; with ha/rnd, to divide into two equal shares, p (L^-vS^jsaJ nasiliat, f. advice, admo- nition; nasihat-d. or-i., to counsel, instruct, reprove, a UUaJ nazdrd, m. sight, looking, a Jaj nazar, f. sight; nazar-dnd or -pahunchnd, to come in sight, a (.i^vtjej ni'mat, f. favour, benefit, delight, affluence. ni'mat-Mwdr, a devourer of delights, a man of pleasure, a 'bon vivant.' a IjM^ nafis, precious, delicate, ex- quisite, a ^ji,jJo nafrin, f. regret, detestation, p ^^liij nakMshiji. painting; nakkdsM- ddr, painted, having paintings, a jjij naJcd, m. ready money, a ijjjAi naksh, m. painting, picture, map, portrait; naksh-i diwdr, a painting on a wall, a ^JaSlj naks, m. defect, failure, a iol«aiiJ rmksdn, m. loss, defect, detri- ment, a J^ ( 38 ) U ^. Jjij naM, f. a history, tale, a li!l$o nihdlnd, a. to extract, to take out. « UKj niMnd, n. to issue, to result. » lL«So »«&<, near, before. A Uili nikammd, useless, -worthless. » (JLjblXj niffdhhdni, f. watching oyer, protecting, p fj naga/r, m. a city, a town. jtf~ nilcyj, shameless. « jUj namdz, f. prayer. ^ ilo^ namMdr, apparent, p SjJCsJ nandold, m. a trough, an earthen vessel, s Uij nangd, naked, bare, h y waM, new, fresh ; nau-jav>dn, quite young, i) <__>! J nauwdl, a viceroy. A ti-jjj nauhat, i. time, occasion, a jiy reir, light, a jS.; wawiflr, m. servant, attendant, p *y i«.j naum-taum, sing-song, stuff, h lijy jj nava-yauhand, quite young. » (0 wfl, no, not. s JL(^ M'AdZ, a young plant, a shoot, p. pleased, exalted, h l::-^_IyJ nihdyat, f. the extremity; (ad.) very, much, excessive, a ^\f^ nahin, no, not, nay. s i..::^L3 niydlat, f. deputyship. a ^sXJ niche, beneath, close under, h ^JuJ) nesh, m. stins' (of a bee, etc.) p CjLj nek, good, virtuous ; nek-haJcMl. of good disposition; neh-andesM,, good intention, p ^XfJ neM, f. goodness, kindness, p _(«»j neh, love, affection, s J ttia 01 (conj.), and, but. a p \}^- Uj J u^^j wdpas- d. or It., a. to return, give back. % p i_,^lj wdjib, right, proper, a t>)U wdrid, arrived; wdrid-h., to- arrive, a ^ -U waste, (prep.) on account of, for the sake of; because, a lacL wd,iz, m. a preacher, a ^*jjlj wdkt'i, verily, in truth, a (__tti|« wdhif, aware, acquainted, a 'i\t wold, a termination added to the inflected infinitive denotes the agent ; added to nouns it denotes the owner, wearer, etc. h jj. wazir, a minister, counsellor; wa%ir - %ddi, the daughter of a- ioa%ir. a Mil, yes, even so. A ,_fiijLj hdndi, f. a pot. i_s\lt> M,e, alas ! M,e-h., to groan, sigh. A UiliU Mnhnd, to drive away. A ^ hitu, m. a friend, s .L^jLa hathydr, m. a weapon, offen- sive armour. « 2!»iLs.a> Jiachhold, m. jolt, jolting. A ^Afi) A«(?i^2, f. a bone, s ^ har, each, every, p ua Aora, a. green, fresh, verdant. * lLxiJ J!> hmrek, (pro.) every one. p A Jco»-jJ» harchand, how much soever, howsoever, although. ^ jijj^ har-ro% (ad.) every day. ^ ^^j^ hargiz, (ad.) ever. (^jj» Mran, m. a stag, a deer. « ^Utt) ha%dr, a thousand. ^ (ha Aaz?, m. jest, joke, a iUjjd,j» hushyar (same as hoshydr), careful, p i^Ji.JUis hushydrk, f. wakefulness, vigilance, p ^j\\!>^ l.::_^iJ!> haft-hazdri, a com- mander of seven thousand, p ti-OM) haldhat, f. ruin, destruction, p \i\i) hildnd, a. to move, set in motion. A Ujjs hilnd, n. to move or be moved, /i U3j» Aatta, light, not heavy. A *& Aflwj, we ; plu. of main. s. tji-^-KS) himmat, f. mind, ardour, energy, a *J» A«»>, a particle denoting to- gether,' used in composition, as t}y>- *.5> ham-joli, a companion, p /•iX^Jk ham-dam, m. a friend, com- panion, p JsL^J!) ham-rdhi, m. a companion, fellow-traveller. ^ ham-umr, a companion, one of the same age. p ^^ ( 40 ) >Ji> ham-maMab, class-fellow.^ hameaha, always, ever, per- petually, p iMJi JBRnd, India, p jiAiJ!) Hindib, a Hindu, one who fol- lows the faith of Brahma, p ^^c«jjiMJ!> Sindiistdn, vx.. India, ap Jjb hunar, m. art, skill, virtue; hunar-mand, skUful. p \i M ji. l t > hansnd, n. to smile, s i^\>jJb hangdma, m. an assembly, tumult, assault, p \^ hawd, f. wind, air. a ljl^»a ho-jdnd, n. to become, h 1^^ hash, m. sense, consciousness, perception, p jLiijJ!) Jwshydr, intelligent, attentive, cautious, p uy* hand, n. to be, become, grow, s 1^ M, (an emphatic particle) even, indeed, very, h j;-J» Mn, even, indeed, h ^jj-Ji Mn, void of, without, g \jci hiyd, m. mind, sense, h b yd, (conj.) or, either. 8 j\j ydd, f. memory, recollection, p j\l ydr, m. a Mend, lover, p i^Ju yalAn, m. certainty, certain, true.a jjb ydwar, propitious, p (JX; yai, one, a, an. p ■ ij l$j yagdna, kindred, single, incom- parable, p jjjj ylin or yow, thus, in this man- ner, h jwJjj yi,nhin, thus, even so. A «^_ yjA, this ; he, she, etc. h f\\^. yahdn, here, used with the genitive (inflec.) to denote posses- sion, etc., as mere yahdn, in my possession ; apud me.' h (-^j yihi, this same, h ij*^. yahln, here, in this very place, h ^jj ye, thev. these, a 41 HINTS TO THE LEAENER I.— EXTRACTS IN THE PERSIAN CHARACTER EXIBACX ISI. Susti'Se ziyan hai. Jaldi-lcA pJial naddmat hai. Tdleness-from loss is. Haste-of (the) fruit regret is. JSinA'at drdm-M kunfi hai. Mihnat-se bard,i hai. ►Contentment ease-of (the) key is. Labour-from greatness is. JParhez achcM daivd hai. 'AMl-ho ishdra has hai. Ahstiaence good medicine is. (The) wise-to (a) hint enough is. Khudd-Tcd Ichauf ddnish-M asl hai. Gung'i zahdn bihta/r hai 'God-of (the) fear -wisdom-of the root is. Mute tongue better is jhutM %abdn se. 'Ilm-lcl dfat hhul hai. lying tongue than. Knowledge-of (the) calamity forgetfulness is. Insdf-se 'khalh-lio drdm hai. Justice-from (the) people-to ease is. In the same way as the above, let the student endeavour to ■transcribe neatly into the Eoman character the first two or three pages of the Extracts. Let him be careful to write every letter with its appropriate mark; and, in the course of a week or two, let him restore the same into the Persian character. This is one of the best and speediest methods of making himself familiar with the elements of the language. Let me not be misunderstood here, as if I recom- mended the bare-faced quack system of the so-caUed "Hamiltonians." 'No, what I recommend is, that "every man should be his own Hamiltonian," in which case he will be the gainer. It is utterly absurd to expect that a language can be learned without labour and thought on the part of the student. The Hamiltonians would persuade us that it can ; but their system is a mere deception, which flatters the vanity of the student with a show of progress utterly unreal, and which admirably conceals the ignorance and incapacity of the teacher ; hence its popularity. 42 NOTES, ETC., ON THE FIRST FIFTY STORIES IN THE PERSIAN CHARACTER. The following few notes and observations are intended to illustrate Buch parts of the Beading Lessons as may appear least obvious to a. beginner. The figures refer to the particular page and paragraph in the Grammar, in which the subject is fully explained. N.B. In this work, the final niin ^ when it has the nasal sound (vide page 6), is marked with an extra dot over it, as in the words ,: — .^ main, and J»J tain. This should have been stated in its- proper place, but the author was not aware at the time those sheets were sent to press that the printer had the ^ in his fount. Extract 1. — Jaldi-ha pJial, 'the fruit of rashness;' the genitive placed first, 95. 64. It will be observed that these sentences are arranged according to tho rule, 93. 62, each sentence finishing with the verb Aa«, 'is.' — Gungk zahdii, etc., ' a speechless tongue is better than a lying tongue : ' in this sentence there are two clauses ; the verb hai is- expressed at the end of the first clause, and is consequently unnecessary at the end of the second. 135. a. Ex. 2. — Thord Ichdnd, 'little eating;' the infinitive used substan- tively, 129. a. — talah kar 'ihn-Jco, 'seek for knowledge' : talab harnd, a nominal verb, 65, last line; here the verb, contrai-y to the general, usage, comes first. There are in this Extract a few more exceptions to the general rule as to arrangement, agreeably to what we have stated. 93. a. Ex. 3. — Jalne lagd, 'began to burn' — senJcne lagd, 'began to warm himself,' 131. c. — thathol-ne kahd, 'a jester said,' or, 'by a jester was s&\di.^—jale, 'burns,' tape, 'warms himself,' the aorist for the present,. 122. I. Ex. 4. — The sentences in this extract follow the general rule as to arrangement, which is, to commence with the nominative or acent, and end with the verb, the remainder or complement of the sentence bein<» between these. — lar-pd, literally, • on foot.' — iiydda khardb hain, ' ara more wicked,' the comparative degree, 71. b. KUXES. 13 Ex. 5. — Bahut ham, 'many uses;' tte nominative plural of masculine nouns of the second class (29), can be distinguished from the singular only by the contest, such as a plural verb, etc. — bajd,e,- ' in place of,' preposition requiring the genitive in ke, 98. — kdm ate haik, ' become useful.' — handt/d jdtd hai, passive voice of handnd, 57, 42. — Yide p. 47, note to ' Extracts from the i!Lra,ish-i Mahfil.' Ex. 6. — Eh imt aur gaihe-se, ' between a camel and an ass.' — safar dor pesh hu,d, lit. ' a journey came in front,' i.e., ' they both. had occasion to travel;' — ma'lum Tiotd hai, ' it appears; ' — dub-jd,{mgd, ' I shall be drowned,' intens. verb, 64. Ex. 7. — Jo ddnd, etc. 116. a. — le Icahe, ' without being told,' 132.- Mlrrahhtd hai, ' tosses away,' intensive verb ; — M jis-he waste, ' oa whose account,' 117. c. Ex. 8. — ]Ek hamine aur bhale ddmi-se, ' between a base man and a: gentleman.' — hote-hi, ' on becoming,' adverbial particip. 134. e. Ex. 9. — Eh shaJchs-ne, etc., ' by a certain person it was asked oi' Plato;' respecting the use of the proposition ««, read carefully, 102, etc. — bahut barson, ' many years,' 106. b. — hyd kyd 'ajd,ib, ' what various wonders,' 114. a.- — dehhe, 'were seen' {tu-ne, 'by thee,' understood). — yihi 'ajuba, ' this wonder merely.' Ex. 10. — JTi/d kdm dtd hai, 'what quality is _iOst useful?' — ho- jdwe, ' should become.' Ex. 11. — Chashme-pds 'to (or near) a fountain' {ke understood), 99. d. — oharh na sakd, ' he was not able to descend.' — uiarne-se pahle, ' previous to descending.' — dekh na liyd, ' you did not thoroughly look at,' intensive verb. Ex. 12. — Sher-se hahd, 'said to the tiger;' the verbs 'to say or- speak' and 'to ask,' construed with the ablative, 102. b. — agar sher muawwir hotd, ' if a tiger had been the painter,' 81. a. Ex. 13. — Kuehh sawdl kiyd, 'asked something in charity.' — ek bdt meri, ' one request of mine.' — mat mdng, ' ask not,' the negative particle mat, 'don't,' used with the imperat., 123. d. — uske siwd,. ' with the exception of that.' Ex. 14. — Ek-ne un-men-se, 'one of them.' — jd,iye and baithiye, respectful forms of the imperative, 123. d. Ex. 15. — Apni angithi, 'thine own ring,' 112. — ydd kwrnd (Jbujh ha understood), the infinitive used imperatively, like the Latin gerund,. 129. a. 44 NOTES. Ex. 16. — Billi d,\ thi, pluperfect tense, 127. d. — lu^'hd de, 'extin- ; guish,' intensive verb. — -pard pard, etc., ' all the time lying down, he continued giving answers.' Ex. 17. — Aga/r main hdzi na jitiin, ' if I do not win the game.' — ter hilar gosht, ' an exact pound of flesh ; ' the ««r is nearly two English pounds. — tardsh-le, ' cut oif.' — us-ne na-mdnd, ' he did not (or would not) agree.' — Mzi-pds (for kdzi-he pas), 'near the judge.' — ek ser-se el rati %iydda, ' a single grain more than one ser. Ex. 18. — 'Ain TciVe-Tce niche, 'close under the very palace.' — lidd :gayd, 'was plundered,' passive voice. — TAidmat-me'n, 'in the presence.' — 'arz hi, 'made representation,' TA, fern, of kiyd, agrees with 'ar%, but '«rz kiyd is also used as a nominal verb. — chirdgh, etc., ' under the lamp is darkness,' a proverb analogous to our own saying, ' the nearer the church, the farther from God.' Ex. 19. — Anjdn hokar, 'as a stranger.' — kyd mujhe, etc., 'do you not recognize me?' kyd, here used as a sign of interrogation, 93. I. Ex. 20. — Us-ke; yahdhis here imderstood; mar-gayd and hdht-^ and urd-di, all intensive verbs, 65. 44. 1. Ex. 21. — Admiyon-ko istahal-mekjdne detd, 'he allowed the people to go into the stable,' 131. c. — phirtd and kartd, continuative past tenses, 124. h. — apnd kdm kar-liyd, ' gained his own object.' Ex. 22. — Asnde rdh-meh, 'in the midst of the way.' — chirdgh ghar-kd, etc., ' I did not put out the lamp of the house before I came away,' literally, 'I have not come (after) having put out,' etc. — d,e ga,e, ' you have come and gone.' — ^'iitd na ghisd hogd, ' must not your shoes have been worn ? ' Ex. 23. — Is wakt, 'at present;' ko, understood, 100. a. — Jwnge and na-deh, etc., the plural used out of respect, 118. 78.— Jo unhon-ne, etc., •■ even should his worship have given the medicine.' — bdndhd-karegd, frequentative verb, 66. III. 1. — marnd bar halck hai, 'death is certain.' Ex. 24. — Taldh hokar, 'being in distress.' — parhdne, 'to make read ' ' to teach ;' casual form oi parhnd, 62. 43. — lete lete hi, ' even when lying down;' the repetition of the conjunctive participle denotes a continuation of the state, or repetition of the action, denoted by the verb. — he hdth pdnw-ke Mlde, ' without the moving of his hands and feet.' — Uldyd, the preterite participle, used as a substantive. NOTES. 4b- Ex.25. — Sab-ke hmodle hi 'he gave into the charge of each.' kdt-ddlt, 'cut off;' the intensive oi Jcdtnd. Ex. 26. — Bonoh Mzi-he pds ga,m, aw insdf cMhd, 104. d. — ei eh. •one to each/ 106, c. — larke-ko use supurd Iciyd, 101, o. lEx. 27. ^Chha roti-se, 'with six loaves;' the termination on denoting the plural omitted, 107. 70. — wuh ddl-dene-meh ddMil hai,. ' that amounts to throwing it away.' Ex. 28. — 'Ar$ Myd, (a nominal verb), ' he represented ; ' 'ar% M is- also used in the same sense, vide Ex. 19. — dar-Tdiwdst Icarnd, ' to make request.' — do sawdl lej'd (properly do sawdl-i-bejd), ' two improper requests.' Ex. 29. — Lilthni tMn, ' were to be written,' 83. — dam khd rahd, an idiomatic expression, denoting, ' he remained quite silent,' lit., ' con- tinued devouring his breath.' Ex. 30. — BeTchne-wdle, 'the spectators,' 66. — dusre-ke gkar {ho understood), ' to the house of the other.' — samjhd, etc., ' he perceived that it was not a screen.' — -fareh khdyd, ' were deceived,' lit., ' experi- enced deception.' Ex. 31. — Sikhne-kd, etc., 'why then mention the learning of it?' — itne-men, 'in the meantime.' — lar lad M, 'have cast away,' lit., 'placed upon the wind.' Ex. 32. — Dushndm di thi, pluperfect tense, 127. d. — dth dik dne,^ etc., 'you share between you, each eight dnds ;' observe that sixteen dnds make a ritpi. Ex. 33. — Gardan mdrnd, ' to decapitate.' — mere rii-ha-ru, ' in my presence.' — marddna-wdr, ' like a man or hero.' — terd hard kalija hai, ' thou hast great courage.' — -jawdn-mwrdi, ' heroism' or ' courage.' — ia/r-gimrd, ' he passed over (or passed by) his fault.' Ex. 34. — S!k bard sakJii, ' a very generous man,' 107. b. Ex. 35. Khaba/r karnd, the infinitive used as an imperative. Ex. 36. Karte hke, vide 131, 84. — wdjib-twr, Persian comparative, by adding ta/r to the positive. Ex. 37. BditTid diyd, intensive of baithdnd. — bora, in the last line means 'greater,' ' more important.' Ex. 38. — Bard mom-dil, ' very soft-hearted.' — in miydn-k{, ' of this reverend gentleman ; ' plural used out of respect. — apnd is here used. for merd, 113. e. 46 NOTES. Ex. 39. — Kuchh got got sd, ' something quite round.' Ex. 40. — Subh hote M, ' immediately it was dawn of day.' — kaun n Jim, ' what sort of commodity.' — itni ddnd,{ par, ' notwithstanding so much wisdom. — yiMfahat^ ' this o.ily and no more. — main bdz dyd, etc., 'I will have nothing to do with such wisdom;' past used for the future, 126, a. Ex. 41. — Jo wuh her mile, 'if that (lost) sheep should be found.' — IJmdd-Tci rah-par, ' in charity,' ' pour 1' amour de Dieu.' — Tdmdd-M Tcasam (Jchdtd hun) ' I swear by God.' Ex. 42. — Adnii-lce, etc., ' taUer than a man's stature.' — Idiatt paJiunchne tak, etc., ' by (the time of) the letter's arrival, the (wheat) season had expired.' — i'tildr Mjdwe, ' can be credited.' Ex, 43. — Mahmud of G?iazii{ died, a.d. 1030. Ayyd% was one of his favourite slaves. Mahmud is famous both for his patronage of learned men, and for his success as a warrior. He made several in- cursions iato India, in the last of which, a.d. 1026, he is supposed to have carried away in triumph the gates of Somnath, of which we heard 80 much some years ago. — Jauhar-lJidne men, ' into the jewel-house or treasury.' Ex. 44. — Jude j'ude maMnok-meh, ' in places quite apart,' or ' each in a separate place. — saldmat, ' in safety.' Ex. 45. — Sudaul, ' weU-shaped,' ' elegant.' — had Mtp-wdle-Tce, ' of the man of a bad disposition.' — ^ojaisd, etc., 'whatever sort (of seed) a man may sow, the same will he reap.' Ex. 46. — Kasam kh,a,i, ' swore an oath.' — imdnddr, ' faithful' or honest.' — rutba,e a'ld, 'very high rank.' — is lahdne-se, 'by this pretext.' Ex. 47. — Nau-jawdn, 'quite young:' the same phrase occurs in the Devanagari Extracts under the Sanskrit form, nava-yauvand. — der hwr, ' though late.' Ex. 48. — Lilchd likd, ' written : ' the participle with hud, agreeably to 131. — lihlid hai; here the agent kisi-ne is undei'stood. Ex 49. — -SaW/(are, ' by way of advice.' — hdtkahtela, 'immediately.' — us-ke kahne ba-mujih, ' in conformity with what he said.' Ex. 50. — Diydnat-ddr, ' conscientious.'—^'/* wakt, ' when,' or ' at the ti«ne when. — hdsil-i-kaldm, ' in short.' NOTES. 47 2.— EXTRACTS FROM THE ' EH IRAD AFROZ." (From page To to page TV). These Extracts are selected as a specimen of genuine Urdu, the dialect ■spoken by the educated classes of the Musalman population throughout India. The style is exceedingly easy and elegant, and presents no difficulty to those who have acquired an elementary knowledge of Persian. Before the student commences with these, he is requested to read with care from page 88 to page 100 of the Grammar, which ,portion treats of Persian compounds, etc. I may here add (what ■I am afraid has been omitted in its proper place in the Grammar) viz., that "in phrases from the Persian, the adjective follows the sub- stantive, and the substantive is in that case marked with the izajat, as if it governed another substantive in the genitive." ThMs mard-i pdrsd, 'a pious man;' mwrd-i nek, 'a good man.' The reader will see in .page 90, J. of the Grammar that when, in a Persian phrase, the adjective comes lefore the substantive, the two together form a com- pound epithet, as, tang-dil, ' distressed in heart : ' whereas ' a distressed heart' would be written ' dil-i tang.' 3.— EXTRACTS FROM THE 'ARA,ISH-I MAHFIL.' (Page rV). This extract from the ' Ara,ish-i Mahfil' was for the first time cor- rectly printed in the first edition of this work. In the Calcutta edition, the printers misplaced the letter-press of two pages, so that, whUe the paging appeared perfect, the text made nonsense. Several years ago I discovered this when endeavouring to make sense of the passage as it has all along stood in Mr. Shakespear's ' Selections,' vol. i. p. 105. Mr. S. has endeavoured to cement the matter by throwing in a few connecting words of his own, which are certainly no improvement. A conscientious critic would have stated the fact of such an amendment, so that the original author might not incur blame for the sins of the Bengal printers, or of the English editor. I am glad to find that Mr. Shakespear in his more recent edition has adopted my amendment (without any acknowledgment, however), as preferable to his own. The subject of the extract is a description of a kind of chariot ■ drawn by buUocks common in the province of Gujerat, more especially in the city of Ahmadabad. An account of the same, accompanied by a t'beautiful engraving, will be found in the travels of Albert Mandeklo, 18 NOTES, who visited the spot in the reign of Shah Jahan. The edition of hi* travels to which I allude is the folio, printed at Leyden, 1719, page 74,. In pages 21 and 22, of the same work there is an engraving of the Great Indian Pig-tree, commonly called the Banyan Tree, alluded to- in our 5th Extract, page f It is the same as that mentioned by Quintus Curtius, Lib. ix. cap. i. " Having thus vanquished Porus and crossed the river (Acesines), he marched further into the country. There he found forests of vast extent, in which were shady trees of prodigious height. Most of their branches (or arms) equalled ' in size the trunks of ordinary trees ; for, bending down into the earth, they grew np again in the same place, and appeared rather like separate tiees, than boughs springing from another stem." 4.— EXTRACTS IN THE DEVANIGAEI CHAEACTES. The first seven anecdotes in the Devanagari character correspond, respectively with stories 3, 8, 10, 6, 18, 16, and 23, in the Persian character. They are the same word for word, and, conse- quently, require no further notice here. Nos. 8, 9, and 10, in the Devanagari, correspond respectively with Nos. 29, 38, and 39, in the Persian character; with this difference, however, that in the Devanagari text, Arabic and Persian words are carefully excluded, and their places supplied with words purely Indian : and this exclusion of Arabic and Persian words, constitutes the main difference between the dialect of the Hindus, commonly called ' Mindi,' or ' Khwri BoVi' and that of the Musalmans, generally called ' HindiLstdni,' ' Urd&,' or ' Zabdn-i Reldita.' The style throughout ia exceedingly easy, and there is only one peculiarity in the orthography to which it may be requisite to draw the student's attention in this place, viz., that in the Devanagari character the letter ^ (y) is sounded like the vowel TJ (e) when following any of the long vowels ^J d, or ^(\ o: thus- ^T^ /«,«, f^^T^ risd,e, 'ft^ ho,e, etc., instead of ^f^ etc. I may mention, in conclusion, that in the last seven pages or so of these extracts, the symbol called the virdma is purposely discontinued, as the ja%m is in the selections from the 'Khirad Afroz.' The student should always bear in mind that he must ultimately qualify himself to read correctly books and manuscripts utterly void of vowel-points and aU other orthographical EVmbols, such as the jann, the imMld, tha virdma, etc. K C^v^i^. : — ^a •♦ ■^{f1l-^\ y WS-AUtK t- C TfTLdun "EBcr^^^^ t^tr&M >^ifft u ih M ♦> ••Jtf^, '^-y ♦♦ ^^/6^> 1* ♦♦ u' ^n^ ♦ ^. ^■t & ♦'♦V »♦ c. .^ ** r. y^ ^ J>. X>:. £: o^^- -J ^ " c j^ nM ^ fi-^^ 'J^ U QJ y - • * * ♦ •• J ^ ^ ^ ^ U 1^ WM.AO-^ S, C Loruiff'^ « ♦♦.♦♦/♦ ♦♦*♦♦♦_ ** ^ ♦ ** ♦ * • .^ r >^ viT ^J^^L/" .A^' .7 'j^ j^ (^ C'-, .1^ -^ .1^ M A!lm !■ y'" Lcndcn r^ ^ WKAJl^n. & C'Tondi^n J^ ♦ ♦ ♦♦ €-^ lT 't^ -^ .^^ J^ ^ '^J'f" J^^ » ♦ ♦< S-^ ^ • «♦ ♦ ^^o^^ji ji > >^ >> > i^^arrZc^. S ♦ ♦♦••** • o^ »♦ » .•■J M' r y J J»l X J '^OOOC^ /yj/uT^ji^^ (U i ^^^ ^Jp c^.t)^^^' ^ !i'f/AUen S-C Lcn-dcrx. >,_i^ ♦ ♦ ♦ St^^""^^' y ^ ^ \^ p ** .. if j^ ^' % y .-•'..i'-clxy.Sc. W fi A.7rn Jt ■ ' ffJ-"! PI. XII. y d ^ 6 ^- ♦» »♦ if ♦ ♦ . '^ ^ ^ iy 0^ u^ f ■ ^ < * * * 1^. Barch(,y. Sc. i^JiAU^^ ir r' /rf/a'rn _^' r-^' ♦ ♦ ♦♦ ♦ ♦ c; f J £ * * * * * V y * V * * / * * kVKAlU). A- . ' l' .-ujcr. Hafclay. Sc ^ PI. XIV. ^ w-- A J! j~-^ ■^-^ Jl. ^-j^ ^ ♦♦ ♦♦ ^.. ^: A- ♦ ♦ SI ^.... /.. J-- Y/ " 4lf^T t '