BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME 
 PROM THE 
 
 SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND 
 
 THE GIPT OP 
 
 M^nt^ m. Sage 
 
 X891 
 
 .ytM.On-<R- 6p.!2^.S3^. 
 
Cornell University Library 
 TD 905.C61 1891 
 
 Plumbing practice, 
 
 3 1924 004 127 696 
 
The original of tiiis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924004127696 
 
THE 
 
 Falkirk Iron Company. 
 
 LONDON : 67, Upper Thames St., E.G. I GLASGOW : 16, Bothwell St. 
 LIVERPOOL: 22 & 24, South Castle St. I EDINBURGH: 22, Picardy Place. 
 
 Works: FALKIRK, N.B. 
 
 Makers of every description of Cast Iron Goods 
 for Plunnbers' requirements. 
 
 SPECIAL CASTINGS OF ALL KINDS MADE TO ORDER. 
 
 BATHS: — Various Sizes and Finishes. Plain Fine Cast ; 
 Painted and, Kiln-dried ; Metallic Enamelled, in 
 various Styles and Finishes, and Porcelain 
 Enamelled. 
 
 All our Enamelling, Metallic or otherwise, is finished 
 in the best possible manner. Our Metallic Enamelling is 
 thoroughly Kiln-dried and finished by Experienced Work- 
 men. The finish of these Baths is therefore much 
 superior to those simply Painted but not Enameiled. 
 
 STOVES OF ALL KINDS. 
 
 SKYLIGHTS and DEADLIGHTS. 
 
 VENTILATORS and VENTILATING GRATINGS. 
 
 Large Variety of Patterns. 
 
 CAST-IRON WINDOW and CASEMENT FRAMES. 
 
 PUMPS and RAIN-WATER GOODS. 
 SOLDER-POTS. 
 
 SINK-TRAPS and KITCHEN SINKS. 
 TUE-IRONS and FORGE-BACKS. 
 
 Catalogue and Price List on Application, 
 
William Baily & Sons, 
 
 71.. Gracechurch Street, E.G. 
 
 Hot Water, Heating& Sanitary Engineers. 
 
 COOKING APPARATUS. SCULLERY FITTINGS. 
 
 LAUNDRY FITTINGS. 
 
 COILS. BOILERS. HEATERS. FIRE SERVICES. 
 
 LAVATORY FITTINGS. 
 
 BATHS. WATER CLOSETS. SINKS. LIFTS. 
 
 IMPROVED RADIATORS FOR HOT WATER OR STEAM. 
 
 WINSER & CO.'S 
 Patent "Puro" Water Closet. 
 
 THIS Closet overcomes the objectionable and dangerous connection between the earthen trap 
 and lead soil pipe, "the connection between the Closet pan and the outgo is under 
 the w^ater-line : and, being submerged, it must be absolutely tight against tbe leakage of 
 sewer gas. 
 
 The outgo (supplied either in lead or stoneware, either P or S bend) can be turned in any direc- 
 tion. The P form will commend itself as having the joint above the floor-line, and would be especially 
 useful in houses of fireproof construction. 
 
 The exterior outform of this Closet is of 
 pedestal form, which gives perfect support to tbe 
 bowl, thus allowing the seat to rest directly on 
 the Closet, and dispensing with tbe use of seat 
 brackets if so desired. 
 
 One " Puro " W.C., complete with lead 
 or earthenware P bend, galvanized iron 
 clips and bolts, lead lined flushing 
 cistern, brass chain and handle and 
 rubber cone 3 10 
 
 " Puro " W.C, with lead or earthen- 
 ware P bend and galvanized iron clip 
 and bolts 1 10 
 
 Printed inside and out, extra 
 Printed inside only, extra ... 
 
 , 10 
 7 6 
 
 Can be seen in action, together with the most approved appliances for the preservation of health 
 at the Show Rooms of the Inventors, 
 
 Messrs. WINSER & CO., 52, BUCKINGHAM PAUCE ROAD, LONDON, S.W. 
 
PATENT BRITISH -MADE 
 
 5UJCATE 
 QOTTON 
 
 This material is a pure 
 Mineral Fibre manu- 
 factured from Blast 
 Furnace Slag, and 
 from its nature & 
 formation is par 
 ticularly adapt 
 ed for prevent 
 ing transmis- 
 sion of HEAT, 
 COLD, or 
 SOUND. 
 
 
 5* 
 
 C an be 
 employed 
 in a variety 
 of ways for 
 the purpose of 
 covering Hot and 
 Cold Water Pipes, 
 Cisterns, Tanks, &c. 
 
 It can be applied 
 in the loose o r- 
 natural state by 
 simply packing it under 
 "Wood or Canvas, or 
 rnade up in the form of 
 Woven Strips or Sheets. 
 
 FRED'' JONES & Co., 
 
 Perren Street, Ryland Road, LONDON, N.W. 
 
 A 3 
 
Mall Danginge 
 
 I, iDl- \% *■' illi. <i> '! 'i| <<, ' "' >>. < I n i.<i< li'r iili ii 111, A ,Ui, .III, .ih, lU .li. Jd 
 
 PAPER HANGING MERCHANT, 
 DECORATOR or BUILDER, 
 
 Throughout the United Kingdom for our 
 
 The "GRAHAM," 
 
 Containing Designs suitable for all interior 
 decorations. 
 
 Acknowledged to be the kest book in the Trade, 
 /Bias be bad direct from tbe /nbanufacturers— 
 
 CARLISLE & CLEGG, 
 
 159, QUEEN VICTORIA STREET, 
 
 Littfidiiffciai. W 
 
 •^^•- 
 
 '^••rfi-»^«^*.^^^*^i%^.>%^.X*,^,^«^»fcy*>»,j^»X«^^»X*^>«»^ 
 
 "Well Lighted and Spacious Sho^v Rooms, 
 at above address, open from 9 a.m. till 5.30 
 p.m. Saturdays 1 p.m. 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHTING 
 
 AS INSTALLED BY US AT 
 
 Savoy and other Theatres, Salisbury and other 
 Clubs, Stock Exchange, Lord Brassey, 
 Peek Frean and Co., Crosse and 
 Blackwell, &c., &c. 
 
 Isolated 
 Plants for 
 Lighting Country 
 
 Maiisions, Houses, 
 Shops, Offices, &c., &c. 
 
 Every 
 Plumber should sell the 
 
 Electric 
 
 Bells fitted 
 
 to Hotels, 
 
 Houses, Lifts, Clubs, 
 &c., &c. 
 
 Enquiries Invited. 
 ESTIIWATES 
 
 FREE. 
 
 " Matchless 
 
 EXPERIENCED 
 
 ENGINEERS 
 
 sent to all 
 
 parts. 
 
 Electric Gas Lighter. The Best in the 
 Market. Thousands sold. 
 
 ELECTRICAL APPARATUS 
 
 LAMPS, &e. 
 
 ENGINES, BOILERS, DYNAMOS, 
 
 THE ^^^ Alternators, Motors, Switches, 
 
 "Diamnnd"^*^''*^ AOOUMtlLATOBS, OUT-OXITS 
 QUIOE-BSEAE 
 
 SWITCHES. ^BY 
 
 Largest Sale in the 
 
 Bells, 
 
 Batteries, Indicators, ^^ 3/'* 
 
 PULLS, PUSHES, FIEE AHD BUBGLAE 
 
 World. 
 
 THE 
 
 "Diamond" 
 
 snr&LE-ooiL 
 
 ELECTRIC BELL. 
 
 PRICE ONLY 
 
 Best Makk 
 
 THROUGH 
 OUT. 
 
 Each. 
 
 ALABMS, 0A8 LiaHTEBS, &c, 
 
 WOODHOUSE AND RAWSON, 
 
 UNITED LIMITED, "^ 
 
 Makers of Electrical Apparatus of every Description. 
 
 Head Office — 88, Queen Victoria Street, London, E.G. 
 Show Rooms — 34, Cannon StreeTj E.G. 
 
 Works— LONDON, MANCHESTER, KIDSGROVE, 
 AND CHISWICK. 
 
ASHTON & GREEN IRON Coy. 
 
 11, 12, 13 & 14, Bflry Street, St. Mary Ax e, LONDON, E.C, 
 
 IMPROVEn 
 
 SANITARY AIR-TIGHT FRAME & COVER 
 
 FOR DRAJ^^*^ A\Tr\ ^\ Tl,r ATlTtJ,-vr pc 
 
 As manufactured by 
 for the London Board 
 Schools, 
 The cover to this 
 
 frame fits perfectly .^■''.\ *^ ' i' 
 air tight, it is hinged AV£ ^ ' .' * 
 and locks with turn- W '><»*-. , 
 buckle key. ^\ <**< < 
 
 Washout and Washdown Closets, Urinals, Lavatories. 
 Marble Work supplied for Lavatory Tops, or Urinal Divisions. 
 
 Estimate!, given free for Sanitary Work. Sanitary Catalogues sent free on application. 
 
BURN & BAILLIE'S 
 PATENT "ECLIPSE" DRAIN-TESTING APPARATUS. 
 
 [pi We guarantee this to be the only Smoke Generator ot any description 
 whatsoever which applies a positive test to drains. 
 
 £E 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 BURN & BAILLIE'S 
 
 PATENT 
 
 Pedestal Yalve Water-Closet. 
 
 At once the best Valve Closet 
 and the best Pedestal Closet in 
 the market. 
 
 Basin, Valve Chamber, and 
 I Enclosure all strongly moulded 
 in one piece of earthenware. 
 
 PRICES. 
 
 £ i. d. 
 
 Apparatus 7 i .5 o 
 
 • Seat o i8 6 
 
 Side Panels, pair . . . . 015 6 
 
 BURN & BAILLIE'S 
 
 PATENT LAVATORY BASINS. 
 
 Overflow Grating made to lift out. Overflow 
 Pipe may thus be cleansed with facility, and the 
 generation of bad smells prevented. In slate, as 
 shown, exclusive of wood work, £3 ys. 6d. each. 
 
 14, NEWCASTLE ST., FARRINGDON ST.; 
 
 AND EDINBURGH. 
 
 A 2 
 

 dMh^^vS" 
 
 To Borough Engineers, 
 
 Local Board Surveyors, 
 
 Sanitary Engineers, &c. 
 
 The 
 
 Pneumatic 
 Sewerage System. 
 
 SHONE' S PNEUMATIC 
 EJECTORS 
 
 For Raising Sewage, Sludge, Pail Contents, 
 
 Water, &c. 
 
 ADVANTAGES : 
 
 Sewage Gas not Generated. — Im- 
 pounding -of Sewage altogether 
 Prevented. — Small Pipe Sewers 
 only required. — Any number of 
 Ejector Stations may be economi- 
 cally worked from one Air-Com- 
 pressing Station. — Each Ejector 
 works Automatically, requiring no 
 
 attention. 
 
 REFERENCE. 
 A, Pneumatic sewage ejector; B, Sewage 
 inlet flap-valve; C, Sewage outlet flap-valve; 
 D, Bell actuating automatic valve; Di, Cup 
 actuating automatic valve ; D2, Spindle or rod 
 actuating automatic valve; E, Sewage inlet- 
 pipe; F, Sewage outlet-pipe; G, Sewage de- 
 i livery main (cast iron); H, Automatic valve ; 
 ' I, Compressed air inlet-pipe ; J, Exhaust air 
 outlet-pipe ; K, Compressed air main (cast 
 iron) ; L, Gravitation stoneware pipe-sewers. 
 
 The above System is in operation at the British 
 Houses of Parliament, Rangoon, Eastbourne, 
 Southampton, and about 50 other places in this 
 country and abroad, 
 
 THE SHONE HOUSE 
 SEWAGE EJECTOR, 
 
 OR 
 
 HYDRAULIC FLUSH TANK. 
 
 ADVANTAGES : 
 
 It is Automatic in action.— A perfect 
 Trap against Sewage Gas. — Cannot 
 get out of order. — Thorough in its 
 Flushing Effects. — Easily Regu- 
 lated for Times of Discharge. 
 
 Send for Circulars and Prices, 
 
 ': HUGHES & LANCASTER 
 
 ; Manufacturers, CHESTER. 
 
 OOriET INTO HOUSE OVllWl 
 
 Applications should be made to the London 
 
 Office, 
 16, Great George St., Westminster, S.W, 
 
PLUMBING 
 
 PRACTICE 
 
 BY 
 
 J. WRIGHT CLARKE, 
 
 PLUMBER. 
 
 Lecturer on Technical and Instructor in Practical Plumbing at the Polytechnic, 
 
 London. 
 First National Honors Medalist for Plumbers' Work, 1881. 
 
 ^iMttb ^hitian. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 Engineering and Building Record- 
 
 92 and 93, Fleet Street, E.G. 
 1891. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 277, Pearl Sxreet 
 

 ^^vHH!!^H: & I PEARSON, 
 
 MANUFACTURING d WHOLESALE BUILDERS' IRONMONGERS. 
 
 PATENTEES AND MANUFACTURERS OF THE 
 
 "Peaif^on" Combined Clo^e 2^ Open FiPe ^loW Combustion 
 
 'PRIZE MEDAL" 
 
 KITCHENER 
 
 Highest Award Inventions Exhibition, London, 1885. 
 
 ill 4. 
 
 F-a-lr-- 
 
 The "PEARSON" No. 12 P. 
 
 The " PEARSON " No. lO P. 
 
 The Pearson " Patent Open and. Close Fire Slow Combustion Range 
 Constructed on Slow Combustion Principles. V>/^ill Roast, Bake Boi: 
 or SteMv -with an open fire. ' 
 
 CAN BE SEEN DAILY IN OPERATION IN OUR SHOW ROOMS 
 
 INSPECTION RESPECTFULLY INVITED. 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF ALL KINDS OF 
 
 STOVES, RANGES & COOKING APPARATUS, 
 
 Iroa, Steel, and Metal Merohants j Sanitary, Gas, and Hot Water Engineers, &o. 
 Plumbers' Brass Work and Gras Fittings of every description. 
 
 CATALOGUES MAY BE HAD ON APPLICATION. 
 
 NOTTING HILL GATE, LONDON, aW. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 ** I ''HIS Treatise on Plumbing Practice contains the subject-matter 
 -*- of a series of papers contributed to The Engineering & 
 Building Record, New York, in 1883-84-85-86-87. The papers 
 are now re-arranged, and, to some extent, re-written and added 
 to, with a view to presenting them in a more complete form. 
 That plumbers shall command respect, and their advice be 
 taken with implicit confidence, is most earnestly to be desired. 
 To attain this end, the head, as well as the hand, must be trained. 
 Workshop practice is of the utmost importance, but if the work- 
 man has no mental training he is only one degree removed from 
 a piece of machinery. A man crammed full of technical knowledge 
 but lacking the ability to execute any desired work may be classed 
 with the non-producers ; but the plumber who has the skill to 
 ■ execute, and the knowledge to plan or design, must command both 
 the respect and confidence of his patrons. 
 
 In the hope that this work may in a measure supply a want 
 to some who have either practical or technical trainings but lack 
 the combination, it is offered to the author's fellow-workers. 
 
 London, 1888. 
 
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 'T^HE fact that a Second Edition of this work is already 
 called for speaks, to a certain extent, for itself. The 
 Author is, however, desirous of recording a word of thanks 
 for the encouragement and approval accorded the first 
 edition. Many expressions of good opinion emanated not 
 only from his fellow-craftsmen, but also from Members of 
 the Professions engaged in Sanitary Engineering and 
 Construction. The many kindly words of approval are hereby 
 acknowledged, and the hope for a further enlargement of the 
 sphere of usefulness of the work is more confidently enter- 
 tained by 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
 February, 1891. 
 
 ERRATA. 
 
 Page 165, line 14, for subsistence read subsidence. 
 
 >■ 195. .. 15. .. its „ the 
 
 ,, 205, „ 24, „ end „ one 
 
 Fig. 124, page 126, should be turned for flap to fall. 
 
Hartley & Sugden, Ltd., 
 
 MAKERS OF 
 
 ALLKINDSofWELDED&RIVETED BOILERS 
 
 FOR HEATING GREENHOUSES, CHURCHES, SCHOOLS, 
 
 AND ANY DESCiilPTION OF BUILDING, 
 
 PATENT 
 CLIMAX 
 
 Boiler. 
 
 Several Thousands 
 now in use. 
 
 Only to 
 
 charge 
 
 twice 
 
 with Fuel 
 
 in 
 24 Hours. 
 
 KITCHEN RANGE BOILERS. 
 
 ■ 'e 
 
 
 PLAIN BATH BOILER. 
 
 BATH BOILER, 
 With Arched Flue. 
 
 BATH BOILER, 
 
 With Arch and Intersecting 
 
 Flue. 
 
 PLAIN BOOT BOILER. 
 
 BOOT BOILER, 
 With Arch & IntersTting Flue. 
 
 RIVETED BOOT BOILER. 
 
 MANY OTHER PATTERNS OF RANGE AND HEATING BOILERS. 
 Catalogue (100 pages) on application. 
 
 Atlas Works, HALIFAX 
 
James Keith, c.e., 
 
 (ASSOC, t/. INST. C.E.) 
 
 \{^, pjditaulic, pealiing, and ^entsilafeing Ensiqeer', 
 
 LONDON, EDINBURGH, & ARBROATH. 
 
 Edimburgh>I8S€. 
 
 HiCr-.ESr AWARD FORHoTWAIEHfiolLERS- 
 
 Awarded 
 
 Seventeen Prize Medals 
 
 At International Exhibitions held in 
 
 LONDON, EDINBURGH, GLASGOW, 
 
 &c. 
 
 Cdihburch isee. 
 
 H IBHEST AwahdtokHysrauucBau] 
 
 
 The EDINBBEGH INTBENATIONAL 
 EXHIBITIOH, 1890, GOLD 
 MEDALS ware Awarded to EACH 
 of KEITH'S Specialties Exhibited, viz,, 
 BOILERS, EADIATOES, HTDRAULIC- 
 EAMS, MINEKAL OIL GAS WORKS, 
 AUTOMATIC - VALVE GEAR, — being 
 the highest Award in each case, 
 
 Ml 
 
 i 
 
 KEITH'S SPECIALTIES, 
 
 Manufactured under 30 KEITH PATENTS in Great 
 Britain, United States and Canada, 
 
 "STAND 'FIRST.'or.at the HEAD' 
 
 in the Heating, Gas, and Hydraulic World. 
 
 ;eith s Patent Hydraulic 
 
 Rams> 
 
 And Hydraulic Ram-Piinips, 
 Self-Actine for Raising Water 
 
 KEITH'S Patent Boilers.— The 'Challhnch,' '\'iaduct,' and T^thon, &-c , for 
 Hot Water Heating, require no building work, are witliout RIVALS, and Heat from 
 50 feet up to 20,oco feet of 4-Tnch Pipe. 
 
 Kcitli's Patent System of WaTiniiifr Wnter lor SM'inimiiis: niid otliei* l!nt1i$i ^«iihout the use of 
 Steam as exemplified at the Putney, Hampstead. Battersea, CSiribcrwell, and other Pui ,ic Baths in Lcnccn, Leicti-tfr, &c. 
 
 The Commissioners of Public Baths, Hampsttad, T-ondou, issued a financial stall ni' nt. st owing an aveiage | rofit ol ;£s8 weekly 
 —or a clear profit, during the first seascn, of 50 percent, of the total income,— fit the Han psteaa Public Baths, ■where Keitin's Patent 
 System for warming the water is in use, a result unpavalleled in the hit-tory of Public Baths. 
 
 Keith-s Patent 
 MtNERAL Oil 
 
 Gas Works. 
 
 For Lighting Mansions,&c. 
 m the Country. 
 
 Adapted by 
 the Commis 
 s loners of 
 Nortl = 
 
 Ligl * - 
 
 and f 
 Boar( 
 ira 
 
 Keith-s Patent System of 
 
 Heating and Ventilating TURKISH 
 
 BATHS BY Steam. 
 
 Keith s Patent Ornamental 
 
 Open Fire Hot Water Apparatus. 
 
 Combines Warmth, Cheerfulness, and Ventilation. 
 
 Keiths Patent Universal Radiators, 
 
 For HOT water Heating, made in ONE piece* 
 many sizes and modifications. 
 
 No joints to leak — ne%v departure— universally used.. 
 
 Contractor to Her Majesty's Government. 
 7, HoLBORN Viaduct, London, E.G. 33, Frederick Street, EDINBURGH, Works; ARBROATH. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Chapter I.— METALS. 
 
 Lead ores — Smelting of ores — Separation of other metals from 
 lead — Extraction of silver — Physical and chemical pro- 
 perties of lead— Lead alloys — Market forms of lead — Sheet- 
 lead casting — Sheet-lead on external ornament — Uses of. 
 sheet-lead 17-26 
 
 Chapter II.— LEAD PIPES. 
 
 Methods of making, by hand and press — Soldered seams — 
 
 Burnt seams 27-33 
 
 Chapter III.— HAND-MADE PIPES. 
 
 Methods of soldering ... .... 34-39 
 
 Chapter IV.— PIPE BENDING AND ELBOWS. 
 
 "Bobbins "and "followers" — Dummies — Depressions in the- 
 bends ....... ... 40—50 
 
 Chapter V.— PIPE BENDING AND Kl-BOWS— continued. 
 
 Bending for S-traps — Flasks for use in bending — Use of sand 
 ^Water bends — Soldered bends^Soldered elbows — ^Tem- 
 plates — Setting out . . 51-59 
 
 Chapter VI.— PIPE BENDING AND ELBOWS— continued. 
 
 Use of geometry — Elbows from sheet-lead — Square pipe double 
 elbows — Elbows to iit angles — Bends in square pipe . . 60-68 
 
 Chapter VII.— JOINT MAKING. 
 
 Preparation of the pipe — "Soil" and " touch "—Catching 
 waste solder — Strength and length of joints — Table of- 
 lengths for various sized pipes 69-75 
 
 Chapter VIII.— JOINT MAKING— continued. 
 
 Wiping cloths — Overcasting joints — Cast-lead joints — Block 
 joints — ^Tafting — Special form of compasses recommended 
 for use where lead of light substance is used — How to 
 prepare branch joints 76-86 
 
 Chapter IX.— JOINT MAKING— continued. 
 
 Fixing joints for wiping — Rolled joints— Copper-bit joints — 
 
 Welted joints 87-94 
 
V' TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Chapter X.— PIPE FIXING. 
 
 Wall-hooks — Fillets for carrying horizontal pipe — Tacks — 
 Crowding pipes in chase 95-102 
 
 Chapter XI.— RAIN-WATER PIPES. 
 
 Leaden v. Iron— Fixing— Astragals— Hov? to make a mould 
 for casting astragals — Bends in length of iron pipe — How 
 to cast lead ears 103-107 
 
 Chapter XII.— LINING SINKS AND CISTERNS. 
 
 How to cut out and prepare the lead — Weight of suitable 
 lead — Angles — Shave-hooks — ^Wiping the angles — Nailing 
 the angles 10&-116 
 
 Chapter XIII.— LINING SINKS. 
 
 Lead should be thicker than for cisterns —Sloping sided sinks 
 — Expansion of lead with hot water — Capping for sinks — 
 Waste-hole — Gratings and plugs — Overflows to sinks . . 117-121 
 
 Chapter XIV.— SEWERAGE AND SEWERS. 
 
 Ventilation of sewers — Drs. Shirley Murphy, and Lyon 
 Playfair on the results to human life of better sanitation — 
 Sir William Jenner's opinion of the sewers of the Metropolis 
 Sewer-flaps and tide-valves — Rats in sewers — Asphyxiator . 122-127 
 
 Chapter XV.— HOUSE DRAINS. 
 
 Brick drains — Drain pipes — Connection with sewers — Pre- 
 cautions to be taken — The trench — ^Joints — Fall . . . 128-134 
 
 Chapter XVI.— DRAINS AND TRAPS. 
 
 Junction pipes — Branches — Channel pipes and inspection 
 chambers — Brick and syphon traps — Taper pipes . . 135— 143 
 
 Chapter XVII.— IRON DRAINS. 
 
 Rusting — ^Thickness of pipe— How to test the pipes — ^Joints 
 — Table of weights of pipes — Concrete beds — Pipes passing 
 through walls . . 144-Z51 
 
 Chapter XVIII.— IRON DRAINS— continued. 
 
 Testing for leakage — How to make a pressure gauge — 
 Removal of obstructions — Junction pipes — Duck's foot bends 
 —Reducing diameter — Calking — The tools used for setting 
 
 up joints 152-160 
 
 Chapter XIX.— IRON DRAINS— continued. 
 
 Defective connections of soil pipe and drains — ^Joints for 
 
 connecting lead and iron pipe ...... 161-165 
 
 Chapter XX.— DRAIN-VENTILATION. 
 
 Syphon principle — Water-spray principle— Induced current 
 of '"i'' through drains — Brick piers and gratings — Manholes 166-174 
 
TABLE OF OONT£NTS. Vll 
 
 ^ PAGE 
 
 Chapter XXI .— DRAIN-VENTILATION— MBJmajiJ. 
 
 Air Inlets — Mica valves — Flush tanks 175-183 
 
 -Chapter XXII.— DRAIN-TRAPS for SURFACE-WATER & WASTE PIPES 
 Cesspool traps for sinks — Bell-traps — Grease-traps — Scullery 
 
 sinks — Draining-board . 184-192 
 
 Chapter XXIII.— TRAPS AND WASTE PIPES. 
 
 Lip-traps— Arrangement of waste pipe from sink — GuUey 
 traps — Open channels — Wired ends to vent pipes — Evils of 
 enclosed sinks 193-199 
 
 Chapter XXIV.— SLOP SINKS. 
 
 Use and abuse — Expansion joints^-How to connect branch 
 
 waste pipes 200-207 
 
 Chapter XXV.— BATHS. 
 
 Various materials used — Various ways of arranging — Waste 
 water used for flushing drains — Supply cocks — Overflow 
 and waste fittings 208-213 
 
 Chapter XXVl.— BATHS— continued. 
 
 Waste and overflow arrangements — Relative position to hot- 
 water cistern — Ventilation of bath-room — Shower, needle, 
 and sitz-baths ..••••• 214-223 
 
 Chapter XXVII.— WASH-HAND BASINS. 
 
 Rims — ^Waste, supply, and overflow arrangements — Trapping 224-331 
 
 Chapter XXVXII.— WASH-HAND BA.Sn<!S— continued. 
 
 Plug wastes — Patent wastes — Cabinet enclosures — Traps . 232-239 
 
 Chapter XXIX.— WASH-HAND BASIiiS— continued. 
 
 Mechanical traps — Ventilation — Ranges for public places — 
 
 Shower and spray fittings 240-245 
 
 Chapter XXX.— URINALS. 
 
 Iron stall, trough, and basin urinals — Water supply . . 246-254 
 
 Chapter XXX.1.—VRINAI.S— continued. 
 
 Hotel and club — Cabinet enclosed — Automatic flush tanks for 
 
 urinals 255-259 
 
 Chapter XXXIL— SOIL PIPES. 
 
 Drain pipes as soil and ventilating pipes — Iron rain-water 
 pipes as soil pipes — Combined lead and iroil pipes . . 260-264 
 
 Chapter XXXIIL— SOIL FIPES— continued. 
 
 Position in the house — Position with regard to windows — 
 Traps on branches — Air from soil pipes into bedrooms — 
 Water syphons out of traps — Old arrangement of 0-traps . 265-273 
 
VIU TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chapter XXXIV.— SOIL VlVES—continued. 
 
 Red lead joint to trap — Branch soil pipes — Waste from sink 
 into water-closet trap — Causes of smells in buildings . . 274-281 
 
 Chapter XXXV.— SOIL PIPES AND TRAPS. 
 
 Traps usually fixed under water-closets — Self-cleansing traps 
 — Improperly fixed traps — How to set out a trap and soil 
 pipe — Advantage of understanding architects' drawings . 282-290 
 
 Chapter XXXVL— WATER-CLOSETS. 
 
 Inventors of water-closets— Descriptions of good and bad 
 kinds of water-closets — Overflow pipes to water-closets . 291-296 
 
 Chapter XXXVII.— WATER-CLOSETS— i;oK/;«««(?. 
 
 Water-closets made in one piece of earthenware — Pan closets 
 — "Washout" closets — "Washdown" closets — Closets 
 without enclosures — Floors of closets — Water-closets for 
 Schools and Institutions . . . 297-304 
 
 Chapter XXXVIIL— HOT-WATER BOILERS OR WATER-BACKS. 
 Open kitchen ranges — Boilers and feed-cisterns fixed to 
 ranges .... ... . 305-310 
 
 Chapter XXXIX.— CIRCULATION BOILERS. 
 
 On fixing boilers — Improperly made pipe connections to 
 boilers — Boiler manholes .... . 311-315 
 
 Chapter XL.— HOT-WATER FITTINGS. 
 
 Fixing circulation pipes — Bending iron pipes — Pipes used 
 for hot water — Safety valves — Fusible plugs fixed to boilers 
 Hot-water cylinders . 316-321 
 
 Chapter XLI.— CYLINDERS AND HOT-WATER CIRCULATION. 
 Enclosing cylinders to prevent loss of heat — Connections 
 between boilers and cylinders — On lead pipes for hot-water 
 — Coupling unions for lead pipes— Examples of hot-water 
 arrangements in mansions — Air binding of hot-water pipes 
 — Bends in pipes — Expansion joints— Hot-water pipes 
 improperly arranged 322-337 
 
Standard Books on Heating and 
 Ventilation. 
 
 (Sent Post-paid on Receipt of Price.) 
 
 STEAM HEATING PROBLEMS ; or, Ques- 
 tions, Answers and Descriptions relat- 
 ing TO Steam Heating and Steam Fitting. 
 — Reprinted from The Engineering and 
 Building Record. — Large 8vo, Cloth, pp. 
 224,109 Illustrations 15s. 
 
 HOT-WATER HEATING AND FITTING.— 
 A Treatise on the Practice of Warming by 
 Hot- Water. — Modern Methods Described 
 and Explained. — By William J. Baldwin, 
 M. E., M. Am. Soc. C. E. — Large 8vo, pp. 
 392. — Cloth, Fully Illustrated 20s. 
 
 STEAM HEATING FOR BUILDINGS.-By 
 William J. Baldwin, M. E., M. Am. Soc. C. E., 
 —A Book for Architects and Steam Fitters.— 
 Eleventli Edition.— Small 8vo, pp. 233, i2J. 6d. 
 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF VENTILATION AND 
 HEATING AND THEIRPRACTICAL AP- 
 PLICATION.— By John S. Billings, M.D., 
 LL.D. (Edinb.), Surgeon, U.S.A.— Large 8vo, 
 Cloth, pp. 216 15s. 
 
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 INDEX TO PUBLIC W.\TER SUPPLIES ; 
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 ■ I .^Reverberatory furnace for smelting ores 
 2. — Casting-shop and fittings 
 ' 3-5. — External ornaments in sheet-lead. 
 
 6. — Mould for casting lead pipes, A.D. 1639 
 7. — Section of hand-made lead-pipe (old style) 
 8. — Casting flange on lead pipes 
 9 — Bramah's pipe press 
 10-12. — Pipe-making machines .... 
 13, 14. — Sections of hand-made pipes, showing variety of 
 15. — Gauge-hook . ... 
 
 16. — Cone-swab .... 
 17. — Section of soldered seam in hand-made pipe 
 18. — " Swabbed" seam 
 19-27. — Pipe-bends {bent cold) 
 
 28. — " Dummies " for working out depressions in the 
 pipes 
 29, 30. — Pipe-bending 
 
 31. — Pipe bent to form a syphon trap 
 
 32. — Bending-dresser . . 
 
 33. — Bend . . 
 
 34. — Lead " flask " for making small traps 
 
 35. — Bends made with sand cores 
 
 36.^ — Knot traps 
 
 37. — Method of making bends in halves 
 38. — Setting out a bend with chalk 
 39-43. — Soldered elbows . 
 44-50. — Elbow-making from sheet-lead . 
 
 51. — Square section bends from round pipe 
 52-55. — Preparing joints on lead pipes 
 
 56. — Shaving hook .... 
 57i 58. — Collar for soldering, and its application 
 
 59-62. — Wiped joints 
 
 63,64. — ^Joints for connecting brass-work I0 lead pijje 
 
 throat of 
 
 bent 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 i8 
 22 
 
 24.25 
 27 
 28 
 28 
 30 
 
 31.32 
 34 
 35 
 36 
 37 
 38 
 
 42-46 
 
 47 
 49 
 50 
 51 
 51 
 52 
 53 
 54 
 55 
 57 
 
 58,59 
 
 61-66 
 67 
 
 69-71 
 
 71 
 
 ■ 73 
 
 73.74 
 75 
 
 B 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FIGURE. 
 
 65, 66. — Overcast joints 
 
 67. — Lead joint 
 
 68, 69. — Block joints 
 
 70. — Taft joint ..." 
 
 7I1 72. — " Compass " legs for shaving circular work, &c. . . . 
 
 73. — Welted joint 
 
 74-80. — Prepared pipes for branch-wiped joints 
 
 81. — Welted branch joint 
 
 82, 83. — Shaving joints 
 
 84, 85. — Fixing large-sized branches for soldering 
 
 86.— " Rolled " joint ... 
 
 87-92. — Copper-bit joints 
 
 93. — Horizontal pipe on wa1l-hooks 
 
 94. — Section of horizontal pipe on wooden fillet . . , . . 
 
 95. — Section of vertical pipe on wall-hook 
 
 96. — Section of horizontal pipe with " tack " 
 
 97,98. — " Tacks " on perpendicular pipes ...... 
 
 99, 100. — Sections of pipe, showing method of soldering on " tacks " . 
 101,102. — " Face-tacks " and nail . . . . . 
 
 103. — Elevation and plan of leaden rain-water pipe, fixed with 
 
 wall-hooks 
 
 104-106. — Making plaster moulds for casting lead astragals 
 
 107. — Lead socket with ears and astragals for square pipe . , . 
 108. — Lead lining for cistern ... . , . . 
 
 109,110. — Sections showing soldered angles in cistern . . . . 
 III. — Lead lining for bottom and sides of cistern, in one piece . 
 
 112. — Fitting end to cistern 
 
 113. — Bent shave-hook for cistern lining 
 
 114. — Spoon-hook for cistern lining .... . . 
 
 115. — Sink with sloping sides 
 
 116. — Section of lined rectangular sink, showing wooden fillet in angle 
 
 117,118. — Section of front side of sink, lining buckled through improper 
 
 finishing, and proper method of finishing 
 
 119. — Section of sink with hollowed plug, and sunk washer 
 
 X20, 121.— Sections of sewer, showing side gullies and lamp holes as 
 
 ventilators 
 
 122, 123. — GuUey traps 
 
 124-126. — ^Tide flaps 
 
 127. — ^Tide valve 
 
 128. — Scamped house-connection to sewer . 
 
 129. — Efifect of leaking drains laid in a sandy soil 
 
 130. — Section of crushed drain pipe, ovlfing to hardness of trench 
 
 131. — Drain formed of bagged pipes 
 
 132. — Improperly laid pipe, with cement forced out of hub into pipe 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 77 
 78 
 
 78,79 
 80 
 81 
 81 
 82-84 
 ' 8s 
 85 
 
 91,92 
 95 
 95 
 96 
 96 
 
 97 
 98 
 
 99 
 
 104 
 105, 106 
 107 
 108 
 109 
 "3 
 "3 
 115 
 116 
 119 
 119 
 
 119 
 120 
 
 122 
 
 123 
 126 
 126 
 129 
 130 
 130 
 131 
 132 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FIGURE. 
 
 133. — Longitudinal section of drain, with a bricklayer's fall . 
 I34i 135- — Improper methods of changing direction of drain, without a bend 
 136-138. — Y & T junctions 
 
 139- — Section of small branch drain, laid to avoid eddies from main drain 
 
 140, 141. — Section and plan of main drain and branch, showing stoppage 
 
 with paper, owing to faulty connection . 
 
 142. — Manhole and faulty connection with channel pipe 
 X43-146. — Sections and plan of channel pipes and branches . 
 147, 148. — Channel pipe with branches and bend, in one piece 
 149, 150. — Method of introducing branches into channel pipes 
 
 151. — Dipstone trap, showing evils 
 
 152. — Sewer trap with stand pipe . 
 
 153. — Improperly fixed sewer trap 
 154-156- — Self-cleansing sewer traps . 
 
 157. — Drain syphon with lip . 
 158-160. — Sewer traps with taper pipes 
 
 i6t. — ^Taper pipe . 
 162-165. — Iron drain pipes drawn to scale, showing relative thicknesses 
 
 166. — Spigot -end of pipe with bead . ... 
 
 167. — ^Joiut of iron pipe with yarn falling through 
 
 168, 169. — Iron pipe joints . 
 
 I 170. — Iron pipe on brick pier in trench .... 
 
 171, 172. — Unsafe and safe methods of taking pipes through a wall 
 
 173. — Pressure-gauge for air testing of drains, &c. 
 
 174. — Inspection pipe and cap 
 
 175,176. — Square junction and branch ... 
 
 177. — Faulty joint, owing to pipes falling the wrong way 
 
 178. — Section of collar for connecting two spigot ends of pipes 
 
 179. — " Duck's-foot " bend 
 
 i8o. — Section of small socket in a large pipe, with lead joint 
 
 181. — Yaming-iron 
 
 182-185 — Calking-irons 
 
 186-188. — ^Faulty joints between lead soil pipes and drains 
 
 189, 190, 191, 192, 194. — Connections between lead soil pipes and drains 
 
 193. — Collar-joint for lead and earthenware pipe 
 
 195. — Sectional sketch, showing drain ventilation on the syphon system 
 
 196. — Section of an air-inlet with perforated water pipe 
 
 197. — Sectional sketch, showing by-pass ventilating the sewer through 
 the house drains . . ... 
 
 198. — Sectional sketch of cesspool, showing drain trap and air-inlet 
 
 199. — Hollow brick pier for drain ventilation .... 
 
 200. — Section of manhole in a shrubbery 
 
 201. — Section of manhole with drain laid some distance for ingress 
 of fresh air .:.... 
 
 PAGE. 
 133 
 134 
 
 135 
 
 136 
 136 
 
 138 
 139 
 140 
 141 
 141 
 142 
 142, 143 
 143 
 145 
 146 
 
 147 
 147 
 150 
 
 152 
 
 155 
 156 
 156 
 157 
 157 
 158 
 158 
 159 
 161 
 162, 164 
 163 
 167 
 169 
 
 170 
 171 
 172 
 173 
 
 173 
 
 B 2 
 
Xll 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FIGURE. PAUK 
 
 202, 203, 205, 206, 207. — Plan and section showing air-inlets to drains in 
 
 ordinary terrace house 175, 177, 178 
 
 204. — Mica flap valve in box ... 176 
 
 208-210. — Basement plans, showing drains and methods of ventilating . 179-182 
 
 211. — Cesspool trap under sink ... . 184 
 
 212-217. — Grease traps. . . .... 186-190 
 
 218. — Range of scullery sinks with grease and sand trap . . . 192 
 
 2ig. — Section of drainage boards in same 192 
 
 220. — Bell-trap . I93 
 
 221. — Lip-trap . 194 
 
 222, 223. — Gulley-trap, and sketch of same in position .... 195 
 
 224. — Gulley-trap with channel from waste pipes 196 
 
 225. — Mouth of ventilating pipe from sink-trap .... 198 
 
 226-230. — Slop sinks . . ..... 200, 201 
 
 231. — Expansion joint for waste pipe from slop sink .... 202 
 
 232.— Mandrel for making same . 202 
 
 233. — Expansion joint for bath-waste . . . . . . . 203 
 
 234. — Elevation of pipe with iron bracket ...... .204 
 
 235. — Vulcanized rubber cone for expansion joint for bath waste . 204 
 
 236,237. — Stacks of waste pipe with branches 205,206 
 
 238. — Supply cocks to sinks . . 207 
 
 239. — Wooden bath-tub with sheet-lead lining . . . 20S 
 
 240. — Bath improperly fitted with common waste and supply cocks . 209 
 
 241. — -Standard cock with projecting nozzle . .... 209 
 
 242. — Combination nozzle for hot and cold supply .... 210 
 
 243. — Bath with inside supply and waste 210 
 
 244. — Bath with side supply . 210 
 
 245. — Bath with specially designed overflow 211 
 
 246-248. — Bath-waste valves . 212-214 
 
 249, 250.— Plug and washer for bath-waste . 214 
 
 251. 25iA.-Section of porcelain bath with waste and overflow, connections 
 
 and gratings ... 214 
 
 252. — Flap valve for outer end of bath waste, not discharging into 
 
 waste pipe . ... 215 
 
 253. — Improper arrangement of bath waste and overflow . . . 215 
 
 254. — Improved arrangement of bath waste and overflow . . . 216 
 
 255. — Faulty connection of bath waste with slop sink . . . . 215 
 256. — Arrangement of bath and hot water cistern, whereiby dirty bath 
 
 water was supplied to the house 217 
 
 257-259. — Shower-bath brackets zig, 220 
 
 260. — Needle-bath (elevation) 221 
 
 261,262. — Arrangement of needle sprays in the hood 221 
 
 263, 264. — Face-plates, for names and arrangement of cocks . . . 222 
 
 265.— Spray bath with glass sides for hospital 222 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 XllI 
 
 FIGURE. 
 
 266.- 
 267-269.- 
 270-273.- 
 
 274. 275- 
 276.- 
 277.- 
 278.- 
 279.- 
 ' 280.- 
 
 281,282.- 
 
 283.- 
 284.- 
 285-287.- 
 288.- 
 289.- 
 290.- 
 291.- 
 292.- 
 
 293-295-- 
 296.- 
 
 297-299- 
 300-302.- 
 
 303- 
 304.-307.- 
 
 308.- 
 
 309, 310.- 
 
 3II-32I.- 
 
 322.- 
 
 323-325.- 
 
 32B.- 
 
 327- 
 
 ' 328.- 
 
 329.- 
 330.331-- 
 
 332- 
 
 333-- 
 334-- 
 
 -Sitz-bath 
 
 -Rims for wash-hand basins 
 
 -Cabinet-stand wash'hand basins ' . 
 
 -Basins with flushing-rims 
 
 -Basin with brass fan-rose 
 
 -Basin with supply through waste apparatus .... 
 
 -Supply valve for basin 
 
 -Cam-action supply valve . . 
 
 -Vent-pipe for overflow 
 
 -Section of basin with overflow in the earthenware, and waste 
 
 plug and washer for same 
 -Faulty arrangement of basin with overflow, waste and D-trap 
 -Arrangement of same as altered . 
 -Ordinary and improved forms of plug-wastes 
 -Special form of brass plug and washer for waste 
 -" Trigger " connection to waste plug . . . . 
 
 -" Valve " waste . . ..... 
 
 -" Cap " for waste, in lieu of grating 
 
 -Tip-up basin and receiver 
 
 -Cabinet enclosures for wash-hand basins .... 
 -Two-and-a-half gallon trap, with " inlet " and outgo pipes, found 
 
 under a 12-inch basin . . .... 
 
 -Forms of traps for wash basins 
 
 -Wash-basin traps ; flap-valve, heavy, and floating ball 
 
 -Double trap on wash-basin waste 
 
 -Elevations and end views of ranges of wash basins and fittings, 
 
 for use in public institutions, &c 
 
 -V-shaped slate trough, seen in Paris, for use in public insti 
 
 tutions, minimising risk of infection from disease 
 -Shower and spray fittings for lavatory use .... 
 -Plans and elevations of ordinary forms of street urinals . 
 
 -Public urinal with basins 
 
 -Sectional plans of basins 
 
 -Syphon urinal basin and trap in one piece of earthenware . 
 -Method of arranging range of urinals, to retain water at 
 
 common level in all the basins 
 
 -Arrangement of service-pipes giving proportionate supply of 
 
 water to each basin . . . . '.' . . . 
 
 -Treadle-apparatus 
 
 -Plan of range of V-shaped urinals, in use in London, and section 
 
 showing floor-flushing ....... 
 
 -Drip-pan with waste . . 
 
 -Sectional elevation of range of urinals in a London club 
 -Urinal shown at the Health Exhibition, with bent glass back, 
 
 porcelain foot bowl, and marble enclosure 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 223 
 224 
 225 
 226 
 226 
 226 
 227 
 228 
 229 
 
 229 
 230 
 231 
 232 
 
 233 
 234 
 
 234 
 
 235 
 
 236 
 
 236,237 
 
 238 
 238 
 240 
 
 241 
 
 241, 242 
 
 243 
 244, 245 
 247-251 
 251 
 251 
 252 
 
 252 
 
 253 
 253 
 
 254 
 255 
 255 
 
 256 
 
XIV 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FIGURE. PAGE. 
 
 335. 336.^Mahogany enclosure containing urinal ; closed and open . . 256 
 
 337. — Wash-basin and urinal in common enclosure , . . • 257 
 
 338. — Folding wall-urinal 257 
 
 339. — Urinettes for ladies' cloak-rooms 258 
 
 340-344. — Forms of automatic flush-tank, suitable for urinals . . 258, 259 
 
 345. — Sectional sketch of shaft used as a soil-conduit in an old 
 
 building . . ... . . 260 
 
 346. — Earthen drain pipe in party wall, used as a ventilating shaft . 261 
 
 347. — Common method of fixing soil pipes in small houses . 261 
 
 348. — Effect of sun on joint in same . . . . . 262 
 
 349-352. — Elevations showing results of combined iron rain-water and 
 
 lead soil pipe, and sectional drawings of floors . . 262, 263 
 
 353. — Pan-closet and D-trap, with slip joint, found in the house of 
 
 a medical officer of health . . . 263 
 354, 355. — Elevation and sectional drawing, showing result of smoke test 
 on light iron soil pipe, with rain-water leaders, fijced inside a 
 
 house ........ . 265 
 
 356. — Elevation of house with light iron soil pipe within . . 266 
 357-359. — Section between two upper floors and roof of a West-End house, 
 with open trough under flooring from gutter to soil pipe, and 
 
 methods taken to improve same . 267 
 360-362. — Rain-water leaders attached to soil pipes, ventilating same into 
 
 the house . .... 268 
 
 363, 364. — Elevation and plan of closet and safe discharging into outgo 
 from closet trap, forming ventilation to drain, owing to 
 
 syphonage .... . . 270 
 
 365. — Plan of range of closets with safes and traps, old style . . 271 
 
 366. — Large D-trap . . .... 271 
 
 367. — Useless weeping pipe 272 
 
 368. — ^Safe waste branched into cheek of closet D-trap . , . 272 
 
 369. — -Old water-closet trap with branch waste pipes .... 274 
 
 370. — Waste pipe air bound and red lead joint of water-closet trap to 
 
 soil pipe. .... . . 274 
 
 371,372,376,377. — Good arrangement of branch soil pipes . . . 275,276 
 373.374)375.378. — Bad arrangement of branch soil pipes . . 276,277 
 
 379. — ^Waste water from sink passes through water-closet trap into the 
 
 safe . , 278 
 
 380. — Improper ventilation of traps, the cause of intermittent smells . 278 
 
 381 , 382. — The usage of upper water-closets drives water out of lowertraps 280 
 383-388. — ^Traps for fixing under water-closet apparati . . . , 282, 283 
 
 589, 390. — Machine made traps . . .... 284 
 
 391. — Result of improper fixing of trap . ... 285 
 
 392-395. — How to set out the lines for trap and soil pipe . , . 286-289 
 
 396. 397. — How to set out the lines for trap and soil pipe (a more difficult 
 
 case) 289 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 XV 
 
 FIGURE. PAGE. 
 
 398. — Plan showing arrangement of pipes in a London Hotel . . 290 
 
 399.— Bramali's water-closet . . 292 
 
 400. — Modern valve watei -closet 292 
 
 401 . — Valve water-closet with trap above floor 296 
 
 402. — Plug water-closet 297 
 
 403. — Pan water-closet 298 
 
 404. — " "Washout " water-closet 298, 
 
 405-408. — " Washdown " water-closets 299, 300 
 
 409. — Common hopper water-closet ....... 301 
 
 410-414. — Trough water-closets . 301-303 
 
 415. — Open kitchen range .... . . 305 
 
 416, 418, 419, 420, 421, 422, 423. — Back boilers and feed cistern . 306, 308, 309, 310 
 
 417. — Bad hot-water arrangement 307 
 
 424-427. — Boilers fixed unlevel ......... 313 
 
 428, 429. — Boiler connections 314 
 
 430,431. — Boiler manholes " . . 315 
 
 432,434. — Hot-water circulation pipes ....... 316,319 
 
 433. — Dead weight safety valve 318 
 
 435-437. — Hot-water cylinders 319-321 
 
 438, 439. — How to connect pipes to hot-water cylinders .... 323 
 
 440-442. — Screwed couplings for lead hot-water pipes .... 325, 326 
 
 443. — Bird's-eye view of hot-water pipes in a mansion .... 326 
 
 444, 459. — Examples of hot-water arrangements ...... 327, 336 
 
 445, 446. — Example of " air-binding " in hot-water pipes .... 329 
 
 447. — Bends in hot-water pipes 331 
 
 448. — Elbow for hot-water pipes . 331 
 
 449,450. — Expansion joints and sockets ,331 
 
 451. — Expansion of hot-water pipe 332 
 
 452. — Pipe bracket 332 
 
 453-455. — Improper arrangements of hot-water pipes 333 
 
 ' 456.— Erratic hot-water circulation 334 
 
 457, 458. — Branches for hot-water pipes 335 
 
TeUgraphu Address : — 
 
 "DoNBOWES, London." 
 
 Telephone . 
 
 No. 3199. 
 
 .0 
 
 .^ 
 
 .<^' 
 
 c,COTT & iv^ 
 
 Broadway Chambers, 
 WESTMINSTER, LONDON, 
 
 ^> 
 
 ^> 
 
 Sole Licensees and Manufacturers of MR. BOaiiBS FIELD'S Patents. 
 
 ^4. 
 
 ROGERS FIELD'S 
 
 NEW "1889 PATENT" SELF-ACTING SIPHON, 
 
 For building into Brick or Concrete Chambers for Flushing Town Sewers, 
 
 AND 
 
 self-acting' galvanized iron flushing cistern, 
 
 Fitted with Rogers Field's New " i88g Patent " Annular Siphon, for House Drains. 
 
 Prerents 
 
 dangerous 
 
 deposits 
 
 in drains. 
 
 Prevents 
 
 the liability to 
 
 the evil effects 
 
 of sewer gas. 
 
 Automatic Flushing Chamber for Cleansing Town Sewers, 
 
 Bowes Scott & Read's Patent 
 
 SELF-CLEANSING TROUGH CLOSETS, 
 
 And ROGERS FIELD'S PATENT FLUSHING CISTERN^ for same. 
 Suitable for Factories, Schools, Barracks, Workhouses, &c., &c. 
 
 TROUGH URINALS on the same principle 
 
 For further particulars and Prices apply to 
 
 BOWES SCOTT &. WESTERN, BROADWAY CHAMBERS, WESTMINSTER, LONDON, S.W. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 METALS. 
 
 It is of the utmost importance that plumbers should know 
 something about the principal metal they use — namely, lead. The 
 Latin name for lead is ''plumbum," hence we get the title of 
 *' plumber " — a worker of lead. This title is only given to men who 
 use lead when in a manufactured state, and not to those who extract 
 it from the ores. 
 
 LEAD ORES. 
 
 There are several ores, but only two which contain lead in 
 sufficient quantity to extract the metal from on a large scale : 
 Galena — sulphuret of lead, lead, and sulphur ; cerussite — carbonate 
 of lead, lead, oxygen, and carbonic acid. The sulphur, oxygen, and 
 carbonic acid are the chief impurities which have to be removed to 
 get the pure metallic lead. Antimony, copper, and iron are also 
 found in some specimens of galena, and nearly all contain silver. 
 
 Lead ores are found in several places in the British Isles, in the 
 United States, Spain, Saxony, Australia, and other parts of the 
 world: 
 
 SMELTING OF THE ORES. 
 
 The ores are first prepared by being sorted by hand, and then 
 broken or crushed to small pieces. They are then washed to 
 remove earth or any soluble matter. The sulphur has to be expelled 
 by means of heat, and this process is called roasting. This operation 
 is conducted in different places in different ways, which depend to a 
 certain extent on the impurities which the ores contain. The 
 principle is nearly the same in all cases, and consists in roasting the 
 prepared ores in a kind of large oven called a reverberatory furnace.* 
 This is shown in section at Figure i, where A is the hearth, B the 
 
 • Reverbe'ate— to bound back. 
 
I« 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 fire, and C the chimney. The ores being spread over the hearth and 
 the fire lighted, the flames rebound from the arch on to the ores, the 
 sulphur in which enters into combination with the unconsumed 
 oxygen brought in with the flames, and passes away up the chimney 
 as sulphurous-acid gas. Part of the lead also combines with 
 oxygen, forming oxide of lead. This being again roasted with fresh 
 sulphide of lead, the sulphur and oxygen combine and pass away as 
 sulphurous-acid gas, leaving the lead in a metallic state. Sometimes 
 lime is thrown into the furnaces to act as a flux to form any earthy 
 matter into a slag. 
 
 SEPARATION OF OTHER METALS. 
 
 Antimony, copper, and iron have the property of making lead 
 very hard, and should always be extracted when soft lead is required. 
 This extraction is done by means of the calcining or roasting 
 furnace, which is a reverberatory furnace with a large, shallow 
 
 cast-iron pan instead of a hearth. The melted metal is exposed to 
 the action of the flames, when part of the lead, the copper, iron, and 
 antimony are converted into oxides and float on the surface of the 
 metal, and are skimmed ofi' at intervals until the lead acquires the 
 requisite degree of softness. Type-metal is an alloy of lead and 
 antimony in proportion of about four oi lead and one of antimony. 
 Sometimes a small proportion of tin is added to improve it. 
 
UETALS. 19 
 
 EXTRACTION OF SILVER. 
 
 Silver is separated from . lead by cupellation and by the 
 Pattinson process. Mr. Pattinson's process is to melt the lead 
 containing silver and to allow it to cool slowly, when part of the 
 lead crystallizes. These crystals are fished out with a perforated 
 ladle, the portion remaining being rich in silver, This is then 
 placed in a cupel, when the remainder of the fluid lead is converted 
 into an oxide of lead, sometimes called litharge, the air-blast used 
 for this purpose driving the litharge over the further end of the 
 cupel. The silver, which is not affected by oxygen, remains behind, 
 cools, and sets in a large cake. Before the introduction of Mr. 
 Pattinson's process the whole of the lead had to be converted into an 
 oxide, but since this discovery it is only the iquid portion left after 
 the lead crystals are fished out that has to be so converted. This 
 saves a great deal of time, as tlje oxygen has to be expelled from a 
 much less quantity of lead to reconvert it into its metallic condition. 
 Some lead ores are richer in silver than others, but the value of 
 silver is such that two parts in a thousand will pay for extraction. 
 
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. 
 
 The physical properties of lead make it one of the most useful of 
 metals. 
 
 Its tenacity is so low that it is useless for any purposes where 
 strength is required ; neither can lead be rolled into very thin sheets, 
 because of its want of tenacity. Lead, on account of its softness, 
 is very malleable, and easily worked without the aid of heat, but 
 because of its low tenacity care must be taken not to reduce its 
 thickness too much, or it will break into holes. The application 
 of heat, which should not exceed about 350° Fahr., makes lead 
 softer and more malleable, but a higher degree of heat makes it 
 brittle, while at about 620° Fahr. it is melted or converted into a 
 fluid state. 
 
 The ductility of lead is so very low that it is impossible to 
 draw it into a thin wire, and even if made into wire its want of 
 tenacity prevents its application to any useful purpose where 
 strength is required. 
 
 Lead is very heavy, the specific gravity being 11 '36, or aboat 
 
 c 2 
 
20 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 ii|- times heavier than an equal volume of distilled water at a 
 temperature of 60° Fahr. 
 
 Lead is not a good conductor of either heat or electricity. Com- 
 pared with silver or copper, its conducting power is only about 
 one-twelfth. 
 
 Fusibility. — The low temperature at which lead melts renders, 
 it of great utility for certain purposes, such as for making into- 
 pipes ; for casting into useful forms without the aid of a blast 
 furnace ; for fastening iron into stone-work, although this is not so 
 much practised now as formerly, on account of a galvanic action 
 setting up between the metals when exposed to moisture, which 
 results in the iron being eaten away. 
 
 The softness and plasticity of lead is such as to make it most 
 easily worked, and applicable to various forms where it would be 
 almost impossible to use any other metal. These properties, and 
 the low price at which it can be produced, make lead one of the 
 most useful of metals for especial purposes. 
 
 Lead has a very brilliant lustre, but it is so readily attacked 
 by oxygen that in some cases its brightness is destroyed in a few 
 minutes, and this takes place more readily when moisture is- 
 present. 
 
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES. 
 
 The chemical properties of lead render it useful for some purposes.. 
 The following among several combinations with oxygen are all 
 useful : " Litharge," Pb O : " Massicot " (is a superior kind of 
 litharge), and Minium Pbg O^, commonly called red lead. These 
 are used as the basis of some paints, or else as driers to accelerate 
 the drying or hardening of paint, the red lead facilitating the 
 oxygenation. Litharge is also used in the operation of /«ai-glazing 
 some kinds of earthenware. 
 
 Oxide of lead and carbonic acid, when in the proper com- 
 bination, produce " ceruse," or white lead, Pb CO*, so much used,, 
 when ground and mixed with oil, for painting. Carbonate of lead,, 
 commonly called white lead, is found in a natural state in the form. 
 of crystals, but the white lead of commerce is produced by exposin" 
 thin sheets of lead to the action of air, vinegar, and carbonic acid 
 in a chamber kept moderately warm by fermenting tan. It is 
 
METALS. 21 
 
 reported that a way for producing white lead so as not to be 
 injurious to the workers has been discovered, but up to now this 
 is a trade secret. 
 
 Metallic lead enters into combination with other cherpicals, 
 forming plumbic sulphide (galena), plumbic iodidei, plumbic nitrate, 
 plumbic chloride, plumbic oxalate, plumbic phosphate, plumbic 
 ■chromate, and other salts of more interest to the chemist than the 
 plumber. 
 
 In addition to being used as paints, red and white lead mixed 
 an certain proportions are used as cement for the joints of iron 
 pipes, and for several other purposes. 
 
 LEAD ALLOYS. 
 
 Lead will alloy with several other metals. Mixed with tin in 
 •various proportions plumbers and other tradesmen use it as solder. 
 Some cheap kinds of brass-work have lead as one of the constituents. 
 A little lead added to brass-work makes it better for turning and 
 •filing. 
 
 Pewter is an alloy of lead and tin in the proportion of about 
 ifour parts of tin to one of lead. Type-metal, as already mentioned, 
 ns composed principally of lead. 
 
 MARKET FORMS OF LEAD. 
 
 Lead is bought in the form of cast pigs, sheets, or pipes. 
 The pigs are generally the pure lead as it leaves the furnaces, 
 .and weigh from one to one-and-a-half hundredweight each. Sheet- 
 lead is either cast or milled. Mttkd-kad is manufactured by casting 
 a cake of lead and. then passing it to and fro between large rollers 
 until it is reduced to the desired thickness. Milled sheets are made 
 from 20 to 40 feet long, and from 6, feet 9 inches to g feet wide. 
 Sheet-lead is described as being five, six, or seven-pound lead; 
 this signifies that one square foot of the lead will weigh such a 
 number of pounds. It is difficult to mill lead to a less thickness 
 than three pounds ('051 of an inchj, by reason of its want . of 
 tenacity. The weights of sheet-lead vary from three to fourteen 
 pounds per foot superficial ; above this weight it is usual to describe 
 the milled-lead as plates. 
 
 Cast sheet-lead is generally made by plumbers in the workshop. 
 
22 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 Old lead is sometimes used, but unless a certain proportion of new, 
 or pig lead, is added the sheets crack as they cool. The operation 
 of casting is as follows: At one end of the workshop, Figure 2, 
 a large cast-iron pot, B, to hold about fifteen Jiiitidredweight, is 
 set in brick-work, with a fire-plkce beneath, and flues all around 
 to heat the lead. In the centre of the shop the casting-frame 
 
 Figure 2. 
 
 should stand, with one end near the casting-pot. The bed of the 
 frame, A, is covered with sand moistened to give it cohesion. 
 This is made as true on the surface as possible, two men, one at 
 each end, passing the strike, G, from end to end of the frame, and 
 as they push the strike before them they remove all the superfluous 
 sand and leave the remainder with a true surface. The next 
 operation is to plane the sand so as to make it quite smooth. 
 The plane, H, is made of sheet-copper, and is similar to a large- 
 plasterer's trowel. The edges of the copper are slightly curled 
 upward. 
 
 A little bit of " touch " (or tallow) rubbed on the face of the 
 plane makes it work better. A good lead-caster will so work up 
 
METALS. 23 
 
 the surface, of the sand that it will look quite bright when finished 
 and ready for casting. When the frame is ready and the lead 
 heated to the right degree, sufficient is ladled out of the pot into 
 the cast-iron head-pan, C. The lead should be hot enough to 
 allow for coolii^ by contact with the head-pan, or it would set 
 into a solid mass. The lead in the head-pan should be Jcept in 
 motion by stimng with a dry piece of wood ; if this were not done 
 part of the lead would chill and stick to the sides. As soon as 
 the lead has cooled down to the proper degree: of heat — usually 
 judged by dipping in a piece of clean wood- and noticing the 
 extent of its charring — the third hand (man) pulls the cord, F, and 
 upsets the head-pan so that the contents flow on to the frame. 
 The first and second hands stand ready with the strike, and as 
 soon as the lead is upset they push the strike before them, pressing 
 the ends hard on the rim of the frame, and as quickly as possible 
 remove all superfluous lead before it has time to congeal. At the 
 bottom end of the frame is the tail-pan, D, placed to catch the 
 spare lead removed by the strikers, and at the bottom end of the 
 tail-pan is a large cast-iron bowl, E, on wheels, called the " wagon." 
 All the spare lead runs into this wagon, which is then dragged to 
 and the contents emptied into the pot. If this lead is found to 
 be too much set for ladling out, an iron ring is held half 
 immersed in it, so that when cold, hoistmg tackle, with a hook 
 on the end, can be used for bodily lifting the lead out of the 
 wagon into the pot; or, if not too heavy, two men with ha,ndspikes 
 can lift it. 
 
 The ends are now trimmed, and the sheet of lead rolled up 
 and hoisted off the frame, after which, the whole operation is 
 repeated. If the lead is good, twelve or fourteen sheets of lead 
 can be cast in one day, but sometimes, when the lead is hard, 
 half of these sheets have to be cut up again and put into the 
 pot ; this being necessary from the number of " sand cracks " 
 found in them, arising, probably, from unequal contraction of the 
 metal as it cools, but tnis rarely occurs when all new lead is used. 
 
 Some lead-casters, but not all, will lay a strip of sheet-lead 
 across the frame on the surface of the sand beneath the lip of the 
 head-pan, to prevent tiie melted kad from washing a hole in the 
 sand at that point. Cast sheet-lead should never be less than seven 
 
24 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 or eight pounds per foot superficial. In positions on house-roofs, 
 exposed to great variations of temperature, arising from the action 
 of the sun's rays followed by cold, cast-sheet lead is found to 
 
 last much . longer than 
 milled sheet-lead. This 
 probably arises from the 
 fact that cast sheet-lead 
 has air its particles in 
 natural positions, but in 
 milled-lead these parti- 
 cles are squeezed into un- 
 natural contiguity when 
 being passed through 
 the mill. 
 
 For lining tanks and 
 cisterns the milled sheet- 
 lead is the best, as it is 
 more uniform in thick- 
 ness. Milled sheet-lead 
 also makes the neatest 
 work, and for very fine 
 chasing the members can 
 be worked up sharper 
 so as to show up distinct. 
 Figure 3 is a specimen of 
 a block of wood covered 
 with one piece of six- 
 pound lead. Figure 4 is 
 another specimen. In 
 ^'°''"3. this case the wooden 
 
 column and base are covered with one piece. The capital was 
 made separately, and is hollow, not having any wood inside, and 
 it appears to have been a very difficult undertaking. Figure 5 is 
 another specimen of first-class workmanship. The ' top portion 
 was bossed up out of sheet-lead. The stem was made out of a 
 piece of drawn-lead soil-pipe. It is intended as a ventilation end 
 for a soil-pipe. These three specimens were ; made by two young 
 plumbers (students at the Polytechnic in London'*, in their spare 
 
 Figure 4. 
 
UETALS. 
 
 25 
 
 time at their own homes, and each have received prizes for their 
 skill. It would have been veiy difficult to produce equal specimens 
 
 Figure 5. 
 
 of handicraft if cast sheet-lead had been used. Sheets of cast- 
 lead are generally about 14 to 18 feet long by 6 feet wide. 
 
 Laminated lead is a very thin kind of sheet-lead ; it is some- 
 
26 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 times used for keeping back the dampness in walls. The weight oV 
 sheet:lead may be .approximately arrived at by measuring the 
 thickness and dividing that by '017 of an inch, this being the 
 thickness of one pound of lead spread over a surface one foot 
 square ; the result will be in pounds. Or, if the weight is known, 
 the thickness can be found by multiplying the pounds contained 
 in one square foot by '017 of an inch, when the result will be 
 in inches. 
 
 USES. 
 
 Sheet-lead is principally used for covering roofs of houses, or for 
 the gutters, flashings, etc. It is also used for lining cisterns and 
 sinks. Vitriol-chambers are lined with lead, as it resists the action, 
 of this acid to a very great extent. 
 
 Floors and passages are often covered with lead. If well fixed 
 on stairs lead will last a long time, and it has the advantage that it 
 does not wear smooth so that persons risk slipping and falling 
 downstairs. 
 
 The weights of sheet-lead used in various positions are generally 
 as follow : Lead flats, gutters, and valleys, six, seven, or eight 
 pounds ; hips and ridges, six or seven pounds ; dormers, the tops, 
 six, seven, or eight pounds ; the sides, five, six, or seven pounds j 
 aprons, step, and cover flashings, four, five, or six pounds. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 LEAD PIPES. 
 
 I HAVE tried to find out who first made lead pipe without seam 
 and have not succeeded in getting the inventor's name, but have 
 seen a machine for casting small pipes. The date, 1639, was cast 
 upon it. This was called a " staffing and burning maclfee," and 
 consisted of an iron mould made in two halves, and a core or 
 mandrel of the same material, slightly longer than the mould. The 
 mould was about 21 inches long, and after being put together and 
 fastened with screw-clamps, it was placed on its end, as shown at 
 Figure 6, and melted lead poured into it. When the lead was set 
 the mould was opened and the piece of pipe drawn 
 upward on the mandrel, but not quite off it. The 
 mould was then replaced and more molten lead 
 poured in until it was full to overflowing, so that 
 the end of the first piece that was cast became 
 fused or melted and so joined to it. After this 
 became cool enough it was drawn upward, and 
 the whole operation repeated until a pipe was 
 made of the length required. This machine was 
 for making f-inch bore pipes. 
 
 For making larger pipes the lead was cast 
 or rolled into sheets, and then cut to the size 
 required and folded into the form of the pipe. 
 This was then tightly filled with moistened sand. 
 The edges of the lead to be joined were cleaned 
 or shaved the required width, and pieces of iron, 
 called " clams," placed on each side, so that the 
 seam was left the proper size. Or, sometimes the pipe was 
 buried in sand and a furrow left over the part to b& joined, with 
 weirs at intervals for excess of lead to flow away. Lead melted 
 and heated to redness was then poured quickly on the part to be 
 
 FiGUKS 6. 
 
28 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 Figure .7. 
 
 joined until it was fused, the superfluous molten metal flowing 
 away over the weirs, or, as some plumbers call them, the "gates." 
 After pouring lead on as described, and before it sets, it should 
 be probed with a piece of wood to make sure that the edges of 
 the lead pipe are melted, care being taken not to disturb the sand 
 core, as if that were done the pipe would be rough inside. 
 Where it is intended for use as a pump-barrel this would have an 
 injurious effect on the pump-bucket, and also prevent the proper 
 quantity of water beiiig discharged at each stroke of the handle, 
 by allowing part to escape past. The pipe should 
 .be laid on its side and carefully levelled before 
 pouring the lead on the seam, or it would be 
 thicker at one end than the other. After the lead 
 is set the sand is all cleaned off and the raised seam 
 trimmed up and left as shown in section. Figure 7. 
 This old way of making lead pipes for pump- 
 barrels is still followed in some parts of the 
 country, and also in certain factories for special 
 pipes for conveying certain kinds of acids, etc. 
 
 Bends of heavy lead are usually made in halves, and have a 
 seam "burnt" (as it is commonly called) on each side, and when 
 
 these bends are turned 
 in more than one direc- 
 tion, it follows that the 
 seams can only be made 
 in short sections. 
 
 Sometimes heavy 
 lead pipes are fitted and 
 joined together with 
 flanged ends and bolts, 
 and although lead pipes 
 of a light section can 
 have flanges tafted, they 
 are stronger with ends 
 cast on them. This is 
 done by filling the end 
 of the pipe for some dis- 
 FiiLHE.8„ tance with wet sand, as 
 
 wm 
 
LEAD PIPES. 29 
 
 at A, Figure 8, and then standing it upright with more sand on its 
 outside, with the necessary space indented to the size and form of the 
 flange required. The lead must be red hot and free from oxide, or 
 what is commonly called " dross," and must be poured as quickly as 
 possible until the end of the pipe is completely fused, the superfluous 
 molten lead flowing away as before described. Even after it is 
 supposed that the union is complete, the pouring should be continued 
 for some little time, as it frequently occurs that the part which can 
 be seen at B is fused long before the part at C, and hence the 
 pipe is weak just where a strain may be brought to bear when 
 making a bolted connection. It is always necessary to cast these 
 flanges a little thicker than required, as the lead shrinks in cooling, 
 and leaves the surface so rough that it requires trimming. When 
 pouring the lead on to the part to be united, good-sized ladles 
 should be used, and great care must be taken not to disturb the 
 sand by pouring from too great a height; doing this also cools 
 the lead. For making large work it is sometimes necessary for 
 two or three men to be pouring at the same time, and others 
 fetching more melted lead to take their places in pouring. There 
 must not be any delay, as the lead gives up its heat to the 
 surroundings so quickly that it is soon set. 
 
 The earliest record of any patent for making lead pipes appears 
 to have been granted, a.d. 1741, to James Creed, who invented a 
 machine " for cutting sheet-lead into any required breadth, for the 
 making of water-pipes of any diameter and strength, * * * 
 and the slips of lead so cut are turned up into pipes by means of 
 rollers of wood, iron, etc., * * * and at the same time the edges 
 are scraped fit for soldering by a tool fixed on the frame." 
 
 There must have been some improvement after this in the 
 making of lead pipes, for in the year a.d. 1790 a patent was granted 
 to John Wilkinson, whose specification says : " I cast the lead in 
 lengths, as is practised in the common way. This is put upon a 
 polished rod or round mandrel of iron, or any other metal, such 
 mandrels being made of different lengths and diameters, according 
 to the size that is wanted. This rod or mandrel, with the cast- 
 lead upon it, is put repeatedly through or between rollers with 
 grooves of different sizes, according to the external diameter 
 required, and extended to the length or thickness ordered, or drawn 
 
3° 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 through gauges or collars of different dimensions upon said mandrel, 
 ■each succeeding collar being less than the former, etc." 
 
 About seven years after the above patent was granted, a great 
 ■stride was made by Joseph Bramah, the inventor of the valve 
 water-closet, who took out a patent for preserving and drawing 
 ■off liquors. Among the instruments described are " sundry tubes," 
 ■and a method of making them. 
 
 On referring to this sketch of the pipe-making machine, 
 Figure g, it will be seen that it is literally a " lead-squirting 
 machine," a title for which, I think, we have to thank the 
 Americans, whose laconic description at once conveys to the mind 
 the process, and which requires very little more explanation. It 
 has been stated that Bramah never made pipes with his machine, 
 
 that being impossible, but 
 the idea originated with 
 him, and other people have 
 only improved upon it. 
 
 In the drawing, — A is 
 an iron melting pot ; B, an 
 iron or brass pump ; C, the 
 suction valve ; D, the mould 
 or tube ; E, the core or 
 mandrel ; F, the fire ; G G 
 are flues ; and H is the pipe 
 as it issues from the nozzle 
 of the mould. 
 
 The modern way of 
 making drawn-lead pipes, 
 from the smallest size used 
 up to 6 inches in diameter, 
 consists in filling a cylinder 
 the necessary flues) with 
 
 SECTION OF 
 BRAMAH'SPIPE PRESS 
 
 Figure 9. 
 
 ■(which is kept heated by a fire and 
 melted lead. 
 
 The bottom of the cylinder, which is movable and fits tightly 
 inside the cylinder, is attached to the piston of a hydraulic ram, 
 fed from an accumulator charged by pumps worked by a steam - 
 
 Note. — Figure 9 is incorrectly dra-wn. A slotted guide should be shown at 
 - instead of the pin or bolt. 
 
L£AD PIPES. 
 
 31 
 
 engine. The cylinder being charged with lead, and the engine 
 started, the bottom is forced upward, causing the lead to escape 
 through the die situated on the top. As the pipe issues from the 
 orifice, it would naturally fall sideways and "buckle"; to obviate 
 this, a cord is attached to the end of the pipe, and continued over . 
 a pulley fixed above the machine and kept taut by a man halving 
 hold of the other end. This is for pipes made aijd kept in str?.ight 
 lengths. Small-bore pipes, which are made in long lengths, are 
 slowly wound on a drum by a man, who turns the drum fast 
 or slow as the pipe issues from the machine. 
 
 In addition to pipes of a round section, there are manufacturers 
 who have machines for making them of a square section. This 
 square pipe is perfectly true and even in substance, and there is 
 no reason why any other shape should not be made, say, for 
 instance, with moulded front running parallel with the length. 
 Some architects prefer lead rain-water pipes to iron ones, but 
 they must either be content with plain 
 round pipes or else pay rather heavily 
 for hand-made ornamental ones, which 
 often prevents their being used. 
 
 Most pipe-machines have the 
 mandrel or core attached to the bottom of 
 the cylinder, as shown at Figure 10. 
 This mandrel gets bent at times, so that 
 it is nearer to one side of the die or 
 orifice than to the other, with the result 
 that the pipe, as it issues, is thicker in 
 substance on one side than the other. 
 As the strength of a chain is only equal 
 to its weakest link, so the strength of a 
 pipe is only equal to that of its weakest 
 side. Some makers, to obviate this, and 
 get the pipe perfectly true and even in 
 substance, put a bridge or guide-piece 
 inside the cylinder some little distance 
 from the top {see Figure 11, which is a 
 section on C C, Figure 10), so that the 
 mandrel may pass 'freely upward, but Figure 10 
 
 SECTIONS 
 
 I'VS/v 
 
32 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 cannot get moved sideways. By this means the pipe is made 
 
 more even, but it will not withstand such a bursting pressure, 
 
 on its inside, as the other pipe will. The reason for this is that 
 
 the lead when passing the guide-piece gets separated into two 
 
 portions. These join together again afterward, 
 
 but as the lead begins to lose its heat at this 
 
 point, and is not always fused, it is only joined 
 
 by compression ; so although the pipe, as it 
 
 issues from the die, looks perfectly even and in 
 
 good condition, it will often be found to split 
 
 when the plumber drives a tan-pin in the end. 
 
 The amount of force required when 
 
 making lead pipes is sometimes equal to a 
 
 pressure of thirty-five to fifty hundred-weight 
 
 oh the square inch, according to the size being made ; but 
 
 it is easily understood that there is a great loss of this power 
 
 by friction. To save this loss of power, a machine was invented 
 
 to minimize the friction. To gain this object, the bottom of the 
 
 cylinder, and the mandrel to it, was 
 firmly fixed, and the die, which was 
 attached to the top of the cylinder, was 
 forced downward, the lead escaping 
 upward through the die. The sectional 
 sketch. Figure 12, will illustrate what is 
 meant. 
 
 When pipes are made by the 
 machine. Figure 10, the enormous power 
 brought to bear compresses the lead as 
 xO closely and compactly as possible, but it 
 is doubtful if the machine last described 
 does this so effectually. 
 
 Sometimes lead pipes, as they issue 
 from the die, are passed through molten 
 tin and a resin flux, by which means 
 the lead becomes coated with tin. There 
 are other patent means by which a tin 
 pipe is covered with a lead pipe, 
 c Lead-encased tin pipe is made in 
 
 UIGURS I^ 
 
LEAD PIPES. 
 
 35 
 
 the same manner as the ordinary lead pipe, excepting that the 
 lead " slug " is cast with a hole through its centre, in which is 
 placed a core equal to the internal diameter of the pipe to be 
 made. The space between the core and the lead slug, which is left 
 large or small according as it is intended the substance of the tin 
 pipe shall be, is filled up with tin. When the whole is heated and 
 forced through the die it is found that the two metals issue in tlie 
 proper proportions, are perfectly true in section, and, on being cut 
 open and bent or twisted in any direction, cannot be separated. 
 
 The two metals do not mix and form an alloy, as would 
 appear probable at first sight, and when the specific gravities are 
 compared one would be apt to think that the lead would sink to 
 the bottom, but it is found possible to make this pipe of equal 
 substance both in cross and longitudinal sections. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 HAND-MADE PIPES. 
 
 We have already referred to drawn pipe and heavy pipes 
 with " burnt " seams. There are other ways of making them, and 
 I have specimens of strong i-J^-inch service pipes, as Figures 13 
 and 14, with " wiped " soldered seams. There appears to have 
 been two ways of shaving them ready for soldering, practised by 
 two different masters, who are reported to have been the best in 
 the trade — this was 70 or 80 years ago — and who appear to have 
 had almost a monopoly. A great deal of hand-made pipe is used 
 nowadays, but only of a large section, say, from 3 inches in 
 diameter upwards. When preparing to make this pipe the lead 
 
 Figure 13. 
 
 Figure 14, 
 
 is cut into strips, generally lo feet long, and the width equal to 
 the perimeter of the pipe to be made. The lead is then dressed 
 out perfectly flat. Most good tradesmen use a flapper, made out 
 of a remnant of sheet-lead, to avoid making tool marks on the lead. 
 The edges of the lead are then planed perfectly straight and parallel, 
 and " soiled " for about J-an-inch in width to prevent any 
 
HAND-MADE PIPES. 33 
 
 solder that might run through from tinning on the inner side. 
 The lead is then next folded round a wooden mandrel, this being 
 generally a little larger than the intended pipe. Care must be 
 taken not to make the edge of the lead ragged, and also to avoid 
 using the dresser as much as possible. A good plumber can 
 generally get the lead tight on the mandrel by rolling it back- 
 wards and forwards on the bench, and then taking the back side 
 of his dresser, which should not have any roughness, and rubbing 
 the edges of the lead down perfectly smooth. The mandrel is 
 then drawn out, and the edges of the lead soiled on the outside 
 for about 2 or 3 inches each side of the intended seam, and then 
 shaved with a gauge hook. Figure 15, to the desired width. For 
 small pipes, as 3-inch, about J-inch is shaved on each edge, 
 which makes a . J-inch seam, and for 4-inch the shaving is a 
 little wider. Some plumbers can draw 
 a i^-inch seam, but it is much easier 
 to make it if smaller. The shaved parts 
 are then " touched " — that is, a tallow 
 candle rubbed on to prevent oxidation 
 or tarnishing ; neatsfoot oil is used '°"^^ ''" 
 
 sometimes instead of the candle. It is a good plan to rub touch on 
 the soiled parts, as they sometimes have a little roughness to 
 which the solder clings. This also prevents the water used by 
 the " swabber " from softening the soil, so that it comes off. 
 
 Up to this part of the preparation the seam is gaping open"; 
 it is now pressed together and tacked. This is generally done 
 with a red hot plumber's iron, filed quite smooth, and a piece of 
 shaved lead, and the two edges of the pipe melted with the iron 
 at the same time, the mate holding something inside the pipe to 
 . prevent a hole being burned through. Some plumbers bum these 
 tacks about a foot apart all down the seam, and others only tack the 
 ■ends of the pipe ; whilst others again do not go to the trouble, but 
 tie them with pieces of copper wire, or fix wooden clamps to prevent 
 the ends of the seam gaping open so that the solder runs through. 
 
 When everything is prepared, the pipe, as described, and 
 fixed perfectly level from end to end ; the irons cleaned and 
 heated to a bright red, but not too hot, which would oxidize the 
 solder and convert part of it into dross, and so spoil the appearance 
 
 D 2 
 
36 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 of the seam ; the solder heated to the proper degree, so that it 
 can be poured on without burning holes through the pipe, and also 
 carefully skimmed of dross ; the " mate " with a bowl of clean 
 water and a small sponge, or a piece of lead, or other sheet-metal, 
 made in the form of a small cone. Figure 16, with a small hole 
 in the point over which he can place his finger 
 so as to let a small stream run at pleasure ; 
 the plumber begins by taking a ladleful of solder 
 in one hand (usually the right, few men can use 
 the left) and a hot iron in the other, and pours 
 on the seam. As soon as the solder has heated 
 the pipe sufficiently, the iron is drawn slowly 
 and carefully on each side of the seam so as to 
 melt off the superfluous metal, and cause the 
 part remaining to flow until it is perfectly smooth on its surface. 
 During the whole time that the iron is at work more metal is 
 being poured on by the plumber as he vsalks slowly backwards. 
 
 As soon as about 4 to 6 inches of the seam is made the mate 
 presses the sponge, or removes his finger from the orifice of the 
 cone described above, and which is commonly called a " swab," 
 and allows a small stream of water to flow, he slowly moving it 
 backwards and forwards across the soldered seam. A great deal of 
 practice is required to draw a seam with metal and irons. 
 Beginners, as a rule, watch their iron so carefully that they forget 
 to keep pouring on more solder, or they look to the ladle hand 
 so much that they forget to use the iron. Some plumbers seem 
 as if they never could use both hands at the same time, so that 
 their seams always look patchy, as if made in short sections. 
 Some men use a ladle with a small- hole in the lip for pouring, 
 so that the solder can only run as fast as necessary. 
 
 There are very few mates who can swab properly, and tha'c is of 
 as much importance as drawing the seam. If too much water is 
 put on it cools the work so that the solder sets too fast, or, if 
 the swabbing is done too close to the plumber it has the same 
 effect, also causing steam to get into his eyes so that he cannot 
 see properly. On the other hand, if the mate does not use enough 
 water, or does not follow up quick enough, the solder cracks, and, 
 at the same tiqie, the part opens where the metal is melted, and 
 
HAND-MADE PIPES. 37 
 
 some of it runs through and hangs down inside, which, if not 
 removed afterwards, causes obstructions round which passing 
 objects can cling. He must also pass his swab backward's and 
 forwards across the seam, as if he allows the water to fall on it 
 perpendicularly a depression is left on the surface of the solder. 
 
 The spare solder on each side of the seam sometimes clings 
 to the sides of the pipe. This should be pushed off with a piece 
 of wood so as not to scratch the soil. If this is not done a 
 channel is formed down which the water can run, and spoil the 
 plumber's heat, and if he should happen to pour any solder on 
 this water its sudden conversion into steam might • cause the metal 
 to blow and do the men an injury. The seam should be swabbed 
 at intervals of not more than 2 inches, and when it is done 
 regularly it looks very nice when finished, and even when the pipe 
 gets old and the seam as black as the lead, the swabbing can 
 still be seen. 
 
 When preparing the seam it should be shaved rather deep 
 so as not to leave a thin edge to the solder, Fijgure 17, and 
 when soldering care should be taken not to get too much heat on, 
 or the seam will not stand up bold and full. If the seam is badly 
 
 prepared, or if the soil gets scratched by rubbing the iron too 
 hard upon it, it is necessary to cut and trim the edges of the 
 solder, but this should be avoided as much as possible. If all 
 grease is removed off the lead, and care taken with the soiling, 
 there is no necessity to touch; it up afterwards. If the pipe is 
 to have a " wiped " seam it is prepared in the same manner as 
 
38 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 for drawing, but it is generally shaved a little wider. The plumber 
 pours as for drawing and wipes with his left hand, holding his 
 cloth between his thumb and two forefingers, and generally using 
 a small and rather thin cloth. The mate swabs as ior drawing, 
 but in this case a sponge is best to use, as it can be lightly passed 
 over any black, dirty-looking marks which the cloth sometimes 
 leaves on the solder. Some mates can make the seam look smart 
 by swabbing on alternate sides which gives a pretty appearance. 
 
 Figure 18. 
 
 In some parts of the country, instead of drawing seams with 
 irons and common plumbers' solder (of two parts by weight of 
 lead and one of tin), a finer kind of solder is used (containing a 
 
 FiGUBB 18. 
 
 greater proportion of tin), and a copper bit is used, but this is 
 generally looked upon as very inferior work, because the seams 
 are generally made small, and by inferior tradesmen, who, perhaps, 
 have not sufficient practice to draw seams in the manner described 
 
 above. 
 
 Pipe with soldered seam would last but a very short time, 
 that is, when in contact with some kinds of acids ; and even when 
 used as soil pipe the soldered seam is generally the first part to- 
 go, so sometimes the pipe seam is " burnt " up. This is done 
 with the aero-hydrogen blow-pipe, and is commonly known as 
 "patent burning;" some call it autogenous soldering. This is 
 very rarely done, as very few plumbers know how to do it. Nor 
 i* burning lilely to come into general practice, especially at the 
 
HAND-MADE PIPES. 39 
 
 present time when pipe-makers have got their machines to such 
 perfection that they guarantee pipes of equal substance throughout. 
 Neither is it aliyays convenient to carry a burning-machine about 
 from job to job. Some men don't care much about using it, there 
 being some little risk with the gas, and a great many say that 
 after using it for some time they cannot very well see to reac 
 small printed matter, showing that it has an injurious eflfect on 
 the eyes. 
 
 When preparing the seam for burning, the lead is turned on 
 a mandrel in the same manner as described for soldering seam 
 pipe, excepting that it is not necessary to soil any part, no flux 
 is required, and a strip of clean lead is held so as to melt on the 
 seam instead of solder. Most plumbers prefer the seamless 
 machine-made pipe, as it is much easier to bend. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PIPE BENDING AND ELBOWS. 
 
 To PROPERLY bend a piece of pipe it should be heated in the 
 throat and kept cool at the heel or outside of the bend. All bends 
 i-hould be made on the bench and not in their position. A great 
 many men think that to bend a ^-inch or f-inch pipe before fixing 
 IS a waste of time, as it can so easily be bent in its place. This 
 !S a great mistake, as when bending around corners, the pipe 
 generally buckles, and so contracts the water-way that a smaller- 
 sized one with the bend properly made would allow as much water 
 to pass through in a given time as the larger pipe with the 
 obstruction. This applies to either waste or service pipes ; in the 
 former case the bend should be larger rather than less in diameter, 
 for if a waste pipe should get choked by any means so that the 
 force pump or a cane will not remove the obstruction, and the 
 pipe has to be cut open, the cause of stoppage will be found at 
 the bends. 
 
 Before describing the usual modes, for pipe bending, just a 
 few words on the way that the pipes get ill-used. In the first 
 place, lead being very soft, it is rarely that pipes made of it come 
 into the plumber's hands in the condition in which they leave the 
 mills. Large sizes are generally laid on their sides and packed 
 over each other, so that the top ones bruise those beneath, 
 especially when they have to travel over rough roads for any 
 distance ; and even when conveyed by rail and securely packed 
 with straw, sawdust, or other padding, they often get flattened by 
 carelessness in moving the case about. Smaller-sized pipes, when 
 made into coils of 30 feet and upward, are rolled about, so that 
 the outside parts get flattened by the weight of the rest pressing 
 upon them, and this evil is aggravated if the coil is rolled over 
 any inequalities, such as stones, &c. To get these bruises out of 
 
PIPE BENDING AND ELBOWS. 4I 
 
 the pipe is the plumber's first care, as he cannot do so after it 
 is bent or in its position. Sometimes this forms a considerable 
 item in the day's work, and the man has, to work hard and yet 
 get no credit for it. T^he simplest way to ^get the pipe into shape 
 again, is to have a short tapering wooden mandrel, with one end 
 the same size as the pipe and the other smaller and rounded. 
 This is driven through the pipe, and should be followed by another 
 one made parallel. ' As this is being driven through, any projections 
 on the outside of the pipe should be dressed down, either by a 
 soft wooden dresser or a lead flapper, and in such a way that as 
 few tool marks as possible are left to disfigure the pipe. 
 
 Small-sized pipes, as a rule, are much thicker in proportion 
 than large ones, so that when they get bruised on one side there 
 is generally a corresponding bulging on the other; this bulging 
 can generally be dressed in, and the pipe made to return to its 
 original shape. 
 
 It is nearly always found necessary to straighten pipes, and 
 this should be done on the bench as far as possible, especially 
 when they are going to be fixed in a position where they can be 
 seen. If this is done in their place they frequently get bruised 
 on the back side, and soijietimes the plumber tries to knock them 
 straight, with the result that they get full of bruises and tool 
 marks and are otherwise disfigured. A piece of soft wood and a 
 hammer are best for straightening lead pipes so as not to leave 
 any tool marks. When pipes are going to be laid in a trench or 
 beneath flooring, where long easy bends will do, it may not be 
 necessary to spend much time on them ; but it matters not whether 
 they are service or waste pipes, or pump suctions, they should 
 always be fixed as straight as possible, and all bends must lay 
 flat or they may become air-bound. 
 
 If a small pipe is to be bent cold, it is sometimes a good plan 
 to slightly flatten the sides the reverse way to which it is going 
 to be bent, and then make the bend, taking care not to make it 
 too sharp so as to cripple the throat. 
 
 When bent cold, the usual result is that the pipe becomes 
 reduced in thickness at the heel of the bend, B, Figure 19 ; at 
 the same time it gets thicker in the throat, A ; whereas, if the 
 throat is heated first and the heel kept cold, we get it much thicker 
 
42 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 KlGURS ig. 
 
 at A, and B is scarcely affected at all, but remains its original 
 
 thickness. If the water-way 
 becomes reduced at the bend 
 of a small pipe, and it is 
 some distance in from the 
 end, there is no means of 
 getting it out ; but as a rule 
 small pipes can be bent to a 
 larger radius in proportion to 
 their size than large pipes, so 
 it is scarcely ever necessary 
 to cripple them by making 
 them too sharp. If the bend 
 is near the end of the pipe 
 the throat can be worked up 
 with a hammer and bent piece 
 of round iron called a bolt. When starting to make a bend of 
 this kind the bolt is generally used to pull the ends of the pipe 
 round, with the result that the pipe is almost invariably cut with 
 it. Sometimes the piece is torn off at A, Figure 20. After it is 
 pulled round, the bolt has its end pushed under the buckle, B, 
 
 and is then hammered 
 so as to force it out- 
 wards. If the end of 
 the pipe is pulled too 
 far it has to be pushed 
 back again, as there is 
 no room to get the bolt 
 in ; or, if the bolt is 
 driven in with the 
 hammer, the lead is 
 worked into a buckle 
 instead of being distri- 
 buted sideways into the 
 cheeks. On looking at 
 the sketch, Figure 21, 
 it will be seen that the plumber cannot get his tool under the 
 buckle shown by dotted lines, so that part, instead of being worked 
 
 F:G-JRE 20. 
 
PIPE BENDING AND ELBOWS. 
 
 43 
 
 up to G, IS driven into lumps at D. A sharp bend cannot well be 
 made at one bending, so it is much better to make it in two. 
 Some plumbers have steel 
 bolts, but a good tough 
 iron one is better, as the 
 hammer does not glide 
 off so easily, and neither 
 does it spoil the hammer- 
 face so soon. The end 
 of the bolt should be 
 quite smooth and per- 
 fectly round, so as not to 
 make indentions inside 
 the pipe, and should be 
 as large as can be got 
 
 into the pipe. If the bolt is a good length it does not jar the 
 hand and hurt the wrist so much as when a short one is used. 
 Sometimes a joint is made at right angles to the pipe at the extreme 
 end, and is commonly 
 called a knuckle- 
 joint. To prepare the 
 pipe for this, a piece 
 is generally cut out of 
 the side, as shown at 
 Figure 22 ; the part 
 at A is worked up 
 
 with the hammer and bolt, and B bent upward, which causes 
 the sides to bulge out. These sides are dressed or worked up 
 (with a small hand dummy 
 held inside if the pipe is 
 large enough for it) so as 
 to draw the lead out and 
 prevent it becoming too 
 thick, so that when the 
 soldered joint is made, it 
 may not look heavy and 
 clumsy. When made, the figuse «• 
 
 bend presents the appearance shown in sketch, Figure 23. The 
 
 Figure 22, 
 
44 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 foregoing description applies to bends made on pipes varying 
 from i inch to 2 inches in diameter, but is sometimes applied 
 to larger-sized pipes. 
 
 When I J or 2-inch pipes are used fol 
 ventilating purposes, as a rule they are ol 
 light substance, although some people make 
 no distinction between a waste and an air 
 pipe, and use the same strength for each. 
 But when a light pipe has to be bent to 
 a small radius or sweep, it is very difficult 
 to do so without crippling. As the bolt 
 can't reach the bend, and the pipe is too 
 small in which to work a dummy, there 
 is only one recourse, and that is by driving 
 through a series of boxwood balls, commonly 
 called " bobbins.' A small one is sent 
 first, and each successive one is larger, 
 until the last, which is of the same diameter 
 as the inside of the pipe. Short pieces of 
 wood, rather smaller than the pipe, are 
 driven after the bobbins, and these are 
 called " followers," and the whole are forced 
 forward by a series of blows with a wooden 
 rod if some distance in, but if not far from 
 the end a short piece of rounded wood is 
 pushed in, and driven with blows from a 
 hammer or mallet. Instead of forcing the 
 bobbins through in the manner described, 
 an iron or lead ball is sometimes allowed 
 to fall on them. This necessitates the pipe 
 being placed upright, so that the ball may 
 fall and so generate sufficient force to drive 
 the bobbins onward. The pipe has then 
 to be turned the other end upward for the 
 ball to roll out for using again. This is very tedious work, and it 
 is very rarely that a good plumber adopts this system of making 
 bends. They (the bobbins and followers) should never be used 
 excepting by a good tradesman, and he, as a rule, can make his 
 
PIPE BENDING AND ELBOWS. 
 
 45 
 
 bends without their aid. Figure 24 shows that the whole of the 
 force required to drive the bobbin round the bend is spent on the 
 heel at E, so that instead of forcing the throat, G, outward, the 
 bobbins strain the outside so that the lead is stretched tO the 
 utmost limit, and sometimes a large hole is made. A good trades- 
 man, who knows how to use bobbins properly, will keep dressing 
 the part at E with a soft hornbeam dresser, as his mate drives 
 them through, and he hits good smart blows so as to force the 
 part at G outward ; a box dresser used for this would cut the 
 lead. By wanning G it comes out much easier. In referring Jo 
 what was said above, when describing bends made with the hammer 
 cmd bolt, and on looking at the position of the bobbins in sketch, 
 it will be noticed that if the plumber is in too much of a hurry 
 and pulls his bend around too sharp, that the lead wLU be driven 
 into a buckle just below G. When this occiurs, no more time 
 should be wasted upon it, especially if the plumber has already 
 made the bend, K, so that he cannot take them out and drive 
 from the other end. Even when the bobbins are past the bend, 
 a considerable number of followers must be sent after them, or 
 else from the other end, so as to drive them back again and out 
 of the pipe. 
 
 It does not matter how skilled the plumber is, he cannot always 
 depend upon his followers going as he wishes. If he has them 
 
 H 
 
 FiGUKE 26. 
 
 Figure 23. 
 
 too long they will get jammed in the bend, making it thin at the 
 heel at H, Figure 25, and if he has them too short they get angled, 
 as those at J, Figure 26. If they fit too tight the plumber cannot 
 get them out. They ought to be so small that they will fall out 
 of the pipe when it is held up ; and then again, if they are too 
 small they wedge together inside the pipe, and the -more they are 
 
46 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 driven the tighter they get. Or perhaps one bobbin will split into 
 halves, and the only way to remove them is to cut a slit in the 
 pipe which has to be soldered over afterwards. When a plumber 
 has made a bent pipe with bobbins and followers he should be 
 careful to test if the pipe is clear of them, as it is no easy matter 
 to get them out when the pipe is fixed, especially after water- has 
 passed through and caused them to swell. If three or four bends 
 are to be made on one piece, say a lo-foot length of pipe, all the 
 above evils are aggravated, and it requires about a bushel-basketful 
 of these things to force the bobbin. A, Figure 27, through the 
 whole length, and at every bend and turn in the pipe, one of 
 
 Figure 27. 
 
 them is sure to go wrong. On the whole, this way of bending 
 lead pipes is not to be recommended, and should not be practised 
 more than can be avoided. Another v/ay of using bobbins is : 
 have them perforated and strung on a strong cord. This is attached 
 to a winch, and the bobbins are dragged through the pipe, pushing 
 out all bruises, &c., as it passes. If three or four bends are in 
 the piece of pipe, care must be taken or the cord will sometimes 
 cut through the throat of the bends 
 
 It has been stated that it is a good plan to make the throats 
 of the bends hot, as the buckles work out much easier. There 
 are various ways of doing this : sometimes wood shavings are burnt 
 under the part to be heated, or inside if the pipe is large enough ; 
 or if gas is convenient, the pipe can be held over a flame, or a 
 flexible tube and nozzle or jet can be used. To test the heat of 
 the pipe — which should never be allowed to get hotter than about 
 250° to 300° Fahr. (lead melts at about 617° Fahr., and is brittle 
 at a much less heat than that) — pass a wet rag or sponge over it, 
 or drop water on. If this water boils and dances about in globules, 
 the pipe is about the right heat, but if the ebullition is so violent 
 that the water will not stay on, but jumps oif, so to speak, it is 
 
PIPE BENDING AND ELBOWS. 
 
 47 
 
 too hot, and the lead will be found so brittle as sometimes to 
 break, especially if the pipe is not made of pure but out of old 
 lead, with which is, perhaps, mixed other metals, such as tin 
 from old solder, zinc, antimony from old type metal, &c., &c. A 
 much better way to heat the pipe for bending is to pour a ladleful 
 of melted lead on the part, taking care not to have it too hot, 
 and letting it lay there for a few seconds. This heats the pipe 
 just where it is required, and does not make it so black and 
 disfigured as when a flame is used to heat it. It is not a good 
 plan to card-wire a bend to take out the tool-marks ; a little water 
 and fine sand (not coarse grit) is all that is required to get off 
 any stain marks ; the tool marks should be planished out with a 
 smooth-faced boxwood dresser. A good plumber does not make 
 more tool marks than he can help, and works them out as he 
 proceeds. There is a certain amount of tact required when making 
 bends, as sometimes a soft dresser is required, and -at other times 
 a hard boxwood one. 
 
 Pipes 3 inches and upwards in diameter are bent rather 
 differently, in some respect, to those of a smaller size, and the 
 throat, which becomes depressed in the act of bending, can be 
 worked out again from the inside with a long rod with a lump on 
 
 the end, commonly 
 called a " dummy." 
 Some men prefer, 
 for a dummy, a rod 
 of J or 1-inch iron, 
 with an iron bulb like 
 a plumber's soldering 
 iron on the end, and 
 an eye or loop turned 
 on the other end as C, Figure 28, so that it can be turned side- 
 ways when required. Very little command can be had over the 
 plain round rod, which slips and turns in the hand when using, 
 and the hand also becomes cramped by long usage of the dummy, 
 so that it cannot be used in a proper manner. As shown in the 
 sketch, the dummy is in the position necessary for working up the 
 throat, but to work the cheeks out it should be turned sideways, 
 so that the thick part of the bulb is used, and not the point, as 
 
 Figure 28. 
 
48 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 this ■w<^ald make indentions inside the pipe, and each of these 
 would have a corresponding bump on the outside, entailing extra 
 labour to work them out so that they should not be seen. The 
 reason that iron bulbs are liked is that they can be placed in the 
 fire and heated, and so help to keep the lead pipe warm during the 
 operation of dummying; they also keep their shape better than 
 any other kind, and can be bent or straightened as required. 
 
 If a plumber always had to carry the whole of the tools he 
 might want at his work, he would require a strong man indeed 
 for his mate, for as dummies require to be various lengths in the 
 shaft or handle, and as large pipes require them to be heavier 
 than small ones, it follows that these same tools would be a fair 
 load, without any others, for a man to carry, so that as a rule 
 they are rarely used made of all iron. Should one be required at a job, 
 it is generally made out of a piece of iron rod, and if that is not 
 to be had, a piece of f-inch or f-inch iron gas barrel or tubing. 
 Iron rod -is the best, because of being able to make the hand loop 
 on the end. The other end can be jagged or cut with a chisel, 
 and then tinned as at A, Figure 28. To cast a bulb on the rod 
 a mould is made in moistened sand, or a piece of lead pipe is 
 soiled inside, worked to the required shape and then buried in 
 sand. The jagged end of the rod is then held in the proper 
 position in the mould while molten plumbers' solder is poured in. 
 The mould is then taken olF and any roughness filed off the bulb, 
 so as to make it smooth. If the dummy head is cast in sand there 
 is generally a square shoulder left at B. Sometimes this is cut off 
 with a hammer and chipping knife, but it is much better to melt 
 it off with a heated iron or copper bit, as being less liable to 
 loosen the head on the handle, and then made smooth with a file, 
 as any roughness would injure the inside of the pipe. Gas piping 
 at the best is only a make-shift dummy rod, as in spite of the end 
 being tinned, the bulb of solder will soon work loose, and become 
 almost useless. Gas pipe soon breaks off against the bulb by 
 frequent bendings and straightenings to suit the angle of the bend 
 being made. 
 
 The best way to commence making a bend in a large size 
 pipe — say 3-inch, ^(.-inch, or 5-inch, and of the ordinary substance 
 as six po,und, seven pound, or eight pounds — is to slightly bend it 
 
PIPE BENDING AND ELBOWS. 
 
 49 
 
 Figure 29. 
 
 cold, and tljen drive in (not work) the bulges at the sides with a 
 
 soft dresser ; then heat the throat, keeping the heel of the bend 
 
 as cool as possible by wetting with cold water. Slightly sprinkle 
 
 the throat with water, or expectorate on it, to test its heat as 
 
 before described. Next get astride the pipe and take the back 
 
 side of the dresser, or something similar, with a piece of carpet or 
 
 other padding, and press on 
 
 the place where the bend 
 
 is to be made, the mate at 
 
 the same time lifting up 
 
 the end. The pipe is then 
 
 quickly laid, on its side on 
 
 the bench and the bulged 
 
 part driven in and toward 
 
 the heel. Figure 29 — A 
 
 shows how a section of the 
 
 bend looks when first pulled 
 
 up, and B when it has been 
 
 dressed as described. The 
 
 illustration B shows that this driving in of the bulged part makes 
 
 room for the dummy to work. The pipe is now again heated in 
 
 the throat and a block placed, as shown at Figure 30, to prevent it 
 
 becoming straight again. 
 
 The mate then begins 
 
 with his dummy to work 
 
 or boss up the throat ; 
 
 he starts first to get up 
 
 the centre part, and if he 
 
 is not carefully watched 
 
 he sometimes allows the 
 
 back stroke of his dummy-head to knock against' the heel of the 
 
 bend and so make that part very thin. A good mate never allows 
 
 his tool to touch the back side, but keeps the weight of it in his 
 
 hand, so to speak, and gives a succession of quick, sharp Mrokes 
 
 upwards. 
 
 All this wants doing as quickly as possible while the pipe is 
 hot, but it should not be hit very hard with the dummy, as this 
 would result in the lead being driven up into buckles instead of 
 
 Figure 30. 
 
5° 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 being worked into an uniform substance. While this is being done 
 it will be found that a crease will form at C C, Figure 30. The 
 plumber drives this away, or works it in with a boxwood dresser 
 with a rounded face, at the same time as the dummy hits it inside. 
 The pipe should be frequently tilted sideways, so that part of the 
 superfluous lead should get worked outward into the cheeks or 
 sides of the bend, instead of gathering in substance in the centre. 
 The rounded part of the bulb should be used as much as possible, 
 to avoid making the inside of the pipe rough, and unnecessary 
 tool marks on the outside. Some plumbers can make a right-angled 
 bend on a 4-inch pipe at two heats (a bend has been made in 
 one heat), but it is much better to have three or even four heats, 
 and on cutting open this bend it will be found to be the best and 
 the most equal in substance. 
 
 After working out all the bruises, and, as far as possible, the 
 tool marks after each bending, the pipe is pulled up again, and 
 
 the whole operation described above is 
 repeated until a bend of the required 
 angle is made. At an exhibition of 
 plumbers' work, held at Kensington some 
 time ago, were about eight or ten lead 
 syphon traps made out of 3^-inch lead 
 soil pipe, shaped as in sketch. Figure 31, 
 made by different men, and I don't think 
 there was one that was any less in 
 iGUKE 31. substance at X than an3nvhere else, thus 
 
 showing what can be done with no tools but dummy and dresser. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 PIPE BENDING AND EL.BOW S—conlinued. 
 
 When, in spite of all the pains taken to properly make a bend 
 on a soil pipe, it is found that the heel is thinner than the ordinary 
 substance of the pipe, the throat can be worked or dummied out 
 a little more, and the heel dressed in so as to thicken it. It is 
 possible to so dummy up the throat of the bend as to make the 
 lead as thin as a wafer at that part, especially when the pipe is 
 pulled up too much at a time, so that there is only just room 
 for the dummy to work in the centre after the cheeks are flattened. 
 When this occurs it will be found that the lead has gathered in a 
 hard, thick mass about half-way between the throat and the cheeks. 
 It is a good plan to make bends a little larger in diameter than 
 the rest of the pipe, and then,- Mien as manj' tool marks as possible 
 have been worked out with the dresser, use strips of six or seven- 
 pound lead about i^ to 2 inches wide as flappers, keeping one 
 piece, which will bend itself by using, for the throat, and another 
 piece for the heel of the bend, and so work in the surplus size to 
 that of the pipe itself. Figure 32 is a good shape for a bending 
 dresser, with the back (or top) side a little 
 more rounding than the face, so that the back 
 can be used for the centre of the throat of 
 
 Figure 32. 
 
 the bend, and the face for the hollow of the 
 
 sides. For the back and sides an ordinary flat-faced dresser can 
 be used, but it should not have any sharp edges, as those for lead 
 laying, and it should be used length- 
 ways as much as possible, so that any 
 marks made by the grain of the wood 
 may correspond with those on the 
 pipe made by the die of the pipe- 
 making machine. When a bend is 
 
 properly made, the die marks will be |^^ ,-^^^_ W ^ 
 
 found as illustrated at A, Figure 33, figure 33. 
 
 B 2 
 
52 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 showing that instead of the metal being driven into a body in 
 the throat it has been distributed sideways. 
 
 It is generally acknowledged by most plumbers that a tiap to 
 be kept clean must not exceed in diameter the size of the inlet 
 and waste pipes, so that when a i-inch waste pipe is used the 
 trap should be of the same size. To make a i-inch S trap is a 
 very troublesome bit of bending. The first bend, when it is like 
 a U, is all right, because it can be reached with a bolt and hammer 
 from both ends to work up the throat, but when the second bend 
 has to be made these tools are useless. The best plan is to make 
 the U first and let that be the outgo end of the trap, and then 
 make the other bend, being careful to always keep the sides so fiat 
 that the distance between the throat and heel is the same as the diameter 
 of the pipe itself. By the time this is done the waterway will be 
 very much contracted, but one object is gained — the substance of 
 metal in the heel is kept nearly, not quite, as it was originally, 
 and the throat perhaps has buckled a little. Now cast a flat lead 
 cake with a sinking equal in depth to half the 
 size of the outside of the pipe, and the same 
 width and shape as the trap, as shown at 
 Figure 34. Cast another one, so that when 
 they are put together there is a space for the 
 trap to lie in. These castings should be of a 
 FiouEE 34. good thickness and weight to resist any 
 
 movement ; weights can be placed upon them afterwards, or a 
 wooden strut from the ceiling can be used so as to keep the flask 
 quite tight and -closed. Place the partly-made trap inside the flask, 
 fasten down tight, and drive through the trap a small box, or 
 other hard wood, well-greased bobbin, then a larger one, and so 
 on until fhe pipe is the same bore throughout. These bobbins 
 will have pushed out the flattened cheeks and any buckles that 
 were in the throat, and at the same time the heel will have been 
 affected very little. This last bend should be the bottom of the 
 trap, as it is usual to solder a brass cap and screw in that part, 
 and if the lead should have been reduced in substance, this would 
 strengthen it. 
 
 By using heavier pipe, and extending the bends, the trap can be 
 made very well without going to the above trouble, but traps made in 
 
PIPE BENDING AND ELBOWS. 53 
 
 this way do not look so workmanlike, and hold more water. This is a 
 consideration where only driblets pass down. Traps with a long 
 raking outlet, and not well supported, are apt to drop at the outlet 
 and lose their seal. 
 
 Sometimes, when it is necessary to make bends of a large 
 radius on a 3-inch or 4-inch pipe, it is a good plan to fill it 
 with sand. First of all, fit a wooden plug in one end of the pipe 
 and drive in four or five clout nails to prevent its coming out ; 
 stand the pipe on its end and gradually fill with sand, free from 
 stones or shingle, and keep ramming the whole time so that it is 
 tightly packed. When the pipe is full, fit in another plug and nail 
 as described for the other end. Lay the pipe with the ends on 
 blocks or trestles, then carefully, with the naked hand, press down- 
 wards where the bend is required ; keep the hands continually 
 moving to a fresh position, so as to get the sweep gradually, and 
 not by a series of bends. The sides will be found to bulge out- 
 ward a little, but they can be pressed in by laying a soft board on 
 them, and using a lever, so as to squeeze them in. The pipe being 
 full of sand, as the sides go in the throat and heel go out, and the 
 bend will look clean and smart, and free from tool marks when finished. 
 
 If the bend is required to what might be called a medium 
 radius, and with straight ends, it is a little more trouble. The pipe 
 has to be loaded as described, and then lashed on to a board or 
 plsink with strong cord or a small rope, with pieces of hoop iron 
 arranged something like a cart spring between it and the pipe, 
 Figure 35, so as not to cripple the pipe, and also insure its bending 
 
 Figure 35. 
 
 in the required place. The plultiber, after lashing and arranging 
 the pipe, stands on the plank arid lifts up the end of the pipe 
 a little. If he tries to do too much at a time he will most likely 
 
54 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 pull it m two or tear it across the outside of the bend. After a 
 slight pull he must unlash it and lay it on its side, and dress the 
 bulged part in, using felt or a piece of carpet, or sometimes his 
 cloth cap, if he wears one, to prevent the dressers marking the 
 pipe. He then relashes it as before, taking care that it is not 
 fastened in exactly the same place, but an inch or two on one side 
 of it, and gives another pull up, and then dresses the sides in 
 again, and so repeats the process until the bend is completed. 
 These bends can be made to look clean and smart, but they are 
 usually very thin on the back side. If they are going to be fixed 
 thus, -|, with the bend upward, it does not much matter, but when 
 they are to be fixed with the bend downwards, thus L, everything 
 that comes down the pipe helps to drive the bottom, which has 
 already been reduced in substance, downward, and in time perhaps, 
 a hole is made. Water bends are not good. If the pipe is filled 
 with water, and the ends soldered over, we still get a weak part 
 on the outside of the bend, so that we may come to the conclusion 
 that those made in the ordinary way, by heating and contracting 
 the lead in the throat with the dummies, are the best, as the heel 
 or outside of the bend can be kept the original substance, and if 
 required can even be made thicker by a good plumber, for what 
 is the good of having seven or eight -pound pipe, if in certain places 
 it is only equal to five or six-pound lead ? It might as well be all 
 that substance throughout, and besides there, rw.ould- be an economy 
 in materials. 
 
 It has been stated that some hand-made traps made out of 
 ordinary 3.J-inch soil pipe were exhibited by working plumbers 
 
 at South Kensington. There 
 were also others made, as in 
 Figure 36, in all sizes of 
 pipe, by two working master 
 plumbers, who stated that 
 they always used them, made 
 
 Figure 36. a. r ■ t ■ r n ■ 
 
 out 01 4-mch pipe, for fixmg 
 under water closets. There were several remarks made as to 
 the merits of these traps, and also as to the time it takes to 
 make them. Opinions were divided as to the S, Figure 31, but a 
 good many thought the knot was easier to make, for the reason 
 
PIPE BENDING AND ELBOWS. 55 
 
 that the bend is continued in the knot, while in the other it has 
 to be reversed for the second half, by doing which the , first bend 
 is partly pulled open again. It was considered by some that a 
 light hand dummy with iron handle could be so bent as to easily 
 reach any part of the bend in the' knot, whilst there is great 
 difficulty Sn doing so with th& S. One man had the misfortune to 
 get a bruise in his trap that he could not reach with the dummy, 
 so he had to resort to the old dodge of soldering on a copper wire 
 loop, and pulling the bruise out, after which the wire was un- 
 soldered, and the marks cleaned off the lead trap. 
 
 . Some men who do not have much practice in bending so as 
 to become, experts, are in the habit of making bends in two halves 
 and soldering a seam on each side — 
 Figure 37 is one-half. These bends can 
 be quickly made, and sometimes it is 
 convenient to do them so. For instance, 
 perhaps a bend is wanted to connect the 
 eaves gutter of the house to the down 
 pipe, and be made to fit around the 
 cornice or sailing course of brickwork. 
 To make these bends the lead is cut out figure 37. 
 
 the proper width and rather longer than required, the edges are 
 then planed straight and the lead dressed rounding on a wood 
 mandrel or on the plain part of the iron rain-water pipe if no 
 mandrel 'is to be. had. It is then bent as shown in sketch, which 
 causes the sides at that part to open out flat. The throat is then 
 worked in at A, so that it is hollowed in the same way as the 
 straight parts, taking care not to make it too sharp and get it 
 into a hard, thick mass, but keeping it well rounded. Some men 
 get working up the sides, with the result that they are very much 
 reduced in substance. It is much better to have the throat 
 thicker than the sides thinner. When this half is made, the other 
 half is roundied and then placed by th^ side of the first, to mark 
 the proper distance ; it is then bent the reverse way to the other, 
 which causes the sides to open out. These sides have to be worked 
 in, holding either a hand dummy or a mallet head inside so as 
 to draw out the lead into a substance equal to the rest of the 
 pipe, instead of getting it thicker. 
 
56 PLUMBING PRACTICE, 
 
 If for a swan-neck or double bend, the last piece is then bent 
 and worked — as before described for the first piece — to form the 
 throat of the second bend, after making which the other half is 
 bent and fitted to it. The edges of the parts that have been 
 worked are then rasped to fit each other quite closely so that no 
 solder will run through ; they are then soiled and shaved with the 
 gauge hook in the usual way and soldered. The edges of the 
 inside of the pieces should be soiled so that should any solder run 
 through it will not tin to the lead, and so can be easily knocked or 
 melted off with a hot iron or copper bit. Before making these bends, 
 the required shape should be set out on the bench with chalk, so 
 that the work can be laid on it to mark the distance. A good 
 many men, the first time they attempt them, make them too short 
 between the bends. 
 
 Ship plumbers have very awkward bends to make sometimes. 
 They generally use much heavier pipe, that is, of thicker substance 
 than that used by plumbers on a building. Although bends made 
 of heavy pipe do not cripple so much in the throat, it is harder 
 work to make them. Some pipes have to be ih'ade tapering, or 
 sometimes a ,cone with a bend on it is required. These are generally 
 made in two pieces and then burned together, as described in an 
 earlier paper. If thiey are well burned the seam can be cut off 
 and cleaned up, and then burnished with the back of the boxwood 
 dresser, so that when finished the work has the appearance of 
 being made of one piece of lead. 
 
 There are several ways, besides those described, of making 
 bends on soil pipes. For instance, several small V pieces can be 
 cut out to form the throat, and a wide soldering wiped over 
 them, or else solder them with a copper bit and clean them up 
 afterwards, so as to make them look like a properly made bend. 
 A slit can be cut in the pipe where it is intended the throat 
 of the bend shall come ; the slit is then pulled open and the 
 pipe bent, which causes the sides to bulge out. This bulging 
 is then carefuUy worked in and closed, and a wiped seam is 
 imade over it, or it is soldered with fine solder and cleaned 
 off The above ways of making bends cannot be compared, 
 eithei for strength or appearance, to those made in the ordinary 
 way with dummy and dresser. 
 
PIPE BENDING AND ELBOWS. 
 
 57 
 
 In the shop that I was apprenticed in we used to bend some 
 of our Soil pipes ; at the same time, we used to make as many 
 elbows as bends, but now-a-days a man would be put down as an 
 indifferent tradesman if he was seen making an elbow. Although 
 I do not advocate them, one made in a proper manner is a verjr 
 good substitute where, for want of the proper tools and convenience, 
 a bend would be difficult to make. 
 
 When a man is going to make a bend, the ordinary way is 
 for hihi to first of all make a template, or set a bevel to the 
 required angle — he does the same for an elbow ; he then cuts a V 
 piece out of the side of the pipe where he requires it, and then 
 •bends, it up and places his bevel to see if he has cut it right — he 
 makes the remark that it is better to cut twice than cut too much 
 the first time — and so, working by rule of thumb, he cuts another 
 small piece off and tries again. Sometimes he has to cut two or 
 three times before he gets it right, and then, probably, by bending 
 the pipe so many times, he finds that he has nearly torn or broken 
 it in two iat the heel. By setting out the bend with chalk on the 
 bench or floor, all this could be avoided. Consider the illustration. 
 Figure 38, as representing the required angle — the lines are 
 supposed to be the outside 
 
 ■of the pipe. Now, if the 
 
 pipe is laid between the e 
 
 lines E F, the throat G, 
 
 can, by placing a small 
 
 set square against it, be 
 
 marked on the pipe ; make 
 
 a mark on the back side, 
 
 represented at H ; now lay 
 
 the pipe so that it is 
 
 between the lines K L, 
 
 ^and so that H is in its original position ; transfer G on to 
 
 the pipe again. Now, if the V piece, as represented by the three 
 
 marks on the pipe, G H G, is sawn out, and the pipe bent 
 
 ;SO that the opening would be closed, it will be found to be the 
 
 required angle, and if it is going to be soldered with fine solder 
 
 :and copper bit, that would be all that is required; but if the 
 
 joint is going to be wiped, a piece must be left on — as shown 
 
 Figure 38. 
 
58 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 
 Figure 39. 
 
 by dotted lines, Figure 39 — wiiich must be slightly opened outward 
 „ for the other side- to enter. 
 
 The back side of the pipe 
 should not be cut, but should 
 be left as §hown at M. After 
 the piece is cut out, the pipe 
 can be soiled and shaved (before it is bent) as it lays on the bench ; 
 it should then be touched and bent round and laid on the lines, so 
 as to ensure its being the right angle. It will be found that by 
 bending the pipe, the part M will have bulged out a little ; this 
 must be worked in by a few gentle taps of the dresser, and if 
 the extremity of the heel has flattened, that must be worked out 
 
 from the inside with a dummy ; or this 
 flattening can be anticipated, and it can 
 be worked out with the mallet head or 
 hand dummy before the opening is quite 
 closed. If both sides of the opening are 
 worked out a little in the throat, the 
 
 r^\ / elbow when made would be more like a 
 
 \j/ bend in shape. Figure 40. After the 
 
 pipe is placed at the required angle, and 
 Figure 40. before it is moved off the lines, it should 
 
 be " tacked." The best way is to pour a little melted plumbers' 
 solder on the upper side of the part to be soldered so that it 
 "tins " to it,, and let it remain until set. ,, The elbow is thea turned 
 over and placed on two pieces of i^ or 2-inch boards, long enough 
 for the pipe to roll on without slipping off, and high enough for 
 
 the spare solder to 
 drop clear and out of 
 the plumber's way,. 
 Figure 41. The plum- 
 ber then begins to 
 wipe the joint as it 
 lays, and as soon as 
 he has done 2 or 3 
 Figure 41. inches his mate swabs 
 
 it with cold water, taking care not to cool it too much or to go 
 too near the part the plumber is working upon. The mate then 
 
PIPE BENDING AND ELBOWS. 
 
 59 
 
 raises the end of the pipe marked N in a slow and careful manner, 
 and slightly presses it toward the throat so that it shall not open.. 
 As he slowly -mayes. it the plumber keeps wiping until he has got 
 right round. 
 
 Some plumbers make this joint at two heats by pouring solder 
 on one side and wiping it, and then by turning it over and doing 
 the other half. When the joint is wiped at one heat and no iron 
 used, the cloth should be lightly pressed on the part that is 
 finished while pouring on more solder ; if this is not done, the tin 
 out of the melted solder runs back and sets 
 in little bright projections on the surface 
 of the joint and makes it look very unsightly. 
 Sometimes a little V piece, P, Figure 42, is 
 notched on the entering side of the opening 
 before closing the elbow for soldering, so 
 that it may pass outside of the other, and 
 so prevent the bend being pressed into a 
 sharper angle while being rolled round and 
 soldered, but, with care, this can be done 
 without, and so avoid leaving an edge inside for hair or anything 
 of that kind to cling to, and also a possibility, if it should be cut 
 a little too far, of solder running through. 
 
 The pipe -should always socket in the direction of the current, 
 and if the V piece is cut out as directed 
 there would not be any such obstruction ■ 
 as illustrated at O, Figure 43, which 
 shows it socketed the wrong way, in 
 addition to the obstruction formed by 
 not cutting out sufficient in the throat. '"*°'" «• 
 
 If the elbow is made on a length of soldered seam pipe, the seam 
 should always be arranged to be at the side in preference to either 
 the throat or the heel of the elbow. 
 
 Figure 42. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 PIPE BENDING AND E'LBOWS—coutimied. 
 
 One of the most necessary things for a plumber to have a 
 knowledge of is geometry. He may not have time to take up 
 Euclid to make a thorough study of it, but that is no reason why 
 he should not have an elementary knowledge sufficient to be of 
 use to him in his trade. For instance, instead of making templates 
 for his bends, he can set them out as described in last chapter. 
 If he wants to make a taper pipe out of a piece of lead, he can 
 cut it out and prepare it for soldering before bending it into the 
 required shape. He can also cut out pieces of lead to fit any part 
 of a roof, or a spire, either when conical or octagonal, or any 
 other number of sides. This part in geometry is called the develop- 
 ment of surfaces, and is really very simple, although generally 
 looked upon as very difficult. He can also take a piece of sheet 
 lead and cut it out the required shape for an elbow, and then soil, 
 shave and fold it up ready for soldering without any previous fitting. 
 
 Supposing that he wants to make an elbow out of a piece of 
 lead, at an angle of 120°, and the pipe to be 4 inches in diameter. 
 He first of all cuts the lead out the required size. If the elbow 
 is to be, say, 12 inches long each side of the heel, we have one 
 dimension, so the lead must be 2 feet long. The width we 
 arrive at by multiplying the diameter, 4 inches, by 3* 1416, but for 
 those who do not clearly understand decimals, multiply by 3|. So 
 we get 4 inches by 3-1416, which gives i2'5664 inches, or a little 
 over I2-J inches ; so to make the required elbow we want a piece 
 of lead 2 feet long, and, say i2f inches wiae. Now, take a pair 
 of compasses with a pencil point, and set them' to a radius of half 
 the diameter of the intended pipe, viz., 2 inches, setting them a 
 little full to allow for thickness of the lead, and describe a circle 
 on a clean board with the face well chalked, so that the lines will 
 
PIPE BENDING AND ELBOWS. 
 
 61 
 
 K 
 
 A 
 J 
 
 lCe 
 
 F 
 B. 
 
 Wti 
 
 
 
 1 j 
 
 % 
 
 6- 
 
 be clear and distinct (or if no board or pencil compasses are to 
 be had, a remnant of sheet lead flapped out smooth will do as 
 well, and use a pair of pointed compasses). Now lay down the 
 compasses without shifting them, and draw two diameters at right 
 angles to each other, as A B and C D, Figure 44. Take up the 
 compasses, and with A B C D as centres, 
 cut the circle as shown, which will divide it 
 into twelve equal parts. Now draw the 
 pipe full size, and at the required angle 
 immediately beneath the circle, as shown in 
 the illustration. Figure 44, and project the 
 divisions of the circle on to it, as shown 
 by dotted lines. 
 
 On looking at the illustration it will be 
 seen that these dotted lines appear to be 
 closer together at the sides than in the 
 centre, but on looking at the circle they 
 will be found equi-distant. So for distances 
 apart we must measure off the circle (or, 
 what would be called in geometry, the 
 sectional elevation), but the distances on what would be called the 
 plan, as shown by the dotted lines, represent the correct length 
 or distance from the end to that part of the pipe cut by the niche^ 
 or mitre, a, b. Now take the piece of lead 
 which has been prepared, and divide it 
 lengthways with a chalk line into. twelve 
 equal parts, by first setting the compasses 
 to the distances on the circle, and stepping 
 it across the end, as shown by Figure 45. 
 The compasses should be set a little full to 
 allow for the rise of the circle between 
 the points. Now, as a rule, the seam of 
 the pipe should be on the side, and as D 
 is represented in that position, we will take 
 that as the seam, so that D D on Figure 45 
 will be the parts that will come together 
 in the seam. Take the compasses and put 
 one leg on D and the other on the other 
 
 Figure 44 
 
 J AKLCEFBQHD 
 
 JAKLCEFBQHO 
 
 Figure 45 
 
62 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 extremity of the line cut by the niche on Figure 44, and transfer 
 it to the line D D in Figure 45 on hoth sides of the lead. Measure 
 off the next line I, and transfer it in the same manner ; then J, 
 and then A. Now, supposing that the plan of the pipe was 
 transparent, the line J also represents K, so that distance must 
 be transferred on to line K in Figure 45. I also represents L, and 
 D, C, and so on. To save time and avoid altering the compasses 
 as much as possible, it will readily be seen that two distances can 
 be marked each time in some cases. After these distances have 
 been marked off, they can be joined together by freehand, and 
 this represents one-half of the intended elbow. 
 
 Instead of repeating these measurements from the other end, 
 a line X Y can be drawn across the piece of lead at right angles to 
 where the line B in Figure 45 is cut, and then by placing one point 
 of the compasses on it, and the other point on the lines as marked, 
 the distances can be transferred to the other 
 side, and then joined by freehand as 
 described before. Draw a line parallel and 
 about f-inch away on one of the sides for 
 the other one to socket into when folded 
 up. Cut out the piece of lead enclosed 
 by these lines, soil, shave, and fold it up, 
 and it will be found to fit and be the 
 required angle. It would be much better 
 and fit truer, if twice the number of 
 longitudinal lines were used, but they are 
 not shown in the illustration, as it must, 
 of necessity, be drawn to a small scale. 
 The foregoing directions will be more 
 readily understood if it is imagined for the 
 time that instead of the pipe being round, 
 it has the same number of sid'js as denoted 
 by the longitudinal lines. This will, 
 perhaps, be made plainer by studying the 
 following illustrations, which show how a 
 piece of lead would require to be cut to 
 form a double elbow made out of square 
 
 Figure 46. pipe. 
 
PIPE BENDING AND ELBOWS. 
 
 63 
 
 ISi 
 
 3 
 
 IH 
 
 Supposing that this double elbow is wanted for a rain-water 
 pipe and to fit over the plinth or projection round the base of a 
 building which stands forward 6 inches beyond the superstructure, 
 that the ends of the elbow are to be g inches long, the pipe itself 
 4 inches by 3 inches, and the solder seam to be in the centre of the 
 side. First of all, set it out as before advised to the required angle, 
 say 135°, see Figure 46, and measure the size of the piece of lead 
 required. It will be found to be 2 feet 4f inches X i foot 2 inches ; 
 after it has been squared, and the edges planed straight, make chalk 
 lines down it as shown by lines in Figure 47. As the seam is to be 
 in the centre of the side, the first line will be ij inch in, which 
 is equal to half the side of 3 inches, the next line should be 
 4 inches, from the first, for the front, the next 3 inches from the 
 second for the other side, then 4 inches for the back, i-J- inch will 
 be left to complete the other side. These four lines represent the 
 four angles of the pipe. It is a common practice when making 
 square pipe to run the point a E D C B A 
 
 of the shavehook down these 
 lines, to plough a piece out of 
 the lead, so that the angles 
 turn up true, and the arrises 
 are sharp without any trouble 
 
 dressing them up. Although , ^\^ "~~~^^C B 
 
 when finished, the pipe or 
 elbow looks neat and free from 
 tool marks, still the practice 
 should be condemned as the 
 lead is much weakened, and 
 it is a common occurrence 
 for the angles to split because 
 of this. 
 
 After the piece of lead has 
 been lined out as in Figure 47, 
 measure the distance A A' on 
 Figure 46, and mark off the 
 same distance on A A', Figure 
 47, on both sides of the lead. A E 
 Then measure B B, as seen 
 
 ■X— 
 
 € B 
 
 D C 
 
 Figure 47, 
 
 -Y- 
 
 -f 
 
64 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 in Figure 46, and mark off on B B', Figure 47. C C is the same 
 as B B', so a line can be drawn across at right angles. Now 
 measure oflf and transfer E E', and as D D' is the same as E E' 
 a line can be drawn across these also. Draw lines connecting the 
 points, and one half of the elbow is shown. Now draw the line 
 X' Y' and with the compasses transfer the distances already 
 marked, on the other side of it ; draw a parallel line about f -inch 
 away for the other side to socket into, and one of the elbows is 
 set out. Now with the compasses take off the distance B' B" on 
 Figure 46, and measure B' B" on Figure 47. Without altering 
 the compasses, measure all the other points on their respective 
 lines. Draw X" Y" and transfer as described for the other ; allow 
 a piece for socketing ; cut out and fold up. In this case the 
 soiling and shaving should be done after it is folded up, as in 
 working the angles up to sharp arrises it would get scratched 
 and tarnished and so require re-doing. Some of my readers, no 
 doubt, will say — Why all this trouble to make a double elbow ? 
 Would it not be much easier to make the pipe first and then saw 
 out V pieces and so get the required piece of work ? I answer, 
 yes ! but my reason for giving the information is to get apprentices 
 and others who now look upon geometry as dry work to take an 
 interest in it, and see the value of it, and so be able to work to 
 rules instead of by guesswork. 
 
 It is an excellent plan to draw the illustrations here given on 
 cardboard, and then cut them out and fold them up, and then 
 others of a different kind can be attempted, so as to get to 
 thoroughly understand the principles and apply them in the work- 
 shop. 
 
 Before taking leave of this subject, we will consider one more 
 problem, viz.: how to cut out a piece of lead to make a double 
 elbow to fit in an angle of a building, to get over the plinth as 
 described above, the pipe to be 4 inches and square, the ends to 
 be the same length as for the last one. In the last problem we 
 assumed the angle of the elbow to be 135° to fit the top of the 
 plinth. 
 
 If we were to make the elbow we are now considering at that 
 angle it. would be found not to fit the angle of the same plinth, 
 and a moment's thought will lead to the conclusion that the angle 
 
PIPE BENDING AND ELBOWS. 
 
 65 
 
 must be more acute or sharp 
 we must first find' what is the 
 distance that one angle of the 
 building is from the other, and 
 to do this we must first draw 
 a plan of them. Let A A' A, 
 Figure 48, represent the face of 
 the wall of the building, and 
 B B' B the face of the wall 
 which constitutes the plinth. If 
 they are drawn 6 inches apart 
 to represent the projection we 
 can then measure B' A', and 
 so get the distance those two 
 points would be if horizontal 
 or on the same level. This 
 must not be accepted as the 
 length between the heel of one 
 elbow and the throat of the 
 other ; to get that, and also the 
 angle of the elbows, we must 
 next proceed to set out an 
 elevation showing the face of 
 the two walls, and the top of 
 the pUnth at an angle of 135°. 
 If the distance B' A' in Figure 
 48 is now drawn in front of 
 the part representing the plinth, 
 Figure 49, as shewn by thick 
 line and the top end connected 
 to angle A', we get the required 
 distance and angle at the same 
 time, and this forms the back 
 corner of the pipe. We next 
 proceed to draw a section of 
 a 4 -inch square pipe with its 
 diagonal at right angles to the 
 line A A', Figure 49, as shown 
 
 To find what the angle should be 
 
 Figure 49. 
 
66 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 9" 
 
 4" 
 
 at C D E F ; project the front and side angles as shown bj dotted 
 lines drawn parallel to those representing the back corner of the 
 pipe, as stated. Now set out the piece of lead, which should be 
 1 6 inches wide, as follows : i inches from one edge draw a parallel 
 line, then three others each 4 inches from the one preceding, 
 which will leave 3 inches to complete the other side. Supposing 
 the seam is to be in the centre of the side E F, Figure 49, mark 
 
 off the distance E to 
 where it is intersected 
 by the mitre on E in 
 Figure 50, then transfer 
 C in the same manner, 
 then D, then F, which 
 is the same as C, then 
 mark on the edges of the 
 lead the distance from 
 the end to the mitre of 
 the part forming the 
 seam; draw an X' Y' 
 through E and transfer 
 the distances on the 
 other side as before ex- 
 plained. Measure the 
 distances for the other 
 elbow, as explained for 
 Figures 46 and 47, and 
 on folding the lead it 
 will be found to be the 
 required angle and to fit 
 in the position for which 
 it is intended. If the 
 angles are going to be 
 wiped, the usual f-inch 
 If the 
 
 F D C E 
 
 Figure 50. 
 
 must be left on one side for the other to socket into, 
 soldered seam is not wanted to be seen, it can be soldered on the 
 back angles, where it would be out of sight, or in the case now 
 before us, it could be soiled and shaved and soldered inside either 
 with a copper bit and fine solder, or with ordinary plumber's 
 
PIPE BENDING AND ELBOWS. 
 
 67 
 
 solder, and "wiped" out. If the ends of the elbow were longer 
 this would be more difficult to do, as a man could not get his 
 oand inside ; but in some cases, where the pipe is not too long, a 
 cloth can be fastened on the end of a piece. of wood, commonly 
 called a " cat's paw," and wipe out the angle in that way. 
 
 It is possible to make bends on round pipes and then work 
 them into a square section afterward, as illustrated, Figure 51, on 
 looking at which it will be seen to 
 have bends, in distinction to what 
 we have hitherto called elbows. 
 It. is not at all difficult to make 
 them. For a 3-inch square pipe a 
 piece of 4-inch round pipe should 
 be used, and great care taken in 
 making the bends to keep the lead 
 as equal in substance as possible. 
 After making the bends on the 
 round pipe a small hand dummy 
 should be Used to slightly raise the 
 parts intended for the angles, and 
 then the sides dressed in and the 
 arrises worked up on the outside. 
 It is necessary to make a chalk 
 mark on the pipe where the angles, 
 should come, as in the absence of 
 these guides, it will sometimes 
 occur that the bend gets twisted, and when this happens it requires 
 a good deal of trouble to get it into the proper shape. These 
 bends can only be made when a short piece of pipe is required, 
 so that a small hand dummy will reach any part. A good many 
 similar bends are made by cutting out two pieces of lead the size 
 and shape of the sides of the required bend, and then bend a piece 
 of lead to fit the front and " wipe " the two inside angles forming 
 the front ; afterwards bend and fit a similar piece on the back 
 side and solder the two back angles on the outside. If the bend 
 has a moulded front it is much better to have a wooden block 
 -made the shape of the required bend and the same size as the 
 pipe. Cut out a piece of lead equal in width to the front and 
 
 Figure 51. 
 
 F a 
 
S8 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 two sides of the block, allowing about i inch extra on each side 
 for turning round the back side for nailing and fixing. Lay this 
 piece of lead on the block and work down the sides ; if there 
 is any moulding to .work, the lead must be tightly fixed, or else it 
 will continually keep rising, and it is important that when once 
 the lead is worked into the moulding it should be kept there, as 
 if it gets moved ever so little, and a fresh chasing made, there 
 will be so many tool marks made, as to be almost impossible to get 
 them out again ; andi in addition, the lead generally gets considerably 
 reduced in substance if worked two or three times. After the bend 
 is worked, take it off the wood block, trim the edges, and bend 
 and solder a piece on the back side. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 JOINT MAKING. 
 
 A GREAT many young plumbers, by dint of perseverance, 
 succeed in wiping a very fair joint long before they know how to 
 properly prepare the ends of the pipe. This arises from their being 
 allowed to take a short piece of pipe, soiling and shaving a part 
 in the centre, and wiping the joint on that, as if building the solder 
 on was the only thing of importance. To prepare the ends of the 
 pipe properly is of very great importance, and the soundness of the 
 joint depends a great deal on this. In addition, care should be 
 taken not to reduce the waterway, and also not to make the pipe 
 any weaker at the joint. The ends should also be fitted very 
 tightly, or else the solder will run through when the joint is wiped 
 horizontally or underhand and lie in a body inside the pipe ; or, if 
 it is wiped upright, the solder that runs through falls down inside 
 the pipe, like a lot of threads or fine ribbons, and lie in the pipe 
 until the water is allowed to flow through. This causes the ribbons 
 to get washed into the valves, causing them to leak by clinging 
 round the working parts. First of all, when opening the ends of 
 pipes, a box or other hard wood " tan-pin " should be used. The 
 common way to open a large pipe is to dummy the end out, and 
 for small pipes the end of the small bolt is often twisted round 
 inside the end of the pipe to open it. Neither of these ways open 
 the pipes true and even, and when the bolt is used 
 the pipe is. made rough inside, and also weakened at 
 A, Figure 52. Both ends of the pipes should be 
 opened. The advantage is, that it does not matter 
 wnich way the current may be running, there are no 
 sharp edges to check the free flow of water. If only 
 one end of the pipe is opened, the ^entering end will 
 sometimes curl inwards, especially if'the joint is made 
 upright, as the weight of the top piece presses upon figum 5«. 
 
70 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 Figure 53. 
 
 that part, as at B, Figure 53 ; whereas, if both ends are opened 
 
 this is avoided. One end must be opened wider for 
 
 the other to enter. After the ends have been opened 
 as described, they should be rasped or filed down to 
 a thin edge on the outside, and care should be 
 bestowed on this, especially for the entering end. If 
 this is made as thin as possible it will give a little, 
 and adjust itself to any little inequality on the inside 
 of the other, or socket, end. Very few men take 
 any pains with this, and most are satisfied with just 
 rasping oflf the outer arris, or they sometimes whittle 
 it oflf with a pocket-knife. When it is found that the ends do 
 not fit tight, and there is a risk of the solder running through, 
 the top edge of the socket end is closed round the entering end. 
 This is a great mistake, as, if the ends are properly fitted, the 
 socket end can be left open, as at C C, Figure 54 ; and if it is 
 shaved inside the solder can enter and flow round, 
 so that should none at all be left on the outside the 
 joint would still be water-tight. If this was more often 
 attended to there would be fewer sweaty joints. 
 
 After the pipe ends have been prepared so far, 
 they are often rubbed with a piece of card-wire to 
 take off the grease. This is a mistake, as a portion 
 of the lead is scratched oft, and, although not much 
 harm is done, still the pipe is unnecessarily weakened. 
 If the ends are well chalked and then wiped with an 
 old rag — which must not be greasy, or a' handful of wood shavings, 
 that is all that is required (unless it is old pipe and full of grit 
 on the surface, when the card-wire is necessary). After the grease 
 is " killed," the ends should be soiled and dried. Some plumbers 
 shave the ends and soil them afterwards. ,This causes the pipe 
 to be weaker at the ends beyond the joint than anywhere else, 
 and the joints cannot be wiped quite so clean at the edges as 
 when the pipe is soiled first and shaved afterwards. 
 
 After the pipes have been soiled and dried the next thing is 
 to shave them. If this is not properly done the solder cannot 
 alloy with the lead, and the joint will leak. To shave a pipe 
 properly the shave-hook must be sharp and must be held firmly. 
 
 Figure 54. 
 
JOINT MAKING. 
 
 71 
 
 Figure s5> 
 
 It is important that the blade be firmly riveted or fastened on the 
 
 shaft or handle. If these points are not attended to the lead is 
 
 only scraped, leaving a dull face on it, or else the 
 
 shaving gets on the edge of the hook and so prevents 
 
 it taking off a clean shaving. Sometimes a false face 
 
 is left on the Ifead, to which the solder adheres, 
 
 lej.ving a space beneath through which the water 
 
 can afterwards find its way. Although it is advisable 
 
 to use a shjarp hook and with a firm hand, it does 
 
 not follow that unnecessary pressure need be applied 
 
 to gouge out a deep incision in the pipe, as at D D, 
 
 Figure 55, or that shaving after shaving should be 
 
 taken off until the pipe is only half or perhaps a 
 
 third of its original thickness, as shown at E E. 
 
 It is not easy with small pipes, but for large pipes 
 
 it is a much better plan, to shave yound, the pipe 
 
 instead of lengthways. The hook for this, Figure 56, should have 
 
 its cutting edge slightly rounding in its length to prevent the 
 
 shavings clogging the edge, and it should 
 
 have a small rounded corner for shaving 
 
 the part that will form the end of the 
 
 joint. It is a bad plan to use a sharp- Figure 56. 
 
 pointed hook for this, as it makes the pipe very weak at this point, 
 
 and there are very few plumbers who leave a body of solder right 
 
 up to the end of the joint to fill up what the shave-hook has 
 
 taken out. Very often a joint leaks because of a narrow strip of 
 
 space not being shaved. If the shave-hook is passed round the 
 
 pipe as well as lengthways, and the extreme end of the pipe 
 
 carefully shaved so that the rasp marks are. taken oif — especially 
 
 when they have become filled with soil, there is no liability of 
 
 the joint leaking from that cause. Sometimes coarse rasps are 
 
 used for preparing the ends of pipes ; but a fine one, as used by 
 
 cabinet-makers, is much better, as it makes the work srtioother, 
 
 and does not drag and distort the ends so much. During the 
 
 operation of both rasping and shaving pipes, either for straight 
 
 or branch joints, something should always be placed in the end 
 
 or opening, as the case may be, to prevent the raspings or lead 
 
 shavings falling into the pipe. If this was always done it would 
 
72 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 very often save the trouble of taking the valves and fittings to 
 pieces to clear them. Where valves have india-rubbers they often 
 get cut and want renewing because of this precaution not being 
 taken. 
 
 It has already been mentioned that pipes as a rule are greasy, 
 and they should be chalked before soiling, to kill the grease. If 
 this is not done and the soil is made too strong — that is, too much 
 size used — it will generally peel off, but if it is made too thin it 
 will rub off and get on the cloth, and so get worked on to the 
 joint, making it look black and dirty. It is also difScult to make 
 the joint, as the soil rubs off and the solder tins to the pipe beyond 
 the required space, making it look unsightly in shape and necessi- 
 tating its being trimmed up afterwards. This trimming'-up is a 
 source of weakness, as it is generally done with a pocket-knife, 
 and in cutting off the ragged ends the lead pipe is sometimes 
 nicked so that, should it require to be bent afterwards near the 
 joint, this nick opens and the pipe breaks right through. When 
 necessary to trim the joint, which rarely occurs with a good joint- 
 wiper, the knife should be forced between the pipe and the super- 
 fluous solder, and so cut it off in that way. When joints have to 
 be prepared on the bench, and then taken and placed in their 
 position for making, the ends of the pipes should be tinned by 
 pouring melted solder on the prepared ends, as if the joint was 
 going to be made, and then wiping it all off again. This should 
 always be done for large pipes, but for small services it is sufficient 
 to " touch " them — that is, cover the shaved parts with tallow, and 
 then wrap a piece of paper round to keep them clean and prevent 
 any dust adhering to the grease. When the ends of the pipe are 
 tinned before fixing they should be soiled inside and the socket end 
 shaved when in its position, so as to insure its being quite smooth 
 for the entering end to fit into. 
 
 When the pipe is to be fixed horizontally, a piece of board 
 should be placed to catch the solder that falls during the operation 
 of making the joint, or, better still, a piece of lead well soiled, so 
 that it can be folded and break up the solder before it is quite seti 
 and also act as a shoot for pitching it into the pot for remelting_ 
 But when the joint is going to be made upright, it is a common 
 and slovenly way to twist wood shavings or paper into a band and 
 
JOINT MAKING. 
 
 73 
 
 tie it on to the pipe just below the joint to catch the spare solder 
 as it falls. This practice cannot be too strongly condemned, as, 
 after the joint is made, when using a red-hot iron to melt off the 
 rough ring of solder that is formed, the shavings or paper are set on 
 fire ; the solder being too hot to take hold of, 
 and the shavings all ablaze, they are allowed to 
 fall, at the serious risk of the house or building 
 being burnt down. In addition there is always a 
 great waste of solder through this inefficient way 
 of securing what falls when making the joint. 
 This could be avoided by cutting out a piece of 
 six or seven-pound lead as a collar. Figure 57, '"""^ '''' 
 
 with two ears, so that when placed round the pipe it will fit as a 
 saucer or tray, and if bent round tightly, and the ears bent one 
 inwards and the other outwards, they will lock into 
 each other and so make the whole thing self- 
 supporting. Where the collar is lapped there is a 
 small space left at the bottom where the solder can 
 run through ; but a sprinkling of dust will generally 
 stop this up. After the joint is made this lead 
 collar, which should have been well Soiled, can be 
 removed, and then two places melted in the ring 
 ■of solder, on opposite sides of the pipe, when the 
 remainder can be taken away in two halves. 
 
 For upright work the pipe should be soiled a 
 good distance down from the bottom end of the joint so that 
 the solder shall not tin to the pipe ; and the collar should be 
 fixed about 3 or 4 inches down. Figure 58, so that when 
 wiping the solder shall not burn the little finger of the 
 hand. The collar should not be fixed too low, as the 
 caught solder helps to keep the pipe hot whilst the 
 joint is being made. 
 
 Figure 59 represents a joint made by a good 
 plumber who is very fond of thin cloths. He says he 
 <* likes to feel his joint." Although it may be perfectly 
 symmetrical, it is not a good joint, as it is weaker at 
 the ends than elsewhere. The pipe is reduced in sub- 
 stance when shaving, and in the joint spoken of this figubk.5> 
 
 Figure 58. 
 
74 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 weakness should have been covered with solder, so as to strengthen 
 it. If the joint had been shaved shorter, so that the metal covered 
 the shaving, it would have been much stronger ; but the joint 
 would have looked short and out of proportion to the size of the 
 pipe, as in Figure 60. 
 
 Thin cloths are a mistake for making joints, especially on 
 large-size pipes. If the cloths are of a good thickness the joints 
 
 CT) 
 
 U 
 
 FlGURK 61. 
 
 Figure 62. 
 
 can be wip)ed much truer, and there is not such a liability of bare 
 places being left on the ends of them. The illustration, Figure 6i, 
 shows a properly-shaped wiped joint, suitable for a ventilation or 
 light waste pipe where the pipe used is light in substance ; but 
 this joint would not be strong enough for a pipe of heavy sub- 
 s-tance for conveying water under pressure, and the joint should be 
 stronger in proportion, as shown by Figure 62. 
 
 Very few men make any difference in the strength of their 
 joints, but make all alike, irrespective of the use the pipe is to be 
 put to ; but a very little thought will prove that there should be 
 a difference, although if an error is made it should be on the side 
 of strength. This applies more especially to pipes that have brass- 
 work for attaching to cisterns or fittings of any kind soldered to 
 them, or stop-cocks, as in some cases they have to withstand a 
 strain when being screwed up or turned. Brass-work is generally 
 made as small as possible, to save the metal, and the ends are 
 generally made so short that there is not much to solder to. The 
 result is the parts that meet are not in the centre of the joi^t. A 
 
JOINT MAKING. 
 
 75 
 
 glance at Figures 63 and 64 will explain what is meant. The joint 
 should be made much heavier and a greater body of solder left on, 
 to get a sufficient proportion over the 
 part that requires it. 
 
 There is a great variety of opinions 
 amongst plumbers as to the length 
 joints should be made. Some are in 
 favor of very short joints, whilst others 
 prefer very long ones, even so far as 
 to make them 4 inches long on a ^-inch 
 or f-inch pipe. This is absurd, and 
 they have been compared to " dirty 
 tinned ends," and not joints at all, 
 especially when there is scarcely any 
 solder left on. Joints made in this manner frequently break in 
 half when screwing up the union. A reference to the illustration. 
 Figure 64 will show the absurdity of making joints in that way. 
 The accompanyiag table is a very fair average length for all 
 wiped joints : — 
 
 6-inch pipe, 4-inch joints. i^-inch pipe, 3-inch joints. 
 
 Figure 63. 
 
 FiGDRE 64. 
 
 5 
 
 >i 
 
 99 
 
 3f .. 
 
 )» 
 
 li 
 
 ti 
 
 9f 
 
 3 .. 
 
 4 
 
 J) 
 
 99 
 
 3i .. 
 
 »» 
 
 I 
 
 9t 
 
 99 
 
 3 .. 
 
 3 
 
 if 
 
 99 
 
 3* .. 
 
 )l 
 
 1 
 
 >J 
 
 99 
 
 2|„ 
 
 2 
 
 99 
 
 U 
 
 3i.„ 
 
 »» 
 
 i 
 
 )» 
 
 M 
 
 2i „ 
 
 It is the one several 'good men work to, and the joints look 
 fairly proportionate to the sizes of the pipes. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 JOINT MAKmC—coittinued. 
 
 Most men prefer certain ways of making a joint. One man 
 will make all the joints that he possibly can in an upright position, 
 another one will do almost anything so as to be able to make the 
 joint underhand ; one man never requires an iron, another one 
 cannot make his joint without it ; one man does not like a wood 
 splash-stick to put on his metal with, as the smoke gets into 
 his eyes, and yet another one says that an iron one cools the 
 metal ; one likes fustian for his cloths, another prefers bedtick. 
 One man likes them fastened with pins, as they bend much easier ; 
 another one says the solder tins to the pins and pulls them out, 
 or they get hot and b^irn his fingers, and he prefers to have them 
 sewed. And so each man follows his own ideas ; but I must say that 
 I like fustian-cloths tacked with needle and thread, and iron splash- 
 sticks. I don't mind which way the joint comes, either upright 
 or underhand ; and although I can make a joint either with or with- 
 out an iron, I must say that I like the old-fashioned way of usmg an 
 iron when making a joint, and my reason is that the joints do not 
 so often sweat, because the solder can be used finer — that is, richer 
 in tin. In addition, men who do not use irons pour on solder, in 
 trying to get up a heat, until they have almost melted the pipe, 
 and then when they have nearly finished the joint the heat is so 
 great as to keep the tin melted, which partly separates from the 
 lead and keeps running) the plumber meanwhile wiping round and 
 round the joint, and finally wiping off this tin which should have 
 remained alloyed with the lead as solder. The solder, having 
 parted with a portion of the tin, is full of cellules, — and so the 
 joint leaks; the plumber growls and says the metal is porous. 
 This continually going round the joint each time" leaves a ragged 
 edge, which has to be trimmed off afterwards. So, for these 
 reasons, the use of the iron may be considered an advantage. 
 Not being necessary to get up such a great heat, the joint can be 
 
JOINT MAKING. 
 
 n 
 
 wiped much cleaner at the edges. The two metals forming the 
 solder do not separate to such a serious extent, and hence the 
 joint is much sounder. The joint also looks cleaner, and if a 
 black mark is left with the cloth, a sponge — dipped in a bowl of 
 clean water — lightly passed over while the joint is still hot, will 
 generally remove the mark. 
 
 After a joint is made, and while still hot, the usual way is to 
 rub a tallow candle over it and wipe off the grease with a clean 
 rag or pocket-handkerchief. Some think that in addition to 
 cleaning the joint the grease gets into the pores and so prevents 
 the sweating spoken of. If the joint is not sound without the aid 
 of grease it can't be a ver^ good one. 
 
 Years ago it was the practice to overcast all joints. This 
 consisted in wiping the joint first and then rubbing the hot iron 
 over it so as to leave a number of faces. The object sought was 
 to close any pores in the solder to prevent the water from oozing 
 through. A good many men used to do this to all joints, no 
 matter whether they were on soil, waste, or service pipes. To 
 pipes that did not convey water under pressure this was quite 
 superfluous ; but there was some excuse for doing so to main 
 service pipes which had to withstand a great pressure of water. 
 Men who were really good joint wipers used to overcast some 
 joints, but only to water main pipes, or to the tail or suction 
 pipes of lead jack-pumps — more especially to pumps, as, although 
 the water could not leak through, air could be drawn in and so 
 allow the water to fall back into the well or cistern, so that it 
 was necessary to pump for a few seconds before the water would 
 flow from the nozzle ; so, to make sure, 
 good tradesmen would very often overcast 
 their joints, it being difficult sometimes to 
 find out a defective one in a suction pipe, 
 which would have shown itself by leaking 
 if in a service pipe. A good many country 
 plumbers treat their joints to pumps in this 
 manner at the present day, but the practice 
 has died out amongst town tradesmen. 
 Figure 65 shows an elevation, and Figure figui^e 65. 
 66 a section through the centre of an overcast joint. , 
 
 u 
 
 Figure 6& 
 
78 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 Lead joints have been made on lead service pipes. One trom 
 Hampton Court Palace is shown at Figure 67. Instead of the 
 
 ends of the pipe being soldered together, 
 a quantity of molten lead was- poured on, 
 and it presented the appearance as shown. 
 From the rough appearance of the inside 
 of the joint it could be seen that the 
 Figure 67. pjpg gnds were filled with sand, and then, 
 
 doubtless, they were butted together and buried in more sand, 
 leaving a space round the part to be joined, into which was 
 poured molten lead until the pipe itself was fused, the surplus 
 metal running away over a weir in the same manner as was 
 described for burning seams on heavy pipe. It has been suggested 
 that common salt would make a good core, as it would answer 
 perfectly, and when water was allowed to pass through, the salt 
 would dissolve. Sand would probably get baked hard and so 
 require some time for the water to displace it. Salt would not be 
 so injurious as sand to any fittings that it might have to pass 
 through. 
 
 When soil pipes or waste pipes are fixed in a chase in the 
 wall it is a very good plan to make what is commonly called a 
 " Uoch joint," This is a very easy joint to wipe, but it is 
 sometimes improperly prepared. On looking at Figure 68, which 
 
 shows a section of pipe and joint, 
 A A represents a wooden (or stone) 
 block, perforated for the pipe to pass 
 through, and the ends long enough 
 to lay on the brickwork each side. 
 The carpenter or mason should be 
 instructed to take off the sharp arris 
 round the hole. A common way i& 
 for the plumber to taft over the pipe 
 sufficiently to get enough to lay on 
 the block for him to solder to. When, 
 the plumber opens the end of the 
 pipe, if the block fits tightly, the end grain of the wood cuts into 
 the lead and so weakens it just where it should be the strongest, 
 as the pipe is partly suspended at this point. The plumber, ia 
 
 ■■•'r-i|| 
 
 TTm 
 
 
 B 
 
 'SilX^ 
 
 r^r 
 
 B 
 
 Figure 68. 
 
JOINT MAKING. 79 
 
 trying to get sufficient to solder to, very often gets the pipe 
 buckled, as at B B, Figure 68 ; also a hard lump at C C ; and the 
 outer edge of the flange so thin that he can scarcely shave a 
 face on it for soldering to. 
 
 Now, the block should always fit moderately close round the 
 pipe so as to well support it, and the sharp arris round the hole 
 on the wood, or stone, should be taken off, both on top and under 
 sides ; and instead of flanging the lead over, the plumber should 
 cut a collar out of a piece of sheet-lead, and soil and shave and 
 tin it before fixing. This collar should then be placed round the 
 pipe on the block and the pipe tafted over it. The collar should 
 be at least -J-inch larger than the outside of the pipe, so that it 
 shall not cut into it when the " tan-pin " is driven in, as described 
 above when speaking of the block ; and the pipe should be tafted 
 as shown in section at D D, Figure 69, which shows a raised 
 bead instead of being made flat, and which 
 prevents the lead being driven into a hard 
 mass with a sharp corner underneath. Great 
 numbers of taft joints are found to be broken 
 under the part shown by the right hand C, 
 Figure 68. This does not take place when 
 the end is prepared as shown at Figure 69. 
 On looking at this Figure it will be seen 
 that the bead occupies a certain amount of 
 space which would have to be filled with 
 solder if the joint was prepared as shown in figure 69. 
 
 Figure 68, so that really there is an economy of solder when it is 
 prepared in this manner ; at the same time a fair amount should 
 be left on, so as to get a good strong flange to support the upper 
 portion of the pipe. Some plumbers, when they begin to work 
 the taft over, have too long a length of pipe projecting. They 
 work it partly over and then cut off a portion with hammer and 
 perhaps a blunt chipping-knife, and so buckle and distort the end 
 of the pipe that they cannot make a neat taft. The end of the 
 pipe, if too long, should always be cut off with a saw, allowing 
 f-inch for tafting, as that is quite sufficient for the purpose, and 
 there is less liability of splitting or tearing the pipe. 
 
 This applies to this kind of joint in various other positions. 
 
8o PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 Say, for example, a trap has to be tafted over for soldering to 
 the lead safe under a water-closet. If it is done as at A, Figure 70, 
 
 when the heated solder is poured 
 on, the lead expands and the edge 
 curls upwards, and after the joint is 
 made, the edge of the pipe or trap 
 is sometimes found projecting above 
 the soldering, and will often be found 
 to open as the solder cools and 
 ^"""^y"- shrinks. If the trap is tafted as 
 
 shown at B, this could not occur. If these joints are properly- 
 prepared it is not necessary to use much solder, as little or no 
 strength is required ; a flat surface is left for the water-closet to 
 seat upon, and thus requires less cement for bedding it. 
 
 The lead safe need not be dressed into the dishing on the 
 wooden floor ; by simply turning over the edge of the lead trap 
 in the form of a bead — so that it does not stand above the level 
 of the floor — it forces down the lead safe just sufl&cient to bury 
 the edge of the trap and insures its being covered with solder. 
 
 In the case of soil pipes the flange should be shaved not less 
 than i^ inch wide, so as to get a good support for the upper 
 length of pipe, as before stated ; but when soldering a trap to a 
 safe, f-inch wide is quite sufficient for all that is required. Now, 
 a good many plumbers think a joint of this width too smaU and 
 paltry-looking, so they endeavour to make it look bold by shaving 
 it about ij inch wide. If the dishing in the wooden floor is this 
 width, there is a great waste of solder to fill it up; and if it is 
 made smaller than that, but the lead shaved the same width, it 
 must necessarily be weaker, as the edge of the shaving has no 
 solder left upon it to replace the lead taken off with the shave-hook. 
 When preparing these joints, a piece of board or a wood 
 block is fitted into the trap, and a centre found so as to scribe 
 the circles for shaving. Very often a pair of pointed compasses 
 is used for this, with the result that where lead of a light substance 
 is used for the safe it is, perhaps, cut half-way through. It is 
 much better to have a pair of compasses with one end turned 
 like a hook, with sharp edges. As it is not always convenient to 
 carry a lot of tools, these can be made by bending a piece of 
 
JOINT MAKING. 8l 
 
 sheet-copper so as to fit on one leg of the ordinary compasses, 
 and then bending a piece of a steel watch-spring like a loop and 
 soldering it to the copper thimble, as Figure 71. The edges can 
 be sharpened on a. stone, and they answer the purpose as well as 
 those of a better description ; they can be carried in the waistcoat 
 pocket, and if lost or broken can be easily replaced. They can 
 be made in the same way, but with a short, 
 straight piece of the spring instead of the loop, 
 and sharpened like a lancet-point, for cutting 
 out paper patterns or thin leather washers for 
 valve flanges — Figure 72. The steel can be 
 soldered to the copper thimble with ordinary 
 fine solder and copper bit, using, as a flux, 
 hydrochloric acid saturated with zinc, commonly 
 called " killed spirits." ""'""^ ^'- ^'^"^^ ''■ 
 
 At a sanitary exhibition, held in London some time ago, were 
 exhibited , some joints made without solder on lead soil pipes. 
 They were made by welting the ends of the pipes together, as 
 shown in section, Figure 73. The adyantage claimed for them 
 was that as soldered joints are sometimes eaten away 
 by the gases emanating from sewage, when there 
 is no solder the joints cannot be affected in, that 
 manner. These joints will never come into general 
 use, as to be effeictual they must be made perfectly air- 
 tight, in addition to being water-tight, and to get 
 them so a mandrel must be fixed inside for the welt 
 
 , , . . , , , . , , Figure 73. 
 
 to be worked in quite closely, which cannot always 
 be done when the work is in its position. To make them on 
 heavy pipe would be rather difficult, and the lead would get very 
 much reduced in substance when preparing the ends, and the 
 joint would be, consequently, the weakest part of the pipe. 
 Ordinary wiped joints could be made over them, and so strengthen 
 them in that way. If joints are properly prepared, there is little 
 or no portion of the solder exposed to the influence of . sewage 
 gases, so it will be seen that it is quite unnecessary to go to the 
 trouble of preparing them in the manner described. 
 
 When preparing pipes for making bjanch-wiped joints, most 
 plumbers have a way of their own in opening the pipe into which 
 
82 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 the other .las to be joined. Say the joint is going to be made on 
 a service pipe of any diameter, — some plumbers will bore a hole 
 in the side with a gimlet or small auger ; others will cut a slit in 
 it with a sharp chipping-knife ; others, again, cut an oval piece 
 right out with the same tool. Sometimes a plumber takes the 
 round side of the rasp and so reduces the thickness of the pipe 
 as to make the lead so thin as to be able to easily open it after- 
 wards. A V-piece can be sawn out, and on large-sized, heavy 
 main pipes, a hole burnt through with a red-hot plumber's iron, 
 so as not to distort or bruise the pipe out of shape. Some of 
 these ways are very good and others bad. The great object is to 
 get as much lead as possible to stand up for the end of the 
 branch pipe to enter in such a manner that solder will not run 
 through when the joint is being made, and so that there shall not 
 be an obstruction to the free flow of water. In heavy pipes it 
 is a good plan to reduce the substance of the lead a little, and 
 then cut a short slit so that the sides can be pressed open with 
 a chisel to allow the end of the bolt to enter. This bolt should 
 be reduced at the end and bent so as to be able to work the lead 
 upwards, which cannot very well be done with a straight bolt. 
 The result of using a straight one is that the lead is so thickened 
 up as to project inside the pipe, as shown at A A, Figure 74. If 
 a bent bolt is used the hooked point can be placed under that 
 part, as shown in section, Figure 75, and by hitting it at B with 
 
 Figure 74. 
 
 Figure 76. 
 
 a hammer the evil spoken of can be avoided. 
 
 This bent bolt wants using carefully, or another evil sometimes 
 takes place. Figure 76 shows a cross-section of a pipe opened 
 ready for the joint, and C C a representation of what is actually 
 the case with half the branch joints that are made — that is, the 
 
JOINT MAKING. 
 
 8i 
 
 inside of the pipe is bruised and reduced in substance by using 
 the thin end of the bent bolt to open the sides. This mischief is 
 aggravated where these bruises are made below the centre of the 
 bore of the pipe where no solder is put on the outside to strengthen 
 the weakened portion. With a little care the sides can be opened 
 without the bolt, and so avoid this. The. water' having to turn a 
 sharp corner when the branch is made at right angles, the opening 
 should always be made a good size, and the end of the branch 
 pipe opened with a " tan-pin," and then the sides ilattened to the 
 diameter of the pipe, so as to present as little resistance as 
 possible to the free flow. A glance at the section, Figure 77, will 
 
 Figure 77. 
 
 Figure 78. 
 
 show what is meant. Figure 78 shows a much greater improve- 
 ment, and it is no more trouble to prepare than the last one 
 described. The hole in the main pipe having been opened much 
 longer than is equal to the bore of the branch pipe, the branch 
 pipe is bent as shown, sawn off at the proper angle, and fitted. 
 As a rule, all pipes should socket in the direction of the current, 
 but this is very rarely carried out with branch pipes for water 
 services, and is of less importance if the point of connection is 
 enlarged as described. It has been mentioned that if joints on 
 pipes were properly prepared a portion of solder would enter the 
 socket and flow round the spigot end ; but a branch joint is not 
 so easy to prepare so as to ensure its fitting so tight that solder 
 cannot run through when the joint is being made, so that, as a 
 rule, the outer edge has to be closed round the branch pipe. 
 This is sometimes done with a hammer, which necessitates the 
 marks made being shaved over again. It is a good plan to take 
 a brad awl or a point of the compasses to close the edge as tightly 
 as possible by pressing it in. 
 
 For branch joints on soil and other large-sized pipes, of 
 
 G 2 
 
84 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 moderate substance, a narrow strip is generally cut out of the 
 main pipe about one inch less in length than the bore of the 
 intended branch pipe, which should always be bent at the point 
 of junction, as shown in Figure 78. The arrows should be 
 reversed to denote the direction of the current in a waste or soil 
 pipe. After the piece of lead is cut out and the sides forced open a 
 little, a small handful of wood-shavings set fire to, and placed in 
 the opening, softens the pipe so that the hole can be enlarged in 
 a very few minutes with a small hand-dummy. 
 
 The reason for bending the end of the branch pipe is to 
 prevent anything, passing down from a higher level, lodging in 
 the end of it, and also to prevent the pipe being frequently 
 stopped, as is often the case where small-sized soil pipes are used 
 and a scanty supply of water is laid on to the water-closet, in 
 which case an accumulation of soil and paper sometimes takes- 
 place in the branch or horizontal pipe. When this accumulation 
 is forced onwards in a body, it projects across the vertical pipe 
 and presses on the opposite side, as shown in section at Figure 79. 
 Sometimes a brass cap and screw is soldered in, as shown, for 
 easy access for removing this kind of obstruction ; but this is 
 
 Figure 79. 
 
 Figure 80. 
 
 generally an aggravation of the evil, as a ledge is formed for the 
 end of the plug of paper, &c., to rest upon. 
 
 Branch soil pipes can be bent, as shown in Figure 80, and 
 ttie vertical pipe from upper floors soldered into the top of the 
 bend, so as to insure no stoppage taking place in the manner 
 described. This is an excellent plan, but it entails a great waste 
 of pipe, as the joints come at unequal intervals, and the work» 
 
JOINT MAKING. 
 
 8J 
 
 when fixed, does not look so smart. As more joints are required, 
 
 it means more labour and solder than when fixed in the ofdinary 
 
 way. At the exhibition, to which reference has already been made, 
 
 were shown some " welted " branch joints. At the junction the 
 
 vertical pipe was opened, as shown in section at Figure 8 1, with 
 
 the double purpose of preventing a 
 
 plug of paper, &c., resting against the 
 
 opposite side, and also to prevent the 
 
 discharges from a water-closet filling 
 
 the pipe and so displacing the air that 
 
 syphonage of water out of the traps 
 
 will take place. Having never seen 
 
 this principle in actual practice, no 
 
 opinion can be expressed as to its 
 
 efficiency for that purpose. Some people 
 
 might demur and say that the enlarged 
 
 part would get foul, as the water, &c., 
 
 would splash about instead of passing over the inside surface with 
 
 a scouring force sufficient to keep it from getting furred. 
 
 The same precautions must be taken, when preparing branch 
 joints for soldering, as already explained for straight joints. Some 
 plumbers are in the habit of shaving their joints considerably 
 more on the straight, or running, pipe than is required, as shown 
 in elevation and section, Figures 82 and 83. Now, it does not 
 
 Figure Si. 
 
 FlGURB b2. 
 
 Figure Bj. 
 
 matter what size the pipe is, it is never necessary for the solder 
 to come below the centre of the pipe, and it is only a waste of 
 metal to make them in that way. Neither does it add to their 
 appearance ; on the contrary, they alv/ays look dumpy. These 
 
86 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 joints are also more difficult to make, and require a thinnish cloth 
 to make them with. If a board is placed close beneath the pipe, 
 to catch the spare solder, in such a way as to keep the pipe as 
 hot as possible, the little finger of the wiping hand frequently gets 
 burnt. A great many men also shave the end of the branch pipe 
 too long, with the result that when they make the joint no solder 
 is left on the top edge. When wiping the hollow part shown at 
 A, Figure 82, it is very difficult to leave the solder right up to 
 the edge of the shaving. 
 
 The process of wiping a soldered joint can only be learned 
 by practice, and it is almost impossible to describe in writing the 
 various movements required. Even when learned, it is easy to 
 get out ot practice, and a good tradesman varies a great deal at 
 different times. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 JOINT MAKmG— continued. 
 
 In London it is not at all uncommon for plumbers to be at 
 work on the lead-work of roofs of buildings for several months at 
 a time ; so that afterwards, when they try to make a joint, they 
 sometimes fail to do it at the first trial. 
 
 After the joint has been prepared, so far as fitting, soiling, and 
 shaving are concerned, the first thing is to firmly fix it, so that 
 it cannot move when being wiped. If an underhand joint, it is 
 easy to lay it on the bench on wooden blocks, and then load the 
 pipes with weights, or roUs of lead, or other heavy material that 
 may be laying about. It is not at all a good plan to drive chisels 
 or spikes, for fixing, into the bench, as it makes it full of holes 
 for solder to run into, and also makes it so rough that pipes 
 cannot be straightened, or lead dressed out flat upon it. Very few 
 plumbers have a decent pair of compasses in their kit, through 
 using them for fixing small pipes; the points get broken, the legs 
 bent, and the joint destroyed by driving them in with a hammer. 
 When underhand joints have to be made in their places, it is 
 necessary sometimes to drive chisels into the wall to support the 
 pipe; these chisels should be strong, so as not to bend, and the 
 pipe should be firmly lashed to them to keep it from moving, and 
 also to insure the ends from coming apart. If these precautions 
 are not taken, the joint very often cracks right around, and this 
 crack, being fine, cannot be seen until the water is allow ed to 
 enter the pipe, and a leakage is found. The same care is required 
 when fixing a joint for making in an upright position. For small- 
 sized pipes, which are thicker in substance, proportionally, than 
 those of a larger size, it is sometimes only necessary to fix the 
 bottom part, but for larger-sized pipes, especially those made in 
 lo or i2-foot lengths, the upper part should also be firmly fixed, 
 so as to sustain the weight of the pipe. 
 
88 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 In one case a man was fixing a stack of 6-inch soil pipes, 
 with branches on each floor ; above the highest branch it was 
 reduced to 4 inches, and continued to the roof as a ventilation 
 pipe ; the pipes were fixed on wooden blocks at each 10 feet. 
 The 6-inch pipe, had its top end reduced to 4 inches and tafted 
 back on a lead collar on the block. By some means, when tafting 
 the end, the pipe became slightly larger, so that when the 4-inch 
 length was fitted, it was found necessary to slightly enlarge the 
 end for it to fit into the other one. The solder was splashed on 
 and the joint just going to be wiped, when, lo ! the 4-inch pipe 
 disappeared down the inside of the 6-inch ! If the top length of 
 pipe had been properly lashed and fixed, this would not have 
 happened. 
 
 It is a good plan to leave out the bottom length of all vertical 
 stacks of pipes until the work is completed, so that any obstructions 
 may be detected and removed before it is fixed. This was done 
 in the above case, so that no harm was done beyond spoiling the 
 length of pipe that fell through. 
 
 When fixing branch joints, the same care in firmly fixing 
 must be taken, especially on large-sized pipes. The common way 
 
 to prevent the branches of soil pipe 
 from entering too far into the main 
 pipe, is to cut tags, as shown at 
 A, Figure 84. This is not a good 
 plan, as there is a rough edge left 
 inside for passing objects to cling 
 to, and sometimes a little spur of 
 solder will project through on the 
 iGURE 84. inside. A better plan, and one 
 
 often practised, is to have a short wooden mandrel placed inside 
 the main pipe to support the weight of the branch. Should this 
 mandrel be forgotten until the pipe is fixed, there is great difficulty 
 in getting it out afterwards. The best plan is to place two 
 parallel pieces of ij or i^-inch board inside the pipe, and 
 a little longer than the opening for the branch, and then force 
 in two small wooden wedges in such a way that the end of 
 the branch pipe shall rest upon them, and not enter quite so 
 far as the inside face of the main pipe. A glance at section. 
 
JOINT MAKING. 
 
 8g 
 
 Figure 85. 
 
 Figure 85, will illustrate what is meant. The advantage claimed 
 for this is, that a plumb-bob on the end of a chalk line would 
 displace it, should it be left in, 
 so that it would fall out at the 
 bottom of the stack. If not too 
 long, the pieces would pass any 
 bendg,' but care should be taken 
 not to have them too short, so as 
 to avoid a possibility of their be- 
 coming angled, or getting corner- 
 ■Wise, and so jam in the pipe. 
 
 For fixing brass unions, ferrules, or bosses, on the epds of 
 pipes for making straight-wiped joints, splints are often used. 
 Splints are pieces of common lath, split up into long narrow strips 
 and tightly fitted inside the pipe, &c. When joints are fixed 
 together in this way, they can be " rolled," that is, instead of 
 passing the cloth round the pipe to form the joint, the pipe 
 can be rolled backward and forward on two wooden blocks — 
 Figure 86, ai)d the cloth simply pressed against the joint to form 
 it into shape. Some men will 
 make this joint with an ordinary 
 underhand cloth ; others make 
 the joint partly with this cloth, 
 and then finish with a smaller 
 one, which the mate keeps 
 warmed ready. Others use the 
 small cloth only in this way : Take a ladle of molten solder, 
 heated to the proper degree, in the right hand, cloth in the left, 
 and pour on the joint, the mate slowly rolling the pipe toward 
 the worker, so that he can keep patting the solder to keep it 
 from falling oflF. When the heat is about right, lay down the 
 ladle and take the cloth in the right hand, roll the pipe towards 
 you, place the end of the cloth, which should be held with the 
 thumb and forefinger only, on the pipe-end of the joint, and 
 smartly roll it away from you with the left hand, pressing the 
 cloth as hard as possible on the pipe ; the end of the joint will 
 be found to be wiped nice and clean. Smartly roll the pipe 
 towards you, and then use the second or third finger on the other 
 
 Figure 86. 
 
go PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 end of the cloth, and press it on the brasswork ; quickly roll the 
 pipe from you, and the other end of the joint is wiped clean. If, 
 after doing this, the body looks too large and bulky, wipe the 
 superfluous metal from right to left on the pipe, and wipe that 
 end again, as before described. Now deliberately and carefully 
 hold the cloth on the joint and press the ends hard on the two 
 extremities ; smartly roll the pipe away from you. If a good heat 
 is got up, this can be done two or three times until the joint is 
 as true as if it had been turned in a lathe. A slight pause can 
 now be made, and the cloth should be looked at to see that there 
 is no solder sticking to it. About this time the solder is almost 
 set, and a light touch with the cloth will remove the small ridge 
 that will be left at the last roll of the pipe. This will leave a 
 slight dark mark, which a sponge of clean water, lightly passed 
 over it, will remove. When making these joints, only two fingers 
 are required, namely, those at the ends of the cloth. If the cloth 
 is pressed in the centre, it will cause the joint to be too slender, 
 and sometimes to split or open lengthways, so that it has to be 
 re-made. Those men who- like to wipe with the left hand, turn 
 the pipe and joint the other way so that they can roll them with 
 the right hand. The cloths used for these joints should be of 
 moderate thickness, and if they are made of old fustian, which 
 has ribs on the face, they score the face of the solder on the 
 joint, giving it a smarter appearance than when only a small 
 portion at a time is wiped, and thus leaving the cloth-marks 
 crossing each other in all directions. The principal troubles a 
 young joint-wiper has to contend against are to keep the solder 
 from falling off, and to get the ends of the joint wiped clean, so 
 as not to require trimming. To prevent it falling off, care should 
 be taken not to get the pipe too hot, and also to keep it in 
 motion, so as not to have one portion of the solder heated more 
 than another, one part in a fluid condition and the other almost 
 set. When making underhand joints, and the pipe is made too 
 hot, the bottom side of the joint sometimes falls off, and, even if 
 made, it is a common occurrence for it to have less solder on the 
 bottom than elsewhere. To wipe the edges clean, they should be 
 done first. Some young men are so anxious to mould the body 
 of the joint that they lose their heat. The body or centre should 
 
JOINT MAKING. 
 
 91 
 
 generally be left until last, as that part retains its heat longest. 
 When wiping joints in an upright position, the top edge should 
 be done first, and then, in some cases, the body. As the tin 
 generally flows to the bottom edge, which is kept hot by the spare 
 solder in the collar placed to catch it, it can be wiped last, but 
 it should be done qiiickly, as the tin sometimes sets, leaving small 
 projections which tear the cloth. 
 
 Plumbers, as a rule, scorn to make joints any other way 
 than by wiping them, but there are scores of quacks who go 
 about usurping the title of plumber, who make theirs with a copper- 
 bit, and could not wipe a joint if they tried. These people work 
 cheap, and, to put it mildly, do not do the trade any credit. 
 Now, joint wiping is not the only criterion of a tradesman ; at 
 the same time, if he cannot wipe a joint, what other branch can 
 he do in a proper manner ? 
 
 Figure 87 represents a section of a copper-bit joint as usually 
 
 ■ made. At a glance it will be seen to be very weak at A. This 
 
 part is covered with solder when the joint is wiped, and so 
 
 strengthened. Soil pipes, when joined in this way, soon break, 
 
 Figure 87. 
 
 Figure 88. 
 
 FlaURE 8g. 
 
 especially when a man thinks he will insure its being a sound 
 joint by letting one end enter a good distance, say f-inch or 
 perhaps 3 inches, into the other, and then proceeds to run a small 
 bead of fine solder round the top edge of the bottom pipe, as 
 shown at B, Figure 88. This kind of joint would be much stronger 
 if made with a blow-pipe, but this is rarely done, as it makes the 
 man's cheeks ache to get up sufficient heat for the solder to flow 
 round and down to the bottom of the socket. There are several kinds 
 
92 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 of lamps by which this description of joint can be made, but 
 when done it will not bear comparison with a good wiped joint. 
 It is necessary to make them with a lamp under special circum- 
 stances ; for instance, an ornamental pipe fixed in view, where a 
 bulged joint would not look well ; but in this case it could be 
 strengthened by a band or other ornament, as shown in section. 
 Figure 89. Care should, however, be taken that the socket is 
 filled with solder, and the heat so great as to insure its tinning to 
 the lead right down to the bottom. This cannot always be. guaranteed 
 unless the ends are prepared and tinned before putting in place. 
 The ends of the pipe must be quite smooth and true ; if care is 
 not bestowed on this, it frequently happens that just as the joint 
 is all but finished the solder runs through and down the inside of 
 the pipe. 
 
 Ordinary copper-bit joints are not good for the kind of work 
 that falls under the head of plumbing ; they may do very well for 
 gas-fitters, who, as a rule, use very light lead pipe when they use 
 any at all, but although thousands, no doubt, are made, they are 
 not so good as a blow-pipe joint. But there is another way of 
 making copper-bit joints that really is strong — I do not know 
 whether to call them Scotch joints or not, but the first I ever saw 
 made was by a Scotchman. 
 
 Figures 90 and 91 show a section and elevation of an over- 
 cast copper-bit joint, and it will be noticed that it is strengthened 
 
 Figure go. 
 
 Figure 92. 
 
 on the outside, in the same manner as a wiped joint, by a body 
 of solder. These joints can only be made in a horizontal 
 
JOINT MAKING. 93 
 
 position, when the parts to be united can be turned round, so 
 that when one face is made or soldered it can be rolled over, so 
 that another portion of the pipe, &c., is upward, ready for another 
 section to be soldered. The proper way to make these joints is 
 to solder the brasswork to the pipe by filling the socket-end with 
 solder like an ordinary copper-bit or blow-pipe joint, to do which 
 it should be placed upright ; then lay the pipe on its side and 
 buTld sufficient solder on the outside to make the joint. It should 
 now be allowed to cool a little, as if allowed to get too hot the 
 solder will run and the brasswork fall off. After this cooling has 
 taken place, the copper-bit, with a well-tinned face, should only 
 be sufficiently heated to just melt the solder, and not to render it 
 so fluid as to run oflf the work. Hold the copper-bit firmly, and 
 let it just touch the solder at one end of the joint, taking care 
 not to bury the face in the solder so as to touch the pipe. As 
 soon as the solder melts, move the bit slowly towards the other 
 end, pause for a second or two, and then suddenly and smartly 
 lift the bit upwards ; if this is not done quickly, part of the 
 solder will adhere to the bit instead of remaining behind and 
 leaving the joint full up. to the edge. Now roll the pipe, &c., to 
 present another face on its top side, and serve that the same. 
 These joints are very easy to make, and require no trimming at 
 the ends if care is taken with them ; they also look nice and 
 clean, as each face presents a bright surface. These joints are 
 suitable for brass unions to lavatory valves, which are generally 
 too short to make wiped joints tO, and they may be considered 
 superior, and where the unions are short, as stated, they are 
 stronger. If the reader will refer to what was said about long 
 joints, and to the illustration given in an earlier chapter, I think 
 he will agree that this is so. These joints can also be made to 
 the waste unions of washhand-basins, where the whole weight of 
 the branch waste, and sometimes the trap as well, is suspended 
 from a frail piece of crockeryware ; they have an advantage over 
 the wiped joint, as they are much lighter. 
 
 After these joints have been made, they are sometimes filed 
 and cleaned up so as to present the appearance shown at Figure 92. 
 This is a waste of time, they are no stronger for it, and although 
 some first-class trader men do this, it should be condemned quite 
 
94 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 as much as serving a wiped joint so, which is generally looked 
 upon as showing want of skill in wiping. 
 
 On large-sized pipes, these joints, which are sometimes called 
 " ribbon joints," can be made by holding the bit steady and rolling 
 the pipe round, but the same attention must be paid to the heat 
 of the bit, and care taken not to get the work too hot, so that 
 the solder sets almost as soon as it leaves the bit ; but half-an-hour's 
 practice is worth more than pages of description. 
 
 About two years ago, a series of lectures was given by a 
 master plumber in the rooms of the Society of Arts, and he showed 
 a specimen of a welted joint. This consisted of a hard-metal 
 nipple with grooved external surfaces ; the two ends of the lead 
 pipe, that were to be joined, were passed over it and then pressed 
 together so as to be perfectly water-tight. This cannot be equal 
 to a good old-fashioned wiped joint, which could be made almost 
 as quickly, and which, when properly made, would resist any 
 strain that it might be subjected to. There are patent moulds for 
 casting soldered joints on lead pipe, which consist of placing iron 
 flasks round the pipe, after the joint has been prepared in the 
 usual manner, and then pouring in melted solder. The poor 
 plumber's assistant, who would have to carry all the apparatus 
 for making these joints, would be entitled to pity, and if a man 
 cannot wipe a joint he cannot be called a plumber, and has no 
 business in the trade. Fancy a firm, employing about 150 pairs 
 of plumbers, having to buy these things ! A complete set, for 
 making joints in all sizes and positions, would cost much more 
 than any master would be disposed to pay, and each man would 
 require a set to himself, unless there were several men working 
 together, and then there would be a waste of time borrowing and 
 taking back ; and even then there are hundreds of joints made 
 where they could not possibly be used. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 PIPE FIXING. 
 
 There are several ways for fixing lead pipes. For services, 
 the common way is to drive into the wall a series of iron wall- 
 hooks. If the pipe is horizontal and fixed on the face of the wall, 
 and not recessed or covered with plaster, it frequently presents 
 the appearance illustrated in Figure 93. The lead pipe being 
 very soft, and having 
 no support between the 
 
 wall-hooks, it hangs 
 
 down, and at the same I ' ' 1 1 ' 
 
 time the whole of the F.0URE93. 
 
 weight is resting upon such a small portion that the hook cut? 
 into the pipe and bruises it. 
 
 Sometimes, to save the pipe from being cut, a piece of sheet- 
 lead is placed between it and the hook ; or a small piece of 
 plasterers' lath is used for the same purpose. Although this 
 is a good plan, it gives the work a patchy appearance. A much 
 better way is to have a wooden fillet nailed on the wall, with a 
 hollow on its top side for the pipe to lie in, as shown in section. 
 Figure 94. The advantages gained are, that the pipe is not cut, 
 as predescribed, and it can be drained empty if fixed 
 to a very slight inclination, as there are no baggy parts 
 for water to lie in. This is of great importance, as, 
 when out of use, the pipes can be emptied to avoid 
 water freezing in them in cold weather. Another 
 reason is, that when an intermittent supply of water ^"^""^ 9 
 passes through pipes fixed on hooks, water will be retained in the 
 lower parts, and those over the hooks become charged with air. 
 Under certain conditions this will prevent water from passing 
 through, and when it occurs, some plumbers try to remove it with 
 a force pump. Other plumbers, who know the cause, will simply 
 
 ■V- 
 
gfi PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 straighfer the pipe to allow the air to escape. If it is very; old 
 pipe, it will sometimes leak where cut with the hook. To avoid 
 this, the plumber will drive a common pin into the highest parts 
 of the pipe, and so let out the air, afterward closing the small 
 hole made, by driving in the sides with a hammer and the side 
 of the point-end of a chisel. Larger-sized pipes, when fixed 
 horizontally, generally have lead tacks soldered to their side^, 
 which are then hooked to the wall. These pipes frequently sag 
 down, and the tacks tear away from the. pipe (or the pipe itself 
 tears), so that it is much better to have the wooden fillet to 
 support it, as described for smaller-sized pipes. This wooden 
 fillet will also answer as fixing for a casing for protection aga,inst 
 frost or injury. ,,-! 
 
 When service pipes are fixed vertically with - wall-hopks, 
 unless they are driven in very tight, the pipe , slips through, and 
 the edges of both the shank and head of the hook cut into the 
 pipe. If there should be a slight 'bend in the pipe, the hook will 
 cut through the lead and the pipe will leak. If a waste pipe, 
 through which hot and cold water pass at intervals, is fixed in 
 
 this manner, this evil is aggravated by the 
 
 ^'^ ^'^ ( / expansion and contraction of the lead. 
 
 // / /^ Then, again, if the hook is driven in tight, 
 
 ~^~" ~/y,''*^ I j--A_^i_^ go that the pipe cannot slip downward, 
 
 / ^ the pipe becomes so bruised as to contract 
 
 x_(^^ the water-way, as shown in section at 
 
 Figure 95, so that a smaller pipe, full 
 
 iGURE 95. hoxe. throughout its length, would allow 
 
 as much water to pass through in a given time. 
 
 Pieces of lead, placed between the hook and pipe as prestaied, 
 save this to a certain extent, but do not prevent the 
 evil. Pipe-hooks are so narrow in the shank and 
 hook that they cut the pipe more than wall-hopks. 
 
 For fixing large-sized (say 4-inch soil) pipes, the 
 usual way is to solder on " tacks," that is, pieces of 
 lead, which should be thicker (rather than less in 
 substance) than the soil pipe. These tacks are 
 generally 9 inches square ; one edge is soldered to 
 the pipe, as shown in section. Figure 96, and then 
 
PIPE FIXING. 
 
 97 
 
 wall-hooks are driven through the tack into the brick wall, 
 and the other half of the tack folded back to protect the hook 
 and also hide the ragged appearance. These hooks must be driven 
 into the korizmtal joints of the brickwork — if driven into the 
 vertical ones the mortar would crumble beneath them when the 
 weight comes to bear, and so let the pipe gradually slide down- 
 ward. The horizontal joints in brickwork are generally about 
 3 "inches apart, and as the tacks are g inches long, it will be seen 
 that only two wall-hooks can be driven in to be of any advantage ; 
 if a third one were used, as at A, Figure 97, a very slight settle- 
 ment of the pipe would cause it to be 
 useless by the lead tearing away. Lead 
 tacks- should never be more than 3 feet 
 4 inches apart from centre to centre, 
 but it is much better to have four of 
 these tacks to each lo-foot length of 
 pipe. In one case a stack of soil pipe, 
 with the tacks 5 feet apart, had gradually 
 slid downward and broken in several 
 places. The work had only been done 
 about ten years, but when we come to 
 think that three-quarters-of-a-hundredweight of lead (the pipe was 
 4-inch diameter, eight-pound lead) was suspended on four wall- 
 hooks, the mystery is that it lasted so long. 
 
 Sometimes, where a lead soil pipe is fixed on an external 
 face of a wall, the tacks are made of heavier lead, say nine or 
 ten pounds per foot super, instead of the same substance as the 
 pipe, and instead of common wall-hooks, specially-made nails, 
 with flat stems and large heads, are driven in to support the 
 pipe ; instead of the tack being folded 
 back the edges are trimmed, as shown in 
 Figure 98, or to any other design that 
 may be ordered. In this case the tacks 
 should be put on in pairs for the sake 
 of appearances, but where this is of no 
 importance, it is better to fix them on 
 alternate sides, and at equal distances 
 apart. When tacks are soldered on in figure 98. 
 
 Figure 97, 
 
 s- 
 
9^ PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 pairs they are generally both done together, so that the seam 
 
 includes a portion of the pipe and the two edges of the tacks. 
 
 This is not a good plan, as the thickness of solder keeps the pipe 
 
 from fitting closely to the wall, and the piece of pipe is liable to 
 
 be torn out, so that really the strength of the fixing is only equal 
 
 to one tack instead of two. Pairs of tacks should always be 
 
 soldered on separately,' as shown in section at Figure gg, so that 
 
 there are two portions of the pipe soldered 
 
 to instead of one. The tacks are genersdly 
 
 -* — " wiped " on to the pipe, and if the 
 
 plumber uses a thin cloth, he generally 
 
 wipes the edges of the seam so bare that 
 
 Figure 99. ^j^^ j^^^ ^^^^^ through. When this is 
 
 done it is weak, as the' lead, being reduced in substance with the 
 shave-hook, should have those parts well covered with solder to 
 make up the substance. It is a much better plan to float the 
 seam by pouring heated solder on to the parts and about an inch 
 on each side of the shaving until a heat is got up, and then 
 have an iron heated and well cleaned from scales, and slowly 
 draw it backward and forward over the solder until it flows and 
 the surface is flat, as shown at A, Figure loo. If the solder is 
 too hot, it will run off' the seam. The edges 
 should be made straight so as not to require 
 trimming. After doing this, pause for a few 
 seconds, and then smartly draw a knife across 
 the ends of the soldering — while still hot — to cut 
 Figure 100. ^j^^^^ straight, and then pass the end of a rule 
 
 or thin straight-edge under the tack, close to the pipe, to remove 
 any spurs of solder that may have run through ; have a sponge 
 of clean water ready and swab the seam. All this should be 
 done in much less time than it takes to describe. When one 
 tack has been done and the spare solder removed, have a piece 
 of brown paper ready with one edge pasted and stick it on 
 the soiled part between the two seams — not on the solder, 
 as it would make it look dirty — and then float on the other 
 tack in the same way. If all this is quickly done, the two 
 solderings can be made at one heat, although it maj- be necessary 
 sometimes to have another iron ht)t and ready, as the first one 
 
PIPE FIXING. 
 
 y9 
 
 would have become too cool to cause the metal to flow nicely. 
 On account of its appearance, this way of fixing pipes is very 
 suitable for work when it is in sight, but when they are going to 
 be 4xed inside a building, and in a chase or other position where 
 other pipes are run, or inside a casing where the projecting ears 
 or tacks with the large-headed nails would take up too much 
 room, it is. an advantage to use what are commonly called 
 ■"face-tacks." These are narrow tacks soldered on the face 
 instead of on the back side, and a considerable amount of solder 
 left on for the sakn of strength, so that the tack will not tear 
 where the nail is driven in, as is so common with the ordinary 
 lead-tack. The solder being a harder material than lead it will 
 ■withstand a greater strain. Figures loi and 102 are respectively 
 
 Figure 102. 
 
 Figure ioi. 
 
 •elevation and section of the kind of tack described. Some masters 
 object to this kind of tack, because they think it takes more 
 solder than the ordinary kind ; but if properly done it does not 
 take much more, and the saving in the size of the piece of lead 
 -will repay the value of the solder. When this kind of fixing is 
 adopted, the ordinary nails used for fixing iron rain-water pipes 
 answer the purpose very well, but if galvanized they are much 
 superior and look better ; they also last longer than plain iron 
 ones, as those unprotected rust through where they are in actual 
 contact with any lead ; but this is only in the presence of moisture, 
 or when not protected from rain. Sometimes iron nails with lead 
 heads cast upon them are used, but they are not to be depended 
 upon for any great length of time, as they soon rust through 
 close to the head, so that it falls off. Where expense is not to 
 be considered, copper or good gun -metal nails are to be depended 
 
 H 2 
 
lOO PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 upon, as these metals resist the influences of the atmosphere to a 
 much greater extent than iron. 
 
 Almost all kinds of lead pipes can be fixed by face-tacks, such 
 as cold-water waste pipes, main and ordinary service, and warning 
 pipes. Some architects who find time to give a little thought 
 to the plumbing work of a building, will have a chase or recess- 
 built in the structure in which to fix pipes, but they are very 
 rarely made large enough, and more frequently so small that 
 the pipes have to be fixed one in front of the other, with the 
 result that those in front have no fixing at all. Perhaps the 
 chase is crowded with lead pipes in this manner, and then the- 
 gas-fitter tries to find room for his mains, there is no other 
 way for the gas pipes to go, and the fitter thinks that no harm 
 is done if he bruises the soil pipe a bit to make room for them,, 
 or there may be just room for the pipe, but to get his tongs in, 
 to screw it up he has to make room by bruising some other 
 pipe. Sometimes the iron hot-water circulation pipes have to- 
 be squeezed in as well, and, in addition to the evils enumerated' 
 above, these pipes so expand and contract that the sockets,, 
 rubbing and chafing against their neighbours, the lead pipes,, 
 soon wear a hole in one or other of them. If these hot pipes 
 are fixed at the ends so that they cannot expand, they bulge 
 sideways, and so indent the other pipes. 
 
 In spite of the chase being so crowded with pipes, it is not 
 at all uncommon for the tenant of the house to find that a few 
 speaking-tubes would be a convenience, and as there is no other 
 way of taking them without destroying the decorations of the 
 staircase, they have to go into the chase with the other pipes. 
 Very probably it is found that more bells are required, either- 
 electric, pneumatic, or ordinary wire-hung bells, and each tradesman? 
 has to exercise his ingenuity to the utmost to find room for his 
 fittings, all of them in this already crowded recess. After a period' 
 of time, perhaps, a leakage of water is found to be taking place 
 somewhere in this chase, and its position cannot be seen, but 
 it is so serious that it must be found and put to rights. The pipes- 
 that can be seen appear to be all right, therefore it must be one 
 of those at the back. The plumber begins by cutting all the belt 
 wires or tubes, and partly taking down the speaking tube and gat. 
 
PIPE FIXING. lOI 
 
 main, and then perhaps he can see enough to know that the 
 leakage is taking place at a higher level, and so he goes up to 
 the next floor and possibly succeeds in finding the actual position, 
 but cannot get at it on account of the hot -water pipes. Of course 
 he cannot disturb these until he has put out the kitchen fire and 
 emptied the boiler or water-back. He then takes down the cir- 
 culation pipes, and perhaps has to cut one or two lead service 
 pipes before he can gain access to repair the one that is defective. 
 The mistress of the house complains, the cook grumbles, and the 
 master, in a towering rage, sends the poor plumber home in 
 disgrace because he made so much fuss about repairing a broken 
 pipe, which the master of the house, in his ignorance, says took 
 only about an hour to do. 
 
 My readers may think this a rather highly-coloured illustration, 
 but it is a fact. Some architects, who perhaps may have noticed 
 this state of things, will have a good wide recess made to receive 
 the work required, and also leave a margin for any pipes that 
 may be found necessary at a future time, and so that the hot- 
 water pipes may not have any effect on the lead pipes by being 
 too close to them, which not only injures the lead, but perhaps 
 warms the water in the pipes so that it is unpleasant for drinking 
 purposes. In addition to the necessity of a wide chase, so that 
 all pipes may be fixed side by side where they can be readily 
 accessible for repairs, it is a good plan to line the back of the 
 chase, either by covering the brickwork with cement and making 
 the face even so as not to bruise the back sides of the pipes, and 
 with wooden blocks at intervals for fastening them to, or else to 
 fix boards over the whole of the surface (except where the soil 
 pipe is to be fixed). Now, if the soil pipe had face-tacks soldered 
 on and fixed with nails as described, the other pipes, which are 
 generally smaller in size, could have face-tacks too, but they 
 should be fixed to the wood back or blocks, according as the 
 chase was prepared, with strong inch screws, so that the pipe 
 could not slip downward or move in any way. By taking out 
 the screws the pipe could be pulled forward for making any 
 necessary repairs, or, if found necessary, a branch pipe made good 
 to it, without the trouble of moving any of the other pipes. The 
 hot-water pipes are useful in cold countries to prevent frost 
 
I02 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 affecting the cold-water pipes, but they should on no account be 
 allowed to be in actual contact with any lead or other pipe 
 if used for conveying drinking-water. When pipes are fixed 
 separately, it is much easier to protect them with felt, slag-wool, 
 or any other substitute, from the effects of frost, as, if the back 
 wall was boarded, they need only to be covered on the front side, 
 and long strips of wood, with longish screws used to fasten the 
 material as close to the pipe as possible. 
 
CHAPTER XL 
 
 RAIN-WATER PIPES. 
 
 A GREAT many architects are in favour of lead rain-water 
 pipes, as when well fixed they last so much longer and do not 
 split in the same manner by the effect of frost as iron ones. Iron 
 ones also have their sockets or hubs frequently burst by oxidation ; 
 any water running down the outside of the pipe, enters the sockets 
 emd causes the inside to rust; this rust or oxidation swells with 
 such force as to cause the iron socket to break. Sometimes a 
 piece falls off and leaves a hole through which rain-water can 
 escape and soak into the walls of the house, and very often where 
 these walls are of porous stone or of brick, the decorations on the 
 interior face are destroyed. Where wooden skirtings are used 
 they become rotten, and any fittings or shelves in the vicinity 
 have their contents brought into a mouldy, and very often decayed 
 condition. Another advantage of leaden rain-water pipes is, that 
 if a length should become injured in any way, it can be easily 
 taken out, or repaired in its place, while an iron one cannot be 
 repaired or a new length properly fixed without taking down some 
 of the other pipes, unless it happens to be the bottom length. 
 Iron pipes periodically want painting to protect them from oxidation, 
 but this is never done on the inside — where it wants it most, nor 
 yet on the back side, as the painter cannot get his brush behind. 
 Lead pipes do not require any painting to protect them, and have 
 a certain amount of value attached to them when old and past 
 repair. There are thousands of stacks of leaden rain-water pipes 
 fixed in London, mostly to houses that have been built a great 
 many years, and when some of these houses undergo repairing, 
 the best architects generally leave the old leaden pipes which are 
 in fair condition, and perhaps take out one lengtli at the bottom 
 and fix iron, as this part often gets battered about and damaged 
 
I04 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 by being knocked with brooms or passing objects. A great many 
 new houses or buildings of a high-class description have leaden 
 stack pipes ; those lower in the scale have iron ones ; and those 
 very cheaply built mostly have zinc of about No. 9 gauge. 
 
 A great many of these old leaden rain-water pipes are fixed 
 with iron wall-hooks in such a way that the fastenings cannot be 
 seen. The lengths of th.ese pipes are about 6 feet long, and the 
 joints are the end of the upper pipe socketed into that below ; 
 consequently, there is no solder used in any way excepting to the 
 seam when the pipe was made. 
 
 This fixing. Figure 103, is mostly applied when the pipe is 
 in an angle of the building, and when there is not an angle con- 
 venient, a chase is left in the brickwork for the pipe to fit into, 
 
 Figure 103. Elevation. 
 
 Plan enlarged. 
 
 SO as to be flush with the face. By doing this, more fixings, in 
 the way of wall-hooks, could be driven in than if it were fixed on 
 the face of the wall, in which case the whole weight of the length 
 of pipes would have to be sustained on one hook, whereas, in an 
 angle, two could be used, and when fixed in a chase, it is possible 
 to get three in. These pipes sometimes have astragals or ornaments 
 at the joints. A piece is cut out of the front, leaving a tag on 
 th" back side for fixing, as illustrated. 
 
 Another way of fixing leaden rain-water pipes was, and is, 
 to solder tacks on the sides of the top or socket end. Then saw 
 a piece of ^-inch or J-inch lead pipe longitudinally, and fold it 
 
RAIN-WATER PIPES. 
 
 105 
 
 Figure 104. 
 
 around the larger pipe, and solder them together with fine solder 
 and copper-bit ; or sometimes these astragals are cast solid and 
 put on. The plumber will often himself design a small neat 
 moulding, and make the flask for casting these astragals. He 
 generally proceeds first to paste a section of his design, drawn on 
 paper, on a small piece of sheet zinc, which he then cuts so that 
 the edge represents the required shape, as shown in Figure 104 ; 
 this is then nailed upon a piece of 
 thin board, cut to the same shape, 
 but a little larger, and with another 
 small, narrow piece of board nailed 
 or screwed on at right angles. The 
 plumber then gets a smooth piece of 
 board about 18 inches long and 7 
 inches wide, and on one edge nails 
 a strip of wood for his mould to run against. The next thing is 
 to mix some plaster of Paris and water to the proper consistency 
 and lay it on the board, which should be previously wetted, and 
 then, before the plaster sets, to pass the prepared zinc mould over 
 it, so as to remove all, excepting a portion which will be found 
 to be the required shape, as shown in sketch, Figure 105. 
 
 This should then be placed in a dry 
 situation for the plaster, to set and any 
 moisture to evaporate. When thoroughly 
 dry, block the ends with a piece of well- 
 soiled lead backed up with sand. The sides 
 will have been formed with plaster, the 
 zinc mould being cut so as to allow for 
 this. When all is ready, pour melted lead 
 on as quickly as possible, until it overflows the sides ; care should 
 be taken to level the plaster mould so that the lead may be the 
 same thickness at each end. When the lead is set it can be 
 taken off and the plaster will be left adhering to the board. The 
 outer edges of this half flask should be made perfectly straight 
 and smooth, and three or four conical-shaped holes made in the 
 faces, outside the moulded sinking. This sinking should then be 
 filled flush with plaster, or fine loamy sand, slightly moistened ; 
 when this is done and the lead covered with a coating of thin 
 
 Figure 105. 
 
Io6 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 soil, place a band of well-soiled sheet-lead around the edges, well 
 back it up with wet sand, and then pour on melted lead to a 
 depth of not less than i inch. In all cases the lead requires to 
 be poured on quickly, or the flask will be flaky, and before it has 
 been used many times will become so rough that what is cast in 
 it will require trimming and cleaning up before it can be used. 
 
 If these lead astragals or mouldings are made to a large size 
 they should be cast hollow on the back. To do this, the first 
 half of the flask should have the moulded sinking filled with 
 .plaster, and before it sets a portion should be removed by a piece 
 of zinc cut to the required shape and fastened upon a small piece 
 of wood, in the same manner as described before. Its shape will 
 be as sketch, Figure io6. When the plaster is perfectly dry, 
 prepare and cast the other half of the 
 flask, as before described. Separate the 
 two pieces of lead, remove the plaster, 
 well soil the lead, fit them together, and 
 fasten with clamps or hand-screws. If 
 these are not at hand have some small 
 pieces of board, notched to fit loosely on 
 the edges of the lead flask, and wood 
 
 Figure 106. 
 
 wedges cut. These will answer the pur- 
 pose almost as well as the screw clamps. Cut a pouring-hole in 
 one end of the lead flask, allowing space enough for the air to 
 pass out as the lead is poured in. 
 
 When all is prepared, stand the flask on its end and pour 
 molten lead in at the other end, taking care not to have it too 
 hot so as to melt the flask. Some men prefer to have pouring- 
 holes at the edges of the flask, but endways is best, and the 
 casting better and not so flaky. These mouldings are simply 
 bent around the pipe and soldered with copper-bit or blow-pipe 
 lamp and fine solder. 
 
 If only a few astragals are needed, a carpenter can make 
 a pattern of wood with which to make a print in moistened loam 
 or fine sand, and then pour melted lead into it. By this means 
 it is difiicult to make the casting true, as it requires trimming 
 and filing to make it an equal thickness its whole length. Some- 
 times a lead socket with ears and astragals is cast aU in one 
 
RAIN-WATER PIPES. 
 
 107 
 
 Figure 107. 
 
 piece and soldered to the pipe afterward. Figure 107 is an example 
 of one for square pipe, but this is a trouble to cast, as the flask 
 has to be in six pieces or it cannot be 
 drawn away from the casting. The easiest 
 way for an ordinary plumbtr to make it, 
 is to cast a length and then niche and 
 solder it together, and cast the two ears 
 with a band all in one piece, to pass be- 
 hind the pipe and solder on afterward. 
 This makes it very much stronger, but as 
 the weight of the pipe will sometimes cause 
 the ears to bend, it is a good plan to cut 
 oflf about three inches of the pipe on the front and two sides, 
 and then flange over the piece left on the back and turn it into 
 the wall and fasten with lead wedges and Portland cement. 
 
 It very often occurs when a cast-iron rain-water pipe is fixed 
 to a building, that a bend is required to a different length to any 
 iron ones kept in stock, and as a special-made bend would be 
 expensive, it being necessary to make pattern and core-box for it, 
 it generally falls to the plumber to make one out of lead pipe. 
 After making the bend, the plumber generally folds a piece of 
 sheet-lead around the socket of one of the iron pipes and works 
 it into the mouldings, so that when this dummy socket is made 
 and soldered on the lead bend, it matches the iron in shape, and 
 when the whole is painted, the diiference in appearance is so 
 slight as not to be noticeable. The ears can be made by cutting 
 out a piece of wood with which to make a print in sand, and 
 then run melted lead into it. These ears should be very strongly 
 soldered to the bend, as when iron pipes aire fixed so that the 
 spigot end is tight on the bottom of the socket or hub, any 
 expansion that takes place will force the bend downward, and 
 perhaps break it away from its fixings. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 LINING SINKS AND CISTERNS. 
 
 Ordinary-sized cisterns are generally lined with six-pound 
 lead sides and seven-pound bottoms, but for best work and large 
 cisterns, seven and eight-pound is very often used. Small-sized 
 cisterns are usually lined with lead of the same substance through- 
 out, and in one piece, with the angle pieces cut out. The plumber 
 generally opens out his piece of lead and carefully takes out the 
 creases with a leaden flapper, so as not to bruise or indent it ; 
 he then marks out the part for the bottom, and then the sides 
 and ends, allowing in all cases for the thickness of lead, so that 
 it will not fit too tight in the wooden case or shell. At each 
 angle is left about ^ or^ f-inch on the side that will form the 
 under-cloak, as shown by dotted lines. A, A, Figure io8, and 
 corners are left on, as at B, B, so that when 
 the lead is turned over the top edge of the 
 cistern they shall meet in a mitre. 
 
 The lead is now soiled about 3 or 4 inches 
 wide around the parts to be soldered, and 
 when dry they are shaved either with a gauge- 
 hook or an ordinary shave-hook and straight- 
 edge, the part at C being shaved with the 
 hook-compasses. Great care should be taken, 
 when shaving the straight parts, not to dig 
 in the point of the hook so as to unnecessarily 
 reduce the substance of the lead, and neither 
 should the shaving be too wide, in which 
 case the lead would not have the parts which 
 are thinned by the hook strengthened by the solder. Some men 
 think that by shaving wide angles it makes them appear to be 
 stronger, whereas the reverse is the case, as it is very rarely that 
 
 Figure 108. 
 
LINING SINKS AND CISTERNS. 
 
 log 
 
 the solder is left full up to the edge of the shaving, as was 
 explained in one of the chapters on "Joints." 
 
 Figure 109 shows a section across the soldered angle of a 
 cistern, showing the shaved parts filled up with solder right up to 
 
 Figure 109. 
 
 Figure 110. 
 
 the edge, and Figure no the common way and the evils complained 
 of at the parts marked E, E. 
 
 Supposing the piece of lead to be prepared, soiled, and 
 shaved, as described ; the piece to form the undercloak at the 
 angles should have its outer edge rasped down to a feather-edge, 
 so that the overcloak part may lie quite smooth over it. If this 
 was not done it would be very diflScult to wipe the angle nice and 
 true and leave the solder of a proper substance at the edges. 
 These undercloak pieces should have a sharp-pointed hook run 
 where the edge is to be folded, so that they will fold up without 
 any dressing or knocking about to dirty the shaving or scratch 
 the soiling, which .would necessitate its being done over agalin. 
 The sides should next be folded upward and the angles around 
 the bottom " set in " with the edge of a dresser, but not too 
 sharp, and only sufficient to crease the lead in straight lines. 
 These angles should then be dressed well on the outside ; if this 
 is properly done the lead will not have become reduced in substance, 
 whereas an indifferent tradesman would have set in these angles 
 so sharp with his dresser as to nearly cut the lead through. 
 
 The bottom should now be bellied or hollowed from che 
 underside ; the flat of the hand is quite sufficient for this, and the 
 use of tools should be avoided as far as possible. The sides 
 should be bellied inward in the same manner. The result of this 
 
no PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 bellying Is to make the lead, when turned up, rather smaller than 
 the wood case it is going into, so that it will drop into its position 
 without any dressing ; if the lead should be rather tight, by lifting 
 up one end of the cistern a few inches off the floor or bench and 
 allowing it to drop, and then the other end in a similar way, the 
 lead will generally shake down to the bottom. The sides with the 
 undercloaks attached to them should have their edges pressed 
 into the angles of the wooden case, and then the bellied part 
 pressed back with a smooth pipce of board ; the other two sides 
 should be treated in the same manner, and the result will be that 
 the lead is home in the angles without any dressing or working 
 of any kind. A piece of board should be laid in the bottom, and 
 the plumber should stand upon it to press down the bellying of 
 that part and so force the angles of the lead back into their 
 proper position tight up to the woodwork. An iron punch or a 
 blunt chisel can be used with advantage about every 3 or 4 inches 
 in the angles of the parts to be soldered, so as to punch in a 
 series of little spurs to prevent the angle opening by the expansion 
 of the lead when the solder is poured on. About 2 or 3 inches 
 from the top end of these soldered angles, a copper nail with a 
 tinned head should be driven in, but only one to each angle, so 
 as to fasten down the lead and keep it from rising oflf the bottom 
 when the top edge is worked over on the woodwork. ^ Some men 
 will run a knife or the point of a shave-hook on the back side of 
 the lead, and on a level with fh3 top edge of the wood cistern, 
 so that the lead will fold over and leave a straight and sharp 
 arris without much dressing, and although when this is done the 
 work looks smart and free from tool marks, still it should be con- 
 demned, as it will not be so well able to support the sides of the 
 cistern, which, to a certain extent, are suspended from the top. 
 It is a common practice to have the top edge of the cistern 
 dished or hollowed at the angles, so that the lead can be dressed 
 into it, and then where it meets in a niche it can be soldered " flush." 
 The cistern should now be placed on its side or end, ready 
 for wiping, so that the undercloak piece stands upright, for if 
 this lies flat, it sometimes happens that if the lead does not fit 
 tightly in the angle, solder will get underneath and so get wasted, 
 in addition to making the- surface of the lead so uneven that the 
 
LINING SINKS AND CISTERNS. Ill 
 
 wiping looks irregular and patchy, for a plumber can no more 
 wipe an angle straight if the sides are nol flat than a plasterer 
 could run a straight cornice or moulding if his running rules were 
 not straight. 
 
 It is always best m>t to " touch " or grease the angles of a 
 cistern until after it is lined, as there are always dust and bits of 
 rubbish about that stick to it, and when it is " touched," some 
 should be rubbed on the soiled portions as well, as the solder 
 does not stick to it so much, and the metal works freer. Good 
 thick cloths should be used for wiping cisterns ; a thin qne is 
 sometimes useful to get away from the start, as a thick one would 
 leave a great lump in the corner ; but a good thick one is best 
 for straight-away work — so thick that only one finger is necessary, 
 and so that pressure can be applied to it. A thin cloth gets so 
 hot as to burn the hand ; it also requires two, and sometimes 
 three, fingeis behind it, so as to press on the edges of the 
 soldering and so wipe them clean and avoid the necessity of 
 .rimming them afterward with a pocket-knife at the risk of cutting 
 half through the lead as well ; and, speaking from experience, 
 when using a thin cloth, sometimes more pressure is applied by 
 one finger than by another, and the soldering is not of equal 
 substance throughout, or on one edge the lead shows and on 
 the other an extra thickness of solder is left. When three fingers 
 are used with a thin cloth it is not at all uncommon for the little 
 finger of the wiping hand to keep touching the spare solder at 
 the side of the wiping, and so get burnt, and sometimes a piece 
 will get under the finger nail, causing great pain. Care should be 
 taken to keep the lead pressed tight back to the woodwork when 
 soldering, for as soon as the hot solder is poured, or splashed, on, 
 the lead expands and bulges out, and this must be pushed, not 
 dressed, back before commencing wiping, as if done afterward, when 
 the metal is partly set and in a brittle condition, it frequently 
 cracks, and so fine as to be invisible Some men will have a 
 small piece of wood, about 8 or lo inches long, to press back 
 the sides, but others push it with their cloths, and as the lead is 
 very soft from being heated, it generally goes back very easily. 
 The process of wiping is very difiScult to describe ; five minutes' 
 practice would be worth more than pages of writine about, it. 
 
112 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 The points to be attended to are to properly prepare everything 
 as described, taking care that the shaving is perfect, and to have 
 a good heat, but not hot enough to burn holes in the lead for 
 the solder to run through. The irons should be hot, but not so 
 as to burn the solder and convert it into dross. Pour on sufficient 
 solder to go a few feet, but not too much, as that which is behind 
 the worker gets cold, and so has to be heated up with the iron. 
 As soon as a heat is got up, begin wiping while the solder is in 
 a semi-fluid condition, and don't play with it until the heat is 
 almost lost, or until the metal is half cold, so that it pulls apart 
 or perhaps away from the lead. A good plumber will kfeep his 
 iron at work heating up the solder at one patrt while he is wiping 
 the portion already heated. A good many men, in trying to do 
 this, have their attention so riveted on their wiping hand that 
 they forget to use the iron, and the result is that their angles 
 look patchy. Others, again, will keep their iron buried in the 
 solder to keep it heated, but forget to keep moving it about, and 
 the result is that it often burns a hole through the lead in such 
 a way that perhaps he has to stop soldering until he has shaved 
 around the hole so as to solder it over. 
 
 A new beginner at cistern soldering generally wastes so much 
 time at patting and heating his solder, that he gets part of it so 
 hot that it runs away from the angle and perhaps beyond the 
 soiling, so that it tins on the unprotected lead, while other portions 
 are almost set, or at all events too cold for wiping. The result 
 is that he only wipes a short portion at a time. While he is 
 playing with the solder, the heated portion of the lead is extending 
 more and more, and as fast as he pushes back the bulged parts 
 they come out again, and at last it perhaps takes him longer to 
 keep the lead back than it does to wipe the angle. It need 
 scarcely be added that the work; when done, is very dirty and has 
 a very ragged appearance, whereas ■ a good plumber quickly gets 
 up his heat and wipes, perhaps; i foot or i foot 6 inches at one 
 streke, and so keeps on, for the quicker it is done the cleaner it 
 looks, and the less the sides bulge inward. 
 
 We will now proceed to describe how to line a cistern with 
 the bottom and sides in one piece, and the two ends soldered in 
 afterward. 
 
LINING SINKS AND CISTERNS. 
 
 113 
 
 Figure iiia 
 
 Cut out the lead to the proper size and allow tor turning 
 over on the top edge, also the angle-pieces on the corners at 
 A, A, Figure iii, and the J- inch for the undercloak. Soil, shave, 
 and drop it into the wooden case, 
 as previously described. Put a few 
 clout-nails through the undercloak 
 to hold it in its place, but drive 
 them well in so that the heads do 
 not stand up beyond the surface 
 of the lead, and so make bumps 
 which will show through the next 
 piece of lead which laps over them. 
 Next cut out the pieces of lead for the ends, not forgetting the 
 top angle-pieces. This piece of lead should be -J-inch wider than 
 the place it is to fit, so that it pinches tightly into its place, the 
 centre part being bellied upward to insure this, as shown in 
 Figure iia. It is a good plan to slightly bevel the edges by rasping, 
 so that if it should fit too tight they will give 
 a little, and so avoid the necessity oi. dressing 
 the bellied part in to get rid of the superfluous 
 lead. When cutting out lead for these cisterns 
 it is always best to get a wooden lath and 
 cut it to the length to fit in the cistern, and 
 mark the lead from that, so as to insure it 
 being the size required ; for if the lead is too 
 small, the solder will run through, and if too 
 large, the dresser has to be used at the risk 
 of spoiling the shaving and soiling, as before 
 mentioned. 
 
 For larger-sized cisterns the lead is generally cut out so that 
 an end and side are in one piece, and' the bottom is put in by 
 itself. According to principles that have been laid down, the 
 bottom should be put in first and the edges turned up all around, 
 so that the solder cannot by any means run through, but in 
 practice this is very rarely done, as the workmen's feet, and tools 
 laying about, scratch the lead, and, in addition, it is not so easy 
 to get the sides in afterward. One reason is that lead will not 
 slide on lead, and another is that the bottom edge of the piece 
 
 Figure 112. 
 
114 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 forming the side and end wants stiffening by turning a small 
 portion, foi it must be remembered that the whole weight of the 
 piece has to be supported by the bottom edge, and if this is not 
 looked to, perhaps one end will drop a little, and so throw thie 
 whole piece out of square with the cistern-case, with the result 
 that the lead angle will not be tight home. 
 
 To line a cistern in this manner, cut out the lead, leaving 
 corner pieces on the top as before described, and i inch extra in 
 length for each angle, and also enough for laying on the bottom 
 and turning on the top edge. These surplus pieces for the ends 
 and bottom should be turned up and dressed perfectly straight, by 
 placing a piece of timber inside to insure this ; the piece of lead 
 should then be folded to fit the upright angle, and '' set in " 
 lightly, and then well dressed on the outside to a moderately 
 sharp arris. The piece of lead should then be folded two or 
 three times for convenience of removal, care being taken not to 
 spoil the part which is prepared to fit the angle, and the inch 
 margin. on the bottom edge which is turned up should be doubled 
 inward, not outward. The piece should then be carried and placed 
 in the cistern-case and partly unfolded, so that the angle part can 
 be placed in its proper position. Next proceed to unfold the sides 
 and to belly them the reverse way, so that the ends can be 
 forced back into their respective angles. Drive a clout-nail in 
 temporarily — i.e., only half way in — to hold one angle until the 
 other one is treated in the same manner. Force back the bellied 
 parts a little, and then look to see that the angle is tight home ; 
 if not, pinch the ends of the lead toward it with a chisel, and then 
 drive in a part of the small return pieces. Re-nail, temporarily, 
 the ends, and force back the remainder of the bellied parts, and 
 at the same time dress down the buckles on the bottom edge. 
 Thin the outer edge of the bottom return with a shave-hook, and 
 drive in clout-nails about a foot apart, to keep it back. Serve 
 the ends in the same manner, and then use a leaden flapper to 
 take out all bulgings or irregularities ; work over the top edge 
 and nail it. Prepare the other side and end in the same way, 
 and fix it in its position as described for the other ; but in this 
 case the return pieces on the ends should be cut off, and only 
 leave about ^-inch, which can be driven in afterward, so as not 
 
LINING SINKS AND CISTERNS. II5 
 
 to project far enough to ,show through the soldering if it should 
 happen to be wiped too bare by using a thin cloth. Put a nail 
 in temporarily, near the top of each soldered angle, to keep 
 it from rising when the top edge is being worked over, after 
 which it should be taken out again, so that the lead can be properly 
 shaved. 
 
 When nails are used for keeping the lead tight in the angle 
 when soldering, they should be warmed first, as, if damp, tley 
 blow and leave a hole through the solder. It is scarcely necessary 
 to add, the angles should be shaved before the nailing is done. 
 The writer never uses nails for holding the lead back, excepting 
 for the undercloak. After the sides have been placed in their 
 position, the bottom piece of lead should be cut a little larger 
 than the cistern, and the edges curled up, so that the lead will drop 
 ■down into its position ; or, if the piece is too large to move about 
 when open, it can be folded up, and the edges which are curled up 
 buckled inward, and afterward unfolded in its position ; the edges 
 must be worked tight against the sides — in fact a sharj^-edged 
 •dresser and chase-wedge can be used so as to almost cut the lead 
 through ; the surplus should then be trimmed off. When all is ready, 
 and the whole of the lead flapped nice and smooth, measure the 
 requisite distances at various points, and then use a chalk line to 
 mark the space for soiling ; this is generally done with a pair of 
 pointed compasses, with the result that the lead is scratched and 
 sometimes partly cut. When the soil is dry, shave one upright 
 angle and about a foot each way on the bottom ; punch the 
 corners at intervals instead of using nails, and touch and solder 
 this angle before preparing any more, as the sooner the soldering 
 is done after shaving the better. 
 
 It is a good plan to keep a shave-hook especially for cistern 
 angles, one just the right size, so that it will take off a shaving 
 the proper width, without the trouble of measuring and gauging 
 or using a straight-edge. This shave-hook, should not have a very 
 sharp point, but one slightly rounded, 
 as Figure 56. For getting into the ^^^^^^^H^ 
 corners where the ordinary straight 
 hook will not reach, some men will -igure 113. 
 
 use a bent hqok, as shown in Figure 113, while others prefer what 
 
 I 2 
 
ii6 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 is called a spoon-hook, as illustrated in Figure 114. When soldering 
 the bottom, great care should be taken not to move about more 
 
 than can be helped, especially in a 
 small-sized cistern, as great risk is run 
 of breaking the soldered parts before 
 ^""^ "*■ they are thoroughly set. This sometimes 
 
 happens, and the crack is so fine as to escape observation. When 
 the bottom is being wiped there is sometimes a little trouble 
 when passing the soldering of the upright angles. Some plumbers 
 will paste a piece of brown paper over them, while others will 
 only smear them with chalk to prevent the bottom solder from 
 tinning too high up ; others can get away very well without doing 
 either, by simply being careful not to splash the solder too high 
 up the angles, and not getting too much of a body so as to be 
 unmanageable and beyond control. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 LINING SINKS. 
 
 Sinks of all kinds are made in such quantities and of such a 
 variety of materials, that one would think the plumber' would 
 never be called upon to make one. Some of these sinks are made 
 of galvanized wrought-iron, but these are not much liked, as dirt 
 accumulates around the rivet-heads, and so they are difficult to 
 keep clean. Enamelled-iron ones are very good until the enamel 
 gets chipped, but they are unfit for wash-up purposes, as, being 
 very hard, they are destructive to crockeryware and any other 
 frail articles that may be clean/ed in them. Vitrified stoneware 
 and potteryware sinks are easily kept clean, but are very liable to 
 get chipped, or perhaps broken, and are quite as ruinous to glass 
 or chinaware as the other kinds of sinks described. These sinks 
 are also very difficult to get true in shape, as they warp and 
 twist very much in drying and burning. The sinks above described 
 can only be had in what are called stock sizes, and if any other 
 is wanted the buyer has to pay for the moulds and patterns, and 
 also has to wait for several weeks until they are made. The 
 manufacturer generally makes two, although only one may be 
 ordered, as there is always a probability of one of them being 
 unfit for use, and in which case, if that precaution was not taken, 
 an interval of several more weeks would elapse before another 
 one could be made, and attended with the same risks as for the 
 first. Wooden sinks soon wear out, although they are the least 
 destructive as wash-up sinks. Sinks made of slate slabs break by 
 expansion when hot water is used in them. After looking all 
 atound, the plumber need not have any fear of these rivals, for it 
 is almost impossible to have anything better than a good lead- 
 lined wooden sink. Any plumber can make them, and to any 
 
Il8 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 size and shape ; they are not destructive to what may be washed 
 in them, can be made at once, and easily repaired when required, 
 or the lead cut out and new put in when the old is past repair. 
 The old material is a valuable set-off against the cost of the new. 
 The only disadvantage they labour under is that hot water soon 
 causes the lead to rise in buckles and eventually to crack and 
 break, but this can be avoided by taking precautions which will 
 be described. Sinks, as a rule, are lined in the same manner as 
 cisterns, and generally about the same substance of lead is used. 
 This is mistake number one, and is a false economy. If anyone 
 would take the trouble to calculate the quantity of lead required 
 for a sink, they would see at once that a few shillings or a dollar 
 more would be in some cases suii&cient to perhaps pay for lead 
 double the substance, so that it would wear longer. As a rule it 
 will be found that the ends and back side of the sink need not 
 be quite so thick as the bottom and front side, but at the same 
 time, as an economy, the four sides and bottom are sometimes 
 made out of one piece of lead, so that the four corners only need 
 be soldered, thus saving that material. This way of lining a sink 
 has been described when speaking of cisterns. Another mistake 
 often made is when the wooden case has its sides and ends at 
 right angles to the bottom. When this is done, the lead lining is 
 so fixed that it cannot expand when filled with hot water, so that 
 the bottom bulges upward, and eventually a ridge is formed. As 
 this ridge stands up a little it gets worn very much, and gradually 
 gets worse and worse until it breaks. When this occurs, it is 
 generally soldered over, leaving an unsightly-looking patch, very 
 few plumbers taking the trouble to puU up the lead and dish out 
 the woodwork beneath, and then dress the lead into it, so that it 
 can be soldered flush with the surrounding parts. Sinks should 
 always be repaired in this manner. It is advisable, before dressing 
 down the lead into the dishing, to place two or three thicknesses 
 of paper, so that when soldering the place the heat may not 
 convert the water in the wood-work into steam, which would 
 keep " blowing " through the solder. The plumber could also 
 make a neater and quicker wipe, as the metal would not chill so 
 quickly by the wet and cold beneath. 
 
 If sinks were made with sloping sides, as shown in illustration. 
 
LINING SINKS. 
 
 Tig 
 
 Figure 115. 
 
 Figure 115, the lead -yvould not ;be held so tightly, and could 
 expand and contract without such a risk of breaking, and would 
 consequently last much longer. 
 Of course it is very wrong to 
 put a cistern where it is liable 
 to be affected by frost ; but if 
 cisterns so exposed were made 
 as described for the above sink, 
 the expansion of the ice would 
 not force out the sides and dis- 
 joint the dovetailed angles, as 
 is so frequently the case. Another good plan, when lining sinks, 
 is to have a hollowed wooden fillet fixed in each angle, as shown 
 in section, Figure 116. In addition to distributing the effects of 
 expansion, it avoids any sharp angles 
 in which dirt and grease can accumulate 
 beyond the reach of the scrubbing-brush. 
 A great many men are in the habit of 
 not only turning the lead on the top 
 edge, but also down the sides for about 
 I or i-J- inch. This is a waste of lead, 
 and it also leaves a dirty black mark 
 on the dress of the person using the sink. 
 
 It is generally done on the front figure 116., 
 
 side, so as to prevent the lead being knocked and buckled over 
 into the sink, as shown in section at Figure 117, by standing 
 pails, &c., upon the edge ; but this can be avoided by putting an 
 oak capping-piece and fixing it with brass screws as shown in 
 section, Figure ii2. This capping 
 should be "weathered" inward, so 
 that any water falling upon it will run 
 into the sink. Where the sink is 
 fixed in an enclosure, the capping 
 should extend to the froat so as 
 to prevent any water falling down 
 between, and also to hide the joint, 
 which generally gets filled up witli 
 grease and other dirt. In hotels, clubs. 
 
 '"S 
 
 "^- 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 Figure 
 
 117. 
 
 F 
 
 IGUK£ lis 
 
I20 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 and other large establishments, this capping can be made of 
 galvanized iron, but in private houses the oak looks cleaner and 
 neater. 
 
 When soldering brass gratings into sinks, the mistake is 
 generally made of not having the dishing around the waste-holt 
 made deep enough, so that tubs or pails, may not bend or injure 
 the grating. This remark also applies to gratings in stone sinks. 
 It is not at all uncommon to see the grating stand higher than 
 the bottom of the sink, so that to get rid of the water it has to 
 be swept into the waste. It may have been all right when first 
 fixed, perhaps, but the bottoms of these sinks generally get torn 
 away by the iron hoops of tubs or pails, or when scouring copper 
 cooking utensils. 
 
 When metallic or metal-lined sinks are required for washing- 
 up purposes, it is necessary to have a plug over the waste-pipe 
 instead of a grating, so as to retain the water in the sink. If 
 these plugs, which are ground into what is commonly called the 
 "washer," is not sunk below the level of the surface of the sink 
 bottom, they often get jammed in by pails, tubs, or dishes, so 
 that it is difficult to get them out. When this happens, the usual 
 thing to do is to take hold of the chain and pull until it breaks, 
 or, perhaps, the brass ring by which the; chain is connected to 
 t?ie plug. This can be avoided by not only having the washer 
 soldered to the waste low down, as stated, but in addition to have 
 the plug itself hollowed so that the ring can drop down, as shown 
 in section at Figure 119. Another reason why the ground in 
 
 plugs sometimes gets fixed in the 
 washers, is because the plug when 
 cold is put into its place when the 
 washer is hot, so that it is expanded, 
 and which, on cooling, contracts and 
 grips the plug so tight that in some 
 cases they have had to be unsoldered 
 before they could be got apart. It 
 is always advisable to have wire 
 cross-bars in the washer below the 
 plug, to prevent spoons falling down 
 riGUBE 119. the pipes and getting lost, or other 
 
LINING SINKS. 121 
 
 matters getting into the waste which would choke it up. Some 
 plumbers have gratings instead of the bars, but they generally 
 reduce the water-way, so that the sink takes a long time to 
 empty, or small matters get into the holes and clog them up. 
 
 For sink-tubs for washing vegetables, it is a very good plan 
 to have a tinned-copper perforated strainer tixed in the angle to 
 prevent anything getting into the waste pipe or plug-washer ; 
 this also prevents the plug from beling jammed in. 
 
 It is important that all sinks/' with plug waste pipes should 
 have an overflow pipe fixed, and this should be large enough to 
 take away the water as fast as it runs in. Neglect of this pre- 
 caution has sometimes resulted in serious damage to property, 
 especially when the sink has been fixed in an upper storey. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 SEWERAGE AND SEWERS. 
 
 Public sewers very rarely have any provision for ventilation 
 excepting those in the streets, commonly called lamp-holes, and 
 the gulley-gratings by the sides of the streets. 
 
 In some districts may be seen here and there a small iron 
 pipe, of about 4 inches in diameter, fixed up the side of a building. 
 These pipes are supposed to be quite sufficient to .ventilate a 
 sewer of, perhaps, several feet sectional area. The lamp-holes 
 spoken of above, very rarely exceed ^-foot of space for air to pass 
 through, and even that small amount of opening is generally 
 contracted, and in a great many cases choked with street refuse. 
 
 The side gulleys are not intended as sewer-ventilators, but 
 anyone, when passing these places, would not require to be told 
 what duties they are performing ; in fact, complaints are heard 
 daily about the nauseous smells which escape from them. These 
 
 fe-*LAMP HOLE 
 
 Figure 120, 
 
 Figure lai. 
 
 places are constructed as in Figure 120, with a tide-flap fixed at 
 A, but in some districts the silt-box is being taken out, and a 
 gulley-trap, constructed to catch driftings and street washings, is 
 fixed in lieu of same, as shown in Figure 121, on looking at which 
 it will be noticed that as long as the water does not evaporate 
 sufficiently to break the seal, no smells can pass through. 
 
SEWERAGE AND SEWERS. 
 
 123 
 
 BRICK on ITOHl 
 
 Figure 122. 
 
 Figure 123. 
 
 Figure 122 is an enlarged view of this guUey-trap, Figure 123 
 has a valve-trap in combination with the water-trap. When this 
 is done, a moment's thought will 
 prove thai public authorities are 
 themselves aggravating an evil, 
 without providing another source 
 for pent-up air to escape, or 
 stagnant air to be put in circu- 
 lation. Boxes of charcoal have 
 been tried in ventilators to de- 
 odorize the sewer air, but are now 
 discarded as being perfectly useless, 
 for the reason that it is impossible to keep the charcoal dry, it 
 being of no value when in a damp or wet condition ; and if 
 packed so closely as to prevent sewer air from escaping without 
 coming under its purifying influence, the free circulation of the 
 air is impeded, or perhaps entirely obstructed. 
 
 It has been suggested that the street lamp-posts should be 
 adapted so as to act as sewer-ventilators. In some places a 
 stoneware-pipe air-drain has been laid from the sewer and built 
 up in the party-walls of houses, to the no small annoyance of the 
 inmates, who could not tell where the smells came from until the 
 walls were cut away and betrayed the source. 
 
 Patents have been taken out for passing sewer air through 
 wire gauze heated with gas jets so as to render it harmless, but, 
 if this is done, it should discharge at some considerable height. 
 As to its being harmless, is open to considerable doubt. It has 
 been proposed to have connections from sewers to any high 
 factory chimney-shaft that may be near, and no doubt this would 
 be a good plan, but these shafts are so far apart that they would 
 be of about as much use as trying to empty the sea with a pail. 
 i This ventilation of public sewers is rather beyond plumbers' 
 work, but at the same time it has a great deal to do with the 
 success of the sanitary arrangements of houses, and in more ways 
 than one. For instance, in London the rainfall is discharged into 
 the same sewer as the sewage proper. The result ts, after a 
 heavy fall of rain the sewers are so fully charged as to reduce the 
 air-space, and if no vent is provided for this compressed air, it 
 
124 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 will force its way back up the tributary drains, which convey 
 sewage from the houses, and possibly gain access to the habitation 
 to the injury of the inmates by breaking through the water-seal 
 of the traps ; for it must be remembered there are thousands of 
 houses that have no ventilation pipes to the soil pipes or drains, 
 or any other protection beyond a trap under the water-closet or 
 other fitting, although, in some instances, the pipes which conduct 
 rain-water from the roofs have been connected directly to the 
 drain and so act as vents. In some cases where the sewers are 
 not efficiently ventilated, when the water subsides after a storm^ 
 the seal of any of the traps in the house can be broken by the 
 water being syphoned or forced out, by the air rushing through to 
 fill what would otherwise be a partial vacuum in the sewers. 
 
 Again, in a badly- ventilated sewer the gases become more 
 concentrated, and putrefaction of the contents takes place more 
 rapidly, and even if these gases do not actually force themselves 
 through the water in the traps (which some people maintain they 
 do) still the water becomes so impregnated as to be converted into 
 sewage, and so give off foul emanations inside the house. 
 
 These sewage gases, or sewer air as some prefer to call it, 
 seem to play a very peculiar part. Hundreds of people die from 
 the effects of breathing them — so the doctors tell us ; but as a fact, 
 the writer has questioned scores of sewer-men, some' of whom had 
 worked in sewers for more than twenty years, and not one had 
 ever had any illness or suffered from their effects in any way. 
 On asking a leading question as to what complaint these men 
 suffer from most, the answer is almost invariably " rheumatism." 
 The writer has been down into a great many sewers, but never 
 felt any ill effects, although two or three times he has had slight 
 diarrhoea and a sickly feeling when working near an open drain, or 
 when removing dirty old fittings, &c. Dr. Richardson, in a lecture 
 at the Parkes Museum of Hygiene, made the remark on this 
 question that " he supposed they (the sewer-men) got so used to 
 it that they were not influenced by these emanations, and cited a 
 case where he went near some men who were removing refuse 
 from which sulphuretted hydrogen was escaping, and which made 
 him vomit and gave him diarrhoea. These men only laughed, and 
 said it was rather warm, and went on with their work as if it was 
 
SEWERAGE AND SEWERS. 1 25 
 
 nothing unusual to them." As doctors make the statement that 
 these odours from sewers do make people ill, and in a great 
 number of cases cause death, it behoves plumbers to take every 
 precaution that human ingenuity can invent for keeping them out 
 of dwellings or places where they may be inhaled. Dr. Shirley 
 Murphy told the writer some time ago that the improvements 
 made in sanitation during the last few years had been the cause 
 of adding quite two years to the average period of life. 
 
 Dr. Lyon Playfair made the remark in the House of Commons 
 on the 4th of March, that " in one generation the span of human 
 life had increased by two years." This was on the question of 
 improved dwellings for the poor and the influence it had upon 
 health. 
 
 At a meeting of the Executive Committee of the Parkes 
 Museum, in 1880, Sir William Jenner made the statement that 
 " the sewers of this metropolis are always filled with the poison 
 of typhoid fever, with diphtheria, and a series of other terrible 
 maladies." 
 
 Coming from so high an authority we cannot do otherwise 
 than accept this as a truism, and do all that can be done to 
 obviate the effects. 
 
 The first question to consider is — Where is the starting point 
 for the sanitary plumber ? The answer is — If these evils are in 
 the sewers, keep them there in preference to allowing them 
 to pass into the house drains. If they can be got rid of by 
 destruction, or be dispersed in a proper and harmless manner, 
 by all means do so, but keep them away from the dwelling. 
 The proper place to start from is as near the general sewer 
 as possible. There are several contrivances for this purpose, and 
 one of the most in use is what is commonly called the " tide- 
 flap," which is fixed on the extremity of the house drain inside 
 the sewer. This consists of a galvanized-iron plate, suspended 
 on a hinge, or in some cases on two pairs of iron chain links 
 over the end of the pipe, so that it fits as closely as possible. 
 This contrivance is not to be trusted in any way; a match, 
 piece of orange peel, piece of paper, and the thousand and one 
 Shings that float down the drains, get between the flap and its 
 seating, and so render it useless for keeping back smells, and it 
 
 ■4- 
 
126 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 is a well-known fact that rats can open them and so pass into 
 the house drains. 
 
 There are a great many diiiferent kinds of these flaps — 
 Figures 124, 125, and 126 — and no doubt some are better than 
 others, but, for the reasons given, it is almost impossible to get 
 
 IrlGUEE 124. 
 
 Figure 125. 
 
 Figure 126, 
 
 any piece of mechanism that will keep back smells and at the 
 same time allow the sewage to flow freely away. 
 
 There are other contrivances specially constructed to prevent 
 the back flow which > occurs when the drains discharge from a 
 house at a low level into the sea, a tidal river, or sewer which is 
 liable to flooding. Figure 127 is a sectional elevation of a ball 
 
 tide-valve, which explains 
 itself, and although there 
 are other kinds in the 
 
 market, they are mostly 
 the same in principle. 
 For drains discharging 
 into ordinary sewers these 
 tide-valves are of no use 
 for keeping sewer-air from 
 entering the house drains, 
 but are only intended 
 for keeping sewage back. 
 This is a good description 
 for its purpose, as it will be seen that sewage cannot very well 
 get on the top of the ball so as to clog it and prevent it from 
 fitting over the end of the incoming pipe when any back pressure 
 of sewage takes place. 
 
 Figure 127. 
 
SEWERAGE AND SEWERS. I27 
 
 It has Deen argued that all house drains should enter the 
 sewer at a level just above the surface of the water, at its ordinary 
 level, in the sewer, so that when an extraordinary quantity of 
 water is discharged into them, the ends of the drains are covered. 
 This wiU prevent any compressed air in 'the sewers forcing its 
 way back into the houses. But this is not a good plan by any 
 means, as in rainy weather the ends of the pipes would always be 
 covered, and so render the drain, if it is trapped, "air-bound," 
 and thus prevent the free flow of sewage from the house, with 
 the result that discharges from upper parts of a building would 
 escape through the lower fittings, even if the water in the sewer 
 was low enough to allow them to run- away if the connection had 
 been made at a higher level. Again, if the connection is made 
 at a low level, rats could much more easily gain access to the 
 house drains, and although most people object to these animals 
 in a house, still it must be admitted that they sometimes act as 
 scavengers, and no doubt get rid of a great deal of garbag'e in 
 the sewers which would otherwise putrefy and give off foul 
 emanations. Where there are signs of rats in a house, defects in 
 the drains are generally found. It may be noted that when' the 
 drains are of iron or vitrified stoneware, it is very rarely that 
 these pests are discovered, although in hotels and such-like public 
 buildings, one or two will often get under the floors and propagate 
 very rapidly, but with pains they can generally be starved out or 
 poisoned. This way of getting rid of them is objectionable, as 
 the dead bodies lay about and putrefy, and, if in a damp situation, 
 the smells arising from them are noticed for several weeks 
 afterward. 
 
 Watts & Co., of Bristol, make a very good machine called an 
 " Asphyxiator," which is of great use to plumbers, both for testing 
 overground-pipes for defects, and also for exterminating vermin, 
 as well as for distributing an aerial disinfectant. This machifae 
 will be referred to again at a future time, as I find it of great 
 help when making examinations for smells. 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 HOUSE DRAINS. 
 
 xL In towns house drains made of brick are now becoming 
 things of the past, but in some parts of the country, builders 
 stick to them and believe in no other description. Bad as this 
 description of drain is found to be, there are others worse. In a 
 country parsonage, beneath the wine and beer cellars, were found 
 drains large enough for a man to crawl through, the sides and 
 arch built of random rubble — that is, of irregular-shaped stones. 
 The stones in the bottom had been worked to a face — rough, 
 it is true — so much so that solid sewage lay all over the 
 bottom. Liquids glided over the top of the solids in a zigzalg 
 course made by themselves, and part escaped into the surrounding 
 earth. 
 
 Most of the drain pipes used in London and other large 
 towns are what are commonly called glazed socket pipes. They 
 are made from 2 inches external diameter up to 2 feet, and are 
 2 to 3 feet long in all sizes. There are several kinds of these 
 pipes, but for the present only two wiU be mentioned, namely, 
 the lead-glazed pipes, which are made of inferior clay and which 
 will not stand the necessary heat for burning them properly, and 
 the salt-glazed, which must be made of a clay or composition of 
 clay and other ingredients which will stand a very high temperature, 
 so that the sodium of common salt, used for the purpose of 
 glazing, will combine with the silicate of the clay and the other 
 necessary constituents, to convert the surface of the article into a 
 coating of glass which will withstand the action of sewage gases. 
 Lead-glazed pipes are reported as not being capable of resisting 
 this action. With the laying of the branch drain from the house 
 to the sewer, the sanitarian's trouble commences. 
 
HOUSE DRAINS. 1 29 
 
 Figure 128 represents in section how a disreputable tradesman 
 was found to be laying a new drain from a house. To save a small 
 fee he was making his own connection, and, 
 in addition, scamping his work by burrowing 
 under the roadway, instead of opening out in 
 a proper manner. It appeared as if he had 
 taken out an old brick drain, and in knocking 
 out the connection with the sewer by means 
 of a crowbai: had made a larger hole than 
 was necessary, and then had simply pushed 
 
 . ^ . r J r Figure 128. 
 
 his new pipe to within about 6 inches of the 
 
 sewer. This was done in such a way that a great deal of liquids 
 would not reach the sewer at all. He had then pushed a lot of 
 broken bricks around the opening left, some of which had fallen 
 through so that solid sewage would cling around these pieces. 
 The " shore-man " (sewer-ipan) said this was very commonly done. 
 
 Another experience was where a new drain had been laid in 
 a house, and, although all fees had beep paid, the connection with 
 the sewer had not been made good in a proper manner The 
 sewer-man's excuse was that he expected to have two of three 
 more to do in a few days, and was going to do them all at the 
 same time. But before this was done a violent storm took place, 
 and the sewer was so full that water ran out, which, following the 
 excavation made to lay in the pipes, found its way into the base- 
 ment of the house to a depth of about 14 inches, and which had 
 to be carried out in pails. These drains had been laid for about 
 eight or nine days, had been plugged at the outlet, charged 
 with water and proved to be perfectly water-tight, and this was 
 proof that the sewage was not escaping out of the pipes when the 
 storm took place, but found its way beneath, or by the side of 
 them, and so followed the trench, the earth in which had not 
 sufficient cohesion to resist the hydraulic pressure brought to bear. 
 This is one reason why all pipes laid under the above circumstances 
 should be enveloped in concrete. 
 
 The best system to commence with is to dig the trench as 
 neatly as possible, taking care not to loosen the sides more than 
 can be helped, to dig the bottom even, and also to remove all 
 loose earth from the bottom. After carefully levelling from end to 
 
13° 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 end of the trench to see what amount of fall can be had, drive in 
 wooden stakes at intervals of about 8 or lo feet, and projecting 
 above the bottom 4 to 6 inches, as intended for the thickness of 
 concrete, with which cover the bottom of the trench to the height 
 of the stakes ; make the concrete slightly hollow for the pipes to 
 lay in, and have spaces at each socket, so that the man can get 
 his hand and tool beneath to trowel up the face of the cement- 
 joint. This way of preparing for laying the pipes is very injportant, 
 and for want of it serious results frequently occur. One of these 
 is, that very often a settlement takes place in the earth beneath 
 the pipes. If this is soft earth or a loose sandy soil, sooner or 
 later it is sure to give way, and if there should be water in the 
 soil the circumstances are worse. Or, if one of the joints in the 
 drain should leak, the water trickling through causes the sand or 
 earth to run and leave a hollow. 
 -Y At a banker's house, at Sunningdale, a drain was stopped. 
 Figure 129 is a sketch of what was found. It appeared that a 
 
 leaky joint had caused the sandy 
 
 soil to run, and at last the drain 
 
 broke in such a manner that all the 
 
 sewage from the house -ran into 
 
 the hole and made matters worse. 
 
 This hole was about 6 feet in 
 
 diameter and 5 feet 6 inches in 
 
 depth, measured from the top of 
 
 the loose stuff which fell in when 
 
 the stone paving was taken up. 
 
 Such was the nature of the soil that no doubt this hole would 
 
 have become so large that the whole of the paving in the yard 
 
 would have eventually fallen in, and it is just possible that the wall 
 
 of the house would have fallen at some future date. Some think if 
 
 drains are laid on rocky earth no concrete 
 is wanted. Experience teaches other- 
 /^ "^ """"t^ wise, because if the bottom of the trench 
 
 is too hard it will cause the pipes to break 
 by crushing; and in a case of a hard 
 gravelly bottom, drain pipes have been 
 FiouRE 130. crushedjias shown in section, Figure 130. 
 
 Figure 129. 
 
 >^^- 
 
 / / 
 
 -V 
 
HOUSE DRAINS. I31 
 
 This drain was about 7 feet deep. On looking at the fracture 
 it was seen that the pipes were ordinary vitrified stoneware of 
 very fair quality. We all know the strength of an arch, and the 
 resistance a cylinder will present against a crushing force if it is 
 distributed over the entire surface, but if applied to particular parts 
 the resistance is soon overcome and the whole collapses. This 
 more readily takes place in drains in towns where heavy traffic in 
 the streets causes the earth to vibrate, and shakes the particles 
 into closer contact, so that anything rigid must either sink with 
 it or break. This is more especially the case in new districts, 
 and no doubt there are hundreds of cases of fractured drain pipes 
 from this cause that are not discovered until something leads to. a 
 search being made. We have only to take note of how often a 
 water or gas main requires repairs, especially in newly-made roads, 
 to understand the importance of protecting a frail piece of stoneware, 
 which, in most cases, is no stronger than ordinary crockeryware. 
 
 After the trench has been prepared with a concrete bottom, "T 
 the next thing is to select the pipes, taking care to reject all 
 that have cracks in them, looking particularly to the part where 
 the socket or hub is joined to the barrel. A great many will be 
 found to have holes through them. Pass the hand carefully over 
 the inside surface of the pipe to feel if it is rough ; don't be in a 
 hurry over this, or a piece may be cut out of the hand. Next 
 see that the spigot and hub are true, so that the joint can be 
 properly fitted. Any pipes that are very much bent should be 
 laid on one side for curved positions. Very few indeed will be 
 found to be straight ; those that are not should be laid so that a 
 perfectly graduated line of fall is at the bottom. Most men are 
 anxious that the drain should look nice and straight in the trench, 
 and they put the bagged part of the pipe downward, as shown at 
 Figure 131, which is intended as a side view. A moment's 
 thought wiU enable 
 the reader to under- 
 stand that in the 
 
 case of a rather I'guke 131. 
 
 sluggish fall the hollow parts will retain a portion of sewage, 
 which will then decompose and give off some of the smells most 
 people are anxious to keep out of their houses. If these pipes 
 
 K 2 
 
132 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 were properly laid, with the bent part at the side instead of the 
 bottom, this would be avoided, and, although the course of 
 the sewage would be rather serpentine, the whole of it would 
 drain away provided the current of water was sufficient to carry 
 away the solid matter. 
 ■^ After selecting the pipes, the next thing is to put them m 
 
 position, and as many as possible at the same time. The most 
 common way, and which cannot be too strongly condemned, is tO' 
 put a portion of cement on the bottom of the socket or hub, and 
 then lay in the next pipe. As this pipe is pushed in, it forces a 
 part of the cement forward in a body, which stands up in a 
 heap, as shown at A, in Figure 132. This also prevents the end 
 
 of the pipe from getting home to the 
 bottom of the socket, so that a space 
 is left for filth to accumulate in. Some- 
 times the above cement excrescence is 
 wiped or scooped out, but very often it 
 is not, with the result that a stoppage 
 invariably takes place sooner or later^ 
 iGURE I3Z ^^j ^j^.^ .g independent of the amount 
 
 of sewage that is retained by these series of weirs. On looking 
 again at Figure 132 it will be noticed that another evil is shown,, 
 and that is the joint is not true all round ; the spigot is hard on 
 the bottom of the hub, which 'in itself forms a check to the free 
 flow of sewage. Some men will bed the spigot-end with clay and 
 then face up the joint with cement. This has the advantage that 
 should the clay project inside the pipe it will get washed away 
 by the water that passes over it. The usual way is to now place 
 more cement carefully on the top of the joint where it can be 
 seen, the sides not always being considered of much importance.. 
 Perhaps the drain-layer really does take pains that some of the- 
 above evils do not take place, and trowels his joint all around,. 
 and takes so much time over it that the cement gets nearly set. 
 
 The next thing he does is to prepare for and lay in another 
 pipe in the same careful (?) manner, and, in endeavouring to get 
 it tight home, he jars the last pipe that was laid and so breaks 
 the jbint ; but he could not help it, or was so earnest in making 
 the next joint that he did not notice what mischief he had done. 
 
HOUSE DRAINS. 
 
 133 
 
 To avoid all the above evils it is best to prepare the concrete 
 bed as described, and, while it is still in a soft condition, to bed all 
 the pipes on it, and take a crowbar or lever of any kind and force 
 all of them home into the sockets. This applies when there is a 
 long straight length. To insure the joints being fair a.nd true 
 inside it is best to give them one strand of gasket or yarn 
 (tarred is best, as it will not rot away so soon) in each socket, 
 and then, as quickly as possible, make all the joints in succession, 
 with Portland cement and a very small quantity of] clea,n sharp 
 sand, and carefully trowel the surface to a smooth face and not 
 be content to smear over a portion with the hands. 
 
 Some men use neat Portland for this, but I have 
 had so much trouble with the sockets or hubs bursting, 
 that unless the cement is old and nearly dead I use 
 a small portion of sand. To show the power of 
 Portland cement, it will be enough to state tiiat in one 
 case the central portion of a pipe drain with cement 
 joints was lifted over 2 inches from the bottom of the 
 trench ; the centre part was raised like an arch. 
 
 At a Bank the smells from the drains were so bad 
 that, although they had not long been taken up and 
 relaid, it was found necessary to have them again 
 examined, with the result that there was scarcely a 
 sound joint found in the entire length ; nearly every 
 •socket had burst with the swelling of the Portland 
 ■cement with which the joints had been made. 
 
 A new 6-inch pipe drain had been laid, with good 
 ■concrete foundation, through a house ; after an interval 
 of two days it was tested with water, and about half-a- 
 dozen sockets were found to have split open sufficiently 
 for the water to ooze through. When laying this drain, 
 the bricklayer was asked what , fall he was giving the 
 pipes. He answered, " f-inch to each 2-foot length." 
 Thinking he must have made a mistake of about 
 :J-inch, I asked how he obtained so much fall. He 
 proved that he was right, but it was in the manner 
 as shown in sketch, Figure 133, which is a longitudinal 
 section. On looking closely into this it will be seen 
 
134 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 that although each individual pipe had that amount of fall, when 
 levelled from end to end the drain would have little or no fall at 
 all ; indeed, it could be laid to fall the wrong way, and still be 
 proved by the spirit-level that each pipe had a fair fall in the 
 proper direction. 
 
 If it is required that the direction of the drain shall be 
 changed, and there is not a properly-constructed bend at hand, 
 the usual way is to cut the end of a straight pipe to a bevel, and 
 get around the corner in that way. The joint cannot be made in 
 a proper manner, as it is impossible to fit an oval end — as shown 
 by dotted lines — into a round socket, as in Figure 134. The 
 result of trying to do this is shown in Figure 135, and it is almost 
 
 Figure 134. 
 
 Figure 135. 
 
 invariably found that there is an opening left, as at A, and a 
 space left inside the socket, at B, for filth to accumulate. 
 
 It cannot be too strongly insisted upon that there shall be no 
 parts where sewage can be caught or retained in any conductor. 
 
 Anyone, who has any knowledge at all of drains, would be 
 able to form a very clear opinion as to their condition by simply 
 smelling around the top of the ventilation pipe, and if the drains 
 are trapped or disconnected from the public sewer, and yet he 
 finds an abominable stench issuing from the vent pipe, he would 
 know at once that something was causing these foul emanations,, 
 and as it could not be the materials of which the drains were 
 constructed, it must be from something they contain and which 
 should not have been there, and would not if they had been. 
 properly constructed and plenty of water discharges sent down 
 them. 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 FiQUKE 13S. Figure 137. Fiqure 138. 
 
 DRAINS AND TRAFS—coHtinued. 
 
 When it is necessary to have one drain branched into another 
 it is important to have a Y junction pipe, as in Figures 136 and 
 
 137, instead of using a square or right-angled one, as in Figure 
 
 138. The reasons were fully given when illustrating soil-pipe 
 branches. In the case of drains with 
 
 horizontal square branches, when 
 sewage is discharged down a branch, 
 as much flows back up the main 
 drain as in the direotion of the cur- 
 rent, with the result that the liquid 
 portion afterward dribbles away, 
 leaving all solid or semi-solid matter 
 behind. This will lie in the bottom 
 
 of the pipes until a flush from a higher level of the main drain 
 removes it. 
 
 Where a drain lies flat, or has only a slight fall, any sewage 
 flowing down very frequently eddies, and runs a short distance up 
 any branches, especially when they and the 
 mains are of the same size. It would entail a 
 certain amount of expense to have branches 
 especially made so as to offer resistance to this, 
 but the evil can be avoided by raising the branch 
 a little, as shown in section, Figure 139. Where a small pipe 
 'discharges into a large one this evil will not happen, unless the 
 main drain is running so full that sewage reaches up to the 
 branches. 
 
 Figure 140 represents a branch drain that was continually 
 stopping up, and, having to be frequently forced, it was decided 
 to open it until the cause was found. This proved to be at its 
 
 V 
 
 Figure 139. 
 
136 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 junction with the main drain. Figures 140 and 141 are section and 
 
 \ 
 
 plan illustrating the cause of it all. 
 
 c 
 
 Fjourb 140. 
 
 I—... .^**^s^J 
 
 Figure 141. 
 
 The main drain was 12 inches 
 and the branch 4 inches in 
 diameter. The 4-inch drain 
 was from a soil pipe, with 
 four water-closets upon it. In 
 the bottom of the 12-inch 
 pipe was a pyramid formed 
 of wet paper, and every time 
 a water-closet was used, the 
 wet paper, falling vertically 
 on the bottom of the pipe, as 
 
 shown, gradually accumulated until it eventually choked the end 
 of the 4-inch pipe. If any reader were to take a handful of wet 
 paper and let it fall from a height, and then two or three more, 
 one after the other, on the top, and then try to push it over, he 
 would be surprised to find the resistance it would offer. In the 
 above case there was very rarely any water passed down from the 
 upper portion of the main • drain — in fact, only when rain was 
 falling. 
 
 Most of the best sanitary engineers have inspection-chambers, 
 or manholes, built at all junctions of drains, and also at any 
 change of direction, and have only a half-pipe or half-bend at 
 that point, so that if any obstruction should lodge there it can 
 easily be removed ; or, if the obstruction should be in the straight 
 lengths, any ordinary drain-machine (which is similar to a chimney- 
 sweep's) can be pushed through, and so clear it away. A great 
 many people dub themselves " sanitary engineers," and, by dint of 
 copying others, sometimes make a fairly good job, but, for want 
 of experience, very often make serious mistakes. The writer saw a 
 manhole, arranged as shown at Figure 142, 
 and the drains being used. The branch 
 drain from the water-closet was joined to 
 the channel pipe in such a way that the 
 sewage was discharged up the main drain, 
 and then had to flow back again to pass 
 into the sewer. Excreta lay at A until a 
 current passed by from the upper part of the drain to wasl- it 
 
 Figure 242. 
 
DRAINS AND TRAPS. 
 
 137 
 
 away. Another and very common mistake of some of the&e so- 
 called sanitary engineers is to bring a junction in at right angles 
 in a manhole, and also to have the bottom channel too shallow, 
 so that anything coming down the branch washes up and lies on 
 the side ledges formed for a man to stand upon when examining 
 ■or clearing a drain. Figure 143 is a section showing this, and at 
 B the writer has sometimes seen as much semi-solid sewage as 
 .>vould nearly fill a bucket. Even in some cases where these man- 
 
 FlGUKB 146. 
 
 Figure 143. 
 
 holes have been fairly well arranged, want of thought, and, in some 
 •cases, an ignorance of hydraulics, has led to another error, whicli 
 is shown in Figure 144, Figure 145 being a section on A, B. It 
 must not be supposed that because the branch channel is curved 
 that the water wiU follow it. As a matter of fact, it will wash up, 
 and sometimes leave a deposit at C. To overcome this difficulty 
 it is necessary to curve this bent channel, as shown in section at 
 Figure 146. The dotted lines show the surface of the water as it 
 passes around the bent portion. It is not necessary to raise the 
 side, D, so high as the other, but if it is not done the manhole 
 •does not present a smart appearance when finished. 
 
 Most manholes have half-pipes fixed for the sewage to pass 
 through, and these channels have the sides built up with brick- 
 work. There is no reason why a proper channeil pipe, with 
 junctions, should not be made all in 
 one piece, as in sketch. Figure 147 ; 
 or bends, as in Figure 148, which 
 could be fixed quite easily, and 
 
 thus avoid the patchy appearance '*^' ^ FiouiiE 148. 
 
 t^ese places generally present as '-'oore 147- 
 
 now done. In some cases it would be necessary to have channel 
 branches instead of pipes, as shown in Figure 147. Before leaving the 
 question of manhole junctions, it would be as well to draw attention 
 
Figure 149. Figure »go. 
 
 138 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 to another important point, and that is, not to allow two branches 
 on opposite sides to be directly facing each other, in which case 
 water or sewage coming down one pipe, with any velocity, would 
 rush up the one opposite. Figure 149 shows this evil, and 
 Figure 150 the precautions to be taken to avoid it. Ordinary man- 
 holes are built with com- 
 f} y mon bricks, and where of 
 considerable depth, strong 
 wrought-iron loops are built 
 in the angles, as shown at 
 X, Y, Figure 150, so that 
 a man can get down without the aid of a ladder, which would 
 occupy space, and leave little room for him to work in. Some- 
 times these manholes have a coating of lime-wash, which makes 
 them look clean and smart. Some sanitarians will have them 
 rendered in cement and sand, worked up to a face. 
 
 Where expense is no objection, it is a good plan to use 
 white glazed bricks for the face-bricks of manholes, as they always 
 look clean amd are impervious to moisture, and if they should 
 become dirty, a man with a pail of water and a broom will soon 
 wash them as clean as when first new. 
 j^ Drain-traps, sometimes called disconnecting-traps, are now 
 
 considered by all sanitarians to be very necessary to disconnect 
 the house drain from the sewer, as many sewers are in such a 
 condition that people are unwilling to incur the risk of using their 
 soil pipes as sewer-ventilators. Each house should have a separate 
 drain and connection, and each drain should have its trap. By 
 doing this, it is argued that in the case of certsiin contagious 
 diseases breaking out, any germs which find their way into 
 the sewer shall not pass up the drains into adjoining houses. 
 It has been disputed that water-traps form an efifectual barrier, 
 but from the experiments that have been made, and the eminent 
 men who have made these experiments, we cannot do otherwise 
 than accept their ruling that water-traps answer their purpose 
 thoroughly well ; and, until something better can be devised, 
 they are the only fitting that can be applied with success. 
 At all events they keep gases of decomposition from pouring in 
 a continuous stream from the sewers, or cesspool, into and 
 
DRAINS AND TRAPS. 
 
 139 
 
 L 
 
 ■% 
 
 ■^-~. 
 
 '■^ 
 
 
 Figure 131, 
 
 thrcjgb the house drains — ^that is, when properly constructed. T 
 One of the oldest-fashioned traps that has been made for this 
 purpose is what is called a dipstone trap, shaped as in Figure 
 15 1. They are simply small cesspools. Some are made 3 feet 
 ■quare and a corresponding . 
 
 depth, with a stone built in ^ ?___ 
 
 the side walls, so that its 
 bottom edge dips into the 
 water which is retained in the 
 bottom of the chamber. I 
 have seen them with the dip- 
 stone so low down that the 
 fingers could be passed 
 
 between it and the cover-stone. The cover-stone is very rarely 
 bedded down air-tight, and cases have occurred when it has been 
 removed for access for cleaning out the trap, and then simply re- 
 placed without any bedding at all, so that when a smoke test has 
 been applied to the drains it has poured out all around the cover. 
 Another fault of this kind of trap is that when the top is removed 
 for any purpose drain-air can pass freely through during the whole 
 time the man is doing his work Experience has proved that 
 this kind of trap very readily stops up. Paper and fsecal matter 
 float on the surface of the water on the inlet side until quite a 
 heap has accumulated so as to form a dam across the end of the 
 inlet drain. More sewage flowing in will detach and perhaps 
 immerse a portion of this matter below the dipstone, on passing 
 which it floats in a body and chokes up the end of the out-go 
 drain. By making the trap larger these evils are aggravated, but 
 their discovery is postponed for a longer period of time. So much 
 faecal matter is retained in these traps that an enormous quantity 
 of sulphuretted hydrogen and other noxious gases are given ofif; 
 in fact, they act as gas generators, and are as bad, or possibly 
 worse, than the evils they are intended to obviate. Sometimes 
 nothing but solid matter is found in these traps, the liquid portion 
 having leaked away into the earth through defects in the brick 
 walls. In the middle of a public school playground one was foufid 
 with no water in it, having leaked through the walls, and the 
 stench from the drains pouring out in a continuous stream. 
 
14° PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 The trap most commonly used is shown in Figure 152. 
 Although it has some advantage over the dipstone trap, it retains 
 
 some of the evils, although in a lesser 
 
 ^%. i | , 1 y^"^"""^ degree. For instance, excremental matter 
 
 s=i«^6^^^¥^^:53«#J is retained in the middle pipe, and it is 
 
 ^'^^^^^^r^ very rarely that one is seen without 
 
 floating matter on the surface of the water 
 
 Figure 152. 
 
 on the inlet side ; small discharges of 
 water pass below this, and larger discharges do not have sufficient 
 power to overcome its buoyancy, to drive it out of the trap, and 
 float it away into the sewer. Not having any foot or base, in the 
 hands of an incompetent workman these traps are likely to be 
 fixed so as to be useless for their purpose of keeping back .smells, 
 by being placed so that the water level is below the throat or 
 dip. This kind of trap is also too large and contains too much 
 water to be thoroughly flushed out with ordinary discharges through 
 them. In choosing what kind of trap to use on house drains, 
 capacity is of as much importance as shape. Take Figure 152 as 
 an example. A 6-inch trap holds, when properly levelled and 
 fixed, something like three gallons of water. In London, and 
 several other towns, we are limited, by means of special apparatus, 
 to not more than two gallons of water at each usage of a water- 
 closet, and by the time this has passed through the drains and 
 pipes it has lost all force or scouring power as it passes through 
 the trap. If a pailful of water — about two or three gallons, is 
 thrown down a sink and has to be strained through a grating, and 
 then down a waste pipe into the drain, it has even less power of 
 cleansing than the water-closet discharges ; or if a bath is emptied 
 it is generally through such a small waste pipe as to be useless 
 for removing any floating matter out of the drain-trap. 
 
 The writer found on trial that fifty gallons of water, discharged 
 from a bath into the drain, failed to get rid of a piece of 
 crumpled-up paper, no larger than the hand, that was thrown into 
 a similar kind of trap to the one under discussion. 
 
 Some manufacturers have made traps with the inlet-side a 
 few inches higher than the outlet, the bottom of the outlet end 
 representing the water-line. This is an advantage, as the incoming 
 water falls on the top of any floating matter that may be in the 
 
DRAINS AND TRAPS. 
 
 141 
 
 trap ; but an.er all this is not efiectual, as, if the stream is small 
 and the trap large, eddies are formed, and the trap is not cleansed 
 or the contents entirely displaced. The writer had special 
 instructions to examine a drain that was frequently being stopped 
 up. On seeking for the cause, it was found that originally the 
 drains had not been trapped. It being found necessary that they 
 should be, one had been fixed. This trap, which was supposed 
 to have been of an improved description, was similar to the one 
 mentioned. It had been fixed to the old drains, with the result 
 that it had about 7 inches water seal, and it was choked full of 
 floating matter, the incoming water simply draining away, leaving 
 all solid matter behind. A glance at Figure 153 will explain the 
 cause. 
 
 There are several patent traps in the market, all more or less 
 good, but there are only a few which fulfil their requirements, or 
 
 hiuuKB 154. PLAN. 
 
 Figure 153. 
 
 Figure 155. Sbctiohal Elevatioh. 
 
 Figure 156. 
 
 that can be called self-cleansing. The best the writer knows are 
 shown in Figures 154, 155, and 156, although there may be others- 
 he does not know of. On looking at Figure 154, which is a 
 vertical view, it may be noticed that, although the inlet and outlet 
 ends are made to fit 6-inch pipes, the waste or body of the trap 
 is considerably smaller. The water-fall is 6 inches into this trap^ 
 Figure 155 has a water-fall of about 3 inches. Figure 156 shows 
 a sectional elevation, and also a cross-section of the body of 
 
142 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 another patent trap. The flat top, as shown in small section, is 
 a new departure, but when we come to think that this represents 
 the actual form the water would take in a 6-inch pipe only half 
 filled — ordinary discharges rarely fill a 6-inch pipe so full as this — 
 the inventor can argue that he has reason on his side. And 
 although at first sight one might question the use of the part A, 
 on further consideration it may be found to be a necessity. 
 Supposing that discharges come down the drain to fill it full, or 
 nearly full bore, the water would head up in this part so as to 
 get a greater pressure, and so accelerate its speed through the 
 trap. It may be suggested that the water would splash about this 
 chamber when only small discharges pass down, and that it would 
 be better for the incoming water to fall vertically into the trap as 
 shown by dotted lines. 
 
 Figure 157 is a sectional elevation of a very good drain- 
 syphon, which is patented ; the projecting lip at E causing the 
 water to' fall vertically on to any floating 
 matter that may be in the trap, instead 
 of trickling down the sides. 
 
 There are several other traps which 
 nearly approach those illustrated, but a 
 great many have the fault of being too 
 large in the body. 
 
 It is becoming a common plan with 
 sanitary advisers, when a drain has been 
 fairly well laid, but not trapped, to have 
 one inserted, but much smaller in size than the drain. For 
 example, there are several houses with 6-inch or g-inch diains, 
 
 where a 4-inch 
 or 6-inch would 
 have been quite 
 large enough. 
 In these cases 
 the smaller-sized 
 common - shaped 
 traps are fixed 
 and connected 
 I'lGuuK 159. to the pipes by 
 
 Figure 157, 
 
 FiGUKJL ijS. 
 
DRAINS AND TRAPS. 
 
 143 
 
 taper pieces. The incoming pipe is generally fixed as a tapering 
 cliannel, with a fall of 2, 3, or 4 inches in 2 feet, so that the 
 water runs down with greater speed into the trap. 
 
 Figures 158 and 159 are respectively elevation and plan, 
 showing how this is arranged. In one case a 4-inch trap had 
 been fixed in the course of a g-inch drain. The drain had a very 
 sluggish fall, and was difficult to make a good job of because of 
 the tapering pipes being improperly made. This can be explained 
 better by a sketch, to which I beg to refer the reader — Figure 
 160 — which is a side elevation, and at A, A the hollow parts, 
 
 Figure 160. 
 
 Figure 161. 
 
 which always retain a quantity of sewage. These pipes, to be 
 properly made, should only be tapered on the one side, and the 
 other should be perfectly straight, as shown in Figure i6i, the 
 straight side being placed downward — as mentioned 
 in . a previous chapter when writing on bent pipes, 
 and how they should be laid, when, of necessity, 
 they must be used. At the risk of wearying the 
 reader, I must repeat that it is these little pools of decomposing 
 sewage which is the principal cause of the abominable stench 
 generally to be found issuing from ventilation pipes. I have been 
 down a great many public sewers, and I generally find that those 
 which have a continuous stream of flowing sewage are not nearly 
 so offensive as those which have intermittent discharges into them. 
 The result of these kinds of discharges is that very often the 
 solid matters are retained by friction over hollow places, with a 
 corresponding rise beyond them, the liquids simply dribbling 
 away, so that certain matters are only moved by stages, instead 
 of being washed clear away. Sanitarians are becoming more and 
 more aware of the defects of stoneware-pipe drains, and are slowly 
 but surely discarding them in favour of iron ones. 
 
CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 IRON DRAINS. 
 
 Any reader who has noticed my remarks on stoneware-pipe 
 drains will most likely be inclined to think (or he maj probably 
 have found out for himself) that although they may be very much 
 better than the old brick drains, still they are very far from being- 
 perfection ; and his experiences most likely are similar to my 
 own — ^viz., that they are very costly when done as they should 
 be ; that, in spite'' of all pains that may be taken with them, they 
 very rarely will stand an hydraulic test of only two or three 
 pounds per square inch without leaking somewhere or other. For 
 my own part I should be very sorry to guarantee any stoneware- 
 pipe drains to last any length of time, and, although they may 
 have been left in as nearly a perfect condition as possible, after 
 a time they sometimes are found to be leaky. It is just possible 
 that expansion and contraction of the pipes may have something 
 to do with this, as sometimes hot and cold water alternately 
 passes through, or it may be the traffic in the streets, or, in some 
 instances, railway trains, shaking the earth. At all events, sanitary 
 engineers are now falling back on cast-iron drain pipes as being 
 more trustworthy, especially when fixed inside of buildings. 
 When iron drains are fixed, smaller sizes, in proportion, are used • 
 for instance, where a 6-inch stoneware would have been only 5-inch 
 iron is used, and very often 3-inch and 2-inch iron, where in the 
 ordinary way a 4-inch stoneWare pipe would have been laid 
 
 The iron pipes used vary very much in substance and 
 treatment. Some people argue that plain iron does not rust to 
 any serious extent, and answers the purpose very well, provided 
 it is strong enough. A friend of the writer's told him that he' 
 had been making an alteration to an iron drain that he laid about 
 twelve years ago. The metal had not been protected in any way 
 
IRON DRAINS. 
 
 145 
 
 to keep it from rusting, and yet he was much surprised to find 
 that scarcely any oxidation had taken place inside the pipe, 
 although it was in constant use. It must be admitted this is in 
 direct variance with ordinary experience. A coating of fresh 
 slacked lime, made into a wash, applied to the inside of the pipes, 
 has been found to prevent oxidation, and to last for a very long 
 time. The Bower-BarfF process of protecting iron from rusfing 
 has been much spoken and written about, but the writer has 
 never seen nor fixed any iron drains treated by this means, nor 
 yet been able to hear of anyone who has. , He has seen a few 
 mstances where ordinary galvanized-iron rain-water pipe has been 
 used, but very little faith can be placed in the zinc coating, which 
 is soon eaten away, thus leaving the iron unprotected. Pipes 
 coated with Dr. Angus Smith's preparation (which consists of 
 immersing them in a mixture of pitch, coal tar, and a small pro- 
 portion of linseed oil, with, sometimes, a little resin, melted and 
 heated to about 300° Fahr.) are mostly used in England for drain- 
 work, and in some instances for soil pipes. 
 
 Some plumbers are using, for drains, pipes very little stronger 
 than ordinary rain-water pipe. Others use it of the same substance 
 as generally fixed for hot-water heating pipes. A great deal of 
 what is called " light underground pipe " is used, while the best 
 engineers have the heaviest underground pipe. Figures 162, 163, 
 164, and 165, are drawn to scale, and show the relative thickness 
 
 FlGUHB 162. 
 
 Figure 163. 
 
 Figure 164! 
 
 Figure 165. 
 
 of the iron pipes as used by various people. Figures 162 and 
 163 should never be used when the joints are made with metallic 
 lead, the reason being that the socket, or hub, is not strong 
 
146 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 enough to resist the lead being " set up." If this is not done the 
 joint will sometimes leak owing to the lead shrinking as it cools. 
 Figure 165 is the sort generally used for the best kind of work, 
 and also for water-mains, which have to withstand a very great 
 water-pressure, also the enormous strain of traffic over them, in 
 some cases dead weight, and in others shocks or sudden strains, 
 when fixed in streets. These pipes are usually cast in g.-feet 
 lengths, wit>h sockets 4 inches deep. This length is a great 
 advantage for drainwork, so many joints not being required as in 
 stoneware pipes. It is true that skilled labour is required to lay 
 iron pipes, but this is an advantage. For laying stoneware-pipe 
 drains an ordinary navvy is very often considered to be quite 
 good enough for the work, but my experience is very different, 
 and I have found that the best tradesmen very often fail to make 
 sound work of them. 
 
 Iron pipes, where the fall is sluggish, have another advantage, 
 as they are much straighter than stoneware, are smoother, and 
 consequently more water can be discharged through them in a 
 given time, other conditions being equal. It has already been 
 stated that skilled labour is required to lay these pipes — i.e., men 
 who know how to do their work properly. Neglect of this may 
 lead to serious trouble. As an illustration, a foreman in the same 
 employ as myself took on a stranger to lay some iron drains; 
 things were going on very nicely until one day it was found that 
 he took about twenty-eight pounds of lead to make one joint on a 
 4-inch pipe. It need not be explained that the lead had run through 
 the joint and lain on the bottom of the inside of the pipe. 
 
 It may be well to dwell on this question of joint-making for 
 a short time. All pipes, when cast, have a bead on the spigot- 
 end, as shown in section. Figure 166. This helps to make the 
 jojnt "fair" inside — that is, causes the end of 
 the pipe to lay in the socket so that the inside 
 faces are in a straight line, and there is an 
 equal annular space all around the inside of the 
 socket. This bead does not fit quite tightly in 
 the socket, so that it is possible to force the 
 yarn or gasket past it when the pipe is not tight home in the 
 socket. The result of this is, that there is nothing to prevent t}ie 
 
IRON DRAINS. 
 
 147 
 
 Figure 167. 
 
 molten lead, used for making tue joint, from running through. 
 When it is necessary to cut a pipe to a required length, an 
 unskilful tradesman will do it in such a bungling way that the 
 end is left very ragged and uneven. When this is so, although 
 the spigot-end may be rammed home in the socket, the yarn will 
 very often fall through and so leave no protection for preventing 
 the lead tollowing. Figure 167 explains this. Some men, to 
 prevent this, or if they happen to 
 cut the pipe irregular, will cast a 
 lead ring and push it on the end 
 of the entering pipe, and jam it 
 tight to the bottom of the socket ; 
 then another, which can be set up 
 or caused to expand until it fits 
 quite tight, and so on until the socket is quite full, when the last 
 one can be worked quite flush with the outside face of the socket; 
 This takes about three or four times as long to make the joint 
 as the ordinary way. 
 
 There is a little tact required in yarning a joint. Some men 
 will use the yam just as it is made, no matter whether the socket 
 fits tight or loose ; others will take oflf a strand for a tight joint, 
 or will add a strand — or, if occasion requires, twist two yams 
 together — ^for a loose joint, so as to insure the socket being yarned 
 an equal thickness all around. Black or tarred yarn is the best 
 to use, as if any of it comes in contact with water it will not rol 
 so soon. White yam is best for water-mains, as it does not 
 impart any taste to the water, which the tarred does. 
 
 After yarning the joint, a roll of clay is placed around the 
 outside in such a way that when the lead is poured in it projects 
 
 Figure 168. 
 
 slightly beyond the face of the iron socket — Figure i68. Some- 
 
 L 2 
 
148 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 times the projecting lead is cut off with a chisel, but this is a 
 mistake. The proper way is to take a hand-chisel and hammer 
 to slightly separate the lead from the pipe, as shown at A, 
 Figure 169, and then a thin calking tool, work it all around 
 keeping it close to the pipe, and then use a thicker tool in the 
 same way. This causes the superfluous lead to bulge outward, as 
 shown at B. A good tradesman will cut this off 'with his Calking 
 tool by its coming in contact with the edge of the socket, aild 
 never use a chisel for that purpose, and at the same time will 
 leave the surface of the lead so smooth that the tool-marks can 
 scarcely be seen. 
 
 If the joint is small, so that it does not require iBuch lea.d, 
 it should be poured very hot, or it will not run righ): around, but 
 if the joint is large and requires a good thickness of lead, it 
 should not be made very hot for the reason that the hotter the 
 lead is made the more it expands, and, consequently, the more it 
 shrinks as it cools. Another reason for not having the lead too 
 hot is that it burns the yarn and causes it to smoke^ which, 
 bubbling through the lead before it sets, leaves a lot of little 
 cellules in it, through which the water can afterward find a way 
 of escape. 
 
 The way to teat an iron pipe as to its freedom from cracks 
 or splits is generally to " ring " it with a hammer ; if a jarring 
 sound is emitted, it is a certain sign that there is some flatv in 
 it, but if it "rings like a bell" it may be taken for granted that 
 the pipe is in a sound condition. Sometimes a pipelayer will 
 " set up " his joint too much, so as to split the socket or hub, 
 and this is more likely to occur when hard lead is used. Or he 
 will perhaps dfive his tool in between the pipe and socket so as 
 to burst it, but a mstn who is used to the work will at once 
 detect this by the sound. When a socket is burst or cracked it 
 should always be taken out, it never being safe to leave it, 
 and although the crack may have something applied to it so 
 that the iron will rust so that no leakage may occur, still it 
 is always liable to break open. Iron clamps and platfes can 
 b3 bolted on, but no matter how well done, it is only' a botch, 
 and the cost is almost equal to that of a new length of pipe. 
 Another test generally insisted upon by engineers is that all 
 
IRON DRAINS. 149 
 
 pipes for best work shall be not less than the following weights : 
 3-inch pipes, i cwt. o qrs. 14 lbs. the 9 foot 4-inch length. 
 
 4 
 
 >) 
 
 I 
 
 J) 
 
 2 
 
 J) 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 )) 
 
 2 
 
 >j 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 )) 
 
 2 
 
 jj 
 
 2 
 
 )> 
 
 
 
 It is an open question- if' thfese weights should not be modified, 
 as, although the substance may be about equal in all sizes, still 
 the larger pipes should be made thicker in proportion than the 
 smaller ones, as the perimeter of the larger pipes has to resist a 
 greater hydraulic pressure. Another test sometimes insisted upon 
 is that these pipes should withstand a pressure of 400 feet head 
 of water. I was carrjang out some iron pipework some few years 
 ago which was tested to this pressure, and there was not one 
 defective pipe found. Two or three joints had to be reset, and 
 that was all in a ;^4,ooo job. 
 
 One firm of London plumbers use cast-iron pipes of the 
 following weights: 
 
 3-inch pipes, 45 lbs. per 6-foot length. 
 
 4 »> 60 „ „ 
 4i >> 70 >> »> 
 
 5 ji °^ »> >> 
 
 These weights may do very well for overground work, but I 
 think the heavier pipes are better for underground. The heavy 
 pipes have the further advantage of being made in, longer lengths, 
 as well as having stronger sockets to: resist the necessary setting 
 up of the joints. 
 
 Some makers have a groove inside the socket, hs shown at C, 
 Figure 165, but this is not of much advantage^ as the socket is 
 generally rough enough inside for the lead to key to. 
 
 When cast-iron pipes, coated with Dr. Angus Smith's solution, 
 are used for drainage purposes, they may be buried in the ground 
 without much risk of deterioration by rusting, but it is advisable, 
 in some kinds of soil, to have a concrete bed for them to lie upon. 
 One eminent firm of sanitary engineers makes a concrete bottom 
 to the trench, and then supports the iron drain - pipes on smsill 
 brick piers, and then builds a wall on each side, laying flat stones 
 over, so as to leave a space all around the pipes. This space is 
 
ISO 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 continued to the external faces of the house-walls where air- gratings 
 are fixed. By this arrangement a current of air may circulate 
 through from end to end, and all around the outsides of the pipes. 
 Figure 170 is a sectional view showing this arrangement. Another 
 
 advantage claimed for this systcnri If 
 that the jarring of the floor cannot 
 disturb the pipe drain in any v/ay, 
 and if a light be held at one grating, 
 a person looking through the other 
 can see if any leakage is taking place. 
 It is a further advantage for the iron 
 pipes to lie on horizontal iron bars, 
 as shown by dotted lines, so as to 
 leave the space beneath perfectly clear. 
 In one case iron pipes were fixed in a building which had 
 been erected on virgin ground. These pipes were broken soon 
 afterward by the settlement of the earth outside of the walls, the 
 pipes being built in and held so firmly that they could not move. 
 Figure 171 explains what actually occurred. To avoid this a 
 small relieving arch should be built over all drains (whether iron 
 
 
 Figure 170. 
 
 Figure 171. 
 
 . ,1 II II 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 1 1 1 1 
 
 
 - 1 1 1 II II 1 
 
 1 
 
 -1 1 1 1 1 
 
 
 1 1 ' K-rhTSI 1 
 
 1, 
 
 1 1 A^ii/A 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 \ f — 1 ff ^B \3 1 
 
 
 i 1 1 1^ \i --^ f^^ 
 
 1 
 
 1 1 VVx -<vC7 1 
 
 1 
 
 ■ II 1 KAQviYI 
 
 1 
 
 1 1 1 1 1 
 
 
 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 1 1 1 1 
 
 
 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
 
 1 
 
 <^:S!5Wisfe^5^^5^^^^^S^5- 
 
 Figure 173. 
 
 or vitrified stoneware) when they have to pass through a wall, in 
 the manner shown in Figure 172, so that if the house-walls, or 
 the earth in which the drains are laid, should sink, no strain 
 would be brought to bear on the pipes. In some cases — and they 
 are very few — ^it is possible to fix the pipes on the house-walls 
 instead of burying them under the floors. No doubt this is a 
 
IRON DRAINS. I5I 
 
 good plan, but in nearly all town houses the basement floor is 
 used as servants' offices, and as these rooms require sinks and 
 other fittings with waste-pipes to them, the drains must of necessity 
 be fixed at a lower level. A speaker at the late Plumbers' Congress, 
 held at the Health Exhibition, advocated a tunnel to be built 
 under houses ranged in rows, through which the drains should be 
 carried. These tunnels were to be large enough for a man to 
 pass through, so as to be able to examine the condition of the 
 pipes. It is doubtful if this would be a good plan. Setting aside 
 the question of cost, in a great many cases these tunnels would 
 be lower than the foundations of the house, and would thus 
 interfere with the stability of the building. Again, where the soil 
 is charged with water from land-springs or other causes, it would 
 ooze through the walls and probably half fill the tunnel. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 IRON DRAmS— continued. 
 
 If drains are properly and carefully laid with an inspection- 
 chamber or manhole at each end, it is not difficult to plug up 
 the lowest end and fill the whole length with water, and so test 
 its freedom from leakages, without actually examining every inch 
 of its length. Another good way for testing drains is to hermeti- 
 cally seal the ends, and pump air into the pipes. An ordinary 
 gas-pressure gauge can be attached, and by watching the column 
 of water it can be seen at once if any leakage is taking place ; 
 or the ventilation pipe may be plugged air-tight, and the whole 
 of the drains, soil and other pipes tested at the same time and, by 
 the same means. A greater air-pressure than ten or twelve-tenths 
 need not be applied ; in fact, a greater pressure will be found to 
 break through the water-seals of the various traps. 
 
 It may be interesting to some readers to know how these 
 pressure-gauges are made. Anyone can make them. I generally 
 buy a piece of f or -J^-inch glass tube ; smaller sizes are not so 
 good, as capillary attraction causes the water to appear to stand 
 higher in the tube than it actually does. By holding the centre 
 of this tube, which should be about 12 or 14 inches long, in a 
 common gas-flame until it is red-hot,' it can be 
 bent to a U -shape ; or the tube can be had about 
 6 inches longer, and bent to cO-shape This 
 bent tube can then be fixed to a small piece of 
 board, on which shpuld be pasted a strip of 
 paper divided by horizontal lines into tenths of 
 inches, the centre of the scale being zero. The 
 tube should then have water poured into the U 
 until it stands at zero on both sides of the leg. 
 Figure 173 represents this gauge ready for use. 
 
 /S\ 
 
IRON DRAINS. 153 
 
 A piece of indiarubber tube can be attached to the leg, A, and 
 the other end to a pipe securely connected to the drain or pipe 
 to be tested. It is important that the end, B, should be left open, 
 or the water in the gauge would not rise by the pressure applied 
 to the other end, or, more properly speaking, would only rise in 
 proportion to the extent the air in this end of the tube is com- 
 pressed. As |-g represents i^ inches, a pressure very slightly in 
 excess of this would burst through any water-traps which had only 
 i^-inch " dip " or " seal," or what North country plumbers would 
 call "drown." I have very often used this gauge to test gas pipes 
 inside of a house when seeking for cause of smells, and have 
 suspected them to proceed from some leakage in the gas pipes or 
 fittings. In these cases it is only necessary to attach the other end 
 of the indiarubber tube to one of the burners, and then turn the 
 cock, when from tS t° f§ ^il^ ^^ registered on the gauge, according 
 to the pressure from the Company's main. Next turn off the main 
 cock, which is generally near the meter, and then watch if the water 
 in the gauge falls back to zero on the scale. A little drop of almost 
 any kind of dye in the water in the gaiige renders it easier to see. 
 
 There is some peculiarity about this pneumatic testing of pipes 
 that I do not clearly understand, and that is, I never yet saw a 
 pressure-gauge stand steady at any point above zero. I have 
 tested pipes with water which betrayed no leakage, and yet, on 
 applying the air-test, the gauge has fallen to zero in a very short 
 time, varying from ten seconds to three minutes. It is just possible 
 that the indiarubber tubing may have been porous, but still not 
 sufiBciently so for water to ooze through. When testing drains and 
 soil pipes, &c., the pressure can be applied with a small air-pump. 
 In the absence of this instrument a small tube, with a cock in it, 
 can be attached, and a person blowing through this will find that he 
 has sufficient power of lungs for the purpose. When testing a 
 considerable length of pipes, it will be found necessary to take 
 several inspirations and subsequent blowing through the tube before 
 the necessary result is attained, the small cock being alternately 
 opened and shut to allow the air to pass through and then retained 
 in the pipes. 
 
 To return to our iron drains. The several precautions men- 
 tioned in earlier chapters on lead soil pipes and stoneware pipe 
 
154 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 drains have to be taken with regard to iron drains. This is in 
 reference to the necessity of their being perfectly true and straight. 
 On no account allow what is commonly called "square junctions" 
 to be used. Even when a vertical is branched into a horizontal 
 pipe, a stoppage is always liable to occur, from reasons already 
 given, and also from foreign matters, such as small bottles and 
 sticks of firewood, which would pass around an ordinary bend if 
 at the end of the pipe or Y-j unction if at any intermediary position. 
 These articles were discovered in a square junction in a drain, 
 they having previously passed through several bends in a 4-inch 
 lead soil pipe. Although it is not usual to make rubbish-shoots 
 of water-closets, still it sometimes happens that when bedroom 
 slops are emptied down these places other things- get thrown 
 down with them. Sometimes these things, when not too large, 
 will get washed away and no harm is dene, but it is always 
 advisable to have means of access for removing anything that 
 may lodge in certain parts of the drain or other pipes. This 
 remark applies more especially to iron drains, as they cannot be 
 cut into and made good with a cement patch in the same manner 
 as stoneware pipes, or cut open and soldered over again, as can 
 be done with lead pipes. A piece cannot be cut out of a cast-iron 
 pipe without drilling a series of holes around the part intended 
 to be removed. This is the neatest way of doing so, when the 
 necessity arises, as afterward the hole can have its edges filed 
 smooth and an iron plate made to fit over it, with the piece that 
 was cut out riveted to it so as to fit neatly and not leave any serious 
 obstruction inside the pipe to catch passing objects. A series of 
 holes can be drilled near the outer edge of the capping-piece, and 
 others to correspond, on the pipe. These last holes should be a 
 little smaller and tapped with a screw-cutting tap. Brass or gun- 
 metal screws should be used for fixing the cover -plate, as they could 
 be easily removed again should occasion require, whereas iron 
 screws would rust in so as not to be readily taken out again. 
 Care should be taken that the screws for fixing the cover are not 
 too iong so as to project inside the pipe. If it is not probable that 
 this ^late would want removing at a future time, red-lead cement, 
 or what is better still, rust cement, could be used for bedding it 
 on to the pipe, but if frequent removal is necessary an indiarubber 
 
IRON DRAINS. 155 
 
 (vulcanized) ring could be used. There are other things that also 
 make a good packing, such as prepared asbestos and a kind of felt 
 which is specially prepared for this kind of work. 
 
 It ir. always best to make provision for removing obstructions 
 in iron drains when they are first laid, so as to avoid the necessity 
 o> disturbing them afterward. If they are laid in perfectly straight 
 lines, with an access- chamber built over each bed or junction, or 
 at the isxtremities of the drains, channel, or half-pipes could be 
 used at those points, as described when speaking of traps and 
 manholes ; but as these places necessitate air-tight flap covers 
 over them, and are sometimes very near the surface, it is an 
 advantage to have fittings specially made, with an access or movable 
 cover. Some makers have an extra socket cast on, in which a brass 
 screw-cap can be bedded, but, no matter how well done, this always 
 looks patchy, and, if hot and cold water is discharged through the 
 pipes, it is open to the objection that the various metals used would 
 expand and contract unequally, so that after a time they may 
 become not air-tight. Again, these screw-caps are not large 
 enough for removing some of the objects which find their way 
 into the drains, nor for a man to pass his arm through to grasp 
 them. These kind of places should be large enough for this, and 
 also to pass dfain-rods through to force any obstacle which is out 
 of reach through and clear of the drains, and so shaped that the 
 drain-rods could be sent up as well as down the drain from the 
 same inspection hole. The shape of the hole should be similar 
 to that described above as being 
 
 drilled out, and should be cast zonQiiuainai section, of caps. 
 
 at the same time as the pipe, ' ^WW/M WWWMW^ 
 
 with a flat flange around the < T} ° ° ° -^ N 
 
 hole if the pipe is to lie hori- ? ( \ _ )j j 
 
 zontal, on which could be bolted pian of inspection pipe. 
 
 a flat cast-iron plate. If this 
 
 cover is for an upright pipe a 
 
 piece should be cast on the back side to fit into the opening, so 
 
 that the inside of the pipe shall be perfectly cylindrical, as shown 
 
 at Figure 174. 
 
 Makers of iron pipes and other fittings supply junctions cast 
 from the same moulds as those used for water-mains. Now, 
 
 FiGURB 174. 
 
I5& 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 water-mains can be laid perfectly level, or even up hill, but drains 
 must always fall in the direction of the current that passes through 
 
 them. Square junctions for 
 
 S ( iron pipes are made as 
 
 in Figure 175. What are 
 
 known as branches are 
 
 made as in Figure 176, and 
 
 have a spigot-end at A 
 
 instead of a socket, and no 
 
 doubt that is why Figure 
 
 175 is used. This is all 
 
 right for water-mains, but 
 
 CURE 175. I£ they are used for drain- 
 
 •vork the result will be that all the joints on the branch will be 
 
 made imperfect, as the lead will have to flow upward to entirely 
 
 fill the socket. The 
 reader is referred to 
 Figure 177, which 
 illustrates what 
 would occur under 
 these circumstances. 
 On looking at this, 
 which is draWn in 
 section, it will be 
 seen that the joint is 
 not solid, as there is 
 no way of escape for 
 
 Figure 176. , , , ■ . t-. 
 
 the pent-up air at B, 
 whereas, if the inclination of the pipe had been the other way, 
 the air would be displaced as the lead was poured in. This 
 
 would occur at every 
 joint in the branch 
 drain. It could be 
 overcome by using a 
 double socket or 
 collar, and making the 
 joint on the branch 
 FisDRE 177. before laying it in 
 
IRON DRAINS. 
 
 157 
 
 Figure 178. 
 
 position. Figure 178 is a section of the ordinary kind of collai 
 
 used for connecting two spigot-ends of pipes, and it need scarcely 
 
 be added that two lead joints are required 
 
 to be made to it. A good job can be 
 
 made in this way, but it is much better 
 
 to have a socket cast on the branch, 
 
 and so avoid the extra labour, lead, &c. 
 
 The ordinary warehouses keep only those 
 
 which are made for water-mains, but will 
 
 always make castings to the purchaser's order and directions. 
 
 Where the end of a drain turns upward to receive the end 
 of a stack of pipe, it is a good plan to fix what is commonly 
 called a "duck's foot" bend. This is a bend with a foot cast 
 with it, as shown at Figure 179, and which helps to support the 
 weight of the vertical pipe. 
 A bed of concrete should be Is / 
 
 made for this to stand upon ; 
 indeed too much care cannot 
 be taken to avoid settlement 
 of any part of the drain. It 
 is almost an every-day ex- 
 perience to find the end of 
 the soil pipe not made good 
 to the drain. This no doubt 
 has arisen in a great many 
 cases when — ^the walls of the 
 building having good founda- 
 tions and the soil pipes 
 being firmly fixed — the earth containing the drain has subsided 
 and the joints have become broken. At the risk of being thought 
 wearisome I must repeat that concrete foundations for drains, 
 under almost all conditions, are of the utmost importance. For 
 want of concrete, a drain was found to have subsided and become 
 so defective that it had to be taken out, and the earth beneath 
 was foimd so charged with sewage that it had to be dug out to 
 a depth oijvve feet before it could be considered to be free from 
 offensive matter. This was a private residence, in which eleven 
 children and two servants had all been ill. This and other 
 
 FiGUKE 179. 
 
I5« 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 experiences also prove that the drains cannot De too carefully 
 laid, &c.( and that they should be of the very best materials. If 
 properly done the first cost would be the last cost, and would be 
 much cheaper in the end, although some think the cost excessive 
 if they have iron drains rather than others which are considered 
 cheaper. These latter entail a permanent tax on the householder 
 for repairs or renewals, to which may be added the annoyance and 
 inconvenience of continually having the house upset by workmen. 
 There is one little matter in connection with junctions for 
 iron drains that should not be lost sight of. They should always 
 be inspected inside, at the point of junction, as it not infrequently 
 happens that where the cores meet a serrated ridge of iron is left, 
 around which passing objects can cling. The position of this 
 ridge is shown by dotted lines at C, Figure 176. This (in some 
 cases they are only little spurs) , can be knocked 
 off with a long chisel and hammer without doing 
 any injury to the fitting. 
 
 When it is required to reduce the diameter 
 of a drain, it is always advisable to use a proper 
 taper pipe, and not to attempt to get over it by 
 making a large lead joint, in the same manner as 
 shown in section. Figure 180. 
 
 All the tools necessary for iron pipe laying 
 can be bought at the usual tool shops, but I 
 much prefer to make my own yarning and staving-irons, although I 
 daresay an ordinary smith would make them in one-half the time. 
 The yarning-iron, as it is called, is generally made of 
 steel, but I think a good tough piece of iron is better. 
 As it is not necessary to use a hammer with this tool, 
 I like the handle-part rather heavy, so that it does not 
 jar the wrist so much when working the yarn tight 
 home, and if it is slightly roughed it does not make 
 the fingers ache so much by gripping the tool. A good 
 set should be given to this tool, so that the fingers do 
 not get pinched between it and the pipe. It is not at 
 Figure 181. ^^jj uncommon to have the skin chafed off the little 
 finger by rubbing against the pipe when yarning. Figure 181 is 
 an illustration of this tool. The staving, calking, or setting-up 
 
 Figure i8o. 
 
IRON DRAINS. 
 
 159 
 
 tools should be made of steel, tempered rather soft. Octagonal- 
 sectioned steel is best, as it is better for holding. The hands, 
 after using the clay, get so smooth inside that it makes them ache 
 when having to grip anything smooth. These tools should be as 
 short as convenient, so that when working in a trench they would 
 leave more room for swinging the hammer than if the tools were 
 longer. Another reason is, that with short tools the hands do not 
 get hit so often with the hammer, especially when setting up the 
 under side of the joint. When doing this, the man generally 
 stands astride the pipe, the tool in one hand passed round one 
 side of the pipe, and the hammer in the other passed round the 
 other side, so that he cannot see what he is doing to the under 
 side of the joint, but a good pipelayer can tell by the touch if it 
 is properly made. For trenchwork these tools should be made 
 with a set, as Figure 182, but for pipes fixed in upright chases 
 in walls they should be rather straighter, as Figure 183, as there 
 is generally objection to having much brickwork cut away for a 
 joint hole. In some cases, where it is not allowed to cut away 
 
 .STONE LANDING 
 
 Figure 1S2. 
 
 Figure 183. 
 
 Figure 184. 
 
 Figure 185. 
 
 for access for setting up a joint, it is necessary to have specially- 
 made tools. Figure 184 I have used under these circumstances, 
 but a pair of them is required when it is necessary to work firom 
 both right and left hands. Figure 185 is another tool I had to 
 have especially, made for setting up a joint beneath a stone 
 landing, and which could not be done any other way, X being 
 the part struck with the hammer. The hammer used for jointing 
 
i6o 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 has usually a short club head and a short handle, the blows 
 given with it being short and quick. The hammer should be 
 held lightly; if firmly grasped it makes the fingers ache by long 
 usage, and at the same time the constant jarring causes a pain 
 in the wrist, and, moreover, the hammer falls with more force if 
 not grasped too tightly, as in the act of striking the face adjusts 
 itself to the head of the tool better. 
 
CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 IRON DRAl'NS— continued. 
 
 Most of the soil pipes in first-class London jhouses are of 
 lead. It is important that these lead pipes should be securely 
 made good to the drains. This is sometimes done as shown in 
 Figure i86, and it would scarcely be credited the numbers that 
 are found to be made in this bungling way^ Even when the 
 socket of the drain is as it should be, it is often found that the 
 joint is badly made, as shown in Figure 187, and a deposit of 
 
 ^ 
 
 Figure i86. 
 
 FnsuBE 187. 
 
 Figure 188. 
 
 cement which has fallen through and set in a hard lump at A. 
 An improved way is shown in section, Figure 188, where the lead 
 pipe has a flange worked on its extremity, so as to fit tightly 
 into the drain socket, thus insuring the bore of the pipes being 
 perfectly straight. Sometimes putty or red-lead cement is used to 
 bed the lead flange in the earthenware socket. This prevents the 
 Portland cement, with which these joints are usually made, from 
 running through into the drain, but it is not a good plan, as a 
 part of the red-lead gets squeezed out, and projecting, as shown 
 
l62 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 -V 
 
 Figure 189. 
 
 at B, causes an obstruction, and this evil is aggravated if the 
 work has to stand some weeks before any discharges pass down 
 to break it away before it sets so hard as to resist this action. 
 The best way to msike the connection is shown in section, 
 Figure i8g. In this case the soil pipe enters the drain pipe about 
 an inch. A lead flange is soldered on the soil 
 pipe to prevent its slipping down, as shown at C. 
 A bed of common putty can be placed under this 
 flange, and the part of the pipe telescoped into 
 the drain will prevent this being squeezed out to 
 form an obstruction, and the socket can then be 
 filled in with Portland cement. Joints made in 
 this way will withstand any hydraulic pressure not 
 exceeding that to which the rest of the work may be subjected. 
 This is a good way for connecting lead soil pipes with iron drains, 
 but a lead joint is better than one made of Portland cement. 
 Sometimes a lead pipe is joined to an iron pipe, as shown in 
 
 Figure 190. Although this can 
 be made perfectly tight, it is not 
 so good as the next illustration. 
 Figure 191. In Figure 190 the 
 lead is flanged out and very 
 much weakened, while in Figure 
 191 a flange is soldered on, and 
 about an inch of lead telescoped 
 FIGURE 190. Figure 19.. into the iron pipe. The remarks 
 
 on connecting lead and stoneware pipes also apply in this last case. 
 A great improvement has been made this last few years by 
 soldering a harder metal, such as copper or brass, on to the lead 
 pipe, so that an ordinary lead joint can be made to the iron. 
 Brass is not good for this, as the air in the drain causes a 
 corrosive action. The same may be said of copper, but this ii 
 an open question. Copper pipes which have been fixed several 
 years have been found to be in perfect condition, and although 
 submitted to a severe test they showed no signs of any defects. 
 But where this metal has been used as part of a water-closet 
 apparatus, and subjected to the action of urine on both sides, it 
 has not been found to last long. 
 
IRON DRAINS. 
 
 163 
 
 The usual way of making the connection of lead soil pipe 
 with iron drains is shown in section, Figure 192, The copper 
 thimble is passed over the end of the lead pipe, which is then flanged 
 over it at the end, and they are then soldered 
 at D, as shown. The joint is then yarned and 
 run with lead in the same manner as those on 
 the iron pipe. By doing it in this way neither 
 the copper thimble nor the lead joint are exposed 
 to the action of either sewage or its gases. Some- 
 times the soldered joint is omitted, and instead 
 of flanging the end of the lead pipe, it is entered 
 into the iron in the same manner as shown in 
 Figure 191, but as illustrated in Figure 192 is 
 much better, as by no possibility can sewer-air 
 pass out at D. There is less liability of a voltaic F'o"re ^9^- 
 
 action being set up between the various metals used, as the 
 lead only is exposed, the iron being protected by the coating 
 applied to it. 
 
 In the late Internatiocal Health Exhibition a specimen joint 
 was shown for connecting lead with earthenware pipe. Figure 193 
 is a section. It was called an improved patent collar-joint. A is 
 an earthenware collar, B is red-lead 
 cement, C is a J-inch wrought-iron 
 nut and bolt, D is the flange of the 
 lead pipe, E is Portland cement. The 
 earthenware pipe, F, has a flange 
 with corrugated surface, and is left 
 unglazed for the cement to key to. 
 There is no doubt that it is simple 
 and easy of application, and could be 
 made at a moderate cost, but it has several defects, which may 
 be enumerated as follows: The lead flange is shown of the same 
 thickness as the lead pipe, but in practice it will be found to get 
 very much reduced in working or tafting it over. In the exhibited 
 drawing the pipe was shown to be quite square at G, which is a 
 source of weakness, and if the reader refers to what has been 
 said further back, and then looks at Figure 193, he will see that 
 there is nothing to prevent the red-lead cement squeezing out and 
 
 Figure 193. 
 
 M 2 
 
164 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 projecting inside the pipes where they meet at H. Again, earthen- 
 ware is too frail to stand the strain of being screwed together, 
 even if the bolt-holes were made perfectly true so as to come 
 opposite each other. When made the joint looks large and 
 clumsy, and after all is not so strong and reliable as the one 
 shown at Figure 189. Again, it can only be used in a horizontal 
 position. 
 
 While writing, the idea has suggested itself that a gland- 
 joint would be very good for connecting a lead pipe to an iron 
 drain, something as shown in section, Figure 194. By using this 
 kind, any hot water passing down the 
 vertical pipe causing it to expand, it would 
 do so without hindrance, and in cooling 
 would again shrink back to its original 
 dimensions. Another reason could be 
 given, — that if the building or wall, to 
 which the pipe is fixed, were to settle 
 downward, it would not affect the joint, 
 or, if the ground in which the iron drain 
 is laid was to sink a little, the joint would 
 still be air and water-tight, provided the 
 lead pipe was telescoped into the iron 
 pipe a few inches. Asbestos would be a good packing to use 
 for this kind of joint, as it would not be so liable to perish as 
 yarn, and the nature of this material is such that no lubricant 
 would be required. This is an important point, as part of the 
 object aimed at would be lost if the pipes were so securely con- 
 nected that they would not freely slide, one inside the other, and 
 would run the risk of breaking the weakest — the lead. 
 
 Soil pipes used to be generally fixed inside the house or 
 building, but it is becoming more frequent nowadays with sanitary 
 engineers to have them fixed on the external face of the wall, 
 but there are numbers of cases where there is no available 
 external wall-face, so that it is imperative that the soil pipe.s 
 should be fixed inside. A great many people think that when 
 the soil pipes and drains are fixed outside so much care need 
 not be taken when making the joints, but no greater mistake 
 could be made. Take the drains; if they leak the earth at first 
 
 FlGURB 194. 
 
IRON DRAINS. 1 65 
 
 may act as a deodorizer, but a continual leaking will soon so 
 saturate it with sewage that the house may be said to stand in a 
 sewage-bog, and there is the further liability of this sewage soaking 
 through the house-walls or passing beneath the footings, so as to 
 render the earth beneath the basement floors in the same condition 
 as that outside. A case occurred where the occupants of a 
 house were very much troubled with smells. The whole of the 
 drains were taken up and relaid, but before the people had been 
 back more than a week or two they found that the smells were 
 as bad as ever. The builder had to submit to a severe reprimand, 
 and was threatened with an action at law. He pleaded that there 
 was no defect in his work, and proved it to be sound by charging 
 the drains with water and letting them stand several hours without 
 showing any subsistence at the sight-holes. The idea that a 
 cesspool might be buried somewhere next suggested itself, and the 
 only way of finding this out was to excavate the whole of the 
 basement. The result was that sewage was found to be oozing 
 through the wall which separated the next house. On inquiring 
 next door if they were troubled with smells, an indignant " No " 
 was the answer, but the necessary pressure being brought to bear, 
 the drains were examined and found to be completely choked up, 
 and the whole of the earth beneath the basement floor was found 
 to be so charged with sewage (in an abominable state of putre- 
 faction) that it was passing through the party-wall into the next 
 house. The writer has met with men who argued that in certain 
 soils it is a good plan not to make the underside of a drain- 
 joint so that any water in the soil would pass through the joint and run 
 away down the drain, and who then gravely and dehberately proceed 
 to put cement around the top and sides of the joints — for what 
 reason the reader must find out for himself, as the writer cannot 
 give any. An exception might be made when the drain passes 
 away down a field to a cesspool or irrigation system, but in towns 
 the rule should be laid down that all sewage-conduits snould be 
 perfectly water-tight. 
 
CHAPTER XX. 
 
 DRAIN-VENTILATION. 
 
 \ The question of drain-ventilation does not appear to be so 
 
 clearly understood, nor the thought given to it that its importance 
 demands. It is only the bond fide sanitary engineer or sanitary 
 plumber who attaches any value to it. There are hundreds, or it 
 may be said thousands, of houses that have the drains connected 
 directly with the public sewer. Other houses have a trap placed 
 in the course of the drain to disconnect it from the sewer. This 
 trap may keep back sewage-gases, it is true, but for want of 
 ventilation the house drains become a retort for generating these 
 gases on the house side of the trap. The more experience the 
 writer has the more convinced he feels that the best materials for 
 house drains are heavy cast-iron pipes, properly protected from 
 rusting, laid on a firm foundation, and the joints made with 
 metallic lead. The next important item is thorough flushing 
 with water, and they should abo be ventilated, or air-flushed. 
 There is a great diversity of opinion on this question as to the 
 best way of arriving at success. Some sanitarians argue, and 
 practice, that the soil pipe should also act as the drain-ventilator, 
 and that it is necessary to have another pipe near the trap, as 
 shown at A, Figure 195, carried up to the roof, to let fresh air 
 into the drains, which would then pass in the direction shown 
 by the arrows and up the soil pipe. Others maintain that the 
 air-current should always be in the same direction as the water 
 or sewage-current, so that any discharges from the water-closets, 
 or other fittings, will accelerate the ventilation by driving the air 
 forward in the drain and up the ventilation pipe A, fresh air 
 being drawn in at the top of the soil pipe to supply what would 
 in some cases be a partial vacuum. If the arrows were reversed 
 it would explain what is meant. ^ It requires very little argument 
 .to upset this theory. In the first place the discharges down the 
 
DRAIN-VENTILATION. 
 
 167 
 
 soil pipe and drain are intermittent, so that the current of air is 
 only carried in the same direction at intervals. Between these 
 discharges the air-current will be found to be reversed, and pass 
 up the soil pipe. 
 
 On testing the air in a drain it will generally be found to be 
 slightly warmer than that outside. Anyone with even a slight 
 knowledge of aerokinetics will understand that even one degree 
 rise of temperature is sufficient to rarefy the air in the drains, 
 and which would then be forced upwards by the pressure of the 
 
 
 Figure 195. 
 
 cold air without entering at the lowest end. A very simple 
 experiment will prove this. ' Take a glass tube, say i or 2 
 inches in diameter, lay it horizontally, with a slight inclination, 
 and hold a piece of smouldering smoke-paper near the highest 
 end, the smoke will be found NOT to enter. If hot water is 
 poured on the tube, or a spirit-lamp held beneath, it will be 
 found that the air inside will become rarefied and pass through 
 
i68 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 with a current strong enough to carry the smoke away ; but if 
 the smoke had been applied at the lowest end, after an interval 
 ii a few seconds, it would be found to enter the tube and pass 
 through it. By a careful study of some of these properties, which 
 are generally considered too trivial to be noticed, results can often 
 be achieved by natural laws, instead of resorting to mechanical or 
 other means, which is now becoming so common. 
 
 Some people maintain that if the ventilating pipe. A, was 
 carried to a position a few feet higher than the top of the soil 
 pipe, it would act in a way similar to the long leg of a syphon 
 when applied to hydraulics, and in its inverted position would 
 syphon the air down the soil pipe and through the drain. This 
 theory no doubt looks very well on paper, but the facts are found 
 to be quite different when applied in practice to drainage-work. 
 An explanation may be given by pointing out that the horizontal 
 pipe or drain is generally in what may be considered a warm 
 situation, and discharges of hot water through it not only raise 
 the degree of temperature of the air, but also transmit heat to the 
 surroundings, which again acts upon the air passing in through 
 the inlet, expanding that, and so really assisting the ventilation. 
 The steam, also, from hot water discharged from baths, sinks, &c., 
 will always rise to the highest point, and it is absurd to think 
 that warm vapour of any kind would pass downward through a 
 drain perhaps 50 or 100 feet long, so as to then ascend a lofty 
 ventilation pipe, simply because the pipe was placed there for 
 that purpose.' Why people should persist in saying that the 
 principles of ventilating downward are the only right ones is a 
 mystery. If they simply stated that they had provided two stacks 
 of ventilating pipes, one at each extremity of the drain, and did 
 not care which was the inlet or which the outlet, so long as the 
 drains were properly air-flushed, no person of experience would find 
 much fault. Some people place too much dependence on the fact 
 that carbonic acid (one of the constituents of sewage-gas) being 
 so much heavier than air, would gravitate to the lowest point in 
 a drain ; so that it is necessary to ventilate in that direction to 
 remove it. A man who understood his business would not advance 
 this doctrine, knowing that, in the first place, this gas would, if 
 generated, become diffused with the air in the drain ; secondly. 
 
DRAIN-VENTILATION. 169 
 
 that it is almost always accompanied by sulphuretted hydrogen, a 
 lighter gas, but heavier than air ; and thirdly, that if the drains 
 are properly laid, flushed, and ventilated, these gases cannot be 
 generated, and so it is useless and a waste of time and money to 
 provide for something which ought not to occur. 
 
 There are some few houses where this system of drain- 
 ventilation (which is sometimes called the syphon system) is 
 carried out, and where specially constructed cowls are fixed on 
 the top ends of the soil and ventilation pipes to insure a current 
 of air passing through. It is usual in these cases to use on one pip>e 
 a cowl so made that when the wind blows past it part is caught 
 and induced to pass down and into the drain, the cowl on the top 
 end of the other pipe being so constructed as to act as an air- 
 extractor, and there is no doubt they answer admirably wh«,n the 
 wind Mows. But it often happens that there is little or no wind, 
 and when this is the case the question may be asked, Are not 
 these cowls an obstruction to the free passage of the air through 
 them? and if so, would not open ended pipeS answer just as 
 well? If anyone had seen the number of mechanical (in dis- 
 tinction to fixed) cowls that the writer has, lying about on the 
 roofs of houses, the owners in happy ignorance, and the system 
 of drain-ventilation stiU going on in a satisfactory manner, they 
 would come to the same conclusion that he 
 has : that cowls are worthless, excepting 
 under very peculiar circumstances. 
 
 Another principle for inducing an air- 
 ccirrent through drains has been practised 
 in a few cases. Figure 196 is a fractional 
 section illustrating this. The air-inlet has 
 a perforated pipe inside, and water is laid 
 on to this and regulated by a stop-cock, as 
 shown. The principle is simple and acts 
 very well, the falling water drawing in a fighre 196. 
 
 current of air. There are objections to this, however. In 
 the first place, water must be plentiful ; seconaly, during a 
 severe frost this place would become choked with ice, and so 
 rendered useless, but this might be overcome by fixing the 
 sparge pipe underground, beyond the reach of the frost. But it 
 
170 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 is an open question if the results gained would be worth the 
 cost. Another firm of engineers drive air through the drains by 
 means of either a centrifugal or an Archimedean fan, propelled 
 by water-power. This is done by causing water under pressure to 
 impinge against the perimeter of a horizontal wheel, which is 
 connected by the necessary gearing, &c., to the fan. 
 
 It is doubtful if any mechanical means will come into general 
 use for ventilating , drains, as, in addition to the first cost, there 
 would be that , of attendance, wear and tear, and future renewals, 
 the provision of motive power, and, after all, the liability of a 
 breakdown through neglect and inattention. 
 
 There are a considerable number of houses which have been 
 built during the last few years, in which the syphon system of 
 ventilating drains has been carried out, and an air-current caused 
 to pass upward through the pipe A, Figure 195. Near the position 
 marked B the pipe has a cast-iron chamber inserted. Inside this 
 chambep is arranged a specially constructed gas-burner, which has 
 to be kept continually burning. In addition to creating a strong 
 current upward, the inventor claims that what he calls . " sewer- 
 gas" is rendered harmless, and that disease-germs are destroyed 
 by the burring gas. Some years ago there was a long paper war 
 
 on this principle, in which I am not sure 
 that the inventor did not get the worst 
 of it. But as this work is intended to 
 be on principles and not inventions, the 
 reader is simply referred to what has 
 been said about other means for in- 
 ducing air-currents. 
 
 Another illustration is given — Figure 
 197. In this case, so much faith was 
 placed in the cowl at A that it was con- 
 sidered powerful enough to pull a current 
 of air through the whole of the soil pipe 
 at the back of the house, down the 
 drains, and up the vent pipe fixed on 
 the front of the house, and, in addition, act as a ventilator to the 
 puhUc sewer. This was arranged, as shown in above sketch, by 
 fixing the pipe, B. It would be an economy, and simplify matters 
 
 Figure 197. 
 
DRAIN-VENTILATION. 
 
 171 
 
 FiGURS igS. 
 
 very much, to remove the trap, C, as it was rendered useless by 
 the by-pass, B. The practice usually followed by most first-class 
 sanitary engineers, is to make a provision for air to enter the 
 drains, at a low level, near the trap placed to disconnect them 
 from the public sewers, or, in country mansions, from the cess- 
 pool, when there is one. In this latter case. Figure 198 represents 
 a section of a common way of % -t 
 
 arranging this air-inlet. A is ^^T 
 
 the drain from the house or 
 mansion ; B is the disconnecting 
 trap. The top part of this 
 trap is continued to ground 
 level, where a stone, with a 
 grating let in, is placed for air 
 to pass through, as denoted by 
 the arrows. This grating is 
 generally made strong enough 
 to resist being broken by cattle 
 walking over. It is not a good 
 plan to fix the grating level with the ground — if fixed in a culti- 
 vated field, earth can fall through and choke up the trap. When 
 fixed in a grass field, the gratings have been found to be entirely 
 covered with long rank-growing grass, which has become so 
 matted together as to entirely prevent any air from passing 
 through, and so they have become perfectly useless. 
 
 The best plan, when the trap is near the surface, is to build 
 a small hollow brick pier near the trap (not over it, as it would 
 be necessary to pull it down for access to the trap), with a stone 
 over the top, and a grating let in the side about i foot or i foot 
 6 inches above the ground level. This prevents grass or weeds 
 growing over the grating, and is high enough to be above an 
 ordinary snowfall. Another advantage claimed for this is that 
 leaves or other matter cannot drift and lay on the grating in the 
 same manner as when it is laid flat. Straight-barred gratings are 
 the best to use, and the bars should be placed upright so that 
 nothing can lodge on them. Perforated air-bricks are not so good 
 as the grating, as the holes are Uable to become choked. In one 
 case earth had drifted into the holes, in which grass seeds had 
 
\ 
 
 172 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 taken root, with the result that there was scarcely any air-passage. 
 
 Figure 199 represents the raised chamber with the grating let in, 
 as described above. In a long length of drainage 
 one of these chambers could be placed at intervals 
 of 50 or 100 yards, so that should any offensive air 
 become generated in the drains, it could pass out 
 of them instead of being conveyed up to the house 
 and distributed, by means of the ventilating pip^s, 
 
 Figure 199. , , . ^. , , t-» 1 i 
 
 in the air surrounding the house. But these cham- 
 bers can only be applied under favourable circumstances. In 
 some cases they are objected to as being unsightly. They can be 
 hid by planting shrubs around them. In other cases old, tree- 
 stumps and roots and ferns can be planted so as to disguise them. 
 A great many people object to any kind of drain-ventilation being 
 seen, remarking that they are suggestive of a stink, but if the 
 s,, ^ drains are well flushed and ventilated there cannot be much to 
 /Y^ ^ complain of in the way of smeix^ 
 
 At a nobleman's house in the country, during an examination 
 which took three days to make, it was found that the whole of the 
 drainage from the house, offices, and stabling (for about thirty horses) 
 discharged into a cesspool 30 feet long by 10 feet wide, and in which 
 was 6 feet of sewage in a horrible state of decomposition. None 
 of the drains were trapped, or flushed except by the discharges 
 from sinks and water-closets, and which kept continually stirring 
 up the contents of the cesspool, thus setting free enormous 
 quantities of sewage-gases. The cesspool was situated partly 
 beneath the milk dairy, in the floor of which was a bell-trap. 
 The dairymaid said she had to fill this trap with water every 
 day to keep down the smells. A branch drain from the cesspool was 
 carried to the dry area round tlie house for the purpose of taking away 
 any water that might get in there, and this drain had no trap in 
 IT. On raising a stone for access to this area, the stench that escaped was 
 so bad that the men had to beat a retreat for some time until it had 
 cleared away. The cesspool was emptied, and the drains from the 
 stables were separated from those from the house. New ones 
 were laid to convey the sewage about a quarter of a mile, where 
 it was distributed by intermittent irrigation. Entirely new drains 
 were laid round the house, with the necessary trapping and 
 
DRAIN-VENTILATION. 
 
 173 
 
 ventilation, and at the highest point of each main drain was fixed 
 a forty-gallon automatic flushing tank. In the park was fixed air- 
 gratings, similar to Figure 199, and, after an interval of two 
 years the whole system is working to the owner's satisfaction. 
 All solid sewage is retained in a specially-constructed chamber, so 
 as not to choke the sub-irrigation pipes. 
 
 To return to air-inlets to drains, Figure 199 has been fixed 
 to several London suburban houses, where there has been a small 
 shrubbery or garden, but in these cases the drains have been 
 entirely relaid ; where old drains have been left in, other precau- 
 tions have been taken to prevent bad air issuing out of the 
 grating during a reversal of the air-current 
 by discharges down the drain. This is 
 when a path or walk has been near. 
 
 Figure 200 is a sectional elevation of 
 a manhole found at a house. A large 
 iron grating was placed over it, and as 
 this place was surrounded by trees and 
 shrubs, the manhole had a considerable 
 
 p. , , . . , Figure 200. 
 
 quantity of rotten leaves lying in the 
 
 bottom, as shown at A, Figure 200. Rain fell on the leaves, 
 causing the place to smell offensively. On moving the top leaves 
 a great deal of fungoid matter was found to be growing. The 
 drains were well laid and flushed so that whatever fell into the 
 channel was washed away, and nothing offensive could be found 
 excepting these rotten leaves. 
 
 In some cases a branch drain has been laid from the manhole 
 to a distance away, with an upright pipe and domical wire grating 
 
 Figure 201. 
 
 on the end to allow air to pass into the drains, as shown in 
 section, Figure 201. The domical wire grating on the end of the 
 upright pipe has been objected to, as rain can fall through. If 
 
 ■^: 
 
'74 PLUMBING PRACTICE, 
 
 the pipe and horizontal air drain should retain any dust which 
 may have had a vegetable or animal origin, and which would 
 have been carried in by the air-current, any moisture would cause 
 it to further decompose and give off offensive smells, and which 
 would be discharged through the ventilation pipe at the head of 
 the drain. It might be said in that case there would be no ill 
 effects from smells, but it must be much better to avoid their 
 cause than to do that which would assist their generation. If 
 sufficient rain fell through to scour away anything that lay in the 
 horizontal pipe it would be an advantage, but as only just 
 sufficient falls through to do harm, it is better to put a conical cap 
 over the grating (or use a louvred cap instead of the grating) to 
 prevent this. The same objection could be raised against some 
 kinds of blow-down cowls, which would catch a g^eat deal of water 
 in case of a driving rain. These arguments only apply when any 
 part of the air drain is horizontal. 
 
CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 DRAIN-VENTILATION— <:o»^»«««i. 
 
 There is such a variety of houses, and they are so arranged, 
 that the drains nearly always have to be treated differently in the 
 way they are ventilated. The greatest trouble arises when an old 
 house has to be redrained ; with new ones the necessary provision 
 can be made when building. 
 
 Figure 202 is a plan of the front part of a common description 
 of terrace house, and Figure 203 a section on A, B, drawn to a 
 
 Figure 203. 
 
 slightly larger scale. In this case the drain, C, from back part 
 of house has to pass beneath the kitchen floor and through the 
 scullery (which is partly situated beneath the sidewalk of the 
 street). The manhole, D, must of necessity be inside the house 
 beneath the scullery floor, and as these places must be perfectly 
 air-tight when so situated, and yet easy of access, a removable 
 cover is placed over the top. Sometimes this cover is of stone 
 bedded in mortar. Some architects specify it to be bedded in 
 putty and white lead mixed together, but these are both bad 
 plans, as the joint cannot be guaranteed air-tight, and if dis- 
 turbed for any purpose proper care is not always bestowed when 
 refixing. It is much better to use an air-tight iron cover. There 
 
176 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 are several kinds of these in the market ; those are best that are 
 hinged in an iron frame and which can be locked. Those which 
 are not hinged and locked are untrustworthy. Curiosity some- 
 times leads people to see what is below, and the cover does not 
 always get properly replaced. In one instance three empty wine 
 bottles were found hidden away in the manhole, and that leads to 
 the conclusion that these places could be made, use of for other 
 improper purposes unless properly secured. 
 
 In Figures 202 and 203, the fresh-air inlet is shown as a 
 branch drain leading through the outer wall where an upright 
 straight-barred grating is placed for air to enter. In this case the^ 
 grating should be not less than 9 or 12 inches above the area 
 paving, so that dirty water cannot run into it off the surface, or, 
 when the paving is being washed down, cannot be thrown or 
 swept into it. The reasons for this were given . in an earlier 
 chapter. This air drain should have a slight inclination, so that 
 should any vapour condense in it the water would run back int6 
 the manhole. Too much fall should not be given to this air 
 drain or it would come too low down in the manhole. It is 
 better to keep it as near to the top as convenient, so that should 
 any of the lighter sewage-gases accumulate at that point, they 
 would become diffused with the incoming air and so get carried 
 away up the drain and ventilation upcast pipes. 
 
 Referring again to Figures 202 and 203, it should be stated 
 that the drains must be well laid and flushed, or, at times, smells 
 will issue outward through the grating when any discharges are 
 sent down the drains. When iron drains have been laid I never 
 knew anything offensive to pass outward through an open grating, 
 and I have sometimes seen and used them to stoneware pipe 
 drains. In the case of drains badly flushed or improperlj- laid, 
 the air drains have to be continued further away, as shown by 
 dotted lines, and a pipe carried up 6 feet above the paving of 
 area, and on the top fix a balanced mica valve in a 
 metal box. Figure 204 is a sketch of this valve and 
 box. The valve is shown by dotted lines, and partly 
 open, as when air is entering. 
 
 At Figure 203 the air-inlet is shown by a thick 
 Figure 204. line ccnnected to the drain from the surface-gulley 
 
DRAIN-VENTILATION. 
 
 177 
 
 in the area. This is a good plan, as the accumulation of 
 foul air in the branch drain is prevented. This drain can be 
 connected to the manhole, as shown in section, Figure 205. By 
 this arrangement the dirty water from the area gulley-trap is con- 
 veyed down to the bottom of the inspection- 
 chamber so as to avoid the walls being 
 splashed, and at the same time the incoming 
 current of fresh air would be divided, part 
 escaping out of the top of the T-pipe, as 
 shown by the arrow, and the other falling to 
 the bottom by reason of its heavier weight, '"""^ ^°^' 
 
 and also to take the place of that passing along the drain and 
 up the ventilation pipe. 
 
 To give the details of the whole of the various means for 
 ingress of fresh air to drains would occupy too much space and 
 time. We wiU now refer to a few places where the application 
 of those described has been diflScult. Figure 206 is a small 
 section showing the application to a 
 row of new houses near Belgravia. 
 In these cases the servants' water- 
 closets were fixed in a front vault 
 under the pubUc sidewalk. An air- 
 grating was let into a shaft carried 
 up to the paving level so as to venti- 
 late the water-closet, and a 4-inch 
 pipe was carried up from the manhole 
 to the imder side of the grating, with 
 one of the mica valves, pre-described, 
 on the top end, so that no unpleasant odour should escape to tht 
 annoyance of pedestrians. These soon became covered with street 
 driftings, and it was found necessary to make alterations and 
 shield them, as shown at A. These answer very well when proper 
 attention has been given to them by removing the matters which 
 accumulate over the inlets. 
 
 Another principle is shown in section, Figure 207. Here 
 the front area is covered in with thick glass and all the front 
 vavdts under the sidewalks are used for storing coal. The coal- 
 shoots could not be used for the purpose, so the only available 
 
 Figure 206. 
 
178 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 Figure 207. 
 
 way was to bring back a pipe from the manhole to the main 
 wall of the building, and then up above the covered-in area 
 to a position a few inches above the sidewalk. A cast-iron 
 
 grating was placed 
 flush with the face 
 of the wall to protect 
 the valve from injury, 
 and behind the grating- 
 louvred baffle-plates 
 to intercept dust and 
 road refuse as muCh as 
 possible from drifting 
 linto the mica valve. 
 In the above case the 
 manhole was covered 
 in with a cast-iron 
 air-tight cover, fixed a few inches below the paving. Over this 
 was laid a strong stone slab bedded on dry sand, so that coals 
 falling on it cannot injure the cast-iron cover. 
 
 Figure 208 is a basement plan showing the drains of a house. 
 Being a corner house, there is only a very small yard at the rear 
 of the building. All the water-closets and other upstairs sanitary 
 fittings have their pipes brought down and connected with the 
 drain in this yard, the drain from this point being laid in a 
 straight line to the public sewer. A disconnecting trap inserted 
 and a manhole built over it, as shown, with an air-inlet arranged 
 at the manhole, and the two soil pipes continued full size to the 
 roof, the system would have worked first-class ; but, on referring 
 to the plan, it will be seen that by far the greatest length of 
 drainage is the branch continued to take the waste from the 
 scullery sink and a continuation to the side area for surface water 
 ofi^ the paving. , ft was proposed, in the first instance, to take a 
 ventilation pipe from the head of this drain to the roof, but the 
 owner objected to a pipe (which he said would be unsightly) 
 being fixed up the front of the house. The best suggestion that 
 next offered itself was to fix an air-inlet valve at this point. This 
 was done, but it was found to be always closed, excepting when 
 discharges were sent down the scullery sink, when it would open 
 
DRAIN-VENTILATION. 
 
 179 
 
 slightly for a few seconds and then close again, doubtless by the 
 rarefied air in the drain pressing against the back side of the 
 valve. After several experiments it was found that when the air- 
 
 FZGURE 208. 
 
 inlet at the manhole was reduced to one-third of its area, whicti 
 was about 13 square inches, the one in the side area remained 
 open, showing that a current of air was passing through the whols 
 
 N 2 
 
i8o 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 of the system. As this branch drain had nothing but small dis- 
 charges of water sent down, and which were not sufficient to 
 scour it clean, it was deemed advisable to fix a " Field's " 
 flushing-tank in the scullery (where the frost would' not affect it), 
 and a connection was made with the surface water-trap in the 
 side area. This would scour the drain, recharge the trap with 
 
 water should any 
 evaporate, and alsO' 
 change the water 
 in the trap should 
 it become offen- 
 sive. The "Field's"' 
 flushing- tank was 
 supplied with clean 
 water, as it has. 
 been found that 
 when dirty water 
 has been used for 
 this purpose the 
 tank has become 
 very offensive by 
 reason of its foul 
 condition inside, 
 ■necessitating its 
 being frequently 
 cleaned out. The 
 waste-pipe from the 
 scullery-sink was 
 made to discharge 
 into a grease-inter- 
 cepting trap. 
 
 At another house it was found necessary to ventilate the 
 drains in direct opposition to the principles laid down above. 
 Figure 209 is a plan of this house. Being situated at the corner 
 of a street and crescent of houses, it was badly designed, the 
 party-wall forming an acute angle with the front wall of the house. 
 The back basement was used as a kitchen, and the only uncovered 
 surface was a small yard about 5 feet square. It was impossible 
 
 Figure 2og. 
 
DRAIN-VENTILATION. l8l 
 
 to ventilate the drains at the highest point without fixing the 
 pipes on other people's property, so it was decided to fix the 
 fresh-air inlet at the highest point of the drain, and use the soil 
 pipe, which was fixed inside the sharp angle at the front of the 
 house, as the upcast ventilator. A flushing-tank was fixed in the 
 small back yard, as it was feared that the drain, having a sluggish 
 fall and only dirty water discharge sent down it, would become 
 foul inside. This flushing-tank can be regulated so that it will 
 •discharge itself at intervals of time varying from a few minutes to 
 several hours. 
 
 Some engineers say that a fifty or sixty-gallon discharge once 
 or twice in twenty-four hours is the right system to adopt, but I 
 much prefer to have, say, a ten-gallon discharge every two hours. 
 For large houses with long lengths of drainage the quantity 
 might be increased ; but with drains well laid, even if in long 
 lengths, ten gallons of water discharged into them through a 
 4-inch pipe in a few seconds will be found to have a Very good 
 •eifect. 
 
 The soil pipe of the house,' Figure 209, and which acted as 
 the drain upcast ventilator, was fixed in a recess inside the house, 
 and the hot-water circulation pipes being close by, the heat 
 rarefied the air inside the soil pipe and so accelerated the venti- 
 lation of the drains, &c. — in- fact, overcame the resistance ofiered 
 by the rarefied air in the horizontal drain, and which would have 
 a tendency to rise to the highest point where the fresh-air inlet 
 was fixed. 
 
 Figure 210 is a plan of a very common description of a 
 terrace house, having two frontages, one on the street and the 
 other on a common garden or lawn, the sides being hemmed in 
 by other houses. One of this kind had to be rearranged after it 
 had been built about nine or ten years. On examination being 
 made it was found that the whole of the soil beneath the base- 
 ment flooring was saturated with sewage. About fifty loads of 
 earth had to be dug out and carted away. A so-called sanitary 
 engineer had made a few alterations about two years before the 
 writer was sent to see what was wrong, and one of this gentle- 
 man's introductions was a cesspool — misnamed a trap, about 3 
 feet square and 5 feet deep, situated at the point marked A on 
 
1 82 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 QREAS£ TRAB. 
 
 the plan, Figure 210. This was not sealed down air-tight, and 
 the floor over being of wood, it may be judged that this was a 
 very unhealthy corner. A staircase was immediately over this cess- 
 pool, up which the smells 
 used to pass and into the 
 various bedroom windows 
 which looked on to the 
 staircase. 
 
 A new 5-inch cast-iron 
 drain was laid through the 
 house in a perfectly straight 
 line, a brick manhole or 
 access-chamber being built 
 at each end, in the front 
 and back areas, so that if 
 a candle was held at one 
 end it could be seen at 
 the other.* There were two, 
 stacks of soil pipes, as 
 shown on the plan. Figure 
 210, fixed in the angles ol 
 the staircase, and both 
 were defective and had to 
 be renewed. One was of 
 light iron, and was also 
 used as a rain-water pipe ; 
 all the joints were defective. 
 It was impossible to 
 remove the water-closets so 
 
 j INTERCEPTOR TRAP. , ., ■ 
 
 MANHOLE. that the soil pipes could 
 
 "-DRAIN DISCONNLCTOR TRAP. i j- j ... , , 
 
 — FRESH AIR INLET TO DRAIN. DC tlXCd OUtSldC the hOUSC, 
 
 or the water-closet cham- 
 bers ventilated through the 
 walls, unless some of the 
 best rooms had a portion partitioned off. So to make them as 
 inoffensive as possible ventilation-shafts were fixed from each 
 
 —aOlU PIPE FROW TWO w.ot. 
 --RAIN WATER PIPE. 
 - BATH WASTE PIf E. 
 
 .-.INTERCEPTOR TRAP. 
 
 DO. DO. 
 
 —BATH i SINK WASTE PIPB 
 .V-RAIN WATER PIPE. 
 
 SOIL PIPE FROM a W.CiS. 
 
 Figure 21a 
 
 ' If an exaaiination is made during the diiy-time a glass hand-mirror is as 
 good as a candle to reflect light into the interior of the drain pipes. 
 
DRAIN-VENTILATION. 183 
 
 water-closet chamber to a position clear of the skylight over the 
 staircase — see Figure 360. 
 
 It was suggested that the drains should have a ventilation 
 pipe carried up from the highest point to the roof, but the occupier 
 objected to have this done. 
 
 The only resource left was to make use of the soil pipes to 
 ventilate the drains. Unfortunately, these pipes were in the centre 
 of the house, and, so that the whole of the drains should have an 
 air-current pass through, an inlet had to be arranged at each 
 extremity. An open grating was left in the front area at the exit 
 end of the drain. A similar grating was left in the back area, 
 but it was found that sometimes when hot water was discharged 
 down the scullery-sinks steam escaped through the grating. When 
 this water was that in which vegetables or fish had been cooked, 
 the smell was so unpleasant that a mica non-return valve had to 
 be fixed to prevent any escape. 
 
 This mica valve had to be so adjusted that it would open 
 only a short distance, and the open grating in the front area had 
 to be contracted, so that, as nearly as possible, an equal amount 
 of air would pass in at each end of the drain. 
 
 The part D was only connected in a temporary manner 
 until the ventilation had been tested, as it was thought probable 
 that it would be necessary to insert a trap, to insure both 
 sections of the drains being thoroughly ventilated, but this was 
 not found to be required, so the joints were made secure. 
 
CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 DRAIN-TRAPS FOR SURFACE-WATER AND 
 WASTE PIPES. 
 
 To WRITE a history of traps is quite beyond the author's pur- 
 pose, but the subject is so important that it cannot be passed 
 over in silence. To describe all that are in the market would 
 only weary the reader. A great many makers would be delighted 
 to see their goods mentioned, while others would be vexed and 
 disappointed at theirs being omitted. Neither of these considera- 
 tions affect the writer, who is neither a patentee nor manufacturer. 
 The various traps used for the purpose of receiving surface- 
 water and waste- water from sinks, &c., may be divided into the 
 
 following heads : The cesspool- 
 trap, as shown by Figure 211; 
 mechanical traps, or those with 
 a flap-valve either in the water, 
 in the body of the trap, or on 
 the outlet or discharging end ; 
 traps with floating balls, or those 
 with heavy balls, which, under 
 certain conditions, close the trap 
 from back pressure from the 
 drains or sewers ; and traps 
 which are constructed so as to 
 retain water in such a way 
 that under ordinary conditions 
 no drain-air can escape through 
 them. This last description can be further divided into two 
 classes : Those (mis)called self-cleansing, and those specially con- 
 structed to retain certain matters which would do harm if allowed 
 to pass into the drains. A further class may be added — those 
 
 Figure 211. 
 
DRAIN-TRAPS FOR SURFACE-WATER AND WASTE PIPES. 185 
 
 which have a water-seal, but are so very peculiar in their con- 
 struction that they may be said to be almost as offensive as the 
 €vils they are supposed to remedy. Anyone who wishes to make 
 a study of the various kinds of traps in the market is referred to 
 the advertisement pages of almost any paper devoted to sanitary 
 or building matters, where he will find plenty to interest him. 
 
 Figure 211 is a section of a cesspool-trap as usually fixed 
 under a scuUery-sink, and it would not be an exaggeration to say 
 that more than half of the houses in the most aristocratic squares 
 and streets in London are as shown. In fact, in some of the 
 larger houses these traps are made bigger in proportion — no 
 <ioubt so as to be in keeping with the house. No matter how 
 large this trap may be made, sooner or later it will require to be 
 cleaned out. The accumulated fat, which will be found to form 
 a crust on the top, and a quantity of other matter, such as sand 
 that gets washed down when the copper cooking utensils are 
 scoured, mud from vegetables, small pieces of meat, bones, &c., 
 from the dinner-plates, and very often portions of garbage and 
 cleanings from game and other kinds of food — all pass into this 
 trap. If any difficulty arises in this, the bell can be lifted off the 
 trap in the sink and the poker will do the rest. When these 
 places are opened for cleaning out, the stench that escapes is so 
 strong that words can scarcely be found strong enough to describe 
 it. More often than not the bell is left off the trap in the sink, 
 so that the trap I'clow may be said to breathe into the house, as 
 the air is rarefied and cooled by alternate discharges of hot and 
 cold water down the waste-pipe. The bell-trap, which is generally 
 placed in the floor to keep the smeU of the trap below from 
 escaping, is very often found uncovered or without water In 
 some cases, where the servants have been particularly clean, and 
 prided themselves on the clean and white appearance of the stone 
 floor, the grating has been so covered with hearthstone that its 
 presence could not be discovered. Everything about this arrange- 
 ment of the scullery-sink is wrong. There are very few houses 
 indeed that have not a back yard of some kind or other, where 
 the trap could be placed to receive the scullery waste-water, so 
 there is no (or very rarely any) excuse for fixing them indoors. 
 The beU-trap in the sink is a continual source of annoyance and 
 
i86 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 trouble. The water-seal is so little that a slight puff of air will 
 blow through it ; in a few hours the water will evaporate out of 
 it. The water-way through it is so reduced in area that it is 
 difficult to get water to run away without lifting the bell, this 
 very rarely being replaced in a proper manner. The bell-trap in 
 the floor is perfectly useless. It is generally placed there to 
 receive surface-water when the floor is washed down with water 
 and broom. As a matter of fact this is never done, the maids 
 usually doing this part of the work on their knees with pail and 
 flannel. Neither is it a good plan to swill down the floors inside 
 a house. It may clean them, but it makes them and the walls 
 for some inches up so wet that it may take several days to make 
 them dry again ; or, if any woodwork gets wetted, rot is engen- 
 dered. So this floor-trap should be entirely removed. 
 
 Scullery-sink traps require to be specially made so as to 
 intercept and retain all grease, or sand, &c., as these matters 
 frequently cause stoppages in the drains. This is the reason, it 
 may be presumed, that the old cesspool-trap has still a great 
 many admirers. An improved way of constructing these places 
 is shown in Figure 212. This was designed by a master plumber 
 
 under whom the writer was 
 working some years ago, and 
 since then a great many have 
 been made on the same lines. 
 The advantages are that this 
 trap can be easily cleaned out 
 without allowing sewer-air to 
 pass through during the time it 
 is open. The incoming water is 
 discharged below the floating 
 matter, so that if this water is hot it does not remelt the grease, 
 or break it up. The outlet is so arranged that grease cannot 
 float into the drain, and this is the great object sought. The trap 
 itself is a small brick chamber, built water-tight, the inside face 
 rendered with cement trowelled up to a smooth surface. The 
 incoming pipe is the lead waste pipe from the scullery-sink con- 
 tinued to within a few inches of the bottom. At A is a brass 
 screw-cap soldered in. On removing this a cane can be passed 
 
 having 
 
 FiGUKB 212. 
 
DRAIN-TRAPS FOR SURFACE-WATER AND WASTE PIPES. 
 
 187 
 
 through the pipe on each side. The outlet has a lead pipe bend 
 fixed to the drain with a lead collar soldered on to fit into the 
 drain pipe socket, so that an air-tight joint can be made with 
 cement. On this bend, as shown at B, a large brass screw-cap 
 is soldered, so that drain-rods, with a hoe or brush on the end, 
 can be passed into the drain to remove any matter that may 
 accumulate there to form an obstruction. The cover for this trap 
 should be air-tight. 
 
 There are three or four patent traps in the London market, 
 made nearly similar to the last one, but have the advantage that 
 they are made in one piece of vitrified stoneware, or highly-glazed 
 potterjrware. Figure 213 is one of these that is spoken well of. 
 
 Italet 
 
 Outlet 
 
 Figure 213. 
 
 Figure 214. 
 
 Figure aij. 
 
 The inlet pipes of this trap discharge on to any matter that may 
 be floating in the trap, but the end of the outlet being immersed 
 beneath this matter it cannot float into the drain. Figure 214 is 
 another trap specially designed for the same purpose. In this case 
 the inlet and outlet ends of the pipes are both below the floating 
 grease, but being placed outside the body of the trap the inside is 
 open and without any objectionable comers difl&cult to be cleaned. 
 
 Figure 215 is another grease-intercepting trap, differing from 
 the last in that it is oblong with round corners on plan. Figure 
 215 has also a galvanized- iron perforated pan, made to fit into 
 the bottom, with a handle for hfting. This is a great convenience, 
 as at one lift can be taken out the whole of the solid matters 
 that may have accumulated there. These traps all have the 
 advantage that a man with a pail of hot water and soda can 
 wash them as clean as when new. 
 
 It is usual to fix these traps beneath the yard-paving, but 
 this is only necessary when they are placed in a position where 
 the contents would become frozen. There is no reason, beyond 
 frost, why they should not be fixed above the paving; indeed, 
 
l88 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 they would be better so, thus making them easier to be cleaned 
 out. It will generally be found that all places requiring periodical 
 attention or cleaning get done in a better manner if no difficulties 
 are in the way. 
 
 It is important that all kinds of grease-intercepting tanks 
 should have the covers quite air-tight, and a small air pipe fixed 
 to them and continued to a position where any smells escaping 
 from it would not be offensive. There are evils, and evils, and 
 the grease-tank is a necessary evil ; but a trap of this kind is out 
 of place when fixed where there is no grease to intercept. A 
 gentleman amateur sanitarian had five of these traps fixed in 
 various positions round his country mansion to receive the waste- 
 pipes from sinks, baths, &c. He thought these traps " were the 
 best, as they were the most expensive." He also had a " great 
 objection to a complication of traps," and "objected to any being 
 placed in the waste pipes near the fittings." It was very difficult 
 to make him believe that he had made a mistake, but he could 
 not combat the evidence of an anemometer placed over the waste- 
 pipe of the wash-hand basin in his dressing-room, which registered 
 380 feet lineal as having passed through in five minutes, and this 
 air had to pass over the contents of one of these traps, which 
 were anything but pleasant to the olfactory nerves. 
 
 For a large building the consulting engineer designed a grease- 
 intercepting tank similar to Figure 212, but it was made about 
 8 feet long. During the greater part of the day the contents of 
 the tank are nearly at boiling point, the grease floating about like 
 oil. There need be no importance attached to this, excepting that 
 proper attention must be paid to it, and the liquid grease skimmed 
 off before it accumulates to such an extent as to get through the 
 syphon pipe into the drain, but this place is very offensive -smeUing, 
 uD<Ji if neglected, the grease floats down the drains. 
 
 &.t another large building, similar to the last one, the drains 
 were opened for examination and found to be in very good con- 
 dition and free from grease. It was naturally presumed that an 
 elaborately- arranged grease-interceptor would be found in the 
 scullery, but on examination nothing of the sort was discovered ; 
 the only trap was a 4-inch P-trap and a 4-inch drain from it. As 
 the whole affair was working satisfactorily it would have been 
 
DRAIN-TRAPS FOR SURFACE-WATER AND WASTE-PIPES. 
 
 1 89 
 
 ridiculous to propose any alterations, so nothing was done beyond 
 ordinary repairs to fittings. This last case shows that, under 
 certain conditions, grease will retain its liquid state until clear 
 of the house drains, but the drains themselves must be at a 
 temperature above that at which grease congeals. 
 
 Nothing has been said about the sizes of grease-tanks for 
 ordinary dwelling-houses, and, indeed, little can be. It may be 
 said that the tank itself should hold sufficient cold water to con- 
 geal the grease, but, as a matter of fact, this is almost impossible 
 without making an enormously large affair. It would be very im- 
 proper to do this ; the smallest traps are very offensive, and there 
 is not the least doubt the evil would grow with the size. Then, 
 again, in some houses more cooking (hence more grease) is done 
 than in others ; and even the kitchenmaid is an important item to 
 be considered — one will scrape all grease off utensils into a garbage- 
 tub, and another one wiU put all into the dish wash-up tub, and 
 which eventually finds its way into the drain, or grease-tank, if one. 
 
 A firm of London sanitary engineers, with which the writer 
 is well acquainted, has been in the habit of fixing a small-size 
 grease-interceptor, with an outer jacket, so arranged that cold 
 water can pass between them and so keep the contents cool. 
 Figure 216 is a sectional elevation showing the arrangement. The 
 outer chamber. A, A, is made of stout tinned-copper, with an 
 outlet, C, for connecting to the drain. There are two brass 
 unions, D and E, for connecting a cold-water supply and overflow 
 pipe. The inner cham- 
 ber is also of tinned- 
 copper, with a pair of 
 handles for lifting out, ' 
 and with an air-tight 
 cover. There is also 
 another union for con- 
 necting a vent pipe to 
 the inner chamber. By a simple and ingenious arrangement the 
 waste pipe, F, from sink can be disconnected, also the part con- 
 nected to the outlet, C, so that the inner chamber and its contents 
 can be lifted out, emptied, cleaned, and replaced with very little 
 trouble ; or the cover can be removed and the contents scooped 
 
 Figure 216. 
 
igo 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 -f 
 
 out without taking away the receptacle. Disinfectants should 
 always be used, and should be applied some time before disturbing 
 the contents of these fittings. When fixed beneath they should 
 be kept as close as possible to the sink, in which case only a 
 very short waste pipe would be required to connect them ; but 
 when fixed some little distance away, or out of doors, it is im- 
 portant that a trap should be placed in the waste pipe as close 
 to the sink as possible, to prevent any unpleasant odours from 
 passing through the pipe. Even fresh air passing through one of 
 these dirty pipes would be rendered unfit for respiration. There 
 can be little doubt that to this may be laid the cause of so many 
 cooks and kitchenmaids being laid up with sore throats. 
 
 The modern way of arranging the scullery-sink is to fix it 
 near an outer wall, with a trap beneath the sink, and the waste 
 pipe continued to the grease-tank fixed outside in an area or 
 yard. This is shown in section, Figure 217. It is a good plan 
 
 to fix the sink on 
 cantilevers, so 
 that the whole 
 of the space 
 beneath is in 
 view and easily 
 cleaned. I find 
 the more light 
 Y there is in these 
 places the less 
 liability there is 
 of their being 
 used as stores 
 for rotting vege- 
 tables,, garbage, uncleaned pots, old shoes, worn-out house-flannels, 
 and other things that in some mysterious way find a last resting- 
 place at this spot. In Figure 217 the waste pipe is shown on the 
 face of the wall ; it is better to let it flush into the wall, so that 
 the pails or a passing broom should not bruise it and so contract 
 its water-way. An air pipe should always be fixed as shown in 
 the sketch. This is not entirely for the purpose of preventing 
 sjiphonage of the water out of the trap, as this is not an important 
 
 Figure 217. 
 
DRAIN-TRAPS FOR SURFACE-WATER AND WASTE PIPES. igl 
 
 item under these conditions. It will be found that a large flat- 
 bottomed sink always retains enough water on the bottom to 
 afterwards dribble into and recharge the trap. But if there were 
 no vent pipe the air between the two traps could not escape, so 
 that the waste pipe would be " air-bound," and the waste water 
 would not pass readily away. 
 
 A quibble might be raised as to the position of the vent pipe, 
 but I think this the best, and always fix them so. If they are 
 fixed on the top of the crown of the trap, grease would some- 
 times wash into it, and, in time, choke it up and so render it 
 useless. Neither could the trap be fixed so close to the fittings if 
 the vent was fixed on the crown. Again, it is an advantage that 
 the air pipe should not be too close to the water in the trap. A 
 current of warm air would assist to evaporate the water out of 
 the trap, and in frosty weather the water would be more likely to 
 freeze by contact with cold air. "T — 
 
 In some of the higher-class houses so much grease has 
 accumulated in the branch drains from the butler's pantry and 
 the still-room sinks, that it has been found necessary to provide 
 the needful conveniences near those places for retaining it in the 
 same manner as described for sculleries. 
 
 When stoneware scuUery-sinks are used, they should not 
 hive any corners where dirt can accumulate beyond the reach of 
 the scrubbing-brUsh. For instance the reader is referred again to 
 Figure 217. A is a ledge that can be avoided either by letting 
 the sink into the wall, or a fillet of cement made with the face 
 sloping into the sink, or a wooden fillet can be laid in and a lead 
 flashing fixed over it ; but the cement is the best, not being liable 
 to rot in the same manner as the wood. It ie still better to line 
 the walls all around the sink with glazed tiles bedded in cement. 
 This prevents the walls becoming saturated with ofiensive-smellmg 
 matter from frequent splashings of dirty water. Where tilef are 
 not handy, or the cost (which is not much) is an objectiott^ £he 
 walls should be rendered to above the splashing point with cement 
 and sand worked up to a smooth face. Stone sinks, when of a 
 porous nature, should be avoided as much as possible, as they 
 generally smell ofiensive by reason of the amount of matter 
 retained in the pores. 
 
ig2 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 Figure 218 is a plan showing the arrangement of scullery- 
 sinks at a nobleman's country mansion. A is a grease-and-sand- 
 intercepting tank to receive the waste pipes from B, C«, and C. 
 
 mil I I I I 
 
 I I I I 
 
 Scale ofj'eet 
 
 FiGURB 218, 
 
 D is an ordinary drain-interceptor trap to receive the waste pipes 
 from sinks, E, E, B is a large-size stoneware sink, white glazed 
 inside, used for tubs or scouring coppers. C, C, are two wooden 
 sinks lined with strong tinned-copper, one to be used for washing, 
 and the other for rinsing, plates and dishes. Over these sinks 
 along the back, shown by dotted lines, is a wooden rack in which 
 to place the plates, &c., for draining. E, E, are the two sinks 
 made of slate slabs bolted together, to be used especially for 
 washing vegetables, salads, &c. F, F, F, are draining-boards 
 between the sinks. These are covered with corrugated tinned- 
 copper, so that the water off cups, basins, &c., will run away 
 from them back into the sinks. Figure 219 is a fractional section 
 
 across this drainage-board, showing 
 also a tinned- copper half-round 
 capping-piece screwed along the 
 front of the drainage-boards and 
 continued on the front edge of the 
 copper sinks, to prevent that being bruised by tubs or pails, &c. 
 
 Waste pipes from scullery-sinks should always be fixed separ- 
 ately, so that, should one become stopped or choked up, the others 
 will not be affected or thrown out of use. 
 
 Figure zig. 
 
CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 TRAPS AND WASTE PIPES. 
 
 In nearly al? town houses the servants' offices are in what is 
 Called the basement or lower story. This is situated below the 
 level of the street — in some cases only 3 or 4 feet, and in others 
 as much as 14 or 16. Between the house and the street is 
 generally an open space, called the area, and this is usually a few 
 inches lower than the basement floor. In thoroughfares or streets 
 with shops on each side these areas are mostly covered over, 
 sometimes with gpratings, in other cases with thick plate-glass, or 
 iron frames into which are let glass prisms of such a shape that 
 light is reflected by them into what would otherwise be dark 
 comers. In private houses these areas are open, and anyone 
 walking along the street can look down into them. To get rid of 
 rain-water from these places, the most common convenience used 
 is a bell-trap — Figure 220. The 
 most common size is what is 
 called a 6-inch — that is, measures 
 that distance across the top. The 
 water-way or size of the pipe of 
 ■a trap of this description is about 
 i-| inch, and it does not matter 
 how heavy a storm may be, this 
 is supposed to be large enough 
 to take away the rain-water as 
 fast as it falls. The part A is 
 generally found to be choked with mud (or dust in fine weather), 
 and the result is that, after a shower of rain, a number of servants 
 will be found dodging about on their heels in a pool of water 
 with a long-handled broom, each vainly endeavouring to find out 
 the position of the trap so as to remove the obstacle which pre- 
 
 FlGUKE 220. 
 
194 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 vents the water running away into the drain. So that this shall 
 not occur again, it is usual to take off the bell-grating and lay it 
 in some corner of the area. The result is that a current of air 
 can freely pass out of the drains and through any open door or 
 window into the house. An apologist for the bell-trap was once 
 heard to pass an opinion that in some instances it was very useful 
 for admitting fresh air into the drain, in which case, it may be 
 argued, a plain grating would be much better, provided that one 
 could be sure of the air-current being in the proper direction. In 
 spite of all sanitarians condemning this trap, they are still sold 
 and fixed in thousands, and, in some cases, in what is considered 
 to be first-class houses. A small brick chamber is usually built 
 for this trap to discharge into, as shown in Figure 220 ; and so 
 that the drain may easily be got at in case of stoppage, the trap 
 is fitted loosely into a stone, with the result, that drain-air can 
 pass out all round, as denoted by the arrows. 
 
 Some people prefer a trap shown in section at Figure 221. 
 This trap is superior to the last-described, in that, on removing 
 the grating, the water-seal is not broken, and there is a larger 
 water-way through it. This trap also necessi- 
 tates a brick chamber beneath it. Another 
 mistake frequently made is to have the stone 
 in which these traps are fixed some 2 or 3 
 inches lower than the surrounding paving, as 
 shown at Figure 220. When treated in this 
 
 Figure 22z. 
 
 way it will be found that all the pieces of 
 paper, leaves, straw, and other constituents of London dust, drift 
 about until they find a resting-place in this hollow. If the rain- 
 water pipes from the roof are fixed so as to discharge on to these 
 area-pavings, the reader can readily imagine the results. The 
 writer has frequently had to inspect empty houses for prospective 
 tenants, and found several inches in depth of water in front and 
 back areas after a rainfall, and more than once this water has been 
 found to be so deep as to reach up to the gratings in the house- 
 walls placed for ventilating any spaces beneath the floors in the 
 basement, and pass through and lay in a pool until it soaked away 
 into the earth beneath the floors. Further comment on this is un- 
 necessary, as water under these conditions is nearly as bad as sewage. 
 
TRAPS AND WASTE PIPES. 
 
 195 
 
 Figure 222. 
 
 To give a list of all the traps that are made, and which are 
 suitable for the foregoing circumstances, is beyond the writer's 
 intentions. Only one, shown in Figure 222, is selected, because 
 of its shape, and also by reason of its having from 2^ to 3 inches 
 water-seal. This is an important item, as 
 during a dry season a trap with a small water- 
 seal is liable to have it broken by evaporation. 
 The inlet portion is made large so that the 
 grating may have as much water-way through 
 it as the body of the trap, that being of the 
 same size as the drain from it. The inlet-arm 
 is for the purpose of attaching the waste pipe from a sink, bath, 
 or wash-hand basin. By doing this the trap is always kept 
 charged with water (that is, when the house Is occupied), and the 
 water in its trap is being continually changed, so that it may not 
 become offensive by stagnation. 
 
 A sink is generally placed in the window of the butler's 
 pantrj', in which case the trap to receive the waste pipe is placed 
 outside in the area. To avoid an unnecessary number of traps the 
 area-paving should 
 be laid so that any 
 ■water falling upon 
 it should run into 
 the above-mentioned 
 trap, and so save 
 -using a separate one 
 for the surface water. 
 
 Figure 223 is a 
 sketch section show- 
 ing the usual way of 
 arranging the waste 
 pipe from sink and 
 the trap under out- 
 side paving. Several 
 sanitary engineers 
 are in the habit of 
 
 fixing the waste pipe ^'"""^ "^■ 
 
 so as to discharge over the grating of the interceptor-trap, as 
 
 4- 
 
 O 2 
 
igS 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 shown by dotted lines, Figure 223, with the result that most of 
 the water coming out of the waste pipe is splashed over the 
 surrounding pavement, rendering that in a continually sloppy, 
 dirty, and unpleasant condition. Sinking the outside trap below 
 the level of the paving, as shown in Figure 223, does not -get rid 
 of this. In some instances a raised curb is put round these 
 places, as shown by dotted lines, with the result that they require 
 constant attention for removing street driftings, &c., that as surely 
 find their way to this spot as if they had been collected and 
 placed there by someone's hands. When a raised curb is placed 
 around a trap for receiving waste water it is necessary to fix 
 another trap for the surface water. 
 
 Some sanitary engineers are not content with having the 
 drains trapped ofi' from the public sewer — a thorough air-flush 
 through the drains and an interceptor-trap fixed to receive the 
 waste pipes — but are so alarmed at the idea of sewer-air escaping 
 and passing up the waste pipes into the sinks or other fittings, 
 that they stipulate for the waste pipes to discharge some distance 
 away from the trap. Taking this extra precaution against an 
 unlikely event leads to the evil of a large surface of space being 
 continually splashed with dirty water. Jjn one case four waste 
 pipes (one was from a cistern) discharged into an open channeJ 
 leading into a guUey-trap 3 feet away. A few leaves had got 
 over the trap-grating, so that all bath and wash-hand-basin waste 
 water that came down, having no other means of escape, over- 
 flowed the channel 
 
 "^ '~^ ^ ' — '■ — ■— ' — I "^ ^ until the surrounding 
 
 gravel and earth was 
 reduced to a sewage- 
 bog, and this was in 
 a back garden close 
 conservatory. 
 Figure 224 is a 
 sketch showing the 
 arrangement. A is a bath-waste ; B, waste from safe under water- 
 closet ; C, wash-hand-basin waste ; and D, overflow from cistern.. 
 Smells were noticed in the bed and bath rooms, which led to the 
 above discovery. In this case no traps were fixed on the waste 
 
 Figure 224. 
 
TRAPS AND WASTE PIPES. 197 
 
 pipes, so there was nothing to prevent smells passing back into 
 the above rooms. In another case a similar arrangement was 
 found, but the precaution had been taken to place a grating over 
 the channel and trap to keep out leaves, &c., but the channel 
 was offensive-smelling by reason of the sides being covered with a 
 greasy-looking matter, the bottom being quite clean down the centre. 
 
 It is an economy and much more sanitary to take all waste > 
 pi'pes into the trap, as shown at Figure 223, but they should be 
 above the water-line, when, to all intents and purposes, they are 
 open to the air, and if ventilated and trapped, as shown there, it 
 may be said that triple precautions are taken to prevent any gases 
 from the sewers passing into the house by means of the waste 
 pipes. It is unnecessary to speak of any other sinks in the base- 
 ment, as they should be treated in the same manner as the pantry, 
 excepting where a lot of greasy matter passes down the waste 
 pipes. -^ The remarks on scullery-sinks will apply in those cases. "7^ 
 
 When examining houses (especially those built some years 
 ago) for smells the source is very often found to be in a cellar. 
 The other day, when looking over a noble earl's house, a wine- 
 cellar was found to have two bell-traps, devoid of water, and air 
 from the drains passing through with sufficient power to blow out 
 a candle. Next door was the beer-cellar (both cellars being nearly 
 in the centre of the house), and another bell-trap was found there ; 
 this having been improperly used by the men-servants as a urinal 
 no smell was passing from the drain, but the smell of the other 
 matter was so strong as to make the eyes run with water. I 
 have frequently had to complain of cellar-traps being used for 
 this purpose, and for that reason always advise their entire removal. 
 Whenever there is a complaint of a smell in a butler's pantry or 
 footman's cleaning-room, these being also used as sleeping-rooms, 
 it is frequently found that no proper convenience is provided for 
 the men's use, but a sniff inside the sink generally tells how that 
 trouble is got over. ,. -jv. 
 
 Under no conditions should any trap be fixed in the paving 
 on the inside of a town house, as they are never used. 
 
 Passing from sinks in the basement, the next one for consider- 
 ation in a large house where there are children will be the nursery 
 scullery, this being sometimes on the second or third floor. These 
 
iqS plumbing practice. 
 
 sinks do not require such an elaborate provision for intercepting 
 grease as in the case of those in the ordinary scullery, and they 
 may be treated with regard to trapping, ventilation, and waste- 
 disconnection, much in the same manner as described for the 
 butler's pantry-sink. 
 
 It does not matter where the sink is situated — whether at the 
 top or the bottom of the house — it should always discharge into 
 a gulley-trap in preference to being connected directly with the 
 drain, or any soil or other foul pipe. Where a long length of 
 ^ waste pipe is fixed, the ventilation pipe from the trap under the 
 sink is very needful to prevent syphon age of water out of the 
 trap. This ventilation pipe should never be less in diameter than 
 the waste pipe itself, and in some cases it has been found 
 necessary to fix it a little larger, so that there is not the least 
 obstruction to air entering as fast as the rush of water down the 
 waste pipe displaces that contained in it. These ventilation pipes 
 need not necessarily be continued to the roof of the building, but 
 may be continued through the nearest external wall, so long as it 
 is a few feet away from any window. The top end should be a 
 few inches above the level of the top edge of the sink, so as to 
 avoid the first rush of air displaced by the water discharge from 
 carrying a few splashes out of it. In some instances a brass 
 grating has been soldered over the end of this air pipe, or the 
 end has been closed and a few small perforations made in it. 
 Both of these form an obstruction to the free passage of air. It 
 is much better to make two saw-cuts across the end of the pipe, 
 which should be slightly enlarged with a turn-pin, at right angles 
 to each other, and two or more pieces of stout copper wire laid 
 in, as , shown at Figure 225, and soldered with a 
 copper-bit. This is to prevent birds placing any- 
 thing in the pipe to choke it up. 
 
 The best kind of sink to use is made of white 
 porcelain or earthenware. This has a clean appear- 
 F1GURE225. ance, or, if dirty, it at once shows the maid's lack 
 of attention. j\ small bowl should be used for washing up 
 crockeryware so as to avoid risk of" breakage as much as possible. 
 It may be said that enclosures to these sinks are a mistake, and 
 on no account should a lid be allowed. It has been found, on 
 
TRAPS AND WASTE PIPES. 199 
 
 opening a lid of one of these places, that it has been half full of 
 dirty crockeryware, plates half full of rejected food, small sauce- 
 pans of infants' diet, and such-like things, that give off an un- 
 pleasant sour odour when neglected. The cocks for supplying hot 
 and cold water should be placed high enough for drawing into a 
 jug. If too low, so that there is a difficulty in getting the jug 
 underneath the nose of the cock, a breakage frequently takes place. 
 Neither is it a good plan to put the cocks at the back side of the 
 sink, unless they are some height above it, but they should 
 rather be at one end, so that hot and cold water can be drawn 
 at the same time into the same bowl, and yet leave as much of 
 the space of the sink for washing-up purposes, without doing any 
 damage, as possible. Sometimes the cocks are fixed clear of the 
 sink to avoid this, but it is not a good plan ; and what with 
 leakages and splashings, the surroundings are in a continuous wet 
 condition. These sinks should be moderately deep. 
 
CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 SLOP-SINKS. 
 
 + 
 
 Slops from nurseries, and also invalids, should never be thrown 
 into the ordinary sink. It is a daily occurrence to see the house- 
 maid empty a pail of slops down a sink, and then immediately 
 draw water for toilet purposes into a glass bottle from a cock, 
 the nozzle of which may be splashed with slops. This suggestion 
 is not nice for water-drinkers or those in the habit of drinking 
 water out of the toilet bottle. In all well-arranged houses a 
 special provision is made for receiving chamber-slops. Some kinds 
 of slops must go into the water-closet, but these are the exception 
 rather than the rule. 
 
 There is no more frequent cause of stoppage in soil pipes and 
 drains than allowing slops to be thrown down water-closets. Nail, 
 tooth, and scrubbing brushes, housemaids' flannels, lumps of soap, 
 the sweepings of the bedrooms, small ornaments, and a host of 
 other matters are frequently recovered from those places. A 
 properly-constructed slop-sink would catch and retain all these 
 matters, and at the same time allow others to pass away. It is 
 unreasonable to expect a person to hold up the handle of a w.c. 
 
 apparatus with 
 one hand and 
 pitch a pail of 
 slops into it with 
 the other, and 
 yet if this is not 
 done the basin 
 will often over 
 flow on to the 
 floor or into the 
 
 safe beneath. In some cases a plain basin, as Figure 226, has 
 been fixed for the purpose, but while this is better than the pan 
 
 Figure 226. 
 
 Figure 227. 
 
SLOP-SINKS. 
 
 20I 
 
 or valve water-closet, still there is no provision for intercepting 
 improper articles passing through at the risk of causing a stoppage 
 in the pipes. Figure 227 is a sectional elevation of the same kind 
 of slop-sink, with a galvanized-iron wire basket fixed over the top 
 for catching solid articles that would otherwise pass away. Some 
 years ago this was a speciality of one firm of sanitary engineers, 
 but they have now discarded it on the ground that the meshes 
 of the wire basket got clogged with matter, and in time this 
 smells very offensive. Another firm of sanitary engineers have a 
 slate sink perforated in the bottom near one end, and an earthen- 
 ware basin fixed beneath for receiving slops. "^^ Figure 228 is a 
 sketch showing this. In this case no provision is made for inter- 
 cepting brushes, &c. Figure 229 is an elevation of a basin with 
 
 Figure 228. 
 
 Figure 229. 
 
 Figure 230. 
 
 a piece broken out to show the grating in the bottom. All these 
 slop-sinks are made of earthenware. It not unfrequently happens 
 that the basins get broken by throwing improper things into 
 them ; indeed, from the usage they sometimes get, one would think 
 that they had been intended for rubbish-shoots. Figure 230 is a -^ 
 patent one that seems to meet all requirements. It is made of 
 cast-iron and is porcelain-enamelled inside. The back and ends 
 are higher than the front so that nothing can splash over them, 
 and, although rounded in the bottom, the top is square sc as to 
 be readily adapted to an enclosure, and, if fixed in an angle, no 
 corner is left to be filled in with woodwork or other material, 
 which would be necessary if it had been round. It is also made 
 large enough to hold rather more than a pail of slops, so that if 
 a housemaid's flannel should cover the perforated grafing before 
 the person using this place saw it in time to stop, the sink would 
 
202 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 not overflow. The faint lines show the position of the strainer la 
 the bottom, but I believe this is now discarded and a metal star- 
 grating bolted to the bottom with a T-bolt and screw so as to be 
 easily removed if required. A slop-sink should not be fixed more 
 than i8 inches high in the front. The higher the pail has to be 
 lifted the less control the person has over it, and the more like- 
 lihood of the surroundings being splashed with offensive matter. 
 Receptacles for slops should always be fixed in a well-lighted and 
 well-ventilated position. If in a dark place the slops might be 
 thrown on the floor by mistake. 
 
 A rule has been laid down that all sinks should be trapped, 
 and this one is no exception to the rule. The waste pipe should 
 not be less than 2 inches in diameter ; a size larger, say 3 inches, 
 in very large establishments or hotels would be better, and the 
 vent pipe should be of the same size as the waste pipe. 
 ■\ It is usual to disconnect slop-sink waste pipes from the drains 
 
 in the same manner as other sinks, but it may be argued that 
 what is pitched into these places is often so offensive that they 
 ought to be treated in the same manner as water-closets The 
 greatest reason against this is that very often quantities of hot 
 water are sent through them, and where the soil pipes are of 
 lead it would soon ca'jse them to break. Leaden waste pipes 
 that are used to conduct hot waste water, very often break from 
 the same cause, and, speaking from experience, the more firmly 
 and rigidly a pipe of this kind is fixed the more likely it is to 
 break by the alternate expansions and contractions. One firm I 
 have worked for use lead waste pipes 2 inches in diameter, and 
 
 the substance of the lead from "2 to 
 •22 inches thick. The reader may 
 judge of the strength of this pipe 
 by the statement that it requires a 
 pressure of 498 pounds on the square 
 inch to burst it, and yet the writer 
 has had to make good broken places in 
 a bath-waste of this description before 
 it had been used for twelve months. 
 An expansion joint, as shown in 
 Figure 231. Figure 231. section. Figure 23 1, is better than a 
 
SLOP-SINKS. 
 
 203 
 
 soldered joint for hot-water waste pipes. A hard-wood mandrel 
 is first made, as shown at Figure 232. This should be well 
 gpreased and driven in the end of the lead pipe, causing that to 
 swell out to form the socket. If the end of the pipe is first 
 warmed, it will be found the substance of the lead is not reduced 
 in thickness, and if the part A of the mandrel is made to just fit 
 the pipe it will prevent the pipe buckling sideways or the socket 
 being made more on one side of the pipe than the other. A bead 
 can be worked on the end of the socket, and a pair of very thick 
 lead lugs soldered on the back for fixing to the wall. B is a 
 vulcanized indiarubber ring, sprung on the tip end of the entering 
 pipe. The size of the socket should be such that this ring on the 
 end of the other pipe will fit moderately tight, so that when one 
 pipe is pushed into the other the ring will roll between them and 
 finally remain where shown. The socket should be about 5 inches 
 deep inside, and the entering pipe shoidd only be allowed to enter 
 about 4 inches, so as to avoid its resting on the bottom of the 
 socket, in which case the objects aimed at would be defeated. 
 2-inch pipes are generally made in 12-feet lengths ; if these are 
 cut in halves and each piece treated as shown, the sockets will 
 be about 5 feet 6 inches apart, and that is quite far enough, as 
 the only fixings are at the sockets. 
 
 In a newly-built hospital everjrthing was done that could 
 possibly be required for the u»e of the doctors and nurses, and 
 comfort of the pati?nts. On each floor are 
 baths and other conveniences. All hot and 
 cold-water, waste, and ventilation pipes are 
 fixed inside the building, and supported 
 every 3 feet on iron brackets pinned and 
 cemented to the wall as shown in elevation, 
 Figure 233. The iron band is made in two 
 halves, and after placing the pipes in position 
 these are bolted together as shown, the pipes 
 all being 2 inches clear of the walls, so that 
 they can be seen and accessible all round. 
 A narrow lead flange is soldered on the lead figdee 233. 
 
 pipe above each bracket to prevent it si pplrg through, and so 
 avoid the necessity of bolting the band up so tightly as to bruise 
 
204 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 t 
 
 Figure 234. 
 
 the pipe. Each pipe is painted a distinctive colour, so that there 
 IS no likelihood of confusion as to its purpose. For instance, hot- 
 water pipes are painted red ; cold, blue ; waste, purple ; air, white ; 
 and so on for other pipes. 
 
 To allow for expansion and contraction in the bath waste 
 pipes the joints are made as shown in section, Figure 234. In 
 this case the end of the top pipe is slightly coned, 
 and the bottom one opened to receive it. A vulcan- 
 ized indiarubber cone-piece, with a bead on top edge, 
 as shown in Figure 235, is sprung on the coned end 
 of the upper pipe, which is then placed in its position 
 and socketed into the bottom one. These joints are 
 so flexible as to allow for all variations in length of 
 piping that are likely to arise. 
 
 To return to our subject of sinks, these con- 
 veniences should be placed in various parts of a 
 house where they would be useful, and so save the 
 labour and toil of having to carry water 'irom a 
 distance and up or down a flight of stairs. At the 
 same time thought should be bestowed on their 
 position. A cupboard or closet in a bedroom is not a 
 good position, or anywhere that injury would be done 
 to the rooms beneath should a pipe break or other leakage arise. 
 The writer has had to do with several cases where the waste 
 pipes have had to be removed when fixed near an important 
 room, as the rushing noise of water was so unpleasant and 
 suggestive of a water-closet. A slop-sink should not be fixed in 
 a water-closet room, or the same doorway used for the two places. 
 Where gentlemen are about, this would be against the laws of 
 decency. The front portion of the house is not always suitable to 
 fix a sink in. There are cases where a sink so fixed has required 
 a long length of drainage brought to receive the waste water, and a 
 ventilating pipe fixed up to the roof. When sinks are fixed here and 
 there on the bedroom floors of a house, and in such a position 
 that each one requires a separate waste pipe down to the basement, 
 previous remarks will cover all that need be said about them, but 
 when they are situated over each other, additional precautions have 
 to be taken with regard to fixing the waste and ventilation pipes. 
 
 Figure 435. 
 
SLOP-SINKS. 
 
 205 
 
 The reader is referred to A, Figure 236, where the branch 
 waste pipe is soldered into the main stack above the floor-Hne. 
 This is the right thing to do, it being an economy of material 
 and there being a short length 
 of branch pipe to keep clean, 
 in addition to having no bends 
 in it. But the one on the iloor 
 below should be diiferently 
 connected to the main stack, 
 as it often occurs that dis- 
 charges from the upper sink 
 will run up the branch pipe 
 of the lower one, which, if 
 fixed as shown, cannot very 
 well happen. But this ar- 
 rangement brings up another 
 question — that of syphonage. 
 The upper one is secure 
 against this, provided the 
 branch pipe is not very long 
 and the main stack is con- 
 tinued with an open end to 
 act as a ventilator, but the 
 lower end will have the water 
 drawn out of the trap every 
 time a pail of slops is thrown 
 down it by reason of the outlet 
 pipe acting as a syphon. To 
 prevent this a ventilation pipe 
 should be taken from the 
 branch pipe, as shown by dot- 
 ted lines at B. This should 
 not be less in diameter than 
 the waste pipe. Another use 
 for this vent is that it pre- 
 vents the air in the waste pipe being so compressed when dis- 
 charges are sent from a higher level as to burst through the 
 water-seal of the lower trap. One would suppose that if the main 
 
 Figure 236. 
 
205 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 ^ 
 
 stack of waste was open at the bottom end this could not occur, 
 but it is found in practice that it does sometimes happen, hence 
 the necessity of this precaution being taken. Again, this pipe 
 will prevent an accumulation of bad air at the point B, which 
 would be displaced by discharges from the sink, and driven out at 
 the bottom of the waste pipe, to the annoyance of anyone stand- 
 ing near at the time, or the liability of its entering an open 
 window on the ground or basement floor. Instead of carrying 
 this vent pipe from the trap upward, as has been shown, it has 
 sometimes been branched into the vertical waste pipe at C, as 
 shown by thick dotted lines, but this has not been so successful 
 as the other way described. Some years ago the writer fixed a 
 stack of slop-sink waste pipes, and ventilated each trap through 
 the wall. There were four sinks, fixed vertically over each other, 
 and Figure 237 is an elevation showing one of them. But it was 
 
 found that whenever a sink was 
 used an unpleasant puff of air 
 was driven out, and this would 
 sometimes bring a few drops of 
 water with it. It was also found 
 that only sections of the system 
 had a continuous current of air 
 passing through, the air in the 
 other sections being stagnant, and 
 this would account for the smells 
 driven out at the bottom end of 
 the waste pipes. 
 
 In addition to the slop con- 
 venience it is always necessary to 
 have a sink for drawing water, 
 and this should have a plug over the waste pipe for retaining 
 water in the sink, so that it may be used for washing up any 
 small articles. In the bottom of the plug-washer should be fixed 
 cross-bars to prevent anything getting into the waste pipe to form 
 a stoppage. The waste pipe from this sink does not require any 
 trap. It can be taken into the one under the slop-basin, as 
 shown at Z, Figure 237, or into the arm, as shown at X, Figure 
 236. The latter is the best plan, as less pipe is required and no 
 
 Figure 237. 
 
SLOP-SINKS. 
 
 207 
 
 stagnant air is displaced when the sink is emptied. The sink 
 also empties quicker, as the air in the pipe does not oflfer any 
 resistance in the same manner as when the bottom end is sealed 
 with water, as shown in Figure 237. Tinned copper looks cleaner 
 than lead for these sinks. The back side, and, when fixed in an 
 angle, the end as well, should stand at least 18 inches high to 
 protect the Wedls from splashings and also insure any dribble 
 from a leaking cock falling into the sink. The water service 
 pipes can be brought behind the 
 splash-board, the sink being kept 
 out far enough to allow for that 
 being done, it not being by any 
 means a good plan to bury pipes 
 in the wall. Holes can be made 
 through the splash-board for the 
 bosses to project through, so the 
 cocks can be screwed in afterward. 
 To hide the ragged edge sometimes 
 made when making the holes, or to hide the place should it be 
 made too large, a brass face-plate can be fixed at the same time 
 as the cock. These can be engraved to show what they supply, 
 as shown at Figure 238. At a job recently done there were four 
 cocks engraved "cold," "hot," "filtered," and "soft," fixed to 
 each sink throughout the house. 
 
 Figure 238. 
 
CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 BATHS. 
 
 ^ 
 
 It is not often that a plumber has to make a bath. In some 
 old country mansions a wooden tub or casing lined with sheet- 
 lead is found, and generally as shown at Figure 239, the bottom 
 and sides being put in in one piece, and the ends soldered' in 
 
 afterward. Baths sold by makers 
 may be enumerated as follows': 
 Sheet-copper, zinc, tinned and gal- 
 vanized iron, concrete, porcelain, 
 stoneware, cast-iron, marble or slate 
 ^'°'"'^-^«- slabs bolted together, and maifble 
 
 cut out of the solid block. These last are not often seen ; they 
 also have the objection that the bath requires to be prepared some 
 time before using, when a warm bath is required, so that heat 
 may be imparted to the material, which would otherwise feel cold 
 to the bather. The stoneware and concrete baths are generally 
 used in hospitals, public baths, and other institutions of a similar 
 kind. The metal baths, and also those made of slate slabs, are 
 usually enamelled inside, either in a plain tint or grained in 
 imitation of marble When baths are intended to be fixed without 
 an enclosure, a rounded rim is made on the top edge, and they 
 are also enamelled on the outside, and sometimes have ornamental 
 feet to stand upon. For best work the copper baths are preferred, 
 as they last a long time, and when they get discoloured or 
 scratched can be re-enamelled so as to look equal to new. Ail 
 kinds of sheet-metal baths, when made of light substance, should 
 be well " cradled " — that is, have a skeleton wooden casing fitted 
 to them to prevent the bottom and sides from bulging outward by 
 the pressure of the water and weight of the bather. For cheap 
 work the cast-iron baths are very good, and if the enamel is such 
 
BATHS. 
 
 209 
 
 Figure 240. 
 
 that it expands and contracts in the same proportion as the iron 
 they last some considerable time. Complaints have sometimes 
 been made that common iron baths are too narrow in the bottom, 
 so that a stout bather will get wedged in. 
 
 A bath is not only a comfort and convenience, but the waste 
 water is a valuable auxiliary for flushing the drains. This is too 
 often lost sight of, and the mistake made of fixing a small waste 
 pipe and discharge-cock, so that the bath is slowly emptied of its 
 contents. The result is, the water dribbles through the drains 
 instead of being sent through with a good scouring force to 
 clear away any matter 
 that may have lodged 
 in them. 
 
 Figure 240 is a 
 sketch of a bath as 
 commonly fixed, with 
 f or I -inch waste and 
 hot and cold-water 
 cocks attached. The levers are omitted for clearness. On looking 
 at this it will be seen that the inlet for water is through the waste 
 pipe. This is a very bad plan, as when the bath is emptied the 
 soap-curds which float on the surface of the water, being the last 
 to leave the bath, frequently remain in the waste pipe and get 
 washed back again with the incoming water, making that look 
 dirty and anything but inviting to the bather. In some cases the 
 supply to the bath is by means of standard cocks with nozzle? 
 projecting over the bath, as shown in 
 sectional elevation, Figure 241. This 
 is better than the plan last described, 
 and does away with the evil pointed 
 out When these cocks are used 
 they should be fixed at the foot of 
 the bath; if fixed at the head there 
 is danger of the bather knocking his 
 head against them; if fixed at the 
 side the elbows might sufler, and they 
 are also difiBcuJt to get at for con- 
 necting the unions when fixed near a Figubb 241. 
 
 C=UOO 
 
2IO 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 Figure 242. 
 
 wall or partition. Sometimes, when a bath supplied in this manner 
 is being charged with hot water, the room is filled with volumes of 
 
 steam, and if the walls are cold 
 this condenses and runs down. 
 Another way of supplying a bath 
 is shown at Figure 242. This 
 is almost similar to the last 
 one described, the only difference 
 being that the valves are com- 
 bined and discharge through the 
 same nozzle, a porcelain cover 
 with a soap-dish, A, being fitted over the valves, this being more 
 cleanly-looking than the cocks, which soon tarnish unless pro- 
 tected by nickel or silver plating. Figure 243 is an illustration of 
 
 a bath showing the 
 supply and waste 
 apparatus fixed in- 
 side the bath at the 
 foot. . These baths 
 are also made with 
 the valves at the 
 side near the foot, 
 and are either right 
 or left-handed. Figure 244 is an illustration of a copper bath 
 with side-inlets for the supply of hot and cold water. If these 
 are kept low down the ends of the pipes are soon covered with 
 water, and this prevents the 
 
 Figure 243. 
 
 rr 
 
 ©= 
 
 ^ 
 
 c 
 
 vm 
 
 Figure 244. 
 
 \ "K free escape of steam into the 
 
 room. The waste pipe. A, 
 is shown connected near the 
 ^ Ui, middle, as done in the usual 
 . C way, but it is an improve- 
 ment to fix it as near the end 
 of the bath as possible. This saves a piece of pipe, and as the 
 waste pipe is always more or less foul on the inside, the shorter 
 the pipe the better. Sometimes, on the score of economy, the 
 pipes are left short at the points B, B, and the plumber, when 
 making a soldered joint to them, has allowed the hot solder to 
 
BATHS. 211 
 
 touch the sides, and so discoloured the inside enamelling that the 
 bath has had to be sent away to be re-enamelled. Some baths 
 have only one inlet pipe. This is wrong, as, if the hot and cold- 
 water cisterns were at different levels the pressure from the hot- 
 water cistern at the top of the house would prevent the cold 
 water, supplied from the cistern on the same floor as the bath, 
 from entering. Baths of the description under discussion should 
 always have unions attached to the pipes at C, C, Figure 244, so 
 that they can readily be uncoupled should it be necessary to take 
 them out for repairs or renewal of any of the parts. 
 
 All baths should have overflow pipes. Indeed, the overflows 
 should be as large as it is possible to make them, for the reason 
 that should the bath be filled too full, even if not to overflowing, 
 when the bather gets in the sudden displacement of water will 
 frequently cause it to run over the sides. In one case a gentle- 
 man who liked his bath to be nearly full, had it altered and per- 
 forations made all round near the top edge, with a hollow space 
 outside to catch the water, as shown at Figure 245. The holes 
 were f-inch in diameter, and 
 yet this was not found to 
 take the displaced water away 
 •quickly enough. This was an 
 extreme case, but shows the 
 necessity of large overflows to 
 baths, and also, when they '""'^^ ^^' 
 
 are fixed upstairs, the importance of having safes or other means 
 for catching any overflow of water that may take place, and so 
 avoid doing injury to any rooms beneath. 
 
 To describe all ihe various cocks and valves for supplying 
 baths with water would weary the reader and answer no good 
 purpose. Sufiice it to say that nearly all bath makers have either 
 .a patent or an adaptation of ordinary cocks, &c., such as are 
 used for other purposes, and are turned, when fixed beneath the 
 inclosure, by means of socket-keys or spindles and levers, or, if 
 lever-valves are used, a connecting chain is fixed and attached 
 to a knob through the bath-top, as shown at Figure 246 ; the 
 spindle, G, sometimes being triangular in section, or round with 
 a protecting strip on one side so arranged that when the knob is 
 
 i> 2 
 
212 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 pulled up as far as it will go and a slight turn given to it, it 
 will remain, thus holding the valve open. 
 
 For discharging the water out of a bath, very often a common 
 stop-cock, as shown at E, Figure 240, is used. In some cases 
 
 r-~\ , ^ the size is only f-inch, and with the 
 
 ' '■ A^^.-iz^ ordinary square way. In others a 
 
 2-inch round or clear-way-cock has 
 been fixed, but this is not to be 
 recommended by any means, as it is 
 so difficult to turn them, especially 
 after they have not been used for 
 some time. Figure 246, if made to 
 a good size, is a very good waste- 
 valve, F being connected to the bath 
 waste pipe, but the lever should be' 
 as short as possible or it will not 
 open very wide. The same kind of 
 
 r-i i -. t ( 1 I — r-T\ valve has been used without the lever 
 
 -1 k I Yf and weight, the spindle being con- 
 
 tinued as shown by dotted lines; the 
 friction in the stuffing-box of the valve 
 being generally sufficient to keep it 
 open. It is found in practice that the 
 spindle is very liable to get slightly 
 bent or the valve moved sideways, in 
 which cases it is difficult to open or shut this valve. For this 
 reason they are now rarely used. 
 
 A very simple waste-valve is shown in section, Figure vi43, 
 which is an indiarubber ball, with a weight above it, resting apon 
 a turned brass seating bedded near the bottom of a cast-iron tube. 
 This tube is connected with a branch pipe from the bath, and 
 has a union for connecting to the^ waste pipe. In some cases a 
 smaller tube is used instead of the ball, the bottom end being 
 made to fit into the brass seating, and thus acting as a plug to 
 retain the water in the bath. The annular space between the 
 inner and outer tubes fills with water to the same level as that in 
 the bath. When the bath is filled to a certain height the water 
 begins to overflow down the inner tube, which is made to stand 
 
 u 
 
 Figure 246. 
 
BATHS. 
 
 213 
 
 SO that the top is level with the highest point at which it is 
 intended the bath shall fill. 
 
 When this kind of waste apparatus is used the overflow- 
 connection is generally omitted from the bath. Plumbers some- 
 times make a bath- waste apparatus with lead pipes, as shown in 
 section, Figure 247. The outer tube is a piece of 4-inch lead soil 
 pipe with the bottom end reduced to 2 inches, 
 and a hole made in the side at the level of 
 the branch pipe, H, from the bath. The inner 
 tube is 2-J-inch lead pipe, with a corresponding 
 hole opened in the side, and so fitted that it 
 projects through the one in the outer tube. 
 The top of this inner pipe is cut down so as 
 to act as the overflow pipe, the outer tube 
 having its top level with the rim of the bath. 
 -A brass union, H, is soldered in, as shown, 
 for connecting to the bath. K is a small 
 brass ring into which is ground a valve, and 
 this is soldered to the bottom of the inner 
 tube just below the branch, H. L is a lead 
 flange soldered on to support the weight of 
 the apparatus, and also for cementing over 
 the end of the under waste. 
 
CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 BATH S — continued. 
 
 Figure 248 represents in section a waste-valve patented by 
 a leading firm of sanitary engineers. With this valve and a 
 2-inch waste pipe an ordinary-sized bath can be emptied in two 
 and one-half to three minutes. 
 
 Common brass plugs and washers are not much liked for 
 emptying baths, as they generally are made too small ; the grating 
 at A, Figure 249, gets choked with small pieces of soap, &c., and 
 
 Figure 248. 
 
 FiGURB 250. 
 
 Figure 249. 
 
 Figure 23 ia. 
 
 Figure 231, 
 
 the links of the chain get filled with matter and always look 
 dirty. The plug, by being allowed to fall about, chips off pieces 
 of enamel. This latter can be prevented by making the plug of 
 vulcanized indiarubber, with a small brass plate on each side for 
 fastening the ring to, as shown by Figure 250. 
 
 Figure 251 is a fractional section of a porcelain bath showing 
 the overflow and waste connections. A, A, are brass couplings, 
 with bent unions for joining to waste-valve and overflow pipe. 
 B, C, are porcelain gratings to prevent anything washing into the 
 
BATHS. 
 
 215 
 
 Figure 252. 
 
 pipes to choke them up. B should be cemented in to prevent it 
 falling and breaking, but C should lay loosely in the sinking so 
 that it can be lifted out for access to the waste pipe for cleaning 
 it when necessary. Figure 251 a is a plan of the porcelain grating. 
 
 Some Water Companies insist that all bath supply-valves shall 
 discharge above the water-line of the bath, so that it can be seen 
 if the water is running, and thus avoid waste. They also stipulate 
 that the overflow shall not be connected to the waste pipe, but 
 shall discharge out-of-doors in some conspicuous position. When 
 this is done a flap should be fixed on the outlet-end to prevent 
 cold air blowing through. This flap should be light so that it 
 will open with the least pressure behind it. 
 Flaps are generally made of sheet-copper, as 
 shown at Figure 252. Any plumber can make 
 them, and instead of cutting out the centre- 
 piece when making the joint, as generally 
 done, it should be bent as shown at A, when it will prevent the 
 flap opening so far as to fall back and remain open, which now 
 so often occurs when wind is blowing against it. The necessity 
 of a leaden tray or safe on the floor under a bath has already 
 been pointed out. This safe should be larger than the bath or it 
 will not catch any overflow. The wooden floor should be laid so 
 that any water will run down toward the outlet or overflow pipe 
 from the safe. When the bath is 
 fixed care should be taken to fix it 
 level. If this is not done a space 
 will be found at he lowest end be- 
 tween the rim of the bath and the 
 wooden top. Strips of sheet -lead 
 under the feet are the best for 
 blocking up a bath ; when wood is 
 used it sometimes gets rotten from 
 the surrounding moisture. 
 
 The ordinary way of arranging 
 a bath-waste is shown by sketch 
 section, Figure 253. • In this case a large-sized trap is fixed, and 
 the overflow and waste pipes discharge into it as shown. Very 
 '»ften the waste from an adjoining sink or wash-hand basin is also 
 
 FlQUSB 253. 
 
ai6 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 made to discharge into the same trap. This is not by any means 
 a good plan. On looking at a case of this kind it will be found 
 that the discharges will, so to speak, boil over the trap and lie in 
 the bottom of the safe, frequently giving off unpleasant odours. 
 It will be noticed that this trap a' so receives all that may leak 
 into the safe. So that this boiling over of the trap may not dis- 
 tribute the water over a large area, a sinking may be made in 
 the floor. But this cannot always be done, and sometimes the 
 bath is fixed at a higher level so as to gain the same object. 
 This is an improvement, but it is much better to fix the waste 
 pipe tight over the trap so as to entirely avoid the back-wash, as 
 shown at Figure 254. In this case a small trap (say the same 
 
 size as the waste pipe) can 
 be used. An indiarubber ring 
 under the flange will prevent 
 any escape of water into the 
 safe. Where the waste appar- 
 atus is arranged in this way 
 a separate overflow pipe must 
 be fixed from the safe through 
 -.the wall, and a copper hinged 
 flap fixed on the end, as ex- 
 plained for bath-overflow. The 
 overflow pipe from the bath 
 can be made to dischargfc 
 over that from the safe, as shown in Figure 254. 
 
 Figure 255 represents how a bath was connected to a slop- 
 sink in such a way that when a pail of water or slops was thrown 
 
 down the sink it ran back into the bath 
 with force enough to lift the plug out of 
 the waste pipe. On opening the lid of 
 the bath, which had not been used for 
 some weeks, the stench was abominable, 
 arising from matter lying in the bottom, and which had washed 
 up and been left behind, as the water or liquid portion had 
 slowly subsided or passed down the waste pipe. 
 
 Figure 256 is a sketch showing a hot-water cistern fixed in a 
 cupboard at the head of a bath. This was at the house of the 
 
 Figure 254. 
 
 rzj 
 
 '^^^^^^^Mm, 
 
 Figure 255. 
 
BATHS. 217 
 
 proprietor of one of the leading London sporting journals, whose 
 wife and servants could not tell how it was that the hot water 
 so often looked cloudy and soapy, and the water in the best bath 
 always looked as if it had been used, although only just drawn. 
 The bath — Figure 256 — ^was on the nursery floor, and the hot- 
 water cistern being so close — " why, it 
 will only cost a few shillings, guv'nor, 
 to lay on hot water to that bath," 
 was the remark of the expert who 
 conceived and carried out the brilliant 
 idea. Only a few words of explan- f.gurf 256. 
 
 ation are necessary. Bath and hot-water cistern being on the 
 same level the cock was often left open, being unnoticed, as the 
 hot water ceased running when the levels between that in the 
 cistern and bath were equal. During the time the children were 
 bathing, any hot water drawn at a lower level would be syphoned 
 out of this bath ; the ball-cock in the feed-cistern, being only 
 f-inch, not suppljring the cistern as fast as it was drawn out, with 
 the results given. 
 
 Another case came under the writer's notice where dirty 
 water was drawn out of a bath at the tap over a sink on the 
 floor below. In this case the cold-water cistern was small and 
 had an intermittent supply. When preparing the bath, the cistern 
 was emptied and the cock to the bath left open. During the 
 time the bath was being used water was drawn at the sink, but 
 as the cistern was empty it came from the bath. If cocks similar 
 to those shown as Figures 241 and 242 in last chapter ha'' been 
 used this could not have happened. 
 
 Bath-rooms should always be well ventilated, and in such a 
 way that there can be no unpleasant draught. Decency forbids 
 open windows being used, even when the climate is such as to 
 admit of this (unless precautions are taken to insure privacy). An 
 unventilated bath-room always has an unpleasant odour in it, 
 arising from a variety of causes. If a sponge is used by the 
 bather the cellules will get full of soapy matter, and a few hours 
 after using this will smell very ofiensive. These remarks apply to 
 bodyrbrushes and rubbers. The bath itself may be left in a dirty 
 condition by allowing an accumulation of soapy curds to adhere 
 
2l8 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 to the sides. The bath may, perhaps, have been allowed to over- 
 flow, so that a pool of dirty water lay in the safe until it became 
 offensive, or the cocks may have been in a leaky condition, and 
 where the bath is inclosed with woodwork this is unnoticed. In 
 addition to these remarks there is a probability of smells arising 
 from a defective arrangement of the waste pipe and trapping. 
 
 In some cases bath-rooms are hung with paper. In some 
 first-class baths in private houses the walls have been covered 
 with upholsterer's hangings. In these cases there is always an 
 unpleasant mouldy odour arising from moisture being retained in 
 the wall-coverings. When the walls are painted, or covered with 
 glazed tiles, steam will condense and run down. All this points 
 to the necessity of ventilation. In some instances air-bricks are 
 fixed in the walls near the ceiling for this purpose. In others a 
 perforated centre-piece has been fixed in the ceiling, and a tube 
 leading to the outer air to carry away any vapour. One eminent 
 firm fixes a hollow and perforated cornice all round the bath-room, 
 with tubes through the house-walls and with the ends open to the 
 air. Whatever system of ventilation is adopted, care should 
 always be taken to guard against any unpleasant draughts. A 
 fire is generally looked upon as an additional comfort in a bath- 
 room, but a hot-water coil is much preferable. With a very little 
 extra trouble a hot -water coil can generally be made to work off 
 the hot supply to the bath. If made of i^-inch copper tubes, 
 say about 4 feet 6 inches long and to stand about 3 feet 6 inches 
 high, with about six or seven longitudinal pipes, it will be found 
 a convenient size for airing or warming bath towels. If this coil 
 is nickel-plated it presents a smart appearance. This way of 
 warming a bath-room has the advantage that no attention is 
 required in the same manner as when a fire is used, and as the 
 action is continuous the painted or tiled walls do not get cold 
 enough for steam to condense upon, or if paper or hangings (which 
 should on no account be recommended) should be used to cover 
 the walls, and become damp, the heat would soon dry them again, 
 and prevent mouldy or other smells being generated. Towels, &c., 
 could be hung up to dry, instead of being left in a wet state. 
 Tho'"Ough ventilation is absolutely necessary to carry off all damp 
 vapours, which would otherwise condense again on objects or 
 
BATHS. 
 
 219 
 
 walls in the bath-room. This would take place in most cases 
 during the night-time, when the boiler-fire would be out and the 
 water cooled down, so as not to impart heat sufficient to keep the 
 moisture suspended in the atmosphere in a state of vapour. The 
 floors of bath-rooms should be waterproof, and more especially 
 when on an upper story, so as to avoid any possible injury to 
 rooms below. The floors should also be impervious to moisture, 
 or, failing this, a tray should be provided for the bather to stand 
 in. Carpets should not be allowed in a bath-room. A large flat 
 piece of cork may be used for the bather to stand upon, as it 
 does not feel so unpleasantly cold to the feet as oil-cloth and 
 some other kinds of floor-covering. The only furniture required 
 in a bath-room is a dressing-table and a cane-sea.ted chair, and on 
 no account should chests of drawers, wardrobes, clothes, or linen- 
 chests be permitted to be in such a place where they become 
 damp or musty-smelling. All baths should be fixed so that the 
 bather may face the light. 
 
 From a sanitary point of view, baths should be open all 
 around, and no inclosures used which would, perhaps, hide any 
 defects or leakages. It has sometimes been found that fungoid 
 matter has grown on the woodwork around a bath. At a noble 
 earl's residence the writer found the cocks of a bath leaking very 
 badly, and mushrooms growing out of the wooden inclosure. 
 These mushrooms had stems about 10 to 12 inches long, and the 
 tops were about the size of a shilling. They were all quite white 
 and free from colour, and as they all appeared to be leaning in 
 the same direction, search was made for the cause. A crack was 
 found in the woodwork, through which a very fine ray of light 
 could pass, and it was toward this 
 ray of light that the fungoids were 
 leaning, although about 3 feet away. 
 
 In addition to the baths that 
 have been described there are 
 shower-baths. Figure 257 repre- 
 sents a very simple one that can 
 be screwed on to the wall, A 
 weighted lever is keyed on to the spindle of a valve at the 
 extremity of the bracket, and on the nozzle of the valve is screwed 
 
 Figure 357. 
 
220 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 a copper or other sheet-metal rose or spreader. This can be 
 used for cold water only. It has the advantage that the water 
 runs during the bather's pleasure ; immediately the handle is 
 released, the water ceases running. 
 
 Figure 258 is another kind of shower-bath, 
 which can be suspended from the ceiling. This 
 can be suppHed with a small service pipe, with 
 a ball-valve and ball to keep it full, ready for 
 use. A, A, is a metal ring encircling the bath 
 for attaching a curtain for preventing the water 
 splashing too much. Hot water can be laid on 
 to this bath, but it is dangerous to do so, as the 
 FiGORB S58. bather has no means of knowing the heat of the 
 
 water without the aid of a pair of steps and a thermometer, and 
 so runs the risk of scalding himself. 
 
 Figure 259 represents a shower arranged by the writer. This 
 consisted of a plain shower-bracket fixed at the necessary height, 
 
 with hot and cold water attached, the 
 cocks being at a convenient position for 
 the bather to adjust at his pleasure. The 
 two pipes were joined together at C, and 
 at B was fixed a Negretti '& Zambra's 
 thermometer, on a level with the bather's 
 eye, so that he could see the temperature 
 of the water, and by simply turning one 
 or other of the cocks, make it hotter 
 or cooler, as required. These baths all 
 require a curtain to prevent the water 
 rebounding off the bather's head and 
 shoulders beyond what he may be stand- 
 ing in — usually a plunge-bath, or else a 
 large tray especially made for the purpose. 
 On the score of economy, a plain canvas 
 or linen curtain is generally^ used, but 
 unless this is taken down and dried (rarely 
 done), it soon begins to smell unpleasant. Plain vulcanized india- 
 rubber curtains have been objected to because of their unpleasant 
 smell, but after a time this, to a great extent, will pass away. 
 
 FiGDKB ajg. 
 
BATHS. 
 
 221 
 
 FiGDKE 760. 
 
 and as they retain no water they are not so unpleasant as the 
 others. In some houses a wooden inclosure has been made for 
 shower-baths ; in others, zinc or other sheet-metal, enamelled 
 inside, has been used. This last few years a new kind of bath 
 has been much used. This, commonly called a needle-bath, is 
 shown in elevation. Figure 260. The union. A, is iox connecting 
 the service pipe to the shower- 
 bath, and that at B for the 
 needle or spray-bath. In some 
 baths, another union, C, is 
 attached to what is commonly 
 called the "wave." This is a 
 narrow slit inside the bath, 
 from which the water can play 
 on the hips of the bather. In 
 some baths a jet is fixed im- 
 mediately beneath the shower, 
 or a rose is attached to the jet. 
 This is sometimes called a 
 " sitz-bath." These conveniences are only useful for medical 
 purposes, and should not be attached unless really necessary, for 
 the reason that a compUcation of cocks or valves is required, and 
 these very often get out of repair. Dirty water will get into the 
 rose or sinking of the sitz when the plunge-bath is used. When 
 selecting or making a spray-bath, note should be taken that the 
 tubes outside the hood-part, and the holes inside, are not too 
 large, as, if so, the water will escape so freely out of the bottom 
 holes, or a large quantity will be required to fill the tubes, that 
 the top holes are almost useless. If the hood-part is attached to 
 a plunge-bath of the ordinary shape, it is found that the needle- 
 sprays will splash over the side of the bath, as shown by arrows. 
 Figure 261. This does not happen when the bather stands in the 
 centre of the hood. When a hot bath is required, the wa+er is 
 generally turned on 
 before entering the 
 bath, so as to as- 
 certain the heat, 
 and avoid the risk figure z6i. figobe 262. 
 
222 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 /^ 
 
 FlGDRB 2&4. 
 
 of scalding. Baths made to the shape shown at Figure 262 do not 
 splash over the sides so much as the one last described. AU makers 
 have their own system of supplying this kind of bath with water. 
 Figure 263 illustrates the engraved face-plate of one 
 of the commonest tiers of nobs to the cocks or valves. 
 Figure 264 shows another kind in 
 side elevation. This is more simple 
 than the other, as there is only one 
 hot and one cold-water valve, the 
 others being used to distribute the 
 water to the desired places. This also 
 saves a complication of piping, which 
 is required when cocks are arranged 
 as shown by the face-plates and knobs 
 in Figure 263. For ordinary baths for 
 private house the "douche," "wave," 
 and " sitz," are not required and should not be fixed, for reasons 
 already given. All the baths the writer has seen have the dis- 
 advantage that should the 
 bather wish to turn on more 
 hot or cold water, he cannot 
 do so without stepping out- 
 side the hood. It would be 
 better if the heads of the 
 cocks or valves were fixed 
 inside, so as to be under the 
 bather's control. 
 
 Figure 265 represents a 
 spray-bath as used in some 
 hospitals. Instead of a metal 
 hood with perforations, as 
 shown at Figure 260, per 
 forated copper tubes are used, 
 and inclosed in a firamework 
 with glass sides, so that a 
 patient standing or seated in 
 the centre can be watched 
 from the outside. A separate 
 
 HOT 
 
 F.OUKE zTs, 
 
BATHS. 
 
 223 
 
 cock is attached to each ring, and a thermometer fixed so that 
 the attendant can regulate the heat of the water to any desired 
 degree, and can also turn it on at any desired point, so aS to 
 play on any part of the patient that may be desired. Most 
 medical men have their own ideas with regard to this kind of 
 bath, but it is very little trouble for any ordinary skilled workman 
 to carry them out so as to suit special cases. 
 
 In first-class houses a "bidet-pan" is sometimes fitted up in 
 the dressing-room. These can be fitted up as a miniature bath, 
 and have hot, cold, and waste pipes laid on to them. As a rule, 
 the waste pipe from these fittings should be attached to the trap 
 of the bath-waste, and so as to avoid a long length of untrapped 
 waste pipe the pan should be fixed close to the bath. If trapped 
 separately the water will sometimes evaporate out of the trap, and 
 this occurs when this fitting has not been used for some weeks. 
 When fixed near the bath a cover can be made so that it 
 represents a seat. In a house where the bath-room is used by 
 both sexes it is highly improper to fix 
 these pans, and, although fixed by him, 
 the writer never recommends them. 
 
 Figure 266 is sometimes useful either 
 for invalids' use or as a child's bath. It 
 is called a "sitz-bath," and can have hot 
 and cold water attached in the same 
 manner as an ordinary bath; also with 
 back-shower, bottom-shower, and wave at 
 the back. All baths can be enamelled 
 inside and outside, so that no inclosure is necessary. The writer 
 has seen a 5-foot 6-inch plunge-bath nickel-plated inside. It 
 looked very nice, and would not appear so dilapidated as the 
 ordinary enamelled ones do after they have been in use for some 
 time, but the cost of doing them in this way prevents a general 
 adoption of the system. 
 
 Figure 266. 
 
CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 WASH-HAND BASINS. 
 
 Wash -HAND basins are a great convenience in a home, but 
 they, as a rule, have less thought bestowed on their arrangement 
 than any other sanitary fitting. Very few basins are made as 
 they should be. Figure 267 shows an ordinary basin, with the 
 rim drooping, so that when it is used any water that may get 
 into the space between the basin and slab will run outward and 
 rot or injure the woodwork. To obviate this, the under side of 
 the marble, or other material that maybe used, should be hollowed, 
 
 Figure 267. Figure 26S. Figure 269. 
 
 and the rim of the basin made to curl upward, as shown in 
 section. Figure 268, so that any water that may get into the 
 joint will run back into the basin, and the joint should be made 
 as close as possible so as not to have an unsightly and dirty 
 appearance. Figure 267 shows the marble top cut so that any 
 water that may run off the top must fall on the rim of the basin. 
 Figure 268 shows the top slightly oversailing the basin so as to 
 form a kind of dripping-eave for the water to drop into the basin. 
 When marble is used as the top for a wash-hand basin, plaster- 
 of-paris is used for bedding it. This will not stand being wetted, 
 but soon breaks away. Putty, or any oil cement, cannot be used 
 for this purpose, as it discolours the marble. Sometimes the 
 wooden carriage for the basin is not used, but the basin is let 
 into the marble or slate top, as shown in section. Figure 269. 
 This is a bad arrangement, as any water splashed on the top 
 cannot get back into the basin, or, should the rebate be cut deep 
 
WASH-HAND BASINS. 
 
 225 
 
 enough so that the basin does not stand up so high, as shown, a 
 dirty and unsightly joint is seen. When arranged in this way a 
 new basin can easily be fixed in case of breakage, but, for 
 appearance, it is not equal to Figure 268. For fixing near the 
 gawden entrance or gun-room of a mansion, or in the kitchen for 
 cook's use, a basin 12 or 14 inches in diameter is quite large 
 enough, but for toilet purposes it should never be less than 18 or 
 20 inches in diameter. Some people are partial to fancy-painted 
 and coloured basins, but I prefer a plain white 
 or cream tint. A plain gold line is a relief, 
 but adds to the cost of the basin. Anything 
 that tends to disguise dirt should be avoided, 
 so the plain basins are the best. Figure 270 
 is a view of a bowl and top manufactured in 
 one piece of earthenware. The bowl is made oval-shaped, and 
 is sometimes called the elbow-room basin. This shape has an 
 advantage over the round one as being more convenient for the user. 
 ^ Figures 271, 272, and 273, are illustrations of other shapes of 
 cabinet-stand wash-hand basins. Some have skirtings, but when 
 
 Figure 270. 
 
 Figure 271. 
 
 rinuRE 272. 
 
 FlODRB 173. 
 
 made to a large size they are very difficult to get true, as they 
 twist and warp very much in the burning ; but latterly, makers 
 appear to be improving in this matter and send them out much 
 truer. Another advantage of these cabinet-tops is a raised 
 margin all around the edges, which prevents water from running 
 off on to the floor, or, perhaps, the user's dress and boots. The 
 sinkings for soap and nail-brushes are a convenience, and are 
 much better than the ordinary portable dishes, but the covers 
 very often are found to be in the way and generally get broken 
 or lost. Sometimes a waste pipe is made in the porcelain from 
 the sinkings into the bowl, but a channel, made as shown at 
 A, A, Figure 270, is better, as there cannot be any accunuilation 
 
226 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 of stale soap to give off any effluvia. After usage of a wash-hand 
 basin it always occurs that soap-curds and other matter float on 
 the surface of the water, and as the basin is emptied of its 
 contents these curds adhere to the sides of the basin. If a 
 whirling motion is given to the water as it subsides, the basin 
 takes longer to empty and the flpating matter is still left sticking 
 to the sides. Figure 274 is a view of a bowl with perforations 
 
 Figure 274. 
 
 Figure 275. 
 
 Figure 276. 
 
 near the top edge with the necessary provisions so that the supply 
 to the basin passes through the holes. Figure 275 is another 
 basin with a flushing-rim. Both these last basins can be rinsed' 
 after using by turning on the water for a few seconds. Figure 
 276 is another patent basin with a brass rose, so arranged that 
 the incoming water is spread around the inside of the bowl so as 
 to rinse it. Figures 274, 275, and 276, are supplied by means of 
 valves fixed beneath, with knobs projecting through the top, the 
 pipes being connected to the basin by means of the arms, A, A. 
 Figure 277 is a sketch of a wash-hand basin fitted in such a 
 way that the inlets for clean water are connected to the waste- 
 
 apparatus. At one time 
 
 these kinds of fittings were 
 thought to be very good, 
 but they are now being 
 condemned by most sani- 
 tarians, although a great 
 many are still used. The 
 objection to them is, the 
 incoming water will often 
 bring back any small pieces 
 of matter or soapy curds 
 that may be hanging about 
 the neck, B. The same 
 iGURE 277. YyoA of supply- valves can 
 
 be used, and the outlets connected to the arms. A, A, of the 
 
 ^^77^, 
 
 .om'^Y'Tf'^^'^^'^- 
 
WASH-HAND BASINS. 
 
 227 
 
 bowls, as shown at Figures 274, 275, and 276. For supplying 
 wash-hand basins nearly, all the manufacturers have their own 
 system and their own valves. When the valves are fixed beneath 
 the top, the knobs for opening them are generally fixed as shown 
 at Figure 277. It is better, although more costly, to fix them as 
 shown in fragmentary section. Figure 278. In this case the knob 
 is puUed forward and a slight turn given to it, when the valve 
 will remain open ; or the 
 
 space, C, can be made r///.//////////^//)^ 
 
 larger, and screw-down 
 cocks used. The marble 
 shelf, D, can be made to lift 
 off for access to the cocks 
 for repairing. When the 
 knobs are fixed on the top, 
 as shown at Figure 277, 
 the metal-work soon gets 
 tarnished, even if nickel- 
 plated. The guides also 
 sometimes work loose, so 
 that any water splashed on 
 the top will run through. 
 The back nuts are very 
 di£&cult to screw up, the plumber having to lie on his back and 
 punch them around with his hammer and chisel, unless he has 
 time to get a specially-made spanner to turn them with. 
 
 For simplicity and moderate cost, a standard valve as described 
 for baths. Figure 241, is very good. The nozzle should project 
 about J-inch inside the basin, so that should it leak it will drip 
 into the basin clear of the marble, so as not to have the water 
 drawn into the joint by capillary attraction. All cocks of this 
 kind (in fact, bibb-cocks or faucets generally) retain a nozzle full 
 of water when shut off, which will sometimes hang up for hours 
 until it has dripped empty, and this occurs more when the nozzle 
 of the cock is bent downward. This has sometimes led to the 
 plumber being sent for to repair the valve, under ttie impression 
 it was leaking. With a great many people a self-closing supply- 
 valve is preferred, as the water cannot be left running so as to 
 
 JIOURB 27S. 
 
 Q 2 
 
228 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 Figure 279. 
 
 overflow the basin. Figure 279 is a good description* It is known 
 as a " cam-action " valve. By pulling the top, E, forward, the 
 
 " cam " at the bottom presses down 
 the spindle of the valve and allows 
 the water to pass through. If the 
 valve has a flanged connection at the 
 top, half can be taken ofi'> and any 
 repairs made without taking out the 
 rest of the valve. The nozzle should 
 be bent as shown, so that the in- 
 coming water plays into the centre of 
 the basin. If the nozzle is bent down- 
 ward, as shown by dotted lines, thfe 
 water will strike on the side of the basin, rush around the bottom 
 and over the opposite side on to the dress of the person using it. 
 When valves of this description are used they should be fixed 
 on the back side of the basin, and some few inches away, so that 
 when stooping to wash the face the head may not come into 
 unpleasant contact with the knobs. When fixed at the sides the 
 elbows of the user sometimes get injured. 
 
 All wash-hand basins should have good large overflows to 
 them so as to take away the water as fast as it can come in. As 
 a matter of fact, very few will do this. Even when they are a 
 good size the mistake is generally made of fixing them immediately 
 beneath the nozzles of the cocks, when the rush of the incoming 
 water creates a depression or vortex, and prevents the overflow 
 from being of any use. When holes in the sides of the basin are 
 used for the overflow, the arm and overflow pipe will act as a 
 syphon and draw the water away very fast, but air is also drawn 
 in through the upper series of holes. A shell made to fit over 
 the overflow orifice will prevent air entering, so that the water is 
 drawn away more rapidly. The overflow pipe should be carried 
 into the trap of the waste pipe, unless a safe is fixed on the 
 floor, when the overflow can be made to discharge into the waste 
 pipe from it. When the overflow is connected to the trap of the 
 wash-hand basin waste, and a shell is fixed over the orifice in 
 the basin, it is necessary to fix a vent pipe. Without this, the 
 air in the overflow pipe would be pent up so as to be " air-bound,". 
 
WASH-HAND BASINS. 
 
 229 
 
 Figure 280, 
 
 thus rendering it perfectly useless. The air pipe should be fixed 
 near the bottom end of the overflow pipe ; if fixed near the top 
 end any syphonic action would be preyented, but if fixed too low 
 the water in the trap would 
 
 seal the bottom end and T?^'?^y/^^^^^^^^>^■. ■ > ■ i i/fW2^a^4? 
 
 prevent the air from escap- 
 ing. The sketchi Figure 
 280, wiU explain what is 
 meant. It makes no differ- 
 ence if the overflow pipe 
 is connected to the trap 
 above or below the water- 
 line, as in each case the 
 air cannot escape. Some- 
 times wash-hand basins are 
 made so that one shell will cover both the outlet and overflow- 
 arms, but when this is done there is generally some difficulty in 
 getting the overflow to take away the water as fast as it should. 
 The reader is referred to what was before said about the overflow 
 being fixed beneath the cock-nozzles for the reason. 
 
 Some Water Companies 
 insist that self-closing 
 supply-cocks should be 
 used, and no overflow fixed; 
 or, if one, that it should 
 be carried through the wall 
 so as to discharge in a 
 conspicuous position. 
 
 There are wash-hand 
 basins with the overflow 
 provision made in the earthenware. Figure 281 shows in seption 
 how this is arranged, and Figure 282 is the specially-made viraste- 
 plug and washer drawn to a larger scale. These basins can 
 only be fitted with a plug-waste. If a valve or apparatus were 
 used for emptying the basin the above overflow provision would 
 be useless. 
 
 The waste-holes of wash-hand basins are genei:ally made too 
 small, so tl)at a very small plug has to be used, with the result 
 
 FlGUHE 281. 
 
 I'IGURE 282. 
 
230 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 that the basin takes a long time to empty of its contents. 
 Figure 283 represents a wash-hand basin that had to be altered 
 because of the unpleasant smells arising from it. The owner 
 
 complained that it had 
 been altered several times, 
 but the evil still remained. 
 The smells could not be 
 accounted for, because the 
 waste pipe was cut off, as 
 shown at C, so that the 
 end of it was open to the 
 air. It appeared as if the 
 overflow pipe had originally 
 been connected to the trap, 
 as shown at A, the stump- 
 end having been left in and 
 the end soldered over. The 
 overflow had been altered 
 and soldered into the waste 
 pipe at B. The trap was a 
 medium-size D-trap, about 
 8 inches deep. The waste 
 pipe was 2-inch lead pipe. 
 The plug was f-inch in 
 'aiameter. The trap being 
 fixed under the floor, there was about 2 feet of the 2-inch pipe 
 very foul inside from the soapy matter, and every time the basin 
 was used the air in this pipe was displaced and driven through 
 the overflow pipe. Here was a host of mistakes made by the 
 man who fixed it. The hole in the basin was of such a size that 
 a small washer and plug had to be used. The waste pipe was 
 too large, the D-trap was too large and fixed too far away from 
 the basin. The brass screw-cap was in an inaccessible position. 
 Figure 284 is a sketch showing the new basin and how it was 
 fitted up with trap, &c. The water-way through the washer, trap, 
 and waste pipe, was of the same diameter throughout. The trap 
 vent pipe, E, was continued upward as high as the top of the 
 basin ; if this was not done the escaping air would sometimes 
 
 Figure 283. 
 
WASH-HAND BASINS. 
 
 231 
 
 bring a few drops of water with it. When open heads are used 
 for waste pipes to discharge into, the pipe should be carried 
 down to the bottom, as shown at G, Figure 284. This is to 
 
 Figure 284. 
 
 prevent the waste water being splashed over a large surface on 
 the inside of the head, which would soon give oflF offensive smells. 
 In several cases where these hopper heads have been used for 
 two or three waste pipes to discharge into, the smells have been 
 so objectionable that air-tight coverings ■ have been fixed and 
 ventilation pipes carried up to a higher level. 
 
CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 WASH-HAND BASmS—contimied. 
 
 Referring again to plug-wastes, Figure 285 represents, in 
 ■section, the ordinary style of making them, and at H is shown 
 how the water-way may be contracted by allowing the lining of 
 the union to enter the washer. Sometimes this lining is butted 
 up to the washer, and a leatner grummet placed between. When 
 screwing up the union this grummet will get out of its position, 
 or perhaps get squeezed so that it projects inside, as shown at J, 
 in section. Figure 286. By making the brasswork as shown at 
 
 FlGUUE 285. 
 
 Figure 286 
 
 FiouKu 287. 
 
 Figure 287, the water-way can be made of equal diameter through- 
 out, and if the lining is ground into the washer, as shown at K, 
 similar to steam-unions, no packing or grummet is required. To 
 get a shoulder on the lining to fit the cap, the substance of the 
 metal in the brass washer must be a little thicker, as shown at 
 L, than in the other examples given. The flange of the washer 
 should be as large as the sinking in the basin to avoid a space, 
 which always looks dirty. Some makers fix a small brass grating, 
 as shown by dotted lines, M, Figure 286, to prevent finger-rings 
 
WASH-HAND BASfNS. 
 
 233 
 
 or small pieces of soap and other matters from getting into the 
 waste pipe, thus adding to the evils of the already too much 
 contracted water-way. It is much better to drill holes and fix 
 brass cross-bars, as shown by dotted lines at N, Figure 287. 
 These wires need not be very thick, as little or no strength is 
 required, but as they contract the watet-way, the brasswork can 
 be turned out slightly larger, as shown in section, to allow for 
 this. When large washers and plugs are used for wash-hand 
 basins, it is advisable to make the plugs of vulcanized india- 
 rubber, as described when writing on baths, as it sometimes 
 happens that a large brass plug wiU break the basin when allowed 
 to fall into it. Plugs have been objected to, as they require 
 chains to prevent their beii^ lost. The links of the chains get 
 filled up with soapy matter, so that they always look dirty and 
 smell unpleasantly. In addition, when the plug is made too 
 slender in the tapering, it sometimes fits into the washer so 
 tightly that the chain is broken in the attempt to pull it out. 
 Or, perhaps, the plug when cold is placed in the washer when 
 hot. On cooling, the plug will sometimes fit 
 so tightly as to resist all efforts to pull it 
 out, so that the union has to be uncoupled 
 and the plug knocked out from the tmder 
 side. This only appUes to metal plugs. 
 
 Figure 288 represents a brass plug and 
 washer used by a firm of sanitary engineers. 
 The plug has an indiarubber ring sprung on 
 and a spindle, with a nut on the bottom 
 end, working through a guide-bar. A pro- 
 jecting slip is cast on the spindle, and a 
 corresponding slot in the guide-bar, so that 
 a slight turn given to the plug, when open, 
 will cause it to remain. The knob, O, for 
 lifting the plug, should be flush with the 
 bottom of the basin, to prevent injury to the user's finger-nails, 
 and also to prevent the user unintentionally lifting it so as to 
 empty the basin. If the plug is made a good size, the spindle 
 should be short, so that it cannot be opened too wide, so as to 
 allow anything to fall down the waste pipe. Whep these plugs 
 
 Fl&UHS 2tib. 
 
234 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 
 
 - 1 
 
 
 
 ,^t.^ 
 
 »_. . . •■ P'". 1 
 
 
 
 /"!■'" 
 
 
 
 / " 
 
 
 
 / " 
 
 
 
 / !; 
 
 
 
 f li 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' Iril 
 
 g. 
 
 =?.--# 
 
 are fixed to wash-hand basins each user should discharge his own 
 water, as it is unpleasant for the next comer to have to put his 
 hand into the dirty water to reach the plug to open it. 
 
 One maker of sanitary fittings has a " trigger " connection to 
 lift a plug of the kind last described. Figure 289 is a sketch 
 
 showing the arrangement. P is 
 
 the trigger, R is an indiarubber 
 
 joint. The trigger is placed on 
 
 the front side of the basin, so 
 
 that the user has only to press his 
 
 hand on it to open the plug 
 
 In some cases the trigger is 
 
 placed at the side of the basin. 
 
 Figure 489. and a spindle continued through 
 
 the slate or marble top, and a metal, porcelain, or other kind of 
 
 knob fixed for pressing down the trigger. This is shown by 
 
 dotted lines. 
 
 Several makers have "valves" for discharging the water out 
 of the basin. Some of these valves are similar to those described 
 when writing on baths. Figure 290 represents one made by 
 
 plumbers out of lead pipe. The 
 part S is made of brass, T is a 
 flanged connection, and U is a 
 slip-joint in the pipe which 
 forms the overflow. Ears are 
 soldered on for screwing to the 
 back boards or wall for fixing. 
 When making these quick waste- 
 valves the plumber sometimes 
 makes the valve pipe too long, 
 so that the branch waste pipe 
 from the basin 'is some 2 or 
 3 inches above the flanged con- 
 nection containing the valve. 
 Figure 290. In this case the valve is an 
 
 obstruction to the free escape of the water. The branch pipe should 
 be as near the valve as possible, so that, when lifted, the valve 
 will be above the branch waste, as shown by dotted lines at V, 
 
WASH-HAND BASINS. 
 
 235 
 
 and thus allow the water a free passage. When properly made, 
 this waste fitting will enable a good sized basin to be emptied in 
 three or four seconds ; but when badly made, it takes five Or six 
 times as long to discharge the contents of the bowl. Very strong 
 wire should be used for connecting the valve to the puU-tip knob. 
 If thin wire is used it sometimes stretches by constant usage until 
 it becomes so long as to only partly open the valve. Another 
 reason for paying especial attention to the thickness of the wire is 
 because the whole of the apparatus has to be taken down for 
 access to repair a broken' wire, and it is very troublesome to get it 
 the exact length. If too short, the valve would not fit tight in 
 its seating, and if too long, the valve would only partly open. 
 When this waste apparatus is used, it is not necessary to have 
 an overflow-arm to the basin, but when an overflow-arm is used 
 'the pipe, U, can be omitted. 
 
 When waste-valves are used for emptying the contents of a 
 wash-hand basin, a grated connection should be made to fit the 
 -bottom, and should be fixed flush on the inside of the bowl. The 
 grating should be a good size, and the water-way through the 
 perforations should be slightly in excess of that of the waste pipe. 
 That is, should i^-inch waste pipe be used, the number and size of 
 iholes in the grating should, in the aggregate, be equal to, or a little 
 larger than, the pipe. When , 
 round basins are used, a vortex 
 will form in the water as it runs 
 away, but this does not take 
 place to such an extent when 
 oval basins are used. Instead 
 of a grated connection, one 
 similar to the section. Figure 
 291, is sometimes used. This 
 does away with the grating, 
 the holes in which are some- 
 times thought to be unsightly, figure 291. 
 but nothing else is gained. If the cap is raised so that there 
 is a free water-way around it, there is room for a small finger- 
 ring to slip through. 
 
 "Tip-up" wash-hand basins are liked by some people, in 
 
236 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 FlGUKE 292. 
 
 spite of the outer receiver very often being offensive by reason of 
 the soapy matter adhering to the inside. Great numbers of 
 manufacturers make these basins, but the original inventor has 
 patented an improvement by means of which the tipping basir. 
 can be lifted off the trunnions, and thus gives free access to the 
 receiver for cleaning it. The receiver, also, has been improved 
 by making a back outlet instead of the straight down. This 
 
 gives more room beneath the wooden 
 enclosure, and the water is not so liable 
 to splash out of the receiver on to the 
 dress of the user when the basin is 
 tipped up. Figure 292 represents the 
 tip-up basin with a back-outlet receiver. 
 Pains should always be taken to make a 
 tight joint between the slab and the rim 
 of the receiver. I have found a piece of indiarubber tubing to 
 make a good packing. 
 
 Lavatories should not be iixed in bedrooms if it can be 
 avoided. When of necessity they must be, great care should be 
 taken in the selection of the basin and in every detail of waste 
 pipe and trapping, so as to avoid any possibility of a smell escaping. 
 There is very often a fain* odour near an ordinary wash-hand 
 stand, and more especially when highly-scented soap is used. 
 The sponge and nail-brush will retain soapy matter to an un- 
 pleasant extent, and an improperly fixed basin, with waste and 
 overflow pipe, and sometimes from the waste pipes of the soap 
 and brush sinkings as well, adds to the evil. The dressing toom 
 is the proper place in which to fix the lavatory. 
 
 In first-class establishments the lavatory ■ enclosure is some- 
 times made to match the rest of the furniture in the room. 
 These enclosures are generally made to 
 look like a large' piece of furniture, and 
 although, perhaps, nice to look at, are 
 very uncomfortable to use. The mistake 
 is generally made of having the front out 
 as far as the top, as shown by sketch. 
 Figure 293. Figure 293. By cutting out a piece of 
 
 the skirting or plinth, as shown by dotted lines, room is made 
 
WABH-HAND BASINS. 
 
 237 
 
 Figure 294, 
 
 for the toes, but the knees lodge against the front. A much 
 better plan is to have a cornice beneath the nosing of the slab 
 and the doors recessed a few inches, as shown by sketch, Figure 
 294. This gives room for the person to lean over the basin 
 without making the back ache. The 
 above evil is aggravated when the stand 
 is too high, and the basin is placed too 
 far from the front edge. The stand 
 should not be more than 2 feet 6 inches 
 high for persons of ordinary stature. If 
 higher, water will be found to run off 
 the user's elbows and drip on the floor. 
 When the basin is too far from the front edge, the person has 
 his whole weight thrown on the tips of his toes when washing, 
 and runs the risk of tipping forward on to his face. It would be 
 better if wash-hand basins could be fitted up without any en- 
 closure, but there is often such a nest of pipes beneath that to 
 all (excepting admirers of plumbers' work), they would appear 
 unsightly. In some cases a small brass rail is fixed i or 2 inches 
 away from the marble slab, to prevent the user's dress becoming 
 wetted by contact with any water , that may be near the front 
 edge. This is shown in Figure 294, from A to B. Or, if the 
 basin is used before dressing, a towel can be hung on this rail 
 to keep the body from touching the cold marble. 
 
 Figure 295 is a neat enclosure for an oval basin with 
 poircelain top. The cupboard door. A, being recessed, is a great 
 advantage, and can be made much 
 more cheaply than if it was rounded 
 in the same manner as the front, at 
 B. Some makers insert ornamental 
 tiles in the panels of the doors, or 
 have fancy designs painted on the 
 woodwork. 
 
 Plumbers vary very much in their 
 ideas as to the size of traps for wash- 
 hand basins. Figure 296 is a view 
 of one shown to the writer by a master plumber, who boasted 
 that it was impossible to break the water-seal by syphonage. 
 
 Figure 295. 
 
238 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 Calculations based upon the measured dimensions show it held 
 about two-and-a-half gallons. The basin was very small, onl>f 
 12 inches diameter, and held just enough 
 to stir up the contents of this small cess- 
 pool. A wooden stool had to be placed 
 beneath this trap to keep the weight from 
 pulling out the bottom of the basin. The 
 inlet and outlet pipes were i inch in 
 diameter. Traps should not be larger in 
 diameter than the waste pipe and plug, 
 but they should always have a good dip or 
 water-seal. If a i-inch or i J- inch round 
 pipe trap is used, and made by the 
 plumber, it should have a 4-inch to 
 6-inch water-seal, as shown by Figure 297. The reason such a 
 deep seal is an advantage is because the trap being fixed 
 above the floor is more likely to have the contents evaporate by 
 
 teio 
 
 Figure agG. 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 Figure 297. 
 
 KlGURE 298. 
 
 Figure apg.' 
 
 exposure to the atmosphere. If made to the shape shown, and 
 thick pipe used, it could be loaded with sand and bent without 
 cripphng the throats of the bends. The shape is also good to 
 prevent the water being carried through the trap by the impetus 
 given when falling from the basin so as not to leave enough to 
 charge the trap. This is found to occur when traps are made 
 as shown by Figure 298. All traps are liable to syphonage, 
 but those sometimes called self-cleansing (that is, the passage of 
 water through them scours the inside so as to prevent fur 
 accumulating) are more Hable to this than the box-shaped traps, 
 hence the necessity of ventilation pipes. 
 
 Figure 299 represents a trap very often made by plumbers 
 for fixing to wash-bowls. It is sometimes called a soap-trap, 
 
WASH-HAND BASINS. 239 
 
 and there is a general impression that it will retain soapy matter 
 from passing into and clogging the waste pipes. There is about 
 as much sense in this argument as in that of the old lady 
 living in a house in the north of London, who asked me to fix 
 a grating in the trap of the water-closet to prevent the paper 
 used from passing into the drains, as she was afraid a 
 stoppage would occur. 
 
CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 WASH-HAND BASINS— continued. 
 
 Besides the traps that have been described there are several 
 others very similar in their action, and there are also what are 
 known as mechanical traps. Some -of these have a flap-valve 
 fixed inside over the outlet pipe. Others have a floating ball or 
 else a weighted ball ; these fit over the end of the inlet pipe in 
 the body of the trap, which has to be made in such a way that 
 when out of action the ball covers the orifice. The advocates for 
 these traps claim that they are proof against back-pressure, but 
 there is no back-pressure when the waste pipes are ventilated. 
 These traps all clog up with soapy matter, and this occurs more 
 frequently in districts where the water used is very hard. 
 
 Figures 300, 301, and 302, are illustrations of the principles 
 of the flap-valve, heavy, and floating balls, which speak for them- 
 selves. The writer, 
 some time ago, had 
 to take out a mechani- 
 cal trap, as it was 
 continually becoming 
 choked. After it had 
 lain on a shelf for two 
 
 Figure 300. Figure 301. Figure 302. qj. f}jj.gg mOnths, it 
 
 was taken down to show a friend the condition it was in, when it 
 was found that the matter inside had all dried up, and nothing 
 was left excepting what may be compared to coarse-looking cob- 
 webs. A piece of waste pipe, ij inch in diameter, which had 
 become choked with soapy curds, was kept as a sample, and, after 
 an interval of time, the matter had all dried up, and only a thin 
 scale was found adhering to, in some places detached from, 
 the sides, and this stoppage had resisted, when it was fixed in its 
 position, the action of a hand force-pump. 
 
 V_> 
 
 r 
 
WASH-HAND BASINS. 
 
 241 
 
 (0?*n 
 
 All wash-hand basin waste pipes should discharge with open 
 ends into an interceptor or guUey trap. 
 
 In some town houses, built years ago when little or no 
 thought was bestowed on sanitary questions, and all the fittings 
 are in the centre of the house, it is very difficult to arrange for 
 the waste pipe to discharge into the open air ; or the expense 
 of the alteration would be so great that other means have been 
 resorted to. In these cases two traps have been fixed, and a 
 ventilating pipe soldered in the waste pipe between them. This 
 is shown by sketch, Figure 303, at A, and the waste pipe con- 
 nected to the soil pipe of the 
 adjoining water-closet. When 
 this is done the air pipe must 
 not be branched into the soil 
 pipe, but must be continued 
 separately to a suitable posi- 
 tion out-of-doors. If another 
 vent pipe is fixed at B, a cur- 
 rent of air can pass through. 
 This is an advantage when 
 the wash-hand basin is some distance away, thus necessitating a 
 long length of waste pipe. When the soil pipe is of lead, and 
 hot water is used in the wash-hand bowl, it will often occur that 
 the soil pipe will break by the expansion and contraction of the 
 metal caused by the hot-water discharges. 
 
 There are several manufacturers who make sets of wash-hand 
 basins as shown by Figure 304, which is a front elevation, and 
 
 Figure 303. 
 
 i 
 
 Figure 304. 
 
 Figure 305, which is an end view. These are very strong, and 
 suitable for public schools and similar institutions where they are 
 
242 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 subjected to rough usage, but from a sanitary point of view they 
 are far from being good. As a rule, the trapping of the waste 
 pipe is improperly done. Sometimes no trap at all is fixed, the 
 end of the horizontal waste being continued to discharge over a 
 gulley-trap, or, if fixed upstairs, into the head of a vertical stack 
 of waste pipe fixed outside the house. In these cases a current 
 of air passes from the outside and through the waste pipes. This 
 air may be perfectly pure and sweet when it enters the waste 
 pipe, but when it escapes through the waste or overflow pipes it 
 is rarely in a state fit for breathing. The writer has had to fit 
 traps as shown at A, Figure 304, to several of these sets because 
 of the offensive smells that pass through, but this is little or no 
 remedy for the evil. Where eight or ten basins are fixed in one 
 range, every time one of them is emptied a certain amount of 
 air is expelled through the branch waste or overflow pipes of the 
 other basins. The horizontal waste is generally of iron, 3 inches 
 in diameter, and is fixed perfectly level. On taking these pipes 
 to pieces for cleaning, a quantity of black offensive-smelling matter 
 is generally found inside. Neither is any provision made to 
 prevent the waste pipe from rusting. The branch waste pipes 
 are generally connected at right angles to the main waste. The 
 result of being branched in this way is, that every time a basin 
 is emptied as much water passes toward the stopped end as to 
 the outlet, so that the black matter spoken of is being continually 
 stirred up and moved backward and forward inside the pipe. 
 
 Figure 306 is an end view and Figure 307 a front view of 
 one basin out of some, ranges designed and fixed by the writer 
 
 for the young men 
 and women's use at a 
 large drapery estab- 
 lishment. The whole 
 of the horizontal 
 waste pipes and the 
 brackets, &c., were of 
 galvanized-iron. The 
 brackets had projec- 
 tions cast on at C and D, Figure 306, and were firmly fixed to 
 the wall. By doing this the whole of the space beneath was 
 
 Figure 306. 
 
 Figure 307, 
 
WASH-HAND BASINS. ^43 
 
 open, and, as nothing touched the floor, there were no corners in 
 which: dirt, &c., could accumulate. The horizontal waste pipes 
 had a fall throughout their length. They were fixed immediately 
 beneath the centres of the basins, so as not to have long branch 
 waste pipes. Instead of round openings in the brackets for the 
 horizontal waste pipes to lie in they were made as shown in 
 Figure 306. The highest end of the waste was in the position as 
 shown, but the lowest end was situated as marked by dotted 
 lines. The branch arms, F, F, Figure 307, to receive the waste 
 and overflow pipes, were all turned in the direction of the current, 
 so as to avoid discharges from the basins running up the main 
 waste. The waste-plugs were locked similar to those illustrated 
 in an earlier chapter, and the unions were socketed into the branch 
 wastes, the joints being made water-tight by the insertion of india- 
 rubber rings. The basins were supported by means of ga!lvanized- 
 iron cross-pieces resting on the brackets, and were so arranged that 
 should a basin get broken, a new one could be substituted without 
 taking away the marble top, or moving it at the risk of breaking it. 
 
 " Tip-up " basins are sometimes fixed in ranges, and have a 
 large trough placed beneath so as to receive the contents of the 
 basins. This is far from being a good plan, as the dirty water is 
 splashed over a large area which soon becomes offensive. 
 
 In hospitals, and public schools attended by the poorer class 
 of children, it is very probable that certain diseases may be 
 conveyed from one body to another by means of 
 wash-hand basins, and the question arises, would 
 it not be better to dispense with them altogethei: 
 in those places. I think it was in Paris that I 
 saw something similar to Figure 308, which is a 
 section. Instead of basins, a long V-shaped slate 
 trough, with a channel down the centre, was 
 fixed, and taps at intervals, with a stream of water 
 running all the time a person was washing. By 
 this arrangement the risk of communicating a ^ 
 
 specific disease is minimised, but the channel F'^ure 308. 
 should be large enough for the water to pass away without coming 
 up into the trough, and the opening at G should be so narrow 
 that pieces of soap, &c,, could not be washed away. 
 
244- PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 The tap should be high enough 'so that the head can be held 
 beneath, but not so high as to cause the water to splash about 
 too much. For children's use the trough should not be more than 
 2 feet high, but for adults it should be 6 inches higher. With 
 regard to the materials of these troughs, porcelain would be the 
 best, if it were possible to make them large enough, but failing 
 that, slate is the best material, especially if a kind is selected 
 which is not absorbent. The slate could be enamelled, but after 
 a time the enamel peels off, or gets so chipped as to look unsightly. 
 In some cases long open troughs filled with water have been 
 fixed for the use of the class of people who may be termed casual 
 paupers, or tramps. In these cases it is highly probable that one 
 person, suffering from any skin or other communicable disease, 
 may so contaminate the water that other users may be infected 
 with the same complaint. From this point of view the trough, 
 although simple, and, comparatively speaking, inexpensive, is 
 highly dangerous for using under the above conditions. 
 
 A small shower apparatus fixed to a lavatory is a comfortable 
 luxury. This can be made and fixed in a way similar to one 
 illustrated in the chapter on baths, but the crane should be jointed 
 so that it can be turned aside out of the way when not wanted 
 to be used. A looking-glass fixed behind a lavatory is a great 
 improvement, both with regard to appearance and convenience. 
 It also prevents the wall at the back from becoming splashed and 
 thus rendered unsightly. When a back glass is used the above 
 shower-bracket cannot be fixed on the back wall. When the 
 wash-hand basin lias a cover, or is otherwise enclosed, the shower- 
 bracket will be found objectionable. The drippings of water from 
 the rose generally continues for some considerable time aftet 
 using, especially if the perforations are very small, when they 
 retain water by capillary attraction. This is of little consequence 
 when no cover is fixed over the basin, as any drippings would fall 
 on the slab or into the bowl. In some cases hot and cold-water 
 
 cocks have been connected with a 
 coupling-union, and a piece of flexible 
 indiariibber hose attached. On the loose 
 end of the hose a small rose is fixed, as 
 Figure 309. shown in Figure 309, for spreading the 
 
WASH-HAND BASINS. 245 
 
 stream of water. The hose should be wired inside to prevent 
 linking, which would stop the waterway and prevent the free 
 flow of the water, and if it is covered outside with a silk or 
 worsted plaiting it adds to the appearance. It is unnecessary for 
 the hose to be larger than -l-inch in the bore. The rose should 
 be of ebonite because of its lightness. If a metal one is used and 
 allowed to fall it would, perhaps, break the basin. Thp rose 
 should not be more than about 2 or 2.^ inches across the perfor- 
 ations, H, Figure 309, and the holes should be as small as possible 
 so that very fine sprays of water escape. The perforated face, H, 
 should not be much rounded — in £act it should be nearly flat so 
 as to avoid the water spreading over too large, a surface. If the 
 rose is small, the pressure of water not too great, and the hose 
 nice and flexible, the user can hold it in any position he pleases, 
 either over his head, or under, or at the sides of his face. The 
 part I, Figure 309, is better if made rough, so that the hand can 
 bold it more firmly and the user have better control over it. 
 When hot water is used the person should try the heat, by 
 allowing it to run for a few seconds on his hand, before applying 
 it to his head or face ; or a thermometer, as 
 described when writing on- shower-baths, 
 could be attached. 
 
 Figure 310 is a very convenient shower 
 and spray apparatus patented by a leading 
 firm of sanitary engin^ars. It is supplied 
 with hot and cold water. The crane has 
 ground-in joints so arranged that it can be 
 swung sideways when not wanted. The rose 
 can be turned upside down, as shown by 
 dotted lines, and sideways, or any other desired position. When 
 this fitting is nickel-plated and kept nice and clean it presents a 
 smart appearance. The joints should be made of the very best 
 metals, as constant use wiU soon cause them to leak, although, 
 they do not have to withstand any great water-pressure. 
 
 FlGUKE 3X0. 
 
CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 URINALS. 
 
 The subject of urinals is one of the utmost importance, and 
 V I may premise any further statements by saying that I have never 
 seen one that might be said to be entirely satisfactory, and we 
 have yet to learn the secret of making them sanitary. Take 
 public urinals first. In the older districts of London, and in a great 
 many by-streets, a small recess is made in a wall, generally by 
 the side of a public-house or tavern. Sometimes a screen of slate 
 or cast-iron is put up, or a door is fixed for the sake of decency. 
 Inside no special provision is made for keeping the place clean or 
 for catching the urine, which is ejected against the walls or on the 
 floor, and then bas to flow towards a grating, or sometimes only 
 a hole, and so into the drain. Sometimes the walls are rendered, 
 or covered, with mortar or cement, so badly done as to be . no 
 protection against their becoming saturated with urine. The floor 
 is sometimes paved with bricks, in other cases with stones. The 
 joints are not always made good, so that liquid matter lies in 
 pools all oyer the place. In some cases no light or ventilation is 
 provided, and not even a water-supply for washing down the floor. 
 On entering one of these places the person's eyes begin to run 
 with tears, and the pain of the nostrils is similar to that just 
 before a fit of sneezing, so strong are the ammoniacal vapours. 
 Although these places are for the use of the public, a great many 
 of them are private property. When they become so bad as to 
 be a public nuisance, they sometimes get washed down and a 
 coat of lime-white may be laid on the walls. A few days after- 
 wards these white walls are invariably found to be covered with 
 disgusting literature and quack doctors' hand-bills. The sooner the 
 sanitary authorities seek out these places and have them removed 
 the better it will be for those unfortunate people who reside neai 
 them, and others who, from sheer necessity, must make use of 
 
URINALS. 247 
 
 them In a few cases a stone trough is fixed, but, for want of 
 attention, they soon become coated with yellow matter. 
 
 Public urinals should not be made against dweUing-houses ; 
 an air-space should always be between them, and if they can be 
 fixed several yards away it is better. In towns, several of these 
 places should be provided to prevent any outrage against decency 
 by the thoughtless, or those driven by necessity. 
 
 In busy thoroughfares and streets an independent iron building 
 is sometimes put up. Figure 311 is a sketch showing a verj 
 common description. They have from 
 two to perhaps ten or twelve stalls, 
 the whole of the construction being 
 cast-iron. The stalls are continued 
 down to the floor, a channel runs 
 along the floor at the back side, and 
 
 the foot-stone or slab is laid to fall towards it. In some cases an 
 attendant visits these places once or twice a week and washes 
 them down with water and broom, or a cock and water pipe are 
 fixed in a convenient position for the attendant to screw on a 
 hose for washing down with. Figures 312 and 313 are plans of 
 two other structures. These have cast-iron floors 
 laid with a fall towards the gratings or traps A. 
 In some districts brick buildings are erected similar 
 
 FiGURK 31 
 
 in plan to Figure 311, and the walls lined with 
 
 ^. jnw ^flw?| jtB^ B^ltth^ 
 ^ ' — ih 
 
 C13 
 
 slate slabs. Sometimes very thick glass is used 
 instead of the slate slabs, but, from a sanitary point 
 of view, there is very little difference between any 
 of those described. They all smell so offensive that 
 users never stay in them longer than they possibly 
 can help. In some instances a perforated pipe, Figure 313. 
 sometimes called a " sparge pipe," is fixed over the part used, 
 and water laid on to run continuously down the back sides of the 
 stalls ; or, where it has been found necessary to economize with 
 water, a small tank has been fixed with the necessary apparatus 
 to automatically discharge the contents at regular intervals of 
 time. In these cases the back slab is sometimes quite- dry in the 
 intervals between the discharges, so that the salts of urine soon 
 deposit and become so hard that they cannot be scrubbed, but 
 
248 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 Figure 314. 
 
 have to be scraped off. Some people are under the impression 
 that cold water causes the fur to accumulate more quickly, but 
 this is not the fact. Anyone noticing these places will find that 
 the back slab over which the water streams always looks cleaner 
 than the divisions or sides, which get splashed, but rarely get 
 any water at all. 
 
 Figure 314 is a sectional elevation of one stall of a urinal 
 for which several authorities have a preference. Several of this 
 kind will be found in railway stations, both in 
 town and country, and to have to use them is 
 simply abominable. The slate apron B is generally 
 covered on both sides with urine as well as the 
 sides of the stalls, the back only being washed by 
 the sparge pipe C. Bad as this evil is, in some 
 cases it is made worse by having the slate apron 
 piece fixed so high that people of short stature 
 eject on the outside, at D. The first great evil in all the con- 
 veniences described is allowing the urine to spread over a too 
 large surface by having more exposed than is really necessary. 
 For instance, if the divisions were cut off at about the height of 
 a person's knees, little or no matter would be splashed on them, 
 and if there were no aprons there would be about 14 square feet 
 less of surface in each stall to get fouled, thus leaving only about 
 6 feet at the back to be kept clean. 
 
 In some public places has been introduced a new kind of 
 urinal. Figure 315 is a sectional elevation of one stall. This is 
 a great improvement on the old-fashioned open stalls, 
 but it is far from being a thorough success. One 
 great advantage is, the urine passes directly into a 
 trough, E, of water, and at short intervals of time 
 the flushing-tank, F, automatically discharges itself 
 into one end of the trough with sufficient force to 
 displace the contents and leave a body of clean water 
 behind. A branch water pipe is so arranged as to 
 wash out the foot-channel, G, at the same time. 
 Those the writer has seen are very much furred with urinary de- 
 posit, in spite of the violent scour of clean water sent throu{,h it. 
 The trough is fouled down the front side, at H. The writer has 
 
 Figure 315. 
 
URINALS. 
 
 249 
 
 watched visitors, and noticed that some of them stand too -far 
 away, as if afraid of soiling their dress, and boys can scarcely 
 reach high enough. In addition, the front edge of the trough 
 appears to be too wide, and, being rounded, any drippings on it 
 sometimes runs outward. 
 
 Figure 316 is a plan of a public place. Although the smells are 
 ofiFensive, they are not nearly so bad as some of the others described. 
 In this case the slate divisions 
 are placed at an acute angle 
 to each other, and a large 
 cast-iron bowl with three lips 
 is placed in the centre. The 
 
 
 
 Figure 316, 
 
 stalls are cut off at the level of the top edge of the bowl, and, as 
 I hey do not project far, users are obliged to stand so close to the 
 basin that the lip catches most of the drippings. A constant 
 supply of water is laid on to the bowl, so that it is always fuU 
 and the contents in continual motion. 
 
 Figure 317 is a section through the basin showing the over- 
 flow pipe, which can be lifted out when necessary to empty 
 the contents for cleaning. The 
 bowls are generally made of 
 cast-iron, but a few have lately 
 been fixed made of vitrified 
 stoneware. 
 
 Figure 318 is a sketch plan 
 of another arrangement of the 
 same kind of urinal. The frame- 
 work of the enclosure is of iron, with slate panels. A skeleton or 
 lattice-iron roof is fixed over all, and the bottom of the centre 
 post forms the waste or overflow pipe. On the top end of the 
 post is a gas-lamp, with red-coloured glass, on which the word 
 " Gentlemen " is embossed. On the floor, at K, in Figure 317, 
 an open grating is let in to catch drippings. This is the most 
 objectionable part of the whole arrangement, as the space beneath 
 is generally charged with offensive smelling matter, such as urine, 
 street-driftings, cigar-ends, and a host of other things.* This 
 
 * Since writing the above, several improvemeilts have been made in this 
 arrangement. — J. W. C. 
 
 Figure 317. 
 
 Figure 318. 
 
250 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 grating has an advantage: by catching any wet that may fall, 
 the user's boots do not become so saturated as to be offensive 
 and objectionable to others besides himself, and neither doqs he 
 leave wet foot-marks behind him. It would be an advantage 
 if a provision was made so that a small stream of water 
 ^ would be distributed under the grating, so that the 
 space beneath would be washed clean. 
 
 Figure 319 is a sketch section, showing a trough- 
 urinal fixed in a London street, and which appears to 
 act very well and give off very little smell. The 
 trough is porcelain-enamelled iron. A constant supply 
 of water is laid on to it and passes through perforations 
 Figure 319. jjj (.]^g bottom, as shown at L, and the overflow is 
 through perforations near the top edge, at M. As urine is con- 
 siderably heavier than water it sinks to the bottom, hence the 
 above system of flushing has reason on its side. 
 
 When plain stall-urinals are ordered to be fixed, there are a 
 few improvements that can be made on the way in which they 
 are usually fitted up. For instance, when flushed with a sparge 
 pipe, a great deal of water splashes outward and on to visitors' 
 boots, &c. If the sparge pipe is perforated, as shown in fragmental 
 section. Figure 320, the water-jets will sometimes rebound from the 
 back slab, as shown by the arrow, to A, and more 
 especially when the face of the back slab is rough. 
 If the pipe is perforated, as shown by dotted lines, at 
 B, the splashing is not quite so bad. The jets of 
 water being thrown upward, in falling meet and break 
 the force of the water issuing out of the holes in the 
 pipe. If the perforations are made in this way an 
 evenly-distributed sheet of water runs down the back 
 slab, but in the ordinary way of arranging the holes the water 
 will run down in streams. A ledge is generally improperly left, 
 as at C, from which the water will sometimes rebound, as shown 
 by the arrows. Sparge pipes should be made of copper. When 
 iron is used the metal rusts, some of the holes get filled up, and 
 others grow larger and very much out of shape, so that the water 
 is not evenly distributed. All sparge pipes should have a small 
 hole in the bottom near one end, so that when out of use the 
 
 Figure 320. 
 
URINALS. 
 
 251 
 
 FigDre 321. 
 
 Figure 322. 
 
 whole of the water may drain out. In winter this water will get 
 frozen, and perhaps burst the pipe. When an apparatus is fixed 
 so that the flushing is intermittent, it generally happens that when 
 the force is spent the last portion of the water will run out of the 
 holes and to the under side of the pipe, as shown at D, Figure 
 32t>, and fall on to the floor, or into the channel, and splash 
 very much. In some cases a metal sheathing has been fixed 
 over the pipe, as shown at E, Figure 321, to prevent this. A 
 gfreat deal of the splashing of 
 water may be avoided if the 
 back slab is fixed with a slope, 
 as shown at F, Figure 321. 
 
 In some of the principal 
 railway stations and a few public 
 places in London white earthen- 
 ware basins have been fixed, as 
 shown at Figure 322. This is a step in the right direction, as 
 urine is not splashed over such a large surface as in the other 
 kinds described. Most of these basins have flushing-rims, so that 
 the incoming water washes over the whole of the inner surface. 
 
 Figures 323, 324, and 325 are sectional plans 
 of three of the commonest kinds of basins. 
 
 Figures 324 and 325 are considered the best 
 shape for catching drippings. The waste-holes 
 in Figure 325 are the best arranged, as t&ey are 
 partly in the back as well as the bottom. Some- 
 times a cigar-end or piece of cigarette is thrown 
 into the basin, which, on unfolding, wiU cover the 
 bottom waste-holes and prevent the water from 
 running away. It is very rarely that the back 
 waste-holes get stopped in this way. 
 
 All the basins described have straight-down 
 waste pipes. Some others are also made with 
 back outlet waste-arms to connect to the waste pipe 
 behind the back marble or slate slab, instead of as Figure 322, 
 where the waste pipes are shown on the front of the slab, and 
 discharging into an open channel. Urinal-basins, when connected 
 to "he waste pipe instead of into the open channel, should be 
 
 Figure 323; 
 
 Figure 324. 
 
 Figure 325. 
 
252 
 
 PLUMBrNG PRACTICE. 
 
 FIOUKE 3z6. 
 
 trapped. This is generally done by means of a lead tiap soldered 
 in the waste pipe — in some instances one trap to the range, and 
 others a trap to each basin, this latter being the right thing to do. 
 
 Figure 326 is a vertical section of a basin and trap in one 
 
 piece of earthenware, so constructed that water is retained in the 
 
 bowl. The lip, G, hangs so that whatever runs 
 
 down will drop on to the floor instead of running 
 
 under the basin and down the back slab. This 
 
 evil is generally unnoticed, although a frequent 
 
 source of smells near these places. There are 
 
 other basins, with earthenware traps to them, not 
 
 constructed to retain any body of water. Some 
 
 sanitary plumbers will fix a range of ordinary urinal 
 
 basins, and a valve and overflow pipe, so that water 
 
 is retained at the same level in all the basins. 
 
 Figure 327 shows how this is done, the basins and slabs being 
 
 omitted for clearness. H H are as fixed for back outlet, and I I 
 
 ^.^^ are for straight -outlet 
 
 (f u (( \\ S- basins. When fixed in 
 
 j.I.„.!^ ^~A^taxa.jaaL.^Jr^ this Way a constant 
 
 dribble of water should 
 be running, so as to keep 
 the contents of the bowls, 
 &c., in motion, and also 
 to prevent an accumula- 
 tion of urine in the basins. It is a further advantage to fix an 
 automatic flushing-tank, so as to periodically send a good scouring 
 flush through the pipes, &c. If this is done, precautions should 
 be taken to have the overflow large- enough to prevent the basin 
 overflowing. A moveable panel should be fixed in front of the dis- 
 charging apparatus, so that it can be readily got at for cleaning 
 should it become furred and choked up. The basins can easily 
 be removed should the branches or the horizontal waste pipe 
 require cleaning. 
 
 When several basins are flushed with one apparatus, great 
 care is required in so arranging the service pipes that each basin 
 will get its fair quantity of water. Figure 328 shows a good 
 way of doing this. K is the flushing-tank fed by a small tap, L. 
 
 Figure sty, 
 
URINALS. 253 
 
 A dribble or continuous flush can be arranged by fixing the pipe 
 and stop-cock, M. 
 
 In some cases, where the supply of water is limited, what is 
 commonly called a "treadle-action" apparatus is fixed to each 
 basin. There are several kinds of these 
 treadle actions. They mostly consist of 
 a small hinged platform, either above 
 or level with the flooring. Some are 
 inlaid with fancy tiles, and others have 
 iron gratings. The treadles are so 
 arranged that a person stepping on figure 328. 
 
 them causes a valve fixed beneath to open, or act upon a lever 
 connected by means of wires to a valve in a specially-arranged 
 cistern. In some cases the valves are arranged so as not to open 
 until the person steps away. These valves are specially made to 
 run one gallon of water and then close themselves, but do not 
 allow any water to pass during the time the platform is depressed. 
 
 These treadle-action apparatus are a common cause of com- 
 plaint by reason of the smells that escape from them. They are 
 mostly found to contain a quantity of stale urine, and when the 
 floor is swept, or washed, other matters get in to add to the evil. 
 When fixed in a wooden floor, or on brickwork, or stone, into 
 which the ofiensive matter soaks, no amount of cleaning will get 
 rid of the smeUs. One very good description of treadle apparatus 
 in the market has an enamelled-iron tray in which the valve is 
 fixed, and a small perforated pipe is so arranged that jets of 
 water escape at each opening of the valve and thoroughly wash 
 out this tray at the same time as the basin. But even this is a 
 nuisance if improperly fixed. 
 
 Figure 329 represents in section one the writer had to alter 
 some time ago. The cause arose from the blunder the plumber 
 made when fixing it of branching the waste pipe 
 from the tray into the trap in such way that 
 water, &c., laid in it, and sometimes rushed up 
 into the tray in such a volume that it did not 
 get thoroughly washed out again. 
 
 The reader is again referred to Figure 322. 
 The stalls or divisions should be clear of the floor _ *^ 
 
 FlGUKF. 325. 
 
254 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 SO that it can be swept clean, and have no corners for dirt to 
 accumulate in. The stalls are generally about 2 feet apart. This 
 gives a fair amount of room, and at the same time prevents 
 users from standing on one side of the basin so as to use it 
 improperly. The divisions generally project about 2 feet from 
 the back. This is a great mistake, and it causes users to stand too 
 far from the basin, and this occurs more particularly in railway 
 stations, where travellers perhaps have rugs and travelling-wraps 
 on their arms. The stalls should only project about 12 inches 
 clear of the back, so that visitors can stand close to the receivers. 
 
 The iron gratings placed over a hollow space in the floor 
 should in all cases be removed, as they only become receptacles 
 for filth. If these places (urinals) are properly fitted up, very little 
 will fall on the floor, and hence it is unnecessary to provide for 
 something that ought not to happen, and which eventually becomes 
 a source of evil. Veined marble is a good material to use for 
 urinal-stalls, and costs very little more than enamelled slate. 
 Light coloured enamelled slate looks very^ nice when quite new, 
 but it is objectionable for reasons that have already been rgiven in 
 another place. In some cases the' slate has been enamelled black, 
 in others to imitate granite and marbles ; but there are so many 
 mischievous people, amateur artists, about who, when they cannot 
 use a pencil, do not hesitate to take the point 
 of a pocket-knife to gain their object. The front 
 ^ '» lip of the basin should not be more than 2 feet 
 
 iGURE 330. above the floor, and should be i inch lower 
 rather than higher. In one public institution in London the 
 urinals are arranged as shown by Figure 330, which is a plan. 
 No basins are used; a constant stream of water is 
 kept running down the A-shaped backs, and also 
 down the sunken part in the floor. This floor- 
 flushing is shown by Figure 331, which is section 
 across Figure 330, at A B. N is a perforated 
 pipe hidden beneath the foot-stone. These places 
 are in the charge of attendants, whose duty it is to 
 keep them clean, but in spite of all the care taken 
 •IGURE 331- there is always an unpleasant odour near them. 
 
CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 URINAL/S — continued. 
 
 In some hotels and clubs urinals are fitted up similar to 
 Figure 322, but, instead of the iron gratings on the floor, perfor- 
 ations are made in the slate foot-stone, and an earthenware 
 receiver, with flushing-rim and water-supply attached, is placed 
 to catch drippings. 
 
 Figure 332 is a 
 plan of one basin 
 showing this. This 
 drip-pan has a waste 
 pipe connected, and 
 is flushed at the same 
 time as the urinal- 
 basin. One large London club has, by the 
 advice of their sanitary engineer, removed 
 the fixed urinals of this kind and sub- 
 stituted small portable utensils. A slop- 
 sink, as shown at Figure 230, is fixed for 
 emptying the bowls into, and a hot- 
 water tap. fixed over the sink for 
 rinsing purposes. An attendant is 
 told off for the special duty of keeping 
 these places clean. The man's wages is a bar to a 
 general adoption of this system, but where this is 
 not objected to the cause of smells is removed. 
 In another London club a range of six urinals 
 having been fitted up, the plan of each stall being 
 as Figure 332, was a cause of complaints by Figure 333. 
 reason of the smells being driven out at the bottom end of the 
 waste pipe each time the automatic flushing-cistern was discharged. 
 
 Figure 333 is a sectional elevation. The stench was so bad 
 
256 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 Figure 334. 
 
 that the grating, at A, had to be removed, a solid cover beddfed 
 over the guUey-trap, and a vent pipe fixed to a considerable 
 height to carry away the unpleasant odours. The new vent pipe 
 is shown by dotted lines. 
 
 Figure 334 is a sketch, drawn from memory, of a urinal that 
 was shown at the International Health Exhibition, held in London, 
 
 in 1884. A was a white porcelain 
 bowl, rounded to fit the back of the 
 stall, and the front part extended 
 beneath the iron grid on which the 
 users would stand. The back, B, 
 was made of one piece of thick 
 glass, bent as shown in the sketch, 
 the whole being enclosed with white 
 veined' marble. The flushing was 
 done by means of an automatic ' 
 flushing-tank arranged to empty it- 
 self at regular intervals of time through a sparge pipe bent to fit 
 the back. The grid, C, was easily removable for cleaning the 
 bottom basin. Although this urinal was shown by itself, there is 
 no reason why it should not be fitted up in a range. 
 
 There are sanitary engineers who prefer to have a narrow 
 step fixed to urinals, for the reason that users must then stand 
 close and so avoid spreading urine over a larger surface than 
 necessary. An opposite argument may be used, that people in a 
 
 hurry would 
 stumble at the 
 step, especially 
 when fixed in a 
 dark situation. 
 
 One large 
 firm of sanitary 
 engineers in 
 London fit up a 
 urinal with a 
 Figure 335. Figure 330. mahogany en- 
 
 closure, so arranged that upon lifting up the top of the enclosure 
 the sides open at the same time by means of the necessary brass 
 
URINALS. 
 
 257 
 
 Figure 337. 
 
 couplings, and by an ingenious piece of mechanism a valve is 
 opened so that water streams over the whole of the inner surface 
 of the basin during the time the place is being used. On closing 
 the lid the sides shut up and the water is turned off. 
 
 Figure 335 shows the fitting closed up, and Figure 336 when it is 
 open. It is spoken of as being suitable for offices and billiard-rooms. 
 
 There are two or three makers of sanitary fittings who fit up 
 a wash-hand basin and urinal in the same enclosure. Figure 337 
 is an illustration of one. The 
 urinal-basin is fitted to the door, 
 on opening which water begins 
 to flow. The waste pipe is con- 
 nected to that of the wash-hand 
 basin by means of a hinged and 
 telescopic joint. 
 
 There are also one or two 
 folding - urinals in the market. 
 These are hinged on the back edge on to a cast-iron frame fixed 
 over a recess made in the wall. The basin is pulled down for 
 use, after which it is closed by lifting up the front edge, when the 
 contents are tilted into a kind of hopper and so run away down 
 a waste pipe. 
 
 Figure 338 is a sketch showing one that is spoken of as being 
 compact, and suitable for offices, ships, and other places where 
 space is limited. A round basin and slab, in 
 one piece, fitted up in a similar way as 
 Figure 338, makes a compact wash-hand basin. 
 In this case the rod which connects the 
 basin to the key of the supply-cock should 
 be omitted, and bibb-faucets, having jointed 
 nozzles for pushing back out of the way, 
 used so that hot and cold water can be turned 
 on at pleasure. A great many of the fittings 
 that have been described are very ingenious 
 and compact, but they all have the disadvantage that unless they 
 are well looked after and get the necessary attention they soon 
 become offensive-smelling. For this reason urinals should always 
 be situated in a well-lighted place, and, if possible, away from 
 
 Figure 338. 
 
258 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 the dwelling. When, of necessity, they must be fikec? inside the 
 house, the room in which they are situated should be thoroughly 
 well ventilated, and an attendant instructed to thoroughly cleanse 
 the basin, arid as much of the waste pipe, &c., as can be got at 
 as often as possible — even once a day would not be too often. 
 
 In some public museums and exhibitions urinettes are fitted 
 up in ladies' cloak-rooms. Figure 339 is a sketch of one. These 
 are mostly arranged with a valve beneath, so that when the seat 
 is depressed a stream of water flushes the 
 basin. There is no doubt that all urinals, 
 whether stalls or basins, should have a 
 constant stream of water running over the 
 parts exposed to the action of urine, but 
 in some places the supply of water is 
 limited, either by scarcity or by the rules 
 of the Water Companies, to a 'discharge 
 through a water waste-preventing valve or 
 iGuRE 339. cistern of about one-half to one gallon to 
 
 each basin ; but it frequently happens that even this limited 
 quantity of water is not used — people come and go and never 
 think of flushing the place after them. To ensure a periodical 
 flushing of the places under discussion automatic flushing-cisterns 
 are in great favour^ as when once started they require no further 
 attention beyond making good any of the working parts that may 
 wear out. Most of the Water Companies in London permit the 
 use of these cisterns, but some of their inspectors put seals on 
 the regulating-cocks after testing that a not 
 too extravagant quantity of water is used. 
 
 Figure 340 is a sketch of a very simple 
 automatic flushing-cistern holding about two 
 gallons. If required to empty itself about every 
 eight or ten minutes a small tap can be fixed 
 and regulated to fill the cistern in that time ; 
 but if it is . intended to discharge about every 
 ten or twenty minutes, it is sometimes necessary to fix a reversible 
 ball-valve. The action is as follows : The bottom parts of the 
 pipe-coil inside the cistern retain a small quantity, of water, the 
 upper parts being charged with air. This makes the coiled pipe 
 
 Figure 340. 
 
URINALS. 
 
 259 
 
 what is commonly called air-bound. The water has to rise in 
 the cistern so as to cover the coil a few inches so that the weight 
 of the water is sufficient to overcome the resistance offered by the 
 pent-up air inside the bent pipe. A small supply-cock, set so 
 that the water dribbles very slowly into the cistern, will not fill it 
 quick enough, so that the water will dribble away down the pipe 
 as fast as it comes in. By adding a reversible ball-valve and 
 regulating it so that when the cistern is partly full the floating 
 ball will open the valve and let the water run in at full bore, it 
 will head up so quickly that any small quantity dribbling away 
 has no effect on the ultimate results. 
 
 Figure 341 is a sketch of one which acts precisely as Figure 
 340, but a great deal depends upon the depth of the bag part, A. 
 
 tf ■"liillji 
 
 Figure 341. 
 
 Figure 342. 
 
 Figure 343. 
 
 Figure 342 is a patent automatic cistern used for the same purpose. 
 Another kind is shown by sketch. Figure 343. In this case the 
 inner chamber is hung on bearings fixed slightly out of the centre, 
 but so shaped that when quite full of water the part B becomes 
 the heavier, so that it falls down and allows the contents to escape 
 into the outer chamber and down the pipes. When empty, the 
 other end being the heavier, it falls back to its original position. 
 Indiarubber buffers have to be fixed for the 
 tumbling chamber to knock against, otherwise 
 it is very noisy in its action. 
 
 Figure 344 is another description of auto- 
 matic flushing-tank. In this case a syphon 
 has to be fixed as shown at C, so as to retain 
 the air in the syphon pipe, D, so that the 
 water will head up to the dotted line, when it will have sufficient 
 weight to drive out the air and start the syphon. These cisterns 
 are also made to a large size and used for flushing drains, &c. 
 
 Figure 344. 
 
 S 2 
 
CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 SOIL PIPES. 
 
 At a very old historical building in London a retiring-place 
 was found to be made at the top of a two-storied building, and a 
 shaft built in the walls for the purpose of conveying excreta to 
 an opening leading into the River Thames. Figure 345 is a 
 sketch section showing the shaft. A plain seat 
 was originally fixed over the top of the shaft, 
 until the stench that escaped became unbear- 
 able, when a water-closet basin and trap were 
 introduced. As this did not improve matters 
 very much, it was finally decided to fix a lead 
 soil pipe, as shown, the men and necessary 
 materials being lowered from the top. A drain 
 was also fixed from the bottom of the soil 
 pipe to an adjoining sewer. There is no doubt 
 the shaft remains an evil, as the walls were 
 partly covered with excreta, and it is more 
 than probable that the smells from this can 
 pass through into the adjoining rooms. 
 
 Some people are under the impression that 
 anything in the shape of a tube will do for conveying soil from a 
 water-closet to a drain, and all sorts of schemes are practised 
 with that object, but with varying degrees of success. In some 
 modern cases common drain pipes have been fixed as soil-conduits. 
 In other cases drain pipes have been used and fastened to the 
 walls of houses with pieces of hoop-iron. In another case common 
 drain pipes were built in a party-wall between two houses to act 
 as a ventilator to the house drains. In this case a week was 
 spent in fruitless search for the cause of smells in the drawing- 
 
 FlGURE 345. 
 
SOIL PIPES. 
 
 261 
 
 Figure 346 
 
 room, when it was decided to take down the wooden skirtings. 
 In doing this the wooden plugs, driven into the joints of the 
 brickwork for fixing the skirtings to, came out, and a loose brick 
 was also found. On removing this brick the source of evil was 
 discovered. 
 
 Figure 346 is an illustration showing this. Drain pipes, no 
 matter how well the joints may be made in the first instance, 
 are not to be trusted to either for the 
 conveyance of soil or for vent pipes to 
 drains. 
 
 Zinc is not a proper material for soil 
 pipes. In some suburban residences, built 
 by jerry builders, zinc pipe has been used, 
 and, in less than twelve months, holes have been eaten through 
 by the gases emanating from sewage. In some cases D-traps 
 made of zinc have been discovered beneath water-closets ; one 
 exhibited at the Parkes Museum of Hygiene, in London, is 
 literally all in pieces. In spite of the knowledge that zinc is not 
 a good material to use, there are a great 
 many cases where it is being put in by 
 scamping builders. 
 
 A common way of fixing the soil pipe 
 at small residences is shown at Figure 347, 
 which is a section of a back part of a 
 house. Ordinary iron rain-water pipe is 
 fixed up to A, when a short piece of lead 
 pipe is inserted, and a lead branch pipe 
 carried through the wall to the trap of the 
 water-closet. Above this the vertical pipe 
 is continued to eaves-gutter to receive rain- 
 water from the roof. It is very rarely 
 that the joints of the pipes are made 
 air-tight, and, even if they were, smells 
 escaping from the top of the vent and 
 rain-water pipe can pass into any open window, as denoted by 
 the arrows. The joints of the pipes, when made at all, are made 
 of red-lead cement. If in the sun, these joints soon become 
 defective. The expansion and contraction of the metal pulls the 
 
 Figure 347. 
 
252 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 a'l'rir vt.o'TT . 
 
 cement out of the socket, as shown in section, Figure 348. In 
 some cases when the cement has been finished flush with the top 
 edge of the socket, two or three days' sunshine will 
 cause it to stand up from ^ to f -inch, as shown at 
 A, leaving a crack through which any smells can 
 escape. The sun has no effect on iron pipes when 
 fixed inside the house, but it is almost impossible to 
 „, ,, u make sound joints to them. Out of some hundreds 
 
 of tests made, the writer has never yet found an 
 Figure 348- i^on pipe of this description to stand either the 
 peppermint or smoke tests, defective joints being the rule and 
 not the exception. 
 
 At a first-class (?) house in the West-end of London the 
 soil pipe was of the same description as mentioned above, and 
 
 also acted as a drain ventilation pipe, 
 the top end being connected to the 
 gutter of the roof to receive the rain- 
 water. It was complained that none 
 of the back windows could be opened 
 on account of the smells that escaped 
 from the pipes. 
 
 Figure 349 is 
 part of the back 
 elevation of the 
 house, with the 
 projection built for 
 the water - closet 
 shown in section. 
 Figure 350 is a 
 plan of one floor, 
 and Figure 351 
 of the roof over 
 projection, bath- 
 room, and house- 
 maid's closet. The 
 sketches speak for 
 themselves, the arrows denoting the evils complained of. The 
 waste pipe from the bath and the sink, which also received 
 
 FiGO IE 3(9. 
 
 Figure 351. 
 
SOIL PIPES. 
 
 263 
 
 chamber slops, discharged on to the roof, which was offensive 
 from the splashings of the slops. In addition to the defects 
 pointed out, there were no traps beneath the sink or bath, so 
 that the smells from the drains were laid 
 on to the house by means of the waste 
 pijjes. 
 
 The writer could give numerous 
 examples of this class of work, and cases 
 where purchasers have tried to save a 
 few pounds by not employing a sanitary 
 expert to advise them, before purchasing 
 a house, as to its sanitary arrangements, 
 preferring rather to run the risk of being 
 duped by unscrupulous builders. 
 
 Another example is given at Figure 
 352 of one house in a street, all the 
 others being arranged in the same 
 careful (?) manner. In this case the soil 
 pipe was of lead up to the point B, 
 and the joints were properly soldered, 
 but, above that, iron pipe was fixed to 
 take the rain-water from the roof. The 
 joints were not made air-tight, so that 
 smells could escape. The head on the 
 top end was dangerously near a window, 
 but the greatest evils were the branch pipe to carry off rain-water 
 from the lower roof, which was only 7.\ feet from a bedroom 
 window, and the overflow from the cistern, 
 which supplied drinking-water for the 
 household, connected to the branch rain- 
 water pipe. The arrows show the defective ^ 
 arrangements, which, perhaps, were the j^^f 
 cause of the illness of the inmates, and ^ 
 which led to the examination and dis- 
 covery of the evils. 
 
 Figure 353 is a fragmentary section 
 showing a defect that recently came under 
 the writer's notice. This was in the house of a medical officer of 
 
 Figure 352. 
 
 Figure 353. 
 
264 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 health. The stench in the water-closet was so great that it was 
 thought advisable to take away the old pan water-closet and 
 D-trap, and fix a better kind of trap and an apparatus of a more 
 sanitary description. The floor of the water-closet was taken up 
 for access to change the trap, when it was discovered that a hole 
 was eaten through the lead by sewage gases, so that it was 
 necessary to change the branch soil pipe. On cutting away the 
 brick wall for that purpose a slip-joint was found, as shown at C. 
 , The discovery of this defect may almost be termed accidental, as 
 it was hidden in the brickwork and could not be seen until the 
 wall was cut away. 
 
 This is an example of how some builders plumb their houses : 
 They will let the plumbing, piece-work, to some journeyman 
 plumber, as unprincipled as themselves, at a price that would 
 scarcely pay for good materials. The plumber, to make the work 
 profitable, will make several T-pieces, and solder short pieces of 
 soil pipe on to D-traps, which are generally made of five-pound 
 lead, at his home. The T-pieces are sent on to the job and 
 fixed, perhaps, by the bricklayer. A few days afterward the 
 plumber will bring the traps, socket them in the branches of the 
 T's, as shown at Figure 353, and, after the carpenter has laid 
 the floor, will fix the water-closet apparatus and pipes to flush 
 them, and the job is completed. The writer has known dealers 
 of materials to go round and buy up old pan water-closet 
 apparatuses, do them up, and sell them cheap to the above class 
 of builders. 
 
 It is to be hoped that the long-talked-of registration of 
 plumbers in England will soon be a fact, and, in addition, that 
 properly-qualified inspectors of plumbers' work will be appointed, 
 and laws passed to make it a criminal offence to do any plumbers' 
 work in such a way as to be injurious to the health of the poor 
 victims 'of people who have to live in the above kind of houses.* 
 
 • Since writing the above, some hundreds of plumbers have been registered by 
 the Plumbers' Company, and better things are now to be hoped for. 
 
CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 SOIL FlF'ES—co7itinued. 
 
 Enough has been written to show the danger of fixing light 
 iron soil pipes, with the rain-water leaders connected to them, on 
 the outside of the house, but there remains to be 
 told the evils of fixing the same class of work inside the 
 house. Figure 354 is a very common example. One 
 case was tested with a smoke-rocket, when 
 escaped from each joint of the pipes, and 
 also through the wall into an adjoining bed- 
 room. This will be mere clearly understood 
 by referring to Figure 355, this being a 
 plan of one water-closet, the arrow showing 
 the way the smoke passed through the wall, 
 which, at this point, was only about 4^ inches 
 thick. The mortar was very poor, and as 
 the chase for the pipes had been cut 
 after the walls were built, the bricks 
 were loose. The plaster on the walls 
 was very much cracked, thus leaving 
 little or nothing to act as a barrier 
 against smells passing through. The 
 soil pipe was continued to the small flat 
 roof to receive the rain-water from that and 
 also the upper roof. The overflow pipe from 
 the cistern was fixed so as to discharge into the 
 top end of the soil pipe. 
 
 Another class of house is shown in 
 section at Figure 356. One water-closet was 
 on the second floor, and the soil pipe from F1GUHE355. 
 
 it was fixed inside the house in an angle of the drawing-room on 
 
 Figure 354. 
 
 Wm/m//MA 
 
 ym//M/MM%////M)/h 
 
266 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 the first floor and the dining-room on the ground floor. The pipes 
 were of light iron and the joints defective. Each time the water- 
 closet was used the noise of the 
 water was distinctly heard in the 
 above rooms, so that it was 
 deemed advisable to remove the 
 whole affair to a less objection- 
 able position, and the soil pipe 
 fixed outside an external wall. 
 
 In another case the water- 
 closet was fixed over a drawing- 
 room with a decorated ceiling. 
 The space round the trap was 
 packed with sawdust to deaden 
 the sound of rushing water. The 
 housemaids had been in the habit 
 of bringing all bedroom slops to 
 tl^is water-closet, and, although 
 the floor beneath the apparatus 
 was partly covered with lead, 
 water splashed over, and the 
 ceiling beneath was disfigured 
 with stains. In spite of all 
 protests as to the unsuitability 
 of the position for a water-closet 
 the owner insisted on retaining it in its present place. This 
 is in a house the rental of which is about ^150 a year. There 
 is not the least doubt the plaster of the ceiling below will 
 become so loose that, should a pipe leak or water by any 
 means get splashed over the water-closet safe, a large portion 
 of the ceiling will fall down and perhaps do several pounds' 
 worth of damage to furniture or whatever may be near, and 
 then there will be another growl at the plumber who fixed the 
 water-closet there. 
 
 There are several houses near Hyde Park, in London, that 
 were built some twenty-five years ago, that are very badly 
 designed with regard to the sanitary arrangements. Figure 357 is 
 a section across the two upper floors and roof of one house the 
 
 Figure 356. 
 
SOIL PIPES. 
 
 267 
 
 Figure 357. 
 
 writer had to make several alterations to some years ago. The 
 
 soil pipe was continued to the small flat roof next the party-wall 
 
 of the next house. Beneath the floor 
 
 of attic an open trough, made by lining 
 
 between the floor-joists with lead, was 
 
 made to carry away the water from the 
 
 front gutter into the soil pipe. In 
 
 addition to the smells escaping out of 
 
 the end of the trough and entering the 
 
 attic window, the floor-boards over the 
 
 trough were so shrunken as to allow 
 
 any smells to freely escape into the 
 
 bedroom in which maidservants slept. 
 
 The arrows denote this escape. The way this was improved was 
 
 rather interesting. Space was made by the side of the soil pipe 
 
 to fix a new lead pipe to receive the rain-water from the small 
 
 flat roof. The lead trough beneath the flooring was taken out, 
 
 and, as the space was only 2f inches deep, a 6-inch lead pipe 
 
 was flattened, as shown- in section, Figure 358. lo-foot lengths of 
 
 pipe were used, which necessitated three joints 
 
 being made when the pipes were in their 
 
 position. This was got over by cutting open 
 
 the pipes about 18 inches each side of the 
 
 joint, which was then soldered on the inside of 
 
 the bottom and sides. After doing this the pipe was closed and 
 
 the other part of the joint wiped on the outside. A seam was then 
 
 wiped over the slits, paper being pasted over the soldered joint at 
 
 the sides of the seam to prevent that being melted. One end of 
 
 the 6-inch pipe was bent upward, as shown by Figure 359, and 
 
 soldered into the bottom of the gutter, 
 
 and the other end soldered into the 
 
 vertical rain-water pipe fixed from the 
 
 upper roof as predescribed. 
 
 Innumerable cases could be given figure 359. 
 
 of the evil of attaching rain-water leaders to soil pipes. Figure 210 
 is a plan of a house, one of the soil pipes in which was used as 
 a rain-water leader. The top end was finished as shown in section. 
 Figure 360. A is a skylight over a staircase, and which also gave 
 
 Figure 358. 
 
268 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 light to several bedrooms. The sides of the light were louvred 
 for ventilation, but, unfortunately, the skylight was in a valley 
 between two high roofs, and it did not matter which way the wind 
 
 blew there was always a draught 
 into the house, carrying with it 
 any smells that escaped from the 
 combined rain-water and soil pipe. 
 In this case a separate soil pipe 
 was fixed and continued to a good 
 height above the roof as ventilation 
 to drains and soil pipe. 
 
 At a country house taken by 
 a lady and family for the summer months, the servants sat by 
 their bedroom window the whole of the first and only night they 
 were there, and could not stay in bed because of the abominable 
 stench that appeared to be immediately beneath. On an examina- 
 tion being made it was discovered that the rain-water leader was 
 connected to a drain leading into a cesspool, no trap of any kind 
 being fixed to prevent smells escaping. Figure 361 illustrates 
 the evil. Smells escaping through the pipe passed under the 
 
 Figure 361. 
 
 Figure 3G2. 
 
 eaves of the slates, between the floor-joists and through the 
 joints of the boards beneath the bedstead. 
 
 One more illustration is given of defects, of construction often 
 met with in a certain class of London houses. In this case a 
 servant-maid had fever, which led to an examination for the 
 cause being instituted. Figure 362 is a fragmental section of the 
 
SOIL PIPES. 269 
 
 third and attic floors of the house. The soil pipe, which was of 
 lead, with good soldered joints, was connected at the top with a 
 leaden gutter as shown. The attic rooms were used for sleeping 
 in, and the above gutter was continued through each attic to 
 receive the water from the back and front roofs. The only protection 
 to prevent smells passing into these bedrooms was a hoard loosely laid over 
 the trough gutter. In addition to this abominable state of things, 
 appearances lead one to think at times this board had been 
 removed so that bedroom slops could be emptied down, and thus 
 add to the already insanitary state of things. 
 
 I should like to diverge from the subject of soil pipes for a 
 few minutes, to show that it is not always the journeyman 
 plumber who is to blame for bad work. No matter how skilful 
 he may be, he cannot make a good job with bad or improper 
 materials, and, when working to some one else's dictation, it is 
 not fair the plumber should be charged with the dictator's 
 mistakes. Further, the public — that is, those interested in houses 
 as owners or tenants — are very much to blame for a great deal of 
 bad work. As an illustration : In a great number of cases where 
 the writer has been sent for to make an examination of a house, 
 he has been met by the person interested, and it is really 
 ludicrous the pains that are often taken to impress upon him 
 (the writer) that there never has been any illness in the house, 
 and there is nothing the matter. In these cases one is almost 
 tempted to ask the person : " Why send for a sanitary man, 
 then ? " Novices at making examinations of houses would be 
 influenced by the above class of people, and not thoroughly test 
 the drains, &c., while old hands at it would simply smile and 
 make a thorough examination. 
 
 A case occurred where the writer tested the drains of a house 
 with smoke and found them very defective, the smoke escaping 
 between the joints of the stone paving in passages and floor-boards 
 of rooms. In spite of this proof the owner was not satisfied until 
 he had called in another adviser, who made a report similar to 
 the first one's. The services of both advisers were dispensed 
 with, and a jack-of- all-trades employed to stop up the cracks in 
 the flooring with mortar and putty. 
 
 Very often after an examination of a house has been made 
 
270 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 and the report sent into the owner, the sanitary man has to 
 submit to all sorts of interrogations, such as " Is it as bad as 
 you say ? What will it cost to put right ? Are you sure it is 
 defective ? How long will it take to do ? I don't think it is so 
 bad as you make out ! Can it be done without the family leaving 
 the house ? You must have made a mistake, as no one has been 
 ill ! Could not the holes be stopped with putty ? " After about 
 an hour, and sometimes two, of this misery, when one wishes he 
 had never been called in, he is dismissed with the remark, " I 
 will think about it and let you know." This promise is very often 
 not kept, but some talented expert, who can do wonders with 
 paint and putty, is called in, with the result that very often the 
 doctor's bill is considerably more than would have paid for that 
 which would have prevented the illness of the family. 
 
 But to return to our original subject. In several cases of 
 testing, smoke has been found to escape beneath the seat of an 
 upstairs water-closet, and this sometimes when trying to find 
 cause for smells in some other position. In taking down the 
 wood enclosure of the water-closet it is often found that a small 
 trap is placed beneath the lead safe to take away any water that 
 overflowed the basin, the outgo of the trap being branched into 
 that from the water-closet trap. The water has become syphoned 
 out of the small trap, as the soil pipes were not ventilated, and 
 the small pipe, called the "weeping pipe," which is arranged so 
 as to recharge this trap with water at each usage of the water- 
 closet, has become 
 ^^^^M PnS choked, so that no 
 
 water can pass 
 through to recharge 
 the trap. Figure 363 
 is a plan of the two 
 traps and soil pipe, 
 and Figure 364 is 
 an elevation on 
 A B showing the 
 apparatus fixed and 
 the weeping pipe, at 
 In these cases the water-closets are generally flushed by 
 
 Figure 363. 
 
 Figure 364. 
 
 c. 
 
SOIL PIPES. 
 
 271 
 
 means of valves and service-boxes fixed in the cistern over. In 
 other cases, where a valve and regulator flushing apparatus has 
 been used, the weeping pipe hag been branched into the pipe 
 between the valve and arm of the basin. 
 
 Twenty to twenty-six years ago the writer assisted to fix 
 large numbers of water-closet traps in the manner above described. 
 At that time it was considered to be first-class work, and was 
 done in aU high-class houses. One case comes back to memory 
 where the traps for a range of eight water-closets were arranged, 
 as shown on plan, Figure 365. So much value was not attached 
 
 Figure 366. 
 
 Figure 365. 
 
 to ventilation pipes at that time as now, f-inch and i-inch pipes 
 being considered quite large enough for the purpose of preventing 
 syphonage of traps. In some cases the D-traps were made very 
 large— that is, lo inches or ii inches deep instead of 9 inches 
 which was the usual size, and 7 inches wide, 
 the dip pipe being kept a little distance from 
 the heel, as shown in section. Figure 366. By 
 doing this, space is made for a larger quantity 
 of air to enter, with less displacement of water 
 than is the case with a small size D-trap, in which the heel and 
 sides are close to the dip pipe. But traps of that size have now 
 fallen into disuse, being often described as small cesspools. Large 
 soil pipes were also in much favour, as it was more difficult to 
 fiU them with water so as to start a syphonic action on the water 
 in the traps. These precautions were taken in the case of the 
 work shown in Figure 365, which, no . doubt, was a thorough 
 success when judged with the experiences of that age, but it was 
 also found necessary to fix f-inch flushing pipes to the water- 
 closets, a larger size with a good head of water often upsetting 
 all calculations on the point of trap-syphonage. In cases similar 
 to Figure 365, which have been renewed within this last ten years, 
 
272 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 Figure 367* 
 
 it has often been found that the safe-traps have been quite empty, 
 partly by syphonage, and the rest by evaporation ; the weeping 
 pipes in these cases having become useless 
 by being choked at D, Figure 367. This is 
 not so likely to occur if the bottom end is 
 left open and the other end tapered, as 
 shown by dotted lines at E. Any dirt 
 lodging on the top end of the pipe would 
 be removed by the scour of the water as it 
 passes toward the basin, whereas in the first 
 instance anything getting into the end D 
 would become further jammed by the water- 
 pressure above it. In the case of stoppage 
 in the soil pipe, the safe-trap, when arranged as shown at Figure 
 363, becomes perfectly useless. The outgo being branched into 
 the soil pipe, any stoppage in the soil pipe affects this trap as 
 much P.S that under the water-closet. 
 
 In some cases the waste pipe from the safe has been branched 
 into the cheek of the water-closet D-trap, as shown at Figure 368. 
 
 So long as the water is in the 
 trap to the necessary height 
 no smells can escape from the 
 soil pipe. But the waste pipe 
 is a serious evil in another 
 way. Little puflFs of air are 
 driven out, as shown by the 
 arrow, each time the water- 
 closet is used, and sewage- 
 matter is also driven out and 
 lays in the bottom of the safe 
 to an extent often injurious 
 to health. There are several 
 cases on record where this 
 safe waste pipe has been branched into the trap above the 
 water-line, as shown by dotted lines, and others where it has 
 been branched into the soil pipe, and no provision whatever 
 made for keeping smells from escaping. On the left hand of 
 Figure 368 is shown a fragment of the cistern-waste branched 
 
 Figure 368. 
 
SOIL PIPES. 273 
 
 into the water-closet D-trap. Several years ago this was con- 
 sidered the right thing to do, and the writer has done them that 
 way. When newly fixed, as shown, it is highly dangerous to pull 
 out the cistern stand, or cleaning-out, pipe as the water will 
 rush down the waste pipe through the trap, and play up as a 
 fountain through the safe-waste pipe. After being fixed for a few 
 years the ends of the pipes in the traps become furred up so that 
 no water whatever will pass, thus rendering these pipes perfectly 
 useless for their purpose. Most sanitarians carry the waste pipe 
 &om the safe out of doors into the open air, with a hinged fiap 
 on the end to prevent any inwsird draught and to keep out birds, 
 &c. Where this cannot be done, the lead safe should be continued 
 in front of the water-closet enclosure, so that if a leakage occurs 
 it can be seen. 
 
CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 SOIL PIPES— contimted. 
 
 Plumbers' work done about twenty years ago, and which 
 recently has had to be taken out, has very often been found to 
 be of good materials and workmanship, but badly arranged. In 
 
 first-class work it was usual to branch 
 ^ -T^- ^ «« i« waste pipes from all kinds of fittings 
 
 into the water-closet trap. Figure 369 
 is a sketch of a trap with four ends 
 " of waste pipes attached that was 
 taken out a short time ago. A was 
 the waste pipe from the lead safe on 
 the floor under the water-closet, B 
 was that from the cistern fixed over the water-closet, C was the 
 waste pipe from a wash-hand basin, and D from a small sink 
 fixed on the floor above. 
 
 Figure 370 is a sketch of some old work recently taken out 
 of a building in Lincoln's Inn Fields. It transpired that this job 
 
 Figure 369. 
 
 Figure 370, 
 
 never had worked properly, although a plumber, about two years 
 ago, took out an old D-trap from under the water-closet and fixed 
 one of a better description. In the figure, E is a sink in the 
 scullery ; L, a bath ; F, a small sink on floor of staircase landing ; 
 G, waste pipe from water-closet safe ; I, waste pipe from cistern 
 over water-closet; H, the water-closet trap; K, the joint of trap 
 to branch soil pipe, soldered on the top side, and red-lead 
 cemented on the under side. The whole of this work was fixed 
 
SOIL PIPES. 275 
 
 in the caretaker's apartments on the top floor. Every time the 
 water-closet was used pufTs of foul air were sent out of the various 
 waste pipes, and when the scullery sink was used, dirty water 
 would flow up into the bath and the sink on the floor. The 
 caretaker, to prevent tliis, corked up the bath and sink waste 
 pipes, the corks being removed when those fittings were used. 
 After doing this he was continually sending for the plumber to 
 unstop the waste pipe from the sink E. Very little comment is 
 necessary; the veriest tyro will see at once the stupid arrange- 
 ments. It may be added, however, that when the waste pipes 
 from L and F were corked up, the horizontal waste pipe would 
 become air-bound by reason of its being trapped and ret£iining 
 water in the bagged parts. Before the branch pipes were corked 
 the pent-up air could escape, and thus allow the waste water to 
 escape past. Several instances of this kind of botch-work could 
 be given, but the writer refrains, thinking that perhaps his 
 readers would be under the impression that their credulity was 
 being drawn upon. 
 
 To return to soil pipes. Figure 371 is a plan of horizontal soil 
 pipes for water-closets which had traps attached to the apparatus. 
 The writer was working 
 
 with several other M % ff_/Li/f ^i ^ 
 plumbers, about eighteen 
 years ago, at a large M^?k '^*~^~~\ 
 public hospital where ^ ' ' ' ' ^ 
 
 , C . FiGDRE 371. 
 
 several ranges of water- 
 closets had the soil pipes fixed as above plan. The vertical soil 
 pipes were of lead 6 inches in diameter, and continued to roof 
 as ventilators. The horizontal pipes were 5 inches, and the 
 branches were 4^^ inches in diameter. The floors were fire-prooi^ 
 and, so that they should not be impaired or weakened by 
 cutting any part away, it was decided to fix the branches as 
 shown, in preference to having one horizontal pipe to each 
 range of water-closets, for the reason that little or no fall 
 could be given to a long length of pipe unless a step up was 
 made to the water-closets. Steps should be avoided as much 
 as possible to all water-closets, more especially in a hospital 
 fnr sick people. 
 
 T 2 
 
276 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE, 
 
 Figure 372 is a plan of several soil pipes that were fixed in 
 the same hospital where it was required to have two water-closets 
 side by side. In this case there were four 
 floors, the same arrangements being carried 
 out on each. The seats were arranged as 
 shown by dotted lines. That on the 
 right-hand side had to be kept forward, 
 otherwise the flap would not remain open 
 because of the splayed angle of wall. 
 Figure 373 is an elevation ; Figure 374, a plan ; and Figure 375, 
 a section on A B of a range of water-closets fixed several years 
 
 ago at a London railway- 
 
 ~i — ' — 
 
 lY 
 
 Figure 373. 
 
 -=l=i=i=4^ 
 
 Figure 373. 
 
 A 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 station for the use of the 
 passengers. The water- 
 closets were on a level 
 with the platform, which 
 was about 40 feet above 
 the level of the street. 
 The reader is referred to 
 the branch-joints, which 
 The branches at 
 
 Figure 374. 
 
 are all at right angles to the main soil pipes. 
 X, Y, Figure 373, are badly arranged, as what came down one 
 horizontal pipe would doubtless rush up the one 
 opposite, and perhaps lay there until a discharge 
 from one of the water-closets on that branch would 
 again wash it up into the first one. Similar work 
 was being done at another station by different 
 Figure 37s. men, when the above evil was foreseen and pre- 
 cautions taken to prevent what has been described from occurring. 
 Figure 376 is a plan, and Figure 377 an elevation, showing how, 
 
 in this other case, the branch- 
 joints were made good to the 
 vertical pipe. It. will be seen 
 that it was impossible for matter 
 Figure 376. Figure 377. to rush down One pipe and up 
 
 the one opposite. In addition to the branch pipes being jointed 
 to the vertical pipe at different levels, they were arranged so that 
 they entered at the front side, or nearly so. At Z, Z, Figure 377, 
 
SOIL PIPES. 277 
 
 is shown how the branches were made good to the horizontal soil 
 pipe, the bottom ends being bent so as to direct the current in 
 the proper direction. There is no doubt that those shown in 
 Figure 373 would cause the stream of water and faecal matter to 
 be directed on the bottom of the horizontal pipe in such a waj 
 that part would be driven up the pipe, where it would lay until a 
 discharge from a fitting higher up would send it down again. The 
 illustrations, Figures 371, 372, 373, 374, 375, 376, and 377, are all 
 of soil pipes prepared to receive water-closets that were made of one 
 piece of earthenware — that is, the trap and basin were combined 
 
 Referring again to Figure 371, it will be noticed that the short 
 pipes branched into the horizontal soil pipe have the connection? 
 made in such a way as to reduce to a minimum the liability ol 
 the discharges from the water-closets running back up the main 
 soil pipe. The branch-joints, when made in this way, require to 
 be carefully fitted, or little spurs of solder will be found inside 
 when finished. They also require about half as much more solder, 
 and a thin cloth to be used, so that as much solder can be wiped 
 out of the throat of the acute angles, W, W, as possible. 
 
 Some little time ago the writer was acting as foreman on a 
 large job, and instructed the plumbers to make the branch-joints 
 of a soil pipe for a range of water-closets in the same manner 
 as shown at Figure 371. Unfortunately, he fell sick, and was 
 away for some few days, and when he came back, found part of 
 the work done and fixed, the joints being 
 made as shown at Figure 378. It was 
 very difficult to make the men under- 
 stand that the object sought was entirely 
 lost by bending the end of the branch figure 378. 
 
 soil pipe in such a way that it entered the horizontal pipe at 
 right angles, and that the work would have answered just as 
 well, and the labour to the bend saved, if the pipe had been 
 branched, as shown by dotted lines at V. It is scarcely necessary 
 to add that the joints were intended to be made as shown by 
 viotted lines at U. 
 
 A case of faulty construction occurred where complaints 
 were made of an abominable stench issuing firom a water-closet 
 near a bedroom. An examination was made for the cause, when 
 
278 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 Figure 379. 
 
 it was found that the waste pipe from the slop-sink — shown in 
 sectional elevation at A, Figure 379 — was connected to the side 
 
 of the water-closet 
 
 trap, on the floor 
 
 below, in such a 
 
 way that whatever 
 
 was thrown into 
 
 the sink rushed 
 
 down the waste 
 
 pipe, through the 
 
 water-closet trap, 
 
 up the safe waste 
 
 pipe, and lay in 
 
 the lead safe at B. 
 
 Another sink was fixed beneath the stairs, 
 
 as shown at C, and sometimes when the 
 
 water-closet was used liquid matter would 
 
 wash back up the waste pipe, and could be 
 
 seen to knock up against the grating which 
 
 is soldered over the end of the waste pipe 
 
 in the sink. 
 
 Figure 380 is a sectional elevation of a 
 wing of a large building in London which is 
 occupied as offices. The vertical stack of 
 soil pipe is fixed inside the building and is 
 4-|-inch diameter lead pipe. The water-closets 
 are of the valve description, and fixed over 
 Figure 380. j^^^ D-traps. In the lobby outside each 
 
 water-closet is a wash-hand basin, a urinal-basin, and a lead sink 
 on the floor for drawing water into pails for cleansing purposes. 
 A ij-inch lead ventilating pipe is carried from the top end of 
 the soil pipe to the roof. It transpired that for years there had 
 always been complaints of smells escaping from somewhere, but 
 hitherto no one had been able to discover where. Sometimes the 
 smells were found on one floor, and at other times on another, 
 and sometimes in a water-closet, and sometimes in the adjoining 
 lobbies, or in the ofiices behind. Chemical and smoke tests failed 
 to prove any defects in the soil or waste pipes, or that the seals 
 
SOIL PIPES. 279 
 
 o^ any of the traps were broken. It was found impossible to 
 break the seals of the traps by syphonage, for the reason that 
 the branch waste and soil pipes had not sufficient fall, and in 
 spite of violent tests the D-traps always retained sufficient water 
 to seal the ends of the dip pipes, but in some cases only to the 
 extent of -J to J of an inch. The examiner having called in two 
 other persons to assist him, it was found that when two water- 
 closets on the upper floors were used at the same instant of time, 
 the air in the lower portion of the soil pipe would become 
 sufficiently compressed as to burst through the traps fixed on the 
 floor below. After the air had escaped, the water would fall back 
 into the traps, thus leaving them sealed again. It was also found 
 that another reason the water was not syphoned out of the traps 
 sufficiently to break the seals was, that so many traps were 
 connected to the same soil pipe, that each would allow a small 
 quantity of air to pass, which, in the aggregate, was sufficient, 
 when added to the air entering through the ij-inch vetit pipe, to 
 fill the soil pipe, and thus prevent the vacuum being sufficient to 
 start a sjrphonic action in the other traps. Air currents up the 
 pipe-casings would sometimes carry a smell from one floor to 
 another at a higher level. This is often very troublesome when 
 making examinations, and the engineer is sometimes misled by 
 this means as to the source of smells. In the case under con- 
 sideration the walls were found defective, so that smells could 
 sometimes pass through to the annoyance of the people in the 
 offices. It is proposed to ventilate all the traps and enlarge the 
 vent pipe at the top of the soil pipes, also to take precautions to 
 prevent smells from passing from one place to another. 
 
 At a large building near the Bank of England, a difficult 
 case came under the writer's notice. Several experts had been 
 called in at various times to discover the cause of an abominable 
 smell that was intermittent. The fact of the smells not being 
 continuous added to the difficulty, as no vapour test would betray 
 the cause in the same manner as if the smells were constant. 
 Each sanitary man had taken away the water-closets and fixed 
 others that he had a preference for. Th^ one who preceded the 
 writer had the syphon-traps taken out and D-traps placed beneath 
 each water-closet, but did not succeed in his. object. 
 
^8o 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 Figure 381 is a sketch diagram, showing the water-closets 
 and soil pipes which were continued to the roof full size, and the 
 first floor was the place where the smells were 
 complained of. After applying vapour tests and 
 finding nothing defective in the materials or 
 appliances, the water-closets were taken up, and 
 also the flooring, so as to be able to make a 
 closer examination of the traps and pipes. 
 Nothing being discovered to account for the 
 smells, men were sent to the upper floors. The 
 handles of the closets, A and B, being simul- 
 taneously pulled up, and the writer stooping over 
 the trap of the water-closet, C, to watch the 
 result,, was anything but agreeably surprised to 
 have the contents of the trap blow up into his 
 face. This solved the mystery at once. On dis- 
 charging the contents of these two water-closets, 
 Figure 381. ^jj. ^^^ driven downward in each soil pipe. The 
 
 two columns of air meeting at the first-floor level burst through 
 the traps of the water-closets at that point. Several other fittings, 
 such as urinals and wash-hand basins, were 
 attached to the same soil pipes, but they 
 are omitted for the sake of clearness. The 
 remedy applied was to take two ventilation 
 pipes from the traps of the first-floor water- 
 closets and continue them to the roof. On 
 using any one water-closet on the upper 
 floors no evil resulted, as the air driven 
 down the soil pipe by the falling water, &c., 
 could freely escape up the other one. The 
 above evils have frequently been found in 
 smaller houses. Figure 382 is a sketch of 
 the back of a very common description ' of 
 house. This kind of house has been referred 
 to in an earlier chapter, where was pointed 
 out the evils of connecting the rain-watei 
 Figure 381. leader to the soil pipe. In great numbers 
 
 of cases a trap is fixed at the foot of the soil pipe to prevent 
 
SOIL PIPES. 281 
 
 any bad air from the drains passing out at the top of the soil 
 pipe, &c., and into any open window. This trap seals the bottom 
 of the pipe,, with the result that the air cannot freely escape 
 when driven downward by discharges from the water-closets. On 
 using the top water-closet, the air in the soil pipe is driven 
 downward, and will frequently burst through the trap of the 
 lower water-closet. Innumerable cases could be given of defective 
 arrangements of soil pipes. Those that have been illustrated 
 were simply those out of several that came first to the writer's 
 mind, and which were given as typical examples to show that 
 even with good materials and skilled labour, the whole affair iriay 
 be rendered a failure for want of technical knowledge as to what 
 will be the results when completed. 
 
 The water-carriage system cf conveying sewage matter fron; 
 the dwelling is one that requires a great deal of thought and 
 study. The most elaborate water-closet apparatus is perfectly 
 useless without the necessary water to cleanse it, and float the 
 matter deposited in it away to a suitable place. The best kind 
 of traps are of no value if they have no water in them. Drains 
 or soil pipes may be made of the very best materials and yet be 
 sources of serious evils unless the joints are both air and water- 
 tight when in or near the dwelling. All the above evils may be 
 guarded against, and, at the same time, an error of judgment in 
 the arrangement or setting out of the work may be committed 
 with dire Results. In olden times the plumber was simply a 
 manipulator of lead, but now he is called upon and expected to 
 be a highly-trained scientist. There is not the least doubt he 
 will rise to the occasion, and that in the future he will not 
 commit the same mistakes as were made by his predecessors in 
 the craft. 
 
CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 SOIL PIPES AND TRAPS. 
 
 The commonest kind of trap used a few years ago, and which 
 has been illustrated, written, and spoken about in such a way 
 one would think that the last had gone into the melting-pot never 
 to return, except in another form, is still very frequently used by 
 a certain section of people. The D-trap, Figure 383, is referred 
 to, and it is to be hoped that our lately-organized 
 Plumbers' Registering Committee will keep their 
 books clear of the names of those who advocate 
 its use in preference to all others. Some fourteen 
 or sixteen years ago a plumber, who had advanced 
 Figure 383. ideas, saw some of the evils attached to the D, 
 
 and designed a trap as illustrated in Figure 384. This was a 
 great improvement, as the scour through this trap kept it much 
 cleaner than the old-fashioned one could be, and, 
 in addition, if the gases emanating from sewage 
 corroded the trap it could be discovered by water 
 leaking out of the holes ;■ whereas, in the D-trap, 
 the dip pipe, being exposed on both sides to the 
 Figure -3(14, action of the gases, was soon eaten through, and 
 
 thus rendered the trap useless for keeping smells from escaping. 
 Being out of sight, these holes can very rarely be discovered 
 until the smells become so bad as to lead to the 
 water-closet being taken up for the trap to be 
 I U examined. 
 
 ^^ I Figure 385 is an illustration of a good old trap. 
 
 One is shown at the Parkes Museum of Hygiene. 
 
 Figure 385. -pjjg yfiiter has Seen a few taken out of a certain 
 
 locality in London, and as they are not generally met with, it 
 
 leads to the presumption that they are all the work of one man. 
 
SOIL PIPES AND TRAPS. 283 
 
 From appearances one is led to the conclusion that the body of 
 the trap was bossed up and then the throat-piece wiped in 
 afterward. 
 
 A friend of the writer's, and a man of great experience, used 
 to make all traps for fixing beneath water-closets as Figure 386. 
 The traps were made in two halves out of sheet -lead, and I have 
 assisted to make them, on iron moulds, and then 
 soldered together afterward by wiping a seam 
 on each side. The inlet and outlet ends were 
 
 4 inches, but the body of the trap was made 
 
 5 inches in diameter. They were made in this 
 way with the object of reducing the sjrphonic '"""^ ^ ' 
 action that takes place more or less with all unventilated traps 
 when fixed under water-closets, and with a soil pipe attached to 
 the outgo. Another reason was to break the impetus of the water 
 discharged from a water-closet. Tbe impetus given to the water 
 when falling into the trap often being sufficient to carry it right 
 through an ordinary round pipe trap, scarcely any water remaining 
 behind to form the proper seal. In the north of England great 
 numbers of traps are made as shown at Figure 386, but of equal 
 diameter throughout, the seams at the sides being made with fine 
 solder and copper-bit. This seam is not nearly so strong as the 
 wiped one described in Figure 386. 
 
 Some years ago commenced a new era in trap-making, when 
 tliey began to be cast' instead of being made by hand. The old 
 patterns, with very little variation, of the D and round pipe P 
 traps were made, and then later on a patent was taken out for 
 casting traps on the principle of that shown at Figure 384. 
 Figure 387 is an illustration of this trap, which is now being 
 superseded by that shown at Figure 388. 
 In Figure 387 the body of the trap is 
 much larger than the inlet, but in 
 Figure 388 the sizes are in reversed 
 order, the waist of the trap being much 
 smaller than the inlet. The inlet is F'°"«=387. f.gurk388. 
 
 4 inches, and the body of the trap 3 inches in diameter. Those 
 the writer has fixed have been found to be quite free from fur 
 after two years' usage, and he has seen one, fixed nearly seven years 
 
284 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 ago, whkh had pieces of glass fitted to the sides. Although the 
 water-closet over this trap is much used, the accumulation of fur 
 is so very small that a person standing on one side of the trap 
 can see the light of a candle held on the other side. The 
 patentee claims that this trap is proof against momentum, or the 
 water rushing through the trap, as described when alluding to 
 Figure 386, and certainly the trap fulfils the claim. 
 
 In addition to cast-lead traps, a great many are being used 
 that are made in the same manner as drawn-lead pipe — that is, 
 the lead is forced through dies which gives it a round section, 
 but by manipulating the press, the pipe, as it issues from the 
 dies, is made to curve round in the desired shape 
 to form traps to use in various positions. To 
 show how much under control is the press for 
 making traps, one kind is shown 
 at Figure 389, which is of one 
 piece, no solder or other means 
 of joining lead together being 
 used. Figure 390 is a trap 
 F10URE3S9. KiouREago. differently shaped, but made by 
 
 the same means as the other one. Figure 390 is made especially 
 to the order of a master plumber, who claims that it is proof 
 against momentum. 
 
 A great many other examples of traps could be given, but it 
 is quite unnecessary, as they are mostly made on the lines of 
 those that have been described in this and earlier chapters. It 
 may be added, however, that all traps for fixing under water- 
 closets must have a clear waterway through them, and that 
 mechanical traps such as those with hinged flaps or valves, or 
 balls, either floating or heavy, so arranged as to form an effectual 
 seal, cannot very well be used, as paper and other matters that 
 pass through a water-closet would cling round the working parts, 
 and so render them useless. In some cases certain matters would 
 accumulate round the valves, &c., and in time form a complete 
 stoppage. 
 
 The subject of traps cannot be dismissed without a few 
 remarks on trap fixing. It is admitted by all advanced sanitary 
 engineers that traps are necessary under water-closets and other 
 
SOIL PIPES AND TRAPS. SSf 
 
 fittings that require waste pipes. There are some few people who 
 think otherwise, but they are mostly amateurs, and those of 
 limited experience. If we are to accept the dictum that traps are 
 necessary, it follows that they should be fixed in such a way 
 that they are not rendered useless by the way of fixing them. 
 One of the first things to guard against is fixing the traps in such 
 a way that the seal is broken. The writer has several times found 
 traps fixed as shown in sketch 
 section, Figure 391. D-traps, 
 and also the P-traps, have been 
 found to have the seal broken by 
 improper fixing. In some instances 
 this appears to have arisen from 
 
 branching the trap outgo too low Figure 391. 
 
 down in the vertical soil pipe when the trap has been pulled up 
 after fixing, so as to be in its proper position for the water-closet. 
 It may also have occurred in another way. If the piece of 
 pipe from the trap to the vertical soil pipe has been cut too 
 short, the P-trap has been strained open and so distorted in 
 shape, in the endeavour to make it longer, that the water-seal is 
 broken, as shown by Figure 391. In other cases the vertical soil 
 pipe has been insufficiently supported, with the result that it has 
 broken away from its fixings, and slid downward, causing the 
 branch pipe to drag down the outgo-end of the trap, thus 
 breaking the water-seal. The straining and bending of traps in 
 their position after fixing is a natural sequence with those men 
 who work by rule of thumb. I will illustrate this: When a 
 plumber is going to fix a trap and soil pipe, he will often stand 
 a length of soil pipe in the position intended for fixing it. He 
 will then place the trap in its position, and take a short piece of 
 soil pipe and cut and rasp the ends to fit between the trap and 
 vertical pipe. The next operation is to remove the whole of the 
 work to the bench in the workshop, when the hole is cut in the 
 vertical pipe, and the necessary soiling and shaving done to the 
 parts intended for soldering. The work is again placed in its 
 position and the parts fitted together. After doing this the joints are 
 "tacked" — that is, some hot solder is splashed on the joints and 
 left until it has set. The work is now again moved to the bench 
 
2S6 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 and the joints made. During' the operation of making the joints 
 it frequently happens that so soon as the tacking solder is melted, 
 the work will shift and so get out of its proper position. On 
 again moving the piece of work into its position, it will be found 
 not to fit ; but lead being a very soft metal, it is easy to 
 "spring" it — that is, bend and strain it — until it suits the 
 intended position. 
 
 This rule-of-thumb business should be strongly condemned. 
 In the first place, a great deal of time is wasted when moving the 
 work up and down between the shop and the intended position. 
 The shop is generally in the basement, and the work may perhaps 
 be going to be fixed on the third, fourth, fifth, or sixth story of 
 the building, and thus a great deal of the plumber's time is 
 misspent. In spite of all care taken when fitting the work, it 
 frequently happens that it does not "fit" when completed. The 
 proper way of setting out this kind of work is as follows :^- 
 Let Figure 392 represent a plan of the opening for a single 
 water-closet. Now water-closets, such as the valve and others, 
 
 which require a trap beneath 
 them, and which have the outlet 
 in the centre of the apparatus, 
 require the trap to be placed 
 central — that is, equidistant from 
 the side walls. The distance 
 from the back wall is governed 
 by the depth of the water-closet 
 seat. Some architects will have 
 the seats i foot 9 inches from back to front, and others specify 
 them to be 2 feet 6 inches, so as to leave more room for the 
 user's dress, and also to leave room for hanging the perforated 
 part of the seat as well as the flap. To take a medium, and the 
 most commonly used, width of seat — say 2 feet — the trap should 
 be fixed with the centre of the inlet-end i foot 3 inches from the 
 back wall. To mark out the work, first of all set out full size on 
 the bench or floor the side and back walls, as shown at Figure 392. 
 Find the position of the trap A, and with a pair of compasses 
 describe a 4-inch circle — that being the usual size of the inlet of 
 traps. If the. soil-pipe is 4. inches, and going to be fixed in the 
 
SOIL PIPES AND TRAPS. 
 
 287 
 
 FiGDKE 393. 
 
 angle as shown at B, describe a similar circle at that point. If 
 the SOU pipe is to be 3^ inches in diameter, or any other size, 
 describe a circle equal to the end section of the pipe. If the 
 soil pipe is to be fixed in any of the positions shown by dotted 
 lines at C, D, E, F, G, or any other position, the circle should be 
 made in that position. The next thing is to take a piece of strong 
 lath — say i inch thick by 2 inches wide — and 
 cut it to the exact length between the two 
 circles. All the hnes can now be rubbed out 
 as being of no further use. The next operation 
 is to set out a pair of parallel hnes, as shown 
 at H, J, Figure 393, the distance apart being 
 equal to the diameter of the vertical soil pipe. 
 Now take a long rod and place the bottom 
 end on the drain-socket if it is for the first 
 length, or on the top end of the last length of 
 soil pipe that was fixed, if for an upper floor, and mark on the rod 
 the top of the floor-joist where the trap is going to be fixed. When 
 a rule is used for taking a dimension, a mistake may crop in, but by 
 using a long rod the UabUity to error is minimized. Now lay the 
 length of soil pipe between the hnes H, J, and measure firom the 
 bottom end with the rod, aUowing half-an-inch for a joint at the 
 bottom end, and transfer the mark of the top of the floor-joist 
 from the rod to the pipe, and also on the setting-out marks, as 
 shown at K, Figure 393. With the small rod that was cut to an 
 exact length, set out the distance K to L. 4 inches away make 
 another mark at M. Between these marks lay the trap so that 
 the crown of the outgo is below the line of the floor-joist. Scribe 
 or mark on the bench the shape of the trap, and draw parallel 
 lines from, the trap outgo to the hnes representing the vertical 
 sou pipe, giving these hnes a dechnation from the trap, but not 
 allowing them to come below the line N, which represents the 
 bottom edge of the floor-joist. The reason for this being that the 
 pipe would look imsightly if seen below the ceiling. When small 
 soU pipes are used it is necessary to bend the end of the branch 
 soU pipe as shown by dotted lines, for reasons given in an earlier 
 chapter. 
 
 Marks should be made on the long length of pipe at O, O, and 
 
288 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 then the hole for the branch pipe opened between those marks. 
 The branch pipe can be cut the exact length, and with the end 
 at the proper angle for connecting to the other pipe, and if 
 properly done will not require any rasping or fitting in any way 
 beyond what is necessary to keep the solder from running through 
 when the joint is being made. The other end of the branch pipe 
 should be cut half-an-inch longer than the mark P, Q, to allow 
 for the outgo of the trap to enter a short distance. As a rule, 
 the joint on the outgo of a P-trap is straight. After soiling and 
 preparing the ends, this joint should be made. The branch joint 
 should then be prepared and placed in position for making, as 
 shown at Figure 394. 
 
 Wood blocks should be fixed inside at R, as described 
 in an earlier chapter, to support the weight of the trap and 
 branch pipe. 
 
 The piece of lath that was cut to the exact distance between 
 trap and vertical pipe should be placed as shown at T, Figure 394, 
 
 to insure that they are the; proper 
 distance apart, and should be left 
 there until the branch-joint is made, 
 to prevent the trap falling forward, 
 and also help to support the weight 
 of it. The sides of the pipe laying 
 
 /W^ FiouRE 394. /F^ °^ ^^^ bench should be scotched to 
 
 prevent its rolling, and a piece of 
 i-inch pipe bent to a U-shape and laid across the trap, with the 
 ends resting on the bench, will be found to be all that is 
 necessary for fixing the work until the joint is made; or two 
 clout-nails can be driven into the edges of the bench, and a stout 
 piece of string passed round the trap, the ends being fastened to 
 the ilails for the same purpose. 
 
 Before making the branch-joint, a set square should be placed 
 on the bench-mark K, Figure 394, and should touch the crown of 
 the trap at S. If a D-trap is being fixed, a straight-edge laid on 
 the flat top of the trap should touch the bench-mark, K— that 
 is, if the trap is properly fixed. The above way of setting out 
 traps and soil pipes is not new, it being taught to the writer 
 when he was a lad. If taken as a problem in geometrical 
 
SOIL PIPES AND TRAPS. 
 
 289 
 
 projection, it would be set out as Figure 395 ; the dotted lines 
 being the plan, and the firm lines the elevation. 
 
 ; To show the value to plumbers of a knowledge of drawings, 
 the writer a few years ago had a set of drawings of a house being 
 built at Shanghai, in China, given to him 
 for his guidance, as to the positions of 
 the cisterns, water-closets, sinks, &c. The 
 whole of the work was set out full size on 
 the workshop floor, in London, and made 
 and put together ready for placing in 
 position. Brass unions were soldered on 
 to the pipes where, of necessity, they had 
 to be made in sections for convenience of 
 removal or stowing away in packing-cases. figure 395. 
 
 Each part of the work was labelled as to its position, and the 
 unions were all numbered for the guidance of the workmen who 
 fixed them. The whole of the work was found to fit its intended 
 position, and the only hitch was a delay in replacing some 
 marble slabs for wash-hand basins and urinal backs and stalls 
 that got broken in transit from England to China. 
 
 Figure 392 represents a plain setting-out for a water-closet 
 trap and soil pipe, but sometimes difficulties present themselves. 
 Figure 396 is an example. In this case the 
 water-closet was fixed on the staircase landing, 
 and so as not to spoil the appearance of the 
 elevation of the house, the window was continued 
 to the top of the stone landing on which the 
 water-closet was fixed. In addition to the bend 
 shown on the plan. Figure 396, another bend 
 was required, as shown by dotted lines, Figure 
 397, so as to avoid cutting away the skew-back 
 of the brick arch outside and the bearing of the 
 wooden lintel inside. 
 
 There are architects who bestow some 
 thought on the arrangements of water-closets 
 and soil pipes, but they are the exception rather 
 than the rule. The above fittings are generally figure 397- 
 
 the last consideration when designing a house, and any small 
 
ago 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 spare space that may be left after forming the rooms is generally 
 appropriated for a water-closet or sink, or something of the kind. 
 Very often no spare space is left, and the result is the water- 
 closets are introduced into all sorts of unsuitable positions, thus 
 presenting alL kinds of difficulties for the plumber to overcome. 
 In one case the writer had to make three bends in a short length 
 of branch soil pipe to avoid going through a chimney-flue. In 
 another case five bends had to be made to avoid cutting away 
 the main supports of a floor in the centre of a building. A case 
 occurred where 3 inches were cut out of the top edge of a 9-inch 
 rolled-iron joist, and another where 4j-inch holes had to be cut 
 through the web of a riveted plate-girder. 
 It is unnecessary to describe . these details 
 any further, but close this chapter by 
 drawing the reader's attention to Figure 
 398, which is a fragmental plan showing 
 how the water-closets are arranged in a 
 large hotel in London. A is a shaft in 
 which are fixed all the soil, gas, waste, 
 main, and down service pipes. Also the 
 hot -water circulation pipes ; these last being a valuable auxiliary 
 for creating an up-current of air. The water-closet chambers are 
 ventilated into the shaft, and may be said to be fairly free from 
 local smells which are generally found in these places. 
 
 Another advantage of the above-mentioned shaft is, the pipes 
 are all easy of access for repairs or any other purpose, such as 
 removing stoppages, &c. 
 
 FlGUR£ 398. 
 
CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 
 WATER-CLOSETS. 
 
 It would be a waste of time to give a history of water-closets, 
 and no real advantage would be gained by filling pages with 
 descriptions of those kinds which are now obsolete and, it may 
 be said, forgotten. The writer had thought of describing all those 
 in use at the present day, but had to give up the intention for 
 two reasons : ist — that, instead of a short chapter or two exhaust- 
 ing the subject, it would fill several volumes of books, and take 
 more time than he has at his disposal ; 2ndly — there are so many 
 that would have to be named and condemned in the same sentence 
 as being far from good or suitable for their intended purpose, 
 that is from a hygienic point of view. 
 
 One reason for their unsuitability probably arises from the 
 fact that there are very few water-closet apparatus that have been 
 designed or invented by plumbers, or those answerable for the 
 healthy condition of our houses. A great many have been invented 
 by others than plumbers, such as — ^watchmakers, locksmiths, 
 carpenters, doctors, truss-makers, and such-like people. It is only 
 just to some of these people to say that in some cases a really 
 good fitting has been designed. Take for example the valve 
 water-closet, which was invented by Bramah, and bears his name. 
 At the present time it is made by all the most important 
 manufacturers of closet fittings we have, and is still looked upon, 
 by advanced sanitarians, as the best closet in the market. Several 
 manufacturers have made improvements in the details, but none 
 have invented anything to supersede it. Bramah was a cabinet- 
 maker, although in some of his specifications, for patents, he 
 describes himself as an engineer. 
 
 u 2 
 
292 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE, 
 
 Figure 399 is a sketch of Bramah's valve water-closet, here- 
 shown to illustrate and compare with Figure 400, which is a 
 modern valve water-closet with several patented improvements. 
 
 In Figure 399 the- 
 handle is placed on the 
 left of the sitter. Th€\ 
 basin is very large, the 
 water-flush is at the back 
 and distributed round the- 
 basin by means of a metal 
 fan or spreader. If we 
 may judge from the draw- 
 ing, the size of the flushing 
 pipe was much too small) 
 to thoroughly flush the 
 basin. This evil would 
 be aggravated if the head 
 of water was low. In. 
 several old Bramah closets. 
 
 FiauRE 399, 
 
 taken up by the 'Writer, the water has only dribbled down the 
 back side of the basin, the front part getting none at all. These 
 
 closets are invariably found to be 
 flushed by means of cranks and 
 wires attached to a valve fixed 
 over a service-box in a cistern. 
 In some cases the cisterns are 
 some height above, or some dis- 
 tance away from, the water-closet.. 
 When this is the case, the handle 
 has sometimes to be held up for 
 several seconds before the water 
 comes into the basin. The com- 
 mon result is, the handle is dropped 
 before the water comes in and the 
 paper in the basin gets jammed in the discharging-valve at the 
 bottom, thus keeping it open and allowing the water, that should 
 be retained in the basin, to dribble away down the soil pipe. 
 
 The overflow pipe from the basin is very small and connected 
 
 Figure 4X]a 
 
WATER-CLOSETS. 293 
 
 ■with the valve-box under the basin. This overflow is trapped, 
 but no provision is made for keeping the trap charged with water, 
 in which case it becomes useless. It is just possible that when 
 the handle of the apparatus is lifted, that a small quantity of water 
 rebounds o£f the bottom valve into the pipe which connects the 
 trap to the valve-box, but this is objectionable, as faecal matter 
 may be carried into the trap in the same manner, where it would 
 iay and give off unpleasant odours into the basin. The frame- 
 work to which the apparatus is attached is objectionable. Being 
 made of wood, it at times gets saturated with splashings and then 
 gives off offensive smells. 
 
 The closet shown at Figure 400 is without all the above 
 objectionable points. The handle is on the opposite side, and 
 instead of the raised handle, has a sunk dish, E, made of porcelain. 
 Or the closet can be had with a knob-pull, so arranged that the 
 flap of the wooden enclosure can be closed before the handle is 
 raised, and thus deaden the sound made by the inrush of water 
 of which some people complain. The basin. A, is much smaller, 
 has less surface to be kept clean, and has a hollow rim, R, from 
 which the incoming water streams down over the inner surface of 
 the basin on the front and sides equally with the back, thus 
 exercising a cleansing force over the whole of the inner surface of 
 the basin. The flushing-valve^ C, is attached to, and forms a 
 part of, the apparatus. By this arrangement water enters the 
 basin immediately the handle is raised, this being a very great 
 advantage. The valve slowly closes by means of the regulator, F. 
 The size of the valve should be according to the head of the 
 •water-cistern, varying from i inch with a head of 20 to 25 feet, 
 and i^ inch with a head of 3 to 8 feet. A closet, to be properly 
 flushed, should have at least from two to three gallons of water 
 enter the basin in four or five seconds, and it is impossible to get 
 this through f-inch supply- valves which is the size made by most 
 makers. In Figure 400 the overflow, D, is large enough to take 
 away the water as fast as it comes into the basin. Should the 
 •supply- valve get jammed by any means, so that it does not close 
 when the handle is dropped, the overflow will take away the 
 surplus water. On referring to the drawing it will be noticeu 
 that the overflow arm, D, is open at the top so that a small mop 
 
294 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 could be pushed down to clean the inside. Water-closet overflow- 
 pipes generally smell offensive by reason of their dirty inside. 
 The hollow rim of the basin is continued round the overflow arm, 
 so that it and the trap beneath gets thoroughly flushed at the 
 same time as the basin. The trap, J, to the overflow-arm of the 
 basin is connected with a pipe, K, one end of which is continued 
 out into the open air, and the other end connected with the 
 valve-box, G, under the basin. The valve-box is porcelain- 
 enamelled inside so that no corrosion can take place, and it is 
 also made as small as convenient so that no large amount of bad 
 air can be retained in it. A vent-arm and pipe, K, are fixed so- 
 that when the contents of the basin fall down into the trap they 
 displace the air out of the valve-box into the open air through ' 
 the vent pipe. Without this vent the pent-up air would escape 
 upwards through the valve-opening of the basin. In some cases 
 this air is forced through the overflow-trap. This is a frequent 
 cause of complaint, which, no doubt, led to the adoption of the 
 vent-arm and pipe. Another use for this pipe is, that with a poor 
 supply of water faecal matter will sometimes lay in the trap below 
 and give ofi" certain gases which could pass through the pipe into- 
 the open air, instead of into the house. The framework of the 
 above water-closet is cast-iron. 
 
 There are great numbers of makers of valve water-closets who- 
 each have their own ideas as to what constitutes a good apparatus ; 
 but there are also several makers, who, in their endeavour to 
 undersell other people, turn out poor, flimsy things, and which 
 become a permanent tax, when fixed, for repairs on those who 
 buy them. 
 
 Some sanitary engineers have valve water-closets made to- 
 their own especial design. Two or three have them made with a 
 small weeping pipe from the supply pipe to the arm of the basin 
 to the trap fixed beneath the overflow-arm so as to keep it 
 charged with water. 
 
 Other engineers will not have any trap to the overflow troro 
 the basin, but retain the overflow-arm. In this case, if the basin- 
 fills too full the overflow discharges into the safe under the 
 apparatus. In a great many cases the lead safes are found to 
 have large pools of dirty water laying in them, and this occurs 
 
WATER-CLOSETS. 295 
 
 especially when fixed oa the bedroom floors where slops are 
 thrown into the water-closet. In a recent case, when searching 
 for a cause for smells to which a doctor attributed a case of sore 
 throat, the safe was found to be full to overflowing of slops, and 
 which was giving oflF an abominable stink. The waste pipe from 
 the safe was choked up with pieces of paper. 
 " The writer once had to see to a valve water-closet that was 
 much used by children. The overflow from the basin had originally 
 been made to discharge into the safe, and complaints were made 
 that the place always smelt oifensive. In addition there was 
 frequently a quantity of water dripping from the safe waste pipe 
 and down the walls of the house. To prevent this dripping of 
 water being such a nuisance, a pipe had been fixed from the end 
 of the safe-waste and continued to the level of the ground outside. 
 This new pipe had become so foul inside that the air which 
 passed through it escaped beneath the water-closet enclosure and 
 added to the cause for complaint. In another case the overflow 
 pipe from the water-closet basin had been continued outside and 
 connected with a rain-water pipe, but this had to be altered 
 because of the offensive smells, and also because of the unpleasant 
 draught of cold air that passed through. 
 
 One or two engineers have valve water-closets without any 
 overflow-arm to the basins. When fixed in this way the plumber 
 is being continually sent for to regulate the supply of water, as 
 the basins fill too full or not full enough. In one case the maid- 
 servants were taught by the engineer how to adjust the valve- 
 regulators when it was found necessary. No doubt these maids 
 would make valuable "mates" should they ever become wedded 
 to plumbers. After several years' experience, and witli nearly all 
 kinds of valve water-closets, the writer prefers those fitted and 
 fixed that are similar to that shown at Figure 400. 
 
 A'^hen inspecting and reporting on the sanitary condition of 
 houses, the writer very rarely condemns the closets if they are of 
 the Bramah- valve description. Even the very worst valve water- 
 closets, if well flushed and fixed over a good description of trap, 
 are much better than a great many other kinds that have been 
 introduced these last few years. 
 
 The traps beneath valve water-closets should always be fixed 
 
296 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 beneath the floor. Sometimes valve closets have been made with 
 the trap attached to them, but they are not nearly so good as the 
 others for the reason that when the handle is dropped the dis- 
 charging valve will pick up any paper, &c., that may be laying in 
 the trap. Figure 401 is a sketch of an apparatus with the trap 
 
 attached, on referring to which it will 
 be noticed that the basin-valve, Z, 
 when opened dips into the water in 
 the trap. Neither can the joint, Y, 
 be made secure or trustworthy. With 
 a lead trap fixed beneath the floor a 
 soldered joint can be made with the 
 lead soil pipe. At an examination of 
 a large building, recently m.ade, the 
 valve water-closets were found to be 
 Figure 401. g^^^ without any traps at all, the 
 
 engineer, doubtless, thinking that the basin-valves would keep back 
 any smells. But on testing the soil pipes with smoke it freely 
 escaped at the junction of several of the apparatus with the soil 
 pipes. There is not the least doubt that the joint, Y, Figure 401, 
 is liable to the same defects. At the examination above referred 
 to, one of the valves was found so defective as to allow all the 
 water to leak out of the basin, and smoke freely escaped through 
 and into the house. Traps may be considered objectionable, and 
 plumbers may try all they can to do without them, but they are 
 the only trustworthy barrier for keeping smells from escaping 
 from soil or waste pipes. But the traps must be good ones, and 
 properly fixed and ventilated to prevent the water-seal being 
 broken, as described in an earlier chapter. 
 
 In some cases the writer has found that on filling the soil 
 pipe with smoke — the pipe being left open at the top as a venti- 
 lator — that on pulling up the handle of a trapless valve closet, 
 smoke has freely escaped through the discharging-valve, even in 
 defiance of the downward rush of water. But with a ventilated 
 water-trap beneath the apparatus this cannot occur. In several 
 cases where trapless valve closets have been fixed, they have been 
 afterwards taken up and traps fixed beneath them. 
 
CHAPTER XXXVII. 
 
 WATER-CLOSETS— COT»!t»»M«i. 
 
 Some years ago an eminent master plumber designed and 
 
 patented a plunger closet, as shown by Figure 402. 
 
 The basin and trap were made in one piece of white earthen- 
 
 -ware, and water was retained in the basin by means of a hollow 
 
 plunger, fitted in a side chamber over 
 
 the outlet where it is connected with 
 
 !the trap. . If the basin filled too full 
 
 the water overflowed down the hollow 
 
 plunger. Closets of more recent make 
 have a solid plunger and a separate 
 
 -overflow-arm. Since the patent ran 
 
 out several other firms make slightly- 
 varied copies of this closet. Although 
 several people prefer this kind of 
 closet, the writer still thinks that 
 they are not nearly so good as the valve closet shown at Figure 
 400 for the reason that those he has seen were always very dirty 
 and ofiensive-smeUing in the chamber in which the plunger and 
 overflow are situated. Neither is the joint of the outgo of the 
 trap to be trusted, for reasons given further back when speaking 
 of trapless valve closets. 
 
 Those closets that retain a body of water in the basin are 
 considered the best because the faecal matters are at once im- 
 mersed and thus prevent any bad odours escaping from them. In 
 addition, immediately the handle of the apparatus is raised, the 
 contents of the basin are floated away by the accompanying body 
 
 ■of water. Neither does the basin get stained in the same way as 
 some of the other descriptions of water-closets which do not 
 retain a body of water in the basin. 
 
 Figure 402. 
 
agb 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 Figure 403. 
 
 Some people believe that the "pan closet," Figure 403, is a 
 very good one because it retains water at the bottom of the'basin. 
 
 But it is now abandoned by all 
 good plumbers as being, com- 
 pared with other kinds, the most 
 offensive in its action, and which 
 no amount of ventilating or flush- 
 ing will prevent giving off foul 
 vapours each time the handle is- 
 raised. These vapours emanate 
 from the inside of the large 
 chamber, X — the whole of the 
 inner surface of which sooner or 
 later gets coated with filth. 
 
 It being generally acknow- 
 ledged that water-closets shouJd retain water at the bottom of the 
 basin, various designs have been invented to gain that object and 
 yet do without discharging-valves for emptying the contents of 
 the basins. With valve closets the contents fall or gravitate 
 from the basins, but those referred to, and shown at Figure 404, 
 
 require some power to dislodge the 
 contents and carry them away. This- 
 power is supplied from the flushing- 
 water, which has to come into' the 
 basin with such force as not only to- 
 cleanse the basin but dislodge the con- 
 tents collected in the hollow at W. 
 This kind of water-closet is made, 
 almost without exception, by every 
 English maker of water-closets, and at 
 the present time it is the most popular closet of the day, being 
 sold and fixed by thousands. This is rather strange, as amongst 
 the hundreds that the writer has seen in use, he has seen scarcely 
 any that were clean in their action, or could be kept clean 
 without the daily use of a brush. The water in the hollow is not 
 deep enough so that faeces can be immersed, and the stains left 
 after being used are in some cases as bad as if the basin had 
 been quite dry before using. 
 
 Figure 404. 
 
WATER-CLOSETS. 
 
 299 
 
 Figure 405. 
 
 Another-shaped basin, shown at Figure 405, is much cleaner 
 than that shown at Figure 404. With this basin the deposit 
 drops into water which is about 
 4'J- inches deep, and there is con- 
 siderably less amount of basin- 
 surface to be kept clean. These 
 basins have flushing-rims, and, 
 in addition, a jet is placed near 
 the rim so that the incoming water 
 will play on the floating matter 
 in the basin and drive it through 
 the trap and down to the drain. 
 
 Figure 406 is a basin and trap made in one piece of earthen- 
 ware, and in its action is similar to Figure 405, excepting that it 
 has no water-jet to assist 
 the flushing-rim in washing 
 away the contents of the 
 basin. These closets are very 
 much liked, and great numbers 
 are found to be fixed. In 
 the writer's opinion it is not 
 so good as Figure 405, in that 
 it has considerably less surface 
 of water at V, and the larger 
 the water-surface the lesser 
 liability there is for the basin sides to get fouled. 
 
 The last three kinds of water-closets that have been described 
 are sometimes made to an ornamental 
 pattern or otherwise decorated. They 
 are then fixed without any enclosure, 
 but with a rim-seat, as shown at 
 Figure 407. A great many sanitary 
 engineers have a dislike for urinals, 
 as it is so very diflicult to keep 
 them clean, and fix the water-closets, 
 as shown, so that they may be used 
 for either purpose. If there is no 
 enclosure to water-closets, the whole figure 407. 
 
 Figure 406. 
 
300 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 of the space around them is lighted and ventilated, and there is 
 less liability for any slops or filth to accumulate in the manner 
 so often found with enclosed water-closets. One eminent firm 
 makes valve water-closets to fix without any enclosure. 
 
 With water-closets fixed as above described, it is important 
 that the floors beneath them should be made of impervious 
 material. In some cases fancy tiles have been laid on a concrete 
 bed. Although they look clean and smart they are not so good 
 as a close-grained slab of stone. In a large public institution in 
 London several tiled urinal and water-closet floors were taken up, 
 and, as the tiles smelt so strongly of urine, it was decided to 
 relay the floors, where necessary, with slate slabs, in as largo 
 pieces as possible, so as to avoid liaving more joints than could 
 be avoided. At a large theatre in London the floors were relaid 
 with black asphalte for the same reason. 
 
 There are several makers of closets of the kind shown by 
 Figure 408, and for a good, plain, and cheap basin, they are 
 
 very serviceable when well flushed, and 
 have flushing-rims. Although they are all 
 good it is advisable to choose those 
 with the outlet of the basin well back, 
 as shown by the sketch. When the 
 outlet is in the centre, faeces will fall on 
 the back side of the basin, but with 
 those suggested as the best it falls 
 directly into the water in the trap. 
 
 FiauRE 408. ■' ^ 
 
 The plumber should always be careful 
 how he attaches the flushing pipe to the arm, U, so that the 
 incoming water will pass in equal quantities each way round the 
 rim, and then what escapes near the front part of the basin will 
 meet in such a way as to turn over with a kind of cascade action, 
 and fall into the trap, driving the contents before it. When the 
 connection is improperly made more water will pass round one 
 side of the basin than the other, and thus form a vortex or 
 whirling motion which fails to clear the contents out of the trap. 
 In some cases a small defect in the construction of the basin will 
 cause the water to whirl round, when it does not exercise such a 
 cleansing force as when it streams downwards from the hollow 
 
WATER-CLOSETS. 
 
 301 
 
 rim of the basin, converging at the outlet. A good way to test 
 how a water-closet basin will flush is to crumple up a piece of 
 soft water-closet paper between the palms of the hands and throw 
 it into the trap and then flush the basin in the usual way. This 
 is a very severe, though simple, test, as the paper is very 
 buoyant and difl&cult to send through the trap. At public exhibi- 
 tions of sanitary goods, the attendants, when showing off water- 
 closet basins, will place pieces of paper all round the inside of 
 them. On flushiiig the basins these pieces of paper are carried 
 down by the water, and, getting over the outlet, are forced 
 through the trap by sheer weight of water. In use a basin is 
 very rarely filled with paper in the manner described, so to get 
 to know how one is cleared by flushing, the applied test should 
 be as nearly as possible what would occur in ordinary usage. It 
 appears strange at first sight, but it is more difiScult to get rid of 
 one piece of crumpled-up paper than six or eight pieces opened 
 out flat in either wash-out or wash-down water-closet basins. 
 
 Figure 409 is the common long hopper with the side-inlet 
 flushing-arm. As the incoming water whirls round the basins 
 
 they are never so clean as those with a ^ 
 
 flushing-rim. Three or four flushes of water of \ Ir. 
 
 about two gallons each will very rarely drive 
 one piece of crumpled-up paper through the 
 trap, and in use these closets are invariably 
 found to have faeces and paper laying in the trap. 
 
 In pubUc schools and institutions, where 
 there is a large number of inmates, it is difiicult 
 to provide water-closets suitable for their pur- 
 pose, and, at the same time, to be free from 
 offensive smells. If basins are used they are constantly being 
 broken, or the traps choked up by boys' caps, jackets, and other 
 articles of dress. Or books and 
 pieces of stick are poked down. In 
 these cases trough water-closets 
 have to be fixed as shown at 
 Figure 410. 
 
 There are several objections to 
 these water-closets, one of the figure 410. 
 
 FlG'JRE 409. 
 
302 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 principal being that the sides get splashed at the back with faeces 
 -and at the front with urine, and rio provision is made for flushing 
 "the sides. It is difficult to scrub them with a broom, as the 
 seats have to be fastened down to prevent children opening them 
 ■and falling in. One seat-holder can splash his neighbour, and a 
 mischievous boy has been seen to splash another boy by means 
 •of a stick. Further, a pyramid of matter will accumulate under 
 each seat and remain there until an attendant raises the discharging- 
 plug and empties the contents of the trough down the drains. It 
 is also necessary to scrub the seats with water and broom two or 
 three times a day as they get fouled by people standing on them. 
 Pigure 411 is a section across a trough water-closet, showing 
 
 '///// 
 
 =^^^^- Figure 412. 
 
 =//^ 
 
 what has been found in several cases. Nearly all the urine is 
 ■discharged over the top edge of the trough, as shown by the 
 .arrow, and falls on the floor. 
 
WATER-CLOSETS. 
 
 303 
 
 Ranges of closets of a better description have been designed 
 and fixed these last few years. Instead of U-shaped slate or 
 iron troughs those of a cylindrical shape are much used. They 
 are also made of vitrified stoneware, and are so constructed as to 
 retain a body of water in them. The flushing is an"ar.ored to take 
 place at regular intervals of time by means of an automatic dis- 
 charging cistern which is a great improvement on the older 
 system of having it done by an attendant. Although there are 
 several patented kinds in use, an illustration of one only, which 
 the writer considers the best, is shown at Figure 412. Some the 
 writer has recently fixed, for the use of the outdoor poor at some 
 Union offices, had no enclosures of any kind, and the seats were 
 simply rings of wood bolted on to flanges made on the fitting. 
 They were fixed sloping towards the 
 front so that they could not be stood 
 upon, and the space from the crown of 
 the cylindrical part to the back wall 
 was filled up with portland cement con- 
 crete, the surface being ^worked up to a 
 smooth face so as not to harbour vermin, 
 &c. Figure 413 is a section on A B, 
 showing what is meant. 
 
 The writer was shown, at a large 
 public institution near London, some water-closets invented by a 
 civil engineer several years ago, and it seems rather strange that 
 they are not more generally used than they are. Figure 414 is a 
 sketch drawn from memory. Only two basins are shown, but 
 each range had about eight or ten. Each basin dips about -J-inch 
 into the water in the trough, and is flushed by means of a valve 
 
 Figure 413. 
 
 FlGURB 4Z4. 
 
304 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 worked by the opening Oi. the door to each stall. At stated 
 intervals of time a valve is opened so as to send a stream of 
 water through the trough and thoroughly flush it out. Ventilating 
 pipes are attached as shown, so that a current of air passes 
 through the trough. 
 
 All the water-closets that have been described may be 
 accepted as typical of those in general use, the principles being 
 the same but varied in detail. For this reason it is not necessary 
 to pursue the subject of water-closets any further, excepting to say 
 that the best kinds of apparatus are useless unless a good water- 
 supply is attached so as to float the matter away. Human 
 ingenuity has not yet invented an apparatus that will eject what 
 is deposited in it into the public sewer or wherever the matter 
 has to go. 
 
 All water-closet enclosures, when used, should be made so as 
 to be readily taken down or opened. The writer had to take, out 
 thirty-two (32) screws one day when making an examination 
 before he could take down a water-closet seat to see what was 
 beneath it. 
 
 As there is always a liability of the woodwork round a water- 
 closet being splashed with slops, &c., it is a good plan to paint, 
 varnish, or otherwise render the woodwork impervious. This 
 applies more especially to the perforated part over the basin, the 
 under' side of which is invariably found to be saturated with urine 
 and to smell very offensive. 
 
 As stated in an earlier chapter, water-closets should never be 
 fixed in or near sleeping apartments, and the room in which a 
 water-closet is situated should always have a provision made for 
 constantly changing the air. Two pipes, one to let fresh air in 
 and the other for the vitiated air to escape, are necessary. A 
 back spring should always be fixed to the doorway, so as to keep 
 the door closed and allow for ventilation to take place independently 
 of the rest of the house. 
 
 This door-spring is of great importance, for if several air 
 pipes are fixed they will generally be found to act as air-inlets so 
 long as the door is open, and thus blow any smells in the water- 
 closet into the bouse. 
 
CHAPTER XXXVIII 
 
 HOT-WATER BOILERS OR WATER-BACKS. 
 
 It is only in large hotels and public institutions in England 
 that a special provision is made for heating the water which is 
 so necessary for the various purposes required, such as for 
 supplying baths, lavatories, sinks, and for other domestic pur- 
 poses, and in some instances for radiators and coils for heating 
 the various corridors or rooms. 
 
 In ordinary mansions and private dwelling-houses it is usual 
 for the boiler or water-heater to be attached to, and form an 
 integral part of, the kitchen range or cooking-stove. 
 
 Figure 415 is a sketch representing a front view of an open 
 range, such as is generally used in the kind of houses above 
 
 referred to, and ^ 
 
 which has a large fc= 
 fire surface in front, 
 before which joints 
 of meat, game, &c., 
 can be hung for 
 roasting. In the 
 sketch, A is a side 
 oven sometimes 
 placed as shown, 
 and used for bak- 
 ing pastry, &c,, in. 
 Where no provision 
 is made for supply- 
 ing hot water to _ 
 
 ^ . FiouRE 4i;j, 
 
 Other places m the 
 
 house it is usual to nave a large boiler, sometimes made of cast 
 
 and sometimes of wrought iron, placed at the back of the fire 
 
3o5 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 and extending the whole length of it. Where this, which is 
 commonly called a low-pressure boiler, is used, a draw-off tap is 
 usually fixed as shown at D. A small-sized feed-cistern with a 
 ball-valve and the necessary cold-'water supply pipe is fixed in a 
 convenient position, and a pipe connection made between the feed- 
 cistern and the boiler. Figure 416 is a sketch showing how this 
 is done. At E is shown a bag in the connecting pipe, made to 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 r-ir 
 
 ll 
 
 =^ 
 
 Figure 416. 
 
 prevent the water circulating back into the feed-cistern, making the 
 contents of that hot. But for this bag, or trap as it is sometimes 
 called, the water in the feed-cistern would get very hot and give 
 off steam to a very inconvenient extent. This bag, under certain 
 conditions, must be made rather deep. When a large fire is kept 
 up and not much water drawn from the boiler the water will 
 expand in bulk, with the result that although a circulation may 
 not be set up between the boiler and feed-cistern, yet the water 
 will ebb and flow, so to speak, between them, and so raise the 
 temperature of that in the feed-cistern. In some cases the boilers 
 have tops bolted down to them and a hole cast in the top, over which 
 is placed a loose cover. When the water in the boiler is so hot 
 as to give off steam it will escape through the loose cover, the 
 latter making an unpleasant clattering noise the whole of the 
 time the steam is escaping. To prevent this noise it is usual to 
 fix a steam or vent pipe from the boiler, as shown at F, Figure 416. 
 The top end of this pipe is generally carried up the chimney-flue 
 a few feet, iome of the escaping steam j assing upwards, but a 
 great deal condenses and falls down on to the fire, sometimes 
 bringing sOot with it. This is very objectionable, especially where 
 
HOT-WATER BOILERS OR WATER-BACKS. 
 
 307 
 
 •cooking has to be done over the fire. Cases have occurred where 
 the steam pipe, when fixed as described, has had to be altered 
 and continued to a place out-of-doors, or turned into a condensing- 
 •chamber. 
 
 Where the boiler under consideration has been of wrought 
 iron, with a manhole bolted or screwed on tight, the steam or 
 vent pipe is indispensable. Water would not run into the boiler 
 if it was air-bound, and when steam was generated it would force 
 the water back into and overflow the feed-cistern. Figure 417 is 
 a sketch showing an arrangement sometimes 
 met with, but not by any means to be 
 recommended. In the sketch, G is a cold- 
 water cistern supplying the boiler, H, and 
 also the cold-water draw-off tap, J. In a 
 •case that the writer had to alter, the work 
 was fixed as shown. From appearances it was seen 
 (and was confirmed by report) that originally only 
 one pipe was fixed to supply the boiler and also the 
 ■cold-water tap over the sink. Whenever the kitchen 
 fire was alight a considerable quantity of warm water 
 had to be run to waste before cold water could be 
 ■drawn at the tap, J. As it was found that hot water 
 passed from the boiler to the cold-water cistern, 
 -which was about 40 feet (forty feet) away, the writer 
 introduced an ordinary feed-cistern at L, so as to 
 break the continuity of the feed pipe to the boiler. 
 At the same time the expansion pipe, K, had the 
 top end lowered so that if the water in the boiler 
 got very hot and expanded it would overflow and 
 run to waste, instead of forcing its way back into 
 the feed-cistern. The tap, I, was fixed over the 
 scullery-sink, and was the only means of drawing hot 
 water from the boiler. In spite of the alterations 
 made the job was a poor one, and the system is not 
 to be recommended for anyone to adopt. 
 
 When repairing or altering work fixed some 
 years ago, one often finds a low-pressure boiler and 
 ieed-cistern as shown at Figure 416, and a coil of 
 
 X 2 
 
3o8 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE, 
 
 lead, sometimes iron, pipe inside the boiler, one end of the coil 
 being connected with a pipe leading from a cold-water cistern 
 fixed on an upper floor, and the other end with a pipe leading up 
 to a bath or sink. By this means cold water is simply passed 
 through a reservoir of heated water, and in its passage absorbs 
 and takes av/ay a certain amount of heat. This system is not a 
 good one and is now very rarely practised. One of the greatest 
 objections is the coil has to be removed each time the boiler is 
 cleaned out. Because of this the boiler does not get cleaned so 
 often as it should be, and consequently soon wears out. When 
 the coils are made of iron, oxidation takes place inside and out- 
 side at the same time, and they soon corrode. 
 
 A great many kitchen ranges of modern construction have 
 two boilers at the back of the open fire, the large one, as shown 
 by firm lines. Figure 416 and a smaller one, as shown by dotted 
 lines. The former is called the low-pressure boiler, the draw-off 
 cock being generally as shown at D, Figure 415. The other one 
 is called the high-pressure boiler, and is connected by means of 
 circulation pipes with a hot-water cistern or cylinder fixed near 
 or at some higher place in the building so that hot water may be 
 
 drawn at the sinks, baths, &c.-, on the 
 various floors. 
 
 A great many hot-water engineers 
 now omit fixing the two boilers in 
 smaller houses, and arrange for the 
 high-pressure boiler to provide all the 
 hot water that is required. In clubs, 
 hotels, and some of the largest man- 
 sions, the low-pressure boiler is fixed 
 and fitted up slightly different, and is 
 used to generate steam to be used for 
 cooking purposes. 
 
 In some cases where very lix-rge 
 fires are used, say 6 or 7 feet long, so 
 that several joints of meat can be 
 roasted at the same time, the fire lays 
 against the iron boiler, and that is 
 Figure 418. found Sufficient to heat the water, but 
 
 \\\\\\\\v 
 
HOT-WATER BOILERS OR WATER-BACKS. 
 
 309 
 
 ^^^^^^ ^ 
 
 in smaller ranges a flue is constructed to pass beneath and up 
 the back side of the boiler so as to get a larger heating surface. 
 It is always necessary, when flues are fixed, to have dampers 
 so as to regulate the draught. 
 
 In some cases the fire-bars are continued beneath the boiler, 
 as shown in section, Figure 418, at M but the writer has often 
 found it necessary to put a dead- plate over that part immediately 
 under the boiler to prevent cold air instead of heat passing up 
 the flue behind. This cold-air draught is denoted by an arrow. 
 
 The shape of the boiler for open ranges is generally as shown 
 at N, Figure 418, that being an end view, but for a close range, 
 or what is commonly called a "kitchener," a boiler, technically 
 named a " boot-boiler," is used. This is shoWn at Figure 419. A 
 manhole for cleaning out and other pur- 
 poses is generally placed at P, but the 
 best makers have another manhole at Q. 
 The reader will, no doubt, notice that 
 from the manhole, P, access cannot 
 very well be had to clean the toe of 
 the boiler where most of the fur accu- 
 mulates, and which it is necessary to 
 remove at intervals of time. The boiler, 
 Figure 419, has fire-bricks placed as 
 shown at r, r, leaving an open space 
 for the heat from the fire to pass up the back flue. A great 
 many boilers are now made and used as shown at Figure 420, 
 a flue being made in the 
 boiler itself. These, some- 
 times called saddle-boilers, 
 are bedded on a solid 
 base of fire-bricks. A few 
 boilers have a tube through 
 them as shown at Figure 
 421, the fire passing 
 through the tube and then up an ordinary flue behind the ooiler. 
 Where the kitchen fire has been expected to provide or heat 
 sufficient water for a very large house, a double boot-boiler has 
 sometimes been fixed. This is shown at Figure 422. The fire 
 
 Figure 420. 
 
 Figure 421 
 
3IO 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 lays between the two feet of the boiler, and an under and back 
 
 draught is provided for, as 
 shown. 
 
 In some cases water is 
 circulated from a boiler 
 fixed in a "hot plate." 
 This hot plate sometimes- 
 has ovens also, and may 
 be described as a horizontal 
 kitchener. The shape of 
 the boiler is usually as 
 
 Figure 422. 
 
 shown at Figure 423, the fire being in the centre at X. 
 
 There are a great many other-shaped boilers used, but the 
 
 few illustrated are 
 sufficient for our pres- 
 ent purpose. A great 
 many of them are 
 rivetted together, but 
 this last few years the 
 welded boilers have 
 come more into general 
 
 FiouRE 423. ^^^' 
 
CHAPTER XXXIX. 
 
 CIRCULATION BOILERS. 
 
 A GREAT many blunders are committed by people who fix hot- 
 water boilers. There are so many intricacies that no one, unless 
 he has had a very varied experience, can always be certain that 
 his job is going to be a success. 
 
 The mistake is frequently made of people attending public 
 exhibitions and such like places, where they see something they 
 take a fancy for and straightway purchase it, or a facsimile of it» 
 have it taken home, and then send for someone to fix it. After 
 it is fixed, grumbling commences, even when the fixing has been 
 properly done. In the case of ranges, one person will grumble that 
 it burns too much coal, no doubt thinking that all cooking, &c., can 
 be done by the range without any coals. Another person will 
 grumble that the ovens will not bake, or the water in the boiler 
 will not get hot. Perhaps the real fault may have been that the 
 range, although a good one, was not suited for the particular class 
 of work required to be done. It is to be recommended that, 
 before buying, an expert should always be consulted as to the 
 suitability of any particular fitting for its purpose. The above 
 evils are aggravated if the range is not properly fixed To 
 confine our attention to the boiler — it is necessary the flue should 
 not be too small, or it will choke up with soot, and if too large, 
 a great deal of heat will pass away in • a useless manner up the 
 chimney. The division between the flues and tho^e from the 
 ovens should be built of fire-bricks, or made pf other material 
 that will not crumble away by the action qf the firp, or otherwise 
 be broken. If this happens, there can be no control over the 
 heat from the fire, as it will pass away round the pveng when it 
 is most wanted for the boiler, and vice versa. The flues should 
 also be continued to a fair height inside the chimney, and more 
 
312 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 especially when the building is low, so that the chimney is short, 
 and perhaps so situated that the draught is sluggish, and there is 
 a certain amount of difficulty in getting the smoke to go upwards. 
 On the other hand, in some cases the flues should not be too 
 long, or the fire will burn coals to waste, and more heat be 
 generated than is required. 
 
 Where the draught is too strong, and the fire is raised to 
 almost a white heat, the water in the boiler will not get hot so 
 readily as with a fire just above a red degree of heat. The 
 reason for this, no doubt, is that an excessive heat acting on the 
 iron repels the water on the inside of the boiler, leaving a space, 
 and, as the water is heated by conduction, it necessarily follows 
 that it must be in actual contact with the iron, or whatever the 
 boiler is constructed of, to absorb the heat conducted by the iron. 
 Experiments prove that iron heated to redness will repel a globule 
 of water when dropped on it, but a drop of water placed on a 
 piece of iron moderately heated is almost immediately evaporated, 
 as in this case the water is in actual contact with the iron, but 
 in the other case the water is repelled and a space left between, 
 the water dancing about for some considerable time before 
 evaporation is complete. If a piece of red-hot iron is plunged 
 into a vessel of cold clear water, the red colour of the heated iron 
 can be seen for some considerable time, until the temperature of 
 the surface of the iron is so reduced as to allow the water to 
 come into actual contact with it, when it soon cools. 
 
 Before the boiler is fixed in its position the plumber should 
 always drill the necessary holes. Some men will chip the holes 
 with a hammer ahd hand chisel, or use a diamond-pointed chisel, 
 but it is better to drill them, as the holes are made truer, and 
 there is not such a large burr left on the inside edge of them, 
 which requires to be afterwards filed away. 
 
 The position of the holes should always be considereo. No 
 holes should be made near the bottom of the boiler, as any 
 connection made at that point would, in some cases, become choked 
 with sediment. Another reason is, that if a draw-off pipe is taken 
 from the bot+om, the boiler could be drained empty. When 
 empty the fire would act on the iron, oxidizing it to a serious 
 extent, and should water enter the empty boiler when very hot. 
 
CIRCULATION BOILERS. 
 
 313 
 
 the sudden conversion of water into steam would cause an 
 explosion, and the destruction of the boiler. Neither is it a good 
 plan to connect the pipes to the boiler on that part exposed to 
 the action of the fire. In some cases the pipes have been fixed 
 through the flues, but this has generally led to their early 
 ■destruction by external corrosion, besides being an obstruction 
 when the flues require to be cleaned. 
 
 One of the most important points .to be considered is the way 
 in which circulation pipes are connected with the boiler, and also 
 that the boilers themselves are fixed so as to allow all air to 
 escape when water is entering. 
 
 Figures 424 and 425 show boilers fixed unlevel, so that air is 
 pent up at the highest points. Steam will generate in these air- 
 spaces, and eventually 
 escape up the flow 
 pipe with such violence 
 as to alarm anyone 
 near and lead them to 
 think the boiler was 
 going to burst. These 
 noises in the boiler 
 and pipes are worse 
 
 Figure 424. 
 
 Figure 425. 
 
 still when the circulation pipes are too small in the bore, or have 
 any contractions so as to impede the free circulation of the water, 
 so as CO convey the heated water away from the boiler as freely 
 as possible. 
 
 Figures 426 and 427 illustrate bad or im- 
 proper connections made between the circu- 
 lation pipes and 
 the boiler. In 
 each case an air 
 space is left be- 
 tween the water 
 and the top of 
 
 Figure 4S6. the boiler. Figure 427. 
 
 The return pipes in Figures 426 and 427 are denoted by the 
 arrows pointing to the boiler, and may be fixed as shown, but the 
 flow pipes should be connected so that they do not project inside 
 
314 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 the boiler. Figure 428 is a fragmental section showing how this is 
 
 usually done by first-class workmen. The hole is tapped with a 
 
 thread to suit the pipe, and a back-nut 
 
 screwed on outside, as shown, so as to 
 
 prevent the pipe being- screwed in too far. 
 
 This connection is a good one when the 
 
 substance of the iron will allow for the 
 
 threads being tapped, but when the boilers 
 
 are made of iron of a light substance, a 
 
 boss should be rivetted on for screwing the 
 
 Figure 428. pjpg ^q^ j^g ghown in Section, Figure 429. 
 
 Different kinds of waters have different effects on boilers. Hard 
 
 waters will deposit lime to a very serious extent. The writer has 
 
 found them with a lining exceeding an 
 inch in thickness, and which could only 
 be removed by chipping with a hamnler 
 and chisel Other waters leave a deposit 
 inside the boiler in flakes of a reddish 
 brown colour. This has been found nearly 
 2 inches thick, built up of thin flakes, and 
 had accumulated in less than two years. 
 Some little time ago the writer cleaned 
 Figure 4^9. ^^^ ^ kitchen boiler that had no fur what- 
 
 ever on the inside, but he took out nearly a pailful of what can, 
 only be compared to gravel, the sizes of the granulated matter 
 varying from a grain of rice to a large-sized horse-bean. 
 
 Other boilers have been found with a kind of slimy coating inside, 
 and others have rusted so that flakes of iron oxide came off the sides. 
 It is a very common complaint, when iron boilers and pipes 
 are used, that the hot water, when drawn, has a very objection- 
 able dirty red colour. 
 
 Sometimes, when galvanized-iron or copper pipes have been 
 used, the water has stiU been very much discoloured. This being 
 traced to the boiler, a coating of lime-white or a thin wash of 
 Portland cement being applied to the inside has prevented any 
 further o iidation of the iron boiler and discolouration of the water. 
 When cleaning out boilers, it is generally difficult to get the 
 furred matter out. In the first place the fur is very hard, and 
 
CIRCULATION BOILERS. 
 
 3IS 
 
 adheres very closely to the boiler. In the next place the manhole 
 is generally too far away from where the fur most accumulates ; 
 it is also so very small that a man can only get one hand in at 
 a time, and he can very rarely see what he is doing. In some 
 cases special-made chisels, bent for the purpose, have to be used. 
 Most of the boot boilers have only one manhole, and that is 
 situated, as illustrated, at P, Figure 419. 
 
 These manholes should always be made water-tight. The 
 importance of this was recently brought to the writer's notice. 
 A house was changing owners, and the whole of the plumbing- 
 work was being overhauled, when it was found that the -kitchen 
 boiler, which was working under a head of about 35 feet watet 
 pressure, was corroded all round the manhole, and so thin that 
 an accident (?) would have occurred at an early date. Figure 430 
 is a drawing of a 
 section of the man- 
 hole and part of 
 the boiler, showing 
 the position of the 
 
 corrosion. It ap- Figure 430. 
 
 peared that the manhole had leaked, but as the corrosion did not 
 extend more than i^ inch at the widest part, and only for about 
 f inch round the manhole, it is highly probable that a galvanjc 
 action had set up between the iron and the red lead cement 
 which was used for bedding on the cover. The boiler was of wrought 
 iron, and the manhole plates 
 of cast iron. The wrought 
 iron only was affected. 
 
 Figure 430 represents a 
 manhole as usually fixed to 
 boilers of kitcheners, but for 
 an open-range boiler it is 
 generally made as shown at 
 Figure 431. The cover being Figure 431. 
 
 fixed inside the boiler, and a bolt passed through an iron bridge- 
 piece, fixed outside, and screwed up tight with a nut. The hole in 
 the boiler and the plate are made eUiptical. If made round it would 
 be impossible to get the plate through the hole. 
 
CHAPTER XL. 
 
 HOT-WATER FITTINGS. 
 
 After the boiler is properly fixed the next thing is to 
 consider the circulation pipes. Figure 432 is a sketch diagram 
 
 showing how they are fixed in some of 
 the London jerry-built houses. The pipes 
 are usually of f-inch bore, and of the 
 gas pipe description which is very light 
 in substance. The bends are often care- 
 lessly made and buckled in their throats, 
 so as to offer serious impediments to the 
 free flow, of water through them. The 
 pipes are rarely coated inside, or gal- 
 vanized, to prevent oxidation, with the 
 result that frequently all the hot water 
 has to be run to waste, as it is so highly 
 coloured with iron rust. In some slightly- 
 better houses i-inch bore pipes are used, 
 and in first-class work it is usual to fix 
 ij-inch galvanized-iron or tinned-copper 
 pipes. The iron is what is called the 
 lap-welded steam pipe, and is very strong. 
 The copper pipes have a lapped and 
 brazed seam, but the last few years a 
 great deal of patent seamless drawn 
 copper tube has been used. Copper pipe 
 should always be tinned when quite new 
 and bright. , When kept in stock for 
 some time before being tinned, it is often 
 found that theinsides, which cannot be 
 Figure 432. gggu^ jo not get coated over the entire 
 
 surface, patches of copper being left untinned. 
 
HOT-WATER FITTINGS. 317 
 
 Referring again to Figure 432, A is the cold-water and B the 
 hot-water cistern. C is a pipe connecting the two. The writer 
 has frequently met with this stupid arrangement. In some other 
 cases the feed pipe has been connected as shown by dotted lines 
 at D. Both of these arrangements are bad, as the hot water 
 will sometimes work back into the cold-water cistern, rendering 
 the contents into a heated state. This evil is more serious when 
 the cistern. A, has to supply cold water to the sinks, &c. This 
 can be prevented by fixing a light flap or valve on the end of 
 the connecting pipe, as shown at H, Figure 432, but, as this 
 valve is liable to set fast, it is not a good plan. 
 
 In some cases a small feed-cistern is fixed at the side of the 
 hot- water cistern, as shown at E, Figure 432. This is a better 
 arrangement, as it breaks the direct Communication between the 
 cold and hot-water cisterns, but the blunder is frequently made in 
 fixing a ^-inch — in some cases a f-inch-^ball-valye in the feed- 
 cistern. There is some little risk of damage to the boiler attending 
 this arrangement. The low head of pressure on and the smallness 
 of the ball-valve allows the water to dribble in very slowly, so 
 that if a tap is left running, say into a bath, and another tap is 
 opened at a level with the boiler, it is possible to empty the 
 cistern, pipes, and boiler ; and, it need scarcely be added, this is a 
 very dangerous thing to do when the boiler fire is alight. 
 
 In some cases the draw-off taps have not been connected 
 with the circulation pipes, but to a separate pipe fixed from the 
 hot-water cistern. This is not to be recommended, as in the case 
 of a high house a long length of pipe would have to be emptied 
 of the stagnant cold water contained in it before hot water could 
 be drawn. And again, the pipe would have to be connected to 
 the upper part of the hot-water cistern, the lower strata of water 
 being often quite cold. This would limit the available supply of 
 hot water. 
 
 The writer has seen a few cases where the feed pipe was 
 fixed direct from the cold-water cistern to the boiler. In one case 
 the pipe was only ^-inch in bore, which was much too small. 
 The feed pipe should always be so large that the cold water will 
 run in as fast as the hot water can be drawn off. 
 
 Hot-water cisterns generally have steam-tight covers, or man- 
 
3^8 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 holes, and have a pipe fixed from the top to the outer air above 
 the level of the cold-water cistern. In some cases this, which is 
 commonly called expansion pipe, is turned over the top edge of 
 the cold-water cistern, as shown at G, Figure 432. In one case 
 the writer saw several years ago, when the cold-water cistern 
 was full the water covered the end of the expansion pipe, and the 
 ■connection thus made created a circulation between the water in 
 the two cisterns. 
 
 It is very important that all pipes connected to a boiler 
 should be kept free from any stoppage, or a possibility of the 
 water being frozen. There is no more frequent cause of boilers 
 bursting than pipes being frozen. In some cases a patent plug, 
 with a thin disc of copper in the centre, regulated to break when 
 an extra pressure has been brought to bear, has been attached to 
 the boiler. In other cases a safety-valve has been attached. 
 Some of the safety-valves are similar to those usually attached to 
 steam boilers. Another kind much used is called a " dead-weight 
 safety-valve," and is shown in section at Figure 433. The top of 
 the inner tube is conical and ground into the 
 outer cap. Weights, A, A, A, are added in 
 proportion to the pressure the valve has to 
 resist, care being taken not to add more than 
 is really necessary. This valve should always 
 be connected with the boiler by means of a 
 separate pipe. If connected with the circula- 
 iGURE 433. ^^^^ pipes, as is sometimes done, and common 
 
 keyed bibb-faucets are used for drawing off hot water, water- 
 hammer in the pipes, caused by sudden closing of a cock, will 
 sometimes cause the safety-valve to jump, so to speak, and allow 
 a small quantity of water to leak out. This kind of valve is a 
 very good one, and is preferable to some that have the weights 
 piled on the top, making them top-heavy and more likely to leak 
 if they should be knocked against or jarred. 
 
 It is an open question if safety-valves are to be trusted in 
 •cold countries, as it is possible the valve itself may become fixed 
 if the water inside gets frozen. 
 
 Fusible plugs are sometimes fixed to boilers, so that if by 
 any means — such as shortness of water or insufficient supply — they 
 
HOT-WATER FITTINGS. 
 
 319 
 
 M 
 
 become empty when the fire is burning, the plugs will melt and 
 thus relieve the pressure brought to bear by the 
 sudden expansion of water into steam should it 
 •come in when the boiler is hot. 
 
 In first-class houses of modern construction 
 the old way of fixing the hot-water cisterns at 
 the top of the house, or on an upper floor, is 
 not so generally practised, but what is known 
 as the cylinder system has been adopted. 
 
 Figure 434 is a sketch diagram showing 
 one of the simplest arrangements as fixed in 
 some of the middle-class houses. J is the 
 boiler ; K, the hot-water cylinder ; L, the cold- 
 ■water cistern ; and M, M, M, the draw-oflf cocks. 
 In this system the water circulates between the 
 boiler and cylinder, and a pipe is fixed from 
 the top of the cylinder and continued above 
 the cold-water cistern. From this pipe branches 
 and draw-offs are fixed in the various positions 
 as necessary. The only drawback to this system 
 is, that the water in the rising pipe being 
 stagnant, and at times nearly cold, it has to be 
 drawn ofi' before hot water can be had at the 
 cocks. In some cases a return pipe has been 
 fixed as shown by dotted lines, and as it was 
 only necessary for the water to circulate slowly, 
 this return pipe has been fixed of a smaller 
 size than the flow pipe. For best work the figure 434. 
 
 return should always be the same size as the flow pipe, or the 
 circulation of the hot water is very 
 much impeded. 
 
 In ?ome cases the hot-water cham- 
 ber has been made of iron plates 
 rivetted to angle-irons, and made as 
 shown in sketch, Figure 435. But even 
 when made of J-inch iron plates it 
 has been found necessary to have 
 several stay-rods inside to prevent the 
 
 h 
 
 J 
 
 Figure 435. 
 
320 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 sides and top bulging out by the internal pressure. This bulging 
 sometimes causes the joints of the pipe connections to leak, and 
 it is nearly always the case that the manhole leaks. This man- 
 hole must, of necessity, be large enough for access for cleaning 
 out the chamber, which is rendered more difficult by reason of 
 the complication of stay-rods inside. 
 
 The manhole plate is of wrought iron, and bolted over the 
 manhole with a series of bolts tapped and screwed to an inside 
 strengthening-plate. Should the manhole-plate require to be re- 
 moved for cleaning-out purposes, the bolts are generally difficult 
 to get out by reason of their having rusted in. Sonietimes the 
 bolts break off and have to be drilled out, necessitating new bolts 
 and retapping the holes for them. It is very rarely done, but it 
 is better to have gun-metal or copper bolts instead of the iron ones, 
 
 Hot -water cylinders are made of galvanized-iron plate, varying 
 from about -094 to "25 of an inch, or of sheet-copper of about 
 
 •035 to -lao- of an inch in thickness. 
 In some cases the copper cylinders are 
 tinned inside. 
 
 The shape of the iron cylinders is 
 generally as shown in sectional elevation, 
 Figure 436. The sketch shows the 
 position of the manholes and connecting 
 bosses, and speaks for itself. The bottom 
 is domed upwards, as shown, as being 
 more convenient for rivetting, and also 
 because if a flat bottom is put on the 
 pressure of water is found to make the 
 bottom bulge downwards, so that the 
 cylinder will not stand firm on a flat 
 shelf or platform. Copper cylinders are 
 Figure «6. sometimes made with the bottom domed 
 
 downwards, and, instead of being rivetted up, the seams are brazed 
 together. When made this way, and the cylinder is to stand 
 upright, a hollowed seating or . bracket must be made for the 
 bottom to rest in. 
 
 Some copper cylinders have the straight seams dovetailed and 
 brazed, and the domical ends soft-soldered on, but as after a time 
 
HOT-WATER FITTINGS. 
 
 321 
 
 the soldering comes away from the copper it is necessary to solder, 
 or sweat as it is sometimes called, an outer ring of copper over 
 the soldered seam, as an extra precaution against a leakage or 
 breaking asunder of the domes and the body of the cylinder. 
 
 Figure 437 is an elevation showing the copper cylinder as 
 described, and with a 
 piece broken out so as 
 to show the sesction of 
 the joints referred to. 
 
 The round cylin- 
 ders are generally made 
 with bridged manholes, 
 as described for the 
 boilers, for access to the inside for cleansing, &c. 
 
 Cylinders, as a rule, should stand above the level of the 
 boiler, and should not be fixed on wooden shelves or brackets, 
 but should have iron stands or brackets. Brick bases are some- 
 times built to support the cylinders, but the brackets are best, as 
 more room is left for access for making the connections or giving 
 any attention to them that may be necessary. 
 
 Figure 437. 
 
CHAPTER XLI. 
 
 CYLINDERS AND HOT- WATER CIRCULATION. 
 
 Hot-water cylinders should always be enclosed so as to ivoid 
 unnecessary waste of heat by radiation. They may be fixed in an 
 enclosed recess, or covered with a non-conducting material such as' 
 "fossil meal," and other similar preparations. 
 
 A wooden casing may be fitted round them, with a space left 
 between to be afterwards filled with a suitable material. 
 
 Dry hair-felt has been much used for this purpose, but the 
 writer has recently had to take away all the felt that was placed' 
 round some hot-water pipes, as moths were found to propagate 
 in that material. In the case referred to the moths propagated 
 to an extent that would appear almost incredible, and then spread 
 into the woollen furniture of a house and had played sad havoc, 
 some being almost ehtirely ruined and spoilt. In another case 
 fleas were found to an unpleasant extent, and the hair-felt had to 
 be removed because it was found to harbour them. 
 
 For ordinary use " slag-wool " has been found very efficient 
 to prevent radiation of heat from cylinders, and is free from the 
 objections referred to above, but it is necessary to have an outside 
 covering. As the cylinder is usually fixed in the kitchen, anything 
 unsightly should be avoided. For first-class work nothing looks 
 smarter than a polished mahogany lagging, with bright polished 
 brass bands or hoops to hold it together, and if the hoops are 
 tightened up with screws the whole enclosure can easily be taken 
 to pieces should it be necessary to do anything to the cylir-Her or 
 the connections. 
 
 I think I have read somewhere that in New York it is the 
 practice to supply the hot-water system direct from the public 
 water-main. This must be a very dangerous practice. Although 
 the writer has no experience of this kind, still he cannot help 
 
CYLINDERS AND HOT-WATER CIRCULATION. 
 
 323 
 
 thinking, .that there is danger of the boiler bursting, besides the 
 annoyance of being without hot water should the mains break 
 down or be emptied for repairs to them or any branch connections. 
 Or the pressure from the mains would be seriously reduced should 
 all the water be required to supply the engines when a fire broke 
 out in the neighbourhood. In the writer's practice he always 
 advises that the water be laid on from the main to a cistern or 
 cisterns which will hold at least enou^ for twelve hours^ con- 
 sumption. 
 
 We wiU now return to the question of hot-water circulation. 
 The pipes between the boiler and cylinder should never be 
 less than ij inch in diameter, but i^ inch is much better. Or, if 
 
 smaller pipes are used, the connections to the boiler should be of 
 
 the sizes stated, as it is not at all uncommon to find the ends in 
 
 the boiler partly filled with fur, and especially f ^ 
 
 where very hard waters are used. The 
 
 cylinder may be fixed in any convenient 
 
 position, but it is usual and best to fix it 
 
 as near the boiler as possible. 
 
 Figure 438 represents a very good way 
 
 for connecting the pipes, and a great many 
 
 men fix them so. 
 
 Figure 439 is another way much 
 
 practised. In this figure the cold-water 
 
 service pipe is connected with the return pipe to the boiler, for 
 
 the reason that it has been thought not advisable for cold water 
 
 to enter the boiler to replace the hot 
 
 water that has passed away into the 
 
 system of pipes. By connecting it with 
 
 the return pipe a certain quantity of 
 
 warm water from the cylinder mixes 
 
 with the cold, thus not submitting the 
 
 iron boiler to sudden expansions and 
 
 contractions. In Figure 438 the cold 
 
 water is shown as passing directly into 
 
 the boiler. In Figure 438 the manhole 
 
 is shown as usually fixed, and in Figure 
 
 439 it is shown near the bottom of the 
 
 Y a 
 
 Figure 43S. 
 
324 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 cylinder, so that any mud or sediment can be more easily re- 
 moved. In Figure 439 the pipes from the cylinder are shown as 
 running horizontally. It is found in practice that the water will not 
 circulate so fteely in horizontal as in vertical pipes. In cases 
 similar to the one quoted it has been found necessary to fix the 
 pipe, N, from the boiler flow to the cylinder flow pipe, so as to 
 accelerate the circulation' in the cylinder pipes. It may here be 
 mentioned that no draw-off cocks should be fixed or connected to 
 the boiler or cylinder, but should be branched into the flow pipe 
 from the cylinder. The reason for this is, that should the cold- 
 water supply be exhausted or cut ofi" for any purpose, it would 
 not be possible to empty the boiler, &c., for reasons it is not 
 necessary to repeat. A special cock should be fixed for the 
 plumber to empty the cylinder when necessary for cleaning out or 
 making any repairs. This cock should have a square head, or 
 else be locked up so that servants could not tamper with it pr 
 make use of it. This cock is shown at O, Figure 439. In some 
 instances a pipe is connected with this cock so as to discharge 
 the contents of the cylinder into a drain or waste pipe. This is 
 not a good plan, as the cock may be left open so that the water 
 can run to waste and not be noticed. It is much better to fix a 
 bibb-cock as shown, so that the water can be drawn into pails. 
 This gives a little more trouble to the plumber, but as it has to 
 be done only once or twice in a year, the trouble is not worth 
 considering. A stop-cock should always be fixed in the cold- 
 supply pipe as shown at F, Figure 439, so that in case of accident 
 the water can be shut off at once instead of the person in charge 
 having to run to the top of the house, or wherever the cold taAk 
 is fixed, to shut off the supply. No expansion pipe is shown in 
 the figures, as it is usual . to fix that firom the highest point of 
 the circulating pipes. 
 
 The circulating pipes from the cylinder should never De less 
 than I inch diameter ; i J inch is better, and for large mansions 
 the writer has used i|-inch pipes. In addition to iron, galvanized 
 iron, and copper pipes^as described in an earlier paper — lead and 
 lead-encased tin pipes have been used for hot-water pipes. Lead 
 pipes have now fallen into disuse ; indeed, the writer has not 
 fixed any lead circulation pipes for this last fourteen years. Hot 
 
CYLINDERS AND HOT-WATER CIRCULATION. 325 
 
 anu cold water passing alternately through lead pipes causes 
 them to expand and contract to such an extent as to cause the 
 pipes to break, and this occurs more when the pipes are too 
 firmly fixed. Branch pipes frequently break near the joint to the 
 main pipes. On looking closely at the ends of the fractured pipes 
 the lead looks as if its particles were disintegrated, and there is 
 no doubt that it is ^ the want of tenacity in the metal that will 
 not bear a tensile strain when shrinking that is the cause of the 
 pipe being pulled asunder. The writer has used lead-encased tin 
 pipe for hot -water work, and will not readily forget his first, job. 
 The great difficulty was to make the joints. A plumber's wiped, 
 joint was found to melt the inside lining of tin, leaving a thin 
 shell of lead, the tin melting and running into a mass in the 
 bottom of the inside of the joint. Blow pipe and copper-bit 
 joints were tried and found to be failures. Next was tried a 
 lining of pasted brown paper inside the joints and then an 
 ordinary wiped joint made. This answered fairly well, but the 
 paper was found to wash off, and several pieces would congregate 
 in some bend or branch-joint and cause a stoppage. The ends 
 of the pipe were packed with whiting, but that was not a success. 
 Tinned sheet-iron nipples inside the pipe ends before wiping the 
 joint were fairly successful, but it was found that gun-metal 
 coupling-unions were the best means for connecting the pipes. 
 
 Figure 440 is a section of a joint made as described. The 
 pipe ends were passed throiigh gun-metal linings and tafted or 
 flanged over. These linings had hex- 
 agonal ends at R, R, and spanners were, 
 used for screwing them into the socket, S. 
 T is an asbestos or indiarubbdr washer, 
 but if the flanged ends of the pipe are 
 properly done and left with a smooth Figure j^o. 
 
 face, they can be butted together, and screwed up so as to be 
 water-tight without any washers. These joints require peripdical 
 examination and further screwing up, especially when the pipes 
 are in long straight lengths. Horizontal pipes should always lie 
 on wooden fillets fixed to the wall. If fixed on hooks the pipe 
 will bag down between the fixings. The wooden fillet should be 
 ra^er wide. Although it does not add to the appearance of the 
 
32b 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 work, it is best not to have the pipes too straight so that they 
 will have a direct strain on the screwed coupling Connections, but 
 any bends in horizontal pipes must lay flat on the fillet, or air 
 will accuniulate in any high parts. When pipes are quite straight 
 the joints leak by the alternate pull .^and thrust motion which is 
 continually taking place at each change of temperature of the 
 water inside them. It is often lost sight of, but a fact nevfertheless, 
 that hot-water pipes when in use are always in motion, and cannot 
 be said to be still for more than a few seco'hds at a time. 
 
 Great care should be taken when making branch connections 
 for draw-off pipes. Figure 441 is a section showing the T-iinitm 
 
 FiGUkE 443. 
 
 used for a branch pipe. It is a 
 
 good plan not to have the branch 
 
 pipe quite straight, but to bend 
 
 it as shown, so as to allow for 
 
 a slight motion of both the main 
 
 and branch pipes, and thus render the liability of a strain on the 
 
 joint to a minimum. In some cases the writer has fixed the 
 
 branch joint upwards as shown at Figure 442, so as to allow for 
 
 thf motion predescribed. 
 
 Figure 443 is a bird's-eye view of a cylinder and the circu- 
 lating pipes fixed to a nobleman's mansion in the country 
 (England). The whole of the pipes were lead-encased tin. U, I' 
 
CYLINDERS AND HOT-WATER CIRCULATION. 
 
 327 
 
 were dr^iw-pffs to sinks on tloe ground floor. V, V, were similar 
 draw-offs on the first or chamber floor. W, W, were baths. X, 
 X, were wash-hand basins, and Y was the expansion pipe. This 
 was placed at the highest point of the circulating pipe. Door- 
 \yays and similar obstacles compelled this to be fixed where shown. 
 T^he return pipe was t^ikep back and branched into the cylinder, 
 as shown at Z. This, no doubt, caused a slight check on the 
 circulation of the water, but it was deemed 
 advisable to make the connection as shown. 
 It was thought that by reason of the long 
 length of pipe and the consequent friction of 
 the water passing through that any water drawn 
 at the cocks, U', U', would most likely be 
 cold instead of hot if it had been connected 
 in the usual way. 
 
 Sometimes, as an economy, the return cir- 
 culation pipe has been of a smaller size than 
 the flow pipe. For instance, a ij-inch flow 
 pipe has been fixed from the cylinder to the 
 furthest point away, and an inch pipe carried 
 back to the cylinder. This is not a good plan, 
 as reducing the size of the pipe causes, by 
 the extra friction of the smaller pipe, a sluggish 
 circulation of the hot water. In addition to 
 the extra friction of the water in the smaller 
 pipe, there is also, proportionately, a larger 
 radiating surface and consequent loss of heat, 
 so that for these reasons it is advisable to 
 have the circulating pipes of the same bore 
 throughout. Another view of a small return 
 pipe may be mentioned — ^viz., the smaller the 
 pipe the larger, proportionately, is the radiating 
 surface, so that the tem- 
 perature of the return- 
 water is much more re- 
 duced, and, theoretically, 
 this ought to cause the 
 water to circulate more 
 fireelv- 
 
 -SsJ 
 
328 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 In some cases the hot-water cylinders are fixed horizontal 
 instead of vertical. 
 
 Figure 444 is a sketch diagram of a horizontal cylinder and 
 the circulation pipes, as recently fixed under the supervision of 
 the writer. In the sketch, A is the cylinder fixed on brackets 
 over a doorway ; B is the boiler ; C, C, C, are taps over the 
 scullery, servants' hall, and butler's pantry sinks ; d, i, are taps 
 over lavatories ; e is fixed to supply hot water to the housemaid's 
 sink on chambei floor, and / to the spray and plunge bath ; g is 
 a coil for heating the bathroom, and is arranged so that towels, 
 &c., can be dried or warmed ; /j is a coil on upper floor to warm 
 a water-closet room and adjacent lobb}'. The waste heat is made 
 use of by carrying the return pipe through the housekeeper's 
 room and the linen-room, the pipe being bent to form a radiator, 
 as shown at j. It will be noticed that all the draw-off taps are 
 branched into the flow pipe, which is carried as direct as possible, 
 and the coils or radiators are connected beyond the furthest tap 
 so that the water may be drawn as hot as possible at the taps. 
 The coils are so attached to the circulating pipes that by closing 
 three or four stop-cocks the water will flow round without passing 
 through the coils, heat not being wanted in the rooms in the 
 summer time. K is the cold-water supply-tank, and the service 
 to the boiler is shown by dotted lines. The whole arrangement 
 works very well. In this, and similar cases, it was found that 
 after drawing , sufficient hot water for a bath the heat from the 
 coils fell ■ cbnsiderably, and some little time had to elapse before 
 they got hot again. For this reason it is an open question if the 
 pipes, &c., for supplying hot water to sinks, &c., and also for 
 heating corridoirs or rooms by radiators is a good one, as it is 
 almost impossible to keep one constant heat. 
 
 In some instances a hot closet has been fixed in a kitchen, 
 for warming plates and dishes, and connected with the boiler cir- 
 culation pipes. For want of the proper knowledge some of these 
 have been found to be failures. The writer had to inspect one 
 that had been fixed but a few months, but no matter how hot 
 the water was in the boiler the closet was always quite cold. 
 
 Figure 445 shows the arrangement. The man who fixed it 
 said he would give it up and own he was beaten, but when asked 
 
CYLINDERS AND HOT-WATER CIRCULATION. 
 
 329 
 
 Figure 445. 
 
 if water or air was in the coil, Z, he at once saw where he had 
 made a mistake. He then made the necessary alterations so as 
 to allow the pent-up air to. escape from the 
 highest end of the horizontal coil. Acting on 
 advice, he also connected both ends of the 
 horizontal coil to the flow pipe from the boiler, 
 and put a small perforated disc of copper at 
 Y so that the water did not circulate past and 
 miss the T-junction. This air-binding of pipes 
 is of frequent occurrence and in a great variety 
 of ways. In a row of six mansions a stupid blunder was com- 
 mitted in each house. The storage capacity for cold water was 
 too little, with the result that the cisterns would frequently get 
 emptied. Every time the cisterns were emptied and filled again 
 it was found impossible to draw water at the hot-water taps. 
 The reader is referred to Figure 446, 
 which shows what was found. The 
 cold-water supply to the boiler was 
 connected to the bottom of the cistern, 
 and, about 6 feet away, the pipe was 
 lifted about 2 inches, so as to fix 
 it with a pipe-hook to the wooden 
 bearer , on which the cistern was 
 placed. On taking out the hook in 
 each house, and lowering , the . pipe, air came bubbling back into 
 the cistern, after which the water ran freelj' into the boiler and 
 could be drawn at the various taps. It may be further explained 
 that the bottom end of the supply pipe was sealed by the water 
 in the boiler so that the air could not escape or be driven out at 
 the bottom, although the cold-water cisterns were about, 60 feet 
 above the boilers. Great numbers of similar blunders could be 
 given, but the writer does not consider it necessary to weary his 
 readers by repetition of cases. 
 
 A common cause of complaint is that such a quantity of cold 
 water has to be run to waste before hot water ,can be had at the 
 taps. This occurs chiefly with long branch draw-ofi' pipes, to taps 
 some distance away ^ from the circulation pipes. In a great many 
 cases it is possible to fix return pipes to these bjr^nghes ^o thai 
 
 Figure 446. 
 
330 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 the water will circulate through them and thus avoid the evil 
 referred to. Where it is impossible to circulate through the 
 branches, the size of the pipes should be reduced as much as 
 possible, so that less water will have to be run to waste. This 
 applies more particularly to washr-hand^basins, wliere only a small 
 quantity of hot water is required. For baths it is not so important 
 to reduce the size of the pipes, as a few pints, or even a gallon, 
 of cold water having to be drawn does not much matter, but if 
 the pipe is reduced, the bather's patience would perhaps be ex- 
 hausted by waiting for the bath to fill from a small pipe. In 
 some cases it has been found to be an advantage to have two, or 
 even three, sets of circulating pipes carried from the cylindM" to 
 the various parts of a house, especially when the shape of the 
 house is large and straggling, and the draw-ofFs are wide apart. 
 No matter how many sets of circulating pipes are fixed, it is 
 always necessary to have a vent pipe from the highest end of 
 each to allow the air to escape. In some cases a draw-off pipe 
 has been fixed near the highest end, on opening which any air 
 could escape, but this is not by any means a good system to 
 adopt. When air pipes are fixed, it is scarcely necessary to add 
 they must be carried to a level above the cold-water supply- 
 cistern. 
 
 A reason was given in an earlier chapter for connecting the 
 return pipe to the cylinder instead of branching it into the boiler 
 or the cold-water service pipe to the boiler. To prevent water 
 from being drawn from the return or cold, -instead, of the flow or 
 hot-water pipe, some makers will fix a small flap- valve inside 
 the circulating pipes, that opens in the direction of the flow of 
 water when circulating, but closes should the circulation by any 
 means become reversed, or to prevent back-water being drawn 
 when a tap is opened for drawing hot water. 
 
 A great many hot-water men fix stop-cocks in the circulation 
 pipes, but this practice cannot be too strongly condemned. A 
 few years ago a serious accident (?) occurred through this. The 
 stop-cocks were closed while a new draw-off cock was being 
 fixed, and it was forgotten to reopen them, with the result that 
 when the fire was lighted the water in the boiler expanded 
 sufi&cifently to burst it. 
 
CYLINDERS AND HOT-WATER CIRCULATION. 
 
 331 
 
 Elbows in circulation pipes should always be avoided as 
 much as possible, it being much preferable to have bends of an 
 easy sweep or radius. Some first-class men will always insist on 
 the pipes being heated g,nd bent to suit the various positions, 
 instead of using those betught at the manufacturers, the reason 
 being that every bend, especially when made to a small radius, 
 causes a retardation of the free flow of water, and, as the force 
 in the form of heat which puts the water in motion is very small, 
 all obstructions and unnecessary friction should be avoided as 
 much ' as possible. Whten galvanized-iron pipes are heated and 
 bent the zinc coating is melted off. For common work no notice 
 is taken of this, but for best work the pipes are bent first and 
 galvanized afterwards. When done this way the bends should be 
 carefully examined, as they have sometimes been found to be 
 partly or entirely choked with zinc. Some men, who take a: 
 paride in their work, will make very 
 nice bends, and when two or three 
 are fixed together' will make them 
 match, so to speak, as shown at 
 Figure 447. Figure 448 is an elbow 
 drawn for comparison with the bends. 
 Mention has been made of the expansion 
 and contraction of hot-water pipes. If no 
 allowance is made for this motion of the 
 pipes the result will be that some of. the 
 joints will leak, and this occurs more 
 especially with long straight lengths. As 
 expansion and contraction are, to a certain extent, irresistible 
 forces, it follows that provision should be made to allow for 
 theni. The introduction gf bends, as shown at 
 Figure 447, will allow for a great deal of motion 
 of the pipes, and is a very simple and easy way of 
 overcoming the difficulty. Figure 449 is a gland- ■ 
 joint that can, be used for the same purpose, - 
 the lining sliding in and out of the gland-box. 
 Figure 450 is, I think, an American in- 
 vention, and appears to be a simple and 
 easily- applied expaiision,-.socket, but not 
 
 Figure 447 
 
332 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 having used them the writer does not know how long they will 
 last without breaking. But perhaps they are made of very tough 
 but flexible iron, and are as strong as the other parts of the 
 fittings. In addition to expansion -joints it is important that the 
 circulation pipes should not be fixed by any branches, but this 
 was referred to when writing on lead-encased tin pipes. 
 
 When hot -water pipes are fixed round and inside a room,, 
 they should not be too tightly fixed at the return-ends, but should 
 be kept at least one inch clear of the walls. Figure 451 explains 
 
 what is meant, the dotted lines 
 g n^^^^^f;f?rrfr:"'rg^^^^^^m showing how the pipes will 
 
 Figure 4SI' 
 
 ^ bulge out in the centre portion 
 <; when expanded by heat. If 
 the pipes are fixed clear of 
 
 walls, as suggested, this would not occur, as the expansion would 
 be expended at the ends. Neither should the pipes be too rigidly 
 fixed by means of wall-hooks. Horizontal pipes should lay on 
 brackets, which, although supporting, will not prevent them freely 
 moving backwards and forwards. Lead pipes should lay on wood 
 fillets,' as stated in an earlier chapter. Figure 452 is a neat brass 
 or gun-metal bracket which can be screwed to a 
 wooden block or lining-board fixed to the walls. 
 Long vertical pipes should be supported in the centre 
 of the length, so that the expansion may be equally 
 distributed at the ends. 
 
 To carry out hot-water work in a thoroughly 
 efficient manner, a man requires to know all the 
 FiouKji452. pripciples which govern his work. If he does not 
 know these principles he is always liable to blunder in the arrange- 
 ment of the fittings and pipes. A man may be a good tradesman, 
 and fix new work that will answer first-class, and yet very often 
 be at a loss to know how to alter other work that has been 
 improperly done by someone else. 
 
 Figure 453 is an illustration of a job near Regent's Park, in 
 London. A is a ^-inch expansion pipe ; B, a f-inch flow pipe ; 
 C, a ^-inch return pipe ; D, a 30-gallon cylinder ; E, a |-inch 
 draw-off" pipe ; F, a ijf-inch cold-water feed pipe ; and G, a small 
 feed-cistern with a f-inch ball-valve. The top of the feed-cistern 
 
CYLINDERS AND HOT-WATER CIRCULATION. 
 
 333 
 
 was fixed nearly level with the top of cylinder. The talented 
 
 expert who arranged this work was ignominiously dismissed, and 
 
 another man was called in who spent several days in altering the 
 
 Work, but still could 
 
 not see how it was 
 
 that no water could be 
 
 drawn at the cock, H. 
 
 Eventually he fixed 
 
 another expansion or 
 
 vent pipe, as shown by 
 
 dotted lines at I, when 
 
 he succeeded in getting ^'"""^ «3. ' f.oure 45«. 
 
 a small dribble of water at the bibb-cock. A large fire had been 
 
 kept up, with the result that sometimes the water was forced out 
 
 of the feed-cistern and steam drawn at the bibb-cock when 
 
 opened. This was before the second expansion pipe was fixed. 
 
 The second man having been sent away, the owner thought 
 perhaps it would be au advantage to go to a respectable firm of 
 engineers, instead of employing cheap men who knew nothing 
 about the principles which govern the work. He was very much 
 surprised when he was told that the whole of the pipes would 
 have to be changed to a larger size and differently arranged. 
 
 Figure 454 shows the alterations, which may be enumerated 
 as follows : The pipe leading to the draw-off cock was branched 
 into the flow pipe from the boiler to the cylinder. The pipes 
 between boiler and cylinder were made i inch in diameter. The 
 expansion or vent pipe was fixed from the top of the cylinder, 
 and the feed-cistern was fixed at a higher level. A larger service 
 pipe and ball-valve were fixed, and also a larger pipe from the 
 feed-cistern to the bottom of the cylinder, 
 fixed in the boiler-flue so as to regulate 
 the draught. On being told that there was 
 plenty of hot water and enough to supply 
 a bath, the gentleman was so pleased that 
 he had one fixed in an adjoining room. 
 
 Figure 455 is an illustration of another 
 blunder which was, if possible, worse 
 than the last one described. This was Fmoue 455. 
 
 A damper was also 
 
 ?, J 
 
334 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 fitted up in a nobleman's mansion in, London by a village blaqk- 
 slmith,. in whom his lordship had so much confidence that he paidf 
 railway and other expenses sooner than trust to anyone in London., 
 The strange part about this arrangement is, tliat the water in 
 the cistern, K, did sometimes get hot, but was never to be,, 
 depended upon for heating. At times it was found necessary to 
 open the cock, L, as air would accumulate in the horizontal pipe, 
 M. The only alteration made in this case was to fix a vent pipe 
 as shown by dotted lines at N, and connect the return pipe 
 from the hot-water cistern to the boiler as shown by dotted lines 
 at O. 
 
 Figure 456 was a rather strange experience of . erratic circula- 
 tion. A boiler was fixed for heating water to supply sinks in 
 
 which bottles were washed, 
 at a wholesale wine mer- 
 chant's. Two radiators were 
 fixed, as shown in the dia- 
 gram,, for heating the offices. 
 Figure 456. The coil, ,P, got very hot, 
 
 but there was no heat in the coil, Q, so long as there was a fire 
 under the boiler. But, on allowing the fire to go out, the water 
 would at once begin to circulate backwards, and the coil, Q, got 
 moderately warm, but on again lighting the boiler fire this coil 
 would gradually get cool again. As the whole of the work 
 appeared to be done in good and workmanlike manner, some 
 little thought was necessary before it could be understood why 
 one coil got hot and the other did not when the boiler fire was 
 alight, and yet on putting out the fire the circulation was 
 reversed. The pet-cocks on the coil-heads were opened, but as 
 water came in each case there was proof that they were aot air- 
 bound. 
 
 Two mistakes suggested themselves. One was the pipe from 
 the boiler was too small, being only ij-inch, and the branch to 
 the coil, Q, was at right angles, bui horizontal. The return pipe 
 was branched into the main return pipe as shown in the sketch, 
 This branch being upright accounts for the back action in the 
 circulation. The alterations made were as follows : 2-inch pipes 
 were fixed from the boiler as far as the branches to the coil, Q, 
 
J ^ 
 
 FiODRE 457. Figure 458. 
 
 CYLINDERS AND HOT-WATER CIRCULATION. 335 
 
 and the flow pipe branch was turned upwards as shown by dotted 
 lines. The alterations, when made, proved to be successful, as 
 both the coils heated equally. 
 
 In another case a long branch pipe was fixed to supply a 
 pantry-sink. This pipe was returned so that water would cir- 
 culate through it, and thus avoid having to empty the pipe of 
 cold water before hot could be drawn. It was found that no 
 circulation took place. The way it was branched is shown at 
 Figure 457, S being the main flow and T the main return pipe, 
 and U the way the draw-off pipe 
 
 was branched so that any pent- ^p" "Tl g"^ i -3 j 
 
 up air could escape when the 
 bibb-cock was opened. Figure 
 458 shows the alteration made, 
 the branch flow being taken off the top of the main flow as 
 shown at V. The issue was successful and hot water free'.y cir- 
 culated through the branch pipe,, which was about 40 feet in 
 length. 
 
 The last two problems in hot-water circulation are typical of 
 a great many mistakes made by men who may be compared to 
 pieces of machinery, who can execute work in a fairly good way, 
 but who lack the necessary experience or knowledge to properly 
 plan or arrange the scheme before commencing to carry it into 
 execution. Other examples could be given, but those cited are 
 sufficient to set the reader thinking, and, if he is a practical man, 
 may perhaps prevent him making similar mistakes. 
 
 In some instances fire insurance societies insist that no hot- 
 water pipes shall be in actual contact with, or within several 
 inches of, any woodwork. Where, of necessity the pipes must be 
 fixed close, the woodwork has to be covered with sheet-metal or 
 be otherwise protected. 
 
 When pipes are carried beneath wood flooring, and rooms, 
 &c., are beneath, it is always advisable to construct a proper 
 channel for the pipes to lay in, and line the channel with sheet- 
 lead. This metal lining not only keeps the pipes away from the 
 woodwork, but should the pipes leak the water is caught, and, 
 running to the lowest end, the bottom of the channel being laid 
 to the same declination as the pipes, can be ctmveyed away, by 
 
330 
 
 PLUMBING PRACTICE. 
 
 means of a waste pipe fixed from the channel to a suitable 
 position for discharging. It is also a good plan to lay the hot' 
 water pipes on small rollers, which can be made of remnants pf 
 iron pipe, so as to keep the circulation pipes further away from 
 the woodwork, and also allow them to move freely when expande4 
 or contracted by differences in temperature. These rollers should 
 not be too far apart or the pipes will sag down between them, 
 thuS' allowing air or vapour to lodge in the high parts a,nd cause ■ 
 a partial obstruction. 
 
 It is important that the cold-water supply-cistern should be 
 fixed a fair height above the highest draw-ofl cock, and, as stated 
 in another chapter, that the cold-water supply-pipe should be a 
 good size — that is, larger than any of the branch or draw-off 
 pipes. This has again been brought to the writer's notice at a 
 house where complaints were made that very often no hot water 
 could bt drawn on the upper or chamber floor for a minute or 
 two at a time, when it would begin to run at the tap and . 
 perhaps immediately afterwards stop again. On seeking for the 
 cause of this it, was found that sometimes one or two taps were 
 opeued on the ground floor for drawing hot water at the scullery 
 or pantry sinks, during which time none could be drawn on the 
 floor above. 
 
 Figure 459 is a sketch diagram showing the position of the 
 cold-water cistern, cylinder, boijer, tinned-copper circulation and 
 
 draw-off pipes, &c. 
 
 r 
 
 I ^\V*V»»l^ 
 
 f-e> 
 
 LJjli'^ 
 
 .»■: 
 
 mT^-^K 
 
 1 
 
 To remedy the evil, 
 all the cocks on the 
 ground floor were 
 pea'd — that is, a cop- 
 per disc, with a small 
 perforation, was in- 
 serted in the bosses. 
 
 (f\it Figure 459. 
 
 SO that the water did not run quite so fast when the cocks were 
 
 opened. A ij-inch pipe was fixed from the cold-water cistern to 
 
 the boiler. The cold-water, cistern was only 4 feet above the 
 
 level of the highest draw-off cock, and this coqk was one of great 
 
 importance, as it supplied , the principal bath-room, .which was 
 used by a nobleman. The above , alterations were found , to 
 
CYLINDERS AND HOT-WATER CIRCULATION 337 
 
 improve matters very much, but at times no hot water could be 
 had at the above-named cock, so it was deemed advisable to fix 
 a 20-gailon tinned-copper cylinder, as shown by dotted lines at 
 W, the circulation pipes being so connected that the cylinder 
 could only be emptied by opening the cock attached to it. This 
 arrangement was to avoid the contents of the cylinder running 
 back into the circulation pipes when they were being drained by 
 cocks at a lower level, and was found to be fairly successful, 
 although some time had to elapse before the lower strata of cold 
 water was heated to the same extent as the upper portion of the 
 contents of the cylinder. 
 
 In the diagram, X was a coil made of ij-inch copper pipes, 
 nickel-plated, and was used for warming the bath-room, and also 
 the bath-towels. 
 
 Farquharson R0BE8TS Sc Phillips, Limited, Printers, 7, Upper Thames St., London. EC. 
 
ORIGINAL MAKERS. ESTABLISHED 1844. 
 
 THOMAS GLOVER & CO. 
 
 LONDON, 1851. 
 
 NEW YORK, 1853. 
 
 PARIS, 1856. 
 
 LONDON, 1862. 
 
 DUBLIN, 1865. 
 
 THE SIX MEDALS AWARDED TO 
 THOMAS glover's PATENT DRY GAS METERS. 
 
 The latter being the Highest Award for 
 
 Dry Gas Meters at the Paris Exhibition, 1867. 
 
 Sincithen we have not Exhibited FOR PRIZES 
 
 PARrS 1867. 
 
 PATENT 
 
 DRY GAS METERS 
 
 Are a Remedy for all the Defects of ^A^et Meters. 
 
 Are suitable for all Climates, whether Hot or Cold. 
 
 No Loss of Gas by Evaporation. 
 
 Cannot become fixed by Frost, however severe. 
 
 Are the most accurate and unvarying Measurers of Gas. 
 
 Prevent Jumping and unexpected extinction of the Lights. 
 
 Cannot be tampered with without visibly Damaging the Outer Case. 
 
 Are upheld for Five Years without Charge. 
 
 flis*! 
 
 THOMAS GLOVER & CO., 
 
 211 to 222, St John Street, Clerkenwell Green, London, E.C. 
 
 Telegraphic Adosess— "fiOTHIJ, LONDON." 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Access to openings in drains, 154. 
 Access to pipes for repairs, loi. 
 Acids act on seams of soldered pipe, 38. 
 Action of oxygen on lead, 20. 
 Action of sewage gases on solder, 81. 
 Action of sun on cast and sheet-lead, 24. 
 Action of waters on boilers, 314. 
 Additional hot-water cylinder fixed on 
 
 upper floor, 337. 
 Aero-hydrogen blow-pipe, 38. 
 Air-binding of drains, 127. 
 Air-binding of hot-water pipes, 329. 
 Air-binding of pipes, 95. 
 Air blown through water-closet traps, 
 
 279, 280. 
 Air compressed in sewers, 1^23. 
 Air-current with water-current, 166. 
 Air-current-through vent pipe evaporates 
 
 water out of trap, 191. 
 Air-extractor cowls, 169. 
 Air-fans driven by water, 170. 
 Air-fans fixed in drain vents, 170. 
 Air flushing for drains, 166. 
 Air in boilers, 313. 
 
 Air in drain warmer than outside, 167. 
 Air-inlets to drains under sidewalks, 177. 
 Air-inlets at each end of a drain, 183. 
 jUr-inlets to drains, 171, 173, 174, 175, 
 
 176, 177. 
 Air-inlet pipe' continued to roof, 166. 
 Air-inlet valves, 176. 
 Air-testing of iron dirains, 152. 
 Airrtight covers to manholes, 175. 
 Air-pump to test pipes, 153. 
 ^'Jlow for expansion of lead in sinks, iiS. 
 -Uloysof lead,"2i. ' 
 
 y'llterations to improperly arranged hot- 
 water work,! 333, 334. 
 Amateur artists and urinals, 254. 
 Amateur objects to complication of traps, 
 
 188. 
 Angles of cisterns shaved too wide, loS. 
 Angle-shaving filled up vrith solder, log. 
 Appliances for casting sheet-lead, 22. 
 Arches through walls for iron drains to 
 
 pass through, 150. 
 Aichitects and pipe chases, 100. 
 
 Area traps, 193. 
 
 Arrangement of scullery-sinks, 192. 
 
 Asbestos joint, 1C4. 
 
 Asbestos washers, 325. 
 
 " Asphyxiator " as drain tester, 127. 
 
 " Asphyxiator " as vermin exterminator 
 127. 
 
 Astragals, casting, 105. 
 
 Astragals on rain-water pipes, 104. 
 
 Attendants at exhibitions of water- 
 closets, 301. ■ 
 
 Autogenous soldering, 38. 
 
 Automatic flushing apparatus for urinals, 
 258, 259. 
 
 Automatic flushing-tank used, 173. ■ ■ 
 
 Avoid use of tools when possible, 109. 
 
 Back spring to closet doors, 304. 
 
 Bad arrangement of cold and hot water 
 
 cisterns,' 317. ," 
 
 Bad arrangement of scullery-sink, 185. - ■ 
 Badly-arranged manhole, 136. ': 
 
 Badly-shaped joint, 73. ■: 
 
 Bad position of water-closet and soil 
 
 pipe, 25'6, 267, 268. 
 Bad work and the public, 269, 270. 
 Baggy parts in lead pipes; 95. ' 1; 
 
 Ball-traps, 240. 
 Band on joint, ^2. 
 
 Banker's house, defective drains at, 1 30". 
 Base to tirap, : 40; 
 Basins for urinals, 251. 
 Baths, 208. 
 
 Bath cocks and valves, 209, 210. 
 Bath connected with hot-water cistern, 
 
 217. 
 Bath cradled, 208. 
 Bath enclosures, 2ig. 
 Bath, needle, spray, &c., 221. 
 iiath overflow pipes, 211, 21O. 
 Bath-room decorations, 218. 
 Bath-room furniture, 219. 
 Bath-room heated with coil, 337. 
 Bath safes, 215. 
 Baths, shower, 220. 
 Bath utensus, smell offensive, 217. 
 
 Z 2 
 
340 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Bath-valves and water companies, 215. 
 Bath waste connected to slop-sink-waste, 
 
 216. 
 Bath-waste-pipe, position of, 210. 
 Bath-waste-valves, 212, 213. 
 Bedrooms and water-closets, 304. 
 Bench-made bends, 40. 
 Bends v. elbows, 57. 
 Bending dresser, 51, 
 Bending pipes, a modern invention, 57. 
 Bends heated with gas, 46. 
 Bends in heavy lead, 28. 
 Bends in i-inch pipe, 52. 
 Bends in two halves, 55. 
 Bends larger than the pipe, 51. 
 Bends loaded with sand, 53. 
 Bends made by cutting wedged-shaped 
 
 pieces out of throat, 56. 
 Bends made by slitting throat, 56. 
 Bends made on bench, 40. 
 Bends made quickly, 49. 
 Bends made to a large radius, 53. 
 Bends made with a water core, 54. 
 Bends made with dummy, 47. 
 Bends on pipes of square section, 67. 
 Bends out of thick lead, 56. 
 Bends should be heated, 40. 
 Bends should be drawn on bench, 56. 
 Bell-traps as air-inlets to drains, 194. 
 Bell-trap in dairy floor, 172. 
 Bell-traps in floors and sinks, 185, 186. 
 Bell-traps in a wine cellar, 197. 
 Bell wires lay side of lead pipes, 100. 
 " Bent-hook " for cisterns, 115. 
 Best materials for drains, 158. 
 Best tradesmen make sound work, 146. 
 Bevels set for bends and elbows, 57. 
 Bidet-pan, 223. 
 Bird's-eye view of hot-water pipes in a 
 
 mansion, 326. 
 Block-joint, 78. 
 Blow-down cowls, 169. 
 Blow-pipe joints, 91. 
 " Blow " through solder, 115. 
 Blunders in fixing hot-water work, 332. 
 Board to catch solder, 72, 86. 
 Bobbins and ball, 44. 
 Bobbins and followers, 44. 
 Bobbins through pipe with several ben(is, 
 
 46. 
 Boiler air-bound, 307. 
 Boiler, cold-water supply to, 323. 
 Boiler flues, 309, 311. 
 Boiler manholes, 315. 
 Boilers, various kiijds. 309, 310. 
 Boiler top corroded outside, 315. 
 Boilers and fusible plugs, 318. 
 Boilers and kitchen range, 303. 
 Boilers and pipe connections, 313. 
 Boilers and safety valves, 318. 
 Boiler difficult to clean out, 314. 
 
 Boilers being emptied when fire is burn- 
 ing, 312. 
 
 Boilers fixed unlevel, 313. , 
 
 Boilers lime-whited inside, 314. 
 
 Boilers with furred coating inside, 314. 
 
 Bolts for manhole-plate to hot-w^ater 
 cistern, 320. 
 
 Bolt for opening pipe-ends, 69. 
 
 Boot boilers, 309. 
 
 Bottles in drains, 154. 
 
 Bottom length of soil pipe should be left 
 out, 88. 
 
 Bottom lengths of pipe get battered, 103 
 
 Bowl for washing crockery ware, 198. 
 
 Bower-Barff'd pipes, 145. 
 
 Boxes of charcoal, 123. 
 
 Brackets for hot-water pipes, 332. 
 
 Brackets for wash-hand basins, 241, 242. 
 
 Brad-awl to close joints, 83. 
 
 Bramah's patent for pipes, 30. 
 
 Bramah, the inventor of valve water- 
 closets, 291. 
 
 Branch connections for hot-water pipes,. 
 326. 
 
 Branch drains, 135. 
 
 Branches for iron drains, 156. 
 
 Branch hot-water pipes, 330. 
 
 Branch joint, how to fix, 88. 
 
 Branch joints welted, 85. 
 
 Branch soil pipes, 277. 
 
 Branch soil pipes bent near joint, 84. 
 
 Branch-wiped joints, 81. 
 
 Brass face-plate for cocks, 207. 
 
 Brass; gratings in sinks, 120. 
 
 Brazed-cylinders, 320. 
 
 Breakage of lead pipes by hot water, 202. 
 
 Brick drains, 128. 
 
 Brown pasted paper, 98. 
 
 Builder threatened with an action at 
 law, 165. 
 
 Bungling way of reducing size of iron. 
 drain, 158. 
 
 Bungling way of cutting iron pipes, 147 
 
 Burning, effect on eyes, 38. 
 
 Burnmg lead seam on pipes, 27. 
 
 Burnt seams, 38. 
 
 Burnt seamscleaned off and burnished, 56.. 
 
 Bursting of drain pipe sockets, 133. 
 
 Bursting pressure for a 2-in. pipe, 202. 
 
 Butler's pantry sink, 195. 
 
 By-pass in vent pipe, 170. 
 
 Cabinet wash-hand basins, 225. 
 Cap and screw on branch-joint, 84. 
 Cap over waste of wash-hand basin, 235. 
 Cappings on sinks, 119. 
 Carbonate of lead, 20. 
 Carbonic acid in drains, 168. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 341 
 
 C^dboard models of elbows, 64. 
 
 Card wire, use of, 70. 
 
 Card-wiring bends, 47. 
 
 Careful laying of drains, 158. 
 
 Care to be taken when preparing branch- 
 joints, 82. 
 
 Carpets in bath-rooms, 219. 
 
 Case of drains not laid to proper fall, 133. 
 
 Casing for pipes, 96. 
 
 Casting lead ears for rain-water pipe, 107. 
 
 Cast-iron drains, 144. 
 
 Cast-iron troughs for urinals, 249. 
 
 Casting frame, 22. 
 
 Casting lead astragals, 105. 
 
 Cast-lead acted on by sun's rays, 24. 
 
 Cast-lead traps, 283. 
 
 Cast sheet-lead, 21. 
 
 Cast V. milled lead, 24. 
 
 " Cat's-paw," 67. 
 
 Cause of sweaty joints, 70. 
 
 Cause of dirty manholes, 137. 
 
 Cause of drains leaking, 130, 144. 
 
 Cause of drain smells, 143. 
 
 Cause of hot water ceasing to run at taps 
 on upper floors, 336. 
 
 Cause of joints leaking, 87. 
 
 Cause of lead breaking in sinks, 118. 
 
 Cause of lead pipe not being of equal 
 thickness, 32. 
 
 Cause of noise in boilers, 313. 
 
 Cause of smells from a wash-hand basin, 
 230. 
 
 Cause of smells from vent pipes, 134. 
 
 Cause of stoppage in drains, 132. 
 
 Cement fillets to scullery sinks, 191. 
 
 Cement for bedding marble tops of 
 wash-hand basins, 224. 
 
 Cement inside joints of drain pipes, 132. 
 
 Ceruse, 20. 
 
 Cerussite, 17. 
 
 Cesspool and trapping of house drain, 
 171. 
 
 Cesspool at foot of stairs, 182. 
 
 Cesspool trap, 181, 184. 
 
 Chalk line to mark edge of soiling, 115. 
 
 Change of direction in drains, 134. 
 
 Channel bends, 137. 
 
 Channel branches, 137. 
 
 Channel for hot-water pipes, 335. 
 
 Charcoal boxes, 123. 
 
 Charcoal boxes an obstruction to venti- 
 lation, 123. 
 
 Charcoal useless unless dry, 123. 
 
 Chase lined with cement, loi. 
 
 Chases for pipes, 99. 
 
 Chases for pipes too small, 100. 
 
 Chemical combinations of lead, zi. 
 
 Chemical properties of lead, 20. 
 
 Child's bath, 223. 
 
 Chipping holes in boilers, 312. 
 
 Chokage of dipstone trap, 139. 
 
 Cistern bottom, care to be taken when 
 
 wiping, 116. 
 Cistern broken by frost, 119. 
 Cistern, how to line with one piece of 
 
 lead, 108. 
 Cistern lined with lead, 26. 
 Cistern overflow connected with soil 
 
 pipe, 263, 265. 
 Cistern-waste into water-closet trap, 273. 
 Clay in drain pipe joints, 133. 
 Claying iron drain joints, 147. 
 Clean servants fill trap gratings, 185. 
 Clean water passing through waste pipe 
 
 of bath, 209. 
 Clear water-way through pipes, 40. 
 Close kitchen boiler, 307. 
 Coating lead pipes with tin, 32. 
 Cocks )or baths, 209, 210. 
 Cocks for spray baths, 222. 
 Cock to empty cylinder, 324. 
 Cold countries and safety-valves, 318. 
 Cold plug fixed by putting into a hot 
 
 washer, 120. 
 Cold supply to boiler, 323. 
 Cold water drawn from hot-water circu- 
 lation pipes, 330 
 Cold-water supply-cistern to hot-water 
 
 boiler, 336. 
 Collar for iron drains, 157. 
 Combined waste and overflow bath 
 
 apparatus, 212, 213. 
 Combined soil and rain-water pipes, 
 
 261, 268. 
 Comfort of a bath, 209. 
 Common drain syphon-trap, 140. 
 Common way of filling up a bath, 209. 
 Compasses for fixing joints, 87. 
 Compasses with shave-hook, 60. 
 Compressed air in sewers, 123. 
 Compressed air passes through water- 
 closet traps, 278 to 280. 
 Concrete in drain trenches, 130. 
 Concrete under drains, 157. 
 Coned joint to allow for expansion, 204, 
 Connection between boiler and cylinder 
 
 flow pipes, 324. 
 Connection of bath and slop-sink-waste 
 
 pipes, 216. 
 Connection of pipes with boiler, 313. 
 Contagious diseases and wash-hand 
 
 basins, 243. 
 Conical swab, 36. 
 Contents of drain-syphon, 140. 
 Contracted waterway in pipes, 40. 
 Contrivances for keeping smells out of 
 
 house drains, 125. 
 Cjook grumbles at plumber, loi. 
 Cooling, shrinkage of lead when, 148, 
 Copper baths, 208, 210. 
 Copper-bit joints trimmed Up, 93. 
 Copper-bit joint overcast, 92. 
 
34-J 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Copper-bit plumbers, 91. 
 
 Copper-bit seams, 38. 
 
 Copper-bit v. wiped joints, 91. 
 
 Copper-covered draining-boards, 192. 
 
 Copper ferrules on ends of soil pipes, 163. 
 
 Copper flaps, 215. 
 
 Copper pipe tiails, gg. 
 
 Copper strainers in sinks, 121. 
 
 C res of sand and salt, 78. 
 
 Corrosion of boilers, 315, 
 
 Cost of joint moulds in a large firm, g4. 
 
 Country plumbers' overcast joints, 77. 
 
 Country I uilders and brick drains. 
 
 Country mansion, scullery-sinks in a, ig2. 
 
 Coupling unions for lead-encased tin 
 
 pipes, 325, 326. 
 Coverings for hot-water cylinders, 322. 
 Covers to grease-traps, 187. 
 Cover-plates for iron drain openings, 154. 
 Cowls on vent pipes, i6g. 
 Cracked sockets in iron drains, 148. 
 Cradled baths, 208. 
 Creed's patent for pipes, 29. 
 Cross-' ^ars in sink washers, 120. 
 Crowding pipes in chases, 100. 
 Crushing of drain pipes, 130. 
 Curbs round guUey-traps, ig6. 
 Currents of air in drains, i6b. 
 Curtains for shower baths, 220. 
 Cylinder manholes, 323. 
 Cylinder system for hot water, 319. 
 
 D 
 
 Dampers to boiler flues, 309. 
 
 Danger of using wood shavings to catch 
 soDer, 72. 
 
 Danger of water entering an empty boiler 
 when hot, 312. 
 
 D-traps, 282. 
 
 D-trap fixed for a bath-waste, 215. 
 
 D-traps for water-closets, 271. 
 
 Oead plate under boiler, 309. 
 
 Dead weight safety valve, 318. 
 
 Defective drains and rats, 127. 
 
 Defective joint between drain and soil 
 pipe, 161. 
 
 Defective joint in soil pipe, 263. 
 
 Defective soil pipes inside a house, 182. 
 
 Details of a good grease-trap, 186. 
 Diarrhoea from smell of drains, 124. 
 Dipstone tra;, 139. 
 Different kinds of baths, 208 to 223. 
 Different ways of ventilating drains, 175. 
 Difficulty in tracing source of smells 
 
 from water-closets, 278, 279. 
 Difficulty of cleaning out boilers, 314. 
 Difficulties of drawing seams, 36. 
 Digging point of shave hook "ntc lead, 108. 
 Dirty manholes, 137. 
 
 Dirty water in bath safes, 216. 
 
 Discharge cock to empty boiler, 324. 
 
 Disconnecting traps, necessity of, 138, 
 141. 
 
 Disease germs and traps, 138. 
 
 Disguising drain vents, 172. 
 
 Dishing wood for taft joint, 80. 
 
 Disinfectant distributor, 127. 
 
 Disinfectants should be applied to grease 
 tanks, 190. 
 
 Disreputable tradesmen, 129. 
 
 Distance apart of tacks, 97. 
 
 Diversity of opinions on drain ventila- 
 tion, 166. 
 
 Dr. Angus Smith's solution for iron 
 pipes, 145. 
 
 Dr. Lyon Playfair on increased lengt>h. 
 of life, lizj. 
 
 Doctors on sewer air, 124. 
 
 Dr. Richardson on sevvermen, 124. 
 
 Double bends, 56. 
 
 Double boot boiler, 309. 
 
 Double elbow, 62. 
 
 Double elbows of square section, 63. 
 
 Double jacket grease interceptor, 189. 
 
 Double socket for iron drains, 157. 
 
 Draining boards, 192. 
 
 Drains air-bound, 127. 
 
 Drains as rubbish shoots, 154. 
 
 Drains at a banker's house, 130. 
 
 Drains broken by traffic in streets, 131. 
 
 Drains in adjoining house defective, 165, 
 
 Drains in country parsonage, 128. 
 
 Draiins join sewer near the bottom, 127. 
 
 Drains laid in rocky ground, 130. 
 
 Drains laid in sandy or loose soil, 130. , 
 
 Drains leaking outside the house, 164. 
 
 Drains leak through split pipe sockets,. 
 
 133- 
 Drain machine, 136. 
 Drain manholes ventilated, 173. 
 Drains not laid to proper fall, 133. 
 Drains of random rubble, 128. 
 Drain pipes, 128. 
 Drain pipes as soil pipes, 260. 
 Drain pipe built in wall, 261. 
 Drain pipes, how to lay them, 132. 
 Drain pipes, how to select, 131. 
 Drain pipe joints, 132. 
 Drain pipe junctions, 135. 
 Drain plan of a house, 179, 180. 
 Drain-rods for clearing iron drains, 153.- 
 Drains should be well flushed, r66, 176. 
 Drain smells laid on to the house, 263. , 
 Drain smells pass through skylight, 268. 
 Drains tested by asphyxiator, 127. 
 Drain stopped with paper, 136. 
 Drains under new streets, 131. 
 Drains ventilated at intervals, 172. 
 Drains ventilated near the centre, i83»,'. 
 Drain-syphon fixed unlevel,- 140. 
 
INDEX, 
 
 343 
 
 Drain traps, 184. 
 
 Drain trenches, 129. 
 
 Drain ventilation, 166 to 168. 
 
 Drain vents disguised, 172. 
 
 Drain vents and soil pipes, 166. 
 
 Drain ventilated through soil pipe, 181. 
 
 Draughts in bath-rooms, 218. 
 
 Drawing pipe seams, 36. 
 
 Drawing soapy water at sink, 217. 
 
 Drawn-lead traps, 284. 
 
 Drilling holes in boilers, 312. 
 
 Driving chisels into bench, 87. 
 
 Dry area round house connected with 
 
 cesspool, 172. 
 Dry hair-felt for covering hot-water 
 
 pipes, &c., 322. 
 " Duck's-foot " bend, 157. 
 Ductility of lead, 19. 
 Dummies with iron heads, 47. 
 Dummy and dresser best for making 
 
 bends, 56. 
 Dummy-made bends, 47. 
 Dummy socket for rain-water pipes, 107. 
 
 E 
 
 Each drain to haye a trap, 138. 
 
 Ears strongly soldered to lead pipe, 107. 
 
 Earthenware slop sinks, 200, 201. 
 
 Effect of ice in a cistern, 119. 
 
 Elbows, 39. 
 
 Elbows in hot-water pipes, 331. 
 
 Elbows soldered in two heats, 59. 
 
 Elbows to fit over plinths, 64. 
 
 Elbows made out of sheet-leadi 61. 
 
 !E;ibows V. bends, 57. 
 
 Elbows V. bends in hot-water pipes, 331. 
 
 Elbows were made before bending in- 
 troduced, 57. 
 
 Elbows with soldered angles inside, 67. 
 
 Empty pipes in frosty weather, 95. 
 
 Enamelled iron slop-sinks, 201. 
 
 Enamelled slate for urinals, 254. 
 
 Enclosed urinals, 256. 
 
 Enclosures for. public urinals, 249, 
 
 Enclosures for, wash-hand basins, 236, 
 237. 
 
 Enclosure for hot-water cylinder, 322. 
 
 End of a waste-pipe vent, 198. 
 
 End of drain always covered in rainy 
 season, 127. 
 
 Engraved face-plates for cocks, 207. 
 
 Evaporation of water in guUey-traps, 122. 
 
 Evil of c^p and screw improperly placed, 
 84. ■ 
 
 Evil of stop cocks in hot-wat&r circu- 
 lating pipes, 330. 
 
 Evils of bobbins, 45. 
 
 Evils of buckles in pipes, 40. 
 
 Evils of a common arain-sypHon, 140. 
 
 Evils of dipstone trap, 139. 
 
 Evils of pipe-hooks, 96. 
 
 Evils of pipes instead of bends, 134. 
 
 Evils of fixing boilers unlevel, 313. 
 
 Evils of trough water-closets, 302. 
 
 Evils of treadle-action flushing appa- 
 ratus, 253. 
 
 Evils to avoid when drain-laying, 133. 
 
 Erratic circulation of hot water, 334. 
 
 Example of hot-water arrangements in a 
 mansion, 326, 327, 336. 
 
 Examples of alterations made to hot- 
 water pipes, 307, 329, 333, 334. 
 
 Examples of sanitary improvements, 179 
 to i82. 
 
 Excessive heat on boilers, results of, 312. 
 
 Expansion of hot-water pipes, 331. 
 
 Expansion of pipes with hot water, 96. 
 
 Expansion pipes, 318. 
 
 Expansion joint, 202, 204. 
 
 Expansion joints for hot-water pipes, 
 331- 
 
 Expansion socket for hot-water pipes; 
 331- 
 
 Expensivfe traps not always best, 188. 
 
 Experiment with tube on air-currents, 
 167.' 
 
 Experiments with water on hot iron, 312. 
 
 Extracting silver from lead, 19. 
 
 Face-tacks, 99. 
 
 Factory chimneys as sewer-ventilators; 
 123. 
 
 Fancy wash-hand basins, 225. 
 
 Fat in traps, 185. 
 
 Faulty construction of water-closet and 
 sink pipes, 277, 278. 
 
 Feed-cistern, 317. 
 
 Feed-cistern to kitchen boiler, 306. 
 
 Feed-pipe to boiler, 317. 
 
 Felt on pipes, 102. 
 
 Ferrules, how to fix, 89. 
 
 " Field's" flushing-tank used, 180. 
 
 Fifty gallons of water fail to remove' 
 
 piece of paper out of trap, 140, 
 Fire-bars under boiler, 309. 
 Fire in bath-room, 218. 
 Fire Insurance Societies^ and hot-water 
 
 pipes, 335. 
 First patent for makin? pipes, 29. 
 Fixing astragals to lead pipes, 106. 
 Fixing boilers, 311. 
 Fixing brass unions, 89. 
 Fixing joints for wiping, 87. 
 Fixing lead pipes, 95. 
 Fixing pipes in shafts, 290. 
 Fixing pipes with screws, loi. 
 Fixings for hot-water cylinders, 321. ' 
 Fixings for hot-water pipes, 325, 332. 
 Fixing water-closet traps by rule of 
 thumb, 286. ' 
 
 Flange at bottom end of soil pipe, 162.' ' 
 
344 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Flanged ends to pipes, 28. 
 
 Flanged connections of pipes to boilers, 
 
 314- 
 Flapper v. dresser, 108. 
 Flap-valve in hot-water pipes, 330. 
 Plap-valve traps, 240 
 Flasks for casting lead astragals, io5. 
 Floated seam of tacks to pipe, 98. 
 Floors covered with lead, 26. 
 Floors of bath-rooms, 219. 
 Floors under water-closets, 300. 
 Floors of urinals, 246. 
 Flues to boilers, 309, 311. 
 Flushing-cisterns for urinals, 258, 259. 
 Flushing of drains, 166. 
 Flushing-rims to water-closets, 293. 
 Flushing-rim wash-hand basins, 226. 
 Flushing urinal basins, 252. 
 Flush soldering at the angles on top 
 
 edge of cistern, no. 
 Fluted draining-boards, 192. 
 Folding urinals, 257. 
 Foot to trap, 140. 
 
 " Fossil meal " as cylinder cover, 322. 
 Four-inch joints on half-inch pipe, 75. 
 Four-inch trap bent out of pipe, 50. 
 Frame for sheet-lead casting, 22. 
 French lavatory, 243. 
 Friction between lead and lead, 113. 
 Frozen pipes and boiler, 318. 
 Fungoids growing in manholes, 173. 
 Fur in hot-water pipes, 323. 
 Furniture in a bath-room, 219. 
 Fusibility of lead, 20. 
 Fusible plugs in boilers, 318. 
 Fustian for cloths, 76. 
 
 Galena, 17. 
 
 Galvanic action of lead and iron, 20. 
 
 Galvanic action on boiler, 315. 
 
 Galvanized-iron bends for hot water, 331. 
 
 Galvanized-iron capping for sinks, 120. 
 
 Galvanized-iron pipe-nails, gg. 
 
 Galvanized iron pipes for drams, 145. 
 
 Garbage and rats, 127. 
 
 Garbage passes into traps, 185. 
 
 Gas-burner in vent pipe, 170. 
 
 Gases of decomposition and water-traps, 
 
 138. 
 Gases generated in drains, 169. 
 Gasfitter and pipes in chases, 100. 
 Gasfitters use copper-bit, 92. 
 Gas-pip6 testing, 153. 
 Gauge-hook, 35. 
 
 Geometry an aid to plumbers, 60. 
 Geometry not dry work, 64. 
 Gland joint between soil pipe and iron 
 
 drain, 164. 
 
 Gland joint for hot-water pipes, 331. 
 
 Glass back to urinal, 256. 
 
 Glazed socket pipes for drains, 128. 
 
 Glazed tiles round scullery sinks, 191. 
 
 " Glory hole" under scuUeryrsink, 190. 
 
 Good description of drain-syphons, 141. 
 
 Good mate necessary, 36. 
 
 Good tradesmen and bobbins, 44. 
 
 Gratings in sink washers, 120. 
 
 Gratings in slop-sinks, 200. 
 
 Gratings in washers for wash-hand 
 
 basins, 232. 
 Gratings over air-Inlets in fields, 171. 
 Gratings over manholes, 173. 
 Gratings reduce water-way of waste 
 
 pipes, 121. 
 Gratings should be sunk below bottom 
 
 of sinks, 120. 
 Gratings under urinals, 249. 
 Grated connections for wash-hand 
 
 basins, 235. 
 Grease and kitchenmaids, 189. 
 Grease interceptor, 186. 
 Grease interceptor with outer jacket 
 
 filled with water, 189. 
 Grease lifter in trap, 187. 
 Grease-tanks should be disinfected, 190. 
 Grease-trap, 8 feet long, 188. 
 Grease-trap fixed to receive discharges 
 
 from wash-hand basin, 188. 
 Grease-trap fixed where no grease to 
 
 intercept, 188. 
 Grease-traps necessary evils, 188. 
 Grease-traps patented, 187. 
 Grease-trap ventilation, 188. 
 Groove in iron pipe socket, 149. 
 Ground saturated with waste water, ig6. 
 GuIIey-trap with a valve trap, 123. 
 Gun-metal pipe-nails, gg. 
 Gun-metal unions for lead hot-water 
 
 pipes, 325. 
 
 H 
 
 Half "pipes for manholes, 137. 
 
 Hammer used for jointing iron pipes, 159. 
 
 Hammer and bolt bends, 42. 
 
 Hand-made pipes, 34. 
 
 Hand-made traps, 282, 283. 
 
 Hard bottom under drains, evils of, 130. 
 
 Hard lead, causes of, 18. 
 
 Hardware-sinks destructive to glass 
 
 and crockery ware, 117. 
 Hard waters form fur in boilers, 314. 
 Health Exhibition, urinal at, 256. 
 Heat as an aid to create air-currents 167. 
 Heat of lead for joints in iron pipes, 148. 
 Heat of pipe when bending, 46. 
 Heavy lead bends, 28. 
 Heel-side of bends thin, 51. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 345 
 
 Height of urinal basins, 254. 
 
 High pressure boiler, 306, 308. 
 
 Hole in lip of ladle, 36. 
 
 Holes in -boiler, position of, 312. 
 
 Holes in boiler should be drilled, 312. 
 
 Holes in boilers, tapping, 314. 
 
 Hollow astragals, 106. 
 
 Hollow fillet in sink angles, 119. 
 
 Hollow piers for air-inlets to drains, 
 171, 172. 
 
 Hollow plugs for sinks, 120. 
 
 Hopper heads and waste pipes, 231. 
 
 Horizontal air-inlet drains, 173. 
 
 Horizontal cylinders for hot water, 338. 
 
 Horizontal pipes for hot-water circula- 
 tion, 324. ■ 
 
 Horizontal soil pipes, 271, 275. 
 ^.Hospital spray, &c., bath,' 222. 
 
 Hot closet in kitchen, 328. 
 
 Hot pipes warm water in cold pipes, 101. 
 
 " Hot plate " boiler, 310. 
 
 Hot-water boilers, 305. 
 
 Hot-water boilers supplied from street 
 main, 322. 
 
 Hot water breaks lead soil pipes, 241. 
 
 Hot -water chamber, 319. 
 
 Hot-water circulation, 322. 
 
 Hot water circulating in branch pipes, 
 
 335- 
 
 Hot water circulating backwards, 334. 
 
 Hot-water circulate through cold- 
 water cistern, 318. 
 
 Hot-water cisterns, 319. 
 
 Hot- water cistern connected with bath, 
 217. 
 
 Hot-water coil in bath-room, 218. 
 
 Hot-water cylinder, 320, 321. 
 
 Hot water drawn direct from cistern, 317. 
 
 Hot-water draw-ofE pipes, 329. 
 
 Hot-water fitting, 316. 
 
 Hot-water men, 332. 
 
 Hot water passes into cold-water cistern, 
 
 317- 
 
 Hot-water pipes air-bound, 329. 
 
 Hot-water pipes always in motion, 326. 
 
 Hot-water pipes assist drain ventilation, 
 181. 
 
 Hot-water pipe bends, 331. 
 
 Hot-water pipes beneath flooring, 333. 
 
 Hot-water pipes fixed on rollers, 336. 
 
 Hot-watet pipes fixed in metal-lined 
 channels, 335. 
 
 Hot-water pipes improperly fixed, ex- 
 amples of, 307, 329, 333, 334. 
 
 Hot-water pipes in cold countries prevent 
 freezing, loi. 
 
 Hot-water pipes in chases near lead 
 pipes, 100. 
 
 Hot-water pipes near woodwork, 335. 
 
 Hot-water pipes near drinking water, 
 
 lOI. 
 
 Hot-water unions want periodical ex- 
 amination, 325. 
 
 Hose for shower apparatus, 244. 
 
 Houses connected directly with sewer, 
 166. 
 
 House drains, 128. 
 
 House drains act as a §as retort, 166. 
 
 House drains not ventilated, 124. 
 
 House drains not trapped from sewers, 
 124. 
 
 House in a sewage bog, 165. 
 
 House owners and sanitary inspectors, 
 269, 270. 
 
 How a good plumber wipes a cistern, 112. 
 
 How cloths get torn, 91. 
 
 How lead pipes are made, 30." 
 
 How to line a cistern with ends soldered 
 in, 113. 
 
 How lead-encased tin pipe is made. 33. 
 
 How lead pipes used to be cast, 27. 
 
 How nlilled-lead is made, 21. 
 
 How pipe seams are drawn, 36. 
 
 How to arrange channel bends in a 
 manhole, 138. 
 
 How to arrange " weeping pipe," 272. 
 
 How to calculate thickness of sheet -lead, 
 26. 
 
 How to cast sheet-lead, 22. 
 
 Howto calculate weight of sheet-lead, 26. 
 
 How to cast lead flanges on pipes, 28. 
 
 How to connect branch circulating pipes 
 for hot water, 335. 
 
 How to connect flushing pipe to water- 
 closet, 300. 
 
 How to connect pipes to boilers, 314. 
 
 How to connect pipes to cylinder, 323. 
 
 How to cut out sheet-lead for an elbow, 
 60. 
 
 How to cut a double elbow out of sheet- 
 lead, 63 
 
 How to fix a branch joint on a soil pipe, 
 288. 
 
 How to fix channel bends, 137. 
 
 How to fix underhand joint for wiping. 
 
 How to get bruises out of pipes, 41. 
 
 How to heat pipes, 46. 
 
 How to join drain pipes, 133. 
 
 How to lash a sand bend, 53. 
 
 How to lay branches for drains, 135. 
 
 How to line cisterns with one piece oi 
 
 lead, 108. 
 How to line sinkg, ir8. 
 How to line a large cistern, IJ3. 
 How to make a pressure gauge, 152. 
 How to make an opening in an iron 
 
 drain, 154. 
 How to make bends with two pieces oi 
 
 lead, 55. 
 How to make branch connections to 
 
 hot-water pipes, 326. 
 
340 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 How to make dummies, 48. 
 
 How to make overcast copper-bit joints, 
 
 93. 
 How to make pipe out of sheet-lead, 35. 
 How to make sand bends, 53. 
 How to make shave-hook for fitting to 
 
 compasses, 81 
 How to open hole for branch joint, 82. 
 How to prepare joints for wiping, 69. 
 How to prevent noise from boiler cover, 
 
 306 
 How to prepare trenches for drains, 129. 
 How to prevent water in feed-cisterns 
 
 getting hot, 306. 
 How to repair the lead in a sink, 118. 
 How to "set out" a water-closet trap, 
 
 286 to 290. 
 How to set out a bend or elbow, 57. 
 How to select a rajp, 71. 
 How to select drain pipes, 131. 
 How to shave a taft-joint, 80. 
 How to soil and shave a joint, 70. 
 How to start bending pipes, 42, 48. 
 How to test the flush of a water-closet 
 
 basin, 301. 
 How to test gas pipes, 153. 
 How to tin pipe-ends, 72. 
 How to trim a joint, 72. 
 How white lead is made, 20. 
 
 I 
 
 If drains clean there are no smells, 172. 
 
 Ill-used pipes, 40. 
 
 Illustrations of, bad design in hot-water 
 
 work, 333. 
 Impetus of water through a water-closet 
 
 trap, 283. 
 Importance of concrete round drains, 
 
 130. 
 Importance of geometrical knowledge, 60. 
 Improper connection of drain with sewer, 
 
 129. 
 Improper use of dresser, 109. 
 Improper use of manholes, 176. 
 Improper use of pantry-sinks, 197. 
 Improved drain-syphons, 140. 
 Improved public urinals, 248. 
 Improved water-closet for schools, 303, 
 Indiarubber cone, 204. 
 Indiarubber plug for bath-waste, 214. 
 Indiarubber plugs for wash-hand basins, 
 
 233- 
 Indiarubber ring, 203. 
 Indiarubber tubing for packing, 236. 
 Induced air-currents in drains, 169. 
 Inlet-pipes for a bath, 209. 
 Inspection-chambers, 136. 
 Inspection-pipes for iron frames, 155. 
 Interceptor trap, 195. 
 
 Inventors of water-closets, 291. 
 
 Invisible fixings for rain-water pipes, 104, 
 
 Iron bars under iron drains, 150. 
 
 Iron bends choked with zinc, 331. 
 
 Iron brackets to support lead pipe, 203. 
 
 Iron clamps, 148. 
 
 Iron drain branches, 156. 
 
 Iron drains and sanitarians, 143. 
 
 Iron drains built in walls, 150. 
 
 Iron drains fixed in walls, 150. 
 
 Iron drain jointing, 146. 
 
 Iron drains on brick piers, 149. 
 
 Iron drain pipes, thickness of, 145. 
 
 Iron drain pipes, weight of, 149. 
 
 Iron drains protected from rusting, I43» 
 
 Iron drains, tools used for laying, 158, 
 
 159. 
 Iron D-trap, 194. 
 
 Iron gratings in urinal floors, 254. 
 Iron pipes Bower-Barfif'd, 145. 
 Iron pipes broken by settlement of 
 
 ground, 150. 
 Iron pipes cut uneven, 147. 
 Iron pipes, difficult to paint, 103. 
 Iron pipes, galvanized, 145. 
 Iron pipe joints " set up," 146. 
 Iron pipes rust, 103. 
 Iron pipes should be examined inside 
 
 before fixing, 158. 
 Iron pipes tested with hammer, 148. 
 Iron piinch, no. 
 Iron rain-water pipes used for drains, 
 
 145. 
 Iron rain-water pipes with lead bends, 
 
 107. 
 Iron rods for dummies, 47. 
 Iron soil pipes, 145. 
 Iron to make joints, 76. 
 Iron V. lead raia-water pipes, 31, 103. 
 Iron V. steel bolts for bending, 43. 
 Iron V. stoneware drains, 144. 
 Irrigation substituted for cesspool, 172. 
 
 jACK-of-all-trades, 269. 
 
 Jerry-built houses, hot-water work in, 
 316. 
 
 Joints and grease, 77. 
 
 Joints at unequal intervals, 84. 
 
 Joints cast in moulds, 94. 
 
 Joints crack when wiping them, 87. 
 
 Joints for lead-encased-tin pipes, 325. 
 
 Joints in hot-water pipes leak by expan- 
 sion, 3ii. 
 
 [ oints made with blow-pipe, 91. 
 
 Joints made with copper-bit, 91. 
 
 Joints inade with lamps, 92. 
 
 Joints of lead to iron pipes, 146. 
 
 Joints on to brasswork, 74. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 347 
 
 I 
 
 oints rolled, 89. 
 
 oints, solder falls off, 90. 
 
 oints, table of length of, 73. 
 
 oint between soil pipe and drain, 161 to 
 164. 
 , Dinting drains, 132. 
 ' ointing iron drains, 146. 
 
 oint-making, 69. 
 
 oint moulds and plumber's assistant, 94. 
 
 oint of soil pipe to iron drain, 157. 
 
 oint of trap to safe, 80. 
 
 bint of water-closet to soil pipe, 296, 
 297. 
 
 oint of 4- in. to 6-in. pipe, 88. 
 
 oint shaving, 71. 
 
 oint shown at Health Exhibition, 163. 
 
 oint to allow for expansion, 202. 
 
 oints to lavatory valves, 93. 
 
 oints to waste unions, 93. 
 
 oints trimmed at ends, 72. 
 
 bint wiped with thin cloth, 73. 
 
 ourneyman plumber and bad work, 269. 
 
 unction of brasswork to pipe not in 
 centre of joint, 75. 
 
 Junction of house drain with sewer, 127. 
 unction for drains, 135. 
 
 K 
 
 Keep pipe-ends clean after shaving, 72. 
 Kitchenmaids and grease, 189. 
 Ivitchenmaids and sore throats, 190, 
 Kitchen-range boilers, 305. 
 Knife to cut ends of soldering, 98. 
 Knot bends, 54. 
 Knuckle bends, 43. 
 
 Ladies' cloak-rooms, 258. 
 
 Lady complains of plumbers, loi. 
 
 Itaminated lead, 25. 
 
 Lamp-holes in sewers, 122. 
 
 Lamp-posts as sewer-ventilators, 123. 
 
 Lamps for making joints, 92. 
 
 Land springs under houses, 150. 
 
 Lap-welded steam pipe, 316. 
 
 Large cesspool at nobleman's mansion, 
 
 172. 
 Large drains and small traps, 142. 
 Large drain-traps, 139. 
 Large D-traps> 271. 
 Large firms and joint moulds, 94. 
 Large grease trap, 188. 
 Large-headed nails for tacks, 99. 
 Large overflows to baths, 211. 
 X^rge V. small flushing-tanks, 181. 
 Lavatory valves, joints to, 93. 
 Lead alloys, 21. 
 
 Lead apparatus for bath-waste, 213. 
 Lead as a conductor of heat or electricity, 
 
 20, 
 Lead basis for some paints, 20. 
 Lead brittle when heated, 19. 
 Lead carbonate, 20. 
 Lead cements, 21. 
 Lead, chemical properties of, 20. 
 Lead collar for block joint, 79. 
 Lead collar to catch solder, 73. 
 Lead cut with dresser, 109. 
 Lead, ductility of, 19, 
 Lead-encased-tin hot-water pipes, 324. 
 Lead-encased-tin pipe, 32. 
 Lead flappers, 51, 
 
 Lead flasks and bends in small pipes, 52. 
 Lead for cisterns, 26. 
 Lead for lining vitriol chambers, 26. 
 Lead, fusibility of, 20. 
 Lead glazed pipes, 128. 
 Lead-headed nails 99. 
 Lead hot-water pipes, 324. 
 Lead in combination with chemicals, 2 1 . 
 Lead in iron drain joints, 147. 
 Lead joints, 7S. 
 Lead joints on iron pipes, 21, 
 Lead, I-atin name for, 17. 
 L,ead-lined baths, 208. 
 Lead, lustre of, 20. 
 Lead, malleabilUj- of, 19. 
 Lead, market forms of, 2i. 
 Lead melting point, 19. 
 Lead on floors, 26. 
 Lead ores, 17. 
 Lead ore preparation, 17. 
 Lead ore smelting and roasting, 17. 
 Lead oxides, 20. 
 Lead, physical properties of, 19. 
 Lead, pigs, sheets, and pipes, 21, 
 Lead pipes, 27. 
 Lead pipes and painting, 103. 
 Lead pipes and baggy parts, 95. 
 Lead pipes easy to repair, 103. 
 Lead pipes fixed on iron brackets, 203. 
 Lead pipes formed into knot, 54. 
 ].,ead pipes injured by iron hot-water 
 
 pipes, 100. 
 Lead pipes of unequal thickness, 32. 
 Lead plates, 21. 
 Lead, separating other metals from the 
 
 ores of, 18. 
 Lead shavings in pipes, 71. 
 Lead shrinks when cooling, 28. 
 Lead socket and ears for square pipe, 107. 
 Lead, softness of, 20. 
 Lead, specific gravity of, ig. 
 I^ead " squirting," 30. 
 Lead tacks on large pipes, 96. 
 Lead, tenacity of, 19. 
 Lead turned over edge of sink, 119. 
 Lead, uses of, 26. 
 
348 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Lead used on roofs, 26. 
 
 Lead v. iron rain-water pipes, 31, 103. 
 
 Lead, where found, 17. 
 
 Leakage of pipe in chase, 100. 
 
 Leakage of water out of a trap, 139. 
 
 Leaking drain joints make a large cavern, 
 
 130. 
 Length of cast-lead sheets, 25. 
 Length of drain pipes, 128. 
 Length of joints, 75. 
 Length of iron pipes, 146. 
 Light iron drain pipes, 145. 
 Light iron soil pipes, 261, 265. 
 Light V. heavy iron drain pipes, 149. 
 Lime-white inside iron pipes, 145. 
 Limited water supply to urinals, 258. 
 Lines for bends and elbows, 57. 
 Linen room warmed by waste heat, 328. 
 Lining cisterns, 108, 113. 
 Lining sinks, 117. 
 Litharge for leading glazing earthenware, 
 
 20. 
 Little finger burnt by solder when wiping, 
 
 73- 
 Locked air-tight covers, 176. 
 London sewers take rainfall, 123. 
 Long hopper water-closet, 301. 
 Long V. short bolts for bending, 43. 
 Looking-glass behind wash-hand basin, 
 
 244. 
 Loops on dummy handles, 47. 
 Louvred cap on air-inlet, 174. 
 Low-pressure boiler, 306. 
 Lump boilers, 309. 
 Lustre of lead, 20. 
 
 M 
 
 Machine for casting lead pipes, 27. 
 Machine-made pipes, 31. 
 Machine-made traps, 284. 
 Mahogany lagging round hot-water 
 
 cylinders, 322. 
 Makers of water-closets, 294. 
 Making joints without irons, 76. 
 Malleability of lead, 19. 
 Mandrel for opening lead pipe, 203. 
 Mandrel inside branch joint, 88. 
 Manholes, 136. 
 
 Manholes built of common bricks, 138. 
 Manholes built of white glazed bricks, 
 
 138- 
 Manholes cleaned when dirty, 138. 
 Manhole covers should be air-tight, 175. 
 Manhole, how to arrange branch drain, 
 
 138. 
 Manholes in cylinders, 323. 
 Manholes lime-whited, 138. 
 Manholes rendered with cement, 138. 
 Manholes to boilers, 315. 
 
 Manholes to hot-water chambers, 320. 
 
 Manufacturers' v. shop-made bends for 
 hot water, 331. 
 
 Marble tops for wash-hand basins, 224. 
 
 Marble urinal stalls, 254. 
 
 Market forms of lead, 21. 
 
 Massicot, 20. 
 
 Master in a rage with plumber, loi. 
 
 Mr. Shirley Murphy on sanitary improve- 
 ments, 125. 
 
 Materials for sinks, 117. 
 
 Mates and dummies, 48. 
 
 Mechanical means for ventilating drains, 
 170. 
 
 Melted lead to heat bends, 47, 
 
 Melting point of lead, 19. 
 
 Men-servants and traps in cellars, 197. 
 
 Metals that get mixed with lead, 47. 
 
 Mica air-inlet valves, 176. 
 
 Milled-lead, 21. 
 
 Milled V. cast lead, 24. 
 
 Minium, 20. 
 
 Modern valve water-closets, 292. 
 
 Modern way of fixing scullery sink, 190. 
 
 Momentum of water through water- 
 closet traps, 284. 
 
 Moths in felt coverings to hot-water 
 pipes, 322. 
 
 Motion of hot-water pipes, 326, 331. 
 
 Moulds for sasting joints, 94. 
 
 Mouldy smells in bathroom, 218. 
 
 Mushrooms growing inside bath en- 
 closure, 219. 
 
 N 
 
 Nails with large head and flat shank, 99. 
 Nailing cistern angles, 115. 
 Narrow baths objectionable, 208. 
 Navvies v. tradesmen for laying drains, 
 
 146. 
 Necessity of disconnecting traps, 138. 
 Necessity of traps, 285. 
 Needle .baths, 221. 
 
 New beginner at cistern soldering, 112. 
 New streets, drains under, 131. 
 Nickel-plated bath, 223. 
 Nickel-plated copper coil in a bath-room, 
 
 218, 337. 
 Nipple V. wiped joint, 94. 
 Noise in boilers, cause of, 313. 
 Noise of water in waste pipe heard in 
 
 rooms, 204. 
 Noise of water in water-closet heard in 
 
 rooms, 266. 
 Noise of boiler-cover, 306. 
 Number of sheets of lead cast in one 
 
 day, 23. 
 Nursery scullery-sink. 197. 
 Novices and house examinations, 269. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 349 
 
 Oak capping on sinks, 119. 
 
 Objections to lead pipes for hot water, 
 
 325- 
 Objections to long hopper water-closet, 
 
 301. 
 Objections to " wash-out " water-closets, 
 
 298. 
 Obstructions in iron drains, 155. 
 Offensiveness of pan water-closet, 298. 
 Offensive smells in urinals, 247. 
 Office urinals, 257. 
 Old and modern valve water-closets 
 
 compared, 292. 
 Old-fashioned traps, 139. 
 Old hands at house examinations, 269. 
 Old lead partly pays for new in exchange, 
 
 118. 
 Old lead rain-water pipes, 103. 
 Old method of making large lead pipes, 
 
 27. 
 Old method of making pump barrels, 28. 
 Old specimens of wiped seam pipes, 34. 
 Old way of fixing water-closet traps, 271. 
 Old way of trapping scullery-sink, 184. 
 On air drains, 176. 
 On ball-traps, 184. 
 On bent drain pipes, how to lay them, 
 
 131. 
 On digging trenches for drains, 129. 
 On distorting water-closet traps, 285. 
 On dirty corners round scullery-sinks, 
 
 191. 
 On levelling drains, 133. 
 On emptying boilers, 324. 
 On enamelled iron sinks, 117. 
 On errors of judgment, 281. 
 On fitting ends of pipe for joining 69. 
 On fixing water-closet traps, 285 to 290. 
 On galvani zed-iron sinks, 117. 
 On lead-lined sinks, 117. 
 On lids to ^inks, 198. 
 On makers of bath-cocks. 211. 
 On mechanical traps, 184. 
 On patents for destroying evil effects of 
 
 sewage gases, 123. 
 On porcelain sinks. 198. 
 On setting out water-closet traps, 286 
 
 to 290. 
 On shaving joints, 70. 
 On sink enclosures, 198. 
 On slate sinks, 117. 
 On stoneware sinks, 117. 
 On swilling floors, 186. 
 On the strength of an arch or cylinder, 
 
 131- 
 On tightly fixing hot-water pipes, 332. 
 On waste pipes, 198. 
 On waste pipes discharging over gratings, 
 
 195- 
 
 On wooden sinks, 171. 
 
 On various tr^is^i84. 
 
 Open channels for manholes, 137. 
 
 Open channels smell offensive, 197. 
 
 Open channels with side inlets, 137. 
 
 Opening for branch joint to be large, 83. 
 
 Opening for clearing stoppages in iron 
 
 drains, 154. 
 Open manhole bends, 137. 
 Open range, 305. 
 
 Ornamental machine-made pipes, 31. 
 Ornamental swabbing, 38. 
 Ornamental tacks, 97. 
 Overcast copper-bit joint, 92. 
 Overcasting joints, 77. 
 Overflow from cistern into soil pipe, 263, 
 
 265. 
 Overflow pipes to baths, 211. 
 Overflow to sinks, 121. 
 Overflow to urinal basins, 252. 
 Overflow to wash-hand basins, 228. 
 Overflow to water-closets, 295. 
 Oxidation inside iron boilers, 314. 
 Oxidation of iron pipes, 103. 
 Oxide of lead, 20. 
 Oxygen, action of on lead, 20. 
 
 Painting iron pipes, 103. 
 
 Paint under-side of water-closet seats, 
 
 304- 
 Pan water-closet, 298. 
 Paper hangings in bath-rooms, 218. 
 Paper test for water-closet basins, 301. 
 Pasted paper on soldered seams, 98. 
 Patent bath-waste-valve, 214. 
 Patent burning, 38. 
 Patent drain syphon traps, 141. 
 Patent grease-traps, 187. 
 Patent slop-sinks, 201. 
 Patent "tip-up," wash-hand basins, 236. 
 Patents for pipe making, 29, 30. 
 Pattern for astragals, 106. 
 Pattinson's system of extracting silver 
 
 from lead, 19. 
 Perforated cornice in bath-room, 218. 
 Pewter, 21. 
 
 Piece of soiled lead to catch solder, 72. 
 Piecework plumbers, 264. 
 Pig lead, 21. 
 Pipe astragals, 104. 
 Pipe bending, 39. 
 Pipe bent into a knot, 54. 
 Pipe brittle if made too hot, 46. 
 Pipe casing, 96. 
 Pipe ends dummied out, 69. 
 Pipe ends torn off when bending, 42. 
 Pipe enlarged at branch joint, 85. 
 Pipe filled with water before bending, 54 
 
350 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Pipe fixing, 95. 
 
 Pipe-hooks, 96. 
 
 Pipe-maldng machine, 30. 
 
 Pipe nails, 99, 
 
 Pipe nicked with pocket-knife, 72. 
 
 Pipe not made of pure lead, 47. 
 
 Pipes accessible for repairs, loi. 
 
 Pipe air-bound, 95. 
 
 Pipe bruised when moved about, 41. 
 
 Pipe bent cold, 41. 
 
 Pipe coated with Dr. Angus Smith's 
 preparation, 145. 
 
 Pipe connections to hot-water cylin- 
 ders, 323. 
 
 Pipe cut with wall-hooks, 95. 
 
 Pipes ill-used, 40. 
 
 Pipes in chases, 99, 100. 
 
 Pipes laid in concrete, 129. 
 
 Pipes lime-whited inside, 145. 
 
 Pipes painted distinctive colors, 204. 
 
 Pipes protected from freezing, 102. 
 
 Pipes rough inside, 28. 
 
 Pipe socket with current, 83. 
 
 Pipes suspended on blocks, 78. 
 
 Pipes to drain empty, 95. 
 
 Pipes used for hot water, 316. 
 
 Pipes with flanged ends, 28. 
 
 Plane and tools for casting sheet-lead, 
 22. 
 
 Plan of drains in a house, 178 to 180. 
 
 Plaster-moulds for astragals, 105. 
 
 Plug and washer in sink, 120. 
 
 Plug- waste for bath, 214. 
 
 Plug and washer should be below 
 bottom of sink, 120. 
 
 Plug-wastes for wash-hand basins, 232, 
 
 233- 
 Plumbers and knowledge of drawings, 
 
 289. 
 Plumber's assistant and joint moulds, 
 
 94. 
 Plumber's difficulties, 100. 
 Plumber's designs,' astragals, 105. 
 Plumbers' Exhibition at Kensington, 50. 
 Plumbers should start at connection of 
 
 drains with sewer, 125. 
 Plumbers should have a knowledge of 
 
 geometry, 60. 
 Plumbers and !;urning, 38. 
 Plumbers make dummies, 48. 
 Plumbers' work prepared in England 
 
 for fixing in China, 289. 
 Plunger water-closets, 297. 
 Pocket-knife and trimming joints, 72. 
 Pocket-knife for trimming edges of 
 
 soldering, iii. 
 Pointed compasses, 80. 
 Points to be attended to when soldering 
 
 cisterns, 112. 
 Poisoning rats, 127. 
 Pools of sewage in drains, 143. 
 
 Polytechnic students gain prizes, 24, 25. 
 
 Porcelain gratings for bath- wastes, 214. 
 
 Portland cement bursts drain pipe 
 sockets, 133. 
 
 Portland cement for jointing drain 
 pipes, 133. 
 
 Position for cylinder manholes, 323. 
 
 Position for hot-water cylinder, 323. 
 
 Position for slojp-sinks, 204. 
 
 Position for safety-valves, 318. 
 
 Position of bath-cocks, 209. 
 
 Position of branches in manholes, 138. 
 
 Position of cocks in a sink, 199. 
 
 Position of grease-traps, 187. 
 
 Position of hot-water cylinders, 321. 
 
 Position of holes in boilers, 312. 
 
 Position of lavatories, 236. 
 
 Position of return pipe to cylinder, 327. 
 
 Position of seams on elbow, 59, 66. 
 
 Position of sink-trap vent, 191. 
 
 Position of steam pipe from kitchen 
 boiler, 306. 
 
 Position of valves for wash-hand basins, 
 ,229. 
 
 Position of vent pipes on hot-water cir- 
 culating pipes, 330. 
 
 Position of water-closet, bad, 266. 
 
 Position of waste pipe vents, 198. 
 
 Pot for lead-casting, 22. 
 
 Practice required to make joints, 86, 94. 
 
 Precautions to be taken when laying 
 drains, 132. 
 
 Precautions when cistern soldering, in. 
 
 Preparing block joint, 78. 
 
 Preparing joints on iron pipes, 147. 
 
 Preparing joints and young plumbers, 69. 
 
 Pressure-gauge, 152. 
 
 Pressure of gas in a main, 153. 
 
 Pressure required to make lead pipes, 
 
 32- 
 Public authorities aggravate an evil, 
 
 123. 
 Public school water-closets, 301. 
 Public sewers, 122. 
 
 Public to blame for bad work, 269, 270.* 
 Public urinals, 246 to 249. 
 P-traps, 283. 
 
 Pumps and overcast joints, 77. 
 Pyramid of paper in a drain, 136. 
 
 Q 
 
 Quack doctors hand-bills, 24C. 
 Quack plumbers, 91. 
 
 R 
 
 Rakiators heated from hot-water pipes 
 to sinks, &c., 32S. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 351 
 
 Rain-water pipes, 103. 
 Rain-water pipes act as vents, 124. 
 Rain-water pipes as soil pipes, 261, 268. 
 Rain-water pipes of iron used for drains, 
 
 . ^45- 
 
 Ram-water troughs connected with soil 
 pipe, 267, 268. 
 
 Rainfall runs into London sewers, 123. 
 
 Railway station soil pipes at, 276, 277. 
 
 Railway station urinals, 251. 
 
 Range water-closets, 303. 
 
 Rasping pipe-ends, 71. 
 
 Rats and defective drains, 127. 
 
 Rats and tide-flaps, 126. 
 
 Rats as scavengers, 127. 
 
 Rats cannot get out of iron or stone- 
 ware drains, 127. 
 
 Rats pass into drains when low in 
 sewer, 127. 
 
 Rats propagate under floors, 127. 
 
 Rats starved br poisoned, 127. 
 
 Reasons for not mentioning a number 
 of traps, 184. 
 
 Reasons for ventilating sink-traps, 205. 
 
 Red lead as driers, 20. 
 
 Red-lead joints to soil pipes, 261, 262. 
 
 Reducing iron pipes, 158. 
 
 Registration of plumbers, 264. 
 
 Repairing lead sinks, 118. 
 
 Result of leaking'drains, 130. 
 
 Reverberatory furnace, 18. 
 
 Ribbon joints, 94. 
 
 Right-angled junctions in manholes, 137. 
 
 Rim-seats to water-closets, 299. 
 
 " Ringing " of iron pipes, 148. 
 
 Risk with hydrogen gas, 38. 
 
 Rivetted boilers, 310. 
 
 Rivetted cylinders, 320. 
 
 Roasting lead ores, 18. 
 
 Rolled joints, 89. 
 
 Rollers imder hot-water pipes, 336. 
 
 Rotten leaves in manhole, 173. 
 
 Round pipes, how made, 31. 
 
 Rubbish shoots of drains, 154. 
 
 Rule of thumb, 57. 
 
 Rule of thumb when fixing water-closet 
 traps, 285, 286. 
 
 Rules V. ^esswork, 64. 
 
 Rusting of pipe nails, 99. 
 
 Saddle boilers, 309. 
 
 Safe-traps and weeping pipes, 270, 271. 
 
 Safes under baths, 215. 
 
 Safety-plug in boilers, 318. 
 
 Safety-valves on boilers, 318. 
 
 Safe waste intb soil pipe, 272. 
 
 Safe waste pipes, 272, 273. 
 
 Salt as a core for lead joints 78. 
 
 Salt-glazed pipes, 128. 
 
 Sand bends, 53. 
 
 Sand bends made to a sharp radius, 53. 
 
 Sand bends thin outside, 54. 
 
 Sand core for lead joints, 78. 
 
 Sand cracks in cast-lead, 23. 
 
 Sand interceptors, 186. 
 
 Sand in traps, 185. 
 
 Sandy soil and drains, 130. 
 
 Sanitary engineers and manholes, 136. 
 
 Sanitary engineers and water-closets, 294. 
 
 Sanitarians and drain pipes, 138. 
 
 Sanitarians and stoneware drains, 143. 
 
 Sanitarian's trouble commences when 
 
 laying the drains, 128. 
 Sanitary improvements, examples of, 179 
 
 to 182. 
 Scotch joints, 92. 
 Scouring bends with sand, 47. 
 Screw caps in iron drains, 155. 
 Screws for fixing pipes, loi. 
 Scrvibbing brush to clean sinks, iig. 
 ScuUery-sinks and dirty corners, 191. 
 Scullery-sink badly arranged, 185. 
 Scullery-sinks should be fixed on 
 
 cantilevers, igo. 
 Second-hand water-closets, 264. 
 Sediment in boilers choke pipes, 312. 
 Self-cleansing syphon-traps, 141. 
 Self-closing valves for wash-hand basins, 
 
 , 227. 
 Separating other metals from lead, 18. 
 Separate vents to traps, 206. 
 Servants improperly use pantry sinks, 
 
 197. 
 Service pipes to boilers " air-boun,1.,"329. 
 Setting up iron drain joints, 148. 
 Settlement- of earth under drains, 130. 
 " Sets" of wash-hand basins, 241, 242. 
 Several dummies wanted on large 
 
 works, 48. 
 Several pipes joined to water-closet trap, 
 
 274. 
 Sewer air, 124. 
 
 Sewage-bog round a house, 163. 
 Sewage-conduits should be water-tight, 
 
 165. 
 Sewage gases pass through water-traps, 
 
 124. 
 Sewage gases kept back by tide-valves, 
 
 126. 
 Sewage passes through a party-wall, 165. 
 Sewage soaking through house walls, 
 
 165. 
 Sewerage and sewage, 122. 
 Sewer-men and sewage gases, 124. 
 Sewer-men and drain connections, 129. 
 Sewer-men have rheumatism,' 124. 
 Sewer vented in a party-wall, 123. 
 Sewer ventilated into factory chimneys 
 
 123. 
 
352 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Sewer ventilated through drain vent 
 -P}P.e. I JO. 
 
 Sewers syphon water out of traps, 124. 
 
 Sewer ventilation, 122. 
 
 Sewn V. pinned cloths, 76. 
 
 Shaft for fixing pipes in, 290. 
 
 Shaft used as a soil pipe, 260. 
 
 Shampooing apparatus, 245. 
 
 Shape of channel bends, 137. 
 
 Shape of hoods for baths, 221. 
 
 Shape of hot-water cylinders,s320. 
 
 Shape of wash-hand basins, 225. 
 
 Shave-hook compasses, 80. 
 
 Shave-hook for cisterns, 115. 
 
 Shaving branch joints, 85. 
 
 Shaving round the pipes, 71. 
 
 Sheet-lead, 21. 
 
 Sheet-metal covering for wood-work 
 near hot-water pipes, 335. 
 
 Ship plumbers, 56. 
 
 Shop-made v. manufacturers' bends for 
 hot-water, 331. 
 
 Shower apparatus over wash-hand 
 basin, 244. 
 
 Shower baths, 219. 
 
 Shower-bath enclosures, 220. 
 
 Side guUeys in streets, 122. 
 
 Silt box, 122. 
 
 Silver-extracted from lead, 19. 
 
 Sink in butler's pantry, 195. 
 
 Sinks in hote'.s and clubs, 120. 
 
 Sinks in nursery and scullery, 198. 
 
 Sinks in upper stories should have over- 
 flows, 121. 
 
 Sinks for washing vegetables, 121. 
 
 Sinks lined with lead, 117. 
 
 Sinks of enamelled-iron, 117. 
 
 Sinks of galvanized-iron, 117. 
 
 Sinl^ of slate, 117. 
 
 Sinks of stoneware, 117. 
 
 Sinks, position of cocks, 199. 
 
 bink waste pipe into water-closet trap, 
 278. 
 
 Sinks of wood, 117. 
 
 Sir William Jenner on poisons contained 
 in public sewers, 125. 
 
 Size of bath-safes, 215. 
 
 Size of branch hot-water pipes, 330. 
 
 Size of feed pipe to boiler, 317. 
 
 Size of return pipe to cylinder, 327. 
 
 Size of slop-sinks, 201. 
 
 Size of tacks for 4-inch pipe, 96. 
 
 Size of trap in bath-waste, 216. 
 
 Sizes of cast-iron and stoneware drains, 
 
 144- ... 
 
 Sizes of cylinder circulation pipes, 324. 
 Sizes of pipes between boiler and 
 
 cylinder, 323. 
 Sizes of wash-hand basins, 225. 
 Sizes of waste pipe vents, 198. 
 Sitz bath, 221, 223. 
 
 Skilled labour required for iron drains, 
 
 146. 
 " Slag wool " covering for hot-water 
 
 pipes, 322. 
 " Slag wool " on pipes, 102. 
 Slate aprons to urinals, 248. 
 Slate floors to water-closets, 300. 
 Slop and washup sink, 206. 
 Slop-sinks, 200. 
 
 Slop-sinks fixed over each other, 204. 
 Slip joint in soil pipe buried in wall 263. 
 Small ball-cock to feed-cistern, evils of, 
 
 Small traps m large drains, 142. 
 
 Small vent pipes to soil pipes, 271. 
 
 Small V. large flushing-tanks, 181. 
 
 Smell of drains cause sickness, 124. 
 
 Smells from bath utensils, 217. 
 
 Smells from cesspool escape through 
 bedroom floor, 268. 
 
 Smells from cesspool pass into house, 
 172. 
 
 Smells from grease-tanks pass through 
 sink waste pipe, igo. 
 
 Smells from side gulleys in streets, 122. 
 
 Smells from soil pipes pass into bed- 
 rooms, 265, 267. 
 
 Smells from urinals, 254, 255. 
 
 Smells from vent pipes, cause of, 134. 
 
 Smells from wash-hand basin, 230. 
 
 Smells from water-closets, 295. 
 
 Smells pass through safe-trap, 270. 
 
 Smelting lead ores, 17. 
 
 Smoke passes through valve water- 
 closets, 296. 
 
 Smoke test and trapless water-closets, 
 296. 
 
 Soap-trap, 238. 
 
 Soapy matters clog traps, 240. 
 
 Socket to allow for expansion in hot- 
 water pipes, 331. 
 
 Softening lead, 18. 
 
 Softness of lead, 20. 
 
 Soft V. hardwood dressers, 47. 
 
 Soil scratched with iron, 37. 
 
 Soil inside pipe ends, 72. 
 
 Soil makes joints look dirty, 72. 
 
 Soil pipes, 260 to 290. 
 
 Soil pipe as drain vent, 166, i8i. 
 
 Soil pipe broken by hot water, 241. 
 
 Soil pipes fixed inside the house, 164. 
 
 Soil pipe in angle of drawing-room, 
 265, 266. 
 
 Soil pipe insufficiently supported, cause 
 of smells, 285. 
 
 Soil pipe jointed to drain, 161 to 164. , 
 
 Soil pipes and drains tested with air, 
 . ^52. 
 
 Soil pipes near windows, 263. 
 
 Soil should be touched, iii. 
 
 Solder an alloy of lead and tin, 21. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 353 
 
 Soldered angle weak at edges, log. 
 Soldered angles crack by exoansion of 
 
 lead, III. 
 Soldered pipe should not be used for 
 
 acids, 38. 
 Soldered seam bends, 55. 
 Solder getting into valves, 6g. 
 Soldering angles of cistern, no. 
 Soldering elbows, 58. 
 Soldering over a welted joint, 81. 
 Soldering safe to water-closet trap, 80. 
 Soldering tacks to pipes, 97. 
 Soldering running into pipe, 69. 
 Solder runs through joint, 92. 
 Solder should cover shaved parts on 
 
 lead pipe, 74. 
 Solder under finger-nail, in. 
 Space round iron drains, 149. 
 Sparge pipes in urinals, 247, 250. 
 Speaking tubes near lead pipes, 100. 
 Special-made bends for rain-water 
 
 pipes, 107. 
 SpecisQ-made tools for jointing iron 
 
 pipes, 159. 
 Special size of shave-hook for cisterns, 
 
 US- 
 Specific gravity of lead, 19. 
 Specimen of work, 24, 25. 
 Splash-board to sinks, 207. 
 Splash-sticks, 76. 
 " Splints " for joints, 89. 
 Split sockets in iron drains, 148. 
 Spoons falling into pipes, 120. 
 " Spoon-hook " for cisterns, n6. 
 Sponge swab, 36. 
 Sponge to clean joints, 76. 
 Spray apparatus for wash-hand basin, 
 
 245. 
 Spray baths, 221, 222. 
 Square hot-water cylinder, 319. 
 Square junctions for drains, 135. 
 Square junctions on iron drains, 154, 
 
 156. 
 Square lead pipe, how to fix, 107. 
 Square pipe and double elbow, 62. 
 Square pipes, how made, 31. 
 Square section bends, 67. 1 
 
 " Staffing and burning machine," 27. j 
 Stagnation of water in traps, 195. I 
 
 Stall urinals, 246 to 254. 
 Standing on water-closets, how to 
 
 prevent, 303. 
 Starting point for sanitary plumber, 125. 
 Starving rats, 127. 
 Steam in bath-rooms, 210. 
 Steam in water-boiler, 307. 
 Steam pipe to kitchen boiler, 306, 307. 
 Steam pipes to hot-water cisterns, 318. 
 Steam-tight covers to hot-water cisterns, 
 
 317- 
 Stench from traps, 185. 
 
 Steps to water-closets, 273. 
 
 Steps to uriuals, 256. 
 
 Stone blocks for joints, 78. 
 
 Stone drains, 128. 
 
 Stone sinks worn by pails and tubs, 
 
 120. 
 Stone sinks smell offensive, 191. 
 Stone troughs for urinals, 247. 
 Stoneware drains costly, 144. 
 Stoneware greasetraps, 187. 
 Stoneware troughs for urinals, 249. 
 Stop-cocks in hot-water circulations, 
 
 330. 
 Stop-cock in supply-pipe to boiler, 324. 
 Stoppage in branch drain, 136. 
 Stoppage in drains, cause of, 132. 
 Stoppage in bends, 40. 
 Storm water passes from sewer into 
 
 house, 129. 
 Strainers in sinks, 121. 
 Stranger uses 281bs. of lead to 4-inch 
 
 joint, 146. 
 Street driftings choke air-inlets, 177. 
 Strength of joints, 74. 
 " Strike," the, 22. 
 Strong fixing for square pipe, 107. 
 Study of traps refer to advertisements 
 
 in sanitary newspapers, 185. 
 Stupid arrangement of waste pipes, 275. 
 Sulphuretted hydrogen in drains, 169. 
 Supply-valves to wash-hand basins, 226, 
 
 227. 
 Support for hot-water cylinder, 321. 
 Surface water-traps, 184 
 Swan-neck bends, 56. 
 Sweaty joints, 70. 
 Syphon trap improperly fixed, 147. 
 
 Table of length of joints, 75. 
 
 Table of weights for iron drains, 149. 
 
 " Tacking " elbows, 58. 
 
 " Tacking " seams of lead pipes, 35. 
 
 Tacks and wall-hooks, 96. 
 
 Tacks fixed singly, 97. 
 
 Tacks fixed in pairs, 97. 
 
 Tacks, how to solder to pipe, 97. 
 
 Tacks soldered on face, 99. 
 
 Taft joints, 80. 
 
 Tan-pin. 69. 
 
 Taper drain pipes, 143. 
 
 Tapering bends, 56. 
 
 Tapering channel, 143. 
 
 Tarred "yarn for drain joints, 133. 
 
 Tarred yam for iron pipe joints 147. 
 
 Tearing cloths, 91. 
 
 Technical knowledge necessary, 2S1. 
 
 Templates for bends and elbows, 57. 
 
 Tenacity of lead, 19. 
 
354 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Testing iron drain pipes, 148. 
 
 Testing iron drains with air, 152. 
 
 Testing iron drains with water, 152. 
 
 The plumber a scientist, 281. 
 
 Thermometer for shower-bath, 220. 
 
 The "syphon" applied to drain venti- 
 lation, 168. 
 
 Thin cloths for branch joints, 86. 
 
 Thin V. thick cloths, 74. 
 
 Thick cloths necessary for cisterns, iii. 
 
 Thickness of copper for hot-water 
 cylinders, 320. 
 
 Thickness of iron drain pipes, 145. 
 
 Thickness of iron plate for hot-water 
 cylinders, 320. 
 
 Tnickness of pipe reduced by shaving, 
 
 ^ 73- 
 
 Thickness of sheSt-lead, how to calculate, 
 
 26. 
 Throated traps, 282. 
 To avoid waste of solder, 73. 
 To bed cover over opening in iron 
 
 drain, 154. 
 To empty cylinder, 324. 
 To get a bruise out of a pipe with 
 
 copper wire, 55. 
 To heat bends by melted lead, 47. 
 To kill grease on pipe ends, 70. 
 To make moulds for casting astragals, 
 
 105. 
 Too large exposed surface in urinals, 24S. 
 Tools for laying iron drains, 158, 159. 
 Tools for bending pipes, 51. 
 Tool-marks on bends, 47. 
 Tool-marks on lead, i row 
 Tool-marks on pipes, 41. 
 To test heat of pipe, 46. 
 Touching cistern angles, iii. 
 Touching pipe ends, 72. 
 " Touch " or tallow, 22. 
 Trap at bottom of soil pipe, cause of 
 
 smells, 280. 
 Trap like a cesspool, 181. 
 Trap made out of i-inch pipe,- 52. 
 Trapping of house drain, 171. 
 Trapping slop-sinks, 202. 
 Traps and disease germs. 138. 
 Traps for wash-hand basins, 237, 238 
 Traps in areas, 193. 
 Traps in aristocratic mansions, 185. 
 Traps made by machinery. 284. 
 Traps made in two halves, 283. 
 Traps, necessity of, 285. 
 Traps of cast-lead, 283. 
 Traps should be same size as waste 
 
 pipe, 52. 
 Traps should not be fixed in cellars or 
 
 inside a house, 197. 
 Traps too large in the body, 142 
 '1 "aps useless without water in them, 
 
 138, 185, 281. 
 
 Traps under valve water-closets, 295. 
 Trapless water-closets, 296. 
 '■ Tide-ilaps.' 122, 125. 
 ' Tide-flaps " and rats, 126. 
 "Tide-flaps" useless for keeping back 
 
 smells, 125. 
 Tide- valves, 126. 
 
 Tie-rods in hot-water chamber, 320. 
 Tiled floors under water-closets, 300. 
 Time to empty bath, 214. 
 Tinned-copper pipes, 316. 
 Tinned-copper sinks, 207. 
 Tinning lead pipes, 32. 
 Tinning pipe ends, 72. 
 " Tip-up " wash-hand basins, 235, 243. 
 Trapless closets and smoke test, 296. 
 Treadle-action flushing apparatus for 
 
 uripfils, 253. 
 "Trigger" waste-valve for wash-hand 
 
 basins, 234. 
 Trimming soldered angles of cisternsj 
 
 III. . 
 
 TriraminE; soldered seams, 37. 
 Troughs for tramps, 244. 
 Trough urinals, 248, 249. 
 Trough water-closets, 301. 
 Tube-boiler, 309. 
 Tubs jam plug in a sink, 120. 
 Tunnels under houses for drains to pass 
 
 through, 150. 
 T-unions for branch pipes, 326. 
 Turning lead over edge of cistern, no. 
 Type-metal, 18. 
 
 u 
 
 UsDER-side of drain joints left open, 165. 
 Unions on bath pipes, 211. 
 Unnecessary number of traps, 195. 
 Unprincipled builders, 264. 
 Unsuitable positions for water-closets, 
 
 289, 290. 
 Untrapped waste pipes, 196. 
 Unventilated bath-rooms, 217. 
 Upholsterers' hangings in Ijath-rooms, 
 
 218. 
 Upright V. underhand joints, 76. 
 Upright joints, how to catch solder, 73. 
 Urinals,' 246 to 259. 
 Urinal basins, 251 to 253. 
 Urinals enclosed, 256, 257. 
 Urinal flushing-cisierns, 258, 259. 
 Urinals in a club-house, 255. 
 Urinals in a public institution, 254. 
 Urinal stalls, 254. 
 Urinals to fold up, 257. 
 Urinal under a wash-hand basin, 257, 
 Urinals want attention, 257, 258. 
 Urinettes, 258. 
 Usage of a " Field's " flushing-tank, 180. 
 
INDEX^ 
 
 355 
 
 Usage -of upper water-closets affects 
 
 others below, 278 to 280. 
 Use of card wire, 70. 
 Use of drain-traps, 138. 
 Use of laminated lead, 26. 
 Use of geometry, 60. 
 Uses of lead, 26. 
 
 y 
 
 Valve and regulator-supply to water- 
 elosets, 293. i, , 
 
 Valve-closet with trap above floor, 296. 
 
 Valves for baths, 209, 210. 
 
 Valves for wash-hand basins, 227. 
 
 Valveless water-closets, 298. 
 
 Varieties of materials for sinks, 117. 
 
 Various kinds of baths, 208. 
 
 Various ways for ventilating slop-sink 
 ttaps, 205. 
 
 Vegetable washers, 121. 
 
 Ventilating drain in a terrace house, 175. 
 
 Ventilating waste pipes, 198. 
 
 Ventilation of bath-rooms, 217. 
 
 Ventilation of drains, 166 to 168. 
 
 Ventilation of grease-traps, 188. 
 
 Ventilation of sewers affect house plumb- 
 ing, 123. 
 
 Ventilation of sewers not plumbers' work, 
 123. 
 
 Ventilation of urinals, 246. 
 
 Ventilation of water-closets, 304. 
 
 Vent-arm to valve-box of valve water- 
 closet, 294. 
 
 Vent pipes in party-walls, 123. 
 
 Vent pipe to prevent "air-binding," igi. 
 
 Vent pipe with gas burning inside, 170. 
 
 Vent for slop-sink traps, 205. 
 
 Vent-shafts in water-closets, 182. 
 
 Vent to hot-water circulating pipes, 330. 
 
 Vitriol chambers lined with lead, 26. 
 
 V-pieces cut out to form bend, 56. 
 
 Wall-hooks for pipes, 95. 
 Walls of urinals, 246. 
 Warm nails used for cistern angles, 115. 
 Want of practice in joint wiping, 86. 
 " Wash-down " water-closet, 299. 
 Wash-hand basins, 224 to 241. 
 Wash-hand basins fixed on brackets, 242. 
 Wash-hand basins in public schools, 243. 
 Wash-hand basins should not be in a 
 
 bedroom, 236. 
 Wash-hand basin traps, 237, 238, 240. 
 " Wash-out " water-closets, 298. 
 Waste apparatus to set of urinal basins, 
 
 252- 
 
 Wash-up and slop-sipk, 206. 
 
 Waste from safe into trap of water- 
 closet, 272. 
 
 Waste heat from hot-water pipes used 
 for warming purposes, 328. 
 
 Waste-holes of wash-hand basins, 229. 
 
 Waste-holes in urinal basins, 251. 
 
 Waste of solder, 73. 
 
 Waste pipes air-bound, 275. 
 
 Waste pipes discharging into an open 
 channel, ig6. 
 
 Waste pipes discharging into hopper 
 heads, 231. 
 
 Waste pipes from water-closet safes, 273. 
 
 Waste pipes from wash-hand basins, 
 241, 242. 
 
 Waste pipes should discharge into inter- 
 ceptor-traps, 197. 
 
 Waste unions, joints to, 93. 
 
 Waste valves for baths, 212, 213. 
 
 Waste valves for wash-hand basins, 234. 
 
 Water-backs,' 305. 
 
 Water bends, 54. 
 
 Water-closets, 291. 
 
 Water-closets and sanitary engineers, 
 294. 
 
 Water-closets and slops,- 200. 
 
 Water-closets and their smells, 295. 
 
 Water-closet arrangements and archi- 
 tects, 289. 
 
 Water-closets difficult to ventilate, 182. 
 
 Water-closet doors, back spring to, 304. 
 
 Water-closet enclosures, 304. 
 
 Water-closet floors, 300. 
 
 Water-closet for public schools and 
 institutions, 301. 
 
 Water-closet, how to test the flush, 301. 
 
 Water-closets in an hotel, 290. 
 
 Water-closets in bedrooms, 304, 
 
 Water-closets in one piece of earthen- 
 ware, 298, 299. 
 
 Water-closet, long hopper, 301. 
 
 Water-closet makers, 294. 
 
 Water-closet not an ejector, 304. 
 
 Water-closet overflow pipe, 295. 
 
 Water-closet, " Pan," 298. 
 
 Water-closet ranges, 303. 
 
 Water-closet safe waste pipes, 272, 273. 
 
 Water-closet seats screwed down, 394. 
 
 Water-closet seat fixed to prevent 
 standing upon, 303. 
 
 Water closets, second-hand, 264. 
 
 Water-closets should be ventilated, 304. 
 
 Water-closet traps, 282. 
 
 Water-closets, trough, 301. 
 
 Water-closet useless without water to 
 fiu^ it, 281, 304. 
 
 Water-closet, " washdown," 299. 
 
 Water-closet, "washout," 298. 
 
 Water-closets without enclosures, 299. 
 
 Water-closets without traps, 296. 
 
355 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Water-closets valveless, 298. 
 Water coloured with iron rust, 314. 
 Water companies and basin-cocks, 229. 
 Water companies and bath-valves, 215. 
 Water discharges through drain-syphons, 
 
 140. 
 Water fall into traps, 142. 
 Water-flushed drains, 166. 
 Water from bath should flush drains, 
 
 209. 
 Water impregnated with gases becomes 
 
 sewage, 124. 
 Water in areas passes through floor 
 
 vent gratings, 194. 
 Water in basin of water-closet, 297. 
 Water in soil allowed to pass into sewage 
 
 drains, 165. 
 Water-pressure test for iron pipes, 149. 
 Water-testing of iron drains, 152. 
 Water-traps and disease germs, 138. 
 Waste-bath, 221. 
 Way pipes should socket, 69. 
 " Weathering " of sink capping, 119. 
 Weight of cast sheet-lead, 24. 
 Weight of iron drain pipes, 149. 
 Weight of lead, how to calculate, 26. 
 Weight of lead used in various positions, 
 
 26. 
 Weight of lead used for cisterns, 108. 
 Weight of sheet-lead, 21. 
 Weight on bottom of wash-hand basin, 
 
 93- 
 
 Welded boilers, 310. 
 Weltfid branch joints, 85. 
 Welted joint, 94, 
 Welted joints on soil pipe, 81. 
 What to avoid when shaving a joint, 71. 
 Where lead is found, 17. 
 \. here to attach cold supply to boiler, 
 323- 
 
 Which way to socket an elbow-joint, 59. 
 
 White lead, 20. 
 
 White lead, how made, 20. 
 
 White lead-making injurious to workers, 
 
 21. 
 White yarn for water mains, 147. 
 Why joints are overcast, 77. 
 Why pipes split, 32. 
 Wide recess for pipes, loi. 
 Width of seams for hand-made pipes, 35. 
 Wilkinson's patent for making lead pipes. 
 
 29. 
 Winch and bobbins strung on a rope, 46. 
 Wine bottles in manhole, 176. 
 Wiped tacks on pipe, 98. 
 Wiped V. copper-bit joints, 91. 
 Wiped seams to water-closet traps, 263. 
 Wiping branch joints, 85. ' 
 
 Wiping cloths, 76. 
 Wiping seams on pipes, 37. 
 Wiping upright joints, 90. 
 Wire crossbars in sink-washers, 120. 
 Wire gratings on air-inlets, 173. 
 Wood blocks for joints, 78. 
 Wood blocks inside branch joint, 88. 
 Wood fillets for fixing pipes on, 325. 
 Wood pattern for astragals, 106. 
 Wood sna-vings and bends, 46. 
 Wood shavings to catch solder, 72. 
 Woodwork near hot-water pipes, 335. 
 Wooden carriage for wash-hand basins, 
 
 224. 
 Wooden cases for sinks should have 
 
 sloping sides, 118. 
 Wooden enclosure for shower-bath, 221. 
 Wooden fillet for fixing pipes, 95. 
 Wooden lath for taking dimensions of 
 
 cistern, 113. 
 Wood V, iron splash-sticks, 76. 
 
The "PECKHAM" ; 
 AUTOMATIC URINAL FLUSHING CISTERN 
 
 rangements, such as treadles, levers, push taps, &c 
 over the old systems. Can be attached to any 
 Preventer. In use only when required. 
 
 SELF-FLUSHING 
 AP PARATU S. 
 
 jnHE Illustrations show' my 
 1 Patent Syphon Cistern 
 and a Self-acting Appar- 
 atus attached to the waste 
 outlet of a Urinal. The action 
 is most simple and non- 
 mechanical ; the actual using 
 of the urinal being all that is 
 required to start the Syphon, 
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 given to corrosion, as every 
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 with water at the time of use. 
 It is a perfect preventer of 
 waste of water, as the Syphon 
 cannot possibly be set going 
 only by the use of Urinal, and 
 it is an impossibility to leave 
 the water constantly running. 
 It is more effective than the 
 usual Automatic Syphons 
 which are set to flush at given 
 times, as in my Apparatus the 
 flush is given at the time of 
 use only, thus giving the urine 
 no chance to remain in the 
 trap and corrode. Is arranged 
 to give any desired quantity of 
 water at a flush. There are 
 no Valves of any kind, no 
 movement of mechanical ar- 
 , and thus has great advantages 
 Urinal. Perfect Water Waste 
 
 CAST-IRON SYPHON CISTERN AND APPARATUS, 30/- 
 
 GALVANIZED DITTO, WITH COPPER SYPHON, 40/- 
 
 RuBBER Cones, i/- each. 
 
 OF ALL IRONMONGERS, AND 
 
 Is/dlZLTOIsr s^ 
 
 36, RYE LANE and HANOVER STREET, PECKHAM, 
 
 e: 
 
 LONDON, 
 
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The Engineering and Building Record 
 
 AND 
 
 THE SANITARY ENGINEER. 
 
 Established 1877. 
 
 Conducted by Henry C. Meyer. 
 
 DEVOTED TO 
 
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 Machinist. 
 
 Under date of January gth, 1888, General M. C. Meigs, formerly Quarter- 
 master-General U. S. Army, and recently Architect of the new Pension Building 
 at Washington, wrote as follows : 
 
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 January gth, 1888. 
 The Engineering and Building Record : 
 
 DxfAR Sirs : I enclose cheque for $3.00, for which please send me " Steam- 
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 obliged, also, for a copy of your No. 6, Volume XVII., January 7th, 1888, which 
 is a capital number, just read and sent to a Western engineer, a friend, con- 
 taining much in his line of work. 
 
 I have looked at the Index of Volume XVI. It is a marvellous list of 
 knowledge made accessible to the profession at small cost to each subscriber. 
 
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 Published Saturdays, 25s. per year, 6d. per copy. 
 
 N.B. — An auractive feature is its series of critically selected Architectural Illus- 
 tratio'MS artistically rendered and handsomely reproduced- 
 
WINN'S PATENT 
 
 ACME SYPHON CISTERN. 
 
 Patented in 
 OREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 No. I163. 
 
 Patented, in 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 No. 1 163. 
 
 FMGE — aa drawn, 20s., G^alvamzed 288. 
 
 Approved and authorized for use by all the London and leading Provincial Water Companies. 
 Also now largely used in Barracks, Workhouses, and Her Majesty's Post Offices and Prisons 
 throughout the country, and adopted by tb'i leading Railway Companies, while more than 45,000 
 have been sold to the trade. 
 
 This flushing-box is suitable for any flushing-rim basin, but especially for Winn's Improved 
 
 * Free-flushing " Basin and Trap, which was designed to meet the want now generally felt for 
 
 -a good clean flushing pan and trap, constructed upon modem principles, at a moderate cost, the 
 
 price being lis. for cane and white, and 155. for cane colour outside and ornameutal flower ivy 
 
 inside; a better quality, in superior porcelain, being 16s. white, and 20s. ornamental. 
 
 THE Artisans', labourers', and General dwellings Company, Limited, 
 
 34. Great George Street, London, S.W., April 13th, 18S6. 
 
 Messrs. Chas. Winn & Co., Birmingham. 
 
 Dear Sirs,— We have about one thousand of your PATENT "ACME' CISTERNS in use at Noel Park. They 
 
 ■work most satis&ctorily, and, although somewhat exposed in external water-closets, have sustained no injury from the 
 
 •severe weather of the past winter, „ ^ , ,_. ., t» -^ t- * t,t, . *t-i- 
 
 Yours truly, (Signed) R. E. FARRANT, 
 
 Deputy-Chaimiaii &• Managing Director. 
 
 CHARLES WINN & CO., BIRMINGHAM, 
 
 Manufacturers of Sanitary Appliances. 
 
 LONDON OFFICE: 41, HOLBORN VIADUCT, E.G. 
 
 GLASGOW: 94, HOPE STREET. 
 
 The "Bostel" Sanitary Appliances 
 
 Are so Registertd as a TRADE MARK. 
 They have stood the sure test of time, and are established as reliable. 
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 D. X. BOSTEL, regd. plumber. 
 
 34, Gharing Cross, London, S.W. 
 
 BE 2 
 
THE PRINCIPLES 
 
 Ventilation and Heating 
 
 THEIR PRACTICAL APPLICATION. 
 
 JOHN S. 
 
 BILLINGS, M.D., LL.D. 
 
 Surgeon U.S. Army. 
 
 (Edinb.), 
 
 PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 This interesting and valuable series 
 of papers, originally published in The 
 Sanitary Engineer, have been re- 
 arranged and re-written, with the ad- 
 dition of new matter. 
 
 The volume is published in response 
 to the general demand that these im- 
 portant papers should be issued in a 
 more convenient and permanent form, 
 and also because almost all the reliable 
 literature on this subject has been fur- 
 nished by English Authors, and written 
 with reference to the climate of Eng- 
 land, which is more uniform and has a 
 higher proportion of moisture. The 
 need of a book based upon the con- 
 ditions of the American climate is 
 therefore apparent. 
 
 The following will indicate the 
 character of the subject-matter: 
 
 Expense of Ventilation — Difference 
 Between " Perfect " and Ordinary 
 Ventilation — Relations of Carbonic 
 Acid to the Subject— Methods of Test- 
 ing Ventilation. 
 
 Heat, and some of the Laws which 
 govern its Production and Communi- 
 cation — Movements of Heated Air — 
 Movements of Air in Flues — Shapes 
 and Sizes of Flues and Chimneys. 
 
 Amount of Air-Supply Required — 
 Cubic, Space. 
 
 Methods of Heating: Stoves, Fur- 
 naces, Fire-Places, Steam and Hot- 
 Water. 
 
 Scheduling for Ventilation Plans — 
 Position of Flues and Registers — 
 
 Means of Removing Dust — Moisture, 
 and Plans for Supplying It. 
 
 Patent Systems for Ventilation and 
 Heating — The Ruttan System — Fire- 
 Places — Stoves. 
 
 Chimney-Caps — Ventilators — Cowls 
 — Syphons — Forms of Inlets. 
 
 Ventilation of Halls of Audience — 
 Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church — 
 The Houses of Parliament— The Hall 
 of the House of Representatives. 
 
 Theatres — The Grand Opera-House 
 at Vienna — The Opera-House at 
 Frankfort-on-the-Main — The Metro- 
 politan Opera-House, New York — The 
 Madison Square Theatre, New York — 
 The Criterion Theatre, London — The 
 Academy of Music, Baltimore. 
 
 Schools. 
 
 Ventilation of Hospitals — St. Peters- 
 burgh Hospital — Hospitals for Conta- 
 gious Diseases — The Barnes Hospital 
 —The New York Hospital— The Johns 
 Hopkins Hospital. 
 
 Forced Ventilation — Aspirating- 
 Shafts — Gas-jets — Steam Heat for 
 Aspiration — Prof. Trowbridge's For- 
 mulae — Application in the Library 
 Building of Columbia College — Ven- 
 tilating-Fans — Mixing- Valves. 
 
 The book is free from unnecessary 
 technicalities, and is not burdened with 
 scientific formulae. 
 
 It is invaluable to Architects, Physi- 
 cians, Builders, Plumbers, and those 
 who contemplate building or re-model- 
 ing their houses. 
 
 Large ivo. Handsomely Bound m Cloth. Price 15s. Postage Paid. 
 Address : Book Department, 
 
 THE ENGINEERING AND BUILDING RECORD, 
 92 and 93, Fleet Street, London. 
 
A. W. Reid & Co., 
 
 MAKERS OF 
 
 BATHS, LAVATORIES, WATER-CLOSETS, URINALS, PLUMBERS' 
 BRASS WORK, SANITARY EARTHENWARE, FIRECLAY SINKS, 
 PATENT FOLDING LAVATORIES FOR HOTELS, RAILWAY CARS, 
 
 STEAMSHIPS, Sec., 
 
 69, ST. MARY AXE, LONDON, E.G. 
 
 SOLE MANUFACTURERS OF 
 
 um nui 
 
 wr 
 
 WE respectfully invite attention to Pearson's Patent "Twin-Basin" Watep-Closet. It is 
 simple in construction, is entirely without that complicated mechanism by which most 
 other closets are worked, and consequently less liable to get out of order, the very important 
 features,' however, being cleanliness and protection against foul air from the Sewer. 
 
 The closets have been thoroughly tested by many years' use in Hospitals, Schools, Railway 
 'Stations, Hotels, Factories, Warehouses, Mansions, and Cottages, with the very best results. 
 They have been tried and approved by the highest Sanitary , Authorities, by Architects, and bj 
 ithe Medical Profession. , 
 
 Below is an extract from one of the numerous Testimonials received. 
 
 " Surveyor's Office, Guy's Hospital, London, loth February, 1877. 
 
 "Taken altogether, I have seen nothing to equal the Pearson's Closet, or I should not 
 Ibave introduced them for use in the Hospital. 
 
 (Signed "ARTHUR BILLING, Smi'iio"'*' «o «*e Ho5/>««a;." 
 
 For Diagrams and List of Prices, apply to the Manufacturers as above. 
 'GOLD MEDAL AWARDED AT THE INTERNATIONAL HEALTH EXHIBITION, LONDON 1684. 
 
SECOND EDITION. 
 
 Plumbing & House-Drainage Problems; 
 
 OR, 
 
 Questions, Answers, and Descriptions from The Sanitary Engineer. 
 
 With 142 Illustrations. 
 
 [From the Preface.] 
 
 "A feature of The Sanitary Engineer is its replies to questions on topics, 
 that come within its scope, included in which are Water-Supply, Sewage Dis- 
 posal, Ventilation, Heating, Lighting, Ho use- Drainage, and Plumbing. Repeated 
 inquiries concerning matters often explained in its columns suggested the desir- 
 ability of putting in a convenient form for reference a selection from its pages, 
 of questions and comments on various problems met with in house-drainage and 
 plumbing, improper work being illustrated and explained as well as correct 
 methods. It is therefore hoped that this book will be useful to those interested 
 in this branch of sanitary engineering.'* 
 
 Table of Contents : 
 
 DANGEROUS BLUNDERS IN PLUMBING. 
 
 Running Vent Pipe in Improper Places — 
 Connecting Soil Pipes with Chimney-Flues 
 — By-Passes in Trap-Ventilation, &c. Illus- 
 trated. 
 
 A Case of Reckless Botching. Illustrated. 
 
 A Stupid Multiplication of Traps. Illustrated. 
 
 Plumbing Blunders in a Gentleman's Country 
 House. Illustrated, 
 
 A Trap Made Useless by Improper Adjust- 
 ment of Inlet and Outlet Pipes. Illustrated. 
 
 Unreliability of Heated Flue as a Substitute 
 for Proper Trapping. Illustrated; 
 
 Need of Plans in Doing Plumbing- Work, 
 
 HOUSE-DRAINAGE. 
 
 City and Country House- Drain age — Removal 
 of Ground- Water from Houses — Trap- 
 Ventilation — Pre h-Air Inlets— Drain-Ven- 
 tilation by Heated Flues — Laying of Stone- 
 ware Drains. 
 
 Requirements lor the Drainage of Every House. 
 
 Drainage of a Saratoga House. Illustrated. 
 
 Ground-Water Drainage of a Country House. 
 Illustrated. 
 
 Ground-Water Drainage of a City House. 
 Illustrated. 
 
 Fresh-Air Inlets. 
 
 The Location of Fresh-Air Inlets in Cities. 
 Idustrdted. 
 
 Fresh-Air Inlets. Illustrated. 
 
 Air-Inlets on Drains. 
 
 The Proper Way to Lay Stoneware Drains. 
 
 Risks Attending the Omission of Traps and 
 Relying on Drain- Ventilation by Flues. 
 Illustrated. 
 
 The Tightness of Tile-Drains. 
 
 Danger of Soil Pipe Terminals Freezing 
 unless Ends are without Hoods or Cowls. 
 
 Objection to Connecting Bath-Waste with 
 Water-closet Trap. 
 
 How to Adjust the Inlets and Outlets of Traps. 
 Illustrated. 
 
 How to Protect Trap when Soil Pipe is used 
 as a Leader, 
 
 Size of Ventilating Pipes for Traps. 
 
 tiovf to Prevent Condensation Filling Vent 
 Pipes. 
 
 Ventilating Soil Pipes. 
 
 How to Prevent Accidental Discharge into 
 Trap Vent Pipe. 
 
 Why Traps should be Vented. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 Syphoning Water through a Bath-Supply., 
 
 Illustrated. 
 Emptying a Trap by Capillary Attraction.. 
 
 Illustrated. 
 As to Safety of Stop-Cocks on Hot Water 
 
 Pipes. 
 How to Burnish Wiped Joints. 
 Admission to the New York Trade Schools. 
 Irregular Water Supply. Illustrated. 
 Hot Water from the Cold Faucet, and how 
 
 to Prevent it. Illustrated. 
 Disposal of Bath and Basin Waste Water. 
 To Prevent Corrosion of Tank Lining. 
 Number of Water-Closets Required in a Fac- 
 tory. ' 
 Size of Basin Wastes and Outlets. 
 Tar-Coated Water Pipe Affect Taste of Water. 
 How to Deal with Pollution of Cellar Floors. 
 How to Heat a Bathing Pool. 
 Objections to Galvanized Sheet-Iron Soit 
 
 Pipe. 
 To Prevent Rust in a Suction Pipe. 
 Automatic Shut-Off for Gas Pumping Engines- 
 
 when Tank is Full, Illustrated. 
 Paint to Protect Tank Linines. 
 Vacuum Valves not always Reliable. 
 Size of Water Pipes in a House. 
 How to Make Rust Joints. 
 Covering for Water Pipes. 
 Size of Soil Pipe for an ordinary City House. 
 How to construct a Sunken Reservoir to- 
 
 Hold Two Thousand Gallons. 
 Where to Place Burners to Ventilate Flues 
 
 by Gas Jets, Illustrated. 
 How to Prevent Water Hammer. 
 Why a Hydraulic Ram does not Work. 
 Air in Water Pipes. 
 Proper Size of Water-Closet Outlets. 
 Is a Cement Floor Impervious to Air? 
 Two Traps to a Water-Closet Objectionable, 
 Connecting Bath Wastes to Water-Closet 
 
 Traps. Illustrated. 
 Objections to Leaching Cesspool and need of 
 
 Fresh-Air Inlet. 
 The Theory of the Action of Field's Syphon. 
 How to Disinfect a Cesspool. 
 Drainage inio Cesspools. 
 Slabs for Pantry Sinks— Wood v. Marble. 
 Test for Well Pollution. 
 Cesspool for Privy Vault. 
 Corrosion of Lead Lining. 
 
BAIRD, THOMPSON & Co.'s 
 
 LATEST IMPROVED " GRAHTRYX " 
 
 DRAIN -TEST MACHINE. 
 
 GOLD MEDAL 
 
 OVER 7,000 IN USE. 
 
 Highest Awards for Improved Smoke -Test 
 Macnines and Ventilators, 1887, 1888, i88g, i8go. 
 Two Special Diplomas of Honour, and Twelve 
 Gold Prize Medalp. 
 
 LETTERS 
 PATENT. 
 
 GOLD MEDAL 
 
 For applying the "Smoke-Test" to Drains, Soil Pipes, Gas Pipes, &c. 
 
 FOR DESTROYING 
 RATS, RABBITS, MOLES, 
 SNAKES, REPTILES, INSECTS. 
 
 FOR DISINFECTING 
 HOSPITALS, VESSELS, DRAINS, 
 ROOMS, BEDDING, CLOTHES, &c. 
 
 FOR PREVENTING Cattle Plague, Pleuro-Pneumonia, Foot and Mouth Disease, &c. 
 For making Rabbits desert their holes and lie out. For Vaporising Chemical Compounds, 
 For Fumigating Vines and Greenhouse Plants, &c. 
 
 These. Machines are pronounced by eminent scientific and practical men, as the cheapest, 
 most perfect, and complete ever invented. Beware of imitations. 
 
 BAIRD, THOMPSON & Co., 
 
 VENTILATING, HEATING & SANITARY ENGINEERS, 
 
 165, QUEEN VICTORIA STREET, LONDON, E.C.; 
 24, BATH STREET, GLASGOW. 
 
Size of Flush Tank to deal with Sewaige of 
 
 a Small Hospital. 
 Details of the Construction of a House Tank. 
 
 Illustrated 
 The Construction of a Cistern under a House. 
 To protect Lead Lining of a Tank, and 
 
 Cause of Sweating. 
 Stains on Marble. 
 Lightning Strikes Soil Pipes. 
 Will the Contents of a Cesspool Freeze ? 
 Bad Tasting Water from a Coil, Illustrated. 
 How to (It Sheet-Lead in a Large Tank. 
 Why Water is " Milky " When First Drawn. 
 Material for Water Service Pipes. 
 Carving Tables. Illustrated. 
 Is Galvanized Pipe Dangerous for Soft Spring 
 
 Water. 
 How to Arrange Hush Pipes in Cisterns to 
 
 Prevent Syphoning Water Through Ball 
 
 Cock. 
 Depth of Foundations to Prevent Dampness 
 
 of Site. 
 Where to Place a Tank to get Good Dis- 
 charge at Faucet. 
 Self-Acting Water-Closets. Illustrated. 
 Wind Disturbing Seal of Trap. 
 How to Draw Water from a Deep Well. 
 Cause oi Smell of Well Water. 
 AbsoriJtion of Light by Gas Globes. 
 Defective Drainage. Illustrated. 
 Fitting Basins to Marble Slabs. Illustrated. 
 Intermediate Tanks for the Water Supply o' 
 
 High Buildings. Illustrated. 
 How to Construct a Filtering Cistern. Illus- 
 trated. 
 Objections to Running Ventilating Pipe into 
 
 Chimney-Flue. 
 Size of Water Supply Pipe for Dwelling- 
 
 House. 
 Faulty Plan oi a Cesspool. Illustrated. 
 Connecting Refrigerator Wastes with Drains. 
 
 illustrated. 
 Disposing of Refrigerator Wastes. Illustrated. 
 Pumping Air from Water-Closet into Tea 
 
 Kettle as Result of Direct Supply to 
 
 Water-Closets. Illustrated. 
 Danger in Connecting Tank Overflows with 
 
 Soil Pipes. 
 Arrangement of Safe Wastesi Illustrated. 
 The Kind of Men Who do not Like the 
 
 Sanitary Engineer. 
 What is Reasonable Plumbers' Profit. 
 
 HOT-WATER CIRCULATION IN BUILD- 
 INGS. 
 Bath Boilers. Illustrated. 
 Setting Horizon'lal Boilers. Illustrated, 
 
 How to Secure Circulation Between Boilers 
 in Different Houses. Illustrated. 
 
 Connectinc One Boiler with Two Ranges. 
 Illustrated. 
 
 Taking Return Below Boiler. Illustrated. 
 
 Trouble with Boiler. 
 
 An Ignorant Way of Dealing with a Kitchen 
 Boiler. Illustrated. 
 
 Returning into Hot Water Supply Pipe. 
 Illustrated. 
 
 Where should Sediment Pipe from Boiler be 
 connected with Waste Pipe ? 
 
 Several Flow Pipes and one Circulation Pipe. 
 Illustrated. 
 
 How to run Pipes from Water Back to 
 Boiler. Illustrated. 
 
 Hot-Water Circulation when Pipes from 
 Boiler pass under the Floor. Illustrated. 
 
 Heating a Room from Water Back. 
 
 The Operation of Vacuum and Safety Valves. 
 Illustrated. 
 
 Preventing Collapse of Boilers. 
 
 Collapse of a Boiler. Illustrated. 
 
 Explosion of Water Backs. 
 
 A Proposed Precaution against Water Back 
 Explosions. Illustrated. 
 
 The Bursting of Kitchen Boilers and Con- 
 necting Pipes. Illustrated. 
 
 Giving out ol Lead Vent Pipes from Boilers 
 in an Apartment House. Illustrated. 
 
 Connecting a Kitchen Boiler with One or 
 more Water Backs. Illustrated. 
 
 New Method of Heating Two Boilers by One 
 Water Back. Illustrated. 
 
 Plan of Horizontal Hot Water Boiler. Illus- 
 trated. 
 
 HOT WATER SUPPLY IN VARIOUS 
 BUILDINGS. 
 
 Kitchen and Hot-Water Supply in the Resi- 
 dence of Mr. W. K. Vanderbilt, New 
 York. Illustrated. 
 
 Kitchen and Hot-Water Supply in the Resi- 
 dence of Mr. Cornelius vanderbilt, New 
 York. Illustrated. 
 
 Kitchen and Hot-Water Supply in the Resi- 
 dence of Mr. Henry G. Marquand, New 
 York. Illustrated. 
 
 Kitchen and Hot-Water Supply in the Resi- 
 dence of Mr. A, J. White. Illustrated. 
 
 Hoi-Water Supply in an Office Building, 
 Illustrated. 
 
 Kitchen and Hot-Water Supply in the Resi- 
 dence of Mr. Sidney Webster. Illustrated, 
 
 Plumbing and Water Supply in the Residence 
 of Mr. H. H. Cook. tUustrated, 
 
 Large 8t)0. Cloth, loj. post paid. 
 
 Address, Book Department, 
 
 THE ENGINEERING AND BUILDING RECORD, 
 
 92 and 93, Fleet Street, London. 
 
POST FREE, Is. 6d. 
 
 CLARKE'S 
 
 POCKET BOOK 
 
 FOR 
 
 PLUMBERS, ARCHITECTS. 
 SANITARY ENGIWEERS, •• 
 &c., &.C. 
 
 A COLLECTION. 0'= 
 
 TABLES AND MEMORANDA 
 
 CALCULATED k COMPILED BY 
 
 J. WRIGHT CLARKE, 
 
 PLUMBER. Plumbing Instructor to the 
 Polytechnic, I.ond,.n. 
 
 LONDON: 
 R. J. BUSH 
 It 93, FLEET STREET, E.C. 
 
 iSgi. 
 
 Dry Earth and Ash Closets. 
 
 W. F. PARKER, mmtdmtma. OXFORD. 
 
 FULL ILLUSTRATED LIST ON APPLICAtlON. 
 
 SILVER AND BRONZE MEDALS FOR SANITARY APPLIANCES AND WORKMANSHIP. 
 
 Established 1863. 
 
 HOUGHTON & Co., 
 
 ^radical ^lumb^ra $c ^pmdiata in 
 
 '^ansi Irainag^, 
 21, SLOANE TERRACE, 6 & 7, CHARLES STREET, 
 
 LONDON, S.W. 
 
 Estimates Free. All Drainage done by us is 
 guaranteed to be watertight. 
 
 HENRY HOUGHTON, Manager 
 
Size of Flush Tank to deal with Sewage of 
 
 a Small Hospital. 
 Details of the Construction of a House Tank. 
 
 Illustrated 
 The Construction of a Cistern under a House. 
 To protect Lead Lining of a Tank, and 
 
 Cause of Sweating. 
 Stains on Marble. 
 Lightning Strikes Soil Pipes. 
 Will the Contents of a Cesspool Freeze ? 
 Bad TastinE Water from a Coil, Illustrated. 
 How to fit Sheet-Lead in a Large Tank. 
 Why Water is "Milky" When First Drawn. 
 Material for Water Service Pipes. 
 Carving Tables. Illustrated. 
 Is Galvanized Pipe Dangerous for Soft Spring 
 
 Water. 
 How to Arrange Hush Pipes in Cisterns to 
 
 Prevent Syphoning Water Through Ball 
 
 Cock. 
 Depth of Foundations to Prevent Dampness 
 
 of Site. 
 Where to Place a Tank to get Good Dis- 
 charge at Faucet. 
 Self-Acting Water-CIosets. Illustrated. 
 Wind Disturbing Seal of Trap. 
 How to Draw Water from a Deep Well. 
 Cause of Smell of Well Water. 
 Absorption of Light, by Gas Globes. 
 Defective Drainage. Illustrated. 
 Fitting Basins to Marble Slabs. Illustrated. 
 Intermediate Tanks for the Water Supply o 
 
 High Buildings. Illustrated. 
 How to Construct a Filtering Cistern. Illus- 
 trated. 
 Objections to Running Ventilating Pipe into 
 
 Cbimney-Flue. 
 Size of Water Supply Pipe for Dwelling- 
 
 House. 
 Faulty Plan oi a Cesspool. Illustrated. 
 Connecting Refrigerator Wastes with Drains. 
 
 Illustrated. 
 Disposing of Refrigerator Wastes. Illustrated. 
 Pumping Air from Water-Closet into Tea 
 
 Kettle as Result of Direct Supply to 
 
 Water-CIosets. Illustrated. 
 Danger in Connecting Tank Overflows with 
 
 Soil Pipes. 
 Arrangement of Safe Wastesi Illustrated. 
 The kind of Men Who do not Like the 
 
 Sanitary Engineer. 
 What is Reasonable Plumbers' Profit. 
 
 HOT-WATER CIRCULATION IN BUILD- 
 INGS. 
 
 Bath Boilers. Illustrated. 
 
 Setting Horizontal Boilers. Illustrated, 
 
 How to Secure Circulation Between Boilers 
 in Different Houses. Illustrated, 
 
 Connecting One Boiler with Two Ranges 
 Illustrated. 
 
 Taking Return Below Boiler. Illustrated. 
 
 Trouble with Boiler, 
 
 An Ignorant Way of Dealing with a Kitchen 
 Boiler. Illustrated. 
 
 Returning into Hot Water Supply Pipe. 
 Illustrated. 
 
 Where should Sediment Pipe from Boiler be 
 connected with Waste Pipe? 
 
 Several Flow Pipes and one Circulation Pipe. 
 Illustrated. 
 
 How to run Pipes from Water Back to 
 Boiler. Illustrated. 
 
 Hot -Water Circulation when Pipes from 
 Boiler pass under the Floor. Illustrated. 
 
 Heating a Room from Water Back. 
 
 The Operation of Vacuum and Safety Valves. 
 Illustrated. 
 
 Preventing Collapse of Boilers. 
 
 Collapse of a Boiler. Illustrated. 
 
 Explosion of Water Backs. 
 
 A Proposed Precaution against Water Back 
 Explosions. ' Illuelyated. 
 
 The Bursting of Kitchen Boilers and Con- 
 necting Pipes. Illustrated. 
 
 Giving out ot Lead Vent Pipes from Boilers 
 in an Apartment House. Illustrated. 
 
 Connecting a Kitchen Boiler with One or 
 more Water Backs. Illustrated. 
 
 New Method of Heating Two Boilers by One 
 Water Back. Illustrated. 
 
 Plan of Horizontal Hot Water Boiler. Illus- 
 trated. 
 
 HOT WATER SUPPLY IN VARIOUS 
 BUILDINGS. 
 
 Kitchen and Hot-Water Supply in the Resi- 
 dence of Mr. W. K. Vanderbilt, New 
 York. Illustrated. 
 
 Kitchen and Hot-Water Supply in the Resi- 
 dence of Mr. Cornelius Vanderbilt, New 
 York. Illustrated. 
 
 Kitchen and Hot-Water Supply in the Resi- 
 dence of Mr. Henry G. Marquand, New 
 York. Illustrated. 
 
 Kitchen and Hot-Water Supply in the Resi- 
 dence of Mr. A. J. White. Illustrated. 
 
 Hot-Water Supply m an Office Building. 
 Illustrated. 
 
 Kitchen and Hot-Water Supply in the Resi- 
 dence of Mr. Sidney Webster. Illustrated. 
 
 Plumbing and Water Supply in the Residence 
 of Mr. H. H. Cook. Pllustrated. 
 
 Large 8vo. Clotk^ los. post paid. 
 
 Address, Book Department, 
 
 THE ENGINEERING AND BUILDING RECORD, 
 
 92 and 93, Fleet Street, Ixjndon, 
 
POST FREE, Is. 6d. 
 
 CLARKE'S 
 
 POCKET BOOK 
 
 FOR 
 
 PLUMBERS, ARCHITECTS. 
 SANITARY ENGINEERS, ■• 
 &c., S.C. 
 
 A COLLECTIO** 0«= 
 
 TABLES AND MEMORANDA 
 
 CAIXULATED 1, COMPILED BY 
 
 J. WRIGHT CLARKE, 
 
 PLUMBER. Plumbing Instructor to the 
 Polytechnic London. 
 
 LONDON: 
 R. J. BUSH 
 & S3, FLEET STREET, E.C. 
 1891. 
 
 Dry Earth and Ash Closets. 
 
 W. F. P.\RKER, aisnutfattetr, OXFORD. 
 
 FULL ILLUSTRATED LIST ON APPLICATION. 
 
 SILVER AND BRONZE MEDALS FOR SANITARY APPLIANCES AND WORKMANSHIP. 
 
 Established 1863. 
 
 HOUGHTON & Co., 
 
 ^ractital f lumbura $c ^pmaliata in 
 
 %an%t ©rainagc, 
 21, 8L0ANE TERRACE, 6 & 7, CHARLES STREET, 
 
 LONDON, S.W. 
 
 Estimates Free. All Drainage done by us is 
 guaranteed to be watertight. 
 
 HENRY HOUGHTON, Manager 
 
I Vol. Roy. 8vo., 392 pp., 20s., post paid. 
 
 Hot-Water 
 
 HEATING AND FITTING. 
 
 BY 
 
 William J. Baldwin, M.E. 
 
 ATkEATISE on the practice of wanning by HOT- WATER, with modern 
 methods, described and explained. The book contams much of the 
 matter on this subject which has appeared in the columns of The 
 Engineering & Building Record, together with a large amount of additional 
 original data. 
 
 Among the questions treated are the following : — 
 
 The cause of the circulation of the water withi.i How to compute radiating surfaces. 
 
 Experiments of modern investigators on 
 
 radiators. 
 How to find the amount of water that should 
 
 pass through a radiator to do certain duty. 
 How to determine the size of inlet and outlet 
 
 to hot-water radiators. 
 How to estimate the quantity of water that should 
 
 pass through a radiator for a loss of lo degrees. 
 Diagram giving the diameter of flow and return 
 
 pipes when radiating surface and the length 
 
 of the pipes are known. 
 Experiments illustrating use of diagram in the 
 
 piping of building. 
 The diflerent systems of mainsused in hot-water 
 
 heating. 
 Treatment of single circuits. 
 Branch circuits. 
 Compound circuits. 
 How to proportion the apparatus for indirect 
 
 heating. 
 Heat given oft per square foot of surface. 
 Loss of heat through walls and windows of a 
 
 room. 
 Heat lost by ventilation — how to consider it. 
 How to find heating surface of a room warmed 
 
 by indirect radiation. 
 Comparative experiments with hot-water coils. 
 Diagram of sizes of main pipes for indirect 
 
 radiation. 
 Examples of buildings warmed by hot-water. 
 Boilers used in hot-water apparatus. 
 Direct and indirect radiators used in hot-water 
 
 apparatus. 
 Expansion tanks and how they should be used. 
 Special fittings for hot-water apparatus. 
 How to conduct experiments of testing the 
 
 efi&ciency of hot-water radiators. 
 How to control fires by the heat of water. 
 
 The whole containing a large amount of practical and useful information of 
 great value to the Engineer, Architect, Mechanic and Householder. 
 
 A ddress : — 
 
 BOOK DEPARTMENT, 
 
 The Engineering Record, 
 
 92 & 93, FLEET STREET, LONDON. 
 
 heating apparatus. 
 Motions explained by the use of diagrams. 
 How to find the velocity of the flow of water in 
 
 pipes of an apparatus. 
 Simple forumlae explaining the laws which govern 
 
 the flow of water in an apparatus. 
 Diagrams showing the co-efficients of the curve 
 
 of the expansion of the water. 
 Diagram showing the velocity of water in feet 
 
 per second when the height from which it 
 
 flows is known. 
 The use of the diagrams in estimating the flow 
 
 'of the water through the apparatus. 
 Table of the quantity of waterin U.S. gallons of 
 
 the water that will pass through pipes of a 
 
 given diameter. 
 Table giving the friction loss in inches of the 
 
 water head for each ten feet of length of 
 
 diflferent sizes of clean iron pipes discharg- 
 ing given quantities of watei per minute. 
 The loss of head by friction and resistance ot 
 
 elbows. 
 Saving by long radius elbows. 
 Saving* by smooth elbows. 
 Resistance caused to the flow of water by elbows 
 
 and retnrn bends. 
 Resistance caused by valves, etc., and how it 
 
 may he made less. 
 How to find the flow of watei through main 
 
 pipes of an apparatus. 
 To find the quantity of water that will pass in 
 
 U.S. gallon when the total head is known. 
 To find the diameter of a pipe for a given 
 
 discharge of water. 
 To find the discharge of pipes for given 
 
 diameters. 
 Experiments of Tredgold and Hood in warm- 
 ing surtace. 
 
JOHN SMEATON.SON &Co. 
 
 PLUMBERS, 
 
 SANITARY, HYDRAULIC, VENTILATING, AND 
 
 HOT-WATER ENGINEERS i 
 
 56, Great Queen Street, Lincoln's Inn Fields, 
 
 CATALOGUE FREE. LONDON, "W . C . CATALOGUE FREE. 
 
 DRAINAGE, WATER SUPPLY &SANITARY PLDMBIN& 
 
 ON THE 
 
 MOST IMPROVED SYSTEMS, 
 
 RECEIVE SPECIAL ATTENTION. 
 
 The 
 " Nautilus 
 Closet. 
 
 These Closets are supplied with 
 handsomely decorated brass cast 
 or polished wood patent syphon 
 cisterns, lead down service 
 pipes, and hinged seats to enable 
 them to be used as urinals and 
 slop sinks. They can be had in 
 colours at a slight extra cost. 
 The "Nautilus" is strongly re- 
 commended as thus the ordinary 
 unsightly wood casing is entirely 
 dispensed with; it is specially 
 adapted for W.C. rooms of small 
 dimensions, where space is an 
 object. Of the two types of the 
 " Nautilus " we strongly recom- 
 mend the " Rapid Flush " as the 
 most sanitary. 
 
 PRIQES. 
 From .. £3 3s. 
 To .. .. £6 6s. 
 
PRICE, 15s. POSTAGE PAID. 
 
 Steam-Heating Problems; 
 
 OR, 
 
 Questions, Answers, and Descriptions 
 
 RELATING TO 
 
 Steam- Heating and Steam- Fitting, 
 
 THE SANITARY ENGINEER. 
 
 With One Hundred and Nine Ilhistyations. 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 The Sanitary Engineer, while devoted to Engineering, Architecture, Con- 
 struction, and Sanitation, has always made a special feature of its departments 
 of Steam and Hot- Water Heating, in which a great variety of questions have 
 been answered and descriptions of the work in various buildings have been 
 given. The favour with which a recent publication from this office, entitled 
 ' ' Plumbing and House-Drainage Problems," has been received suggested the 
 publication of "Steam Heating Problems," which, though dealing with 
 another branch of industry, is similar in character. It consists of a selection 
 from the pages of The Sanitary Engineer of questions and answers, besides 
 comments on various problems met with in the designing and construction of 
 Steam-Heating apparatus, and descriptions of Steam-Heating work in notable 
 buildings. 
 
 It is hoped that this book will prove useful to tliose who design, construct, 
 and have the charge of Steam-Heating apparatus. 
 
 CONTENTS : 
 
 BOILERS.. 
 
 On Blowing off and Filling Boilers. 
 
 Where a Test-Gauge should be Applied to a 
 Boiler. 
 
 Domes on Boilers ; whether they are necessary 
 or not. 
 
 Expansion of Water in Boilers. 
 
 Cast V. Wrought Iron for Nozzles and Maga- 
 zines of House-Heating Boilers. 
 
 Pipe-Connections to Boilers. 
 
 Passing. Boiler-Pipes through. Walls ; how *o 
 Prevent Breakage by Settlement. 
 
 Suffocation of Workmen in Boilers. 
 
 Heating Boilers. (A Problem.) 
 
 A Detachable Boiler-Lug. 
 
 Isolating-Valve for Steam-Main of Boilers. 
 
 On the Effect of Oil in Boilers. 
 
 Iron Rivets and Steel Boiler-Plates. 
 
 Propprtions ior Rivets for Boiler-Plates. 
 
 Is there any Danger in using Water Con- 
 tinuously in Boilers? 
 
 Accident with Connected Boilers. 
 
 A Supposed Case of Charring Wood by Steam- 
 Pipes. 
 
 Domestic BoilH's Warmed by Steam. 
 
 VALUE OF HEATING-SURFACES. 
 
 Computing the Amount of Radiator-Surface for 
 Warming Buildings by Hot Water. 
 
 Calculating the Radiating- Surface for Heat- 
 ing Buildings— The Saving of Double- 
 Glazed Windows. 
 
 Amount of Heating-Surface Required in Hot- 
 Water Apparatus Boilers and in Steam- 
 Apparatus Boilers. 
 
 Calculating the Amount of Radiating-Surface 
 for a Given Room. 
 
 How much Heating-Surface will a Steam-Pipe 
 of Given Size Supply ? 
 
 Coils V. Radiators and Size of Boiler to Heat 
 a Given Building. 
 
 CalcuUting the Amount of Heating- Surface. 
 
 Computing the Cost of Steam for Warming. 
 
 RADIATORS AND HEATERS. 
 
 A Woman's Method of Regulating «t Radiator 
 
 (Covering it with a Cosey). 
 Improper Position of Radiator- Valves. 
 Hot-Water Radiator for Private Houses. 
 Remedying Ai -Binding of Box-Coils. 
 How to Use a Stove as a Hot- Water Heater. 
 " Plane " v. " Plain " as a Term as Applied' to 
 
 Outside Surface df Radiators. 
 Relative Value of Pipe on Cast-iron Heating 
 
 Surface. 
 Relative Value of Pipe on Steam-Coils. 
 Warming Churches (Plan oi placing a Coil in 
 
 each Pew.) 
 HVarming Churches. 
 
SmALL FLAM& 
 
 -^^LARC£ FLAME W-LONOi 
 
 RAWLINGS PATENT BLOW PIPE, 
 
 Price 15/- Discount to the Trade. 
 THE ONLY PERFECT BLOW PIPEi;^ : 
 
 Can be worked In any position and leguiated to give 
 iarge or smail flame instantaneousiy, 
 
 TESTIMONIALS. 
 
 " I have used several kinds of blow pipes, but have not found one to 
 equal yours in taking a place in my tool basket, it being strongly made and 
 efficient for all purposes to which 1 have had reason to employ it, either out 
 or indoors. I P''"" . SWC 'r- ■ 
 
 {Signed) "W. H. SMALL. 
 
 "Cert, Saniiary Science," 
 
 " Herewith I enclose cheque for account (which was for two more blow 
 pipes). Have much pleasure in saying your blow pipe has proved satisfac- 
 tory in every way, smiple and efficient both for ordmary work and repairs 
 in difficult positions. A few minutes' practice gives a perfect mastery over 
 the required Aame. 
 
 iSigncd) "JOHN HUNTER." 
 
 RAWLINGS BROS., Riclimond Rd., S. Kensington, London, S.W. 
 
 ESTABLISHED 1760. 
 
 James Woodward & Rowley, 
 
 SWADLINCOTE, near Burton-on-Trent, 
 SANITARY POTTERS, 
 
 (Telegrams to "Rowley," Swadlincote.) Sole Manufacturers of 
 
 THE "WASH-OUT" CLOSET (p^hn.,. 
 
 Three Awards at the International Medical Sanitarv Exhibition, South KrNsiKETOK, 18C1. 
 
 "Improvement on Sanitary Condition 
 of Houses," from a Paper by j . Corbett, 
 Esq., read before the Social Science Con- 
 
 Sress, Manchester, 1879: — "We replace 
 efeotive closet appliances by the simple 
 'Waah-out' Closet, which is of whits 
 earthenware without any valve, and so 
 
 fierfectly self-cleansing as to require very 
 ittle attention." 
 
 RBFUSE IMITATIONS—See that the 
 ngistcred Trade Mark " WASH-OUT" is 
 printed inside the Basin, 
 NONE are GENUINE uiithout this, SPEOIAL OheAP NeW PahERN. 
 NOTICE.— This title was registered on 14th March, X878, 
 
 SpaolaUtiei In Oloaeti, Traps, TTrlnals, Lavatories, Sinks, and other Sanitary Fittings. 
 rs/CB Lrsrs and full particulars on appucatiqn. 
 
PIPE AND FITTING. 
 
 Steam-Heating Work— Good and Indiflerent. 
 Piping Adjacent Buildings: Pumps v. Steam- 
 
 Tr^ips. 
 True Diameters and Weights of Standard Pipes. 
 Expansion of Pipes of Various Metals. 
 Expansion of Steam Pipits. 
 Advantages Claimed for Overhead Piping. 
 Position of Valves on Steam-Riser Connection. 
 Cause of Noise in Steam Pipes. 
 One-Pipe System of Steam-Heating. 
 How to Keat Several Adjacent Buildings with 
 
 a Single Apparatus. 
 Patents on Mill'.-t System of Steam-Heating. 
 Air-Binding in Return Steam Pipes. 
 Air-Binding in Return Steam Pipes and Methods 
 
 to overcome it. 
 
 VENTILATION. 
 Size of Registers to Heat Certain Roomi. 
 Determining the Size of Hot-Hair Fluei. 
 Window Ventilation, 
 Removing Vapour from Dye-House. 
 Ventilation ol Cunard Steamer " Umbria." 
 Calculating Sizes of Flues and Registers. 
 On Methods of Removing Air from Between 
 Ceiling and Roof of a Church. 
 
 STEAM. 
 
 Economy of using Exhaust Steam for Heat- 
 ing. 
 
 Heat of Steam for DiflFerent Conditions, 
 
 Superheating Steam by the use of Coils. 
 
 Effect of Usin^ a Small Pipe for Exhaust 
 Steam-Heating. 
 
 Explosion of a Steam-Table. 
 
 CUTTING NIPPLES AND BENDING 
 PIPES. 
 
 Cutting Large Nipples — Large in Diameter and 
 
 Short in Length. 
 Cutting Crooked Threads. 
 Cutting a Close Nipple out of a Coupling after 
 
 a Thread is Cut. 
 Bending Pipe. 
 Cutting Laifie Nipples. 
 Culling Various Sizes of Thread with a Solid 
 
 Die. 
 
 RAISING WATER AUTOMATICALLY. 
 
 Contrivance for Raising Water in High Build- 
 ings. 
 
 Criticibm of the Foregoing aijd Description of 
 Another Device for a Similar Purpose. 
 
 MOISTURE ON WALLS, &c. 
 
 Cause and Prevention of Moisture on Walls. 
 Eflect of Moisture on Sensible Temperature. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 Heating Wa^er in Large Tanks. 
 
 Heating Water for Large Institutions and 
 
 High City Buildings. 
 Questions Relatmg to Water-Tanks. 
 Faulty Elevator-Pumo Connec-ions. 
 On Heating Several Buildings from one Source. 
 Coal Tar Coating for Water Pipe. 
 
 Filters for Feeding Hou.^e-Boilers. Other 
 Means of Clanging Water. 
 
 Testing Gas Pipes for Leaks and Making Pipe- 
 Joints. 
 
 Will Boiling Drinking- Water Purify it? 
 
 Differential Rams for Testing Fittings and 
 Valves. 
 
 Percentage bf Ashes in Coal. 
 
 Automatic Pump-Governor, 
 
 Cast-Iron Safe for Steam-Radiators. 
 
 Methods of Graduating Radiator Service 
 According to the Weather. 
 
 Preventing Fall of Spray from Steam-Exhaust 
 Pipes. 
 
 Exhaust-Condenser for Preventing Fall of 
 Spray from Steam-Exhaust Pipes. 
 
 Steam-Heating Apparatus and Plenum (Venti 
 lation), System in Kalamazoo Ins^^ne 
 Asylum. 
 
 Heating and Ventilation of a Prison. 
 
 Amount of Heat Due to Condensation of Water. 
 
 Expans ion- Join ts . 
 
 Re-setting of House-Heatitfg Boilers— a Pos- 
 sible Saving of Fuel. 
 
 How to Find the Waier-Line of Boilers and 
 Position of Try-Cocks. 
 
 Low-Pressure Hot- Water System for Heating 
 Buildings in England (Comments by The 
 Sanitary Engineer). 
 
 Steam-Heating Apparatus in Manhattan Com 
 pany's and Merchants' Bank Building, 
 New York, 
 
 Boilers in Manhattan Company's and Mer- 
 chants' Bank Building, with Extracts Irom 
 Specifications. 
 
 Steam-Heating Apparatus in Mutual Life 
 
 Insurance Building on Broadway. 
 The Setting of Boilers in Tribune Building, 
 
 New York. 
 Warming and Ventilation of West Presbyterian 
 
 Church, New York City. 
 Principles of Heating-Apparatus, Fine Arts 
 
 Exhibition Building, Copenhagen. 
 Warming and Ventilation of Opera House at 
 
 Ogdensburg, N. Y, 
 Systems of Heating Houses in Germany and 
 
 Austria. 
 Steam Pipes under New York Streets — Differ- 
 ence Betweea Two Systems Adopted. 
 Some Details of Steam and Ventilating Appar- 
 atus used on the Continent of Europe. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 
 
 Applying Traps to Gravity Steam -Apparatus. 
 
 Expansion of Brass and Iron Pipe. 
 
 Connecting Steam and Return Risers at their 
 Tops. 
 
 Power Used in RunningHydrAulic Elevators 
 
 On Mehing Snow in the Streets by Steam. 
 
 Action of Ashes Street Fillings on Iron Pipes. 
 
 Arrangement of Steam-Coils for Healing Oil- 
 Stills. 
 
 Converting a Steam-Apparatus into a Hot- 
 Water Apparatus and Back Again. 
 
 Condensation Per Foot of Steam-Main when 
 laid Under Ground. 
 
 Oil in Boilers from Exhaust Steam, and 
 Methods of Prevention. 
 
 Address, Book Department, 
 
 Till' EXGINEERING AND BUILDING RECORD. 
 
 92 and 93, Fleet Street, London 
 
A WARM HATH IN 10 MINUTES. 
 Cost of Gas, Id. 
 
 The New Patent "Calda." 
 
 Gas no contact with Water. 
 NEW BATH HEATER FOR OIL. 
 
 GAS BATHS from £^ 12s. 6d. 
 
 PATENT "RELIANCE" Gas Conservatory Boilers, 
 
 Fixed Inside with Perfect Safety, 
 
 G. SHREWSBURY, 
 
 36, Gray's Inn Road, London, W.C. 
 
 Late 122, NIwoate Street. 
 
 Rain-water 
 Separators. 
 
 C.G.ROBERTS, Ha8lemere,8urrey. 
 
 Silver Rfedal at Health Exhibition. 1884, and 
 Medal 0/ Sanitary Institute, 1883. 
 
 PURE RAIN WATER. 
 
 The Rain-water Separator. 
 
 It prevents the lirst portion of the rainfall passing 
 
 into the storing tank. It cants and stores the 
 
 water when the roof li^s been washed by the ratn 
 
 Price, from £2 15s. to £6 5s. 
 
 RUNNING TO STORAGE 
 
 BASEMENTS, AREAS, COAL CELLARS, AND ALL UNDERGROUND 
 PASSAGES AND WORKS, Lighted mi Ventilated most efectively. 
 
 WALSH AND SON'S 
 
 NEW PAVEMENT LIGHT (reod.) 
 
 CHEAPEST IN THE MARKET. 
 MayhtseenatownewPremiHi-\l, PENNY STREET, BLACKBURN. 
 
 PARTICULARS AND PRICES ON APPLICATION. 
 
 ARCHITECT URAL ILLUST RATIONS, 
 
 The weekly full page Illustration is a feature of the '' Engineering 
 Record." To meet a frequent demand such surplus copies as can 
 ;be procured have been gathered together, and -will be forwarded, 
 carefully packed for post, in batches of One Dozen, on receipt of a 
 Postal Order for 2s. 6d. 
 Address — 
 
 Book Department, 
 
 ENGINEERING RECORD, 
 
 92 & 93, Fleet Street, E.G. 
 
Ai^ 
 
 T fir \AT \A7nn"n o^ 
 
 J. & W. WOOD, 
 
 MEDALS AWARDED. Biriflingliain street Foundry 
 
 Hot-water Engineering Woriis, 
 STOURBRIDGE. 
 
 IMPROVED EXPANSION JOINT. 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF THE 
 
 IMPROVED EXPANSION JOINT HOT-WATER PIPES, COILS, BOILERS, &c. 
 
 OUR HOT-WATER JOINTS HAVE GAINED UNIVERSAL APPROBATION. 
 
 Estimates for Heating Public Buildings, Greenhouses, &c., free. 
 WRITE FOR CATALOGUE. 
 
 HOT 
 WATER i 
 
 Inventor, Patentee, 
 Manufacturer, 
 
 A, A:^-T>NOOXi 
 
 I LATE CO-PARTNtH or JONES S, ATTWOOD 
 
 Engineer, Ironfounder, 
 TjHE ONLY ATTWOOD IN THE TRADE, 
 
 BATH & RANGE BOILERS, 
 
 HOT-WATER BOILERS, 
 PIPES, JOINTS, 
 
 VALVES, BATHS, 
 PUMPS, 
 
 &c., &c. 
 
 Illustrated Catalogue Post Free 
 
 COMPACT, 
 
 NEAT, 
 DURABLE, 
 
 ^^.=, ,n,MT CHEAP. 
 
 HUNDRELS OF THOUSANDS SOLD AND IN USE. 
 
 CHURCHES, SCHOOLS. MANSIONS, GREENHOUSES, CONSERVATORIES, 
 &c., HEATED COMPLETE. ESTIMATES FREE.