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 CORNELL 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 
 
 924 105 349 660 
 
This book was digitized by Microsoft Corporation in 
 
 cooperation witli Cornell University Libraries, 2007. 
 
 You may use and print this copy in limited quantity 
 
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HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO 
 
 ^lue JiJantsTi &onqnzst to the ^vzstnt ^xme 
 1530X890 
 
 PORTRAITS AND BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES 
 OF ITS PROMINENT PEOPLE 
 
 BY 
 
 HELEN HAINES 
 
 NEW YORK 
 NEW MEXICO HISTORICAL PUBLISHING CO. 
 
 1891 
 
F 
 
 His 
 
 4^^'^99Z. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 To detail the evolution and development of an indi- 
 vidual State or Territory in a comprehensive history of 
 the United States, and present it in a j)opular form, is of 
 necessity impossible, the extent of ground covered render- 
 ing condensation unavoidable. Yet such detail is abso- 
 lutely necessary to a proper understanding of the subject 
 treated, as a mere succession of dates and statistics leaves 
 no lasting impression on the general reader. It has been 
 and still is a standing reproach to Americans that they 
 know very little of the history of their own country ; 
 probably were it placed before them in a less complex 
 form, that reproach would be no longer valid. 
 
 In the present volume the object has been to present in a 
 popular form a simple and direct narrative of the history 
 of New Mexico, from the discovery and conquest by the 
 Spaniards to the present time. No original research has 
 been possible, but the principal translations and modern 
 authorities consulted are appended, and it is hoped that 
 the book may prove of interest in that it deals with one 
 of the most remarkable and least known of our Western 
 Territories. 
 
 Acknowledgments are chiefly due to G. E. Yerger for 
 the biographical matter of this volume. He has worked 
 diligently in the collection and preparation of same. 
 
 H. H. 
 
The original of tiiis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924105349660 
 
CONTENTS, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introductory, . 1 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE PUEBLO ABOEIGINES. 
 
 Derivation of the Name Pueblo — Aztec or Toltec Origin of this People — 
 The Ancient Migrations — Toltec Civilization — Why the Aztecs left Aztlan — 
 Their Wanderings — The Omen of the Eagle — The Name New Mexico — 
 Similarity of Architecture in Old and New Mexicos — Letter of Melchior 
 Diaz — Castaneda's Account— Modern Pueblos — System of Government — 
 Religious Observances — You-pel-lay or Green Corn Dance — Pueblo Legend 
 of Montezuma — Moqui and Navajo Legends — Pueblo Fetiches— Dissimi- 
 larity of Language among the Pueblos — Their Industry and Wealth — 
 Ruins of Pueblos — Pecos — Old Zuni — Wege-gi — Pueblo Bonito — Penasco 
 Blanco — Cause of Villages Deserted — Wager of Battle — Historic Interest 
 of the Ruins, ... . . 5 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE EXPEDITION OP GUZMAN AND THE WANDERINGS OP CABECA DE VACA. 
 
 1530-1536. 
 The Land of Cibola— Nuno de Guzman— Tales of Wealth— Guzman's 
 Expedition — Difficulties of the March — Colonization of Culiacan— Explora 
 tion of Cibola Abandoned — Death of Guzman — Alvar Nunez Cabeca de 
 Vaca— His Descent — Expedition of Narvaez— Narvaez in Florida — Dangers 
 and Hardships — The Building of the Boats — Vaca and his Comrades Cast 
 Ashore — Their Sufferings— Cast Ashore a Second Time— The Isle of Mal- 
 hado — Famine and Pestilence — The Spaniards Practice Medicine — Re- 
 duced to Slavery — Escape of Oviedo-^His Return — Vaca meets Compan- 
 ions in Misfortune— Slavery— Escape— Wanderings of Vaca and his Com- 
 rades—Received as Divinities by the Natives— Success in Healing— Progress 
 through New Mexico— News of the Spaniards— Further Tidings— On the 
 River Petatlan — Meeting with Diego Alcarez — Quarrel between Alcarez and 
 Vaca— Vaca Reaches Culiacan— Pacifies the Natives— Arrives at San 
 Miguel— Compostella — Mexico— Fate of his Companions— Vaca Sails for 
 Spain— His Further Misfortunes in the New World— Route of Vaca in New 
 Mexico, . . 32 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 PRIAB NIZA AND THE EXPEDITION OP COBONADO. 
 
 1537-1542. 
 Tales of Golden Cibola— Vasquez de Coronado— Marcos de Niza— His 
 Departure for Cibola— Niza's Journey— Reception by the Natives— 
 
Vi CONTENTS. 
 
 Estevanico's Death-Nlza takes Possession of the Country— His Return— 
 Zaldivar and Diaz sent to Verify his Report-Exaggerations of Friar 
 Niza— Expedition Organized-Coronado made Captain-General-Enthusi- 
 asm at Mexico-Departure of Expedition-The March-Halt at Chametla- 
 Return of Zaldivar and Diaz- Army Arrives at Culiacan-Coronado Ad- 
 vances with a small Escort-Chlchilticale-Colorado Chiquito-First Sight 
 of Cibola-Spaniards Assault the Town— Cibola Taken-Country Sub- 
 dued-Return of Niza-Arrival of Main Army-Exploring Parties— 
 Moqui— Grand Canon— Tignex—" EI Turco "—Spaniards at Tiguex— Re- 
 volt— Tig-uex Subdued— Cicuye-On the Buffalo Plains— Army Returns to 
 Tiguex — Coronado at Quivira — Disappointment — Treachery of "El 
 Turco "—Exploring Parties— Yuqueyunque— Taos— Socorro— Coronado's 
 Return— General Disappointment— Winter of 1541— Coronado Injured- 
 Expedition Abandoned— Return of Coronado to Mexico— Resumes his 
 Duties as Governor— Route of Coronado's Expedition, . 43; 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 EXPEDITIONS OF EUIZ AND E8PBJ0. 
 
 1543-1595. 
 Interim of Forty Years— Augustin Ruiz— His Religious Zeal— Depart- 
 ure of Ruiz and His Companions— Their Journey— Puera— Return of the 
 Soldiers— Death of Fray Juan— Death of Fray Francisco— Padre Ruiz at 
 Galisteo— His Death— Reported at Mexico— Espejo's Expedition Organ- 
 ized—Leaves San Bartolome— Journey down theConchos— The Jumanas — 
 Their Religion— Along the Rio Grande— The Isleta Pueblos— Account of 
 the People— The Teguas Nation— Puera— Further Explorations Resolved 
 On— The Province of Magrias— Quirix— Cunames — The Pueblos of Jemez— 
 Zuni — The Mexican Indians — Some of the Party Return — Espejo Journeys- 
 Westward — Visits Moqui— His Reception — Silver Mines — Return to Zuni — 
 The Province of Queres — Ubates — Tanos — Hostility of the Tanos Nation— 
 Espejo Resolves to Return— Down the Pecos- Arrival at San Bartolome — 
 Espejo's Report — Fresh Interest in New Mexico — -Royal Order — Offers to 
 Conquer and Colonize the Province — Applications of Martin and Espejo — 
 Of Vargas and Oolmenares — TJrdinola — Expedition of Castano de Sosa — 
 Route, and Pueblos Visited — Sosa's Arrest — Gold-Hunters under Bonilla 
 and Humanas — Their Fate, .... . 62 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 OSATB's conquest and the COLONIZATION OP NEW MEXICO. 
 
 1595-1680. 
 Don Juan de Onate— Makes Application for the Conquest of New 
 Mexico— Granted by Viceroy Velasco— Terms of the Contract— Royal 
 Grant of 1602— Preparations and Delay— Officers of Onate's Expedition — 
 Departure of the Army— On the Rio Grande— Hospitably Received- 
 Pueblos Visited— Socorro— Abo— Cia— The Indians Give in their Allegi- 
 
CONTENTS. Vll 
 
 PAGE 
 
 ance — Pueblo of San Juan made Headquarters of the Colony — Pueblos of 
 Taos, Picoris, and San Ildefonso Visited — Founding of the City of La 
 Santa Pe de San Francisco — Arrival of the Colonists— Junta at San Juan — 
 Various Exploring Parties — Discontent at Acoma — Plot to Murder Onate — 
 His Escape — Zaldivar Arrives- at Acoma — The Indian Attack— The Con- 
 flict — Spaniards Defeated — Tidings Brought to San Juan — Preparations to 
 Reduce Acoma — The Expedition Spts Out — Rejoicing at Acoma — The 
 Spaniards Arrive— The Assault — The Penol Gained— The Battle— Acoma 
 Conquered — Increase of Spanish Pov^er in Nev\r Mexico — :Brief Records of 
 the Colony — Onate on the Plains — Various Exploring Parties — 1606 to 1680 — 
 Governors — Extension of Christianity — Severe Ecclesiastical Regulations — 
 Discontent of the Indians — Various Attempts at Revolt — Conspiracies Dis- 
 covered and Punisbed — The Gathering of the Storm, . . 73 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE PUEBLO BEVOLUTION. 
 1680-1691. 
 
 Spread of the Conspiracy — Pope's Zeal — His Supernatural Pretensions — 
 Precautions — The Plot Revealed— Premature Outbreak— Massacres— Con- 
 sternation at Santa Fe — Conflicts and Skirmishes— Siege of Santa Fe— The 
 Spaniards Evacuate the City— Their March— At Isleta— Destitution of the 
 Spaniards— Father Ayeta's Supplies— The Winter at San Lorenzo— Suflier- 
 ing of Exiles— Martyrdom of the Friars— The Pueblo Government— Ex- 
 cesses and Rejoicings — Pope's Rule — His Tyranny and Death — Civil War 
 and Discord— Preparations to Regain New Mexico — Otermin Enters the 
 Province — His Force— The March— Desolation Along the Route — Isleta 
 Reached— The Spaniards Welcomed— Reconnoitering Party Under Men- 
 doza— Pueblos Hostile— At Cochiti— Indian Strategy— Meudoza Returns- 
 Distress of the Army— Return Resolved on— Otermin's Report— 1683 to 
 1684— Appointment of Cruzate— Abortive Attempts to Reconquer New 
 Mexico — Diego de Vargas made Governor of the Province, 84 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE BECONQDEST OF NEW MEXICO. 
 1691-1700. 
 
 Vargas at El Paso— His New Mexican Expedition— Arrives at Santa Fe— 
 Offers of Peace— Santa Pe Surrenders— Submission of Adjacent Towns- 
 Don Luis Tupatu— Vargas Enters the Interior— Visits Pecos— Taos— Re- 
 turns to Santa Fe— His Letter to the Viceroy— Vargas Marches to Santo 
 Domingo— Submission of Jemez— Rear-Guard Returns to El Paso— Don 
 Diego Advances to Acoma— Submission of Acoma— The Spaniards March 
 to Zuni— Vargas at Moqui— Hostility of the Natives— The Moqui Towns 
 Submit— The Return March— Socorro— El Paso— End of Vargas's First 
 Campaign— Preparations for the Second Expedition— The March— Hostile 
 Attitude of the Natives— The Spaniards Enter Santa Fe— The Tanos Refuse 
 
95 
 
 yiii CONTENTS. 
 
 p 
 to Vacate Sauta Fe- Assault by the Spaniards-Surrender of Santa F6- 
 Punishment of the Rebels-Early Part of 1694-Continued Hostilities- 
 Spaniards Repulsed at San Ildefonso-Arrival of Colonists-Reduction of 
 Jemez-Of San Ildefonso-The Reconquest Coinplete-1694 to lb9b- 
 Attempted Revolt-Peace Restored-Appointment of Cubero-Vargas 
 Imprisoned -His Return to Mexico -End of the Seventeenth Cen- 
 tury, . . • • • ■ 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1700-1800. 
 Preliminary Remarks— Vargas Reappointed Governor— His Death— 
 The Duke of Albuquerque— Rule of Governor Hurtado— Governor Cubero 
 y Valdez— Administration of Governor Villasenor— Ecclesiastical Rec- 
 ords—The Duke of Lenares— Governor Mogollon's Rule— Indian Ques- 
 tions—Don Felix Martinez— Appointment of Governor Bustamente— Fears 
 of French Encroachment— Governor Gruzat y Gongora— The First For- 
 eigners Enter Santa Fg— Administration of Governor Codallos— The French 
 in New Mexico— Comanche Campaigns— Governor Cachupin— Governor 
 del Valle— Governor Urrisola— Trouble with the Comanches— Governor 
 Cachupin's Second Term— Explorations into Colorado— Flood at Santa 
 Fe— Suggestions for the Defense of the Province— Governor Navarro— 
 Rule of Governor Anza— His Indian Campaigns— The Moquls— Comanches 
 Defeated at Rabbit Ear— French and Spanish Smuggling— Governor 
 Chacon— New Mexico at the Close of the Eighteenth Century— Imports 
 and Exports —Annual Pair at Taos— Trader's Currency— Schedule of 
 Prices— Description of Santa Fe— Population— Government— Civil and 
 Social State, . . ... . ... 110 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE PINAL TEAKS OP SPANISH GOVERNMENT. 
 1800-1822. 
 
 Foreign Possessions in North America at the Beginning of the Nineteenth 
 Century— Population and Extent of the United States — The Louisiana 
 Purchase— Expeditions of Lewis, Clark, and Pike — Fernando Chacon, 
 Governor of New Mexico — Administration of Governor Alencaster — Fears 
 of American Invasion — Expedition of Facundo Melgares — Spanish Disci- 
 pline — Success of Melgare's Expedition — Lieutenant Pike's Second Expedi- 
 tion — His Instructions — Departure — Among the Rockies — Pike's Peak — 
 The Search for Red River — Christmas Day, 1806 — Cold and Starvation — 
 The Fort on Rio del Norte — Departure of Dr. Robinson — Spanish Visitors — 
 Pike's Mistake — Arrival of Spanish Troops — " This is the Rio del Norte " — 
 Americans taken to Santa Fe— The Journey — At the Capital — Pike's Expla- 
 nations — "Remember Alencaster in Peace or War" — Meeting with Dr. 
 Robinson— Escorted South by Lieutenant Melgares — The Americans at 
 
CONTENTS. IX 
 
 Cliihuahua— Return to the United States — Arrival at Natchitoclies — Pike's 
 Services Aclcnowledged— His Book-^Deatli at Toronto — Rule of. Governor 
 Manrique— Departure of Don Pedro Pino for tlie Spanish Cortes— His Re- 
 quests — Governor Mainez— Governor Allande— Administration of Mel- 
 gares — Boundary Question Settled — Iturbide's Triumph — Facundo Mel- 
 gares, Political Chief, .... . . . . 1 33 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE SANTA PB TRADE. 
 
 Origin of the Santa Fe Trade — Journey of Baptiste Lalande — Adven- 
 tures of James Pursley — His Discovery — Pursley at Santa Fe — Return of 
 Lieutenant Pike — Venture of McKnight, Beard, and Chambers — Their 
 Misfortunes — Experience of Choteau and De Mun — First Traders — Glenn 
 Becknell — The Coopers — Becknell's Second Trip — A Terrible Experience — 
 Real Commencement of the Santa Fe Trade— Spanish Policy — Mexican 
 ludustries — Exorbitant Prices — Introduction of Wagons— Relative Merits 
 of Horses, Mules, and Oxen — Independence, Missouri — " All Sorts and 
 Conditions of Men " — Organizing a Caravan — " A Santa Fe Assortment " 
 — The Departure — Council Grove — The Journey — Mapeuvers of the 
 Wagons — Nearing Santa Fe — "Runners" — "La Entrada de la Cara- 
 vana ! " — At the Custom-House — Derechos de Arancel — The Return Trip 
 — Proposed Routes — Tlie Trail — Kit Carson — Some Early Traders — In- 
 dian Attacks — An Expensive Visit — Murder of McNees and Monroe — The 
 Consequences — Repeated Outrages — Government Escorts — Effect of the 
 Texan Expeditions — Ports Closed — Table of the Santa Fe Trade from 
 1833-43 — Re-establishment of the Trade — Growth and Prosperity — Rail- 
 road «». Caravan, . .137 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 TWENTY-POUB YEARS OP MEXICAN RULE. 
 
 1832-1846. 
 
 Rapid Succession of Political Chiefs — Chavez, Conde, Viscara, Vaca — 
 Changes in the Province — Narbona, Armijo, Chavez, Political Chiefs — Ex- 
 pulsion of the Cachupines — The " Old Placers " — Bent's Fort — Abreu and 
 Chavez, Political Chiefs— Appointment of Albino Perez — General Tax 
 Law — Rebellion of 1837— " Plan " of the Insurgents— Their Success — 
 Murder of Perez — Of Santiago Abreu and Others — The Insurgents at 
 Santa Fe— Armijo's Couuter-Revolution — The Rebellion Crushed— Ar- 
 mijo's Administration — The ' ' New Placers "—Early Settlers— First Texan 
 Santa Fe Expedition — New Mexico under Arms — Purpose of the Expedi- 
 tion — The March — The Expedition Separates — Small Advance Party — At 
 Anton Cliico— Captivity — Howland and Baker Shot — Capture of Cook's 
 Party— Surrender of tlie Main Body — The Prisoners Taken to Mexico- 
 Rejoicing in New Mexico — A Second Texan Expedition Reported— New 
 
X COiS"TEWTS. 
 
 - ' PAGE 
 
 Mexican Preparations— Chavez Murdered by McDaniel's Party— Warfiold's 
 Raid on Mora— Snively's Mishaps— Return of the Texans— Effects of the 
 Expeditions — Martinez — Chavez — Armijo's Rule, .... 155 
 
 CHAPTER XII.- 
 
 THE AMERICAN OCCUPATION OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 1846-1847. 
 
 Causes of the War With Mexico— Texan Troubles— Hostilities Begun 
 —American Preparations— General Kearney — A Military Incident — Kear- 
 ney's Instructions — Arrangment of his Forces— Officers Commanding 
 —Departure of the First Division— The March— Mission of James Ma- 
 goffin — Private Negotiations — Advance of the Army — At Las Vegas — Teco- 
 lote — San Miguel«-Pecos — Apache Canon — Armijo's Flight — Conclusion of 
 Magoffin's Embassy — The Array of the West Enters Santa Fe — Fort 
 Marcy — Americans and Mexicans — Kearney's Proclamation — The General 
 Marches Southward — At Santo Domingo — Albuquerque — Tome — Return 
 to Santa Fe — Departure of Gilpin and Jackson for the Navajo Country — 
 The Kearney Code — Appointment of Officials — Kearney Leaves Santa Fe — 
 Arrival of Colonel Price — Doniphan Ordered to the Navajo Country — 
 Jackson's Detachment — Reid's Expedition — Gilpin's March — Doniphan's 
 Expedition — Grand Talk with the Navajoes — Speech of Sarcilla Largo — 
 Treaty Signed— Return of the Troops— How Americans Fight, . . 308 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 THE NEW MEXICAN REVOLT. 
 
 1847. 
 Projected Rising in New Mexico— Growth of the Conspiracy — Plan of 
 Attack— Plot Revealed— Second Conspiracy — The Outbreak at Taos — 
 Murder of Governor Bent— Other Victims — Attack on Turley's Mill— 
 The Siege and Defense- Fate of the Defenders— The Insurgents at Mora- 
 Americans Killed— At Las Vegas— A Faithful Official— Consternation at 
 Santa Fe— St. Vrain's Volunteers— The Americans March on Taos— The 
 Action of La Canada— The Fight at Embudo— The Troops Reach Taos- 
 Pueblo of Taos— The Assault on the Church— The Action— Taos Taken— 
 Execution of Ihe Insurgents— The Revolt Quelled— Attack on Mora- 
 Guerilla Warfare— Peace Restored— Funeral of Governor Bent— Secretary 
 Vigil made Governor of New Mexico, . . . . 330 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 THE EAHLT AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 
 
 1847-1860. 
 The Treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo— Military Rule in New Mexico- 
 Delays in Congress— Condition of New Mexico— Military Notes— List of 
 Commanders -Dissatisfaction in the Territory— Senator Benton's Advice— 
 
CONTENTS. Xi 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Petition to Congress — Delegate Elected to Washington— State and Territo- 
 Tial Parties — Texan Claims— Attempt to Procure a State Government — 
 Adoption of a Constitution — General Election — End of tlie State Organiza- 
 tion — Tlie Compromise Bill — Its Provisions— The Organic Act — The Ter- 
 ritory of New Mexico — List of .Territorial Officers- First American OflB- 
 ■cials — American and Mexican Government Contrasted — Peonage — The 
 Boundary Commission — Governor Lane — Governor Merivpether— His Early 
 Adventures in New Mexico — Imprisonment and Release — Governor 
 Rencher — Governor Connelly — Statistics of Population — Value of Prop- 
 erty in New Mexico — Education — Industrial Condition — Tlie Santa Fe 
 Trade — Yearly Pairs — Railroad Surveys and Explorations — Mines and 
 Mining — The First Newspapers— New Mexican Mail Service — Santa F6 in 
 1854, . . 341 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 THE WARDS OF THB NATION. 
 
 A Repeat of History— Condition of the Mexican Frontiers in 1847— 
 Ravages of the Indians — Terror of the People — Condition of the New 
 Mexican Settlements — Safe Scalping Grounds — The Indian Tribes at the 
 Period of tlie American Occupation — The Apaches — Their Devastations — 
 Apache Spies — The 'Language of Signs— Apache Warfare— Treatment of 
 Captives — Apache Tribes — The Navajoes— Their Wealth, Industries, and 
 Depredations — Navajo Women — The Utes— Wards of the Nation— Their 
 Present Condition — Honor where Honor is Due — The Stronghold of Man- 
 zus, Colorado — Invaded by the Boundary Commission — Rescue of Mexican 
 ■Captives— The Santa Rita Copper Mines of To-day, 261 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 THE CONFEDERATE INVASION OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 1861-1862. 
 
 New Mexico at the Outbreak of tlie Civil War— Plans of the Confeder- 
 ates—Loyalty of the New Mexicans— Treason of Loring and Crittenden— 
 The Army of New Mexico— Baylor's Invasion— Capture of Fort Fillmore 
 — Lynde's Surrender— Baylor's Proclamation— Advance of Sibley's Bri- 
 ^ade- Sibley's Proclamation— Canby's Efforts- Raising an Army— Aid 
 from Colorado— The Hostile Forces— Advance of the Confederates— At 
 the Panadero Ford- Battle of Valverde— Charge of the Texans— Canby's 
 Tfetreat— Confederate Occupation of Albuquerque— Of Santa Fe— Ad- 
 vance on Fort Union — Arrival of the Coloradoans— At Pigeon's Ranch- 
 First Battle of Apache Canon— Slough's Retreat— A Successful " Surprise 
 Party "—Retreat of tlie Texans— Canby at Albuquerque— Advance of the 
 Federals— Santa Fe Regained— Junction of the Federal Forces— Albu- 
 querque Abandoned— Action at Peralta— -Flight of the Confederates- 
 Arrival of the Californians— Exit the Texan Rangers— Sibley's " Sour 
 Orapes " — Remarks, ... ... 275 
 
xii CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 LATER NEW MEXICAN ANNALS. 
 
 1863-1879. 
 
 Pagi 
 
 Indian Depredations in New Mexico— Carleton's Policy— Bosque Re- , 
 dondo— Apache and Navajo Campaigns of 1863-64— New Mexican Land 
 Claims— Action of tlie Government- Pueblo Claims Confirmed— How Not 
 to do It— Death of Governor Connelly— Governor R. B. Mitchell— Peonage 
 Abolished— Pueblos are Citizens— Affairs at Bosque Redondo— The Peace 
 Commission — The Bosque Abandoned — Treaty with the Navajoes — Death 
 of Kit Carson— Daily Mails — Military Telegraph— Governor Pile — Statis- 
 tics of Population and Property — Notes on Mining— Governor Giddings— 
 Legislative Sessions — The Maxwell Ranch — Water in the Jornado — Consti- 
 tutional Convention — Attempt at Statehood — Death of Governor Giddings — 
 Secretary Ritch — Governor Axtell — Archdiocese of Santa Fe — Condition 
 of the Territory — Indian Outbreaks — The Apache Campaigns of 1877- 
 1886 — The Concentration Policy — Its Effects — Geronimo and Victorio— 
 Raids and Depredations — Death of Victorio — Geronimo's Bands — The 
 McComas Tragedy — Crook in the Sierra Madre— Outbreaks of 1886 — 
 Apaches Exiled — Death of Donanciano Vigil— Grand Lodge of Masons 
 Organized— Governor Wallace— The First Passenger Train, . . . 391 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 TEN TEABS OP PBOGKESS. 
 
 1880-1890. 
 Advent of the Railroads— General Activity— Events of the Year— Cen- 
 sus of 1880— Governor Sheldon— Extension of the Railroads— Disorder and 
 Violence— Legislative Acts— Mining— Tri-Centenary Celebration— Gover- 
 nor Ross— Territorial Census— Improvements in Irrigation— Public Build- 
 ings— MiningNotes— Governor Prince—Legislative Acts— Statehood— Con- 
 stitutional Convention— Governor Prince on Statehood— Ten Years of Pro- 
 gress—Educational Matters— Religious Denominations— Railroads— Coun- 
 ties— Land Claims— Official Action of 1870— Claims Re-examined— Neces- 
 sity of a Speedy Adjustment— Resources of New Mexico— Mineral Wealth- 
 Gold Mines and Mining— Old and New Placers— Principal Gold Districts- 
 ' Silver Mines— Lake Valley Region— The Silver Counties— Coal Districts- 
 Iron, Tin, and Lead— Other Minerals— Agriculture— The Rio Grande Val- 
 ley—Stock Raising— Principal Stock 'Raising Counties— The Timber 
 Lands — Conclusion, . o/jo 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 
 
 Abettia, Aniceto C, 
 Abeytia, Don Antonio y, 
 Abueu, Jesus G., 
 Abebu, Mrs. Jestts 6., 
 Alarid, Trinidad, . 
 Ancheta, Joseph A., . 
 Armijo, Don Juan C, 
 Armijo, Nestor, . 
 deBaca, M. C, 
 Barela, Marianao, 
 Becker, John, 
 Bennett, J. F. , 
 Bbtts, H. H., . 
 BiiANCHARD, Charles, 
 Bristol, Warren, . 
 Bunker, W. B., 
 Caniffe, H. J., 
 Carey, A. H., 
 Caret, Michael C, 
 Carpenter, S. P., 
 Chase, M. M., 
 Chaves, Felipe, 
 Chaybs, J. Franco, 
 Chavez, Demetrio, 
 Chavez, Frank A. 
 Chavez, Josb G., 
 Chapman, Maxwell, 
 Classen, Henry, 
 Clouthieh, a. J., 
 Clouthibr, D. C, 
 Coon, A. D., 
 CooNEY, Michael, 
 Corbett, W. E., 
 CoRBiN, James, 
 Cowan, R. H., 
 Cromwell, O. E., 
 Dane, Charles H., 
 Delgado, Felipe, 
 Dolan, James J., ' . 
 
 Fags 
 
 451 
 
 290 
 
 284 
 
 284 
 
 565 
 
 496 
 
 290 
 
 297 
 
 562 
 
 573 
 
 379 
 
 476 
 
 569 
 
 577 
 
 , 297 
 
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 . 303 
 
 570 
 
 . 308 
 
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 475 
 
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 440 
 
 404 
 
 471 
 
 364 
 
 . 629 
 
 375 
 
 . 400 
 
 387 
 
 . 368 
 
 293 
 
 . 371 
 
XIV 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 
 
 DONOHOB, J. PaTBICK, 
 DWER, J. AY., 
 
 Ealy, a. E., M.D., 
 
 ESCAKATB, GUADALOUPE, 
 BsQUIBEIj, Josie Y, 
 
 Fest, Edward, 
 
 Field, Seaman, 
 
 Fleming, John W., 
 
 Freudenthal, Phoebus H. , 
 
 Gale, Ira B., . 
 
 Giegoldt, Henry, 
 
 Gillespie, Geo. W.. 
 
 GiVENS, J. R,, 
 
 Grant, A. A. . 
 
 Gregory, O. L., 
 
 gutiebrbs, t. c, 
 
 Hadley, 0. A,, 
 
 Harkey, S. T., 
 
 Harris, James, 
 
 Harris, William, 
 
 Hoy, J. M., . 
 
 HuNiNG, J. Franz, 
 
 Ilfeld, Charles, 
 
 Jacobs, W. W., 
 
 Jaramillo, T., 
 
 Kerr, J. B., 
 
 Labadie, T., 
 
 Lambert, Henry, 
 
 Lara, Cipriano. . 
 
 Letton, Reuben Pike, 
 
 Lewis. Charles W., . 
 
 Lohman, Martin, 
 
 Lohman, Oscar, 
 
 Lopez, Lorenzo, 
 
 Lu.ton, Sarino, 
 
 Luna, J. M., . . 
 
 Luna, Solomon, 
 Maher, Martin, 
 Mandebpield, W. H., 
 Manzanares, F. a., 
 Marcy, Russell, 
 McFiB, John R., 
 McDonald, R. 6., 
 McKowN, John E., 
 McMartin, M. a,, 
 
 Mbloche, a. J 
 
 Mills, M. W., 
 
 359 
 
 355 
 
 403 
 
 488 
 
 303 
 
 533 
 
 407 
 
 608 
 
 435 
 
 448 
 
 313 
 
 464 
 
 463 
 
 394 
 
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 561 
 
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 536 
 
 585 
 
 491 
 
 507 
 
 616 
 
 433 
 
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 388 
 
 447 
 
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 468 
 
 337 
 
 318 
 
 553 
 
 317 
 
 333 
 
 473 
 
 347 
 
 600 
 
 396 
 
 581 
 
 515 
 
 613 
 
 384 
 
 503 
 
 436 
 
 338 
 
 483 
 
 630 
 
BIOGEAPHICAL SKETCHES. 
 
 XV 
 
 JllLLKK, L. D. , 
 MONTOYA, GBNEKAt> E. , 
 
 M.ONTOYA, Nestor, . 
 jMokbhead, a. H., 
 Newcomb, Wm., 
 Oldham, Richabd, Sh., 
 OzANE, Urbane, 
 Pace, Geo. J., 
 Pbrea, Jose L. , 
 Perez, D., 
 Perrault, Geo. O., 
 portebfield, w. c, 
 Posey, G. G., 
 Prince, L. Bradford, 
 QuiNTANA, Martin, 
 Raithel, John A., 
 Raymond, Numa, 
 Reinken, H. D., 
 RiCHEY, Thomas, 
 Robinson, T. S., 
 Romero, Benigno, 
 Rombbo, Eugenio, . 
 Romero. Trinidad, 
 Rothgeb, G. S., 
 Russell, C. T., 
 Rynerson, W. L., . 
 Salazar, M. M,, . 
 Sandoval, Placido, 
 ScHAUBLiN, Jacob, 
 Schmidt, J. J., . 
 Schroeder, J. p., 
 Shulbr, J. J., 
 Scott, Ben.jamin, . 
 Shields, Edmund G., 
 Skinner, Leonard, 
 Spatcibr, N., . 
 Sporleder, Charles H., 
 Stephenson, H. F., . 
 Stepp, Robert, 
 Stevens, D. W., 
 Storey, A. M., 
 Tetard, L. C, . 
 Toby, Monroe, 
 Towner, P, J., 
 Tkask, H. R., 
 Trimble, W. L. , 
 Troy, Daniel, Sk. 
 
 392 
 591 
 424 
 619 
 596 
 321 
 431 
 317 
 384 
 330 
 620 
 411 
 391 
 275 
 508 
 432 
 574 
 459 
 334 
 634 
 333 
 348 
 360 
 493 
 557 
 326 
 325 
 428 
 326 
 455 
 408 
 615 
 464 
 311 
 399 
 504 
 321 
 495 
 456 
 623 
 416 
 566 
 356 
 499 
 611 
 607 
 539 
 
XVI BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 
 
 Valdbz, Emilio, . . 536 
 
 Valdez, Santiago F., . 500 
 
 Vandivek, R. K., . 599 
 
 Walker, Akthuk B., 511 
 
 Wabd, Geo. W .537 
 
 Wheelock, Jesse M., . 535 
 
 Whigham, H., . . . . 627 
 
 White, Michael K., . . .... . 530 
 
 Whiting, H. R,, . . . .... . 531 
 
 Ybisabbi, Eugenic, . . .... . 539 
 
 Ybisarri, Jacob, . . 586 
 
PORTRAITS. 
 
 Page 
 
 Abbttia, Don Autonio t, . . . . 299 
 
 Abbytia, Anicbto C, . . . 461 
 
 Abbbu, Jbsus G., . . . . . 285 
 
 Abrbu, Mhs. Jbsus Gr., . . . . 287 
 
 Alakid, Tbinidad, . . 567 
 
 Anchbta, Joseph A., , ... 497 
 
 Akmijo, Don Juan C, . . 295 
 
 Armijo, Nbstoe, . . 309 
 
 dbBaca, M. C, . . 563 
 
 Babela, Mariano, . . 575 
 
 Bbckeb, John, . . . 401 
 
 Bennett, C. F., . . . 485 
 
 Betts, H. H., . . 571 
 
 Bbistol, Warren, . . 305 
 
 BUNKBB, W. B., . . . 461 
 
 Caniffb, Henkt J. , . 597 
 
 Cabpbntee, S. p., . 323 
 
 Cabby, Michael C, . . 425 
 
 Chavez, J. Fbancisco, . 319 
 
 Chaves, The Late Don, 409 
 
 Chaves, Felipe, . . . 409 
 
 Chavez, Demetrio, . 571 
 
 Chavez, Fbank A., . . . 327 
 
 Chavez, Jose G., . . . 331 
 
 Classen, Henry, . ... 435 
 
 Clodthieb, D. C, . . . . . . 421 
 
 CooNEY, Michael,. . 397 
 
 Cobbin, James, 405 
 
 Cowan, R. H., . . 417 
 
 Dane, Chables H., . . 401 
 
 DoLAN, James J., . 405 
 
 Ealy, A. B., M.D., . . 421 
 
 Escaeate, Guadaloupe, . . . . 493 
 
 Esquibel, Jose y, . . . . . . 313 
 
 Esquibel, Mrs. Jose y . . 315 
 
 Fest, Edwabd, . 525 
 
 Fleming, J. W., .... . . 609 
 
 Frbudenthal, Phcebus, . . . 441 
 
 Gale, Ira B., . ... . . .457 
 
XVlll 
 
 POKTEAITS. 
 
 W, 
 
 Gale, Mrs, Ira B., 
 
 GiLLESPiB, Geo. W., 
 
 Gillespie, Mrs. Geo. 
 
 GiVENS, J. R., 
 
 GivENS, Mns. J. R. , 
 
 GBKeoRT, O. L., 
 
 gutierres, t. c, 
 
 Harris, William, 
 
 Harkey, S. T., 
 
 Jabamillo, T., . . . 
 
 Kerr, J, B., 
 
 Labadie, T., . 
 
 Lambert, Henry, 
 
 Lambert, Mrs. Henry, 
 
 Lara, Cipriano, 
 
 Letton, R. p., 
 
 Lohman, Martin, 
 
 Lopez, J. L., 
 
 Lopez, The Late Don, 
 
 Lopez, Lorenzo, 
 
 Lopez, Mrs. Lorenzo, 
 
 LujoN, Sarino, 
 
 LUNAS, J. M., . 
 
 Luna, The Late Don, 
 Luna, Solomon, 
 Maher, Martin, . 
 Manzanares, F. a., 
 Manderfield, W. H., 
 Marcy, Russell, 
 McFiB, John R., 
 MoKowN, John E., 
 McKowN, Mrs. John E., 
 McMartin, M. a., 
 Mbloche, a. J., . 
 Meloche, Mrs. A. J., 
 Miller, L. D., 
 Montoya, Gen. Estanislao, 
 
 MONTOYA, NeSTOE, 
 
 Morehead, a. H., . 
 Newcomb, W. H., 
 Oldham, George, 
 Oldham, Nathaniel, 
 Oldham, Reed, 
 Oldham, Richard, Jn., 
 Pace, Geo. J., 
 Perez, D., ... 
 
 Pbrbatjlt, Geo. C, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 457 
 477 
 477 
 473 
 473 
 469 
 563 
 551 
 547 
 429 
 413 
 453 
 449 
 449 
 481 
 377 
 555 
 353 
 349 
 351 
 358 
 481 
 381 
 603 
 601 
 417 
 517 
 583 
 613 
 391 
 445 
 445 
 377 
 489 
 489 
 413 
 593 
 433 
 631 
 597 
 343 
 339 
 
 , 345 
 341 
 
 . 335 
 365 
 
 . 631 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS. xix 
 
 PAGE 
 
 QuiNTANA, Martin, . 509 
 
 Raithel, J no. a.. 441 
 
 Raymond, Xuma, . 579 
 
 Reinken, \V. D., 489 
 
 RiCHEY, Thomas,' 373 
 
 RiCHBY, Mks. Thojias, . . 373 
 
 RoBrasoN, T. S., . 635 
 
 RoMEEO, Benigno, . . 369 
 
 RoMBBO, Eugenic, . . 385 
 
 Romero, Trinidad, . . 393 
 
 Russell, C, T,, . . . , , 559 
 
 Rynehson, W. L,, , . . 365 
 
 Salazar, Mrs. Faxxie W,, . . 357 
 
 Salazar, M. M,, , 357 
 
 Sasdoval, Placido, 437 
 
 Schaublin, Jacob, , , 361 
 
 Schmidt, J. J,, , . , , 465 
 
 Spatcier, N"., , . , 505 
 
 Stepp, Robert, , . . 465 
 
 Storey, A, 31., ... . 429 
 
 Tetard, L. C, . . ... 567 
 
 Toby, Monroe, . . 389 
 
 Troy, Daniel, Sr., . . . 541 
 
 Troy, Danlel, Jr., . . 541 
 
 Troy, Lycurgus, . 543 
 
 Troy, Oscar, . . 543 
 
 Valdbz, Emilio, . . . 537 
 
 Valdez, Mrs. Emilio, 537 
 
 Valdez, Santiago F. , ... 501 
 
 Walker, Arthur B., 513 
 
 Ward, Geo. W., . , 539 
 
 White, Michael K., . ... 531 
 
 Whiting, H. R., . 523 
 
 Yrisarri, Eugenic, . ... 551 
 
 Yrisarri, Jacob, . . . 587 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Residence op Don Antonio y Abbytia, Socorro, N. I\I., 301 
 
 Residence op J. Franz Huning, Albuquerque, N. M. 617 
 
 Residence of Solomon Luna, Los Lunas, N. M., 605 
 
 San Felipe Hotel, Albuquerque, N. M., . 374 
 
 Residence op J. Yrisarri, Albuquerque, N. M., . . 589 
 
HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 INTKODUCTORY. 
 
 THE Territory of New Mexico presents one of tlie most 
 strildng examples of ' ' tliat new world whicli is the 
 ■old" to be found within the limits of the United States. 
 While the unbroken forests of the whole Atlantic Coast 
 and Mississippi Valley were inhabited only bj'' roving tribes, 
 her plains and tnesas were the home of an advanced aborig- 
 inal civilization ; her valleys, tended and cultivated, pro- 
 duced abundant harvests ; her mountains yielded gold and 
 precious stones ; and her people, clothed in garments of 
 cotton and wool, dwelt in stone houses whose architecture 
 can compai'e with that of the famous structures of Mexico 
 and Yucatan. Her cities were ancient long before Colum- 
 bus sailed from Palos, when as yet the sea-tossed plant or 
 tree-trunk cast upon a foreign shore was the only token of 
 that strange land toward the setting sun, luxuriant in 
 -vegetation and teeming with animal life. 
 
 Then came the dawn of a new era, as the spice-laden 
 breezes of the Bahamas carried joy and hope to the weary 
 sailors, and to the "great captain" a glorious reward for 
 his eighteen years of patient waiting. With the discovery 
 ■of the New World came its conquerors ; cavalier and sol- 
 dier, rich and poor, adventurer and hidalgo, hastened to 
 the Western India as to a short and easy road to wealth 
 and fame. " There were others, too," says Colonel Mayer, 
 ' ' whose reckless or dissipated habits had wasted their for- 
 tunes and who could not bear to look upon the scenes of 
 'their youth or the companions of their more fortunate days. 
 -These were the ' poor and proud ; — the noisy and the rio- 
 
2 HISTOEY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 tons ; — the soldier, half bandit, half warrior ; — the sailor,, 
 half mutineer, half pirate ;— the zealot, whose bigotry mag- 
 nified the dangers of Indian life, into the glory of martyr- 
 dom ; and the avaricious man who dreamed that the very 
 sands of the Indian isles were strewn with gems and gold. 
 Among all this mass of wayward lust and ambition there 
 were lofty spirits whose love of glory, whose passionate- 
 devotion to adventure and whose genuine anxiety to spread 
 the word of God among the infidels, sanctified and adorned 
 the enterprise while their personal efforts and influence 
 were continually directed toward the noble purpose of 
 redeeming it from cruelty. These men recollected that 
 posterity would set its seal upon their deeds, while many" 
 of them acted with a higher and purer Christian motive, 
 devoid of all that narrow selfishness with which others kept 
 their eyes fixed on the present and the future for the popu- 
 lar opinion that was to disgrace or dignify them on the 
 pages of history." 
 
 That feature of the Spanish conquest which first excites- 
 our wonder and admiration is its amazing rapidity. Within 
 fifty years from the time when the fleet of Columbus sailed 
 from the Spanish port, not only had the empire of Monte- 
 zuma and the wealth and power of the Incas fallen before 
 the arms of Spain, but the regions to the north and north- 
 west, the far-famed land of Cibola, had been explored and 
 added to the Spanish realm by the hardy cavaliers who 
 followed in the footsteps of Pizarro and Cortez. Years- 
 before the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth the laughing valley 
 of the Rio Grande was dotted with hamlets clustered around 
 the mission church before whose altar Spaniard and Indian 
 knelt. For one hundred and ten years the Spanish power 
 increased throughout New Mexico and Christianity spread 
 rapidly among the natives. But with time the foreign yoke 
 grew heavier to bear ; mines were opened in which the In- 
 dians were forced to labor ; their sacred observances and 
 dances were abolished ; their rights ignored, and the Inqui- 
 sition was established in the country to detect and punish 
 all relapses into heathenism. In 1680 the storm burst. 
 
INTKODUCTORY. iJ' 
 
 The Indians rose en masse and. by the suddenness of their 
 attack, their determination and fury, drove the Spaniards 
 from the country. For thirteen years their temporary 
 freedom lasted, but in 16^3, Diego de Vargas reduced, one 
 by one, every pueblo in the country and restored the Span- 
 ish power ; a power that remained unshaken, although 
 several futile attempts were made by the natives to regain 
 their liberty. 
 
 The eighteenth century brought little change to New- 
 Mexico, one governor succeeded another with more or less- 
 political friction, the towns and population increased, and. 
 the frequent ravages of hostile tribes alone disturbed the 
 quiet of the people. 
 
 But with the beginning of the nineteenth century a new- 
 day dawned for New Mexico ; a day whose noon has not- 
 yet come and whose evening is far distant. A few intrepid 
 American traders penetrated the natural barriers whichi 
 locked the territory from the life of the outer world, and,, 
 like their Spanish fore-runners, carried back such reports 
 of the richness of the land that soon the sandy wastes of 
 the Jornada del Muerto were invaded by long lines of 
 white-covered wagons and the quaint old town of Santa Fe- 
 was roused to new life by 
 
 " . . . . the tread of pioneers, 
 Of nations yet to be, 
 The first low wash of waves, where soon 
 Shall roll a human sea." 
 
 In 1821 the Mexican revolution occurred, and New Mexico- 
 passed from the province of a monarchy to the department 
 of a republic ; but the change was little felt and the strife' 
 that raged in the land of the Montezumas did not extend; 
 to that of the Pueblos. In 1837 the tranquillity of the 
 country was disturbed by an outbreak, resulting in the 
 killing of Governor Perez and the temporary subversion of 
 legitimate authority. Ten years later the Americani 
 "Army of the West," under General Kearney, enteredl 
 Santa Fe and took possession of the country in the name of 
 the United States Government. The treaty of Guadaloupe 
 
-4 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 Hidalgo, in 1848, confirmed this separation and formally 
 oeded to the United States a territory hitherto almost un- 
 known but destined to become one of its most valuable 
 possessions. 
 
 With the return of the "Army of the West" new re- 
 ports of the delightful climate, mineral Avealth, and fertile 
 soil of New Mexico were borne east ; and many settlers 
 from Missouri were added to those already on the way to 
 /-this new land of promise, which, in the next thirty years, 
 from a sparsely settled district became one of the most 
 populous Territories in the Union. Little more than a 
 • decade has elapsed since the first railroad w;is opened in 
 the country ; yet within that time towns and villages have 
 'Tbeen erected, mines developed, and the amazing productive- 
 ness of the soil proved. There can be little doubt that the 
 ) mineral wealth of New Mexico is as yet hardly known, and 
 'that with the constantly increasing facilities for traffic, the 
 multiplication of railroads, and the impetus of American 
 -energy, the near future of the Territory will more than 
 realize the visions of its early conquerors and the legends 
 rf)f the Golden Land of Cibola. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE PUEBLO ABORIGINES. 
 
 Derivation of the Name Pueblo — Aztec or Toltec Origin of this People — 
 The Ancient Migrations — Toltec Civilization — Why the Aztecs left 
 Aztlan — Their Wanderings — The Omen of the Eagle — Tlie Nam& 
 New Mexico — Similarity of Architecture in Old and New Mexicos — 
 Letter of Melchior Diaz — Oastaneda's Account — Modern Pueblos — 
 System of Government — Religious Observances — You-pel-lay or- 
 Green Corn Dance — Pueblo Legend of Montezuma— Moqui and' 
 Navajo Legends — Pueblo Fetiches — Dissimilarity of Language 
 among the Pueblos — Their Industry and Wealth— Ruins of Pueblos 
 — Pecos — Old Zuni — Wege-gi — Pueblo Benito — Peiiasco Blanco — 
 Cause of Villages Deserted — Wager of Battle — Historic Interest of 
 the Ruins. 
 
 THE most remarkable class of the inhabitants of New 
 Mexico are the Pueblo Indians. The word Pueblo 
 is the Spanish for village, and these Indians are so desig- 
 nated because they dwell in villages and subsist by agri- 
 culture instead of living in lodges and depending upon the 
 chase as do the wild Indians of the plains. It has been 
 maintained that the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico were- 
 reclaimed from a wild state and placed in villages by the ■ 
 Spaniards. The most cursory study of the ancient history 
 of New Mexico will refute that theory, as it positively 
 shows that the first Spaniards who penetrated into the 
 country found its inhabitants in substantially the same 
 condition as to-day. It was on account of the reports; 
 made by these wanderers of the "fixed habitations of 
 many stories," the "garments of cotton and wool," the 
 profusion of food, "beans, corn, and pumpkins, and little 
 cakes delicate in flavor," of the precious stones worn im 
 3ars and nostrils, and adorning the dwellings of the chiefs,, 
 that the Spaniards were induced to traverse the pathless- 
 deserts and rocky steeps that hemmed in this new Eldorado, 
 
 5 
 
(6 HISTOJiY OF MEW MEXICO. 
 
 The origin of the Pueblo Indians is involved in the obscur- 
 ity that always surrounds an unlettered i^eople, but their 
 Toltec or Aztec descent is the one generally received by 
 Mstorians. "The north of America, like the north of 
 Europe, was the seminary of the human race ; from both, 
 in swarms, have issued numerous nations to people the 
 countries of the South," and from the northern parts of 
 America, where their ancestors had dwelt for many years, 
 came originally the inhabitants of Mexico. It is believed 
 that in these migrations various tribes separated from the 
 mass of their countrymen and settled in the verdant valley 
 ■of the Rio Grande, where they soon formed prosperous com- 
 munities extending westward as far as Zuni and Moqui ; 
 communities differing completely in character from the 
 wandering tribes of the plains and presenting a marked 
 similarity to one another in their buildings, religion, and 
 customs. The Abbe Clavigero is of the opinion that the 
 inhabitants of tlie North and Northwest were of the same 
 rnce as the civilized natives of the valley of Anahuac. 
 
 The Toltecs, the oldest nation of which we have any 
 linowledge, were banished from their country Huehueta- 
 pallan, or the Kingdom of Tollan, situated to the north- 
 Tvest of Mexico, and started on their southern pilgrimage 
 in the year 1, Tecpatl, which would be equivalent to the 
 year 596 of our era. In every place to which they came 
 they remained no longer than they liked it or were easily 
 accommodated with provisions. When they determined to 
 :make a longer stay they erected houses and sowed the land 
 with corn, cotton, and other plants, the seeds of which 
 they carried with them to supply their necessities. In this 
 wandering manner did they travel, always southward, for 
 the space of one hundred and four years, until they arrived 
 at a place to which they gave the name of Tollantzinco, 
 about fifty miles to the east of that spot where, some cen- 
 turies later, was founded the famous city of Mexico. They 
 did not remain permanently in this country, but twenty 
 years later, under the leadership of their cliiefs, moved 
 forty miles westward, where, on the banks of a river, they 
 
THE PUEBLO ABORIGINES. 7 
 
 founded the city of Tollan, or Tula, after the name of their 
 native country. This city, the oldest in Anahuac, was the 
 capital of the Toltec kingdom and the court of their kings. 
 The civilization of the Toltecs was far superior to that of 
 the tribes who followed them ; they possessed regular laws 
 and a government, understood the casting of gold and 
 silver and the cutting of gems. They were an unwarlike 
 people, with a wonderfully correct astronomy and a knowl- 
 edge of agriculture ; their religion, although idolatrous, 
 was unstained bj'' the bloody sacrifices which became so 
 common among the other nations. For four centuries the 
 Toltecs thrived, but in 1052 the greater part of the nation 
 -died of famine and pestilence and those who survived 
 abandoned their country and departed for the more south- 
 ern regions of Yucatan and Guatemala, where among the 
 temples and tombs of Palenque and Uxmal may be found 
 the remains of their civilization. 
 
 During the next century the land of Anahuac was nearly 
 ■desolate and bare of population until the arrival of the 
 Chichimecas, coming from Amaquemecan, likewise in the 
 north, under the command of Xolotl, brother of their king, 
 who had heard of the rich country to the south and was 
 •determined to found an independent empire. They settled 
 at Tenayuca, a place six miles north of Mexico, and formed 
 alliances with the few remnants of the Toltec nation. 
 They were a rude and altogether uncivilized tribe, and, 
 according to Torquemada, "were not builders of houses, 
 but dwelt in caves among the mountains," which may have 
 some connection with our cave and cliff dwellings. 
 
 These were soon followed by three princes of the Acol- 
 huan nation, with a great host of followers, coming from 
 Teoacohuacan, a country not far distant from Amaque- 
 mecan, and who by marriage with the daughter of King 
 Xolotl became dominant in the valley of Mexico. 
 
 Last of all these tribes, most famous in history and ro- 
 mance, came the Aztecs, who left their home in Aztlan, a 
 country situated to the north of the Gulf of California, in 
 about the year 1160. Their reason for leaving their native 
 
8 HISTOKY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 conntry is thus given by the Mexican historians : There 
 was, among the Aztecs, a person of great authority called 
 Huitziton, to whose opinion all paid much deference. 
 Huitziton endeavored, though it is not known for what 
 reason, to persuade his countrymen to change their country, 
 and while he was meditating on this purpose, he heard, by 
 accident, a little bird singing on the branches of a tree, 
 whose notes imitated the Mexican word Tihui, which 
 means "let us go." This appeared a favorable opportu- 
 nity to obtain his wish of his countrymen. Taking there- 
 fore another wise man with him, he led him to the tree 
 where the little bird used to sing, and thus addressed him i 
 " Do you not attend, my friend Tecpaltzin, to what this 
 little krd says, 'Tihui, Tihui,' which it repeats every mo- 
 ment to us ; what can it mean but that we must leave this 
 country and find ourselves another % Without doubt it is 
 the warning of some secret divinity who watches over our 
 welfare ; let us obey his voice and not draw his anger upon 
 us by a refusal." Tecpaltzin fully assented to this inter- 
 pretation and the two wise men were not long in drawing 
 the body of the nation over to their party. 
 
 The Aztecs crossed the Colorado or Red River and pro- 
 ceeded toward the southeast as far as the Gila, where they 
 stopped for some time ; the ruins on this stream, known as 
 the Casas Grandes, are supposed to indicate the second and 
 third stations of their migration. From here they jour- 
 neyed to the place called the Casa Grande of Chihuahua, 
 and thence, traversing the steep mountains of Tarahumara, 
 and directing their course toward the south, they reached 
 Huicolhuacan, at present called Caliacan. For many 
 years their pilgrimage lasted, as they shifted to different 
 parts of the Mexican valley and endured all the hardships 
 of a roving existence. 
 
 At length, in 1325, arriving upon the borders of Lake 
 Tezcuco, they saw an eagle resting on a cactus and grasp- 
 ing in his talons a writhing serpent. This had been foretold 
 by their priests as the omen which should designate the 
 site of their home. Here, then, their journey ended, and 
 
THE PUEBLO ABORIGINES. 9 
 
 the city of Tenochtitlan, afterwards Mexico, was founded 
 by sinking piles into the shallows of the lake. ' ' It should 
 not excite wonder that the Aztecs made so great a circuit, 
 and journeyed upwards of a thousand miles more than was 
 necessary to reach Anahuac ; as they had no limits pre- 
 scribed to their travel and were in seai'ch of a country 
 wliere they might enjoy all the conveniences of life ; 
 neither is it surprising that in some places they erected 
 large fabrics, as it is probable they considered every place 
 where they stopped as the boundary of their peregrination. 
 Several situations appeared to them at first proper for their 
 establishment, which they afterwards abandoned. Wher- 
 ever they stopjied they raised an altar to their god, and at 
 their departure left all their sick behind ; and probably 
 some others, who were to take care of them and perhaps 
 also some who might be tired of such pilgrimages and un- 
 willing to encounter fresh fatigues." 
 
 The probable Aztec origin of the Pueblo Indians is indi- 
 cated by the name New Mexico, which, according to Herrera, 
 was given to the province lying north of New Galicia because 
 of the resemblance of its inhabitants to those of the city of 
 Mexico in habits, agriculture, manufacture, and houses. 
 The latter, different from any other aboriginal structures in 
 North America, have excited the interest and curiosity of 
 travelers for four hundred years. "The architecture of 
 the Pueblos," says Governor Prince, "was analogous to 
 that of the Aztecs of Mexico, and indeed as nearly similar 
 as the varied circumstances relative to material and require- 
 ments would permit. They were constructed of adobe, of 
 cobble-stones and adobe mortar, of hewn stone and mortar, 
 or of matched stone, carefully put together without mortar, 
 as the case might be." It is of the ruins at the Casa Grande 
 in Chihuahua, that Clavigero says, "The immense edifice 
 still existing is constructed on the plan of those of New 
 Mexico ; that is, consisting of three floors with a terrace 
 above them and without any entrance to the under floor ; the 
 door for entering is on the second floor, so that a scaling 
 ladder is necessary ; and the inhabitants of New Mexico 
 
10 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 build in this manner in order to be less exposed to the 
 attack of their enemies; putting out the scaling ladder 
 only for those to whom they give admission into their 
 house." 
 
 The impressions of one of the earliest visitors to these 
 New Mexican dwellings, are well depicted in the following 
 extract from a letter of Melchior Diaz, who visited the city 
 of Cibola (ancient Zuni) in about the year 1540. The letter 
 in question was sent to the viceroy Mendoza, and was by 
 him transmitted to the emperor Charles V. " The houses, 
 coarsely constructed, are of stone and mud. Behold the 
 manner in which they are built ; they have one long wall, 
 and on the two fronts of this wall there are chambers of 
 twenty feet square and separated by partition walls, as they 
 communicate by signs. They are ceiled with beams. In 
 order to get into these houses you ascend upon a terrace by 
 means of ladders which they give you in the street ; the 
 houses are three or four stories high ; they say there are 
 very few which are not two. These stories are more than 
 nine feet high, except the first which is not much more 
 than six. Ten or twelve houses make use of the same 
 ladder ; the lower stories are set apart for labor ; they live 
 in the upper one. They have on the ground floor loop- 
 holes, used slantingly as in the fortresses in Spain. The 
 Indians of the surrounding country say that when they go 
 to make war against those of Cibola, the latter shut them- 
 selves in their houses whence they defend themselves." 
 
 The method by which these dwellings were constructed 
 is graphically described by Castaneda, the historian of one 
 •of the first Spanish expeditions : " The houses are built in 
 common ; the women temper the mortar and raise the 
 walls ; the men bring timber and construct the frames. 
 They have no lime but they make a mixture of ashes, earth, 
 and charcoal, which answers very well as a substitute ; 
 for, although they raise their houses four stories high, the 
 walls are not more than three feet thick. They make great 
 heaps of thyme and rushes, which they set on fire ; when 
 the mass is reduced to coal and ashes, they throw upon it 
 
THE PUEBLO ABORIGINES. 11 
 
 a great deal of earth and water, and mix all together. 
 They then knead it in round masses, which are dried, and 
 which they employ as stones ; the whole is then coated 
 with the same mixture. The' work thus resembles some- 
 what a piece of masonry. ' ' 
 
 The pueblos, or Indian villages, of to-day are similar in 
 all essential respects to those first visited by the Spaniards ; 
 many of them, indeed, are centuries old, and the general 
 plan of construction and arrangement has never altered. 
 In some instances the houses are small and built around a 
 square courtyard, while in other cases the village is com- 
 posed of two or three large buildings contiguous to each 
 other, which sometimes accommodate as many as a thou- 
 sand or fifteen hundred people. They look more like for- 
 tresses than dwelling-places, and if properly manned are 
 capable of making a strong defense against small arms. 
 The pueblo near the town of Don Fernandez de Taos, in 
 the northern part of the Territory, is a fine siiecimen of the 
 ancient mode of building. Here there are two large houses, 
 three or four hundred feet in length, and about a hundred 
 -and fifty feet wide at the base. They are situated upon 
 opposite sides of a small creek and were anciently con- 
 nected by a bridge. They are five and six stories high, 
 •each story receding from the one above it and forming a 
 structure terraced from top to bottom. Each story is di- 
 vided into numerous little compartments, the outer tiers 
 -of rooms being lighted by small windows in the sides, while 
 those in the interior are dark and principally used for 
 .store-rooms ; one of the most remarkable features of these 
 buildings is the absence of any direct communication with 
 the outside on the ground floor. The only means of en- 
 trance is through a trap-door in the roof, and you ascend 
 from story to story by way of ladders upon the outside, 
 which are drawn up at night, the population thus sleeping 
 /secure from attack. This method of entrance is common to 
 -all the pueblos and was probably adopted in early times as 
 a defense against the hostile tribes surrounding them. In 
 1;he buildings at Taos about eight hundred men, women 
 
12 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 and children live together like one large family, and irr. 
 apparent harmony. It is the custom to have a sentinel sta- 
 tioned upon the house-top, whose duty it is to give notice 
 of the approach of danger. 
 
 Each pueblo contains an estufa, or underground cham- 
 ber, denominated by one irreverent historian " a semi- 
 sacred sweat-house." It is used for councils and religious- 
 ceremonies and no woman is allowed to enter its hallowed, 
 precincts. Here are held all deliberations upon publicr 
 affairs and the business of the village. It was at one time 
 customary for the warriors on returning from a victorious- 
 expedition to repair to the estufa and by prescribed dancea- 
 celebrate their success, often remaining there two or three 
 days. 
 
 The government of the pueblos is simple and indepen- 
 dent, each village forming a separate community with its 
 own peculiar laws and regulations. The Cacique is the 
 chief officer of church and state, high-priest, and director- 
 of temporal affairs ; he alone can appoint his successor, 
 and it is the fii'st duty he performs upon attaining his- 
 office. The governor is appointed by the Cacique for a, 
 period of one year, he is chief in power and no political 
 movement is made without his authority. The Principales, 
 or ex-governors, are a council of wise men, advisers of the- 
 governor, who decide important questions by their votes. 
 The Alguacil, or sheriff, enforces the commands of the 
 Governor and directs the public works. The fiscal mayor- 
 superintends the religious ceremonies. The Capitan de la 
 Guerre, or captain of war, in addition to performing the- 
 duties which his name implies, is head of the ancient cus- 
 toms, dances, and observances pertaining to the moral life 
 of the people. Several priests, acting under him, order 
 the dances, which among the Pueblos, as among all other 
 Indian tribes, form a very important part of the religious 
 ceremonies. 
 
 The cacTiina dance, celebrated at certain seasons of the 
 year, is one of the most impressive. When the Spaniards- 
 conquered the country they prohibited this heathen rite^ 
 
THE PUEBLO ABORIGINES. 13 
 
 Tinder the severest penalties, a prohibition so bitterly- 
 resented, by the natives that it was one of the main causes 
 -of the revolution of 1680. Many of the sacred dances are 
 held at night within the estvfas, the initiated alone being 
 present ; others, like the Tou-pel-lay^ or green corn dance, 
 :are participated in by all the inhabitants of the pueblo. It 
 is celebrated in the following manner : 
 
 At noon of the day appointed by the priests, the dancers, 
 all of whom are men, appear, led by three elders of the 
 village. They are clad only in small blankets about the 
 middle, the iipper part of their bodies being painted a dark 
 red ; their legs and arms are striped with red, white, and 
 blue colors, and around their arms, above the elbow, green 
 bands surmounted with sprigs of pinon are placed ; encir- 
 -cling the neck is a necklace of the same description, and 
 their heads are crowned with gray eagle's feathers. 
 Around the knee are bands of red cloth to which are fas- 
 tened the small shells of the ground-turtle and antelope 
 hoofs, while dangling from the back, at the waist, depends 
 :a fox-skin. In one hand they carry a dry gourd, contain- 
 ing grains of corn, which is shaken vigorously to and fro ; 
 in the other, a string from which hangs several tortillas, 
 or rolls of thin corn-bread. The dancers walk in line, 
 stooping and bending as though weighted by a load of 
 -corn ; before each house the elders make a short speech 
 which is listened to in respectful silence by the various occu- 
 pants ; at the conclusion of every discourse the discordant 
 music is sounded and the dancers begin their evolutions. 
 This routine is kept up until all the houses of the pueblo 
 have been visited. The musicians, who are dressed in the 
 -ordinary costume of the town, each carry half of a gourd, 
 placed convex side up ; across this a smooth stick is held 
 with the left hand, and with the right a notched bit of 
 "wood is drawn back and forth, producing a sound like the 
 grinding of corn in the metate. 
 
 The name of Montezuma appears conspicuously in the 
 Teligious observances of this people. " Not," says Prince, 
 "" referring to the king whom we are accustomed to identify 
 
14 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 under that name, but to the great chief of the golden age. 
 They call themselves the People of Montezuma, or the 
 Children of the Sun, for the sun was the real object of 
 their adoration." One of tlieir traditions is that they 
 come from a city in the far Northwest, beyond the most- 
 distant branches of the Rio Grande ; they were wanderers- 
 and lived in caves and sheltered caiions. They sojourned 
 at Acoma, the birthplace of Montezuma, and he it was- 
 who chose the site of the sacred city of Pecos, upon a prom- 
 ontory which commanded the valley below. He planned 
 its terraced fortifications, teaching them how to make the- 
 mortar and lay the stones, he constructed the estufas and. 
 with his own hand kindled the holy fire, to be kept con- 
 stantly burning in a basin of a small altar, guarded by chosen 
 warriors who served by turns for a period of two days and 
 two nights without eating or drinking. For a long time 
 he dwelt with them and they waxed powerful and prosper- 
 ous. Before he left he planted a pine tree and prophesied 
 that his departure should be followed by the invasion of a 
 foreign race who would oppress his people for many years ;. 
 drought and famine would also torment them, but when 
 that tree fell an army of white men should come from the 
 East and deliver them from their oppressors. Still the 
 sacred fire must burn in the estufa until lie himself should 
 return, bringing peace and plenty to his faithful peojDle. 
 The first part of this prophecy was strangely fulfilled, for 
 when the "Army of the West," under General Kearney, 
 entered Santa Pe the sacred tree at Pecos fell. 
 
 The guarding of the fire was rigidly continued; "its 
 flame," as Bancroft beautifully says, "was believed to be 
 the palladium of the city, and the watchers by it could 
 well dream of that day, when, coming with the sun, Monte- 
 zuma should descend by the column of smoke whose roots 
 they fed, and should fill the shabby little estufa with a. 
 glory like that in a wilderness tabernacle they knew not 
 of, where a more awful pillar of smoke shadowed the 
 mystic cherubim. Hope dies hard, and the dim memories, 
 of a great past never quite fade away from among any- 
 
THE PUEBLO ABORIGINES. 15 
 
 people. No true-born British bard ever doubted of 
 Arthur's return from his kingly rest in Avalon, nor that 
 the flash of Excalibur should be one day again as the 
 lightning of death in the eyes of the hated Saxon. The 
 herders on the shore of Lucerne know that were Switzer- 
 land in peril, the Tell would spring from his sleep as at the 
 crack of doom. ' When Germany is at her lowest then is 
 her greatness nearest,' say the weird old ballads of that 
 land ; for then shall the Great Kaiser rise from the vault 
 in the Kyffhauser, — Barbarossa shall rise though his beard 
 be grown through the long stone table. Neither is the- 
 Frank without his savior. Sing, O troubadours, sing and 
 strike the chords proudly ! Who shall prevail while 
 Charlemagne but sleeps in the shadow of the Unters- 
 berg I And so our Pueblo sentinel climbing the housetop 
 at Pecos, looking over eastward from Santo Domingo on 
 the Rio Grande, he, too, waits for the beautiful feet upoR 
 the mountains and the plumes of him 
 
 ' ' ' Who dwelt up in the yellow sun, 
 , And sorrowing for man's despair, 
 
 Slid by his trailing yellow hair 
 To earth, to rule with love and bring 
 The blessedness of peace .' 
 
 "The fire in the great estufa at Pecos was carefully 
 tended for hundreds of years, by vigils which grew in rigor 
 as the number of participants decreased until, less than 
 half a century ago the Indians of that pueblo became 
 so reduced in numbers that they determined to abandon 
 their houses, and preserving it with jealous care, they 
 carried the fire to the pueblo of Jemez, where their own 
 language was spoken and where their descendants still 
 live." 
 
 All the Pueblo tribes do not deify the name of Monte- 
 zuma. The Moquis believe in a great Father in the East 
 and a great Mother in the West ; the Father is the genius 
 of evil, war, and pestilence, but the Mother is the spirit of 
 peace, plenty, and health. From the Mother sprang nine 
 races of men : the Deer race, the Sand race, the Water 
 
16 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 race, the Bear race, the Hare race, the Prairie-wolf race, 
 the Rattle-snake race, the Tobacco-plant race, and the 
 Reed-grass race. These the Mother placed on the spot 
 where their villages now stand and they were transformed 
 into the men who built the present pueblos. These race 
 distinctions are kept up and it is believed ' ' that every man 
 when he dies shall be resolved into his primeval form ; 
 shall wave in the grass, or drift in the sand, or prowl on 
 the prairie as in the beginning. ' ' 
 
 The Navajos, living north of the Pueblos, say that at 
 one time all the nations, Navajos, Pueblos, Coyoteros, and 
 white people, lived together underground in the heart of 
 a mountain near the river San Juan. By a lucky chance 
 the dwellers in this cave learned that space existed beyond 
 it, upon which the wise men took council, and an exit was 
 discovered through which men and animals gained the 
 outer world. The Navajos came first and the moment they 
 reached the surface fell to gambling at patole. The wise 
 men, finding the earth in a rudimentary state, again took 
 council which resulted in the manufacture of the sun, 
 moon, and stars; with these latter they purposed decorating 
 the heavens in a set pattern, but the prairie-wolf, con- 
 temptuously demanding, "Why all this trouble and em- 
 broidery?" scattered the stars in all directions, and so 
 scattered they remain. The old men, disappointed but still 
 industrious, fabricated two linages, or earthen water-jars, 
 one of which they decorated in brilliant colors and filled 
 with articles of little worth ; the other, unpainted, con- 
 tained substantial wealth. When the jars were covered 
 the Navajos and Pueblos were allowed to choose. The 
 former eagerly seized the gaudy vessel, while the canny 
 Pueblos departed with their sad colored crock, thereby 
 gaining flocks and herds and all kinds of riches which they 
 have since kept. 
 
 Prom the great Sun-father himself, whom all these people 
 worship under some designation, to the lowest animal gods, 
 stretches an infinite array of deities, minor and major, 
 whose powers are clearly defined. The fetiches of "the 
 
THE PUEBLO ABORIGINES. 17 
 
 Pueblo Indians relate mostly to the animal gods and prin- 
 cipally to the prey gods, these being the most important 
 objects of their worship. The most precious of their fe- 
 tiches are those which, as tribal possessions, have been 
 handed down from generation to generation and whose- 
 antiquity is., plainly evinced by their polish and dark 
 patina. These are sometimes found among the ruins of 
 ancient pueblos, and are not supposed, by their possessors^ 
 to be of human manufacture. It is believed that these- 
 fetiches are the actual petrifactions of the animals they 
 represent, and their transformation is explained in a legends 
 given by Mr. Gushing as one of the sacred tales of Zuni. 
 " In the days when all was new, men lived in four caverns- 
 of the lower regions," where all was dark and sorrow pre- 
 vailed. Pitying their forlorn condition the ' ' Holder of the- 
 Paths of Life," the Sun-father, created two children whom^ 
 he endowed with immortal youth and presented with a 
 bow — the rainbow ; an arrow — the lightning ; a shield made 
 of a network of the sacred cords — cotton, and a knife ofT 
 flint. These children led men from their caverns up to the- 
 outer world whose face was covered with water so that 
 wherever the foot pressed the print was left, "as may be- 
 seen on the rocks to this day," and monsters rose from the- 
 deep to devour them. With the fire from their arrows of 
 lightning, the children of the Sun-father dried the face' 
 of the earth, and wherever they came across an animal of 
 prey, were he great mountain lion or but a mere mole, they 
 struck him with the fire of lightning and instantly he was 
 shriveled and burnt into stone. " Thus it happens that 
 we find here and there throughout the world the forms of 
 these animals, sometimes like the beings themselves, some- 
 time shriveled and distorted, and we often see among the- 
 rocks the forms of many beings that live no longer, which 
 shows that all was different in the days of the new." 
 
 Very few legends are common to all the pueblos although? 
 many may be recognized under different colorings. This is 
 in part accounted for by the fact that the Pueblo Indians,, 
 although virtually one people, have five distinct languages 
 
18 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 with numerous deviating dialects, and are thus divided into 
 five separate groups. In the towns of Santa Ana, San Felipe, 
 Santo Domingo, Acoma,Cochiti, Silla, Laguna, andPojuate, 
 the Queres language is spoken ; in San Juan, Santa Clara, 
 San Ildefonso, Pojuaque, Nambe, Tezuque, and also in 
 Harno, one of the Moqui villages, the Tegua language pre- 
 vails ; in Taos, Picoris, Zandia, and Isleta, is the Picoris 
 language ; in Jemez and Old Pecos, the Jemez ; in Zuni, 
 the Zuni language. In the earliest records, however, Zuni 
 and Moqui were considered as belonging to the Queres 
 division. The language of the Tegua towns is nearly all 
 monosyllabic ; that of the Queres group is usually dissyl- 
 labic, and the Picoris language is polysyllabic, as is that 
 of Zuni. One language, the Tagnos, or Tanos, is entirely 
 extinct. 
 
 The Pueblos are among the most orderly and useful peo- 
 ple in the Territory. They cultivate the soil, raising- 
 extensive crops which they market ; some of the villages 
 own valuable vineyards and make wine to sell in the 
 neighboring towns ; they a] so raise stock and possess large 
 herds of horses, mules, oxen, and sheep. When the Span- 
 iards first settled the country, they made frequent mention 
 of cotton and woolen garments worn by the Indians. A 
 requisition made upon the inhabitants of Tiguex, in 1542, 
 by Coronado, of three hundred pieces of cotton cloth for 
 clothing for his soldiers, shows that this article must have 
 been extensively manufactured, but the art has fallen into 
 disuse and their weaving is now confined to the fabrication 
 of coarse blankets. Their pottery lias also excited much 
 comment, and this they still manufacture in large quanti- 
 ties. The vessels are often curious in form, representing 
 birds and animals, and the decoration is liarmonious and 
 skillful. Tliey also excel in wicker-work, making vessels 
 tight enough to hold water after they have once been satu- 
 rated ; a certain kind being much used by travelers as can- 
 teens. They have well been called the "Yankees of the 
 Plains," and are shrewd, industrious, and clever at a bar- 
 gain. Their feeling toward the Americans lias been one of 
 
THE PUEBLO ABORIGINES. 19 
 
 friendliness, and tlie government, by conferring upon them 
 in 1871 the rights of citizenship, has shown its appreci- 
 ation of their worth. This privilege was also bestowed 
 upon them by the Spanish conquerors ; there is a decree 
 extant, given by Charles V. in 1523, three years after the 
 conquest, authorizing the viceroys and governors to grant 
 each village as much land as might be necessary for agri- 
 cultural and building purposes. A second decree, in 1533, 
 makes mountains, pastures, and waters common to both 
 Spaniards and Indians. 
 
 The present population of the Pueblo Indians is esti- 
 mated at 10,000 individuals ; manuscript journals of the 
 early Spanish officers, preserved in the archives at Sante 
 Fe, give the number at the time of the conquest as about 
 300,000. This is probably much exaggerated, although 
 Prince thinks it would not be extravagant to pat the num- 
 ber at 150,000 at least. Three hundred years ago there 
 were eighty pueblos, there are now twenty-five ; while of 
 one nation, the Tanos, which numbered 40,000 persons, not 
 a remnant remains. That the Pueblo Indians were in 
 ancient times a numerous and powerful people is clearly 
 attested by the ruins that lie thickly scattered throughout 
 the country, from the canons of the Chelly and the San 
 Juan through the valley of the Rio Grande to the now 
 desert country of the Southwest, where stood the once 
 famous city of Quivira. The remains of the sacred city of 
 Pecos, are among the most interesting of these monuments 
 of a long past greatness. It is still in comparatively good 
 condition, surrounded by stone walls eight feet high and 
 four feet thick. The temple, which for ages contained the 
 fire of Montezuma, is one hundred and ninety-one feet 
 long, thirty-tive feet broad, and fifty feet high, with 
 walls six feet thick. The interior is divided into com- 
 partments, having cells, cisterns, and tanks, but the out- 
 works and turrets are a mass of ruins. 
 
 The pueblo of Old Zuni, the "Cibola" visited by 
 Coronado in 1541, "is divided into four solid squares, hav- 
 ing but two streets crossing its center at right angles. All 
 
20 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 the buildings are two stories high, composed of sun-dried 
 brick. The first story presents a solid wall to the street 
 and is so constructed that each house joins until one-fourth 
 of the city may be said to be one building. The second 
 stories rise from the vast, solid structure, so as to designate 
 each house, leaving room to walk upon the roof of the first 
 story between each building." JSTear the head- waters of 
 the Piscao are the ruins of another ancient city which has 
 been deserted for one hundred years. Its figure " was that 
 of an exact square, set north and south, so that its four 
 sides corresponded with the four cardinal points, being 
 encircled with a double wall of stone fourteen feet apart. 
 These walls were three stories high ; two entire stories 
 being above ground, and the other partly above and partly 
 below the surface. The space between these walls was 
 divided into rooms of convenient size (about fourteen feet 
 square), all opening into the interior. The remainder of 
 the city, although much in ruins, appeared to have been 
 built on streets running parallel to these walls. In these 
 rooms large quantities of red cedar, which had been cut of 
 convenient lengths for fire-places, were discovered in a state 
 of entire preservation, having been stood up for use for 
 more than a century." 
 
 "The ruins west of the Rio Grande," says Prince, 
 "near San Ildefonso, are of buildings made of blocks of 
 lava or malpais, roughly squared and put together with 
 adobe mortar ; the blocks are comparatively small. Some 
 of the Chaco canon were built of tabular pieces of sand- 
 stone, laid with adobe mortar ; the stones being from three 
 to six inches in thickness and from six to eighteen inches 
 in length." That of Wege-gi was seven hundred feet in 
 circumference, and contained ninety-nine rooms. The 
 Pueblo Bonito was five hundred and forty-four feet long, 
 three hundred and fourteen wide, and contained three 
 hundred rooms ; its masonry was of great beauty and 
 precision. "The material was a firm, hard, gray sand- 
 stone, in blocks of a uniform thickness of three inches and 
 laid without mortar ; the joints are always carefully broken. 
 
THE PUEBLO ABORIGINES. 21 
 
 and the crevices between the ends filled in with thin pieces 
 of stone, not over a quarter of an inch in thickness. In 
 the pueblo of Pehasco Blanco the manner of building was 
 a regular alternation of large and small stones, the effect 
 of which is both unique and beautiful. The largest stones, 
 which are about one foot in length and one-half a foot in 
 thickness, form but a single bed, and then alternating with 
 these are three or four beds of very small stones, each 
 about one inch thick." This pueblo was seventeen hun- 
 dred feet long and contained one hundred and twelve rooms. 
 "These seem to have been the finest structures north of 
 Yucatan and the largest ever erected in North America ; 
 there is no reason for supposing that the pueblos of Mexico 
 €ontain any structure superior to them," says Mr. Morgan, 
 when drawing an analogy between the aboriginal buildings 
 ■of North and South America. 
 
 The depopulation of so many villages is mainly attrib- 
 uted to the internecine wars following the rebellion of 
 1680. It is related that the Indians, when they had driven 
 the Spaniards from the country, quarreled over the dis- 
 tribution of land. This quarrel soon became general and 
 •every pueblo in the country took part in it. The wise men, 
 seeing that this division would enable the enemy to re- 
 conquer the country, ordered that it should be decided by 
 wager of battle ; two hundred warriors were to be chosen 
 on each side, the defeated party to withdraw from the 
 country, leaving the victors in possession. The combatants 
 met upon a plain and after a long and bloody struggle the 
 contest was decided ; the vanquished left their villages and 
 sought other homes. If this occurrence took place it would 
 account for the remains of so many villages scattered over 
 the country. To whatever cause may be attributed the de- 
 cadence of this once powerful people, the ruins of their 
 homes must always remain an object of historical interest. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE EXPEDITION OF GUZMAN AND THE WANDER- 
 INGS OF CABEgA DE VACA. 
 1530-1536. 
 
 The- Land of Cibola — Nuno de Guzman — Tales of Wealth — Guzman's. 
 Expedition — DifHoulties of the March — Colonization of Culiacan — 
 Exploration of Cibola Abandoned — Death of Guzman — Alvar 
 
 ; Nunez Cabeja de Vaca — His Descent — Expedition of Narvaez — 
 Narvaez in Florida — Dangers and Hardships — The Building of the 
 Boats — Vaca and his Comrades Oast Ashore — Their Sufferings — 
 Cast Ashore a Second Time — The Isle of Malhado — Famine and 
 Pestilence — The Spaniards Practice Medicine — Reduced to Slavery 
 — Escape of Oviedo — His Return — Vaca meets Companions in Mis- 
 fortune — Slavery — Escape — Wanderings of Vaca and his Com- 
 rades — Received as Divinities by the Natives — Success in Healing 
 — Progress through New Mexico — News of the Spaniards — Further- 
 Tidings — On the River Petatlan — Meeting with Diego Alcarez — 
 Quarrel between Alcarez and Vaca — Vaca Reaches Culiacan — Paci- 
 fies the Natives— Arrives at San Miguel — Compostella — Mexico — 
 Fate of his Companions — Vaca Sails for Spain — His Further Mis- 
 fortunes in the New World — Route of Vaca in New Mexico. 
 
 IT was about the year 1530 that the Spaniards of Southern 
 Mexico received their earliest information of what is 
 now New Mexico, then known as the "Land of the Seven 
 Golden Cities of Cibola." Rumors of the wealth and 
 fertility of this Nortliwestern region had long been current 
 in tlie valley of Analiuac, but as yet the cotintry was unex- 
 plored and no authentic information regarding it was ob- 
 tainable. At this time JSTuho de Guzman was president of 
 New Spain and resided in the City of Mexico. Sent out in 
 1528 from Panuco and desirous to eclipse Cortez, whom he 
 feared and hated, Guzman was anxious to celebrate his 
 period of rule by adding to the Spanish realm a mightier 
 dominion than had been subdued by the great conquistador 
 
 22 
 
THE EXPEDITION OF GUZMAN. 23 
 
 himself. He had in his employ an Indian, said to be a 
 native of the valley of Oxitipar which the Sjjaniards called 
 Tejas, who represented himself as the son of a merchant in 
 the habit of traveling through the interior of the country 
 to sell rare bird feathers, for which he received large quan- 
 tities of gold and silver "which everywhere abounded." 
 He said that he had made two trips with his father and had 
 seen the cities that he spoke of ; that they were seven in 
 number, and as extensive and beautiful as the city of 
 Mexico itself, that entire streets were occupied by workers 
 in the precious metals, and that the houses ' ' of many lofts ' ' 
 were made of lime and stone, the gates and pillars being 
 ingeniously set with turquoises ; he had seen them "with 
 these eyes." He asserted that this country could only be 
 reached by crossing a desert of forty days' journey, which 
 was covered with a curious short grass about five inches 
 high, and that it must be penetrated in a northern direction 
 between the two seas. 
 
 The Indian's account of Cibola and its wealth seized 
 forcibly upon Gruzman's imagination and an expedition was 
 immediately placed on foot. The army marched from 
 Mexico December 29, 1529, Gruzman commanding ; it con- 
 sisted of five hundred Spanish soldiers and ten thousand 
 Aztec and Tlascaltec allies. The standard, a golden virgin 
 on silver cloth, was borne by Pedro de Guzman, a kinsman 
 of the president, and the expedition was one of the most 
 imposing arrays that had yet followed any conqueror of 
 the New World. Directing their course toward what was 
 then called the North Sea, they reached the province of 
 Culiacan where the government of Nuiio de Guzman ter- 
 minated. Here he encountered many difficulties ; the 
 country was wild and unexplored ; the mountains so 
 rugged and precipitous that no road could be found across 
 them ; the natives, terrified at the slaughter which marked 
 the Spaniard's footsteps, fled to the hills or harassed the 
 invaders. His men suffered so terribly from flood and 
 pestilence that many, disheartened by the unexpected 
 hardships, deserted the expedition and returned to Mexico. 
 
'34 HISTOEY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 ■Gruzman, however, determined to remain and colonize the 
 province of Culiacan ; with those Spaniards who were still 
 ^attached to his fortunes he established a government at 
 Xalisco and Tonala, two districts which subsequently 
 formed the province of New Galicia, and founded the little 
 town of San Miguel, which for many years was the frontier 
 of the Spanish settlement. In the mean time the Tejas 
 Indian had died, so all thoughts of exploring the Seven 
 •Cities was abandoned. 
 
 A royal order, conveying the governorship of ISTueva 
 Galicia to Don Nuno, was issued and Guzman remained in 
 ^authority about eight years, when he was thrown into 
 prison for political reasons and died in poverty and 
 -disgrace. 
 
 The abortive expedition of Guzman put an end for the 
 time to the projects of conquest in the far Northwest and 
 popular interest in Cibola seemed to have expired, but the 
 -excitement was renewed with increased ardor by the arrival 
 at Mexico, in 1536, of Cabecja de Vaca and three com- 
 panions, reduced almost to skeletons from the perils and 
 :suflferings of their weary wandering, ye.t bearing news of 
 rich countries, strange beasts, and populous villages to their 
 -eager countrymen. The story of Cabega de Vaca dwarfs 
 many a romance of adventure and shows more clearly than 
 any description the hardships undergone by early explorers. 
 It is contended by some historians that Vaca and his com- 
 rades did not penetrate into New Mexico, but the contrary 
 Is also confidently asserted by writers thoroughly familiar 
 with the country and documents, and Vaca's account of 
 the lands he traversed assuredly warrants that supposition. 
 His description of tlie inhabitants, plants, and natural 
 ieatures of the country, coincides almost exactly with 
 that of the later explorers and is applicable only to New 
 Mexico. 
 
 Alvar Nunez Cabega de Vaca was a native of the city of 
 Jerez de la Frontero and grandson of that Pedro de Vera 
 who made the conquest of the Canaries at his own 
 -*^xpense ; he is described as having the most beautiful and 
 
WANDEBINGS OF OABEpA DE VACA. 25 
 
 Tioble figure of all the conquerors of the New World, and 
 his valor upon the battle-field, his resolution in danger, 
 and his constancy and resignation in hardship won for him 
 the appellation, " Illustrious Warrior." He occupied the 
 post of treasurer and high-sherifE on the ill-fated expedi- 
 tion commanded by Panfilo de Narvaez, who sailed from 
 Spain in June, 1527, with a fleet of five ships and a force 
 ■of six hundred men. Narvaez was commanded by the 
 king of Spain to conquer Florida, and was appointed 
 governor over all the country he might subdue. The voy- 
 age was disastrous ; over one hitndred and forty men 
 -deserted at San Domingo, and the fleet was so tossed and 
 battered by severe storms encountered off the coast of Cuba 
 that it was sent, under the command of Vaca, to winter at 
 the port of Xagua, twelve miles distant from Trinidad. 
 
 In the early spring they set sail again, having procured 
 a small brig to supply the loss of one of their ships ; the 
 full force at this time was four hundred men and eighty 
 horses. Narvaez coasted along the southern shore of Cuba, 
 •experiencing severe storms, then, doubling Cape San Anton, 
 ^sailed within twelve leagues of Havana ; the next day 
 they stood in toward land, when a sudden gale arose from 
 the south which drove the vessels off the shore in the direc- 
 tion of Florida and the ships anchored at Tampa Bay in 
 April, 1528. Narvaez landed with a few officers, and, 
 unfurling the royal banner, took formal possession of the 
 <;ountry in the name of the king of Spain. The remainder 
 of the army now disembarked without accident, and two 
 days later the general, with Vaca and two officers, under 
 an escort of forty men, made an excursion into the interior 
 where they received information from some Indians of rich 
 <!ities to the north, particularly that of Apalache which 
 was said to abound in articles of great value. On their 
 return to the coast it was decided that the expedition 
 should separate ; the army marching inland, while the 
 ships made their way along the shore in search of a harbor 
 supposed to be not far distant. This plan was disapproved 
 of by Vaca, who thought it most imprudent to advance 
 
26 HISTOIIY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 into the country until the vessels were in a safe and set- 
 tled harbor, but his remonstrances were unheeded and 
 Narvaez followed his own judgment. The ships were- 
 placed in command of an alcalde, called Caravallo, and the 
 troops were mustered upon the shore fully equipped for 
 the march; two pounds of' biscuit and half a pound of 
 bacon Avere given to each man, this being all the provisions 
 they had, and when this should be consumed it would be 
 necessary to depend upon what might be found on their 
 march. This separation took place on Sunday, May 1st, 
 and the two parties never met again. It is believed by some- 
 writers that the ships sailed at once for Havana, leaving 
 their companions to their fate, while others assert that the- 
 fleet spent a year in the vicinity, but hearing nothing of 
 the land force returned to Cuba. 
 
 Narvaez and his men followed the general direction of 
 the coast, suffering many hardships ; the country was bar- 
 ren and nearly uninhabited, and they lived on the scanty 
 rations distributed at the start and some palmettoes found 
 on the march. Apalache and another city, Aute, proved 
 mere clusters of Indian huts with neither gold nor valua- 
 bles, and they were continually attacked by hostile Indians, 
 In August, 1528, they arrived at a little bay Avhich they 
 called the Bahia de los Caballos. Here the army encamped. 
 Their condition was terrible ; the march was difficult and 
 dangerous ; disease daily wasted away their numbers and 
 the sick were so numerous that there were not horses 
 enough to transport them ; they were without provisions 
 in a strange country; cut off from all succor and sur- 
 rounded by savage enemies. After a long deliberation they 
 decided to attempt the building of boats and an escape by 
 sea, hoping to make their way along the coast to the river 
 Panuco and thence to some Spanish settlement in Mexico. 
 They set to work on September 4th, and by the 20th five- 
 boats were completed, each being thirty-one feet in length. 
 Their tools were of the rudest description : a pair of bel- 
 lows were made of deer-skin ; stirrups, bridle-bits, and 
 spurs were converted into saws, axes, and nails ; they cut 
 
WANDEBINGS OF CABEgA DE VACA. 27 
 
 up and sewed together their shirts for sails ; cordage was- 
 made of palmetto fiber and the manes and tails of their 
 horses, who were killed and the flesh dried for provisions ; 
 a resin of pine-tree gum served as pitch to calk the boats,, 
 and water bottles were fashioned from the tanned skin of 
 the horses' legs. During the entire stay at the Bahia de 
 Caballos, they were harassed by swarms of Indians and 
 weak from insufficient food. The whole distance of the 
 march of the Spaniards is estimated at about two hundred 
 and eighty leagues and the number who died of hunger, 
 disease, or violence, was forty. 
 
 On the 22d of September, 1528, they launched their frail 
 crafts and set sail upon the unknown waters of the gulf. 
 The first boat was commanded by the governor himself and 
 held forty-nine men ; the others were evenly divided, Yaca 
 commanding the last. The boats were so heavily laden 
 that only three inches of the gunwale was above water, and 
 so crowded that all were obliged to sit in one position, not 
 having space to move. Their voyage was one of misery and 
 lasted for over a month, sometimes sailing through shallow 
 waters, again landing in search of food and drink, or again 
 detained by storms. The Indians remained steadily hostile 
 and often attacked them, but were usually repulsed ; at 
 one time two of their number, a G-reek named Teodoro, and 
 a negro, were taken prisoners and were never seen again. 
 On the 6th of November a terrible storm arose and the 
 little fleet was separated and tossed at the mercy of the 
 waves ; Vaca's boat was cast upon a sandy shore and most 
 of its occupants saved, although nearly dead from exhaus- 
 tion and ignorant of their companions' fate. 
 
 After building a fire and parching a little corn, one of 
 their number ascended a tree and surveyed the country ; it 
 was an island and seemed to be inhabited ; soon after, they 
 met three Indians armed with bows and arrows, who, on 
 receiving presents of beads and hawk-bells, gave to Yaca 
 and his comrades an arrow, considered as a pledge of friend- 
 ship. The Indians were touched by the Spaniards' pitiable 
 condition and brought them fish and edible roots ; the 
 
'28 ' HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 castaways remained on this island for several days and 
 were treated with great kindness by the natives, who sup- 
 plied them with food. At last it was determined to re-em- 
 bark and the boat was dug out from the sand in which it 
 was embedded ; they boarded it, but had no sooner set sail 
 than a fierce wave struck the battered craft amidships and 
 •capsized it, drowning three men, while the others were cast 
 naked upon the shore, having lost clothing, provisions, and 
 all that the boat contained. Their condition was now more 
 terrible than ever. It was November and intensely cold ; 
 they had eaten nothing but corn since May, and were as 
 emaciated as skeletons. Happily they were thrown upon 
 the spot they had left in the morning and, re-kindling the 
 dying fire, warmed their shivering bodies. The next day 
 the Indians, who did not know that the Spaniards had 
 embarked in the morning and been cast ashore again, came 
 with their usual supply of food, but were so horrified by 
 the forlorn appearance of the castaways that they fled in 
 terror. Vaca induced them to return and related this new 
 misfortune to the friendly natives, who were so much 
 affected by the recital as well as by the wretched appear- 
 ance of the explorers that they " manifested their grief by 
 uttering loud lamentations for more than an hour." 
 
 Fearing they would perish of the cold, Vaca finally per- 
 suaded the savages to take them to the Indian settlement, 
 which was some distance inland ; the natives dispatched 
 thirty of their number to prepare for the Spaniards' recep- 
 tion, and in the evening the remainder of the Indians took 
 the exhausted wanderers in their arms and carried them to 
 their village where large fires had been kindled. They were 
 taken to a hut, set aside for their reception, and here they 
 slept in greater comfort than they had known for months. 
 In this village the Spaniards met some of their companions 
 whose vessel had capsized about two leagues further on; and 
 it was determined to launch the boat again and make their 
 way along the coast to "some Christian land." The task 
 was accomplished with much exertion, but the vessel was 
 hardly afloat when she filled and sunk before their eyes, 
 
WANDERINGS OP CABE^A DE VAC A. 29' 
 
 thus putting an end to all hopes of escape by sea. They 
 then decided to attempt a journey by land, although their 
 enfeebled condition would necessitate spending the winter 
 in their present quarters, and four of the strongest survi- 
 vors were dispatched in search of the Spanish settlement 
 Panuco, supposed to be not far distant, there to obtain 
 assistance and provisions. 
 
 Within a few days the weather increased in severity, 
 starvation stared them in the face, and a pestilence broke- 
 out which reduced the Spaniards from eighty to fifteen 
 and carried oflf one-half of the Indians ; this also added to 
 their misery, for the savages regarded the white strangers. 
 as the cause of the fatal sickness that ravaged their tribe, 
 and became bitterly hostile ; they had even formed a plot 
 to murder the white men, but were dissuaded from execut- 
 ing it by an old cacique, who told them that as the Span- 
 iards themselves were nearly all dying of the disease they 
 could hardly have desired its appearance. It was here that 
 the Spaniards began that practice of healing the sick, for 
 which Vaca gained so high a reputation and to which may 
 be attributed the deliverance of himself and his companions. 
 The physicians of this island — which Vaca called Malhado, 
 or Misfortune — practiced the healing art in a remarkable 
 manner ; it was their custom to blow upon the seat of the 
 disease, and if this failed to effect a cure to resort to cau- 
 terization or scarifying over the pain ; the patient, if his 
 cure was successful, gave the physician all of his goods and 
 also many belonging to his friends and relatives. After 
 the Spaniards had been a short time upon the island the 
 Indians desired to make physicians of them, but the 
 explorers declined to assume the responsibilities of the pro- 
 fession. The savages at first used persuasive means, and 
 when these failed they stopped the Spaniards' rations ; this- 
 heroic mode of treatment moved the stubborn cavaliers, 
 who began to practice without further ceremony. By 
 way of encouragement one of the Indians informed them 
 that he could remove pain from the stomach at once by 
 merely passing a heated stone over it, but as they were 
 
30 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 extraordinary beings they would be able to accomplish far 
 more than that. When called upon to administer "our 
 method," says Yaca, "was to bless the sick, breathing 
 upon them, and recite a Pater JSToster and an Ave Maria, 
 praying with all earnestness to God our Lord that he would 
 give good health, and also influence them to make us some 
 good return. In his clemency he willed that all those for 
 whom we supplicated should tell the others that they were 
 .sound and in health directly after we made the sign of the 
 blessed cross over them. 
 
 " For this the Indians treated us kindly, they deprived 
 themselves of food that they might give to us, and pre- 
 sented us with skins and some trifles." 
 
 Notwithstanding the success which attended their heal- 
 ing operations, the unfortunate explorers were gradually 
 reduced to slavery and separated from one another. For 
 nearly six years — from the summer of 1528 to some time in 
 the year 1533^ Vaca remained with the Indians of Mal- 
 hado, with no white man for a companion. In all this 
 time he went naked, as did his masters, but at the end of a 
 year was allowed to trade and peddle, an occupation which 
 enabled him to obtain plenty of food. He carried into the 
 interior sea-snails and their con'es, conch os, " a fruit like a 
 bean, used for medicine," and other articles ; bringing in 
 return skins, ochre, flints for arrow-heads, hard canes for 
 arrows, and tassels made of deer-skin dyed red. He was 
 treated with kindness and became a person of much impor- 
 tance throughout the country. His principal object in 
 traveling back and forth was to become acquainted with 
 the country and its people, which would be a great advan- 
 tage when he made his escape. The reason Yaca remained 
 so long among this tribe, the Charuccas, was to enable his 
 sick comrade, Oviedo, who had been left upon the island 
 of Malhado, to escape. Oviedo, even after regaining his 
 strength, was very cowardly and it required much persua- 
 sion to induce him to leave the island. The attempt was 
 made, however, and Yaca ferried Oviedo over in a canoe. 
 
 Beaching the mainland in safety they followed the 
 
WANDERINGS OF CABEQA DE A^ACA. 31 
 
 •coast toward the west, traveling in company with some 
 Indians; they soon reached a deep bay (supj)osed to be 
 Espirito Santo), crossing four large rivers on the way. The 
 bay was crossed safely and they fell in with some Indians 
 ■of the Queveres nation, who told Vaca of Christians some 
 distance beyond, the only ones of a large number who had 
 not been killed by Indians or died of hunger and cold. 
 They said that the tribe which held them captive treated 
 them with great cruelty, and, as an illustration, these 
 savages beat Yaca and his companion and put arrows to 
 their hearts, threatening to kill them ; demonstrations that 
 so terrified Oviedo that he returned to Malhado and was 
 never heard of again. Vaca kept on with the Queveres for 
 two days, when he was informed that the tribe Avhich held 
 his countrymen captive came to a certain wood near by to 
 «at walnuts ; he awaited their arrival and in a short time 
 met Andreas Dorantes, Alonzo Castillo Maldonaldo, and 
 Estevanico, a Barbary negro, at whose safety he was much 
 rejoiced. From these new-found companions, seven in 
 number, Vaca learned the fate of Narvaez, whose boat had 
 been carried out to sea by a north wind and never heard of 
 again ; the other boats had been cast away on the coast 
 and, with the exception of one Spaniard, who was a prisoner 
 among a more southern tribe, all the survivors of the four 
 hundred men who had gone with such high hopes to the 
 conquest of Florida, were now together captives in the 
 hands of the Indians. 
 
 Figueroa and one other Spaniard soon afterward escaped, 
 while Vaca, Dorantes, Castillo, and Estevanico, with two 
 others, persuaded the Queveres to accept them as slaves. By 
 this tribe they were very cruelly treated and two of their 
 number were murdered. Nearly two years of ceaseless hard- 
 ship and misery passed before the four remaining Spaniards, 
 the only ones to reach civilization, succeeded in escaping 
 their savage masters. It was late in the season and the 
 prickly pears had nearly disappeared, but they hoped that 
 on the few still remaining and the mast to be found in the 
 woods, they might exist while on their journey. Tliey 
 
32 HISTOKY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 hastened on all day, fearing pursuit and recapture ; toward 
 evening smoke was observed in the distance and an Indians- 
 was overtaken by the negro, who said that his village was- 
 near by and conducted them to it. Here they were- 
 received with great kindness and remained some time, 
 curing the sick. At first only Vaca and Castillo acted as. 
 physicians, but as time passed Dorantes and Estevanico 
 began to practice, "although," says Yaca, "in being ven- 
 turesome and bold in the performance of cures, I much ex- 
 celled. No one whom we treated but told us he was left 
 well, and so great was the confidence that they would 
 become healed if we ministered to them, that they even 
 believed that whilst we remained none of tliem could die."' 
 Continuing their journey the Spaniards suffered much from; 
 cold and hunger, living on two handfuls of peas a day and- 
 but a little water ; at one time they traded two nets and a 
 skin for two dogs which they devoured with great relish. 
 Vaca says that going naked caused them to shed their- 
 skins like serpents, that they tore their flesh in passing- 
 through the woods and bushes, and that exposure to sun 
 and air covered their body with sores. They were obliged 
 to carry heavy loads of wood on their backs and the cords 
 which bound it cut into their flesh. The Indians kept 
 them employed a good deal of their time in scraping and 
 softening skins, and Yaca relates that "the days of my 
 greatest prosperity were those in which they gave me skins- 
 to dress— I would scrape them a very great deal and eat 
 the scraps, which would sustain me two or three days." 
 When meat was given them they ate it raw as it was easier- 
 of digestion; even if they had desired to cook it they dared 
 not trust it upon the fire, as the first Indian who came by 
 would steal it ; the savages themselves were forced to hunt 
 for food continually, so great was the scarcity of pro- 
 visions. 
 
 The Spaniards having regained a little strength "after 
 eating the dogs," continued their journey, traveling in 
 what is supposed to have been a northwesterly direction ; 
 everywhere they were kindly treated and the natives- 
 
WANDERINGS OP CABEgA DE VACA. 33S 
 
 l)roiiglit out their sick to be cured and blessed. They 
 often remained for days in friendly villages and were con- 
 stantly followed by crowds anxious for the benediction of 
 the white medicine men. They journeyed across rivers 
 and plains, through numerous tribes of nameless Indians- 
 "whose strange customs are duly chronicled," and who re- 
 garded Vaca and his companions as supernatural beings^ 
 before whom all rights of property fell. •' The Indians who- 
 had charge of them, "says one writer, "did not take them to- 
 unfriendly tribes because they were unwilling that their 
 enemies should enjoy so great an advantage as to behold, 
 these new divinities. But as they proceeded in their prog- 
 resses a general spoliation took place. Nothing was left 
 in the houses of those Indians who were so fortunate as to 
 receive the Spaniards. This jiirocess scandalized and vexed 
 the Spaniards but they did not venture to prevent it ; and 
 even those Indians who were despoiled begged them not to 
 distress themselves about it, assuring them that they held 
 the loss of their goods as naught in comparison with the- 
 pleasure of having beheld them — and besides, they would 
 be paid by the spoil of other tribes. So the Spaniards; 
 moved on, accompanied by a multitude of Indians avIio 
 informed the new tribes they came among that these white- 
 men were the children of the sun, who had the power tO' 
 heal the sick and to take away life, and that they should 
 hide nothing from them, because everything was known to- 
 these new divinities. So great was the terror that tlieir pres- 
 ence inspired that for the first few days upon tlieir arrival 
 at any new place the inhabitants never stood before them' 
 without trembling and did not dare speak or lift up their 
 eyes." 
 
 The appearance of the country now changed, broad 
 plains covered with grass and flowers gave way to a more- 
 uneven surface, and mountain peaks could be seen in the- 
 distance ; when first discovered they appeared to be about 
 fifteen leagues off and were believed to run from the North 
 Sea. The Spaniards were advised by the Indians to visit 
 a friendly tribe dwelling on the summit of the ridge, but as 
 
34 IltSTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 it was out of their course they refused and sent forward 
 two of the natives accompanying tliem in search of people 
 or habitations in the direction they were following. After 
 proceeding two leagues these were met returning and 
 reported that they could find no inhabitants, again urg- 
 ing the Spaniards to ascend the mountain. Yaca refused, 
 and the Indians left him and returned down the river, 
 while he and his companions continued up the stream. 
 The Spaniards had proceeded but a short distance when 
 tthey met two women who informed them that further up 
 iihe river they would find houses, pears, and flour of maize. 
 They continued on all day and at night arrived at a village 
 of twenty houses, whose inhabitants came to meet them 
 weeping piteously, as they feared the Spaniards were 
 laccompanied by Indians froTn below, in which case their 
 ltown would be plundered ; but when they saw that the 
 white men were alone their fear was turned into joy. That 
 night the village was surprised by a party of hostile 
 Indians and robbed, the thieves consoling their victims 
 <with the information that, as the Spaniards were children 
 of the sun, their presence was a sufficient remuneration for 
 the stolen property ; they also advised them to conduct the 
 •Christians where people were more numerous, to offend 
 rtliem in nothing, but to rob other Indians wherever they 
 ■jnight be met. 
 
 From this village the Spaniards traveled fifty leagues, 
 at the base of the mountain range, and then arrived at a 
 town of fifty houses, whose inhabitants made them numer- 
 ous presents, one giving to Dorantes a copper bell with a 
 ihuman face engraved upon it, said to have come from the 
 north. Here they remained over night and the next day 
 ■crossed a mountain range, about seven leagues broad, cov- 
 ered with scoria and iron, coming to another village situ- 
 ated upon the bank of a beautiful river. The inhabitants, 
 carrying their children upon their backs, advanced to meet 
 them and gave them many gifts, little bags of pearls, pow- 
 dered antimony, with which they rubbed the face, beads, 
 ■"blankets of cow-hide," or buffalo robes. Vaca thus 
 
"WANDEEINGS OP CABEfA BE VACA. 35 
 
 speaks of the fruit of the pine tree, or pihon, which 
 abounds in most parts of New Mexico: "There are in 
 that country small pine trees, and the cones of them are 
 like small eggs ; but the seeds are better than those of 
 Castile, as its husk is very thin, and while green it is beat 
 and made into balls, and thus eaten. If dry it is pounded 
 in its husk and consumed in the form of flour." Their 
 principal article of food, after the piiions, was pears. 
 
 In this village they brought to Vaca a man who had 
 been wounded some time before with an arrow, the head 
 remaining in the wound, and requested him to cure it ; he 
 succeeded in drawing out the arrow-head and sewing up 
 the wound so that, in a short time, the man recovered. 
 This operation gave the Spaniards much influence ; they 
 showed the Indians the bell and were somewhat obscurely 
 informed " that there were many plates of the same mate- 
 rial buried, and also flxed habitations whence it had been 
 obtained.'' Leaving this town they continued on their 
 way, invariably followed by crowds of Indians who were 
 armed with clubs which they threw with amazing precision, 
 killing more hares than they could consume. Hares were 
 very abundant, and when one was started the Indians 
 would surround and attack him with their clubs, driving 
 him from one to another until he was overcome and cap- 
 tured (a custom still preserved among the Pueblo Indians 
 of New Mexico and one of their favorite sports). When 
 the natives came into camp at night they brought a plenti- 
 i\d supply of venison, with birds, quail, and other game ; 
 everything they killed was laid before the Spaniards who, 
 after partaking of a little food, distributed it to the princi- 
 pal Indians, requesting them to divide it among their 
 followers. None would touch it, however, until it had first 
 been blessed by the Christians, and as they were often 
 accompanied by three or four hundred Indians, "it may 
 well be seen," says Vaoa, "how great was the annoyance." 
 
 On their route they crossed a great river which came 
 from the north and traversed a plain thirty leagues broad. 
 Here the system of mutual plunder ceased, the inhabitants 
 
36 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 placing their goods and houses completely at the disposal 
 of the Spaniards, who returned the presents given them to 
 be distributed among the people. They were soon con- 
 ducted for fifty leagues through a desert and mountainous 
 country, reaching a very large river which they forded, the 
 water coming up to their breasts (the first river met with 
 was in all probability the Pecos, and the "very large river" 
 the Rio Grande). The traveling over the barren and rug- 
 ged country was now so difficult that many of the Indians- 
 sickened from mere fatigue and privation ; thence they 
 entered upon extensive plains at the foot of mountains, 
 where they met other Indians who came from a great dis- 
 tance beyond. They gave the Spaniards more presents 
 than they could carry, and when requested to receive part 
 of them back again, replied that such was not their custom, 
 and left the articles upon the ground. Vaca now desired 
 the Indians to conduct him toward the setting sun ; the 
 country was remote, and its inhabitants their enemies, but- 
 the natives dared not refuse, so they sent two women for- 
 ward as messengers to announce his coming and waited at 
 an appointed spot for their return, which took place at the 
 end of eighteen days. They then pushed forward and 
 reached a village whose jjeople dwelt in "fixed habita- 
 tions" and lived upon beans, pumpkins, and maize (un- 
 doubtedly one of the Pueblo towns of New Mexico). Vaca. 
 remained among this people a short time and was then con- 
 ducted to a neighboring tribe who also had "settled 
 habitations" and lived upon the same kind of food. They 
 were an intelligent and active race, with fine persons and 
 possessed of great strength. Vaca gave them the name of 
 the " cow nation," because of the great quantity of cattle 
 that were killed in their country and particularly along the 
 river for fifty leagues. 
 
 At the end of two days the Spaniards continued their 
 journey toward the west, following up the river for eighteen 
 days ; the land was barren and uncultivated, and they lived 
 upon deer-suet which Vaca had saved for such an emer- 
 gency on account of its concentrated nourishment. Cross- 
 
TVANDERINGS OF CABEgA DE VACA. 37 
 
 ing the river and continuing upon its bank for seventeen 
 days longer, they arrived among a people living upon 
 plains between high mountains. Still further westward 
 they came upon a country of permanent dwellings where 
 they found an abundance of maize and " thanked God for 
 having brought them safely into a land where food was 
 plenty. ' ' Again resuming their journey they traveled for a 
 hundred leagues through a region of ' ' fixed habitations ' ' 
 abounding in maize and beans ; the inhabitants were 
 friendly and gave many presents — deer-skins, blankets 
 of cotton, beads, corals from the South Sea, and many 
 fine turquoises brought from the North. They gave Vaca 
 emeralds made into arrow-heads which were held in great 
 esteem and used in their dances and celebrations ; these 
 arrow-heads the Indians said they obtained from lofty 
 mountains to the north, where there were populous towns 
 and very large houses, in exchange for bunches of plumes. 
 (In all probability these emeralds came from the country of 
 the JSTavajo Indians, where are found quantities of beauti- 
 ful garnets and a green stone like an emerald). Through 
 all this country there were evidences of a higher civiliza- 
 tion, the women being better treated and better dressed 
 than among the tribes previously visited. They washed 
 their garments with a soapy root which cleaned them well 
 {theYucca Jilamentosa, or soap-weed, which grows through- 
 out New Mexico, and is much used for washing purposes 
 under the name of amole); they also wore shoes. 
 
 " Among all these nations," says Vaca, "it was held for 
 very certain that we came from heaven. While we went 
 with them we journeyed the whole day without eating 
 until the evening, and we ate so little that they were 
 astonished at observing it. They never perceived fatigue 
 in us, for in truth we were so formed to labor that neither 
 did we feel it. We kept up much state and gravity with 
 them ; and, in order to maintain this, we spoke seldom to 
 them. The negro who was with us talked often to them, 
 informed himself of the roads we wished to take, the vil- 
 lages we should pass, and the other things we desired to 
 
38 IIISTOEY OP NEW MEXICO. 
 
 know. We passed through a great number and diversity 
 of tribes, and in all of them God our Lord favored us, for 
 they always understood us and we them. And we asked 
 and responded by signs as well as if they could speak our 
 language and we theirs. For, although we knew six lan- 
 guages, we could not in all parts make use of them, as 
 we found more than a thousand differences of tongue. 
 Throughout all these countries, those who had wars with 
 one another immediately made peace, in order to come and 
 receive us ; and so we left the whole country in peace. It 
 is a well-conditioned people," he adds, " ready to follow 
 any good thing well prepared for them." 
 
 The Spaniards remained in one village three days, the 
 inhabitants giving them many emeralds ; they called this 
 place Pueblo de los Corazones, or the Town of Hearts, and 
 from here they arrived at a village where heavy rains 
 detained them for fifteen days. Here Castillo saw upon 
 the neck of an Indian the buckle of an armor belt and the 
 nail of a horseshoe. The natives said they obtained them 
 from men who wore beards and came from heaven, and 
 who had arrived at that river with horses, lances, and 
 swoi"ds, had killed two of the tribe and then returned home 
 where the sun sets. This was the first information the 
 Spaniards received of their countrymen, and they were over- 
 come with joy at the prospect of again meeting them. Our 
 wanderers passed through many territories abounding in 
 fertile lands and beautiful streams, but the houses and 
 towns were deserted, the inhabitants having fled to the 
 hills throiigh fear of the Spaniards of Mexico. The 
 Indians, unable to plant their crops, lived upon roots and 
 the bark of trees, and were reduced to an almost starving 
 condition ; they related how the Spaniards had entered 
 their country, destroyed their towns, and carried away 
 many of the men and all of the women and boys. As 
 Vaca and his companions advanced, they saw repeated 
 indications of their countrymen ; messengers informed them 
 that the Spaniards had been seen the night before carrying 
 away the natives in chains ; this information alarmed the 
 
■WANDERINGS OP CABEgA DE VACA. 39' 
 
 Indians, most of whom immediately fled, although some 
 remained after receiving Vaca's assurances of their safety. 
 On the third day they arrived at the place where the- 
 Spaniards had been seen and were informed that horsemen 
 had left the spot very recently ; these fresh tidings of 
 their countrymen filled the wanderers with joy, and they 
 "returned thanks to God for having delivered them from 
 so many privations and dangers." 
 
 They were now upon the banks of the river Petatlan, 
 and in the mountain region of all this extent they saw 
 traces of gold, antimony, iron, and copper. His companioHS. 
 being unwilling to go in search of the Spaniards, Vaca set 
 out by himself, accompanied by the negro and eleven^ 
 Indians. He followed their trail steadily and the next 
 day overtook four horsemen, who were so amazed at his 
 strange appearance that they would have little to do or say 
 to him. He reqiiested to be led to their commander and 
 they conducted him to Capitan Diego Alcarez, leader of a 
 party of Spanish raiders from San Miguel, in search of 
 slaves and plunder. Yaca explained to Alcarez his con- 
 dition and whence he came, requesting also a certificate of 
 the day, month, and year of his arrival ; five days later Ms- 
 companions arrived at the camp with an escort of some six 
 hundred Indians. The soldiers were in want of food and 
 the Indians, at Vaca' s request, brought a plentiful supply 
 of corn and provisions. Alcarez, however, would have 
 rewarded the friendly natives by carrying them off into 
 slavery but for the protests and opposition of Vaca, who> 
 felt himself bound to protect them. This disagreement 
 led to angry words, and Alcarez endeavored to weaken the 
 Indians' attachment to their protector by telling them that 
 Vaca and his comjpanions were only white men like himself 
 and his Spaniards ; that they had been lost and were per- 
 sons of low condition. To this the Indians answered that 
 Don Diego lied, and, in the quaint words of the relacion^ 
 said that "we had come from whence the sun had risen, 
 and they whence it had gone down ; that we healed the- 
 sick, and they killed the sound ; that we had come naked 
 
40 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 and barefooted, and they in clothing and on horses ; that 
 Tve were not covetous of anything, but that all that was 
 given to us we turned and gave again, remaining with 
 nothing, while they had no purpose but to rob any one 
 Ihey found and give nothing to any one." 
 
 Alcarez sent Vaca and his companions forward, in 
 ■charge of an alcalde who conducted them through vast sol- 
 itudes and forests ; so difficult was the journey that many 
 •of the Indians died and all suffered severely. They finally 
 reached the town of Culiacan, where Melchior Diaz, alcalde 
 mayor, received thein with great kindness in the name of 
 NuTio de Guzman, governor of the province, and placed 
 all the town possessed at their disposal. He also entreated 
 Yacato use his infliience over the Indians and induce them 
 to return to their villages. In this he was successful, and 
 Captain Alcarez "made a covenant with God not to invade, 
 or consent to the invasion, nor to enslave, any part of that 
 country and jDeople to whom we had guaranteed safety." 
 This pacification occupied several days, during which 
 time, so great had been the effect of the constant exposure 
 ^lpon the bodies of the wanderers that they Avere unable 
 to bear the weight or touch of clothes ; nor could they 
 sleej) elsewhere than on the ground. From Culiacan they 
 journeyed to San Miguel, where they arrived April 1, 1536 ; 
 here they remained until May 15th, when they went to 
 ■Compostella, and were entertained with much hospitality 
 hy Guzman, and thence to Mexico, which they entered on 
 July 25, 1536, and where they were received with honor- 
 able distinction by the Viceroy Mendoza, and Cortez, Mar- 
 quis of the Valley. 
 
 After preparing a report of their travels the little party 
 separated ; the negro, Estevanico, entered the service of 
 Viceroy Mendoza ; Castillo remained permanently in Mex- 
 ico ; Dorantes started for Spain, but returned and joined 
 a projected expedition under Mendoza, which was never 
 carried out. Alvar Nunez spent the winter in Mexico 
 and in the early spring set sail from Vera Cruz for Spain 
 in obedience to the summons of Charles V. He a,rrived 
 
"WANDERINGS OF CABEgA DE VACA. 41 
 
 a,t Lisbon in August, 1537, and was received with marked 
 favor by his royal master. But his trials in the New 
 World were not yet ended. In 1540 he was sent to Para- 
 .guay, as governor and captain-general, by Charles V., 
 having contributed eight thousand ducats to the expedi- 
 tion. His protection of the Indians made him very unpop- 
 ular among the soldiers, and the officers intrigued against 
 him ; while at Los Reyes, Vaca fell ill of marsh fever and 
 :so was unable to defeat their machinations ; they seized 
 upon him, put him in irons, kept him in close confinement 
 for a year, and then sent him — in such a state of illness 
 that, as his secretary says, ' ' it was as if he had the candle 
 in his hands" — ^as a prisoner to Spain, in a vessel with 
 some of their own party who were to be his accusers. His 
 trial lingered for eight years, and in 1551 he was con- 
 demned to the loss of his titles and banishment to Africa. 
 It is not known whether or not the sentence was executed, 
 but it is believed that he was afterward pardoned and 
 granted a pension by the crown. 
 
 The route of Cabega de Vaca in North America cannot 
 be traced with accuracy, but it appears that they were 
 wrecked on one of the sandy islands near the coast of 
 Louisiana or Texas, and proceeded in a northwesterly 
 ■course until they reached the buffalo plains on some of the 
 western tributaries of A^rkansas ; they then went in a south- 
 western direction, passed down the Gila to a point near its 
 •mouth, and journeyed toward the frontier settlements of 
 New Spain. 
 
 Such was the expedition, ' ' begun, ' ' says Prince, ' ' with 
 intent to find another El Dorado, similar to those of the 
 Montezumas and Incas, and which, though doomed to 
 disaster from its very inception, and utterly unsuccessful 
 in accomplishing its design, yet lives in history through 
 the sufferings and endurance of the four men who were the 
 first to cross the continent north of the comparatively nar- 
 row domains of Mexico. By the people of New Mexico 
 the name of Cabega de Vaca will ever be held in special 
 remembrance as that of the first European who ever passed 
 through her territory." 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 FRIAR NIZA AND THE EXPEDITION OF CORONADO.. 
 
 1537-1542. 
 
 Tales of Golden Cibola— Vasquez de Coronado— Marcos de Niza— His.. 
 Departui'e for Cibola— Niza's Journey— Reception by the Natives— 
 Estevanico's Death— Niza takes Possession of the Country— His 
 Return— Zaldivar and Diaz sent to Verify his Report— Exaggerations, 
 of Friar Niza— Expedition Organized — Coronado made Captain- 
 General— Enthusiasm at Mexico— Departure of Expedition— The- 
 March— Halt at Chametla— Return of Zaldivar and Diaz — Army 
 Arrives at Culiaoan — Coronado Advances with a small Escort — Chi- 
 chilticale— Colorado Chiquito— First Sight of Cibola— Spaniards- 
 Assault the Town — Cibola Taken- -Country Subdued — Return of 
 Niza — Arrival of Main Army— Exploring Parties — Moqui— Grand 
 Canon — Tiguex — "El Turco" — Spaniards at Tiguex — Revolt — 
 Tiguex Subdued — Cicuye — On the Buffalo Plains — Army returns 
 to 'Tiguex — Coronado at Quivira — Disappointment — Treachery of 
 " El Turco " — Exploring Parties — Yuqueyunque — Taos — Socorro — 
 Coronado's Return — General Disappointment — Winter of 1541 — 
 Coronado Injured — Expedition Abandoned — Return of Coronado 
 to Mexico — Resumes his Duties as Governor — Route of Coronado's- 
 Expedition. 
 
 CABE(yA DE VACA's account of the countries he had 
 l^assed through set all Mexico in a ferment, as it added 
 fresh weight to the assertions made some years before by 
 the Indian of Oxitipar. Tales of Grolden Cibola, with its- 
 mighty cities defended by impregnable outworks ; of moun- 
 tains of opal and rivers of gold ; of herds of wonderful 
 " cows with hair an inch thick, frizzled and resembling 
 wool," who roamed over vast plains ; of a " terrible serpent 
 with castanets in his tail " ; and a llano, broad as the great 
 desert of Africa,— were eagerly repeated by the Spaniards, 
 and a general desire for exploration ensued. Even the 
 most moderate told of a populous land, whose inhabitants. 
 
 43 
 
FRIAB NIZA AND THE EXPEDITION OF COBONADO. 43 
 
 tilled the ground, living upon pumpkins, beans, and maize, 
 weaving garments of cotton, and dwelling in houses four 
 stories high. It was with the intention of conquering and 
 colonizing these golden regions that the two next expedi- 
 tions were dispatched, the first, which consisted merely of 
 a priest and a few followers, preparing the way for the 
 important expedition of Coronado. 
 
 Diego Perez de la Torre succeeded ISTuho de Gruzman as 
 ' governor of New Galicia, in 1536, but was killed early in 
 1538 while engaged in a stubborn campaign against revolting 
 Indians. His successor was Francisco Yasquez de Coronado, 
 a man famous as the first to attempt the conquest of New 
 Mexico, and to succeed in thoroughly exploring that 
 hitherto unknown territory. Vasquez de Coronado was a 
 native of Salamanca, and had married the daughter of 
 Alonzo de Estrada, Royal Treasurer of New Spain. He 
 was a warm friend of Viceroy Mendoza, who had high 
 hopes of conquest and discovery in the Northwest. At the 
 time of his appointment Coronado occupied the position 
 of visitador, but the reports of Vaca and his companions 
 hastened the departure of the new governor to his' province. 
 It was.agreed by Coronado and Mendoza that a small recon- 
 noitering party should be sent to Cibola, and if, on its 
 return, the wealth and fertility of that land was still asser- 
 ted, a large expedition, under the governor himself, should 
 set out to subdue and colonize the country. It was with 
 this purpose that the little band under Friar Niza was dis- 
 patched early in 1539. Marcos de Niza was a Franciscan 
 friar, an Italian who had come to the New World in 1531, 
 had been with Alvarado in Peru in 1532, and in whose 
 ability the viceroy had much confidence. He was accom- 
 panied by Father Honorato, a brother monk ; Estevanico, 
 the Barbary negro who had accompanied Cabega de Vaca, 
 and later entered the service of Viceroy Mendoza, and a 
 number of friendly Indians. 
 
 Friar Niza and his companions departed from San Miguel 
 on Friday, March 7, 1539. Traveling in a northwesterly 
 direction, some little distance from the coast of the Grulf of 
 
44 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 California, they soon arrived at the town of Petatlan. The 
 inhabitants of the country through which they passed 
 treated them with kindness and hospitality, furnished 
 venison, pumpkins, and maize-bread, and gave them pres- 
 ents of robes, flowers, buflfalo-skins, and many other articles. 
 In the parts of the country where there were no houses the 
 Indians erected rude bowers of branches and boughs woven 
 together for the white strangers to repose under. Hono- 
 rato being taken ill at Petatlan, Fray Marcos left him " 
 there and traveled on "as the Holy Ghost did lead," receiv- 
 ing constant kindness and friendliness from the natives. 
 After a journey of some twenty-five leagues he came to a 
 desert, which was crossed in four days, and three days later 
 arrived at a "town of considerable bigness," called Vacupa, 
 where he was hospitably welcomed. Prom Yacupa, Mza 
 dispatched Estevanico northward to search for anything of 
 importance in that direction ; it was agreed that if his dis- 
 coveries were unimportant he should send back a ' ' white 
 cross one handful in length " ; if, on the contrary, he heard 
 of a great country, he was to send back a great cross. The 
 negro set out on the afternoon of Passion Monday, and in 
 four days a messenger came to Niza, bearing a cross as high 
 and as large as a man. Estevanico sent word that he had 
 arrived among a people who gave him information of a 
 mighty province, the first city of which was called Cibola ; 
 that the province contained seven great cities, all under the 
 dominion of one lord ; that the houses were built of pine or 
 stone, and were large and commodious ; that the least of 
 them was one story in height, some two and three, and the 
 •dwelling of the ruler of the province .was four stories high. 
 Mza hastened from Vacupa, traveling in Estevanico' s foot- 
 steps, and in a few days came to the people who had told 
 the negro of Cibola and its Seven Cities, three days' journey 
 beyond, where they had been to get turquoises. For five 
 days the party went on through settlements well- watered 
 and pleasant, the last of which, not far from the present 
 site of Tucson, Arizona, was near the borders of a desert, 
 crossed in four days. At this village Niza found a large 
 
FKIAE NIZA AND THE EXPEDITIOJST OF COEONADO. 45 
 
 cross which Estevanico had set up, and a message that the 
 negro was hastening forward, but would wait for the friar 
 at the edge of the great desert. Niza now traveled through 
 a region, populous and abounding in villages, where he was 
 received with uniform hospitality by the Indians, and 
 informed that he would soon come to a great desert where 
 there was no food to be had, and that some of their people 
 had been sent forward to carry provisions and prepare 
 lodgings for him. Here the friar was visited by the cacique 
 of the village and his two brothers, clad in cotton garments, 
 with a collar of turquoise about the neck and the same 
 j&wels in ears and nose. They offered him turquoises, 
 dressed oxhides, beautiful drinking-vessels, and many kinds 
 of food, and it was here that Niza received the first intima- 
 tion that sheep existed in New Mexico or that its inhabi- 
 tants understood the manufacture of woolen cloth. The 
 friar was clothed in a garment of gray woolen stuff called 
 saragossa with which the chiefs seemed much pleased ;. 
 they informed him that there was an abundance of such 
 cloth in the province of Totonteac (Moqui). He laughed 
 at this, and, wishing to see if they understood the difference 
 between wool and cotton, told them the material was the 
 same as the cotton garments they wore. The Indians 
 replied, " We would have thee think that we understand 
 that that apparel which thou wearest and that which we 
 wear are of divers sorts. Understand thou, that in Cibola 
 all the houses are full of that apparel which we wear ; but 
 in Totonteac there are certain little beasts (mountain sheep) 
 from whom they take that thing whereof such apparel as 
 thou wearest is made." 
 
 In one day's journey from this village Niza arrived at 
 the desert and continued on across it ; at noon he came to 
 a river, where food was prepared by the friendly natives 
 and a bower built for his repose. The same arrangements 
 were made for his comfort during the four days he was 
 crossing the desert. At the end of this time he entered a 
 well-populated valley, the people of which were dressed in 
 skins, the women wearing "good waistcoats and other 
 
46 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 garments," with turquoises in nose and ears. They related 
 to Niza how the people of Cibola built their houses, and 
 when he doubted their recital, the Indians, to show him 
 that such was the case, ' ' took earth and poured water 
 thereon, and showed him how they laid stones upon it, and 
 how the building grew up as they continued laying stones 
 upon it, until it mounted aloft." He asked "if the men 
 of that country had wings by which to reach these high 
 lofts"; whereon, "they showed him a well-made ladder 
 and said they ascended by this means." 
 
 After many days' travel Niza arrived, on May 9th, at the 
 edge of a great desert, the Indians proceeding before and 
 providing him with food. He had journeyed for twelve 
 days, when a native came to him in great fright and 
 announced the death of Estevanico. In his progress the 
 negro carried a mace, made of a gourd strung with bells and 
 ornamented with two feathers, one red, the other white, 
 the whole being a symbol of peace. It was his custom, on 
 arriving near a town, to send the mace forward by a mes- 
 senger. When within three days' journey of Cibola 
 (Zuni) he sent the mace to the town by some Indians with 
 instructions to say that he came upon a friendly mission 
 and requested a safe-conduct. The messenger was led 
 before the chief magistrate, who took the mace to examine 
 it, but when his eyes fell upon the bells he dashed it to the 
 ground and angrily commanded the messenger to leave 
 immediately. The unlucky Indians returned in trepida- 
 tion, but Estevanico, undaunted, proceeded to Cibola, 
 where he was at once made prisoner and brought before 
 the aged men and caciques. He boldly declared that 
 he came from a mighty chief and commanded them to sur- 
 render their riches and their women. This audacity satis- 
 fied the Indians that "he was a dangerous man," and he 
 was condemned to death. He made a futile attempt to 
 escape, but was killed with all but three of the Indians 
 who accompanied him. Fray Marcos, alarmed at tliis 
 event, did not endeavor to enter the city, but before leaving 
 the country he ascended a high hill from which he could 
 
FEIAR NIZA AND THE EXPEDITION OF CORONADO. 47 
 
 survey Cibola ; then, with the help of the Indians, he 
 raised a heap of stones ; set up a cross, the symbol of 
 taking possession, and under the text, " The heathen are 
 ^iven as an inheritance," named the province " El Nuevo 
 Kegno de San Francisco" (The New Kingdom of Saint 
 Francis), taking formal possession of it in the name of the 
 ■" most honorable Lord Antonio de Mendoza, Viceroy and 
 ■Captain-General of New Spain." 
 
 The Indians, grieved at the death of their friends who 
 had accompanied Estevanico, soon became hostile and the 
 friar received but little hospitality on his homeward jour- 
 ney, which was by the same route, but made with " more 
 fear than food." He arrived at Compostella toward the 
 ■end of June, and Abbe Domenech, speaking of Niza's jour- 
 ney says, ' ' The information given by Father Marcos is so 
 vague that it is scarcely possible to state precisely the route 
 he followed. . . . There would seem to be, however, good 
 -authority for supposing that his journey was made through 
 the valley of the Gila, . . . across the Colorado Chiquito, 
 ■thence through the Mogollon Mountains, and across the 
 ^reat plateau to the western slope of the Sierra Madre." 
 The whole distance from Cibola to Culiacan vs^as estimated 
 at three hundred leagues. 
 
 During the absence of Niza, Coronado, although em- 
 ployed with the affairs of his government and anxiously 
 •awaiting the friar's return, found time to invade the 
 northern province of Topeja, of the vs^ealth of which he had 
 Teceived reports. His force was small and the expedition 
 "unsuccessful, as the riches of the land did not materialize. 
 He consequently returned to Culiacan, where he found Niza 
 just arrived from Cibola. In the account of his journey to 
 the land of the Seven Cities, the friar made so many mar- 
 velous statements that Coronado, despatching Melchior 
 Diaz and Juan de Zaldivar to verify these reports, accom- 
 panied Mza to Mexico where he related his discoveries to 
 Ticeroy Mendoza ; testifying that, not only had he taken 
 possession of Cibola but that he had been in the famous 
 <!ityand had seen the turquoise columns, the beautiful slave 
 
48 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 girls, and the priceless feather cloaks of those who dwelt 
 in the king's palace. His descriptions of the heaps of 
 emeralds and precious stones, of the rooms "lighted by 
 jewels," of the many vessels of gold and silver " more- 
 abundant than in Peru," inflamed anew the minds of the 
 Spaniards and raised hopes destined to be speedily extin- 
 guished. For, except the so-called turquoise — a species of 
 chalcTiuite, called by Father Sahagun "a jasper of very 
 green color, or a common smaragdus," and of little pe- 
 cuniary value — there was no foundation for the tales of 
 great wealth to which ISTiza's relation gave rise throughout- 
 Mexico. 
 
 The friar was received with enthusiasm at the capital 
 and was made provincial of the Franciscans, thus securing 
 the co-operation of that order, and uniting the influence of 
 the Church and State in the cause of adventure. In a short 
 time an army of four hundred Spaniards and eight hundred 
 Indians was duly organized for the conquest of Cibola, un- 
 der the command of Coronado as captain-general. The- 
 majority of the Spaniards who joined the enterprise were 
 men of family and rank, and Castafieda, historian of the 
 expedition, says, "I doubt whether there has ever been col- 
 lected in the Indies so brilliant a troop, particularly for the 
 small number of four hundred men. He (Coronado) chose 
 for standard-bearer of the army Don Pedro de Tobar, a young- 
 cavalier, son of Don Hernando de Tobar, chief mayor- 
 domo of the late queen Joanna, our legitimate sovereign, 
 whose soul be in God's keeping. He gave the place of 
 colonel to Lope de Samaniego, governor of the arsenal of 
 Mexico, and a chevalier well worthy of this station. The 
 captains were Don Tristan de Arellano, Don Pedro de 
 Quevara, son of Don Juan de Quevara, and nephew of the- 
 Count of Ohate, Don Garcia Lopez de Cardenas, Don Rod- 
 rigo Maldonaldo, brother-in-law of the Duke of Infantado, 
 Diego Lopez, member of the council of Sevilla, and Diego 
 Gutierrez, captain of cavalry." Besides these, many other- 
 distinguished cavaliers entered the expedition, holding no- 
 command but placed under the immediate orders of Coro- 
 
FRIAR NIZA AND THE EXPEDITION OF CORONADO. 49" 
 
 nado. The general himself was a great favorite with his 
 men and is said to have been " a good gentleman, and a 
 wise, priident, and able man." 
 
 Compostella, the capital of New Galicia, one hundred 
 and ten leagues from Mexico, was designated as the rendez- 
 vous of the army, which marched to the gathering point in 
 separate columns. At the same time two ships under 
 Pedro de Alarcon were ordered to follow the coast from^ 
 Natividad to Xalisco in order to transport the baggage 
 which the array could not carry with them. The route of 
 the two forces diverged so widely, however, that they could 
 hold no intercourse with one another. At Compostella the' 
 army was received by the viceroy, who addressed the sol- 
 diers upon the importance of the expedition and the great 
 results to flow from the conquest of the Seven Cities. 
 Each man was made to take an oath upon the gospels to- 
 obey their general and never abandon him, while the 
 officers were acknowledged anew by the whole army. The- 
 force of Coronado, including Indians, servants, and camp- 
 followers, amounted to some fifteen hundred men with 
 about a thousand horses ; they also drove with them one 
 hundred and fifty head of European cows and a large num- 
 ber of sheep, for the support of the troops and also toj 
 assist in the colonization of the country. 
 
 The army left Compostella in February, 1540, and wasr 
 accompanied for two days by the viceroy, who then re- 
 turned to Mexico. At Chametla a halt was made to obtain 
 provisions, and Colonel Lope de Samaniego, having care- 
 lessly entered a pueblo without a sufficient guard, Avas 
 killed by the natives. In revenge, all the inhabitants in. 
 the village were put to death. At Chametla, Diaz andl 
 Zaldivar joined the army ; their report was unsatisfactory,, 
 as they had found nothing to Justify the friar's glowing 
 statements, and this disappointment was severely felt by the- 
 men. Niza, who was determined that the expedition 
 should advance, contradicted the rumors which spread, 
 through the camp and denied that Diaz and Zaldivar had. 
 failed in their discoveries. Having collected sufficient pro- 
 
50 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 visions the army resumed the march and arrived at Culia- 
 can the day after Easter. Here they were received with 
 much enthusiasm, and left a great part of their baggage 
 which it would be impossible to take with them for want 
 of means of transportation. After about fifteen days' rest 
 at Culiacan, Coronado, impatient to penetrate the un- 
 known country of the Seven Cities, determined to advance 
 with a small body of cavaliers and foot soldiers, his most 
 intimate friends, the main arTriy to follow later. He ap- 
 pointed Hernandaris Saaveard his lieutenant, to act as 
 governor of the province during his absence, and Tristan de 
 Arellano was named to succeed him in command of the 
 army. He set out with an escort of sixty men, under the 
 command of one Jaramillo, and accompanied by Niza as 
 guide. The little party took their departure in high 
 spirits, marching in a northwesterly direction ; they met 
 with but one delay, caused by an injury to one of their 
 number, a priest named Antonio Victoria, who was sent 
 back to Culiacan. The remainder of their journey was un- 
 interrupted and the natives were all friendly. They 
 passed through the whole of the inhabited country and 
 late in May arrived at Cliichilticale, or the " Eed House," 
 probably what is now known as the Casa Grande on the 
 Grila River. At this point Coronado was much dispirited ; 
 so far the country had been mountainous and barren ; the 
 only inhabitants uncivilized and wretched tribes ; Chichilti- 
 cale, instead of the fine town which had been represented 
 to him, he found a roofless ruin in almost the same con- 
 dition as at the present time, and the only consolation con- 
 nected therewith was the belief that it must have been 
 erected by people somewhat advanced in civilization. 
 
 Disheartening as was the prospect before him, Coro- 
 nado determined to advance, and on June 23d he entered 
 upon the desert, traveling in a northeasterly course. For 
 fifteen days they continued across the barren and sandy 
 country, passing "thirty leagues of a most wicked way," 
 and coming at last to a narrow river, " fresh and with grass 
 like that of Castile," where they encamped, some eight 
 
FEIAR NIZA. AND THE EXPEDITION OF COKONADO. 51 
 
 leagues from Cibola. They named the stream the Rio 
 Termejo (the Colorado Chiquito) on account of the reddish 
 hue of the water. Here were met the first Indians of the 
 country, who fled as soon as discovered. The next even- 
 ing, when about two leagues from Cibola, some Indians 
 were seen watching their movements from a high rock, 
 which could not be reached. As Coronado and his men 
 came into view the natives uttered piercing cries that much 
 alarmed the Spaniards, and Casteneda remarks that some 
 of the cavaliers were so frightened that they "saddled 
 their horses wrong end foremost." The soldiers scoured 
 the country in pursuit of the Indians, but could not cap- 
 ture them. The next day — about the 10th of July, 1540 — 
 they entered the inhabited country and came in sight of 
 the famous Cibola. The town, called by the Spaniards 
 Oranada, was built on a high rocky mesa, accessible at one 
 point only, and standing where are now the ruins of Old 
 Zuni. So disappointed were the Spaniards in its appear- 
 ance, that they broke out into maledictions against Friar 
 Marcos. Instead of a large city, as the monk had repre- 
 sented, they found it to be a village of about two hundred 
 warriors, situated in an almost impregnable position, the 
 only means of reaching it being by a narrow and tortuous 
 road, difficult of ascent. Instead of finding the inhabi- 
 tants peaceable and ready to welcome them, the warriors 
 were drawn up in battle array a short distance from the 
 town, awaiting the approach of the invaders. Coronado 
 summoned them to surrender, but they replied by menac- 
 ing gestures and the general determined to open the at- 
 tack. Placing himself at the head of his men the little 
 band charged boldly, shouting the war-cry of " Santiago ! 
 Santiago!" The Indians fied without resistance, and 
 retired to the town. This was immediately attacked but 
 was not taken without opposition ; the only approach to 
 it was by the narrow pathway that led from the rock 
 to the valley, and which the Indians had prepared to 
 defend. 
 
 As the Spaniards advanced to the assault thev were 
 
52 HISTOEY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 received with a shower of arrows, and large stones were 
 hurled down upon them. Coronado was struck to th^ 
 earth and would have been killed, but for the devotedness 
 of two cavaliers, Garcia Lopez de Cardenas and Hernando 
 de Alvarado, who sheltered him with their bodies and 
 received the blows intended for the general. The Indians 
 made a brave resistance, but in an hour Cibola was taken, 
 its inhabitants fleeing to the hills where the greater num- 
 ber remained, although a few returned as the weeks i)assed, 
 and the two races were on friendly but defensive terms. 
 The town was found well-stored with provisions, of which 
 the Spaniards were in great need, and which were taken at 
 once for the army. In a short time the surrounding vil- 
 lages sent in their submission with presents to the con- 
 querors, and the whole province was subjugated. It was 
 composed of seven cities, some of which were much larger 
 and better built than Cibola ; but although Coronado and 
 his men were at last masters of this famous land, their dis- 
 appointment was very great. The country was fertile, the 
 people industrious, dwelling in houses four stories high, 
 wearing cotton garments, and possessing a few turquoises, 
 but there were none of the heaps of gold and Jewels they 
 had so confidently expected, and on inquiry it was found 
 that the natives were ignorant of any wealthy lands either 
 to the north or the east. So angry were officers and men 
 at their disenchantment that Friar Niza was sent back in 
 disgrace to Sonora, and Coronado, in his report to the 
 emperor, says, "It remaineth noAv to testify whereof the 
 Father Provincial, Niza, made report to your majesty. 
 And to be brief, I can assure your honor he said the truth 
 in nothing that he reported ; but all was quite contrary, 
 save only the names of the cities and the great houses of 
 stone." 
 
 We will now leave Coronado and his men and return to 
 the army at Culiacan. Fifteen days after the departure 
 of the general the expedition set out under the command 
 of Captain Tristan de Arellano. They traveled in a north- 
 westerly direction, finding the advance slow and difficult, 
 
FKIAR NIZA AND THE EXPEDITION OF OOKONADO, 53 
 
 altliougli the natives remained friendly. The first province 
 entered was the one called by Cabega de Vaca, Tierra de 
 los Corazones ; here a city was founded by Arellano and 
 named San Hieromen de los Corazones. The army 
 encamped at this place until the middle of October, when 
 two cavaliers, Melchior Diaz and Captain Juan Gallegos, 
 arrived with instructions for it to hasten forward and ]oin 
 the general at Cibola. Diaz was ordered to remain in com- 
 mand of the new settlement and endeavor to colonize it, 
 while Gallegos was to push on to Mexico and give an 
 account of the discoveries to the viceroy ; with him went 
 Father Marcos, who dared no longer trust himself in Cibola 
 among the incensed soldiery. The army left San Hiero- 
 men de los Corazones in the latter part of October and 
 advanced without opposition from the Indians, Coronado 
 having pacified the i)rovinces he passed through. They 
 struck the desert at Chichilticale, as the general had done, 
 and entered at once upon its arid waste. Near here were 
 seen a flock of sheep, thus described by Castaheda : "I 
 also saw and followed them ; they were very large, had 
 very long horns and hair. When they wish to run they 
 throw back the head so that their horns lie along their 
 back. They run so rapidly we could not catch them and 
 were obliged to let them go." The desert was crossed in 
 fifteen days without loss of any kind, but when one day's 
 journey from Cibola the army encountered a furious hurri- 
 cane, followed by a snow-storm so severe that several men 
 perished of the cold. On reaching the city they found 
 comfortable quarters prepared for them by the general, and 
 food in abundance. 
 
 Coronado and his men remained at Cibola for five 
 months, and Castaheda has left a full and interesting 
 account of the country and its inhabitants. The province 
 was situated in a warm valley, between high mountains ; 
 one of the seven villages took the name of the province, 
 and the manners and customs of them all were very sim- 
 ilar. The houses were ordinarily four or five stories high, 
 although some were six and seven. The inhabitants were 
 
54 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 more civilized and intelligent than any the Spaniards had 
 hitherto seen ; they clothed themselves in finely dressed 
 skins and stufEs made of cotton, decorated with embroidery, 
 bright fringe, and tassels. They also manufactured feather 
 mantles, but these were kept for state occasions. The 
 women were graceful in form and paid much attention to 
 their personal appearance, the state of wife or maiden 
 being denoted by the manner of dressing the hair. A man 
 married only once, and should his wife die he could not 
 take another. Their religion was thought to be a branch of 
 the Aztec worship, although they offered no human sacrifices. 
 The priests were selected from among the aged persons, and 
 every morning at sunrise they preached from the highest 
 point in the village, the people paying the most profound 
 attention. The cross was known among them, and was 
 revered as an emblem of peace ; they burned the dead and 
 with them the implements of their trade. Cotton was 
 cultivated, and pumpkins, beans, and maize raised ; the 
 stalks of the maize were very short and the ears started 
 near the ground ; each ear contained seven or eight hun- 
 dred grains, which was a matter of astonishment to the 
 Spaniards, and was said to excel anything seen in the 
 Indies. The animals found in the country were bears, 
 lions, Avild cats, hyenas, and beavers. 
 
 Before the arrival of the main body of the army, Coro- 
 nado had succeeded in making jDeace with the inha,bitants 
 of the province, but could obtain little knowledge of the 
 surrounding country. He was informed that twenty-five 
 leagues from Cibola was a province called Tusayan, con- 
 taining seven cities like their own (identical with the 
 present Moqui villages) ; that the houses were six and 
 seven stories high, and the inhabitants very brave. The 
 general immediately dispatched an expedition thither, 
 under the command of Captain Pedro de Tobar ; it con- 
 sisted of seventeen horsemen and three or four foot- 
 soldiers. The little band was accompanied by a monk 
 named Juan de Padilla, who had been a cavalier in his 
 youth, but now belonged to the Franciscans. Tobar and 
 
FRIAR NIZA AND THE EXPEDITION OF CORONADO. 55 
 
 his men advanced as secretly as possible and arrived at the 
 province most unexpectedly. Their interpreter was sent 
 to the village and was received with friendliness but 
 informed that the white men could not enter the town. 
 The Indians traced a line upon the earth which they for- 
 bade the strangers to cross, and one of the soldiers disobey- 
 ing this order was immediately struck down by a warrior. 
 This angered the troops and, at the instance of Pray Juan, 
 they charged the Indians, who lied at once but were pursued 
 and several killed. In a short time the inhabitants of the' 
 village came out to the Spaniards and gave in their sub- 
 mission in the name of the province, bringing gifts of 
 tanned leather, flour, pine nuts, maize, poultry, and a few 
 turquoises. The Spaniards then entered the town, and 
 after taking possession of it returned to Cibola and reported 
 their success to the general. 
 
 About this time Coronado had received accounts from 
 the Indians of a great river toward the west, and he at 
 once sent a party of twelve men, under Don Garcia de 
 Cardenas, to discover and explore it. They obtained pro- 
 visions and guides at Tusayan, and for twenty days Jour- 
 neyed across a desert country, suffering severely from cold, 
 although it was in summer time. The desert was crossed 
 safely and they arrived suddenly at "a great cleft in the 
 earth's surface, which prevented them from going any 
 farther," and which they learned was the river they were 
 in search of. Cardenas described the cleft as being ' ' deeper 
 than the side of the highest mountain ; while the torrent 
 below seemed scarce a fathom wide. Three men, Captain 
 Melgosa, Juan Galeres, and a private soldier, tried to 
 descend its steep precipitous sides ; and after experiencing 
 the most terrible difficulties they managed to climb down 
 perhaps a quarter of the way, when their progress was 
 stopped by a rook, which seemed from above to be no 
 greater than a man, but which in reality was higher than 
 the top of the cathedral tower at Seville." The Spaniards 
 followed the banks for several days, but were obliged to 
 return for want of water. This river they called the Tizan, 
 
S6 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 :and it is now known as the Colorado, the point visited by 
 Cardenas and his men having been tlie Grand Canon. 
 
 In tlie mean time Coronado and his army remained in 
 good quarters at Cibola, visited by Indians from neighbor- 
 ing provinces who came to make alliances and treaties. 
 Among others a deputation arrived from the province of 
 ■Cicuye, situated some seventy leagues to the east. They 
 were accompanied by their cacique^ a tall, handsome man 
 whom the Spaniards called Bigotes on account of his long 
 mustaches, and who gave Coronado much information con- 
 cerning his country, mentioning particularly the numbers 
 of buffaloes to be found there. The general was deeply 
 interested and resolved to send an expedition to Cicuye ; 
 he gave the command to Captain Hernando Alvarado, who, 
 with twenty men, was instructed to accompany the Indians 
 on their return, and at the end of eighty days to report 
 again at Cibola. The Spaniards set out, and after a march 
 of fifteen days arrived at Acuco (the present Acoma), a 
 very strong place built upon a rock, the inhabitants of 
 which, by their brigandage, were much dreaded through- 
 out the province. The rock upon which the town stood 
 was very high and perpendicular on three sides ; the top 
 was reached by a staircase cut in the solid stone ; the first 
 flight, numbering two hundred steps, was easy to ascend, 
 the second, of one hundred steps, was narrow and difficult, 
 and there then remained twelve feet more to the top, which 
 •could only be reached by mounting with hands and feet by 
 holes cut in the rock. On the summit were piles of stones 
 to be hurled down upon an enemy, stores of provisions, 
 and cisterns for water. The Indians came down to meet 
 the Spaniards, and at first were hostile ; but, awed by 
 threats of battle, they soon begged for quarter and gave 
 presents of fowls, dressed deer skins, pine nuts, flour, and 
 maize. 
 
 Alvarado continued on and in three days arrived at the 
 province of Tiguex, where he was well received on account 
 of the influence of Bigotes, who was a powerful and much 
 feared chief. So well did the captain like Tiguex that he 
 
FEIAE NIZA AND THE EXPEDITION OF CORONADO. 57 
 
 sent dispatches to Coronado, advising Mm to winter there, 
 and then pushed on to Cicuye, a large and strongly f orti- 
 iied town, where the Spaniards were received with friend- 
 liness and escorted to the village with music of drums and 
 flutes. Here they met an Indian from a distant town who, 
 on account of his general appearance, was nicknamed ' ' El 
 Turco," or " The Turk." He gave a glowing description of 
 the famous cities to be found in the countries whence he 
 came and his reports were sent at once to Coronado. About 
 this time Captain Cardenas left Cibola to prepare quarters 
 for the Spanish troops at Tiguex and in December Coronado, 
 •ordering the main body of the army to follow in three weeks, 
 set out for that city with thirty picked men. His party 
 suffered severely from cold and scarcity of water, but were 
 hospitably received by the natives. They arrived at Tiguex 
 in twelve days and found Cardenas and Alvarado awaiting 
 them. Here also Coronado saw "El Turco" and listened 
 ■eagerly to his dazzling tales. The Indian said that through 
 his native province there was a great river, two leagues 
 wide, in which were fish as large as a horse ; that the 
 canoes carried twenty rowers to a side and were also pro- 
 pelled by sails. The sovereign took his siesta under the 
 swaying branches of a great tree and was lulled to sleep by 
 the music of little golden bells suspended from its boughs, 
 and the province contained a great city called Quivira 
 which abounded in silver and gold. Extravagant as were 
 these stories they were immediately accepted as truth by 
 the Spaniards, and an expedition to this wealthy land of 
 the East was determined upon. 
 
 The main army left Cibola twenty days after the de- 
 parture of Coronado, marching under the command of Tris- 
 tan de Arellano, who had recently returned from Sonora. 
 They arrived at Tiguex at a moment when their help was 
 sorely needed ; the whole province had risen in rebellion 
 against the Spaniards on account of the heavy tribute laid 
 on them by Coronado and their general ill-treatment by 
 the soldiers ; all the villages had been fortified and Tiguex 
 was held by the Indians, who were determined to fight to the 
 
58 HISTORY OP NEW MEXICO. 
 
 end. In this strait Coronado and his men welcomed Arel- 
 lano's reinforcement with much joy, and arrangements were 
 made to capture Tiguex and make an example of that rebel- 
 lious city. The whole army joined in a vigorous assault 
 upon the town, but were met by showers of arrows and 
 stones and were forced to retire with a loss of forty men. 
 For fifty days the siege lasted, many unsuccessful attacks 
 were made, the skirmishing was frequent, and the loss of 
 life considerable. More than two hundred Indians and 
 several of the bravest and most prominent Spaniards 
 perished. The besieged, after a desperate resistance, sent 
 away their women and children and prepared for an escape 
 by night. They were discovered and at once fell upon the 
 enemy, fighting until they had all perished, either from the 
 arms of the Spaniards or from being forced into the icy 
 waters of the Rio Puerco. All the villages were then taken 
 and pillaged, the inhabitants being killed, driven from the 
 country, or reduced to slavery, as not one would accept 
 the royal permission to return to his home. These events 
 occurred in the last weeks of the year -1540. 
 
 The country being now subdued Coronado turned his 
 eyes toward the east, and in May, 1541, the army broke 
 camp and marched in search of the native land of "El 
 Turco," who accompanied them as guide. On arriving at 
 Cicuye the expedition was received with great hospitality, 
 and a guide was obtained who claimed to be a native of 
 Quivira and denied many of the tales of "El Turco." A 
 march of three days brough the army to a large river which 
 they named El Rio de Cicuye, and which was bridged and 
 crossed. A week later they entered the great buffalo plains 
 where thousands of these animals were encountered. They 
 are described as " a new kind of oxen, very wild, and fierce, 
 of which the first day they killed four score, which sup- 
 plied the army with flesh,— for all the way was as full of 
 crooked-backed oxen as the mountain-sierras in Spain are 
 of sheep." In ten days they met a people called Quere- 
 chos, who dwelt in lodges of buffalo skin and lived upon 
 the flesh ; they were friendly and offered no resistance. 
 
FRIAR NIZA AND THE EXPEDITIOK OE CORONADO. 59 
 
 Another tribe of Indians, the Teyas, were passed, who told 
 of a city further on, bat by this time faith in "El Turco" 
 was much diminished and his tales met with little credence. 
 At last, in the middle of June, a council of war was held, 
 and it was determined that the general with thirty horse- 
 men and six foot-soldiers should go forward to Quivira, 
 while the main army, under Captain Arellano, returned to 
 Tiguex. This was done, and the army, on their homeward 
 march, killed many buffaloes, passed by numerous salt- 
 marshes, and discovered the existence of "a bird like the 
 peacock," viz. : — the turkey ; arriving at Tigiiex in July. 
 
 After their departure Coronado continiied northward 
 over the plains, reaching Quivira late in July. The city 
 was found to be a collection of straw huts situated on small 
 streams which ran into a large river. The inhabitants were 
 like the roving tribes but raised a small quantity of maize; 
 they had no knowledge of gold or silver, and could tell 
 nothing of cities containing either riches or civilization. 
 Incensed at their deception the Spaniards interrogated "El 
 Turco," who at last confessed that his story had been false 
 from beginning to end, and that he had repeated it at the 
 desire of the people of Cicuye, who wished the Spaniards 
 to leave their country and perish far out on the plains, or 
 at least be so reduced in numbers as to be no longer formid- 
 able. On hearing this " El Turco" was put to death, and 
 the general returned to Cicuye and thence to Tiguex. Be- 
 fore leaving Quivira he erected a large cross inscribed 
 "Francisco Vasquez de Coronado, Commander of an Ex- 
 pedition, arrived at this place." 
 
 Meanwhile Captain Arellano made arrangements for 
 passing the second winter at Tiguex, and, while awaiting 
 the general's return, sent out several exploring parties. 
 One of these, under Captain Barrio-Nuevo, ascended the 
 valley northward, first visiting the province of Jemez, 
 whose inhabitants submitted and furnished supplies, and 
 then the province of Yuqueyunque (probably the district 
 containing San Ildefonso, San Jnan, Santa Clara, etc.), 
 where the natives abandoned their houses and fled to the 
 
60 HISTORY OP NEW MEXICO. 
 
 mountains. Twenty leagues further the party came to a 
 large pueblo built on both sides of a stream and connected 
 by a wooden bridge. It contained the largest estufas yet 
 seen and was called by the Indians Braba ; the Spaniards 
 named it Valladolid, and it is undoubtedly the present 
 Taos. The pueblos of the Socorro region were visited by 
 one of the southern exploring parties sent out later. 
 
 In August or September, Coronado arrived at Tiguex, 
 where the army spent the winter of 1541. Although bit- 
 terly disappointed at the results of his Journey to Quivira, 
 it was Coronado' s intention to renew his explorations in 
 the coming year, and jpreparations for the new expe- 
 dition were considerably advanced when, in the early 
 spring of 1542, a tournament was held, at which the gene- 
 ral was thrown from his horse and seriously hurt, while 
 ■" running the ring " with Don Pedro Maldonaldo. Coro- 
 nado' s injury disarranged all the plans hitherto formed 
 and caused a general despondency among the troops. A 
 oouncil of war was held, and it was decided to evacuate 
 the country ; little by little the army abandoned their 
 golden visions, and the homeward march was begun in 
 April, 1542. Two monks. Fray Juan de Padilla and 
 Padre Luis, remained behind in the hope of converting the 
 natives ; Fray Juan proceeded to Quivira, where he was at 
 once murdered, and Padre Luis took up his residence at 
 Cicuye. A short time after some sheep were sent to him, 
 and the messenger reported him as saying that he had 
 been well received by the people but was hated by the old 
 men, and that his deatli was probably only a question of 
 time ; nothing more was ever known of this pioneer mis- 
 sionary. The return march contained little of importance ; 
 the army' remained a few days at Cibola, and at Chichilti- 
 €ale Captain Gallegos was met advancing with reinforce- 
 ments and provisions ; here the project of a return to 
 Quivira was agitated, but was not carried out. 
 
 As the frontier settlements of New Spain were reached, 
 the army gradually separated, and desertions were so fre- 
 quent that when Coronado arrived at the city of Mexico, 
 
FRIAR NIZA AND THE EXPEDITION OF CORONADO. 61 
 
 late in June, lie was accompanied by barely one hundred 
 men. Although the general was at first coldly received by 
 Viceroy JVlendoza, whose ardent expectations had been so 
 greatly disappointed, his explanations were finally found 
 satisfactory ; he was honorably relieved of his command 
 and soon after resumed his duties as governor of New 
 Galicia. 
 
 The route of Coronado, which can be traced with far 
 greater accuracy than can that of Vaca and his com- 
 panions, is briefly given as follows : Leaving Cnliacan, 
 they marched parallel with the Gulf of California, through 
 what is now the state of Sonora, until they arrived nearly 
 at the head of the gulf, when they changed their course 
 to the northeast. They continued in this direction and 
 struck the Gila near the Casas Grandes ; from there they 
 crossed the barren region and reached the valley of Zuni, 
 or Cibola. Detached parties of the expedition now visited 
 the Grand Canon of the Colorado River and the Moqui 
 towns. From Zuni the army marched to the valley of 
 the Puerco, where Tiguex was situated, passed over the 
 Puerco and Jemez Mountains, crossed the Rio Santa Anna 
 and the Rio Grande, and reached the plains east of the 
 Canadian River. In his march to Quivira it is probable 
 that Coronado traversed parts of Indian Territory and 
 Kansas, and that the limit of his journey was on the 
 borders of Missouri, between Kansas City and Council 
 Bluffs. Dn his return from the plains, Coronado must 
 have passed by the salt lakes near Manzana and continued 
 toward the west to the Rio Grande, which they struck 
 about one hundred miles south of the point where they 
 had crossed it going east. They followed up the river 
 . until they reached the province of Cicuye (Pecos), whence 
 they proceeded to Tiguex and joined the main army. The 
 city of Quivira may, perhaps, be identical with the ruins 
 of a village of the same name, situated some distance south 
 of the salt lakes visited by the Spaniards. 
 
CHAPTEE IV 
 
 EXPEDITIONS OF RUIZ AND ESPEJO. 
 
 1543-1595. 
 
 Interim of Forty Years— Augustin Ruiz — His Religious Zeal — Depar- 
 ture of Ruiz and His Oompanions — Their Journey — Puera — Return 
 of the Soldiers — Death of Fray Juan — Death of Fray Francisco — 
 Padre Ruiz at Galisteo— His Death — Reported at Mexico — Espejo's 
 Expedition Organized — Leaves San Bartolome — Journey down the 
 Conchos— The Jumanas — Their Religion — Along the Rio Grande — 
 The Isleta Pueblos — Account of the People — The Teguas Nation — 
 Puera — Further Explorations Resolved on — The Province of 
 Magrias — Quirix — Cunames — The Pueblos of Jemez — Zuni — the 
 Mexican Indians — Some of the Party Return — Espejo Journeys 
 Westward — Visits Moqui — His Reception — Silver Mines — Return to 
 Zuni — The Province of Queres — Ubates — Tanos — Hostility of the 
 Tanos Nation — Espejo Resolves to Return — Down the Pecos — 
 Arrival at San Bartolomfi — Espejo's Report — Fresh Interest in New 
 Mexico — Royal Order — Offers to Conquer and Colonize the Prov- 
 ince — Applications of Martin and Espejo — Of "Vargas and Col- 
 menares — Urdinola — Expedition of Castano de Sosa — Route, and 
 Pueblos Visited — Sosa's Arrest — G-old-hunters under Bonilla and 
 Humanas — Their Fate. 
 
 THE unsuccessful expedition of Coronado dispelled in a 
 great measure the golden dreams of the Spanish cav- 
 aliers, and all desire for further explorations into New- 
 Mexico was restrained for forty years, during which time 
 the Spanish occupation extended from Mexico proper to 
 the southern portions of Chihuahua. The next entrance 
 into the country was made in the year 1581 by a Francis- 
 can friar named Augustin Ruiz, or Rodriguez, living at the 
 mission station of San Bartolomfe, about two hundred 
 leagues from Mexico. He was informed by some Indians 
 of provinces to the north, which had not yet been discov- 
 ered by the Spaniards, and, fired by religious ardor, he 
 
 63 
 
EXPEDITIONS OF EUIZ AND ESPEJO. 63 
 
 made an application to the Count de Coruna, Viceroy of 
 New Spain, for permission to enter the country and under- 
 take the conversion of the natives. All expeditions to 
 New Mexico had been forbidden without a royal license, 
 but the viceroy authorized Pray Augustin to organize a 
 volunteer escort not exceeding twenty men. Permission 
 was also accorded him by the superiors of his order, and 
 preparations were immediately made for the journey. 
 Ruiz was accompanied by two brother monks, Juan de 
 Santa Maria and Francisco Lopez ; their escort consisted 
 of twelve soldiers under the command of one Francisco 
 Sanchez Chamuscado, eight or fifteen Indian servants, and 
 a mestizo called Juan Bautista. Besides acting as a 
 defense against hostile tribes, these men were commis- 
 sioned to search for mines of the precious metals along the 
 route. The little party set out from San Bartolome on 
 June 6, 1581, and followed the Rio Conchos to its meeting 
 with the Rio Grande. They journeyed up this stream 
 until they reached the pueblo of Puera (believed to be situ- 
 ated about eight miles above the present town of Albu- 
 querque) ; here the soldiers made various exploring trips, 
 and in December or January returned to San Bartolome, 
 after vainly endeavoring to persuade the friars to accom- 
 pany them. The latter now remained at Puera for several 
 days, attended only by three Indians and a Mexican, and 
 then traveled to the pueblo of Galisteo, a village of the 
 Tanos nation, where they were well received and found the 
 natives peaceable. . 
 
 So pleased were the friars with the provinces that they 
 determined to send one of their number back to New Spain 
 to give information of what they had found and to induce 
 other missionaries to enter the country. Fray Juan de Santa 
 Maria volunteered to undertake this journey, and set out im- 
 mediately. He was accompanied for a short distance by Ruiz 
 and Lopez, who then returned to Puera, where they remained 
 for some time. Fray Juan, after leaving his companions, 
 journeyed on toward the south ; the third day he reached a 
 pueblo, afterwards named San Pablo, in the Tegnas nation. 
 
64 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 where he was killed and his body burnt. The two remain- 
 ing friars were for some time undisturbed at Puera, but one 
 afternoon, when about a league from the village, Fray Fran- 
 cisco was killed by an Indian. His body was buried by 
 Friar Ruiz, who was now alone in the midst of a people who 
 had resolved upon his death. Soon after, he left Puera 
 secretly and removed to the pueblo of Santiago, a short 
 distance up the river, but in a few days he met the same 
 fate as his brothers and his body was thrown into the stream. 
 The soldiers after reaching San Bartolome pushed on to 
 Mexico to report, but Chamuscado died on the way, and it 
 was not until May, 1582, that the testimony of the men was 
 heard by the viceroy. Shortly after, Francisco, one of the 
 Indians who had remained with the friars, arrived at San 
 Bartolome and related the death of the missionaries ; 
 Andreas, another Indian, was killed while escaping from 
 Puera, but the third, named Geronimo, reached the mission 
 station in safety and confirmed Francisco's report. These 
 accounts aroused much interest in Mexico, and it was de- 
 cided that something should be done at once to ascertain 
 their truth ; the Franciscans of the San Bartolome mission 
 were naturally anxious to learn the fate of their brothers, 
 and Padre Beltran, one of the order, vainly endeavored to 
 persuade a party of soldiers to enter the country. At this 
 time Don Antonio de Espejo, a wealthy cavalier, was visit- 
 ing the mines of Santa Barbara and at once tendered his 
 services to the Franciscans, declaring his readiness to pay 
 the expenses of an enterprise and to command it in person. 
 His offer was gladly accepted, and Governor Juan de 
 Ontrueras, alcalde and chief Justice of Cuatro Cienegas, in 
 the jurisdiction of Nueva Viscaya, granted Espejo a license 
 to lead an expedition, authorizing him to take as many 
 soldiers as would be necessary for the success of the enter- 
 prise. Preparations were made immediately, and fourteen 
 men volunteered for the service ; the party was supplied 
 with provisions, arms, and articles for barter, besides one 
 hundred and fifteen extra mules and horses ; they were also 
 accompanied by a number of Indians. 
 
EXPEDITIONS OF KUIZ AND ESPEJO. 65 
 
 Espejo and his little band set out on December 10, 1582,. 
 and for fifteen days traveled southward down the Conchos 
 River to its junction with the Rio Grande ; along all this 
 route traces of silver were observed, and the friendly tribes 
 of the Conchos and Passaguates met with. Four days later 
 they arrived at the province of Tobosa, where the natives 
 fled to the mountains, and Espejo learned that some years 
 before many of the people had been carried off to slavery by 
 a party of Spaniards. He sent messengers to the fugitives 
 and induced them to return to their villages. Twelve days' 
 journey up the Rio Grande brought Espejo and his party to 
 a district called by the Indians J umanas ; it was a large and 
 populous province, containing numerous towns. The people 
 were warlike and attacked the camp on the first night of the 
 Spaniards' entrance, killing five horses and wounding two 
 more ; they then tied to the hills, whither Espejo followed 
 them with five soldiers and an interpreter, and assured them 
 of his friendly intentions. Upon this they returned to their 
 houses, and, on receiving presents of glass beads, hats, and 
 other articles, became very friendly and accompanied the 
 Spaniards, on their departure, as guides. During their whole 
 journey through the country of the Jumanas, the Spaniards^ 
 were hospitably received and supplied with food and pres- 
 ents of hides and chamois skins, many of which were as. 
 beautifully dressed as those of Flanders. This nation 
 seemed to have a faint idea of the Christian religion ; thejr 
 worshiped a Supreme Being, "from whose bountiful hand 
 and mercy they confessed that they received their life and 
 being and their worldly goods," and many of them brought 
 their wives and children to Padre Beltran that he might 
 cross and bless them. On being questioned as to whence 
 they obtained this vague knowledge of Christianity, they 
 replied that it had been taught them by three white men 
 and a negro who had passed through their country many 
 years before and remained sevei-al days among them. This 
 information satisfied the Spaniards that they alluded to 
 Cabega de Vaca and his three companions. 
 
 Espejo and his party continued up the river for several 
 
66 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 days, arriving at last at another large and populous 
 province, where the inhabitants brought feather cloaks of 
 bea^utif ul workmanship, variously colored, and cotton man- 
 tles streaked with blue and white, like those of China, 
 to barter with the Spaniards. Continuing their march up 
 the river the Spaniards came to another province more pop- 
 ulous than the last, where they remained several days, the 
 Indians performing dances and other ceremonies expressive 
 of great joy. After leaving this province Espejo traveled 
 up the valley of the Rio Grande for fifteen days, through 
 forests of pihon trees, cotton-wood, and mezquit, but met 
 no Indians. After this wearisome march they came to the 
 first cluster of ten pueblos, situated upon the banks of the 
 Rio Grande ; their population was estimated by the Span- 
 iards at about 10,000. The houses were four stories high, 
 well built, and fully stored with provisions ; the inhabi- 
 tants dressed in garments of deer-skin and cotton, made as 
 were those of Mexico ; they also wore shoes of strong 
 leather, a circumstance that much surprised the Spaniards, 
 as nothing of the kind had been seen before in any part of 
 the country. The towns were governed by caciques, whose 
 orders were proclaimed by a subordinate officer called a ser- 
 geant. Many idols were found in this province, and ora- 
 tories were erected in every dwelling, where food was offered 
 to the presiding spirit. At varioiis places, handsomely 
 trimmed and decorated chapels were constructed for the 
 worship of the sun, moon, and stars. The natives were in- 
 dustrious and their fields well cultivated ; on all the arable 
 lands were erected small sheds where the laborers ate and 
 rested at noon. Their arms were strong bows, and arrows 
 headed with sharp stones, that could jsierce a coat of mail ; 
 they also had clubs about a yard long, armed with sharp 
 flints, Avhich they used with great dexterity, being able to 
 cut a man's body in two at a single blow. They were filled 
 with amazement at the horses of the Si:)aniards, which they 
 at first regarded as superior beings. One of their chiefs 
 gave to Espejo four thousand bolls of cotton. This prov- 
 ince, according to Prince, "was situated a short distance 
 
EXPEDITIONS OF RUIZ AND ESPEJO. . 67 
 
 below Albuquerque, in the vicinity of the pueblo of Isleta, 
 which may be identical with one of the towns." 
 
 Four days later the Spaniards took up their march 
 along the bank of the Rio Grande, and in a few days en- 
 tered the country of the Teguas nation, which contained 
 fourteen pueblos, and where they learned that the friars 
 had been murdered at the town of Puera in this province ; 
 here the Indians fled to the hills, fearing the Spaniards' 
 vengeance, but left a plentiful supply of food in the village. 
 Although the main object of the expedition was now accom- 
 plished, Espejo desired to make further explorations, and 
 two days later, with two companions, went to the province 
 of Magrias near the buffalo plains, which contained eleven 
 pueblos with some 40,000 inhabitants. The country was 
 very fertile, with indications of rich mines ; the inhabitants 
 were friendly and furnished provisions. Espejo returned 
 to the camp, but hearing of another province up the stream 
 marched thither from Puera. The country was called 
 Quirix, and contained five pueblos and 15,000 people, who 
 entertained them with hospitality. They then journeyed 
 for two days to the province of Cunames, where were found 
 Ave towns, the largest of which was called Cia ; it contained 
 eight market-places, and the houses were better constructed 
 than any hitherto seen, being well plastered and painted in 
 various colors. The number of inhabitants was estimated 
 at 20,000. They were friendly and gave presents to the 
 Spaniards of many cui'iously wrought mantles ; they were 
 further advanced in civilization and had a better form of 
 government than any people yet visited. 
 
 The next province, some five leagues distant, was that 
 of Eraexes (Jemez), which contained seven large pueblos 
 with 30,000 inhabitants. Thence Espejo traveled to Acoma, 
 where the people performed solemn dances in honor of 
 their visitors, who were much amused thereby. In four 
 days' journey from Acoma they arrived at Zuni, the Cibola 
 visited by Coronado forty years before, where the Span- 
 iards found many crosses standing, and three Christian 
 Indians— Andres, Graspar, and Anton, natives of Culiacan, 
 
68 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 Mexico, and Guadaljara— still living, the same who had 
 remained when Coronado and his army returned to New 
 Spain in 1542. The}^ had almost forgotten their native 
 tongue and the Spaniards could hardly converse writh them, 
 but they informed Espejo that a few days' journey beyond 
 was a great lake upon the banks of which stood many large 
 and populous towns. At Zuni the mnjority of Espejo's 
 party, particularly Padre Beltran, announced their inten- 
 tion of returning to Nueva Viscaya ; but Espejo was not to 
 be deterred and started toward a province, believed to be 
 comparatively near, with nine soldiers, the three Mexican 
 Indians, and about one hundred and thirty friendly Zuni- 
 ans. After traveling for four days they reached the prov- 
 ince of Mohace (Moqui), said to contain 50,000 inhabitants; 
 after a little opposition the Spaniards were allowed to enter 
 the town and were well received, the Indians making Espejo 
 a present of 40,000 mantles, colored and plain, a large num- 
 ber of towels ornamented with tassels, and specimens of 
 metal containing much silver. Here they remained six 
 days, visiting the neighboring villages, and so confident of 
 the natives' friendship that five of the men were left here 
 to return to Zuni v?ith the baggage. 
 
 Obtaining some Moqui guides, Espejo, with the four 
 remaining soldiers, set out to find the rich mines in the west, 
 which he reached after traveling forty-five miles. The 
 mines were situated in a precipitous mountain, and Espejo 
 took from them with his own hands rich specimens of silver 
 ore. Several friendly Indian tribes were visited, who 
 informed the Spaniards of a great river beyond the moun- 
 tains (the Colorado), on the banks of which were situated 
 many large towns. From here Espejo returned to Zuni, 
 where he found the five men who had been left at Moqui 
 and Padre Beltran and his companions, who at once set out 
 for New Biscay, while Espejo and his few remaining com- 
 rades continued their explorations toward the northwest. 
 In ten days' march they reached the province of Queres, 
 and thence, in two days, the province of Ubates, which 
 contained five towns and 20,000 inhabitants, and where they 
 
EXPEDITIONS OF RUIZ AND ESPEJO. 69 
 
 ■were informed of rich mines, some of wliich they visited. 
 Prom here they journeyed to the province of Tanos, w^here 
 were found three large villages and 40,000 persons ; one of 
 these pueblos was the Cicuye (Pecos) visited by Coronado. 
 The Tanos nation, unlike the other Indian tribes, was 
 unfriendly, refusing to admit the Spaniards to their town 
 or to furnish them with provisions. This hostility deter- 
 mined Espejo to return, as the small number of his party and 
 their isolated condition rendered remaining in this region 
 ■dangerous. 
 
 In the early part of the year 1583 they set out on the 
 homeward march, having obtained a Pecos Indian as guide, 
 who conducted them by a short route to the Rio de los 
 Vacas, or Cow River (the Pecos), down which they traveled 
 for one hundred and twenty leagues, passing great herds of 
 buffalo and seeing many pueblos. Thence they passed 
 across the Conchos and continued on to the valley of San 
 Bartolome. Padre Beltran and the soldiers had arrived 
 before them and gone to Durango, whither Espejo and his 
 companions followed ; some time later he wrote an account 
 of this expedition for the Count de Coruna, who forwarded 
 it to the king of Spain. Espejo' s report of his explorations 
 aroused much interest in Mexico, and during the next 
 fourteen years various attempts were made to conquer and 
 colonize the territory then definitely known as IS^ew Mexico. 
 In March, 1583, a royal order was issued by which the 
 viceroy was authorized to contract with some suitable indi- 
 vidual for the conquest of the provinces, to be undertaken 
 without expense to the royal treasury and in accordance 
 with the governmental regulations ; it was also stipulated 
 that any such contract should be submitted to the royal 
 council before anything could be done. 
 
 One of the first to make an application to the audiencia 
 was Cristobal Martin, a vecino of Mexico, who offered, in 
 October, 1583, to undertake the conquest on condition that 
 he should receive various extensive privileges. Espejo also 
 sent a petition for permission to colonize the country, citing 
 his recent successful expedition as proof of his capability. 
 
70 HISTOEY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 and dispatching his son-in-law, Don Pedro Gonzales de 
 Mendoza, to Spain to plead his cause at court. Francisco 
 Diaz de Vargas, alguacil mayor and regidor of Puebla, also 
 offered to enter the country, and requested permission to 
 subdue and colonize it should gold be found within its 
 limits. None of these three applications were accepted, 
 and the next proposition for the conquest of New Mexico 
 was made by Juan Bautista de Lomas y Colmenares, the 
 wealthiest Spaniard in New Gralicia, who, in 1589, sent a 
 petition to Viceroy Villamanrique offering to undertake 
 the enterprise and claiming even more remuneration than 
 Cristobal Martin had demanded in 1583. His contract was 
 approved by the viceroy and forwarded to Spain, where it 
 was neglected in the business of the court and received no 
 attention. In 1592, Viceroy Villamanrique was removed 
 and succeeded by Don Luis de Velasco, who refused to aid 
 Lomas in his project and made a contract with Francisco de 
 Urdinola, who was suddenly arrested on a criminal charge 
 and thus kept from organizing his New Mexican expedition. 
 Once more, in 1595, Colmenares endeavored to obtain a 
 license from the king, but it was not granted. While these 
 arrangements were pending, another cavalier attempted the 
 colonization of New Mexico without authority ; this was 
 Gaspar Castano de Sosa, lieutenant-governor of New Leon, 
 who started from a frontier post of New Spain in July, 1590, 
 with a force of one hundred and twenty persons. They 
 followed the Rio Grande through Coahuila and Texas, 
 wandering across an almost uninhabited country. Later 
 they arrived at a pueblo where the inhabitants, although at 
 first friendly, attacked them and wounded three men. In 
 December the little army entered the pueblo of Pecos, where 
 they were well received and remained for some time, visiting 
 different villages, which submitted at once. They then 
 journeyed to the country of the Queres nation, and in 
 January, 1591, started eastward, stopping at many pueblos 
 and hospitably received by the inhabitants. In March they 
 began the homeward journey, and when near the frontier 
 settlements of New Spain met Captain Juan Morlote, who 
 
EXPEDITIONS OF EUIZ AND ESPEJO. 71 
 
 had come, with a force of fifty men and a monk, Father 
 Juan Gomez, to arrest Sosa for liis unauthorized expedition 
 into the province. The unlucliy leader was taken to Mexico 
 in chains, and nothing more is heard of the expedition. 
 
 Only one other party of adventurers needs to be noticed 
 before the final conquest and colonization of New Mexico 
 under Ohate. This was the band of gold-hunters under 
 Bonilla and Humana, who had been sent against a revolt- 
 ing tribe in one of the North Mexican States and had 
 pushed on, without a license, into New Mexico, where they 
 went far out on the plains in search of the famous city of 
 Quivira and mines of the precious metals. A quarrel arose 
 in which Bonilla was murdered by Humana, and later the 
 whole party was killed by Indians with the exception of 
 three persons, a Spaniard, named Alzan Sanchez, who 
 became a powerful chief among the natives ; a Mexican 
 Indian, who escaped to the pueblo of Picoris, where he was 
 afterwards found by Ohate ; and a mulatto girl, who was 
 also found by the first colonists. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 ONATE'S CONQUEST AND THE COLONIZATION" OF 
 NEW MEXICO. 
 
 1595-1680. 
 
 Don Juan de Onate — Makes Application for the Conquest of New 
 Mexico— Granted by Viceroy Velasco — Terms of the Contract — 
 Eoyal Grant of 1603— Preparations and Delay — Officers of Onate's 
 Expedition — Departure of the Army — On the Rio Grande — Prog- 
 ress through New Mexico — Hospitably Received — Pueblos Vis- 
 ited — Socorro— Abo — Oia — The Indians Give in their Allegiance — 
 Pueblo of San Juan made Headquarters of the Colony — Pue- 
 blos of Taos, Picoris, and San Ildefonso Visited — Founding of the 
 City of La Santa F6 de San Francisco — Arrival of the Colo- 
 nists — Junta at San Juan — Various Exploring Parties — Discontent 
 at Acoma — Plot to Murder Oriate — His Escape — Zaldivar Arrives 
 at Acoma — The Indian Attack — The Conflict — Spaniards Defeated — 
 Tidings Brought to San Juan — Preparations to Reduce Acoma — 
 The Expedition Sets Out — Rejoicing at Acoma — The Spaniards 
 Arrive — The Assault— The Penol Gained — The Battle — Acoma 
 Conquered — Increase of Spanish Power in Nev\r Mexico — Brief 
 Records of the Colony — Onate on the Plains — Various Exploring 
 Parties — 1606 to 1680 — Governors — Extension of Christianity — 
 Severe Ecclesiastical Regulations — Discontent of the Indians — 
 Various Attempts at Revolt — Coiaspiracies Discovered and Pun- 
 ished—The Gathering of the Storm. 
 
 THE final conquest and colonization of New Mexico Avas 
 made by Don Juan de Onate, for the king of Spain, in 
 tlie years 1598-99. Juan de Onate was a wealthy and 
 prominent Spanish cavalier, a son of the well-known con- 
 quistador Cristobal de Onate ; he resided at Zacatecas and 
 had married Dona Isabel, great-granddaughter of the 
 Emperor Montezuma, and granddaughter of Hernando 
 Cortez. In the autumn of 1595, Don Juan made an appli- 
 cation to Viceroy Velasco, offering to furnish a force of 
 
 72 
 
ONATE'S conquest of new MEXICO. 73 
 
 two hundred men at his own expense for the conquest of 
 the province. The contract was accepted and signed by 
 the viceroy, and Philip III., in a royal grant of July 8, 
 1602, — some seven years after the enterprise was begun, — 
 fully confirmed Onate's authority. The grant declared, 
 that " Don Felipe, by the Grace of God, King of Castile, 
 -of Arragon, of the Sicilies, of Jerusalem, of Portugal, of 
 Granada, of Toledo, of Valencia, of Galecia, Mayoria, Se- 
 Tilla, of Yerdina, Cordova, Careeza, Murrisia, Jaen, Al- 
 garbes, of Algesira, Gibraltar, (janary Islands, East and 
 West Indies, Islands and Terra Firma of the Ocean, Arch- 
 xiuke of Austria, Duke of Borgora and Milan, Count of 
 Barcelona, Flanders, and Tirol, Lord of Yiscaya and 
 Molisa, etc., etc.," having learned that "the viceroy, Don 
 Luis de Yelasco, by virtue of a decree of the king had 
 •entered into an agreement and capitulation with Don Juan 
 de Ohate, relative to the discovery, pacification, and settle- 
 ment of the province of New Mexico, which is in New 
 Spain," granted to the said Ohate, — in consideration of his 
 introducing into the country horses, cattle, merchandise, 
 and agricultural implements, and organizing and maintain- 
 ing a force of two hundred soldiers, — various privileges, 
 among which were the titles of governor, adelantado, and 
 captain-general for five generations ; the right to receive 
 thirty leagues of land with all the vassals thereon ; a large 
 salary, and exemption from taxation ; a loan of 20,000 
 pesos from the royal treasury ; to enjoy the dignity of 
 hijosdalgos for himself and his descendants ; a supply of 
 arms and ammunition for his* men ; liberal reparimientos 
 of Indians for his officers, and the right to reduce the 
 natives to obedience, — in other words, to slavery. It was 
 also stipulated that the government should supply the 
 colony with six priests and a full complement of church 
 accouterments. Five years were granted him to make the 
 conquest of the country ; but should he die in that time, 
 or before he had finished the subjugation of the province, 
 his descendants were to complete the same with its coloni- 
 -zation. 
 
74 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 Although this grant did not receive the royal confirma- 
 tion until the date above mentioned, its contents had been 
 agreed to by Velasco in 1595, and Onate at once began his 
 preparations. He was supported by the most influential 
 citizens of New Spain, and all seemed progressing smoothly, 
 when, iu November, one month after the contract had been 
 signed, there was a change of viceroys, and Pon Gaspar 
 Zuniga Acebedo succeeded Velasco, who was transferred 
 to the governorship of Peru. This was a serious inconven- 
 ience to Oiiate, and caused so much delay that it was not 
 until 1597 that he received orders to get his expedition in 
 readiness. On the 20th of January, 1598, the army was 
 finally officially inspected, and six days later started north- 
 ward, reaching the Conchos on the 30th. The force num- 
 bered some four hundred men, one hundred and thirty of 
 whom were married and accompanied by their families. 
 The officers were Juan de Zaldivar, maestro de campo ; Don 
 Vicente, his brother, sargente mayor ; Captain Villagra, 
 procurador general ; Captain Bartolome Romeros, conta- 
 dor ; Juan Velard and Juan Perez Donis, secretaries. The 
 army was also accompanied by ten Franciscan friars. Padres 
 Alonzo Martinez, commissary of the troops ; Francisco de 
 San Miguel, Francisco de Zamora, Juan de Rosas, Alonzo 
 de Tugo, Andreas Corchado, Juan de Claros, and Cristobal 
 Salazar, ministers ; Juan de San Buenaventura, and Pedro 
 de Vergara, secular friars. There were eighty- three wag- 
 ons and seven thousand head of cattle in the expedition, 
 and a numerous escort of Chichimeca troops. 
 
 On the 7th of February, 1698, the army left the Conchos, 
 dispatching two small parties in advance to discover a road 
 for the wagons, and on April 20th, they reached the Rio 
 Grande, where Oiiate took formal possession of New Mexi- 
 co "and all the adjoining provinces" for God, the king, 
 and himself. Religious services were held in a chapel built 
 for the occasion, and a comedy was performed for the delec- 
 tation of the troops, the subject of which was the conquest 
 of New Mexico. Notwithstanding these diversions the 
 long delay in setting forth had its effect upon the men, 
 
ONATE'S conquest of new MEXICO. 75 
 
 many of whom deserted and returned to Mexico, where 
 they spread discouraging reports relative to the success of 
 the expfedition ; these desertions were principally confined 
 to the soldiers, however, and did not aflfect the intending 
 settlers. On the 4th of May the army crossed the Rio 
 Grande at what is now El Paso del Norte, and marched 
 slowly up the river for fifteen and a half leagues. Here 
 Captain Aguilar returned from his advance expedition and 
 joined the main army. He had reached the first cluster of 
 pueblos and had affronted a cacique by forcing his way 
 into the town. On learning this, Onate, dreading lest the 
 Indians should become alarmed and flee to the hills, carry- 
 ing away their provisions, set out on the 22d with Zaldivar, 
 Villagra, Padres Salazar and Martinez, and fifty men, and 
 in a six days' journey arrived at the group of villages. 
 One of these was named Socorro, or Succor, by the Span- 
 iards, for the natives received them kindly and gave sup- 
 plies of provisions, which welcome "succor" was sent back 
 to the camp. 
 
 In the middle of June Ohate and the advance party left 
 the first group of pueblos and proceeded up the river to a 
 small town which they named New Seville, and where they 
 remained a week, while the Zaldivars went on an exploring 
 tour to the Abo villages, and Villagra made a journey in 
 search of mines. On June 22d they went four leagues to 
 an abandoned pueblo, which was named San Juan Bautista; 
 here the general fo^^nd two Mexican Indians, Tomas and 
 Cristobal, who had been left on Sosa' s expedition, and who 
 proved valuable to the Spaniards as interpreters. Before 
 the end of June Ohate visited the pueblo of Cia and passed 
 from San Felipe to Santo Domingo, which was chosen for 
 the headquarters of the expedition, and where a convent 
 named Assuncion was founded. On July 4th Captain Juan 
 de Zaldivar was sent back to bring up the rest of the 
 wagons, and the colonists joined the advance party late in 
 August. Strange though it may seem, the Spaniards met 
 with no resistance in their progress through the country ; 
 the natives welcomed them kindly, and one pueblo after 
 
76 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 another sabmitted without opposition. On July 7, 1598, 
 the representatives of thirty-four villages went to Santo 
 Domingo and swore allegiance to their new masters. A 
 few days later the army went to the village of San Juan, 
 which from the courtesy of its inhabitants was called San 
 Juan de los Caballeros (St. John of the Gentlemen); this 
 town remained for some years the Spanish capital, and 
 center of the colony. From here Onate traveled through 
 the country, visiting the pueblos of Picpris, Taos, San Ilde- 
 fonso, San Marcos, and San Cristobal (these last two pue- 
 blos were situated north of Santa Fe). In the early part of 
 August the governor visited eleven pueblos, among which 
 were those of Cia and Jemez, and returned to San Juan on 
 the tenth of the month. Soon after, work was begun upon 
 the city of San Francisco, founded at a place called by the 
 natives "El Teguayo," and believed by many to be identi- 
 cal with the present Santa Fe, the name conferred upon it 
 —La Ciudad de la Santa Fe de San Francisco, the City of 
 the Holy Faith of St. Francis, — making the conclusion 
 probable. 
 
 It was on the 18th of August that the rear-guard of 
 colonists arrived at their new home, and on the 7th of Sep- 
 tember a mission chapel had been erected, which was con- 
 secrated with much ceremony and a week of general rejoic- 
 ing. On September 9th a universal junta, or assembly, 
 was held at San Juan, at which the native chieftains re- 
 newed their oaths of fidelity and submission, and expressed 
 their willingness to receive the friars at their pueblos and 
 to obey their instructions. The monks were then assigned 
 to the different villages by Padre Martinez, and each de- 
 parted for the scene of his missionary labor. During the 
 next few months nothing of importance occurred ; various 
 exploring expeditions were made. Captain Zaldivar march- 
 ing out some distance on the buffalo plains, while Oiiate 
 visited tlie salt lakes near Pecos and the pueblos of Abo 
 and Jumana, whose submission he received. Acoma alone, 
 of all the Indian cities, did not yield without a struggle. 
 The great natural strength of this penol pueblo and the 
 
ONATE S CONQUEST OF NEW MEXICO. 77 
 
 warlike nature of its people rendered them dangerous foes, 
 a fact of which the Acomensese were well aware. Among 
 their leaders was a chief named Zutucapan, who had not 
 attended the junta held at San Juan, and who urged the 
 people to shake ofiE the foreign yoke and prove the power 
 of the dreaded Castillos— the name by which the Spaniards 
 were generally known to the ISTew Mexican Indians. AVIiile 
 a general revolt was not yet decided upon, a plot was 
 formed to murder Onate, and twelve Indians bound them- 
 selves to execute the deed ; it was agreed that they should 
 invite the governor to visit an estufa and when within its 
 sacred precincts he should be quickly dispatched. In the 
 latter part of October Oiiate arrived at Acoma, where he 
 was received with much deference and invited by one of 
 the twelve to come and behold a most curious spectacle \ 
 but the cautious general, distrusting his hosts, firmly de- 
 clined the invitation and thus escaped the fate prepared for 
 him. After receiving the obediencia of Acoma, Onate 
 visited Moqui and Zuni, where the chiefs gave in their alle- 
 giance in the early part of November. 
 
 Meanwhile rebellion was rife at Acoma, and Zutucapan' s 
 renewed efforts to arouse his countrymen met with full suc- 
 cess. It was determined to attack the next party of Span- 
 iards that should j)ass the town, and the opportunity was 
 soon at hand. On the 8th of N'ovember Don Vicente Zal- 
 divar returned from his expedition to the plains, and his 
 brother, Don Juan, set out at once with a small escort to 
 join the general. On their arrival at Acoma the unsuspect- 
 ing band was received with apparent friendliness, and pro- 
 visions were offered them. Early the next day, as the 
 soldiers were scattered throughout the village for the pur- 
 pose of bringing in the supplies, the attack began. The 
 Indians shouted their war-cries and rushed upon the Span- 
 iards, who, taken completely by surprise, hesitated until 
 retreat was impossible and then fought with the strength 
 of desperation. For three hours a hand-to-hand conflict 
 raged ; many Indians fell, but little by little the Spaniards' 
 small force gave way before the ever-increasing swarms of 
 
78 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 their assailants. Victory was certain for the Acomensese, 
 and with the death of Captain Zaldivar the unequal struggle 
 terminated. Four Spaniards saved themselves by spring- 
 ing from the rocky mesa to the plain below ; three others 
 managed to esca^je from the village, and the seven survi- 
 vors returned to Don Alferez Casas, who had remained be- 
 low to guard the horses. The little party made their way 
 sadly back to San Juan, where all was now sorrow and con- 
 fusion, and Alferez Casas set out immediately to carry the 
 melancholy tidings to the general. On the 31st of Decem- 
 ber Ohate arrived at San Juan ; all the scattered bands of 
 explorers were called in, the priests at the different stations 
 were warned, and a council was held to decide what should 
 be done in this emergency. It was determined that the re- 
 volt of Acoma must be at once suppressed ; that the in- 
 habitants must be compelled to give up the bodies of the 
 mui'dered Spaniards ; to abandon their peiiol home and 
 settle in the plains beneath ; that the village must be de- 
 stroyed, and if the Indians resisted they must be conquered 
 and punished. 
 
 On the 12th of January, 1599, Captain Vicente Zaldivar, 
 at the head of seventy chosen men, among whom were Cap- 
 tains Zubia, Eomero, Aguilar, Parfan, Villagra, and Mar- 
 quez ; Don Alferez Casas, Juan Cortes, and Juan Velard, 
 set out for the scene of the rebellion, and on the 21st ar- 
 rived at Acoma. In the pehol pueblo all was tumult and 
 rejoicing ; the Indians were intoxicated by their success, 
 and the defeat of Zaldivar and his men was regarded as but 
 a preface to the expulsion or extermination of the invaders 
 of their country. A general meeting of chiefs had been 
 convoked, in which it was agreed that war was now inevita- 
 ble and must be met boldly ; in a short time, they declared, 
 the province would be freed from the Castillos, and the 
 pueblo towns would regain their liberty. As the Spaniards 
 approached they were greeted with taunts and insults; 
 Don Vicente advanced beneath the walls, and, through 
 Tomas the interpreter, summoned them to answer for the 
 murder they had done ; the Indians replied by shouts of 
 
ONATE'S conquest op WEW MEXICO. 79 
 
 defiance, and the Spaniards parleyed no longer. Tents 
 were pitched upon the plain, and preparations were at once 
 begun for the assault. The summit of the mesa upon 
 which Acoma stood was divided by a deep ravine into two 
 penols, or cliffs, connected by a narrow pass. It was agreed 
 that an assault should be made upon one of the penols with 
 the main force, while a small body of picked men, led by 
 Zaldivar, should hold themselves in readiness to scale the 
 other. Early on the morning of January 22d, the Indians 
 opened the attack with showers of arrows, and Zaldivar 
 dispatched what appeared to be his whole army to the as- 
 sault of one of the penols, where the entire strength of the 
 natives was soon concentrated in the endeavor to oppose 
 the enemy's ascent. In the mean time the leader, with 
 twelve men, who had remained concealed during the night, 
 scaled the other pehol, and reached the summit of the mesa, 
 where the little band was soon reinforced by their com- 
 panions. 
 
 For three days the battle raged fiercely, and many acts 
 of prowess are related on the part of both Spaniard and 
 Indian. But Acoma was doomed ; her swarms of half- 
 naked, warriors were powerless before the mail-clad, fully 
 armed Castilians, and when the Spaniards gained the cliff 
 the city's fate was sealed. The Indians fought with the 
 fury of despair ; hundreds killed one another rather than 
 yield, and Santiago was plainly seen fighting for their 
 opponents. On January 24th th'e Spaniards gained full 
 possession of the pueblo, which was at once razed to its 
 foundations ; six hundred Indians were allowed to settle on 
 the plains, many were reduced to slavery, and the rest put 
 to death. After the fall of Acoma there were no further 
 oiitbreaks for many years ; it is probable that the warlike 
 spirit of the Acomensese had much to do with their rebel- 
 lion, and what they had failed to accomplish the other 
 Indian tribes had little desire to attempt. 
 
 For the next eighty years little is known of New Mexican 
 history ; the colony appeared ro prosper, villages sprang 
 up in the valley of the Rio Grande, and the Franciscan 
 
80 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 fathers who had accompanied Ohate were zealous in con- 
 verting the Indians and founding missions. In 1599 rein- 
 forcements of troops were sent to New Mexico by the- 
 Mexican government, and eight friars under Padre Juan de- 
 Escalona joined the colony. For some years the town of 
 San Juan remained the capital, and Ohate made it his official 
 residence, but before 1640 Santa Fe had become the seat of 
 government. Various explorations were made and numer- 
 ous mines of gold and silver discovered, the shafts of which 
 are yet found as far up as the Rio Hondu in New Mexico 
 and in portions of southern Colorado. In June, 1601, Ohate, 
 with Padres Velasco and Vergara, and accompanied by 
 Jose, the Mexican survivor of Humana' s party, marched 
 northeastward from San Juan, and jjroceeded out on the 
 plains. The route was the same as that followed by 
 Coronado in 1541, and they Journeyed over the buffalo 
 country for many days ; at one place they had a battle with 
 a tribe called the Escansaques, many of whom were killed ; 
 the battle was caused by the efforts of Father Yelasco to 
 induce the Escansaques to abandon their forays upon the 
 property of the Quiviran nation. Whether Onate and his 
 party visited Quivira or not is not definitely known, but it 
 is certain that he approached the famous city and received 
 three Quiviran ambassadors, who gave accounts of a rich 
 gold country just beyond. Not caring to continue his 
 journey, Ohate did not proceed further, but returned to 
 San Juan in October ; he brought with him two Indian boys, 
 one of whom, named Manuel, was taken to Spain and pre- 
 sented to Philip III. The lad gave a flattering account of 
 the mineral wealth of New Mexico, and his description of 
 the process of refining gold was so accurate as to excite 
 much amazement at court. 
 
 In the years 1602 and 1603 the colony suffered severe 
 reverses ; a famine occurred, and internal dissensions arose, 
 which at one time threatened the abandonment of the 
 country ; but these troubles were eventually overcome, and 
 in October, 1604, Ohate set out on a western expedition, 
 accompanied by thirty men and Padres Francisco Escobar- 
 
OXATE S CONQUEST OF NEW MEXICO. 81 
 
 and San Buenaventura. They returned to San Juan in 
 April, 1605, having passed Zuni and Moqui and traversed 
 the greater part of Arizona. In 1608 Onate was succeeded 
 as governor by Don Pedro Peralta, but he was soon restored, 
 and ruled iintil about 1620. In 1611 he made another ex- 
 pedition northward and discovered what were then known 
 as the "Cannibal Lakes," and the canon of the Canadian 
 Biver, which they called Cadaudachos, or the " Palisades." 
 In or about the year 1620, Don Bartolome ISTarrso was 
 governor of New Mexico ; all that is now known of this 
 dignitary is the memorial on Inscription Rock, which 
 declares that, "Bartolome Narrso, Governor and Captain 
 General of the province of New Mexico, for our Lord, the 
 King, passed by this place on his return from the pueblo 
 of Zuni, on the 29th of July, of the year 1620." The otlier 
 governors who are known to have held office in New Mexico 
 between the years 1620 and 168i i are : General Arguello, in 
 164'); General Concha, in 1650; Enrique de Pacheco, in 
 1656 ; Bernado de Mendizaval, in 1660 ; the Count of Pena- 
 losa, in 1661 ; and Don Juan Precenio, in 1675 ; while 
 Antonio Otermin was governor in the year 1680. 
 
 During these years Christianity spread rapidly through 
 New Mexico ; in 1608 the Franciscan records show eight 
 thousand converts ; in 1621 the number had increased to 
 over sixteen thousand five hundred, and a custodia had 
 been formed under the command of Padre Alonzo Benavides, 
 who brought twenty-seven friars into the country. In 1626, 
 over thirty-foTir thousand Indians had been baptized, and 
 forty-three churches were erected. Yet, in spite of this 
 rapid proselytism, there was a growing discontent among 
 the natives ; the Spanish law, both civil and ecclesiastical, 
 borehard upon the Indians ; many of its requirements they 
 were unable to comprehend, yet for the slightest infringe- 
 ment they were severely punished— slavery being the pen- 
 alty most generally inflicted, as it offered a cheap and simple 
 method of providing laborers for the mines, which were 
 being extensively worked, with great profit, in the Picoris, 
 Socorro, and Jemez regions. The religious law forbade the 
 
82 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 observance of their ancient rites, destroyed their idols, 
 closed their estufas, and prohibited, under the severest 
 penalties, their sacred dances. The Inquisition, too, which 
 was now established in the country, was a close observer 
 and a speedy judge of all relapses into heathenism. A 
 yearly tribute of maize and cotton was paid by the Indians 
 for the support of the garrison at Santa Fe and the missions 
 and churches also demanded their contributions. Indeed, 
 between the years 1640 and 1680 the feeling of rebellion and 
 anger increased to an alarming extent among the natives, 
 and several futile attempts were made to shake off their 
 oppressors. In 1645 a rebellion broke out on account of 
 the flogging, imprisonment, and hanging of forty Indians, 
 who had refused to adopt the Catholic religion, but the 
 movement was speedily crushed and the ringleaders 
 punished. In 1650, statements of apprehended Indian diffi- 
 culties were sent to Mexico and Spain ; in this same year a 
 plot was formed in which the whole Teguas nation, and 
 the pueblos of Jemez, Cochiti, Sandia, Isleta, Alameda, 
 and San Felipe, united. The plan was to kill all the soldiers 
 and priests, and drive the remaining Spaniards from the 
 country ; the date set for the uprising was Thursday of 
 Passion week, when the Christians would be assembled in 
 the churches and unprepared for defense. The greatest 
 secrecy was observed, but the plot was discovered, by 
 chance, and promptly frustrated. Nine of the ringleaders 
 were hung and the rest sold into slavery. 
 
 From 1672 the Apaches became hostile, and made many 
 raids on the province. In 1675, several friars were killed 
 by the natives, and Padre Andreas Duran was apparently 
 bewitched by the arts of some Pueblo medicine men ; 
 as a punishment, fourteen Indians were hung, forty-three 
 whipped, and many more imprisoned. These events took 
 place at San Felipe, Nambe, and San Juan, and much 
 enraged the natives. A force of warriors, under the leader- 
 ship of Pope, a San Juan Indian, marched to the residence 
 of Gfovernor Frecenio and demanded the release of the 
 prisoners for a fixed ransom, declaring their intention to 
 
OBTATE'S conquest of new MEXICO. 83 
 
 kill all the Spaniards, or flee to the hills, were their com- 
 panions punished. Their mission was unsuccessful, how- 
 ever, and slowly, but surely, the clouds gathered for the 
 fierce storm that was to burst upon the province before five 
 years had passed. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE PUEBLO REVOLUTIOK 
 1680—1691. 
 
 Spread of the Conspiracy — Pop6's Zeal — His Supernatural Preten- 
 sions — Precautions — The Plot revealed — Premature Outbreak — 
 Massacres — Consternation at Santa Fe — Conflicts and Skirmishes- 
 Siege of Santa F6 — The Spaniards Evacuate the City — Their 
 March — At Isleta — Destitution of the Spaniards — Father Ayeta's 
 Supplies — The Winter at San Lorenzo — Suffering of the Exiles — 
 Martyrdom of the Friars — The Pueblo Government — Excesses and 
 Eejoicings — Pop6's Rule — His Tyranny and Death — Civil War 
 and Discord — Preparations to regain New Mexico — Otermin Enters 
 the Province — His Force — The March — Desolation along the Route 
 — Isleta Reached — The Spaniards Welcomed — Reconnoitering Party 
 under Mendoza — Pueblos Hostile — At Cochiti — Indian Strategy — 
 Mendoza Returns — Distress of the Army — Return Resolved on — 
 Otermin's Report — 1682 to 1684 — Appointment of Cruzate — Abor- 
 tive Attempts to Reconquer New Mexico — Diego de Vargas made 
 Governor of the Province. 
 
 THE time was now come when the Pueblo Indians of New 
 Mexico were to rise in sudden and sucessfnl rebellion 
 against their Spanish masters and for a brief decade enjoy 
 the freedom of their forefathers. Ever since the attempted 
 revolution of 1650, the natives had been maturing prepara- 
 tions to regain their ancient liberty. The influence of the 
 old men was potently exerted to rekindle the fire of patri- 
 otism, to foster the spirit of discontent against foreign rule, 
 and to strengthen the bonds of Indian union ; and silently, 
 gradually, steadily, throughout the province, the conspiracy 
 extended until all was ripe for the outbreak. The leading 
 spirit in the enterprise was Pope, the San Juan Indian 
 who, in 1675, had led the deputation to Governor Frecenio 
 and petitioned the release of the natives accused of sorcery. 
 Since that time Pope had been a person of much conse- 
 quence among his countrymen. Naturally a man of strong 
 
THE PUEBLO EEVOLUTION. 85 
 
 character, much ability and great ejoquence, his influence 
 over the Indians was increased by his claims to supernatural 
 power. He traversed the country in all directions, exhort- 
 ing the natives to throw off the Spanish yoke, and informing 
 them that he was commissioned by the Grreat Father, the 
 Chief of all, to rouse his countrymen against the Castillos 
 and drive them from the land, so that the Pueblos might 
 live again free and independent. He declared that he had 
 formed an alliance with "El Demonio," and related that 
 one day while down in the estufa at Taos, there appeared 
 before him three Indian genii, named Caidit, Telim, and 
 Tlesime, who sent forth flames from every extremity of their 
 bodies. These spirits advised him to unite all the Indians 
 in a common league against their oppressors and showed him 
 how to communicate with distant pueblos by means of a 
 rope of amole flber, mysteriously knotted. 
 
 Through the efforts of Pope and his co-laborers, chief 
 among whom were Catiti of Santo Domingo, Tupatu of 
 Picuri, J aca of Taos, and Francisco of San Ildef onso, all the 
 Pueblos except those of the Piros nation to the north, were 
 roused to revolt. The knotted rope was borne from pueblo 
 to pueblo by the fleetest runners to make known the date 
 of the rising, and every precaution was observed lest the 
 plot should be discovered and frustrated. A constant watch 
 was kept upon all whose loyalty was questionable, and so 
 fearful were they of betrayal, that not a woman was let into 
 the secret, and Pope killed with his own hands his son-in- 
 law, Nicolas Bua, governor of San Juan, on suspicion of 
 treachery. The time fixed for the uprising was the 10th 
 day of August, 1680 ; but, notwithstanding all the fore- 
 thought of the conspirators, the plot was revealed from 
 several different sources two days before the appointed 
 date. The Tanos Indians of San Lazaro divulged the secret 
 to Padre Bernal, the custodio ; a similar confession was 
 made to Padre Yelasco of Pecos, by one of his converts ; 
 and the alcalde of Taos sent a warning to the governor, Don 
 Antonio Otermin, at Santa Fe, which caused him to arrest 
 two Tezuque Indians, who had been sent by the Teguas 
 
86 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 nation to consult with the Tanos and Qaeres. Preparations 
 were made to resist the rebels ; messengers were dispatched 
 to alarm the friars and settlers ; all Spaniards north of Santa 
 Fe were ordered to repair at once to the capital and place 
 themselves under the orders of the governor ; or, if unable 
 to proceed so far, to take refuge at Santa Cruz de la Canada; 
 while those south of San Felipe were to rendezvous at Isleta, 
 which was to be prepared for defense by the lieutenant-gov- 
 ernor. As soon as the rebels knew that their conspiracy had 
 been exposed, they realized that their only hope of success 
 lay in immediate action, and at once flew to arms without 
 waiting for the appointed time. On the night of the 9th of 
 August, the Taos, Picuries, and Teguas Indians attacked the 
 Christian settlements, farms, and missions, " delivering all 
 to blood and fire," and making an indiscriminate slaughter 
 of the Spaniards who fell into their hands. Soldiers, priests, 
 women, and children, friend or foe, young or old, all met 
 the same fate, save a few beautiful girls who were reserved 
 as wives for the chiefs. The number of those who perished 
 is estimated at four hundred. 
 
 The details of this disaster were brought on the 10th, by 
 Captain Francisco Gomez, to Santa Fe, where they aroused 
 the wildest terror and indignation. The inhabitants of the 
 suburbs flocked into the city, which was immediately put 
 in a state of defense. The streets opening upon the plaza 
 were barricaded, the government buildings fortified, sen- 
 tinels posted, scouts sent out to learn the position and in- 
 tentions of the enemy, and an order was dispatched to 
 Lieutenant-general Garcia to forward aid from Isleta. On 
 August 14th the scouts returned with news of the approach 
 of five hundred Pecos Indians, and the next morning the 
 enemy appeared, and advanced to the suburbs, where they 
 occupied the abandoned houses of the Spaniards while they 
 awaited reinforcements. Governor Otermin endeavored to 
 parley with them before their allies should appear, but his 
 overtures were received with contempt ; the Indians stating 
 that nothing would satisfy their countrymen but the pos- 
 session of their country. They exhibited two crosses which 
 
THE PUEBLO EEVOLUTIOJST. 87 
 
 they had brought with them, one red, significant of war ; 
 the other white, a symbol of peace. The Spaniards were at 
 liberty to choose the latter, but if so they must immediately 
 leave the country to its original owners. Governor Otermin 
 declined to accept peace on such terms and determined to 
 attack the Indians before they could be reinforced. He led 
 an impetuous assault, which the enemy met bravely. The 
 battle continued all day, but when the Spaniards appeared 
 upon the point of victory the Indians were joined by the 
 armies of Taos, Picuris, and Tegua, and Otermin was obliged 
 to withdraw his men for the protection of the women and 
 children cowering in the palace. 
 
 Santa Fe was now closely invested. The Indians were 
 sure of their prey and as they surrounded the doomed city 
 they proclaimed exultingly to the Christians within that 
 their God was dead, but that the Pueblos' god, the Sun, 
 never died. There were one thousand Spaniards in the villa, 
 including men, women, and children, but the number of 
 men fit for military service was less than one hiindred and 
 fifty, while the natives mustered about three thousand. In 
 spite of their overwhelming odds, the Indians did not at- 
 tempt an assault but preferred the safer, if slower, course of 
 a blockade. The suburbs were destroyed, the church and 
 convent burned, the besieged being confined within the plaza 
 and casas reales. The water supply was cut off, occasion- 
 ing the greatest distress, and the situation became so 
 desperate that on the morning of the 19th, Otermin, at the 
 head of one hundred men, invoking " the sweet name of 
 Mary," made a gallant sortie upon the swarming bands 
 without. So impetuous was the assault that the Indians 
 were driven back, three hundred men killed, and forty-seven 
 made prisoners. These were promptly shot upon the plaza 
 after information regarding the plans and number of their 
 confederates had been extracted. Only five Spaniards had 
 been killed during the entire siege, but many, including the 
 governor, were wounded seriously. On the 20th a coirncil of 
 war was held, and it was resolved, in view of their miserable 
 condition, the scai'city of food, and impossibility of obtain- 
 
88 HISTORY OF NEW_ MEXICO. 
 
 ing succor, to abandon the city. N"o time was lost in carry- 
 ing this determination into effect, and at daybreak on the 
 morning of the 21st, the first colonists of New Mexico, men, 
 women, and children, left the city of Santa Fe to face the 
 unknown perils of the long march to the south. They 
 traveled on foot, carrying their clotliing and necessary ef- 
 fects upon their shoulders, as they had not horses enough 
 to transport the sick and wounded. The fugitives had 
 feared that once beyond the protecting walls of the city, 
 they would be enveloped by the foe and annihilated, but, 
 strangely enough, though the Indians watched the retreat 
 curiously, and even followed the little band for some dis- 
 tance, they did not molest it. 
 
 As the Spa,niards passed through Santo Domingo, sacked 
 and deserted, the sight of the mutilated bodies of three 
 padres and five other of their countrymen, made them 
 shudder for their own fate. At San Felipe and Sandia the 
 colonists had escaped, but the towns were pillaged and partly 
 destroyed. The route of the fugitives lay through desola- 
 tion and death, and when, almost exhausted, they reached 
 Isleta, where they had counted upon finding provisions and 
 gaining a brief period of rest, that town also was deserted. 
 Lieutenant-general Garcia having led his command south- 
 ward thirteen days before. Bitterly disappointed, Otermin 
 and his party were obliged to push on, though so weak from 
 hunger that they were hardly able to march. At Alamillo 
 they met Garcia returning, in obedience to a messenger dis- 
 patched by the governor. He accounted for his abandon- 
 ment of Isleta without orders, by stating that as he had 
 neither force nor supplies, and believed that all in the north 
 had been put to death, it seemed unadvisable to remain. 
 The fugitives from Santa Fe were unable to advance further 
 without food, and their condition having been made known 
 to Padre Ayeta of El Paso, he dispatched four wagon loads 
 of corn which, under the escort of Pedro de Leiva, reached 
 them at Alamillo on the 6th of September. This timely 
 supply saved many who must otherwise have perished and 
 enabled all to reach Fray Cristobal, when a halt was made 
 
THE PUEBLO REVOLUTION. 89 
 
 and a council of war held. It was decided to remain in the 
 vicinity of EI Paso until the envoy, commissioned to the 
 viceroy in Mexico, with a report of the settlers' desperate 
 condition, and a petition for their immediate relief, should 
 return. Wood and water were abundant at San Lorenzo, 
 about thirty miles north of El Paso, and there the homeless 
 Spaniards went into camp for the winter. Their destitution 
 "was profound. Weak from hunger, wounds, and exhaus- 
 tion when they left Santa Fe, human endurance had been 
 taxed to its utmost in the long march through a devastated 
 country, where famine traveled with them and still menaced 
 them by their camp fires. Many wandered to the Chi- 
 huahuan settlements; the rest waited, subject to every 
 privation, for help from Mexico. 
 
 Of the priests, who had remained at their stations when 
 the rebellion broke forth, not one escaped martyrdom. 
 The three Franciscans stationed at Zuni, Padres Analiza, 
 Espinoza, and Calsada, were dragged from their cells, stoned 
 and finally shot. At Moqui, Padre Juan deVallado and 
 Fray Jesus de Lombarde were murdered in a similar manner. 
 The old priest Jesus Morador, at Jemez, was subjected 
 to shocking cruelties, finally ended by his falling dead at 
 the feet of his tormentors ; while at Acoma, Padres Mal- 
 ■donaldo, Figueroa, and Mora were stoned to death. " So 
 utterly," says Prince, " did the mild nature of the Pueblo 
 Indians appear to have been changed in half a century ! and 
 so terribly did the persecutions which the misdirected zeal 
 of some of the ecclesiastics inaugurated react on others, 
 many of whom were men of great kindness and benevo- 
 lence, and all of whom had shown marked self-sacrifice and 
 zeal." 
 
 The fall of Santa Fe was hailed by the New Mexicans 
 with the wildest demonstrations of joy ; their chiefs in- 
 stalled themselves in the palace which the Spanish governor 
 had so recently abandoned, and promulgated decrees for 
 the destruction of every vestige of the Christian religion 
 and Spanish authority. The churches and convents were 
 destroyed, the symbols of Christianity burnt or broken, the 
 
90 HISTOBY OP NEW MEXICO. 
 
 sacred vestments were donned in derision by the Indians, 
 who danced through the town, or rode wildly up and down, 
 enveloped in the folds of snowy dalmatica or magnificent 
 altar-cloth, embroidered by Spanish nuns ; while others 
 swung the censers, or waved the silken banners, with their 
 pictured saints, over the heads of the frantic crew. Official 
 books and records were also. destroyed, and the cacMna, so 
 long interdicted by the priests, was danced with all its ac- 
 companying ceremonies upon the plaza of the villa. Pope, 
 the leading spirit of the rebellion, now arrogated to himself 
 the government of the people. His first care was the re- 
 establishment of the native religion ; estufas were opened 
 and ancient rites and ceremonies solemnized. Christian 
 converts were ordered to cleanse themselves of baptism by 
 the application of water and amole, and Christian names 
 were abolished ; those who had been wedded by the church 
 were to separate and make other alliances. It was for- 
 bidden to mention the names of Jesus and Mary under 
 severe penalties, and the Spanish language was prohibited. 
 Native crops alone were to be grown, and all seeds intro- 
 duced by the Spaniards were to be destroyed. The mines, 
 in whose black depths so many Indian slaves had perished, 
 were ordered to be filled up and every trace of them obliter- 
 ated. 
 
 Accompanied by his lieutenants, Jaca, Luis Tupatu, and 
 Alonzo Catiti, and assuming almost royal state. Pope 
 traveled from pueblo to pueblo and was received with pro- 
 found respect in each. He dressed in full Indian costume, 
 with a large bull's horn attached to his forehead, and rode a 
 black mule. At each village he made a speech, generally in 
 the following fashion : ' ' Now that the Spaniards were driven 
 away forever, he desired to accompany his countrymen to 
 the chase ; they would all kill many deer, rabbits, and all 
 other animals. They would have good crops of corn, 
 pumpkins, and large bolls of cotton. They need not fear 
 the Spaniards, for he had thrown up intrenchments on the 
 three roads, built strong walls that reached to the heavens, 
 and should the Castillos enter by any other pathway, he 
 
THE PUEBLO REVOLUTION. 91 
 
 would surround them with darkness, take them without 
 resistance, and put them to death." 
 
 Notwithstanding Pope' s speeches promising peace and 
 material prosperity to the people, anarchy and barbarism 
 were the actual results of the return to Pueblo government. 
 Little is positively known of this confused period ; Pope, 
 though a shrewd and intrepid leader, was an arbitrary 
 ruler, and his exactions soon rendered him obnoxious, al- 
 though he maintained his rule — with the exception of a brief 
 period when Tupatu was elected in his stead — until his 
 death, which occurred somewhere about the year 1688. 
 During this time civil war broke forth ; pueblo fought 
 against pueblo ; the Apaches and Utahs renewed their raids, 
 carrying women and children into captivity, slaughtering 
 men, and plundering towns. Owing to constant warfare the 
 ground was left untilled and famine ensued, causing many 
 villages to be deserted. A vast proportion of the ruins so 
 frequently met in New Mexico date back to this period of 
 barbarism, contrasting so strangely with the natural indus- 
 try and self-restraint of the Pueblo Indians. 
 
 Early in 1681, the colonists encamped at San Lorenzo were 
 cheered by the return of their envoy, Father Ayeta, from 
 Mexico, charged with supplies for their immediate relief and 
 promises of speedy reinforcements to aid in the reconquest 
 of the province. This task was undertaken by Grovernor 
 Otermin that same year, in the face of almost insuperable 
 obstacles, ammunition, provisions, transportation, and equip- 
 ments being obtained with great difficulty. On November 
 5th, however, the army, consisting of 416 soldiers, 112 Indian 
 allies, 975 horses, and a train of ox- carts and pack mules, 
 left El Paso del Norte under Governor Otermin, with Juan 
 Dominguez de Mendoza, lieutenant-general and master of 
 the camp ; Padre Ayeta, procurador-general ; Padre Anto- 
 nio Gruerra, and several other friars. The dreaded Jornado 
 del Muerto was crossed without accident, and on the 27th 
 the army halted at a point opposite the pueblo of Senecu. 
 The party sent across the river to reconnoiter found the 
 town deserted and in ruins, it having evidently been taken 
 
92 HISTOKT OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 by assault and pillaged. The scattered emblems of the 
 Christian religion were collected by the priests, and since it 
 was impossible to transport them they were burned to save 
 them from further desecration. The town was then fired 
 by the troops and they continued their march up the valley. 
 All the ranches along the route were found pillaged and 
 plundered; the towns of Socorro, Alamillo, and Sevilettahad 
 shared the same fate. It was not until December 5th, when 
 the army arrived at Isleta, that they found an inhabited 
 town. This pueblo was taken after a brief resistance, the 
 Inhabitants being apparently anxious to conciliate the 
 Spaniards and re-enter the fold of the church. The general 
 caused crosses to be erected on the plaza and questioned the 
 Indians narrowly as to their former behavior and present 
 intentions. They declared their friendliness to the Castillos 
 and denied having destroyed any of the sacred vessels or 
 symbols, declaring that the havoc had been made by the 
 Pueblos of the north, who had visited the country and 
 ordered that all should return to the old religion. All the 
 inhabitants, men, women, and children, then issued from 
 the town to meet Father Ayeta and the other priests, who 
 advanced singing an anthem of praise, to which the Indians 
 responded. The next day, after a sermon which he de- 
 livered upon the plaza. Padre Ayeta gave the natives 
 absolution for past offenses and received them again into 
 communion. Many children were baptized, the first, for 
 whom Governor Otermin stood sponsor, receiving the name 
 of Carlos in honor of the king of Spain. 
 
 While the main army recuperated for a few days, the 
 general dispatched Don Dominguez de Mendoza, with 
 seventy men and a number of Indians, to reconnoiter the 
 country to the north. On his march up the valley Mendoza 
 found all the pueblos abandoned, or, if any inhabitants re- 
 mained, they fled at sight of the approaching Spaniards. 
 In Sandia, Alameda, Puera, San Felipe, and Santo Domin- 
 go, ruined churches and restored estufas marked the track 
 of the rebellion. At Cochiti, Mendoza had his first encoun- 
 ter with the rebels. The town, when the Spaniards entered 
 
THE PUEBLO KEVOLDTION. 93 
 
 it, showed every evidence of recent occupation, and troops 
 of Indians were observed on the adjacent hills, from which 
 a large force descended the next morning, sounding their 
 war-cries and apparently eager for battle. A parley was 
 held however, and Catiti, their chief, shedding tears of peni- 
 tence, professed an eager desire for pardon and peace. In 
 addition to his own army, which embraced representatives 
 of the Teguas, Tanos, and Queres nations, Catiti promised 
 to bring those of Santo Domingo, Cochiti, and San Felipe, 
 requesting two days to assemble them, when there should 
 be a ratification meeting, and the Indians would return to 
 the arms of Church and State. Catiti failed to appear, how- 
 ever, and it was learned through spies that his professed 
 penitence was simply a ruse .to gain time for the Indians to 
 put their arms in order, the snow having wet their bow- 
 strings and rendered them unfit for use, and to concentrate 
 forces for an overwhelming attack upon the Spaniards. Up- 
 on receiving this report Mendoza, neglecting to burn the 
 pueblos, collected his troops and marched south, rejoining 
 the army, which was encamped near Sandia, on December 
 18th. A severe winter, accompanied by heavy snow- storms, 
 had set in ; there was insufficient food for the men and no 
 pasturage for the horses, and the hostile natives in con- 
 stantly increasing numbers were gathering near the camp. 
 In view of these circumstances a council of war was held 
 at which, after some discussion, it was resolved to fall back 
 upon Isleta and quarter therefor the winter. The army set 
 out on the 25th, but reached Isleta to find that over one 
 hundred of its inhabitants had joined the rebels. Informa- 
 tion being received that the enemy was preparing to run ofl' 
 the horses, and massacre the Spanish troops and Christian 
 Indians, it was resolved, at a final council held on December 
 31st, to return to El Paso. On the 2d of January, 1682, the 
 army set out, accompanied by three hundred and eighty- 
 five faithful Indians who feared to remain, leaving the 
 pueblo in flames, that the stores contained there might not 
 fall into the hands of the enemy. 
 
 Governor Otermin forwarded a detailed report of the ex- 
 
94 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO, 
 
 peditioti and the state of the province to the Marques de la 
 Laguna, who was mnch annoyed at the failure to reconquer 
 the country. In his reply the viceroy censured Dominguez 
 severely for not burning the pueblos, and Otermin for not 
 having made a stand at Sandia, where a large quantity of 
 provisions were stored, and where the command might have 
 been maintained until reinforcements could arrive. The 
 viceroy also desired that the colony might be kept together 
 and all fugitives recovered. Otermin was succeeded in the 
 nominal government of New Mexico in 1683 by Don Barto- 
 lome de Estrada Ramirez, who does not appear, however, to 
 have at any time officiated in the province. In this same 
 year the king commended the course pursued by the viceroy, 
 and commanded the establishment of a permanent supply 
 station, or presidio, at El Paso del Norte ; he also ordered 
 that every means should be taken for the reconquest of the 
 northern province, and that the colonists should be kept to- 
 gether until they could be re-established in their old homes. 
 In 1684 Don Dominguez Jironza Petriz de Cruzate was made 
 governor and captain -general, and several times attempted 
 the reconquest of New Mexico; but, although he penetrated 
 as far as Cia, his efforts were of no permanent value and 
 effected nothing of importance. 
 
 In 1689, Torebia de Huerta, said to be one of the origi- 
 nal conquerors of New Mexico, petitioned the king for 
 authority to reconquer the country, demanding in return 
 sundry titles and rewards as Ohate had done nearly a hun- 
 dred years before. That Huerta was partly aware of the 
 great mineral wealth of the province is evinced by his men- 
 tion of silver mines between Zuni and Moqui in the Sierra 
 Azul, and also of a rich quicksilver mine. His application, 
 although at first favorably received, was finally rejected, 
 and two years later Diego de Vargas Zapata Lujan Ponce 
 de Leon was appointed governor of New Mexico. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE RECONQUEST OF NEW MEXICO. 
 1691—1700. 
 Vargas at El Paso— His New Mexican Expedition— Arrives at Santa F6 
 —Offers of Peace— Santa Pe Surrenders— Submission of Adjacent 
 Towns— Don Luis Tupatu— Vargas Enters the Interior— Visits Pecos 
 — Taos— Eeturns to Santa F6— His Letter to the Viceroy— Vargas 
 Marches to Santo Domingo — Submission of Jemez — Rear-guard 
 Eeturns to El Paso- -Don Diego Advances to Acoma — Submission 
 of Acoma — The Spaniards March to Zuai— Vargas at Moqui — 
 Hostility of the Natives — The Moqui Towns Submit— The Eeturn 
 March- Socorro— El Paso— End of Vargas's First Campaign- 
 Preparations for the Second Expedition — The March — Hostile At- 
 titude of the Natives — The Spaniards Enter Santa Fe — The Tanos 
 Eefuse to Vacate Santa F4 — Assault by the Spaniards — Surrender 
 of Santa Fe— Punishment of the Eebels— Early Part of 1694— Con- 
 tinued Hostilities — Spaniards Eepulsed at San Ildefonso — Arrival 
 of Colonists — Eeduction of Jemez — Of San Ildefonso — The Eecon- 
 quest Complete — 1694 to 1696 — Attempted Eevolt — Peace Eestored 
 — Appointment of Cubero — Vargas Imprisoned — His Eeturn to 
 Mexico— End of the XVII. Century. 
 
 DON DIEGO DE VARGAS, under whose skillful gen- 
 eralship the province of New Mexico was restored to 
 the Spanish crown, took possession of his office early in 
 1691. His appointment to the position of governor and 
 captain-general was in a great measure due to his well- 
 known energy and determination, of character, and had 
 special reference to the reconquest of ISTew Mexico. Al- 
 though anxious to enter upon the campaign forthwith, In- 
 dian troubles in the vicinity of El Paso del Norte demanded 
 the governor's immediate attention, and a year elapsed be- 
 fore he was at liberty to put his northern plans into opera- 
 tion. As soon as these delays were disposed of preparations 
 were begun to fit out the New Mexican expedition, but so 
 great was the general' s impatience that, without waiting for 
 
 95 
 
96 HISTORY OP NEW MEXICO. 
 
 the reinforcements advancing from Parral, he started north- 
 ward on August 21, 1692, and proceeded rapidly up the Rio 
 Grande valley with only the small number of men obtain- 
 able at El Paso. His entire force amounted to about sixty 
 soldiers, with one hundred Indian allies, and the expedi- 
 tion was accompanied by Padres Francisco Cowera, Miguel 
 Muhiz, and Cristobal Alonzo Barroso. The march was un- 
 eventful ; all the pueblos along the route were found ruined 
 and deserted, and no Indians were encountered. The little 
 army pushed forward as swiftly as possible, stopping only 
 for rest and refreshment, and early on the morning of 
 September 13th came in sight of Santa Fe. 
 
 The baggage and camp equipments had been left several 
 days before at the Hacienda de la Mejia, under the charge of 
 Captain Tellez and a small guard, and Vargas at once ordered 
 that the city should be surrounded, the water supply cut off, 
 and all communication with the outside prevented. These 
 vigorous measures soon had their effect. Santa Fe was oc- 
 cupied by the Tanos Indians of Gralisteo, who had left their 
 pueblo and taken possession of the villa ; it was strongly for- 
 tified and capable of defense, but the natives were surprised 
 and bewildered by the unexpected appearance of the Span- 
 iards and offered little resistance. They made a show of 
 hostility, and uttered threatening boasts of the manner in 
 which they would disperse the Spaniards and their Indian 
 allies ; but Vargas, although prepared for a conflict, did not 
 desire an unnecessary battle which would, in all probability, 
 cripple his small force and dishearten his men, and the padres 
 were anxious to avert bloodshed if possible. Offers of peace 
 and pardon for past offenses were made, to which the Indians 
 listened readily, and before night they had surrendered and 
 Santa Fe was gained. The next day twelve neighboring- 
 villages submitted, and were at once occupied by the Span- 
 iards. Religious services were held, the Indians received, 
 absolution for their sins, and many children were baptized. 
 While at the villa, Vargas was visited by Don Luis Tupatu, 
 the most powerful of the pueblo chieftains since the death 
 of Pope and Catiti. He was dressed in full Spanish costume,. 
 
THE EECOTSTQDEST OP NEW MEXICO. 97 
 
 and declared himself friendly to the Castillos, tendering his 
 allegiance, and informing the governor that helhad been 
 authorized by the Tehuas to give in their submission, but 
 that the Queres, Taos, Jemez, and Pecos Indians would un- 
 doubtedly attempt to expel the invaders. 
 
 Vargas determined to push on into the interior before the 
 rebels had recovered from the loss of Santa F6, and without 
 waiting for reinforcements, set out at once for the pueblo of 
 Taos, which was believed to be the general headquarters of 
 the hostile nations. At Galisteo he was joined by the fifty 
 soldiers from Parral, who had just arrived, and with his 
 force thus strengthened proceeded on to the village of Pecos. 
 It was found to be abandoned, and the inhabitants absolutely 
 refused to return to their homes. Five days were spent 
 here in fruitless parleyings and offers of peace, and the 
 governor then returned to Santa Pe for a short time. On 
 September 24th he started northward, and visited all the 
 surrounding pueblos, most of whose inhabitants submitted at 
 once and received absolution and baptism from the fi'iars. 
 On reaching Taos the army immediately surrounded the 
 two enormous buildings, and sent forward messengers with 
 the usual inducements to surrender ; but the pueblo was 
 quite silent and deserted, the Indians having all fled to a 
 neighboring mountain. Vargas dispatched Don Luis to their 
 hiding-place with assurances of his friendly intentions, and 
 after some negotiation and reluctance the people returned 
 to their homes and promised loyalty and obedience. A 
 priest was left at the village, ninety-six persons were 
 baptized, and all received absolution ; they welcomed the 
 Spaniards with hospitality, now that their fears were dis- 
 pelled, and informed the governor of a plot by which he 
 and his army were to have been attacked from ambush by 
 the hostile nations. While here Vargas acted as arbitrator 
 in a feud between the Taos and some southern pueblos, and 
 settled the dispute to their satisfaction ; many of the young 
 braves also joined the Spanish army, and others promised 
 to assist him in his approaching expedition against the Zuni 
 pueblos. 
 
98 HISTORY OP NEW MEXICO. 
 
 On October 13th Vargas returned to Santa Fe and re- 
 ported his success to the Count de Galve, viceroy of New- 
 Spain, announcing that he had taken possession of Santa 
 Fe, and subdued all the pueblos within thirty-six leagues, 
 besides having baptized nearly one thousand children. He 
 declared that " in order to hold the province, it is necessary 
 to establish garrisons in the different towns, and to attempt 
 to send less than five hundred families and one hundred 
 soldiers would be like throwing a grain of salt into the sea. 
 This number," he continues, "can be had by beginning 
 with one hundred families that are in El Paso del Eio del 
 Norte, and fifty soldiers in that garrison, and which may 
 be added to the number your Excellency and the Royal 
 Junta may procure. Without this they (the Indians) can 
 never be reduced, for it would be much easier to convert 
 Jews without the Inquisition than to induce the Indians to 
 leave their country and place of abode." He also recom- 
 mended that blacksmiths, carpenters, and mechanics should 
 be sent from the jails of Zacatecas, Queretaros, and Rosario 
 to the province, to act as teachers and search for mines, 
 and that the families should come from El Paso as being 
 best adapted to the country. He further remarks that he 
 is then preparing to march against some of the adjoining 
 provinces, and that he will induce them to embrace ' ' Our 
 Holy Faith" or raze their villages to the ground, and 
 " thus punish their obstinacy." 
 
 The governor then prepared for another expedition, 
 more extensive than the former. He dispatched one division 
 of his army, with two pieces of artillery, to Santo Domingo, 
 there to await his coming, and without further delay pro- 
 ceeded to Pecos, where he was hospitably received on Octo- 
 ber 17th. Large crosses and other decorations had been 
 erected in honor of his arrival, and the inhabitants were 
 absolved and received into the church by Padres Corvero 
 and Barroso. The next day Yargas, after appointing a gov- 
 ernor for Pecos, proceeded to Galisteo and San Marcos, some 
 leagues distant ; both these villages were entirely deserted, 
 and the governor pushed on to Santo Domingo, where the ad- 
 
THE RECONQUEST OF NEW MEXICO. 99 
 
 vance body of troops were found waiting his arrival. Here 
 a council was held, attended by many caciques from ad- 
 jacent pueblos, who were assured of the Spaniards' friendli- 
 ness, presented with various gifts, and requested to return 
 and prepare their villages for the reception of the army. 
 On October 21st the general marched to Cochiti, where he 
 found the inhabitants of San Marcos and San Felipe, who 
 had taken refuge in this pueblo. He promised them pro- 
 tection and support and induced them return to their homes. 
 From here he proceeded to Cia, whose inhabitants, with 
 those of Santa Ana, had built a new pueblo four leagues 
 from the old one, which was in a ruined condition. They 
 received Vargas with hospitality, and he journeyed thence 
 to Jemez, where he found that the Jemez Indians, with those 
 of Santo Domingo and a few Apaches, were living in a 
 new village three leagues from the old pueblo of Jemez ; 
 their new home was naturally almost impregnable and its 
 strength was increased by the construction of thick walls. 
 There was but one narrow entrance to the town, which was 
 built upon two open courts. At first the Indians made a 
 show of resistance and drew themselves up in battle array, 
 but there was no decided hostile movement, and the people 
 soon submitted and received the Spaniards peaceably. The 
 obediencia of the inhabitants of Santa Ana completed the 
 pacification of all the provinces in the Rio Grande valley, 
 and as the weather was now becoming cold and unpleasant 
 Vargas decided, on October 27th, to send part of his army 
 back to El Paso, and continue his progress through the 
 country. This return party consisted of most of the Indian 
 allies, the injured horses, all the artillery, a few settlers, 
 forty-three rescued captives, many of them women who 
 had been prisoners among the Indians since the rebellion 
 of 1680, and a sufficient escort. They were to proceed to 
 El Paso and meet the intending colonists, who were prepar- 
 ing to advance into the interior. 
 
 Vargas's eagerness to finish the subjugation of New Mex- 
 ico was not shared by his entire army. A junta of officers, 
 held at the Hacienda de Mejia, voted to put off the conclu- 
 
100 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 sion of the campaign until the next year, but the governor 
 decidedly refused and determined to set out at once. On 
 October 30th, he proceeded, with his remaining force of 
 eighty-nine men and thirty Indian auxiliaries, to the pueblo 
 of Acoma, which was reached on November 3d. Here all 
 was prepared for war, as the inhabitants had been warned 
 by the Navajoes to put no faith in the Spaniards, and were 
 slow to believe Vargas' s friendly assurances. Somie time was 
 spent in counsel and parleying, and the chiefs requested the 
 governor to advance to Zuni and leave them a few days in 
 which to deliberate ; this the general refused, and urged an 
 immediate surrender, as the great strength of the penol 
 town made it quite impregnable to his small army, and he 
 could not afford to risk a fruitless battle. His persuasion 
 was at last successful, and on November 4tb, Vargas, the 
 friars, and an escort of fifteen men were received in Acoma, 
 where they were welcomed by the native chief, Mateo, and 
 the inhabitants accepted baptism and absolution. Prom 
 Acoma the Spaniards proceeded to Zuni ; the journey 
 across the arid country was a most difficult one, and on the 
 march a number of their cattle were driven off by a band of 
 Apaches. The mesa town was reached on November 10th, 
 and Vargas and his party received a hospitable welcome 
 from the assembled inhabitants, who promised faith and 
 loyalty, and presented over three hundred children for 
 baptism. This was the only pueblo in all New Mexico 
 where the symbols of Christianity had not been destroyed ; 
 t^ie consecrated vessels and all the property of the murdered 
 friars were found intact and carefully preserved, while 
 many of the Indians still adhered to the Christian religion. 
 It is on Inscription Rock at Zuni that Vargas has left a brief 
 record, thus translated by Bancroft — " Here was Don Diego 
 de Vargas, who conquered for our Holy Faith and for the 
 royal crown all New Mexico, at his own cost, in the year 
 1692." 
 
 Leaving a part of his command at Zuni, Vargas proceeded 
 to the Moqui towns on November 15th, with two priests and 
 sixty -three men. He arrived at the first village, named 
 
THE EECONQUEST OF NEW MEXICO. 101 
 
 Aguatuvi, on the 19th, and was received with decided hos- 
 tility by the people, who had been advised by the Navajoes 
 to act on the oilensive. The native force amounted to about 
 eight hundred men, led by their chief, Miguel, and was a 
 formidable array when compared to the small body of Span- 
 iards. There can be little doubt that, had the Indians 
 precipitated a battle, Vargas' s slender band must have been 
 overwhelmed, but the ready address and consideration of 
 the general soon allayed the suspicions of the Moqui leaders. 
 Miguel informed his followers that the Castillos were their 
 Tery good friends, arms were thrown aside, and the native 
 warriors escorted their late foes a.micably into the pueblo. 
 Soon after Miguel informed the governor that the other 
 Moqui chieftains were unfriendly, but that he had opposed 
 their wishes and insisted upon a peaceful reception of the 
 Spaniards. From Aguatuvi, Vargas marched to all the 
 Moqui villages, which submitted without resistance, the 
 inhabitants receiving the usual absolution and baptism ; 
 Oraybe alone was not visited, and therefore did not give in 
 its allegiance. Notwithstanding his unmolested progress, 
 the general was decidedly anxious during his entire Moqui 
 tour and took every precaution to guard against surprise or 
 attack. He found many indications of quicksilver mines 
 and forwarded various specimens of ore to the viceroy at 
 Mexico. By this time the horses of the Spaniards were in 
 a disabled condition, and the Apache raids became more 
 frequent than ever ; it was also discovered that the quick- 
 silver mines were on the other bank of the Colorado river, 
 and Vargas determined to return to Zuni, whence the entire 
 army proceeded by a short route to Socorro, which was 
 reached on December 9th. From Socorro, Vargas and his 
 party marched slowly southward to El Paso, the general 
 having decided to make his winter quarters at that place 
 instead of at Santa Fe. Little of importance occurred upon 
 the march, save a few encounters with hostile Apaches, 
 and the expedition arrived at El Paso on December 2()th, 
 1692. Thus ended Vargas's first expedition to New Mexico, 
 "during which," says Prince, "nearly every pueblo of 
 
102 HISTOEY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 importance had been visited, from Pecos, in the extreme 
 east, to Moqui in the west ; 2,214 natives had been baptized, 
 and no less than seventy-four Spanish women and children, 
 who had been captives since the beginning of the revolu- 
 tion, were released." 
 
 The Count de Galve, on receiving Vargas's letter of Oc- 
 tober, 1692, wrote to the governor, agreeing to supply the 
 number of families and soldiers asked for ; but the arrange- 
 ment took much time, and Vargas, with his usual impetu- 
 osity, could not bring himself to wait their conclusion. 
 On his arrival at El Paso he at once proceeded to collect a 
 sufficient number of families to colonize the province ; many 
 of the former inhabitants of New Mexico, who had been 
 driven out in the Indian rebellion, joined the expedition, 
 and the ranks were also recruited from the New Biscayan 
 settlements. The preparations occupied nearly ten months 
 and it was not until October 11th, 1693, that the expedition 
 set out. The entire force amounted to some 1,500 persons, 
 including about one hundred soldiers and seventy fami- 
 lies, consisting of about eight hundred individuals. They 
 brought with them over three thousand horses and mules, 
 and each family was supplied with a sum of money by 
 the governmental authorities, — generally from ten to forty 
 dollars. The expedition was accompanied by seventeen 
 friars, under Padre Salvador de San Antonio as custodio. 
 The start was made in three separate divisions, the colonists 
 being under the special charge of Don Juan Paez Hurtado. 
 Don Diego de Vargas was governor and captain-general, his 
 second in command was Don Luis de Granillo, and other 
 prominent officers were Captains Roque de Madrid, Jose 
 Arias, Antonio Jorge, Lazaro de Misquia, Rafael Tellez 
 Jiron, Juan de Dios Lucero de Grodoy, Hernando Duran y 
 Chavez, Adjutant-general Diego Varela, Adjutant Fran- 
 cisco de Anaya Almazan, Sergeant and Secretary Juan 
 Ruiz. 
 
 The company advanced slowly up the Rio Grande val- 
 ley, and at the Hacienda de Lopez, near Socorro, Vargas 
 and the soldiers pushed on in advance while the settlers 
 
THE BECONQUEST OP NEW MEXICO. 103 
 
 followed at some distance. Their journey was a most mis- 
 erable one ; supplies and arrangements were found inade- 
 quate, the suffering from cold and hunger was excessive, 
 and over thirty persons are said to have perished on the 
 march. There was also a decided alteration in the attitude 
 of the Indians ; they received the Spaniards unwillingly, 
 and showed much discontent at their return. The chiefs 
 declared that this change was due to the reports circulated 
 by Pedro de Tapia, the governor's interpreter, who, after 
 the Spaniards had left the country, predicted that Vargas's 
 friendly assurances were made with intent to deceive, and 
 that he and his men would soon re-enter the province and 
 exterminate all the natives. Vargas contradicted these re- 
 ports in a most decided manner and succeeded in dispelling 
 the fears of many of the Indians. The advance party was 
 soon joined by the body of colonists, and on December 16th 
 the expedition made a triumphal entrance into Santa Fe 
 under the banner borne by Oiiate in his conquest of the 
 country. They were received with much ceremony ; the In- 
 dians, gathered in crowds on the plaza, made way for the 
 band of soldiers, followed by the padres clad in their flowing 
 robes and chanting the litany. After Vargas had delivered 
 an address, the troops and emigrants marched to the 
 suburbs of the city, where they encamped and remained un- 
 til Christmas, leaving the natives in possession of the palace 
 and casas r sales. 
 
 Pecos alone, of all the pueblos, remained really friendly 
 to the Spaniards, and revealed the plots of the hostile na- 
 tions. The towns of San Felipe, Santa Ana, and Cia were 
 believed to be well-disposed, but there was a general feeling 
 of uncertainty, and all felt that an open rupture would soon 
 occur. The Indians showed their dislike by refusing to 
 bring supplies of food, and declining to transport material 
 to repair the buildings of San Miguel. They also requested 
 the governor to distribute the friars at the different stations, 
 for they knew that the influence of the priests was very 
 great over many of the converts, and believed that by mas- 
 sacring them, when defenseless in the villages, they would be 
 
104 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 able to strike terror among the Spaniards. This proposition 
 was declined by the governor, who fully understood the 
 motive which prompted it. In the mean time the severity 
 of the weather increased and the colonists suffered much 
 from exposure, twenty-one children having died in less 
 than a fortnight. At last they presented a petition to the 
 general, begging him to persuade the Tanos Indians to 
 albandon the houses of the villa, that they might have some 
 substantial shelter. A council was held which confirmed 
 their request, and accordingly Vargas commanded the na- 
 tives to leave the city and return to their own pueblo of 
 Galisteo. The Indians on their side at once assembled and 
 declared that they would hold Santa Fe for themselves and 
 drive the Spaniards from the suburbs. On December 26th 
 they barricaded the entrances to the villa and prepared 
 for battle. On receiving the summons to surrender they 
 promised to give an answer on the morrow, and on the 
 morning of the 27th proclaimed their determination to fight. 
 The Spaniards were also ready for the fray, prayers were 
 read to the soldiers, and the army advanced upon the capi- 
 tal in two divisions. All day long the fierce battle raged ; 
 the city was strongly fortified, and the besieged met their 
 assailants with showers of arrows, heavy stones, and floods 
 of boiling water. After a stubborn fight the outer gate was 
 captured, but just then native reinforcements were seen ap- 
 proaching and the cavalry was obliged to charge and dis- 
 perse them. When night came both parties were ex- 
 hausted, but the advantage was largely on the side of the 
 Spaniards. The Indians were greatly discouraged by the 
 defeat of their allies and surrendered the next morning, 
 having lost ninety fighting men. The Pueblo governor 
 committed suicide and the seventy remaining warriors were 
 shot by Vargas on his entrance into the city, the women 
 and children being reduced to slavery, and all the provi- 
 sions confiscated. The reduction of Santa Fe took place in 
 the last week of the year 1693. 
 
 The colonists were now much better off ; they had shel- 
 ter from the cold, a good supply of food, and were provided 
 
THE RECONQUEST OF NEW MEXICO. 105 
 
 -with slaves ; but their position was still precarious. The 
 Indians were nearly all eitlier openly on secretly hostile and 
 it was unsafe to venture without the limits of the city. The 
 army was also in a bad condition, the ammunition was al- 
 most consumed, the armor was out of repair, and many of 
 the horses were disabled. The natives of Pecos, Santa Ana, 
 and San Felipe, although well disposed, were distrustful, 
 and concocted a plot to test the sincerity of Spanish friend- 
 ship by applying to the general for aid when none was 
 required. It was immediately furnished them, but the body 
 of horsemen sent on that errand were politely received and 
 informed that the request was only a ruse of the cacique's, 
 who had desired to see if the Castillos would keep their 
 word. On January 9th, 1694, Vargas left Santa Fe with 
 ninety men, and marched to the mesa of San Ildefonso, the 
 usual gathering place of the Pueblos in time of war. Here 
 the hostiles of the Tehua and Tanos nations were encamped ; 
 they parleyed with the Spaniards and endeavored to obtain 
 time in which to deliberate, hoping to receive reinforcements 
 from Jemez, Picoris, Taos, and other villages. Vargas in 
 vain attempted to persuade them to surrender, and returned 
 to Santa Fe on about January 24th. At the villa he received 
 a, letter from the viceroy, brought by Father Farfan, who 
 requested an escort to bring up the seventy families which 
 had been furnished by the Spanish governor and were now 
 waiting at El Paso del Norte. The governor declared that 
 he could not possibly spare a sufficient escort from his 
 small force and begged the padre to try and advance to Santa 
 Fe with the emigrants. He also requested a supply of am- 
 munition as what they had was almost gone. Captain Madrid 
 having tried in vain to manufacture balls from a lead mine 
 near San Marcos, which had been filled up by the rebels. 
 
 During the next month the mutual attitude of Spaniards 
 and Indians remained the same. Frequent raids were made 
 by both parties, with varying success ; the Spaniards suf- 
 fered much for want of provisions, and Vargas, weary of 
 indecisive skirmishes, set out at the head of one hundred 
 soldiers and a strong force of colonists and Indians to attack 
 
106 ■ HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 the enemy in their stronghold at San Ildefonso. The assault 
 was made on the 4th of March, 1694, the Spaniards charging 
 the heights of the mountain fastness in two columns, and 
 although both pieces of artillery burst at the first discharge, 
 it was not until after five hours desperate fighting that they 
 abandoned the attack, which was renewed on the 11th, 
 when they were again repulsed. On the 12th the Indians^ 
 hoping to surprise their exhausted foe, made a night attack, 
 but were driven back with loss. The siege was maintained 
 until the 14th, when the Spaniards, destitute of ammuni- 
 tion, their horses disabled, themselves worn out with fatigue 
 and the inclemency of the weather, struck camp and re- 
 turned to Santa Fe, having recovered one hundred head of 
 stock, stolen from them in the Indian raids, and a great 
 store of maize, of which a portion was sent south to supply 
 the approaching settlers. Vargas reached the capital only 
 to leave it again in response to an appeal from the pueblos of 
 Santa Ana and Cia, which were threatened by the disaffected 
 Indians of Cochiti. On the 17th of April the governor, at 
 the head of the allied forces, defeated the enemy at their 
 new pueblo, capturing three hundred prisoners, principally 
 women and children, nine hundred sheep, and seventy 
 horses and mules. On the 18th, a supply of provisions, 
 escorted by twenty soldiers, was dispatched to Santa Pe. 
 The Indians desired to treat for the release of their women 
 and children, which Vargas made contingent upon the 
 giving up of the ringleaders, and the burning of their new 
 pueblo. These conditions were found severe, and an at- 
 tempt was made for the rescue of the prisoners, in which 
 one hundred and fifty managed to escape. The pueblo was 
 burned, and on the 27th of April the army re-entered the 
 capital, where the governor distributed slaves and stock, 
 apportioned lands for agriculture, and set guards to protect 
 the settlers and natives while planting. 
 
 On May 21st an unsuccessful raid was made upon the 
 Spanish grazing camp, and Vargas was again obliged to 
 repair to San Ildefonso, where he captured a few prisoners 
 and some stock. On June 23d the colonists conducted by 
 
THE RECOWQTJEST OF NEW MEXICO. 107 
 
 Padre Farfan arrived from El Paso and were cared for in 
 the city, until the distracted province should be at peace 
 and land might be occupied and cultivated in safety. Late 
 in June the general was again called upon for aid by his 
 Indian allies, and as the hostile force was composed princi- 
 pally of Taos and Picoris Indians, he determined to attack 
 their pueblos. He found them deserted and their contents 
 protected by crosses, a symbol which the Indians expected 
 the Spaniards to respect ; the latter, however, finding ne- 
 gotiation fruitless, and not desiring to leave provision for 
 the maintenance of the enemy, sacked the town, carrying 
 away large supplies of maize. Learning that a hostile 
 force was collected to intercept his homeward march, Vargas 
 journeyed through the Utah country, crossing the Rio 
 Grande near the Colorado, then to the Ojo Caliente River 
 down to the junction of the Chama with the Rio Grande. 
 He entered Santa Fe on July 14th, having compassed one 
 hundred and twenty leagues in seventeen days. On July 
 21st Vargas, with one hundred and twenty men, crossed the 
 river and marched against Jemez to punish the Indians of 
 that town for their raids upon his allies. The new mesa 
 pueblo was carried by assault on the 24th, after a fierce re- 
 sistance. The town was then sacked, three hundred fanegas 
 of grain being taken, and three hundred and seventy women 
 and children made prisoners. The body of the reverend 
 priest, Jesus Morador, who had been so cruelly murdered 
 at the old pueblo of Jemez iipon the breaking out of the 
 rebellion, was recovered on this expedition and borne back 
 to Santa Fe, where it was reinterred with solemn pomp on 
 August 11th, fourteen years after his sad death. 
 
 On September 4th, Vargas mustered a strong force, in- 
 cluding one hundred and fifty friendly Indians, and ad- 
 vanced to the assault of San Ildefonso, but was driven back. 
 The attack was renewed on the 5th, with no better success, 
 and the intrepid governor now determined to starve the foe 
 into submission. So eflfectually was the siege maintained, 
 that on the 8th the Pueblos sued for peace, and submitted to 
 the conditions imposed upon them, thus virtually ending 
 
108 HISTOEY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 the Indian rebellion and restoring the rich province of New 
 Mexico to its Spanish conquerors. On the 17th of Septem- 
 ber the governor made a tour of the various pueblos, 
 appointing officials and arranging for their civil government. 
 He also ordered, through a friend, the purchase of three 
 thousand fanegas of maize, that the Indians might be spared 
 excessive taxation while they sowed and tilled their devas- 
 tated fields and sought to regain the prosperity of which 
 war had robbed them. Convinced that peace was restored, 
 Vargas informed the vice-custodio that the priests might 
 now return to their missions, and by the close of 1694 the 
 good padres were again at work among their Indian neo- 
 phytes. On November 4th Padre Francisco Vargas suc- 
 ceeded Padre San Antonio as custodio. 
 
 In 1695 it was considered safe for the seventy families of 
 the Mexican colonists, who had come out under Padre 
 Parfan, to take up their residence at the new town of Santa 
 Cruz de la Canada. There were still, however, some dis- 
 afiPected spirits among the pueblos ; many of the chiefs, 
 ambitious for a more absolute rule than it was possible to 
 enjoy under Spanish domination, incited their people to 
 rebellion. A serious famine which afflicted the land in 
 1696 aided them in fomenting dissensions, and the attitude 
 of the natives soon became so alarming that the priests at 
 the different missions applied to the governor, through the 
 custodio, for a guard of soldiers to be placed at each mission. 
 The petition was treated with contempt, the governor giv- 
 ing no credence to the rumors of a fresh rebellion, and in 
 his report of March 20th, 1696, to the viceroy, he affirmed 
 that there was no danger of the peace being broken, 
 attributing the representations of the priests to timidity. 
 A few of the missionaries sought safety at Santa Fe, but 
 the majority remained at their posts to await the storm they 
 knew to be inevitable. It burst on the 4th of June, when 
 the Taos, Picoris, and Tehua of Santo Domingo, and the 
 Jemez, fell upon the Spaniards, killing many, including five 
 of the priests— faithful unto death. As soon as the gover- 
 nor was notified of the disaster he took vigorous measures 
 
THE EECONQUEST OE NEW MEXICO. 109 
 
 to remedy what he might have prevented ; towns were 
 visited and subdued ; the ringleaders, wherever captured, 
 summarily dealt with ; and by the 24th of ISTovember, 1696, 
 all the pueblos had again given in their submission, except 
 those of Acoma, Santa Clara, Santo Domingo, and Cochiti. 
 
 The governor, whose term of office expired in 1697, asked 
 for a reappointment, but his application was received too 
 late, his successor, Pedro Rodriguez Cubero, being already 
 designated. The king, however, approved so highly of the 
 course pursued by Vargas in New Mexico, that he signified 
 his intention of bestowing upon the ex-governor the titles 
 of marques or count, as the latter should desire. But 
 sach is the irony of fate that, at the very time his Majesty 
 signified his gracious intentions, Don Diego was languish- 
 ing in the Santa Fe prison, charged with malfeasance in 
 ofiice and many acts of oppression. He was kept in durance 
 nearly three years, fined 4,000 pesos, all his property con- 
 fiscated, and every precaution taken to prevent his making 
 his condition known in Mexico or Spain. Padre Vargas 
 finally succeeded in laying the matter before the viceroy, who 
 ordered that the accused should give bonds and repair to 
 Mexico to offer his defense. Vargas considered the terms 
 degrading and refused to accept any but an unconditional 
 release, which was then ordered, and he left, in July, 1700, 
 for Mexico, where the charges against him were investigated 
 and set aside as groundless. A judgment generally satis- 
 factory, for Don Diego's misfortunes excited much sym- 
 pathy, and even his accusers finally admitted that, although 
 impulsive and over- sanguine, he " never gave the Spaniards 
 any just cause for enmity, but rather merited their love as 
 a protector." 
 
 There are few details given of Governor Cubero's ad- 
 ministration ; in July, 1699, he made a tour of the West, 
 receiving the submission of the Moqais, and making a treaty 
 with the ISTavajoes. The Spanish population at this period 
 is cited as not less that l,55u, and with restored peace and a 
 return to agricultural industry a fresh era of prosperity 
 dawned upon the country. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1700—1800. 
 Preliminary Eemarks— Vargas Reappointed Governor— His Death— 
 Tlie Duke of Albuquerque— Eule of Governor Hurtado— Gover- 
 nor Cubero y Valdez— Administration of Governor Villasenor— 
 Ecclesiastical Records— The Duke of Lenares— Governor Mogol- 
 lon's Rule— Indian Questions— Don Felix Martinez— Appointment 
 of Governor Bustamente— Fears of French Encroachment— Gover- 
 nor Cruzat y Gongora— The First Foreigners Enter Santa Pe— 
 Administration of Governor Oodallos— The French in New Mexico 
 —Comanche Campaigns— Governor Cachupin— Governor del Valle 
 — Governor Urrisola — Trouble with the Comanches — Governor 
 Cachupin's Second Term — Explorations into Colorado — Flood at 
 Santa Fe — Suggestions for the Defense of the Province — Governor 
 Navarro — Rule of Governor Anza — His Indian Campaigns— The 
 Moquis — Comanches Defeated at Rabbit Ear — French and Spanish 
 Smuggling — Governor Chacon — New Mexico at the Close of the 
 XVIIIth Century — Imports and Exports — Annual Fair at Taos— 
 Traders' Currency — Schedule of Prices — Description of Santa Fe— 
 Population — Government — Civil and Social State. 
 
 WITHIN the compass of the seventeenth century New- 
 Mexico was conquered, colonized, lost, and regained. 
 At the beginning of the eighteenth, the people were ex- 
 hausted by twenty years of ceaseless warfare, and the fields 
 devastated by the ravages of the various conflicting parties ; 
 by the Pueblos, who fought against one another ; the Span- 
 ish colonists, who fought to regain their pleasant homes 
 in the smiling valleys ; the Ishmaelites of tlie plains, who 
 fought against all ; and the Spanish, soldiers, then the ter- 
 ror of the world, who fought because it was their trade. 
 Yet such was the fertility of the soil that at the cessation 
 of hostilities the Mexican Junta was called upon to supply 
 agricultural implements alone, the re-established settlers 
 depending upon their own exertions for food. The record 
 
 110 
 
THE EIGHTEENTH CENTUEY. Ill 
 
 of this century is an uneventful one ; it was the quiet which 
 follows a storm. The Apaches continued troublesome ; 
 the Pueblos, with a few exceptions, returned to their habits 
 of industry, repaired their towns, rebuilt their churches, 
 received back the Spanish priests, planted their fields, 
 watched their herds,— always coveted and frequently raided 
 by the savage-tribes, — wove blankets, made and sold pot- 
 tery and basket-ware, and gradually regained their old 
 prosperity. The Spanish settlements increased in size and 
 new towns were founded ; upon some of the great estates, 
 granted by the crown to useful, favorites, fine haciendas 
 were built, where the noble Jiaciendado dwelt in patriachal 
 state. If it is true that the people are happy who have no 
 history, the New Mexicans must have enjoyed much content 
 during this period, since the energy of Prince and the 
 research of Bancroft have . found little to fill the annals of 
 the eighteenth century. 
 
 It will be remembei'ed that the king had offered the title 
 of count or marques to Don Diego de Vargas as a reward 
 for the reconquest of TSTew Mexico ; evidently that of mar- 
 ques pleased him best, as he succeeded Cubero as governor 
 and captain-general on November 10th, 1703, under the title 
 of Marques de la Nava de Brazinas. In the following March 
 he led a troop against the Apaches, but fell ill in the sierra 
 6f Sandia, and expired on the 4th of April at Bernalillo ; 
 his remains were interred at Santa Fe. Don Francisco 
 Fernandez de la Cueva, Duke of Albuquerque was vice- 
 roy at this period, for the second time ; he is reported to 
 have been especially interested in the colonial settlements 
 of New Mexico ; is said to have distributed a large tract 
 among one hundred families and to have founded the city of 
 Albuquerque, establishing several Franciscan missions as 
 the nucleus of a future population, and it may be that he 
 acted as governor of the province at times between 1703 and 
 1710. Juan Paez Hurtado, lieutenant-governor, who in 
 1693 had escorted the colonists of Vargas's second expedition 
 from El Paso to Santa Fe, officiated as governor until March 
 10th, 1705. Hurtado had been a close friend of Vargas and 
 
112 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 was for many years identified with the progress of the pror- 
 ince. He was commissioned as governor and captain- 
 general in 1712 by the Marques de la Penula, was inspector- 
 general in 17] 6, and again lieutenant-governor in 1735 ;. 
 during all his varioiis adminstrations he was active in cam- 
 paigns against the Navajoes, the Moquis, and the Zunis, 
 as well as the ever troublesome Apaches. It was probably 
 on an expedition to punish insubordination that he left the 
 record on Inscription Rock, quoted by Prince: "On the 
 14th day of July, of the year 1736, General Juan Paez 
 Hurtado, Inspector, passed by this place, and in his com- 
 pany Corporal Joseph Armenta, Antonio Sandoval Martinez, 
 Alonzo Barela, Marcos Duran, Francisco Barela, Luis 
 Pacheco, Antonio de Salas, Roque Gomas." 
 
 Don Francisco Cubero y Valdez was appointed governor 
 ad interim in 1705, and administered until 1708, during 
 which period he was engaged in constant skirmishes with 
 hostile tribes. On his very entrance into New Mexico he 
 was encountered by a troop of Apaches, and when he reached 
 Santa Fe his first care was to strengthen the garrison. The 
 Zunis, safe in their strong pueblo, had maintained a sullen 
 defiance, which yielded, for a time at least, to the persua- 
 sions of Padre Garaicochea, who induced them to come 
 down on the 9th of April, 1705, and give in their allegiance 
 to Captain Madrid, that tried veteran of Vargas's successful 
 campaigns, who in the July following led an expedition 
 against the Navajoes. In September of that same year the 
 entire Spanish colony was thrown into a state of panic by 
 the finding of a knotted cord at Zuni, resembling the 
 famous token of Pope, associated in all minds with the 
 massacres of 168!) ; but if it was a signal of rebellion it was 
 an abortive, one since no uprising took place. Cubero was 
 obliged to send several requests to the home government 
 for horses and military equipments, the troops being in 
 a miserable condition, and though arms and ammunition 
 were forwarded it was in a grudging manner and with the 
 intimation that his rule would be more satisfactory if he^ 
 complained less. 
 
THE EIGHTEENTH CENTCJEY. 113 
 
 Jose Chacon Medina Salazar y Villasenor, Marques of 
 Penuela, assumed the governorship on the first ol August, 
 1707. He entered upon his oflSce determined to use a con- 
 ciliatory policy toward the Moquis, who had, he thought, 
 been harshly treated by his predecessors, but it does not 
 appear to have been particularly successful. In 1708, 
 Governor Villasenor rebuilt the church of San Miguel in 
 Santa Fe, which had been burnt by the rebels in 1680. 
 The building, which was at the governor's cost, was two 
 years in process, the Indians being required to work upon 
 it ; this was probably not the only instance of forced labor 
 during this administration, as petitions were laid before the 
 viceroy imploring exemption from this imposition, and 
 strict orders were issued by that functionary against a 
 repetition of the abuse. The completed building bore the 
 inscription: "El Senor Marquez de la Penuela hizo esta 
 fabrica ; el Alferes Real Don Agustin Flores Vergara su 
 criado. Ano de 1710" — "His Lordship the Marquis de 
 la Periuela, erected this building ; the Royal Ensign Don 
 Agustin Flores Vergara, his servant. A. D. 1710." "At this 
 time," says Prince, to whom we are indebted for the inscrip- 
 tion, ' ' all the principal churched in the kingdom were 
 rebuilt, including many that are now standing." He also 
 adds the following interesting facts: "The register of 
 deaths, 'Libro de Difuntos,' of the mission of San Diego, of 
 Jemez, commences in August 1720, when Francisco Carlos 
 Joseph Delgado, ' Preacher of the Holy Office of the Inquisi- 
 tion,' was the priest in charge. The great church at Santa 
 Cruz, which was the center of an enormous parish in the 
 north, has records anterior to 1720 ; and its Register of 
 Marriages, with a curious pen-picture of the marriage of 
 the Blessed Virgin to Saint Joseph as a frontispiece, bears 
 date 1726. The baptismal register in the church at Albu- 
 querque commences in 1743." The Navajoes were ex- 
 tremely troublesome during this period— 1707, making bold 
 and frequent raids, in one of which they sacked the pueblo 
 of Jemez ; the governor led a force against them and finally 
 brought them to treat for peace. The old pueblo of Isleta 
 
114 HISTORY OF. NEW MEXICO. 
 
 was again oocupied by a number of families, placed there 
 by Padre Juan de Pena, the custodio, who used every effort 
 to suppress the heathen rites secretly indulged in by nearly 
 all the Pueblos, despite their professions of Christianity. 
 
 Fernando de Alencaster Noreno y Silva, Duke of Lenares, 
 Marques of Valdefuentes, Count of Portoalegre, etc., etc., 
 is stated to have governed in 1712 ; as he was viceroy of 
 New Spain in 1710-16, he may very possibly have been 
 called upon during that period to administer the affairs of 
 ]S[ew Mexico. Juan Ignacio PI ores Mogollon was appointed 
 governor by Philip Y., September 27th, 1707, for five years, 
 but he did not arrive in Mexico until 1712 and was installed 
 in office at Santa Fe on October 5th of that year. The 
 Navajoes were evidently very troublesome during this ad- 
 ministration; in 1713 an expedition into their country was 
 led by Captain Serna, and in 1714 another is recorded un- 
 der Captain Madrid. The Moquis also continued to be a 
 thorn in the flesh. A question was raised at this time as to 
 the advisability of allowing the Christian Indians to con- 
 tinue to carry fire-arms ; the army officers opposed the 
 measure but the priests were in favor of it, pleading the 
 defenseless state to which their converts would be reduced 
 if deprived of this means of protection. The governor 
 finally compromised by allowing those Indians whose fidel- 
 ity to the government could be vouched for to retain their 
 arms. Many officers and some of the priests also desired 
 that the Indians should abandon the custom of painting 
 their bodies, but it was finally decided that it would be 
 impolitic to interfere with so time-honored a custom, and 
 the peculiar taste of the aborigines was not curbed, fortu- 
 nately, perhaps, for the continued peace of the province. 
 Flores was relieved from office on October 5th, 1715 ; he had 
 been accused of malfeasance in office, but his trial did not 
 take place until 1721, some years after he had left New 
 Mexico. Antonio Valverde Cosio acted as governor, ad 
 interim, in 1714. 
 
 Don Felix Martinez succee.ded Mogollon and was in- 
 stalled at Santa Fe on December 1st, 1715. Martinez had 
 
THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 115 
 
 served under Vargas, had attained the rank of captain, 
 and in 1715 was appointed captain for life and regidor per- 
 •petuo of the city. His administration appears to have 
 "been largely occupied in quarrels and lavpsuits with his pre- 
 decessor, MogoUon, whom he kept in prison for two years. 
 He made two Indian campaigns, one of which, against the 
 Moquis, he led in person, inscribing his own name, those 
 of eight of his officers, and the date — August 26th, 1716 — 
 upon Inscription Rock. On the 20th of January, 1717, 
 Martinez went to Mexico in obedience to the desire of the 
 viceroy, who wished to investigate the charges against 
 MogoUon, Captain Valverde Cosio acting as governor. Don 
 Juan de Estrada y Austria, resident judge, was invested 
 with the gubernatorial authority, pending the trial of ex- 
 Oovernor Mogollon, in 1721. Don Juan Domingo de Busta- 
 mente was appointed governor in 1722, assuming his office 
 on March 2d of that year and holding it until 1731. In 
 1722 the viceroy ordered an investigation of certain charges 
 of smuggling carried on with traders of Louisiana, a name 
 covering the French possessions extending from the Gulf of 
 Mexico to the Northern Lakes, on both sides of the Missis- 
 sippi Valley, and orders were promulgated forbidding all 
 dealings with foreign traders, except at the annual fairs 
 held at Taos and Pecos. The expansion of the French 
 territory was viewed with a Jealous eye by the Spanish 
 settlers and in 1727 Bustamente informed the viceroy that 
 a French settlement had been established only one hundred 
 and sixty leagues from Santa Fe ; an expedition against 
 them was proposed, but it was decided to place spies upon 
 the movements of the colony and defer open hostilities. 
 
 Grervacio Cruzat y Gongora succeeded to the governor- 
 ship in 1731 . His administration appears to have been a very 
 peaceful one, apart from some ecclesiastical controversy. 
 An order was issued by this governor prohibiting the sale 
 of arms to the tribes of the plains or foreigners, under heavy 
 penalties — a fine of 10,000 maravedis for Spaniards, and 
 one hundred lashes and fifty days' imprisonment for 
 Indians. Governor Gongora' s term expired in 1736, and 
 
116 HISTORY OP NEW MEXICO. 
 
 Enrique de Olavide y Michelena succeeded in 1737. It was 
 in this year that the Bishop of Durango visited New 
 Mexico, leaving his name upon Inscription Rock on his way 
 toZuni. The period embraced in Olavide' s term must have 
 been a remarkably tranquil one since, in a visit to adjust 
 the grievances of the pueblos, the inhabitants had virtually 
 no complaints to make. Graspar Domingo y Mendoza, 
 though appointed to office in 1737, did not assume it until 
 1739. The following year the Spaniards' Jealous fears of 
 French encroachment were again excited by the advent into 
 the capital of a few Frenchmen ; all but two of the party 
 soon left, however, and nothing further was heard from 
 them. Jean d'Alay, one of those who remained, married 
 and prospered ; the other, less prudent or fortunate, was 
 shot upon the plaza. Joaquin Codallos y Rebal governed 
 from 1744-49, with the exception of one year, 1747, when 
 Francisco Huemes y Horcasitas governed ad interim. Up 
 to this period Spaniards alone had entered New Mexico 
 but now men of other race appeared. First came the hardy 
 French traders, who had learned that there was wealth and 
 a ready market for their wares in these Castilian settle- 
 ments, and who, despite the jealous watchfulness of the 
 Spanish government, penetrated within the province, risk- 
 ing imprisonment and possible death at the hands of the 
 officials. In 1744 a Frenchman named Velos reached Pecos 
 but was there arrested and sent to Mexico. In 1748 thirty- 
 three Frenchmen went to the Rio de Jicarilla and sold 
 muskets to the Comanches. This tribe was extremely 
 active during all of Codallos's term ; in 1747 the governor, 
 with a body of over five hundred men, led an expedition 
 against them, in which 107 Indians were killed, 206 made 
 prisoners, and nearly 1000 horses taken. There were 
 various other encounters with the Comanches, who became 
 so great a terror that a council was held at Santa Fe to dis- 
 cuss measures for the prevention of their presence at the 
 Taos fair ; the wares the Comanches had to offer, horses, 
 skins, and meat, were of such excellent quality, however, 
 that the commercial spirit prevailed and it was decided 
 
THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 117 
 
 that they might still bring their merchandise. The admin- 
 istration of Grovernor Codallos, like those of many of his 
 predecessors and successors, was diversified by vivid dis- 
 cussions between the Franciscans and Jesuits, in which 
 the former eventually triumphed. 
 
 Tomas Veles Cachupin succeeded in 1749 ; the leading 
 event of his rule was a brilliant campaign against the Co- 
 manches who had raided Galisteo ; one hundred of the 
 Indians were killed and forty-five made prisoners. In 1754 
 Francisco Antonio Marin del Valle became acting governor ; 
 it was during his administration that Bishop Tomaron of 
 Durango visited New Mexico, and confirmed 14,244 persons. 
 The season of the bishop's visit — from April to July — was 
 marked by heavy rainfalls, and water was even found in 
 the Jornada del Muerto. The massive stone reredos still 
 to be seen in the cathedral of Santa Fe was the gift of Del 
 Valle and his wife. Don Manuel Portillo Urrisola acted as 
 governor in 1761-2. In the year preceding his accession, 
 the Comanches raided Taos, killing many men and carrying 
 off a number of women ; in August of the following year 
 they came to trade, but were driven away. They returned 
 in December with a force sufficiently strong, they thought, 
 to force an entrance ; Governor Urrisola was informed of 
 their threatening behavior, and hastily collecting a force of 
 eighty men marched at once, routing them with a loss on 
 their side of four hundred. The Utahs took advantage of 
 the absorption of the contending parties to drive off one 
 thousand horses. Don Tomas Veles Cachupin was ap- 
 pointed governor for a second term and succeeded on Feb- 
 ruary 1st, 1762. Under his auspices an exploring party was 
 sent out to locate mines in that part of the country that 
 afterwards became Colorado ; silver was discovered near the 
 junction of the Gunnison and Uncompahgre, and a sierra 
 and river were named La Platte, or The Silver, because of 
 the finding of the metal. 
 
 Colonel Pedro Fermin de Mendinueta succeeded in 1767 
 and was the last governor to hold the title of captain-gen- 
 eral, as during his adminstration it was decreed that the 
 
118 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 northern province of Mexico should henceforth be known 
 as the Promncias Internas, subject to the Caballero de 
 Croix as commandante general, independent of the vice- 
 roy, thus rendering the governor subordinate to the com- 
 mandante. In October, 1767, Santa Fe was visited by a 
 great iiood, the river deserting its natural bed and paying a 
 friendly visit to the Rio Chiquito ; for a time the public 
 buildings were in great danger, and the governor ordered 
 all citizens to turn out and labor to lead back the run- 
 away stream to its original course, which was finally done. 
 
 In 1771 a truce was concluded with tbe Comanches, and 
 the governor desired the settlers and Comanche Indians to 
 be very careful not to infringe any of the conditions of the 
 treaty. Mendinueta endeavored at the same time to have 
 the garrison of Santa Fe strengthened, justly observing that 
 a force of eighty men was totally inadequate for the protec- 
 tion of so extensive a territory ; he also protested against 
 the isolated haciendas, arguing that they invited attack^ 
 and urged the colonists to congregate in towns ; but though 
 much was said and written in regard to the protection of 
 the frontier, little was accomplished. Francisco Trebol 
 Navarro succeeded as acting governor in 1778. He was 
 advised by Mendinueta to pay special attention to Indian 
 complications ; peace was made with the Utahs and every 
 effort should be used to preserve it ; the Navajoes professed 
 to be friendly but required watching, as they were sus- 
 pected of aiding the trileno Apaches in their raids ; there 
 was but one policy to be held with the Apaches — vigorous- 
 war, for if they made overtures of peace it was only to gain 
 time for more destructive forays ; peace should be made 
 with the Comanches but a close watch maintained, as, while 
 they professed friendliness with one pueblo, they carried 
 on war against another ; the frontier posts of Pecos and 
 G-alisteo should he well guarded and constant vigilance ex- 
 ercised in the care of the army horses. 
 
 Lieutenant-colonel Juan Bautista de Anza succeeded 
 before the end of the year as political and military governor. 
 Anza was a native of Sonora ; he hadled an exploring party 
 
THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 119 
 
 to California under the last administration, penetrating 
 Colorado and Utah, was an excellent Indian fighter, and well 
 acquainted with the policy of the different tribes. In 1719 
 he gained a brilliant victory over the Comanches, killing 
 Cuerno Verde, a great chief ; four of his trusted chieftains, 
 his high priest, his eldest son, and thirty- two warriors, 
 besides capturing thirty women and children and five hun- 
 dred horses. The commandante expressed his pleasure in 
 a letterof thanks, dated January 1st, 1780. The Moquis had 
 remained obstinately heathen since the rebellion of 1680, 
 though the Franciscans and Jesuits had exhausted every 
 means of persuasion ; famine proved a more powerful ex- 
 horter, and in 1780 the governor received a message to the 
 effect that forty families were willing to leave their town and 
 join the Christians. Padres Fernandez and Garcia imme- 
 diately set out on a visit to the Moqui villages ; two of them 
 were found deserted, and the forty families, too near starva- 
 tion to wait for the missionaries, had gone fifteen days 
 before to the Navajo country, wliere they had been received 
 with a hospitality peculiar, it is to be hoped, to that tribe ; 
 the men all being killed, the women and children reduced 
 to slavery. The padres were not entirely disappointed in 
 their generous expedition, as thirty families returned with 
 them, who probably formed the nucleus of the Moquino 
 pueblo in the Laguna country. 
 
 In 1785 the Comanches were again severely punished in 
 an action at Rabbit Ear, while on their return from an ex- 
 pedition against the tillage of Tome, now Concepcion, where 
 they had captured a large amount of booty and two pris- 
 oners, daughters of the Pino family. Troops and volun- 
 teers to the number of two hundred and fifty were led to the 
 rescue by Lieutenant Guerro, who surprised the Indians 
 while celebrating their success by a war dance around the 
 scalps of their victims. After three hours' hard fighting the 
 Comanches were forced to retreat with the loss of their 
 captives, spoils, and horses. They returned to the attack 
 again, however, retook their own horses, and forced the 
 Spaniards to retire. The loss of the Comanches was so great 
 
120 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 in this and the preceding action that they sued for peace 
 and observed the treaty for some time. Fernando de la 
 Concha succeeded as governor in 1789. In August of that 
 year the French commandante at Natchitoches wrote to 
 the Spanish authorities representing the desirability of in- 
 troducing trade betw^een Louisiana and 'New Mexico, as 
 there was a constant contraband traffic kept up from which 
 neither government derived any benefit and the greed or 
 recklessness of the smugglers often incensed the Indians 
 and led to violence and breach of treaties. He advised the 
 establishment of a station on the route for the benefit of 
 the traders, who could easily make the trip with freight in 
 forty days. 
 
 Lieutenant-colonel Fernando Chacon became governor 
 in 1794. The close of the eighteenth century was appar- 
 ently tranquil: the Indians gave little trouble, with the 
 exception of the irrepressible Apaches ; peace naturally 
 fostered industry ; industry produced wealth ; and with 
 wealth came the desire for luxuries, only to be attained by 
 an extended trade. The commercial relations of the prov- 
 ince were still confined to Mexico, New Biscay, Sonora, 
 and Sinaloa, and there was no communication with the 
 Spaniards of Texas or the French of Louisiana. Every 
 year caravans were dispatched from New Mexico with, 
 merchandise, often valued at $30,000, consisting of cheap 
 tobacco, called punche, fine skins, buffalo robes, salt, In- 
 dian servants, and copper vessels of excellent quality and 
 make. Indeed, the manufactories of the southern provinces 
 received almost all their copper from New Mexico. These 
 commodities were exchanged for dry-goods, confectionery, 
 ammunition, and fine wines. In midsummer a great fair was 
 held at Taos, where the tribes of the plains brought cured 
 meat, dressed skins, horses, and captives, to barter for am- 
 munition, arms, aguardiente, and trinkets. As one of the 
 features of Indian warfare was the capture of women and 
 children, many persons attended the fair hoping to recog- 
 nize among the captives brought for sale the children or 
 wives of whom they had been robbed. Many others, the 
 
„ THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 121 
 
 priests especially, bought the girls and children offered, to 
 save them from the horrors of Indian bondage. Trade 
 was carried on by a system of barter ; for instance, the 
 price of a horse was at one time fixed at twelve to fifteen 
 skins ; an iron knife was worth one skin ; a piece of cotton 
 oloth of stated weight cost two packhorses. To simplify 
 matters the traders introduced a currency consisting of four 
 kinds of dollars ; pesos de plata, valued at eight reales ; 
 p>esos deprojecto, six reales ; pesos de antiguos, four reales ; 
 and pesos de la tierra, two reales. This was a profitable ar- 
 rangement for the inventors, as they bought for the pesos 
 de la tierra, and sold for the pesos de plata. As in all 
 agricultural districts, food was cheap but pianufactured 
 goods very dear : flour was two dollars a hundred ; beeves, 
 five dollars each ; sheep, one dollar each ; fine cloth was 
 twenty dollars a yard ; linen, four dollars a yard. 
 
 At the end of the eighteenth century Santa Fe is des- 
 cribed as being of a " long rectangular form, extending about 
 one mile from east to west on the banks of the river. In 
 the center is the public square, one side of which forms the 
 flank of the soldiers' square, which is closed, and in some 
 degree defended by round towers in the block which flanks 
 the curtains. Another side of the square is formed by the 
 palace of the governor, his guard houses, etc.; another is 
 occupied by the priests and their suite, and the fourth by 
 the Chapetones, who reside in the city. The houses are 
 generally only of one story, with flat roofs, and of a mean 
 appearance on the outside, but some of them are richly 
 burnished, especially with plate." 
 
 The population of Santa Fe in 1799 is given, according 
 to the latest research, at 4,508. The government was mili- 
 tary, the decisions of the alcaldes and other civil officials 
 being subject to the approbation of the commandante of 
 the district. The entire male population was liable to 
 military duties and obliged to supply their own horses, 
 arms, and provision, the government furnishing ammuni- 
 tion only ; their subordination, courage, and endurance 
 were admirable. Tbere was only one troop of dragoons of 
 
122 HISTORY OP WEW MEXICO. 
 
 the regular force in all New Mexico ; this, numbering one 
 thousand men, was stationed at Santa Fe-; the governor was 
 always the captain, styled Captain of the Royal Troop of 
 Santa Fe Dragoons, but they were commanded by the first 
 lieutenant — captain by brevet. The aristocracy of New 
 Mexico were the (JTiapetones, or Cachupines, the full 
 blooded Spaniards, who held themselves infinitely above 
 the castas, or people of mixed race, and the native Mexicans. 
 The social aspect of the city, as is natural at all military 
 posts, was a very gay one ; tempered always, however, by 
 the ceremonious observance of Castilian etiquette. The 
 religious and military ceremonies were celebrated with great 
 state, the prelates of the city ranking among the highest 
 dignitaries and maintaining extensive and handsome estab- 
 lishments. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE FINAL YEARS OF SPANISH GOVERNMENT. 
 
 1800-1822. 
 
 Foreign Possessions in North America at the beginning of the XIX. 
 Century — Population and Extent of the United States— The Louisi- 
 ana Purchase — Expeditions of Lewis, Clark, and Pike— Fernando 
 Chacon, Governor of New Mexico — Administration of Governor 
 Alencaster— Fears of American Invasion — ^Expedition of Facundo 
 Melgares — Spanish Discipline— Success of Melgares's Expedition — 
 Lieutenant Pike's Second Expedition — His Instructions — Depar- 
 ture — Among the Rockies — Pike's Peak — The Search for Red 
 River— Christmas Day, 1806 — Cold and Starvation — The Fort on 
 Rio del Norte — Departure of Dr. Robinson — Spanish Visitors — 
 Pike's Mistake — Arrival of Spanish Troops^" This is the Rio del 
 Norte " — Americans Taken to Santa Fe — The Journey — At the 
 Capital — Pike's Explanations — ^" Remember Alencaster in Peace or 
 War " — Meeting with Dr. Robinson — Escorted South by Lieutenant 
 Melgares — The Americans at Chihuahua — Return to the United 
 States — ^Arrival at Natchitoches — -Pike's Services Acknowledged — 
 His Book — Death at Toronto — Rule of Governor Manrique — Depar- 
 ture of Don Pedro Pino for the Spanish Cortes — His Requests^ 
 Governor Mainez — Governor Allande — Administration of Mel- 
 gares — Boundary Question Settled — Iturbide's Triumph — Facundo 
 Melgares, Political Chief. 
 
 FOR twenty-two years longer New Mexico was destined 
 to remain a part of Ihe great Spanish empire, but the 
 forces were already at work which were to change her 
 political status forever. As we have seen, the encroach- 
 ments of the French had been watched with jealous eyes by 
 Spanish officials ; a far more redoubtable neighbor, how- 
 ever, was striding toward her door. A map of Nortli 
 America at the conclusion of the war with Great Britain, by 
 the treaty of Septamber 3d, 1783, shows us Spain in posses- 
 sion of Florida, then extending to the Mississippi, and 
 including a slice of the present Alabama, Mississippi, and 
 
 123 
 
124 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 Louisiana ; Mexico ; Texas ; both the Californias ; and 
 New Mexico, which included the present Arizona, Utah, 
 Nevada, and part of Colorado. France held the vast tract 
 embracing the present Louisiana, then called the " Territory 
 of Orleans"; and the " District of Louisiana," extending 
 from the Mississippi to New Spain and the Pacific on the 
 west, and to Canada on the north. England retained 
 Canada and Nova Scotia, while the thirteen United States 
 extended from the great lakes to the southern border of 
 Georgia, and from the Atlantic to the Mississippi. The 
 population was about 3,250,000, confined to a line of towns 
 scattered along the coast from Maine to Georgia ; fifty 
 miles back the country was an unbroken forest. The first 
 census, taken in 1790, showed a population of nearly 
 4,000,000, and the towns had crept as far west ns the 
 AUeghanies. The second census, taken in 1800, showed 
 over 5,250,000, and the population was advancing over the 
 plains to the Mississippi. In 1803 the United States govern- 
 ment bought of the emperor Napoleon I. the entire " Terri- 
 tory of Orleans " and "District of Louisiana," covering an 
 area of about 1,000,000 square miles, for $15,000,000 ; its 
 inhabitants, chiefly French, or descendants of the French, 
 with a few Spanish Creoles, Americans, English, and Ger- 
 mans, amounted to between 80,000 and 90,000, including 
 4' ,000 slaves. That same year an appropriation was made 
 by Congress to defray the expenses of an exploring party 
 through the new domain. The expedition, consisting of 
 twenty-eight men and an escort of Mandan Indians, was 
 commanded by Captain Meriwether Lewis of Virginia, and 
 Captain Jonathan Clark of Kentucky. They set out on 
 May 14th, starting from the little French village of St. 
 Louis, ascended the Missouri to its sources, crossed the 
 Rocky Mountains, and reaching the head of the Columbia 
 River followed it to the Pacific. A second expedition, to 
 the sources of the Mississippi, was sent out in 1805 under 
 Lieutenant Zebulon M. Pike. These were the scouts of 
 that great army of Americans, whose footsteps were soon to 
 echo through the streets of Santa Fe. 
 
THE FINAL YEARS OP SPANISH GOVERNMENT. 125 
 
 Fernando Chacon governed New Mexico until the 
 spring of 1805. The Comanches, whose last two whippings 
 seem to have produced in them a complete change of heart, 
 were very friendly, spying and reporting upon the move- 
 ments of the Americans in the northwest, and generally 
 proving themselves partisans of the government. The 
 ISTavajoes, however, were as troublesome in this century as 
 the Comanches had been in the preceding ; they in- 
 trenched themselves in the Caiion de Chelly, carrying on 
 their depredations from this almost impregnable strong- 
 hold ; the governor led several expeditions against them, 
 but with little effect. Colonel Joaquin del Real Alencaster 
 succeeded to the governorship in 1805. In 1806, New 
 Mexico was thrown into a state of consternation by reports 
 of a threatened invasion from the United States. The fit- 
 ting out of the expedition under the army officers just men- 
 tioned, and rumors of Burr's conspiracy, — a plot that 
 caused much anxiety even in the better informed East, — 
 gave strong color to the tidings brought from many 
 quarters, and the Spanish government determined to inves- 
 tigate them and to strengthen herself, in case of attack, by 
 alliances with the Indian tribes. This important duty 
 was entrusted to Lieutenant Facundo Melgares, who was 
 dispatched at the head of one hundred dragoons from New 
 Biscay (Chihuahua) to Santa Fe, whence he was to proceed 
 on his tour of investigation and conciliation. Leaving the 
 New Mexican capital with an additional force of three hun- 
 dred mounted militia, over one thousand extra animals, 
 horses, and mules, and supplies for six months, they de- 
 scended the Red River 233 leagues and held a grand 
 council with the Comanches. The meeting took place upon 
 a broad prairie, where 1,500 warriors, curbing the hand- 
 somest horses that they could raise or steal, were drawn 
 up to receive the Spanish embassy, whose array was equally 
 imposing. Melgares and his two principal ofiicers in bril- 
 liant uniform rode forward upon jet black steeds of the 
 finest Spanish breed, followed by five hundred dragoons 
 armed cap a pie and all mounted upon horses whose coats 
 
126 HISTORY OP NEW MEXICO. 
 
 of spotless white glistened like silver. Presents were given 
 and treaties made on both sides, and the Spaniards struck 
 off to the northwest to the Arkansas, where Melgares left 
 240 of his men with the lame and tired horses, and pushed 
 on with the rest to the country of the Pawnees on the 
 Kansas. He was well received by the chiefs and warriors 
 of that nation, among whom he distributed Spanish flags, 
 medals, and decorations, a ceremony which concluded his 
 work of conciliation ; a sharp lookout had been kept 
 along the entire- route but no traces of encroaching Ameri- 
 cans were discovered, and he took up his march for Santa 
 Fe, which was reached in October. 
 
 Melgares is described as brave, wealthy, and exceedingly 
 generous ; but he was a strict disciplinarian, if we are to 
 believe a story related of this expedition : They had con- 
 tinued down the Red River until their provisions began to 
 fail, when some of the militia ventured to ask the comman- 
 der where he was going, to which he answered, ' ' Wherever 
 his horse carried him." This succinct reply did not en- 
 tirely allay their fears, and a few mornings after he was 
 presented with a petition to return home, signed by two 
 hundred of the Santa F6 soldiers. He called a halt, com- 
 manded the dragoons to erect a gallows, beat to arms, bade 
 the petitioners to stand forward, ordered fifty lashes then 
 and there to the man who had presented the petition, and 
 threatened to hang any one who presumed to murmur ; the 
 march was then resumed. This is said to have been the 
 first instance of a Spaniard being subjected to corporal 
 punishment in the province. The policy of treaties and 
 presents worked well with the Indians, and the expedition 
 appears to have been satisfactory to the government ; in 
 view of the distance traversed and tribes visited, it was a 
 very remarkable one. 
 
 In this same year, 1806, the United States government 
 dispatched a party on a mission analogous to that of Mel- 
 gares ; viz., the conciliation of the Comanche and Pawnee 
 nations and the reconnoissance of the Spanish frontier. 
 The officer placed in charg'e was Lieutenant Zebulon M. 
 
THE FINAL YEARS OF SPANISH GOVERNMENT. 127 
 
 Pike, but just returned from his exploration of the Upper 
 Mississippi. As Lieutenant Pike was the second American 
 to enter Santa ¥6, and the first to make this quaint little 
 Castilian city, with its strange background of ancient abo- 
 riginal semi-civilization, known to the East, his personal 
 narrative of the journey and its results possesses great in- 
 terest. His instructions were to escort certain Osage In- 
 dians, rescued from captivity, and a deputation of that 
 nation returning from Washington, with their presents and 
 baggage, up the Missouri and Osage rivers to the town of 
 Grand Osage ; to move with sufficient caution to avoid the 
 attack of hostile tribes and to repel determinedly any at- 
 tempted outrage ; to effect an interview and establish a 
 good understanding with the Comanches ; to make peace 
 with the nations inhabiting the country lying between 
 the United States and Comanche nation, particularly the 
 Osages, and, if possible, to induce eight or ten of their dis- 
 tinguished chiefs to visit Washington the ensuing Sep- 
 tember ; if four or five Pawnees and the same number of 
 Kansas chiefs could be added to the embassy it would be 
 satisfactory to the United States government. The head- 
 waters of the Arkansas and Red rivers — the home of the 
 Comanches — being contiguous to New Mexico, great care 
 must be taken to keep clear of hunting or reconnoitering 
 parties from that province and to avoid giving any offense, 
 as it was the earnest desire of the Executive to cultivate the 
 friendship of all the nations of the earth, and particularly 
 of the Spaniards, "our nearest neighbors." Pike was 
 desired to remark particularly upon the geographical 
 structure, the natural history, and population of the coun- 
 try ; to collect and preserve curious mineral and botanical 
 specimens ; also to ascertain the direction, extent, and navi- 
 gability of the Arkansas and Red rivers, for which purpose 
 he was advised to detach a party under Lieutenant Wilkin- 
 son or Sergeant Ballinger down the stream to take the navi- 
 gation, remark on the soil, timber, and tributary streams, 
 and report at Natchitoches. 
 
 His party consisted of twenty-two men, lightly equipped 
 
128 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 and he was furnished with six hundred dollars' worth of 
 goods to disburse for the incidental expenses of the trip. On 
 the 15th of July, 1806, they left Belle Fontaine in two boats, 
 and arrived at Grand Osage in August, disembarking the 
 Indians and holding councils with the chiefs. In Septem- 
 ber Pike had an interview with the representatives of the 
 Pawnee nation at their encampment ; the appearance of the 
 American party was by no means as imposing as that of the 
 Spanish embassy, and at first the Indians treated them with 
 scant courtesy, but friendly or, at least, neutral relations 
 were finally established. Here Pike saw the first traces of 
 Melgares's expedition, which had so recently preceded his 
 own. He reached the Arkansas River in October, and on 
 the 28th, in accordance with his instructions, he detached 
 Lieutenant AVilkinson, in command of five men, to follow 
 the course of that river to its junction with the Mississippi, 
 and started with the remainder of the men for the moun- 
 tains. In November he came in sight of the Rocky Moun- 
 tains and that great peak which was to cost him much 
 suffering, but was also to bear his name and keep alive the 
 memory of one hardy pioneer in a region where so many 
 hundred have died and been forgotten. 
 
 Pike's journal, bearing date November 15th, 1806, con- 
 tains the following entry : " At two o'clock in the after- 
 noon I thought I could distinguish a mountain to our right, 
 which appeared like a small blue cloud ; viewed it with the 
 si)y-glass and was still more confirmed in my conjecture, 
 yet only communicated it to Dr. Robinson, who was in front 
 with me, but in half an hour it appeared in full view before 
 us. When our small party arrived on the hill they with 
 one accord gave three cheers for the Mexican mountains. 
 These proved to be a spur of the grand western chain 
 which divides the waters of the Pacific from those of the 
 Atlantic ocean." 
 
 The record of the party from this period is one of terri- 
 ble suffering. They wandered among the mountains for 
 two months, through the storms and cold of mid-winter, 
 clad in thin cotton clothing, and without food excepting 
 
THE FINAL YEARS OF SPANISH GOVEKNMENT. 129 
 
 what they could kill. In their search for the Red River 
 they crossed the range in the vicinity of what is now Lead- 
 ville, climbing precipices, penetrating canons, and fording 
 streams. On December 15th, Pike says, "My poor fellows 
 now suffer extremely from the cold, being almost naked." 
 It became more and more difficult to procure meat, and on 
 December 24th Pike notes the return of Dr. Robinson with 
 two buffaloes, from a two days' hunting excursion upon 
 which neither the doctor nor the men accompanying him 
 had eaten a particle of food. Sparks, who had gone with 
 another party, returned the same day and reported the 
 killing of four cows, while the lieutenant had also managed 
 to shoot two the day before ; "thus from being in a starv- 
 ing condition we had eight beeves in camp." On Christ- 
 mas day it stormed heavily and Pike determined to remain 
 in camp and dry the meat ; the men also endeavored to 
 manufacture shoes and body covering from the raw hide. 
 In his journal for December 25th, the lieutenant says : 
 "The privations and hardships we underwent were this day 
 brought more fully to our minds than at any time pre- 
 viously, — eight hundred miles from the frontiers of our 
 country, in the most inclement season of the year ; not one 
 person properly clothed for the winter ; many without 
 blankets, having been obliged to cut them up for socks and 
 other articles ; lying down at night in the snow or in the 
 wet ground, one side burning whilst the other was pierced 
 by the cold wind. We spent the day as agreeably as could 
 be expected of men in our circumstances." Their Christ- 
 mas fare was the buffalo meat, without salt or any other 
 thing whatever. 
 
 After crossing the range they had struck a stream whose 
 course they followed, supposing themselves on the Red 
 River, and pushing along as fast as their wretched condition 
 and the heavy snows would permit, when, on the 5th of 
 January, they found themselves back at their old camp on 
 the Arkansas, which they had left nearly a month before. 
 Four weeks of cold, hunger, and almost superhuman 
 endurance were thus spent in vain ! They started again 
 
130 l-irSTOEY OP NEW MEXICO. 
 
 through the pathless snow over the interminable hills. On 
 January 17th they forded a stream, getting very wet ; the 
 night came down extremely cold and when they halted at 
 eight o'clock to encamp for the night nine of the men had 
 frozen feet. Next day Pike and the doctor went out to 
 hunt for "something to preserve existence, found nothing, 
 encamped among some rocks, and stayed up all night as 
 from the intense cold it was impossible to sleep, also 
 hungry and without covers." On Monday they succeeded 
 in killing two buffaloes, which they immediately carried 
 back to the camp. The feet of some of the men were so 
 badly frozen that they could not go on and they were left in 
 rudely constructed shelters along the route with a supply 
 of food and fuel. On the 30tli of January they arrived at 
 the banks of a stream, which they fervently hailed as the 
 long-sought Red River. Here Pike decided to go into 
 camp and build a stockade for its better defense in case of 
 attack, while a party went back to bring in the disabled 
 men, determining when all were assembled to proceed down 
 the river by raft or canoe to Natchitoches. 
 
 On February 7th Dr. Robinson, who had been the lieu- 
 tenant's most faithful ally, displaying courage and endur- 
 ance equal to his own, throughout their painful wanderings, 
 left the camp for Santa Fe to collect a bill due an American 
 creditor. It was the doctor's intention to return in time to 
 rejoin the party on their homeward march ; of course any 
 information he might glean as to the prospects of trade, 
 strength of the Spanish garrison, etc., would not be amiss. 
 On the 16th Pike discovered two horsemen advancing 
 toward the camp, and hailed them to the effect that "we 
 were Americans and friends, almost the only two words I 
 knew in the Spanish language." The riders proved to be 
 a Spanish dragoon and a Pueblo Indian ; they informed the 
 lieutenant of the safe arrival of Dr. Robinson at Santa Fe 
 and accompanied him to his camp, over which the stars and 
 stripes were floating — a rather startling sight, it may he 
 fancied, to a Spanish dragoon on Spanish soil. Pike, who 
 fully believed himself on the Red River, explained his in- 
 
THE FINAL YEARS OF SPANISH GOVERNMENT. 131 
 
 tentionof descending the stream to Natchitoches, observing 
 that if Governor Alencaster would send an officer who 
 spoke French or English " I would do myself the pleasure 
 to give his Excellency every reasonable satisfaction as to 
 my intentions' in coming on his frontier." The dragoon 
 soon took leave of Pike and hastened back to report to the 
 governor at Santa Fe. On the following day, the 17th of 
 February, the jouimal contains this entry : ' ' This evening 
 the corporal and two of the men arrived who had been sent 
 back to the camp of their frozen companions. They in- 
 formed me that two more would arrive the next day, but 
 the other two, Dougherty and Sparks, were unable to 
 come. They said they had hailed them with tears of Joy 
 and were in despair when they again left them, with the 
 chance of never seeing them more. Thus these two poor 
 fellow are to be invalids for life, made infirm at the com- 
 mencement of manhood and in the prime of their course, 
 doomed to pass the remainder of their days in misery and 
 want — for what is the pension? Not sufficient to buy a 
 man his victuals." The two disabled men left behind sent 
 some of the bones taken from their feet, conjuring their 
 leader not to leave them to perish in those desolate wilds, 
 and Pike swore they should be saved if he had to go back 
 for them himself. 
 
 On the 26th of February two Frenchmen arrived at the 
 camp and informed the lieutenant that Grovernor Alencaster, 
 hearing that the Utahs meditated a raid upon the Ameri- 
 cans, had sent a party of dragoons for their x>rotection ; 
 shortly after the force appeared; it consisted of fifty regulars 
 and fifty militia, armed with lances, escobars, and pistols. 
 Pike advanced upon the prairie where he was introduced 
 to Don Ignacio Saltelo, the commandante, and Don Barto- 
 lome Fernandez, whom he invited to breakfast within the 
 fort ; after the meal was finished Saltelo addressed Pike as 
 follows : " Sir, the Governor of New Mexico, being informed 
 that you have missed your route, ordered me to offer you 
 in his name mules, horses, money, or whatever you may 
 stand in need of to conduct you to the head of the Red 
 
132 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 River, as from Santa Fe to where it is sometimes navigable 
 is eight days' journey, and we have guides and routes of 
 traders to conduct us." 
 
 "What," exclaimed the lieutenant, "is not this the 
 Red River?" 
 
 "No, sir, it is the Rio del Norte." 
 
 Pike immediately ordered his flag taken down and rolled 
 up, feeling how seriously he had compromised himself by 
 his invasion of Spanish territory. Saltelo added that he 
 had provided mules and horses to transport the American 
 party, with their baggage, etc., to Santa Fe where his 
 Excellency, Governor Alencaster, was most anxious to see 
 them. Pike stated to the comraandante the condition 
 of his party and the absence of his sergeant, who had 
 been detailed to bring in the two disabled men ; also that 
 his instructions did not justify him in entering Spanish 
 territory, his having done so being purely an accident. 
 Saltelo was polite but firm, reiterating that the governor 
 awaited them and that it was necessary that he should receive 
 an explanation of this invasion of his province. Lieutenant 
 Pike's position was a most unpleasant one, but to precipi- 
 tate a conflict on Spanish soil by offering resistance would 
 have made a bad matter infinitely worse, and he prepared 
 to accompany his escort to Santa Fe. The corporal was left 
 in charge of the camp with written directions for the men 
 who were to follow, also under a strong Spanish convoy. 
 On February 26th Pike reluctantly left the little camp, 
 which was situated on the Conejos just above its junction 
 with the Rio del Norte. On March 1st they reached Ojo 
 Caliente, or Warm Springs, which excited great admiration 
 among the Americans ; Pike describes them as two in num- 
 ber, about ten yards apart, and each affording sufiicient 
 water for a mill site ; they appeared to be impregnated with 
 copper and were more than 33" above blood heat. In his 
 journal of March 2d he says : " We were frequently stopped 
 on our march by the women, who invited us into their house 
 to eat, and in every place where we halted a moment there 
 was a contest who should be our hosts. My poor lads who 
 
THE FINAL YEARS OP SPANISH GOVERNMENT. 133 
 
 had been frozen were conducted home by old men who would 
 cause their daughters to dress their feet, provide food and 
 drink, and give them the best bed in the house. The whole 
 of this conduct brought to my recollection the hospitality 
 of the ancient patriarchs, and caused me to sigh with regret 
 at the corruption of that noble principle by the polish of 
 modern ages." 
 
 At the village of San Juan Pike was met and interro- 
 gated by a Franco- American who had settled in Santa Fe 
 under circumstances that excited a prejudice against him 
 in some quarters, and the lieutenant, who was extremely 
 honest and straightforward, "told him that I considered 
 him too contemptible for further notice, but that he might 
 tell the governor the next time he employed emissaries to 
 choose those of more abilities and sense, and that I ques- 
 tioned if his Excellency would find the sifting of us an easy 
 task. He returned to the priest' s house with me and instead 
 of making any complaint, in reply to their inquiries about 
 who I was, etc., informed them that when he left Louisiana 
 I was governor of Illinois ; this report served but to add to 
 the respect with which my companions and host treated 
 me." 
 
 On the morning of March 3d they came in sight of the 
 capital ; when they entered the city there was a great 
 crowd collected to view the " Americanos," who must have 
 presented a very remarkable spectacle, for Pike says that he 
 was " dressed in a pair of blue trousers, moccasins, blanket 
 coat, and a cap of red cloth lined with fox-skins ; and my 
 poor fellows in leggins, breech cloths, and leather coats, 
 and not a hat in the whole party. This was extremely 
 mortifying to us all, especially as the people asked us if the 
 Americans were a tribe living in houses or in camps like the 
 Indians, and if we wore hats in our country." The crowd 
 followed the explorers to the very door of the palace where 
 Pike was ushered into the presence of Governor Alencaster. 
 His reception was a cold one, and after a brief interrogatory 
 and as brief answers the lieutenant was requested to return 
 in the evening. He did so, and this interview was a far 
 
134 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 more satisfactory one; Pike's explanations were courte- 
 ously received, and as he concluded the governor " got up 
 and gave me his hand (for the first time) and said he was 
 happy to be acquainted with me as a man of honor and a 
 gentleman ; that I could retire this evening and take my 
 trunk with me ; that on the morrow he would make further 
 arrangements."' The next day the governor informed Pike 
 that he must explain his position to General Salcedo, 
 military commandante at Chihuahua. The A.merican natu- 
 rally protested against being led three or four hundred 
 leagues out of his route, but yielded to circumstances here 
 with the same wisdom he had shown at his camp on the 
 Conejos, and the discussion, which might easily have led 
 to a declaration of war, concluded with an invitation to 
 dinner. "After dinner his Excellency ordered up his 
 coach, Captain D'Almansa, Bartolome, and myself entered 
 it with him and drove out three miles. It was drawn by 
 six mules and attended by a guard of cavalry. When we 
 parted his adieu was, ' Remember Alencaster in peace 
 or war.' " 
 
 On March 7th, Pike rejoined Dr. Robinson, who was also- 
 being escorted to Chihuahua by a troop under command of 
 Lieutenant Melgares, who treated the Americans with the 
 greatest consideration and friendliness. He declined to 
 hold guard over the trunks containing Pike's papers and 
 further added: "Dr. Robinson now being acknowledged 
 one of your party I shall withdraw his guard and consider 
 him as under your parole of honor." Pike also remarks 
 that " Melgares' s mode of living was superior to anything we 
 have an idea of in our army, having eight mules loaded 
 with his common camp equipments, wines, confectionery, 
 etc." On the 2d of April they arrived at Chihuahua and 
 Pike explained his intrusion on Spanish territory to Gen- 
 eral Salcedo, who retained his papers but treated him and 
 his party with great hospitality, and sent them with an es- 
 cort through Coahuila and Texas to Natchitoches, where 
 they arrived on the 1st of July, 1807. 
 
 Pike's services were acknowledged in the following 
 
THE FIKAL YEARS OF SPANISH GOVERNMENT. 135 
 
 letter from the War Department, bearing date February 
 24tli, 181 8 : 
 
 " Sir .-—In answer to your letter of the 22d inst., I can 
 with pleasure observe that although the two exploring ex- 
 peditions you have performed were not previously ordered 
 by the President of the United States there were frequent 
 communications on j;he subject of each between General 
 Wilkinson and this department, of which the President of 
 the United States was made from time to time acquainted, 
 and it will be no more than what justice requires to say 
 that your conduct in each of these expeditions met the 
 approbation of the President, and that the information you 
 obtained and communicated to the Executive has been con- 
 sidered highly interesting in a political, historical, and 
 geographical view ; and you may rest assured that your 
 services are held in high estimation by the President of the 
 United States, and if any opinion of my own can afford you 
 any satisfaction I very frankly declare that I consider the 
 public much indebted to you for the enterprising, persever- 
 ing, and judicious manner in which you have performed 
 them. I am, very respectfully, sir, 
 
 " Your obedient servant. 
 
 " H. Dearborn." 
 
 Lieutenant Pike's book was published in 1810, audits 
 fascinating relation of adventures, perils, and strange tiibes, 
 with its pictures of the till then unknown region of N"ew 
 Mexico, rich in all that men desire, — flocks and herds, 
 silver and gold, wine and bright eyes, — was eagerly read 
 and led many to undertake the perilous journey to that 
 province. The brave explorer attained the rank of 
 brigadier-general and lost his life at the taking of Toronto 
 in 1813. 
 
 Lieutenant- colonel Jose Manrique succeeded Alencaster 
 as governor of New Mexico in 1808. In 1810, the central 
 junta of Spain issued a decree according to New Mexico 
 the honor of a representative in the Spanish cortes ; as 
 soon as this fact was proclaimed in the province the leading 
 men assembled at Santa Fe to elect a delegate and Don 
 Pedro Bautista Pino was chosen. He departed for Spain 
 in October, 1811, accompanied by his grandson Juan de los 
 
136 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 Reyes Vaca y Pino, then eleven years old ; Don Pedro 
 defrayed his own expenses and took with him nine thousand 
 dollars sent by the New Mexicans to the king, Fernando 
 VII., then engaged in a struggle with France. Pino rep- 
 resented to the cortes the necessity of strengthening the 
 frontiers of his country, begged that the citizens called 
 upon to act as soldiers might be paid for their services, 
 asked that military posts be established at El Paso, Rio de 
 Pecos, Socorro, and Taos, and a supply station at San 
 Cristobel. He also requested that a civil and military court 
 might be held at Chihuahua, that at Guadalajara being too 
 distant to inspire the law-breakers of New Mexico with 
 much terror, and that a separate bishopric, with college and 
 schools, should be set up for the province. 
 
 In 1815 Alberto Mainez succeeded as governor ; his policy 
 in regard to foreign traders was more generous than that of 
 his predecessors. In 1816 Pedro Maria de AUande became 
 governor and made things very unpleasant for the traders 
 who had been encouraged by Mainez. Facundo Melgares, 
 the leader of the Spanish expedition of 1806, succeeded as 
 governor of the province in 1818. The Navajoes renewed 
 their depredations Just about this period, and the governor, 
 a tried Indian fighter, led a force against them and finally 
 defeated them. In this same year the vexed question of 
 the boundary between the United States and Spanish terri- 
 tory was settled, both parties accepting the Arkansas from 
 the mountains down to longitude 22° as the dividing line. 
 It was on December 26th, 1821, that the news of Iturbide's 
 triumphal entrance into Mexico was received in Santa Fe, 
 and New Mexico was no longer the appanage of a kingdom 
 beyond the ocean, but a province of the Mexican empire. 
 The tidings were received with great rejoicings, salutes of 
 artillery, military processions, and a grand haile at the 
 palace, presided over by Melgares, no longer royal gover- 
 nor but political chief. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE SANTA Ft TRADE. 
 
 Origin of the Santa Fe Trade— Journey of Baptiste Lalande— Adventures 
 of James Pursley— His Discovery— Pursley at Santa Fe— Return of 
 Lieutenant Pike— Venture of McKnight, Beard and Chambers— 
 Their Misfortunes— Experience of Choteau and De Mun — First Tra- 
 ders— Glenn— Becknell— The Coopers— Becknell's Second Trip— A 
 Terrible Experience — Real Commencement of the Santa Fe Trade — 
 Spanish Policy— Mexican Industries— Exorbitant Prices— Introduc- 
 tion of Wagons— Relative Merits of Horses, Mules, and Oxen- 
 Independence, Missouri—" All Sorts and Conditions of Men" — Or- 
 ganizing a Caravan—" A Santa Fe Assortment " — The Departure- 
 Council Grove — The Journey — Maneuvers of the Wagons— Near ing 
 SantaFe— "Runners"— "La Entrada de la Caravana ! "— At the 
 Custom-House — Derechos de Arancel — The Return Trip — Proposed 
 Routes— The Trail— Kit Carson— Some Early Traders— Indian At- 
 tacks — An Expensive Visit — Murder of McNees and Monroe — The 
 Consequences— Repeated Outrages — Government Escorts — Effect of 
 the Texan Expeditions— Ports Closed— Table of the Santa Fe Trade 
 from 1823 to 1843— Re-establishment of the Trade— Growth and 
 perity — Railroad vs. Caravan. 
 
 THE acquisition of Louisiana by the United States 
 marked a distinct era in the history of New Mexico. 
 Before this period the Spanish provinces had been isolated, 
 as it were, from the rest of the world ; but now tliat this 
 enormous tract had become American territory it was im- 
 possible for the ancient barriers to remain, and within ten 
 years from the date of the purchase a fluctuating but 
 steadily increasing intercourse had sprung up between 
 the Western cities of the United States and the northern 
 provinces of Mexico. The Santa Fe trade, as this overland 
 commerce was called, had no definite origin, but was 
 rather the result of accident than of any organized plan. 
 Beginning with the desultory trafiic carried on with the 
 Indians by Spanish and American trappers, its scope grad- 
 
 137 
 
138 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 ually extended, until the distant cities of Santa Fe and 
 Chihuahua had become markets for the commodities of the 
 eastern coast, and the Santa Fe trade was a recognized fea- 
 ture of American commerce. 
 
 The first American to penetrate the wilds of Louisiana 
 and enter New Mexican territory was James Pursley, a 
 Kentuckian, but his arrival at Santa Fe was antedated by 
 that of Baptiste Lalande, a French Creole, who reached the 
 province in 1804. In the early part of this year Lalande was 
 dispatched on a trading expedition by William Morrison, a 
 merchant of Kaskaskia — then one of the extreme frontier 
 settlements, a few miles above St. Louis on the eastern side 
 of the Mississippi. He was furnished with the necessary 
 articles for barter with the Indians, and his orders were to 
 push up the Platte River, make his way, if possible, to Santa 
 Fe, and report on the prospects of commercial intercourse 
 between that city and the United States. After a perilous 
 journey Lalande succeeded in reaching the Rockies, whence 
 he dispatched a party of Indians into Mexico to inform the 
 authorities of the arrival of this stranger from the distant 
 East. A_ mounted trooj) of Spaniards set out at once and 
 brought the trader and his goods to a small settlement some 
 miles north of Taos. From Taos Lalande proceeded south- 
 ward to Santa Fe, disposing of his merchandise as he 
 journeyed on, and making profits which exceeded his 
 utmost expectations. So well was the enterprising Baptiste 
 pleased with the country, its inhabitants, and its possibili- 
 ties in the line of trade, that he gave up all thoughts of re- 
 turning East and settled himself in business at the capital 
 upon the funds supplied by Morrison, to whom he neither 
 forwarded remittances or accounted for the proceeds of the 
 adventure. It was to collect the amount due the merchant 
 of Kaskaskia that Dr. Robinson, of Pike's party, proceeded 
 to Santa Fe, as mentioned in the preceding chapter. 
 
 It was in 1805 that James Pursley, famous as the first 
 to discover gold in what is now Colorado, entered New- 
 Mexico. A native of Baird's Town, Kentucky, he left St. 
 Louis in 1803 with three companions and traveled to the 
 
THE SANTA FE TRADE. 139 
 
 head waters of the Osage River, engaged in trapping and 
 trading with the Indians. After many exciting adventures, 
 in which his daring won for Pursley the title of "The mad 
 American," the four hunters were capsized in a rough 
 canoe of their own construction at the junction of the Osage 
 and Missouri rivers, losing their entire stock of peltries — 
 the fruit of a whole year's hunt. They managed to save 
 arms and ammunition, and soon after were hailed by a 
 Frenchman, who was descending the Missouri to trade with 
 the Mandan Indians. Pursley embarked with him for the 
 voyage, and early in the ensuing spring was sent out on a 
 hunting and trading expedition with a large band of Padu- 
 cahs and Kyaways and a small quantity of merchandise. 
 They were attacked by Sioux and driven from the plains 
 into the mountains of Colorado, whence the unwieldy 
 party — which numbered nearly 2,000 men and 10,000 
 animals — wandered along the head-waters of the Platte. 
 Here it was that Pursley observed strong indications of 
 gold-bearing deposits and even obtained some of the virgin 
 mineral, which he carried in his shot-pouch for several 
 months. Believing, however, that he would never succeed 
 in reaching a civilized region, and feeling that the precious 
 metal was worthless in the wilderness, he threw his samples 
 away from sheer weariness and disgust. After journeying 
 some distance along the Platte the Indians, knowing they 
 must be now close to New Mexico, sent Pursley and several 
 of their number to Santa Fe to see if the Spanish authorities 
 would allow them to enter the province and trade with the 
 people. This request was granted by Governor Alencaster, 
 and the Indians returned for the remainder of the company, 
 who after disposing of their merchandise at profitable prices 
 departed for the East. But Pursley, now that he had at 
 last reached a civilized community, did not choose to trust 
 himself to the perilous journey across the plains. He 
 reached Santa Fe in June, 1805, and established himself as a 
 carpenter in that city. In 1807 he was seen by Lieutenant 
 Pike, who describes him as having made a great deal of 
 money, and being a man of strong natural sense and un- 
 
140 HISTORY OP NEW MEXICO. 
 
 doubted intrepidity. Although well treated by the authori- 
 ties Pursley was placed under continual surveillance ; he 
 was forbidden to write or send any communication to the 
 East, and was obliged to give bonds that he would not 
 leave the country without permission from the government. 
 This was probably due to his having imprudently men- 
 tioned his discovery to the Spaniards, who were very anx- 
 ious that he should conduct a detachment of cavalry to the 
 spot where the gold had been found. But the sturdy 
 pioneer, believing the locality to be within the territory of 
 the United States, obstinately refused to divulge the 
 secret, — for which firmness the citizens of the Centennial 
 State certainly owe him their deepest gratitude. 
 
 For the next five years nothing is known of any Span- 
 ish-American intercourse, though it is probable that a frag- 
 mentary traffic was kept up ; but the return of Lieutenant 
 Pike and the relation of his travels, published in 1810, 
 stimulated general interest in the subject. The lieutenant's 
 account of the high prices prevailing throughout the North 
 Mexican provinces, and the immense profits to be reaped 
 by enterprising traders, spread like wildfire through the 
 eastern settlements, and many of the adventurous frontiers- 
 men — hunters, traders, and trappers, the typical pioneers of 
 those days — determined to make their way across the un- 
 known region of Louisiana t<* this new land of promise. 
 In 1812 an expedition was organized under the direction of 
 Kobert McKnight, James Beard, Peter Chambers, and 
 several others, in all a party of nine or ten. Believing that 
 the revolutionary movement under Hidalgo, in 1810, had 
 completely removed the old restrictions on trade, which 
 rendered all foreign intercourse, except by special permis- 
 sion of the Spanish government, illegal, they crossed the 
 prairies to New Mexico, following the directions of Lieuten- 
 ant Pike. Their route, the only one then known, was 
 westward to the Colorado mountains and thence down 
 the Rio Grande to Taos ; and after a long but uneventful 
 journey they succeeded in reaching Santa Fe. Their arrival 
 at the capital could not have been at a more inopportune 
 
THE SANTA FE TRADE. 141 
 
 moment. The liberal principles fostered by Hidalgo had 
 just been vigorously quenched, the revolutionary leader 
 had been arrested and shot, the royalists were once more 
 supreme, and all foreigners, but especially Americans, were 
 believed to be the agents of a new revolution and were 
 objects of the most intense suspicion. The unfortunate 
 traders, who were as yet hardly aware of their dangerous 
 situation, were instantly arrested as spies, their entire stock 
 of merchandise confiscated, and themselves taken to the 
 calabozas of Chihuahua and Durango, where they were 
 rigorously confined for the space of nine years. During 
 this period several efforts were made for their release by 
 Congressman Scott of Missouri, and letters were sent by 
 Secretary Adams to the king of Spain and the viceroy of 
 Mexico, but nothing was effected, and it was not until 1822, 
 when the revolutionary party under Iturbide became once 
 more predominant, that the unfortunate Americans were 
 set at liberty by order of the new emperor of Mexico. 
 
 Before the return of McKnight and his unlucky com- 
 panions, and in the year 1815, Julius de Mun and Auguste 
 P. Choteau proceeded with a large party to the waters of 
 the Upper Arkansas, where they engaged in hunting and 
 trading with the savages. A year later they entered New 
 Mexico and visited Taos and Santa Fe ; at the latter place 
 they were hospitably received by Governor Mainez, who 
 gave them full liberty to hunt and trade north of the Red 
 Eiver and east of the mountains. Notwithstanding this 
 permission, in June, 1817, during the governorship of Don 
 Pedro Allande, a force of Spanish dragoons arrested 
 Choteau, De Mun, and twenty-four others, and brought 
 them to Santa Fe, also opening the caches made by the 
 trappers and taking articles to the value of over thirty thou- 
 sand dollars. At the capital the Americans were court- 
 martialed, imprisoned for two days, and dismissed, without 
 recovering their property. They immediately returned to 
 St. Louis and entered a suit for damages against the ISTew 
 Mexican authorities ; the action dragged on until 1886, and 
 it is not known if it was ever definitely settled. 
 
142 HISTOEY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 Notwithstanding the personal misfortunes of these early- 
 adventurers, their narratives only induced others to fit out 
 expeditions. In 1822 an Ohio merchant named Glenn, who 
 kept a small trading station at the mouth of the Verdigris 
 River, fitted out a party and proceeded by a circuitous 
 route up the Arkansas toward the mountains, encountering 
 many dangers and privations, but finally reaching Santa Fe 
 in safety. In this same year Captain Becknell of Missouri, 
 with four friends, started from the vicinity of Franklin, in 
 his native State, with the intention of trading with the Co- 
 manches. When near the mountains he met a party of 
 Mexican rangers who induced the Americans to accompany 
 them to New Mexico, where, though their stock of mer- 
 chandise was small and of little value, the members of the 
 expedition cleared a handsome profit. The captain re- 
 turned to Missouri alone the following winter," leaving his 
 company at Santa Fe. His favorable reports stimulated 
 others to embark in the trade, and in May, 1823, Colonel 
 Cooper with his sons and about ten others left Franklin 
 with five thousand dollars' worth of goods, transported by 
 pack-horses, and arrived safely at Taos. Captain Becknell's 
 second expedition met with very different fortune ; elated 
 with his former success and confident of still richer profits, 
 he set out with a company of thirty men, carrying five 
 thousand dollars in merchandise. In his eagerness to reach 
 his destination the captain resolved to abandon the circui- 
 tous route heretofore followed, and, having reached the 
 caches on the Arkansas, directed his course straight toward 
 Santa Fe. " With no other guide than the starry heavens, 
 or, it may be, a pocket compass," says Dr. Gregg, "the 
 party embarked upon the arid plains which extended far 
 and wide before them to the Cimarron River. The adven- 
 turous band pursued their forward course without being 
 able to procure any water except the scanty supply they 
 carried in their canteens ; this was completely exhausted 
 after two days' march, and the sufferings of the men and 
 beasts drove them almost to distraction. They were re- 
 duced to the cruel necessity of killing their dogs and cutting 
 
THE SANTA PE TKADE. 143 
 
 off' the ears of their mules in the vain hope of assuaging 
 their burning thirst with the hot blood ; this only served to 
 irritate the parched palate and madden the senses of the 
 sufferers. Frantic with despair, in prospect of the horrible 
 death which stared them in the face, they scattered in every 
 direction in search of water. Frequently led astray by the 
 deceptive glimmer of the mirage, or false ponds, as these 
 treacherous oases of the desert are called, they resolved to 
 retrace their steps to the Arkansas, but were unequal to the 
 task and would undoubtedly have perished had not a 
 buffalo, fresh from the riverside, with a stomach distended 
 with water, been discovered just as the last rays of hope 
 were receding. The hapless intruder was dispatched and a 
 draught procured from its stomach. I have since heard 
 one of the party declare that nothing ever passed his lips 
 that gave him such exquisite delight as his first draught of 
 that filthy beverage. This relief enabled some of the 
 strongest men of the party to reach the river, where they 
 filled their canteens and hurried back to the assistance of 
 their comrades. By degrees they were all enabled to renew . 
 their journey, and following the course of the Arkansas for 
 several days, succeeded in reaching Taos, sixty or seventy 
 miles north of Santa Fe." 
 
 From 1821-22 may be dated the real commencement of 
 the Santa Fe trade, as from this jDeriod the caravans in- 
 creased in size and value, the worth of the merchandise trans- 
 ported rising gradually from five to eighty thousand dollars. 
 The fall of Spanish authority and the establishment of the 
 Mexican government removed many restrictions from the 
 progress of the intercourse and swelled the ranks of the 
 traders, who found the profits of their enterprises enormous, 
 even considering the cost and difficulty of transportation. 
 Before the establishment of trade with the United States, 
 New Mexico had depended entirely upon the Spanish 
 market or the fluctuating products of Mexico for her sup- 
 plies. In accordance with the usual selfish policy of 
 Spain, all manufactured articles were imported to the 
 colonies from Spanish ports, in return for exports of raw 
 
144 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 material. This, although profitable for the mother country^ 
 was hard on the colonists, who were forced to pay exorbi- 
 tant prices for even the cheapest manufactured goods. 
 Indeed, so odious were these restrictions on commerce con- 
 sidered, that in 1771 Viceroy Bucareli informed the king 
 that trade could never prosper in Mexico until the monopoly 
 enjoyed by the merchants of Cadiz should be removed, and 
 begged that the colonists be allowed, at least, to remit their 
 funds to Spain and bring back the return freights in vessels 
 of their own. For this reason also, the war between Spain 
 and England, in the last years of the eighteenth century, 
 was of great advantage to Mexico, for, as the seas were 
 filled with the enemy's cruisers, the Spaniards dared not 
 send out large amounts of specie and their trade was con- 
 fined chiefly to exports from the mother country. Thus 
 the immense product of the Mexican mines was retained in 
 the country and home industries flourished, many of the 
 internal provinces, and the cities of Oaxaca, Guadalajara, 
 and Ixtlahnaca, manufacturing large quantities of silk, 
 cotton, and wool. Notwithstanding this growing activity 
 in Mexican commerce, these infant industries were as yet 
 inadequate to supply the demand, and all manufactured 
 articles commanded extravagant prices, especially in the 
 northern provinces, where the expense of transportation was 
 added to the original cost — the citizens of Santa Fe paying 
 two and three dollars per tiara, or Mexican yard of thirty- 
 three inches, for the coarsest calicoes and cheapest domestic 
 cloths. It can easily be imagined that the reports of these 
 prices and the proflts attendant upon them should have 
 impelled American merchants to send their goods to these 
 remunerative markets, where the gains of one expedition 
 doubled the co^t of outfit and transportation. 
 
 The next event of importance in the annals of the 
 Santa Fe trade was the introduction of wagons ; up to 1824 
 all goods were transported by pack mules, which necessarily 
 limited the amount and value of the freight ; but in that 
 year the caravans which departed from Missouri employed 
 not only the usual quota of mules, but twenty-five wheeled 
 
THE SANTA FB TRADE. 145 
 
 vehicles, principally what were then called "Dearborn 
 carriages." The experiment proved entirely successful and 
 from this period wagons were exclusively used, some of 
 them being of great size and drawn by ten or twelve mules. 
 In the first years of the trade horses were nsed to draw the 
 vehicles as mules were scarce and expensive, but as soon as 
 the latter could be procured in abundance horses were dis- 
 carded save for riding purpose. In 1829 oxen were tried and 
 found, much to the surprise of the traders, to be perfectly 
 capable of performing the duties of the trip. From this time 
 onward the number of oxen and mules employed in the busi- 
 ness was about equal, the superiority of the former in 
 cheapness and strength being balanced by the greater 
 endurance and speed of the latter. 
 
 The starting-point of the caravans was at first Franklin on 
 the Missouri River, one hundred and fifty miles west of St. 
 Louis, but in 1831 the proportions of the trade had so in- 
 creased that some spot nearer the western frontier was con- 
 sidered necessary, and the choice fell upon Independence, 
 situated about twelve miles from what is now Kansas, then 
 known as "the Indian border," and three miles south of the 
 Missouri River. This place gradually became the point of 
 outfit, departure, and debarkation ; here repaired the ad- 
 venturer about to embark in his trading enterprise ; here 
 were procured provisions, mules, oxen, and sometimes 
 wagons ; and here the final preparations for the long journey 
 across the plains were made. Not only was Independence 
 the starting-point of the Santa Fe caravans, but the Rocky 
 Mountain traders and trappers, and the emigrants to Oregon 
 took this town in their route. During the season of depar- 
 ture — which was usually in May — it was a place of much 
 bustle and activity ; "here," says Gregg, "were seen men 
 of every class, with a little sprinkling of the softer sex. 
 The fustian frock of the city-bred merchant, furnished with 
 a multitude of pockets, capable of containing a variety of 
 extra tackling; the backwoodsman in linsey or leather 
 hunting-shirt ; the farmer, with his blue jean coat, and the 
 wagoner, with flannel-sleeved vest." Among the weapons 
 
146 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 noted were "the rifle for the frontiersman, the double- 
 barreled fowling piece for the sportsman, scatter guns, 
 repeating arms, pistols, and knives." The task of organiz- 
 ing a caravan was no light one ; the first step was the 
 election of an oflicer entitled " Captain of the Caravan," 
 who was commander of the expedition, and whose author- 
 ity was never questioned. By him each proprietor was 
 notified to furnish a list of his men and wagons ; if the 
 company was a large one all the vehicles were divided into 
 lour divisions, and a lieutenant was ajppointed whose duty 
 it was to inspect every ravine and creek along the route, 
 select the crossings, superintend the encampment, and gen- 
 erally look after the arrangement of the wagons ; watches 
 were also appointed, usually eight in number, to stand 
 guard a quarter of each alternate night. Besides personal 
 arms the caravan often carried one or two small cannons, 
 mounted on carriages. The merchandise was packed with 
 the utmost care, a task requiring no little skill, but in 
 which many became adepts, filling the wagons with such 
 evenness that on their arrival at Santa Fe not one article 
 would be disturbed or injured. A " Santa Fe assortment," 
 as it was called, consisted generally of merchandise such as 
 was usually seen in the smaller retail stores of the East, 
 viz : woolen and cotton goods, silks, hardware, notions, etc. 
 The principal articles in demand were cotton velvets and , 
 domestic cottons ; the latter, which were by far the most 
 called for, were brown, unbleached, and blue, and formed 
 almost half of every assortment ; in spite of their ready 
 sale, however, they were the most unprofitable articles 
 taken, on account of their weight and the heavy duty im- 
 posed upon them by the Mexican authorities who, in 1837, 
 issued a decree prohibiting the entrance of all shirtings, 
 calicoes, and drillings. American manufactures alone were 
 in demand, the Bi'itish cottons being much less durable, 
 and of lighter texture. Besides the merchandise, provis- 
 ions for the men were carried, consisting chiefly of bacon, 
 flour, coffee, sugar, and salt — buffaloes furnishing all the 
 fresh meat used on the journey. 
 
THE SANTA FE TKADE. 147 
 
 The train left Independence in detached parties and 
 rendezvoused at Council Grove, about one hundred and 
 fifty miles distant on a branch of the Neosho River ; here 
 all arrangements were completed for the journey, the 
 "Catch up ! catch up ! " of the captain rang out from his 
 station in the foremost wagon, the answering shouts of 
 " All's set ! " from the drivers proclaimed that everything 
 was in readiness, and in a few moments the caravan was on 
 its way to Santa Fe. The appearance of these long lines of 
 white-topped vehicles was singularly impressive ; the 
 wagons advanced slowly in four parallel columns but in 
 broken lines, often with considerable intervals between ; 
 the unceasing "Crack! crack!" of the wagoners' whips, 
 resembling the distant report of musketry, sounded almost 
 as if two hostile parties were engaged in a skirmish. The 
 rear wagons were usually left without a guard, as the horse- 
 men all preferred to be in front, where they could be seen 
 moving in scattered groups sometimes over a mile in 
 advance. The evolutions of the wagons were intricate and 
 required much skill on the part of the drivers ; when 
 marching four abreast the two exterior lines spread out and 
 then met at the front angle, while the two near lines kept 
 close together until they reached the point of the rear angle 
 when they wheeled suddenly out and closed with the 
 hinder ends of the other two, thus systematically conclud- 
 ing a right-lined quadrangle with a gap left at the rear cor- 
 ner for the introduction of the animals. Every night the 
 wagons were formed into a hollow square, acting as a 
 defense against Indians and a temporary corral for the 
 cattle; outside of this square the camp fires burned and 
 the traders slept, while those whose turn it was to watch 
 kept guard. The difiiculties of the route were all sur- 
 mounted by (he energy of the travelers ; in many places 
 temporary bridges of long grass or brush covered with earth 
 were made, and sometimes "buffalo boats" were con- 
 structed by stretching hides over empty wagon-bodies or 
 frames of poles. 
 
 As the wagons approached within two hundred miles of 
 
148 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 Santa Fe a party of avant couriers, known in the parlance 
 of the prairies as "runners," pushed on in advance to the 
 capital ; they were generally proprietors or agents, and 
 their purpose was to procure and send back a supply of 
 provisions, to secure good accommodations for the merchan- 
 dise, and, what was no less important, come to an "agree- 
 able understanding" with the custom-house officials. 
 When the crossing of the Ked River was reached the 
 caravan was met and accompanied for the remainder of the 
 Journey by a Spanish escort provided to prevent smug- 
 gling ; here, also, a branch of the expedition usually pro- 
 ceeded westward to Taos. Five or six days later and the 
 long expected goal appeared in sight ; great was the 
 exultation as wagon after wagon descended the steep 
 declivities to Santa Fe ; the little cannons hred enthu- 
 siastic salutes, the muleteers cheered vociferously, and all 
 was rejoicing and confusion. "I doubt, in short," says 
 Gregg, " whether the first sight of the walls of Jerusalem 
 were beheld by the crusaders with more tumultuous and 
 soul-enrapturing joy." "The arrival," continues the same 
 writer, " produced a great deal of bustle and excitement 
 among the natives. ' Los Americanos ! ' ' Los Garros ! ' 
 ' La entrada de la Caratiana ! ' were to be heard in 
 every direction ; and crowds of women and boys flocked 
 around to see the new-comers. The wagoners were by no 
 means free from excitement on this occasion. They had 
 spent the previous morning in ' rubbing ' up and now they 
 were prepared, with clean faces, sleek-combed hair, and 
 their choicest Sunday suit, to meet the fair eyes of glisten- 
 ing black that were sure to stare at them as they passed. 
 There was yet another preparation to be made in order to 
 show off to advantage ; each one must tie a brand-new 
 cracker to the lash of his whip, for on driving through the 
 streets and \\v% plaza publica, every one strived to outvie 
 his comrades in the dexterity with which he flourished this 
 favorite badge of his authority." 
 
 The contents of the wagons were soon transferred, to the 
 warerooms of the custom-house, and the members of the 
 
THE SANTA FE TRADE. 149 
 
 expedition spent a few days in recovering from the fatigue 
 of their tedious journey ; the wagoners and traders re- 
 paired in throngs to the numerous fandangoes which were 
 kept up for some time after the arrival of a caravan, while 
 the merchants were actively employed in more important 
 labors, each endeavoring to get his goods through the 
 custom-house before his neighbor, and to supply the 
 country dealers on their annual visit to the capital. 
 
 "The dereclios de arancel (tariff imposts) of Mexico," 
 to quote again from Gregg, "are extremely oppressive, 
 averaging about one hundred per cent, upon the United 
 States' cost of an ordinary Santa Fe assortment. Those 
 on cotton textures are particularly so. According to the 
 arancel of 1837 — and it was still heavier before — all plain- 
 wove cottons, whether white or printed, pay twelve and a 
 half cents duty per vara, besides the derecTio de consumo 
 (consumption duty), which brings it up to at least fifteen. 
 For a few years Grovernor Armijo, of Santa Fe, established a 
 tariff of his own, entirely arbitrary, — exacting five hundred 
 dollars for each wagon load, whether large or small, of fine 
 or coarse goods ! Of course this was very advantageous to 
 such traders as had large wagons and costly assortments, 
 while it was no less onerous to those with smaller vehicles 
 or coarse, heavy goods. As might have been anticipated, 
 the traders soon took to conveying their merchandise only 
 in the largest wagons, drawn by ten or twelve mules, 
 and omitting the coarser and more weighty articles of 
 trade. This caused the governor to return to the ad 
 valorem system, though still without regard to the arancel 
 general of the nation." 
 
 On about the first of September, four or five weeks after 
 the arrival of the caravan, the return trip was commenced ; 
 the number of wagons was greatly reduced, many of those 
 taken being sold in the province, and the return cargo— 
 the profits of the expedition— was of specie (gold-dust 
 or silver bullion), furs, buffalo rugs, wool, and Mexican 
 blankets. The loads weighed generally about twelve hun- 
 dred pounds, and while the outward journey occupied at 
 
150 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 least seventy days, the homeward trip seldom exceeded 
 forty ; indeed, in 1851, Frank X. Aubrey, a young Cana- 
 dian and well-known scout, made the distance from Santa 
 Fe to Independence in five days and ten hours, his own 
 fleet mare, Nellie, carrying him over one hundred and fifty 
 miles. 
 
 When the trade was well established several petitions 
 were sent to Congress by the people of Missouri, request- 
 ing that a road might be marked out and treaties made 
 vs^ith the Indian tribes ; in January, 1825, a bill was passed 
 granting both these requests and appropriating $30,000 for 
 their execution. The work was never completed, however, 
 although energetically begun by the commissioners, Messrs. 
 Reeves, Mathews, and Sibley, and the surveyor, J. C. 
 Brown, who made a treaty with the Osages and commenced 
 the survey. "The line of the proposed road," says Prince, 
 ' ' was determined as far as the Arkansas, and designated 
 by mounds of earth ; but it never seems to have been used 
 by the travelers, who persistently refused to be carried off 
 from the old trail, which had been the route of their 
 predecessors, and which had the sanction of experience if 
 not of scientific engineering. 
 
 "The first route followed, as we have seen, was by a 
 line almost directly westward to the mountains of Colo- 
 rado, and thence south to Taos. Afterwards, when the 
 trade assumed importance, a road along the Arkansas, and 
 thence southwest to the Raton Pass, following substan- 
 tially the present line of the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa 
 Fa Railroad, was sometimes used ; but the route which was 
 the ordinary and favorite one for a long series of years was 
 that along the Arkansas, thence across to the Cimarron, 
 and so entering New Mexico, proceeding in an almost 
 direct line to the Wagon Mound — which made a conspicu- 
 ous landmark — and thence to Las Vegas, San Miguel, and 
 Santa Fe." In the spring of 1837, an attempt was made,- 
 principally by Mexican merchants, to establish an indepen- 
 dent trade with Chihuahua, leaving Santa Fe entirely out 
 of the intercourse ; but, though begun with much enthusi- 
 
THE SANTA FE TRADE. 151 
 
 asm, it was found a losing enterprise and speedily aban- 
 doned. 
 
 The famous scout and Indian fighter Kit Carson first 
 gained his renown by his skill and daring in guiding 
 parties over the Santa Fe trail, his own first trip having 
 been made as far back as 1826 ; another well-known scout 
 was Colonel A. G. Boone, grandson of the famous Daniel, 
 who is said to have been able to speak all the Indian 
 languages. Among the early traders and pioneers was 
 James L. Collins, afterwards superintendent of Indian 
 affairs in the Territory, who arrived at Santa Fe in 1827, 
 with a caravan of fifty-three wagons, the largest up to that 
 period. In 1831, Joseph Gregg, whose book, "The Com- 
 merce of the Prairies," is the authority on all matters per- 
 taining to the trade, made his first trip, and in this same 
 year Captain Jedediah Smith, the well-known Rocky 
 Mountain pioneer, met his death. He had been separated 
 from his party and wandered across the plains in search of 
 water ; at last a small stream was found, but as the captain 
 stooped to drink he was pierced by a Comanche arrow and 
 died instantly. In 1833, Charles Bent was captain of the 
 annual caravan, which numbered ninety-three wagons, and 
 the following year Thomas Kerr commanded an expedition 
 the profits of which amounted to nearly $200,000. Among 
 the traders of 1835 was the celebrated Captain Sutter, who 
 established himself in business in Santa Fe, leaving that 
 city for California in 1838. 
 
 In the early years of the trade there was little trouble 
 from the Indians, but as the proportion of the traffic in- 
 creased and the annual caravans, the period of their 
 passage, and their value, became known to the savages. 
 many cruel attacks were made, and the Indians were ever 
 prepared to swoop down upon any straggling bands of 
 traders on their homeward journey or small parties insufii- 
 ciently supplied with arms, who considered themselves 
 fortunate to escape with only the loss of their animals or 
 goods. The first encounter of this kind recorded took 
 place in 1826, when a party of twelve returning traders 
 
152 HISTORY or NEW MEXICO. 
 
 encamped upon the banks of the Cimarron with only four 
 guns between them ; here they were visited by a band of 
 Indians, who noticed their defenseless condition, and after 
 making friendly demonstrations withdrew, only to return 
 with about thirty warriors, each carrying a lasso. They 
 informed the Americans that they wanted some horses, 
 and the traders, unable to resist so large a force, gave them 
 one apiece. But the Indians were not yet contented, each 
 brave must now have two horses. " Well, catch them!" 
 was the acquiescent reply of the unlucky band ; uywn 
 which the savages mounted the animals they had just 
 obtained, and swinging their lassoes over their heads plunged 
 among the stock with furious yells, and drove off the entire 
 . caballada of five hundred head of horses, mules, and asses. 
 The first murder committed by Indians took place in 
 1826. Two young men, members of a returning party, 
 named McNees and Monroe, baving fallen asleep by a 
 stream since known as McNees' Creek, were barbarously 
 shot with their own guns in full sight of their caravan. The 
 bodies were buried on the banks of the Cimarron Eiver, 
 and as the companions of the murdered men were engaged 
 in performing these last services a small party of Indians, 
 who probably had no knowledge of the recent outrage, 
 were seen to advance on the opposite side of the stream. 
 The traders, burning with fury and a desire for vengeance, 
 opened fire upon the savages, all but one of whom were 
 killed. The survivor bore the tidings to his tribe, who, in 
 their turn, pursued the caravan for days and finally suc- 
 ceeded in carrying off one thousand head of stock, although 
 the traders managed to escape. Not satisfied with this 
 bloodless revenge, the Indians a little later attacked a com- 
 pany of twenty men on their homeward trip, killing one 
 and taking all the animals, thus compelling each of the 
 traders to carry his share of the proceeds on his back to the 
 banks of the Arkansas, where it was cached until a convey- 
 ance to the United States could be procured ; these shares 
 amounted to one thousand dollars each, or a load of eighty 
 pounds in silver bullion to each man. 
 
THE SANTA FE TEADB. 153 
 
 These repeated outrages induced the traders to apply 
 for government protection, and in 1829 a United States escort 
 of three companies of infantry and one of dragoons under 
 Major Riley was detailed to accompany the caravan of that 
 year past the most dangerous portions of the route. The 
 escort stopped at Chouteau's Island, in the Arkansas, but 
 as soon as the traders adva.nced without its protection they 
 were attacked by Kiowas and one man was killed, the as- 
 sailants disappearing in safety before the arrival of the 
 troops, who were at once summoned. Major Riley and his 
 men remained on the Arkansas until the autumn, when 
 they accompanied the returning caravans to Independence. 
 This was the only protection afforded by the United States 
 until 1834, in which year sixty dragoons under Captain 
 Wharton acted as special escort, and again in 1843, when 
 large detachments under Captain Cooke escorted two dif- 
 ferent caravans as far as the Arkansas. 
 
 From 1831 the dangers and difficulties which had hith- 
 erto enveloped the Santa Fe trade diminished, and the 
 number of Indian attacks decreased. But the first and 
 second Texan Santa Fe expeditions, which are treated of 
 in the following chapter, had a serious effect upon the traf- 
 fic, as President Santa Anna, by a decree of August 7th, 
 1843, closed the Taos custom-house and the northern 
 portions of the Mexican Republic to all commerce, — the 
 order to go into effect in forty-five days. "Should the 
 obnoxious decree be repealed," says Gregg, writing at that 
 period, "the trade will doubtless be prosecuted with re- 
 newed vigor and enterprise." And on March 31st, 1844, it 
 was repealed, the ports were re-opened, and the traflSc con- 
 tinued to be as large, although not quite as profitable, as 
 before. 
 
 "Some general statistics of the Santa Fe trade," says 
 Dr. Gregg, "may prove not wholly without interest to 
 the mercantile reader. With this view I have prepared the 
 following table of the probable amount of merchandise in- 
 vested in the Santa Fe trade from 1822 to 1843, and about 
 the portion of the same transferred to the Southern mar- 
 
154 
 
 HISTORY or NEW MEXICO. 
 
 kets (chiefly Chihualiua) during the same period ; together 
 with the approximate number of wagons, men, and 
 proprietors, engaged each year : 
 
 Years. 
 
 Amount 
 Mdse. 
 
 Wag- 
 ons. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Propri- 
 etors. 
 
 Train to 
 Chiliaaliua. 
 
 Eemarke. 
 
 1832 
 
 15,000 
 
 70 
 
 60 
 
 
 Pack-animals only used. 
 
 1823 
 
 12,000 
 
 
 50 
 
 30 
 
 
 fi it 
 
 1824 
 
 35,000 
 
 26 
 
 100 
 
 80 
 
 3,000 
 
 and wagons. 
 
 1825 
 
 65,000 
 
 37 
 
 130 
 
 90 
 
 5,000 
 
 (< <( 
 
 1826 
 
 90,000 
 
 60 
 
 100' 
 
 70 
 
 7,000 
 
 Wagons only henceforth. 
 
 1837 
 
 85,000 
 
 55 
 
 90 
 
 50 
 
 8,000 
 
 * 
 
 1838 
 
 150,000 
 
 100 
 
 300 
 
 80 
 
 30,000 
 
 Three men killed, being the first. 
 
 1829 
 
 60,000 
 
 30 
 
 50 
 
 20 
 
 5,000 
 
 IstU. S. Escort — one trader killed. 
 
 1830 
 
 120,000 
 
 70 
 
 140 
 
 60 
 
 20,000 
 
 First oxen used by traders. 
 
 1831 
 
 250,000 
 
 130 
 
 330 
 
 80 
 
 80,000 
 
 Two men killed. 
 
 1832 
 
 140,000 
 
 70 
 
 150 
 
 40 
 
 50,000 S Party defeated on Canadian, 3 
 
 1833 
 
 180,000 
 
 105 1 185 
 
 60 
 
 80,000 1 ( killed, 8 perished. 
 
 1834 
 
 150,000 
 
 80 , 160 
 
 50 
 
 70,000 j3d U. S. Escort. 
 
 1835 
 
 140,000 
 
 75 
 
 140 
 
 40 
 
 70,000 
 
 1836 
 
 130,000 
 
 70 
 
 135 
 
 35 
 
 60,000 
 
 1837 
 
 150,000 
 
 80 
 
 160 
 
 35 
 
 80,000 
 
 1838 
 
 90,000 
 
 50 
 
 100 
 
 30 
 
 40,000 , 
 
 1839 
 
 250,000 
 
 130 
 
 250 
 
 40 
 
 100,000 
 
 Arkansas Expedition. 
 
 1840 
 
 50,000 
 
 30 
 
 60 
 
 5 
 
 10,000 
 
 Chihuahua Expedition. 
 
 1841 
 
 150,000 
 
 60 
 
 100 
 
 13 
 
 80,000 
 
 Texan Santa Fe Expedition. 
 
 1843 
 
 160,000 
 
 70 
 
 120 
 
 15 
 
 90,000 
 
 
 1843 
 
 450,000 
 
 230 
 
 350 
 
 30 
 
 300,000 8d U. S. Escort— Ports closed." 
 
 From the time of its re-establishment in 1844 the Santa 
 Fe trade continued without interruption, many wealthy 
 TN'ew Mexican merchants taking part in the business. It 
 was not seriously affected by the war with Mexico, for 
 the caravan of 1846, in which year Santa Fe was taken 
 by the United States troops, contained 414 wagons and 
 merchandise to the value of $1,752,250. Under American 
 government the intercourse flourished ; not only were the 
 Territories of New Mexico and Arizona supplied, but the 
 northern parts of Mexico also became a market for Ameri- 
 can goods. With the gradual extension of the railroads, 
 however, the starting-place moved further and further 
 westward, the forwarding establishment being transferred 
 from Hays City, Kansas, to Sheridan, Kit Carson, Granada, 
 La Junta, El Moro, Las Vegas, and so onward until the 
 railroads were in operation throughout the Territory and 
 no other mode of transportation was necessary. 
 
CHAPTEE XI. 
 
 TWENTY-POUR YEARS OF MEXICAN RULE. 
 
 1822-1846. 
 
 Eapid Succession of Political Chiefs— Chavez, Conde, Viscara, Vaca— 
 Changes in the Province— Narbona, Armijo, Chavez, Political 
 Chiefs— Expulsion of the Cachupines— The " Old Placers "—Bents' 
 Fort— Abreu and Chavez, Political Chiefs— Appointment of Albino 
 Perez— General Tax Law— Rebellion of 1837- "Plan" of the 
 Insurgents— Their Success— Murder of Perez— Of Santiago Abreu 
 and Others— The Insurgents at Santa Pe— Armijo's Counter- 
 Re volution— TheRebellion Crushed— Armijo's Administration— The 
 "New Placers "—Early Settlers- First Texan Santa Fe Expedi- 
 tion—New Mexico under Arms— Purpose of the Expedition— The 
 March— The Expedition Separates— Small Advance Party— At 
 Anton Chico— Captivity— Ho wland and Baker Shot— Capture of 
 Cook's Party— Surrender of the Main Body— The Prisoners Taken 
 to Mexico— Rejoicing in New Mexico— A Second Texan Expedition 
 Reported — New Mexican Preparations— Chavez Murdered by 
 McDaniel's Party— Warfield's Raid on Mora— Snively's Mishaps- 
 Return of the Texans— Effects of the Expedition— Martinez- 
 Chavez — Armijo's Rule. 
 
 THE change from Spanish to Mexican rule made little 
 actual difference in the internal administration of 
 'New Mexico, which was too far removed from the scene of 
 conflict to be deeply affected by it ; the rapid succession of 
 territorial rulers, now known as political chiefs, was the 
 principal indication of a disturbed condition. Melgares, 
 the last governor for Spain, was succeeded on July 5th, 
 
 1822, by Francisco Xavier Chavez, although Alejo Garcia 
 Conde and Antonio Yiscara each administered during that 
 same year. Bartolome Vaca was appointed to the office in 
 
 1823. On the 10th of September, 1822, New Mexico had 
 been declared one of the five Internal Provinces, subject to 
 the military commandante at Chihuahua, a declaration in 
 no way changing the royal organization of 1776, previously 
 given. In 1824, however, it was Joined to the provinces of 
 
 155 
 
156 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 Chihuahua and Durango, the three to be known as the 
 Interior States of the Korth, with the capital at Chihua- 
 hua, — an arrangement to which Durango refused to sub- 
 mit ; and the southern provinces were finally made States, 
 with the El Paso district added to Chihuahua, while New 
 Mexico was erected into a territory. 
 
 Antonio Narbona became political chief in 1825, to be 
 succeeded in 1827 by Manuel Armijo, who remained in 
 office for a year. Jose Antonio Chavez ruled in 1828 ; 
 although the changes of administration from the time of 
 the downfall of the royal government were rapid and ill- 
 deiined, they were comparatively tranquil, save for the 
 usual hostilities of Apaches and Navajoes. During this 
 term, however, the territory was shaken by a wave of the 
 revolutionary fury raging in Mexico, through whose streets 
 the cry of "Death to the Cachupines ! " followed by the 
 rush of the mob, had frequently echoed since 1810. No 
 violence had hitherto been offered this caste in New Mexico, 
 but in 1828 they were formally expelled from the territory 
 in obedience to a law of the Republican Congress. The 
 grief this edict inflicted upon the brave hidalgos, who had 
 won their homes by their swords and held them by con- 
 stant watchfulness against a savage foe, may be imagined ; 
 many, it is said, joined the Santa Fe caravans of that and 
 the following year and came to the United States. A 
 number of Franciscan friars were among the exiles, but 
 two, in consideration of their great age, were allowed to 
 remain upon the payment of live hundred dollars each. 
 In this year, also, gold was found in the district now known 
 as the " Old Placers," and the fame of this discovery 
 naturally attracted many strangers. In 1829, Bent's Fort, 
 one of the first examples of American enterprise in New 
 Mexico, was built upon the Arkansas ; it was one hundred 
 and eighty feet long and one hundred and thirty feet wide, 
 the walls, which were of adobe, were fifteen feet high and 
 four feet thick. This fort became one of the most cele- 
 brated trading posts on the frontier — the gathering place 
 of hunters, trappers, traders, and teamsters. 
 
TWENTT-FOUJi YEABS OF MEXICAN RULE. 157 
 
 Santiago Abreu succeeded as political chief in 1831, and 
 was followed in 1833 by Francisco Saracino ; the principal 
 event of the latter' s administration appears to have been the 
 visit of the bishop of Durango, who made an extended 
 tour through the territory and was received with great 
 enthusiasm. Mariano Chavez acted as political chief for a 
 brief period, beginning in 1835 ; but was succeeded in the 
 same year by Albino Perez, whose appointment was one in 
 a succession of circumstances which finally culminated in 
 a bloody rebellion. Perez was a stranger, not identified in 
 any way with the interests of the territory, and the people, 
 who naturally preferred a native governor, received him 
 coldly. The following year the disbursing officers of the 
 territory were charged with peculation, and two of the 
 three judges of the supreme court were among those ac- 
 cused of complicity ; the action of the governor in the case 
 was considered arbitrary and great indignation was excited 
 among the New Mexicans. In 1886, the Mexican Republic 
 adopted a new "plan," known as the "Central Constitu- 
 tion of 1836," by which the supreme power was vested in 
 the executive and national congress ; and the States were 
 changed into departments under the command of military 
 governors, responsible to the chief national authorities in- 
 stead of the people. Accordingly, New Mexico became a 
 department and her political chief a military governor ; 
 furthermore, the Mexican Congress passed a general tax 
 law, which Governor Perez was called upon to put into exe- 
 cution in 1837. This was the first time the New Mexicans 
 had been subjected to a direct tax, and the efl^ect upon an 
 excited, angry people may be imagined. The popular in- 
 dignation was most intense in the north, and there the 
 revolutionary flame was kindled: An alcalde of the 
 northern district was arrested and imprisoned for some 
 alleged misdemeanor ; the people surrounded the prison, 
 released the prisoner, and, bearing him off in triumph, set 
 up the standard of rebellion at La Canada (Santa Cruz), 
 , twenty-five miles north of Santa Fe. 
 
 The camp was soon thronged with the disaffected. 
 
158 HISTORY OP NEW MEXICO.. 
 
 among whom were the principal warriors of all the northern 
 pueblos except San Juan and Santo Domingo. The out- 
 break occurred on the 1st of August ; on the 3d, the follow- 
 ing " plan " of government was proclaimed : 
 
 " Viva God and the nation, and the faith of Jesus Christ ; for the 
 principal points which we defend are the following : 
 
 ' ' First. To be with God and the nation, and the faith of Jesus 
 Christ. 
 
 "Second.- To defend our country until we spill every drop of our 
 blood in order to obtain the victory we have in view. 
 
 " Third. Not to admit the departmental "plan." 
 
 "Fourth. Not to admit any tax. 
 
 "Fifth. Not to admit tlie disorder desired by those who are at- 
 tempting to procure it. God and the nation. 
 
 " Encampment, 
 
 " Santa Cruz de la Canada, August 3d, 1837." 
 
 The news of the revolt excited great alarm in Santa Fe, 
 and Grovernor Perez immediately assembled the militia, 
 only about one hundred and fifty of whom responded, in- 
 cluding the warriors of San Juan and Santo Domingo. 
 With this inadequate force he marched against the insur- 
 gents, whom, he encountered the next day upon the mesa 
 of San Ildefonso, when the government troops broke their 
 ranks and affiliated with the enemy . Nothing was left 
 to Perez and the few that remained faithful to his fortunes 
 but to seek safety in flight from the fury of the revolution- 
 ists. For two days the fugitives were hunted from one 
 hiding-place to another ; finally the governor was tracked 
 by the Indians to the house of Don Salvador Martinez and 
 murdered, his body mangled, and his head borne to the 
 camp of the insurgents. That same day the Indians cap- 
 tured Don Jesus Maria Alarid, secretary of state, and dis- 
 patched him a la IcDizado, viz.: by repeated thrusts of 
 their lances. Don Santiago Abreu, formerly governor, was 
 also taken and put to death with the most shocking 
 cruelty. Don Eamon Abreu, prefect of Rio Arriba, Don 
 Marcelino Abreu, brother of the ex-governor, Lieutenant 
 Madrigal, and several others, were seized at the ranches 
 
TWENTY-FOUR YEAES OF MEXICAN RULE. 159 
 
 where they had sought refuge, and killed. On the day 
 following these outrages, the 10th of August, the insurgents 
 entered Santa Fe and proceeded to the church, where they 
 offered thanks for their victory. The horrors of a sack 
 were anticipated by the terrified inhabitants, but little, if 
 any, violence was perpetrated ; Jose Gonzales, a Taos In- 
 dian, was chosen as governor and installed in the palace 
 so lately occupied by the ill-fated Perez ; the property of 
 the murdered officials was confiscated ; and the revolution- 
 ists quietly withdrew from Santa Fe and returned to their 
 villages. 
 
 On the 27th of August a general assembly, composed of 
 the alcaldes and leading men of the northern section, was 
 convened in the palace and confirmed the acts of the rebels. 
 Manuel Armijo, who had been political chief in 1827, had 
 in the mean time organized a counter-revolution in the lower 
 country, and now marched upon Santa Fe with a consider- 
 able force. Gonzales did not feel himself sufficiently strong 
 to await the attack and fell back upon La Canada, the 
 gathering place of the northern insurgents. Armijo then 
 entered Santa Fe ; took possession of the palace ; pro- 
 claimed himself commandante-general ; and dispatched a 
 courier to Mexico with an account of the revolc and his 
 successful efforts to suppress it. In return he was appoint- 
 ed governor of the department of New ^Mexico for weight 
 years, and four hundred men from Chihuahua and Zaca- 
 tecas, under Colonel Justiniani, were sent to aid in restoring 
 peace. With this reenforcement General Armijo marched 
 against La Canada, defeated the insurgents on January 
 27th, 1838, and captured the leaders, Jose Gonzales, De- 
 siderio Montoya, Antonio Abed Montoya, and the alcalde 
 Esquibel, who were sentenced and shot within two hundred 
 yards of the plaza of Santa Fe. These prompt measures 
 effectually extinguished the rebellion of 1887. 
 
 The next four years of Armijo' s administration were 
 comparatively quiet ; the custom-house was established at 
 Taos in 1837, and the "New" gold placers discovered in 
 1839; "Americanos " were no longer a novelty, many who 
 
160 HISTORY OP NEW MEXICO. 
 
 came to trade establishing themselves permanently in the 
 country, as Mr. Roubidoux, Charles Beaubien, Colonel 
 Ceran St. Vrain, Charles Bent, and Kit Carson, all of whom 
 settled at Taos during this administration and became men 
 of note in the territory. The advance of the Santa Fe trade 
 awakened the commercial spirit of the people and revealed 
 to the more far-sigJited the marvelous possibilities of New 
 Mexico, possibilities which there was small chance of de- 
 veloping under the selfish and shifting policy of the 
 Mexican government, and there is no doubt that many of 
 the most prominent and intelligent citizens of New Mexico 
 sympathized with the revolt of '87, in as far as it was 
 directed against that government, though they were in no 
 way accessory to the barbarities which accompanied it. 
 The fact that this sympathy existed was known and so 
 greatly exaggerated in Texas, that, in 1841, an expedition 
 was fitted out in that State, ostensibly for trade, but strong 
 enough to insure the success of a second revolution if the 
 New Mexicans were ripe for it. News of the projected in- 
 vasion was soon brought to New Mexico, where it created 
 great excitement ; terrible stories were repeated of the 
 ferocity of the Texans, who would, it was said, put to fire 
 and sword every town they passed through, and the 
 authorities placed the country in a state of defense. A 
 close, watch was set upon the foreign residents ; Captain 
 Damasio Salazar with a strong force was detailed to guard 
 the eastern frontier ; another force was under the command 
 of Colonel Juan Andreas Archuleta ; while Governor Ar- 
 mijo purposed to place himself at the head of the pre- 
 sidial troops, leaving Prefect Antonio Sandoval to act as 
 governor j?ro tern. 
 
 Meanwhile, the Texan expedition had started from 
 Austin, June 18th, 1841. It consisted of five companies of 
 cavalry and one of artillery, under Brigadier-General 
 Hugh McLeod ; a party of traders, with goods suitable to 
 the market drawn in wagons ; a number who "went for 
 pleasure"; and three commissioners, supplied with pro- 
 clamations setting forth to the New Mexicans the advan- 
 
TWENTY-FOUR YEARS OF MEXICAN RULE. 161 
 
 tages to be gained by coming under tlie Texan flag. The 
 adventures of the party are graphically related by George 
 W. Kendall, editor of the New Orleans Picayune, at 
 that time an invalid, who joined the expedition hoping to 
 gain health in the far-famed climate of New Mexico, and 
 supposing that the enterprise was a commercial one ; the 
 Texan authorities, he understood, being anxious to open a 
 direct trade with Santa Fe by a nearer route than the great 
 Missouri trail. It was not until they were upon the march 
 that he learned that their intention was to " bring as much 
 of the province of New Mexico as lies upon the east side of 
 the Rio del Norte (Texas claimed the Rio del Norte as her 
 western boundary) under the protection of the Texan 
 government. This project was founded upon the belief 
 that nine tenths of the people were discontented with the 
 Mexican yoke and anxious to come under the flag to which 
 they really owed fealty. Should the inhabitants manifest 
 a disposition to declare their full allegiance to Texas, the 
 flag of the single-star republic would be raised? on the 
 government house at Santa Fe ; but, if not, the Texan com- 
 missioners were merely to make such an arrangement with 
 the authorities as should tend to the opening of a trade, 
 and then retire." 
 
 "The long train of wagons, moving heavily forward, 
 with the different companies of volunteers, all well mounted 
 and well armed and riding in double file, presented an 
 imposing as well as an animating spectacle, causing every 
 heart to beat high with the anticipation of exciting inci- 
 dents upon the boundless prairie ! " Notwithstanding this 
 encouraging departure, the march was a most severe one, 
 leading through an unbroken wilderness, where the party 
 suffered from hostile Indians, cold, thirst, and hunger, 
 being obliged to kill their horses for food. On the 11th of 
 August, they believed themselves within seventy or eighty 
 miles of San Miguel, and sent forward Messrs. Ilowland, 
 Baker, and Rosenberg, to procure provisions and learn the 
 state of the country, which, however, they never returned 
 to report, as they were captured immediately upon enter- 
 
162 HISTOEY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 ing the territory, strictly confined, and finally shot. The 
 unwieldy party had separated, eighty-seven soldiers and 
 twelve civilians, under Colonel Cook and Captain Sutton, 
 pushing on ahead ; General McLeod remaining in com- 
 mand of the main body, whose progress was necessarily 
 slow. Cook's party were nearly starved when they arrived 
 at a sheep ranch on the Rio Galliuas, where they were well 
 supplied with food ; and five men, Captain Lewis, of the 
 artillery, who spoke Spanish, Van Ness, one of the com- 
 missioners, Howard, Fitzgerald, and Kendall, were dis- 
 patched with a letter to the alcalde at San Miguel, stating 
 that their mission was a pacific one and requesting permis- 
 sion to buy food to send back to the main party. When 
 they reached the little town of Anton Chico they learned 
 that the entire militarj'- force of the province was under 
 arms waiting for their expedition, and that they themselves 
 were liable to be shot at any time. They pushed on, how- 
 ever, and the following morning encountered Captain 
 Salazar, who disarmed and searched them ; shortly after 
 they were drawn up to be shot, but Don Gregorio Vigil 
 interceded so effectually tliat their lives were spared. They 
 were then bound and marched to Santa Fe, the one 
 ameliorating cii'cumstance of their miserable condition 
 being the charity of the women, who followed the jaded 
 captives with food and wine, and expressions of pity and 
 sympathy. They were marched from San Miguel to Santa 
 Fe, but met Governor Armijo on the road, who ordered 
 them to be returned to San Miguel and put in close confine- 
 ment ; there, from the window of their prison, they saw 
 Howland and Baker shot. In the mean time Colonel 
 Cook's party was captured by Armijo and Salazar, aided 
 by the treachery of Lewis— who acted as interpreter and 
 betrayed his countrymen,— at Anton Chico, and sent under 
 a strong guard to Mexico. 
 
 On the f)th of October, the main body under McLeod 
 surrendered to Archuleta, and on the 17th, the last of the 
 unfortunate Texans left San Miguel for the prisons of 
 Mexico. There is little doubt that the hardships insep- 
 
TWENTY-FOUR YEARS OF MEXICAN RULE. 163 
 
 arable from the march were augmented by unnecessary 
 brutality on the part of Salazar, although the kindness of 
 Creneral Gonzales and Padre Ortiz is gratefully recorded by 
 the prisoners, who arrived in Mexico in February, 1842. 
 Some were released in April, it being proved that they were 
 not Texans and had been ignorant of the object of the ex- 
 pedition ; the rest, after much suffering, were liberated in 
 J une. Governor Armijo divided the captured booty among 
 the soldiers, the traitor Lewis, it is said, receiving a liberal 
 portion ; made 21. feu clejoie of the Texan proclamations on 
 the plaza at Las Vegas ; and returned to Santa Fe, where 
 he was received with enthusiasm. 
 
 The fate of this expedition excited universal indignation 
 in Texas, and in 1843 an attempt was made to avenge it ; 
 the fact that men were being recruited there for a fresh in- 
 vasion was soon brought over the Santa Fe trail to New 
 Mexico, and Governor Armijo again put the troops in fight- 
 ing order and sent to Chihuahua for reenforcements, 
 whence a detachment was despatched under General Jose 
 Monterede to liis assistance. The threatened invasion, 
 however, reduced itself to a plundering attack upon the 
 Santa Fe caravans, and a raid upon Mora, then the nearest 
 settlement to the Texan line. The first was made in April, 
 1843, by John McDaniel, a Texan captain, at the head of 
 fifteen men, enlisted on the Missouri border. They were 
 on the way to join another party of marauders when they 
 met the train of Don Antonio Chavez on the Little Arkan- 
 sas, at least one hundred miles within the territory of the 
 United States. The train consisted of two wagons and 
 fifty-five mules, and although Don Antonio had with him 
 from ten to twelve thousand dollars in specie and gold bull- 
 ion, besides a small lot of furs, he traveled with only five 
 servants. The Mexicans were quickly overpowered and 
 the wagons rifled ; each of the robbers obtained about five 
 hundred dollars' worth of booty, with which seven of them 
 started back to the settlements ; the other eight determined 
 to murder Chavez, and the unfortunate Mexican was shot 
 in cold blood ; a considerable amount of gold was found 
 
164 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 upon the body, which the murderers then threw into a 
 neigliboring ravine. Ten of the party were captured and 
 sent to St. Louis, where those implicated in the murder,, 
 including McDaniel, were hanged, and the others im- 
 prisoned. About the same time, the raid was made upon 
 Mora by Colonel Warlield, with a force of twenty- four men. 
 Wartield had expected to Join and co-operate with a large 
 Texan force in an organized attack upon New Mexican set- 
 tlements and the Santa Fe caravans ; but the scheme was 
 not carried out, as, when Warfield's men, after many hard- 
 ships, reached the rendezvous, the Texans had not arrived, 
 and a friendly Indian warned him that a strong force of 
 Mexican cavalry was on his trail. Determined not to 
 retreat without a single blow, the band made a midnight 
 attack upon the Mexicans encamped at the little town of 
 Mora ; five of the surprised party were killed, as many 
 wounded, a quantity of arms and number of horses cap- 
 tured, and, destroying what they could not carry off, the- 
 Texans retreated. The Mexicans soon rallied and started 
 in pursuit, overtaking them and recapturing all the horses ; 
 Warfield and his men with great difficulty escaped on 
 foot, excepting five who were captured and taken, it is 
 supposed, to Santa Fe. 
 
 The largest of these companies of freebooters was 
 organized by Colonel Snively in Northern Texas, and con- 
 sisted of one hundred and seventy-five men who marched 
 from Georgetown, then the extreme frontier, on the 25th of 
 April, 1843, en route for the Arkansas, where they pur- 
 posed to wait for a rich caravan which was expected to 
 cross Texan territory in June. They reached the river on 
 the 27th of May, encamped, and sent spies across to search 
 for the Santa Fe road ; it was reported eight miles distant 
 and with fresh signs of extensive travel, but it was not 
 known whether they were made by Mexicans or Bent's 
 people, whose station was one hundred and fifty miles 
 higher up. Soon after, the spies brought in the informa- 
 tion that the Mexican caravan would pass on its way to 
 Santa Fe, in eighteen days, and on the 17th of June the 
 
TWENTY-FOUR YEARS OF MEXICAN RULE. ' 165 
 
 Texans were warned that the caravan was approaching. 
 It consisted of sixty wagons and seventy-five thousand 
 weight of merchandise ; about fifteen of the wagons be- 
 longed to Americans ; they were also informed tliat the 
 whole was guarded by two hundred United States dragoons 
 imder Captain Philip St. George Cooke, detailed to escort 
 it to the Mexican frontier, where Governor Armijo with five 
 hundred men was waiting to receive it. A council was 
 held, and, in spite of some opposition, it was decided thai 
 an attempt should be made- to capture the caravan. On 
 the 19th, the Texans encountered an advance force of 
 Armijo's troops under Yentura Lobato, which they 
 defeated, killing eighteen and taking the rest prisoners. 
 They waited ten days longer for their prize, but the report 
 was spread that the caravan had turned back, and about 
 seventy men withdrew from the command and elected 
 ■Captain Chandler to lead them home ; the remainder, 
 under Snively, advanced upon United States' territory, or 
 what was claimed as such, and encountered a strong force, 
 led by Captain Cooke, who demanded their arms, which 
 they were forced to yield. While the disappointed Texans 
 were hesitating as to what course to pursue, the caravan 
 passed safely to its destination ; Snively then led his men 
 back to Texas, which they reached on the 6th of August. 
 
 The result of these expeditions was to alienate whatever 
 sympathy the fate of McLeod's command had excited for 
 the Texans ; the killing of Don Antonio Chavez was a most 
 <;ruel outrage, in view of the fact that his family had 
 befriended the Texan prisoners on their march down the 
 Rio Grande, and done much to ameliorate their sufferings ; 
 Mora had long been friendly to foreigners, so that the 
 attack upon it was a stupid conception, of a piece with the 
 killing of the Indians under Ventura Lobato, who had 
 hated Armijo since '37 and who might easily have been 
 won to the Texan cause. The government of Mexico 
 issued an edict on June 17th, 1843, decreeing death to all 
 foreigners entering the country as bandits, or fighting 
 under a flag not recognized by the republic ; and another 
 
166 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 was promulgated by Santa Anna, dated at his palace of 
 Tacubaya. It read as follows : 
 
 Tacubaya, August 7th, 1843. 
 Article First. — The frontier custom-house of Taos, in the de- 
 partment of New Mexico ; Paso del Norte, and Presidio del Norte, in 
 that of Chihuahua, are entirely closed to all commerce. 
 
 Article Second. — This decree shall take effect within forty-five 
 days after its publication at the capital of the Eepublic. 
 
 Fortunately for those whose fortunes were embarked in 
 the Santa Fe trade, this edict was repealed on March 31st, 
 1844. In September, 1844, Mariano Martinez de Lejanza 
 was appointed acting-governor ; he is mentioned as a pro- 
 moter of education, establishing additional government 
 schools at Santa Fe, and assisting promising young men to 
 a military course. In 1845, Jose Chavez acted as governor 
 for a short time, vi?hen Armijo, who had been suspended by 
 the inspector-general, was reinstated and retained the office 
 until the entrance of the " Army of the West." 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THE AMERICAN OCCUPATION OP NEW MEXICO, 
 
 1S46-1847. 
 
 Causes of the War with Mexico — Texan Troubles — Hostilities Beguu 
 — American Preparations— General Kearney — A Military Inci- 
 dent — Kearney's Instructions — Arrangement of his Forces — Offi- 
 cers Commanding — Departure of the First Division — The March — 
 Mission of James Magoffin — Private Negotiations — Advance of the 
 Army — At Las Vegas — Tecolote— San Miguel — Pecos — Apache 
 Caiion — Armijo's Flight — Conclusion of Magoffin's Embassy — The 
 Army of the West Enters Santa Fe — Fort Marcy — Americans and 
 Mexicans — Kearney's Proclamation — The General Marches South- 
 ward — At Santo Domingo — Albuquerque — Tom6 — Return to Santa 
 Fe — Departure of Gilpin and Jackson for the Navajo Country — 
 The Kearney Code — Appointment of Officials — Kearney Leaves 
 Santa Fe — Arrival of Colonel Price — Doniphan Ordered to the 
 Navajo Country — Jackson's Detachment — Reid's Expedition — Gil- 
 pin's March — Doniphan's Expedition — Grand Talk with the Nava- 
 joes — Speech of Sarcilla Largo — Treaty Signed — Return of the 
 Troops — How Americans Fight. 
 
 ryyO trace the chain of events which finally culminated in 
 -A- the occupation of New Mexico by the Americans, and 
 its absorption into the great Confederation of the United 
 States, would require more space than the scope of this 
 work will permit. It is one of the many instances which 
 history presents of the "course of events by which an 
 infinite Providence has caused the advance of the world 
 another degree in its progress to destiny." The first cause 
 was, undoubtedly, the selfish and despotic spirit of the 
 Mexican government, whose republicanism at that period 
 is aptly described as a "hot-house graft on the decayed 
 trunk of despotism." 
 
 The revolt of Few Mexico, known as the Perez Rebel- 
 
 167 
 
168 HISTOEY OE' NEW MEXICO. 
 
 lion, or the Revolt of '37, against the centralizing policy of 
 the Mexican rulers, has been mentioned in the preceding 
 chapter. Piiebla, Jalisco, Oaxaca, Zacatecas, and Texas, 
 all important Mexican States, rebelled at the same period 
 for precisely the same cause. Texas alone was successful. 
 On the 21st of April, 1836, Santa Anna and his army were 
 completely defeated at San Jacinto by the Texans under 
 General Houston, the Mexican leader being taken prisoner 
 and owing his life to the generosity of the insurgents, 
 whose companions in arms had been butchered by his 
 orders at Goliad and the Alamo. For more than seven 
 years after her well-earned freedom, Texas remained a 
 sovereign State and was recognized as, de facto, an inde- 
 pendent government by the United States, England, 
 France, and Belgium. In 1844 a treaty was concluded by 
 President Tyler with the representatives of Texas for the 
 annexation of that republic to the United States, and in 
 March, 1845, Congress passed a joint resolution annexing 
 Texas to the Union. General Almonte, Mexican minister 
 to the United States, protested against the act of annexa- 
 tion as one of aggression against the Republic of Mexico— 
 although the independence of Texas had been formally 
 recognized in a treaty signed bj^ the president of that 
 lepublic — and demanded his passports. The United States, 
 anxious to maintain peace, emjiowered Mr. John Slidell to 
 treat with the Mexican government, which, however, re- 
 fused to receive him. About this time, General Taylor, 
 who had been stationed with a body of troops at Corpus 
 Christi, Tex., was directed to move his men to the mouth' 
 of the Rio Grande to protect the western frontier of that 
 State. This action inflamed the anger of the Mexicans, 
 who claimed the river Nueces as their eastern boundary, 
 and on the 24th of April, 1846, an attack was made upon 
 Captain Thornton, resulting in the killing and wounding of 
 sixteen Americans. 
 
 This was the beginning of the war. Congress was in 
 session when the news reached Washington. The President 
 immediately announced the fact, and on the 13th of May, 
 
AMERICAN OCCUPATION OF NEW MEXICO. 169 
 
 1846, ten millions of dollars were appropriated to carry on 
 the war, and fifty thousand volunteers called for. An Army 
 of the AVest wais formed under Colonel Stephen AV Kear- 
 ney at Fort Leavenworth on the Missouri, with directions 
 to captui'e New Mexico and then proceed across the 
 country to the Pacific and take possession of California. 
 An Army of the Centre, under Brigadier-General Wool, 
 was ordered to march upon Coahuila and Chihuahua ; 
 wliile Major-General Taylor, commanding the Army of 
 Occupation, was expected to carry on the war against the 
 northern and eastern States of the Mexican republic. We, 
 of course, have only to do with the Army of the West in 
 its operations against New Mexico. 
 
 Colonel Kearney, who was raised to the rank of brigadier- 
 general when placed in command of the Western division, 
 was a hardy frontier lighter and thorough soldier. As an 
 instance of his coolness it is related that " while stationed at 
 Jefferson Barracks he was drilling a brigade on one of the 
 open fields near the post. The maneuver was the simple 
 one of marching in line to the front. An excellent horse- 
 man, he sat with his face toward the troops while his horse 
 was backed in tlie same direction along which the command 
 advanced. Suddenly the horse fell, fastening his rider to 
 the ground, while the brigade was in such a perfect state 
 discipline that not one man came to the general's assistance. 
 Nor was it necessary : the line advanced to within about 
 ten feet of him, when, in a loud and distinct voice, calmly 
 as if he had been in the saddle, Kearney gave the command : 
 ' Fourth company— obstacle— march ! ' The fourth com- 
 pany, which was immediately in front of him, was flanked 
 by its captain in the rear of the other half of the grand 
 division ; the line passed on, and when he was thus left in 
 the rear of his men he gave the command : ' Fourth com- 
 pany into line— march ! ' Then, extricating himself from 
 Ms horse, he passed to the front of the regiment, and exe- 
 cuted the rest of the maneuvers in the series marked out for 
 the day's drill." 
 
 Greneral Kearney was directed to take possession of New 
 
170 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 Mexico, leave a garrison at Santa Fe, and with the remain- 
 der of his force march on to Upper California. His instruc- 
 tions in regard to the civil government of the conquered 
 provinces were as follows: "Should you conquer and 
 take possession of New Mexico and Upper California, or 
 considerable places in either, you will establish a temporary 
 civil government therein, abolishing all arbitrary restric- 
 tions that may exist, so far as it may be done with safety. 
 In performing this duty, it would be wise and prudent ta 
 continue in their employment all such of the existing officers- 
 as are known to be friendly to the United States, and will 
 take the oath of allegiance to them. The duties at the cus- 
 tom house ought at once to be reduced to such a rate as may 
 be barely sufficient to maintain the necessary officers, without 
 yielding an.\' revenue to the government. You may assure- 
 the people of those provinces that it is the wish and design 
 of the United States to provide for them a free government, 
 with the least possible delay, similar to that which exists- 
 in our Territories. They will then be (tailed upon to exer- 
 cise the rights of freemen in electing their own representa- 
 tives to the Territorial Legislature. It is foreseen that what 
 relates to the civil government will be a difficult and un- 
 pleasant part of your duty, and much must necessarily be 
 left to your own discretion." 
 
 The force with which General Kearney was expected to 
 carry out this stupendous scheme consisted entirely of 
 Missouri volunteers, with the exception of three hundred 
 United States dragoons under Major E. V. Sumner, and a 
 battalion of five hundred Mormons, emigrants, willing to 
 serve a year in consideration of the opportunity afforded to' 
 reach California, and of their being paid and allowed to 
 settle there. Kearney's command was in two divisions. 
 The first, or army of conquest, which he led to New Mexico, 
 comprised a regiment of cavalry in eight companies, num- 
 bering eight hundred and fifty-six men, rank and file ; the 
 officers were Colonel Alexander W. Doniphan, Lieutenant 
 Colonel C. F. Ruff, Major W. Gilpin, and Captains Waldo; 
 Walton, Moss, Hied, Stephenson, Parsons, Jackson, and 
 
AMERICAN OCCUPATION OF NEW MEXICO. 171 
 
 Rogers. A battalion of light ai'tillery, two hundred and 
 fifty men, under Major Clark, consisted of two companies 
 from St. Louis led by Captains Weightman and Fischer. 
 A battalion of infantry, one hundred and forty-five men, 
 also in two companies, under Captains Angney and Murphy. 
 The Laclede Rangers of St. Louis, one hundred and seven 
 men, commanded by Captain Hudson. The three hundred 
 United States dragoons previously mentioned, and Lieu- 
 tenants W. H. Emory, W. H. Warner, J. W. Abert, and 
 W. B. Peck, of the United States Topographical Engineers. 
 The second division, or army of occupation, under Colonel 
 Sterling Price, was expected to hold New Mexico while 
 Kearney advanced Upon California, and comprised another 
 regiment of Missouri volunteers of about one thousand men 
 under Lieutenant-Colonel D. D. Mitchell and Major Ed- 
 mondson ; a battalion of three hundred men, in four com - 
 panics, under Lieutenant-Colonel Willock and Captains 
 Smith, Hendley, Morin, and Robinson ; and the Mormon 
 battalion, which was to follow Kearney : in all, about 
 eighteen hundred men. 
 
 The first division left Port Leavenworth late in June, a 
 provision train of one hundred wagons, guarded by two 
 mounted companies, having been sent on in advance. The 
 march was a severe one, part of the way leading over a 
 " heated desert, incrusted with alkaline earth like tine ashes, 
 or hard with rain-washed pebbles, polished like glass by 
 the winds and blistering hot to the feet." Bent's Fort was 
 reached on the 30th of July, and the exhausted men and 
 animals were given a brief period of rest, while Lieutenant 
 De Courcy was sent with twenty men to Taos to discover 
 the disposition of the people. He rejoined the army at the 
 Pohil with fourteen Mexican prisoners and reported that 
 resistance would be offered at every practicable point on 
 the route. On the 2d of May the troops resumed their 
 march, Captain Cooke, with twelve men, being sent in 
 advance to carry the general's proclamation and escort 
 Senor Gronzales of Chihuaihua and James Magoffin of Ken- 
 tucky, who was secretly commissioned to treat with Armijo. 
 
172 HISTOKY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 Magoffin, called by the Mexicans '•' Don Santiago," was one 
 of tlie early American settlers in the territory and a promi- 
 nent Santa Fe trader, who had accumulated wealth and 
 spent it liberally in generous hospitality ; he was familiar 
 with the Spanish language and counted among his friends 
 the leading men of New Mexico and Chihuahua. It was 
 believed by prominent Federal officials that the interven- 
 tion of such a man, versed in Mexican politics and the 
 sentiments of the people, and popular with Spaniards and 
 Americans, might be of great service in effecting a peace- 
 able settlement and thus avoiding bloodshed. The party 
 reached Santa Fe on August 12, and was received by 
 Governor Armijo, who allowed Cooke to present his papers 
 and promised to send a commissioner to treat with General 
 Kearney, which he did the following day, selecting Dr. 
 Henry Connelly, an American who had settled in New 
 Mexico in 1828 and acquired wealth and influence in the 
 community. 
 
 While these negotiations were in progress, the American 
 army was pushing on to Santa Fe, passing Santa Clara on 
 the 13th, the Mora River on the 14th, and entering Las 
 Vegas on the 15th, where General Kearney assembled the 
 officials and leading men on the top of one of the large flat- 
 roofed buildings, and "on the holy cross administered to 
 them the oath of allegiance to the laws and government of 
 the United States." The alcalde, Juan de Dios Maes, was 
 the first Mexican to take the oath and he was then con- 
 firmed in his office. The next village on the route was 
 Tecolote, where the oath was administered and the offi- 
 cials confirmed in power. Here, also. Captain Cooke and 
 Dr. Connelly were met, but the communication of the latter 
 was not made public. The next day the army halted at San 
 Miguel, whose alcalde took the oath with extreme reluctance. 
 It was in this town that the Texans of '41 received such 
 hard fare, and by an odd revolution of the wheel of fate a 
 Mexican officer, taken prisoner by the pickets that night, 
 proved to be the son of General Damasio Salazar, their 
 cruel captor. 
 
AMERICAN OCCUPATION OF NEW MEXICO. 173 
 
 On the 17th, the army encamped near the ruins of Pecos, 
 revered among the Pueblos as the birthplace of Montezuma, 
 whose great temple aroused the interest and curiosity of 
 the men, jaded and hungry as they were ; for the commis- 
 sary department had proved inadequate, and one half of a 
 pound of flour and three eighths of a pound of pork was the 
 daily allowance since leaving Bent's Fort. They were now 
 some ten miles from the yawning chasm called Apache 
 Canon, about twenty-eight miles from Santa Pe, a pass 
 through the mountains three miles long, only wide enough 
 in many places for the passage of a single wagon, the sides 
 formed of ledges of rock from two to three hundred feet 
 high and almost perpendicular. Here in this nearly im- 
 pregnable spot, Armijo, with an army of from four to six 
 thousand men, had fortified himself behind a breastwork of 
 huge trees, and the Americans, thinking it madness to at- 
 tempt an assault, were preparing to reach Santa Fe by a cir- 
 cuitous mountain trail, when the news ran through the camp 
 that the enemy had abandoned the post. The retreat of 
 Armijo from so strong a position, without striking a blow, 
 has been attributed to various .causes. It was reported at 
 the time that dissensions had occurred between the general 
 and his officers, and the campaign abandoned in consequence. 
 It was also stated, and later research gives credibility to the 
 statement, that Armijo' s flight was the direct result of 
 Magoffin's embassy, the governor's warlike demonstrations 
 being simply a sham to save his credit as a Mexican officer. 
 Senator Benton of Missouri is quoted as saying that " the 
 paper he (Magoffin) filed in the war office may furnish some 
 material for history — some insight into the way of making 
 conquests — if ever examined." With the termination of 
 " Don Santiago's " Santa Fe mission, he went south on an- 
 other diplomatic errand ; but was suspected and imprisoned. 
 After the war he was awarded fifty thousand dollars by the 
 Senate, in secret session ; but was only paid thirty thousand 
 dollars by a new administration, a sum hardly sufficient to 
 cover his expenditure. 
 
 To whatever cause Armijo' s flight was owing, the act 
 
174 HISTORY OP NEW MEXICO. 
 
 was satisfactory from an American point of view, and the 
 following morning the A-rmy of the West marched gayly 
 through the wonderful defile that had looked so porten- 
 tous the night before. At six o'clock that evening General 
 Kearney, at the head of his troops, entered Santa Fe with- 
 out a shot being fired on either side, excepting the salute of 
 thirteen guns when the stars and stripes were unfurled from 
 the palacio of the old Spanish city. On the following 
 morning General Kearney addressed the people who had 
 assembled on the plaza. He informed them that they were 
 no longer Mexican subjects, but American citizens, and as 
 such the United States government would protect them in 
 the full enjoyment of their rights to person, property, and 
 religion. 
 
 Don Juan Bautista Vigil y Alarid, acting-governor, also 
 made a brief speech, and General Kearney then pro- 
 ceeded to administer the oath of allegiance to the officials 
 and to the representatives of the Pueblo Indians, who came 
 in ever-increasing numbers to offer their submission to these 
 " white men of the East," whose coming they hailed as the 
 fulfillment of the prophecy of Montezuma. 
 
 It is always difiicult to conciliate a conquered people, 
 and that Kearney should have succeeded as well as he did 
 proves the possession of tact and firmness in an unusual 
 degree. He was ably seconded by his command, the resident 
 Americans, and many influential Mexicans, who believed 
 that only by annexation to the United States could the 
 wonderful mineral wealth of their country be developed, and 
 whose advice and support was of immense value to the new 
 administration. Cantonments for the troops and a forti- 
 fication for the defense and maintenance of the city was an 
 immediate necessity, and ground was broken for Fort Marcy 
 on a height commanding the town. The army horses, upon 
 whose condition the fate of a battle might hinge, were sent to 
 graze on the rich slopes near the Galisteo, guarded by a 
 body of troops under Lieutenant-Colonel Ruff. A lofty 
 flag-staff was erected in the middle of the plaza, from which 
 the stars and stripes waved warning or encouragement 
 
AMEHIOAX <>(CUPATH)\ OF NEW MKXWO. 175 
 
 according to the eyes of tliose who gazed. The Mexicans of ' 
 all ranks are extremely ceremonious, an inheritance from 
 their Castilian ancestors ; even the " lepero often exhibits a 
 refinement of manner and address that would become a 
 prince,and which they as well practice toward each other as 
 toward strangers. " ' Kearney and his officers were careful to 
 observe the punctilios demanded by native courtesy, but it 
 was difficult to impress its necessity upon the volunteers, 
 hardy, sturdy, and outspoken ; quick to appreciate and 
 reciprocate a kindness, but not much given to "bowing and 
 scraping," which they not only regarded as expletive non- 
 sense, but viewed with considerable suspicion. The com- 
 plaints inseparable from the occupation of a city by foreign 
 troops were much reduced by the strictly enforced regula- 
 tion that nothing should be taken which was not paid for, 
 though the men were absolutely in want of food and in 
 arrears of pay. 
 
 On the 22d General Kearney issued the following proc- 
 lamation : 
 
 As by the act of the Republic of Mexico a state of 
 war exists between that government and the United States, 
 and as the undersigned, at the head of his troops, on the 
 18th instant, took possession of Santa Fe, the capital of the 
 Department of New Mexico, he now announces his inten- 
 tion to hold the Department, witli its original boundaries, 
 (on both sides of the Del Norte), as a part of the United 
 States, and under the name of the Territory of New Mexico. 
 The undersigned has come to New Mexico with a strong 
 military force, and an equally strong one is following close 
 in his rear. He has more troops than necessary to put 
 down any opposition that can possibly be brought against 
 him, and therefore it would be folly and madness for any 
 dissatislied or discontented persons to think of resisting 
 him. The undersigned has instructions from his govern- 
 ment to respect the religious institutions of New Mexico, 
 to protect the property of the Church, to cause the worship 
 of those belonging to it to be undisturbed, and their relig- 
 ious rights in the amplest manner preserved to them. Also 
 to protect the persons and property of all quiet and peace- 
 able inhabitants within its boundaries against their enemies, 
 the Utes, Navajoes, and others. And while he assures all 
 
176 JIISTOUY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 that it will be his pleasure as well as his duty to comply 
 ' with those instructions, he calls upon them to exert them- 
 selves in preserving order, in promoting concord, and in 
 maintaining the authority and efficiency of the laws ; to 
 require of those who have left their homes and taken up 
 arms against the troops of the United States to return 
 forthwith to them, or else they will be considered as 
 enemies and traitors, s^^bjecting their persons to punish- 
 ment and their property to seizure and confiscation for the 
 benefit of the public treasury. It is the wish and intention 
 of the United States to provide for New Mexico a free 
 government with the least possible delay, similar to those 
 in the United States, and the people of New Mexico will 
 then be called on to exercise the rights of free men in elect- 
 ing their own representatives to the Territorial Legislature ; 
 but until this can be done the laws hitherto in existence 
 will be continued until changed or modified by competent 
 authority ; and those persons holding office will continue in 
 the same for the present, provided they will consider them- 
 selves good citizens and willing to take the oath of allegi- 
 ance to the United States. The undersigned hereby 
 absolves all persons residing within the boundary of New 
 Mexico from further allegiance to the Republic of Mexico, 
 and hereby claims them as citizens of the United States. 
 Those who remain quiet and peaceable will be considered 
 as good citizens and receive protection. Those Avho are 
 found in arms, or instigating others against the United 
 States, will be considered as traitors, and treated accord- 
 ingly. Don Manuel Armijo, the late governor of this 
 Department, has fled from it. The undersigned has taken 
 possession of it without firing a gun or shedding a drop of 
 blood, in which he most truly rejoices, and for the present 
 will be considered as Governor of this Territory. 
 
 Given at Santa Fe, the Capital of the Territory of 
 New Mexico, this 22d day of August, 1846, and in" the 
 seventy-first year of the Independence of the United 
 States. 
 
 S. W. Kearney, 
 By the Governor. Brigadier-General. 
 
 In consequence of this proclamation and the good order 
 maintained, many who had sought safety in flight from the 
 robbery, outrage, and murder which they supposed would 
 mark the occupation of the American army, returned to the 
 city with their families, and a grand ball given by Kearney 
 
AMERICAN OCCUPATION OF NEW MEXICO. 177 
 
 at the palace on the 27th was attended by manj' prominent 
 Mexicans, accompanied by their dark-eyed wives and 
 daughters. Since Kearney's occupation of Santa Fe almost 
 daily rumors of a projected rising in Albuquerque, the 
 home of Armijo, had been brought to him ; by September 
 the former city was sufficiently tranquil to justify the 
 governor in leaving it, to discover and disperse the malcon- 
 tents. Colonel Doniphan was left in command, and in 
 addition to the multifarious duties inseparable from the 
 office was desired to draft a code of laws for the civil admin- 
 istration of the new Territory. On the morning of Septem- 
 ber 2d General Kearney, with about twenty-live of his 
 staff-officers and bodyguard, rode out of Santa Fe at the 
 head of seven hundred and twenty-five mounted volunteers, 
 exclusive — as the old. soldier to whom we are indebted for 
 the account jealously remarks — of "'the general's rolinttcrr 
 Mexican escort ! ' ' 
 
 The first town visited was the pueblo of Santo Domingo, 
 whose governor rode out to welcome them at the head of 
 "about seventy dashing cavaliers," and entertained them 
 with a sham fight. At Algodones they were given fruits, 
 melons, and bread, " hundreds of Mexicans voluntarily fell 
 in with the line of march, and the expressi<m ' Bueno 
 Americano,' was frequently heard." On the morning of 
 the 5th Albuquerque was reached ; the Americans, who 
 looked to find General Armijo, at the head of an army, 
 awaiting them, advanced to the sound of bugles, followed 
 by their artillery, lines in order, each company in place, 
 officers and men at their posts, and colors gallantly stream- 
 ing, to be greeted by a salute of twenty escopetas from the 
 top of the Catholic church, while the people flocked out with 
 melons, grapes, apples, peaches, apricots, and pears to 
 welcome them. Armijo and his army proved but a myth, 
 and the officials of the town took the oath of allegiance to 
 the United States with no apparent reluctance. At TomA 
 the troops were equally well received and General Kearney 
 and the officers of his staff assisted at a religious ceremony 
 in the church. In the evening the town was illuminated 
 
178 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 and made a brave display of fire-works. The troops then 
 retraced their steps to Santa Fe, arriving there on the 13th. 
 Tlie general was a^iprised of Indian raids on the Mexican 
 settlements, and in conformity with his promise of protec- 
 tion dispatched Major Gilpin to the little town of Abiquiu 
 on the Rio de Chama and Lieutenant-Colonel Jackson to 
 CeboUeta on the Rio Puerco. In accordance with Kearney" s 
 desire, the code of laws for the Territory had been drawn 
 lip by Colonel Doniphan, a lawyer by profession, Willard 
 P Hall, elected member to Congress for Missouri at the 
 time, and Captain David Waldo, who translated the 
 Spanish laws for the use of his co-laborers. The code was 
 built upon existing Mexican laws, and the laws of Mis- 
 souri and Texas ; it was published on the 22d of September, 
 in Spanish and English, on the only printing-press to be 
 found in the capital, owned and used by the former govern- 
 ment for proclamations, manifestos, etc. This code, known 
 as the "Kearney Code," much of which is still in force in 
 the Territory, went immediately into effect, and General 
 Kearney issued the following notice : 
 
 " Being duly authorized by the President of the United 
 States of America, I hereby make the following appoint- 
 ments for the government of New^ Mexico, a Territory of 
 the United States. The officers thus appointed will be 
 obeyed and respected- accordingly : Charles Bent to be 
 Governor ; Donaciano Vigil to be Secretary of the Territory; 
 Richard Dallam to be Marshal ; Francis P. Blair to be U. 
 S. District Attorney ; Charles Blumner to be Treasurer ; 
 Eugene Leitensdorfer to be Auditor of Public Accounts ; 
 Joa'b Houghton, Antonio Jose Otero, Charles Beaubien, 
 to be Judges of the Superior Court. 
 
 " Given at Santa Fe, the Capital of the Territory of New 
 Mexico, this 22d day of September, 1846, and in the seventy- 
 first year of the Independence of the United States. 
 ''S. W. Kearney, 
 
 '■'■ Brigadier -General, U. S. J.." 
 
 Having, as he believed, established a stable government 
 satisfactory to Mexicans and Americans, the general left 
 Santa Fo at the head of his three hundred dragoons en 
 
am]-:ric'an occupation of new Mexico. 179 
 
 roittt for the conquest of California, Colonel Doniphan 
 acting as military commander of the Territory, until the 
 arrival of Colonel Price and the Second Missouri Volunteers, 
 when Doniphan was to advance to Chihuahua and co- 
 operate with General Wool. On the 28th Colonel Price, 
 with his staff only, arrived at Santa Fe, the troops follow- 
 ing in detachments. "The capital was now literally alive 
 with artillery, baggage-wagons, commissary trains, beef- 
 cattle, and a promiscuous throng of American soldiers, 
 traders, stragglers, trappers, amateurs, mountaineers, 
 Mexicans, Pueblo Indians, women, and children, numbering 
 perhaps not less than 14,000 souls, and all was bustle and 
 confusion." The Mormon Battalion, which had reached 
 Santa Fe under command of Colonel Price, was to follow 
 Kearney to California ; a number of the men were ill, how- 
 ever, and these wintered at Pueblo ; the rest, under Lieu- 
 tenant-Colonel Cook, started on October 19th to open a 
 wagon road across the continen t. 
 
 Doniphan's men were gayly preparing for their journey 
 south, where they hoped to reap glory on the lields of Mex- 
 ico, when an express arrived from Kearney, dated La Joya, 
 ordering Colonel Doniphan "to march with his regiment 
 into the Navajo country — to cause all prisoners and property 
 they hold, which may have been stolen from the inhabi- 
 tants of the Territory of New Mexico, to be given up — and 
 to require of them such security for their future good 
 conduct as he may think ample and sufficient, by taking 
 hostages or otherwise." This order was rendered necessary 
 by the promise of Kearney to protect the New Mexicans 
 against Indian depredations. He had been appealed to on 
 his route by the inhabitants of Polvedero, whose town had 
 been raided by Navajoes, with a considerable loss of life and 
 property. This was not the sort of fighting the Missourians 
 had been longing for. There is incredible hardship and 
 little glory in penetrating the rocky fastnesses of a lofty 
 mountain range in search of a horde of savages who can 
 never be induced to enter into a fair tight, but who are 
 masters of every species of cowardly stratagem. No time 
 
180 HISTORY OF NEW MP:XIOO. 
 
 was to be lost in following the order, for winter was rapidly 
 setting in and the mountains would soon be blocked by 
 snow, and Colonel Doniphan, while hastily preparing for 
 his expedition, dispatched orders to Major Gilpin at Abi- 
 quiu, and Lieutenant-Colonel Jackson at Cebolleta, to pene- 
 trate into the heart of the Navajo district by different 
 routes, treat with the savages if possible, chastise them 
 when necessary, and, with as many big chiefs as they 
 could gather, form a junction at Ojo del Oso, or Bear 
 Spring, where he would meet them. On the 26th of October 
 he left Santa Fe with a strong force. 
 
 There were now three expeditions directed against the 
 Navajo country. That of Lieutenant-Colonel Jackson, 
 with three companies under Captains Reid, Parsons, and 
 Hughes, had left Santa Fe on September 18th for Cebolleta, 
 and after a four days' march reached the Laguna fork of 
 the river Puerco. While encamped there, " Don Chavez," 
 a wealthy Spaniard, generously offered sheep, goats, and 
 cattle to Colonel Jackson, for the use of the troops, and also 
 promised to use his influence to induce Sandoval, a Navajo 
 chief, to bring his warriors into Cebolleta and treat with the 
 Americans. On the 30th the troops reached Cebolleta, 
 which place became the headquarters of the detachment, and 
 whence parties were sent into the hill country to put an end 
 to the forays of the Navajoes upon the Mexican and Pueblo 
 villages. Here a meeting was effected with Sandoval, who 
 told Lieutenant-Colonel Jackson that the head men of his 
 nation were willing to make peace and would be glad to 
 confer with the Americans, but were afraid to trust them- 
 selves among the New Mexicans. On the 20th of October 
 Captain Reid,with Lieutenants De Courcy and Wells, thirty 
 men, and Sandoval as guide, set out to hold a council with 
 the Navajoes. They traveled for five days " through the 
 gorges and fissures of the mountains, and over hills inter- 
 sected by numerous ravines, with steep and almost impass- 
 able banks," when an advance party of forty warriors were 
 met. They appeared suspicious of the white men's inten- 
 tions and Captain Reid, in order to dispel their fears, left his 
 
AMERICAN OCCUPATION OF NEW MEXICO. 181 
 
 men in the vallej'^, and accompanied by Sandoval alone rode 
 to the hill where they had taken a stand. His confidence 
 reassured the Indians, who returned with him to the Ameri- 
 can camp and the next morning escorted the captain and 
 his men thirty miles farther into the Navajo country, wliere 
 a feast was to be celebrated. Here they found five hundred 
 men and women congregated, and were given a hospitable 
 reception. 
 
 The next morning Captain Reid proposed a "grand 
 talk," but was informed that it was oat of the question, as 
 none of the great chiefs A\ere present ; if, however, the 
 white men would advance one day" s journey further into the 
 country a council might he held. This was assented to, and 
 the following day the little band, after a thirty mile march, 
 found themselves in the very heart of the Navajo country. 
 "This," says Captain Reid, " was the most critical situation 
 in which I ever found myself placed : with only thirty men 
 in the very center of a people the most savage and prover- 
 bially treacherous on the continent. Many of them were 
 not very friendly. Being completely in their power, we, of 
 ■course, had to play the game to the best advantage. As 
 there was no pasturage near the camp we had to send our 
 horses out. Our numbers were too few to divide, or even, 
 altogether, to think of protecting the horses, if the Indians 
 were disposed to take them. So I even made a virtue of 
 necessity; and putting great confidence in the honesty of 
 their intentions, I gave my horses in charge of one of the 
 •chiefs of these notorious horse stealers. He took them out 
 some five miles to graze, and we, after taking supper, again 
 joined in the dance, which was kept up until morning." 
 The following evening a grand talk was held, at which all 
 the old men assisted. After a spirited discussion the peace 
 party prevailed and the speedy conclusion of a treaty was 
 promised. The next morning their horses were brought in 
 and the Americans started for CeboUeta, which they reached 
 after an absence of twenty days. 
 
 Major Gilpin, who also left Santa Fe on the 18th of 
 September, was in command of two companies under Cap- 
 
182 HISTOKY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 tains Waldo and Stephenson and proceeded to Abiquiu, on 
 the Rio de Chama, which he reached on the 25th. Advanc- 
 ing from here with eighty-five men he visited tlie Utahs 
 and entered into successful negotiations for a treaty. 
 Returning to his camp on the Chama, he preserved quiet 
 between the Mexicans, Pueblos, and Utahs, and on the 22d 
 of November, in obedience to the orders of Colonel Doniphan 
 to proceed against the JSTavaJoes and report at Ojo Oso, 
 Major Gilpin left his camp on the Chama and in six days 
 completed a march of more than one hundred miles, hav- 
 ing followed the Rio de Chama to its source, crossed the 
 mountains which separate the two great oceans of the 
 world, and descended into the valley of the San Juan. 
 Besides his own men Major Gilpin was accompanied by a 
 number of Mexican and Pueblo Indian allies under Lieu- 
 tenant Vigil. "The perils, hardships, and sufferings of 
 this march were almost incredible. The rugged ways, the 
 dangerous defiles, the narrow passes, the yawning chasms 
 and fissures in vitreous volcanic remains, and the giant 
 fragments of rocks which obstructed their passage, rendered 
 the march arduous beyond the power of language to 
 describe." By the 15th of November many of the horses 
 had given out, and nearly half the men were on foot, in 
 rags, without shoes, and short of food. " When they lay 
 down at night, wrapped in their blankets and the skins of 
 wild beasts, before morning they would be completely 
 enveloped in a new crop of snow, and would rise at day- 
 dawn with benumbed limbs and bristling icicles frozen to 
 their long hair and whiskers." On the 18th they passed 
 the Canon de Chelly, where the ISTavajoes fortified them- 
 selves in the old Spanish days. On the 19th Major Gilpin 
 pushed on with about thirty men, leaving Captain Waldo 
 to bring up the main body, which he did in time to form a 
 junction with Doniphan's force. 
 
 Lieutenant-Colonel Doniphan, with three hundred men, 
 left Santa Fe on the 26th of October, marching to Albu- 
 querque, whence he was obliged to dispatch his troops, 
 under Captain Walton, to protect a caravan of merchants 
 
AMERICAN OCCUPATION OP NEW MEXICO. 183 
 
 against a Mexican attack, while Doniphan, with part of his 
 staff and fonr men, advanced toCuvarro, where Jackson had 
 encamped after leaving Cebolleta. They arrived on Novem- 
 ber 5th, received the report of Reid, just returned from the 
 Navajo country, and on the 15th took up the line of march, 
 with Lieutenant-Colonel Jackson, for Bear Spring. These 
 troops, also, were short of provisions, inadequately clothed, 
 and without tents, as there were no means of transporting 
 them. The men were obliged to sleep on the bare ground 
 with no shelter from the rapidly falling snow, which covered 
 them so completely that it was impossible to distinguish 
 where they lay " until they broke the snow and came out, 
 as though they were rising from their graves."' "The 
 march was difficult in the valleys ; but when they came to 
 ascend the steep spurs and bench-lands which lead up the 
 mountains, a horrid, dreary prospect opened before them. 
 The men and their commanders were almost up to their 
 waists, toiling in the snow, breaking a way for the horses 
 and mules to ascend." 
 
 • On the morning of December 21st they reached Bear 
 Spring, where they found Major Gilpin and a number of 
 Navajo chiefs awaiting them ; and on the 22d Captain 
 Waldo brought up his command, making three hundred 
 and thirty Americans and five hundred Navajoes present. 
 Colonel Doniphan began the ceremonies by explaining the 
 object of his visit, viz.: To arrange a lasting peace between 
 the Navajoes, Mexicans, and Americans. One of the 
 cleverest of the chiefs, Sarcilla Largo, replied that, "He 
 was gratified to learn the views of the Americans. He 
 admired their spirit and enterprise, but detested the Mexi- 
 cans." Colonel Doniphan explained that the United States 
 had taken military possession of New Mexico and the New 
 Mexicans would be protected against violence. The United 
 States was anxious to enter into a treaty of peace and friend- 
 ship with her red children the Navajoes, and the same pro- 
 tection would be granted them as to the New Mexicans. 
 He concluded by warning them to make no treaty they did 
 not intend to keep, for the United States "first offered the 
 
184 HISTORY OF NKW MEXICO. 
 
 olive branch, and, if that were rejected, then powder, bul- 
 let, and steel." 
 
 Sarcilla Largo replied: "Americans! you have a 
 strange cause of war against the N^avajoes. We have 
 waged war against the New Mexicans for several years. 
 We have plundered their villages and killed many of their 
 people and made many prisoners. We had just cause for 
 all this. You have lately commenced a war upon the same 
 people. You are powerful. You have great guns and 
 many brave soldiers. You have therefore conquered them, 
 the very thing we have been attempting to do for so many 
 years. You now turn upon us for attempting to do what 
 you have done yourselves. We cannot see why you have 
 cause of quarrel with us for fighting the New Mexicans on 
 the west, while you do the same thing on the east,. Look 
 how matters stand ! This is our war. We have more 
 right to complain of you for interfering in our war, than 
 you have to quarrel with us for continuing a war we had 
 begun long before you got here. If you will act justly you 
 will allow us to settle our own differences." 
 
 Colonel Doniphan explained that the New Mexicans 
 had surrendered and that it was a custom with the 
 Americans, when apeoplegave up, to treat them as friends ; 
 New Mexico belonged to the United States ; if the Indians 
 now stole from the New Mexicans, they stole from us ; if 
 they killed them, they killed our people. This could not 
 be allowed. 
 
 Sarcilla replied: "If New Mexico be really in your 
 possession, and it be the intention of your government to 
 hold it, we will cease our depredations, and refrain from 
 future wars upon that people ; for we have no cause of 
 quarrel with you, and do not desire to have any war with 
 so powerful a nation. Let there be peace between us." 
 
 The treaty was then signed by Colonel Doniphan, Lieu- 
 tenant-Colonel Jackson, Major Gilpin, and fourteen Navajo 
 chiefs. On the 23d the Americans, in detached parties, 
 returned to the valley of the Rio Grande, whence they 
 proceeded to the battle-field of Northern Mexico. The 
 
AMERICAN OCCUPATION OF NEW MEXICO. 185 
 
 treaty was kept as these Indians usually keep treaties, — 
 until an opportunity occurred to break it ; but the prompt 
 response of the Americans to the appeal of the newly 
 conquered country for protection against her savage foe, 
 was as creditable to the troop's as their expeditions into the 
 heart of the Indian country were daring and brilliant. 
 They traveled as they fought, and the manner of their 
 lighting was succinctly expressed by Ramon Ortiz, an 
 involuntary witness of the battle of Sacramento, where 
 Doniphan's Missouri Volunteers completely defeated the 
 army of Central Mexico. Ortiz had warned Colonel Doni- 
 phan that lie must inevitably be destroyed. When the 
 action was over, the colonel said: "Well, Ortiz, what do 
 you think of the Mexicans whipping my boys now?" 
 "Ah, sir," was the reply, "they would have defeated 
 you, if you had fought like men ; but you fought like 
 devils !'' 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 THE NEW MEXICAN REVOLT. 
 
 1S4'7. 
 
 Projected Rising in New Mexico— Growtli of the Conspiracy— Plan 
 of Attack— Plot Revealed— Second Conspiracy— The Outbreak at 
 Taos— Murder of G-overnor Bent— Other Victims— Attack on Tur- 
 ley's Mill— The Siege and Defense— Fate of the Defenders— The 
 Insurgents at Mora— Americans killed — At Las Vegas— A Faith- 
 ful Official— Consternation at Santa Fe— St. Vrain's Volunteers— 
 The Americans March on Taos — The Action of La Canada — The 
 Fight at Embudo— The Troops Reach Taos— Pueblo of Taos— The 
 Assault on the Church — The Action — Taos Taken — Execution of 
 the Insurgents— The Revolt Quelled — Attack on Mora — G-uerilla 
 Warfare— Peace Restored — Funeral of Governor Bent — Secretary 
 Vigil made G-overnor of New Mexico. 
 
 NOTWITHSTANDING the apparent tranquillity of the 
 country and the welcome accorded to Kearney and 
 his troops at Albuquerque and Tome, there was deep and 
 bitter dissatisfaction among a portion of the New Mexican 
 people, and, all unsuspected by the government, a well 
 organized revolution was brewing. It must be remembered, 
 however, that these people were Mexicans, not Americans ; 
 war was raging between the two countries ; when the 
 courier spurred into town with news from the battle-field, 
 victory to the Americans, who rejoiced, was defeat to the 
 Mexicans, who grieved ; and though they plotted secretly 
 at midnight, those only were traitors to the United States 
 who had taken the oath of allegiance to her government. 
 
 The leaders of the revolt were Don Diego Archuleta of 
 Los Luceros, Don Tomas Ortiz of Santa Fe, and Padres 
 Juan Felipe Ortiz and Jose Manuel Gallegos. The first 
 
 186 
 
THE NEW MEXICAN REVOLT. 187 
 
 meeting was held on December 12th, 1846, when the 19th 
 of the same month was set for a general rising. All Ameri- 
 cans were to be killed or driven from the country, as well 
 as the Mexicans who had been appointed to office by 
 Kearney ; Tomas Ortiz was to be governor of the rescued 
 province, and Archuleta comm andante-general ; each of 
 the conspirators had his distinct duty assigned him, for 
 the performance of which he pledged himself upon the 
 cross. The plan of attack was as follows : " On Saturday 
 morning, the 19th of December, all were to assemble with 
 their arms at the parish church. Having divided them- 
 selves into several parties, they were to sally forth, some to 
 seize the pieces of artillery, others to go to the quarters of 
 the colonel, and others to the palace of the governor (if he 
 should be there), and, if not, to send an order to Taos to 
 seize him, because he would give them the most trouble. 
 The sound of the church bell was to be the signal for the 
 assault by the forces concealed in the church, and those 
 which Archuleta should have brought near the city ; mid- 
 night was the time agreed upon, when all were to enter the 
 plaza at the same moment, seize the pieces, and point them 
 into the streets." 
 
 At a final meeting, held in Santa Fe on the 18th, it was 
 agreed to postpone the rising until Christmas Eve, as then 
 the soldiers would be off their guard, celebrating the holi- 
 day season, and could be more completely taken by sur- 
 prise. ThrSe days before the time appointed the American 
 authorities were warned, some say by a woman, others, by 
 Augustin Duran ; to whomever it was due, the governor 
 profited by the information and promptly arrested a num- 
 ber of persons accused of complicity, some of whom proved 
 to be innocent and were released. Ortiz and Archuleta fled 
 south. The rebellion was then supposed to be extin- 
 guished ; in reality, it was only smothered. Fresh plans 
 were laid, powerful adherents, in the persons of the Pueblo 
 Indians of Taos, were enlisted, and the 19th day of Janu- 
 ary, 1847, was set for a new and determined attack. On 
 the 14th Governor Bent, believing the people tranquilized. 
 
188 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 left Santa Fe to visit his family at Taos, accompanied by 
 ■several friends, Americans and Mexicans. 
 
 On the 19th, the day appointed for the rising, a number 
 of Pueblo Indians, together with some Mexicans, sur- 
 rounded the house of Stephen Lee, the sheriff, ostensibly 
 to demand the release of a couple of prisoners, which was 
 very properly refused, when they fell upon him and mur- 
 dered him, also killing Cornelio Yigil, the prefect. The 
 house of Governor Bent was then attacked ; the governor 
 was roused from sleep and woke to find the house sur- 
 rounded by a howling mob, many bearing sanguinary 
 trophies of the murders already committed. His wife 
 brought him his pistols, but, fearing if he killed any of the 
 Indians they would avenge it upon his family, he refused 
 to use the weapons, and was shot down and scalped. His 
 brother-in-law, Pablo Jaramillo, was murdered also, and 
 Narcisso Beaubien, a son of Judge Beaubien, shared the 
 same fate. Greneral Lee of St. Louis, who was visiting in 
 the town, was sheltered by a kindly priest ; his hiding- 
 place was discovered and successive efforts were made to 
 kill him, but the priest kept vigilant guard and by entreat- 
 ies, exhortations, and threats succeeded in saving him from 
 the fury of the insurgents. 
 
 It was a night of tumult and horror in Taos ; the house 
 ■of every American, or the reputed friend of an American 
 was attacked and plundered, not excepting that of Kit 
 Carson, whose wife, a Mexican woman, was roblbed even of 
 her clothing. A simultaneous attack was made upon Tur- 
 ley's mill, on the Arroyo Hondo, twelve miles above Taos. 
 At the time of the assault there were eight men in the 
 mill : Simeon Tnrley, Albert Turbush, William Hatfield, 
 Louis Tolque, Peter Robert, Joseph Marshall, William Aus- 
 tin, and John Albert, mountaineers and trappers. Louis 
 Tolque, warned of the approach of the insurgents, had just 
 •closed the gate when a troop of Mexicans and Pueblos, 
 armed with guns, bows, and arrows, advanced upon the 
 mill and summoned Turley to surrender. They said that 
 the governor and all the Americans at Taos had been killed. 
 
THE NSW MEXICAN KEVOLT. 189 
 
 all the others in the country would be served in the same 
 way, but if he would give up those with him his own life 
 would be spared. Turley refused to give up his house or 
 his friends ; "if the Indians wanted them, they'd have to 
 take them." 
 
 After a brief consultation the assailants — of whom there 
 were about live hundred, and whose ranks were being- 
 hourly augmented — scattered right and left, and, concealing 
 themselves behind rocks and bushes, opened a brisk fire 
 upon every exposed part of the building. The Americans, 
 in the mean time, were not idle ; every window was barri- 
 caded, loop-holes being left to fire through, and every shot 
 told. A Pueblo chief who had incautiously exposed him- 
 self was shot, and fell dead in an open space ; an Indian 
 dashed forward to recover the body, reached it, sprang into 
 the air, and fell over it, shot through the heart. Another 
 and another met the same fate. Then three rushed at once 
 to the spot, and seizing the corpse by the legs and head had 
 lifted it from the ground, when three puffs of smoke floated 
 from the barricaded window, three sharp cracks from as 
 many rifles sounded up the air, and the three Indians fell 
 with their dead chief to the ground. A howl of rage ))urst 
 from the assailants, and a tremendous fusilade was directed 
 upon the mill, with such effect that two of its brave defen-. 
 ders fell, mortally wounded. 
 
 For two days the unequal contest of eight men against 
 five hundred raged. 'Then Turley' s ammunition failed ; 
 the mill was repeatedly fired ; as rapidly as the fiames 
 were extinguished in one place, they broke forth in another, 
 and nothing was left for the little garrison but to abandon 
 their fort and escape as best they could. At dusk, two of 
 them rushed suddenly through a wicket gate, discharging 
 their rifles directly into the faces of the startled crowd around 
 it. One was butchered, but the other escaped and reached 
 a place of safety, almost dead of hunger and exhaustion. 
 Turley got out of the mill unperceived, but was betrayed 
 and shot. The others all perished. 
 
 At Mora eight Americans fell victims to the popular 
 
190 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 fury ; one of them was L. L. Waldo, brother of Captain 
 Waldo of the Missouri Volunteers ; his son, Henry L. Waldo, 
 afterward became chief justice of the Territory. The 
 others were Louis Cabano, Benjamin Praett, R. Culver, Mr. 
 ISToyes, and three others. Two trappers, William Howard 
 and Mark Head, the latter celebrated for his reckless cour- 
 age and miraculous escapes from hostile Indians, entered 
 New Mexico at this unpropitious time with packs of peltry 
 intending to exchange them for Taos whisky, but advanced 
 only as far as the Rio Colorado, where they were captured 
 and shot. The lives and property of the Americans at 
 Las Vegas were saved by the firmness of the alcalde, Juan 
 de Dios Maes, who, faithful to his oath of allegiance, re- 
 fused to participate in the rebellion, and when urged to do 
 so assembled the people upon the plaza, read the revolution- 
 ary manifesto to them, and told them that they had been 
 witnesses when he took the oath, that he proposed to keep 
 it, and, as their representative, he considered them bound to 
 support him ; to which speech all assented. 
 
 The news of the rising in Taos, and the murder of Gov- 
 enor Bent and the other ofRcials, reached Santa Fe on the 
 20th, carried by Charles Towne, the only American who 
 escaped from Taos ; his father-in-law, a Mexican, mounted 
 him on a swift mule, and under cover of the darkness 
 smuggled him out of town. At the same time letters were 
 intercepted, intended for dissemination through the Rio 
 Abajo and urging the people to combine in a determined 
 attack upon the foreign invaders ; while a great force of 
 Mexicans and Pueblos was said to be marching upon the 
 capital. At Santa Fe the greatest consternation prevailed. 
 The troops in the Territory were few and scattered, but the 
 Americans knew that their very existence depended upon 
 prompt action. A volunteer company was formed under 
 Colonel Ceran St. Vrain, one of the oldest pioneers, who 
 for years had been associated with the murdered Bent ; 
 Captain Angney's battalion was in the city, and with this 
 small force, only three hundred and fifty-three men in all, 
 and four howitzers, under Lieutenant Dyer, Colonel Price 
 
THE NEW MEXICAN REVOLT. 191 
 
 marched upon Taos on the 23d. Lieutenant-Colonel Wil- 
 lock was left in temporary chai-ge of the garrison at Santa 
 Fe, and orders were dispatched to Captain Burgwin to 
 bring up his dragoons and co-operate with Price, while 
 Major Edmondson was requested to come to Santa Fe and 
 take command of the city. 
 
 At noon on January 24th the main body of the enemy 
 was found at La Canada (Santa Cruz) ; they were fifteen 
 hundred strong, led by Generals Montoya, Chavez, and 
 Tafoya, and occupied the buildings and heights command- 
 ing the road. Fearing they might fall back. Price hastened 
 the march of his main force, leaving the train to follow as 
 it could, and upon reaching La Canada opened fire directly 
 on the houses and heights. The American wagons were left 
 in the rear, and a party of Indians and Mexicans en- 
 deavored to cut them off, but were driven back with loss 
 by St. Train's Volunteers. Angney's battalion, thrust the 
 enemy from a house upon the Americans' right, and when 
 the wagons arrived the whole force was ordered to charge. 
 The melee became general and the enemy was soon routed 
 with a loss of thirty-six killed and many wounded, while 
 the Americans' loss was but two killed and six wounded. 
 The march was resumed the next day, and on the 28th the 
 command was re-enforced by the arrival of Captain Burg- 
 win with his company and a six- pounder gun ; the Ameri- 
 can force now amounted to seven hundred and forty-nine 
 men and five pieces of artillery. 
 
 On the 29th, as the Americans approached the pass of 
 Embudo, a narrow defile, impracticable for wagons or artil- 
 lery, they discovered the enemy posted behind the trees 
 and rocks of the precipitous slopes, and numbering between 
 six and seven hundred. Captain Burgwin with one hun- 
 dred and eighty men, including St. Yrain's and White's 
 companies, was detached to force the pass ; St. Train's men 
 charged the west slope. Lieutenant White's the east, while 
 Burgwin took the gorge ; their fire soon told upon the 
 enemy and in half an hour the pass was cleared. On the 
 30th, Burgwin' s detachment rejoined the main body at 
 
192 IIISTOKY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 Trampas, and the march was continued through the heavily- 
 falling snow and bitter cold, over the rugged steeps of the- 
 Taos mountains. On February 3d the troops, exhausted 
 and half frozen, reached Fernandez de Taos to find that 
 the insurgents had fortified themselves in the Pueblo of 
 Taos. Colonel Price rode forward to reconnoitre and found 
 it a position of great strength. "The buildings of the 
 pueblo were two large houses, rising some five or six stories 
 in an irregular pyramidal form, each capable of containing- 
 some five or six hundred men, and a strongly-built church, 
 besides several others of smaller capacity. They were in- 
 closed by a wall of adobes and pickets, of an irregular, 
 pentagonal trace, flanked by small bastions at the angles. 
 The walls, houses, and church Avere all creneled for muske- 
 try." Price determined to attack the church, ordered uj)- 
 the howitzers, and cannonaded for two hours with no per- 
 ceptible effect, when the troops were withdrawn and quar- 
 tered for the night at Don Fernandez. 
 
 On the morning of the 4th, the entire force advanced and 
 took up position. The mounted men of the command, 
 under Captains St. Vrain and Slack, were stationed on the 
 east of the inclosure to intercept a retreat, the main body 
 of the infantry, the six pounder, and two howitzers 
 were posted on the north, and two companies and two 
 howitzers on the west. The artillery opened fire at nine 
 o'clock and played incessantly upon the adobe structure 
 until eleven without making a breach ; then Price deter- 
 mined to carry the aboriginal fortress by assault. Captain 
 Burgwin advanced the two companies on the west, while- 
 four others moved simultaneously forward from the north, 
 against the northwestern angle of the inclosure. They 
 were received witli a heavy fire from the besieged, but 
 rushed on, gained a shelter on the western side of the 
 church, and fiercely attacked the massive walls with axes. 
 While these endeavored to make a practicable breach, 
 others, leaving their shelter, and exposing themselves to- 
 the enemy's fire, strove to force the door. In this attempt 
 Burgwin was mortally wounded. The axe brigade now 
 
THE NEAV MEXICAN REVOLT. 193 
 
 succeeded in cutting holes in the walls large enough to 
 admit shells, which they threw in with their hands, while 
 others clambered to the roof and fired it in several places. 
 
 The Indians defended themselves manfully and fired 
 fast and heavily upon the besiegers. The six pounder was 
 brought around and opened upon the pueblo with grape ; it 
 was then advanced to within sixty yards of the church, and 
 the holes cut with the axes were soon increased to a practi- 
 cable breach. A few shells and stands of grape were thrown 
 in and the assailants rushed through the opening under cover 
 of the dense smoke which filled the building. It was nearly 
 deserted, and the Indians soon after abandoned the western 
 portion of the town, taking refuge with their women and 
 children in the houses of the community. Some endeav- 
 ored to escape to the mountains, but were cut off to a man. 
 The Americans occupied the abandoned houses that night, 
 and in the morning the Indians begged for peace, which 
 Colonel Price granted on condition that the instigators 
 should be delivered up to him, their chief Tomas, who had 
 been active in the Taos murders, being specially designated. 
 This condition was acceded to, and on the 7th of February 
 he and several others were hanged at Don Fernandez. The 
 insurgents lost in this encounter one hundred and fifty 
 killed and a large number wounded ; the Americans, seven 
 killed and forty-six wounded, many of whom subsequently 
 died. 
 
 The victory at Taos virtually extinguished the New 
 Mexican revolt. The leaders had fled or were killed and 
 the people appeared to have no desire to place themselves 
 under new ones. At Mora the punishment swiftly followed 
 the crime, for when the particulars of the assassination of 
 Mr. Waldo and his companions were learned, Captain 
 Hendley led eighty men against the town, wherein about 
 one hundred and fifty Mexicans had fortified themselves. 
 The captain was killed in the assault and his detachment 
 withdrew, but on the 1st of February the attack was 
 renewed by Captain Morin, who drove the inhabitants into 
 the mountains and destroyed the greater part of the town. 
 
194 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 Naturally, the country did not immediately settle down to 
 a state of tranquillity, and until August occasional outbreaks 
 are recorded. In June, Lieutenant B,. T. Brown and three 
 men were killed at Las Vegas while in pursuit of horse- 
 stealers. A retaliatory attack was made upon the place 
 by Major Edmondson, a number of men killed, and a mill 
 burned. In July an attack was made upon a party of 
 soldiers near Taos, and Lieutenant Larkin and three men 
 were killed, but the assassins escaped. This encounter 
 about ends the record of guerilla warfare against the Ameri- 
 cans. Upon the return of the troops to Santa Fe, the 
 funeral of Grovernor Bent was conducted with litting cere- 
 monies. By his death Secretary Vigil became, acting-gov- 
 ernor, and so served until December of the same year, 
 when he was appointed governor by General Price. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 THE EARLY AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 
 
 1847-1860. 
 
 The Treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo— Military Rule in New Mexico — 
 Delays in Congress — Condition of New Mexico — Militai'y Notes — 
 List of Commanders — Dissatisfaction in the Territoi*y — Senator 
 Benton's Advice — Petition to Congress — Delegate Elected to Wash- 
 ington — State and Territorial Parties — Texan Claims — Attempt to 
 Procure a State Government — Adoption of a Constitution — General 
 Election — End of the State Organization — The Compromise Bill — 
 Its Provisions — The Organic Act — The Territory of New Mexico — 
 List of Territorial Officers — First American Officials — American 
 and Mexican Government Contrasted — Peonage — The Boundary 
 Commission — Governor Lane — Governor Meriwether — His Early 
 Adventures in New Mexico — Imprisonment and Release — Gov- 
 ernor Rencher — Governor Connelly — Statistics of Population — 
 Value of Property in New Mexico — Education — Industrial Condi- 
 tion — The Santa Fe Trade — Yearly Fairs — Railroad Surveys and 
 Explorations — Mines and Mining — The First Newspapers — New 
 Mexican Mail Service — Santa Fe in 1854. 
 
 THE prompt extinction of the revolt of 1847 secured the 
 American conquest of New Mexico ; a conquest finally 
 confirmed on February 2d, 1848, when by the treaty of 
 Guadaloupe Hidalgo the war between Mexico and the 
 United States was terminated and the latter government 
 was ceded the immense tract of territory containing Upper 
 California, New Mexico, Arizona, Western Colorado, Utah, 
 and Nevada. The stipulations of this important treaty 
 were : first the re-establishment of peace ; second, the ratifi- 
 cation of the boundary which confirmed the southern line 
 of Texas and gave us Upper California and New Mexico ; 
 third, the payment by the United States of fifteen million 
 dollars in consideration of the territory gained ; fourth, the 
 payment by the United States of all the claims of its 
 
 195 
 
196 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 citizens against Mexico to the amount of three and a quarter 
 millions ; and fifth, a compact by which the United States 
 stipulated to restrain the incursions of all the Indian tribes- 
 within its limits, and to return all Mexican captives here- 
 after made by the Indians. The treaty contained in all 
 thirty-three articles, and a secret clause prolonging the- 
 period of confirmation at Washington beyond the date- 
 agreed upon in the original document. It was ratified by 
 the United States Senate on March 10th, and finally 
 accepted by the Mexican Congress on May 25th, the United 
 States making an immediate payment of three million, 
 dollars. 
 
 Thus, in the latter part of May, 1848, New Mexico be- 
 came a portion of the American Republic and her people- 
 citizens of the United States, with the exception of those- 
 who chose formally to retain their allegiance to the Mexican 
 government. For three years after the final establishment 
 of American authority the country was in a turbulent and 
 unsettled condition. Congress, although recognizing Gen- 
 eral Kearney's right to establish a temporary civil govern- 
 ment, did not confirm his proclamation making the country 
 a Territory of the United States, and no decided steps toward 
 the establishment of a Territorial government were taken 
 until 1850, up to which time the military commanders held 
 supreme authority. This delay was due to the slavery 
 agitation then raging in House and Senate, the North re- 
 fusing to admit the newly conquered countries, under any 
 system whatever, unless slavery should be prohibited, while- 
 the South was equally determined to strengthen its cause 
 and increase its power by the extension of slave-holding 
 territory. During the course of this long battle in Con- 
 gress, New Mexico occupied an anomalous position, being 
 neither Territory, State, province, or department, but merely 
 a newly conquered district with no definite status or mode 
 of government, while all civil authority was subordinated 
 to military rule. A natural feeling of hostility still existed 
 between Mexicans and Americans, and there were constant 
 apprehensions of a fresh revolt, while even continual watch- 
 
THE EARLY AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 197 
 
 iulness on the part of the authorities could not prevent 
 irequent dissensions and complications. Of the Indian 
 tribes, the Pueblos remained peaceful and well-disposed, 
 those .of Taos alone having taken part in the recent out- 
 break ; but the plains Indians — the Arapahoes, Comanches, 
 and Pawnees — made constant and destructive warfare upon 
 the Santa Fe trail, plundering wagons, stampeding cattle, 
 a,nd murdering many men, soldiers as well as traders, so 
 that hardly a caravan of all that crossed the plains during 
 this period reached Santa Fe without the loss of several of 
 the party. The Navajoes speedily forgot their recent 
 treaties, "grand talks," and promises, and prosecuted their 
 raids on the New Mexican settlements with even more bold- 
 ness than heretofore ; while the inability of the American 
 troops to prevent these outrages caused much dissatisfac- 
 tion among the native population. 
 
 For nearly a year Donanciano Vigil acted as governor 
 ■of New Mexico, but his authority was merely nominal, and 
 in October, 1848, that oflBce also was assumed by the mili- 
 tary commandant. Shortly after the extinction of the re- 
 volt of '47 Colonel Price returned East, where he was raised 
 to the rank of brigadier-general ; he came back to New 
 Mexico in December, and on March 16th, 1848, fought and 
 won the last action of the war at Santa Cruz de Resales in 
 Chihuahua, being ignorant of the armistice then existing 
 betv/een Mexico and the United States. Many of the vol- 
 unteers' terms of enlistment expired in the summer of 1847 
 and the military force became so greatly diminished that 
 it was feared the small number of troops remaining were 
 insufficient to hold the country. A battalion of volun- 
 teers was therefore organized in Missouri, and Lieu- 
 tenant-Colonel Love was dispatched to Santa Fe with a 
 troop of the First Dragoons and $36,000 in government 
 iunds ; many of the former volunteers re-enlisted, and by 
 1849 companies were stationed at Santa Fe, Doha Ana, 
 Albuquerque, Socorro, El Paso, and Taos, and the country 
 was in a defensible condition. During the absence of Gen- 
 eral Price the military command was held by Colonel 
 
198 HISTOEY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 Newby ; in 1848 Major Beall filled that office until Septem- 
 ber, when he was succeeded by Major J. M. Washington, 
 and in October, 1849, Lieutenant-Colonel John Monroe 
 assumed the military and civil authority, which he held 
 until 1851, when the Compromise Bill went into effect in 
 the Territory. 
 
 The delay in establishing a regular government and the 
 continuation of military rule was a source of much dis- 
 satisfaction to the New Mexicans, and rigorous efforts, re- 
 sulting in a temporary success, were made by the people 
 to obtain either a State or Territorial government without 
 awaiting the action of Congress. That which first induced 
 this movement was Senator Thomas H. Benton's letter of 
 August 28th, 1848, to the people of California and New 
 Mexico, whom he advised to " meet in convention, provide 
 for a cheap and simple government, and take care of them- 
 selves until Congress could provide for them." One of the 
 first to urge the adoption of this counsel was Captain W. Z. 
 Angney, who, with his company of brave volunteers, had 
 taken a prominent part in the New Mexican campaign. 
 The movement spread rapidly in spite of proliibitory proc- 
 lamations issued by Colonel Washington, and on October 
 10th a convention of men from all parts of the country 
 assembled at Santa Fe and petitioned Congress for a Terri- 
 torial government, at the same time protesting against the 
 introduction of slavery and the claims of Texas. The 
 memorial was sent to Senator Benton and John M. Clay- 
 ton, and was presented to the Senate on December 13th. It 
 provoked much comment, but no favorable action was taken 
 and the New Mexicans determined to send a delegate to 
 represent their interests at the capital, the expenses to be 
 borne by a number of those persons most interested in the 
 project. In the summer of 1849 a proclamation was issued 
 by Lieutenant-Colonel Beall, then military commandant in 
 the absence of Colonel Washington, for the "election of 
 delegates to a convention to assemble at Santa Fe in Sep- 
 tember, 1849, for the purpose of adopting a plah for a Terri- 
 torial government, and to elect a delegate to Congress to 
 
THE EARLY AMEKIOAN GOVERNMENT. 199 
 
 urge its adoption." The convention was held and resulted 
 in the election of Hugli IN". Smith to represent the Territory 
 at the capital ; in the following year Mr. Smith went to 
 Washington, and in July, 18ot\ after a long discussion, the 
 House refused him his seat by a majority of six votes. 
 
 About this time, and before the return of Mr. Smith 
 from his unsuccessful mission, two opposite parties sprang 
 up in 'New Mexico, one being in favor of a State, the other 
 of a Territorial government. Texas also renewed her claim 
 to all that portion of New Mexico lying east of the Eio 
 Grande, and made several attempts to bring the country 
 under her jurisdiction ; early in 1850 Major R. S. Neighbors, 
 Texan commissioner, with a small party, entered the Terri- 
 tory with instructions from his State to divide the disputed 
 district into counties and hold elections for county officials. 
 This bold proceeding excited much indignation among the 
 Territorial party, who accused the State people of being 
 favorable to the Texan claims ; the imputation was vigor- 
 ously denied and political excitement reached a high pitch, 
 several public meetings being held at Santa Fe, one of 
 which nearly resulted in bloodshed. Finally, however, 
 "in view of the neglect of Congress, threats of Texas, and 
 disgust of military rule, ' ' the Territorial party yielded and 
 the two factions co-operated to organize a State govern- 
 ment. 
 
 On May 15th, 1850, a convention assembled in Santa Fe, 
 and after remaining in session for ten days unanimously 
 adopted a Constitution for the State of New Mexico, which 
 had been drawn up by Judge Houghton and M. F. Tuley. 
 On May 28th Governor Monroe issued a proclamation, re- 
 quiring a general election to be held for "governor, lieu- 
 tenant-governor, representatives to Congress, and for sena- 
 tors and representatives to a State Legislature It 
 
 being provided and understood that the election of all 
 officers can only be valid by the adoption of the Constitu- 
 tion by the people, and otherwise null and void ; and that 
 all action of the governor, lieutenant-governor, and of the 
 legislature shall remain inoperative until New Mexico be 
 
200 HISTORY OP NEW" MEXICO. 
 
 admitted as a state under said Constitution, except such 
 acts as may be necessary for the primary steps of organiza- 
 tion and the presentation of said Constitution properly 
 before the Congress of the United States. The present 
 government shall remain in full force until, by the action 
 of Congress, another shall be substituted." The election 
 took place on June 28fch ; the Constitution was adopted by 
 an overwhelming vote, Dr. Connelly was elected governor, 
 Manuel Alvares lieutenant-governor, and W. S. Messervey 
 representative to Congress. The Legislature assembled on 
 July 1st and elected Francis Cunningham and Richard H. 
 Weightman United States Senators ; while Lieutenant- 
 Governor Alvarez, acting in the absence of Governor Con- 
 nelly and supported by the newly elected oflBcials, en- 
 deavored, in spite of the express provisos of Colonel Mon- 
 roe's jjroclamation, to put the new government into opera- 
 tion without waiting its confirmation by Congress. This 
 proceeding was forbidden by Governor Monroe, who de- 
 clared the new organization null and void, stating that "the 
 State government of New Mexico has no legal existence 
 until New Mexico shall be admitted into the Union as a 
 state by the Congress of the United States ; and that, until 
 otherwise determined by competent authority, the present 
 government continues and will be sustained." Notwith- 
 standing this prohibition, Mr. Weightman went immedi- 
 ately to Washington to present the Constitution, request 
 the admission of New Mexico into the Union, and claim 
 his seat. On his arrival he found that the Compromise 
 Bill of 1850, in which was included the Organic Act of 
 September 9th, organizing a Territorial government for New 
 Mexico, had just passed Congress, and that the State 
 organization was no longer valid. ' ' Thus originated, and 
 ceased to exist, the State government of New Mexico." 
 
 By this bill, which was first laid before the Senate by 
 Henry Clay, during the session of the thirty-lirst Congress, 
 a compromise was effected between the warring factions of 
 North and South; California entered the Union a full 
 fledged State, while New Mexico and Utah were admitted 
 
THE EARLY AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 201 
 
 as Territories ; Texas received a payment of $10,000,000^ 
 about one half of which went to settle her New Mexi- 
 can claims ; and the boundary line between the Lone 
 Star State and her near neighbor and recent foe was finally 
 settled by an act which provided : "That all that portion 
 of the territory of the United States, bounded as follows : 
 beginning at a point in the Colorado River where the 
 boundary line with the Republic of Mexico crosses the 
 same ; thence eastwardly with the same boundary line to 
 the Rio Grande ; thence following the main channel of said 
 river to the parallel of the thirty-second degree of north 
 latitude ; thence east with said degree to its intersection 
 with the one hundred and third degree of longitude east of 
 -Greenwich ; thence north with said degree of longitude to 
 ithe parallel of the thirty-eighth degree of north latitude ; 
 ithence west with said parallel to the summit of the Sierra 
 Madre ; thence south with the crest of said mountains to the 
 thirty-seventh parallel of north latitude ; thence west with 
 .said parallel to its intersection with the boundary line of 
 the State of California ; thence with said boundary line to 
 the place of beginning, — be and the same is hereby enacted 
 into a temporary government by the name of the Territory 
 ■of New Mexico." 
 
 That part lying west of longitude 109° was detached in 
 1863 to form Arizona ; and that part above latitude 37°, in 
 1867 was attached to Colorado. There was also a large 
 addition in 1854 by the Gadsden purchase, most of which 
 was detached with Arizona. 
 
 In March, 1851, the new government went into operation 
 in New Mexico and the first Legislative Assembly under 
 the Territorial organization was convened at Santa Fe in 
 June of that year, when James S. Calhoun was sworn in as 
 governor, and the different departments of the goverment 
 were organized. The Organic Act, or Organic Law, as it is 
 generally known, is the fundamental law of the Territory, 
 standing in the place of a Constitution in the respective 
 States of the Union. By its provisions the President was 
 to appoint for four years a governor at a salary of $1500, 
 
202 HISTOKY or NEW MEXICO. 
 
 acting as ex officio superintendent of Indian affairs at $1000 
 a year additional ; a secretary of state at $1800, to act as- 
 treasurer, and administer during the absence of the gov- 
 ernor ; an attorney at $250 ; marshal at $200 and fees ; and 
 three justices of the Supreme Court at $1800 each. The- 
 Legislative Assembly, consisting of thirteen members serv- 
 ing for two years, and a House of twenty-six representa- 
 tives, elected annually, was to hold yearly meetings of forty 
 days, each member receiving three dollars a day and fifteen 
 cents mileage. All acts were subject to the decision of 
 Congress ; a Congressional delegate was elected by the- 
 people ; and all acts pertaining to the minor government 
 and the local officials were at first left to the governor but. 
 a little later were subject to the regulations of the Territory. 
 
 The first Americans to hold office in New Mexico, where- 
 for so many years justice had been administered by alcaldes, 
 and commandantes, gobernadors and gefe politicos, wer& 
 James S. Calhoun, governor ; William S. Allen, secretary 
 of state ; Grafton Baker, chief justice ; Horace Mower and. 
 J. S. Watts, associate justices ; E. P. West, attorney j 
 John G. Jones, marshal. By midsummer, 1851, the gov- 
 ernment of American New Mexico had begun in earnest, 
 and the Territorial machinery was soon in quiet and suc- 
 cessful operation. 
 
 The contrast between American and Mexican methods, 
 of government cannot be better illustrated than by the fol- 
 lowing extract from W. W. H. Davis, who acted as United. 
 States attorney for the Territory in 1853. " The adminis- 
 tration of justice in New Mexico, before the country fell 
 into the hands of the Americans, was rude and uncertain, 
 and the people had very little security for their persons or 
 property. The system of government they were made sub- 
 ject to was, in all its bearings, a miserable tyranny ; and in 
 the various changes that took place in the central govern- 
 ment no relief was given to this and other provinces. On 
 the establishment of the republic. New Mexico was erected 
 into a separate province, and was allowed a political organ- 
 ization that made some little pretension to a regular govern- 
 
THE EABLY AMERICAN GOVEKNMENT. 203 
 
 ment. The chief executive officer was called gefe politico — 
 political chief ; and a kind of legislature was allowed 
 known as the Diputacion Provincial. When the central 
 system was adopted, the names of the respective branches 
 of the government were changed, but their power remained 
 about the same as before. A governor was appointed by 
 the President of Mexico for the term of eight years, and 
 the legislative power was vested in a kind of executive 
 council called the Junta Departamental. The powers of 
 this body were very limited ; and, in fact, they were no 
 more than the creatures of the governor, who was lord and 
 master of the whole department. The only tribunal of 
 justice was the alcalde's court, none of whom were ever 
 accused of knowing anything about law. Under certain 
 restrictions a.ppeals were carried up to the Supreme Court 
 in the City of Mexico ; but the distance was two thousand 
 miles, and the expense so great that few could afford it. 
 The practice before the alcalde was exceedingly primitive, 
 and whenever justice was obtained it was quickly meted 
 out. Sometimes the matter in dispute was left to the 
 decision of third persons, but a trial by jury was unknown. 
 "According to the Spanish ecclesiastical law, no member 
 of priesthood, of the rank of curate and upward, could be 
 made to appear before a civil tribunal. The military, both 
 officers and men were also exempt from trial before a civil tri- 
 bunal. These exemptions maintained a privileged class in. 
 the community, which proved a dead weight against any 
 advance toward freedom. The mode of punishment was 
 fine and imprisonment. In a case of debt, the debtor was 
 not sent to jail if the creditor was willing to accept his 
 services to work out the amount of the judgment : by which 
 means he was saved from prison, but, for the time being, 
 plunged into a state of servitude. He worked for a fixed 
 sum, some five or six dollars per month, and was supplied 
 with the necessary goods from his employer's store. Hia 
 wages were not sufficient to support himself and family, 
 and enable him to discharge his former indebtedness, and 
 therefore the customs and laws of the country reduced him 
 
304 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 to a state of peonage, and the unfortunate debtor found 
 iimself a slave for life. 
 
 "The only practical difference between peonism and 
 negro slavery is, that the peons are not bought and sold 
 In the market. When parents are, as the statute terms it, 
 ' driven into a state of slavery,' they have the right to bind 
 their children out as peones, and with this beginning they 
 become slaves for life. One of the most objectionable feat- 
 ures of the system is, that the master is not obliged to 
 maintain the peon in sickness and old age. When he be- 
 comes too old to work any longer he can be cast adrift to 
 provide for himself." 
 
 This practice of peonism, a relic of Spanish despotism, 
 and repugnant to every American instinct, was finally ex- 
 tinguished by Congress on March 2d, 1867, when an act was 
 passed " to abolish and forever prohibit the system of 
 peonage in the Territory of New Mexico and other parts 
 •of the United States." 
 
 The annals of the first ten years of Mexico as a Territory 
 of the United States offer a marked contrast to the agitations 
 and convulsions of the preceding decade, they present a 
 continual growth in the prosperity and wealth of the coun- 
 try, a steady increase in the population, an infinite change 
 for the better in the administration of Justice and a gradual 
 recognition of the natural resources of the Territory. The 
 record of this period is undoubtedly prosaic beside the 
 romance and adventure of the earlier rule ; but the regular 
 succession of governors, the reports of surveys, grants, and 
 boundaries, even the long rows of statistics, all point to a 
 better and a greater future than did the manifesto's depart- 
 mental "plans," and fierce revolutions of the old regime. 
 
 In 1851 the survey of the boundary line between the 
 United States and Mexico, as agreed by the treaty of Guad- 
 aloupe Hidalgo, was begun under the supervision of John 
 R. Bartlett, American Commissioner ; the Mexican Com- 
 mission was under the charge of Don Pedro Garcia Conde, 
 and on the 2d of February, the Mexican and American 
 Commissions established the " initial point" of the bound- 
 
THE EAKLT AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 205 
 
 ary line " on the right bank of the Eiver Bravo, or Grande 
 del Norte, in 32° 22' north latitude." For several months 
 the headquarters of the American party were at the Santa 
 Rita copper mines, and the survey made considerable pro- 
 gress ; there were many delays and difficulties in regard to 
 its prosecution, however, and in the fall it was suspended 
 for some time. Commissioner Bartlett returned East, the- 
 American party separated, and the Mexican Commissioner 
 died at Sonora. In 1853 the survey on the Rio Grande was 
 resumed and completed by Commissioner R. H. Campbell 
 and W. H. Emory, astronomer and surveyor. 
 
 In 1852-53 William C. Lane acted as governor of the Ter- 
 ritory, and the next year$ 50,000 was appropriated for the 
 erection of a capitol, the foundations of which had been 
 laid two years before on a lot adjacent to the palace. The 
 walls of the new building were raised to the height of a 
 story and a half and the work was then abandoned, the 
 adobe palace still continuing as the seat of government. 
 Governor Lane's terra was a short one, and in 1853 he was- 
 succeeded by David Meriwether, who served the full term 
 of four years. 
 
 Governor Meriwether was a Kentuckian, who had. 
 entered the American Fur Company in 1818, when a mere 
 boy, and spent three years in their service, hunting and 
 trapping in the far West. In 1819 he was sent with a 
 party of Pawnees to try and open a trade with New Mexico- 
 and obtain permission to hunt and trap on the streams. 
 They were attacked by a party of Mexican troops, most of 
 the Indians were killed, and young Meriwether and a negro- 
 boy were made prisoners and taken to Santa Fe. Here he 
 was accused by the governor of being an American spy and 
 was thrown into a filthy prison at the west end of the 
 palace, while the negro boy was confined in another part of 
 the town. After a month's confinement he was released, 
 and informed that he had permission to return, home, but 
 must leave New Mexico at once. The unfortunate young 
 trapper went immediately to the governor and represented 
 their condition to him : that when arrested they had horses. 
 
206 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 and arms ; they were now utterly destitute of everything 
 but the clothes they wore ; to be driven into the mountains 
 witliout arms to defend themselves and procure food was 
 certain death, and he had better kill them at once and thus 
 shorten their misery. Finally the governor gave each of 
 the captives a mule, an old gun, and a scanty supply of 
 ammunition ; they were then escorted as far as Taos by a 
 Mexican guard and left to make their way to a settlement 
 as best they could. The two adventurers now set out, alone 
 and almost defenseless, on their long winter march over 
 plains and mountains, surrounded by hostile Indians ; but 
 pluck and ingenuity carried them successfully through the 
 hardships and dangers of the journey, and before the end 
 of the winter they had reached a trading post in safety. 
 Thirty-four years later David Meriwether entered New 
 Mexico as governor of the Territory, by appointment of 
 President Pierce, and proceeded to administer justice in 
 the very palace where the unknown young trapper had 
 passed the weary days of his imprisonment. 
 
 In 1857 Abraham Rancher, a lawyer, and at one time 
 American Minister to Portugal, became governor, to be 
 succeeded in 1861 by Dr. Henry Connelly, the well-known 
 Santa Fe trader, whose name has been frequently men- 
 tioned in connection with the American occupation of New 
 Mexico. 
 
 By the United States census of 1850 the population' of 
 New Mexico was fixed at 61,547, excluding Indians; in 
 1860 it had increased to 80,567, of whom 73,856 were 
 native Mexicans ; 1168, natives of the United States ; and 
 5479 foreigners. According to the seventh census— that of 
 1850,— the total value of property in the Territory was some- 
 what over 5,000,000 ; ten years later it amounted to |20,- 
 838,780, while the Territorial debt had greatly diminished. 
 Education in New Mexico at the time when it became 
 American Territory, and during this decade, was in deplora- 
 bly backward condition, nearly half of the adult popula- 
 tion being unable to read or write. Efforts to change this 
 state of affairs were made by the new government, and the 
 
THE EARLY AMEEICAN GOVERNMENT. 207 
 
 liegislature of 1860 passed an act providing for a school in 
 each settlement, with compulsory attendance ; four acade- 
 mies or private schools and seventeen pnblic schools, with 
 thirty-three teachers, are also reported as in operation at 
 this time. 
 
 There was little change in the industrial condition of 
 the country during the decade. The Mexicans were slow 
 to adopt new improvements or business methods and as yet 
 Americans were in a minority. The remarkable agricultu- 
 ral implements native to the soil were still in general use, 
 an American plow being almost unknown in. the Territory ; 
 some improvements were made in the acequia system of 
 irrigation, and the adoption of artesian wells was urged 
 and discussed, but with no immediate result. The Santa 
 Fe trade flourished apace under reduced duties and govern- 
 ment encouragement, and merchandise, estimated at from 
 eight hundred thousand to a million dollars, was annually 
 brought into the country. Yearly fairs were a prominent 
 feature of the trade ; they were held at Santa Fe, Albu- 
 querque, Las Vegas, Socorro, Doha Ana, Mesilla, Las 
 Curces, and Tome, and lasted from eight to twelve days, 
 being marked by various privileges, such as trading being- 
 exempt from taxation, while the Pueblos were accustomed 
 to celebrate the occasion by performing some of their tribal 
 dances. Many explorations were made through the Terri- 
 tory for railroad and other purposes during the period, 
 although as yet the great iron roads had hardly begun their 
 westward course ; the survey for the Pacific Railroad, from 
 the Eed River to the Rio Grande, in 1854, by Captain Pope, 
 and the explorations of Captain Macomb in 1859, were 
 among the most important. 
 
 Up to 1860 there was little development of the mineral 
 wealth of the Territory, and only four mines— three of cop- 
 per and one of silver— are mentioned in the government 
 reports, although Governor Connelly, in his first message, 
 speaks of thirty gold lodes at Pinos Altos, employing three 
 hundred men, and paying about two hundred dollars a ton ; 
 of operations at the Santa Rita and Hanover copper mines ; 
 
208 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 at the Placer Mountain ; and at gold placers near Forfc. 
 Stanton. James P. Meline, writing in 1866, gives a some- 
 what detailed account of the operations at these localities :. 
 " Among the principal mines that are known, and of which 
 the ore has been thoroughly and satisfactorily tested, are 
 the two placers, old and new, only twenty-seven and 
 thirty-seven miles from Santa Fe, the Pinos Altos mines, 
 the San Juan, those near Taos, the San Jose, those near- 
 Fort Stanton, and many others. As I write, exciting re- 
 ports of fresh and rich discoveries of gold near Fort Stan- 
 ton are coming in. The most available of all these mines^. 
 are probably those of the New Placer. They are of easy 
 access by a good road from Santa Fe, at a distance of thirty- 
 eight miles. Two lodes have been opened here. One of' 
 them, called the Ramirez, has been worked for nearly a. 
 hundred years. It is of great width, and some of its exca- 
 vations go down sixty feet. A short distance up the moun- 
 tain from the Eamirez is the San Miguel lode, lately 
 opened. Its ore is very rich, averaging two hundred dol- 
 lars per ton ; some of it yielding seven hundred. A large- 
 tract of land, embracing these and other mines, has lately 
 been purchased from its Mexican proprietor, Ramirez, by 
 an American company, who propose to commence opera- 
 tions as soon as possible. They will most probably open 
 new lodes in the mountain (the Tuerto), which is about- 
 three miles long and one mile wide, and might almost as. 
 properly be called the Gold Mountain, as the Iron Moun- 
 tain of Missouri be named as it is. The veins of gold- 
 bearing quartz are visible in every direction, and the ore is. 
 easily got out at almost any point." 
 
 The first newspaper issued in English in New Mexico 
 was the Santa Fe Republican, published from September- 
 4th, 1847. From 1850 to 1860 there were but two other 
 journals in the Territory, the Santa Fe JSTew Mexican and 
 the Santa Fe Gazette; the former was first issued in 1847, 
 the latter in 1851. The Taos Crepusculo, issued for a. 
 month in 1835, was the only paper printed in the country 
 under Mexican Rule. The mail facilities of the Territory- 
 
THE EARLY AMERICAN GOVERNMENT. 209 
 
 under the early American government form a striking con- 
 trast with the postal service of to-day. Mails arrived once 
 a month from Independence, Mo., and the dates from 
 the xltlantic seaboard were six weeks old when, received, 
 while three months were required to receive an answer to a 
 communication from St. Louis or any place east of that 
 point. 
 
 The following description of Santa Fe, written in 1854, 
 gives a good idea of the capital of New Mexico as it ap- 
 peared at that period : "In the center of the town,''' says 
 Davis, "is a public square or plaza, some two or three 
 acres in extent, from the four corners of which lead the 
 main streets, at right angles to each other. The streets are 
 of medium width and wholly unpaved ; and but for the 
 shelter afforded by the portales in the rainy season, they 
 would become almost impassible for foot-passengers. In 
 the middle of the Plaza stands a flag-staff, erected by the 
 military authorities some years ago, from the top of which 
 the star spangled banner daily waves to the breeze. The 
 houses are built of adobes and are but one story in height ; 
 and there are only two two-story houses in the place. The 
 walls are much thiclcer than those of a stone or brick 
 house, and, being of a drier material, they are cooler in 
 summer and warmer in winter than the former. Along the 
 principal streets the houses have portales in front, after 
 the plan of colonnades in some of the European cities. 
 They are of rough workmanship, but are an ornament to 
 the place and a convenience to the inhabitants, as they 
 afford a sheltered promenade around the town in the rainy 
 season. A row of portales extend around the piiblic square. 
 The Plaza is the main thoroughfare, as well as the center 
 of the business of the city, and fronting upon it are most 
 of the stores and shops of the merchants and traders and 
 some of the public buildings. The government palace, a 
 long low building, extends the entire north side of the 
 Plaza, and is occupied by the officers of the Territorial 
 government, and is also made use of for purposes of legisla- 
 tion. Near by is the court-house, where the United States 
 
210 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 District and Supreme Courts hold their sessions. On the 
 south side stands the old Mexican Military Chapel, now in 
 the possession of the Catholic Church, and in which the 
 bishop of the diocese officiates. About one square to the 
 east of the Plaza is the parochial church, and adjoining 
 are convenient buildings for a boarding-school for boys ; 
 and on the north bank of the Rio Chequito is situated the 
 school for girls, under the management of the Sisters of 
 Charity. 
 
 " Three years ago the American Baptist Board of Home 
 Missions caused to be erected in Santa Fe a small but neat 
 place of worship. The Odd Fellows have erected a new 
 hall for their order, one square from the Plaza, in the street 
 leading to San Miguel. On a vacant lot north of the palace, 
 and near the American Cemetery, a new state-house is in 
 course of erection at a cost of near a hundred thousand 
 dollars, which, when completed, will make a handsome and 
 imposing edifice, and of which the Territory stands in great 
 need. Near by, and a little to the northeast, is the site of 
 the new penitentiary, also in course of erection. On a hill 
 to the northeast of the town are the ruins of old Fort Marcy. 
 In addition to the two churches already mentioned, there 
 is one on the west side of the Rio Chiquito dedicated to 
 Our Lady of Guadaloupe, and a fourth on the street of San 
 Miguel. The city also contains one hotel, one printing- 
 office, some twenty-five stores, numerous grogshops, two 
 tailoring establishments, two shoemakers, one apothecary, 
 a bakery, and two blacksmith' s shops. The present mili- 
 tary garrison of the place is one company of the Third 
 United States Infantry, whose barracks are just in the rear 
 of the palace, and it is also the military headquarters of 
 the department." 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 THE WARDS OF THE NATION. 
 
 A Eepeat of History— Condition of the Mexican Frontiers in 1847— 
 Eavages of the Indians — Terror of the People — Condition of the 
 New Mexican Settlements — Safe Scalping Grounds — The Indian 
 Tribes at the Period of the American Occupation— The Apaches — 
 Their Devastations — Apache Spies — The Languages of Signs — 
 Apache Warfare — Treatment of Captives — Apache Tribes — The 
 Navajoes — Their Wealth, Industries, and Depredations — Navajo 
 Women — The Utes — Wards of the Nation — Their Present Condition 
 — Honor v^here Honor is Due — The Stronghold of Mangus Colorado 
 — Invaded by the Boundary Commission — Rescue of Mexican Cap- 
 tives — The Santa Rita Copper Mines of To-day. 
 
 FROM time iramemorial the tribes of the plains liave 
 been the scourge of New Mexico. Aboriginal civili- 
 zation recoiled before their savage attacks until their in- 
 cursions were checked by the advent of the Spaniards, 
 those iron soldiers who had taken their degree in the art 
 of war on the most brilliant fields of Europe, and who met 
 the fierce nomad with a ferocity equal to his own, infinitely 
 better arms, and no scruples as to the policy of retaliation. 
 Three hundred years later history repeats itself. The civili- 
 zation planted by the Spaniard was retreating before the 
 same persevering toe, when the reduction of the country to 
 desolation and barbarism was again checked by a valiant 
 invader. Here the analogy ends, since no contrast could 
 be greater than that presented by Coronado, clad in glitter- 
 ing mail, at the head of his plumed and jeweled cavaliers, 
 and Kearney, in the plain uniform of a republican soldier, 
 followed by his volunteer troops, worn and travel-stained, 
 and resembling their Spanish forerunners in one thing only, 
 —the indomitable courage that surmounted every obstacle. 
 The two hundred and thirty-seven revolutions which 
 
 311 
 
212 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 illuminated the record of Mexico from the period when that 
 country declared its independence of Spain to the year 
 1847, naturally interfered with the protection of its fron- 
 tiers ; and tlie condition of abject terror to wliich the 
 northern settlements of Mexico, and the outlying ones of 
 New Mexico, were reduced, can hardly be conceived. Sen- 
 tinels were always on the lookout from the roof of the 
 church or other large building, and at the dreaded cry of 
 "Los barbaros ! " "los barbaros ! " women gathered their 
 children about them and fled to barricade their doors, and 
 hide, poor creatures, from a foe whose keen eyes pierced 
 every spot ; the men, unless driven to absolute des]3eration,. 
 seldom had the courage to fight, and ran away or begged 
 for mercy — a plea usually answered by the scalping-knife. 
 These incursions on the part of the Indians were almost 
 always in the way of business ; many of the tribes were 
 very rich in flocks and herds, which they gained by the 
 simjple process of stealing, and frankly stated that they did 
 not exterminate the Mexicans because it was more profit- 
 able to keep them for herders. The noble red man carried 
 on a lucrative slave traffic, also, in the human victims of 
 these frolicsome descents, the terrified children, torn from 
 the arms of murdered parents, bringing good prices in 
 many of the tribes as well as, shameful to relate, in the 
 Mexican towns. 
 
 George Ruxton, a clever and courageous Englishman 
 who traveled through Mexico and New Mexico in 1847, 
 graphically describes the condition of the settlements and 
 the prevailing terrorism from which no class was exempt -. 
 "The ranchos and haciendas in Durango and Chihuahua 
 are all inclosed by a high wall, flanked at the corners by 
 circular bastions, loopholed for musketry. The entrance is 
 by a large gate, which is closed at night ; and on the azotea, 
 or flat roof of the building, a sentry is constantly posted by 
 day and night." Videttes were also stationed on the hills 
 in the neighborhood. Along the roads and up to the very 
 gates of the haciendas were scattered wooden crosses, whose 
 rudely cut inscriptions entreated a prayer for the repose of 
 
THE WARDS OF THE NATION. 213 
 
 the Christian killed by Indians on that spot. The hacienda 
 of the governor of Chihuahua, Don Angel Trias, had been 
 attacked, the cattle destroyed, and a well in the middle of 
 the corral filled with the carcasses of slaughtered sheep and 
 oxen, a few days before Ruxton was entertained there ; 
 while, at the hacienda where he passed the following night, 
 the people were actual prisoners within their walls. "A 
 large fire was kindled on the roof, the blaze of which illum- 
 ined the country far and near. Not a soul would venture 
 after sunset outside the gate, which the major domo refused 
 to open to allow my servant to procure some wood for a fire 
 to cook my supper, and we had to content ourselves with 
 one of corn cobs, which lay scattered about the corral." 
 
 In New Mexico the same dread of Indians prevailed in 
 the scattered frontier settlements, one of which is described , 
 as more wretched even than those of Mexico. Though the 
 soil was fertile and game abounded the peoj^le often suffered 
 from absolute hunger, since the land they cultivated was 
 held on sufferance from the Utes, " who actually tolerate 
 their presence in their country for the sole purpose of 
 having at their command a stock of grain and a herd of 
 mules and horses, which they make no scruple of helping 
 themselves to whenever they require a remount or a supply 
 of farinaceous food. Moreover, when a war expedition 
 against a hostile tribe has failed, and no scalps have been 
 secured to insure the returning warriors a welcome to their 
 village, here they can always depend upon procuring a few 
 brace of Mexican scalps for a war dance or other festivity, 
 vnthout danger to themselves, and merely for the trouble 
 of fetching them. Half the year the settlers fear to leave 
 their houses, and their corn and grain often remain uncut, 
 the Indians being near at these times ; their sufferings are 
 extreme, being often reduced to the verge of starvation." 
 
 This was the state of the country when the Americans 
 became possessed of it and pledged themselves to protect 
 New Mexico against the ravages of the Indians ; a pledge 
 they were called upon to fulfill within a few weeks of their 
 •entrance, arid which they promptly responded to— a hand- 
 
214 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 f ul of intrepid Missourians boldly penetrating tlie mountain 
 fastnesses of one of the most numerous and powerful tribes. 
 The treaties made there were of little value, but the respect 
 with which the Indians were inspired for their new adversa- 
 ries was lasting and gained some respite for the persecuted 
 settlers. 
 
 The principal Indian tribes of New Mexico, exclusive 
 of the Pueblos, are the Apaches, Navajoes, and Utes or 
 Utahs. In numbers, in untamable savagery, in the pos- 
 session of keen intelligence, which renders that savagery 
 absolutely fiendish, the Apaches stand first. Their entire 
 number was estimated, in 1850, at 25,000, and the country 
 over which they held sway was nearly as extensive as all 
 the States which border on the Atlantic and the Gulf of 
 Mexico put together. For a hundred years they held the 
 provinces of Sonora, Chihuahua, Durango, and Coahuila 
 under tribute. " Town after town " writes Colonel Cremony 
 in 1866, " once containing several thousand inhabitants and 
 even now showing the remains of fine brick churches ; 
 rancho after rancho, formerly stocked with hundreds of 
 thousands of heads of cattle and horses, and teeming with 
 wealth ; village after village, all through the northern part 
 of Sonora and Chihuahua, the whole embraced in a belt 
 five hundred miles long and from thirty to eighty miles 
 wide, now exhibit one widespread and tenantless desolation, 
 
 the work of the Apache Indians Thousands of lives 
 
 have been destroyed, and thousands of women and children 
 carried into a captivity worse than death, during that 
 
 period It is both sickening and maddening to ride 
 
 through that region and witness the far-reachirtg rain, to 
 listen to the dreadful tales of unequaled atrocities, and 
 note the despairing terror which the bare mention of the 
 Apaches conjures up to their diseased and horrified imagina- 
 tions. Coming to the American side, we enter lipon an- 
 other field of destruction, but in nowise comparable to that 
 
 which Mexico exhibits But even on our side the 
 
 border the traveler will encounter many fine farms aban- 
 doned, their buildings in ruins, and the products of years 
 
THE WARDS OF THE NATION. 215 
 
 of industry wrested from their grasp. On every road little 
 mounds of stones by the wayside, some with a rude cross, 
 and others with a modest headboard, speak in silent but 
 terribly suggestive language of the Apaches' bloody 
 work." 
 
 To attain and retain this proud pre-eminence numbers 
 alone would not sutfice ; plans must be concerted with in- 
 telligence and carried out with ability. Living entirely by 
 plunder, the Apache devotes to that pursuit the same study 
 that civilized man gives to his business or profession. A 
 complete system of espionage is maintained over the 
 country they infest. The parties of soldiers, traders, or 
 emigrants, who, seeing no Indian "sign," congratulate one 
 another that there are no Indians around, are never, night 
 or day, out of the range of the spy's glittering eye. The 
 tuft of grass, apparently growing at the very edge of an 
 overhanging cliff, veils the head of a scout who notes every 
 movement of the unconscious group below, — their number, 
 arms, whether their weapons are loaded and ready for ac- 
 tion or carelessly thrown aside, — and signals the informa- 
 tion to a detachment of his tribe as clearly and swiftly as a 
 competent operator will use the telegraph. Swathed in a 
 gray blanket, the spy fits himself into a niche of the gray 
 rocks, becoming almost a part of them ; or, extending his 
 lithe length in the deep grama grass, lies unsuspected at the 
 very feet of the white intruders. 
 
 By means of preconcerted signals Apache bands, twenty 
 to forty miles apart, acquaint each other of the presence of 
 strangers, their numbers, and wealth in horses, arms, or 
 merchandise, beckon for onslaught, or warn to avoid. 
 Fire at night, smoke by day, bent twigs, scattered stones, 
 a cluster of flattened grass, all have their meanings. A puff 
 of light smoke rising over the mountain and vanishing in 
 the rarefied air warns the watchfnl Indian of the presence 
 of strangers ; a succession of puffs indicate that the party 
 is strong and well armed ; a steady smoke is the signal for 
 the band to gather, ready for action. At night fire is the 
 language in which these warnings are conveyed. By the 
 
216 HISTOUY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 bent twigs and crushed grass the number, direction, 
 nationality, and occupation of the intruders are read and 
 recorded. Stones placed on end so that one rests upon 
 another are a call for help ; if turned completely over, it 
 records disaster ; if partly turned, the expedition has not 
 succeeded ; but if left in the natural position, only arranged 
 in line, the raid has been a good one. 
 
 Apache wai'fare is diametrically opposed to that of 
 civilized man ; to meet a foe in fair and open fight, is, in 
 their estimation, worthy a fool or a madman. Surprise is 
 their axiom ; to fall upon a sleeping camp or settlement, 
 to burst upon an unarmed foe, to surround a handful by a 
 himdred, is always their method of warfare. There is noth- 
 ing an Apache objects to more decidedly than being killed, 
 and he employs every faculty to avert that catastrophe. 
 Ardently as they covet good horses and fine fire-arms, they 
 will not, though in strong force, attack even a small party 
 who are always on guard, with arms loaded and ready for 
 use. The risk is too great ; some Indian has got to die ; 
 no Indian is ready. Torture, which the Apache has 
 reduced to a fine art, is entirely in the way of business. It 
 is seldom inflicted upon unresisting victims ; they are not 
 even always killed, the Indians contenting themselves with 
 as many horses, sheep, or (lattle as they may require, such 
 women or children as strike their fancy, and any other 
 portable plunder. But the foe who resists, who wounds or 
 kills an Indian, is subjected to every agony that devilish 
 ingenuity, long practice, and intelligent research in this 
 special branch of study can inflict. It is the same with 
 women and children ; they are not wantonly killed, for 
 they have a certain value ; but they are forced to march 
 over burning sands or rocky heights, their flesh pierced and 
 torn by the thorny cactus, their fainting strength stimu- 
 lated by kicks and blows, to the victor's camp. If they 
 survive this ordeal they become the drudges of the tribe ; 
 women invariably suffer indignities too shocking to relate- 
 but not for the victim to endure. If they resist, if they are 
 detected in an attempt to escape, they are subjected to tor- 
 
THE WARDS OP THE NATION. 217 
 
 ^tures unspeakable in their atrocity — civilized imagination 
 faints in contemplating them. Mutilation is inflicted on 
 the bodies of the dead with the same studied purpose : that 
 •of diminishing resistance in direct ratio to the terror in- 
 spired, and thus rendering the industry of the Apache safer. 
 The plan worked well with the Mexicans; it was not brill- 
 iantly successful with the Americans, who have a way of 
 following up their women and children and revenging their 
 death orcaptivity with a promptitude quite disconcerting to 
 the crafty aborigine. 
 
 At the beginning of our intercourse with them the 
 Apaches were divided into nine distinct tribes : the Chiri- 
 cahuas, Gileiios, Mimbrenos, Mescal eros, Jicarillas, Pina- 
 lehos, Coyoteros, Mogollones, and Tontos ; and although 
 many o£ the tribal distinctions have been lost during later 
 years, their identity is still well defined. Those who have 
 their habitation in New Mexico are the Mescaleros, so called 
 from their extensive use of the mescal, or century plant, 
 for food, who dwell in the southeastern part of the Territory, 
 west of the Rio Grande and east of the Pecos ; the Jicarillas, 
 or little-baskets, who received their name from the small 
 wicker vessels manufactured by their women, and who in- 
 habit the mountains north of Taos, being closely allied to 
 the Southern Utes ; the Mimbrenos, or Copper Mine 
 Apaches of southern New Mexico ; and the Mogollones, 
 who inhabited the Mogollon Mountains and the surround- 
 ing country. 
 
 The Navajoes, whose home is in the northwestern part 
 of New Mexico, but who ranged over the entire Territory, 
 numbered about 10,000, and though theft was inculcated 
 as a virtue it was not their only industry. At the time of 
 our occupation they cultivated large tracts of country, 
 raising corn, wheat, beans, pumpkins, melons, etc., often 
 growing 60,000 bushels of corn in a single season. They 
 owned large herds of horses and cattle, and flocks of sheep, 
 tended by peons, usually Mexican captives, of whom they 
 also possessed a large number. They manufactured their 
 own clothing, which was comfortable and picturesque, con- 
 
218 HISTORY OP NEW MEXICO. 
 
 sisting of buckskin breeches, well fitting and ornamented 
 with brass or silver buttons, woolen coat and stockings,, 
 moccasins and leggins of dressed skin, and a blanket worn 
 as a cloak. The Navajo blanket has long been celebrated 
 for its excellent make and wear, and always commands a 
 good price. Although a wealthy people, the Navajoes live 
 in lightly constructed lodges Qiogans) ; possibly because on 
 occasion of a death in a house, it is immediately vacated by 
 the living and pulled down over the corpse, a Navajo always- 
 avoiding contact with the dead. They raided to augment 
 their store of herds, flocks, and slaves, but neither tortured 
 the living nor mutilated the dead. Their women are well 
 treated, having a right to own and dispose of property, and 
 being exempted from the drudgery that in other tribes de- 
 volves upon them ; in consequence they retain their come- 
 liness, and are straight, virell formed, and attractive. A 
 Navajo seldom strikes or injures his wife ; if excited to- 
 frenzy by a conjugal difl'erence the rule is that he shall kill 
 some other person, usually a peon or another Indian. This 
 self-denial is supposed to be owing to the fact that they wor- 
 ship a female divinity, whom it is necessary to propitiate 
 in order to secure comfortable quarters in the other world. 
 
 The Utes belonging to New Mexico, known as the 
 Western Utes, or Capotes and Winnemuches, numbered 
 about 2000, and inhabited the country north of Taos. 
 They had much in common with the Apaches, like them 
 subsisting entirely by plunder and the chase. 
 
 These were only a few of the tribes for whose future 
 good conduct the government of the United States became 
 responsible, the number of Indians roaming over the tract 
 gained by the treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo amounting to 
 120,000, about one fourth of whom were in New Mexico. 
 With these only we have to do, and the answer to the criti- 
 cism and objurgation so freely bestowed upon the govern- 
 ment for its Indian policy is, that to-day the New Mexican 
 settler may tend his fields, herd his flocks, or take the 
 precious ore from the earth in safety. Of the dreaded 
 Apaches only the remnants of the Mescaleros and Jicarillas 
 
THE WAKDS OF THE NATION. 219 
 
 remain in tlie Territory, and they are studying the arts of 
 peace upon their reservation, having learned with pain and 
 amazement that an Indian is safer behind a plow than 
 a tomahawk. The Navajoes are also on a reservation and 
 have evidently lost nothing by cultivating their own flocks 
 and herds instead of their neighbors, since they are quoted 
 as owning 1,000,000 sheep and 35,000 horses. The Utes, 
 who, in '47, permitted the existence of a New Mexican settle- 
 ment because it afforded a safe scalping ground, have been 
 for a number of years upon the reservation of their tribe in 
 Southern Colorado, and New Mexico knows them no more. 
 
 This great work has required time, treasure, and the 
 blood of many brave men, and the wonder is, not that it 
 has taken so long, but that it has been accomplished so 
 soon, when we consider that one of the fiercest wars of 
 modern times has been waged in the mean time. To give 
 even a condensed account of the steps leading to its accom- 
 plishment, the battles fought, the treaties made, the lands 
 reserved, abandoned, and reserved again ; the tribes who 
 occupied them, with their quarrels, flights, and penitent 
 or hungry — the word is interchangeable with an Indian — 
 returns, would require a volume ; while the list of military 
 commanders, Indian agents, and commissioners, their good 
 work and their .bad, would require another. There has 
 been ignorant mismanagement and unholy greed, besides 
 the innocent though disastrous blunders of sentimental theo- 
 rists, who see the Indian as he might be, not as he is. The 
 work has met innumerable delays and obstacles, but it has 
 finally been accomplished, and the two classes of men to 
 whom should be accorded the honor of planting peace and 
 prosperity in the stronghold of barbarism are the pioneer 
 and the soldier ; the former always leading the van in the 
 conflict of civilization against savagery, facing the dangers 
 of the pathless wilderness, the parched desert, and the 
 rugged mountains, but whose perils and hardships are sel- 
 dom considered by the dwellers in safe cities. 
 
 An illustration is sometimes more forcible than a volume 
 of statistics, and the first contact of the Americans with the 
 
220 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 Indians in New Mexico is a fair sample of their subsequent 
 dealings with these people. The desolation of Northern 
 Mexico and Southern New Mexico, described in this 
 chapter, was largely caused and maintained by the Mim- 
 brefio Apaches, who inhabited the district of the Santa 
 Rita copper mines, and, under the leadership of their 
 noted chiefs Mangus Colorado, Cuchillo Negro, and Del- 
 gadito, held undisputed sway over that wretched region. 
 Wlien the United States Boundary Commission took up its 
 station in New Mexico, pursuant to its duties, the copjaer 
 mine district was the most convenient site for operations, 
 and in the latter part of January, 1851, the Commission and 
 its military escort, under Colonel Craig, filed into the 
 Apache stronghold and installed themselves there. 
 
 The Commission — members, soldiers, teamsters, et al — 
 amounted to three hundred and fifty men. The bands of 
 the Apache chiefs were about three hundred respectively, 
 re-enforced at one time by six hundred Navajoes, whom 
 Mangus had summoned to help him exterminate the in- 
 truders and share the plunder. An open attack, even with 
 such odds, was against Apache policy ; and though Magnus, 
 one of the cleverest chiefs who ever led a raid or planned 
 an ambush, employed all his wiles, he could never succeed 
 in separating the Americans or take them oif their guard. 
 They not only held their own, but rescued and returned to 
 their homes three Mexican captives, a girl and two boys, 
 the fruit of successful raids in Northern Mexico. The girl, 
 fifteen years of age, was the daughter of a prosperous 
 family, and had been for seven months a drudge in an In- 
 dian camp ; she had just been sold to Mexican traders, who, 
 as she was extremely handsome, looked forward to realiz- 
 ing a good sum from her in one of the large settlements. 
 This loss the Indians met philosophically, as it did not fall 
 upon themselves, the girl having been well paid for ; but 
 they protested violently against the abduction of the boys. 
 These, aged respectively thirteen and eleven, had fled into 
 the tent of Colonel Cremony, interpreter of the Commission, 
 and hidden themselves beneath his cot. W hen questioned, 
 
THE WAKDS OF THE NATION. 221 
 
 tliey informed him that they were Mexicans, held captives, 
 by the Apaches, and implored protection. The colonel 
 immediately thrust two revolvers into his belt, took another 
 pair, one in each hand, ordered the boys to keep close by 
 him, and, followed by his servant, also well armed, started 
 over to the quarters of the Commission. They had not 
 gone twenty yards before they were surrounded by thirty 
 or forty Indians, angrily demanding their captives. An 
 effective mode of defense was at once adopted ; placing 
 themselves back to back, Cremony and his servant — their 
 revolvers cocked, and the boys clinging to them like 
 limpets — circled around and around, edging toward the 
 quarters, when they were noticed and re-enforced by 
 several of their party and the terrified children were safely 
 delivered to the Mexican commissioner. 
 
 The owner of the captives was fairly well reimbursed, 
 since he received two hundred and fifty dollars' worth of 
 goods and, presumably, the two hundred head of mules 
 and horses stolen a few nights later. The Indians were- 
 always hosiiitably received, their numerous questions, 
 patiently answered, and complaints justly considered. 
 Humanity and the orders of the government demanded the 
 release of the captives, but even in that matter the Indian 
 side of the question and their rights had been considered, 
 and it is safe to say that this has been the rule followed by 
 the military authorities in their intercourse with the Indians., 
 Gold was discovered at the copper mines during the stay 
 of the Commission ; when they left, a goodly number of 
 sturdy American pioneers and miners were working there, 
 and the haunt of the Apaches has since become one of the. 
 richest portions of New Mexico. 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 THE CONFEDERATE INVASION OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 1861-1862. 
 
 New Mexico at the Outbreak of the Civil War — Plans of the Con- 
 federates — Loyalty of the New Mexicans — Treason of Loving and 
 Crittenden — The Army of New Mexico — Baylor's Invasion — 
 Capture of Fort Fillmore — Lynde's Surrender — Baylor's Procla- 
 mation — Advance of Sibley's Brigade— Sibley's Proclamation — 
 Canby's Efforts — Raising an Army — Aid from Colorado — The 
 Hostile Forces — Advance of the Confederates — At the Panadero 
 Ford — Battle of Valverde — Charge of the Texans— Canby's Re- 
 treat — Confederate Occupation of Albuquerque — Of Santa ¥6 — 
 Advance on Fort Union — Arrival of the Coloradoans — At Pigeon's 
 Ranch — First Battle of Apache Canon, — Defeat of the Texans — 
 Chavez's Proposal — Second Battle of Apache Canon — Slough's Re- 
 treat — A Successful ' ' Surprise Party " — Retreat of the Texans — 
 Canby at Albuquerque — Advance of the Federals — Santa F^ Re- 
 gained — Junction of the Federal Forces — Albuquerque Aban- 
 doned — Action at Peralta — Flight of the Confederates — Arrival 
 of the Californians — Exit the Texan Rangers— Sibley's "Sour 
 Grapes " — Remarks. 
 
 THE outbreak of the Civil War completely diverted the 
 attention of the Federal government from its Mexican 
 acquisitions, which were generally regarded throughout 
 the East rather as distant colonies than as important por- 
 tions of the republic. When the military divisions west- 
 ward of the Alleghanies wete being made in 1861 the 
 Department of Mexico, which only included New Mexico, 
 was intrusted to Colonel Edward R,. S. Canby ; but no 
 money was appropriated or men enlisted for its defense, 
 the Far West as a possible point of attack not being con- 
 sidered. Yet this was precisely the quarter which was 
 menaced, and the loyalty of the New Mexicans saved 
 the nation from overwhelming calamity. Some acute 
 
 222 
 
THE CONFEDERATE INVASION OP NEW MEXICO. 223 
 
 Southern statesmen had conceived and set on foot a plan, 
 which, if carried to a successful issue, would have com- 
 pletely changed the result of the war. This was to enter 
 New Mexico from Texas, take possession of the Territory, 
 which was believed to sympathize with the Confederate 
 cause ; seize the munitions of war in its forts and those 
 of Arizona, whose Southern proclivities were undoubted ; 
 march into Colorado, where there were many Secessionists, 
 the Confederate flag having been raised in Denver ; pass 
 into Utah, where they were sure of succor from the Mor- 
 mons, who were bitter against the Federal government, and 
 with the forces gathered in these Territories no trouble was 
 anticipated in subduing Nevada, and marching directly to 
 and occupying California, the objective point of the ex- 
 pedition, where little opposition was expected, as according 
 to the Calhoun plan that was to have been a slave State and 
 many of its people were Southerners. Thus the Confed- 
 erates would secure a coast-line which no navy could 
 blockade, and the mineral and agricultural resources of 
 this teeming country. 
 
 It was natural to infer that New Mexico would favor the 
 South, as her acquisition and development were largely due 
 to Southern men, and although the New Mexicans were 
 known to be strongly opposed to negro slavery they were re- 
 garded as sympathizing with slaveholders, since they main- 
 tained the system actually in the enslavement of Indian cap- 
 tives and virtually in peonage or slavery for debt. Accord- 
 ing to the Organic Act New Mexico was to be admitted into 
 the Union a free or slave State as her people should decide, 
 and it was supposed throughout the South that they would 
 abide by the "institution" rather than deprive themselves 
 of Indian and peon labor. Notwithstanding this bond of 
 sympathy, the New Mexicans, with the exception of a few 
 wealthy families, remained loyal to the Union, and not 
 only lent no support to the projected conquest, but mate- 
 rially disarranged the plans of the Confederate leaders. 
 
 As we have seen. Colonel Canby was appointed to the 
 command of the Department of Mexico late in 1861. His 
 
224 HISTORY OP NEW MEXICO. 
 
 immediate predecessor, Colonel W. H. Loring, of North) 
 Carolina, had been given that post by Secretary Floyd for- 
 the purpose, it is said, of securing it for the Confederacy. 
 However that may be, an expedition which was fitted out 
 against the Apaches in the spring of 1861 by Colonel Loring,. 
 and placed under the command of Colonel George B. Crit- 
 tenden, was simply a blind, under cover of which Critten- 
 den sought to lead his men into Texas and enlist them in, 
 the Confederate service. Lieutenant-Colonel B. S. Roberts, 
 who had joined Crittenden at Fort Stanton, not only re- 
 fused to obey the orders to march with his men into Texas- 
 but hastened to Santa Fe to inform Loring of Crittenden's 
 designs. Roberts's report was coldly received and he was 
 ordered back to Fort Stanton, but he found the opportunity 
 to warn Captain Hatch at Albuquerque and Captain Morris- 
 in charge at Fort Craig. The scheme in consequence fell, 
 through, and of the twelve hundred regular troops in New- 
 Mexico all but one man fought for the Union, and that one 
 was not known to have gone over to the enemy. It was a 
 different story with the officers, however ; some time ini 
 June, 1861, Colonel Loring, Colonel Crittenden, and Major 
 Henry A. Sibley left New Mexico for Texas, and openly 
 espoused the Confederate cause. They were soon joined; 
 by Alexander M. Jackson, the Territorial secretary ; and 
 the Army of New Mexico, commanded by Major Sibley,, 
 now Brigadier-General Sibley, C.S.A., was rapidly organ- 
 ized. 
 
 The first step of the Confederate invasion was made by 
 Lieutenant-Colonel John R. Baylor, commanding Fort 
 Bliss, Texas, who crossed into New Mexico on July 25thi 
 1861, and occupied Mesilla ; the commander of the southern' 
 district of New Mexico, Major Isaac Lynde, a Northern^ 
 man, surrendered Fort Fillmore and his whole force of 
 seven hundred men with hardly a struggle. There' is a> 
 queer story told of the men being plied withi whisky 
 and led to Mesilla to meet the enemy ; of a conference be- 
 tween Lynde and the Confederate officers resulting in the- 
 surrender, though Lynde's officers and meni who. were not toO' 
 
THE CONFEDERATE INVASION OF NEW MEXICO. 225 
 
 drunk protested and tried to light. Whatever the circum- 
 stances, the fact remains that Lynde surrendered when he 
 should have resisted, and that Captain A. H. Plummer, 
 his commissary, handed over $17,000 in government drafts 
 which he should have protected. Lynde was dismissed 
 the army and Plummer suspended for six months. The 
 prisoners made in this shady transaction were paroled, 
 all but fourteen who refused, and allowed to proceed 
 to Albuquerque ; they were entirely unprepared for the 
 march and suffered terribly from thirst, some in their 
 agony opening their veins and drinking their blood. On 
 August 1st; Colonel Baylor issued a proclamation, signed 
 by himself as governor, lieutenant-governor, etc., etc., 
 taking possession of the Territory in the name and be- 
 half of the Confederate States of America. The Terri- 
 tory which Baylor claimed was Arizona, but it was to 
 comprise that portion of New Mexico south of latitude 34° ; 
 the capital was fixed at Mesilla and a militarj'- government 
 was organized. 
 
 Sibley's brigade left San Antonio, Tex., on November 
 16th, 1861, reaching El Paso about the middle of December, 
 and on the 20th. of that month Sibley issued a proclamation, 
 taking possession of the Territory of New Mexico, declar- 
 ing martial law, and adjuring his former fellow^ soldiers to 
 embrace the Confederate cause. " To my old comrades in 
 arms," he said, "still in the ranks of the usurpers of their 
 government and liberties, I appeal in the name of former 
 friendship. Drop at once the arms which degrade you into 
 the tools of tyrants, renounce their service, and array your- 
 self under the colors of justice and freedom. I am em- 
 powered to receive you into the service of the Confederate 
 States, the officers upon their commissions, the men upon 
 , their enlistments. ' ' 
 
 In the mean time Colonel Canby was making every possi- 
 ble effort to defend his department, though much straitened 
 for military supplies, as the following extract from a letter, 
 written by him on August 10th to General Fremont at St. 
 Louis, will show : " I have heretofore called the general-in- 
 
226 HIS'L'ORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 chief's attention to the destitute condition of this depart- 
 ment in military resources and supplies of every kind. 
 There is not artillery enough in the department to man a 
 single post properly, and the supply of ammunition, except 
 for small arms, is exceedingly limited. Remounts for 
 cavalry horses and draught animals for the quartermaster's 
 department cannot be procured in the department, and the 
 estimates made upon the quartermaster-general have not 
 yet been answered. No information has yet been received 
 with regard to the annual supply of ordnance stores 
 required for the troops in the department. If it is the 
 intention of the government to retain this department, I 
 earnestly recommend that the supplies necessary for the 
 efficiency of the troops (regular or volunteers), and espe- 
 cially those already estimated for, should be furnished as 
 soon as practicable." Later he writes: "The military 
 operations in this department have for several months past 
 been greatly embarrassed, and are now almost entirely par- 
 alyzed, by the want of funds in the pay department. Many 
 of the regular troops have not been paid for more than 
 twelve months, and the volunteers not at all." 
 
 Men, money, and supplies were forthcoming from the 
 Territory, however. The Legislature authorized the gov- 
 ernor to call into service the entire Territorial force, volun- 
 teers flocked to the standard, and Gfovernor Connelly 
 congratulated the people upon their patriotism. Canby, 
 in his extremity, also applied to the governor of Colorado, 
 William Gilpin, the intrepid Major Gilpin of Doniphan's 
 expedition ; he promptly responded with two companies of 
 Colorado Volunteers, which left Denver in January, 1862, 
 one company joining Canby at Port Craig, the other 
 remaining at Fort Union, while Gilpin rapidly organized a 
 regiment to follow later. 
 
 Early in 1862 Colonel Canby established his headquar- 
 ters at Fort Craig with a force of about four thousand men, 
 comprising eleven companies of the Fifth, Seventh, and 
 Tenth Regular Infantry ; seven companies of the First and 
 Third Regular Cavalry ; McRae's Battery, manned by two 
 
THE CONFKDEUATK INVASION OF NEW MEXICO. 227 
 
 companies of the Second iind Third Cavahy ; Captain 
 Dodd's Company B, Sec(md Colorado Volunteers; Lieu- 
 tenant-Colonel Kit Carson's First Regiment of New Mex- 
 ican Volunteers ; seventeen companies of the Second, 
 Third, Fourth, and Fifth New Mexican Volunteers ; a Spy 
 Company, and one thousand militia. Sibley's force com- 
 prised the regiments of Colonels Riley and Green ; five 
 companies of Steele's regiment ; five companies of Baylor's 
 regiment, and Teel's and Riley's batteries. 
 
 In February, 1862, Sibley advanced from Fort Bliss up 
 the Rio Grande on the western side by way of Mesilla and 
 Fort Thorn, appearing before Fort Craig on the 18th. Canby 
 sent out a cavalry force to oppose him ; but a reconnois- 
 sance convinced Sibley that it would be useless to attempt 
 to reduce the fort with his light field pieces and he refused 
 the engagement ; but determined to cross the river, which 
 he did at the Panadero ford, a few miles below the fort. 
 Canby immediately threw out detachments of the Fifth, 
 Seventh, and Tenth Regular Infantry, and Carson's and 
 Pino' s (the second) Volunteers, to occupy the heights on 
 the eastern bank commanding the fort. This was the 19th, 
 and on the 20tli McRae's Battery and a body of cavalry 
 were sent to reinforce them. The Texans opened fire and 
 a heavy cannonade ensued. Some of the untried 'New 
 Mexican volunteers fell back in confusion, but the majority 
 stood their fiery baptism well. Carson's men were worthy 
 of their leader — than whom a more intrepid man never 
 lived. The Texans made no attempt to gain the bluff and 
 at night Canby withdrew his troops. The same night 
 Sibley's animals stampeded in search of water and two hun- 
 dred mules were captured and a number of wagons burnt 
 by the Federal scouts, badly crippling the enemy's trans- 
 portation service. 
 
 Sibley was evidently maneuvering to gain the Valverde 
 ford, some seven miles above Fort Craig ; and Major Rob- 
 erts, acting as colonel of volunteers, was ordered to antici- 
 pate him and hold the position. He advanced about eight 
 o'clock on the morning of the 21st and encountered the 
 
228 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 enemy — who had not effected the crossing — at the ford,, 
 where he began the action with two hundred and twenty- 
 regular cavalry, two companies of regular infantry, two 
 of Carson's Volunteers, and McRae's Battery, whicli was. 
 planted at the ford and a hot fire opened on the Texans, 
 who were driven from their position. A reinforcement of 
 Federal infantry then crossed the river and forced then* 
 farther back, when McRae's Battery and two twenty-four 
 pounders under Lieutenant Hall were sent over and the 
 artillery fire continued until about three o'clock, when Colo- 
 nel Canby accompanied by his staff and Pino's Volunteers, 
 arrived upon the field. Canby, certain of victory, had 
 ordered a general advance, the batteries were pushed for- 
 ward and the firing renewed ; but the Confederates made a 
 charge upon Hall's guns, and, while the supporting troops- 
 of both batteries were engaged in driving them back, a 
 thousand Texans, under Steele, sprang from their ambush 
 behind the sand-hills and from a thick wood near by and 
 with a most infernal yell rushed on foot, armed only with 
 bowie knives and revolvers, upon McRae's Battery, in the 
 very teeth of the steady fire that cut bloody lanes through 
 their ranks. The fight was to the death, for the resistance 
 was worthy of the onslaught. The gunners were nearly 
 annihilated, and McRae was killed sitting astride of his 
 gun, fighting with his revolver. The battery was captured, 
 the Federals thrown into confusion, and Steele's charge 
 won the day at Valverde. The loss was about equal on 
 both sides, though Hollister makes it sixty-four killed, 
 twenty-six mortally wounded, and one hundred wounded 
 for the Federals ; two hundred killed and two hundred 
 wounded for the Confederates. 
 
 Canby retired to the fort, and Sibley — leaving his sick 
 and wounded at Socorro — pressed forward to Albuquerque, 
 where he looked for a friendly reception from the people. 
 In this, however, he was disappointed ; a few Mexicans 
 only joined his standard ; the rest remained true to the 
 Union, though its cause then looked very dark. 
 
 Retaining Albuquerque as a supply station, the main 
 
THE CONFEDERATE INVASION OP NEW MEXICO. 229 
 
 Tsody of the Confederates, after dispatching a detachment 
 to occupy Santa Pe, marched on to Port Union, where nearly 
 .■$300, OOo worth of stores were collected; a very tempting 
 morsel, to be had, Sibley thought, for the taking. By the 
 :25th of Pebruary the Texan advance, under Major Scurry, 
 had reached Apache Canon, about two days journey from 
 J^ort Union — the mountain pass where fifteen years before 
 Armijo had abandoned his position. The garrison of the 
 threatened fort was entirely inadequate for its defense, 
 :and Major G. R. Paul, the commandant, had dispatched 
 couriers to hasten the reinforcements from Colorado. So 
 •desperate was the situation that the fort was mined and 
 preparatious made to destroy the national property if the 
 enemy arrived first. The Colorado regiment outmarched 
 them, however, and reached the fort on the 11th to the 13th 
 •of March led, by Colonel J. P. Slough, who ranked Major 
 Paul and consequently assumed command of the united 
 forces. 
 
 On March 22d Slough's army, 1342 strong, set out for 
 Santa Pe to rout the enemy, who was, however, much closer 
 than they supposed. They encamped at Bernal Springs, 
 and on the 25th the advance, numbering four hundred, 
 under Major J. M. Chivington— formerly presiding elder of 
 the Methodist Church, and possessed of a marvelous 
 :stomach for a fight — encamped near the old Pecos church, 
 where four of the enemy's picket were captured. On the 
 ■26th Chivington advanced with all his force, and a mile 
 beyond the ranch of Alexander Valle (locally known as 
 "Pigeon"), at the mouth of Apache Canon, came upon a 
 Texan battery which immediately opened fire. The 
 Pederal infantry attacked it, skirmishing along the slopes 
 of the ravine, while the cavalry, with orders to charge at the 
 first sign of a retreat, was posted out of sight. The battery 
 •did retreat ; but the charge was not made, and the Texan 
 guns were advantageously posted at a bend in the caiion 
 across the dry bed of a stream well supported by the infan- 
 try. Chivington again sent out a party of skirmishers, 
 strengthened by a number of dismounted cavalry, thereby 
 
230 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 reducing that force to one hundred Coloradoans under 
 Captain Cook. After a hot fight the battery retreated, and 
 this time the charge was made by Coolc, who, followed by 
 his men, leaped the bed of the stream and dashed with a 
 yell through the enemy's ranks. Cook was badly wounded 
 and Lieutenant Nelson replaced him. The infantry fol- 
 lowed up the charge in gallant style, the Texans were 
 driven off, and the day was won. The Federal loss was 
 reported as five to fifteen killed ; the Confederate, twenty 
 to forty killed, and about one hundred made prisoners. 
 Chivington then fell back to Pigeon's ranch, where the 
 wounded were treated, the dead buried, and prisoners and 
 reports dispatched to Colonel Slough. 
 
 A letter from a Texan, found at Mesilla, gives a graphic 
 description of the fight. After the first retreat of the Texan 
 battery, and its establishment in the new position, "up 
 came the cannon with the enemy at their heels ; but when 
 they saw us ready they stopped, but only for a short time, 
 for in a few moments they could be seen on the mountains 
 jumping from rock to rock like so many sheep. They had 
 no sooner got within shooting distance than up came a. 
 company of cavalry at full charge, with swords and revol- 
 vers drawn, looking like so many flying devils. On they 
 came to what I supposed certain destruction, but nothing 
 like lead or iron seemed to stop them, for we were pouring 
 it into them from every side like hail. In a moment these 
 devils had run the gauntlet for half a mile and were fight- 
 ing hand to hand with our men in the road. Behind the 
 ditch we felt safe, but again we were mistaken, for no 
 sooner did they see us than some of them turned their 
 horses, jumped the ditch, and like demons came charging on 
 us. We expected to shoot the last one before they reached 
 us, but luck was against us, and, after fighting hand to 
 hand with them, and our comrades being shot and cut down 
 
 every moment, we were obliged to surrender How 
 
 one of the men that charged us ever escaped death will ever 
 
 be a wonder to me About eighty of us were taken 
 
 prisoners and marched off to Fort Union. How many were 
 
THE CONFEDERATE INVASION OE NEW MEXICO. 231 
 
 killed and wounded I don' t know, but there must have been 
 a large number." 
 
 On the night of the 27th, Chivington was joined by- 
 Slough at Kolosky's ranch, some miles further back, where 
 he had gone for water. On the morning of the 28th a council 
 of war was held, and Lieutenant- Colonel Manuel Chavez 
 offered to lead a force through the defiles of the mountain 
 gorge to surprise the enemy's rear. This plan was decided 
 upon, and one hundred and twenty regulars and three 
 hundred and seventy volunteers detached for its execution 
 under Chivington, while the main body, under Slough, 
 advanced to meet the enemy. They found them much 
 sooner than they expected about half a mile beyond 
 Pigeon's ranch, and a fierce battle ensued of which there 
 are few authentic details. M. Valle, or '' Pigeon," who 
 was an eye-witness of the conflict, is quoted as describing 
 it as follows : " Goovernment malms vas at my ranch, and 
 fill 'is cahnteen viz my viskey (and Goovernment nevaire jjay 
 me for zat viskey) ; and Texas malms coom oop, and soor- 
 prise zem, and zey foight six hours by my vatch, and my 
 vatcli vas slow ! ' ' 
 
 The Federals, their force much weakened by the loss of 
 Chivington' s men, and put upon the defensive from the 
 beginning, were obliged to retreat— making various stands 
 and fighting the while— to Kolosky's ranch. Here Scurry 
 drew off and requested an armistice while he cared for the 
 wounded and buried the dead, to which Slough acceded. 
 The Federal loss was twenty to fifty killed, forty to eighty 
 wounded, and fifteen to twenty made prisoners ; the Con- 
 federate, thirty-six to one hundred and fifty killed, sixty 
 to two hundred wounded, and one hundred prisoners— the 
 last figure, Bancroft thinks, covering both battles. 
 
 Instead of renewing the battle Scurry found it expedient 
 to retire hastily to Santa Fe, the immediate cause of his 
 departure being the shining success of the militant church- 
 man Chivington in his rear. Chivington' s command had 
 left the main body at Kolosky's ranch about 9.30 a.m. and, 
 led by Chavez, toiled up the rugged ascent until they 
 
232 HISTORY OP NEW MEXICO. 
 
 struck a trail which was followed over the roughest sort of 
 ground for eight miles. Eight miles more, over the same 
 sort of ground, without a trail, brought them to the 
 brow of a precipice, where Chavez stopped, and, pointing 
 to Scurry's rear guard lying quietly below, unconscious of 
 danger, succinctly observed, '' You are on top of them ! " 
 A brief consultation was held among the officers. The 
 order, "In single file, double quick — charge!" was given, 
 and leaping, sliding, scrambling the Federals dashed 
 down the precipitous steeps upon the startled Texans, who 
 incontinently fled, leaving all their stores in the enemy's 
 hands. Sixty-four wagons were burned, the mules bayo- 
 neted, the cannon spiked, and ammunition and supplies 
 of all kind, even those for the medical department, de- 
 stroyed. Chivington then led his men back to Kolosky's 
 ranch, where he purposed camping ; he had not expected 
 to And Slough there, and seeing troops in possession was 
 ready for another fight, but denied himself when convinced 
 that the intruders were Federals. 
 
 The entire loss of his supplies left Scurry no alternative 
 but that of a hasty retreat. Slough was anxious to pursue 
 the flying enemy; but his orders were to protect Fort 
 Union at all hazards, and he reluctantly returned to that 
 post, arriving on the 2d of April. On the 1st of April 
 Colonel Canby left Fort Craig, garrisoned by volunteers 
 under Colonel Kit Carson, and with eight hundred and 
 sixty regulars and three hundred and fifty volunteers, 
 marched northward, dispatching orders to Slough to join 
 and co-operate with him. Canby reached Albuquerque on 
 the 8th, and an engagement took place in which Major 
 Duncan, Third Cavalry, was seriously injured. The fight 
 continued through the day at long range, and at night 
 Canby took a side route to effect the junction with the force 
 from Fort Union. Slough, annoyed at being withdrawn 
 from the pursuit of the Confederate forces, resigned his 
 commission, and Major Paul reassumed command, and 
 marched with his troops, on the 5th, to join Canby. The- 
 concentration of his army was effected at Bernal Springs, 
 
THE C0NFEDEEAT3 INVASION OF NKW MEXICO. 233 
 
 and on the 9 th they proceeded toward Santa Fe. At San 
 Jose Major Jackson was met bearing a flag of truce, but 
 the Federal forces had but one condition to offer. A little 
 later Paul was apprised that the enemy had evacuated Santa 
 Fe and were retreating to Albuquerque. From Galisteo he 
 -wrote, on the 12th, to Governor Connelly at Las Vegas : 
 " It affords me great pleasure to inform you that Santa Fe 
 is now in our possession. Your Excellency will be glad to 
 know that the Union troops on entering Santa Fe were 
 received with public demonstrations of joy." 
 
 On the 13th the junction with Canby's force was effected 
 at Tijeras, and on the 14th Chivington was appointed colonel 
 of the Colorado regiment. Information was received in the 
 mean time that the Confederates had abandoned Albu- 
 querque and were moving down the river, and on the 14th 
 the combined forces marched thirty-six miles to Peralta, 
 where they found the enemy posted in the adobe town — one 
 of the " strongest positions (except Fort Union) in New Mex- 
 ico." A few pickets were captured and Chivington was 
 eager to take the town by assault ; but that Canby would 
 not permit. On the 15tli an engagement took place, the 
 Federals occupying the wood adjoining the town. The 
 artillery played pretty steadily on both sides, but little was 
 -effected, the only coup being made by the Federals when 
 they captured a supply train, arriving rather late from 
 Albuquerque, a howitzer, and a number of prisoners, mules, 
 and horses. During the night, under cover of a heavy storm, 
 the Texans forded the river and made for the south, obliged 
 to leave their sick and wounded destitute of every neces- 
 sary. 
 
 For several days the hostile armies marched down the 
 river in full sight of one another, the Federals vainly 
 •endeavoring to get sufficiently in advance to cross without 
 being subjected to the Confederate artillery. The latter 
 finally burned their transportation service, and, retaining 
 some light wagons only, took to the mountains. They 
 struck a trail far to the west of Fort Craig which led into 
 the Mesilla valley, and reached Fort Bliss early in May. 
 
234 HISTORY OF NBW MEXICO. 
 
 Of the 3800 men and 375 wagons that left Fort Fillmore^ 
 only 1200 men and 13 wagons remained together when 
 they fled to the mountains. Canby has been censured for 
 not taking the remnant of the Confederate force prisoners ;, 
 in his report to Washington May 12th, he states that many 
 of his men were subsisting on rations of twelve ounces of 
 flour a day, which renders the statement of his apologists — 
 "that he had no desire to capture men whom he could not 
 feed" — very plausible. 
 
 The Federals continued their course in three columns 
 under Colonels Paul and Chivington and Captain Morris, 
 and crossed the river on the 20th at Limitar. On the 22d 
 of May they arrived at Yalverde, where the volunteers 
 went into camp, while the regulars kept on to Fort Craig. 
 Canby — now brigadier-general of volunteers — then went to 
 Santa Fe, Colonel Chivington being left in command of the 
 southern district ; a position which he held until relieved 
 by Colonel Howe. On July 4th the advance of a body of 
 troops from California, under General James H. Carleton, 
 reached the Rio Grande, too late to take part in the New 
 Mexican campaign, but in time for most effective work in 
 Arizona. Two days later the last of the Texan Rangers 
 under Steele, who had lingered in the Mesilla valley, left 
 JSTew Mexico. 
 
 Sibley, writing to Richmond from Fort Bliss, said : "It 
 is proper that I should express the conviction, determined 
 by some experience, that, except for its political geographi- 
 cal position, the Territory of New Mexico is not worth one 
 fourth of the blood and treasure expended in its conquest." 
 And further states that he had withdrawn his men from 
 New Mexico because they "had manifested a dogged, 
 irreconcilable detestation of the country and its people ! " 
 Which is certainly an original way of putting it. 
 
 In September General Canby was ordered East, and 
 General Carleton assumed command of the Department of 
 New Mexico. Canby served with honor in the Civil War ; 
 hisbrevet as brigadier-general, U.S.A., was finally granted 
 in March, 1865 ; and on April 10th, 1873, he was treacher- 
 
THE CONFEDEKATE INVASION OF NEW MEXICO. 235 
 
 ously murdered by the Modoc Indians of Oregon, under 
 the celebrated Captain Jack. In October the Colorado 
 volunteers returned North by way of Santa Fe ; the New 
 Mexican Legislature of 1862 passed resolutions thanking 
 the California and Colorado troops for their timely aid ; 
 and in 1865 Kit Carson was made brigadier-general of 
 volunteers for his gallantry at Yalverde. 
 
CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 LATER NEW MEXICAN ANNALS. 
 
 1862—1879. 
 
 Indian Depredations in New Mexico — Oarleton's Policy— Bosque 
 Eedondo— Apache and Navajo Campaigns of 1862-64— New Mexi- 
 can Land Claims — Action of the Government — Pueblo Claims Con- 
 firmed — How not to do it— Death of Governor Connelly — Governor 
 E. B. Mitchell — Peonage Abolished — Pueblos are Citizens — Affairs 
 at Bosque Eedondo — The Peace Commission — The Bosque Aban- 
 doned — Treaty with the Navajoes — Death of Kit Carson — Daily 
 Mails — Military Telegraph — Governor Pile — Statistics of Population 
 and Property — Notes on Mining — Governor Giddings — Legislative 
 Sessions — The Maxwell Eanch — Water in the Joinada — Constitu- 
 tional Convention — Attempt at Statehood — Death of Governor 
 Giddings — Secretary Eitch — Governor Axtell — Archdiocese of 
 Santa F6 — Condition of the Territory — Indian Outbreaks — The 
 Apache Campaigns of 1877 to 1886 — The Concentration Policy — Its 
 Effects — Geronimo and Victorio — Eaids and Depredations — Death 
 of Victorio — Geronimo's Bands — The McComas Tragedy — Crooli in 
 the Sierra Madre — Outbreaks of 1886 — Apaches Exiled — Death of 
 Donanciano Vigil — Grand Lodge of Masons Organized — Governor 
 Wallace — The First Passenger Train. 
 
 AS soon as General Carleton had assumed command of 
 the department of New Mexico, he turned his atten- 
 tion to the condition of Indian affairs in tlie Territory. It 
 was a suiRciently serious one. The recent campaign had 
 withdrawn the troops from the frontier posts and had 
 roused Apaches and ISTavajoes to new and deadly activity. 
 Since the spring of 1861 there had been a constant succes- 
 sion of devastations, and during the entire period of the 
 ■Confederate invasion the Indians ravaged the Territory, 
 pursuing their work of murder and robbery with a bold- 
 ness that rendered safety impossible. In populous villages 
 and thriving settlements men were killed, women and chil- 
 dren captured, cattle driven off, and ranches plundered. 
 
 336 
 
LATER NEW MEXICAN ANNALS. 237 
 
 The Jicarillas and Utes alone remained, at peace, but the- 
 Mimbrenos and Mescaleros, aided by the Chiricahuas and 
 Grilenos of Arizona, carried death and devastation through 
 the southern part of the territory. The mining district of 
 Pinos Altos and Santa Eita was repeatedly attacked, the 
 settlements along the Rio Bonito were laid waste, and the- 
 ravages were extended lo the villages on the Rio Grande. 
 A prompt retaliatory policy alone could save New Mexico- 
 from the state of desolation to which Arizona had already 
 been reduced, and no sooner had the Texans retired beyond 
 the Mesilla valley than this policy was inaugurated. ' 
 
 In September, 1862, General Carleton made preparation 
 for an effective Indian campaign. His policy was definite 
 and sensible. The savages were to be thoroughly punished 
 and made to understand that there was to be no more tri- 
 fling. No treaties were to be made, and no terms except 
 unconditional surrender to be accepted. The orders were : 
 "The men shall be slain whenever and wherever they can be 
 found. The women and children may be taken prisoners, 
 but, of course, they are not to be killed." Troops were 
 distributed and forts manned ; Colonel Kit Carson, com- 
 manding five companies of New Mexican volunteers, was- 
 sent to occupy Fort Stanton in the southeastern part of the 
 Territory, with directions to operate against the Mescaleros 
 and any Navajoes who might be found there ; Captain 
 William McCleave, with two companies of California volun- 
 teers, was ordered into the Mescalero region by way of 
 Canon del Perro ; Captain Roberts, in command of two- 
 companies of Californians, was sent into the same district 
 by way of the Hueco tanks. At Bosque Redondo, on the 
 Pecos, in the eastern part of the Territory, Fort Sumner 
 was established ; and here all x4.pache and Navajo prisoners 
 were to be sent as soon as captured, with the intention of 
 forming a permanent reservation. These vigorous measures 
 soon had their effect. At Canon del Perro a large body 
 of Apaches was routed by Captain McCleave ; they sur- 
 rendered to Carson at Fort Stanton, and were finally sent 
 to the Bosque by Carleton, where they were placed under 
 
238 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 the charge of Colonel Cremony, formerly of the United 
 States Boundary Commission. By the spring of 186B, 400 
 Mescaleros were living at the reservation, and the remainder 
 had taken refuge in Mexico or Joined the Gila tribes. 
 
 The Mimbrenos were next taken in hand. In January 
 an expedition was sent into their country under Captain 
 Shirland of the California volunteers. The expedition re- 
 sulted in the death of Mangus Colorado, the noted Apache 
 chief, who was defeated and captured with a loss of twenty 
 of his v\rarriors, and shot while attempting to escape. 
 This' was a blow to the Mimbrenos and was rapidly suc- 
 ceeded by shocks no less severe. Fort West was estab- 
 lished at the copper mines, continual vigilance was 
 maintained by the troops, and scouting parties were always 
 in the field. By April forty of the tribe had been killed, 
 and the Mimbrenos were reduced to a subdued and 
 chastened frame of mind. 
 
 Carleton was then ready for the Navajoes, who had 
 been more or less hostile since 1854, and who for the last 
 three years had committed extensive depredations. In 
 1862 alone they are reported to have driven off 100,000 
 sheep, 10,000 head of cattle, and numbers of mules and 
 horses, besides killing and capturing many persons. The 
 general's terms were clear and to the point. All friendly 
 Navajoes were to be removed to Bosque Redondo and all 
 hostile ones to be sent on the reservation as soon as cap- 
 tured. July 21), 1863, was fixed as the date after which 
 every Navajo was to be treated as hostile, and orders were 
 issued to the soldiers to kill every male Indian capable of 
 bearing arms. The principal operations of this campaign 
 were conducted by Colonel Kit Carson at Fort Canby, 
 although much was done at Forts Stanton, Craig, Defiance, 
 and West ; it consisted principally of skirmishes, and 
 there were few important fights or victories ; but the 
 determined refusal to entertain any terms but uncondi- 
 tional surrender, and the continual activity of the troops, 
 did much to quell the Indians, who saw that the white 
 men were at last in earnest. By the end of the year 
 
LATER NEW MEXICAN ANNALS. 239 
 
 200 Navajo prisoners were gathered at the Bosque, and, 
 early in 1864, Carson, with force of 390 men, marched to 
 the Canon de Chelly — that ancient stronghold of the 
 Navajo tribe. A series of skirmishes ensued, 25 Navajoes 
 were killed, 34 captured, and 200 voluntarily surrendered. 
 The prisoners were sent to the Bosque, and although the 
 immediate results of the expedition were unimportant, its 
 ulterior effects were most satisfactory. The Navajoes 
 realized that submission was the wisest policy and speedily 
 adopted it. In February 2700 had surrendered, while by 
 July over 6000 were living in peace at the Bosque, and 
 the Navajo campaign was virtually ended. Fort Canby 
 was abandoned in August, and the troops ordered to 
 Arizona, while Carson was sent to the plains on a campaign 
 against the Comanches and Kiowas. 
 
 Next in importance to the Indian question was that of 
 the settlement of land claims. Under the treaty of Guad- 
 aloupe Hidalgo the United States agreed to protect the' 
 rights of all those persons holding property in virtue of 
 grants made by the Spanish or Mexican governments. 
 When it is remembered that New Mexico was a populous 
 country and had been settled for 250 years previous to that 
 treaty, it will readily be seen that these grants must be 
 numerous and include valuable agricultural and mineral 
 tracts. The American government should have examined 
 and recorded the titles of New Mexican landholders, and de- 
 fined the boundaries of the lands confirmed, immediately 
 upon assuming control of the country, in order that the 
 award of public lands to incoming settlers might be free of 
 complications. The government did nothing at all in the 
 matter, however, until 1854, when, by act of Congress of 
 July 22d, the Public Land Laws were extended over the 
 Territory. By virtue of these laws every citizen resident 
 there prior to 1858, or settling prior to 1838, was entitled to 
 a donation of 160 acres, the title secured by four years' oc- 
 cupation. The first surveyor-general was William Pelham, 
 who, in April, 1855, established an initial point for base 
 and meridian lines at a hill on the west bank of the Rio 
 
240 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 Grande, in latitude 30° 19'; but the work proceeded slowly^ 
 progress was impeded by want of funds, by the dangers to- 
 which surveying parties were exposed from the attacks of 
 liostile Indians, and by the desire of the government to adjust 
 private and Indian claims before making an extensive open- 
 ing of tlie public lands. In 1858 the claims of the Pueblos- 
 of Taos, Jemez, Acoma, Santo Domingo, Cochiti, San Juan, 
 San Felipe, Pieuri, Santa Clara, Pecos, Tezuque, Pojuaque, 
 Sandia, Isleta, Nambe, Cia, and San Ildefonso were con-' 
 firmed by act of Congress, December 22d. By the same act 
 and that of June 21st, 1860, five town and fourteen private 
 claims were allowed. A land office was opened in Santa Fe 
 in 1858, but for a number of years no sales were recorded. 
 
 In 1860 Alexander Wilbar succeeded Pelham as sur- 
 veyor-general, to be followed in 1861 by J. A. Clark. 
 Down to this period twenty-five claims, covering an area of 
 2,070,094 acres, had been surveyed ; but during the Con- 
 federate campaign all work but that of repelling the in- 
 vaders was suspended throughout the Territory. In 1862 a. 
 law was passed imposing the expenses of investigation and. 
 survey upon the claimants, unaccompanied by any act 
 compelling the presentation of claims — a most sagacious- 
 solution of the problem "How not to do it." Naturally 
 claims ceased to be presented, for, as Prince says, " So far 
 as the multitude of small holdings is concerned .... the 
 trouble and expense of obtaining a title would be far more 
 than the value of the modest farms and gardens, or simple 
 homes of the generality of the New Mexican people," and 
 for some years action in regard to land claims was at a 
 standstill. 
 
 In 1865 Governor Connelly died in office, W. P. Amy,, 
 secretary, acting as governor until 1866, when Robert B. 
 Mitchell was appointed. During this year $5000 was ex- 
 pended upon the old Spanisli palace, where all the execu- 
 tive work was still conducted, and $40 appropriated for 
 shelves for the Territorial library and priceless archives- 
 which were scattered about in a condition of shameful 
 neglect. In 1867 the bill for the abolition of peonage was- 
 
LATER NEW MEXICAN ANNALS. 241 
 
 passed, the emancipation proclamation not having covered 
 this peculiar form of slavery, since it was not entirely a state 
 of " involuntary servitude." The penalty incurred was a 
 fine of from $1000 to $5000, and imprisonment for from one 
 to five years. The same punishment, with the addition of 
 dismissal from service by court-martial, was provided for 
 army officers impeding the execution of the law. In this 
 year also the decision of the Supreme Court that the 
 pueblos were entitled to citizenship was made, a decision 
 more productive of annoyance than pleasure to the bene- 
 ficiaries, as they had no desire to take any part in the 
 national government, being jealously devoted to their own 
 peculiar communal forms. The rich Moreno mines were 
 .also discovered this year, and a monument erected in Santa 
 Fe to the memory of the soldiers who had fallen while de- 
 fending the country against the Confederate invasion. 
 
 In the meantime the ISosque Redondo reservation had 
 not prospered. For years the Navajoes and Mescaleros had 
 been at war and their tribal hostility could not be subdued 
 in a few months ; constant quarrels, recriminations, and 
 outbreaks ensued ; season after season the crops failed and 
 the Indians suffered severely from famine ; unceasing vigi- 
 lance was required to prevent their leaving the reservation, 
 and party after party succeeded in avoiding the watchful- 
 ness of the troops and making their escape. In August, 
 1865, a large body of Navajoes attempted to leave the 
 Bosque, but were pursued and driven back. In November 
 the entire tribe of Mescaleros left the reservation and suc- 
 ceeded in reaching their own country, where they imme- 
 diately went on the warpath. At last, after several years' 
 skirmishing, during which time the Bosque was abandoned, 
 they were satisfactorily established on a reservation in their 
 own country. In regard to the Navajoes, Superintendent 
 Davis, writing in 1868, said: "The Navajoes were located 
 several years ago upon a reservation at Bosque Ee- 
 dondo .... and after expending vast sums of money, 
 and after making every effort for more than four years to 
 make it a success, it has proved a complete failure." 
 
242 HISTOKY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 Finally, in 1867, the "peace policy of General Grant" 
 was inaugurated, and on July 20th an act was passed " to 
 establish peace with certain Indian tribes," a board of 
 peace commissioners being provided for. The commis- 
 sioners named were N". G. Taylor, J. B. Henderson, J. B. 
 Sanborn, and S. P. Tappan, to whom the President added 
 four army officers : Generals Sherman, Harney, Terry, and 
 Augur. In May, 1868, General Sherman and Colonel 
 Tappan reached New Mexico and proceeded to investigate 
 the condition of affairs at the Bosque. Their conclusion 
 was that the Kavajoes would not and could not remain at 
 the reservation, and on June 1st they entered into treaty 
 for the removal of the Indians to their old home in the 
 northwest of the Territory, where a reservation of 5200 
 square miles was set aside for them, and $150,000 was 
 appropriated by Congress for the costs of removal and 
 settlement; $11,500 was to be used for buildings, school- 
 houses and teachers to be provided, and all children 
 between six and sixteen years of age expected to attend. 
 Every Indian was to receive $5 worth of clothing a year, and 
 $10 was given to each one who should engage in farming or 
 mechanical trade. It was also provided that heads of 
 families should be entitled to the choice of 160 acres of land 
 and $100 worth of seeds and implements the first year, and 
 $25 worth the second and third years, the tribe to be 
 stocked, besides, with 15,000 sheep and 500 head of cattle. 
 While not exempt from the drawbacks incidental to farm- 
 ing life, the Navajoes, since this establishment, have 
 steadily prospered, being especially successful in stock rais- 
 ing. In consequence of the removal of the Indians from 
 Bosque Redondo, Port Sumner was abandoned. 
 
 General Kit Carson, fearless scout and fearless soldier, 
 died at Port Lyon on the 23d of May of this year. It is 
 doubtful if Carson's services to his country will ever be 
 fully realized or appreciated ; as bearer of dispatches, dur- 
 ing the war with Mexico, between Washington and Cali- 
 fornia, across the then trackless wilds, and as guide to 
 Fremont, they were invaluable, and such as no other man 
 
LATER NE.W MEXICAN ANNALS. 243. 
 
 of the period could have rendered — a fact which Fremont's 
 calamitous experience with Bill Williams amply proves. 
 The people of New Mexico have honored themselves in 
 honoring their brave pioneer by the monument to his 
 memory, erected in Santa Fe by the Grand Army of the 
 Republic, Department of New Mexico, in 1885. This year 
 was signalized by the opening of the first daily mail from 
 the East, and the operation of the first military telegraph in 
 the Territory. 
 
 Mitchell, whose term of ofiice had not been an altogether 
 harmonious one, was succeeded in 1869 by William Pile,, 
 afterward Minister to Venezuela, the chief event of whose 
 administration appears to have been the irremediable blun- 
 der of selling nearly one half of the Spanish archives for 
 waste paper, a loss which succeeding years renders more 
 grievous to every student of American history. 
 
 The population of New Mexico in 1860 numbered 80, 567, 
 exclusive of Indians. In 1870 it had increased to 90,573, of 
 which number 82,193 were natives of New Mexico ; 2760 
 born in other parts of the United States ; 3903 Mexicans ; 
 and 1717 foreigners. The assessed value of property in 
 1870 was $18,000,000 against $20,000,000 in 1860, before 
 Arizona and lower Colorado had been cut off. The country 
 had not sufiiciently recovered from the effects of the war 
 and the depredations of hostile Indians to show much pro- 
 gress in mining or other industries. The Moreno mines 
 were still being successfully worked ; they yielded $200,000 
 in 1869 and in 1870 the production was still greater, while 
 much excitement was roused in Grant County by the dis- 
 covery of many rich silver lodes. Silver and copper had 
 also been found in Socorro County, and pure anthracite 
 coal was being mined at the placers. Gold and silver were 
 also found on the Arroyo Hondo, and the Carson lode in 
 the Manzana Mountains proved very rich. The entire yield 
 of gold for 1869 was $500,000. 
 
 In 1871 Marsh. Giddings succeeded as governor. Down 
 to this period— 1869-70— the sessions of the Legislature 
 were annnal, but in 1866-67 the House passed a bill amend- 
 
244 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 ing the Organic Act, and providing for biennial sessions. 
 In 1869 this became a law for all Territories, and from 1871 
 the assemblies were biennial, although in 1873-74, and in 
 1876, memorials were sent to Washington in favor of yearly- 
 sessions. In 1871 the Legislature was authorized by act of 
 Congress to meet on the first Mondaj'- in December ; this 
 date was changed, in 1876, to the first Monday in January 
 and the assembly met in accordance in 1878-84. By the 
 same authority the date was changed from the even to the 
 odd years, commencing with 1883, and members elected 
 accordingly ; but no change was made for want of an 
 appropriation from Congress. An act of 1884, changing 
 the date to the last Monday in December, produced nearly 
 the same effect, however, and the twenty-seventh assembly 
 convened in December, 1886. In 1866-67 a memorial was 
 offered, requesting increased pay for legislators and Terri- 
 torial ofBcials, and $5 a day was added, by an act of 1869, to 
 the pay received from the national government, which in 
 1878 was fixed at $4, except for president and speaker, who 
 were to receive $6. By the same act the number of council- 
 men was limited to twelve and the representatives to twenty- 
 four. 
 
 In 1871 the filing of land claims was resumed, and in 
 this year the great Maxwell ranch was sold. This ranch, 
 originally the "Beaubien and Miranda Grant," of which 
 Charles Beaubien was one of the grantees, received its name 
 from Lucien B. Maxwell, the well-known scout and trap- 
 per, son-in-law of Beaubien, who lived upon it for many 
 years, maintaining a state of almost feudal magnificence. 
 Every traveler of the period speaks with admiration of the 
 lavish hospitality dispensed by Maxwell at his establish- 
 ment on the Cimarron. He employed 500 men, had 1000 
 horses, 10, 000 cattle, and 50, 000 sheep . The property, which 
 comprised 2,000,000 acres, and contained almost priceless 
 water rights, was sold by Maxwell in 1871, for $650,000, to 
 Senator Chaffee of Colorado and two others, who, six 
 months later, sold it to an English company for $1,350,000. 
 In 1880 the ranch was sold again, this time to a party of 
 
LAJER NEW MEXICAN ANNALS. 245 
 
 Holland capitalists ; and shortly after, " the Maxwell Land 
 ■Grant Campany " was organized under American trustee- 
 ship, the stocks and bonds being held by American, English, 
 and Dutch capitalists, but princiiDally by the latter. In 
 1871 water was found on the Jornada del Muerto by John 
 Martin, and it was proposed that he should be rewarded by 
 a. donation of ten sections of land ; but the bill was tabled 
 in Congress. 
 
 Since 1861 attempts had been made to secure statehood 
 for New Mexico, and in 1871 a State Constitution was 
 formed by a convention held at Santa Fe for that purpose. 
 The governor approved the constitution on February 1st, 
 and by an act of the Legislature an election was ordered 
 for the first Monday in June, State officers to be elected on 
 the first Monday in September should the constitution be 
 adopted. Unfortunately the vote was received too late to 
 be legally counted, and the movement was a failure. It 
 had been proposed to call the new State Lincoln. Soon 
 after, the House bill on the State of Lincoln was tabled in 
 the Senate, and another, to extend the time of voting, was 
 referred in the House. By the Legislature of 1873-74 
 memorials in favor of statehood were sent to Washington 
 and a bill passed the House, but was referred in the Senate. 
 Finally, in 1873, the House bill was passed by the Senate 
 with amendments, and in 1876 another bill passed both 
 houses and only failed to become a law by non-concurrence 
 in an amendment. 
 
 By the Legislature of 1872 an act was passed providing 
 for a school board in each county, and in 1873 the Jesuit 
 College, one of the most prominent educational institutions 
 in the Territory, was established at Albuquerque. In 
 1874 a bill was passed creating a land office for the south at 
 Mesilla ; the demand for public lands was constantly in- 
 creasing, and the work of surveying was carried on as 
 rapidly as possible, the appropriations being greatly in- 
 creased from 1874. During this year a reservation was 
 set oflE for the southern Apaches at Ojo Caliente, near their 
 old home, where they were transferred and lived quietly. 
 
246 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 In 187.') Governor Giddings died in office and for a short 
 time Secretary William G. Ritch became acting governor. 
 Since 1873 Secretary Ritch had been a valuable factor in 
 the advancement of the Territory, being especially active in 
 educational matters. His "Aztlan" and "Legislative 
 Blue Book" are authorities upon the subjects treated, and 
 as president of the Bureau of Immigration he has done 
 much to extend a knowledge of the resources of the coun- 
 try. In the same year Samuel B. Axtell was appointed 
 governor and immediately assumed the office. On February 
 12th, 1875, the archdiocese of Santa Fe, with the vicariates 
 apostolic of Arizona and Denver as suffragans, was created 
 by a papal bull of Pius IX. , and the bishop of Santa Fe, 
 the Rev. John B. Lamy, was made metropolitan of the 
 province. On June 16th, at Santa Fe, Bishop Lamy 
 received the pallium, and was consecrated to this arch- 
 episcopal see in the presence of an assemblage of dis- 
 tinguished divines and civil and military officials from all 
 parts of the Territory. 
 
 During Governor Axtell' s term there is comparatively 
 little to chronicle. In spite of lack of capital, New Mexi- 
 can industries steadily progressed ; many claims were sur- 
 veyed, prospectors were constantly rewarded by evidences 
 of vast mineral wealth waiting development, and those 
 mines already opened yielded well. Coal, copper, lead, 
 and mica were profitably worked, and many precious 
 stones were also found ; stock raising, always one of the 
 prime industries of the country, was carried on with little 
 expense and rapid profit ; agriculture was still confined to 
 the valley lands, which produced in profusion the crops of 
 temperate and semi-tropical climates. The Santa Ffe trade 
 still flourished ; in 1876 it amounted to over $2,000,000, but 
 the railroads which were to supplant it were advancing, 
 and in this year had reached Trinidad, Col. 
 
 In 1877, New Mexico, after several years' respite, 
 became the scene of fresh Indian outbreaks, which con- 
 tinued with little intermission for four years. So closely 
 were these outbreaks connected, that, in order to present a 
 
LATER NEW MEXICAK ANNALS. 247 
 
 clear and condensed account it has been thought best to 
 comprise the A.pache campaigns of 1877-86 within the 
 present chapter. The immediate cause of the outbreaks of 
 1877 was the "concentration policy " of the Indian Bureau, 
 defined as "the steady concentration of smaller bands of 
 Indians upon the larger reservations "; and which was put 
 into practice regardless of the government treaties securing 
 to the Indians the reservations upon which they were living 
 in comparative comfort and peace. By it, hostile tribes 
 were placed upon the same reservation, mountain Indians 
 were sent to the plains, and plains Indians to the moun- 
 tains ; these changes were effected by force, and at the first 
 opportunity the Indians escaped, and either went upon the 
 warpath or sought refuge on other reservations. Some 250 
 Chiricahua runaways, under their chief Q-eronimo, came in 
 this way to the Hot Springs (Ojo Caliente) reservation, 
 whence they made destructive raids on the surrounding 
 country. Geronimo and a few others were arrested, and it 
 was decided that all the Indians on that reservation should 
 be sent to the San Carlos division of the White Mountains 
 reservation. Previous to this transfer, which was made in 
 May, 1877, about forty warriors, led by Victorio, a noted 
 chief, escaped to Mexico ; on the 2d of September 300 more 
 also fled and succeeded in making their way into New Mex- 
 ico, where they fell upon a settlement and killed eight per- 
 sons. Troops were sent in pursuit, and on September 10th 
 thirteen of the Indians were captured and twelve killed. 
 On October 13th 190 surrendered at Fort Wingate, fifty com- 
 ing in later. It was decided that they must return to San 
 Carlos, and a number immediately started for the moun- 
 tains, eighty of them eluding capture. Sixty-seven re- 
 turned in December to the Mescalero reservation and were 
 allowed to remain. 
 
 In February, 1878, Yicfcorio and his warriors surrendered 
 at Ojo Caliente, stating, however, that they would not go to 
 San Carlos. It was decided to send them to the Mescalero 
 reservation and they again fled to the mountains, but 
 repaired voluntarily to the Mescalero agency about the last 
 
248 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 of June. Their wives and children were sent for and it 
 appeared as though a peaceful settlement might be effected, 
 but Just at this period several of the prominent officials of 
 Grant County happened to come to the agency on a hunt- 
 ing excursion. Victorio was under indictment- in Grant 
 County and was certain that they had come for him. 
 Accompanied, not only by his own band but by all the 
 Chiricahuas who had sought refuge there, he fled from the 
 reservation and made a terrible I'aid through southwestern 
 New Mexico and southeastern Arizona, whence he was 
 driven into Mexico by the United States troops. 
 
 In 1879 Victorio reappeared in New Mexico where he 
 was joined by a number of Mescaleros and Comanches, who 
 murdered and pillaged on every side. The Indians were 
 well-armed with repeating rifles, and well supplied with 
 ammunition ; when' dislodged from one mountain range 
 they would fall back upon another, or scatter in small 
 bands to meet at a given rendezvous. Twice they were 
 driven across the "Rio Grande into Mexico, where they con- 
 tinued their depredations and where Victorio was finally 
 shot by Mexican troops in 1880. In July of the following 
 year, Nane, Victorio' s successor, dashed across southern 
 New Mexico, swooping upon herders and prospectors and 
 murdering them without mercy. He was driven back into 
 Mexico in the latter part of August. 
 
 In January, 1880, Geronimo and Juh returned to the 
 White Mountain reservation, accompanied by about 108 
 Chiricahuas, and remained there until the following Sep- 
 tember, when Juh, asserting that he was badly treated by 
 the agency people, ran away, accompanied by a number of 
 Chiricahuas. They were followed in April, 1882, by Ge- 
 ronimo, at the head of the rest of the renegade Chiricahuas, 
 and Loco with his Hot Spring band. General Crook, who 
 had been removed from the Southern department when the 
 concentration policy was first put in operation, was now 
 reinstated, and the War Department and Indian Bureau 
 began to work more harmoniously. On July 29th, 1882, a 
 treaty was effected with Mexico, by virtue of which Indians 
 
LATER NEW MEXICO ANNALS. 249 
 
 might be pursued across the boundary by United States and 
 Mexican troops respectively. Geronimo and the others had 
 been raiding in Mexico since their flight from the reserva- 
 tion, but in March, 1883, Chato, with twenty-six warriors, 
 made a dash across the line into Arizona to obtain ammuni- 
 tion. They were closely followed by the soldiers, and to 
 avoid pursuit took a circuitous route through 'New Mexico 
 rand recrossed the line near the Hatchet Mountains. 
 Nearly a dozen persons were killed in this raid, including 
 Judge McComas and his wife, who were murdered on March 
 .28th, their little son Charlie being carried off by the In- 
 dians. 
 
 On the day preceding this tragedy a warrior named Pen- 
 al-tishn, generally called " Peaches," deserted from Chato 
 and gave himself up at San Carlos. General Crook per- 
 suaded him to guide the troops to the Chiricahua strong- 
 hold in the Sierra Madre, a place never before penetrated 
 by soldiers. Here the camp of the renegades was surprised, 
 lout not completely, for the premature discharge of pistols 
 by two of the scouts had given the alarm, and the warriors 
 liad fled. The women and children were captured, among 
 them flve Mexican women taken by the Indians in recent 
 raids. It is unnecessary to say that these poor creatures 
 received every care the soldiers could give, and the gratitude 
 they evinced at their unexpected deliverance was most 
 pathetic. Charlie McComas could not be found, and it is 
 ■supposed that in the confusion incident to the surprise of 
 the camp the terrified child wandered away, thinking, per- 
 laps, to reach his home. JSTegotiations were opened, 
 through the squaws, with the warriors in hiding, who 
 finally surrendered on the understanding that past offenses 
 should be pardoned if they returned to the AVhite Moun- 
 tain reservation and behaved themselves. In consequence, 
 nearly 400 Indians, including Geronimo, Chato, Nachez, 
 and all the chiefs except Juh, came in and were installed 
 upon the reservation, where for two years, under military 
 authority, they remained quiet and became fairly Indus- 
 
250 HISTOEY OP NEW MEXICO. 
 
 trious, the farms of Geronimo and Chato making the best 
 showing of any on the reservation. 
 
 Notwithstanding this flattering record, Geronimo ram 
 away again in 1885 and resumed the more congenial occu- 
 pation of murder and pillage. His flight is attributed to 
 his having been detected in the illicit manufacture of 
 tiswin, the native liquor. He and his warriors were pursued 
 by Crook into Sonora, and captured in March, 1886, but. 
 they escaped on the frontier of Arizona and for five months 
 longer made the lives of the settlers on both sides the 
 border a terror and a burden. In August the band, num- 
 bering about twenty, was finally captured by General 
 Nelson A. Miles, and later not only these, but all the 
 Chiricahuas and Hot Spring Indians at San Carlos were 
 sent to Florida, and New Mexico was at last freed from 
 Apache depredations. 
 
 In August, 1877, ex- Governor Donanciano Vigil died 
 and on August 8th of the same year the Grand Lodge of 
 Masons of New Mexico was organized. W. W. Griffin was 
 grand master, and Governor S. B. Axtell, Chief Justice 
 Waldo, and Colonel W. L. Rynerson were prominent among 
 the organizing members. In 1878 Governor Axtell was suc- 
 ceeded by General Lewis Wallace, famous as a soldier and 
 an author ; " Ben Hur," the best known of his works, was 
 written in the Spanish palace at Santa Fe. In February, 
 1879, the first passenger train entered the Territory carry- 
 ing the Colorado Legislature to Otero, and by July of the 
 same year the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroad 
 was completed to Las Vegas. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 TEN YEARS OF PROGRE&S.- 
 
 1880-1890. 
 
 Advent of the Railroads — General Activity — Eveiits of the Year — 
 Census of 1880— Governor Sheldon — Extension of the Railroads — 
 Disorder and Violence — Legislative Acts — Mining — Tri-Centenary 
 Celebration — Governor Ross — Territorial Census — Improvements 
 in Irrigation — Public Buildings — Mining Notes — Governor Prince — 
 Legislative Acts — Statehood — Congressional Action of 1888-89 — 
 Qualifications of New Mexico for Statehood — Constitutional Con- 
 vention — Governor Prince on Statehood — Ten Years of Progress^ 
 Educational Matters — Religious Denominations — Railroads — Coun- 
 ties — Land Claims — Official Action of 1870 — Claims Re-examined— 
 Necessity of a Speedy Adjustment — Resources of New Mexico — 
 Mineral Wealth — Gold Mines and Mining — Old and New Placers- 
 Principal Gold Districts — Silver Mines — Lake Valley Region — The 
 Silver Counties — Coal Districts — Iron, Tin, and Lead — Other Min- 
 erals — Agriculture — The Rio Grande Valley — Stock Raisings 
 Principal Stock Raising Counties — The Timber Lands — Conclusion, 
 
 THE entrance of the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe 
 Eailroad in 1879 marked a new era in the annals of 
 New Mexico. With it came an army of keen-sighted, 
 energetic Americans, who recognized the amazing resources 
 of the country and proceeded straightway to develop 
 mines and cultivate the soil. The White Oaks mines in 
 Lincoln County were discovered and camps established at 
 Los Gerrillos in Santa Fe County ; later in the year the 
 railroad reached Las Yegas, and a hotel was opened at the 
 hot springs, now one of the noted sanitariums of the West. 
 In 1880 the railroad was completed to Santa Fe, Albuquer- 
 que, and Isleta, and the Santa Fe trail was finally super- 
 seded by the trail of steel. New Albuquerque was founded 
 in close proximity to the old town, and a street-car line built 
 there ; the Las Vegas Academy was incorporated, and gas 
 
 351 
 
252 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 introduced into Santa Fe ; acts were passed by the Legis- 
 lature for the incorporation of cities and societies, for the 
 organization of a Bureau of Immigration, for the protection 
 of fish and game, and for the selection of university lands, 
 and memorials for the survey of public lands and settlement 
 of private land claims, for increased mail facilities, for roads, 
 and for a cession of public buildings by the United States 
 to the Territory, were presented to Congress. The Bureau 
 of Immigration, under the honorable and energetic super- 
 vision of Prince and Eitch, has proved a valuable insti- 
 tution ; the Historical Society, reorganized in 1880, has been 
 the means of preserving from further neglect and vandalism 
 the archives of the country and awakening an interest in 
 its remarkable history. General Grant and family visited 
 New Mexico in this year, as also did President Hayes. The 
 population of the Territory increased in proportion to its 
 industrial activity; by the tenth United States census (that 
 of 1880) it was given as 109,793, exclusive of Indians, nearly 
 20,000 more than in 1870. Of this number 92,271 were 
 natives of New Mexico, 9471 born in other parts of the 
 United States, 5173 Mexicans, and 2873 foreigners ; whUe 
 the colored population had increased from 180 to 1015, and 
 there were .07 Chinese in the Territory. 
 
 In 1881 Governor Wallace was succeeded by Lionel 
 A. Sheldon, a lawyer prominent in political and military 
 affairs, and who had acted as attorney for the United States 
 in the Alabama claims ; like his predecessor, he served 
 with honor in the Civil War, attaining the rank of brevet 
 brigadier-general. In this year the Atchison, Topeka, and 
 Santa Pe Railroad, also known as the New Mexico and 
 Southern Pacific, was completed to junctions with the 
 Southern Pacific line at Deming and El Paso, and trains 
 were running to Arizona and California. The Southern 
 Pacific had 155 miles in New Mexico ; the Denver and Rio 
 Grande was carried to Espahola eighty miles, and sixty 
 miles west on the San Juan division ; and the Atlantic and 
 Pacific was completed 212 miles west of Albuquerque. 
 As the railroads extended, the mineral wealth of the 
 
TEN TEARS OP PKOGKESS. 253 
 
 country was revealed; the cry of "gold!" was echoed 
 abroad and men hurried in search of it ; mining camps 
 sprung up in all directions, and disorder and violence pre- 
 vailed — as it always has in the first mad strife for the 
 precious metal. These disorders were aggravated by the 
 activity of the hostiles under Geronimo and Victorio in the 
 south, and feuds between rival stockmen in the north. 
 The period of greatest violence was from 1878-82, after 
 which time the effervescence began to subside and order 
 was gradually restored. The New Mexican people, de- 
 spite much romance to the contrary, are peaceful and law- 
 abiding ; the ruffianism recorded during these years, to the 
 detriment of the Territory, came from outside ; but under 
 the vigorous administration of Sheldon, the free-shooters, 
 " rustlers," and other gentlemen with latitudinarian views 
 as to what constitutes a free country, were reduced to the 
 quiet occupancy of a very small portion of New Mexican 
 soil, or to the abandonment of the Territory. 
 
 The first Territorial fair was held in 1881, and the 
 animal, mineral, and vegetable wealth there exhibited 
 astonished even those who believed themselves familiar 
 with the resources of the country. An educational asso- 
 ciation was organized, an Indian school established at 
 Albuquerque, and acts were passed authorizing the 
 ransom of Apache captives, regulating railroad fares and 
 rates, and protecting coal mines and miners ; while a 
 memorial was sent to Congress asking that the old adobe 
 palace, as a relic of antiquity, be ceded to the Historical 
 Society. The total product of New Mexican mines in 1882 
 was $1,950,000, of which $150,000 was gold, and $1,800,000 
 silver ; acres of coal fields were being worked at Raton, and 
 rich copper mines opened. Mining was conducted in a 
 primitive fashion, and production was hampered by want of 
 capital. The yield in 1883 was $3,125,000 ; $280,000 gold, 
 $2,845,000 silver. A tri-centenary celebration was held at 
 Santa Fe in this year ; the uncompleted capitol, which, 
 after being raised to a story and a half, had been neglected 
 for nearly thirty years, was floored and roofed and used in 
 
254 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 the series of pageants illustrative of the early history of 
 New Mexico to represent the Pueblo town of Cibola, filled 
 with Indian chiefs and warriors, besieged by Coronado at 
 the head of his Spaniards. In 1884 the Legislature appro- 
 priated $200,000, in twenty-year seven per cent, bonds, for 
 the completion of the public buildings, and unanimously 
 voted that that portion of the adobe palace not used by the 
 governor should be assigned to the Historical Society, 
 besides appropriating $400 for the purchase of relics. 
 
 In 1885 Governor Sheldon was succeeded by Edmund Gr. 
 Boss. A census taken by the Territorial authorities during 
 the year placed the population at 133,530, an increase of 
 14,000 since 1880. There had been considerable advance in 
 methods of irrigation in the last few years, and water was 
 being developed by boring and sinking wells in districts 
 that had heretofore been arid wastes. On the long dreaded 
 Jornada del Muerto water was obtained at several places at 
 depths of from twenty to 100 feet ; while on the plain of 
 Deming in the south, on the San Augustin plains in the 
 west, and also on the Staked plains on the eastern border 
 of the Territory, wells were sunk and water obtained. The 
 Legislature of 1886 met for the first time in the new and 
 handsome capitol, which had been partially completed;' 
 the Territorial penitentiary, mentioned by Davis in 1854 as 
 in course of construction, was finished in 1885 ; and by 
 the Legislature of 1887, $50,000 additional was appropriated 
 for the furnishing, fencing, and final arrangements neces- 
 sary for the capitol. Acts were also passed in the same 
 session providing for a salary for the justices of the supreme 
 court in addition to that received from the national govern- 
 ment ; establishing a Territorial school for the deaf and 
 dumb ; and providing for the organization of savings banks, 
 and trust associations. The only railroad construction of 
 the year was thirty-eight miles of the Texas, Santa Fe, and 
 Northern line from Espanola in Rio Arriba County, the 
 temporary terminus of the Denver and Rio Grande to Santa 
 Fe. The Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe line had 670 
 miles of road ; the Denver and Rio Grande had 156 ; the 
 
TEN YEAES OP PROGRESS. 255 
 
 Arizona and New Mexico, 26 ; and the Southern Pacific, 
 100. The total aggregate mileage was 1050, traversing 
 twelve of the fourteen counties. 
 
 In 1888 the gold product of the Territory was greater 
 than in any previous year ; important leads were being 
 worked at Elizabethtown in Colfax County, and in Central 
 Santa Fe County ; while in the Jicarilla Mountains iii 
 Lincoln County, in the Organ Mountains in DoBia Ana 
 ■County, and other portions of the Territory, numerous 
 gold finds were reported. The Denver and Fort Worth 
 Kailroad extended eighty miles additional across the north- 
 eastern corner of the Territory in this year, and three 
 towns, Folsom, Colfax, and Texline, sprung up along the 
 route. There was considerable political activity during the 
 year, and the Democratic and Republican Territorial con- 
 ventions met at Santa Fe in the spring, passed resolutions, 
 and adopted platforms — unanimous in one thing only, — a 
 •demand for the speedy settlement of land claims. 
 
 In 1889 Governor Ross was succeeded by L. Bradford 
 Prince, who, as chief justice of the Territory, as vice-presi- 
 dent of the Historical Society, and as an active member of 
 the Bureau of Immigration, has done mach to advance the 
 interests of New Mexico. Governor Prince is a member of 
 the well known Prince family of Long Island, and is a lineal 
 descendant, on the maternal side, of Governor William 
 Bradford of Plymouth. Entering Columbia College Law 
 School, he passed the course with honor and received the 
 $200 prize in political science. He displayed an extraordi- 
 nary aptitude for political matters, and when a lad of six- 
 teen received a vote of thanks from the town club for 
 activity in the Fremont campaign. The district in which 
 he lived was strongly Democratic, but in 1870 he was elected 
 to the Assembly ; in 1871, 1872, 1873, and 1874 he was re- 
 elected, and in 1875 sent to the Senate, the only instance 
 on record of a person being elected five successive times in 
 a district politically opposed to him. In 1872, 1873, and 
 1874 he was chairman of the Judiciary Committee, during 
 which time over 1100 bills came into his hands. The refor- 
 
256 HISTOBY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 mation in the system of legislation in New York occurred en- 
 tirely during Governor Prince's terms, and the amendments 
 proposed by him were incorporated in the Organic Law of 
 the State. In 1876 he was a member of the National Ee- 
 publican Convention that nominated Hayes and Wheeler. 
 As a lawyer he occupies a high position, and has made- 
 many able speeches and lectures on political and general 
 topics. In October, 1879, he was offered various appoint- 
 ments, including the marshalship of New York, the govern- 
 orship of Idaho, and the chief-justiceship of New Mexico. 
 At the urgent request of Secretary Evarts he accepted the- 
 latter office, which he held until 1882. He is an enthusiast 
 as to the resources and future of the Territory and his- 
 " Historical Sketches of New Mexico " is an authority upon 
 the events of the period treated. 
 
 The most important action of the Legislature of 1889 was- 
 to provide for a constitutional convention, to assemble on 
 the first Tuesday in August, to frame a constitution under 
 which the Territory should ask for admission to the Union 
 as a State ; a special election of delegates to this convention 
 was appointed to be held on the first Tuesday in August. 
 Another act provided for a " University of New Mexico" 
 at Albuquerque, a school of mines at Socorro, an insane 
 asylum at Las Vegas, and an agricultural college at Las 
 Graces. Mining was more than usually successful during 
 this year and several important discoveries of carbonates 
 were made, the most valuable being at the " Lucky" mine- 
 in the San Pedro district. The work on the Territorial 
 capitol was finally finished, and the county court-house at 
 Santa Fe completed in this year. 
 
 Much disappointment was felt and expressed in New 
 Mexico relative to the Congressional action of 1888-89, when 
 the two Dakotas, Washington and Montana, were admitted 
 into the Union. New Mexico was at first included in the 
 bill, and Mr. Cox of New York presented her claims to 
 the House. The admission bill— including New Mexico — 
 passed the House by a large majority, but the Senate non- 
 concurred, and in the conference appointed to decide the 
 
TEN TEARS OF PEOGKESS. 257 
 
 disagreement JSlew Mexico was omitted. As to the quali- 
 fications of the Territory for statehood Mr. Cox said : "If 
 the Republican party could vote for New Mexico fourteen 
 years ago, why can they not do it now ? She has added 
 55,000 in population since the census of 1880 was taken ; 
 in the last year 384,000 acres of public land have been en- 
 tered for actual occupation and improved ; she is engaged 
 in the construction of railroads across her Territory, and is 
 opening new sections to settlement and establishment. At 
 the end of the year which has Just passed there was com- 
 pleted nearly 2000 miles of railroads ; her grain crops and 
 other products, especially grapes and semi-tropical fruits, 
 grow in profusion, while her cattle ranges are among the 
 marvels of her growth ; she had an increase of 135,000 
 head of cattle in 1888 over 1887, and her mines are becoming 
 productive after the idleness of years, if not of centuries." 
 On August 6th, 1889, an election was held at Santa Fe to 
 choose delegates to the constitutional convention ; the 
 number elected was seventj^-three, and on September 3d 
 the delegates met at Santa Fe, choosing J. Francisco Chavez 
 as president. The session lasted until September 21st and 
 resulted in the adoption of a constitution for the proposed 
 State of New Mexico, to be submitted to the electors of the 
 Territory at the regular elections in November, 1890, unless 
 the passage of an enabling act by Congress should render 
 an earlier election necessary. A committee was appointed 
 to preserjt.the constitution to Congress and to urge the ad- 
 mission of the Territory thereunder. In his message for 
 1889, Governor Prince says: "The advantages of state- 
 hood to New Mexico from a material point of view are very 
 manifest. It will give us a school fund of great value ; it 
 will endow our institutions of learning and charity with 
 large donations of public lands ; it will give us such repre- 
 sentation in Congress that we can obtain necessary legisla- 
 tion ; it will bring about an immediate determination of 
 our land titles ; it will attract population and cause money 
 to flow hither for investment ; above all, it will bring that 
 self-government which is the prerogative of a free people and 
 
258 HISTORY Oi- NEW MEXICO. 
 
 without which discontent and dissatisfaction are sure to 
 exist. It will raise us from a condition of infancy to the 
 status of full manhood and bestow upon us all the powers 
 and privileges elsewhere enjoyed by American citizens." 
 
 A contrast between the condition of New Mexico in 
 1879, and its condition in 1889, will show more clearly than 
 pages of chronology the progress of these ten years. In 
 1879, the population was 109,000 ; in 1889, according to the 
 official estimate, it was 195,000. The average annual yield 
 of gold and silver in 1879 was $400,000; in 1887 it was 
 $3,855,000. The assessed value of property in 1879 was less 
 than $18,000,000. In 1888 it was $45,690,723. In 1878 there 
 were eight miles of railroad in operation in the Territory; 
 in 1889, there were over 1200. Newspapers have increased 
 from two in 1860 and five in 1870, to eighteen in 1882 and 
 thirty-nine in 1889. In 1879 the first telegraphic dispatch 
 from New Mexico was received in San Francisco ; in 1889, 
 all the important towns and settlements were in telegraphic 
 communicaition with East and West. Gas, water-works, 
 and street cars have been introduced within the decade. 
 Educational matters have constantly improved and their 
 condition is most encouraging ; in 1870 the total school 
 attendance was 1889 ; in 1880 there were 162 public schools 
 with an attendance of 3150 pupils ; in 1889 the governor 
 gives the following figures : 
 
 Numberof pupils enrolled (three counties estimated), . . 16,803 
 
 Average daily attendance (two counties estimated), . . . 12,394 
 
 Number of male teachers (four counties estimated), ... 303 
 
 Number of female teachers (four counties estimated), . . 185 
 
 Although these figures are undoubtedly inadequate 
 when the extent of the Territory is considered, it must be 
 remembered that the religion of the people is naturally for 
 the most part Roman Catholic, and that Catholic schools, 
 universities, and institutions are numerous and well man- 
 aged. The much needed reforms introduced into the 
 Church by Archbishop Lamy have been continued with 
 excellent effect, and there is a notable improvement in all 
 branches of ecclesiastical affairs. Of Protestant denomi- 
 
TEN- YEARS OF PROGRESS. 259 
 
 nations in the Territory the Episcopalians are in the 
 majority, although the Baptists, Congregationalists, and 
 Methodists have a considerable following. 
 
 The principal railroads traversing New Mexico are the 
 Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe (New Mexico and Southern 
 Pacific), the Atlantic and Pacific, the Southern Pacific, and 
 the Denver and Rio Grande ; there are also the Texas, 
 Santa Fe, and Northern Narrow Q-auge line, the Denver and 
 Fort Worth, the Arizona and New Mexico, and numerous 
 branch lines, some of which are in course of construction, 
 others only projected. Within the last year two counties 
 have been created and the Territory now contains sixteen : 
 Bernalillo, Chavez, Colfax, Doiia Ana, Eddy, Grant, 
 Lincoln, Mora, Rio Arriba, San Juan, San Miguel, Santa 
 Fe, Sierra, Socorro, Taos, and Valencia. Of these all but 
 one (Lincoln) are traversed by the railroads. 
 
 That which most retards the development of New 
 Mexico is the unsettled condition of land claims. Until 
 1870 the grants were confirmed by Congress as soon as 
 approved by the surveyor-general, but in that year a new 
 policy was adopted and Congress refused to act at all on 
 any New Mexican claim, thus making an apparent differ- 
 ence in validity of title between unconfirmed grants and 
 those which had been confirmed. Lip to 1886, 205 private 
 land claims — exclusive of the earlier Pueblo claims — had 
 been filed in the surveyor-general's office ; 13 of these were 
 rejected, 141 approved, and 51 not acted upon. Forty-five 
 of the approved claims were confirmed by Congress prior 
 to 1870, after which date 1 only was confirmed. On July 
 23, 1885, matters were made infinitely worse by instruction 
 from the Land Office, in accordance with which Surveyor- 
 General George W. Julian re-examined 35 of the claims 
 originally approved. Twenty-three of the re-examined 
 claims were disapproved, the testimony declared insufii- 
 cient, and the grant invalid ; 6 were approved as equitable, 
 3 partly approved, 2 fully approved, and 1 ordered to be re- 
 surveyed. Sixty-two private cases are now pending before 
 Congress, and a speedy adjustment of the vexed question 
 
260 HISTOEY OF NEW MEXICO, 
 
 of New Mexican land grants is vigorously urged by all who 
 have the interests of the Territory at heart. In his mes- 
 sage of December, 1889, President Harrison said: "Only 
 those who are familiar with the conditions under which oiir 
 agricultural lands have been settled can appreciate the 
 serious and often fatal consequences to the settler of a policy 
 that puts his title under suspicion or delays the issuance of 
 
 his patent The unsettled state of the titles to large 
 
 bodies of land in the Territories of New Mexico and Arizona 
 has greatly retarded the development of those Territories. 
 Provision should be made by law for the prompt trial and 
 final adjustment, before a judicial tribunal or commission,, 
 of all claims based upon Mexican grants. It is not just to 
 an intelligent and enterprising people that their peace 
 should be disturbed and their prosperity retarded by these 
 old contentions." 
 
 No account of the changes wrought in New Mexico 
 since 1879 would be complete without the devotion of con- 
 siderable space to the gradual development of the vast 
 natural wealth of the Territory, which has taken place 
 within that period. There is probably no State in the 
 Union which possesses as many and as varied natiiral 
 resources and advantages as does New Mexico ; Colorado 
 and Nevada excel in silver ; California, in gold ; while 
 New Mexico possesses not only these, but an infinity of 
 other minerals, more rich and varied, and in greater quan- 
 tities than can be found in any other portion of the United 
 States. Besides deposits of the precious metals, the Terri- 
 tory contains iron, coal, nickel, copper, tin, lead, cinnabar^ 
 cobalt, manganese (sulphate and carbonate), mica, salt, 
 gypsum, kaoline, cement, sulphur, plumbago, mineral 
 paints, soda, arsenic, alum, borax, antimony, bitumen, 
 tellurium, lime, silicates, chromium, vanadium, marble, and 
 fine building stone ; of the precious stones there are topaz, 
 garnets, amethyst, emerald, sapphire, olivine, crystals, 
 chalcedony, obsidian, many varieties of agates, smoky 
 quartz, prase, opal, and silicified woods. The country is 
 admirably adapted to the mining industry, wliich can be 
 
TEN YEAES OF PROGRESS. 261 
 
 carried on all the year round. Gravel deposits of gold 
 have been found in all of the counties, rich enough to 
 pay well even when the water had to be fetched by the 
 barrel or the dirt carried a long distance in the dry season. 
 
 The principal gold mines are the placers in the south- 
 western portion of Santa Fe County, where the Ortiz, Tuerto, 
 and a portion of the San Ysidro mountains are ribbed with 
 great bodies of gold, silver, copper, iron, and coal. Gold 
 was discovered at the district known as the Old Placers, at 
 the northeastern base of the Ortiz mountains, in 1828, and 
 in 1834 a settlement was found there called Real de Dolores ; 
 from 1832-35 the annual yield was from $60,000 to $80,000, 
 the principal work being done in the winter with water 
 obtained by melting the snow with heated stones. The 
 I^ew Placers, at the northern base of the Tuerto Mountains, 
 were discovered in 1839, and a town established there called 
 Heal de San Francisco — now known as Golden. Washing 
 was here carried on for some years in the same primitive 
 fashion as at the Old Placers, with even richer results ; the 
 war with the United States put an end to the work for a 
 time ; the California discoveries in 1849 carried the tide in 
 that direction ; later a fair amount of work was resumed at 
 the New Placers, to be interrupted by the Civil War ; and 
 since then a portion of this rich district has been kept in 
 idleness, pending the settlement of land claims. Some of 
 the largest nuggets produced in the western hemisphere 
 have been taken from the New Placers. One weighing 
 ■eleven pounds nine ounces, avoirdupois, was found by a 
 Pueblo Indian, who sold it for a little whisky, a blind pony, 
 and a crownless hat; two others were worth $1700 and 
 $1600 respectively, and several ranging from that sum to 
 flOOO and less have been found. 
 
 Gold is found in large quantities through the San Ysidro 
 Hange and the Tuerto and Ortiz mountains. Some of the 
 finest gold quartz specimens exhibited at the centennial 
 exposition in Philadelphia, 1876, came from the Delgado 
 mine in the Tuerto Range. The Magdalena district in 
 Socorro County came to the front in 1884 with a rich output 
 
262 HISTORY OF, NEW MEXICO. 
 
 from the Kelly mines. Many gold lodes have been found 
 in the Moreno Yalley, Colfax County ; chief among these 
 is the " Aztec," a fine vein of free milling ore, worked with 
 great profit. There are also many rich placer mines in the 
 same district, and a number of gold lodes on the Cimarron- 
 cita. Grant is the banner mining county, and Pinos Altos, 
 opened in the 60' s, the richest gold bearing district. The 
 Nogal and White mountain ranges, in the western portion 
 of Lincoln County, have also proved rich in gold ; one of 
 the most important mining centers of this district is White 
 Oaks, in which is situated the " Homestake," said to be the 
 richest gold mine in New Mexico. In Rio Arriba County 
 is situated the Head-Stone, another gold mining district, 
 where the ore is found in place and lodes ; the placer 
 grounds are in Eureka Grulch, where nearly 100 locations 
 of gold bearing quartz have been made. 
 
 New Mexico possesses some of the richest silver mines 
 in the United States, and the Lake Valley district, in Sierra 
 County, is probably one of the most remarkable in the 
 world, the chlorides yielding $5000 to $20,000 per ton. The 
 pay begins at the grass roots, and even, in places, at the 
 croppings above the ground ; in one chamber of this mine, 
 known as the " Bridal Chamber," the metal hangs in soft 
 chloride crystals, which yield to the pressure of the hand 
 and assume the shape of the closed palm like dough ; 1873 
 degrees Fahrenheit are required to fuse silver, yet the 
 flame of the candle held against the projecting crystals of 
 chloride of silver in this mine, unaided by the blow-pipe, 
 will fuse them and send the virgin silver dropping down 
 the wall like shot. It was here that Governor Safford, of 
 Arizona, offered $50,000 for the ore he could individually 
 extract in ten hours. A chunk of the Lake Valley ore, 
 three feet square, worth $7000, was one of the wonders of 
 the general exposition of the Rocky Mountain States and 
 Territories held at Denver in 1883. The " Percha country," 
 about twenty-five miles northwest of Lake Valley, in Sierra 
 County, is another rich silver district. The earliest dis- 
 covery was made in 1881, when the first assay of the " Bui- 
 
TEN YEARS OP PROGRESS. 263 
 
 lion" claim yielded $250 to the ton ; another body of ore, 
 taken from the same mine when more fully developed, 
 yielded an average of $1200 to the ton. One mine of this 
 group was sold for $45,000 when only an eight-foot prospect 
 hole, and later developments proved the wisdom of the 
 purchase. In another a well-delined contact vein of five 
 feet was struck at a depth of 166 feet, out of which $5000 
 was taken in less than twenty-four hours. A number of 
 others equally rich are comprised in the South Percha group, 
 while developments in the North Percha promise valuable 
 results. The Black Range in the northwest of Sierra County 
 is also silver bearing. 
 
 Silver is found extensively throughout G-rant County ; 
 the first discoveries were made at Silver City in 1869, and 
 the entire district has proved very valuable ; the mines in 
 the Georgetown district, northeast of Silver City, were first 
 opened in 1877 and have been constant producers since. 
 In the Burro Mountain district, sixteen miles west of Silver 
 City, a mine was located in which the vein of native silver 
 extended from the grass roots to a depth of 550 feet. Many 
 valuable silver mines have been and ai'e being developed in 
 Lincoln County, particularly in the Bonito district, the 
 White Mountains, and the Red Cloud district in the Gal- 
 linos Mountains. The Cerrillos district in Santa Pe County, 
 about twenty miles south of the capital, is one of the oldest 
 mineral developments of the Territory, and many valuable 
 silver mines are located there ; the company owning the 
 "Bottom Dollar" has been offered $1800 per ton for all 
 they can take out, the " Aztec " shows a vein of mineral 
 assaying 111 ounces to the ton, the "Bonanza No. 3," the 
 "Marshall Bonanza," the " B. B. Pears," and the "Cash 
 Entry," are a few of the many producing well. 
 
 Silver is also found in paying quantities in the MogoUon 
 Mountains, Socorro County, the " Merrit " mine affording 
 sufficient mineral to run the stamp mill in Socorro, which is 
 shipping silver bars weekly. The Organ Mountains, in 
 Dona Ana County, are rich in minerals, and considerable 
 prospecting and development work has been done there. 
 
264 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO, 
 
 The silver hills in the Jarillos Moantains — the eastern 
 slope of the Organs — show many rich lodes ; all the ore is 
 impregnated with copper, the assays in some cases running 
 as high as sixteen per cent, copper and from fifteen to 
 seventy-nine ounces in silver. The mineral land in Dona 
 Ana County is fortunate in that not a foot of it is covered 
 by a grant. 
 
 Gold and silver are common to nearly all the Rocky 
 Mountain States and Territories, but New Mexico stands 
 alone as a coal pi'oducer. The Cerrillos coal fields in Santa 
 Fe County, 10,000 acres or more in area, afford the only true 
 anthracite coal to be found west of Pennsylvania ; close to 
 the anthracite fields, on the north bank of the Q-alisteo 
 River, are beds of bituminous coal covering 2000 acres ; 
 this coal ranks high in calorific properties, standing fifth in 
 the list of thirty varieties tested by the AVar Department. 
 Bituminous coal is abundant in Bernalillo County, the 
 principal fields being in the western portion on the line of 
 the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad, where mines are worked 
 for the railroads, machine shops, iron works, etc., as far 
 east as Albuquerque and as far west as the San Francisco 
 Mountains in Arizona ; mining is carried on by the Pacific 
 Coal Company, the Defiance Company, and others, near 
 the tract of the Atlantic and Pacific line. The immense 
 fields of bituminous coal in Colfax County remain compara- 
 tively undeveloped, except in the vicinity of Raton, where 
 the Raton Coal and Coke Company supplies the railroad 
 and ships large quantities ; a number of coke ovens are 
 also in operation here. Mora County is reported to contain 
 large deposits of coal, and a coal oil spring has been dis- 
 covered twelve miles from Mora, the county seat ; but, 
 being on the "Mora Q-rant," the mineral resources of the 
 district have remained undeveloped. The mines at 
 Amargo, Rio Arriba County, yielded 17,240 tons in 1883, 
 the coal measures in this section covering many hundreds 
 of miles. Bituminous coal is found generally distributed 
 throughout Socorro County, and large quantities exist in 
 Valencia County, but in an undeveloped condition. The 
 
TEN YEAES OP PROGRESS. 265 
 
 total output of coal In New Mexico in 1887 is given as 
 384,762 tons. 
 
 Large leads of specular, red and brown, hematic, mag- 
 netic, and micaceous iron ores are found in the Ortiz 
 Eange, Santa Pe County, in close proximity to the coal 
 beds ; in Bernalillo County iron ore and coal are found, 
 while large beds of good iron exist in Taos, San Miguel, 
 -Socorro, Dona Ana, and Grant counties, many of them 
 adjacent to coal and limestone. Copper abounds in the 
 Eureka Mountains, Bernalillo County ; immense deposits 
 exist in the counties of Colfax, Doiia Ana, and Grant, 
 where the Santa Rita mines were worked by the Mexicans, 
 the ore being transported by mule pack to the mint in the 
 -City of Mexico. Fine copper is also found in Lincoln, 
 Taos, Socorro, and Rio Arriba counties. Tin has been dis- 
 covered in Santa Pe and Rio Arriba counties, but is as yet 
 ■undeveloped. Lead occurs in most of the counties. The 
 prevailing mineral in the Magdalena district, Socorro 
 County, consists of galena, sulphate of lead, and lead 
 carbonates, associated with iron and lime, and also variable 
 quantities of silver, — a remarkable combination of the 
 fluxes necessary for the reduction of the precious metals. 
 
 Mica has long been mined in Santa Fe County, having 
 been in use in the Spanish and Mexican days as a substi- 
 tute for window glass ; the mines at Petaca, Rio Arriba 
 'County, also furnish a fine quality, the sheets averaging 
 two and a half by four inches, although occasionally finds 
 have been made running up to twelve by twenty inches in 
 size. A deposit of pulverized gypsum, forty miles long by 
 thirty miles wide, lies east of the Organ and San Andres 
 ranges in Dona Ana County; a shovelful of this gypsum 
 when held over the camp fire for a few moments becomes 
 pure plaster of paris. Gypsum occurs in many other parts 
 of the Territory as also do beds of fire-clay and fire kaoline, 
 ■or porcelain clay. About twenty miles east of Manzana in 
 Valencia County are immense salt lakes, containing large 
 deposits of excellent white salt, to be had for the carting. 
 
 The agricultural resources of New Mexico are as varied 
 
266 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 and valuable as are her mineral productions. The inex- 
 haustible fecundity of the Rio Grande valley is owing to 
 the spring and summer overflow of the river, by which 
 immense quantities of rich mud are distributed through 
 the hundreds of irrigating ditches over the cultivated lands,, 
 adding yearly to its fertility ; all the fruits and vegetables 
 common to the semi-tropical and temperate zones are pro- 
 duced here, rivaling in size and excelling in flavor the 
 famed productions of California. The grape-growing belt 
 extends from the northern line of Bernalillo County, 
 through Valencia and Socorro, and to Dona Ana County, 
 the southern boundary of the Territory ; the mission variety 
 of grape, supposed to have been introduced from Spain by 
 the Franciscan friars, is the one usually cultivated ; it is 
 very fruitful and contains abundance of juice. The wine 
 produced is of considerable alcoholic strength, and an ex- 
 cellent quality of brandy is manufactured from the lees 
 after the wine has been racked off. Small fruits flourish 
 within the same radius ; the fruit trees — cherries, apricots, 
 peaches, plums, pears, and apples — are successfully culti- 
 vated through the valleys of the Rio Grande and the Fecos, 
 along the higher lands oa either side, and over an exten- 
 sive range north of Bernalillo County. All vegetables, with 
 the exception of Irish potatoes, grow to perfection in these 
 valleys ; the native onion is famous for its size and flavor, 
 excelling the Bermuda and of better shape ; the celery is 
 of peculiarly tine flavor, and all the vegetables, like those 
 of California, grow to a great size. 
 
 Wheat, barley, rye, oats, and Irish potatoes are success- 
 fully cultivated, without artificial irrigation, in the mountain 
 districts ; the cei-eals being produced in a dry climate the 
 grain comes to a perfect head and is very full ; corn has 
 always been one of the prime food staples of the country. 
 Most grasses do well, timothy making from two to three 
 tons to the acre ; but the wealth producing crop is alfalfa, 
 or California clover, which yields prodigiously, being cut 
 from three to five times a year and producing from one to 
 two tons of hay per acre at each cutting. Its nutritious 
 
TEN TEAKS OP PEOGEESS. 267 
 
 qualities are also remarkable, stock fed upon it fattening 
 as rapidly as that which is corn fed and furnishing meat 
 equally firm and well iiavored. Two other native New 
 Mexican plants are amole and canaigre ; the former, known 
 also as soapweed and palmilla, has long been used in the 
 Territory in the washing of woolen and cotton fabrics, and 
 has acquired considerable commercial value ; canaigre is 
 the local name for the root botanically known as Rumex 
 Hymeno Sep alum ; it contains a considerable proportion of 
 tannic acid, and recent experiments demonstrate that it is 
 of value in the preparation of leather. 
 
 Although necessarily modified by the increasing agri- 
 cultural and mineral value of the land, stock raising will 
 always remain one of the great industries of New Mexico. 
 The vast tracts, covered with rich native grasses which cure 
 upon the ground, and in that dry atmosphere retain all 
 their nutritious qualities, and the mildness of the winter, 
 which admits of the stock feeding upon the ranges during 
 the entire year, render the Territory peculiarly suitable to 
 the raising of sheep, cattle, and horses. Sheep raising was 
 formerly the prime industry, but the depreciation in the 
 price of wool and the steady advance in the value of cattle, 
 has turned the attention of ranchmen in the latter direc- 
 tion. Increased atteni;ion is being given to the breeding of 
 both sheep and cattle, and there has been a large introduc- 
 tion of fine imported shorthorn and Hereford bulls and 
 Merino bucks ; as this is pre-eminently a breeding country, 
 owing to the equable climate, the stock multiplies with a 
 rapidity not experienced in more northern latitudes. 
 
 The eastern and southern portions of San Miguel County, 
 watered by the Canadian and Pecos rivers, where grass, 
 shelter, and water are combined, afford one of the finest 
 stock ranges in the Territory. Rio Arriba County also pos- 
 sesses all the natural advantages essential to successful 
 stocfeT raising. In Mora County, where the greater part of 
 the prairie district is sheltered by long belts of pinons 
 and cedars running along the crests of the hills, stock rais- 
 ing is the principal industry; in 1885 there were 75,000 
 
■268 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 liead of cattle, 125,000 sheep, 10,000 goats, and 1500 horses 
 pasturing there, the latter thriving particularly well on the 
 .grasses of the high table-lands and coming out in the spring 
 in fine condition, without other feed or protection through 
 the winter than what the mesas afforded. Lincoln is also 
 a prime stock-raising county, the pasturage being so plenti- 
 ful that sheep and cattle feeding there are fit to market at 
 any season of the year. The valleys of the San Simon and 
 the Animas, in the southwestern portion of Grant County, 
 are noted for abundant pasturage ; while the mesa lands in 
 the northern and eastern portion, covered with a rank 
 growth of the grama grasses and possessing springs and 
 streams, afford fine grazing ranges, where in 1883 were 
 15,871 cattle and 828,400 sheep. On the rich mesa tracts of 
 Bernalillo County 475,000 sheep and 41,700 cattle grazed 
 in 1883. 
 
 Stock raising is one of the profitable industries of Dona 
 Ana County, where the mesas abound in different varieties 
 of the grama — a grass resembling the buffalo grass of 
 •Colorado but much superior. Socoito County, estimated 
 to contain 4,000,000 acres of grazing lands possessed of 
 water privileges and frontage, afforded pasturage to 9000 
 head of cattle and 300,000 sheep in 1882 ; in 1884 there 
 were 70,000 cattle and only 100,000. sheep. The decrease 
 in sheep is attributed to the fact that the county presents 
 •especial advantages for the raising of cattle and horses, 
 while the low price of wool exercised a depressing effect 
 upon sheep raising. Valencia County also offers first-class 
 opportunities to the stock farmer. Colfax County covers 
 an area of about 7000 square miles, half of which affords 
 excellent grazing ; in 1883 it had 187,000 cattle and 86,000 
 sheep. Taos, one of the best watered and timbered regions 
 of the Territory, also affords many fine ranges. In 1885 
 New Mexico stood fourth in the production of wool in the 
 United States, Texas leading with 47,742,000 pounds; 
 -California, 37,318,000; Ohio, 30,000,000; New Mexico, 
 26,610,000. Governor Prince, in his annual message for 
 
TEN YEAES OP PROGRESS. 269> 
 
 1889, estimated tlie number of cattle in the Territory at 
 1,127,529, all reports not yet in, and the sheep at 1,339,790. 
 
 Timber abounds in New Mexico and is easily attain- 
 able ; it consists of hard and soft pine, spruce, Cottonwood,, 
 cedar, and piiion — the latter especially valuable for fire- 
 wood ; ash, oak, maple, and black walnut are also found. 
 The finest timber section of the Territory is Taos, whicb 
 contains many saw-mills and turns out immense quantities- 
 of lumber ; on the Tierra Amarilla grant, in this county, 
 there are five mills producing an average of 125,000 feet of 
 lumber per day ; the Petaca and Vallecito grants, adjoin- 
 ing the Tierra Amarilla, are also abundantly timbered. 
 
 The preceding brief and condensed account of the- 
 resources of New Mexico gives but a faint idea of the 
 natural wealth of the Territory, for the country is as yet 
 an undeveloped one, and its abundance of crude material 
 has neither been understood nor appreciated. During the 
 last ten years a gradual awakening on this subject lias 
 taken place, and when this awakening becomes general,, 
 when the vague and erroneous impressions regarding our 
 New Southwest shall have disappeared from the East, the 
 country will be seen in its true light and its value will be- 
 recognized. None of our Territories possess a more remark- 
 able and attractive history ;■ none have a greater or more- 
 glowing future. With the prospect of almost immediate 
 statehood ; with a constantly growing population and an 
 increase and extension of railroads ; with the adoption of 
 new and improved methods of irrigation and the settle- 
 ment of Spanish and Mexican land grants, he would be a 
 bold prophet indeed who should limit the possibilities of 
 New Mexico. 
 
 THE END. 
 
AUTHORITIES OOITSULTED. 
 
 Abert, J. W. — Report of liis Examination of New Mexico. 
 Appleton's American Encyclopaedia. 
 
 Annual Encyclopedia, 1878-1890. 
 Bancroft, H. H.— Histw-y of New Mexico and Arizona. 
 
 History of the North Mexican States and Texas. 
 History of Mexico. 
 History of California. 
 Native Races of the Pacific States. 
 BAiroELiBR, A. F. — Kin and Clan. 
 
 Bartlbtt, J. R. — Personal Narrative of Explorations, etc. 
 Beadle, J. H. — "Western Wilds. 
 
 Bbnzoni, Girolamo.— History of the New World (Hakluyt Society). 
 BouRKE, J. G. — Apache Campaign. 
 
 Brbtookt, Elias.— New Mexico, her Natural Resources, etc. 
 BuRDETT, Charles. — Life of Kit Carson. 
 Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine. 
 CHEVALrsR.- — Mexico, Ancient and Modern. 
 Clatigero, Abbe F. S.— History of Mexico. 
 CooKB, P. St. Gborsb. — Conquest of New Mexico and California. 
 
 " " " Scenes in the Army. 
 
 CozzBS-s, S. W. — Marvelous Country. 
 Cremony, J. C. — Life among the Apaches. 
 CusHiNG, F. H. —My Adventures in Zuni. 
 Davis, W. W. H. — Spanish Conquest of New Mexico. 
 
 " " " El Gringo. 
 DuNsr, J. P. — Massacres of the Mountains. 
 Emort, W. H. — Notes of a Military Reconnoissance. 
 Frost, John. — The Mexican War and its Warriors. 
 Gregg, Josiah. — Commerce of the Prairies. 
 Hayes, A. A. — New Colorado and the Santa Fe Trail. 
 
 " " The New Mexican Campaign of 1863. 
 
 Harpers' New Monthly Magazine. 
 Harpers' Weekly. 
 
 Helps, Arthur. — The Spanish Conquest in America. 
 Howitt, Mary. — History of the United States. 
 Hughes, J. T. — Doniphan's Expedition. 
 Ingersoll, Ernest. — Crest of the Continent. 
 
 371 
 
373 AUTHORITIES CONSULTED. 
 
 iRvrfTG, Theodoeb. — Conquest of Florida. 
 
 Kendall, G. W. — The Texas Santa Fe Expedition. 
 
 Kbkk, RoBBiiT. — Collection of Voyages and Travels. 
 
 Labbbkton, Robert. — Historical Atlas. 
 
 Ladd, H. L.— The "War with Mexico. 
 
 Latrobe, C. J. — Rambler in Mexico. 
 
 LossiNG, B. J. — Pictorial History of the Civil War. 
 
 Magazine of American History. 
 
 Mayee, Brantz. — Mexico ; Aztec, Spanish, and Republican. 
 
 " " Mexico, New Mexico, and California. 
 
 " " Mexico as it is and was. 
 
 Mblinb, J. F. — Two Thousand Miles on Horseback. 
 New Mexican Resources. Pamphlet Prepared for the Territorial 
 
 Fair, Santa Fe, 1881. 
 New York Daily Times. 
 New York Daily Tribnne. 
 
 NizA, Marcos de. — Relation of (Hakluyt Society). 
 Overland Monthly for November, 1888. 
 Peters, D. C. — Life of Kit Carson. 
 
 PiKB, Zebulon M. — Exploratory Travels (London edition, 1811). 
 Peescott, W. H. — Conquest of Mexico. 
 Prince, L. Beadpoed. — Historical Sketches of New Mexico. 
 Publications of the New Mexico Bureau of Immigration. 
 Rand, McNallt & Co.— Atlas of the World. 
 
 " " " Overland Gruide. 
 
 Richardson, A. D. — Beyond the Mississippi. 
 RiDEiNG, W. A. — A'saddle in the Wild West. 
 Ripley, R. S. — The War with Mexico. 
 Ritoh, W. G. — Aztlan. 
 
 " " Legislative Blue-Book. 
 
 RuxTON, G. F. — Adventures in Mexico. 
 Life in the Far West. 
 Smith, Buckingham.— Relation of Cabepa de Vaca. 
 Smucker, S. M.— Life and Explorations of J. C. Frgmont. 
 U. S. Gov. Doc's.— Messages of Govs. Sheldon, Ross, and Prince^ 
 
 " " Report of the Land OfiBce. 
 
 Wallace, Susan.- The Land of the Pueblos. 
 Whipple, A. W.— Report of Explorations. 
 Yoakum, H. — History of Texas. 
 
374 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 
 
 L. BEADFOED PEINCE 
 
 Was bom at Flushing on the 3d of July, 1840. He 
 is a lineal descendant on the maternal side of Governor 
 William Bradford, of Plymouth, one of the " men of the 
 Mayflower," and had for great-grandfather and grand- 
 father respectively Governors Bradford and Collins of 
 Ehode Island. His paternal ancestors are the well-known 
 Prince family of Long Island. 
 
 Owing to delicate health much of his early life ^vas 
 passed in the South. As he grew to manhood he engaged 
 in horticultural pursuits at his father's place in Flushing,, 
 but after a short experience abandoned this line of em- 
 ployment to study law. Entering Columbia College Law 
 School, he passed through the course with special honor, 
 and upon graduating received the $200 prize in political 
 science. 
 
 From his youth he was exceedingly active in all mat- 
 ters affecting the welfare and improvement of his native 
 town. In 1858 he originated the Flushing Library As- 
 sociation, obtaining the first subscriptions, drawing its 
 constitution, acting three years as secretary and afterward 
 as president, and from that time until his departure to 
 New Mexico was the leading spirit in all local public 
 affairs. 
 
 Very early in life he developed an extraordinary apti- 
 tude for political matters, and the activity he displayed 
 
 375 
 
276 mSTOKY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 in his district during the Fremont campaign won for him 
 a vote of thanks from the town clnb, of M^hich his age — 
 he was then but a lad of sixteen — prevented his becom- 
 ing a member. In the canvass of 1860, though still a 
 a minor, he was secretary of the local political organ- 
 ization, and worked enthusiastically for the success of the 
 Lincoln ticket. In 1861 he was chosen a member of the 
 Hepublican county committee of Queens County, on 
 ■which he served continuously almost twenty years, during 
 several of which he was its secretary and chairman. He 
 Avas delegate to all State conventions, during the years 
 from 1866 to 1878, with scarcely an exception; was 
 elected a delegate to the National Republican Convention 
 held at Chicago in 1868, which nominated Gren. Grant, 
 and the following year became a member of the State 
 committee. The political labors of Mr. Prince at this 
 period wei'e all the more honorable from the fact that 
 they were pursued merely as a matter of principle, and 
 without the least expectation of personal advancement, 
 the district in which he resided being strongly Demo- 
 cratic. His qualifications for filling a responsible position 
 were, however, too apparent to be neglected, and in 1870 
 he was elected to the Assembly, members of all parties 
 joining in his support. In 1871 he was re-elected to the 
 Assembly by a large majority, although his opponent 
 was the strongest Democrat in the district and an ex- 
 perienced legislator, who had already served both in the 
 Assembly and in the Senate. The following year he 
 received the extraordinary compliment of a request for 
 his continuance in office, signed by more than two thou- 
 sand voters, irrespective of party (being a petition over 
 seventy feet long), and, having been nominated by accla- 
 mation, was re-elected without opposition. In 1873, 
 having declined a nomination to the Senate, he was again 
 
BIOGEAPHICAL SKETCHES. 277 
 
 returned to the Assembly without an opposing candidate. 
 In the fall of 1874 the Democrats made a determined 
 effort to redeem the district, which now for four years 
 had been lost to their party, and placed the Hon. Solomon 
 Townsend — who had served three terms in the Legis- 
 lature and in the constitutional conventions of 18-1:6 and 
 1867 — in opposition to Mr. Prince. The canvass was an 
 exciting one, but resulted in a victory for Mr. Prince, 
 who secured a majority of 771 votes. There is believed 
 to be no other instance on record of a person being elected 
 five successive times in a district politically opposed to 
 him. In the canvass of 1875 Mr. Prince received the 
 Republican nomination for the Senate, and, although the 
 Democrats were successful in the district on the general 
 ticket by nearly 2700 majority, he won the election by a 
 majority of 904, running 3594 ahead of the ticket. The 
 legislative career of Mr. Prince was an exceedingly useful 
 and highly honorable one. In 1872, 1873 and 1874 he 
 was chairman of the judiciary committee, performing the 
 multifarious and arduous duties in the most creditable 
 manner, and rendering valuable service to the State. 
 While filling this position, over 1100 bills came 
 into his hands for reports — a larger number than were 
 ever submitted to any other committee, either State or 
 national, in a similar length of time. During the winter 
 of 1872 it became his duty to conduct the investigation: 
 into the official condiict of Judges Barnard, Cardozo, and 
 McCunn. This investigation extended from the middle 
 of February to about the middle of April, during which 
 time 239 witnesses were examined, and over 2400 pages 
 of evidence taken. The thoroughness and fairness with 
 which the investigation was conducted won the approval 
 of fair-minded persons of all shades of political belief,, 
 and its results form one of the brightest pages in the 
 
278 niSTOKY OF new Mexico. 
 
 history of the recent "reform movement." The reports 
 of the committee in favor of impeaching two of the 
 judges and removing the other met with general public 
 acquiescence, and were adopted by the House, and Mr. 
 Prince was chosen one of the managers to conduct the 
 impeachment trial, receiving 110 out of 113 votes cast on 
 the ballot in the Assembly. He was also appointed to 
 proceed to the bar of the Senate and foi'mally impeach 
 Judge Barnard of high crimes and misdemeanors. He 
 was active in the matter till the close of the trial, and it 
 has been generally conceded that to no other man is the 
 judiciary of the State so much indebted for being relieved 
 of the disgrace that would have attended the retention 
 of Barnard and Cardozo on the bench. The recent 
 amendments to the constitution of the State received from 
 Mr. Prince special attention. In 1872 he introduced, and 
 succeeded in getting passed, the bill for the constitutional 
 commission. During the sessions of 1873 and 1874 he 
 had charge of the proposed amendments, both in com- 
 mittee and in the Assembly, and the task of explaining 
 and defending them fell almost exclusively to his lot. 
 Just previous to these amendments being submitted to 
 the people for ratification — in the fall of 1874 — Mr. 
 Prince, at the request of the Council of Political Eeform, 
 wrote a pamphlet on the subject, which -was widely circu- 
 lated as a campaign document, and tended largely to 
 their success at the polls. In the session of 1875 he pre- 
 pared and introduced nearly all the bills required to 
 carry the new constitutional system into effect, that work 
 being assigned to him by general consent, although the 
 Assembly was Democratic. 
 
 While in the Legislature Mr. Prince gave special atten- 
 tion to the canal system of the State and the question of 
 transportation from the West to the seaboard. He made 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 279 
 
 several speeches on this subject in the Assembly, as well as 
 at the organization of the Cheap Transportation Associa- 
 tion at Cooper Institute in 1874, and at the Produce 
 Exchange meeting in 1875. The New York Chamber of 
 Commerce twice formally acknowledged these services to 
 the mercantile community by votes of thanks. In 1874 
 he was chairman of the Assembly committee to conduct 
 the United States Senate Committee on Transportation 
 Routes through the State, and performed that duty in 
 September of that year. At different times during 1874 
 and 1875 he lectured on this subject of transportation in 
 New York, Albany, Troy, Poughkeepsie, etc. 
 
 In May, 1876, Mr. Prince was a member of the Na- 
 tional Republican Convention which nominated Hayes 
 and Wheeler. In 1877, though tendered a unanimous 
 renomination to the Senate, he declined to serve again, 
 on the ground that he could not afford longer to neglect 
 his private business. 
 
 Mr. Prince's reputation is not, however, confined to the 
 field of politics. As a lawyer he occupies a high position, 
 his clear, incisive reasoning power and rare ability as an 
 advocate rendering him eminently successful. In 1868 he 
 was chosen orator of the Alumni Association of the Co- 
 lumbia College Law School, and for two years was presi- 
 dent of the association. In 1876, having again been 
 chosen alumni orator, he delivered an oration in the Acad- 
 emy of Music on " The Duties of Citizenship," enforcing 
 the idea that men of character and education should take 
 the lead in political affairs. 
 
 Mr. Prince is well known also as a thoughtful writer 
 and lecturer on various topics, among which those relating 
 to legislative and governmental reform have attracted 
 wide attention. 
 
 A work from his pen entitled " E Pkoribus Unum, or 
 
280 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 American Nationality," a comparison between the consti- 
 tution and the articles of confederation, passed through 
 several editions in 1868 and received the warmest com- 
 mendations from statesmen and political scientists. In 
 1880 a Chicago firm published a work of Mr. Prince's on 
 a somewhat similar subject, entitled "A Nation or a 
 Lea2;ue." 
 
 As a speaker he is well known throughout the State^ 
 having been active in the general political canvass every 
 year when not himself a candidate, and in 1876 speaking 
 over forty consecutives nights, from Rochester and Sala- 
 manca to Plattsburg and Brooklyn. 
 
 He is also a prominent member of the Masonic frater- 
 nity, having been district deputy grand master of Queens 
 and Suffolk counties for the years 1868, 1869, and 18T0, 
 and again in 1876. In 1877 he was appointed on the 
 grand master's staff as grand standard bearer. He is now 
 grand representative of New Mexico to the grand lodge 
 of New York. 
 
 Mr. Prince has always taken a very lively interest in 
 all that pertains to the best interests of the farming com- 
 munity, and has delivered a number of addresses before the 
 various agricultural societies throughout the State — more 
 notably those of Saratoga, St. Lawrence, Tioga, Orleans,, 
 Suffolk, and Cattaraugus counties. For ten years he was 
 superintendent or director of the Queens County Agricul- 
 tural Society, and in 1862 wrote an agricultural history of 
 the county, which was published by that society. He is 
 also a life member of the Long Island Historical Society, 
 and for fifteen years — from 1864 to 1879 — was an ofiicer 
 in that learned body. 
 
 During 1879, without any application or request, Mr. 
 Prince was offered various appointments, including two 
 in foreign countries, the marshalship of New York, the 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 281 
 
 governorsliip of Idaho, and the chief Justiceship of New 
 Mexico. The latter he declined three times, but finally, 
 at the urgent request of Secretary Evarts and the Depart- 
 ment of Justice, consented to accept and left for his 
 new home February 1, 1879. 
 
 He reached New Mexico on the first Saturday of Febru- 
 ary and opened court at Santa F6 on the following Mon- 
 day. The district then embraced all of the territory 
 north of Bernalillo, and before the advent of railroads 
 was a literal " circuit," as the court traveled from county 
 to county in carriages, crossing the Rocky Mountains 
 from Cimarron to Taos and returning to Santa Fe, after 
 many weeks, by way of Rio Arriba. Owing to the influx 
 of population at the opening of the railroad, the business 
 of the district was much larger during the period of Judge 
 Prince's judicial term than ever before or since, but by 
 administrative ability and an extraordinary capacity for 
 work he cleared the docket of old cases and kept abreast of 
 the new business. Great pains were taken by the judge in 
 the selection of the most competent jurors, and the people 
 of the district recognized an absolute impartiality in the 
 court, which they highly appreciated. The first act of 
 the Legislature of 1882 was the passage by a unanimous 
 vote in each house, of resolutions exceedingly complimen- 
 tary to the chief justice. In May of that year he 
 resigned in order to become a candidate for Congress, 
 but he continued to act as judge until the following 
 August. To show what was accomplished during the 
 three and one half years that he occupied the bench, we 
 quote the following extract from his letter of resignation : 
 " The Court calendars have been cleared of the accumu- 
 lated business; no less than 1184 civil and 1483 criminal 
 cases have been finally disposed of during the seven 
 circuits which I have held. The critical period surround- 
 
:282 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 ing the coming of the first railroad is ended and good order 
 and prosperity everywhere prevail." At the Republican 
 Convention in September, 1882, Judge Prince's nomination 
 was defeated ; he generously accepted his defeat, however, 
 and magnanimously moved the unanimous nomination 
 of his opponent ; but the party was so highly incensed at 
 the course pursued at the convention, that for the first time 
 in many years a Democratic candidate was elected. In 
 1884 he was again proposed for nomination and was 
 heartily sustained by the progressive element of the peo- 
 ple ; at the Territorial convention of that year he was 
 nominated ; owing to an opposition ticket having been 
 put in the field, growing out of a political feud in San 
 Miguel County, an election under these circumstances 
 was impossible. Judge Prince, however, made a cam- 
 paign of wonderful vigor, speaking in all parts of the 
 Territory and resolutely refusing, as the standard bearer 
 of the party, to take any step which would impair the 
 future of Republicans in New Mexico ; he received a vote 
 ■of 9930 against 12,271 for Joseph, and 5T92for Rynerson. 
 In 1880 he drew the act for the organization of the 
 Bureau of Immigration, and when that board organized 
 he was elected President and held that position for a 
 number of years. He was one of the organizers of the 
 Territorial Historical Society in 1880, and in 1882 he was 
 elected president of that society, Avhich position he has held 
 up to the present day and has devoted to this institution 
 much time and attention. In 1881 he was elected Presi- 
 dent of the University of New Mexico, and has continued to 
 hold that position by successive elections to the present day. 
 When the Tertio Millennial Celebration was organized 
 in 1882 he was elected first vice-president, and in that posi- 
 tion worked actively for the success of that wonderful 
 •exhibition until its close in August, 1883. He was at one 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 283 
 
 time president of the Santa Fe Board of Trade, and in 
 1887 lie was chosen presiding officer of " The United 
 Miners of New Mexico, " a territorial mining organization. 
 Through all this period he was the enthusiastic friend 
 and advocate of his adopted home, and by addresses 
 when in the East, and frequent newspaper communica- 
 tions and interviews, he did a great deal toward remov- 
 ing prejudices and adding to the good reputation of New 
 Mexico. On the 2d of April, 1889, he was appointed 
 governor of the Territory by President Harrison, and 
 was inaugurated in front of the capital on April 17. 
 The demonstration on this occasion was by far the largest 
 ever known in New Mexico, a great procession escorting 
 him from the depot and about 5000 persons being pres- 
 ent at the ceremony. 
 
 Gov. Prince is indeed a man of whom the Territory 
 may well be proud and of whom it may be said, " His 
 aims are noble and his methods just." He has been a 
 leader in public thought, an authority in law and legisla- 
 tion, and there are few instances where a single mind has 
 impressed itself so strongly upon the affairs of the people 
 as his. He is a man of great and simple nature, of high 
 intellectual powers, of sober and solid judgment, and 
 he has brought to the executive qffice a well trained 
 mind and a keenness of perception in financial matters 
 that qualify him to make a successful and popular 
 ^executive. 
 
284 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO, 
 
 J. G. ABKEU, 
 
 Bom in Santa Fe, N. M., September 1, 1823. He re- 
 ceived a limited education, but traveled extensively all 
 over tlie United States, thus acquiring a knowledge not 
 otherwise obtained. He was employed by Mr. McCoy, 
 of Kentucky, as a clerk in his business house for four 
 years. Later he went to New Mexico, but returned to- 
 Kentucky ; here he was left in charge of some mules, but, 
 the party not returning, young Abreu gave them in pay- 
 ment for his debts contracted there. He then went to- 
 Independence, Mo., and out of his earnings, fifty cents a 
 day, he saved sufficient money to pay for his schooling.. 
 In 1848 he removed to Denver, Col., and engaged in the- 
 merchantile business, being one of the first there. He 
 remained in Denver one year, then returned to New 
 Mexico, settling at Rayado, his present residence. He 
 was married November 26, 1859, to Miss Petra Baubien, 
 the youngest daughter of Don Carlos Baubien, one of 
 the original heirs of the Maxwell Land Grant. They 
 have had twelve children, nine of whom are now li^dng. 
 His father, Santiago Abreu, was at one time Governor of 
 New Mexico and held many positions of honor and trust. 
 He was one of the most enterprising citizens in the 
 Territory. He was killed during the New Mexico revo- 
 lution in 1837. 
 
 JOHN R. McFIE, 
 
 Born in Washington County, Illinois, October 9, 1845> 
 He received an education afforded by the common schools 
 of his native town, and was graduated in law at an early 
 
DON JESUS G. ABRBU, KATADO, N. M. 
 
 285 
 
MBS. JESUS G. ABBETI, BATADO, N. M. 
 
 287 
 
BIOGJiAPIIICAL SKETCHES. 289 
 
 age. In the fall of 1863 he entered the service of the 
 United States Army as a volunteer, and in 1864 enlisted in 
 Company E, Thirtieth Illinois infantrj^, serving under Gen. 
 Sherman in his celebrated " March to the Sea," and in the 
 army, under different commands, until the close of the 
 war. Directly after the war he engaged in the mercan- 
 tile business in Collinville, Eandolph County, III, con- 
 tinuing the same for five years. Soon after his admission 
 to the bar, he commenced the practice of law in Chester, 
 III, where he resided for fourteen years, meeting with 
 fair success. In 1878 he was elected to the Illinois Legis- 
 lature during an intermediate term, and Avas re-elected in 
 1881 and 1882. During the canvass of John A. Logan 
 for the U. S. Senate, Judge McFie rendered him very valu- 
 able service, and also contributed largely to the successes 
 of other prominent candidates foi- important offices in the 
 State of Illinois. In February, 1884, he was appointed by 
 President Arthur register of the land office at Las Cruces, 
 N. M., and he removed there and took charge of the office 
 in March, 1884, servinguntil December, 1885. In January, 
 1886, he formed a partnership with Judge S. P. Newcomb, 
 one of the ablest lawyers in the Territory, and remained a 
 member of the fii-m of Newcomb & McFie until he was^ 
 appointed Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of 
 New Mexico by President Hari'ison, March 19, 1889. He 
 was mariied October 9, 18T6, to Miss Mary Steel of Illi- 
 nois. Judge McFie has always been an outspoken, ener- 
 getic Republican in politics, and during his brief resi- 
 dence in New Mexico has greatly endeared himself to the 
 people by his fair-minded and liberal acts. He is an in- 
 fluential citizen of Las Cruces, and a man of whom that 
 city may be justly proud. 
 
290 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 DON JUAN CRISTOBEL ARMIJO, 
 
 "Who for many years held a prominent position among- 
 the distinguished men of New Mexico, was born in Al- 
 burquerque, N. M., in the year 1810. In 1830 he was 
 married to a daughter of Gov. F. X. Chaves, the wealth- 
 iest Spaniard in the country. During his lifetime he 
 was tendered many important and honorable offices, all 
 of which he held to the entire satisfaction of his constitu- 
 ents. He was several times elected to the New Mexico 
 Legislature, and was deemed by all who knew him a 
 man of rare worth and intelligence. In early years he 
 started in the general merchandise business, bringing his 
 goods into Mexico direct from the States ; he followed 
 this business for many years and succeeded in building a 
 large fortune. He distinguished himself in the revolu- 
 tion of '37 as a brave and valiant soldier; and in 1840 
 he was sent with a regiment of volunteers to the Navajo 
 country ; in this campaign he was most successful, cap- 
 turing about 90 prisoners, 500 horses, and 25,000 head of 
 sheep Avhich' had been stolen by the Navajo Indians. 
 In later years he made several expeditions against the 
 Indians, in all of which he met with success. Don Armijo 
 died at the advanced age of seventy years. He has three 
 sons living, all men of high standing and wealthy. 
 
 DON ANTONIO y A. ABEYTIA, 
 
 Born in Santa F6 in the year 1832, his parents being 
 Diego Abeytia and Josefita Armijo, whose forefathers 
 were among the first Spanish settlers of New Mexico. 
 Don Antonio was educated in Santa Fe, and in 1861 he 
 took up arms in defense of his country, and for bravery 
 
HON. JNO. K. MoPIB, LAS CEUCBS, N. M. 
 
 391 
 
15I0GRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 293 
 
 and meritorious services was promoted from the first and 
 second lieutenancy to the position of captain of a com- 
 pany. In 1871 he married Rufina Vigil, the widowed 
 daughter of Don Manuel Vigil. Shortly after the wed- 
 ding, he took up his residence in Socorro, where he re- 
 mained up to the time of his death. In 1875 Mr. Abey- 
 tia was elected senator for Socorro County, and at differ- 
 ent periods filled other prominent positions of public 
 trust, such as county commissioner, etc., being at the 
 time of his death a member of the capitol commission. 
 He was one of the largest property holders in Socorro. 
 His death occurred December 19, 1885, and his funeral 
 was attended by representatives from the entire Territory. 
 At the time of his death he was president of the Socorro 
 County Bank. His liberality and public spirit won for 
 him the respect and confidence of the entire people. 
 These few lines are but a fitting tribute to one of New 
 Mexico's noblest and most valued citizens. 
 
 FELIPE DELGADO. 
 
 Don Felipe Delgado, son of Don Manuel Delgado 
 and Maria de la Luz Baca, of Ortiz, was born at Cerillos, 
 N. M., May 1, 1829. His educational advantages were 
 of the best during his youth, and his life has been wholly 
 spent within his native Territory. In 1853 he married 
 Dona Benigna Garcia y Romero, of Santa F6 ; they have 
 had thirteen children, only six of whom are now living : 
 Maria-de-la-Luz, Antonio, Manuela, Jose, Emilio, and 
 Alfredo. Don Delgado has been in public life more or 
 less since 1856, when he was elected treasurer of Santa 
 Fe County. During the years 1863, 1872, and 1880 he 
 represented Santa Fe County in the Territorial Legislature. 
 In 1865 Gov. Connelly appointed him Territorial treas-' 
 
294 HISTORY OP NEW MEXICO. 
 
 urer; but he soon resigned this office to take that of 
 Superintendent of Indian Affairs, having been commis- 
 sioned by President Lincoln. In 1867 he was reap- 
 pointed Territorial treasurer by Governor Mitchell, and 
 again in '68. In 1878 he was elected probate judge of 
 Santa Fe County; he served his term, and in 1878 was re- 
 elected, and is now holding the same office. He is a hard 
 worker and devotes much time to his official duties, and has 
 proved himself worthy of the confidence reposed in him. 
 
 ANGUS A. GRANT. 
 
 Among the enterprising men of Bernallilo County, 
 and Alburquerque in particular, none occupies a more 
 prominent position than A. A. Grant. Born in Canada 
 in the year 1843, we find him to-day, a man forty-seven 
 years of age, in the prime of life, and, endowed with 
 native ability coupled with the successful results of his 
 labor, he stands a fitting example of honest endeavor, 
 energy, and ambition. When twenty years old he left 
 home and went to Kansas. For the next fourteen years 
 he engaged in railroad bridge building, and other occupa- 
 tions in that State and in Colorado, in all of which he 
 was successful. He then came to Alburquerque, N. M., 
 in which city he now resides. He at once engaged in 
 railroad contracting and building, his present business. 
 In 1883 he erected the Alburquerque Opera House, at a 
 cost of $50,000. In 1883 he also organized the Electric 
 Light Co. In 1884, he built the Alburquerque reservoir, 
 at a cost of $110,000, which furnishes a water supply of 
 3,000,000 gallons per day. Since then he has assisted in 
 the organization of a new street railway and a wool 
 scouring mill. He is a worthy citizen and is honored 
 and respected by all. 
 
DON JUAN CRISTOBBL ARMIJO, LAS CRUCES, N, M. 
 
 395 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 297 
 
 WARREN BRISTOL, 
 
 A man of sterling worth, and a well-known citizen of 
 Deming, N. M., was born Marcli 9, 1825, in New York 
 State. He received an academic education, studied law, 
 and was admitted to the bar in Lockport, N. Y. In the 
 autumn of 1850 he removed to Minnesota and practiced 
 his profession in that State until the spring of 1872. He 
 ~was elected several times to public offices but was forced 
 to resign owing to failing health, the result of overwork. 
 In 1872 he came to New Mexico, settling first in Mes- 
 silla, where he accepted the appointment of Justice of 
 the supreme court, holding this honorable position eleven 
 years. In 1885 he changed his residence to Deming, N. 
 M., his present home, where he now stands a highly 
 respected and influential citizen. He is president of the 
 Deming Land and Cattle Co. He has always endeav- 
 ored to do his duty honestly and faithfully and has 
 won the confidence and esteem of his neighbors and 
 friends. 
 
 NESTOR ARMIJO 
 
 Has almost completed his allotted three-score years 
 and ten, and yet he is so wonderfully preserved as to 
 look not a day older than fifty-five. He is a man of 
 average height, splendid build, a quick eye, sturdy and 
 impetuous in temperament, an entertaining conversation- 
 alist, and a man whose imposing address and general 
 bearing will always command attention in a multitude. 
 There is probably no citizen of New Mexico more well 
 and favorably known than he, and a sketch of his career, 
 such as it justly merits, will prove of deep interest to our 
 
298 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 readers. Having been a resident of New Mexico all his 
 life, he is familiar, by active participation, witli many of 
 the most stirring events in this Territory's earlier history. 
 
 Nestor Armijo, of ancient Spanish lineage, was born 
 in Albnrquerque in the year 1831. When nine years of 
 age, he was sent to the St. Louis University to receive 
 his education ; he remained in this institution until 1846, 
 when his father sent for him, and to increase his son's 
 knowledge by practical application, he was allowed to 
 accompany his father on business trips to and from the 
 States. 
 
 In this way young Armijo acquired a knowledge, 
 both of business and of the world, not otherwise to be 
 obtained, and soon was enabled to conduct a business of 
 his own, which he continued with success for several 
 years, when he engaged in the banking business in Chi- 
 hauhau. Old Mexico. In the year 1851, he was married 
 to Miss Josef a Yrisarri, the accomplished daughter of 
 Don Mariana Yrisarri, one of the wealthiest Mexicans of 
 Alburquerque. In the revolution of 1872, Mr. Armijo 
 deemed it unsafe to remain in Chihauhau, and accord- 
 ingly removed with his family to Las Cruces, N. M., 
 his present residence. Large amounts of money had 
 been loaned out in Old Mexico, and he was obliged to 
 leave valuable real estate in his ilight ; his property has 
 since been recovered. Upon reaching Las Cruces, he 
 soon engaged again in the banking business. He now 
 speculates in real estate and stock, and loans money ; in 
 all of which enterprises, he has been remarkably success- 
 ful and has amassed a large fortune. He is in vigorous 
 health, both physical and mental, and is still capable of 
 performing any duty to which he might be called in the 
 future. 
 
DON ANTONIO T ABBYTIA, SOCORRO, N. M. 
 
 399 
 
It 'm 
 
 -V-"^- 
 ^^J. 
 
 
 301 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 303 
 
 JUDGE JOSE y ESQUIBEL. 
 
 .The character of the man whose name heads this 
 article is one to which justice cannot be done in a short 
 sketch of the principal events of his life. He is a man 
 of brisk mental qualities and great force, with refined 
 attainments and an honorable reputation that extends to 
 every corner of the Territory. He is a native New Mexi- 
 can, having been born February 1, 1824, in Santa Fe. 
 He received a collegiate education in his native city, and 
 in Chihuahua, Mexico. Upon leaving school, he engaged 
 in freighting from Independence, Mo., to Santa Fe ; this 
 he continued for several years and was quite successful. 
 During Ms later years he remarried in New Mexico 
 and has faithfully discharged the duties imposed on him 
 by the acceptance of such responsible offices as justice 
 of the peace, county treasurer, and county commissioner, 
 which positions have been tendered him by the apprecia- 
 tive residents of San Miguel County. 
 
 J. FRANCO CHAVES. 
 
 There is probably no member of the legal profession 
 better or more favorably known throughout this Ter- 
 ritory than the subject of this sketch, by reason of his 
 long and intimate acquaintanceship with its leading men, 
 and active participation in all matters of public import that 
 have tended to advance its interests. His enterprise and 
 integrity have made for him friends among all classes of 
 society, and his name is a synonym for honesty and 
 industry. It is such men as he that add honor and 
 luster to the legal fraternity, and none stand higher in 
 the estimation of both the bench and bar than Hon. J. 
 
304 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 Franco Chaves. He is a native Nev^^ Mexican^ and was 
 educated both in his native countiy and at the University 
 of St. Louis, where he spent five years. During the' 
 Mexican war he acted as interpreter on General Corr'y's. 
 staff. At the breaking out of the Civil War he joined 
 the First New Mexico volunteers, and was commissioned 
 by President Lincoln major of that regiment, he served 
 in the army, with distinction, three years and three- 
 months, and participated in many battles, conspicuous- 
 among them being the battles of Alburquerque and Las- 
 Pinos. In 1870 Mr. Chaves was elected to the Legis- 
 lature and held his seat during the thirty-ninth, fortieth,, 
 and forty-first session, of Congress ; during this time he 
 was not an idle member of that body, but was active in 
 debates, and succeeded in having passed the Anti-Penoag& 
 and Momestead bills. In 1873 he was admitted to the 
 bar,, and in 1876 he Avas elected to the Territorial Senate,, 
 and has been successively re-elected to this honorary 
 position up to the present date. He has held many 
 positions of honor and trust ; he was for a while post- 
 master at Los Lunas, he was elected district attorney for 
 second judicial district and served his term, and was at. 
 one time commissioner for Valencia County. He appears- 
 particularly fitted by nature for the duties of public life, 
 possessing that personal magnetism which affects to a 
 more or less degree every one with whom he comes in 
 contact ; it seems to flow from him as naturally as light, 
 comes from the sun, and he is at all times brimming over 
 with geniality and good humor. He possesses the true 
 instincts of a gentleman, both in friendship and enmities;: 
 and in his official acts, personal feelings never prompt 
 results. He deals with all alike, and shows neither fear 
 nor favor, and it is to all these characteristics, added to 
 his social worth, that he owes the popularity and respect. 
 
SON. "WABEBN BKISTOL, DEMING, N; M. 
 
 305 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 307 
 
 which he has gained from the people of the Territory he 
 so ably serves. His grandfather, P. X. Chaves, had the 
 distinguished honor of being the first Governor of New 
 Mexico, and his father held the important office of In- 
 spector-General, which was next in rank to the Governor, 
 who was at that time termed " Political Chief." 
 
 S. P. CARPENTER, 
 
 Born in Winchester, Brown County, 0., April 30, 1849. 
 He received an education afforded by the common 
 schools of his native town. When but sixteen years of 
 age, he accepted the arduous position of "overland pony 
 express rider," and continued the service for one year. 
 He was then tendered, and accepted, the position of mes- 
 senger for Wells, Fargo & Co.'s stage line, acting in that 
 capacity for five years. In 1861, he resigned his position 
 vsdth the Wells, Fargo Co., and went to Montana during 
 the first gold excitement in that Territory, and engaged 
 in mining and freighting there and in Utah, Avith varied 
 success for five years. In 1867 he went to Denver, Col., 
 from thence to Southern Colorado, there engaging in the 
 cattle business up to 1875. In the spring of the same 
 year he went to Silver City, N. M., accepting the posi- 
 tion of post-trader, which business he carried on until 
 1880. Mr. Carpenter is largely interested in the Car- 
 penter-Stanley Cattle Co., one of the largest in Grant 
 County. In December, 1883, he married Mrs. O. C. 
 Jones, one daughter, Hallie, gracing the union. He was 
 appointed county commissioner by Gov. Ross in 1887, 
 serving two years, and was re-elected to fill same position 
 in 1888. He is a self-made man in every respect. 
 
308 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 FRANK A. CHAVEZ, 
 
 Who, at the ripe old age of seventy years, stands to-day 
 as one of Ne^v Mexico's prominent, influential, and ener- 
 getic men, was born September 16, 1817, in the little old 
 town of Valencia, N. M. He had but limited educational 
 advantages. During the years of 1838-39, he did con- 
 siderable trading with Old Mexico for both himself and 
 father. In 1840 he was married to Miss Juana M. 
 Chavez ; ten children have blessed this union, seven of 
 whom are now living. In 1849 Mi-. Chavez was elected 
 clerk of the probate court ; this office he held until 1850, 
 when he engaged in a three months' campaign against the 
 Navajo Indians. Upon his return, he was re-elected pro- 
 bate clerk and held that office ten yeai's. In 1852 he 
 was elected justice of the peace for Valencia County. 
 
 He held the position of Representative in the New 
 Mexico Legislatm-e in 1863. During the years of 1867- 
 68, he was United States deputy internal revenue col- 
 lector. Several times he was elected to fill the position 
 of county commissioner of Valencia County, and is one of 
 the present incumbents of that office. During the war of 
 the Rebellion he Avas appointed quartermaster for the en- 
 tire New Mexico militia. In 1862 he was stationed at 
 Ft. Craig, N. M., and at this point he formed an auxiliary 
 company which did good service. He has many friends 
 and is an honored and respected citizen. 
 
 JOSE G. CHAVEZ 
 
 Was born in Valencia County, New Mexico, March 19, 
 1843. His education was received in the common 
 schools of NcAv Mexico, also in the Christian Brothers' 
 
NBSTOB AKMIJO, LAS CKUCBS, N. M. 
 
 309 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 311 
 
 College; later, he studied law under Judge Beard. 
 During tlie years 1861-62, he occupied the positions of 
 interpreter and indorsing clerk in the Territorial Legis- 
 lature. In 1864 he entered school in St. Louis, Mo., 
 for the purpose of mastering the English language. 
 Upon the completion of his studies he accepted a posi- 
 tion as clerk in Leavenworth, Kan., and in this capacity he 
 managed to save several hundred dollars. He was married 
 to Miss Maria Luna, August 29, 1866. On resignation of 
 Manuel Salazar in 1869, then probate clerk of Valencia 
 County, Mr. Chavez was appointed by Probate Judge V. 
 Luna to succeed him in that office. In 1873 he was 
 elected to the House of Representatives, in which he 
 served one term. In 1880 he was elected probate Judge, 
 and held office for two years. He is also the present 
 stock claim agent on Rio Grande Division of the Atchi- 
 son, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroad. As a man Mr. 
 Chavez is the very soul of integrity and is highly esteemed 
 by those who know him best. 
 
 EDMUND G. SHIELDS. 
 
 Among the young men of New Mexico none have 
 brighter prospects for the future, or give better promise 
 of fulfilling the expectations of sincere well wishers and 
 devoted friends, than he whose name appears above. He 
 was born in Hannibal, Mo., June 19, 1854. He received 
 a common school education in Missouri, and from 1869 
 to 1875 he was employed as civil engineer. He then 
 removed to St. Louis, Mo., and studied law with 
 Henderson & Shields. In 1879 he came to New Mexico 
 and was employed as civil engineer on the A., T. & 
 S. F. R. R. He was Chief Engineer of the S. C. 
 
312 HISTOBY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 D. &. P. R. E.. until 1884, Avhen he resigned to accept 
 the position of register of the United States land office, 
 to which position he was appointed by President Cleve- 
 land. He was admitted to the bar in 1 8 8 8. On December 
 12, 1881, he was married to Miss Ella Speck of St. Louis. 
 Mr. Shields is a prominent politician and is one of the 
 leading spirits of the Democratic party ; and is a represen- 
 tative citizen, interested in all matters pertaining to the 
 public welfare ; he is active, energetic, and untiring. He 
 is strictly conscientious in his public acts, and none dare 
 assail his honor. A bright future is in store for him. 
 
 HENRY GIEGOLDT 
 
 Is one of the well-known citizens of Raton, and he has 
 contributed largely to the success of that city. He was 
 born on Christmas Day, 1851, in Bavaria, and when but 
 three years old crossed the ocean with his parents. 
 After a long and rough voyage of thirteen weeks, they 
 reached New Orleans. In that city his youth was spent, 
 and his education derived from the common schools. 
 When fourteen years old he was apprenticed to the 
 machinist's trade. He served his apprenticeship and 
 worked at his trade until 1876, when he went to Topeka, 
 Kan. He remained in Topeka six years, working at his 
 trade, when he was offered the foremanship of the round- 
 house in that city, which he accepted and held four 
 years. In 1886 he went to Nickerson, Kan., in charge 
 of the middle division, and remained there one year. In 
 1887 he accepted the position of master mechanic of the 
 New Mexico division, stationed at Raton, and this posi- 
 tion he still holds. He is also one of the Raton pubhc 
 school directors. 
 
JOSE T BSQUIBBL, LAS VBGA6, N. M. 
 
 813 
 
MRS. JOSE T ESQUIBBL. LAS VEGAS, N. M. 
 
 31S 
 
BIOGKAPHICAL SKETCHES. 317 
 
 OSCAR LOHMAN, 
 
 ^orn in St. Louis, Mo., February 16, 1860. He re- 
 ceived a common school education in his native city. 
 Soon after leaving school, he was employed by Henry 
 Petring, a St. Louis grocer, vs^ith whom he remained five 
 years. He then went to Las Cruces, N. M., where he 
 was employed as a clerk by his brother Martin Lohman, 
 a merchant of that town. After a few months, he left 
 his brother's employ and engaged in the grocery and 
 confectionery business for himself, with a limited stock, 
 which he increased from year to year, until now his 
 yearly business averages about $15,000. He has gained 
 his present position by energy and tact, and though but 
 a young man bids fair, at no distant day, to be one of 
 Las Cruces' leading business men. 
 
 GEORGE J. PACE 
 
 Was born November 19, 1843, in Alleghany City, Pa. 
 He received a common school education and when but a 
 boy was apprenticed to the iron molding trade. When 
 nineteen years old he enlisted in Company A, 123d 
 Regiment, Pennsylvania Volunteers, and went into camp 
 -at Arlington Heights. His first battle was Antietam, 
 and later he participated in the first battle of Fredericks- 
 burg and battle of Chancellorsville ; his term of enlistment 
 having then expired, he received his discharge and re- 
 sumed his trade. In 1864 he again enlisted ; this time 
 in Company B, Fourth Pennsylvania Cavalry. His com- 
 pany engaged the enemy at the battle of Petersburg, 
 which was the last battle fought by them ; he received 
 his discharged July 12, 1865. He then went to Ironton 
 O., and worked at his trade fifteen months, when he re- 
 
318 HISTOEY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 moved to Cincinnati ; remained in that city seven months 
 engaged at his trade, and from there went to Evansville, 
 Ind. In ;1873 he went to Colorado; he spent four years 
 in that State, and upon the opening of the railroad to 
 Otero, N. M., he moved there, built a store, and engaged 
 in the grocery business. He remained there a short time 
 and then came to Eaton, his present residence. Mr. Pace 
 was one of the first settlers of Raton, and to him is a great 
 portion of the credit due of the advancement and pros- 
 perity of that little city. Upon his arrival in Raton he 
 went into the grocery business, and to-day he is the pro- 
 prietor of one of the best managed and successful business 
 houses in Raton. Mr. Pace is a member of the Knights- 
 of Pythias, Odd Fellows, and Masons, and is an honored 
 and respected citizen. 
 
 CHARLES W. LEWIS. 
 
 Among those who have contributed lai'gely to the 
 welfare and growth of the Territory, Mr. Lewis plays an 
 important part. He has developed some of the best 
 coal and gold mines in New Mexico, and his ranch, richly 
 stocked with horses, cattle and sheep, is as valuable as 
 any in his section of the Territory. Mr. Lewis was born 
 July 16, 1844, near Alburquerque ; and received his 
 early training in the common schools, finishing at the St. 
 Louis University. After graduation, he returned to 
 New Mexico and at once engaged in stockraising and 
 merchandising, which he carried on successfully from 
 1863 to 1885. In 1884, he was elected treasurer of Ber- 
 nalillo County, and upon the expiration of his term he 
 was elected county assessor. He is now an active and 
 energetic citizen of Alburquerque and is honored and. 
 respected by all who know him. 
 
J. FBANCISCO CHAVEZ, ALBUKQUEBQUE, N. M. 
 
 319 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 321 
 
 RICHARD OLDHAM, SR. 
 
 The Oldham family is one of the old and representative 
 iamilies of New Mexico. Richard Oldham, Sr., was born 
 in Scott County, Kentucky, October 25, 1823. When 
 quite young he emigrated with his parents to Calloway 
 County, Missouri. At the age of twenty-three he volun- 
 teered in Col. Donathon's regiment, serving as a member 
 of Company D during the Mexican war. Shortly after 
 his return home in 1847 he was married to Miss Emily F. 
 Reed, daughter of Major John Reed. Mrs. Oldham traces 
 a long line of patriotic ancestry, being the granddaughter 
 of Gen. Presly Neville of Pittsburg, who served with dis- 
 tinction in the war of 1812, and the great granddaughter 
 of Gen. Daniel Morgan of revolutionary fame. Mr. Old- 
 ham removed to Holt County, Missouri, in 1849, having 
 purchased 160 acres of land in that county. Later, the 
 reputed wealth of the Pike's Peak region enlisted his 
 attention, and in 1852 he crossed the plains for the "El- 
 dorado of the Rockies " ; but not attaining the desired 
 success he soon returned to Missouri. In 1874 Mr. Old- 
 ham took up his permanent residence in New Mexico, 
 and died March 20, 1880, at Raton. His sons Richard, 
 Nathan, George, and Reed have always been together in 
 their business enterprises. They are largely interested in 
 cattle raising and own extensive ranches. They also own 
 considerable property in and near Raton. They are ener- 
 getic business men and esteemed citizens. 
 
 CHARLES H. SPORLEDER, 
 
 The sterling citizen ^vhose every thought is for the good 
 of the community among whom he has made his home, 
 
322 HISTOKY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 must always command the I'espect and esteem of his 
 fellow citizens ; and commanding such is he whose 
 name is inscribed above. He was born February 12, 
 1846, in St. Louis, Mo. He received a common school 
 education and finished with one course at Jones Com- 
 mercial College in his native city. Upon leaving school, 
 he engaged as clerk in a mercantile house, and during the 
 following nine years acted in the same capacity for dif- 
 ferent firms in that city. In 18*76 he engaged in the 
 boot and shoe business, continuing in the same until 1883, 
 when he disposed of his interest, and removed to Las 
 Vegas, where he engaged in the same business for himself, 
 and which he has successfully conducted up to the present 
 date. He is an active and useful citizen of Las Vegas 
 and highly respected by all who know him. 
 
 LORENZO LOPEZ. 
 
 This gentleman has distinguished himself more particu- 
 larly in the municipal afilairs of New Mexico, and 
 who, it is generally conceded, has but few superiors as a 
 successful politician. He was born in San Jose, New 
 Mexico, in the year 1837, and was educated at the 
 Christian Brothers' College in Santa F6. "When seven- 
 teen years old he took charge of his father's business, 
 which consisted of freighting merchandise from the East 
 to points in New Mexico, and continued that business 
 until 1875. He was married in August, 1856, to Miss 
 Carlotta UUibarri. In 1861 he was appointed, by ex- 
 Gov. Connelly, inspector-general of the Second New 
 Mexico militia, with rank of major. In 1873 he was 
 elected probate judge of San Miguel County, and was 
 re-elected in 1888. In 1878 he was elected senator, 
 representing San Miguel County, and served until 1881, 
 
S. p. CAEPBNTEB, FT. CIJMMINGS, N. M. 
 
 323 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 325 
 
 in which year lie was elected mayor of Las Vegas, and 
 held that office until 1884, when he was appointed a 
 member of the Territorial capitol commission. He is at 
 present the efficient sheriff of San Miguel County, hav- 
 ing been elected to this office in 1888. Politically speak- 
 ing Mr. Lopez is a stanch Eepublican, and as a citizen 
 he is, without doubt, one of the most popular men in the 
 Territory, possessing the esteem and confidence of its 
 residents, both as a business man and a legislator. 
 
 M. M. SALAZAR, 
 
 The present efficient county clerk of Colfax County, 
 is a man ^vho stands high among his constituents, and is 
 the fortunate possessor of a host of warm personal 
 friends, who in their admiration of his numerous stir- 
 ling qualities would make almost any sacrifice to enhance 
 his success. He was born in San Miguel County, Decem- 
 ber, 10, 1854. His father, Hon. Thomas Salazar, was 
 heutenant in the United States Army during the war of 
 the Rebellion. Young Salazar was educated at the 
 Christian Brothers' College, Santa Fe. Upon completing 
 his education he taught school in San Miguel County 
 and continued at that employment for seven years, also 
 teaching during that time in Mora and Colfax counties. 
 Mr. Salazar was married October 27, 1881, to Miss 
 Fannie Warder ; three bright children have graced this 
 union. In 1880 he was appointed deputy to the pro- 
 bate and county clerk of Colfax County. In 1882 
 was elected probate and county clerk, and has held that 
 office ever since, being successively re-elected without 
 opposition. Mr. Salazar resides in Springer, and is one 
 of that city's most popular and leading citizens. He is 
 
326 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 president of the Philanthropic Society of Mora and 
 Colfax counties, and is an active member of the Springer 
 Water Supply Company. He has not courted popularity, 
 but has reached his present high standing through his 
 own unaided efforts. 
 
 JACOB SCHAUBLIN, 
 
 Born in Basel, Switzerland, May 17, 1827. He received 
 but limited educational advantages, and in 1852 he emi- 
 grated to America. He engaged at once in the mechanical 
 business in New York City, and continued in the same 
 eight years. In 1860 he came to Las Cruces, N. M., where 
 he has since resided. He at present successfully operates 
 a large flour mill. Mr. Schaublin also owns ten acres 
 of highly improved land, on ^vhich he raises a choice 
 quality of fruit, and his vineyard produces a grape second 
 to none in his section of the country. In 1865 he was 
 married to Mrs. Bertha Holz, nee Ohnesorge, of San An- 
 tonio, Tex. Mr. Schaublin has always taken an active in- 
 terest in all mattei'S pertaining to the welfare of the Me- 
 silla valley. His reputation is beyond reproach ; he makes 
 friends rapidly and he is esteemed very highly by his 
 friends and acquaintances. Mr. Schaublin has been a 
 useful man to Las Cruces, and on men of work and 
 worth like him the prosperity of a community depends. 
 
 WM. L. RYNERSON. 
 
 The subject of this sketch has held most of the places 
 of honor and trust at the disposal of the people of this 
 Territory. As a citizen of New Mexico he is universally 
 esteemed, and his unflinching integrity at once commands 
 
PBANK A. OHATBZ, VALENCIA, N. M. 
 
 327 
 
BIOGEAPHICAL SKETCHES, 329 
 
 the confidence and respect of his fellow-men. He is one 
 of those honorable men who risked life and limb in our 
 country's defense, and to such men should be awarded 
 the highest office in their capacity to fill or the power of 
 the people to bestow. Col. Eynerson was born February 
 22, 1828, in Mercer County, Kentucky. He entered 
 Franklin College, Indiana, but left before graduating, 
 going to California in 1852 during the great gold excite- 
 ment. On the breaking out of the war, in 1861, he en- 
 listed in Company C, California Volunteers, under Gen. 
 Carleton, and proceeded to New Mexico. Shortly after 
 his enlistment, he was promoted successively to second 
 lieutenant, first lieutenant and adjutant. He served 
 until 1864, when he was promoted to captain and 
 assistant quartermaster of the United States Volunteers, 
 in which service he continued until the close of the war. 
 He was discharged November 3, 1866, when he was bre- 
 veted major and lieutenant-colonel for meritorious ser- 
 vices. After the war, he remained for some time in New 
 Mexico engaged in mining. In 1870 he was admitted to 
 the bar and since then has practiced his profession. In 
 1871 he was married to Mrs. John Lemon. Col. Eyner- 
 son was appointed adjutant-general under Governor Pile 
 of New Mexico ; he has served two terms in the legislative 
 council of this Territory, also two terms as district attor- 
 ney of the third judicial district. In 1880 he was ap- 
 pointed delegate to the national convention held in 
 Chicago which nominated James A. Garfeld for president. 
 In politics Col. Rynerson is a stanch Republican, and, 
 while always active in the Republican ranks, he has not 
 sought office, though he has many years been prominent 
 in the Republican councils and has frequently been urged 
 for high stations to be filled by the State conventions of 
 that party and is now a member of the National Repub- 
 
330 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 licau Committee of New Mexico. Col. Rynerson has been 
 prominently identified with the Masonic order from his 
 twenty-first birthday ; he is a member of the Knights 
 Templar and has reached the thirty-second degree in the 
 Scottish Rite. He was one of the organizers of the New 
 Mexico Grand Lodge of Masons and is now Past Grand 
 Master of that order. Col. Eynerson is full of enterprise, 
 and although nearly sixty-five years old has the vim and 
 energy of a man in the prime of life. He is the personifi- 
 cation of integrity, and as a useful citizen and a worthy 
 man commands the respect and esteem of all who know 
 him. 
 
 DEMETRIO PEREZ 
 
 Was born December 22, 1836, in Santa F6, N. M. At 
 an early age he was bereaved of his father, who was 
 killed in the late revolution, and through the efforts of 
 his mother and the beneficient assistance of Rev. Juan F. 
 Ortez, then Vicar- General, of New Mexico, he was placed, 
 at the age of seven years, in one of the few private 
 schools in Santa F6, and in 1851 he entered Archbishop 
 Lamy's school, ^v^here he was instructed in the English 
 language. Soon after leaving school he was offered the 
 position of clerk and translator in the office of the secre- 
 tary of the Territory, which he held six years. In 1861 he 
 was commissioned first lieutenant in Capt F. P. Abreau's 
 First Regiment, New Mexico Volunteers, but resigned 
 his commission for good reasons, and was immediately 
 commissioned major in the Territorial militia, and 
 assigned to Gen. O. P. Hovey's staff as aide-de-camp, 
 serving until the dismissal of the militia the following 
 season. He was then appointed auditor of pubhc ac- 
 
JOSE a. CHAVEZ, VALENCIA, N. M. 
 
 331 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 333 
 
 counts of the Territory by Governor Henry Connelly, and 
 held the office two years, when he resigned it to engage 
 in commercial pursuits. 
 
 In 1866 he removed to Las Vegas and dui-ing his 
 residence in that city has occupied the office of county 
 clerk for seven years, county and school commissioner 
 two years, also served as United States deputy marshal 
 to take the census of 1870, and United States deputy 
 collector of internal revenue. Punctuality and thorough- 
 ness are among the leading traits of his character, and it 
 is to these qualities, added to his social worth, that he 
 owes the popularity and respect which he has gained 
 from the people of the Territory he so ably serves. 
 
 BENIGNO ROMERO, 
 
 A well known and highly esteemed resident of Las 
 Vegas, is one of the solid business men of that city, 
 and has by close application to business amassed quite a 
 respectable fortune. He is an active, energetic citizen, 
 and a gentleman that takes a lively interest in the wel- 
 fare and prosperity of Las Vegas and the Territory at 
 large. Mr. Romero was born in Santa Fe, February 13, 
 1849. He was educated at the St. Louis University, 
 and in 1869 commenced his commercial education as a 
 clerk in Las Vegas. One year later he invested $350 in 
 stock of merchandise and engaged in business for him- 
 self; through his energy and perseverance, his business 
 gradually increased, and in 1875 he purchased a lot and 
 erected a business building, his stock then amounting to 
 $20,000. He formed a partnership mth his brother, 
 and in 1878 they Avere obliged to again enlarge their 
 store to accommodate their growing trade. Starting in 
 
334 HisTORy OF new Mexico. 
 
 life without a dollar, we see him to-day quoted as being- 
 worth $200,000. He owns several valuable cattle ranches 
 near Las Vegas, and is in every respect a self-made man. 
 
 THOMAS RICHEY 
 
 Is one of those men whose life if written would fill a 
 volume with interesting matter. His has been a varied 
 experience, and in the course of his eventful career he has 
 had his share of its joys and sorrows. He has combated 
 with obstacles, perils, and privations, and no wstands on a 
 substantial basis with New Mexico's citizens and is a fair 
 examj)le of what ambition, energy, and perseverance jwill 
 accomplish when seemingly baffled by misfortune. He 
 was born April 16, 1836, in Harrison County, Ohio, and 
 received the benefits of a common school education in his, 
 native county. He was one of the first to start for Pike's. 
 Peak during that excitement, and the trip was fraught with 
 adventure and interest. He stopped at Denver, Col, for 
 one day, then shouldered his blankets and moved on to 
 Clear Creek County, where he worked in the mines at $5 
 a day, remaining here but a short time, when we next 
 find him, provided with several head of cattle and mules, 
 hauling lumber from Bear Creek, Col, to Central, Nevada 
 City, Black Hawk, and other points in that State. Losing 
 all his cattle, excepting three head, in a severe snow-storm, 
 the following winter, he was obliged to discontinue this 
 business, and in the spring of the following year (1865) 
 he accepted the position of claim superintendent for Alex. 
 Cameron. In 1866 he was mining and prospecting at 
 Janus Creek, Boulder County, Col. He continued at this 
 with moderate success until the fall of 1867, when he went 
 to Elizabethtown, Merino Valley, N. M; here he dis^ 
 
GEORGE J. PACE, RATON, N. M. 
 
 335 
 
• BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 337 
 
 covered lead, but only to find it worthless after a consid- 
 erable expenditure of time and money. Later he made 
 discoveries in Aztec Hill, which he worked for two and 
 one half years to no advantage. Leaving there in the 
 summer of 1871, he returned to Merino Valley, Avhere for 
 the next ten years he worked at mining on a salaiy, and in 
 1881 he bought a second-hand mining property with 
 water right, and discovered new placer mines, which were 
 worked Avith great success. On December 17, 1879, he 
 was married to Miss Annie S. Guhl ; three bright children 
 have graced this union. In 1888, Mr. Kichey was elected 
 county commissioner and served his term of office with 
 credit to himself and the entire satisfaction of the com- 
 munity. 
 
 EEUBEN PIKE LETTON 
 
 Has now passed his allotted three score and ten, but he 
 appears much younger and is possessed of a greater 
 degree of energy than is sometimes displayed by men of 
 younger years. He was born October 4, 1818, in Rock- 
 ville, Montgomery County, Md. His early life, was 
 spent on a farm and later he received the benefits of a 
 common school education. In 1846 he enlisted in Dona- 
 thon's Volunteer Regiment of Missouri, and left Leaven- 
 worth, Kan., June 16, to enter the service of the United 
 States Grovernment in the war with Mexico. During his 
 service he engaged in several noted battles, such as at 
 Bracet, Paso del Norte, Sacramento, and Buena Vista. 
 At Monterey they were inspected by Zachary Taylor. 
 A few months before the close of the war he received his 
 discharge at New Orleans. In 1849, during the gold 
 excitement, he went via Isthmus of Panama to California, 
 At Sacramento he engaged in mining for six months and 
 
338 HISTORY OP NEW MEXICO. 
 
 was quite successful. He then returned home and later 
 started overland to California ; lie drove a horse team 
 and had with him some loose cattle. They reached 
 their destination in safety and he sold his cattle at a 
 large profit. In May, 1858, in company with his son, A. 
 K. Letton, he started for Salt Lake, having taken a gov- 
 ernment position to supply freight at various points ; he 
 had under his charge twenty-five Avagons, averaging six 
 yoke of cattle to a wagon. They I'eached Salt Lake the 
 25th of the following September. In 1860 he was 
 engaged in freighting merchandise to points in Colorado, 
 in which lousiness he realized large profits. In 1874 he 
 moved to Trinidad, Col., and engaged in freighting from 
 that point to Silver City and was quite successful. He 
 then eno-ao'ed as contractor with the Santa Fe Railroad, 
 and was in that company's employ eight months. He 
 now resides in Raton, IST. M., and since 1878 has been 
 extensively engaged in the cattle business. Mr. Letton 
 is a self-made man, and now that his days of activity are 
 over, is quietly resting from the toils and labors of his 
 early life. 
 
 M. A. McMARTm, 
 
 Born in St. Andrews, Canada, January 8, 1837. He re- 
 ceived an education afforded by the common schools. His 
 early life was spent on a farm. In the spring of 1859, in 
 company with fifty men, he drove ox teams from Leaven- 
 worth, Kan., across the plains, arriving in Denver after 
 tedious trips. He then went to Central City, Col., where 
 he engaged in mining during the summer ; from there, he 
 went to Taos N. M., he, Avith his party, being among the 
 first to come to New Mexico by way of Pike's Peak. 
 From Taos, he went back to California Gulch, Cal., and 
 
NATHANIEL OLDHAM, HATOK, N. M. 
 
 339 
 
EICHABD OLDHAM, JR., EATON, S". M. 
 
 341 
 
GE0K6E OLDHAM, "RATON, IST. M. 
 
 343 
 
EBBD OLDHAM, RATON, N. M. 
 
 345 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 347 
 
 was moderately successful in mining. While there, he 
 ran a mule train to Denver and back. In 1860, with 
 several others, he had a serious encounter with the Indians 
 on top of Raton Mountain, in which he was wounded 
 and one man was killed. Returning to Taos he fitted 
 out a team bound for the San Juan Mountains : arriving 
 there, he remained a short while and then started across 
 the country for Denver. From Denver, by the way of 
 Sierra Madre Mountains, he returned to New Mexico, 
 settling in Mora County, where he remained a short 
 while engaged in merchandising. From there he went 
 to Arizona and then to Old Mexico ; he remained in Old 
 Mexico for a while, then went back to Arizona and 
 engaged in mining, finally returning to New Mexico and 
 engaged in general merchandising. During this time he 
 was engaged in freighting to and from points in Old 
 Mexico, Arizona, and the Missouri River ; also carried on 
 a business of hides and pelts. He built the first house 
 in Otera, N. M., shortly after the arrival of the rail- 
 road. In 1882 he moved to Raton, N. M., and built 
 the first business house there, and until 1883 he engaged 
 in merchandising. Since 1883 he has been engaged in 
 the real estate business, in which he is doing very well. 
 Mr. McMartin was married October 13, 1886, to Mrs. 
 Myra S. Abell, widow of Capt H. H. Abell, who con- 
 spicuously served in the Seventh New Mexico Cavalry 
 under Gen. Custer for eight years. 
 
 J. M. LUNA 
 Will long be remembered as a useful citizen and resident 
 of New Mexico. He was born July 5, 1836, in Los 
 Lunas, N. M. He received a common school education 
 in Santa Fe, and at an early age engaged in sheep rais- 
 
348 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 ing, also freighting merchandise from Kansas City to 
 points in New Mexico and Arizona. Mr. Luna was 
 twice elected to the office of sheriff of Valencia County, 
 he was several times elected commissioner for the same 
 county, and when but twenty years of age, he held 
 the responsible position of probate judge. His death 
 occurred July 5, 1888, from injuries sustained on the 
 railroad. He was an active and energetic office-holder, 
 and as a citizen was highly esteemed by all with whom 
 he was acquainted. 
 
 EUGENIC EOMERO, 
 
 The present efficient county assessor of San Miguel 
 County, is a native New Mexican ; he was born in Santa 
 Fe, December 15, 1837. He was educated in the com- 
 mon schools of his native county, and when twenty-two 
 years old engaged in the freighting and general mer- 
 chandise business, which he continued until 1880. Dur- 
 ing that time he built up a large and successful business, 
 and established for himself a reputation in the community 
 as a thorough and qualified business man, as well as a 
 worthy and useful citizen. He was married to Miss A. 
 Lopez on August 28, 1858. Seven children have since 
 graced this union. In 1882 he was elected Mayor of 
 Las Vegas, which flattering as Avell as responsible office 
 he held satisfactorily two years. He was elected sheriff 
 of San Miguel County in 1886, and held his position 
 faithfully for two years ; and in 1888 he was elected to 
 his present position, county assessor. In this position 
 he has gained many warm friends, and has performed his 
 duty with unswerving fairness and honesty of purpose. As 
 a politician he is a very strong man in his party and is a 
 good political manager. Mr. Romero is a self-made man. 
 
THE LATE DON LOPEZ, LAS VEGAS, N. M. 
 
 349 
 
LOBBNZO LOPEZ, LAS VEGAS, N. M. 
 
 351 
 
o 
 
 [-1 
 O 
 W 
 H 
 6S 
 
 
 Rns 
 
KIOGKAPHICAL SKETCHES. 355 
 
 JOSEPH W. DWYER, 
 
 One of New Mexico's prominent and influential citi- 
 zens, was born in Conliocton, O., October 6, 1832. His 
 early life was spent on a farm, and during the winter 
 months he attended the district schools, thereby receiving 
 an ordinary education. Later he clerked in a store, and 
 in 1860-66 printed a newspaper in his native town. In 
 1861 he accepted a position in the Treasury Department 
 at Washington, D. C; at the same time he acted as assist- 
 ant private secretary to Chief Justice Salmon B. Chase. 
 In 1864 he was appointed pension agent at Columbus, 
 0.; he paid the first pension in this office, now the larg- 
 est pension agency in the United States. Mr. Dwyer re- 
 signed this office to accept the position of supervisor of 
 internal revenue, which he held during President Grant's 
 first term of office. He resigned this to accept the posi- 
 tion of attorney for the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad, and 
 transacted the business of that company in Washington, 
 D. C, for three years. In 1877 he came to New Mexico 
 and has since resided here, engaged extensively in sheep 
 and cattle raising. Colonel Dwyer is an honored and re- 
 spected citizen and a self-made man. 
 
356 HISTOEY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 MONKOE TOBY, 
 
 Born in Ocean Spring, Miss., July 11, 1858. He received 
 an ordinary school education in his native State. In 
 1866 he went to New Orleans, and was employed in his 
 fathers bank in that city until 1878. In the same year 
 he went to El Paso, Tex., engaging in the mercantile 
 business there, and at Isleta, Tex., for about three months. 
 In 1879 he went to Silver City, N. M., remaining there a 
 short time. He proceeded to Georgetown, N. M., con- 
 tinuing in the mercantile business for one year ; then dis- 
 posing of his business he traveled through Colorado. 
 Subsequently he returned to New Orleans and accepted 
 the position of collector and assessor of the New Orleans 
 Water Works, continuing in that capacity for one year, 
 when he again went to Texas, and was employed in a 
 mercantile house, remaining eighteen months; thence 
 back to New Orleans, where he lived five months. He 
 again returned to New Mexico, where he engaged in the 
 mercantile business at Greorgetown, which, after continuing 
 fifteen months, he again disposed of his interest, and for 
 the third time returned to New Orleans, where he fonned 
 a mining syndicate to develop mines in Pinos Altos and 
 Georgetown, N. M. He returned to New Mexico and 
 was successful in his mining operations, greatly enriching 
 the syndicate through his judicious management. 
 
 Mr. Toby is largely interested in mining at George- 
 town and Pinos Altos, and controls and operates some of 
 the largest and most valuable mines in that district. He 
 also carries on a mercantile business at Pinos Altos, in 
 connection with his mining interest. Mr. Toby is a young 
 man who has a bright future before him. 
 

 357 
 
BIOGKAPHICAL SKETCHES. 359 
 
 PATRICK J. DONAHOE 
 
 Is one of the able attorneys of the New Mexico bar, and 
 has attained his present position of prominence by virtue 
 of application to study and ambition to win. He was 
 born October 11, 1865, in Michigan. He received the 
 benefits of a common school education, and shortly after 
 leaving school he accepted the position of private secre- 
 tary to ex-Governor McCormick, of Arizona, and 
 remained with him about ten months. For the next 
 three years he acted in the same capacity for E. J. 
 Richards, of the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad, and Mr. 
 Henry Monette, of the West Shore Railroad. Resigning 
 these positions, he I'emoved to Hamilton, O., where he 
 read law until 1886 ; then, going to New Mexico, he was 
 appointed official stenographer in the courts of the third 
 judicial district. In 1889 he was admitted to the bar, 
 and immediately entered upon the practice of his pro- 
 fession in connection with Hon. S. M. Ashenfeltor, with 
 whom he formed a law partnership soon after his ad- 
 mission to the bar. Mr. Donahoe is building up a large 
 and lucrative practice in New Mexico, and he has gained 
 the respect and good will of a host of friends and ac- 
 quaintances, who wish him success in his new home. 
 
360 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 TRINIDAD ROMERO. 
 
 In tlie brief space wMch our limits compel us to 
 allot to sketches of ISTew Mexico's prominent and repre- 
 sentative men, it is impossible to do justice to the life, 
 character, or labors of the distinguished gentleman whose 
 name heads this article. Hon. Trinidad Romero is a 
 descendant of an honorable and ancient Mexican ancestry, 
 his father being Don Miguel-Romero-y-Baca, who was 
 bom in Santa Fe County in 1798; his mother was Miss 
 Delgado, daughter of a wealthy and distinguished citizen 
 of Santa Fe. The subject of this sketch was born in 
 Santa F6 County in 1835. He received the benefits of a 
 common school education in Santa F6, and when fifteen 
 years old left his native town and went to Las Vegas, 
 where he I'emained until 1887, during which time he was 
 engaged extensively in sheep and cattle raising, also in the 
 general merchandising business, which, through his care- 
 ful management, yielded him a large profit. In 1855 
 Mr. Romero was married to Miss Valeria Lopez, daughter 
 of Hon. Francisco Lopez, at one time sheriff of Las Vegas. 
 In 1887 he removed his mercantile business to Wasjon 
 Mound, where he now resides. He is extensively inter- 
 ested in stock raising, and to-day owns several thousand 
 head of fine grade cattle and sheep. He has lost two for- 
 tunes, but through his indomitable will and ambitious 
 and energetic spirit he has again established himself upon 
 a sound basis and is to-day reputed to be one of the suc- 
 cessful men of New Mexico. Mr. Romero has been 
 active in politics and has held several high positions of 
 honor and trust. He served two successive terms as 
 probate judge, one term as member of the Territorial 
 Council, one term as delegate to Congress from San 
 
JACOB SCHAUBLIN. LAS CBUCES, N. 
 
 361 
 
BIOGEAPHICAL SKETCHES. 363 
 
 Miguel County, and in wliatever capacity lie has served, 
 either in public or private life, he has ever retained the 
 unqualified respect and esteem of all with whom he came 
 in contact, and as a man of unblemished integrity and 
 unsullied character Mr. Romero has no superiors. In his 
 domestic life he is an affectionate and kind husband and 
 beloved father. His family now consists of his estimable 
 wife and eight sons and daughters : Serapio, aged thirty 
 years ; Bernardo, twenty-eight years ; Roman, twenty-four; 
 Miguel, eighteen ; Epimenia, aged sixteen ; Trinidad, thir- 
 een ; Valeria, ten ; and Margarita, seven. 
 
364 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 MICHAEL COONEY, 
 
 Bom in Canada, March 18, 1838. He received an 
 early education in Canada and worked on a farm from 
 1850 to 1860. The following year, he went to Chicago, 
 and upon the organization of the Twenty-third Illinois 
 Volunteers he enlisted in that company, and served three 
 years in the civil war. He then returned to Canada and 
 entered a military school at Toronto. 
 
 In 1866 he went to Buffalo, N. Y., and took part in 
 the invasion of Canada by the Fenians. At the battle of 
 Lambston's Ridge, his company of four hundred men, 
 under General John O'Neil, defeated the Queen's regi- 
 ment of 1400 men ; resulting in a complete victory for 
 the invaders. After the rebellion he disposed of his 
 property in Canada, and engaged in the liquor business 
 in Chicago for several years. In 1868 he became a 
 member of the first Irish Republican Club ever organized 
 in the United States. In 1869 he organized the Sheridan 
 Guards, the second State military company then in Illinois ; 
 the following spring, he, with his company, joined General 
 O'Neil's second invasion of Canada ; this was, however, 
 defeated by the arrival of General Meade with United 
 States troops, who arrested all ofiicers of note connected 
 with the invasion, with the exception of the officers of 
 the Chicago regiment, who disguised themselves and 
 mingled in with their commands as privates, leaving the 
 first sergeant in charge, thereby eluding arrest. In 1870, 
 Mr. Cooney was appointed inspector of customs for the 
 district of the Teche, La.; subsequently he was trans- 
 ferred to New Orleans. He held various positions in the 
 custom house up to 1877. On the 15th of October, 
 1879, he was married to Miss Jennie Donnelly of New 
 

 365 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 367 
 
 Orleans. He organized tte Mitcliell Rifles and com- 
 manded that company until 1880, when lie received news 
 of the death of his brother at the hands of the Apache 
 Indians. He immediately came to New Mexico, re- 
 covered and buried the body of his brother, and being 
 prepossessed with that country settled in Socorro County. 
 In 1884 he was elected to the Territorial Legislature; in 
 which he represented Socorro County, and in 1888, he 
 was re-elected to the same high position. Capt. Cooney 
 now resides in the thriving little town of Cooney, N. M. 
 He is largely interested in mining and operates some of 
 the most valuable mines in New Mexico. 
 
368 HISTOEY OP NEW MEXICO. 
 
 CHAS. H. DANE, 
 
 Born in Lowell, Mass., February 2, 1851. Graduated at 
 Ann Arbor University, Mich. Shortly after graduating 
 lie went to Los Angeles, Cal., was admitted to the bar, 
 and practiced law there for live years. He then pur- 
 chased a stock of merchandise which he sold from a box 
 car, while en route through Arizona and points in New 
 Mexico, from which he realized large profits. In 1882 he 
 engaged in the furniture business in connection with W. 
 Berg at Deming, N. M. In 1883 he opened a private com- 
 mercial bank in Deming, and in April, 1884, he organ- 
 ized the First National Bank of Deming, with an author- 
 ized capital of $50,000, becoming its president. In 1888 
 he succeeded in having the capital of the First National 
 Bank of Deming increased to $100,000. He also organ- 
 ized and was elected president of the First National Bank 
 of Silver City, N. M., capital $50,000. In 1876 he 
 married Miss Mary L. Chase of Lyndon, Vt. In 1891 he 
 was elected Grand Master of Masons for the Jurisdiction 
 of New Mexico. Mr. Dane is acknowledged to be one of 
 the ablest financiers in the country. His enterprise is • 
 proverbial and his business sagacity unquestioned. His 
 various business interests in New Mexico are successful 
 and his credit is almost unlimited. 
 
'■^^v ^^v s "/// /•r^^<^%s?^^''^?*^ - 
 
 BENIGNO KOMBKO, LAS VEGAS, N. M. 
 
 369 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 371 
 
 JAMES J. DOLAN. 
 
 The subject of this sketch has succeeded thus far in 
 hfe simply because he merited success and at the same 
 time is possessed of those qualifications which tend to 
 make a man popular Avith the public, viz., industry, integ- 
 rity, and ambition. Mr. Dolan was born May 2, 1848, 
 in Laughrea, County Galway, Ireland. When five years 
 of age his parents embarked for America, and young 
 Dolan received a limited education in New York City. 
 When but twelve yeai's old he entered a large fancy goods 
 house and remained there three years. In 1863 he en- 
 listed in Co. K., Seventeenth Regiment, New York Zou- 
 aves ; he served two years, was discharged, and in 1866, 
 re-enlisted in the Thirty-seventh United States Infantry, 
 and served faithfully the full term of three years. After 
 the war he accepted the position of clerk with L. G. Mur- 
 phy & Co., post traders at Fort Stanton, N. M. ; three 
 years later, upon the senior partner's death, Mr. Dolan 
 was taken into the firm. In 1877 he formed a partner- 
 ship with Mr. Riley, which lasted until 1880; he then 
 engaged in the cattle business in Lincoln. In 1883 he 
 was elected county treasurer and held this office until 
 1888, which year he was elected to the Territorial Sen- 
 ate, representing the counties of Grant, Dona Ana, 
 Sierra, and Lincoln. On June 3, 1889, he was appointed 
 by President Harrison receiver of the land office at Las 
 Graces, of which office he is the present incumbent. On 
 July 13, 1879, he was married to Miss Caroline Fritz. 
 They are the fond parents of two bright children. In 
 politics Mr. Dolan is an earnest Republican ; his honesty, 
 integrity, high social standing, and unflinching adhe- 
 
372 HISTOEY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 rence to the principles of tiie political party he espouses, 
 have endeared him to the hearts of the people, and his 
 future none can foretell ; but prophecy indicates that 
 higher and more honorable positions are still within his 
 grasp. 
 
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 373 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 375 
 
 JxiMES CORBIN, 
 
 Born in Newport, K H., in 1838. He received a 
 common school education, and when eighteen years of 
 age went to Iowa, thence to ISTebraska, where, his health 
 becoming impaired, he returned to New Hampshire in 
 1857. During the excitement of Pike's Peak two years 
 later, he returned to Nebraska. Remaining there a 
 short while, he went to Iowa, where in 1860 he was 
 made United States deputy marshal, and during the same 
 year took the census of Fremont County, Iowa. In 
 the fall of 1861 he retui'ned to New Hampshire and in 
 the office of Hon. Edmund Burke pursued the study 
 of law until the fall of 1864, when he was admitted to 
 the bar of the supreme court of New Hampshire. By 
 reason of continued lung haemorrhages, he was obliged to 
 leave his native State, and upon the advice of his friends 
 came direct to New Mexico, settling finally in Grant 
 County, where he served one term as probate judge. 
 Since 1871 he has resided in Silver City, where he has 
 served one term as mayor and of which city he is now a 
 prominent and active citizen. He is interested in mining 
 and real estate, and owns valuable property in different 
 parts of New Mexico. 
 
376 HISTOEY OF NEW MEXICO 
 
 A. H. CAREY. 
 
 Among the young men who have prominently come 
 before tlie public, and who have attained high honor and 
 distinction for sterling qualities and native talent, none 
 have pursued a more upright course than A. H. Carey. 
 He was born in Northumberland, England, December 4, 
 1844. He received a good common school education 
 and when twenty years of age emigrated to America. 
 Having a fancy for a seafaring life, he led the life of a 
 sailor for the next seven years, during which time he 
 made many trips to his native land and almost circum- 
 navigated the globe. After al^andoning the sea, he 
 served an apprenticeship at the hardware business ; this 
 lasted several years, and in 1882 he went to Raton, N. 
 M., and opened a lai'ge hardware business house Avith a 
 branch store at Cimarron. Since coming to New Mexico, 
 Mr. Carey has identified himself joi'ominently with Raton 
 and Colfax County interests. He is a large property 
 owner in Raton, Springer, Cimarron, and other places in 
 the Territory, and is in every respect a respected and 
 honored citizen. He is president of the Raton Artesian 
 Well Co., and one of the directors of the Raton Cattle 
 Co. He is a genial, whole-souled gentleman and, stands 
 high in the community. 
 
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 377 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 379 
 
 JOHN BECKER, 
 
 The subject of this sketch, who to-day, is considered 
 one of the substantial men of Belen, and possesses the 
 well merited confidence and esteem of its citizens, was 
 born May 28, 1850, in Hanover, Germany. When nine- 
 teen years old he emigrated to America, and landing in 
 New Orleans in August, 1869, he obtained a position in a 
 restaurant and remained in that city six months ; he then 
 started for St. Louis, but was robbed of all he had before 
 reaching that city. From St. Louis, he went through 
 Illinois, Iowa, and Minnesota, returning to New Orleans, 
 where he remained one winter. In August, 1871, he came 
 to New Mexico, where, for the first two years, he clerked 
 for Louis Huning, and then managed Mr. Huning's 
 business house in Belen, receiving one half of the profits 
 as his share. In 1877 he commenced business for him- 
 self ; and since the opening of his store Mr. Becker has' 
 been very successful. In 1886 he built the Belen mill, 
 which has a capacity of 25,000 pounds of flour in twenty- 
 four hours, and which has proved a safe investment, as he 
 has already realized a handsome profit. Mr. Becker is 
 what we call a successful man. He carries a general 
 stock of merchandise, and his wine cellar is one of the 
 largest in the Territory, having at present fully 25,000 
 gallons of wine in stock ; he does a yearly business of 
 $150,000 and he has an extended reputation as a business 
 man of more than ordinary ability. Mr. Becker was the 
 means of establishing a post-office at Belen, and he has 
 held the responsible office of postmaster for the past fif- 
 teen years. He has the distinction of having established 
 one of the first telephone lines in New Mexico, and ever 
 
380 HISTOET OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 since his arrival in the territory has been identified with 
 the public interest. 
 
 In 1877 he was married to Miss Anna Vielstich of 
 Germany ; their interesting family consisting of three 
 boys and two girls. 
 
J. M. LUJSTAS, LOS LUKAS, N. M. 
 
 381 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 383 
 
 FELIPE CHAVES, 
 
 Was born in Pedillos, Bernalillo Co., N. M., November 16, 
 1835. He received a common school education in Old 
 Mexico. In 1856 he was married to Miss Josie Chaves, 
 daughter of Don Antonio Chaves ; three children have 
 graced this union. In 1866 he removed to Valencia Co., 
 where he has continued to reside ever since. Mr. Chaves 
 has had a varied business career and has met with some 
 severe losses. Upon his father's death he was left with 
 a large income and by judicious management has greatly 
 added to his fortune. At one time he was the largest 
 sheep owner in the Territory, but during the war of the 
 Rebellion he lost the entire number, 40,000 in all ; he re- 
 stocked his ranch and in 1881 sold his sheep interest and 
 since then has been living in retirement, an honored 
 citizen in private life, taking such interest only in public 
 affairs as every man should who is interested in the wel- 
 fare of our country. 
 
 As a friend he is true as steel, as a neighbor he is 
 much respected, and as a man his character is above 
 reproach. 
 
384 PIISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 JOSE L. PEEEA, 
 
 Born in Bernalillo, N. M., January 25, 1859. He 
 received a preparatory education in Santa Fe, and then 
 entered the St. Louis University, in whicli famous institu- 
 tion lie remained three years ; upon completing their pre- 
 scribed course he entered Notre Dame University, Indiana, 
 from where he .was gi'aduated. He then returned to 
 Bernalillo, where he has since resided, engaged extensively 
 in sheep raising. He is also a partner in the mercantile 
 house of Perea Bros, in Bernalillo, transacting the largest 
 business in that part of the Territory. In 1881 he was 
 appointed county treasurer of Bernalillo County by Gov- 
 ernor Sheldon, which highly responsible office he held 
 most satisfactorily for ten months. In 1882 he was elect- 
 ed county clerk, which office he held until 1885. In No- 
 vember, 1886, he was elected sheriff of Bernalillo County 
 and at the time of writing he is the incumbent of that 
 office. Mr. Perea owns considerable real estate, also some 
 of the most valuable ranch property in the Territory, well 
 stocked with horses, cattle, and sheep. By his persever- 
 ance, industry, and spirit, he has now become a successful 
 business man and has amassed a large fortune. 
 
GliXIIJ IIOMKKO, LAS VEGAS, N. M. 
 
 385 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 887 
 
 O. E. CROMWELL 
 
 Was born in Ncav York City in the yenv 1849. He 
 gradnated from Columbia College, Ne\v York. Upon 
 leaving school he obtained the contract for delivering 
 quantities of stone for building purposes, in St. Louis, 
 and Jefferson City, Mo., and in Cincinnati and Cleveland, 
 O. ; in these cities the next ten years of his life were spent. 
 In 1879, he came to New Mexico, and took up his resi- 
 dence in Alburquerque, where he has since taken no 
 unimportant part in the advancement and welfare of 
 that cit}'. 
 
 He built the Alburquerque street raihva}' and also 
 established the NeAv Savings and Trust Co. He is vice- 
 president of the Al1)urquerque Board of Trade and 
 owns several handsome buildings in that city ; also 
 considerable real estate in and around Alburquerque. 
 He has an eye to business at all times and is considered a 
 succcessf ul business man. He is genial and sociable with 
 his friends and is esteemed by all Avho know him. Such 
 citizens as Mr. CromAvell well deserve mention as one of 
 the representative men of New Mexico, and we bes2)eak 
 for him a prominent })Osition in the future history of 
 the Territory. 
 
388 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 J. B. KERR 
 
 Was born Marcli 12, 1<S47, in Fayette County, near Lex- 
 ington, Ky. He I'eceived a common school education in 
 his native county and at Paris, Ky. In 1866 he entered 
 the West Point JMilitaiy Acaciemy, gi-aduating from that 
 school in June, 1870. Immediately after graduation he 
 was a2)poiuted Second Lieutenant of the Sixth Regiment, 
 United States Cavalry, and ^vas ordered to the -western 
 frontier. He assisted in driving the Kiowa and Coman- 
 che Indians from the western border of Texas, and in 
 jNIarch, 1871, "was or<lered to Kansas, and during the next 
 few yeai's ser\-ed luider General Miles in tlie campaign 
 against the Clieyenne and Arapahoe tril)es; the}' were 
 hnally suljdued and placed upon the resei'vatio]!, and in 
 the spring of 1875 he -was ordered to the department of 
 /Vrizona, -wliere he has since served ■within the Territories 
 of New Mexico and Arizona; during which time he has 
 engaged in many noted campaigns and has been luii- 
 formly successful in settling the Indian disturl)ances. 
 jVfter the termination of the different campaigns ending 
 in the fall of 18s6, Capt. Kerr removed to Ft. Wingate, 
 Avhere he is now stationed. As a military officer he has 
 few superiors in discipline and a thorough knowledge of 
 field tactics. He has received several medals, conferred 
 upon him for services upon the field, also for his skill as 
 a mai'ksman. He has had phenomenal success in procur- 
 ing peace and good feeling throughout Ne-w Mexico and 
 Arizona, and to such men as he does civilization owe its 
 present advanced state. 
 
MOKROE TOBY, FINOS ALTOS, N. M. 
 
 389 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 391 
 
 G. G. POSEY. 
 
 Prominent among the Democratic politicians of the 
 Teii'itory ^vho has served his party witli earnestness and 
 fidelity is Mr. Posey. He has been intimately associated 
 with the party successes of the past, and will no doubt, 
 in the future, make his power felt in the circles of politi- 
 cal life. He was born February 5, 1850, in Wilkinson 
 County, Mississippi. He received a collegiate education, 
 and Avas admitted to the bar of the Supreme Court of 
 Missouri in 1871. He came to New Mexico in 1880, and 
 immediately entered upon the practice of his pi'ofession 
 in Silver Cit}', Avheie he no\\' resides, an active and honored 
 member of the legal profession. He is a member of the 
 National Democratic Committee of New Mexico, and has 
 frequently acted as chairman of that body, and has also 
 served as chairman of several national conventions which 
 have elected delegates to Congress. Mr. Posey can be 
 well classed among NeAv Mexico's successful men, and as 
 he is in the full vigor of manh(jod we may safely predict 
 for him a brilliant future. 
 
392 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 L. D. MILLER. 
 
 Prominent amon^- the self-made men of New Mexico is 
 he Avliose name heads this sketch, and who has l^een a 
 prominent chai'aeter in business and social circles for 
 many years past. Mr. Miller was born in Mechanicsliurg, 
 Cumberland Co., Pa., March L'O, 1880. When four years 
 old he emigrated with his parents to Ohio, in -which 
 State he afterward receive a common school education. 
 In 1S5B he went to California, following in the footsteps 
 of the thousands who had preceded him. He lived in 
 California six years, and then I'emoved to Colorado, 
 where lie remained sevei'al j'ears engaged in various oc- 
 cupations. In 1870 lie came to Silver City, which was 
 at that time l>ut a sparsely settled \-illage, and for a long 
 while he I'elied almost entirely upon game, shot l)y his own 
 hand, for substinence. Mr. Miller has greatly added to 
 the growth and achaucement of Silver Cit}' and to-day 
 stands a raenil)er of the city council and an honored and 
 respected citizen. His estimalde Avife was Miss Maggie 
 Kea}s, to whom he ^vas married November 1, 1873, in 
 London, Canada. 
 
HON. TRINIDAD ROMERO, WAnOX MOUN'D, N. M. 
 
 393 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 395 
 
 O. A. HADLEY 
 
 Was born iu Cherry Creek, ChataiKjua County, N. Y., in 
 1826. His early youth was spent on a farm. He re- 
 ceived an academic education and M^as graduated from 
 Fredonia University in 1845. In the fall of 1865 he 
 went to Little Rock, Ark., where he engaged in the mer- 
 cantile business until 1867, when he was appointed regis- 
 trar of Franklin County, Arkansas. In 1868 he was 
 elected senator from Little Rock district, which position 
 he held until 1871 ; during his term of office he presided 
 as president of the Senate, and upon the election of 
 Powell Clayton to the United States Senate, Mr. Hadley 
 became Governor of Arkansas by virtue of his presidency 
 of the State Senate, and tilled this responsible office until 
 1873. On February 17, 1849, he was married to Miss 
 Mary C. Kilbourne, daughter of Wm. Kilbourne, one of 
 the pioneers of Chatauqua. In 1874 he made an exten- 
 sive tour through Europe in company with his wife, re- 
 turning to Little Rock in 1875. In 1876 he was ap- 
 pointed I'egister of the land office, at the expiration of 
 which office he was made postmaster of Little Rock, 
 holding this office until 1881, when he removed to New 
 Mexico. In November, 1888, he purchased the Tipton 
 ranch, of 15,000 acres, near Watrous, upon which he has 
 made valuable improvements, and where he at present 
 resides, engaged extensively in the breeding of fine cattle 
 and horses. In all matters of public or private life Mr. 
 Hadley has won the confidence and esteem of all who 
 know him, and by his integrity in business matters he 
 will continue to hold the same as long as he may remain 
 among his fi-iends. 
 
396 III.^TOKV OF NKW MEXICO. 
 
 MARTIN MAKER 
 
 Was born in Tipperaiy County, Ireland, March 19, 1843, 
 and lived there with his parents until he ^\'as nine years 
 of age, when the family emigrated to Springfield, 0., 
 where }'oung Maher followed the plow for seven years, 
 and conse(][ueutly received but few educational advan- 
 tages. In 1859 he was apprenticed to a baker at Urbane, 
 O., where he ^s•()rked at his trade until 1861, when he 
 accepted a g()\'ernment position at Nashville, Tenn. He 
 I'emained there until 1865, in that capacity, and then 
 Asorked a year at his trade in that city. In 1866 he 
 enlisteil in the Fifth Infantry, United States Regulars, 
 and served ^vith distinction three }'ears. He received 
 his discharge at Ft. Reynolds, Col., and shortly after 
 engaged in railroading in Texas ; this he continued in 
 other States for about six years. Mr. Maher Avas mar- 
 ried in 1879 to Mrs. Kate E. Howe of Massachusetts. 
 They removed to New Mexico, and settled in Silver 
 City, their present home. In 1888 he Avas elected to the 
 city council. Mr. Malier is an active and energetic 
 citizen of Silver City, and is alAva}'s I'eady to take a 
 prominent and useful part in all matters pertaining to 
 the interest and -welfare of that cit>\ 
 
MICHAEL COONEY, COONBY, N. M. 
 
 397 
 
BIOaUAPHICAL SKETCHES. 399 
 
 LEONARD SKINNER, 
 
 Born in Sherbourne, N. Y., October 12, 1839. His 
 education was derived from tlie common schools of his 
 native town. In 1859 he crossed the plains, going first 
 to Aurora, now Denver, Col., in which place he remained 
 but a short while ; he then went to Russell Gulch and 
 from there to California Gulch, -where he en2;a2;ed in 
 mining for several months. From there he removed to 
 Colorado City, where he has the distinction of having 
 erected the first hoiise. Leaving Colorado City, he came 
 direct to New Mexico, ^vhere he was employed b)' the 
 government in various ways until the breaking out of the 
 war ; he then enlisted and took an active part in the war 
 until the close. Since then he has been engaged in 
 ranching and cattle raising ; he resides on a fine ranch 
 eighteen miles from Alburquerque. Mr. Skinner has 
 battled with life and is most deserving of the good 
 fortime he now enjoys. 
 
400 HISTOKY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 ROBERT H. COWAN 
 
 Was boru uear Lynchburg, Va., October 15, 1839. He 
 I'eceived a common school education, and at the age of 
 eighteen yeais started across the plains Asithout funds 
 but I'ich in cletei-mination. In that time railroads had 
 readied but little be}'ond the Mississippi. Mr. Cowan 
 hired an ox team at Kansas Cit}' and crossed the j)lains 
 to Ft. Garland. He made numerous ti-ips between civili- 
 zation and tlie far West, and had many conflicts with the 
 Indians, having traveled all through. New Mexico and 
 (.)ther Teri'iti_">ii'es. He was engaged as stage driver 
 between Indepen<lence, Mo., and Santa Fe, N. M., and as 
 Avagon master for ten years, and for a long time Avas sta- 
 tion master at Rayoda, N. M. He traded considerably 
 between Carson, Nev., and points in New Mexico. Was 
 married November 1, 18(is, to JMiss Delubina Padilla. 
 Mr. Co\van took the mail contract betAveen Springei' and 
 Taos, N. M., and continued in that service four }'ears. 
 He is mnv engaged in the livery business at Springer, 
 N. M. When in the mail service he never failed to coni- 
 2)lete his I'oute, though often impeded by storm and 
 flood and more threatening obstacles. He is a self-made 
 man. 
 
401 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 403 
 
 A. E. EALY, M.D. 
 
 He whose name heads this sketch is one of Albur- 
 querque's most prominent physicians. Courteous and 
 agreeable in manner, careful and conscientious in doing 
 his duty, and a kindness and consideration alike to young 
 and old, rich and poor, has combined to win him the 
 deserved popularity he now enjoys. Dr. Ealy was born 
 in Pennsylvania, in the month of January, 1846. His 
 earlier education was received at the grammar schools of 
 his native State, and upon finishing the prescribed course 
 at these schools he entered the University of Pennsyl- 
 vania, from which institution he graduated in 1870 with 
 high honors, and receiving the degree of M.D. For 
 eight years he practiced his profession in Pennsylvania, 
 doing moderately well. In 1878 he removed to Dayton, 
 0., and resided in that city two years, during which time 
 he had a large practice ; but in 1880 he was seized with 
 the " western fever " and started West. He decided to 
 locate at Alburquerque, and at once started in to win 
 friends and build up a practice, both of which he suc- 
 ceeded in doing, and to-day stands in the front ranks of 
 his profession in that city, and is an honored and re- 
 spected citizen. Dr. Ealy's experience during the ten 
 years of his residence in New Mexico have taught him 
 that the climate of that country has different effects on 
 patients in different stages of consumption and other 
 lung troubles. A sure .cure is almost certain when 
 patients are in the first stages, but in cases of more ad- 
 vanced nature the climate is not as beneficial; he also 
 considers the high altitude dangerous as to heart troubles. 
 
404 HISTORY or NEW MEXICO. 
 
 DOCITHE A. CLOUTHIEK 
 
 Was born in St. George, Canada, May 5, 1853. He re- 
 ceived a common school education, and Avhen seventeen 
 years of age went to Sheridan, Kan., where he engaged 
 in business with W. II. Chick & Co., v^^ith whom he con- 
 tinued ten years. He removed to New Mexico, and in 
 1880 he built a house on his present beautiful ranch, 
 three miles from Springer. In the same year he formed 
 a partnership v^ith H. M. Porter, and bought out the 
 interest of BroMTi & Manzanares, continuing the business 
 under the name of Porter & Clouthier ; they commenced 
 business vdth $15,000 capital, and five years later, when 
 Mr. Porter retired from the firm, they valued their stock 
 at $95,000. Upon the retirement of Mr. Porter, D. A. 
 Clouthier, with others, purchased his. interest and con- 
 tinued business under the name of the Springer Mercan- 
 tile and Banking Co. He is still connected with this 
 firm and doing well. He is also largely interested in real 
 estate in Springer. In 1880 he was elected county treas- 
 urer of Colfax County, and has served three terms. On 
 October 1, 1882, he was married to Miss Josephine 
 Abreau, the accomplished granddaughter of Don Carlos 
 Baubien, one of the original owners of the famous 
 Maxwell Land Grant. 
 
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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 407 
 
 SEAMAN FIELD, 
 
 Born in Jefferson County, N. Y., February 27, 1829. 
 His education was that afforded by the common schools, 
 and at the age of nineteen he left New York and went 
 to New Orleans, entering a wholesale boot and shoe 
 house, where he remained ten years. From there he 
 went to Texas and engaged in ranching, where he con- 
 tinued to live until the war broke out, when he enlisted 
 in the Confederate service, serving in the Thirty-third 
 Regiment, Texas Cavalry, and with the exception of six 
 months in the navy he served until the war ended. The 
 next twelve years were spent in the North, when he 
 again returned to Texas, going from there ifl 1883 to 
 Deming, N. M., which place he expects to make his 
 home. In 1886, through the recommendation of Judge 
 Magoffin of El Paso, he was appointed United States 
 collector of customs, by the Secretary of the Treasury. 
 Col. Field owns some very valuable gold, silver, and lead 
 mines situated in Ties Hermanes, N. M., the ore assay- 
 ing from $20 to $120 per ton. 
 
408 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 JOSEPH P. SCHROEDER. 
 
 When "\ve see a gentleman wlio is successful in his 
 business, we know that his prosperity is not the result of 
 chance, but ratber that he has worked hard and long, 
 and that he possesses a spirit which does not succumb to 
 trifling discouragements. When one attains the proud 
 distinction of being a solid man, his word must be con- 
 sidered as good as his bond and his reputation must 
 necessarily be unblemished. Mr. Schroeder is one who 
 without aid or guidance has followed the true instincts of 
 his own progressive nature, and to-day stands in the ranks 
 of the foremost. He was born October 7, 1857, in St. 
 Louis, Mo. He received an ordinary common school 
 education, and when seventeen years of age he entered 
 the St. Louis College of Pharmacy, from which he gradu- 
 ated in 18t6. The next two years were spent in Florence, 
 Kan., and in 1878 he came to New Mexico. He reached 
 Raton when the people were living in tents, and decided 
 to settle there. He used a portion of the little money he 
 had to build a store, and the remainder he invested, which 
 investments have since realized him a handsome profit. 
 He started in a stranger, but through his gentlemanly 
 deportment, habits of industry and unflinching integrity, 
 he won the esteem of all with whom he associated,- and 
 soon established the foundation of his present business. 
 Mr. Schroeder is an esteemed citizen of Raton and always 
 takes an active part in all matters pertaining to the in- ' 
 terest and welfare of that thriving little city. 
 
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BIOGEAPHICAL SKETCHES. 411 
 
 W. C. PORTEEFIELD 
 
 Was bom March 28, 1858, at Mount Erie, 111. After 
 iinisliing Ms education, both literaiy and pharmaceutical, 
 at the age of twenty-one he entered the drug business 
 with his brother, M. W. Porterfield, at Fairfield, III, and 
 continued in the same successfully until 1887, when the 
 firm disposed of their business and invested in Kansas 
 real estate, building the Riverside addition to the city 
 of Eldorado, Kan. During this speculation, drug stores 
 in Chicago, Kansas City, Mount Vernon, 111., and Hot 
 Springs, Ark., were traded for. W. C. Porterfield hav- 
 ing special charge of these stores until disposed of. In 
 1887 he came to Silver City, N. M., and entered the drug 
 business alone, from which he has built up one of the 
 finest business houses in the Territory. Upon the pas- 
 sage of the Pharmacy Act by the Territorial Legislature, 
 during the session of 1888-89, Mr. Porterfield had the 
 honor of being appointed by Governor E. G. Ross, mem- 
 ber of the New Mexico Board of Pharmacy, which office 
 he still holds with much credit to the board. In 1884 
 he was married to Miss Maggie Wilson of Fairfield, 111. 
 Two bright boys grace this union. He is a Republican 
 in politics, Methodist in religion, and a firm adherent to 
 all principles of justice and right. 
 
412 HISTOET OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 HENRY CLASSEN, 
 
 Born in California, December 7, 1860. He received 
 the benefit of a common school education in his native 
 State. His advent in commercial life began in San Fran- 
 cisco, Cal., in which city he was employed as a clerk in a 
 dry-goods store for three years. His next venture was 
 in the railroad business, having accepted the position of 
 assistant time clerk in the locomotive department of the 
 Southern Pacific Railroad at Tulare, Cal. In 1882 he 
 went to Lordsburg, N. M., acting as assistant agent for the 
 Southern Pacific Railroad, until March 14, 1883, when, in 
 connection with his brother, he engaged in a general mer- 
 cantile business, which he at present continues. On 
 November 6, 1888, he was elected assessor of Grant 
 County, although but twenty-eight years of age. Mr. 
 Classen deserves great credit, as he came to New Mexico 
 without a dollar, and his past life affords abundant reason 
 to believe that a career of still greater usefulness and 
 still higher honors await him in the years to come. 
 

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 415 
 
 MICHAEL C. CAEEY, 
 
 Son of William and Mary Carey, was born August 
 22, 1852, in PHladelpHa, Pa. In 1855 his parents 
 removed to IS'ew Jersey, in wMcli State tlie early life of 
 young Carey was spent ; he worked on a farm until 
 1864 and the next four years were spent on a canal boat 
 running from New York to Washington and Philadel- 
 phia. In 1868 he started West, and until 1882 engaged 
 in ranching, teaming, and various occupations through 
 Mississippi, Kansas, Missouri, and the Indian Territoiy. 
 He was then employed as teamster for the Government 
 at Ft. Cummings, 'N. M., until 1883, in which year he 
 settled in Central New Mexico. He is now engaged in 
 the liquor, livery, ranch and cattle business ; in all of 
 which he has been quite successful. He is a good citizen 
 of Central, and is respected by all who know him. 
 
416 HISTORY OP NEW MEXICO. 
 
 ALEXANDEK M. STOREY, 
 
 Was born near Hartstown, Crawford County, Pa., March 
 10, 1846. At the age of twelve years he emigrated 
 with his parents to Nebraska. He received a common 
 school education. In 1862 he enlisted in the Second 
 Nebraska Cavalry. In 1864, after serving his term of 
 enlistment, he went to Colorado, and was on the plains 
 when the Sioux Indians went on the warpath. After a 
 short time he returned to Nebraska and engaged in farm- 
 ing and stock raising, doing moderately well. In 1876 
 he returned to Colorado, and engaged in mining until 
 1878. He went to Leadville during the mining excite- 
 ment there, and afterward to the Gunnison country. 
 From there he went to Utah and Arizona, and in 1882 
 to Kingston, N. M., where he brought the " Iron Clad " 
 group of mines, which, after developing and improving, 
 he sold to St. Louis capitalists for |10,000. In 1886 he 
 was elected sheriff of Sierra County and was re-elected in 
 the fall of 1888. He is a self-made man in every respect, 
 is a member of the G. A. E.., Masons, K. P., and Odd 
 Fellows. 
 
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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 419 
 
 W. W. JACOBS. 
 
 This gentleman's career in life is one of whicli lie 
 should feel Justly proud. Left an orphan at the tender 
 age of eight he has battled with the world alone, and by 
 indomitable pluck has made his way to a high round in 
 life's ladder, and stands to-day a fitting example of what 
 energy and perseverance will accomplish. He was born 
 February 28, 1855, in Douglas County, Illinois. He 
 remained in his native State until he was twenty-three 
 years of age ; during these years he worked on a farm, 
 and by attending the district schools, at intervals, suc- 
 ceeded in obtaining a fair education. When nineteen 
 years old he entered a dry-goods store, in which he 
 clerked four years. From Douglas County he drifted to 
 Rock Island, and from there to New Mexico, which he 
 reached in 1879. He came to Springer and entered the 
 employ of the Santa Fe Railroad, continuing with them 
 five years. Leaving the railroad, he engaged in the 
 mercantile business for himself, dealing principally in 
 Jewelry and stationery. On the following June he 
 foi-med a partnership with Mr. A. J. Clouthier, who was 
 then conducting a mercantile house ; the business pros- 
 pered, and is to-day one of the largest and most success- 
 ful business houses in Springer. As a citizen he is much 
 esteemed and his business qualities are recognized by all 
 who know him. 
 
420 HISTOEY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 T. JARAMILLO 
 
 Is well known throngliout New Mexico ; his father be- 
 ing a native New Mexican, and whose memory is still 
 venerated by all who ever knew him. He was one of 
 the leading men in the Territory, and his tragic death, at 
 the hands of the Indians, cast a gloom over the entire 
 community in which he moved. The subject of this 
 biography was born in Los Lunas, November 12, 1853; 
 and during his early life received the benefits of a good 
 education both in New Mexico, and in the St. Louis 
 University, St. Louis. Soon after his return to New 
 Mexico upon completion of his studies, his father's death 
 occurred, and Mr. Jaramillo was called upon to settle up 
 his father's estate, dividing it among the four surviving 
 children. He also carried on his father's business for a 
 while, and then sold out his interest and moved to Ft. 
 Sumner, where he afterward met and married Miss 
 Sophie Maxwell, daughter of L. B. Maxwell, of " Max- 
 well Land Grant " fame. They resided in Ft. Sum- 
 ner two years, and then moved to San Fernando, N. M., 
 where he purchased a home, and where he now lives, 
 engaged extensively in sheep raising. Mr. Jaramillo has 
 never aspired to political honors, and has been content to 
 remain a peaceful, law-abiding citizen, but as he is in the 
 prime of life, and many years of usefulness before him, 
 his future none can foretell, but prophecy indicates that 
 high and more honorable positions await him in the years 
 to come. 
 
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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 423 
 
 CHARLES ILFELD, 
 
 One of the wide awake and lively business men of Las 
 Vegas, was born in Homburg, Germany, April 19, 1847. 
 In 1865 lie emigrated to America and came direct to 
 New Mexico, locating first at Taos. Coming to tte 
 Territory before the advent of railways and immigrations, 
 he has witnessed the wonderful change of twenty-five 
 years, in which populous cities have sprung up where 
 formerly the wild Apache pitched his tent, and he has 
 had the satisfaction of seeing Ids business expand with 
 the development of his adopted home, until now it is one 
 of the most extensive and successful in the Territory. 
 His handsome building on the Plaza is as well known to 
 citizens of New Mexico as is the genial countenance of 
 its owner, whose warm-hearted nature has won him a 
 large circle of friends. In 1867 he began business at Las 
 Vegas in company with A. Letcher, and in 1874 he suc- 
 ceeded to the business of the firm, which he has suc- 
 cessfully conducted in Las Vegas up to the present day. 
 
424 HISTORY OP NEW MEXICO. 
 
 NESTOR MONTOYA, 
 
 The enterprising and progressive editor-in-cliief of the 
 lately founded Spanish paper La Voz Del Pueblo, is a 
 gentleman ^vho has done much for the population and 
 advancement of this Territory. He was born in Albur- 
 querque, N. M., April 14, 1857. He is of distinguished 
 parentage, his father being Don Teodocio Montoya, and 
 his mother's maiden name was Encarnacion Cervantes ; 
 he is a grandson of Don Pablo Montoya, the original 
 grantee by the Spanish government of the princely estate 
 to-day called the " Pablo Montoya Land Grant " in New 
 Mexico; embracing over a million of acres. Nestor 
 entered St. Michael's College in Santa Fe at the age of 
 twelve, and proved himself an exemplary student during 
 the four years he remained in that famous institution. 
 During these childhood years, an excellent foundation 
 was laid by the good Brothers, which has at this early 
 date made itself apparent in his already bright career. 
 Upon the completion of his studies he entered into 
 partnership -with his uncle in the mei'chandising business 
 at Chihuahua City, Old Mexico. He returned to Santa 
 Fe a few }'ears latei- and accepted a clerkship in the 
 Santa Fe post-office, which he held satisfactorily four 
 years, when he resigned to accept the office of secretary 
 of the United States Dejjository, and while acting in this 
 capacity he -was appointed by Hon. Stephen B. Elkins a 
 cadet, for Ne^w Mexico, to the United States Naval Acad- 
 emy, at Annapolis, Md. Later, he joined a merchandise 
 train to the Navajo reservation, but soon returned to 
 Santa Fe, glad to escape Avith his Indian pony and two 
 huge nav}' re^ olvers. He then established himself in the 
 mercantile business in Santa Fe, and continued success- 
 
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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 427 
 
 fully for several years. He took an active interest in 
 politics during this time and on the national Democratic 
 administration he was given the position of United 
 States court interpreter for the first judicial district of 
 New Mexico, which office he held four years. In 1886 
 he accompanied Antonio Joseph, noAV delegate from New 
 Mexico to Congress, on an extended tour throughout the 
 Territory, making enthusiastic speeches in his interest, 
 which undoubtedly played an important part in the 
 ensuing election of Mr. Joseph. The question of state- 
 hood being agitated, Mr. Montoya, in company with E. 
 N. Salazar, an old time friend, deemed it an opportune 
 moment to establish a Spanish newspaper in the interest 
 of the Democratic party and the statehood of New 
 Mexico. This newspaper is owned by the firm and is, as 
 its name signifies, " the voice of the people." 
 
 This publication is fitly educating the masses of Mexi- 
 can people for the duties, responsibilities, and advantages 
 of statehood, which he hopes will soon be conferred. Mr. 
 Montoya has lately been giving a portion of his time to 
 the reading of Blackstone and other eminent authorities, 
 and will probably be admitted shortly to the bar. 
 
 The above is a short summary of his career, and it 
 certainly is a commendable one. Without any desire to 
 flatter, we can say that no man ever looked more earnestly 
 after the weKare of the needy, and he is among those 
 whose unostentatious acts of friendship and charity re- 
 sound their praise more elequently than all the laudations 
 that language can devise. Mr. Montoya is a Democrat 
 in politics and his editorial utterances are carefully read 
 by most of the leading men in the Territory. 
 
 He is destined to many long years of usefulness, and 
 the people will not fail to take advantage of his abilities 
 in the future we are safe in predicting. 
 
428 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 PLACIDO SANDOVAL. 
 
 Wten a young man attains a position of honor and 
 prominence in a community, whether it be in the pohtical 
 or mercantile world, that fact should be taken as proof of 
 merit of no ordinary kind in the make up of the one 
 winning such honor and distinction. Such an elevation 
 as that of Mr. Sandoval to the responsible position of 
 county treasurer argues that his past life has been spent 
 to good purpose. He was born in Santa Fe, N. M., 
 October 6, 1846. He was left an orphan at an early age 
 and resided with his uncle, A. Sandoval, in his native 
 town, where he received the benefits of a common school 
 education. In 1859 he went to Kansas City, Mo., and 
 entered the mercantile house of W. H. Chick & Co., with 
 whom he remained several years, during which time he 
 mastered the English language. Upon his return he was 
 forced into the United States militia service, but, making 
 his escape, he enlisted in Company E, First New Mexico 
 Cavalry, commanded by Gen. Kit Carson. He took part 
 in the battles of Ft. Craig, Los Pinos, Peralta, Albur- 
 querque, Glorietta, and Apache Canon. After the Con- 
 federate forces retired . from New Mexico, he with his 
 comjjany engaged in a campaign against the Navajo 
 Lidians. After many encounters, in . which several In- 
 dians were killed, they finally succeeded in quelling the 
 outbreaks. He then returned to Ft. Bascome, where he 
 received his discharge. In October, 1873, he was mar- 
 ried to Miss Fannie Whittlesly ; soon after his marriage 
 he moved to Las Vegas, which is now his home. 
 
 Mr. Sandoval has since then gained a popularity 
 flattering to a gentleman of his age, and in 1886 was 
 elected county treasurer of San Miguel County. In 
 politics he is an earnest Republican and as he is but Just 
 in the prime of life, we have no hesitancy in predicting 
 for him higher official honors than he has yet attained. 
 
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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 431 
 
 URBANE OZANE 
 
 Born in Chateaubriand, Fi-ance, May 8, 1835. He re- 
 ceived a common sctool education in his native town. 
 In 1850 he emigrated with his parents to the United 
 States, embarking in a sailing vessel, and arrived in New 
 Orleans, La., after a trip of sixty-two days. He engaged 
 in the mercantile business for himself in Nashville, Tenn., 
 and continued the same until the beginning of the war. 
 On June 25, 1857, he was married to Miss Fannie Bouvard. 
 After the war he engaged extensively in cotton planting in 
 Alabama and Mississippi, which he continued until 1875. 
 In 1868 he was elected a member of the constitutional 
 convention from Panola County, Mississippi, and the same 
 year was appointed probate Judge by the governor of the 
 same State. He was elected sheriff of Panola County, 
 Mississippi, in 1869, and was re-elected in 1871 and 1873. 
 From 1875 to 1880 he lived in Memphis, Tenn., and 
 Wichita, Kan. In 1880 he went to New Mexico, and 
 established a stage line between Carthage and White 
 Oaks. He also has the government contract to carry mail 
 between those points and Lincoln. Mr. Ozane at present 
 resides at White Oaks, N. M. 
 
432 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 JOHN A. RAITHEL 
 
 Was born in Hungary, Austria, April 4, 1851. He 
 received a common school education in Oedenburg. In 
 1868 lie went to Bavaria and there followed the butcher's 
 profession for one year. He then sailed for America and 
 upon reaching Pittsburg, Pa., remained in that city two 
 years. In 1871 he returned to Austria, and upon reach- 
 ing Hungary was pressed into service ; he, however, 
 succeeded in escaping and again came to America. He 
 resided in Chicago several years. In 1877 he came to 
 New Mexico and settled in Santa F6 ; two years later 
 he removed to Silver City, where he also spent two 
 years ; from there he went to Deming, where he engaged 
 in the meat business and, meeting with success, remained 
 there until 1882, when he disposed of his business and 
 sailed for Europe. Upon his arrival in Vienna, Austria, 
 March 25, 1883, he was married to Miss Anna Hajemeis- 
 ter. They returned to America and permanently settled 
 in Deming, where, on May 10, he opened a meat market, 
 which he continued until 1885. He then operated a 
 canning factory with moderate success for one year, and 
 disposed of his interest to organize the first brewery in 
 Deming. This business he is now conducting with great 
 success. Mr. Raithel is an energetic and wide-awake 
 business man, and has done much toAvard advancing the 
 interests of Deming. He has the distinction of building 
 the first house and planting the first tree in Deming He 
 is now a large property owner in that place and owns 
 160 acres of beautiful ranch land one mile from Deming. 
 His family consists of three bright children, Andrew, 
 Margaret, and William. 
 
KESTOB MONTOXA, SAXIA FE, N. M 
 
 433 
 
BIOGKAPHICAL SKETCHES. 435 
 
 P. H. FREUDENTHAL. 
 
 Was boru July 22, 1854, in Germany. He received a 
 good common seliool education in his native conntr}-, and 
 coming to tlie United kStates settled in Las Cruces, N. M., 
 where lie ^vas emplo}'ed as a clerk l)y H. Lazinsky & 
 Co., -with -whicli firm he remained twelve years, being 
 admitted as a partner the last t-\\o years of his connec- 
 tion with them. In January, 1882, the firm disposed of 
 their business to Numa Raymond, of Las Cruces, in 
 which place Mr. Freudenthal, in connection -with his 
 father, opened a mercantile house some months later. 
 Their business increased steadily, and in 1888 they Avere 
 obliged to build a new store to accommodate their groAv- 
 ing trade ; they now carry a stock of $30,000, with an 
 average yearly sale of $75,000. Mr. Freudenthal has 
 held sewral positions of honor and trust. He has 
 served two tei'ms as treasurer of Dona Ana County ; he 
 is also treasurer of tlie Las Cruces College. He is a 
 large owner of real estate in and around Las Cruces and 
 is considered to be one of NeAv Mexico's most substantial 
 and influential citi/ens. He is full of enterprise and a 
 bright future ma)- be predicted for him. 
 
436 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 JOHN EDWARD McKOWN 
 
 Was born March 25, 1840, in Northampton County, 
 Virginia. He was raised on a farm and received a com- 
 mon school education. At the age of seventeen he left 
 home and went to Jackson County, Missouri. In 1859 
 he drove a team for Col. McKinny across the plains from 
 Ft. Leavenworth to Salt Lake City, consisting of 50 
 teams, 50 men, 4 cooks, and 4 night heixlers. In spring 
 of 1860 he entered the government service and drove a 
 team in the Fifth Infantiy, remaining with them six 
 Aveeks. He then, in company Avith a Frenchman, took 
 up a mining claim Avhich proved a great success, but, 
 taking sick, he sold out and came to Ft. Union, N. M., 
 where he obtained employment as wagon master of the 
 wagon trains ^v■hich were then used as conveyances for 
 everything through New Mexico. During his first trip, 
 which was to Prescott, Ariz., he saAV for the first time 
 Indians entei'ing their houses from the top. He was 
 then ordered out Avith the Third and Fifth Cavalry, and 
 Avas present at the battles Valverde and Pigeon Canoe ; 
 he then stai'ted out Avith Kit Carson, First Regiment, 
 New Mexico. While Avith Carson, he engaged in numer- 
 ous skirmishes with the Indians. In 1863 he started 
 for Ft. Baird Avith a government train. While at Mem- 
 bras River, A\'ith three herders, he took the mules half a 
 mile from camp, Avhen they were suddenly charged upon 
 by three hundred Indians, Avho took all the mules, killed 
 one man, and wounded another. In 1865 he Avas ordered 
 1 »ack to the States ; before reaching Ft. LeavenAVorth 
 they Avere attacked by the Indians but lost only one man 
 in the encountei'. In 1866 he left the government 
 service, bought an ox train, and freighted in NeAv Mexico 
 
PLACIDO SANDOVAL, LAS VEGAS, N. M. 
 
 437 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 439 
 
 for three years with good success. In 1869 he sold his 
 train and went to Colfax County and invested in cattle. 
 He settled on Red River, twelve miles from Raton. He 
 at present resides at Raton, engaged in the cattle business 
 and doing well. On May 23, 1881, he married Mrs. 
 Jennie E. Griii'en of Raton. He is a self-made man in 
 every respect. 
 
440 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 ALFRED J. CLOUTHIER 
 
 Is one of tlie substantial business men of Springer, and 
 whether in business or social circles he is always the 
 same — an obliging, liberal gentleman, who, while anxious 
 to benefit himself, is never selfish or grasping. Mr. 
 Clouthier Avas born in Henry ville, Canada, August 15, 
 1852. His educational advantages ^vere limited to the 
 meager learniua; he wafi al)le to obtain before he was 
 nine years of age. He was at that time sent to Hudson, 
 N. Y., -where he spent one year assisting on a farm. 
 From there he went to Warehouseport, Conn., and 
 worked on a farm until 1861. He then started out West. 
 On reaching Kankakee, 111., he Avas offered employment 
 in a mercantile house, which he accepted, and retained 
 fifteen years ; during this time he had received several 
 promotions, and had gained a valuable experience in the 
 mercantile line. In 1872 he was married to Miss En- 
 phemia Marceaum, and four bi'ight children have graced 
 this union. Mr. Clouthier came to Springer, his present 
 home, ill 1881 ; he entered the mercantile house of Por- 
 ter & Clouthier, and continued with them seven years. 
 He then, in partnership with Mr. Jacobs, opened a mer- 
 cantile house which was known undei- the firm name of 
 Jacobs & Clouthier. He has an extensive establishment 
 and is doing a good business. Mi'. Clouthier has been 
 his own master since his tenth year, and his slow but 
 steady success since that time is but a forerunner of 
 what the future has in store for him. 
 
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 441 
 
BIOGKAPHICAL SKETCHES. 443 
 
 HENRY LAMBERT 
 
 Has had an adventurous life, having traveled almost 
 around the world. He was born at Nantes, France, 
 October 28, 1838. At the age of ten years he ran away 
 from home, going to different parts of France and making 
 rather a precarious living for four years. When four- 
 teen years old he went to Havre and worked in his 
 uncle's hotel for two years ; from there to Bordeaux, re- 
 maining but a few weeks ; he then shipped on board a 
 vessel bound for South America, arriving there safely ; 
 from there he went to Cuba and then back to Havre. In 
 1861 he again shijsped on a vessel for Bordeaux. In a 
 few weeks he sailed for America, arriving in Philadel- 
 phia late in 1861 ; deserting his ship, he remained in 
 Philadelphia two weeks, then embarked on the United 
 States Monitor, serving for two years — this was during 
 the Avai- of the Rebellion. In 1864 he shipped in packet 
 ship bound for LiverjDool, England, made the trip and 
 left packet when he reached Philadelphia, and shipped in 
 a Avar sloop as captain-steward ; in this capacity he 
 served three months, deserting when he reached Mon- 
 tevideo, Peru, and from there went to Buenos Ayres, en- 
 gaging with a circus troupe, going from one port to 
 another. Remaining with them for awhile, he again 
 shipped in vessel bound for Portland, Me.; he remained 
 in Portland three weeks, then visited Boston, Ne^\' York, 
 and Washington ; in the latter city he remained six 
 months. He again started out, visiting Newbem, N. C, 
 and Philadelphia, coming back to Washington, where he 
 entered the service of the United States Army, for Fifth 
 Corps ; he remained with them six months. From there 
 he went to Petersburg, Va., and opened a restaurant, 
 
444 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 clearing |3000 in two and a half months ; from there he 
 returned to Washington, again entering the service of the 
 Fifth Corps ; he remained a short while there, then went 
 back to Petersburg, Va., where he spent the next tAvo 
 years. In 1868 he went to Denver, bought a train, and 
 with provisions, etc., drove across country to Eliza- 
 bethtown, N. M., where he bought a house and opened a 
 restaurant, running it one month veiy successfully, when 
 it caved in, destroying household goods, etc. He rebuilt 
 and successfull}' engaged in the same business for three 
 years. In 1871 went to Cimarron, N. M., his present 
 residence, built the St. James Hotel and did a good busi- 
 ness for several years. He has had several encounters 
 with Indians. He was married in March, 1868, to Miss 
 Mary Stepp, who died October 1, 1881. He was again 
 married in September, 1882, to Miss May Dans of Clay 
 County, Missouri ; they have three sons. During most 
 of Mr. Lambert's career he was employed as cook. He is 
 a self-made man in every respect. 
 
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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHKS. 447 
 
 TRANQUILINO LABADIE 
 
 Wa>* born July 6, 1854, at Saiita Fe. Upon his father's 
 appointment as Indian agent, in 1856, the family removed 
 with him to Abiquin, N. M., and until 1867 they had- 
 no settled home, but lived from one to t\\'() years at 
 such Indian agencies as Tome, Antonchico, Ft. Sumter, 
 Cimarron, Santa Rosa, and others. Young Labadie, how- 
 ever, received a collegiate education, and in 1S78 he A\'as 
 appointed interpreter in the House of Reju-esentatives, 
 when he I'emoved to Santa Fe to enter upon the duties 
 of his neAV office. In 1879 he Avas appointed deputy 
 county clerk and served tA\'o years in Las Vegas. In 
 1882 he was reappointed interpreter and translator in the 
 House of Representatives. On January 1, 1883, he -was 
 reappointed deputy county clerk, and -while holding this 
 office was elected city clerk of Las Vegas. In 1885 he 
 was appointed under-sheriff and collector for San Miguel 
 County, which position he held until December 1, 1885, 
 when he was apjjointed postmaster b}- President Cleve- 
 land. In all ot these responsible pulilic offices Mr. 
 Labadie has shown an earnest desiiv to perform his duty 
 in a thorough and conscientious manner. 
 
448 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 IRA B. GALE. 
 
 Among the aising young men of New Mexico, the sub- 
 ject of this sketch stands prominent, and although young 
 in years is rapidly gaining an experience that will prove 
 invaluable in years to come. He was born in Lake 
 County, Illinois, March 7, 1858. His early education 
 Avas received in the public schools of his native State. 
 When eighteen years of age he left Illinois and started 
 West. Upon reaching Colfax County, New Mexico, with 
 his keen perceptive abilities he recognized the facilities 
 and adaptability of that section of New Mexico for cattle 
 raising ; acting on this he settled in Colfax County, and 
 by untiring industry and ambition, coupled with an ener- 
 getic spirit, he to-day can boast of owning one of the most 
 valuable cattle ranches in that county ; it is Avell stocked 
 and has line irrigating facilities. M.r. Gale "was married 
 in May, 1885, to Miss Mattie Hamilton. He has had 
 ]uimerous skirmishes with the Indians and some of his 
 adventures are thiilling in the extreme. Mr. Gale is a 
 self-made man and enjoys the respect and esteem of his 
 felloAv citizens. 
 
449 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 451 
 
 ANICETO C. ABEYTIA 
 
 Was boi'u in Santa Fe, N. M., April 20, 1856. His 
 education ^^as received at the Christian Brothers' Col- 
 lege, Santa Fe. At the age of twenty-three he engaged 
 in the jewelry business. In 1886 he was elected super- 
 intendent of public instruction, which office he held until 
 1888, and in 1889 he was appointed deputy sheriff and 
 collector of San Miguel County. His estimable wife 
 was formerly Miss Fidelia Ortiz. Mr. Abeytia is a mem- 
 ber of the Catholic Knights. He is active and conscien- 
 tious in the discharge of his official duties, and is con- 
 sidered one of the most earnest and energetic workers in 
 the county. 
 
452 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 W. B. BUNKER, 
 
 Sou of John and Rhoda Bunker, was born on the 3d of 
 May, 1863, in Lewisville, Heniy County, Ind. His early 
 life was spent on a farm in Rush County, where he re- 
 ceived a common school education. At the age of seven- 
 teen, he entered Purdue University, Indiana, remaining in 
 that institution three years ; the next two years were 
 spent in the law office of Judge Long at Warsaw, Ind., 
 where he was admitted to the bar in June, 1885. He 
 practiced his profession in Newcastle, Ind., until the fall 
 of '86, when he came to New Mexico. He settled at Las 
 Vegas, and soon after his arrival, he was appointed 
 United States deputy district cleric, under Col. R. M. 
 Johnson, who shortly after resigned his position of 
 United States clerk for the 4th judicial district, which was 
 given by acclamation to Mr. Bunker. Mr. Bunker is con- 
 sidered one of the ablest young lawyers in the Territory. 
 He has also taken an active interest in politics and 
 made several stii'ring speeches upon political matters, and 
 we are safe in predicting for him a brilliant future. 
 
TEANQTIILINO LABADIE, LAS VEGAS, N". >[. 
 
 453 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 45S 
 
 J. J. SCHMIDT. 
 
 No gentleman in Wagon Mound is better known or 
 lias more warm friends than he whose name heads this 
 sketch. He is litei'ally a self-made man and what success 
 he has met with in life has been the result of his own 
 efforts, and he has had much to contend Avith. He was 
 born in Germany in the year 1838, and received a com- 
 mon school education in his native countiy. In 18.54 he 
 came to Ameiica, going to Cincinnati, in ^vhich city he 
 remained for a short ^vhile, and then started for New 
 Mexico, reaching the Territory in 1870. He worked at 
 various employments to gain a living, and in 1875 he 
 went into the sheep and cattle business. Later he formed 
 a partnership ^vith Mr. Reinken at Watrous, N. M., in the 
 general merchandise business. The firm is now dissolved 
 and Mr. Schmidt is doing a large and profitable business 
 for himself at Wagon Mound. He carries a stock of 
 |2.5,UO(». He is devoted to New Mexico, and thinks the 
 countr}- around Avill be productive of great residts m the 
 iiear future. He is a prominent and respected citizen, and 
 one of A\'hom Ncav IMexico may ^vell be proud. 
 
456 7IIST0KY or new Mexico. 
 
 ROBERT STEPP 
 
 Was born in Campbell County, Virginia, September 30, 
 1853, Avliere his early boyhood and youth were sjjent on 
 a farm ; diirino- this time he received the benefits of a 
 common school education. In 1871 he went direct to 
 Cimarron, N. M., and was empl()}'ed in a hotel at that 
 place for eight months. Fi'om there he Avent to Elizabeth- 
 toA\'n, N. M., and engaged in mining and pi'os2:)ectiug. 
 Not meeting -with the desired success at this, he aban- 
 doned it and moved to Taos, N. M., >\'here he engaged in 
 the licpior business ; he continued at this until the spring 
 of 187s, ^\■hen he dis})osed of his interest and returning 
 to Cimarron ojjened a licpior store there. In 1881 he 
 came to Springer and is no-w residing in that thi'iving 
 little town, engaged in the liquor business, and doing 
 well; and he is also largely interested in the cattle busi- 
 ness. He is a large propert}' o\\ner in Springer and an 
 honored and esteemed citizen. Mr. Stepp has in his 
 possession the original bt)wie knife o-svued by Kit Carson. 
 In 18*77 he was married to Miss Vivana Gniterras, who 
 died in 1887, leaving t-wo children ; and on September 13, 
 1888, he Avas again married to Mrs. Jennie Morgan of 
 Kansas. 
 
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 457 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 459 
 
 HENRY D. REINKEN, 
 
 Son of Jolin H. and Anna M. Reinken, was born Decem- 
 ber 16, 1851, in Bremen, Germany. He received a good 
 education in his native country, and at the age of nine- 
 teen he embarked for America. Reaching Philadelphia, 
 he obtained employment with Mr. Miller of that city, -who 
 was engaged in the confectionery business. He con- 
 tinued in this business one and one half years, and then 
 went to Iowa, where he engaged with the Coal Company 
 at Beacon, working for this company three years. From 
 there he went to Independence, Mo., and after a short 
 residence in that city started West. He reached New 
 Mexico in 1878 ; he was unable to speak the Mexican 
 language, so hired a Mexican teamster, and with a four 
 mule team he started out through the Tei'ritory ped- 
 dling merchandise, in which he was (^uite successful ; he 
 continued in this business for one year. In 1879 he 
 entered into partnership with Mr. J. J. Schmidt in a 
 general merchandise business at Oakta, N. M. They 
 were very successful and later opened branch stoi'es in 
 Watrous and Wagon Mound. In 1886 they dissolved 
 partnership). Mr. Reinken now conducts the business at 
 Watrous alone, with a cash capital of $90,000. He is con- 
 sidered a very successful business man and is self-made in 
 every respect. 
 
460 HISTOKY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 O. L. GREGORY 
 
 Is one of those brave men who risked life and limb in 
 defense of his country. He was born February 19, 1841, 
 in Knoxville, 111. He received a common school educa- 
 tion in his native town and worked on his father's farm 
 until twenty years of age. In October, 1861, he enlisted 
 in Compau}' D, Thirteenth Io\va Volunteers, and served 
 with gi'cat credit to himself for three years and nine 
 months, talcing part in the foUo^ving named battles : 
 Battle ( >f Shiloh, siege of Corinth, battle of Corinth, siege 
 of Vicksburg, Haines's Bluff, or I'etaking of Jackson ; he 
 A\'Hs in the siege of Atlanta, in the noted fight of July 21 
 and 22, at the time Genei-al McPherson Avas killed ; here 
 his regiment made a charge on the enemy's Avorks and lost 
 ninety-nine men in twenty-eight minutes, he carrying the 
 colors in this Asonderfid ussaidt. He Avas in Sherman's 
 march to the sea ; also the march across the Carolinas and 
 Virginia to Washington City ; he was mustered out of 
 service July 21, 1865. After the war he engaged in 
 farming in Keokuk County, Iowa, for two years, and later 
 in different occupations throughout the State. In 1879 
 he came to Las Vegas, N. M., and opened a barber shop, 
 which he still continues and is doing well. He married 
 Miss Jidia Bloom in 1883. He is a large property owner. 
 
461 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 463 
 
 J. R. GIVEN8 
 
 Was born iu Mt. Stirliug, 111., March 30, 1839. He 
 helped his father on the farm during the summer months 
 and attended the district school in winter. He 
 then engaged in the lumber business for a while, and 
 later in the dry goods business ; in the latter he remained 
 for ten years. In 1861 he was married to Miss M. J. 
 Dunlop, who died November 6, 1878, leaving Uvo chil- 
 dren, and on July 23, 1879, Mr. Givens married Miss 
 L. F. Dixon, of Elmwottd, 111., a most estimable lady, 
 who, with her husband, has greatly assisted in building 
 up the moi'als and educational interests in Raton, their 
 present residence. In 1880 Mr. Givens moved to 
 Wellington, Kan., ^vhere for a short ^^'hile he worked at 
 the carpentei''s trade. He then accepted the position of 
 foreman on buildings and bridges, of the A. T. and S. T. 
 R. R. Co., and moved tt) Trinidad, Col. ; later he was trans- 
 ferred to Raton, N. M. He is no-w contracting and l)uil(l- 
 inff in Raton and doing a a;ood business. He has made 
 several good investments in Raton propert)-, and is no"\v 
 rated as one of that city's soli<l men. He is also a mem- 
 ber of the Masonic fraternity. 
 
464 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO, 
 
 GEOEGE W. GILLESPIE 
 
 Is another of New Mexico's substantial and self-made 
 citizens. He Avas born January 30, 1861, in Tennessee. 
 He received a coniiuon school education, and when eleven 
 years old went with his parents to Colfax County, New 
 Mexico, where, since an early age, he has been engaged 
 in ranching and cattle raising. He now owns a fine 
 I'anch, well stocked with cattle. He has had many ex- 
 periences Avith the Indians. In 1874, they engaged in an 
 encounter within three miles of his house ; several men 
 Avei'e killed at this time, but he was uninjured. He has 
 done considerable trading with the Indians and has in 
 this way realized large profits. On November 24, 1887, he 
 ^\-as married to Miss Minnie O'Neil of Leavenworth, Kan. ; 
 one son lias graced this union. Mr. Gillespie is in every 
 way deserving of his present prosperous condition. 
 

 
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 465 
 
lUOCiKAPHICAL SKETCHES. 467 
 
 BENJAMIN SCOTT, 
 
 Born iu Mt. Stirling, Montgomery County, Ky., Novem- 
 ber 13, 1839. He received a common school education, 
 and at the age of eighteen removed to Missouri, where he 
 resided three years, engaged in various occupations. On 
 the breaking out of the vs^ar he enlisted in Company G, 
 First Missouri Cavalry, under Col. Gates, in Avhich com- 
 pany he served with distinction until the close of the war. 
 The subsequent thirteen years were spent in Texas. 
 From there he removed to Arizona and engaged in the 
 cattle business successfully for several j-ears. In 1889 
 he came to New Mexico, settling in Las Cruces ; he en- 
 gaged in the livery business, which he is at present con- 
 ducting and doing well. 
 
468 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 CIPRIANO LARA, 
 
 One of the successful business men of Springer, and one 
 Avho has hekl many offices of public trust, was born in 
 the State of Chihuahua, Old Mexico, in the year 1840. 
 He received a common school education in his native 
 State, and when twelve years old he removed to Santa Fe, 
 where he worked at the carpenter's trade until he Avas 
 sixteen years of age. During the following seven years 
 he engaged in various occupations and on January 19, 
 1863, he married Miss Marguerite Eskinner, and shortly 
 after his marriage he moved to Taos, N. M., where he 
 worked at his trade until 1863, when he engaged in the 
 liquor business ; meeting with success in this venture, he 
 continued it until 1866, when he bought a ranch in Mora 
 County and engaged in farming. He remained on his 
 I'anch until the no^v prosperous town of Springer was 
 stai'ted, when he came to that place, and after a short 
 residence in Springer he purchased a half interest in a 
 liquor house, afterward becoming the sole owner. In 
 1862 he was appointed United States marshal, also was a 
 justice of the peace for three terms. He served during 
 the war of 1861-62 as iirst sergeant of Company A, New 
 Mexico Volunteers. 
 
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 469 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 471 
 
 A. D. COON 
 
 Is a native of New York. He came to New Mexico in 
 1879, sejitling first in Alburquerque, and in 1881 he 
 moved to Stieoi'ro, N. M., Lis present I'esidence. Since 
 coming to the Territory Mr. Coon has devoted himself 
 exclusively to mining. He has been very successful, and 
 to-day is interested in some of the best paying mines in 
 the Territory, among them being the Merritt mine. He 
 is also interested in the Cabinet Consolidated Mining 
 Co., and the iSocoiro mine. Mr. Coon is a man of energj'' 
 and enterprise, and is prominently identified with the 
 intei'ests of Socoi-ro. 
 
472 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 SARINO LUJON, 
 
 Born in Rio Ariba, K M., December 30, 1882. He 
 I'eceived a good educatit)n, and ^\as engaged in clerking 
 in different parts of tlie Territor}' until 1885, A\hen he 
 went to Las Vegas, A^diere lie entered into partnei'sliip 
 witli Mr. Al)eytia, in tlie Je\velry business, wliicli he at 
 present continues. 
 
473 
 
Wk^ 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 475 
 
 MAXWELL CHAPMAN 
 
 Is a desoendant from a line of distinguislied Puritan 
 ancestry. His grandfather, Isaac Abel Chapman, was 
 born in Norwich, Conn., in 1787, and settled in Pennsyl- 
 vania when a boy. He was the first engineer of the old 
 Lehigh Navigation Co., and it was he who navigated the 
 first railroad car on this continent. In 1821 he built the 
 coal road from Summit Hill to Manch Chunk. The subject 
 of this sketch was born in Wilkesbarre, Pa., January 1, 
 1856, and received an academic education in his native 
 town. His first business venture was to carry the chain 
 in connection with civil engineering, in Pennsylvania; 
 this he continued for two years. He then accepted the 
 position of bookkeeper for the Riverside Coal Co., in 
 whose employ he remained three years, at the expiration 
 of which time he was employed as topographical engineer 
 and geologist, on the second geological survey of Penn- 
 sylvania, under J. P. Leslie, State geologist, which en- 
 gagement lasted two and one half .years. He then 
 engaged with the Mexican National Railroad as civil en- 
 gineer, constructing a railroad between Vera Cruz and 
 City of Mexico. In 1 8 8 5 he came to New Mexico. On the 
 9th of December, 1886, he was married to Miss Kate A. 
 Ryon, Tisga, Pa. ; their present residence is Deming, 
 where, through the aid of Ohio capitalists, he incorporated 
 the Buckeye Land and Live Stock Co., of which he is 
 the present efficient manager. 
 
476 HISTOEY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 JOS. F. BENNETT, 
 
 Born in Putnam County, New York, November 11, 1830. 
 He received an education afforded by the common schools, 
 and graduated from Millville Academy, Orleans County, 
 N. Y. In 1849 lie accompanied his parents to Janesville, 
 Wis. In 1858 he emis^rated to California and British 
 Columbia, going by the Isthmus of Panama, in which 
 countries he ^vas actively engaged in mining until the 
 breaking out of the war, Avhen on the call of President 
 Lincoln for 50(H) volunteers fi-om California, in August, 
 
 1861, Col. Bennett aided in raising and organizing the 
 First California Infantry Volunteers, enlisting as a private 
 in G company of that regiment. In the winter of 1861 he 
 was made sei'geant major of the regiment, and in April, 
 
 1862, he was commissioned second lieutenant of I com- 
 pany, and assigned by Gen. James H. Carleton as as- 
 sistant adjutant-general of the " Column from California," 
 at his headquarters in Santa Fe, N. M. Upon the recom- 
 mendation of Gen. Carleton, and Gen. J. E. West, Lieut. 
 Bennett Avas commissioned by President Lincoln, captain 
 and assistant adjutant-general IT. S. Volunteers, and was 
 assigned to duty as adjutant-general of the District of 
 Arizona. In March, 1864, under orders of the Secretary 
 of War, Capt'. Bennett reported for duty to Maj.-Gen. 
 W. S. Eosecrans at St. Louis, Mo., where he participated 
 in the Price campaign and invasion of Missouri in the 
 autumn of that }'ear. During this period, Capt. Bennett 
 was brevetted major and lieutenant-colonel on the same 
 day by the President for " gallant and meritorious ser- 
 vices." In Ma}-, 1865, Col. Bennett was sent by Gen. 
 G. M. Dodge, then commanding the Department of the 
 Missouri, into Arkansas to offer terms of surrender to 
 
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 477 
 
.'IV 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 479 
 
 Brig.-Gen. M. Jeff Thonipsou, C.S.A., and received the 
 surrender of Gen. Thompson and paroled his command, 
 numbering about 9000. In the summer and fall of 1865, 
 Col. Bennett accompanied Gen. Dodge in a campaign 
 against the Indians in the Northwest, at the time of the 
 combined uprising of nearly all of the tribes in the 
 Western country. In the winter of 1865-66, at his own 
 request. Col. Bennett was ordered to report at his home 
 to await his order of muster-out, and was mustered out 
 of the service in June, 1866, having served throughout 
 the Rebellion. Col. Bennett was afterward commis- 
 sioned by President Grant as Vice-Consul to Chihuahua, 
 Mexico, but, having actively engaged in business in 
 New Mexico, declined the appointment. Col. Bennett 
 has served in many oiRcial capacities in his adopted 
 Territory : as county clerk, clerk of the U. S. district 
 court, commissioner of the court of claims, U. S Com- 
 missioner, antl in 1871-72 was a member of the legis- 
 lative council. He has been identified with many of 
 the leading enterprises of the Territory, both private 
 and public, and in May, 1889, was appointed by Presi- 
 dent Harrison U. S. Indian Agent for the Mescalero 
 Apaches, and is the present incumbent of that office. 
 Col. Bennett was niarried at Las Cruces, N. M., to Miss 
 Lola Patton, of La Mesilla, N. M., February 4, 1864 ; 
 they have a family of seven childi'en, living, as the fruits 
 of their union. Col. Bennett is a Royal Arch Mason 
 and a member of Phil Sheridan Post, G. A. R., Las 
 Cruces, N. M. 
 
480 HISTOKY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 M. M. CHASE, 
 
 Born October 8, 1842, in Kock County, Wisconsin. 
 His early life was spent on his father's farm. When 
 twelve years of age, he joined a party of twenty men and 
 started for California. The party disbanded at the Mis- 
 souri River, and he returned home. In 1860 he went to 
 Colorado and engaged in trapping and prospecting for a 
 year, then in fi-eighting for two years from the Missouri 
 River to points in that State. He then accepted a govern- 
 ment conti'act to supply meat to the troops and Indian 
 prisoners. In 1867 he went to the Vermijo countiy, 
 where he purchased a one-third interest in the Horseshoe 
 ranch and, aftei' many improvements, sold it for $40,000. 
 In 1873 he formed a partnership with John B. DaAvson 
 of New Mexico and engaged extensively in sheep-raising. 
 They were among the first to improve the grade of native 
 sheep, having brought from Vermont 200 Merino bucks, 
 which not only improved the quality of avooI, but also 
 produced better mutton for the table. In 1880 they 
 disposed of their sheep in Texas and engaged in the 
 cattle business ; organizing the Cimarron, Gila, and Red 
 River Cattle companies, which were the fii'st corporations 
 handling cattle in the Western country. They have 
 greatly improved the grade of cattle by the importation 
 of short-horned and Hereford bulls. Mr. Chase is largely 
 interested in the Cimarron Red River Cattle companies. 
 His home ranch contains 1960 acres, has a fine orchard 
 of 500 fruit trees, and is one of the loveliest spots -west of 
 the Missouri River. Owing to his long continued 
 experience in stock raising, he is now regarded as an 
 authority on that subject and is often consulted as such- 
 Mr. Chase is a self-made man and an esteemed citizen o£ 
 New Mexico. 
 

 481 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 483 
 
 A. J. MELOCHE 
 
 Was bom in Lachene, Canada, September 21, 1838. 
 When ten years old he ran away from home, and as he 
 was rather young at that time found employment hard 
 to secure ; his funds becoming exhausted he was obliged 
 to pawn his grandfather's watch. He used the money to 
 pay his way to St. Louis ; there he found employment at 
 a salary of twelve dollars a month ; he soon left this, 
 however, and went to work in a grocery store in which 
 he rose to the position of head clerk. Later we find him 
 driving a government team from Ft. Leavenworth, Kan., 
 to Bridger's Pass. In 1856 he joined Colonel Sumner's 
 crusade against the Cheyenne Indians, returning to Ft. 
 Leavenworth in 1857, when, in company Avith three regi- 
 ments of United States troops, he again started in pur- 
 suit of the same band ; they met at Pole Creek, but in 
 the fight which ensued no lives were lost. He soon 
 after joined the Mormon- expedition; upon reaching 
 Sandy Creek, suo^v was one foot deep and they were 
 obliged to leave everything except their blankets and a 
 tew provisions; the horses were giving out everyday, 
 and, after crossing Green River on the ice, they reached 
 Ft. Bridger A\-ith but fifteen wagons, having started from 
 Ft. Larimei' with, one hundred and twenty-five. The 
 Aveather -was still cold but clear, and they were ordered 
 to \\-inter at Ft. Bridger ; it proved to be a seyere one, 
 and Avhen reacliing there they had but a few ounces of 
 flour per dtiy and no salt. This A\as the Avinter that 
 Governor Cummins made the treaty with the Mormons. 
 The folloAviiig spring he joined Albert Sidney Johnson, 
 Avhom he had met at Salt Lake during the terrible massa- 
 cre of eniiu-rants b\- the Mormons in iSoH. They crossed 
 
484 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 the plains, stopping at Mountain Meadow, Utah, to bury 
 the bones of the murdered emigrants ; at Los Angeles, 
 Cal., Mr. Meloche received his discharge. In the latter 
 part of 1858 he went to Arizona in company with a man 
 named Clark. The overland mail was running at this 
 time, and upon reaching the Gila River they were ad- 
 vised not to go further, as the Indians were troublesome 
 and they might be killed ; they went on, however, travel- 
 ing night and day ; when they i-eached Stien's Peak Sta- 
 tion they found that the overland coach had been at- 
 tacked and all the occupants killed ; here they were again 
 warned not to proceed further, but heeding not the warn- 
 ing, they pui'sued their journey. In passing through 
 Apache Pass, Arizona, they saw seven white men hang- 
 ing by their heels, having been murdered and scalped by 
 the Indians. A few nights later, while lying down with 
 his saddle for a pillow, he was aroused by a band of fifty 
 Indians, who came howling upon him ; they cuffed and 
 kicked him and pulled his hair, but he laughed in their 
 faces, as he kncAV full well a sign of fear meant death to 
 him ; the chief of the band called them off and soon after 
 he was ordered to mount, and in company with the In- 
 dians, rode off. Upon reaching the road to Tucson the 
 chief pointed to it and told him to go, which order he 
 lost no time in obeying. 
 
 At another time, in company with two others, he 
 started out to walk to San Bernardino, Cal. ; they had 
 three deserts to cross, averaging forty miles each ; their 
 water gave out before they reached Bitter Springs and 
 they could not drink that water, so traveled on through 
 the night, as it was impossible to travel by day, owing to 
 the great heat. By this time one of his companions had 
 succumbed and they were obliged to leave him while 
 they used the little strength that was left them to push 
 
COIj. C. p. BENNETT, LAS CIUJCES, K. M. 
 
 485 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 487 
 
 on in searcli of water ; this tliey found about dusk, and 
 eagerly drinking, ttey filled their canteens and started 
 back to resuscitate their companion, if still alive ; upon 
 going a short way, what was their horror and surprise 
 to see him coming toward them Avith arms uplifted, and 
 raving mad from thii'st ; through their care he was en- 
 tirely restored to reason, and the rest of their journey 
 was completed in safety. In 1859 he Avas employed by 
 the government in teaming, at a salary of tAventy dollars 
 per month ; he continued at this about eighteen months. 
 He then joined a company organized to meet the Texans, 
 Avho Avei'e coming up to New Mexico, had several en- 
 countei's in Avhich the Texans were each time successful ; 
 they retreated to McCloskey's ranch and the next day 
 buried their dead, then returned to Ft. Union, where he 
 soon after severed his connection with the government. 
 In 1871 Mr. Meloche was married to Miss Mary A. Isbull 
 of Davis County, Missouri, a descendant of an old South- 
 ern family. In company with his Avife he came to Den- 
 ver, and from there they took a team and drove to New 
 Mexico, where they have since resided, making Raton 
 their home. 
 
 Mr. Meloche is now a large cattle owner, and owns a 
 fine ranch ; he is doing Avell, and after an adventurous life 
 has settled down, and as he is now in the ])rime of life 
 many more }ears of usefulness are predicted for him. 
 
488 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 GUADALOUPE ESCARATE. 
 
 Prominent among the men who have made the 
 Southwest famous as a rendezvous for talent, energy, 
 enterprise, and iudustr}-, may be mentioned the gentle- 
 man whose name is the title of this brief biography. He 
 was born in Janos, State of Chihuahua, Old Mexico. 
 He received a common school education in San Antonio. 
 From 1864 until 1868 he was engaged in freighting; 
 during these years he had many serious encounters with 
 the Indians, in none of ^vhich, however, was he wounded ; 
 he once had his horse shot from under him. Upon his 
 father's death he was left with 2000 head of cattle in 
 good condition, and in 1885 he engaged in the cattle 
 business. He has been very successful, since then, and 
 is now an extensive cattle owner both in Old and New 
 Mexico. In 1882 he was elected sheriff of Dona Ana 
 County ; he has also served as county commissioner of 
 the same county. His wife was formerly Miss Ellen 
 Fletcher of Las Cruces, N. M., to ^\'hom he was married 
 in 1874. 
 
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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 491 
 
 WILLIAM HARRIS. 
 
 Among the prominent self-made men, and those few 
 who are yet young and have a bright future before them, 
 may be mentioned Mr. Harris. He was born October 
 27, 1860, in California. He graduated at Brown Uni- 
 versity in 1883, and the following year was appointed 
 United States deputy mineral surveyor. He has also 
 been engaged in mining engineering during the past six 
 years, and is superintendent of the Illinois mine near 
 Kingston, N. M. On April 18, 1888, he was married to 
 Miss Kate Buruside, a most estimable young lady. Mr. 
 Harris is prominently identified with the Masonic frater- 
 nity and is a member of the Knights of Pythias. He is 
 an energetic and promising young citizen of Kingston, 
 and one of whom she may well be proud. 
 
492 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 G. S. EOTHGEB, 
 
 Born July 16, 1847, in Quincy, 111. He received a com- 
 mon scliool education in his native town, and upon leav- 
 ing scliool lie entered a wholesale dry-goods store in 
 Quincy, in which he continued for one year. He was 
 then employed as bill cleric in the freight office of the 
 Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy Railroad at Quincy. He 
 remained in that office four years, and then emigrated to 
 California. His I'esidence in California was short and he 
 soon returned to his native State, again entering the 
 employ of the Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy Railroad, 
 where the next two years were spent. He then came to 
 Wew Mexico, and, selecting Las Vegas as his residence, 
 soon identified himself with that prosperous city by 
 erecting a large brewery, Avhich he is now conducting, 
 and by energy and ability has succeeded in his enterprise, 
 and is now doing a fine business. He is an honored and 
 respected citizen of Las Vegas, and is interested in aU 
 matters pertaining to its welfare and growth. 
 
OUADALOUPE ESCABATB, LAS CKUCES, N. M. 
 
 493 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 495 
 
 HORACE F. STEPHENSON. 
 
 There are few names more familiarly and favorably 
 known to the old residents of this Territory than that 
 which heads this sketch. He ^vas born in Paso del Norte, 
 Old Mexico, March 31, 1834. He received excellent edu- 
 cational advantages, having attended Columbia College 
 and the St. Louis University, both of Missouri. In 1853 
 he went to El Paso, Tex., where he engaged in the 
 mercantile business until 1863. His sympathies Avere 
 ■with the South during the war, and to the Confederates 
 he sold goods amounting to thousands of dollars, accept- 
 ing in payment Confederate money. After the -war he 
 engaged extensively in the mercantile business in Mexico, 
 Texas, and New Mexico, Avhich he discontinued in 1874 
 to engage in cattle and sheep raising. In 1879 he Avas 
 appointed county clerk of Dona Ana County, and he 
 then gave up his cattle iuterestw to enter upon the duties 
 of his office, and so satisfactorily did he meet the require- 
 ments imposed on him, that he has been successively 
 re-elected up to the present date, with the exception of 
 one term, 1865-6fi. Mr. Stephenson was married Novem- 
 ber 5, 1859, to Miss Simona Button, a most estimable 
 lady and dauglitei' of the old pioneer Louis Dutton, who 
 came to Taos, N. M., from New Hampsliire in 1819. 
 
496 HISTORY OP NEW MEXICO. 
 
 JOSEPH A. ANCHETA, 
 
 Born in Messilla, Dona Anna County, July 21, 1865. 
 He was graduated in 1882 from St. MicHael's Institute, 
 Santa Fe, receiving a preparatory coui'se. He then en- 
 tered Notre Dame University, Indiana, was graduated 
 thereform ^vith the highest honors in 1886, and received 
 the degree of Bachelor of Laws, Bachelor of Science 
 and Civil Engineer, and during the same year was admit- 
 ted to practice before the Supreme court of the State of 
 Indiana. He received twelve gold medals during his col- 
 lege course and ranked the highest in all his studies. In 
 1887 he was admitted to the bar of New Mexico and soon 
 after formed a partnership with Hon. John D. Bail, 
 one of the most noted attorneys of the Territory. The 
 firm enjoys a large and lucrative practice and Mr. Ancheta 
 has distinguished himself as a lawyer of great research 
 and native ability before the courts of his Territory, 
 although a very young man. He is the present district 
 attorney for the counties of Grant and Sierra, having been 
 appointed in 1889 ; is also chairman of the Republican 
 Central Committee of Grant County. The Republican 
 successes are largely indebted to him, as he made a can- 
 vass of many counties during the campaign of 1888, de- 
 livering many eloquent speeches. With Mr. Ancheta's 
 well-established personal popularity, and the esteem in 
 which he is held by constituents who are not even ac- 
 quainted with him, but who have had fuU confidence in 
 his official integrity, it is difficult to form even a prophecy 
 as to the probable brilliant future he is to enjoy. 
 
JOSEPH A. AXtHETA, SILVER CITY, N M. 
 
 497 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 499 
 
 P. J. TOWNER 
 
 But few, if auy, stand higher in a business, social, or 
 moral scale in the estimation of his fellow-citizens than 
 Mr. To^vuer, and he has, since his residence in Springer, 
 been prominently identified with all matters pertaining to 
 the \velf are of that town. He was born in Lincoln, Logan 
 County, 111., July 11, 1858. At an early age he came to 
 New Mexico, and engaged in cattle raising, and through 
 his judicious management and energy, has gained a knoA\'- 
 ledge and experience second to none in that business. 
 Foi- five }'ears he was range manager and foreman for 
 Stephen W. Dorse}', a large cattle grower; and in 1882 
 he Avas appointed inspector for the Northern New Mexico 
 Stock Growers' Association, which jjosition he held satis- 
 factorily three years. In 1883 he was appointed secretary 
 and assistant manager of the Ranch Cattle Company, 
 which position he now holds. He w&s married in 1885 to 
 Miss Alice Kline ; they are blessed with one son. Mr. 
 Towner owns considerable cattle in the Lake Ranch Cattle 
 Co. ; he is a property o^wner and a citizen that Springer may 
 Avell be proud of. In every position to ^vhich Mr. To^raer 
 has been called he has proved equal to all I'ecpiirements 
 imposed upon him ; he owns a nice home, and, blessed 
 with hapj)iness and contentment, he is, thanks to his own 
 exertions, now in independent circumstances, and enio}'s 
 the friendship and esteem of Springer's best citizens. 
 
500 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 SANTIAGO F. YALDEZ. 
 
 One of the most gratifying features of our goverment 
 is the fact that a wide field for honor, distinction, and use- 
 fulness lies open to eveiy young man of talent and ambi- 
 tion. Gifted with fliese characteristics, Mr. Valdez has 
 attained a high position in his community and one flatter- 
 ing to a gentleman of his age. He was born in Taos, 
 Taos County, N. M., July 23, 1855. He received a common 
 school education. During 1869 and 1870 was a student 
 at the Christian Brothers' College, Mora, Mora County, 
 N. M. In 1871, through the courtesy of Hon. Francisco 
 A. Mauzanares, he was enabled to attend the Jesuits' 
 College at Norte Dame, Ind., where he continued his 
 studies, returning to Taos, N. M., July, 1873. In June, 
 
 1874, he accepted a position with Chick, Brown & Co., at 
 Granada, Col., and remained in their employ until his 
 return to Taos, N. M., in August, 1875. September 6, 
 
 1875, he was elected clerk of Taos County, and duly 
 commissioned on the 15th day of September by Sam. B. 
 Axtell, Governor of New Mexico. He served his term of 
 office and was then elected sheriff on the Democratic 
 ticket, and duly commissioned on the 20th day of Decem- 
 ber, 1878, by Lew Wallace, Governor of New Mexico. 
 Mr. Valdez engaged in the cattle business in Colfax 
 County, November 27, 1881, with J. Inocencio Valdez; 
 they improved a ranch of 1200 acres, seven miles from 
 Springer, N. M., and did good business. He was married 
 January 21, 1885, to Miss Dolores Valdez at Rayado, 
 Colfax County, N. M., two daughters gracing the union. 
 He was appointed postmaster at Springer, N. M., January 
 4,1887, and January 24, 1887, he was commissioned by 
 Postmaster-General W. F. Vilas the postmaster at 
 Springer, of \vhich ofiice he is the present incumbent and 
 is doing his duty to the entire satisfaction of the com- 
 munity. Is a self-made man. 
 
SANTIAGO F. VALDBZ, SPEINGBE, N. M. 
 
 501 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 503 
 
 R. G. McDonald, 
 
 One of the leading business men and a well-known 
 resident of Las Vegas, was born December 7, 1830, in 
 Culpepper County, Virginia, and received his educa- 
 tion in the county schools of his native State. He is a 
 veteran of the Mexican war, and served with distinction 
 from the beginning of the war until the close. He came 
 to New Mexico in 1879, and settled in Las Vegas, his 
 present residence, where he is engaged in the liquor 
 business, and meeting with the success he most Justly 
 deserves. He is a self-made man in every respect. 
 
504 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 N. SPATCIER 
 
 Is an old resident and large property owner in the Me- 
 silla Valley, being the owner of one of the best improved 
 farms, situated one and one half miles from Las Cruces, 
 N. M., comprising about 250 acres. Mr. Spatcier came to 
 the valley at a very early day, and very soon attracted 
 attention in connection with agricultural affairs. He is 
 often seen in Las Cruces, and he always has a pleasant 
 word for every one. Mr. Spatcier's character Avas de- 
 veloped amid the surroundings of a newly opened country, 
 where men are called upon to act quickly and inde- 
 pendently, and to rely wholly upon themselves. This 
 has made him strongly self-reliant and independent in 
 nature. He is cordial in manner and Avarm in his friend- 
 ships, and loyal to all. He has been successful owing to 
 his excellent habits and an innate knowledge of farming. 
 Mr. Spatcier enjoys the confidence and esteem of all who 
 have the honor of his acquaintance. 
 
N. SPATCIER, LAS CKUCES, N. M. 
 
 505 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 507 
 
 J. M. HOY. 
 
 There are but few men better known or more highly 
 respected in Rincon than the subject of our sketch. He 
 was born in Randolph County, Illinois, November 2, 
 1842. His early education was I'eceived in Illinois, and 
 he attended Commercial College in St. Louis. In August, 
 1862, he enlisted in the ll-lth Regiment of Illinois Vol- 
 unteers, and during the three years of his enlistment he 
 participated in many noted battles, among them being the 
 engagement at Jackson, Miss., and siege of Vicksburg. 
 He was mustered out of service August, 1865, at Spring- 
 field, 111. After the war he removed to Red Bud, HI, 
 and engaged in farming for two years. Several years 
 were spent in traveling, and in 1873 he returned to Red 
 Bud, HI, and was married to Miss Margaret Farharty on 
 May 27. In 1880 he moved to Santa F6, N. M., and, re- 
 maining there a short while, came to Rincon, his present 
 residence, where he is engaged in general merc'handising 
 business. He was brave on the field, and as a citizen Mr. 
 Hoy is honored and respected by all. 
 
508 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 MARTIIT QUINTAl^A. 
 
 This gentleman is a well known and respected citizen 
 of New Mexico, and has resided in Santa Fe for many 
 years. Is descendent from pure old Mexican ancestry, 
 many of whom were quite notable persons. Mr. Quin- 
 tana is known as a man of great activity and energy. 
 His mind is fertile in resources. He is a man of business 
 and affairs, possesses force of character, allows no ob- 
 stacles to intimidate him, and has been unifoi'mly suc- 
 cessful in his undertakings. Few men throughout New 
 Mexico are so Avell knoAvn for the intelligent energy that 
 accomplishes whatever it proposes. 
 
iHARTIN QUINTANA, SANTA FE, N M. 
 
 509 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 511 
 
 ARTHUR E. WALKER. 
 
 Conspicuous among the men who have influenced the 
 -current of public events, who have shaped the destiny 
 and made the Territory of New Mexico what it is, may 
 well be mentioned Arthur E. Walker. He cannot be 
 called an old resident of the Territory, and yet the few 
 years that he has resided in New Mexico have been pro- 
 lific of good works, and have shown his active and de- 
 termined spirit in enhancing the prosperity of his adopted 
 home. Mr. Walker was born at Cassopolis, Mich., July 
 31, 1857. When five years of age he removed with his 
 parents to the State of Illinois, where his father engaged 
 in farming. Young Walker worked on the farm and at- 
 tended the county schools until he had completed the 
 course of study, when he finished his education -with one 
 year at the Northwestern Business College at Naper- 
 ville, 111. Upon leaving school he engaged as clerk in a 
 general merchandise store at Williams, 111., and after a 
 residence there of one year he went to Georgetown, Col., 
 where he again accepted the position of clerk, being en- 
 gaged this time in a dry-goods store and continuing in this 
 position until the fall of 1881. In November of that 
 year he returned to his old home in Illinois, where in the 
 same month he Avas married to Miss Ellen E. Hyde. 
 Soon after his marriage, he was offered the position of 
 book-keeper for T. J. Trask, grocer in Alburquertjue, N. 
 M., which he accepted, and immediately removed Avith his 
 wife to the Territory to enter upon the duties of his ne^v 
 position. He remained in Mr. Trask's employ one year 
 and eight mouths, dui'ing which time he had gained the 
 confidence and esteem of all \vith whom he associated. 
 He then purchased an interest in the firm of William 
 
512 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 Thompson & Co., retail grocers, and for tlie next five 
 years continued in this business ; and through his easy, 
 affable manner, united with true business ability, he suc- 
 ceeded in building up one of the largest grocery trades 
 in that portion of the Territory. In March, 1888, Mr. 
 Walker sold his interest in the firm, and shortly after was 
 elected mayor of Albur(|uerque. During his term of 
 office, he entered the real estate business and continued 
 in this, doing well, until May 14, 1889, when he was ap- 
 pointed clerk of the first judicial district court of New 
 Mexico, with headquarters at Santa ¥&. Mr. Walker is 
 at present holding this office and discharging his duties 
 with that characteristic exactness and thoroughness which 
 he has been recognized by during his past bright career. 
 He is still in the full vigor of mankind, and his elastic 
 constitution gives promise of many years of active useful- 
 ness. 
 
AlfTtlCli K. WAI.KKR, SANTA FE, N, M. 
 
 r,i3 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 515 
 
 FRANCISCO A. MANZANARES. 
 
 Any work professing to describe the representative men 
 of New Mexico would be very incomplete wtich failed to 
 present a sketch of the life and labors of the distinguished 
 man whose name heads this article. The people of New 
 Mexico have reason to feel a justifiable pride in his career, 
 and to appreciate more strongly the ties that unite them 
 to the national life, and it must be admitted that to no 
 place to which he has been called has he ever fallen short 
 of its high requirements, and in the discussion and solution 
 of many grave questions which have confronted the na- 
 tional government he has borne himself with distinguished 
 honor. Francisco A. Manzanares was born January 25, 
 1843, in Rio Ariba County, New Mexico, of worthy and 
 respectable parents, Avho gave him a fair education, con- 
 sidering the facilities at their command. Of a naturally 
 bright and inquiring disposition, young Manzanares learned 
 rapidly, and was able to enter upon " life's rugged side " 
 when but a youth. Through the influence of his father, 
 a prominent and influential man, he was placed in the com- 
 mercial establishment of the Messrs. Chick, at Kansas City, 
 and from a clerk he rose to the responsible jiosition of part- 
 ner in the house in the short space of four years. After 
 this Mr. Manzanares married the young and accomplished 
 daughter of Don Jose Albino Baca of the County of San 
 Miguel, and, while on a business trip through New Mexico 
 at this time, one of the Territory's leading papers speaks 
 thus : " We take pleasure in doing acts of encouragement 
 to the meritorious and successful young men of Ne^v 
 Mexico, and in showing how they have developed into 
 men of standing, property, influence, and honor. Man- 
 zanares we consider one of the most remarkable instances 
 
516 HISTORY OF N"EW MKXICO. 
 
 of this kind." In 18-t-i he was the choice of the Demo- 
 cratic party for Congress from the Territory, and was 
 elected by a large majority, when the Territory was sup- 
 posed to be largely Repiiblican ; but the manipulation of 
 a political ring deprived him of his credentials ; in the 
 contest which followed, however, Mr. Manzanares was 
 successful. In speaking of the contest, the Alburquerque 
 Morning Journal, although a Republican paper, says : 
 " We believe that Mr. Manzanares was fairly elected by 
 the voters of New Mexico, and we have never hesitated 
 to say that we believed he was entitled to his seat, and 
 there is not an honest man. in the Territory or either 
 political party who will deny the justice or fairness of this 
 action by the House." Mr. Manzanares took his seat 
 three months after the Forty-eighth Congress convened, 
 and that his term as delegate Avas most satisfactory to the 
 people can be readily seen from this extract in the New 
 Mexico Heview, April 1, 1885 : " Hon. F. A. Manzanares 
 has returned from Washington. His term as delegate has 
 ended. He has been the best delegate in Congress ever 
 sent by Democratic votes in this Tei-ritory. The people, 
 irrespective of party, acknowledge the fact that he has 
 faithfully dischai'ged the duties of a delegate and has fidly 
 lived up to the trust reposed in him. Mr. Manzanares 
 retires to private life with the esteem and confidence of 
 the people of New Mexico, and may count on many a 
 Republican vote should he ever again desire official honors." 
 Upon his retirement from the political field," the party 
 lost one of its brightest lights, but Mr. Manzanares ac- 
 complished what he desired in the passage of the various 
 important bills which he had prepared for the aid of the 
 Territory, and in demolishing the jiolitical ring in the 
 Territory. He returned to his mercantile business, to 
 which he has since given his entire time and attention. 
 
HON P A. MANZANAEES, LAS VEGAS, N. M. 
 
 517 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 519 
 
 The firm is now known as Browne & Manzanares Com- 
 pany, and is one of the largest houses in the Southwest, 
 having branches in Las Vegas, Socorro, and Trinidad, CoL 
 Mr. Manzanares is a man of positive convictions, and it 
 is this quality of persistence, added to the ability of being 
 able to promptly provide means to meet emergencies, which 
 is the strongest element in his character, and to which 
 more than all else is due his success in life. Steadfast in 
 his friendship, considerate of the feelings of his fellow- 
 men, and conscientious in all he does, he is deservedly 
 held in high esteem by all who know him. 
 
520 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO- 
 
 MICHAEL K. WHITE. 
 
 Aiuono- tlie promiuent and i-espected citizens of Silver 
 Citv, none stands higher in the estimation of his fellow- 
 citizens than the subject of this sketch. He was born in 
 Count}' Clare, Ireland, September 29, 1826. At the age 
 of twelve )'ear8 he embarked for America, and in this 
 country his limited ediacation was obtained. He remained 
 in New York three years, when he went to Connecticut 
 and engaged in different occupations until 1847, when he 
 started South. He spent the next nineteen years in the 
 South. During the war he was detailed at home in the 
 services of the Confederate army, repairing railroads. 
 Soon after the war he went to Bell County, Texas, and 
 resided in that State until March of 1879, when he came 
 to Ne^v Mexico. He is now living in Silver City, is a 
 member of the city council, having been elected in 1889, 
 and is an active and useful citizen, being deeply interested 
 in all matters pertaining to tlie welfare of that prosperous 
 city. 
 
MICHAEI, K. WHITE, SILVER CITY, N. M. 
 
 521 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 523 
 
 EDWAED FEST 
 
 Is one of the most successful men of New Mexico. As 
 an organizer and conductor of successful enterprises he 
 has no superior in that Territory, He is a man of untiring 
 energy and he possesses the patience to attend to the 
 smallest details, provided success depends upon them, 
 and he also has the ability and courage to make successful 
 those undertakings which a less confident man might not 
 dare attempt. He was born in Montgomery County, 
 Ohio, February 10, 1850, and ten years later he com- 
 menced the earnest side of life in a mercantile house, 
 acting for several years in the capacities of errand boy 
 and clerk. In 1865 he joined the regular army and in 
 1870 came to New Mexico as a private in the Eighth 
 Cavalry, where, in 1875, he was discharged. He then 
 engaged in the sheep and cattle business ; but owing to 
 the then unsettled condition of the country and his heavy 
 loss of stock by thieves, this venture was not a success ; 
 the cattle boom, however, in 1882, enabled him to dispose 
 of the remainder of his stock at a good price, which, to 
 some extent, balanced his former losses. He then re- 
 moved to Cuchillo Negro, N. M., where for several years 
 he has engaged in merchandising, meeting with great 
 success in this venture. Mr. Fest first became a public 
 man in 1884, when he was appointed a county commis- 
 sioner by Governor Sheldon. While in this position, in 
 company with W. S. Hopewell and G. M. Fuller, he or- 
 ganized Sierra County. This was a most portentous 
 move for Mr. Fest, for two years later he was elected to 
 the Legislature as a representative from Sierra and Grant 
 Counties, and it was in this notable position that he dis- 
 tinguished himself as an able legislator ; he succeeded in 
 
524 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 having passed the " Deadly Weapon Law," which has 
 done more for New Mexico than any other one law. He 
 was also instrumental in having passed a bill making it a 
 capital offense for wrecking railroad trains, and punish- 
 able with death ; this virtually put a stop to railroad 
 wrecking in New Mexico. Mr. Fest is an active and 
 earnest Democrat in politics. He has been very success- 
 fid as a business man, and is to-day the heaviest indi- 
 vidual taxpayer in Sierra County. He is pleasant and 
 affable ; makes friends easily and by his sincerity easily 
 retains them. Mr. Fest is a citizen of Avhom New Mexico 
 may Justly feel proud, and as he is in the prime of life 
 we may safely predict for him a bright future and 
 greater honors than he has yet attained. 
 
EDWARD FEST, CUCHILLA NEGEA, N. SI. 
 
 525 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 527 
 
 GEOEGE W. WARD. 
 
 Mr. Ward is one of those positive men, who, like Davy 
 Crockett, is first sure he is right, and then goes ahead. 
 He seldom makes a mistake, relying, as he does, on the 
 dictates of his good Judgment. Mr. Ward is in the 
 prime of life, being born in 1845, one mile from Inez, Ky. 
 He received an ordinary common school education, and 
 when fourteen years old started out to " fight life's battle 
 alone." Upon reaching Ohio he found employment on a 
 farm, and worked at the same four years. Young Ward 
 returned to Kentucky, and upon the call by President 
 Lincoln for troops, he enlisted in the Fourteenth Ken- 
 tucky Volunteers, under the command of Col. George W. 
 Gallopp, of Louisa. He served until the close of the war 
 with great credit to the cause of the Union, and at Louis- 
 ville, Ky., he received his discharge. He then returned 
 to Ohio, and took charge of Dr. L. R. Meers's farm, near 
 Burlington. In the fall of 1867, being influenced by the 
 tide of immigration westward, and hearing glowing tales 
 of the rapidity with which wealth could be obtained, he 
 resolved to follow in the track of the thousands who had 
 preceded him ; he worked his way, spending some time 
 at Seymour, Ind., working on a farm and thereby earning 
 enough to reach Kansas. Here he found employment at 
 digging potatoes at the princely sum of $1.50 a day ; 
 from there he went to Paola, Kan., and entered the 
 employment of a large grocery firm, and remained with 
 them until the fall of 1869, when he moved on to Wichita. 
 He located a pre-emption claim near there and li's-ed on it 
 four years, during which time he earned considei'able 
 money by hunting buffalo and other wild animals. He 
 then went to San Francisco, Cal., and from there to Pres- 
 
528 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 cott, Ariz., where he met a friend who gave him employ- 
 ment, which he retained until the following fall, when he 
 went to Trinidad, Col. It was here that were forged the 
 first links of the bond of friendship now existing between 
 Charles Tamme and himself. Mr. Ward was chief cook 
 of the United States Hotel, at Trinidad, for four years ; 
 during that time, Mr. Tamme was chief clerk, and it was 
 then that they built the Ward & Tamme block in that 
 city. In July of 1879 Mr. Ward reached Las Vegas, 
 and in the same month opened the " Monarch Billiard 
 Hall " in partnership with his friend C. Tamme, who had 
 pi'eceded him. Later he sold his interest to Mr. Slick 
 and paid a visit to his old home in Kentucky, but upon 
 his return repurchased the interest and renewed the part- 
 nership ; subsequently he sold his interest to a family 
 connection of Mr. Tamme's, Fred. Wilson. In this trans- 
 action he realized a handsome profit. He then erected 
 what is now known as the Ward block, at a cost of 
 $13,000. This property has steadily increased in value 
 and could not be bought to-day for $20,000. Mr. Ward 
 came to Las Vegas without money or friends, but b}' his 
 judicious management, honorable way of conducting busi- 
 ness, fair observance of economy, and careful investments, 
 he stands to-day one of Las Vegas's solid men, and he is 
 in every sense a self-made man. He has many friends, is 
 broad and liberal in his views, is a Kepublican in politics, 
 and by his present popularity we are safe in predicting 
 for him a brilliant future. 
 
OKORGE W. WARD, LAS VEGAS, N. M. 
 
 529 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 531 
 
 MAJOR H. R. WfllTING, 
 
 Whose name is familiar to all those who have resided in 
 Alburqiierque for any number of }ears, is a gentleman 
 whose natural aspirations are such that it is ^vith a positive 
 degree of pride ^ve place his name on record as one -whose 
 example is ^vorthy of emulation by the ambitious students 
 who are destined to occupy prominent positions in life 
 for years to come. He is generous, genial, jovial, and 
 good-natured, appreciates a good story, and is liked by 
 all. He ^vas born in Detroit, Mich., December 2, 1837. 
 His educational advantages were received in the common 
 schools of his native State, to which was added one year 
 in the scientific department of Dorton College, l>few 
 Hampshire. His first employment after leaving school 
 was steamboating on the lakes, but finding that too slow 
 and unprofitable, h'e soon gave it up. He then started 
 West, reached Kansas, and remained there quite a while 
 engaged on newspaper Avork; he then went back to De- 
 troit, and spent the next four years in newspaper work. 
 Upon President Lincoln's call for volunteers, young Whit- 
 ing was one of the first to respond ; he enlisted in the 
 famous "Iron Brigade," he being for three years on Maj.- 
 G-en. Crawford's staff. During his service he participated 
 in many noted battles, among them, battle of Fredericks- 
 burg, battle of Gettysburg, and the famous battle of the 
 Wilderness; at Gettysburg he was taken prisoner and 
 confined for eight months. Before he received his 
 discharge he was breveted major for meritorious services, 
 and upon being mustered out, 1866, he accepted the posi- 
 tion of correspondent foi' the New York Wo?-hl, and came 
 to New Mexico. While in this position he wrote several 
 interesting articles upon Ne\v Mexico histoiy for that 
 
532 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 paper. At that time he was also writing for the Kansa 
 Pacific Railroad. Later he was offered the position o 
 Clerk of United States district court at Alburquerque 
 and moved to that city to enter uj)on the duties of hii 
 office. Major Whiting has since resided in Alburquerque 
 In 1874 he was married to Miss Mara Somoraof Valencia 
 County. Since coming to Ne-w Mexico, he has gained th( 
 esteem and respect of all of his associates, and has oc 
 cupied many positions of honor and trust. He held the 
 responsible position of United States commissioner foi 
 twenty years, county clerk for three years, and was at one 
 time clerk of the second judicial district of New Mexico. 
 He is now busily engaged in attending to the duties of 
 agricultural editor for one of Alburquerque's leading 
 papers ; and to u( ) more worthy or intelligent gentleman 
 could such an important position be intrusted. He is an 
 enthusiast in his profession, and by his energy and enter- 
 prise has contributed largely to the success of the paper. 
 Those who have been associated mth Major Whiting iu 
 newspaper work regard him as a man of sterling traits of 
 character, who is always striving -svith pen and tongue to 
 lift up his fellow-men, and iu private as in public life, he 
 is universally respected and esteemed for his many excel 
 lent qualities of head and heart. 
 
MAJOR H. R. WHITING, ALBURQUEKQUE, N. M. 
 
 53:i 
 
BIOGEAPHICAL SKETCHES. 535 
 
 JESSE M. WHEELOCK. 
 
 Bom in Oneida County, New York, December, 1858. 
 When ten years old he removed mth his ]^^>arents to 
 Kansas, where they resided four years ; they then went to 
 Texas, Avhere young Wheelock completed his studies, also 
 perfecting himself in the study of architecture. In 1877 
 he went to Pueblo, Col., where he followed his profession 
 for eight months ; leaving there, he removed to Las Vegas, 
 where he married. He finally settled in Aburquerque, 
 N. M., his present residence. Upon his arrival he fol- 
 lowed his profession and later he engaged in the real estate 
 and insurance business. He is now in the same business, 
 and for lively, energetic real estate dealers few can compete 
 with Mr. Wheelock. He is a young man, whose business 
 tact and native ability have already placed him in the front 
 ranks of business circles, and through his energy and 
 enterprise the city of Alburquerque is indebted for much 
 of its prosperity. 
 
536 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 EMILIO VALDEZ 
 
 Is one of the lively and energetic young men whose in- 
 terests are solely identified with New Mexico. He has 
 lived in this Territory twenty-five years, and, if Provi- 
 dence permits, expects to spend twenty-five more in the 
 same place ; and no one is better known in the surround- 
 ing country or has more warm personal friends than Mr. 
 Valdez. He was born August 8, 1863, in Taos, N. M., 
 which was also the birthplace of his father, Antonio 
 Valdez, in 1819, who in his time was one of the leading 
 merchants and cattle growers of Taos. Young Emilio 
 was educated at the Christian Brothers' College, Mora, 
 ~N. M., and at the Jesuit Fathers' College, at St. Mary's, 
 Kan. He has always been in the cattle business, and 
 owns a fine ranch three miles from Rayado. On April 
 30, 1887, he was married to Miss Adelina Abreu, a most 
 estimable young lady, and granddaughter of Don Carlos 
 Baubien, one of New Mexico's representative men at the 
 time of his death. None excel Mr. Valdez in industry, 
 integrity, and honor, and he is respected and esteemed 
 by all. 
 
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BIOGKAPHICAL SKETCHES. 5B9 
 
 DANIEL TEOY, Sr., 
 
 Was bom in Ohio, Marcli 23, 1822. lu 1842 he moved 
 to Morgan County, Illinois. In 1845 he was married to 
 Miss Sarah Bailey; they moved to Mahaska County, 
 Iowa, and for the next four years he turned his attention 
 to farming. In 1849 the gold excitement of California 
 reached Iowa, and like many others Mr. Troy took the 
 gold fever ; he sold his farm, supplied himself with two 
 ox teams, covered ^vagons, etc., and with his family, con- 
 sisting then of }-oung wife and t^^o small sons, joined an 
 emigrant train of some twenty families ; and all buoyant 
 and happy, with their minds full of wild imaginations 
 and expectant hope, bidding adieu to friends and loved 
 ones, formed in line of march to meet the dangers of the 
 far West, and crossed the " Great American Desert " to 
 reach the promised land, the gold fields of California. 
 After a tiresome Journey of six months, amid strange and 
 exciting scenes, crossing vast plains and prairies that were 
 lined and dotted with immense herds of antelope and 
 buffalo, crossing dark and turbulent rivers, ^vithout bridge 
 or ferryboat, and steep rocky mountains, amid exposures, 
 hardships, and dangers, he arrived, with his little family, 
 ' safe in the great Sacramento Valley, California. As the 
 gold excitement was the attractive magnet that brought 
 all classes of people together on the Pacific slope at that 
 early day, after wintering in the valley, in the spring of 
 1850 he moved to El Dorado Countj^, California, and at 
 once commenced to search among thousands of others for 
 the precious metal ; but being inexperienced in placer 
 mining, did not meet with the desired success, and he 
 soon gave up mining. He then located with his family 
 in Coloma, Cal., turning his attention to the hotel busi- 
 
540 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 ness. lu the summer of 1851 he sold his hotel and 
 moved his family to Sonoma County, where he purchased 
 a farm in Green Valley ; here he resided until 1860, when 
 he sold his farm and moved to San Louis Obispo 
 County, California, where he and his sons engaged in 
 stock raising and farming. In 1865 he moved his stock 
 to Kern County, California, and bought a fai'm on Kern 
 Rivei', near Bakersfield, Cal., where for six years he and 
 his sous resided ; they planted one of the first and also 
 one of the best orchards, vineyards, and alfalfa meadows 
 in Kern County. Noticing the encroachment upon the 
 government domain of emigration in this section of the 
 country, in 1871 Mr. Troy decided to look for a more 
 suitable and extensive sheej) range out on the frontier, 
 accessible to free government lands, with a view to per- 
 manently locating his sons, and establishing them in sheep 
 husbandry. After traveling through Colorado, Wyoming, 
 Texas, and New Mexico, he finally located in Colfax 
 County, New Mexico, just east of the famous " Maxwell 
 Laud Grant." In November, 1875, his four sous joined 
 him and they all engaged in sheep raising until 1877, 
 when M]'. Troy decided to go back to California. Turn- 
 ing his lands and flocks over to his sous, now established 
 in the business, he moved to Los Angeles County, Cali- 
 fornia, and at once bought lands and commenced the cul- 
 ture of oranges, but was taken suddenly ill, and after a 
 few days suft'eriug, passed away, at his residence near Los 
 Angeles, August 28, 1879, and was buried in the Los 
 Angeles cemetery 
 
 Daniel Troy, Jr., oldest son of the above, was born in 
 Mt. Stirling, 111., December 28, 1854. He received a 
 common school education, and in 1874 joined his brother 
 Oscar in San Francisco, and there attended school for 
 one year. Soon after this, in company with his three 
 
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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 545 
 
 "brotliers, Oscai', Jerome, and Lycurgus, settled in Colfax 
 County, and engaged in the sheep business, which they 
 have continued ever since. They owe the foundation of 
 their success to their father, but through their untiring 
 energy and perseverance they have greatly increased their 
 wealth since his death, and to-day they own 15,000 head 
 of sheep and several hundred head of cattle ; they own 
 3600 acres of ranch property ; also property in Raton and 
 other points of New Mexico. As citizens none are more 
 highly respected for honesty, integrity, and reliability, 
 and their fi'iends are legion. 
 
546 HISTORY OF NEW MKiCICO. 
 
 S. T. HARKEY, 
 
 Bom in Mississippi, November 3, 1849. He received a 
 preparatory education in his native town, and later was 
 graduated at the Poughkeepsie Business College, Pough- 
 keepsie, N. Y. , wkere lie afterward taught school one 
 year. He returned to Mississippi and in January, 1887, 
 went to Silver City, N. M. , where he accepted the posi- 
 tion of cashier of the First National Bank. 
 
S. T. HARKEY, SILVER CITY, N. M. 
 
 547 
 
BIOGEAPHICAL SKETCHES. 549 
 
 EUGENIO YPJSARRI, 
 
 A native New Mexican, is descended from a strong and 
 hardy stock, well fitted for the furnishing of such elements 
 as are needed to command success and produce laudable 
 results in the new but rapidly growing country in which 
 his lot was cast, and where modern civilization has come 
 with such splendid strides. He is a son of Mariano 
 Yrisarri and Manuela Armijo Yrisarri, and was born 
 near Alburquerque, N. M., May 12, 1862. He received 
 the highest educational advantages, having been sent, 
 when but seven years of age, to St. Michael's College 
 in Santa Fe, and after five years spent in that institution 
 entered the Jesuit College at St. Louis, Mo., and from 
 there to Notre Dame, Ind., from which noted school he 
 graduated on the 21st of June, 1882, with high collegiate 
 honors. Upon leaving school, he immediately entered 
 upon the pursuit of his forefathers, that of wool growing, 
 and is to-day, with his father and brothers, one of the 
 prominent and successful wool growers of the Southwest. 
 On May 27, 1885, he Avas married to Miss Barbara Perea, 
 the accomplished daughter of Julian Perea and Nestora 
 Lucero Perea. Soon after his marriage he removed with 
 his wife to Santa Fe, which city they have since made their 
 permanent residence. In politics Mr. Yrisarri is an active 
 and stanch adherent to the Democratic principles, and 
 though he has never sought or desired political office, in 
 the fall of 1888 he was nominated and elected assessor for 
 for Santa Fe Count}' on the Democratic ticket, in which 
 office the discharge of his duties ^vas highly satisfactory 
 to th* people. Since retiring from this office, Mr. Yrisarri 
 has been actively engaged in the as^ooI growing business. 
 He has been very successful in his business, possessing 
 
550 HISTORY OF KEW MEXICO. 
 
 excellent qualities and good judgment. He is recognized 
 in the community as a man of tlie highest integrity and 
 has the perfect confidence of the business public, and his 
 connection with New Mexico's growth and progress has 
 been in every way creditable to himself and beneficial 
 to Santa Fe. 
 
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 551 
 
BIOGEAPPIICAL SKETCHES. 553 
 
 MARTIN LOHMAN 
 
 Is one of the best known and most liigHy esteemed 
 citizens of New Mexico : in tlie soundness of Ms judgment, 
 and in his personal and official integrity, all men have full 
 confidence. He was born October 29, 1854, in St. Louis, 
 Mo. ; his parents, John F. and Elizabeth Lohman being 
 natives of Hanover, and coming to America in 1830. 
 His childhood and youth were spent in St. Louis, where 
 he received the benefits of a good common school educa- 
 tion, and finished with a course in one of the most famous 
 schools of the West, the St. Louis University. Mr. Loh- 
 man came to Las Cruces, N. M., in 1876. By his pleasant 
 manner to all and a keen business sagacity, he soon made 
 friends, and in 1882, in company with Mr. Numa Rey- 
 mond, he bought out the firm of H. Lesinsky & Co., 
 general merchandise ; and soon, with his energetic part- 
 ner, built up one of the largest trades in New Mexico. 
 Mr. Lohman has always been noted for an unconquerable 
 persistence with Avhich he pursues whatever he under- 
 takes ; he possesses fine business qualifications united to 
 great prudence, and to this is due his great success. In 
 1887 Mr. Lohman purchased the remaining interest in the 
 house, and up to the present date he has successfully 
 conducted the business alone. Politically speaking he 
 adheres to the Republican party principles ; though he is 
 inclined to be liberal, inasmuch as he lends his aid only 
 in electing honest men to office. Mr. Lohman has never 
 sought political favors for himself, but his worth and in- 
 tegrity as a citizen caused his name to be brought before 
 the public as a candidate for the office of superintendent of 
 public instruction for Dona Ana County, and to this office 
 he was appointed and served satisfactorily one term. 
 
654 HISTOKY 0¥ NEW MEXICO. 
 
 He was also elected a member of the New Mexico Con- 
 stitutional Convention, wliich convened at Santa F6 in 
 September, 1889, and there rendered good service as chair- 
 man of the committee on corporations. In Mr. Lohman we 
 find exemplified that sturdy devotion to business and 
 progress which have not only realized all that the Territory 
 is at present, but which contains the promise of a bright and 
 flourishing future. 
 
MARTIN LOHMAN, LAS CBTJOBS, N. II. 
 
 555 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 557 
 
 C. T. RUSSELL, 
 
 Son of Robert H. and Elizabeth Rnssell, was born March 
 26, 1847, in Shelbyville, Ky. In 1852 he removed with 
 his parents to Texas, and until 1856 they resided near 
 San Antonio ; they then located on a ranch near Austin, 
 and it was in this place that the boyhood and youth of 
 our subject Avas spent. His father's death occurred in 
 Mississippi in 1863. In 1864 Mr. Russell enlisted in 
 Company B, Twenty-first Texas Cavalry, and remained 
 in service of the Confederate Army until April 5, 1865, 
 when he was honorably discharged. In 1868 he was 
 married to Miss Adelia L. Burnham ; his family consisted 
 of two bright children, Emma M. and Robert Lee. In 
 1878 he was elected sheriff and collector of Blanco 
 County, Texas, and was re-elected to the same office in 
 1880. At the expiration of his second term of office, his 
 health being much impaired, he was advised to remove to 
 New Mexico, and in 1883 he located in Socorro County. 
 His health steadily improved and he soon became one of 
 Socorro County's leading citizens. In 1884 he was elected 
 sheriff and collector of that county, and in 1886 he was 
 re-elected to the same office. In 1885, upon the uprising 
 of the Apache Indians, headed by the notorious Geron- 
 imo, Mr. Russell at once organized a company of sixty 
 men and started in pursuit ; the band was eventually 
 captured under Gen. Miles's command. It was at this 
 time that Capt. Russell was promoted to the rank of 
 major in the Third Regiment of New Mexico troops. In 
 1887 he was commissioned colonel of the same regiment 
 by Governor E. G. Ross. Upon the expiration of his 
 second term of office as sheriff. Col. Russell refused to 
 become a candidate for any office, and the^greater part of 
 
558 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 1889 was spent in traveling. In August of 1889 he 
 decided to cast tis fortunes with tlie new State of Wash- 
 ington, and accordingly removed with his family to 
 Hoquiain, his present residence. During the period spent 
 in New Mexico, Col. Russell contributed largely to the 
 success of Socorro County in his position of sheriff, and 
 his many sterling qualities were appreciated by hosts' of 
 friends. 
 
C. T. EUSSBIjL, socorko, n. m. 
 
 559 
 
EIOGKAPHICAL SKETCHES. 561 
 
 THOMAS C. GUTIERRES, 
 
 A native New Mexican, was born in Soc-orro, N. M., in 
 the year 1840, and is of distinguished Spanish lineage; 
 his ancestors comino; to America from Avhat was then 
 called the Kingdom of Aragon in 1750, and through mar- 
 riage Mr. Gutierres is connected w4th many of the leading 
 families of New Mexico. In 1851 he crossed the plains 
 in " prairie schooners " to attend the St. Louis University 
 in Missouri ; he remained in this institution five years and 
 then entered the Hudson River Institute, Columbia County, 
 N. Y. After a short course in this scliool, he entered the 
 Albany Law School, Albany, N. Y., where he subsequently 
 graduated. 
 
 Mr. Gutierres located at Alburquerque in 1862, in which 
 place he soon established a large and lucrative law prac- 
 tice, also becoming a man of mark in the community. 
 Such was the confidence he inspired that he was chosen, 
 in 1863, to the lower house of the Territorial Legislature, 
 in which he Avas an active and leading member during 
 the session of 1863. In 1868 his many friends secured 
 for him the election to the ofiice of ];)robate judge of 
 Bernalillo County, which he held three terms and served 
 with dignity and impartiality. Upon retiring from the 
 bench Mr. Gutierres engaged in sheep raising and freight- 
 ing, in both of which pursuits he was successful, owing to 
 his ■ Judicious management and business experience; his 
 earnings from these enterprises were put into real estate, 
 from which Mr. Gutierres is now receiving a large income. 
 
 During his judicial career he was a most imtiring worker, 
 and few indeed could accomplish so much, and he stands 
 to-day one of the strong and able men among those whose 
 careers furnish the explanation of the growth and success 
 that New Mexico has achieved and so strongly maintains. 
 
562 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 IM- 
 
 HON. MANUEL CABEZA de BACA 
 
 Was born in Los Serrillos, N. M., on the 25tli day of 
 May, 1853, his parents being Hon. Thomas Dolores 
 Cabeza de Baca and Estefana Delgado, daughter of Capt. 
 Manuel Delgado, a Spanish cavalier. The subject of this 
 sketch received his education at San Michael's College, 
 in the city of Santa F6. He studied law, and was ad- 
 mitted to the bar in 1882, and smcethat time has actively 
 practiced his profession. He is a lineal descendant of 
 Alvar Nunes Cabeza de Baca, one of the first Europeans 
 to set foot on New Mexican soil, having sailed from San 
 Lucar de Barrameda on the 17th of Jime, 1527, the 
 object of the expedition being the conquest and coloniza- 
 tion of the mainland of Florida, under Emperor Charles 
 V. Nunes's grandfather was conqueror of the Canary 
 Islands, and the chronological histoi'y of this illustrious 
 family traces back to the twelfth century. Our subjects 
 is the ex-Speaker of the Territorial House of Repre- 
 sentatives of Ne^v Mexico, and no^r the present judge of 
 the probate court for the County of San Miguel. In 1883 
 he Avas unanimously elected city attoi'ney for the City of 
 Las Vegas, and acted as such for one year, when he was 
 appointed county attorney, which office he held until 
 1886, when he was elected a member of the House of 
 Representatives for the County of San Miguel and was 
 chosen speaker of that body. As a public officer he has 
 always maintained an unsullied I'eputation, acknowledged 
 even by his political adversaries, being liberal in his 
 views and always ready to advance the interests of his 
 fellow-citizens ; as a judge he is upright and just in his 
 decisions, and as a politician and citizen he ranks among 
 the first and most prominent in the Territory. 
 
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BIOGKAPHICAL SKETCHES. 565 
 
 HON. TRINIDAD ALARID, 
 
 The present efficient auditor of the Territory of New 
 Mexico, is one of the few of New Mexico's prominent 
 men who has held one of the highest offices in the gift of 
 the people continuously for the past eighteen years ; his 
 record during all this time has been pure and unsullied, 
 and too much praise cannot be given to such steadfast 
 and honored principles, which have characterized his long 
 and useful career. Mr. Alarid is a descendant of a long 
 line of distinguished Spanish ancestry. Personally he is 
 pleasant and affable in manner, easily wins and holds 
 friends, -while his standing in the community as an honest 
 and upright citizen is of the highest. 
 
566 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 LOUIS C. TETAKD 
 
 Is a young man whose brilliancy of intellect, coupled 
 with his rare educational advantages, business ability, 
 and genial manners have given him a position in the 
 front ranks, commercially, socially, and politically. He 
 has for many years resided in Las Vegas, and is one of 
 the leading merchandise brokers in the Territory, doing 
 business under the firm name of L. C. Tetard & Co. 
 Upon several occasions he has been selected to represent 
 the important interests of New Mexico in the form of 
 the developing of its vast I'esources by the introduction 
 into the Ten'itory of capital, and he has proven himself 
 an able representative. Mi'. Tetard, being in the zenith 
 - of his manhood, will no doubt reach the highest step in 
 the ladder of fame and be the recipient of f ui'ther honored 
 trusts at the hands of his people. 
 
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HIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 569 
 
 HOWARD H. BETTS 
 
 Is the leading wholesale and retail grocer of Silver City, 
 N. M., and widely known as one of the most affable and 
 popular citizens of the Territory. Mr. Betts commenced 
 business with a limited capital, but year by year his trade 
 has increased in magnitude, until at the present time it 
 has grown to large proportions ; he possesses fine business 
 abilities and has had a remarkably successful career. The 
 management of his business has so thoroughly taken up 
 his time and attention, that he has had comparatively 
 little time to devote to projects outside of the line in 
 which he is engaged. He is regarded as one of Silver 
 City's trustworthy business man, whose career promises 
 to be of great benefit to his city and State in the years to 
 come. 
 
570 HISTOEY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 DEMETRIO CHAVEZ 
 
 Is a descendant of the old and distinguished Chavez 
 family, who gained honor and renown in Spain, Old and 
 New Mexico. Many prominent members of this family, 
 including the subject of this sketch, reside in New Mexico. 
 Demetrio Chavez was born in La Mesilla, N. M., and for 
 many years he has been prominently identified in business 
 circles in that town. He is at present engaged in the 
 general merchandise business in La Mesilla, having con- 
 ducted the same for many years, and through his perse- 
 verance, energy, and genial manners, he has been very 
 successful. Mr. Chavez has never aspired to political 
 honors, although some of his family are very prominent in 
 politics. He is the leading merchant in La Mesilla, and 
 respected by all who know him. 
 

 
 
 571 
 
BIOGEAPHICAL SKETCHES. 573 
 
 MARIANO BARELA 
 
 Is a resident of La Mesilla, N. M., and the present efficient 
 sheriff of Dona Ana County. He has always been a 
 prominent and enthusiastic politician and from the time 
 he took up his residence in La Mesilla has been a leading 
 factor in local political affairs. In all the relations of life 
 Mr. Barela is a true and worthy man. Under difficulties 
 which would have discouraged or daunted many, he has 
 achieved success. He is one of the best of New Mexico's 
 citizens, and a high type of political man. 
 
574 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 NUMA RAYMOND 
 
 Among the prosperous merchants of New Mexico can 
 be named the subject of our sketch. He commenced his 
 business career at an early age, which has in every way 
 been commendable. He is naturally a man of positive, 
 well-grounded convictions, and is open and candid jn his 
 avowal of them. His position on any question of public 
 policy is never one of doubt or hesitancy. His business 
 career, his private and public life, are above reproach, and 
 his honesty is of the character that needs no profession, 
 but makes itself felt upon all with whom he comes in 
 contact. He has traveled extensively in Euro[)e and 
 America, and is at present retired from business. 
 
MABIAN 
 
 ,0 BAIiELA, LAS CRTICES, N. M 
 
 575 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 577 
 
 HON. CHARLES BLANCHARD, '"'■': 
 
 Was born in St. Mark, Lower Canada, January 1, 18-42. 
 He received his education at the St. Mark Seniinaiy, 
 Canada, afterward studying law for several years, but 
 never practiced, although in his subsequent career in mer- 
 cantile life he found his knowledge of law of great service 
 to him. In 186-4 he determined to leave home. He 
 accordingly went by rail to Kansas City, Mo.; from this 
 point he crossed the plains with an ox team, and after a 
 journey of forty-five days reached Las Vegas, N. M. He 
 immediately entered the employ of his uncle, Miguel 
 Desmarais, who had been engaged in the mercantile busi- 
 ness in Las Vegas since 183.5, and remained with him as 
 a clerk until 1870. During the years 1866 to 1868 he 
 was employed by another merchant in Las Vegas, but 
 was unfortunate in this venture and returned to that city 
 in the latter part of 1868, having but one horse, his entire 
 property from his two years' hard work. On the death 
 of his uncle he took charge of his business, entering into 
 partnership with his brother in-law, Rafael Romero, who 
 was at one time a member of the NeAv Mexico Legisla- 
 ture. Mr. Blanchard shortly after purchased the interest 
 of Mr. Romero and has since conducted the business 
 alone. His business is now operated oil a capital of 
 $50,000, — showing great strides since 1872, when his en- 
 tii-e capital amounted to only $2000. He has conducted 
 branch stores at Socorro, Carthage, and San Pedro, K M., 
 during the years 1889 and 1890. In 1874 he was elected 
 treasurer of San Miguel County, and was the incumbent 
 of that office two years, and the county was actually in 
 debt to him upon his retirement. In 1878 he was elected 
 probate judge of San Miguel County, serving two years. 
 
578 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 In 1886 was elected county commissioner of San Miguel, 
 served two years, and acted as chairman of that body 
 during that time. Mr. Blanchard never sought political 
 honors, they being forced upon him and accepted simply 
 because he was willing to serve his people and promote 
 the general good and prosperity of tlTe Territory. Judge 
 Blanchard was married in Las "Vegas, May 1, 1871, to 
 Miss Margaret Desmarais, of San Miguel County, daughter 
 of Miguel Desmarais and a member of the distinguished 
 Spanish family of Vigil. Mrs. Blanchard is a lady of • 
 great worth and devoted to domestic life. Four children 
 have graced this union, Antoinette, Manuel, Frank, and 
 Charlie. Judge Blanchard is largely interested in mining 
 properties, the most important of which are in the Mag- 
 delena Mountains, near Socorro ; he is also president of 
 the St. Louis and Las Vegas Mining Co. Socially and 
 commercially Judge Blanchard stands as high as any in 
 the Territory. 
 
KIJMA RAYMOND, LAS CKUCES, N". M. 
 
 579 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 581 
 
 WILLIAM HENRY MANDERFIELD, 
 
 Was born at Stoucliesburg, Berks County, Pa. As a 
 youtli he learned tlie trade of printer in the city of 
 Philadelphia, and upon attaining his sixteenth year left 
 the paternal roof and started for the " new West," halting 
 for a time in Illinois and afterward in Missouri ; there 
 the spirit of frontier adventure soon set his footsteps to- 
 ward the Southwest and he pushed forward across the 
 then American Desert, over the Santa Fe Trail, walking 
 most of the way, — as he came with a freight caravan 
 drawn by ox teams, — helping them when necessary, and 
 he could crack a whip as merrily or clutch a rifle at the 
 sight of a band of hostile Indians as bravely as any of the 
 hardy frontiersman of those days. Landing in the his- 
 toric city of Santa Fe in 1863, he immediately found 
 employment in the office of the Santa F6 Republican, a 
 weekly journal, and one year later he founded the Netv 
 Mexican, first as a Aveekly and four years later converting 
 it into a dail>' publication. At the head of this enter- 
 prise he amassed a fortune after seventeen years of 
 earnest labor, and retired from active business, devoting 
 his time to the care of his lands and the promotion of 
 horticulture. His sterling (jualities as a man and as a 
 most excellent financier won for him the confidence and 
 admiration of the people, and on several occasions Judge 
 Manderfield was called away from his chosen pursuits of 
 peace and pleasure to serve his county in the highest pub- 
 lic offices within the gift of the people. His administra- 
 tion at the head of county affairs was marked by thrift 
 and progress. Coming of that rugged, dignified old Grer- 
 man stock that numbered itself among the first settlers of 
 the Keystone State, the subject of this sketch was in 
 
582 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 manner and dress a typical old-school American, while at 
 heart he carried with him those frank and genial 
 characteristics that made him widely beloved and gener- 
 ally esteemed throughout the entire Southwest. He was 
 especially kind and patient toward the native people, and 
 they loved him as a brother. To the struggling young 
 American away from home and friends, he was always a 
 cheerful counselor, and ever ready to aid him in affairs of 
 business. He was a student of the climate and soil, and 
 took pains to inculcate new methods of horticulture 
 among the Mexican farmers. He was among the first, if 
 not the first, to plant an orchard in Santa Fe. Certainly 
 he brought here the first strawberry plants ever set in 
 New Mexico soil — the " Wilson " variety — and from the 
 fact that he distributed plants out of his garden to all 
 who desired them, this variety is known to the native 
 people to this day as " the Mandei-field berry." He fore- 
 saw a bright future for New Mexico and for Santa Fe, and 
 he was not slow in putting his money into city and 
 suburban property, which has since become very valuable, 
 being a source of large revenue. He was a man of 
 domestic traits, a thorough lover of his home, and his mar- 
 riage, which took place one year after his settlement in 
 Santa Fe, proved a very happy one. On December 3, 
 1888, Judge Manderfield, after a brief illness, departed 
 this life at the age of forty-nine years, and his mortal re- 
 mains now rest in the family vault in this city, over which 
 stands a grand piece of architecture in the shape of a 
 spacious stone chapel, erected to his memory by the 
 thoughtfulness of his loving wife and daughtei-s. 
 
W. H. MANDERPIBLD, SANTA PB, N. M. 
 
 583 
 
BIOGKAPHICAL SKETCHES. 585 
 
 JAMES HARRIS, 
 
 Universally known as a public spirited and prominent 
 citizen of Cimarron, N. M. , was born December 22, 1836, 
 in Cornwall, England. He received an ordinary educa- 
 tion in his native country. At an early age lie was ap- 
 prenticed to a blacksmith, and worked at his trade until 
 1871, when he sailed for America. Landing in Boston, 
 he remained in that city a short while and then came 
 direct to Cimarron, where for thirteen years he engaged 
 in ranching and blacksmithing. At present he is engaged 
 in a general merchandising business and has been very 
 successful. Mr. Harris is a liberal and interested con- 
 tributor to the steady growth and improvement Cimarron 
 has enjoyed in the past ten years. He is also a promi- 
 nent member of the I. O. O. F. 
 
586 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 J. YHISAERI, 
 
 The subject of this sketch, is of Mexican descent and 
 was born in New Mexico. He was educated at the 
 Christian Brothers' College, Santa Fe, and the St. Louis 
 University. After completing his studies he settled in 
 Alburquerque. Having quite a large fortune in sheep 
 left him by his pai-ents the care of same requires his con- 
 stant attention, and the yearly income derived from his 
 sales of wool clipped from his own sheep is very large. 
 He is a public-spirited man, but extremely modest and 
 retiring in disposition, and seeks to avoid rather than 
 court positions such as would place him before the public. 
 He is a hard worker, a man of exemplary habits, and 
 possesses the knowledge and experience which, with his 
 vigorous health, give promise of still greater achievements 
 in the years to come. 
 
J. TMBAKRI, ALBUKQUBRQUE, N. M. 
 
 587 
 
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 589 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKBTCHKS. 591 
 
 GENERAL ESTANISLAO MONTOYA 
 
 Was tlie son of Jos6 Montoya and Juana Maria Baca, 
 both of the most respected and noted families of Valencia 
 County, who were old time residents of Belen, from 
 which place they moved to Socorro in 1816 as pioneer 
 settlers of that city, Avhere on the 9th day of December, 
 1819, the subject of our sketch was born. Don Estan- 
 islao received the benefits of an ordinary school educa- 
 tion at Socorro and resided there with his family until 
 1847. On May 3, 1840, Mr. Montoya was married to 
 Dona Fraucisquita Garcia, a member of one of the most 
 ancient families of New Mexico. In 1847, with his wife, 
 child, and parents, together with other families, they 
 settled the present town of San Antonio, where the re- 
 mainder of his days were spent. He and his estimable 
 wife were blessed with eight children. Aftei' the invasion 
 of New Mexico b}^ the Texans, he was appointed by 
 Governor Connely brigadier-general of New Mexico mil- 
 itia ; and served gallantly and faithfully. He made a raid 
 with ten companies of militia on the Navajo Indians in 
 1864, who were scattered in the MogoUon Mountains; he 
 was quite successful, killing twenty bucks, capturing 
 about fifty squaws and papooses and a large number of 
 sheep and horses. In the same year he discovered and 
 took up the now famous San Pedro coal mines, from 
 which for two years he supplied Ft. Ci'aig with coal. In 
 1872 he was appointed sutler at Ft. Craig, which posi- 
 tion he filled with satisfaction until January, 1877; in 
 that year he was elected, by a large majority, probate 
 judge of Socorro ; not desiring to serve a second term, he 
 was succeeded by his son, Don Desiderio S. Montoya. 
 Don Estanislao was an active and prominent politician of 
 
592 HISTOKY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 Democratic proclivities, and his popularity was evinced 
 by his constantly being elected to whatever office he 
 aspired. As a merchant he was very successful, but he 
 accumulated most of his fortune thi'ough stock raising, 
 and during the latter years of his life formed a partner- 
 ship with his two sons, Don Desiderio and Don Eutimio. 
 He had extensive laud interests, the most important 
 being the " Socoito Grant," and expended large sums of 
 money to secure the patent to the grantees. His wealth 
 was estimated up in the hundreds of thousands, which he 
 made himself by a close attention to business and integ- 
 rity in his dealings. Don Estanislao departed this life 
 on the 8th day of August, 1884, surrounded by his loving 
 wife and family. He died with the satisfaction of leav- 
 ing every one of his children well settled in life, and an 
 honor to his name. He was a joious and devout Catholic 
 and a liberal supporter of that faith. 
 
<JBNBKAIj ESTANISLAO MONTOTO, SAN ANTONIO, N. M. 
 
 593 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 595 
 
 HENRY J. CANIFFE 
 
 Is one of the earliest pioneers of New Mexico, and a man 
 whose life is fraught with many thrilling and interesting 
 experiences. He has occupied many offices of public 
 trust, and has been punctual in the discharge of every 
 duty, and under all circumstances can be implicitly trusted. 
 He is firm when he takes a stand he believes to be right, 
 is always courteous to those with Whom he comes in con- 
 tact. He easily wins and holds the confidence of all with 
 whom he associates. Mr. Caniffe has led a very active 
 life and up to 1885 has been prominently identified in 
 business circles in New Mexico and other States. He at 
 present resides in Las Cruces and is living the quiet, un- 
 eventful life of a useful and respected citizen. 
 
596 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO, 
 
 " WILLIAM NEWCOMB, 
 
 Is a well known business man of Silver City, having been 
 for many years engaged in tbe grocery business under the 
 firm name of " Betts & Newcomb "; and the partnership 
 was but I'ecently dissolved. Mr. Newcomb is a man who 
 no doubt deserves a more extensive sketch than is given 
 here, but being noted for his exceeding modesty in con- 
 nection with such matters, it has been impossible to ob- 
 tain from him but a meager sketch of his career. He is 
 a man of strong convictions, and being energetic and 
 popular he will no dou1)t attain that success awarded to 
 ambitious and worthy men. 
 
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 597 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 599 
 
 ROBERT K. VANDIVER. 
 
 an 
 
 The subject of this biographical sketch has led 
 active life, both as a public man and as a private indi 
 vidual. Beginning life with indomitable pluck and 
 honorable ambition, he has succeeded in molding, for the 
 benefit of the community in which he resides, a model 
 citizen and a man whose word is as good as his bond. 
 He Avas born November 2, 1844, in Parkersburg, Va., 
 where he received his early training in the common 
 school of his native town. His education was interrupted 
 by the cry of Avar, and young Vandiver, fired with pa- 
 triotism, flung his books aside to join the ranks of the 
 soldier. He enlisted in Company H, Missouri cavalry, of 
 which company Colonel Frank Gordon was in command. 
 They participated in a number of the most important 
 engagements, chief among them being the battles of 
 Lexington, Carthage, Wilson's Creek, Springfield, and 
 Forest Grove, Ark. In the battle of Cape Girardeau, 
 Mo., he was taken prisoner; he was confined sixteen 
 months, during which time he was removed to the prison 
 at St. Louis. Upon his being mustered out of service, 
 he engaged in numerous occupations until 1867, when he 
 started West. He lived in Colorado a number of years, 
 and in 1879 reached New Mexico. He settled in Raton, 
 and has since made that his permanent residence. The 
 first year after his arrival he erected the Depot Hotel, 
 which was one of the first buildings erected in that little 
 city, and he has since proved himself an active and useful 
 citizen of that place. In 1886 he was elected to fill the 
 postmastership of Raton, since which time his manage- 
 ment of that office has been highly satisfactory, both to 
 the postal department at Washington and to his patrons 
 of the office. The work has been carefully revised and 
 systematized under his supervision, and its fast increasing 
 business is dispatched with celerity and accuracy. 
 
600 HISTORY OP NEW MEXICO. 
 
 SOLOMAN LUNA. 
 
 For many years the subject of this sketch has occupied 
 a prominent position in the commercial and financial his- 
 tory of New Mexico in connection with the wool and sheep 
 growing industry. He was born in the town which bears 
 his name, — Los Lunas, — and at the death of his father was 
 left in possession Of quite a fortune in sheep, and by his 
 strict attention to business he has greatly added to his 
 financial standing. In all of his business enterprises Mr. 
 Luna has exhibited rare judgment ; he is charitable, 
 and geuei'ously contributes to aid worthy objects. His 
 honesty and integrity are of the highest, and no man 
 possesses more confidence in a business community than 
 himself. 
 
SOLOMON LUNA, LOS LUNAS, N. M. 
 
 601 
 
THE LATE DON LUNA, LOS LUNAS, N. M 
 
 603 
 
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 605 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 607 
 
 W. L. TRIMBLE. 
 
 Born in Padiicah, Ky., July 12, 1860. He received an 
 ordinary education in his native town, and in 1879 he 
 started West. He crossed the plains in a mule train, and 
 after a tedious journey of three months reached New 
 Mexico. He was without a dollar, and accordingly 
 accepted the first position offered him, that of driving a 
 transfer wagon in Alburquerque ; this he continued for 
 about eight months, when he eng-aged in the livery busi- 
 ness. He built the first livery stable in Old ToAvn and 
 has since erected stables on Second and on Fourth Streets. 
 He is at present engaged in the livery business and doing 
 well. He owns eighty-five head of good American cattle, 
 valued at $18,000. Mr. Trimble is also largely interested 
 in real estate and his property has a valuation of $20,000. 
 He is a self-made man, and one of Alburquerque's most 
 substantial citizens. 
 
608 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 JOHN W. FLEMING 
 
 Was born in Fitchburg, Mass., Marcli 11, 1853. He re- 
 ceived a very limited education in his native town and 
 in Norwich, Conn. Being of an adventurous spirit he 
 started out when quite 3"0ung to see the world ; in his 
 travels he visited Newbui'g, N. Y.; Bement, 111.; Denver, 
 Col.; Canon City, Col.; Rosita, Col.; different points in 
 New Mexico ; Globe City, Ariz., and numerous other 
 places. In going to Hillsboro, N. M., he made the trip 
 of 800 miles on foot, living principally upon game -which 
 he killed. During all his travels he Avas engaged in pros- 
 pecting and mining, and genei'ally met with success. He 
 permanently settled in Silver City, and was elected 
 captain of the first volunteer militia company of Grant 
 County. In 1882 he was married to Miss Petra Romero 
 of Silver City. In 1885 he -was elected Mayor of Silver 
 City and has served several terms. 
 
JOHN W. FLEMING, SIL^IIE CITY, N. M. 
 
 609 
 
MOGRAPHICAL SKKTCHES. 611 
 
 HENRY R. TRASK. 
 
 The gentleman ^vhose name appears above is one of 
 those enterprising men whose present position in life has, 
 through his own industry, become one of enviable pros- 
 perity and comfort. During his later years he has 
 engaged exclusively in the cattle business, both in 
 Wyoming and ISTew Mexico. He reached Las Vegas in 
 1881, and since then he has purchased and highly 
 improved one of the finest ranches in that section of the 
 territory, located 190 miles southeast of Las Vegas. He 
 owns 2000 head of cattle and 125 head of Kentucky 
 thorou'ghbred horses. He has 175 acres of land under 
 cultivation. A mail line communicates from Las Vegas 
 direct to his ranch, which is a veritable oasis in the desert 
 of the New Mexican plains in that section. 
 
612 HLSTORT OF NEW MKXIOO. 
 
 KUSSELL MARCY 
 
 Is a prominent banker and philanthropist, and Ms career 
 is one that any man may be proud of. Mr. Marcy came 
 to New Mexico with a limited capital and engaged in the 
 cattle business, and by judicious management amassed 
 quite a fortune in that industry. In 1883 he disposed of 
 his cattle interests and organized a private banking-house 
 in Eaton and has met Avith a success only awarded to 
 popular men. He is progressive and public spirited, and 
 has borne a leading part in all the enterprises which for 
 many years past have aided the general prosperity of 
 Eaton. He contributed ten thousand dollars toward 
 building and furnishing the Eaton school, known as the 
 Marcy McCuistan Institute, which will always stand a 
 monument to his philanthropy. 
 
BUSSBLL MARCY, KATON, ST. M. 
 
 613 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 615 
 
 J. J. SHULEE, M. D., 
 
 Is a prominent and successful physician of New Mexico, 
 having practiced his profession in Raton for the past 
 thirteen years, having satisfied himself that the location 
 selected for his career in life, afforded abundant scope for 
 his medical attainments. From the beginning of his 
 practice, his success was such as to give him a high place 
 among the ablest and oldest practitioners in New Mexico. 
 His reputation as a skillful physician has steadily increased, 
 and at the present time he enjoys a most extensive and 
 lucrative practice. Among his professional brethren his 
 talents are universally recognized and conceded to be of 
 high order, their recognition of his merit and ability hav- 
 ing been shown on many occasions. Few physicians 
 make such rapid advance in their calling as is illustrated 
 in the career of Dr. Shuler. His success may be largely 
 ascribed to his natural love for his profession, his earnest 
 and exclusive devotion to his work, and the most careful 
 and thorough training. His practice has been general in 
 character, but has embraced some of the most difficult 
 cases in surgery, a branch of medical science for which 
 he has evinced a high order of skill and in which he has 
 performed some very successful operations. His income 
 from his practice is large, and by prudent financial 
 management he has already gained a modest competency. 
 Personally, he is a gentleman of pleasant and winning 
 manner, has a wide circle of close and intimate friends, 
 and in the social life of Raton is a prominent figure. 
 
616 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 J.FRANZ HUNING 
 
 Was bom in Germany, and emigrated to America at an 
 early age. He engaged in various occupations until he 
 reached New Mexico, when he began freighting with ox 
 and mule teams throughout New Mexico and Arizona, 
 and was very successful. He finally settled in Albur- 
 querque and has been for many years conducting one of 
 the most extensive hardware stores in the Territory. 
 Coming to New Mexico a very young man, he has grown 
 with its growth and is one of the oldest pioneers in active 
 business life in New Mexico. In all hie business career 
 he has shown excellent judgment, and has accumulated 
 a large fortune. He has ever maintained an unsullied 
 record as a business man, while his life in every way has 
 been exemplary and above reproach. He is social and 
 genial in nature, and deservedly popular with all who 
 know him. He is, in the best sense of the term, a self- 
 made man, and is a representative of the best type that 
 our pioneer times have produced. Mr. Huning has built 
 an elegant residence in Alburquerque, widely known as 
 the " Huning Castle," which is an object of great interest 
 to tourists, and a pride to the citizens of that city. 
 
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 617 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 619 
 
 A. H. MOREHEAD. 
 
 Among those who have gained prominence in political 
 and social life is he whose name heads our sketch. He 
 received the benefits of a common school education, and 
 after pursuing various callings came to New Mexico and 
 settled in Silver City. He has been an active politician 
 and for several terms has been successively elected county 
 clerk for Grant County, and has administered the affairs 
 of his office to the satisfaction of the people. The confi- 
 dence bestowed upon him evinces his popularity, and it is 
 safe to predict for him a long and useful career. He is a 
 man of strong personality, and while not naturally aggres- 
 sive, is, when occasion demands it, a hard fighter and not 
 easily driven from a stand he may take as to men or polit- 
 ical principles. Mr. Morehead has many friends and few 
 enemies, and those who know him best appreciate his 
 worth. 
 
620 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 GEO. O. PEKKAULT, 
 
 Oue of the leading merchants and prominent citizens of 
 Hillsboro, whose career proves that success will surely 
 follow energy, enterprise, and courage. The career of this 
 practical, progressive business man has in every way been 
 most commendable. He is naturally a man of positive, 
 well-grounded con^dctions, and is open and candid in his 
 avowal of them. His position on any questions of public 
 policy is never one of doubt or hesitancy. His business 
 career, his private and public life, are above reproach, and 
 his honesty is of the character that needs no profession, 
 but makes itself felt upon all with whom he comes in 
 contact. While absorbed in business, he has a social side, 
 which leads him to seek the companionship of congenial 
 friends. No one possesses more firmly the confidence of 
 the business community than Mr. Perrault, and, being in 
 the prime of life, a long and useful career is before him. 
 
621 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 623 
 
 D. W. STEVENS. 
 
 The history of no country can be Avritten without men- 
 tioning those men who have largely contributed to the 
 mercantile prosperity ; such a one is the subject of our 
 sketch. Mr. Stevens spent several years of his early life 
 in school, but when quite young began his business 
 career. He sold his first stock of merchandise from a 
 box car, and, following the railroad, reached Raton, where 
 he opened and conducted one of the largest general mer- 
 chandise stores in New Mexico, which he at present con- 
 ducts. Mr. Stevens has several branch stores, and has 
 been very successful. He has applied himself to his 
 business with a persistency and thoroughness rarely 
 exhibited, and few men in the busy circles of life have 
 worked with greater industry or more conscientiously. 
 He is methodical to a degree rarely seen in men at the 
 head of an extensive business. He personally attends to 
 every detail, exercising a supervision over every branch 
 of his business, which would be impossible to one with- 
 out great mental and physical endurance. The business 
 which his industry and sagacity has built up represents 
 perhaps more clearly the individual work of one man 
 than any in Raton. Although he has almost exclusively 
 devoted his time and attention to his business, he has not 
 failed to take a helping part in public enterprises or such 
 undertakings which seemed likely to advance the material 
 interest of Raton. He is a most worthy representative 
 of New Mexico's business community, and is recognized 
 as one of its most valuable citizens. He won an honor- 
 able name for energy, reliability, and integrity, while his 
 efforts have largely contributed to the prosperity of his 
 town. 
 
624 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 T. S. ROBINSON 
 
 Is one of the leading mercliants of Deming, N. M., who 
 owes his success to his ability, enterprise, and energy. 
 He commenced business on a very limited amount of 
 money, but has steadily increased his stock from time to 
 time until at present he carries $10,000. Mr. Robinson 
 has led an active life, has a natural capacity for business, 
 is a plain, unpretending man, possesses great force of 
 character, has innumerable friends and few enemies. He 
 has promise of many years of useful and active life. 
 
T. S. ROBINSON, DBMING, N. M. 
 
 635 
 
BIOGKAPHICAI^ SKETCHES. ' 627 
 
 HARKY WHIGHAM. 
 
 This gentleman is eminently a self-made man. His 
 entire career has displayed a force of character and in- 
 domitable energy, which in the long run never fails to 
 land the possessor of these qualities on top. The subject 
 of this sketch was born and raised on English soil, and 
 ■did not leave his native land until 1862, at which time he 
 was about sixteen years of age. Upon reaching America 
 he went first to Buffalo, N. Y., remained there a short 
 while, and then, until 1866, his life was a series of migra- 
 tions. In the latter part of that year he started West ; 
 at Ft. Leavenworth he Joined the party of General Robert 
 Mitchell, who were escorting him to New Mexico, where 
 Gen. Mitchell had been chosen Governor. At Ft. Lyon 
 he severed his connection with the party, and being pre- 
 possessed with that place, purchased some cattle and re- 
 mained there five years ; during that time he accepted 
 and held faithfully the position of the first county clerk 
 of that county. T?he Indians were very troublesome then, 
 and Mr. Whigham's partner was killed by them but two 
 miles from Los Animos. From the door of his ranch he 
 once witnessed a lively fight between the Indians and a 
 company of cavalry. He was an intimate friend of Gen. 
 Kit Carson, was present at his death, and afterward pur- 
 chased his cattle. In 1871 Mr. Whigham reached Santa 
 Fe, and a year later moved to Colfax County, where he 
 now resides on his beautiful ranch, which is one of the 
 best stocked cattle ranches in that county. He has been 
 for several years connected with the famous Maxwell 
 Land Grant and he is quit^ a land owner. Mr. Whigham 
 is a public-spirited man, and is closely identified with 
 
628 HISTORY OP NEW MEXICO. 
 
 Eaton, being connected with many of its recent improve- 
 ments. He was also one of the perfectors of the 
 " Springer Cement Works " at Springer, N. M. Person- 
 ally, as a neighbor, he is much respected, and as a man his 
 character is above reproach. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 629 
 
 W. E. CORBETT. 
 
 Raton, N. M., can boast of several men who have in a 
 great measure contributed to its prosperity ; among these 
 can be included the subject of our sketch. For many 
 years Mr. Corbett has been engaged in the livery business 
 and has been very successful. He is small in stature, but 
 is a man of his own opinions, which he expresses fearlessly. 
 It is the regret of the author that further mention cannot 
 be made of Mr. Corbett, as his modesty deterred him from 
 furnishing a more complete biography. 
 
630 HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO. 
 
 M. W. MILLS 
 
 Was born October 11, 1845, iu Canada, being a descen- 
 dant of the Mills and Chase families, Quakers, who emi- 
 grated during the early part of the eighteenth century 
 from the 'Eew England States to Canada, forming a part 
 of a colou}^ who established themselves on the north 
 shore of Lake Erie, where they and their descendants 
 now mostly reside. The parents of M. W. Mills, after a 
 brief residence in Canada, removed to the United States. 
 In 1860 his father emigrated to the West, and nine years 
 later was followed by his wife and child. Mr. Mills was 
 graduated from the Ann Arbor law school, his academic 
 education having been attained through his own unaided 
 efforts. He joined his father at the Moreno mines, Colfax 
 County, New Mexico, and there began the practice of his 
 profession and has successfully continued the same ever 
 since. The County of Colfax, in which he located, has 
 been the seat of many internal insurrections, and hundreds 
 of people have been hung, shot, and killed in various 
 ways over local difficulties, so that law could not be 
 enforced at times ; the courts could not be held and the 
 civil authorities were often at the mercy of the outlaws 
 and worst types of deperadoes. It required courage and 
 determination to contend against such characters, and 
 Mr. Mills was among the ^•er}' few who attempted to 
 preserve peace, law, and f)r(ler, and in so doing he fell 
 into the hands of the mob se^'eral times, but was rescued 
 by good citizens and government soldiers, the soldiers 
 being obtained through his efforts. He Avas twice elected 
 to the Territorial Legislature, and has held various 
 other offices such as county and city attorney for Eliza- 
 bethtown, and is now district attorney- for a number of 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. 631 
 
 counties, and during his twenty years' residence he has 
 been in office most of the time. Mr. Mills is a large 
 ranch and cattle owner and is interested and in control 
 of one of the largest mercantile and banking houses in 
 the Territory. Great credit is due him in subduing the 
 lawless element in his county, and it is to such men the 
 country is indebted for its civilization and progress. 
 
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