CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Cornell University Library arV16188 A practical grammar of the German lanaua 3 1924 031 284 841 olin,anx Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031284841 PEACTICAL GKAMMAE GERMAN LANGUAGE WITH A SKETCH OF THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE LANGUAGE AND ITS PRINCIPAL DIALECTS. BY DE. LEONHAED |pHMITZ, F.E.S.E., CLASSICAL EXAMDiEB IH THE UHIVEBSrry OF LOSDON. LONDON: JOHN MUEEAT, ALBEMAELE STEEET. 1876, DR. WIIiLIAMT SMITH'S yBBNCH COUBSB. THE FEENCH PEINCIPIA, Part I. A First French CotiKSE, containing Grammar, Delectus, Exercises, and Vocabu- laries. 12mo. 3s. 6d. FEENCH PEINCIPIA, Part II. A Eeading Book, containing Fables, Stories, and Anecdotes, Natural History, and Scenes from the Histoiy of France. With Grammatical Ques- tions, Notes, and copious Etymological Dictionary. 12mo. 4s. Sd. THE STUDENT'S FKENOH GRAMMAE : A Practical and Historical Grammar of the French Language. By G. HEEON- WALL, late Assistant Master at Brighton College. With an Intkouuction by M. Littee. Post 8vo. 7s. Gd. The special aim of this Grammar is to produce a book which will work well in schools where Latin and Greet form the principal subjects of study. In its preparation all the latest books in French philology have been carefully studied. A SMALLEE GEAMMAE OF THE FEENCH LAN- GUAGE. For the Middle and Lower Forms.- Abridged from the above. 12mo. 3s. 6d. DR. WILLIAM SMITH'S GERMAN COURSE. GEEMAN PEINCIPIA, Part I. A First German Course, containing a, Grammar, Delectus, Exercise Book, and Vooabijaries. 12mo. 3s. Gd. GEEMAN PEINCIPIA, Part II. A Eeadino Book, containing Fables, Stories, and Anecdotps, Natural History, and Scenes from the History of Germany. With Grammatical Ques- tions, Notes, and Dictionary. 12mo. 3s. Gd. A PEACTICAL GEAMMAE OF THE GEEMAN LANGUAGE ; with a Sketch of the Historical Development of the Language and its Principal Dialects. By De. LEONHAED SCHMITZ, Examiner in the University of London. 12mo, 3s. Gd. PKEFACE. The object of the present Grammar is to give the student a practical knowledge of the German language as it is now spoken and written, and at the same time to afford him some little insight into the gradual growth and development of its principal dialects, from the earliest times of which we have any records, down to the age of the Eeformation, when the High German dialect became the literary language of all Germany. In drawing up the practical grammar of the language such as it now is, the author has availed himself of the best grammars in general use in Germany itself, especially of that of Heyse, of which the twenty-second edition was published in 1873 ; always bearing in mind, of course, that he was writing for English and not for German students. The Accidence is treated more fully than the Syntax, because, when the forms of the language are once mastered, the sj'ntax presents few difSculties to the learner, these difficulties consisting chiefly in the arrangement of tlie words into sentences according as these latter are either principal or subordinate sentences, or according to the words with which a sentence begins. The brief historical outline of the growth and develop- ment of the German language and its chief dialects may IV PREFACE. serve as an introduction to a more thorough study of this important and interesting subject, and also throws not a little light upon the gradual formation of the English language, which, down to the eleventh century, was a purely Teutonic dialect, and must still be regarded as such, notwithstanding the incorporatiou of a large number of foreign, especially I'rench, words. In compiling this part, the author has been greatly assisted by the works of Jacob Grimm and others, but more especially by Dr. James Helfenstein's ' Comparative Grammer of the Teutonic Languages,' published in 1870. It is hoped that this combination of the historical with the practical study of the language may contribute towards a correct understanding of the English, as well as of the German, language among that daily increasing class of scholars who are devoting their attention to the science and history of languages. L. S. London, October 1876. CONTENTS. Paet I. A PEACTICAL GEAMMAE OP THE GEEMAN LANGUAGE. BOOK I.— THE ACCIDENCE. CHAP. PAGE I. The Alphabet 1 II. Peonttnciation .. .. 3 III. The Accent 7 IV. Some Ebmakks on Gkthogbaphy 9 ^ V. Thb'Pabts of Speech 10 VI. The Aetiolbs 11 VII. Nouns and theib Gtenders 13 Vin. Declension of Nouns ., 17 IX. The Fibst ob Steong Declension of Nouns.. 20 X, The Second oe Weak Declension of Nouns., 24 XL Declension op Peopee Names 27 XII. Adjectives and theib Declensions 31 XIII. COMPAEISON OF ADJECTIVES 35 XIV. NUMEEALS ., .. 38 XV. The Peonouns •.. 42 XVI. The Veeb in Geneeal .. 56 XVII. The Auxiliaey Veeb sein, to 5e 59 XVIII. The Auxiliabt Veeb haben, «f- for Hass, liate ; Kufi (Nuss), nut ; but it is used also as a sharp s in the middle ot words after long vowels, as, Stifin (beissen), to bite; aifftu (giessen), tojjoitr When Roman characters are used in writing or printing, this f is always repre- sented by ss- § 2. Besides these simple letters, there are several com- pound symbols, which have only a single sound, viz. : — % = ss, already mentioned in § 1, note 2. eh. = ch, as in the Scotch loch. ph. = /, as in philosophy. sch = sh, as in Schaufel, shovel ; Mensch, man. th = t. The h in this combination is never pro- nounced. There are, on the other hand, two simple symbols, each of which is pronounced as two consonants, z being pro- nounced as ts, and x like Jcs. § 3. The letters of the alphabet are divided into vowels and consonants. The simple vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and y. Three of these, a, o, and u, are often modified in pronunciation by the addition of an e, which, however, is written only after capital letters ; in all other cases, the e is indicated by two dots over the vowel, as, Oel, oil ; Aemte, harvest ; Uebung, exercise ; but, Bar, hear ; bose, wicked ; triibe, dim. § 4. Vowels are combined into the following diphthongs : ai, ei, au, au, eu. § 5. The vowels a, e, and o may be doubled, in which case they represent the simple vowel as long, as, Aal, eel ; Seele, soul; Loos, lot.. § 6.- All consonants, with the exception of c, ch, h, j, q, V, w, and X, may be doubled ; but instead of kk and zz, it is customary to use ck and tz. A double s at the end of a word is in the German characters represented by p. Comp. § 1, note 2. jVofe. The only words in which a double z is used are gkizze, « ihstch, and its derivative skizziren, to sketch. §§ 7-9.] PRONUNCIATION. CHAPTER II. Pronunciation. § 7. Speating generally, it may be said tliat in German all letters are pronounced as they are written, and always in the same manner, so that,' for example, a' is always pronounced in the same manner, and has not the many sounds that the English a has in laiid, fate, hall, hat, &c. But still the following rules must be attended to. A. — The Simple Vowels. § 8. All double vowels, and vowels followed by h, are long, as, Aal, eel ; Loos, lot ; Seele, soul ; Ehre, honour ; ahnen, to guess ; ihnen, them ; Uhr, watch ; Ohr, ear. The vowel i is frequently lengthened by the addition of e, as, sie, she ; Diener, servant ; viel, much ; and sometimes by eh, as, sieh, see ; flieh, fly. A vowel is short before a double consonant, and hence also before ck, tz, and before ^ at the end of a word. § 9. a has always the same sound. When long, it is pronounced like the English a in father, as, Mai, sign ; lahm, lame ; Haar, hair. When aa belong to different syllables, as in Kana-an, each must of course be pronounced separately. When the a is short, it is pronounced lite o in the French mal, as, kann, can ; fand, fmmd ; Fass, vat ; wacker, hrave. a never has the sound of the English a in name, hat, or hall. e, when long, is pronounced like the English a in /ate, as, eben, even ; Ehre, honour ; See, sea. When short, it is pronounced like the English e in then, as, denn, for ; Herr, gentleman; Welle, wave. When ee belong to different syllables, each must be pronounced sepa- B 2 i PRONUNCIATION. [§ 10. rately, as in te-elireii, to honour. An e at the end of a word is generally almost silent, as in Ende, end. i, when long, is pronounced like the English e in me, as, Mine, amine; ihr, your; ihm, him. The i is sonie times lengthened by heing followed by e or eh, as, die, the; sie, she; sieh, look; flieh,^?/. Comp. § 8. When short, i is pronounced like the English i in pin, as, bin, am; billig, /air; bitter, 6iWer; Bime, jsear. Note. When the vowels ie belong to different syllables, as in some foreign words, each must be pronounced separately, as Itali-en, Spani-eu, Galli-en, Famili-e, Histori-e; but when the ie is accented, the general rule is observed, as in Chemi'e, Astronomi'e, Philosophi'e. o, when long, is pronounced like the English o in stone, as, Mond, "moom; Sohn, son; Looe, lot. When short, it is pronounced like the English o in loss, as, Gott, God ; Koch, cook ; Book, coat. ^^ hen oo belong to different syllables, each must be pronounced sepa- rately, as in Zo-ologie, Laoho-on. Ti, when long, is pronounced like the English u in rule, or like oo in hoot, as, nun, now; Blut, hlood ; Uhr, watch ; Euhe, rest. A\ hen short, it is pronounced like the English u in hull, as, Hund, hound; Butter, hutter. y is found only in words adopted from foreign lan- guages, and is pronounced like the German i, as, ilydra, Asyl, System. B. — The Modified Vowkls a, 6, U. § 10. The vowels a, o, u, are modified to a, 6, ii, chiefly iji the plural of nouns, in forming the degrees of com- parison, in conjugation, and in derivation, as, Gott, God, Gotter, gods ; stark, strong, starker, stronger ; Euhm, glory, rnhmlich, glorious; ich falle, I fall, er fallt, he falls. a, when long, is pronounced like the English ai in fair, as, Kase, cheese ; Aehre, ear (of corn). When short, it is like the English a in hat, as, Hande, hands ; schatzen, to value ; barter, harder. 6, when long, is pronounced like the French eu in feu, as, horen, to hear ; Sohne, sons. W hen short, it is like the English u in utter, as, Gotter, gods; Locher, §§ 11, 12.] PEONUNCIATION. 5 u has no corresponding sound in English.; it is pro- nounced in the same way as the French u in sur, as, iiber, over ; Briider, hrothers ; Mutter, mothers. 0. — The Diphthongs. § 11. All diphthongs are long. ai is pronounced almost like the English i in fire, as, Hain, grove ; Kaiser, emperor. ei is pronounced very nearly in the same way as ai, as, mein, my ; dein, thy ; sein, his. au is always pronounced like the English ou in mouse, as, Haus, house ; auf, up ; laufen, to run. eu and au are pronounced alike, their sound being the same as the English oi in boil, as, neu, new ; Eule, owl ; euer, your; Traume, dreams; Krauter, herbs. D. — The Simple Consonants. § 12. The consonants are, on the whole, pronounced as in English ; but some require special explanation. C, before a, o, u, au, and before a consonant, is pro- nounced like h; but before e, i, a, 6, and y, it is pronounced as ts, like the German z, as, Candidat, Cajus, Corinth, Claudius, Act ; Centrum, Cicero, Casar, civil, Colibat, Cyrus, Cylinder. The use of c is now limited to words borrowed from foreign languages ; in genuine German words its place is supplied by k and z. g, at the beginning of words and syllables, has the sound of the English gf in garden, as, Gabe, gift; gut, good ; be-gabt, gifted ; er-geben, devoted. At the end of a word, it is pronounced as a very soft guttural, as, Konig, hing ; Tag, day ; but when g is preceded by n, it retains the hard sound, and almost approaches the sound of h, as in Eing, ring ; jung, young. Jf'te. In words toTrowed from the French, the g retains the sound it has in French as, Genie, Logo, logiren, geniren. h, when beginning a word or syllable, is an aspirate, like the English h in have, as, haben, to have; Hut, PEONUNCIATION. [§13, Jiat ; Hof, eouH. After t the h is not pronounced at all (see § 2). When it is preceded by a vowel, it only lengthens the vowel (see § 8), as, Euhm (pronounce Eoom), glory ; geh, go ; Lehrer, teacher ; Sohn, son. j is always pronounced like the English y in you, as, ja, yes ; Jahr, year ; jeder, every. Note. In words borrowed from the French, it retains the same soimd as in that language, as Journal, Jalousie. r is always pronounced more forcibly, and with greater vibration, than the English, as, Kad, wheel; Buhm, glory ; Berg, mountain. S, at the beginning of a word or syllable, is pronounced as soft as the English z in zero, as, Sohn, son ; sein, Ms ; lesen, to read ; losen, to loosen. But at the end of a word it is pronounced sharper, and like the English s, as, Haus, house ; Gans, goose ; Gras, grass. % About this letter, see § 1, note 2. t is pronounced like the English i; but in words taken from the Latin, when followed by i, it is pronounced as ts, like the German z ; as, Nation, Patient, Portion. V has the same sound as f, as Vater (pron. Eater) ; but in foreign words, such as Venus, November, Livius, it has the softer sound, as in English. W is never pronounced like the English w, but very nearly like the English v, as, Wein, toine ; Wind, wind ; Weib, wife. z is pronounced as ts in wits, and never Kke the English z, as, zu, to ; zehn, ten ; Zunder, tinder. Instead of zz, it is customary to write tz, before which vowels are of course always short, as, Katze, cat; Schatz, treasure. See § 6, note. § 13. E. — The Double and Compound Consonants. ch is pronounced like ch in the Scotch loch (see § 2), as. Loch, hole; Bach, brook; Buch, book; machen, to make ; lachen, to laugh. But when followed by s, it assumes the sound of k, as, sechs, six; Ochs, ox; § 11] THE ACCENT. 7 Fuchs, fox. If, however, the s belongs to a suffix, as in Dachs for Daohes, Buchs for Buohes, and thus belongs to another syllable, the ch preserves its proper guttural sound. Note. 1. At the beginning of words borrowed from the Greelc, when followed hy a, o. or a consonant, ch is pronounced like k, as, Character, Chrooik, Christ, Chor ; so also Charwoche, holn uieek; Charfreitag, Good Friday i but when followed by i or e, it retains its original guttural sound, as in Chemie, Chirurg, Note 2. In words borrowed from the- French, it is pronounced as in that language, i.e. as sh, e.g. Chef, Charlotte, Charade, Chaussee. ck is only a substitute for kk. See § 6. ng is pronounced like the English ng in long, as, lang, long ; Gesang, song ; eng, narrow. When followed by a vowel, it retains the same pronunciation, as, lange, Gesange, enge. Finger, therefore, is to be pronounced, not like the English finger, but like the ng in singer. sch is always pronounced like the English sh, as, Schiff, ship ; scharf, sharp ; Busch, hush ; Mensch, man. See §2. th is always pronounced like a simple t, but in the middle of a word it is always preceded by a long vowel, as, roth, red; Noth, need; Euthe, rod; rieth, advised. Comp. § 2. tz is only a substitute for zz. See § 6, note. Note.ThQ combined consonants sp and'st are pronounced in some parts of Germany like shp and sht, but it is better to pronoimce them as they are written, and as they would be pronounced in English. CHAPTEE III. The Accent, § 14. There are no written accents in German. In simple words of more than one syllable, the principal accent always falls upon the root syllable, and never on prefixes or sufSxes ; in fact, the German language follows the same principle as the English in its genuine Saxon 8 THE ACCENT. [§§ 15, 16. ■words, e.g. Wunder, wonder; Ha'nde, Aaiwfe; herzlicli, hearty; beherzigeii, to take to heart. Note. Exceptions are substantives with the suffix ei. which is always accented, as, Spielere'i, Fischere'i, Tiirke'i. A few adjectives also are irregular, as, lebendig, cUive (though the root is leb)j balsiimLiCh, Txiliiiy (though the root is bal)» Lutlierisch, Lutheran. § 15. In compound words the accent, as in English, ge'n^ally falls on the first or determinative member, as, Ha'usthur, AoMse-door ; SchuYbnch, school-hook ; Grarten- laube, garden-arbour; Ble'istift, pencil; Federmesser, pen- knife ; se'ekrank, sea-sick ; he'imkehren, to return home. But when the second, member of a compound word is the determinative part, as in the case of numerous adverbs and conjunctions, the latter has the principal accent, as, da von, thereof; darin, therein; w^ovon, wherefrom ; worin, wherein ; dara'uf, thereon ; berga'uf, uphill ; hinfort, hence- forth ; obgle'ich, obschon, although. Note 1. Verbs compounded with inseparable particles or prepositions have the accent on the second member ; but when the particles or prepositions are separable, these compounds follow the general rule, as, flljersetzen, to cross over, iibersetzen. to trafislate; iiljerlaufen, to run or fiotu over, iiberla'ufen, to overrun ; umgehen, to go a roundabout way, umgehen, to avoid or evade ; linterhalten, to hold vnder, unterhfilten, to tntertnin. But in the great msgority of cases, the accent falls on the first member, which, in fact, deter- mines tJie meaning of the word. Note 2. All prefixes and suffixes have either a subordinate accent or are almost accentless. The latter, is the case with all those containing the vowel e, as, Ungsam, slow; Fre'undschaf t, /rieTirfsAtp ; Kfndlein, liule child; fniohtbar, fruitful ; but leben, to live; Ruhe, rest; erhfilten, to preserve; bera'uben, to rob; Verstand, understanding. (]omp. the English hovel, heaven, singer, rnigel. i\'o(e 3. Sometimes, however, even a prefix or suffix may have the principal accent, as in ihe story of the two watchmen who hated each other, because the one used to cry out, " V^rwahrt das Feuer und das Licht," while the other called out, " Bewahrt das Feuer und das Licht," Be careful with the fire and the light. § 16. Foreign words adopted into the German language have either become so completely assimilated to it in form and pronunciation that they are treated as German words, and are accentuated accordingly — as, Fenster, window; Tafel, spell. Note. Words borrowed from the French, English, or Italian, retain their original accent and pronunciation, which, of course, can be learned only from the study of those languages. Such words are Journil, Hotel, Promen^e, Comfort, Eoastbe'ef, Beefsteak, Pddding, Adfigio, Concerto. CHAPTER IV. Some Eemaeks on Oethogeaphy. § 18. With tlie limitations contained in the two pre- ceding chapters, it may be said that a correct pronuncia- tion is the best guide to correct spelling. But the following points must be specially noticed : — 1. All substantives and words used substantively are written with capital initials. 2. All proper names and usually also adjectives derived from them are written with capital initials, as Eom, Eomisch, England, Englisch. 3. In letters all the pronouns by which the recipient of 10 THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [§§19,20. the letter is addressed are written with capital initials, as, Dn, Sie, Ihr, Ihnen, Dein, Euch, Euer. Note. The nse of capital letters in the case of ordinary substantives and words used substantively has been given up by some modem writers. CHAPTEE V. The Pakts of Speech. § 19. The words of the German language are divided into nine classes, called the Parts of Speech, viz, : — 1. Articles ; 5. Verbs; 2. Substantives or 6. Adverbs ; Nouns ; 7. Prepositions ; 3. Adjectives ; 8. Conjunctions ; 4. Pronouns ; 9. Interjections. The first five of these are capable of inflection. The inflection of the first four parts of speech is called Declen- sion, while that of verbs is called Conjugation. The re- maining four classes are incapable of inflection. Inflection generally consists of changes in the termina- tion of a word, with which there is often combined a change or modification of its radical vowel. § 20. In declension we have to distinguish between Singular and Plural, and in each of these numbers again there are four cases, the Nominative, Genitive, Dative, and Accusative. The Nominative denotes the subject of a sentence, and answers to the question who f The Genitive denotes the genus or species to whidi a person or thing belongs, and answers to the question The Dative denotes the person or thing for or to which anything is or is done, and answers to the question to or for whom f §§21.22.] Tjjj; AKTICLES. 11 The Accusative denotes tlie object, and answers to the question whom, or what ? In all declinable words we have to distinguish genders, the Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. All substantives are of one of these three genders, which is generally indi- cated by the article. About Conjugation, we shall have to speak later on. CHAPTER VI. The Articles. § 21. There are two articles, the Definite and the In- definite Article, which, on the whole, correspond with the two English articles. The definite article, Masc. der, Eem. die, Neut. das (English the), is declined as follows : — ■ Plwal. M. F. N. M. F. N. Norn, der die das die the. Gen. des der des der of the. Dat. dem der dem den to the. Aoc. den die das die the. § 22. The indefinite article, Masc. ein, Tern, eine, Neut. ein (English a or an), which has no plural, is declined as foUows : — M. F. N. Nom. ein eine ein a or an. Gen. eines einer eines of a or of an. Dat. einem einer einem to a or to an. Ace. einen eine ein a or an. From these tables it is clear that, with the exception of the nominative, the endings of the two articles are the same in all cases. JVoie 1. The definite article was originally a demonstrative pronoun, and is still often used in that sense. By its three distinct genders it also indicates the gender of substantives, which cannot always be determined by their meaning or their form. 12 THE ARTICLES. [§§23,24. The indefinite article was originally a numeral signifying (me, a meaning which it still has when pronounced emphatically. A substantive which m the singular has the indefinite article has no article at all in the plural. A'ofe 2. The definite article is often used in German where there is no article in English. This is the case : a. With abstract nouns, when they are conceived in their totality, as, die Tngend, virtue; die Gerechtigkeit,jjiS(tc«; die Freihelt, Kfwrij/ ; die Vemunft, reason ; der Veretand, uitderstandiruj ; die Liebe, love ; die Vorsehung, FrovideTKe. So also the names of substances, as, das Gold, goid; das Silber, sUver; der Wein, vtine ; das Holz, wood. 6. "With feminine names of countries, as, die Schwelz, Switzerland; die Ttirkei, Turkey; die Wallachci, Wallackia; die Lausitz, Lusatia. t. With the names of the months, as, der Januar, der April, der Mai, &c. Note 3. Proper names of persons often take the definite article to indicate the case where this cannot be marked by an inflectional ending of the name, as, die Lehren des Sokrates, the teachings of Socrates ; das System des Confucius, the system, of Confucius ; Augustus adoptirte den Tiberius, Augustus adopted Tiberius. Sometimes the definite article with proper names has a demon- strative force, as, der Cicero, that (famous) Cicero ; der Luther, tliat (famous) Luther. Note 4. When a substantive governing a genitive is put after the genitive, it can have no article, as, meines Vaters Hans, my father's house; meioer Mutter Liebe, my mothers love ; meines Bruders Buch, my iroth&r^s booh. § 23. The demonstrative pronoims dieser, diese, dieses, (this), and jener, jene, jenes (thai), and the relative pro- noun welcher, welche, welches (who or which), are declined like the definite article ; and the possessive pro- nouns meiu, my; dein, thy; sein, Ms or its; ihr, her; unser, our ; euer, your; ihr, their; and the adjective keiu, no, are declined like the indefinite article, taking in the plural the endings of the definite article. Comp. the chapter on the Pronouns. § 24. When the definite article is not emphatic, it is often contracted with prepositions into one word, as : — am rr an dem. at &e. ans = an das, to or near the. aofs = anf das. on the. beim = beidem, near or with tlte. darohs = darch das, through the. furs = f iiT das, for the. im = in dem. in the. ina = in das, into the. vom = von dem. by oi from the. zum = zn dem. to the. zar zn der, to the. §§ 25, 26.] NOUNS AND THEIR GENDEES. 13 CHAPTEE VII. Nouns and their Gendees. § 26. All notms are either of the masctiliiie, feminine, or neuter gender, and in manj' cases the gender is deter- mined either by their meaning or by their ending. The German language differs from the English by assigning ijhe masculine or feminine gender to names of inanimate things. The gender of nouns is determined either according to their meaning or according to their endings. § 26. I. — G-ENDEE OF Nouns accokding to their Meaning. 1. Masculine are the names of male beings, of the winds, the seasons, the months, the days, and stones, as : der Mann, the man ; der Lowe, the lion ; der Hengst, the stallion ; der Stier, the hull ; der Eber, the boar ; der Hakn, the each; der Ostwind, the east wind; der Westwind, the west wind; der Zephyr, the zephyr ; der Friihling (but, das - Fruhjahr), the spring ; der Sommer, the summer ; der Herbst, the autumn; der Winter, the winter ; der Januar, January; der Marz, March ; der Mai, May, &o. ; der Montag, Monday ; der Sonntag, Sunday; der Mittwoch (also, die Mittwoche, mid-weeF), Wednesday ; del KieBsl, the pebble ; der Diamant, the diamond; der Smaragd, the emerald; der Basalt, der Granit, &c. 2. Feminine are the names of female beings and of most rivers. Some rivers, however, are masculine, as, der Khein, the Bhine; der Main, the Main; der Po, the Po ; and several other foreign rivers. Das Weib, the woman, is neuter, as are also all names of males and females ending in the diminutive suffix chen or lein. See § 27, 3. 3. Neuter are most collective nouns, and the names of metals and other substances, the names of countries and towns, and all words which, without being nouns, are used in an abstract sense or as names of things, e.g. das Volk, the people ; das Heer, the army ; das Vieh, cattle ; das 14 NOUNS AND THEIR GENOEES. [§27. Holz, wood; das YleiBch, flesh ; das Gold, gold; das Eisen, iron; das Blei, lead; das reiche England, rich England; das schone Erankreicli, fair France; das groese London, great London ; das Gehen, the going ; das Essen, the eating ; das Lesen, the reading ; das Grtin, - the green colour ; das Schone, the heautiful; das Erhabene, the sublime; das Wenn und das Aber, the if and the hut. Lastly, neuter are sucli generic names of living beings in which the sex is not considered, as, das Kind, the child; das Pferd, the horse; das Hnhn, the fowl ; das Kalb, the calf; das Lamm, the lamb ; das Schaf, the sheep ; das Schwein, the pig. Das Weib, the woman, and das Mensoh, a low woman, are anoma- lous, and are used in a contemptuous sense. Note. Some names of countrieB are feminine, as, die Ttlrkei, die Schweiz, die Moldau, die Wallachei, die Krim (Oritnea). A few metals also are not of the neuter gender, as, der Stalil, steel; der Tomback, pinchbeck; der Kobalt, cdbatt; die Flatina, platina,. § 27. II. — Gender of Nouns accoeding to their Endings. 1. Masculine are : — (i.) Most monosyllabic nouns with verbal stems, as, der Bruoh, the hreah ; der Bund, the alliance ; der Spruch, the sentence ; der Fall, the fall ; der Dank, the thanhs ; der Kauf, the purchase ; der Hass, hatred ; der Grass, the greeting; &o. (ii.) Most derivative nouns ending in el, en, er, ing, and ling, e.g. der Nagel, the nail; der Himmel, heaven; der Wsbgen, the leaggon or carriage; der Kegen, the rain; der Finger, the finger ; der Hunger, hunger ; der Sanger, the singer ; der Leser, the reader ; der Haring, the herring ; der Jiingling, the youth ; der Hofling, the courtier. Note, Exceptions to tliis rule are, of course, those nouns whose gender is deter- mined by their meaning, such as, das Ferkel, the young pig; das Wasser, water; das Eisen, iriZ. Fraulein, n.,^oungr Zodj/. Nom. der Fngel Cren. des Engels Dat. dem Engel Ace. den EngeL Nom. die Engel Gen. der Engel Dat. den Engeln Ace. die EngeL Singular. der Schuler des Schiilers dem Schuler den Schuler. Plural. die Schuler der Schuler den SchiUem die Schuler. das Fraulein des Frauleins dem Fraulein das Fraulein. die Fraulein der Fraulein den Fraulein die Fraulein. JVo(e 1. Some nonns, as, der Friede, peace; der Fimke, the spark; der Glanbe, faith; der Haufe, the heap; der Name, the name; der Schade, the damage; der WUle, the will, originally ended in n, as, der Frieden, &c. ; whence they form their genitive in ns, as, des Friedeus, Fnnkens, Crlaubens, Hanfens, Namens, Schadens, Willens, and their plm^ where it is used, is what the nominative singular originally was, as. die Funken, die Hanfen, die Namen. JVote 2. It need hardly he observed that nonns ending in the nominative singular in n require no additional n in the dative plural. See $ 30, 4. §37.] THE STKOXG DECLENSION. 23 Third Class. § 37. Nouns of this class form their plural by adding er, and always modify the radical vowel of the singular. This class consists chiefly of neuters, and of a few masculines, but contains no feminines. To it belong all substantives ending in thum (Eng. dom), and a few foreign words, such as, das Eegiment, das Hospital, Plur. Eegimenter, Hospitaler. Hans, n., house. Irrthum, m., error. Mann, m., man. Sinffula/r. Nom. Gen. Dat. A CO, das Hans des Hanses dem Hanse das Hans. der Irrthum des Irrthnms dem Irrthum den Irrthum, Flwal. der Mann des Mannes dem Manne den Mann. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. die Hanser der Hanser den Hansem die Hanser, die Irrthiimer der Irrthiimer den-Irrthumem die Irrthiimer, die Manner der Manner den Mannem die Manner, Volk, »., people. Singular, Plural Nom. das Volk die Volker Gen. des Volkes der Volker Dat. dem Volke den Volkem Ace. .das Volk. die Volker, Note 1. As to whether the genitive singular of the strong declension should take the ending es or s is generally a question of euphony, but it may be laid down as a rule that the nouns of the second class and those ending in e or er form the genitive by. the simple addition of s, and consequently take no e in the dative. In all other cases the regular genitive ending is eSj and that of the dative e. Note 2. The word Gott. God, though it makes the genitive GotteSt yet always.haa Gott in the dative when it refers to the Supreme Being, as, Gott sei Dank ! Tha/nks be to God ! mit Gott, with God ; but when it refers to a pagan divinity, we may say, dem Gotte. Note 3. The e of the dative is generally dropped when the noun is governed by a preposition, and has no article, as, mit Gott, with God; mit "Weib und Kind, with his wife a/nd child ; von Ort zu Ort, from, place to place ; von Jahr zu J&iar, from year to year ; zu Vferd, on horseback ; zu Fmsb; on foot; zu Haus, at home; &c. 24 THE WEAK DECLENSION. [§§38,39. Irregular Declension. § 38. A few noTins follow in the singular the strong declension and in the plural the weak. This declen- sion contains only a small number of masculine and neuter nouns, but no feminines ; and in none is the Towel modified in the plural. EzampleB. Staat, ]»., state. Doctor, m., doctor. Ange, ,»., ei Si-ngutar. Nom. der Staat der Doctor das Angre Gen.. des Staates des Doctors des Anges Dot. dem Staate dem Doctor dem Ange Aco. den Staat, den Doctor. Plural. das Auge, Nom. die Staaten die Doctoren die Augen Gen. dei Staaten der Doctoren der Augen Bat. den. Staaten den Doctoren den Angen Aco. die Staaten. die Doctoren. die Augen. Besides these, the following only are declined in the same manner : der Mast, the mast ; der Schmerz, the pain ; der See, the lake ; der Strahl, the ray • das Ende, the end ; das Ohr, the ear ; das Hemd, the shirt ; and some foreign words, especially those ending in or, as, der Professor, der Pastor. CHAPTEE X. The Second or Weak Declension op Nouns. § 39. This declension contains only masculine and feminine nouns, but no neuters. They form aU the cases of the singular and plural by the ending n or en ; feminines, of course, remain unchanged in the singular. Most feminine nouns belong to this declension. No noun of this declension modifies its radical vowel in the plural. §39.] THE WEAK DECLENSION. 25 Examples. 1. Feminines : — Blnme, flower. Singular. Norn, die Blnme Gen., der Blnme Dat, der Blnme Aoc. die Blnme. Schwester, sisfej-. die Schwester der Schwester der Schwester die Schwester. PluraZ, Nora, die Blnmen Gen. der Blnmen Dai. den Blnmen Ajec. die Blnmen. die Sohwestem der Schwestem den Schwestem die Schwestem. Schussel, dish. Tngend, virtue. Singular. Nom. die Schussel Gen. der Schussel Dat. der Schussel Aoo. die Schussel. die Ingend der Tngend der Tngend die Tngend, PVwral. Nom. die Schussein Gen. der Schiisseln Dat, den Schiisseln ilcc. die Schussein, die Tngenden der Tr^enden den Tngenden die Tngenden. 2. MascTilines : — Enabe, hoy. Stndeut, student. Singular. Nom. -der Knabe Gen. des Knaben 7)af. dem Enaben Ace. den Enaben. der Student des Stndenten dem Stndeiiten den Stndenten. Plural. Nom. die Enaben 6en. der Enaben Dat. den Knaben Aeo. die Enaben. die Stndenten der Stndenten den Stndenten die Studenten. To this declension belong : — 1. A large mimber of monosyllabic masculines, as, der Bar, t)ie hear ; der Cbrist, tJie Christian; der Graf, the earl; der Tiirst, the prince ; der Held, the hero ; der Herr, the gentleman ; der Hirt, the shepherd ; der Narr, the fool ; der Oolise, the ox ; der Thor, the fool ; &c. 26 THE WEAK DECLENSION. [§ 39- 2. Many mascTilines ending in e, as, der Affe, tTie ape; der Bote, the messenger ; der Bnbe, the lad ; der Erbe, the heir ; der Gatte, the husband ; der Hase, the hare ; der Neffe, the nephew ; der Eabe, the raven ; der Franke, the Frank ; der Grieche, the Greek; der Eusse, the Bussian ; der Tirrke, the Turk; der Gefahrte, the companion; der Geliulfe, the assistant ; der Gesandte, the ambassador. 3. Some masculines ending in er, as, der Bauer, the peasant ; also, der Naclibar, the neighbour, and some national names, as, der Baier, the Bavarian ; der Pommer, the Pome- ranian ; der Ungar, the Hungarian ; der Bulgar, the Bul- garian ; der Barbar, the barbarian ; &c. 4. Most monosyllabic feminines, as, die Art, the gpeeies ; die Bahn, the road or course ; die Burg, the castle ; die Fluth, the flood ; die Last, the burden ; die Pflicht, duty ; die SoUaolit, the battle; die Schxift, the vjriting ; die Schuld, the debt ; die That, the deed ; die Thiir, the door ; die Uhr, the watch or clock; die Welt, the world; die Zahl, the number ; die Zeit, time ; &c. 5. All polysyllabic feminines ending in e, el, er (except Mutter and Toohter ; see § 36), ath, ei, end, heit, keit, in (inn), schaft, and nng, as, die Eede, the speech ; die Eegel, the rule ; die Angel, the fishing-hook ; die Feder, the feather or pen; die Tugend, virtue; die Heirath, the mar- riage ; die Arznei, the medicine ; die Wahrteit, truth ; die Fliissigkeit, the fluid ; die Freundin, the female friend ; die Leidenschaft, passion ; die Erfindung, the invention ; &c. 6. A great number of foreign words, as, der Advocat, der Candidat, der Monarch., der President, die Person, die Melodic, &c. Note 1. As to whether the cases of the weak declension take the ending n or en, depends upon the nominative. When this case ends in e, el. er, or ar, a simple n is added ; in all other cases the ending is en. The word Herr generally makes the oblique cases of the singular Rerm. but all the cases of the plural Herren. Feminine substantives in in (formerly inn) form the plural by adding nen* as, die Konlgin (gu^en), Plur. die Koniginnen. Note 2. The word das Herz> the Aeori, which throughout the plural makes Herzen, is irregular in the Sing. Gen. dea Herzens. Bat. dem Herzen. Ace. das Herz. Der SchmerZi pain, sorrow, also sometimes makes the Gen. Sohmerzens instead of Schmerzea. though it is otherwise quite regular. as.ein Schmerzens- kind, a child of sorrow ; Schmerzenstage. days of gorrow. Note 3. The feminine nouns of this declension originally had the ending n or en in the singular as well as in the plural, and these endings are still pre- served in some forms and phrases, as, die Uebfraueu-Kiivhe, th£ Church of §§ 40, 41.] DECLENSION OF PROPER NAMES, 27 our Lady ; Liebfrauen-Milch (the name of a kind of Kbine wine), our Lady's milk ; Sonnenlicht, sunlight ; t'reudentag, day of joy ; Erdenleben, life on ea/rth ; so also, auf Erden, on eartk ; mit Ehren, with honour ; von (iottes Gnaden, by the grace of God ; zn GMQsten, in favour ; von Seiten, on the part of. In all these phrases the feminine nouns are either in the genitive or dative singular, Ifotei. Adjectives used substantively, as, der Gelehrte, the scholar; derWeise, the viise man, follow the declension of adjectives. See Chapter XII. iVofe 5. Neuter nouns in um or ium, taken from the Latin, as well as those ending in al or U (Lat. ale or ile), are declined in the singular like German words, as, das Gymnasium, Gen. des Gymnasiums ; das Studium, Gen. des Studiums; das Kvangeliiun, Gen. des Evangeliums; das Material, Gen. des Materials ; das Fossil, Gen. dee Fossils ; but in the plural they take en or ien. — die Gymnasien, die Studien, die Evangelien, die Materialien, die Fossilien, So also, das Prinoip (Lat. principium), Plur. die Priricipien. JVoie 6. Masculine and neuter nouns borrowed from modem languages, with- out changing their form, make the genitive singular and the whole of the Slural by the addition of S) e.g. der Lord, des Lords, and die Lords; der lub, des Clubs, die Clubs ; das Genie, des Genies, die Genies ; der Chef, des Chefs, die Chefs ; das Detail, des Details, die Details ; der Banquier, des Ban- quiers, die Banquiers ; das Portrait, des Portraits, die Portraits; das Solo, des Solos, die Solos ; das Casino, des Casinos, die Casinos, CHAPTER XI. Declension of Peopee Names. § 40. Those proper names whicli always have the definite article, that is, the names of rivers, lakes, mountains, forests, the mascnline and feminine names of countries (as, die Schweiz, der Rheingau), and the names of nations, are declined entirely like common nouns. Examples. Ncym. der Bhein die Sohweiz der Franzose Gen. des Bheins der Schweiz des Franzosen Vat. dem Bliein(e) der Sehweiz dem Franzosen ACB. den Ehein, die Schweiz. den Franzosen. § 41. But in regard to proper names which are generally used without an article, that is, names of persons, places, and neuter names of countries, the following rules must be observed : — 1 . Neuter names of countries and places not ending in the nominative in s, x, or z, whether they have the article or not, 28 DECLENSION OF PEOPEE NAMES. [§11- take s in the genitive ; in the dative and accnsative they remain unchanged. E.g. die Stadte Englands, iTie towns of England ; Englands Konigin, the queen of England ; die Bewohner des reichen Englands, tlie inhabitants of wealthy England ; die Strassen Berlins, the streets of Berlin ; die Manem des alten Kolns, the walls of ancient Cologne. But, in Deutschland (Dat.), ia England (Dat.), von London (Dat.), nach York (Dat.) ; er liebt London (Ace), he likes London. Note. When such names end in s, x, or z, the preposition von (of) most be need Instead of the genitive, as, die Strassen von Paris, the streets of Faris ; die Lage von Cadiz, the site of Cadiz. Bat the other names of places and countries also often take the preposition von instead of the genitive, as, die Strassen von London ; and it is usual to say, der Kaiser von Oestreich, the emperor fff Austria ; die Konigin von h'ngland, the queen of I>ngla'nd ; der Konig von Freussen, the king of FrussiOy and the like, instead of Oestreichs Kaiser, Eng- lands Konigin, Frenssens Konig. 2. Names of persons are treated differently; they are sometimes used with the article, and sometimes with- out it. (i.) When used with the article der or ein, the article alone is declined, the name itself remaining unchanged, as : — Norn, der Lessing der Cicero eine Sappho die kleine Bertha Oen. des Lessing des Cicero einer Sappho der kleinen Bertha Bat. dem Lessing dem Cicero einer Sappho der kleinen Bertha Ace. den Lesaing. den Cicero, eine Sappho, die kleine Bertha. Note. When the proper name has an attributive adjective, and the governing noun is put after the genitive, it is customary to add an s as the sign of the genitive to the name ; hence we may say, des grossen Friedrichs Thaten (the eeploitg of the great Frederick), or, die Thaten des grossen Friedrich; des berllhmten LesslngB Werke, or, die Werke des beriihmten Lessing, th£ works of th6 famous Lessing. (ii.) When used without an article, names of persons and ibheir diminutives in cheu (an endearing form of the name) take s or 's in the genitive ; but feminine names end- ing in e, and masculines ending in s, ss, sch, x, or z, take the ending (e)ns, as Karl, Karls; Luther, Luthers; Virgil, Virgils ; Otto, Otto's ; Cicero, Cicero's ; Bertha, Bertha's ; Fanny, Eanny's ; Lottchen, Lottchens ; Karlchen, Karl- ehens ; but, Eranz, Franaens ; Fritz, Fritzens ; Marie, Mariens ; Sophie, Sophiens. Note. In the dative and accusative the names are left unchanged, as, ich habe die BUcher Karl und Marie gegeben, I have given the books to Charles and Mary ; wir haben Lessing viel zu verdanken, we owe much to Lessing. Should any § 42.] DECLENSION OF PEOPEK NAMES. 29 ambiguity arise from ttiis, the article may be used to indicate the case. In family names it is always advisable to indicate the genitive by 's to avoid ambiguity, as, Jacobs's griechisches Elementarbuch, Ja£db^& Greek elementary book ; Voss's Gedichte, the poems qf Voss, 3. When proper names of persons are used in tlie plural to denote persons of th.e same kind or character, an e is generally added to the name, as, die Heinriche, die Karle ; but when the names end in a, e, i, el, en, er, or chen, the names remain unchanged in the plural, as, die Attila, die Schiller, die Schlegel, die Luther, die Mariechen. Personal names of females form the plural by adding en or 'n, as, die Sophien, die Ida'n. No proper name modifies its vowel in the plural. 4. When a proper or family name is preceded by a common noun or by a Christian name, the family name alone is declined, as, Kaiser Wilhelm, Gen. Kaiser Wilhelms; Konig Heinrich, Gen. Konig Heinrichs ; Berthold Georg Niebuhr, Gen. Berthold Georg Niebuhrs ; Friedrich Schiller, Gen. Friedrich Schillers. 6. When the name is preceded by a common noun, as a title, such as Herr, with the article, the proper name is not declined, but only the common noun or title, e.g. das Haus des Herm Miiller, the house of Mr. Miiller ; der Garten des Prasidenten Koch, the garden of President Koch; die Thaten des Konigs Friedrich, the deeds of King Frederick; der Tod des Philosophen Kant, the death of the philosopher Kant ; der Palast des Grafen Karl, the palace of Uount Charles. § 42. The following tables show the personal names in the singular without an article, and in the plural both with and without the article. t Singular. Nom. Elopstock lessing Qothe Sduller Voas Gen. Elopstocks lessings Gotlies ScMllers Voss's or Toss Dat. Klopstock Lessing Gothe ScMller Voss Aeo. Elopstock. Lessing. Oothe. ScMller. Voss. Plural. Nom. (die) Klopstoke lessii^e Gothe ScMller Vosse Gen. (der) Klopstocke Lessinge Gothe ScMller Vosse Dat. (den) Klopstocken Lessingen Gothen SoMllem Vossen Ace. (die) Klopstocke. Lessinge. Gothe, ScMller. Vosse. 30 DECLENSION OF PEOPEE NAMES. [§43. Norn. Adelheid Gen. Adelheids l)at. Adelheid Dot. Adelheiden Ace. Adelheid. Fanny Bertha Sophie Wilhelmine Fanny's Bertha's Sophiens Wilhelminens Fanny Bertha Sophie^ Wilhelmine Or more commonly : Fanny'n Bertha'n SopMen Wilhelminen Fanny. Bertha. Sophie. Wilhelmine. Or less commonly with the addition of n or enj as in the dative. Plural. Norm, (die) Adelheiden Fanny'n Bertha'n Sophien Wilhelminen Gen. (der) Adelheiden Fanny'n Bertha'n Sophien WUhelminen Dal. (den) Adelheiden Fanny'n Bertha'n Sophien Wilhelminen Ace. (die) Adelheiden, Fanny'n. Bertha'n. Sophien, Wilhelminen. § 43. In German, as in English, many nouns have no plural, while others are used only in the plural. Thus, names of materials and most abstract terms have no plural in German as in English. But what is peculia,v in German, though it occurs also in some English phrases, is the fact that nouns denoting measure, weight, or number, are used in the singular, even though they are accompanied by plural numerals, as, zehn Fuss lang, ten feet long; sechs Zoll breit, six inches broad. In the case of the substance of the weight or measure being mentioned, it is simply added as an apposition to the weight or measure without a preposition answering to the English of, as, acht Pfund Kaffee, eight pounds of coffee ; zwei Paar Schuhe, two pairs of shoes ; einige Buch Papier, some quires of paper ; zwolf Stuck Yieh, twelve head of cattle; tausend Mann Soldaten, a thousand soldiers ; ein Glas Wasser, a glass of water ; ein Pass Weln, a cask of wine. When the name of the measure or weight is a feminine substantive, it forms its regular plural : zwei Tassen Thee, two cups of tea ; drei Flaschen Wein, three bottles of wine ; drei Ellen Tuch, three yards of cloth ; zwei Unzen Seide, two ounces of silk. i 44-46.] DECLENSIONS OP ADJECTIVES. 31 CHAPTEE XII. Adjectives and theie Declensions. § 44. Adjectives in German, as in English, are used both as predicates and as attributes, as, der Mann ist gut, tTie man is good (predicate) ; and, der gute Mann, the good man (attribute). When used as predicates, adjectives are not declined, but, as in English, retain the same form in all genders and numbers, as, der Mann ist gut, the man is good ; die Fran ist gut, the wife is good ; das Kind ist gut, the child is good ; die Manner, die Erauen, die Kinder sind gut, the men, the wives, the children, are good. § 45. When used as attributes, adjectives are declined and must agree with the substantives to which they belong in gender, number, and case. All attributive adjectives are placed before their substantives. § 46. Adjectives indicate the gender of the substantives to which they belong in two different ways : — 1. When they are preceded by the definite article, a demonstrative or relative pronoun, or any word indicating the three genders by the endings r, e, s— such as, jeder, jede, jedes; derselbe, dieselbe, dasselbe; derjenige, diejenige, dasjenige ; solcher, solche, solches ; mancher, manche, manches — the termination for all the three genders is e, as, der gute, die gute, das gute ; welcher gute, welche gute, welches gute ; jeder brave, jede brave, jedes brave. 2. When adjectives have no article, or are preceded by the indefinite article, by a possessive pronoun, by words which do not indicate the genders, as, etwas, some ; genug, enough; viel, much; wenig, little, &c., or by the word kein, no, they take the endings of the definite article, r, e, s, as, guter Mann, gute Erau, gutes Kind; ein guter Mann, eine gute Erau, ein gutes Kind ; kein guter Mann, keine gute Erau, kein giites Kind ; mein guter Bruder, meine gute Schwester, mein gutes Kind. 32 DECLENSIONS OF ADJECTIVES. [§47. § 47. Adjectives have also two forms of declension, one of wMcli may be called the First or Strong and the other the Second or Weak Declension. I. — First or Strong Declension. When the adjective is not preceded hy an article or any of those words which supply the place of an article (§ 46), it takes the endings of the definite article, as : — Nom. Gen, Bat. Ace. Singular. M. r. gater Uann gate Tian gutes or gaten Mannes guter Tian gutem Manne gater Frau gnten Uann. gute Fran. N. gutes Kind gates or gaten Kindes gutem Emde gates Tfi'nd. }08t dear or most charming; or by the adverbs weitaus or bei weitem (by far), as, weitaus or bei weitem der beste, by far the best. Note. When in a comparison two qualities exist in an equal degree, the com- parison may he Indicated hy wie or als, as, er ist ebenso fleisaig als (or wie) talentvoll, he is as industrious as he is talented. But after an ordinary com- parative, als (thcvn), not wie (as), should be used. In old German, dean (than) was used after a comparative, and there are cases where it may still he used with advantage, as, er ist grosser als Mensch denn als Feldherr, he is greater as a man than as a general, where als als would not be a pleasant sound. 38 NUMEEALS. [§54. CHAPTEE XIV. NuMEEALS. § 54. The Numerals, most of wtioli are a special kind of adjectives, are divided into several classes. I. — Cardinal Numerals. Cardinal numerals denote numbers simply or lately, as, ein, one; zwei, two; drei, three. 1 ein (eins) 27 sieben nnd zwanzig 2 zwei 28 acht nnd zwanzig 3 drei 29 nenn nnd zwanzig 4 Tier 30 dreissig 5 fttnf 31 ein nnd dreissig, &c. 6 sechs 40 vierzig 7 sieben 50 fiinfzig 8 acht 60 sechzig 9 nenn 70 siebenzig or siebzig 10 zehn 80 achtzig 11 elf or eilf 90 nennzig 12 zwolf 100 hnndert 13 dreizehn 101 hnndert nnd ein, &c. 14 vierzehn 200 zwei hnndert 15 fun&ehn 300 diei hnndert 16 sechzehn 400 vier hnndert 17 siebenzehn or siebzeiin 500 fiinf hnndert 18 achtzelm 600 sechs hnndert 19 nennzelm 700 sieben hnndert 20 zwanzig 800 acht hnndert 21 ein nnd zwanzig 1000 tansend 22 zwei nnd zwanzig 2000 zwei tansend 23 drei nnd zwanzig 10000 zehn tansend 24 vier nnd zwanzig 100000 hnndert tansend 25 fiinf nnd zwanzig 200000 zweihnndert tansend 26 sechs nnd zwanzig 1000000 eine million. Ein, one, is the same as the indefinite article, and is declined in the same manner. Zwei, too, and drei, three, have a genitive in er and a dative in en when used before a substantive -without an article, as, Gen. zwei-er, drei-er; Dat. zwei-en, drei-en. When used with the article or a demonstrative pronoun, they are not declined. §55.] NUMEEALS. 39 The other cardinals up to 100 have sometimes a dative plural in en, but in the other oases they are not declined, as, Dat. Plur. sechs-en, zehn-en, zwanzig-en, but these forms are seldom used. Note 1. Ein may be used in the plural -with the definite article in the sense of the one party, in opposition to another, as, die Einen sowohl als die Andern, the one party as well as the other. Belde (poth) is a plural adjective, and declined in the ordinai-y way. Note 2. The numerals hundert and tausend are sometimes used as neuter sub- stantives, as, das erste Hundert, th£ first htmdred ; das dritte Tausend, the third thousand. Million is a feminine substantive, and is declined accord- ingly, following the weak declension. Note 3. By means of the suffixes er and ling, masculine substantives are formed from cardinal numerals, as, ein Fiinfzjger, a mam fifty years old ; ein Sechziger, a man sixty years old ; ein Siebziger, a man seventy years old ; Zwillinge, twins ; so also Drillinge, three children born at a birth ; Vierlinge, four children born at a birth. II. — Ordinal Numerals. § 55. Ordinal numerals denote numbers as forming parts of a series, as, der erste, the first; der zweite, the second ; der dritte, the third. They are all declined regu- larly as adjectives ; and in compound numerals only the last part is inflected. 1st der erste 2iiil der zweite 3rd der dritte 4th der vierte 5tli der fiinfte 6th der sechste 7th der siehente 8 th der achte 9th der neunte 10th der zehnte 11th der elfte or eilfte 12th derzwolfte 13th der dreizehnte 14th der vierzehnte 15th der fiinf zehnte 16th der sechzehnte 17th der siebenzehnte or sieh- zehute 18th der achtzehnte ] 9th der neunzehnte 20th der zwanzigste 21st der ein nnd zwanzigste Note 1. In mentioning the date of the month, the ordinal numerals are used, as in English, as, der erste December, the first of Decernber; den or am zweiteu Januar, on the second of January ; den or am siebenten Marz, on the seventh of March. Observe that the of before the name of the month is not expressed in German. 22nd der zwei und zwanzig- ste, &c. 30th der dreissigste 31st der ein nnd dreissigste, &o. , 40th der vierzigste 50th der funfzigste 60th der sechzigste 100th der hundertste 101st der hundert und erste 200th der zwei hundertste 300th der drel hundertste 700th der siehen hundertste lOOOth der tausendste 1100th der tausend nnd hun- dertste 10000th der zehn tausendste 10011th der zehn tausend nnd elfte 100000th der hundert tausend- ste 1000000th der Tnillionste, 40 NUMERALS. [§§ 56-58. Note 2. There ia an interrogative, der vievieltei corresponding to the ordinal numerals, which is employed in asldng for the place anything occupies in a series, as, den wievielten des Monats hahen wir heute? literally, the Aow- mamyest of the mtmth ha/ue we to-day f Note 3. Instead of der zweitCi der andere (the other) is sometimes used, especially when there are only two things, as, der eine und der andere. When the EngUsh another is used in the sense of one more, it is expressed in G€rman hy iLOCh eilli as, give me another cup ofttea, geben Sie mir noch eine Tasse liiee ; amather glass of wine, noch ein Glass Wein. Note 4. From ordinal numerals are formed, by the suffix enSj what may be termed distinctive numeral adverbs, expressing succession, as : — erstens or erstlich, first, firstly, in the first place. zweitens, secondly, in the second place. dxittens, thirdly, in the thirdplaee. yiertens, fourthly, in the fourth place. fimftens, fifthly, in the fifth place, &c. § 56. There is a peculiar kind of numeral formed from the feminine genitive of cardinal numerals with the sufSx lei (which originally signified kind or sort), as : — emerlei, of one hind. zweierlei, of two Jcinds. dreierlei, of three kinds. viererlei, of four Mnds-. fimferlei, of five hinds, &c. In the same way are formed vielerlei, of many hinds ; mancherlei, of many kinds ; allerlei, of all kinds ; meh- rerlei, of several kinds. The phrase, es ist mir einerlei, signifies, it is all the same to me. § 57. By means of the suffix fach (less commonly faltig) numeral adjectives are formed from the cardinals answering to the English numerals ending in fold, as : — einfach, simple. zweifach or zwiefach, twofold. dreifaeh, threefold. vierfach, fourfold. funffach, fivefold. hnndertfach, a hundredfold, &c. Note. On the same principle are formed vielfacll or vielfiltig, mehrfach, manni^achi or mannigfaltigi aU of which signify manifold. The word einfaltig is used only in the figurative sense ot foolish or silly. § 58. Numeral adverbs answering to the question how often ? are formed by the suffix mal being appended to the cardinal numerals, as : — einmal, once. zweimal, twice. dreimal, thrice or three times. viermal, four times. zehnmal, ten times. hundertmal, a hundred times, &a. §§ 59, 60.] NUMERALS. 41 In the same manner are formed allemal, at all times or always; manchmal, sometimes; jedesmal, each or every time. Note 1. From these adverbs, adjectives are formed by the suffix ig, as, dreimalig, viermalig, what has been repeated three or four timeSt as, mein dreimaliges Gesuch, my petition thrice repeated. Note 2. Einmal, when signifying OTKe^ has the accent on ein ; but when ein is not accented or emphatic, it signifies o?ice upon a time ; and in familiar conversa- tion its meaning is nearly the same as the English pray, e.g. sagen Sie mir einmal, pray tell me. In this sense it is even curtailed into mal, as, sag' mal, pray tell me, or, come, tell me. § 59. Fractional numerals are formed from the car- dinals by the suffix tel (a corruption of Theil, part). They are all neuter substantives, as : — ein Drittel, a third (part). ein Viextel, a fourth. ein Fiinftel, a fifth. ein Zehntel, a tenth. Instead of ein Zweitel, the adjective halb (half), or the feminine substantive, die Halfte, is used, e.g. ein halbes Pf und, half a pound ; eine halbe IJnze, half an ounce ; die Halfte des Apfels, the half of the apple ; halb London or die Halfte von London, half London; halb England or die Halfte von England, half England. The word halb compounded with ordinal numerals forms indeclinable fractional numerals of a peculiar kind, as : — andeithalb, one and a half. drittehalb, two and a half. viertehalb, three and a half. E.g. drittehalb Pfund, two pounds and a half; anderthalb Stunde, one hour and a half. Note. We may here mention the manner in which the hours of the day are stated in German : — es ist vier TJhr, it is four o'clock. es ist halb vier, it is half past three. es ist ein Vieitel auf vier, or ein Viertel naob drei, it is a quarter past three. es ist drei Viertel anf vier, or ein Viertel vor vier, it is a quarter be- fore or to four. es ist zebn Minnten vor vier, it is ten minutes to four. es ist zehn Minnten iiber or nach vier, it is ten minutes past four. § 60. The indefinite numerals, such as mancher, many a one; einige, some; viel, much, &c., are usually classed among the indefinite pronouns (see § 76). 42 THE PEONOUNS, [§| 61, 62. CHAPTEE XV. The Pe'onouns. § 61. There are six classes of pronouns : — 1. Personal Pronouns — ich, J; du, thou; er, he; sie, sJie; es, it ; wir, we ; ihr, you ; sie, they. 2. Possessive Pronouns — mein, my ; dein, thy ; sein, his, its; ihr, her; unser, our; euer, your; ihr, their. 3. Demonstrative Pronouns — dieser, this; jener, that; der, that; solcher, such; derjenige, he who; derselbe, the same. 4. Interrogative Pronouns — wer ? who ? was ? what ? welcher, which? was fiir ein P what kind off 5. Belative Pronouns — welcher, te^o ; der, who; wer, he, who ; was, wTiat. 6. Indefinite Pronouns — man, one; jemand, some one; niemand, no one; etwas, somewhat, something; among wliicli may also be classed the indefinite numerals (see § 60). § 62. I. — The Pehsonal Pronouns. 1. Declension of the Pronouns of the First Person. Singular. plural. Norn. ich, I wir,"- we Gen. meiner (mein), of me unser. of us Bat. mir. to me nns. to us Ace. mich. me. nns, US. '' 2. Declension of the Pronouns of the Second Person. Singular. Plural. Nom. Gen. Bat. Ace. dn, thou demeT.(dein), of thee dir, to thee dieh, thee. , ihr, ener, ench, euch, ye of you to you you. 163.] THE PEONOUNS. 3. Declension of the Pronouns of the Third Person.. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. er, seiner ihm, ihn, M. he (sein), of him to him him. F sie, ihrer, ihr, sie, Flural. M. F. N she of her to her her. N. es, it seiner (sein), of it ihm, to it es, it. Nom. sie. Gen. ihrer, J}at. ihnen, Aco. sie. they of them to them them. § 63. There are no special reflective forms for the first and second persons, the cases of ieh and du being also used reflectively, as, ich lobe mich, J praise myself ; du lobst dich, thou praisest thyself; wir loben uns, we praise ourselves ; ihr lobet euoh, you praise yourselves. But in the third person there is a special reflective form sich, which is used for the dative and accusative both in the singular and in the plural, as, er lobt sich, he praises himself; sie lobt sich, she praises herself; sie loben sich, they praise themselves. When the reflective pronoun is emphatic, the word selbst or selber (self) is often added, as, er lobt sich selbst. The reflective pronouns of the plural, uns, euch, sich, also express reciprocal action, as, sie lieben sich, they love each other ; wir sahen uns an, we looTced at each other ; warum zankt ihr euch ? why do you quarrel with each other ? Note 1. The ordinary way of addressing a person in German is by the pronoun of the third person plural, which for the sake of politeness is "written with a capital Initial : Sie, ^en. Ihrer, Dat. Ihnen, Ace. Sie* Intimate friends and near relations address each other by du, and in the plural by ihr. Formerly it was customary to address an inferior male person by er (^). and a female by sie («fte) ; btft now Sie (i^^y') is used indis- criminately in addressing any person, high or low. Note 2. For the genitives meiner, deiner, seiner, the shorter forms mein, deln, sein, are often used, especially in poetry, as, vergiss mein (meiner) nicht,/or- get me not; ich denke dein (deiner), 1 think of thee ; man spottet sein (seiner), they mock him. When the genitives meiner, deiner, seiner, unser, ener, ihrer, are compounded withtKe prepositions wegen, halben, willen Cow account or /or 44 THE PKONOUNS. [§ 64. the sake of), the ending er is changed Into ©t, but in euer and unsera t is simply added, as : — meinetwegen, on my account. deinetwegen, on thy accownt. seinethalben, for his sake. nm deinetwillen, /<»• thy sake. unsertwegen, o« our a/xount. euerthsilben, on your account. EEMARKS ON THE USE OF ES. § 64. — 1. As names of inanimate objects are in Grerman frequently masculine or feminine, the pronoun referring to tliem must take their gender, whence the English it cannot always be rendered by es, e.g. : — Haben Sie den Hut f 3a., ich habe ilin. Have you the hat f Tee, I have it. Haben Sie die Feder % Ja, icb babe sie. Have you the pen 1 Yes, I have it. Haben Sie das Bach? Ja, ich babe es. Have you the lookl Yet, 1 have it. 2. The dative and accusative of es, when governed by prepositions, is always changed into the demonstrative da (there), to which the preposition is appended ; and when the preposition begins with a vowel, r is inserted between them, the original form of da being dar (Eng. there), as : — dabei, in addition to, like thereby. dafiir, /or it or for them, like therefore. damit, loith it or with them, like therewith. davon, of it or of them, like thereof. daran, at it or ai them, like thereat. daranf, upon it or upon them, like thereupon. darin, in it or in them, like therein. darnach or danach, after il or after them, Kke thereafter. dariiber, over it or over them. darunter, under it or under them. These forms, however, are used only when referring to things, not to persons. 3. As the genitive and dative singular of es are iden- tical with the same cases of the masculine, the neuters seiner and ihm, unless they refer to persons, are generally avoided by substituting dessen for seiner, and dem for ilim, as, ich erinnere mich dessen, I remember it, for ich. erinnere mich seiner would mean, I remember Mm ; ich §65.] THE PKONOTJNS. 45 schame micli dessen, I am ashamed of it ; ich schame mioh seiner, I am ashamed of him ; ich traue dem nicht, I do not trust it ; icli traue ihm nicht, I do not trust Mm. 4. As es is generally not emphatic, it is often stripped of its vowel, and is appended to a preceding word as an 's, as, nimm's for nimm es, take it ; gib's mir, give it to me ; was gibt's ? what is the matter ? ist's gewiss ? is it certain ? 5. Es is often equivalent to the English so, as, ich hoffe es, I hope so ; er sagt es, he says so ; ich glaube es, / believe so; dn bist frei, nnd du bist's durch mich, you are free, and you are so through me. In these cases es refers to something or some word mentioned before. 6. The following phrases must be noticed separately : — ich bin es, it is I. er ist es, it is he. sie ist es, it is she. wir sind es, it is we. Sie waren es, it was you. bin ioh es? is it 19 sind Sie es ? is it you ? In the phrases, es ist mein Bruder, it is my brother, and, es ist meine Schwester, it is my sister, the idiom is the same in the two languages. But when the noun is in the plural, es sind must be used, as, es sind meine Briider, it is my brothers; es sind meine Biioher, they are my books. Lastly, we must notice the phrase, es gibt (there is or there are), \^hich takes its noun in the accusative, and is used both with singulars and plurals, as, es gibt einen Baum, there is a tree ; es gibt eine Blume, there is a flower ; es gibt Menschen, there are men ; es gibt Falle, there are cases. II. — Possessive Peonouns. § 65. The possessive pronouns are used both as pro- nominal adjectives and as pronouns proper. They are formed from the genitive of the personal pronouns. plural. 1. mein, my nnser, our. 2. dein, thy ^^^'^ your. 46 THE PRONOUNS. [§65. 1. "When used as adjectives with a substantive, they are all declined like the indefinite article ein, eine, ein. Singular. Plural. M. F. N. M. F. N. Nom. meiu meine mein meine Gen. meines meiner meines meiner Bdt. meinem meiner meinem meinen Ace. meinen. meins. mein. meine. Nom. imser uusere unser unsere Gen. unseres unserer unseres unserer Sat. unserem unserer unserem unseren Ace. uusereu. tinsere. unser. unsere. 2. When used as real pronouns, like the English mine, thine, &c., three forms of declension are used. (fls) Without the article, they are declined like adjec- tives of the first or strong declension, as: Nom. Sing, meiner, meine, meines ; Plur. meine. For example : sein Apfel ist gut, meiner ist schlecht, Ms apple is good, mine is had ; seine Biicher sind schon, meine sind sohoner, Ms hooTcs are fine, mine are finer ; sein Haus ist gross, meines ist grosser, Ms house is large, mine is larger. (6) When preceded by the definite article, they are declined like adjectives of the second or weak declension, as : — M. F. If. Nom. der meine die meine das meine. Gen. des meinen der meinen des meinen. Sat. dem meinen der meinen dem meinen. Ace. den meinen. die meine. das meine. (c) A derivative form in ig is very often employed in the same way, as, mein-ig, dein-ig, sein-ig. These forms are always used with the definite article, and therefore declined like adjectives preceded by the definite article. as :- M. 1. der meinige 2. der deinige „ fder seinige \der ihrige Singular. F. die meinige die deinige die seinige die ihrige K. das meinige das deinige das seinige das ihrige Plural. M. F. N. die meinigen, die deinigen, die seinigen, die ihrigeu, mine, thine. Ms, its. hers. §66.] THE PRONOUNS. 47 Singular. • Plural. M. F. N. M. F. N. 1, der unserige die unserige das unserige die nnserigen, ours. 2 /der eurige die enrige das eurige die enrigeu, \ ■\der Ihrige die Ihrige das Ihrige die Ihrigen, / 2'°"''*- 8, der ihrige die ihrige das ihrige die ilirigeu, theirs. Examples. seine Grossmutter ist alter als die meiue or Ms grandmother is older die meinige, than mine. seine Hauser sind schoner als die unsern or his houses are finer than die nnserigen, ours. Note 1. Beide> l)oth, when joined with possessive pronouns, must come after the possessive, and is then beiden. as ; — meine beiden Schwestern, ioth my sisters. meine beiden Briider, i>otii my brothers. Note 2. In using the possessive pronouns, the gender of the substantive to which they refer must always be remembered, as, die Blume hat ihren Geruch verloren, thefiawer lias lost its fragromx ; das Dorf mit seinen Bewohnern, the village.vnth its inhdbita/nts. Note 3. When a possessive pronoun is used as a predicate, it takes no termination at all, but, like an acUective, appears in its simplest form,'as, das Hans ist mein, the htmse is mine; das Buch ist dein, the hook is thine; was unser ist, darf uns niemand nebmen, what is ours^ no one is allowed to take from us. Note 4. The plural, die Meinigen, die Delnigen, die Ihrigen, signifles those belonging to me, to thee, to you, i.e. my, thy, your family or relations. The neuter, das ffieinige, das Deinige, das Seinlge, &c. signifle.s my, thy, his property, jpart, or duty, e.g. er hat das Seinige verschwendet, he has squandered his property ; ich habe das Meinige gethan, / hajve done my part or my dAity. Note 5. Instead of nnsere, nnaerer, unseren, many writers use syncopated forms, unsre, unsrer, unaren or unsern. Note 6. The word euer was formerly written Ewer, whence sometimes we still find such formal expressions as, Ew. Majestat, your Majesty, Ew. Wohlge- boren, and like phrases, which, however, are now almost universally given up. III. — Demonsteative Pkonouns. § 66. Demonstrative pronouns are used both as pronouns proper and as pronominal adjectives. Der, die, das, is the most general demonstrative, as it maybe used in the sense of dieser (this), jener {that), and derjenige (that one). When used as an adjective with a substantive, it is in reality only the article pronounced with emphasis, but in its declension it slightly differs from the article. Singular. Plural. M. F- N. M. F. N. Nom. der die das die Gen. dessen (dess) deren (der) dessen (dess) deren Dat. dem der dem denen Aec. den die das die. 48 THE PRONOUNS. [§§67-69. Note 1. The origmal ahorter form of the genitive of the masculine and neuter, dess (sometimes written des). still occurs in such compounds as, desswegen, desshalb, on tliat account ; desgleichen, dergleichen, the like of that, of them ; and in poetry, as, dess rilhme sich der Tyrann, may the tyrant hoast of this ; hast du Fedem ? ich bedarf deren, have you pens f J want them ; er ist einer von denen, die ich fiirchte, he is one of those whom I fear. Note 2. The genitive of this demonstrative is often employed for the possessive pronoun of the third person, to avoid ambiguity, as, sie liebte ihren Bruder und dessen (seine) Tochter, she loved h£r brother a/nd his daughter ; er geht mit seinem Bruder und dessen (not seineni) which would he his own) Hund spaaieren, he takes a walk toith his brother amd his (i.e. his brother's) dog. Note 3. When the demonstrative das is governed by a preposition, it frequently takes the form of da or dar, prefixed to the preposition, as, damit, with this or that; dadxirclif through that ; darin, therein; darum, theref&re; darauf, therewpim. This form, however, is used only of things, not of persons, and cannot be iwed when the demonstrative is followed by a relative pronoun, as, er sagt mir wenig von dem (not davon), was er hort, he tells Tue Utile of what he hmrs. Comp. $ 64, 2. - § 67. Dieser^ diese, dieses {this), and jener, jene, jenes {fhat or yon), wtether they are used as adjectives or as real pronouns, are declined like tlie definite article, as: — Singular. Plmral. M. F. N. M.,F. N. Nom. dieser diese dieses (dies) diese Gen. dieses dieser dieses dieser Bat. diesem dieser diesem diesen Ace. diesen diese dieses (dies) diese. Nom. jener jene jenes jene Gen. jenes jener jenes jener Dat. jenem jener jenem jenen Ace. jenen jene jenes jene. Note. Instead of the neuter dieseSi a shortened dies is often used, as, dies Buch, this hook. "With prepositions, the place of the pronoun dieser, when referring to things, is sometimes supplied by the demonstrative adverb hier (here), as, hierbei, with this ,- biermit, with this ; hierauf, upon this ; hierin, in this. % 68. Solcher, solche, solehes (such, Lat. talis), is generally used in the singular only witli the indefinite article, which is either placed before it, in which case solcher follows the weak adjective declension, as, ein solcher Mensch, sitch a man, Gen. eines solchen Menschen, Dat. einem solchen Menschen, &c. ; or the article is placed after it, in which case solch is indeclinable, as, solch ein Mann, solch einen Mann, solch eine Frau. In the plural, solche has no article, but takes the endings of the definite article, solche, solcher, solchen. § 69. Deijenige, diejenige, dasjenige, properly signifies that yonder, but more commonly he (who) that §§ 70, 71.] THE PEONOUNS. 49 (which). It is a compound of tte definite article der and jenige (a derivative form of jener), and is declined in both parts, der, die, das, as the article, and jenige, as an adjective of the weak declension. Singular. Plural. M. F. N. M. F. N. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. deijenige desjenigen demjenigen denjenigen diejenige derjenigen derjenigen diejenige dasjenige desjenigen demjenigen dasjenige diejenigen derjenigen denjenigen diejenigen. Note. This word is used as a pronoun and as a pronominal adjective, and most commonly as the antecedent to a relative, as, derjenige welcher, lie who ; diejenige welche, she who ; di^enigen welche, those who. The simple demon- strative der, diCi das, is often preferred to the compound form, as, dei" welcher, die welche. § 70. Derselbe, dieselbe, dasselbe (e mioh gefreut dn hast dich getreut er hat sioh gefreut. wii haben nns gefreut ilir habt euch gefreut sie habeu sioh gefreut. Sing, ich habe mich. gefreut du habest dicb gefreut er habe sioh ge&eut. Flur. wir habeu uns gefreut ihr habet euoh gefreut sie habeu sich gefirent. PLtTPERPEOT Tense. ich hatte mich gefreut du hattest dich gefreut, ich hatte mich ge&eut du hattest dich ge&eut, &o. FuTUEE Tense. ich werde mich freuen du wirst dich freuen er \nrd sich freuen. \irir werden uns freuen ihr werdet euoh freuen sie werden sich freuen. Flwr. ich werde mich freuen du werdest dich freuen er werde sich freuen. wir werden uns freuen ihr werdet euch freuen sie warden sich freuen. Sing. FUTUBE Peefeot Tense. ich werde mich gefreut haben du wirst dich gefreut haben, &o. ich werde mich gefreut haben du werdest dich gefreut haben, &c. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Peesbnt Tense. Past Tense. ich wiirde mich freuen du wiirdest dich freuen, &c. ich wiirde mich gefreut haben du wiirdest dich ge&eut haben, &c. IMPERATIVE MOOD. freue dich, frene du dich freue er sioh. Plur. freuen wir uns freut euch, freut ihr euoh freuen Sie sioh. Pres. sioh freuen. INFINITIVE. I Past, sioh gefreut haben. Pres. sioh frenend. PARTICIPLES. I Past, sioh gefreut. §111.] IMPEBSONAL TEKBS. 105 CHAPTEE XXYII. Impersonal Verbs. § 111. Impersonal verbs are conjugated only in the third person singular, with the neuter pronoun es (if). They are generally the same in German as in English. All, with the exception of es ist, there is, take the auxiliary verb haben. Conjugation of an Impersonal Verb. dannem, to thunder. indicative mood. subjunctive mood. Pbesent Tense. es donnert, it fkunders. \ es donnere. Impebmict Tense. es donnerte, it thundered. | es donnerte. Perfect Tense. es hat gedonaert, it has thundered. | es habe gedonnert. Pltjpebfeot Tense. es hatte gedonnert, it had fhun- I es hatte gedonnert. FuTUBB Tense. es wird donnern, it will thunder. | es werde donnern. Future Pbefeot Tense. es wird gedonnert haben, it will I es werde gedonnert haben. have thu/ndered. \ 106 IMPEBSONAl VEBBS. [§111. conditional mood. Pbesent Tense. eg wiirde donnem, it would fhvmder. Past Tense. 68 wiirde gedonnert halieii, it would have thundered. 1. The most commoii impersonal verbs are those de- scribing the phenomena of nature, as : — es blitzt, it lightens ; blitzen, blitzte, geblitzt. es donneit, it thunders ; donnem, donnerte, gedonnert. es friert, it freezes; frieren, fror, ge&oren, es hagelt, it hails ; hageln, hagelte, gebagelt. es regnet, it rains ; regnen, regnete, geregnet. es schneit, it snows ; sohneien, sobneite, gescbneit. es thant, it thaws ; thanen, thante, ge^ant. 2. Verbs expressing personal conditions and feelings are often used impersonally, as : — es frent miob, I am glad. es bnngert mioh, I am hungry. es doTStet miob, I am thirsty. es tbnt mir leid, I am sorry. es gefillt mir, I am pleased. es ist mir kalt, I am cold. es ist mir warm, I am warm. The es is often omitted with some of the above verbs ; but then the verb is put after the reflective pronoun, as, mich hungertj mich durstet, mir ist kalt, mir ist warm. 3. £!s gibt, lit. it gives, is constantly used in the sense of there is, there are, followed by an accusative, as : — es gibt ein ewiges Leben, there is an everhisting life. es gibt yiele Biioher, Oiere are many hooks. es gibt einen Mensoben, there is a man. 4. Some verbs used impersonally are at the same time reflective, as : — es fragt sioh, the question is. es gibt siob, it can be done or managed. es ziemt Bicb, it is becoming. es versteht siob, it is sdf-evident or a matter of course. es tbnt sich leiobt,. it can easily be done. ( 112, 113.] EBMAEKS ON THE CONJUGATION. 107 CHAPTEE XXVIII. General Eemaeks on the Conjugation. § 112. — 1. The conjugation formed in EngHsh by the present participle with the auxiliary verb to he does not exist in German; hence, I read and I am reading are expressed by the one form, ieh lese ; and I read and 1 was reading, I have read and I have been reading, by ieh las and ieh habe gelesen. In short, that conjugation which, in all its tenses, represents the action as going on or in progress does not exist in German. In like manner the conjugation which, in all its tenses, represents an action as a future one does not exist in German, whence such phrases, I am about to write, I was about to write, I have been about to write, &c., must be ex- pressed in German by such paraphrases as, ieh bin im Begriff, or auf dem Punkte, zu schreiben; ieh war im Begriff, or auf dem Punkte, zu schreiben ; &c. 2. The English gerund, as, writing, livijig, wcdMng, &c., does not exist in German ; but its place is supplied by the infinitive, used substantively, as, the writing of this letter is important, diesen Brief zu schreiben, or das Schreiben dieses Briefes, ist wichtig ; the roaring of the wind, das Kauschen des Windes. 3. The English auxiliary verb to do, as it occurs in questions, with imperatives, and in negative sentences, is not expressed in German. With imperatives its force can often be rendered by bitte (pray), as, do write to me, bitte schreiben Sie mir ; do take a glass of wine, bitte nehmen Sie ein Glas Wein. In questions and negative sentences do is not expressed at all, as, he did not come, er kam nicht ; I do not believe it, ieh glaube es nicht ; I do not wish to see him, ieh wunsche nicht ihn zu sehen; did you see him? sahen Sie ihn? § 113. The use of the present infinitive active differs in several respects from the English. 108 REMARKS ON THE CONJUGATION, [§114- When a verb is simply named, it does not take the particle zu (to) as in English, e.g. gehen, to go ; leben, to live; gehen, to give. Note. Tn some phrases this simple infinitive takes the place of a present participle* as, ich sah ihn laufen, I sww him Tumrwag ; ich horte ihn sprechen, / Z^rd him, speaking ; ich gehe spazieren, J go walking ; er blieb stehen or sitzen, he remained sta/nding or sitting. The particle zu. is used with the infinitive — 1. When a purpose or intention is to he indicated, in which case zu is often strengthened hy the addition of um. (compare the old English for to), e.g. der Mensch lebt nioht, um zu essen, sondem er isst, um zu leben, man does not live to eat, 6a^ Tte eats in order to live ; der Vater gab ihm das Buch, um ihn aufzumuntem, the father gave him the hook in order to encourage him. But we nevertheless Kay, ich gehe schlafen, 1 go to ied. 2. When the infinitive expresses the object to which an action, a thought, or a desire, is directed, as, ich wiinsche ihn zu sehen, J wish to see him ; er vergass mich abzuholen, he forgot to call for me ; er fiirchtet zu missfallen, he fears to displease ; er hat Lust zu reisen, he has a desire to travd; er zeigt grossen Eifer zu lemen, he shows a great eagerness to learn; es ist schwer zu sagen, it is difficult to say; die Musik ist angenehm zu horen, the music is pleasaTit to hear ; er ist bereit seinen Fehler einzugestehen, he is ready to confess his fault. 3. When the infinitive is the subject of a senten6e, it may take zUj but is often used without it, as, es ziemt einem Knaben zu lemen, or Lemen ziemt einem Knaben, it is becoming to a boy to learn ; seinen Feinden verzeihen, or zu verzeihen, ist edel, to pardon one's enemies is nMe. § 114. The active infinitive with zu is often used as a predicate in the sense of the Latin gerundive, that is, it indicates that something is or deserves to be done, as, dieser Mensch ist zu loben, this man is to be praised ; sein Hochmuth ist nicht zu ertragen, his haughtiness is not to be borne ; so etwas ist nicht zu dulden, such a thing is not to be tolerated. §§ 115-117.] EEMAEKS ON THE CONJUGATION. 109 Note 1. This application of the infinitive has given rise to the use of the present participle with zn as an attribute (never ti£ a predicate) to substantives, as, die zu vermeidende Gefahr, the da/rtger to te avoided; die zu lobende That, the praiseworthy deed. Ifote 2. From the above examples it will be seen that the active infinitive is often used where in English a passive form is employed, e.g. es ist nirgend zu finden, it is not to lie fovmt anywhere ; es ist nicht zu ertragen, it is not to he borne ; es gibt noch vieles zu thun, there is still much to be done. li'ote 3. Respecting the infinitive instead of the past participle with the auxiliary verbs of mood, see $ 99. § 115. The participles have, on the whole, the same meaning in German as in English, and, like adjectives, are used both as attributes and as predicates ; but they are used in German less frequently than in English, and an English participle has often to be paraphrased by an entire clause, as, entering the room, he at once discovered Ms mistake, als er in's Zimmer trat, entdeckte er sogleich seinen Irrthum. § 116. The present tense has the same meaning in German as in English, except that in German the present is sometimes used for the future, provided future time is already expressed by some other word in the sentence, as, morgen reisen wix nach Berlin, to-morrow we shall start for Berlin ; nach einem Monat komme ich wieder, und dann besuche ich Sie, after a month I shall return, and will then come to see you. § 117. The tense usually called the imperfect has two distinct meanings : — .1. That of an aorist, simply stating an event of the past, as an historical fact, as, Hannibal besiegte die Eomer, Hannibal conquered the Romans. In this sense it perfectly agrees with the simple past tense in English, and may be called the historical tense. 2. That of a descriptive tense, which describes states or conditions in which persons or things were in past time, as, er nahrte die Hoffnung, he cherished the hope, or was cherishing the hope ; ich schrieb, als mein Freund eintrat, I was writing when my friend entered. When a repeated action of the past is to be expressed, the auxiliary verb pflegen (to use) is employed, as, Sokrates pflegte zu sagen, Socrates used to say. 110 BEMABKS ON THE CONJUGATION. [§§118-121. § 118. The perfect has the same meaning as in English, that is, it expresses a past action with reference to present time or present results ; but in ordinary conversation the perfect is often used where the historical imperfect ought to be employed : hence we may say, gestem ist ein. Ejnd ertrunken, or gestern ertrank ein Kind, yesterday a child was drowned, although the perfect rather suggests that the narrator saw the drowning, and was himself present. § 119. The future and future perfect are frequently used in the sense that something is likely to happen or to have happened, as : — dn wirst dioh irren, you are probably mistaken. dn wirst dich geirrt haben, you were prdbcMy mistaken. 1 er wird schon kommen, oh, he is sure to come. er wild es vergessen haben, I suppose he lias forgotten it. § 120. The auxiliary verbs haben and sein are some- times omitted in a subordinate clause, where they would be placed last : da ich es gehort (habe), so habe ich mich entechlossen, as I have heard it, I ha/ue made up my mind. In this case the auxiliary habe of the protasis may be omitted to avoid the repetition of the same word. In like manner we may say, da er krank gewesen (ist), so miissen wir ihn entschuldigen, a« he has been ill, we must excuse him. § 121. The imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive may nearly always take the place of the conditional tenses, as: — wenn ich Oeld hatte, so worde ich das Hans kanfen, or so kanfte ich das Hans, if I had money, I should pmrchase the house. wenn ich das Geld gehabt hatte, so wnrde ich das Hans gekanft haben, or so hatte ich das Hans gekanft, if I had had the money, I should have purchased the house. *J* Further details about the tenses and moods will be * given in the Syntax. § 122.] ADVERBS. Ill CHAPTEE XXIX. Adveebs. § 122. Independently of primitive adverbs, which are common to aU languages, as, nun, jetzt, now; noch, still, &c., adverbs are formed — 1. From demonstrative, relative, and interrogative p'onouns, dann, then. wo, where. woher, whenee. woMn, whither. (von wanueu), from whence. waun, when. wie, how. yonder. da, dort, hier, her, hither. hin, thither. dannen or von from thence. dannen, 2. From adjectives. All adjectives, both in the positive and coinparative degrees, may be nsed as adverbs without any special termination whatever, as, er schreibt schlecht, Tie writes badly ; er schreibt schlechter als sein Bruder, he writes worse than his brother. When an adjective in the superlative is used as an adverb, it takes either the preposition an with the dative (am = an dem) or auf with the accusative (auf's = auf das), as : — er schreibt am schlechtesten, er benimmt sich anf s sohleohteste. he writes worst, he behaves worst. Note 1. Some superlatives form adverbs by the sufQx ens, as : — bestens, in the hest ma/nner. hochstensi o-t most. meistens, for the most part. schonstens, iw the most beauti- ful manner. erstens, zweitens, nachstens, 171 the first place, in the second p^ace. very shortly. Nde 2. Some adverbs are fonned from adjectives and substantives by the suffix lings, as;— blindlingSi TMndt/y. l riicklings, hacTmiards. jahlings, precipii^msly. 1 kopflingS, headUmg. 112 ADVERBS. \ 123-125. Note 3. A few adverbs are formed by the sufBx Uch (English hf), from a^ectives and present participles, as : — bitterlioh, freilioh, gewissUoh, hoohlioh, ledigUohi bitterly. certainly, surely. merely^ purely. treuUch, wahrlioh, weisUch, gelegentlich, Eoffentliohi faithfully, _ verily, wisely, occasionally, as it is hoped. Note 4. The simple form of the superlative, without any termination, is used as an adverb in a few cases, especially of adjectives ending in ig, lich» sanif or tar, as : — er wurde innlgst geliebt, ft* ««w w*o** intensely loved. er laBst Sie freundlichst griisseiif ^ sends you his kindest remembrance. ich bitte gehorsamst, J" ^eg most humtly. es war Alles langst vorilber, it was all over long ago. er hat os daukbarst anerkaimtf ^ ^s most gratefully acknowledged it. § 123. Several adverbs are formed from substantives and adjectives by the addition of s, as : — Abends, in the evening. UontagB, on a Monday, or Korgens, in (he morning. every Monday. Naohts, in the night. theUs, partly. Uittags, at noon. rings, all round. reohts, on the right. Unks, on the left. bereits, already. anders. otherwise. Etets, constantly. besonders, particularly. Sonntags, on a Sunday, or every Sunday. § 124. Other adverl)s again are formed by composition, as: — zuweilen, at times. gliicUioherweise, fortunately. keineswegs, in no way. jedenfalls, at aU events. einigermassen, in some m£asu/re and many others. § 125. The following adverbs, like the adjectives to which they belong, form their comparative and super- lative irregularly : — hervor. forth. hienieden, here below. vorbei. past. berganf. uphiU. bergab. downhiU. furwahr, in truth. Positive. gut or wohl, boch, bald, nahe, Cvmpa/rative. Superlative. well besser bestens, am beaten, or anf s beste. high hoher biiohstens, am hochsten, auf s bocbste. soon eher ehestens, am ebesten. near naher naobstens, am naobsten. § 126.] PEEPOSITIONS. 113 viel, much wenig, little gem, willingly, gladly Ctymparative. mehr weniger or minder Ueber SujiQrlative, meistens, am meisten. mindestens, wenigstens, am wenigBten, znm minde- sten. am liebsten. Note. Gem joined to a verb answers to the English Hike, as, ich spiele gem, I like to play; ich tanze lieber, I like better to dance ; am liebsten lese ich, / like 6e5( to read. CHAPTEE XXX. Peepositions. § 126. Of the prepositions, some govern the genitive case, some the dative, some the accusative, and some either the dative or the accusative. I. — Peepositions governing the Genitive. anstatt or statt, halberorhalben, ansserhalb, innerhalb, oberbalb, nnterhalb, diesseit or dies- seits jenseit or jen- seits kraft, instead of. for the sake of. without, outside, within, inside, above (higher up), helow (lower down), on this side of. on that side of, that is, on the other side of. in virtue of. langs, aZong. lant, according to. trotz, in spite of. ma . . . willen, for the sake of. ungeachtet notwithstanding. unweit (unfem), not far from. vermoge, I vermittelst(mit-}6!/ means of. telst) J wahrend, during. wegen, on account of. znfolge, in consequence of. Ezamples. anstatt or statt seines Brader3,\ an seines Bmders Statt, / des Streites halben or balber, ansserbalb der Stadt, innerhalb der Stadt, oberhalb der Briicke, nnterhalb der Eriicke, diesseits or diesseit des Flnsses, G. GK. instead of his Tyrother, or in place of his brother, on account of the dispute, without or outside the town, within or inside the town, above the hridge. below the bridge, on this side of the river. I 114 PKEPOSITIONS. [§127. jenseits or jenseit des TlTisses, kraft meines Amtes, langB des Flnsses, or langs dem JlTisse, trotz seines Widerspmchs, or trotz seinem Widerspnioh, nm seines Yaters willen, nngeachtet dieser Sachen, or dieser Sachen nngeachtet, nnweit des rinsses, vermoge seiner Thatigkeit, vermittelst der Faden, wahrend dieses Winters, wahrend dem Begen, wegen meiner Ehre, or meiner Ehre wegen, znfolge Ihres Befehles, or Ihrem Befehle znfolge. on that side ((he other side) of the river, hy virtue of my office. > along the river. \ in spite of his contradiction. for the sake of his father. \ notwithstanding these things. not far from the river, by means of his activity. }»/ means of the threads, dv/ring this winter, during the rain. \ for the sake of my honour. > according to your order. Note I. These prepositions are commonly called " spurions prepositions," for most of them are in reality substantives, or derived from substantives, which accounts for their governing' the genitive. Note 2. Some of them, such as trotZ; langs, wahrend, and znfolge, are some- times construed with the dative instead of the genitive. Note 3. Halber or halben always follows the noun it governs, and with the personal pronouns halben is contracted into one word, as, melnethalben, on my accownt; deinethalben, on thy aeamnt. See $ 63. Note 4. TTm . . . willen, consisting of two words, takes the genitive between them, as, um seines Yaters willen. The same is sometimes the case with anstatt, as, an seines Bmders Statt, where Statt(pZ wenn er anch (wenn er gleich) anfmerksam ist, wenn es Ihnen nur gefEUt, er hasst, wenn er auch noch so freundlich thut, Examples. lest lie should fall, however frie-ndly he is. the more the better, however negligent he may he. much as I wish it. wnless he is more diligent. even if, or although, he is attentive. provided it pleases you. he hates, though he acts in ever so friendly a manner. 120 CONJtTNCTlONS. [§ 132. III. — Adverbial Conjunctions. § 132. These conjunctions are properly adverbs, qualify- 'ing tlie vert of a clause, and cause the inversion of the clause, that is, they require the suhject to follow instead of preceding the verh. More ahout them in the Syntax. also, auch, ansserdem, bald . . . bald, dann, da, dage'gen, hingegen, daher', desswegen, da'nim, desshalb, demnach, deimocli, dessewmgeachtet, so, fhvs, there- fore, aigo, too. hesideSf more- over, now . . . now ; sometimes . . sometimes, then. on the con- trary, on the other hand, "itherefm-e, on ] that accownt. accordingly, and yet, stiU. neee/rthdess. desto, am so, ithe . . . (with a following compara- tive). doch, jedoch, gleioh-l jei, stiU, how- wohl, i ever. femer, further. folgUcb,mithin,{-^X^g^_ indessen, nnter- meanwhile. dessen, kaiun, nicbt nnr, nicht allein, nioht bloB, sichtsdesto- weniger, noch, anch . . . nicht, jetzt, nun, noch, so, sonst, sondem (not only . . anch \ iut aUo. nevertheless. nor. nor. now, then. yet. so, thus. else, or else, other- wise. theils . . . theils, partly . . . partly. iiberdieBB, besides, moreover. iibTigenB, as for the rest, however. vielmehr, rather. zwar, indeed, it is true. Examples, ausserdem besitzt er ein grosses Hans, he possesses, moreover, a large damm hat er ihn veifolgt. folglich kann ich nicht arbeiten, kanm hatte er mich gesehen, noch ist nicht Alles verloren, nberdies hat er viele Kinder, on that accounthe has pursued him. consegttendy I cannot work, scarcely had he seen me. as yet all is not lost, besides he has many children. , § 133.] INTEEJECTIONS. 121 CHAPTER XXXII. Intebjections. § 133. Interjections are mere sounds expressive of joy, pain, sorrow, wonder, abhorrence, doubt, &c. The most common interjections of joy are, ah. ! ha ! heisa ! juehhei ! and hurrah ! Those of pain or sorrow, ach ! o weh ! weh ! Of wonder, ei ! ah ! ha ! oh! ih! hoho! oho! potz ! potztausend ! Of abhorrence, pfui ! fi ! Of doubt, hm ! hem ! In calling out to a person, the Germans use, he ! heda ! holla ! or pst ! In calling to a person to stop, halt ! In bidding silence, sch ! st ! pst ! Besides these, there are many which are only imitations of natural sounds, puff! plumps ! patseh ! and others. 122 FOEMATION OF WORDS BY DEEIVATION. [§134. BOOK II. rOEMATION OP WOEDS. CHAPTER XXXni. Formation of Words by Derivation. § 134. By the inflectionB of declension, conjugation, and comparison, new forms of the same word are produced, simply modifying their meaning; but by derivation and composition new words are formed which more than modify the meaning of a primitive word. Derivation may be effected — 1. By a mere modification of the radical vowel, as : — fallen, to fall ; fallen, to cause to fall, fell. kranken, to be ill ; kranken, to hwrt. drucken, to print ; driioken, to press. setzen, to set ; sitzen, to sit. 2. By any of the prefixes be, emp, ent, erz, ge, miss, un, ur, ver, zer, as : — bewegen, to move. Empfang, the reception. entbebren, to miss. erzdumm, intensely stupid. Gebot, the command. missfallen, to displease. TTng^ade, disgrace. nralt, very ancient. verzeiben, to forgive. zerstoren, to destroy. 3. By suffixes, such as er, in, ling, chen, lein, ung, niss, sal, sel, ei, e, heit, keit, schaft, thum, and some others, by which derivative substantives are formed ; bar, ig, icht, lich, sam, en, eln, em, and others, by which adjectives and verbs are derived. §§ 135, 136.] FORMATION OF WORDS BY DEEIVATIOM". 123 4. Sometimes a modification or change of tlie radical vowel accompanies the addition of a prefix or suffix, and sometimes a new word is formed by the primitive word taking both a prefix and a suffix. J\"o(e, It must be observed that, although none of these prefixes and 8ufl3xes are now used as independent words by themselves, they were originally distinct words attached to others ; but by the wear and tear of thousands of years they have been so much worn down that they appear as unmeaning syllables, only aifecting and altering the meaning of the words to which they are appended. In some cases sufficient of the original form remains to reveal to us its true meaning, as in the case of the adjective fruclltbar, where bar is the same as the English bear, so that fruclltbar literally means fruit-bearing. In like manner the suffix lich is the same as Zi&e, whence kiudUcb literally signifies childlilfe. § 135. The above mentioned prefixes are employed to form derivative substantives and adjectives, as well as verbs and adverbs. But of the suffixes some are employed to form derivative substantives only, others to form adjectives only, and others again to form verbs and adverbs. I. — Derivative Substantives. § 136. The principal prefixes for forming derivative sub- stantives are : — ge, which forms substantives — 1 . From verbs and substantives expressing union or companionship, or forming collective nouns, as, Gespiele (Jrom spielen), a playmate ;. Gefahrte r/rom fahren), companion; Gehiilfe (/rom helfen), an assistant; Greschwister (Jrom Schwester), brothers and sisters; Gestrauch (from Strauch), hushes ; Gebiisch (from Busch), hushes or a wood ; Gewasser (from Wasser), waters; Gewiirm (from Wurm), worms ; Gebiss (from beissen), the teeth. 2. Prom verbs substantives are derived which denote an action that is repeated or strength- ened, as, Gesprach (from sprechen), conversa- tion; Geschwatz (from schwatzen), talk or gossip; Geschrei (from schreien), clamour ; Gebell (from bellen), a harhing ; Gerede (from reden), talk or rumour ; Gepolter (from poltern), rumbling noise. Sometimes substantives beginning with ge 124 FOKMATION OF WORDS BY DERIVATION. [§ 137. denote the thing produced by the action of the verb, as, Gedicht (from dichten), a poem; Gresang (from singen), a song ; Gebaude (from bauen), a huilding ; or the means or instru- ment by which anything is produced, as, Geruch (from riechen), the smell or sense of smell; Geschmack (from schmecken), taste; Gehor (from horen), the hearing or power of hearing ; Gefuhl (from fiihlen), feeling. miss (connected with the Germ, missen, and the Eng. to miss"), when prefixed to substantives, indicates some- thing defective, wrong, or bad, as, Misston, a wrong sound ; Missernte, a had liarvest ; Missbrauch, had use or ahuse. Sometimes it has almost negative power, signifying the opposite of what is indicated by the substantive, as, Missgunst, disfavour ; Missvergniigen, displeasure; Missachtung, disrespect. un (Eng. un or in) is the ordinary negative prefix forming both substantives and adjectives, as, Undank, ingratitude; Ungehorsam, disobedience; TJngliick, mis- fortune ; Unrecht, injustice ; Unmensch, an inhuman being. Sometimes it indicates something unnatural, as, Unthier, a monster of an animal ; Unkraut, weeds; Unthat, a monstrous deed or act. ur denotes origin or something primitive, as, Ursprung (from springen), origin ; Urheber, originator ; Ursache, cause ; Urgrossvater, great-grandfather ; Urwelt, the primitive world; Urmensch, primitive man. Sometimes it seems to be identical with the prefix er, as in Urtheil (Judgment'), Urkunde (document"), which seem to be formed from, ertheilen (to assign), and erkennen (to acknowledge). erz (Eng. arch, Greek archi), when added to substan- tives, signifies the first or chief of a class, Erzbischof, archbishop; Erzherzog, archduke; Erzengel, archangel; Brzschelm, arch-rogue ; Erzkammerer, arch-chamherlain. § 137. Substantives are derived from primary words by the following suffixes : — § 137.] FOEMATION OF WOEDS BY DEEIVATION. 125 er (Eng. er or or) derives masculine noims from veibs to denote the person performing the action expressed by the verb, as : — der Lehrer (from lehien, to teach\ the teacher. der leser (from lesen, to read), the readier. der Binder (from bindeu, to hind), the binder, der Sohopfer (from sohaffen, to create), the creator. der Sanger (from singen, to sing), the singer. der Schneider (from schneiden, to cut), the tailor. The same suffix is used to designate the male in- habitants of most towns and countries, as : — der Londoner der Berliner der Hamburger der Englander der Americaner der Hollander der Italianer der Bomer, Ifote. In these cases the name of the inhahitants is derived from that of the country or town ; but where the name of the country is derived from that of the inhabitants, the rule does not apply, as, der Deutsche, the German ; der Eusse, the Bussian ; der Tilrke, the Turk ; der Sachse, the Saxon ; der Schwede, the Swede; der Grieche, the Greek; der Dane, the Lane. in, sometimes written inn (Eng. ess, ine), is the suffix denoting the female of men and animals, forming feminine substantives from masculines, as : — die Lehrerin (from Lehrer, teacher), the female teacher. die Eiinigin (from Kiinig, hing), the queen. die Grafin (from Graf, count), the countess. die Wirthin (from Wirtli, host), the hostess. die Freundin (from Frennd, friend), the female friend. die EocMn (from Kooli, cooJ;), the female cook. die Lowin (from Lowe, lion), the lioness. die Hundin (from Hand, dog), the bitch. die Heldin (from Held, hero), the heroine. In all these cases the vowels a, o, u, and au, are modified into a, o, U, and au. Note. The noun Mann, a man, has a feminine Mannin only in the compound, eine Landsmannin, a cmmtrywoman. Some feminine substantives take a double feminine sumx, as, die Prinzessin, the princess; die Aebtissin, the ohtess. 126 FOEMATION OF WORDS BY DEEIVATION. [§137. ling (Eng. ling) forms masculine nouns mostly from substantives and adjectives with, modification of the radical vowel, as : — del JiingUng der Gunstling der Hauptling dei Fiemdling der Liebling der Pindling (from Jung, young), (from Gimst, favour), (from Hanpt, head), (from fremd, strange), (from lieb, dear), (from finden, to find). the youth, the favourite, the chieftain, the stranger, the darling, the foundling. Some substantives with the suffix ling express con- tempt, as, ein Feigling, a coward; ein Weichling, an effeminate person ; ein Hofling, a courtier ; ein Dichter- ling, a poetaster. chen and lein form diminutive substantives of the neuter gender, always with modification of the radical vowel. Many of such diminutives are terms of en- dearment, as : — das Bliuuohen das Banmohen das Biiohlein das Franlein das Miitterchen das Vateiohen (from Blume, flower), (from Baum, tree), (from Euoh, hook), (from Frau, woman), (from Uutter, mother), (from Vater, father), the little flmoer. the little tree, the little hook, the young lady, the dear mother, the dear father. ung (Eng. ing) forms abstract substantives of the femi- nine gender, chiefly from verbs, as : — die Oeffimng (from ofinen, to open), the opening. die EriuneTung (from erinnem, to remember), tJie remembrance. die Eifindong (from erfinden, to invent), the invention. die Misohimg (from misohen, to mix), the mixture. die Ordnong (from ordnen, to arrange), the order. die Kleidung (from kleiden, to clothe), the clothing. niss (Eng. ness') forms abstract feminine and neuter substantives chiefly from substantives and verbs, as : — die Finstemiss die Erlaubniss die BetTuhniss das Begrabniss das Gefangniss das Bildniss (from finster, dark), (from erlauben, to permit), (from betriibeii, to sadden), (from begraben, to bury), (from fangen, to catch), (&om bUden, to form). darkness, the permission, the sadness, the burial, (he prison, tlie form 01 pic- ture. § 137.] FOBMATION OF WORDS BY DEEIVATION. 127 sal and sel form neuter substantives from nouns and verbs, as : — das Schioksal (from soMoken, to send), fate. das Labsal (from laben, to refresh), the refreshment. das Bathael (from rathen, to guess), the riddle. das TlebeTbleibsel (tiom iibrigf bleiben, to remain the remnant, over) ei (Eng. y) forms feminine substantives from verbs and nouns, as : — die Henohelei (from heuchels, to play the hypocrisy. hypocrite) die Schmeiobelei (from sobmeicbeln, to flatter), flattery. die Spielerei (from spielen, to play), trifling. die Sklaverei (from Sklave, a slave), slavery. die Reiterei (from Reiter, a horseman), cavalry. die Druokerei (from Smcker, printer), the printing-office. So also — die Tiirkei, Turkey, and die Wallaohei, Wallachia. e, heit, and keit form abstract feminine substantives from adjectives, as : — die Oiite, goodness. die Oerechtigkeit, justice. die Lange, the length. die Sankbarkeit, gratitude die Freiheit, liberty. die Ehrlicbkeit, honesty. die Gesondbeit health. die Freigebigkeit, liberality. die Sobonheit, beauty. die Eitelkeit, vanity. schaft (Eng. ship) forms abstract feminine substantives from nouns, as : — Freundaohaft, friendship. Feindschaft, enmity. Enechtscbaft, servitude. BriideiEcbaft, brotherhood. Eigensohaft, quality. Baarscbaft, ready money. thum (Eng. dorri) forms masculine and neuter substan- tives from nouns, as : — der Irrtbum, the error. der Reiohtbtun, wealth. das Eonigtbnm, royalty. das Heidentbum, heathendom. das Cbristeutbnm, Christendom, Christianity. das Fiirstentbiun, the princi- pality. 128 FORMATION OF WOEDS BY DEEIVATION. [§§ 138, 139. There are a few more sufSxes by means of -whicli deri- vative substantives are formed, as, ut, at, end, icht ; but they occur only in few cases, as, die Armut, poverty ; die Heimat, the home ; der Habicht, the hawk ; die Jugend, youth ; die Tugend, virtue. II. — Deeivative Adjectives. § 138. The principal prefixes for forming derivative adjectives are be, ge, miss, un, ur, and erz, the last four of which have already been discussed in § 136. be (Eng. he, as in heuiiteK), originally bei (by), and ge are the commonest prefijces, not only of adjectives, but also of substantives and verbs ; but in very many cases it is difficult to say in what way they modify the meaning of the word to which they are prefixed, such as, bereit, ready; bequem, convenient; geheim, secret ; gemein, common ; genau, exact ; gerade, straight. In some cases the ge is only a strengthening ad- dition, as, treu and getreu, faithful; streng and gestreng, strict; lind and gelind, mild. A distinct meaning of ge can be traced — 1. In adjectives derived from verbs where it denotes endowed with or susceptible of that w^hich the verb indicates, as, gelehrig (from lehren), docile; gefallig (yrom gefallen), pZeosjMg', obliging ; gefrassig (from fressen), voracious. 2. In adjectives derived from substantives which have the form of past participles, and denote being provided with that which the substan- tive indicates, as, gekleidet, dressed; gestiefelt, wearing hoots, or in hoots; gehomt, homed, pro- vided mth horns ; gefliigelt, winged ; gestimt, starry ; gesittet, m,annered. The prefix be is more common in verbs than in adjectives. § 139. The sufBxes by means of which derivative adjec- tives are formed are, bar, en, em; haft, icht, ig, isch, lich, and sam. § 139.] FORMATION OP WOEDS BY DEEIVATION. 129 bar (from the obsolete verb baren, to bear) Bometiines signifies producing that which the primitive word indicates, as : — fmchtbar, fruit-hearing, I fnrohtbar, produeing fear, fruitfid. I fearful. But it also indicates possibility, answering to the English suffix able or ible, as : — essbar, eatable. | hijrbar, audible. sichtbar, visible. \ braucbbar, useful. en (Eng. en) forms adjectives from names of materials, as: — golden, golden. I seiden, silken. Bilbem, of silver. \ irden, earthen. Sometimes the same is expressed by the suffix em, as: — holzern. of wood. eisem. of iron. wooden. stahlem. of steel. steinem, of stone. haft (connected with haben, to have) forms adjectives from substantives denoting possession, inclination, or resemblance, as : — tngendhaft, virtuous. lasterbaft, vicious. zankhaft, qua/rrelso meisterbaft, masterly. riesenbaft, gigantic. scbalkbaft, waggish. Some also are derived from adjectives, as : — bOBbaft, malignant. I krankbaft, morbid. wabrbaft, true. \ ernstbaft, serious. icht (Eng. y) added to names of materials denotes re- semblance, as : — salzicbt, salty, briny. tborioht, foolish, like a fool. boMcbt, woody, wood- like. Bteiaicbt, stony, stone- like. G. GR. 130 FOEMATION OF WORDS BY DERIVATION. [§ 139. ig (Eng. y) is tke commonest derivative suffix of adjec- tives. When added to substantives, it simply denotes the quality implied in them, as : — wiirdig, wor&y. Inftig, airy. fleissig, diligent. wasaerig, watery. zomig, angry. heilig, holy. sandig, sandy. freudig, joyful. By this suffix a large numher of adjectives are formed from adverbs denoting time or place, as : — heute, to-day; hentig, of to-day (hodiernus). jetzt, now ; jetzig, present, actual. bald, soon ; baldig, speedy. hier, here ; hiesig, of this place. nachher, afterwards ; nachherig, following, subsequent. Eonst, formerly ; sonstig, former, other. To this class belong tlie derivative possessive pronoTiDs, der meinige, der deinige, seinige, unsrige, Ihrige, &o. . A'ote. There is a suflBx, seligi which has arisen from the stibstantive suflBx gal, to which the adjective ending ig has been 'added, as, mOhseliK (from Miihsal), troublesome ; trQbselig (jrom Trtlbsal), melcmcholy. SeUff was subsequently conceived as a distinct adjective suffix, and appended to sub- stantives, adjectives, and verbs, to denote plenty or abundance, as, gltlck- selig, extremely Ju^fpy; feindselig, Jiostile; leutselig, affable; annselig, vtretched; redselig, loquacious. Selig as an independent word signifies ^o^PVt hlessed, or the late, as, der selige Konig, the late king ; meine selige Mutter, my late mother. isch (Eng. ish) added to names of places, countries, or persons, signifies belonging to them or being like tbem, as : — Englisoh, English. diebisoli, thievish. Spanisch, Spanish. kindisch, childish. irdisch, earthly. weibisch, womanish Berlinisch, of Berlin. dichteriscli, poetical. Sometimes isch denotes a propensity to what the primitive indicates, as :— zanMscn, murrisch, aberglanbisch, superstitious. Itignerisoh, fond of teUing a lie. § HO.] FORMATION OP WORDS BY DERIVATION. 131 Sometimes it is employed to form adjectives from •foreign words, where it answers to the English suffix ical, as : — physisch, philosophiscli, phihsaphical. matliematisch, mathematical. historisch, politisch, militaiiBch, historical. political. military. lich (Eng. ly = like), when added to substantives, denotes likeness or resemblance, as : — fuTstlich, princely. kindUch, childlike. freundlich, friendly. natiirliclt, natural. feindlioh. hostile. vaterUch, fatherly. When added to adjectives, it gives them a kind of diminutive meaning without losing its original sense of like, as : — Tothlich, altlich, reddish, elderly. susslioh, blaulicli, bluish. Sometimes it conveys the idea of possibility, as : thunlicli, nutzlich, begreiflich, useful, conceivable. unsaglich, imuaclialim- lich, unspeakable, inimitable. sam (Eng. same, some, as in wholesome), connected with sammt, zusammen (together wiiK), produces adjec- tives expressing possibility or inclination, as : — lenkaam, manageable. biegsam, bendable. arbeitsam, industrious. schweigsam, taciturn. sparsam, beilsam, economical, saving, obedient, wholesome. So also — einsam, lonely. I gemeiusam, common. III. — Derivative Verbs. § 140. -The prefixes by which derivative verbs are formed are ge, be, ent, er, ver, zer, and miss. K 2 132 FOEMATION OF WORDS BY DEBIVATION. [§140. ge, when prefixed to verbs, does not always impart to it a distinctive meaning, bnt in many cases it modifies or completely alters their meaning, as, branchen, to want or need, bnt gebrauchen, to make use of ; rathen, to advise, but gerathen, to succeed; bieten, to offer, but gebieten, to command; stehen, to stand, but gestehen, to confess; reichen, to reach or offer, but gereichen, to redound to; frieren, to feel cold, but gefrieren, to change into ice ; rinnen, to run (of water~), gerinnen, to coagulate; fallen, to fall, gefallen, to please; horen, to hear, gehoren, to belong to; horchen, to listen, ge- horchen, to obey ; leiten, to lead, geleiten, to ac- company. be (Eng. be), originally bei, in general denotes par- taking of, endowing with, something. Hence, when prefixed to intransitive verbs, it often gives them a transitive meaning, as, weinen, to weep, but beweiaen, to bewail, weep over; fallen, to fall, befallen, to befall; gehen, to go, begehen, to commit; sprechen, to spealt, besprechen, to discuss. When the verb is itself transitive, the prefix be indicates that the action extends over the whole of an object, as, bauen, to build, bebauen, to cover with buildings; decken, to cover, bedecken, to cover all over ; kleiden, to clothe, bekleiden, to dress completely. From substantives and adjectives, be forms tran- sitive verbs denoting to endow or provide with what the noun expresses, as, beseelen, to animate ; befliigebi, to endow with wings ; begeistem, to inspire ; befreien, to give freedom, liberate; beschweren, to make heavy; belustigen, to amuse ; betriiben, to sadden ; bezaubem, to enchant, bewitch; begiinstigen, to favour. ent (originally ant, i.e. against, as it stUl exists in Antwort, answer) expresses — 1. Approaching, meeting, or agreement, as, ent- bieten, to summon ; entrichten, to pay what is due ; entsprechen, to respond to, agree with. There are three verbs in which ent before f becomes emp, viz. empfangen, to receive; empfitnden, to feel; and empfehlen, to recom- § 140.] FORMATION OF WOEDS BT DEEIVATION. 133 2. Transition into a new state or condition, as, entziinden, to kindle; entblossen, to strip; ent- flammen, to inflame; entbrennen, to hurst forth like fire; entschlafen, to fall asleep ; entscUum- mem, to fall into a slumber. In some of these last verbs ent seems to be the same as in or ein (into'), as also in entbalten, to hold in or to contain. 3. ent, lastly, expresses separation, deprivation, or the negation of the word to which it is prefixed, so that it is = un, as, entgehen, to escape ; ent- fliegen, to fly away ; entkommen, to escape ; ent- fiihren, to abduct; entreissen, to snatch away; entziehen, to withdraw; entdecken, to discover; entladen, to unload ; entstellen, to disfigure ; ent- farben, to discolour; entblattem, to deprive of leaves ; enthaupten, to behead ; entkraften, to deprive of strength, weaken ; entkleiden, to undress ; entheiligen, to unhallow, pollute. er (originally ur) expresses — 1. Moving from within a thing or upwards, as, erpressen, to extort; erbauen, to build up, erect; ergiessen, to pour forth ; erfuUen, to fulfil ; ersteigen, to ascend ; erwachsen, to grow up ; errichten, to erect ; erziehen, to educate. 2. A falling into a condition or the beginning of a condition, especially when er is prefixed to verbs or adjectives, as, erwachen, to awake; erbliihen, to begin to blossom ; ertonen, to sound ; erscheinen, to appear; erleben, to experience in life, live to see; erbleichen, to grow pale; er- rothen, to blush; erkalten, to grow old ; erblinden, to become blind ; erkranken, to become ill. In transitive verbs it signifies putting into a con- dition, as, erwarmen, to warm up; ermiiden, to fatigue; ermuntern, to cheer up; ermuthigen, to encourage ; erfreuen, to delight. 3. The accomplishing or gaining an end, as, ersijhopfen, to exhaust; ergriinden, to fathom; erdulden, to bear, suffer; erfrieren, to freeze to 134 FOEMATION OF WOEDS BY DEKIVATION. [§ HO. death; ersticken, to suffocate; erlosclieii, to become extinct. So also in the transitiTe verbs ermorden, to murder outright ; erretten, to save ; emahren, to feed, to rear; erlassen, to remit; erklaren, to clear up, explain; erleicMem, to lighten, facilitate; erreiclieii, to attain hy reaching; erlemen, to gain hy learning; erwerten, to gain hy suing, to acquire; erbetteln, to gain hy hegging ; ersparen, to gain hy saving up; erkaufen, to acquire hy purchase ; erschmeioheln, to gain hy flattery. ver (originally fort, i.e. away") generally expresses move- ment away from tlie subject, as, vertreiben, to drive away; verjagen, to chase away; verreisen, to go on a journey ; verscbenken, to give away ; verkanfen, to seU. Hence ver indicates — 1. Losing, wasting, and doing something in a wrong way, as, verderben, to ^oil ; verthim, to spend or waste ; verschwenden, to squander ; verlemen, to unlearn, forget ; verfubren, to lead astray, seduce ; verleiten, to mislead ; sich versprecben, to make a mistake in speaking ; sicb verseben, to make a mistake in seeing. 2. Vanisbiag or dying away, as, verbliiben, to wither (of flowers^ ; verbluten, to die from loss of hlood; verfliessen, to flow away ; verwesen, to decay (of an organic hody") ; verbnngem, to die of hunger ; verspielen, to loose hy gambling ; ver- trinken, to spend in drink. 3. Covering or sbntting up something by the action expressed by the verb, as, verbauen, to close up (a view) hy building; verbinden, to bind up (a wound") ; vergraben, to conceal a thing by burying it ; vemageln, to close a thing by nailing it up ; ver- siegeln, to put a seal upon ; vermanem, to close up something hy a wall. 4. Placing or falling into a state or condition, as, verandem, to make a thing another, to change; vermehren, to increase; verbessem, to make better, improve; verzagen, to degpond; sich ver- lieben, to fall in love; verbauem, to become a § 141.] FORMATION OF WORDS BY DERIVATION. 135 rustic; vergottem, to deify ; verwaisen, to hecome an orphan; veralten, to hecome obsolete; ver- armen, to grow poor; vertittem, to embitter; versiissen, to sweeten; versteineni, to change into stone, petrify. Similarly we have, vergolden, to cover with gold; versiltem, to cover with silver; verzuckem, to cover with sugar. zer denotes separating or dividing a tiling into its parts, hence destruction or dissolution, as, zerhrechen, to break to pieces; zerreissen, to tear to pieces; zer- sohneiden, to cut to pieces; zertheilen, to divide into parts ; zerfallen, to fall to pieces ; zerfliessen, to flow in different directions; zerschlagen, to knoch to pieces; zerstreuen, to scatter ; zertriimmem, to destroy. miss (Eng. mis and dis") has the same force with verhs- as with substantives and adjectives (comp. § 136^, as, missbrauchen, to abuse; misshandeln, to ill-use; miss- deuten, to misinterpret; missverstehen, to misunder- stand ; missgonnen, to grudge ; missbilUgen, to dis- approve ; misstrauen, to distrust ; missfallen, to dis- please ; misslingen, to fail. § 141. The suffixes by which derivative verbs are formed are chen, eln, em, schen, zen, igen, iren or ieren. chen, when suffixed to other verbs, intensifies their meaning, as, horen, to hear ; horchen, to listen ; schnur- ren, to make a purring noise in the throat ; schnarchen, to snore. Some verbs, the stems of which end in g or h, intensify their meaning by changing these letters into cht, as, sohlagen, to strike, schlachten, to slaughter ; fliehen, to flee, fliiohten, to take to flight. eln has diminutive force, and often gives to a verb a frequentative meaning implying censure, as, lachen, to laugh, lacheln, to smile; Kunst, art, kttnsteln, to meddle with an art ; Witz, wit, witzeln, to play the part of a wit ; klug, prudent, klugeln, to quibble ; fromm, pious ; frommeln, to pretend to be pious. em forms iterative verbs, and such as express a desire 136 FORMATION OF WOKDS BY DEBIVATION. [§141. or inclinatioii, as, klappem, to rattle; stocliern, to •pick; schlafem, to he sleepy; rauchera, to smohe (as incense) ; folgem, to infer ; steigem, to increase. schen occurs only in the verbs herrsclien, to rule; feilscheii, to bargain ; and forsclien, to inquire, investi- zen denotes the repetition of a Bound, as, achzen, to moan, call out ach! schluchzen, to sob; jauchzen, to utter a joyous sound, such as juclilie, i.e. Tiwrrah ; lech- zen, to long for something to drink. igen forms factitive verhs, as, endigen, to put an end to ; reinigen {from rein, pure), to purify, cleanse. In some verbs the ig is only an increase ia form, vsdthont its having any appreciable influence on the meaiiiug, as in, heenden and heendigen, to finish ; verkiinden and verkiindigen, to make known. iren or ieren occurs mainly in foreign words, and represents the Latin are, ere, ire, or the French er and ir, as, studiren, to study ; spazieren, to walk ; mar- schiren, to march; rasiren, to shave ; frankiren, to frank ; exerciren, to drill, exercise; controiliren, to control; and many others. There are also a few genuine German verbs with this suffix, as, hausiren, to act in a house, to go from house to house offering things for sale ; halbiren, to halve ; schattiren, to shade (in drawing or painting) ; buchstabiren, to spell ; handthieren, to trade. Note. It muat be bome in mind that in all these sufiSxPS then or en is the verbal infinitive terminatloDf and no part or the snfiSxes as such, which accordingly are in reality ch, el, er, Bch, Z, and ir or ier. About derivative adverbs and their suffixes, see Chapter XXIX. § 142.] COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 137 CHAPTER XXXIV. Composition of "Woeds. § 142. The German language has much greater facility to form compound words than either the English or the French. A compound word must consist of at least two words, each of which has a distinct meaning, and may be used as a separate word by itself. But whatever the number of words may be which form a compound, the last always determines its character, that is to say, if the last is a substantive, the whole is a substantive ; if the last is an adjective, the whole is an adjective; if the last is a verb, the whole is a verb, &c. The other words only determine, define, qualify, or explain the last. Thus in Landhaus (country-house) we are speaking of a house, and the word Land specifies what kind of house is meant. Again, in Sommemachtstraum (summer night's dream), we are speaking of a dream, and the words Sommer and Nacht define the kind of dream, and thus partake of the nature of an attributive adjective. Hence, every compound word consists of two essential parts, the one (the last) ex- pressing the fundamental idea, and the other or others defining and determining its special meaning. The principal accent generally belongs to the de- termining word or words, as in Ldndhaus, Sdmmer- nacht; the last member has only a subordinate accent, whence it is apt to dwindle down into a mere suffix ; and such is the real origin of all suffixes, for the words Nachbar (neighbour), Adler (eagle), Viertel (a quarter). Junker (a young nobleman), and Jungfer (miss, young woman), have arisen out of Nahbauer, Adelaar, Vier- theil, Jungherr, and Jungfrau. (Comp. § 134, 4, note.) 138 COMPOSITION OP WORDS. [§§ 143, 144, A. — Compound Substantives. § 143. The determiniiig members of compound substan- tives may be — 1. Siibstantives, as, Landhatis, country-hovse ; Buclibinder, hooJcbinder ; Scliulstulje, school-room ; Hausherr, master of the house; Weinhandler, wine merchant; Gartenmaner, garden wall; &c. 2. Adjectives, as, Vollmond, full moon; Eothwein, red wine; Gelbsuclit, jaundice; Friibjahr, spring; Grossvater, grandfather ; Edelmuth, nobility of mind ; Grossmutter, grandmother ; Vielfrass, glutton. 3. Verbs, as, Esstisch, dining-tdble ; Schreibpiilt, writing- desk ; Singstunde, singing-lesson ; Eeitknecht, groom ; Lauf- bahn, career ; Bennbahn, race-course ; Sclu-eibmaterial, writing material. 4. Adverbs and Prepositions, as, HinterKst, cunning; Beilage, appendix or addition; Obdach, shelter; Znflucht, refuge; Nebenmenscb, fellow man; Ansland, foreign country; Inland, inland; Einfiilir, imports. § 144. In aU the above cases the words forming the compound are simply joined together without any change whatever ; but in very many cases the determining word, when it is a substantive, takes the genitive suffix es (s) or en (n), as, Tageslicht, daylight; Herzensangst, amdety of heart, great fear ; Eathsherr, councillor ; Fiirstentitel, the title of a prince; Mensohenfreund, philanthropist; Sonnen- schein, sunshine. These genitive suffixes are taken even by feminine sub- stantives, which otherwise have no case endings in the singular, so that in their case the s and n seem to be mere connecting links, e.g. Liebesdienst, love service; Liebes- brief, love letter ; Geburtstag, birthday ; Hiilfetruppen, auxiliary troops. Substantives having the suffix ath, heit, keit, ing, ling, schaft, thum, or nng, invariably take the s as a con- necting link, as, Heimathsland, the land of on^s home; Heirathsangelegenheit, marriage affair ; Ereiheitsliebe, love § 1*5.] COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 139 of freedom; Gerechtigkeitssinn, sense of justice; Harings- fang, catching of^ herrings ; rruMings-wetter, spring weather; Frenndscliaftsdieiist, a service of friendship ; Eigentlitims- recht, right of property; Eegierungsantritt, accession to government. Note 1. Formerly i or e was frequently used as a connecting link'to form compound substantives, and there are still some instances In which these connecting vowels appear, as, NachM-gall, msAWK^aJe; Braut-i-gam, bridegroom ; Tag-e- lohner, day labourer; Maus-e-falle, moude-tra{p; Les-e-buch, reading book; Schwein-e-fleisch, pork. Note 2. In some compounds the determining word is in the plural, because the meaning requires it, as, Worterbuch, dictionary ,■ Biicherschrank, booft-case ; BUchergesteU, bookshelves; Knabenschule, boys' school; Madchenschule, -girls' school; Blumentopf, flower-pot; Kindergarten, children's garden; Binderpest, cattle-plague. B. — Compound Adjectives. § 146. The determining member of a compound adjective may be — 1. An. Adjective, as, tanbstumm, deaf-mute, or deaf and dumb ; hellgriin, bright green ; bellblau, bright blue ; dnnkel- roth, darJc red ; branngelb, brownish yellow. ?. A Substantive, as, lebenslnstig, enjoying life; liebens- wurdig, amiable; ebrenwertli, worthy of honour, honourable; liebevoU, full of love ; treulos, faithless ; grasgriin, green as grass; bimmellslau, skye-blue ; seekrank, sea-sick; gnmd- falscb, thoroughly false ; naseweis, impertinent. When the determining substantive bas the suffix ath, heitj keit, ing, ling, schaft, thum, or ung, it takes the same connecting link as in compound substantives, as, hei- mathslos, without a home, homeless; hoffnungsvoU, hopeful; alterthumskundig, versed in antiquity; freiheitsliebend, loving freedom ; so also arbeitslustig, fond of work. An Adverb or a Preposition, as, vorlaut, arrogant ; iiber- voU, over-full, too ftdl; halbvoU, half full ; mitschuldig, accomplice, or accessory; angenehm, acceptable, agreeable; ausserordentlich, extraordinary ; nachgiebig, yielding. 140 COMPOSITION OF WORDS. [§ 146. C. — Compound Verbs. § 146. The determining word of a compotuid verb may be— 1. A Substantive, as, handhaben, to handle; lustwandeln, to promenade ; muthmassen, to conjecture ; es wetterleuchtet, sheet lightning appears ; hohnlachebi, to smile scornfuUy ; lobsingen, to sing praises; ratLficblagen, to deliberate, give counsel ; stattfinden, to take place. ~ 2. An Adjective, as, loskaufen, to ransom ; grossthxm, to boost ; -wohlwollen, to wish well ; hochacliten, to esteem highly ; freilassen, to set free; genugthun, to satisfy; liebkosen, to caress ; rechtfertigen, to justify ; wahrsagen, to prophesy. 3. An Adverb or a Preposition. — A large number of these form compound verbs, as, ab, an, auf, aus, bei, dar, ein, fort, her, hin (-with their compounds herab, heran, heraus, herauf, herunter, and hinein, hinauf, hinans, hinunter, einher), mit, nach, nieder, ob, vor, weg, zu, zuriiek, zusammen, durch, hinter, iiber, um, unter, wieder, wider, and veil. Some of these particles are so closely united with the verbs as to be inseparable from them, in which case they have only the subordinate accent, as, iimgelieii, iiber- setzen, unterbrechen ; whUe others are separable in the conjugation of the verbs, and have the principal accent, as, u'bersetzen, tLmgehen, ndchlaufeu, wi'ederbringen. (Comp. § 109.) Note. About the variona forms of adverbs, see $ 124. ■ 147, 148.] CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 141 BOOK III. SYNTAX. CHAPTEE XXXV. Construction of Sentences. § 147. Owing to its greater miinber of inflections, the German language enjoys more freedom in the construction of sentences than the English. Thus, the father hag given his son a hook may be expressed either hy, der Vater hat seinem Sohne ein Buch gegeben, or, seinem Sohne hat der Yater ein Buch gegehen, or, ein Buch hat der Vater seinem Sohne gegeben. Whatever construction is chosen, the inflections leave no doubt as to the meaning, and clearly show what function each word performs in the sentence. There is, of course, this difference, that, if seinem Sohne, or ein Buch, is put at the head of the sentence, these words are thereby set forth with special emphasis. § 148. But there are, nevertheless, certain rules which, at least in good prose, are never neglected. These rules vary according to the nature of a sentence. J. — The Natural or Logical Order of Words. A principal or independent sentence naturally begins with the subject, which is followed immediately by the verb (predicate). When the verb is in a compound tense, the inflected part only follows immediately after the subject, and the uninflected part or parts are placed at the end, as : — 142 CONSTEUCTION OF SENTENCES. [§149. ich kaofe ein Hans, I purchaee a house. ich liebe meinen Frennd, I love my friend. ei ist Torgestem gestorben, he died the day before yesterday. wir haben den Eonig gesehen, we have eeen the Icing. ei wird den Lehrer verstanden lie vnU have understood the teacher. baben, What is here said of the un inflected parts of a verb holds good also of the separable particles with which a verb may be compoiinded, as : — er fiihTte micb biniibeT, he led me across. er ging ans, he went out. er komint zuilick, he is coming bach. In compound tenses the separable particle precedes the uninflected part, as : — er bat den Flan anfgegeben, Tie has given up the plan. er wird Sie anffordem, he will request you. er bat micb anfgefordert, he has requested me. er wird Sie anfgefordert baben, he will have requested you. IT. — Inverted ORrER of Words. § 149. When, for the sake of emphasis, the object (direct or remote), an adverb, an adverbial combination, or an adverbial clause, is put at the head of a sentence, the verb follows next, and after it the subject ; or, if the verb is in a compound tense, its inflected part alone follows the subject, while the uninflected part is put last, as : — ein Bncb hat der Tater seinemj Sobne gegeben, I (he father has given his son a seinem Sobne bat der Vater einj book. Bncb gegsben, j gestem gab der Vater seinem yesterday the father gave his son a Sobne ein Bncb, book. onter diesen TTmstanden gab der in these drcwmstances the father Tater seinem Sobne ein Bncb, gave his son a book. als er micb sah, nabm er die when he saw me, he took to flight. Flncbt, An adjective phrase standing in apposition to the subject, at the head of a sentence, likewise causes the verb to precede its subject, as : — ein feiger Wiistling, bat er all a cowardly voluptuary, he has sein Termbgen vescbwendet, squandered all his fortune. 150, 151.] CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 143 Note 1. This construction, in which the sul^ject follows the verb, is called the in- version of the natural order. The only words (other than the subject) which may stand at the head of an independent sentence without rendering inver- sions necessary are the copulative conjunctions und (orni), aber (&m*), denn (/«•), and entweder . . • oder (either . . .or). Note 2. When the object of the verb is a personal pronoun and the subject a noun, the personal pronoun generally stands next to the verb, as, darauf verliess mich mein Freund, thereupon my friend left me ; but, darauf verliess er mich, thereupon he lei t me. So also, wie hat Ihnen der Apfel geschmeckt ? how did you like (the taste of) the apple ? III. — Interrogative Sentences. § 150. Interrogative sentences are constructed as in English, that is, the verb is put first ; but when the subject is an interrogative pronoun, or when the question is put by an interrogative adverb, these interrogative words take the first place. If the verb is in a compound tense, the uninflected part is put last, as : — haben Sie Geld ? have you got money 1 wunschen Sie etwas t do you wish for anything ? wet hat Geld ? who has got money 1 wo ist er ? where is he ? wo siud Sie heute gewesen ? where have you heen to-day 1 wen habeu Sie gestem besucht ? whom did you visit yesterday ? wessen Buch haben Sie gelesen t whose hook have you read ? It must be observed that the English auxiliary verb do (thun) is never used in German in interrogative sen- tences. Note 1. The same construction is often used in exclamatory sentences, as, wie schon bist du, Natur ! how beautiful art thou^ Nature I wie prachtvoll ist die Nacht ! hmo magnificent the night is ! Note 2. A question is often put in German, as in English, in the form of an asser- tion ; but in such cases the manner of pronouncing the sentence always shows its interrogative character, as, Sie haben doch nicbt lange gewartet? you haoe not uaited long, I hope? du schweigstF thou art silent f Sie sind nicbt auf dem BaU gewesen ? you have not heen at the Ijdllf IV. — Conditional Clauses. § 151. In conditional or hypothetical sentences the protasis, or the part containing the condition, generally begins with the conjunction wenn (if), but in German, even more often than in English, the conjuncton is omitted, and the clause then takes the inverted order of words, as : — 144 CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. [§§ 152, 153. ware ich gesnnd, so wiiide ioh were lin health, I would travel. leisen, hatte ich das Geld, so wiirde ich had I the money, I would buy the das Haus kanfen, house. The apodosis, or the part containing the inference or conclusion, as is seen in the above examples, has almost always the inverted form of construction. Note. The conjunction wenn combined with als (ala wenn = o« if) is omitted with the same result, as, er thut als ware er krank, he acts as if he were ill; er spricht als ware nichts vorgefallen, M speaks as if nothing had happened. If the wenn is expressed, the construction of the clause is quite different, the verb being put at the end of it,- as, weim ich gesund ware ; wenn ich das Geld hatte ; er thut, als wenn er krank ware ; er spricht, als wenn nichts vorgefallen ware. Comp. $ 131 and 152. V. — Construction of Dependent ob Subordinate Sentences. § 152. Dependent clauses are those connected with principal clauses either hy subordinating conjunctions or by relative pronouns or relative adverbs. In such clauses the verb always takes the last place, and if it is in a com- pound tense, the inflected part stands last, as : — wir wissen, dass wit sterben mils- we know that we must die. sen, ich glanbe es, weil Sie es mir I believe it because you tell it me. sagen, ioh werde kommen, wenn Sie es I mil come if you wish it. wiinschen, ichweideDmen dasBnch schioken, J loill send you the booh when I wenn ich dasselbe gelesenhabe, have read it. deijenige welcher (or wer) einem he who makes a pitfaU for another andem eine Gmbe giabt, fallt often faUs into it himself. oft selbst hinein, der Fiirst, weloher vor einigen the prince who a few years ago Jahren seine Krone verlor, ist lost his crown has died to-day. hente gestorben, ioh weiss nicht, womit ich ihm I do not know wheremfh I can eine frende machen kann, give him pleasure. § 153. Dependent clauses may either precede or follow the principal clause, or they may be inserted in the prin- cipal clause ; but whenever the subordinate or dependent clause precedes the principal one, the latter always has the inverted construction, as : — § 154.] CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 145 dass vrir sterben mussen, wissen (hat we must die, we know, wir, well Sle es mir sagen, so glanbe because you tell it to me, I believe it. ich es, wenn Sie es wiinsohen, werde ich if you wish it, I will come. kommen, wenn ioh das Bnoh gelesen habe, wlien I have read the booh, I will werde ich es Ihnen schicken, send it to you. womit ich ihm eine Treude machen I do not know wherewith I can kann, weiss ich nicht, give him pleasure. Note 1. It IB only when the relative is wer and was that a subordinate relative clause can precede the principal one, as, wer nicht horen will, der mi!ls9 flihlen, v'hoever does not listen to advice must siibmit to suffeHng ; was ich gelemt (habe), habe ich langst vergessen, what f have Learned, I have long since forgotten. Note 2. When the verb is in a compound tense, so that the inflected auxiliaries (sein and haben) should stand last, the auxiliaries are frequently omitted, especially when the clause following begins with the same auxiliary, as in the above example, was ich gelemt, habe ich langst vergessen ; was gescbehen, ist geschehen, what has been done is done. But the omission takes place also where there is no such reason, e.g. es gibt viele Menschen, die so etwas nie gesehen (haben), there a/re many men who have never seen such a thiffig. Note 3. When an auxiliary verb of mood (see $ 99) occurs in the infinitive in- stead of a past participle at the end of a sentence, the ordinary auxiliary verb takes its place before the infinitives, as, da ich nicht habe kommen konnen, as I have been unable to come ; well er es nicht hatte leugnen sollen, because he ought not to ha/ve denied it. § 154. All dependent or subordinate clauses partake either of tlie nature of an adjective (adjective clauses) or of a substantive (either as the subject or object, substan- tive clauses), or, lastly, of an adverb (adverbial clauses), dass dn fleissig bist (snbject), ist mir wohl bekannt, ich weiss, dass dn fleissig bist (object), ein Uensch, welcher niohts gelemt hat (adjective), ist nutzlos, seitdem er zu Hanse ist (adverb), ist er fortwahrend nuwohl, that you are diligent is well known to me. I know that you are diligent. a man who has learned nothing is since he has been at home, he has been constantly unwell. G. GR. 146 THE SDBJECT AND PKEDICATE. [§§ 155, 156. CHAPTEE XXXVI. The Subject and Peedicate. § 155. The subject of a sentence is either a snhstantive, a pronoun, or any word nsed substantively. Sometimes even a whole clause takes the place of the subject (see § 154), as :— der Ueusch arbeitet, the man works. wlr leben, we live. die Bosen werden gestraft, the wicked are punished. das Keueste ist nicht immer das ~th^ newest is not always the best. Beste, das Sohreiben enuudet, writing fatigues. dass Sie gcsmid sind (snbject), it gives me pleasure that you are in freut mioh, good health. In the second person of the imperative, both singtilar and plural, the subject is not expressed, unless it is very emphatic ; but in the third person, both singular and plural, and also in the first person plural, the personal pronoun must be expressed, as : — scbreibe, write (fhou) ; scbreibet, write (ye) ; but, schreibe dn, write THOU, schreibe er, or sie, let him or her write. sohreiben Sie, write {you, or they'). schreiben wir, let us write ; gehen wir, let us go, § 156. In the case of impersonal verbs the place of the subject is, of course, supplied by the impersonal es (it), and the same is the case when the third person singular of the passive of intransitive verbs is used impersonally, as: — es wird getanzt, dancing is going on, or they dance. es wurde gekampft, fighting was going on, or they fought. es wurde gespeist, the dinner took pUice, or they dined. In all these cases the impersonal passive is equivalent to the active form, with the indefinite pronoun maU; as, man tanzt, man kampfte, man speiste. §§ 157-159.] THE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 147 iVoie 1. In the case of impersonal verbs or verbs used impersonally, the real or logical subject is sometimes expressed by a noun with a preposition, as, es fehlt an Geld, tMra is a wa/nt of money ; es gebricht an Muth, there is a wa/nt of courage ; es thut mlr leid um ihn, I^ty him ; es steht schlecht um die Stadt, the town is in a bad condition. Note 2. The impersonal es is omitted when an impersonal passive is used interro- gatively, as, wird heute getanzt ? is there daTicing to day f and also when the impersonal passive takes the inverted form, e.g. when the clause begins with an adverb, as, gestern wurde getanzt, there was da/ndng yesterday; heute ■wird nicht getanzt, there is no danaing to-day ; mich hungert, J am hungry ; mich durstet, I am thirsty. § 157. When the subject is a substantive, it is some- times placed after the verb or its inflected part, especially in poetry, while the verb takes es for its formal subject, e.g. :— es liraust das Meer, the sea roars. es heult der Wind, the wind howls. es kamen vier Manner anf nns zn, four men approached us. es ward eine Schlaoht geschlagen, a battle was fought. This is the case most commonly with the impersonal es gibt (there is, or there are), which takes its logical subject in the accusative, as : — es gibt einen Konig, there is a Idng. es gab einen Verbrecber, there was a criminal. es hat Kenschen gegeben, there have heen men. § 1 58. Like es, the neuter pronouns dies and das are sometimes used as the real subject in a general sense when the predicate is a substantive ; in this case the verb agrees with the predicative substantive, as : — Wer sind diese Herren ? Es sind Who are these- genUemen ? Tliey Englander. are Englishmen. dies ist meine Mutter, this is my mother. das sind meine Brilder, those are my brothers. dies sind meine Kinder, these are my children. § 159. The predicate may be an adjective, a substantive, or a verb. An adjective used as a predicate is indeclinable, as: — der Mann ist schon, the man is handsome. die Frau ist schon, the wife is handsome. das Kind ist sobon, the child is handsome. die Kinder sind schon, the children are handsome. L 2 148 THE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. [§§ 160, 161. § 160. When the predicate is a substantive, it is, like the subject, in the nominative, and, where possible, agrees with it also in gender, as : — Cato war ein Bomer, Gato was a Eomwn. del Bedner war ein Englander, the speaker was an Englishman. er bleibt Oesandter, he remains ambassador. wix Bind Kinder, we are children. Sappho war eine Sichterin, Sappho was a poetess. diese Dame ist eine Fiirstin, (his lady is a princess. Note 1. The link connecting the predicate with the subject is commonly the verb Sein (to &e), hence called the copula ; but there are some other verbs which may perform the function of a mere copula, such as bleiben, werdeiL, scbeinen, heissen, e.g. er wird Konig werden, he will become king; er scheint ungeduldig, he seems impatient ; er heisst Johann, he is called John. Note 2. Sometimes the predicate is expressed by an infinitive with the particle zu (to'), in the sense of the Latin gerundive, as, der Knabe ist zu loben, the boy M to be praised, or deserves praise ; alles dies ist zu beachten, all this is to be observed. Sometimes also by a substantive in the genitive, as, ich bin guten Muthes, I am in good spirits; "wir sind eines Sinnes, we are of one mind; er war der Meinung, he was of opinion ; or, lastly, by a noun with a preposition, as, er ist von Sinneu, he is out of Ms senses ; die Sache ist von Wichtigkeit, the thing is of importance. § 161. When the predicate is a verb, it must agree with the subject in number and person. This rule, being the same as in English, requires no special illustration. But when there are several subjects, the verb in German frequently agrees only with the one nearest to it, as, Versohwort sich Hass und Liebe mich zu schrecken ? Bo haired and love conspire to terrify me f Verrath und Arg- wohn lauscht in alien Ecken, Treason and suspicion lurh in every corner. Note. Sometimes the predicalie seems to consist of an adverb, as, das Gewitter ist voriiber, the storm is over ; alles Gltlck ist bin, all happiness is gone ; alle Bemiihungen waren vergebens, all efforts were useless ; but in all such cases some verb is understood, and can easily be supplied. §§ 162, 163.] THE ATTBIBUTE. 149 CHAPTEE XXXVII. The Attribute, Apposition, and the Eelative Pronoun. § 162. "When an adjective, a participle, a pronominal adjective, or a declinable numeral, is jpined to a substan- tive as an attribute, it must agree with the substantive in gender, number, and case, as : — ein guter Christ liebt seinen a good Christian loves his neighbour. Nachsten, dies ist die That eines edelu this is the deed of a noble man. Uenschen, er gab dieses Bach seinem he gave this booh to his eldest son. altesten Sohne, er hat keinen einzigen Frennd, he has not a single friend. dieses Sadchen ist meine beste this girl is my best pupil. Schtilerin, ioh habe den ersten Schritt I have taken the first step. gethan, § 163. The attributive adjective or participle is generally placed before its substantive, as in English ; and if the adjective is qualified by an adverb, or any set of words qualifying its meaning, they precede the adjective, as : — ein ansserst schones Oebande, an extremely fine building. dieser in jeder Beziehong vortheil- this proposal advantageous in every hafte Vorschlag, respect. die von Vielen nioht geglanbte the story not believed by many. Oeschichte, die von alien ihren TTnterthanen tlie princess adored by all her angebetete Furstin, subjects. Note 1. Such enlarged attributes may always be placed after the substantive, in which case, however, the adjective or participle is not inflected, as, ein Vorschlag, vortheilhaft in jeder Beziehung ; die Geschichte, von Vielen nicht geglaubt ; die Ffirstin, angebetet von alien ihren Unterthanen. In this case the attri- bute assumes the nature of an apposition. The attributive voll (/i*^0» when enlarged in any manner, can be used in this form only, as, eine Flasche voll stissen Weines, a bottle fuU of sweet wine. -Note 2. In poetical language a simple attributive adjective is sometimes placed after its substantive, but it then remains uninflected, as, der Konig, gut und mild, reichte ibm die Hand, the king, kind, amd gentle, oj'ered him his ha/nd. 150 THE APPOSITION AND EELATIVE PEONOUN. [§§164,165. § 164. Wten one sutstantive stands to another in the relation of apposition, it agrees with it in nmnher and case, and, where possible, in gender also, as : — ■ dieser Herr, mein Freimd, kommt this gentleman, my friend, hat jittt eben yon Bom, come from Some. die Begienmg Karls des Fimften, the reign of Charles the Fifth. er wohnt in Italien, dem sonnigen he lives in Italy, the sunny land of Lande des Siidens, the south. Sappho, die beriihmte Dichterin, Sappho, the famous poetess, is often wixd oft nnrichtig benrtheilt, iticorrectiy judged. er sprach tiber Sail den Oiossen, he spoke about Charles the Great. die Werke dieses Uannes, eines the loorksofthis man, a great scholar, grossen Gelehrten, sind wenig are Utile known. bekannt, When the apposition precedes the nonn or name which it is to explain, the apposition alone is inflected if it has the article, but. if there be no article, the apposition is uninflected, while the other substantive is inflected, as : — die Begienmg des Eonigs Fried- the reign of King Frederick. rioh, or die Begienmg Eiinig Friedrichs, die Werke des Sectors Inther, or the works of Doctor Luther. die Werke Doctor lathers. In some expressions the apposition always precedes, as, der Monat Mai, the iruynih of May ; der Monat Januar, the month of January ; das Konigthum Preussen, the Mngdom of Prussia; die Stadt Berlin, tJie city of Berlin; die Stadt Eom, the city of Borne; die Universitat Cambridge, the university of Gamhridge. ^'ote. The English of in these cases is superfluons, and is never expressed 'm German, the two nouns standing really in the relation of apposition. § 165. A relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender and number, but its case depends upon the nature of the clause in which it occurs, as : — der Eonig, welcher seine ;1Tnter- the king who oppresses his gutgects. thanen bedriiokt, die Fiirsten, deren Vnterthanen the princes whose subjects are con- za&ieden sind, tented. eine Uutter, die or welche ihre a mother who loves her children. Kinder liebt, der Sichter, den or welohen Sie so the pod, whom you so much admire. sehr bewnndem, §§ 166, 167.] THE ACCUSATIVE. 151 Ifote. The relative pronoun can never be omitted in German, as is sometimes done in English, when in the objective case, as, the man {whom) you spoH to yesterday died this morning^ der Mann, mit dem Sie gestern sprachen, ist diesen Morgen gestorben ; this is the most interesting 'booh (tha€) I ever read, dies ist das interessanteste Buch, daa ich je gelesen habe ; all I have, alles was ich habe. In order to avoid ambiguity, care should always be taken to place the relative pronoun as near its antecedent as possible. CHAPTEE XXXVIII. The Accusative. § 166. As the subject of a sentence is in the nominative, so the object is generally in the accusative. A transitive verb has its object in the accusative. When the object of a verb is not in the accusative, but either in the genitive or dative, the verb is not transitive, and can have no complete passive ; it can only have an impersonal passive, i.e. only the third person singular ; e.g. : — es wird getanzt, dancing is going on. es wnide viel gelaoht, there was much laughter. es ist hart gekampft worden, there has ieen hard fighting. es wird viel gesungen weiden, there will he much singing. Comp. § 156. § 167. Many verbs are intransitive in German which in English are transitive, and accordingly have their complete passive. When, therefore, they are translated into German, the construction must be altered, as : — I am told, man sagt mir, es wird mir gesagt, or mir wird I was advised, man rieth mir, es wnrde mir gerathen, or mir wnrde gerathen, I have been reproached, man hat mir vorgeworfen, es ist mir vorge- worfen worden, or mir ist vorgeworfen worden. 152 THE ACCUSATIVE. [§§ 168-170. The following and several other verbs of this kind govern the dative : — autworten, to answer. helfen, to help. dienen, to serve. niitzen, to benefit. dTohen, to threaten. schaden, to injure. fluchen, to curse. sduneicheln, to flatter. folgen, to follow. trauen, to trust. gefaUen, to please. trotzen. to defy. gehorclien, to obey. § 168. All reflective verbs have the reflective pronoun in the accusative, as : — ioh eriunere mich, I remember. du freust dich, thou art glad. er befindet Bich he is well. wohl, wir beklagen uns, we complain. ihr betriibt euch, you are grieved. sie furchten sich, they are afraid. No reflective verb can have a passive. Impersonal reflect tive verbs also take the personal pronoun, which is their logical subject, in the accusative, as : — I himgert micli, I friert mich. I am hungry. I feel cold. es durstet micli, I am ea verlangt micli, I am Note, A few reflective verbs have the reflectivR pronoun in the dative, and besides it an accusative of the object, as : — ich verbitte mir das, er bildet sich viel ein, wir nehmen una vor zu arbeiten, I request you not to do, or to say, that, lie imagines he knows much, we projpose to ou/rselves to work. § 169. The following verbs govern two accusatives, one a person, and the other a thing : — nennen or heissen, schelten or schimpfen, lehren, to call, to name ; to call by a bad name ; to teach ; e.g. : — er nenut or heisst mich einen he calls me a fool; Narreu, Sie lehren ons die deutache Spraohe, you teach us the German language. Note. When these verbs are changed into the passive, both accusatives become nominatives ; but the verb lehren cannot be so used in the passive, and 1 am. taught the German language must be expressed by another phrase, such as, icli werde in der deutschen Sprache unterrichtet, or, ich habe Unterricht in der deutschen Sprache, / am instructed, or receive instruction, in the German lamguage. § 170. A number of verbs which might have two objects in the accusative, viz. those of naming, choosing, electing, §§ 171, 172.] THE ACCUSATIVE. 153 appointing, considering, express tlie second olDJect by the preposition zu (to) with the dative, or hy fUr (for) with the accusative, as : — • das Yolk emannte ihii zxim Consol, tlie people elected him consul. die Fiir8teii erwahlten ihn zum the princes elected him emperor. Eaiaer, er wnrde zum Professor gemacht, he was made professor. ioh halie ihn immer fiir einen I have always considered him an Betrliger gehalten, imposter. ioh halte es fiir gut, / consider it to he good or right. Sometimes als (as) is used instead of fiir, as, ich be- trachte es als eine Sunde, I regard it as a sin. § 171. Intransitive verbs may govern an accusative of a cognate or kindred meaning, as : — einen Weg gehen, to go a way. eiu Leben lebeu, to live a life. einen Kampf kampfen, to fight a fight. eine Sprache sprechen, to speak a language. ein Spiel spielen, to play a game. Ihranen weinen, to shed tears. But in these cases the accusative generally has an attri- bute, together with which it assumes the character of an adverb, as, ein elendes Leben leben, to live wretchedly; bittere Thranen weinen, to weep hitterly. Note 1. Some neuter verba also, when used as reflectives, take the personal pronoun in the accuBatlve, as, ich habe mich mtlde geLaufen, I have tired •myself by running ; ich habe mich krank gelacht, / Aaue mad£ myself ill iy lamghilig. Observe that the adjective in these phrases remains uninfected. Note 2. The verb sprechen (*o speak) sometimes takes the person to or with whom you speak in the accusative, as, ich habe deinen Freund gesprochen, I have spoTeen with your friend; wann werden Sie ihn sprechen? wlien will you Sjpeafe to him f § 172. The accusative is used with verbs and adjectives denoting price, weight, measure, extent, value, age, &c. das Bnch kostet einen Thaler, the iooJe costs a thaler. es ist keinen Heller worth, it is not worth a farthing. die Kaner ist hnndert Fuss lang, the wail is a hundred feet long. das Kind ist zehn Jahre alt, the child is ten years old. der Eanal ist zwanzig Fuss breit, the canal is twenty feet broad. 154 THE GENITIVE, [§§ 173, 174. § 173. The infinitiTe is often used as a second object (accusative) where, in English, we generally employ a present participle, as : — ich sah ihn fallen, J saw Mm fatting. er horte mich singen, he Jieard me singing. ■wer hat ilin kommen geheissec t who hat ordered Mm to come f Sie machen mich lachen, you make me laugh. lass ihn kommen, permit or order him to come. yote 1 . This constmction is tlie same as the accusative with the infinitiTe, so common in Latin and Greek, and sometimes nsed also in English. Note 2. The infinitive with lasssn, especially in the sense of to order, often has- a passive meaning, as, ich lass&mir ein Paar Stiefel machen, / order a pair of boots to be made ; er lasst sein Kind taufen, he orders his child to be baptised ; er lasst ein Bnch dmcken, he has a book in the press (to be printed); davon lasst sich viel sagen, much, may be said about that. Eespecting the prepositions which govern the accusatiye, see § 128. CHAPTEE XXXrX. The Genitive. § 174. The genitive governed by a substantive is properly nothing but a qualifying attribute, and may often be changed into an attributive adjective, as : — das Hans meines Vaters, or meines myfathei's house. Vateis Hans, das Heer des Eonigs, the army of the Mrtg, or the royal army. das Wasser des Ueeres, the water of the sea, or sea water. das Licht der Sonne, the light of the sun, oi the sunlight. Note 1 . A substantive derived from a verb requiring a preposition takes the same preposition as the verb from which it is derived, as, Fnrcht vor dem Tode (ich filrchte mich vor dem Tode), fear of death; der Gedanke an dich (ich denke an dich), £Ae ffiought of thee ; die Frende iiber deinen Besach (ich bene mich fiber deinen Besncb), the pleasure of your visit; der Mangel an Geld (es man- gelt an Geld), the want of vumty. Sometimes a preposition is used instead of the genitive even where no snch reason exists, only t» prevent ambigoity, as, die Liebe znm Vaterland, the loos towards on^s country; der Bass gegen den Feind, the hatred towards the enemy ; Geboisam gegen die Gesetze, obedience to the laws. Note 2. As the German verb has no gernnd,the infinitive is often used as a substi- tute for its genitive, as, das Vergnflgen Sie zn sehen, th£ pleasure of seeing you ; das Geffihl nnrecht gethan zn haben, the feeling of having done wrong ; die Absicht nach Bom zn gehen, the intention of going to i.ome. §§ 175-177.] THE GENITIVE. 155 § 175. The genitive expresses the wtiole of wliicli any-' thing is a part (partitive genitive), as : — viele meiner Freiinde, many of my friends. der alteste meiner Eriider, the oldest of my brothers. eine der wiohtigsten Angelegen- one of the most important affairs. heiten, Instead of the partitive genitive, the prepositions von {of) or unter (among), with the dative, are often used, as: — er ist der beste von Allen, he is the lest of all. der fleissigste unter meinen the most diligent of my pupils. Schiilem, einer von nns muss nachgeben, one of us must give in. wer von Ihnen will die Sache who of you, will vmdertalce the iibernelunen ^ business ? In the last two of these sentences the genitive could not be used, the partitive nature of the personal pronouns being always expressed by von or unter. § 176. After substantives denoting number, weight, or measure, the partitive relation is not expressed at all, but the name of the whole is simply added in apposition to the noun denoting number, weight, or measure, as : — eine Elascbe Wein, a bottle of wine, vier Ffnnd Butter, four pounds of butter. ein Sutzend Eier, a dozen of eggs. ein Begiment Soldaten, a regiment of soldiers. So also, ein Stiick Brod, a piece of bread; eine Menge Menschen, a number of men; ein Haufen Geld, a heap of money ; ein Morgen Land, an acre of land. But when the things numbered, weighed, or measured, have an attribu- tive adjective, the regular partitive genitive may be used, as: — ein Dutzend guter Trennde or a dozen of good friends. gate Frennde, ein Haufen soboner Aepfel or a heap of beautiful apples. scbone Aepfel, eine Menge ebrliober Lente or a number of honest people. ebrlicbe Leute, § 177. Instead of the genitive, the preposition von {of) must be used when the noun has no termination indi- 156 THE GENITIVE. [§ 178. eating the genitive, and when no article can be nsed to mark it. This is the case chiefly with proper names of towns and countries, and with cardinal numerals. the site of London, a child of three years, the waits of Paris, the king of Prussia, the duke of Edinlmrgh. the youngest of six children. die Lage von London, ein Kind yon drei Jaluen, die Uanem von Paris, der Eonig von Frenssen, der Herzog von Edinbnj^, das jungste von sechs Krn- dem, Note. The preposition von must ftarther be Tised if tlie rank or quality of a person or thing is indicated by a substantive (genitive of quality), as, ein Mann von Stande, a man of rank; ein Gelehrfcer von grossem Bufe, a scholar of great ■reputation; ein Geschaft von Wichtigkeit, a bttsiness of importance; ein Geschenk von grossem Werth, apresertt of great value. § 178. The following transitive verbs govern an accu- sative of the person and a genitive of the thing : — anklagen, belehien, beranben, beschuldigen, entlnnden or entladen, entbloBsen, entheben, entkleiden, to accuse of. to teach, to in- struct, to deprive of. to accuse of. to release from. to strip of. to rdieoefrcfm. to divest entlassen, entledigen, entsetzen, entwohnen, lossprechen, iibeifiiliTen, Tiberzengen, veisicbem, -wiirdigen, zeihen, to dismiss from, to free from, to depose, to disuse, to acquit, to convict, to convince, to asswre. to deign, to accuse. er wird eines SiebstaUs angeklagt, ich belehrte Urn eines Bessem, der Sieb beranbte mich alles Oeldes, sich eines Feindes entledigen, er ximrdigt mich seines Vertranens, er veTsicbert mich seiner Frennd- sohaft, he is accused of theft. Unformed him of his mistake, the thief deprived me of oM my money. to get rid of an enemy, he deemsmevmrtliy of his confidence, he assures me of his friendship. Note. Severalof these verbs, as entbmden, entblossen, entlassen, versiebem, uberzei^en, and others, more commonly take the preposition von ipf) with the dative instead of the genitive, as, er wurde von seinem Eide entbunden, he was released from his oeUh ; er Qberzengte una von der Wafarheit seiner Ans- sage, he convinced us qf the truth of his statement. The verb belebren generally takes the preposition iiber (ofiowi) with the accusative, as, ich werde Sie darflber belehren, IwiUinfonn ymi about that. Others, again, admit of different constructions, as, ich versichere Sie meiner Freund- Bchaft, or, ich versichere Ihnen meine Freundschaft, J assure you qf my friendship. §§ 179, 180.] THE GENITIVE. 157 § 179. A niimber of reflective verbs govern a genitive of the thing along with the accusative of the reflective pronoun ; — sioh annelimen, sicli bedieneu, sich befleissigeu, sioh begeben, slch bemacbtigeu, sich bemelstern, sicb besinnen, slch entaussem, sioh enthalten, sioh entschlagen, sich entsinneu, sioh erbarmen, to take charge of. to avail oneself of. to study dili- gently. to give up. to take posses- sion of. to seize. to recollect. to renounce. to abstain. to get rid of. to recollect. to take pity on. sioh eifrenen, sich erinuern, sich erwehren, sioh frenen, sich riihrnen, sich schamen, sioh vermessen or unterfangen, sioh versehen, sioh wehien, sich weigem, sioh wundern, es lohnt sich, to enjoy, to remember, to defend oneself against, to rejoice at. to boast of. to be ashamed of. to dare. to be aware of or prepared for. to defend oneself, to refuse.', to wonder at. it is worth. er nahm sioh des armen Eindes an, ei bedieut sich des Messers, ich besaun mich eines Bessern, enthalte dioh jedes Unrechts, ich freue mioh meiues Qluckes, es lohnt sioh der miihe. he took charge of the poor child, he makes use of the knife. I thought of a better plan, abstain from everything wrong. I rejoice at my good fortvme, it is worth the trouble. Note. Some of these verbs take a preposition, such as auf (<»i), an (on), or uber i^dbout or at), instead of the genitive, e.g. ich besinne mich auf etwas, / recollect something ; ich erinnere mich an meinen Bruder, / remember my brother ; ich freue mich iiber diese Entdeckung, / rejoice at this discovery ; ich wundere mich tiber Ihre Geduld, / wonder at your patience; erbarmen Sie sich tiber una, havepity upon us. § 180. The following verbs, when used intransitively, govern the genitive : — to attend to. to heed. • to need, to desire, to want, to miss, want, to dispense with, to mention, to remember. Note 1. Most of these verbs axe more commonly used as transitives with the accu- sative ; and it is generally only in poetical language that they are construed with the genitive. Some of them take a preposition, such aa auf, iiber, or an, e.g. er spottet iiber ihn, he mocks at him ; er denkt an mich, for, er denkt or gedenkt meiner, he thinks of me ; wir barren auf bessere Zeiten, we wait for better times. achteu, Acht haben, bediirfen, begehren, brauchen, entbehren, entrathen, erwahnen, denken or geniessen. to enjoy. barren. to wait for. lachen, to laugh at. pflegen. to take care of. sohonen. to spare. spotten. to mock. verfehlen. to miss, fail. vergessen, to forget. warten, to attend to. 158 THE GENITIVE. [§ 181. Note 2. ThefoUowingexamplesof a free use of the genitive ought to he ohserved: — Hungers sterhen, to die^qf hunger; eines plotzlichen Todes sterhen, to die a sudden death ; du hist des Todes, you are doomed to die ; thun Sie was Ihres Amtes ist, do what your o^ice demands of you. As to the adverbial use of some genitive forms, as. Abends, in the evening ; Morgens, in the morning^ and the like, see $ 123. § 181. Tlie following adjectives requiring a nonn to complete their meaning take the noun in the genitive : — bedtirftig, wanting. l)ewiiEst, conscious. eingedenk, mindful. fihig, capable. froh, glad. gewahr, aware. gewart^, expecting. gewiss, c^iain. gewohnt, accustomed. ha1)haft, in possession of. knndig, skilled, knowing ledig, void. leer, empty. lOB, free, quit. machtig, master of. miide, tired. satt, satiated. gdmldig, guilty. theilhaft or partaking. theilhaftig, aberdnissig, weary of. verluBtig, forfeiting. voU, fuU. werth, worth. wiird^, . worthy. Szamplefi. er ist der Hiilfe bediirftig, er ist des Landes knndig, er ist seines Tersprechens einge- denk, er ist jeder Anfopfenmg ^liig, ich bin des Arbeitens miide, er ist deiner Freondsohaft niclit wiirdig, es ist nioht der Bede werth. he is in need of help, he knows the country, he remembers his promise. he is capable of every sajsrifice. I am tired of working. he is not worthy of your friendship, it is not worth mentioning. note 1. The adjective werth takes the accusative when the actual valueofathing is stated, as, dieses Buch ist keinen Thaler werth, this book is not worth a thtder. But other adjectives also, such as gewahr, gewohnt, los, miide, satt, and iiberdriissig, are sometimes found with an accusative. Others, again, take a preposition, as, froh sein fiber etwas, to be glad at something; er ist nicht fahig zum Handeln, he is not capaMe of acting ; die Stadt ist voU von Menscben, th^ tovm is full of men; die Baume sind leer von Frfichten, the trees are bare of fruit. Note 2. The adjective veil is generally constraed with the genitive only when the substantive has an attribute, as, ein Fass voll des beaten Weines, a cash full of the best wine; ein Korb voll reifer Aepfel, a basketful of ripe apples. Other- wise we may say, voU Mnth, or, voll von Muth, or even. Toiler Muth,/iii2 of courage; so also, voller Freude,/itli of joy; voller Zom,/irfi of anger. In regard to the prepositions governing the genitive see § 12(5. §§ 182, 183.] THE DATIVE. 159 CHAPTEE XL. The Dative. § 182. Besides their direct object in the accusative, almost all transitive verbs may have a remoter object of a thing or a person to or for whom, for whose advantage or disadvantage, the action is performed, and this remoter object is expressed by the dative in German as in English, as : — der Vater gibt das Bnoh seineui Sohne, " ioh gebe Ilinen die Vahl, er brachte mil das Geld, er erzahlte seinem Freunde die Geschiohte, the father gives the booJi to his son. I give you t, lie brought me the money. he told his friend the story. § 1 83. The dative is governed by the following verbs, many of which are in English transitive, i.e. govern the accusative and have a complete passive :■ — ■ antworten, danken, dienen, drohen, fehlen, fluohen, folgen, firolmen, gebuhren, gefaUen, gehorchen, gelingen, glucken, gereiohen, gleichen, to answer. grollen, to be angry. to thank. helfen, to help. to serve. lauschen, to listen to. to threaten. miasfallen, to displease. to he wanting. nahen, to approach. to curse. niitzen, to benefit. to follow. sobaden, to injure. to indulge. scbmeiobeln, to flatter. to be due. stehen, to be becoming to please. steuem, to resist. to obey. trauen, to trust. to succeed. trotzen, to defy. to tend, re- ziemen or ge- to be becoming. dound to. ziemen, to resemble. lExfunpIes. man drobte mir, er hat mir stets geholfen, der Enabe trotzte seinem Lehrer, ea niitzt ibm gar nicbt, er trant seineu Frennden zu sebr, er lanscbte meinen Worten, I was threatened, he has always helped me. the boy defied his master, it does not benefit him- at all. he trusts his friends too much, he listened to my words. 160 THE DATITE. §§ 184-187. § 184. The dative is governed by very many verbs compoTinded with, the separable prefixes ab, an, auf, bei, entgegen, nach, unter, vor, voran, voraus, zu, and with the inseparable prefixes er, ent, and wider. iples. he has escaped from the danger. he gives up his claims. he succunAs to his sufferings. he has dissuaded me. he urgently presses me to stand by him,, no means occurs to me. he pursues the enemy, he hastened before me. Ifote. Verbs having the prefix be are generally transitives, but begegnen (^ wieet}, behagen (^ please), bekommen (.to a^ee with), belieben (^ &e pleasiTtg), and the reflective sich bequemen (to submit to) govern the dative, aa, ich bin ibm auf der Strasse begegnet, I have met him in the street; diese Speise bekommt mlr nicht, this food does not agree toith me. ei ist der Gefahr entgangen, eT entsagt seinen Ansprtiolien, er erUegt seinen Leiden, er hat mir abgerathen, er liegt Tnir dringend an ibm beizQstehen, mir fallt kein Mittel ein, ei stellt dem Feinde nach, er eilte mir varans. § 185. Many verbal expressions compounded with adjec- tives, adverbs, or substantives, govern the dative, as : — es thnt mir leid, es thut mir weh, ibm wird grosses Lob zn Theil, er hat mir nicht Wort gehalten, das hat ihm Schaden gethan,. / am sorry. it pains me. much praise falls to his share. he has not kept his word to me. thai has done him. injury. § 186. The dative is governed by several verbs used impersonally, as : — es ahnt mir, es dancht or diinkt mir, es grant mir, es bangt mir, es schmeckt mir. I have afore- ' boding, methiiiks. I am horrified. I am frightened. I enjoy (food). es ekelt mir, I am disgusted. es schwindelt mix, I fed giddy. es tranmt mir, I dream. es schwant mir, I have a mis- giving. es genngt mir, it is enough far Note. Some of these verbs,- such as es dancht and es diinkt, are also found with the accusative. § 187. A free use of the dative, especially the dative of personal pronouns, sometimes occurs where in English we use a possessive pronoun, as : — ich wasche mir die Hande, er fiillte mix das Sias, I wash my hands. hefiUed my glass. § 188.] THE DATIVE. 161 er blies mir in die Angen, lie blew into my eyes. er sank ihm zu Fussen, he sank at his feet. er raunte mir etwas in's Ohr, he whispered something into my ear. Connected with this is the so-called ethical dative, which occurs often in familiar conversation, and where the dative intimates that the speaker is interested or con- cerned in the matter spoken of, as : — ioh hoffe, du bist mir unverletzt, I hope you are vmhwrt (I am con- cerned in it). wer weiss mir das sohonste lied ? who can sing me the finest song ? wir waren dir sehr vergfniigft, we were very happy (J assure you). du bist mir ein schoner Frennd ! you are indeed a fine friend (ironi- cally). § 188. There is a large number of adjectives which govern the dative, but as they govern the same case in English, a fevv examples will suffice : — er ist seinem Vater ahnlich, Ae is like (to) his father. das Grieohisohe ist mir fremd, the Greek langimge is unknown tome. das Glflck ist ihm nicht giinstig, fortune is not favowahle to him. das Baucheu ist Hmen schadlicb, smoking is injurious to you. er ist seinem Versprecheu getren, he is faithful to his promise, die Saohe ist mir wohl bekannt, the affair is well known to me. Note. Substantives derived from verbs governing the dative sometimes talce tlie same case, as, Gehorsam den Gesetzen, obedience to the lams; Fluch den Verbrechem, a curse upmi the criminals ; Hfllfe den Armen, help to the poor ; but it is more common in such cases to use a preposition, as, "Gehorsam gegen die Gesetze, Fiuch tlber die Verbrecher. In regard to prepositions governing the dative, see J 127, G. GE. M 162 THE VERB. [§189. CHAPTEE XLI. The Verb. A. — The Tenses. § 189. The general significance of the tenses has already- been explained in Chapter XXVIII., and we shall notice here only some points Trhich have not yet been mentioned, and in which the German differs from the English. The Present Tense, as in other languages, is often used in historical narrative instead of a past tense, for the purpose of bringing past events or conditions more vividly . before the reader or hearer, as : — TTnd wie er sitzt nnd wie er lansclit, And as he sits and as he watches, Theilt sioh die Fluth empoi, The waters rise and divide, Aus dem bewegten Wasser rausolit And out of the surging flood Ein feuohtes Weib hervor. A dripping woman rushes up. For the same reason the present is often employed where in English we use the fliture (comp. § 116), as : — Das Sohloss ersteigen wir in der The next night we shall go up to the nachsten N^aoht ; wir ermorden castle ; we will murder the guards die Hiiter and reissen dioli aus and rescue you from your charpiber. deiner Eammer. Jetzt lass mich, ,ioli komme bald Let me go now, I shall return soon. wieder. Note. It has already been stated ($ 112) that I write and I am writing are ex- pressed in German in the same way by ich schreibe ; hnt if it is to be distinctly stated that the action is to be conceived as goine on, it can be de- scribed by such a paraphrase as, ich bin, or ich war, mit Schreiben bescbaftigt, or im Schreiben begriffen, / am, or was, engaged in writing. §§190-192.] THE VERB. 163 § 190. The Im^erfeet has two meanings : — 1. It is used as tte historical tense, like the Greek aorist and the English preterite, to relate the events of the past, as : — Hannibal besiegte die Romer in Hannibal defeated the Bomans in drei grosseu Sohlaoliten ; allein three great battles ; but they did Bie verloren denUnth nioht und not lose courage, and 'in the end zwangen ihu am Ende Italien compelled Mm to quit Italy. za verlassen. 2. It is used as a true imperfect to describe conditions or actions going on or repeated in past time, as : — Den ganzen Vormittag sass er im He used to sit all the forenoon in Lehnseasel Oder ranohte labak, his arm-chair or smoke tobaooo, wenn er nicht zn faul war, oder when he was not too lazy, or Bchaute zum Fenster hinans, ass loolied out of the window, but at aber zu Mittag wie ein Drescher. noon he ate like a thrasher. § 191. The Perfect, as in English, properly describies an action not only as past, but as completed and distinct from all other actions, and generally with an implied reference to present time, as : — man hat mich von meinen Freun- they have separated me from my den getrennt, friends. Gott hat die Welt erschaffen, God has created the world. But in ordinary conversation the perfect is often em- ployed where we might have expected the historical imperfect, as : — er iat gestern zu mir gekommen he came to me yesterday and told nnd hat mir erzahlt, me. This tendency to use the perfect as an historical tense, both in writing and in conversation, is more common in southern than in northern Germany. § 192. The simple Future and the Future Perfect gene- rally have the same meaning as in English ; but we have already seen (§ 116) that the present is often used for the M 2 164 THE VERB. [§§193,194. future, and both the simple and the future perfect are frequently employed to state actions which are likely or probable (comp. § 119), as : — ■ Sie werden sich inen, I presume you are mistaken, ex wird wohl noch schlafen, he is probaily still asleep. er wild gescMafen haben, I suppose he has been anleep. er wird sich geirrt haben, he has probably been mistakau Note. Abont the pluperfect nothing need be said here, as it has precisely the same meaning as in English. § 193. The succession of tenses in a sentence or period depends entirely upon the time to be indicated, and upon the thought to be expressed, and cannot be determined by any fixed rule as in other languages. When, however, the sense admits of it, it is always advisable to connect tenses belonging to the same class, that is, presents with presents, perfects, and futures, and imperfects with imperfects and pluperfects, as : — ich weiss, dass er es gethan hat I know that he has done it. (not dass er es that), ich bin uberzeiigt, dass es wenig I am convinced that there are, and bose Uenschen gibt nnd gegeben that there have been, few wicked hat, men. ich glanbe, dass er moTgen kommen 1 believe that he will arrive to- wird, morrow. ich lobte meinen Freund, weil er I praised my friend because he de- es verdiente, served it. er erfiUIte meinen Wnnsoh, sobald he complied vrith my wish as soon ich ihn ansgesprochen hatte, as I had expressed it. B. — The Moods. § X94. The Indicative denotes objective reality and certainty, and expresses an assertion, declaration, an ex- clamation, and direct questions ; e. g. : — ein Feind will nicht, ein Frennd an enemy will not spare (you), a darf nicht schonen, friend must not. wir verlangen Gehorsam von we demand obedience from our unsem Eindem, children. dass ich nicht bei Ihnen war ! oh that I was not with you ! wie entziicken Sie mich ! how you delight me ! welche Sienste kann ich Ihnen what services can I render you 1 erweisen T §§195,196.] THE VEKB. 165 § 195. The Subjunctive expresses what is subjective only, a thought, an opinion, or a report, and what is aooorcl- ingly uncertain, as : — man glanbt er sei dem Tode nah, they helieve that he is near death. man. sagte, er habe ein Buch ge- they said that he had stolen a book. stohlen, er hatte AUes erieicht (or er he would have gained everything if wilrde AUes erreioht haben), he had been more cautious. wenn er vorsichtiger gewesen ware, § 196. The subjunctive, as well as the indicative, may be used in principal or leading clauses, as the mood does not depend upon the form of a sentence, and certainly not upon conjunctions which are commonly said to govern the subjunctive, but solely upon the nature of the thought to be expressed. Nor has the verb of a leading clause any absolute influence on the mood in a subordinate clause, for the indicative is used in the latter even after verbs ex- pressing belief, doubt, or conjecture, provided the substance of the subordinate clause is to be represented as something real, as a fact, e. g. : — ich glauTie, dass er ein ungliiok- I believe he leads an unhappy life, Uches Leben fubrt, i.e. he leads an unhappy life, I helieve it. ioh weiss nicht, ob er noch lebt I know not whether he is still alive Oder todt ist, or dead (he is either alive or dead, I know it not). ioh zweifle, ob der Eranke genesen I doubt whether the sick man will wird, recover. ich venuuthe, dass er mich verra- I fear he mil betray me, then wird, ich hoffe, dass Sie sioh wohl I hope you are well. befinden, If, on the other hand, the substance of a subordinate clause is to be represented subjectively as something merely thought of or conceived as possible or doubtful, the subjunctive must be used, e. g. : — man sagt, dass er in der Sohlaoht they say that he fell in the battle. gefallen sei, er vermuthete, dass man ihn ver- he suspected that he had been be- rathen habe, trayed. ich wflnschte, Sie thaten mir den I wish you would do me the favour. Cefallen, 166 THE VERB. [§197. It is clear from this that there must be many cases in which the same subordinate clause may be expressed either by the indicative or by the subjunctive according as its substance is conceived either as real and certain or as doubtful and uncertain, e. g. : — ich habe gehort, dass Sie zmn I have heard that you have ieen Mitglied del Akademie emannt elected a member of the Academy. Bind, or emannt seien, (In the first form the election is represented as a fact of which I have heard ; in the second the election is re- presented as a mere rumour, and by no means as certain.) In like manner we may say : — man hat mix erzahlt, dass er an they have told me that he has died einer Erankheit gestorhen ist, of a disease. or gestorben sei, er glanbt, dass man ihn betrogen he believes that they have deceived hat, or betrogen habe, him. § 157. From what has been said, it is clear that the subjunctive may be used in clauses dependent upon such verbs as deuken, to think ; empfiuden, to fed ; wollen, to wish; glauben or meinen, to believe; vermuthen, to suspect ; zweifeln, to doubt ; sclieineil^ to seem or ap- pear ; hoffen, to lope; fiLrcMeii, to fear ; bitten, to pray or beg; befehlen, to order or command; verlangen, to demand ; enuahnen, to exhort ; rathen, to advise ; erzah- len, to relate; melden, to report; berichten, to report; sageu, to say ; and many others. These verbs are gene- rally followed by what is commonly called the oratio ohliqua, in which the subjunctive is generally in the present, perfect, or future, but sometimes also in the plu- perfect ; e. g. ; — er meinte, es sei gnt, or es ware he thought it was good. gut, er zweifelt daran, dass dies ge- he doubts whether this can be done. schehen konne, ich bat ihn, er miige mir helfen, I begged him that he might help me. er erzahlte mir, das Hans sei he told me the house was burnt al^ebrannt, down. ich verlange, dass dn aofmerk- I demand that you are more atten- samer seiest, tive. Note. It must be borne in mind that even after many of these verba, according to $ 196, the indicative may be used if the statement in the subordinate clause Is to be regarded as an actual fact. §§ 198-200.] THE TEKB. 167 § 198. The Subjunctive as a Conditional Mood must be used in those conditional (hypothetical) sentences which express a supposition that is not true, and where ac- cordingly the inference is impossible. In such sentences the protasis is always expressed by the imperfect or plu- perfect subjunctive, and the apodosis may either take the same tenses or be expressed by the conditional tenses (comp. § 121) ; e. g. : — wenn ich Geld hatte, so giuge ioh nach ItaUeu (or so wiirde ich nach Italien gehea), er ware gesnnd (or wurde gesnnd sein), wenn er massiger lebte, wenn ich das gewnsst hatte, ware ich nicht zn dir gekommen, hatte er uioht so sehr geprahlt, so hatte er die Stelle erhalten (or so wiirde er die Stelle erhal- ten haben), I would go to if I licid money, Italy. he would he in good health if he lived more temperately. if I had Icnown that, I would not have come to you. if he had not hoasted so much, he would have obtained the appoint- ment. Note. It will be observed that in these hypothetical sentences the imperfect refers to present time, and the pluperfect simply to past time, as is also the case in. English. § 1 99. The Subjunctive as a Potential Mood expresses mere possibility, probability, or a modest doubt. It always takes the form of a past tense, e.g. : — ich hatte Lust dazn, es ware zn wiiusohen, es konnte sein, es hatte bemerkt werden konnen, es konnte besser gemacht werden, I should like it. it would be desirable. it would be. it might have been observed, it might be made better. § 200. The Subjunctive as an Optative Mood is used in the present tense to express a wish which is conceived as capable of realisation. When the past tense is used, it implies that the thing wished for does not exist, e. g. : — moge er bald gesuud werden, lang lebe die Ednigin, mogest dn den Freis erhalten. But- Ware er doch gesund ! Wenn er nnr noch lebte ! Hatte ich nnr Mnsse ! may he soon recover his health. long live the queen. I wish you may obtain the prize. Would that he were in good liealth ! If he were only still alive ! If I only had leiswe '. 168 THE VEEB. [§§201,202. § 201. The Imperative presents some points in which it differs from the English. When a command is addressed to a third person in the singular, the verh assumes the form of the subjunctive, and the pronoun or subject is placed after the verb, as : — Blei1)8 er hier ! Let him remain here I Eiihme sich der Tyrann ! Let the tyrant bocust ! Eamme sie zu mix ! Let her come to me. The same is the case -with the third person plural, which is used in German in addressing a person, and with the first person plural, as : — Gelieii Sie mir das Bnch, Give me the hook. Eommen Sie moigen frlili, Come to-morrow morning. Lesen Sie diesen Brief, Mead this letter. Gehen wii nach Hause, Let us go home. Fallen wir an, Let us begin. Xote ■ . Children and persons under excitement, instead of using the imperative, only name the action which they wish to be performed, in the infinitive, as : — Nur nicht zanken ! OTiLy let there he no guarrelling ! Oerade stehen ! stand upright 1 Langsam g^lien ! WaXk slowly I Note 2. Sometimes a harsh command is expressed by the past participle, to which the auxiliary verb es werde is to be mentally supplied, as ; — Geschwiegen ! i«* **«»■« *« sHeiux I Basoh gegangen ! gi Gen. min thin (iaer iuwer Dat. mi thi (is iu, io Aeo. mi. thio, thi. U iu, io. 206 THE LOW GBBMAN DIALECTS. [§ 260. p toSONAL PbONOXIN OF THE ThTRP Person. Singulq/r. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. M. hi, he — (sin) him hini, -e, -a F. hiu, se hiri hiri hia, s€ plural. M. r. N. Jf. hit - (sin) him hit. Nom. Gm. Bat. Ace. hia, sS hiia, hiara him, hiam hia, s€. VI.— Strong Conjugation of Frisian Verbs. Sing. Flwr. Plur. Pbesbnt, Indieative^ Sul^jimctive. 1 find-e (rjJ«d) 2 flnd-e-Bt 3 find-e-th 1 find-arth 2 find-arth 3 find-a-th. find-e find-e find-e find-e find-e find-e. Past. 1 fand 2 fund-e 3 fend 1 fund-o-n 2 fund-o-n 3 fund-o-n. fand-e fund-e fund-e fund-e-n fund-e-n fond-e-n. Inpikitite. finda. Pbes. Pabt. flnd-a-nd. PastPaet. fund-eu. §261.] THE LOW GEEMAN DIALECTS. 207 VII. — Weak Conjugation of Frisian Verbs. Fbebent. Plur, Indicative, Sul^unctiz 1 ner-e (J nourish) ner-i (-e) 2 ner-i^st (ner-st) ner-i 3 ner-e-th ner-i 1 ner-a-th ner-i (-e) 2 ner-a-lh ner-i 3 ner-a-th ner-i. Past. 1 ner-e-de (ner-de) ner-de 2 ner-e-de-st ner-de 3 ner-e-de-th ner-de 1 ner-e-do-n ner-de &c, &e. Plur. Inpinitite, ner-a. pBES, Paet. ner-arnd. Past Paet. ner-i-d. 2fote. The suffix of the past tense in the weak conjugation everywhere is a remnant of the verb to do (Gothic, didaiii dad. dedum, didanSi so that ner-e-de = uer-e-dad. The final din the English past tense is a remnant of the auxiliary verb did. § 261. The few specimens we have given of the Low German inflections will be sufficient to show their relation to Modem High German and to Modern English, and we shall now proceed to con- sider the Old and Middle High German, the direct ancestors of Modern High German. 208 THE OLD HIGH GEKMAN. [§§262-264. CHAPTEE XLIX. » The Old High German. § 262. The Old High Gebman continued to be spoken and written from tlie beginning of tbe eigbtb century to the middle of the eleventh. It is not derived from the Gothic, but an independent sister of it, as of the other Low German dialects. Its prevailing form is the Frankish, which was the dialect of the most powerful race and dynasty. It differs from the Low German by its partiality for such sounds as pf, ph, z, % and soh, which the Low German avoids as much as possible ; it even dispenses vsdth some of them al- together, as with pf, z, and f. The Old High German, moreover, is fond of such comljinations of vowels as do, tia, ai, oi, di, fa, fo, &c., in the pronunciation of which each vowel is heard, while the Low German prefers single vowels or such combinations of them as produce only one long vowel. § 263. From the middle of the eleventh century the Old High Ger- man underwent a gradual change in the structure of its words, and the vowels of its inflections are gradually worn down and weakened, that is, the full a sound is weakened into e ; and in consequence of this the fuU root vowels also are weakened, a into S, o into 8, and n into ii. We thus meet with the beginning of what is called the Umlaut, or modification of vowels, which plays so important a part in Modern High German. The new dialect, which was thus gradually formed from the Old High German, is called the Middle High German, and is therefore its real descendant, just as Modem High German is the direct descendant of the Middle High German. The literary productions of this last extend over a period of about four hundred years, from the middle of the eleventh to the end of the fifteenth century. The literature which has been bequeathed to us in the Middle High German is so rich and varied, and is adorned by such productions as the lay of the Nzbdungen and the Ovdrun, and by such poets as Wolfram von Eschenbach and Gottfried of Strassburg, that it may justly be regarded as the first classical period of German literature. § 264. But in the course of time the inflectional forms lost their full and sonorous grandeur, and dwindled down into the meagre e sound, which now prevails in all inflectional syllables. In the works of Luther we have the first notable productions of this latest form which the High German assumed. Before his time several §§ 265, 266.] THE OLD HIGH GEEMAN. 209 works had indeed been written in tbe new High. German, but it was owing to tbe great popularity of Luther's writings that his language became the model of all subsequent literary productions: § 265. Consonants pronounced by the same organ are naturally inclined to pass over into one another, i.e. where the inhabitants of one district pronounce ab, those of another will pronounce ap, &c. In regard to this commutation of the mute consonants a regular law (Grimm's law) has been discoveriid, which is especially striking at the beginning of words. The subjoined table shows this law so far as it applies to the Gothic, the Old High German, and the Modern High German, the Gothic representing at the same time the Old Low German : — IC. P P B TH T D K H G High Gee. B (V] F P D Z T OH H, G K High Ger. F V F B D f,Z D, T K OH, G G Examples. GOTH. OLD H. G. MOD. H. B. ENG. f6tus VUOZ Fuss, foot. bindau pintan binden, to bind. brikan prehhan brechen. to hreak. thaurp dorof Dorf, thorp, village. tamjan zeman z'ahmen. to tame. dauhtar tohtar Tocbter, daughter. kausjan cboran kiiren, to choose. hardus hart hart, hard. gibau keban geben, to give. ' The liquid consonants 1, m, n, r, remain on the whole the same in all the Germanic dialects, but r is sometimes the representative of B, as in ohoran and kaug'an. The same is the case with v and s, § 266. We now subjoin a few specimens of Old High German inilections. I. — Strong Declension of Old High German Nouns. Mascul ira:. FEMINrKE. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Norn. Gen. Dat. Ace. Instr visk (JUK) viske-B viska visk visk-u viskra visk-6 yisku-m viska geba (gift) gebo, geba geba, gebu geba gebo, geba gebo-n-o gebo-m geb6, geba G. GR. P 210 THE. OLD HIGH GERMAN. [§ 266. Nedibbs. SiTigular. Plurca. Singular. Phiral. Norn. wort (worcT) wort kalp (calf) kelb-ir Gen. worte-s wort-o kalbe-a kelb-ir-6 Dat. worta wortu-m kalb-a kelb-iru-m Ace. wort wort kalp kelb-ir Instr. wort-ii ■ kalb-u II. — Weak Declension of Old High German Nouns. Masculine. Femihihe. Singular Fhiral. Singular. Plural. Norn. Gen. Dat. Ace. bano (cock) hanin hanin hanun hanun hanon-o hano-m hanun , zunga (tongue) zungHn zungiin zungfin zungttn zung6n-6 zraig6-ni zungun. Nedtee. Singular. Plural. Nam. Gen. herza (heart) herzftn herzin herz6n-5 Dat. herzin herz6-m Ace. herza herzto. III. — strong Declension of Old High German Adjectives. M. Norn, plint-er (hlind) Gen. plint-ea Dat. plint-emu Ace. plint-an Instr. pMnt-u Singular. F. plint-ju, -1 plint-gr4 plint-6ru plint-a plint-az plint-es plint-emu pllnt-az pliut-u. Nom. plint-e,-S, Gen. plint-§ro Dat. plint-6m Ace. plint-§ plural. plint-6 plint-Sro plint-gm pUnt-6 plint ju, -u plint-ero plint-6m pUnt-ju, -u. § 266.] THE OLD HIGH GERMAN. 211 IV.— Weak Declension of Old High German Adjectives. Singular. M. F. Nom. plinto plinta plinta Gen. plintin plintiiii plintia Dat. plintin plintdn plintin Ace. plintin plintto plinta Plural. F. plintun plintftn plintto plintono plint6n6 plintonS plintom plintom plintom plintun plintto plintto. V. — Declension of the Old High German Personal Pronouns. 1st Person. 2KD Person. Singular. Plural. Singular, Plural. Nom. ill (ihlia) wir du, dli ier, ir Gen. min unsar din iwar Vat. mix vms dir iu Ace. mih unsih. 3rd Pei Singular. iSON. dih iwih. Plural. M. F. N. ^ M. F. N. Nom. ir, en siu (sie, si) ez, iz sin, sie, si Gen. — (sin) irS,, iro IS, es iro Dat. im-u (-0) irn, ir6 m-u (-0) im, in Ace. inan, in sia, sie, ei iz, ez siu. VI. — Declension of Two Demonstrative Old High German Pronouns. A. Singular. M. F, N. Nom. der, de, thie (the) diu, deo, de daz Gen. dea dera, deru des Dat. demu deru, dera demu Ace. den dia, die, de daz Instr. diu, du diu, du. P 2 212 THE OLD HIGH GEEMAN. [§ 266. Norn. diS, di^ d@ Gen. dero Vat. diem, d£m Isc. di€, dia, d£ Norn, di-ser (ifeig) Ge». disses Vat. deeemu Ace. disan Jnsir. dio, dia, d€ dero diSm, Akm did, dia, d€ B. Singular, disu (di-siii) desera deeeru disa din, die dero diSm, dem din, die. diz (di-tzi) disses desemn diz (di-tzi) desjii. Aom. disS (des6) Gen. desero (dirio) Dat. desem Ace. dese (disS) dise (des6) desero (dirro) des^ deso (dise) disiu desero des€m disiu. VII.— Declension of the Interrogative Old High German Pronoun. SingulaT. M. F. Nam. hwe-r (who) hwaz Gen. hwes hwes Bat. hwenrn hwemu Ace. hwenan, hwen hwaz Instr. hwiu. CPlural is wi Hrftns.) VIIL— Strong Conjugation of Old High German Verbs. Plur. A. Peesent. Indicative. SulfjvmMve. 1 flnd-u(J^»MO' fiod-e 2 find-i-B find-4-s 3 find-i-t find-e 1 find-a-mes fiiid-4-m6B 2 find-a-t find-€-t 3 flnd-a-nt. find-£-D. 266.] THE OLD HIGH GEEMAN. 213 Plm. Past. Indicative. 1 fand 2 fund-i 3 fand 1 fund-u-mes 2 fund-u-t 3 fuud-u-n. Sub^wrbctive. fund-i fuad-l-s fund-i fund-i-mSa fund-l-t fund-i-n. Imperative. 2 Pers. Sing. find. 2 Fere. Plur. fiud-a-t. lumnTivB. flnd-a-n. Fbes. Part. flnd-a-nt-§r. Past Part. ga-fond-a-n-Sr. Plur. Plm. B. Present. Indicative. Sulywnctive. 1 hUf-u (JMp) helf-e 2 hilf-i-s helf-e-a 3 tilf-i-t helf-e I hilf-a-mes helf-£-m€8 2 Mf-a-t helf-g-t 3 hilf-a-nt. Past. helf-6-n. 1 half hulf-i 2 hulf-i hulf-i-s 3 half hulf-i 1 hulf-u-mSs hulf-i-mes 2 hulf-u-t hnlf-i-t 3 hulf-u-n. hulf-i-n. Imperative. 2 Pers. Sing. hilf. 2 Pen. Plur. helf-a-t. Inpinitive. helf-a-n. Prbs. Part. helf-a-nt-6r. Past Part. ga-holf-arn-Sr. 214 THE MIDDLE HIGH GEKMAN. [§267. IX.— Weak Conjunction of Old High German Verbs. Sing. Flur Sing. Flur. Present. Indicative. Subjunctive. 1 ner-ju (J Tiourisft) ner-je 2 ner-i-a ner-jS-s 3 ner-i ner-je . 1 ner-ja-mSs ner-jfe-mes 2 ner-£t-t ner-jg-t 3 nei-a-nt. Past. ner-je-n. . 1 ner-i-ta ner-i-ti 2 ner-i-to-s ner-i-ti-8 3 ner-i-ta ner-i-ti . 1 ner-i-tu-mes ner-i-times 2 ner-i-tu-t ner-i-t 3 ner-i-un. Impebative. ner-i-n. 2 Pers. Sing, ner-i. 2 Pers. Pliir. ner-ja-t. Infojitivk ner-jjt-n. Pbbs. Part, ner-ja-nt-er. Past Part, ga-ner-i-t. CHAPTEE L. The Middle High Geemaij. § 267. It has already been stated that the Middle High Gbbman extends from the eleventh to the end of the fifteenth century. The dialect prevailing in its literary productions is the iSwabian, as the empire was then governed by the Swabian emperors, and the court always exercised a certain iniiuence in making one dialect more &shionable than another. During that period, though in regard to the character and number of literary productions it is the brightest in the early history of German literature, the language was § 26S.] THE MIDDLE HIGH GERMAN. 215 gradually declining towards tbose enfeebled forms wMch were fully developed in the sixteenth and following centuries. The Old High German demonstrative pronoun der, din, daz, had already lost its original force, and become the definite article. The suffixes of the comparative and superlative, ir, ist, and or, ost, gave way to the weaker forms er and est, or simply r and st. In declension the" instrumental case and the dual entirely disappear, and all the vowels in the case endings are reduced to e, which itself is often dropped altogether. The same phenomenon appears in the conjugation, though the distinction between the strong and the weak is still pre- served in declension as well as in conjugation. § 268. The following examples clearly show the changes which the Old High German had undergone. I. — Strong Declension of Middle High German Nouns. Masculines. Singular. plural. Singular. plural. Singular. Plural. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. visch (fisK) visohes vische visch vische vische vischen vische. hirte (shephei hirtes hirte hirte d) hirte hirte hirten hirte. bale (skin) beige balges beige balge belgen bale beige. Femikines. Singular^ Plun a. Singular. plural. Nom Gen. Dat. Ace. gebe (gift) gebe gebe gebe gebe gebe gebe gebe n n kraft (strength) krefte krefte kraft krefte krefte kreften krefte. Nebtee?. SiTigular. Plurc il. Singular. Plural. Nom Gen. Dat. Ace, wort (word) wort wortes wort worte wort wort wort s 3n kiinne ( kunnes kiinne kUnne kin) kiinne kiinne kiimien kiinne. II. — Weak Declension of Middle High German Nouns. The weak declension has en or n in all cases, except that femi- nine substantives take no inflectional endings in the singular, as, kol (coal), Plur, koln ; ar (eagle), Plur. arn, 216 THE MIDDLE HIGH GEEMAN. III. — Strong Declension of Middle High German Adjectives. M. Nom. blind-er (blind) Gen. blind-es Dat. blindem (eme) A/x. blind-en Nom. blind-e Gen. blind-er (ere) Dat. blind-en Ace. blind-e Singular, F. blind-iu blind-er (ere) blinder (ere) blind-e PluraU blind-e blind er (ere) blind-en blind-e N. blind-ez blind-es blind-em (eme) blind-ez. bUnd-iu blind-er (ere) blind-en blind-iu. IV. — Weak Declension of Middle High German Adjectives. The weak declension has in the nominative blinde for all the three genders, and all the other cases are blinden, as in Modem High German, though the e in en is sometimes dropped. V. — Declension of Middle High German Personal Pronouns. 181 Pbbson. 2nd Piseson. SiTigular. Plural. Singular. PluriH. Gen. Dat. Ace. ich mln mir mich wir uneer una unsich (una) du din dir dich ir iuwer iu inch. 3BD Pebson. Singvlar, Plmal. M. F. N. M. F. N. Nom Gen. Dat. Asm. er sie (sin) irer im ir in sie i ( 1 z !S m z. sie ir in sie. The posseBsive pronouns are min, din, sin. i 269.] THE MIDDLE HIGH GERMAN. 217 VI. — Declension of Middle High German Demon- strative Pronouns. Among the demonstrative pronouns, independently of the defi- nite article, dirre (this) and jener {yon) present some remarkable peculiarities : — Singular. Plural. M. P. N. M. F. N. Norn. Oen. Dat. Ace. dirre disea diseme disen disiu dirre dirre dise diz dises diseme diz. dise dirre disen dise dise dirre diaen dise disiu dirre disen diaiu. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace, jener jenes ■jeneme jenen jeniu jener jener jene ] jenez jenes jeneme jenez. B. jene jener jenen jene jene jener jenen jene jeniu jener jenen jeniu. Note. The interrogative and relative pronouns wer, waz. and der, diu, daZi are declined nearly in the same manner as in Modem High Genuan. § 269. In conjugation, the Middle High German pursued the same downward course which had already commenced in the Old High German, and there is no very strongly marked difference between the two ; but the reduplication disappears altogether, and the radical vowel, which before had been different in the singular and plural of the past tense, is now the same in both numbers. The following example, when compared with the Old High German, will show the slight cha,nges which had gradually taken place, and the tendency towards those feebler forms which prevail in Modern German. VII.— Strong Conjugation of a Middle High German Verb. Present. Indicative. ,1 hJll-eCIhelp) 2 hilf-e-st 3 hilf-e-t Plur. 1 helf-e-n 2 helf-e-t 3 helf-e-nt. Subjimctive. helf-e helf-e-st helf-e helf-e-n helf-e-t helf-e-n. 218 THE MIDDLE HIGH GERMAN. i 270, 271. Indicative. Sing. 1 half 2 hvOf-e 3 half Plur. 1 hnlf-e-n 2 hnlf-e-t 3 hnlf-e-n. Past. Siibjwrwtive. hnlf-e hulf-e-st hulf-e hnlf-e-n hulf-e-t hulf-e-n. Imperative. 2 Pers. Sing. hUf. 2 Pers. Plur. hilf-e-t. IsFINITrVE. helf-en. Pees. Past, helf-e-nd-e. Past Paet. ge-holf-en. § 270. In the weak conjugation, the personal endings are the same as in the strong ; the past tense ends in te, and the past parti- ciple in t, with the augment ge at the beginning of the word, as, sagen (to say), past tense, sagte, or seite, Past Part, gesagt or geseit. 271. We now subjoin, for the sake of comparison, the Old and Middle High German of the substantive verb to be, the different forms of which are taken from the roots bu, was, and es. Sing. Plur. Plur. Pbesekt. Tnlicative. SulQtmctive. 0. H. G. M. H. G. O. H. G. H. H. G. f. 1 pirn 2 pis(st) 3 is, ist bin bist ist 61 sts si SI • sist 8i r. 1 pirumes, pirun. , sin, bim simes sin or pirn 2 pirut, pirt 3 pimn. sit, birt sint. Past. sit Bin. sit sin. f. 1 was was wari waere 2 wari waere waris 3 was was wari •. 1 warumSs w&re warimga waeren 2 warut waret warit 3 warun. w^en. wa.rin. Imperative. o . H. G. M. H. G. 2 Pers. Sing. 2 Pers. Plur. pis stt or wis. or wesat. bis. sit. (272, 273J" SPECIMENS OF GOTHIC. Infinitive. 219 O. H. G. wesan or sin. Pees. Pakt. wesantir. Past Paet. wesaner. M. H. G. wSsen or sin. wesende. gewesen or gesln. § 272. The new or modern High German, as has already heen stated, begins with the Protestant Eeformation, in the first decades of the sixteenth century, and during the three hundred years which have elapsed since then, the language has been wonder- fully developed and enriched. Its spelling has been greatly modified and simplified, and it has become not only the literary language of all Germany, but the educated classes throughout the country employ it in their social intercourse. How far it differs from the earlier dialects, and even from the language of Luther, may be best gathered from the following specimens taken from works of the different periods of the language. CHAPTEE LI. Specimens of German at the Different Stages OP ITS Development. A. — Gothic (aTDout a.d. 350). § 273. 1. The Lord's Frayer according to Ulphilas. Atta unsar thu in himiaam, Veihnii namo thein. Kvimai thiudinassuB theins. VairthM vilja theins, 8v§ in himina jah ana ai'rthai. Hlaif nnsarana thana sinteinan gif uns himma daga. Jah aflet uns, thatei skulans sijdima, svasve jah veis afletan th8.im skulam unsardim. Jah ni briggais uns in fraistubn- j^i, ak Musei uns af thamma ubilin; imte theina ist thiudan- gardi jah mahte jah vulthus in iivins. Amgn. Vater unser du im Himmel, geweihet (sei) Name dein. Es komme Eeioh dein. Es werde (geschehe) Wills dein, wie im Himmel (so) auoh auf (der) Erde. Dies unser taglich Bred gib uns heute. Und befreie uns (von dem) was wir sohuldig sind, wie auch wir vergeben jenen unsern Schuldigern. TJnd bringe uns nioht in Versuchung, sondem erlose uns von diesem Uebel ; denn dein ist (das) Eeioh und (die) Macht und Herrliohkeit. Amen. 220 SPECIMENS OF GOTHIC. [§274. Tiimi-nftm is the Dat. Plur. of himins. veilmai, kvimai, and vairthaii are third persons present subjunctive of the verba veilmail. Germ, weihen, geheiligt werd&n^ Eng. to be smtctijied; kviman, Germ. JeommeTtt Eng. to come, and vairthaii) Germ, werden^ to be made or be done. thiudiiiassns, kingdom or empire^ from thiuda, the people. airthai> Dat- Sing, of airtha, Eng. earth. Germ. JSrde. hlaif, Eng. loaf (of bread), Germ. Laib. sinteinS) or aeiteins, Eng. dailyj Germ, tdglich. jah, amdf also. himma daga* Eng. this day. Germ, diesen Tag, or heute; himma is the Dat. Sing. Masc. of his (Lat. hie). afletan* Eng. to Jet off, i.e. forgive. Germ. abULSsen. sijaimai tve are, first person plural of visan (or sijan)) Germ, wesen or seivi, Eng. to be. skulat Plur. sknians (connected with shaXl and the Germ. Schuld), guilty, owing, indebted. fraistabnjaii temptation, from fraisan. to tempt. briggan, Eng. to bring or lead, GeiTu. bringen ; bliggais is tbe imperative. lauseii Imperat. of lausjan, Eng. to loosen orfree. Germ, losen. ubilSi Eng. eoil. Germ. Uebel. tmtS, conjmiction, /or. thiudangardi) empire, kingdom. mabtS) Germ. Macht, Eng. might. vnltlmSi Eng. vKoUh, glory. Germ. Rerrlichkeit. From it come the modem wdlten and GewaZt. aivinS) eternity, from aiv» Lat. aevum, Greek, alav. §274. 2. — A Passage from the Gospel of St. Luke, chap. ii. 1-6. 1. Varththanindaganajiiinans, It then happened in those days, utrann gagrgfts fram kaisara a decree went out from Caesar Aguatd,u gameljan allana mid- Augustus to inscribe all the jungard. world. 2. Soh than . gilstrameheins This registration (inscribing) frumiata varth at visandin kin- then happened first when Kyre- dina Syriais Kyreinian. nius was goveruor of Syria. 3. Jah iddjgdun aJlai, ei mg- And all went that they might lid^i veseina, hvarjizuh in seinai be inscribed, every one in his baiirg. town. 4. TJrran than jah losef us Out went then also Joseph Ctaleildia us baiirg Nazaraith in from Galilee, from the town ludiian, in baiirg Daveidis, sei Nazareth, to Judsea, into the town hSitada Bethlahaim, duthe ei vas of David, which was called us garda fadreinis Daveidis ; Bethlehem, because that he was of the house (and) family of David, 5. AnamSljan mith Mariin, sei To inscribe (himself) with in fragistim vas imma kvSlins Mary, who was given to him (as visandein inkilthon. his) wife, being in pregnancy. 6. Varth than, miththanei tho It then happened, while they vesun jainar, usfullnodMun dagos were there, tiie days for her to du bairan iz^. give birth were completed. §275.] SPECIMENS OF OLD HIGH GERMAN. 221 Notes. vartht past tense of vairthaa, Germ, werdew, to "become or Ua/j^pen. urraniit past tense of urrinnaH.. i.e. utrizmaiLi ^ run out, go out. gagrefts, a decree. gameljan* to mscribe. midjnngardSi the uhole earth, orbis terrarvm. SOhi ^^^s or such. gilstramebeins, vmcriptifmt registration, census. fnunista, Eng. first, Genn. erste. visandin (from visani Germ, wesen, whence was') kindina) being governor. at, a preposition governing the dative, signifying under or at the time of. iddj^duxit they went, past tense of gaggaHi to go. ei, that, in order that. meljaxL, to %t'rite, inscribe. hvaijiznh, every one. baurgt Eng. borough, town, the territory of aborough. Germ. Burg. US, out of, from. Bei (from so ei). which; Old Germ, so for welcher. haitada* passive of haita/n. Germ, heissen, to be called. duht€ ei, because that, or simply because. gardai house, fwmiVy. fadreins, paternal, or as a suhstantive, a race. anaiXLeljaiii to im,scr\be. fragistini) from fragiftSj Germ. Vergeben, giving auay in marriage, betrothal. kvelinS) a wife, from kvenS) a woman or loife; Eng. queen. inkilthOi in pregnancy. miththanei thoj while they. jainar, there. nsfaHnddedun, past tense of ugftdljail, to Jill out, complete. dill Eng. to. Germ. zu. izai, dative, to or for Aer. bairan.) to bear, give birth. Germ, g^dren. From these few examples it "will be seen that some few Gothic words have ceased to he used in the modern languages, while others, in a somewhat altered form, are still used either in German or in English, or in both. B. — Old High German. § 275. The following extract is a passage from the fragment of the Eildehrandslied ("The Son^ of Hildebrand "), an alliterative poem which belongs to the eighth century. It is- in the main written in the High German of that age, but it abounds in forms of Low German or Old Saxon, which may possibly have been intro- duced by transcribers belonging to Lower Germany. Ik gihfirta dhat seggen, dhat sih wrh^ttun aen&a muotin jHiltibraht enti Hadhubrant untar Aeiiun tu^m sunufatarungos iro saro rihtun ^arutun s6 ir6 gftdhamim, gmrtun sih iro suert ana 222 SPECIMENS OF GERMAN. [§275. ftelidos, ubar MngI,, do sie to dero Ailtiu ritun. Biltibraht gf'mahalta [fferibrantes sunu] — her was heroro man, /erahes frot6ro — her /rUgeu gistuont fohem wortum hwer sin /ater w^ri fire6 in/olohe, " eddo hwetihhes onuosles du sts. ihu du mt enan sagfis, ik m6 d^ Oilrg wgt. cMnd, in oftuiiinortohe cAud ist mi al irmindeot." Hadubraht gimahalta, jHiltibrautes sunu : " dat sagetun ml dser^ liuti, allg anti frotg, deS. er hina wSirun, dat fiiltibrant Aaetti mm fater ; ih Aeittu fladubrant." Translation into Modern German. leh horte das sagen (erzahlen), dass sioh herausforderten zu einzelnen Begegnungen Hiltibrant und Hadubrant, zwischen zwei Heeren. Sohn and Vater ihre Waffen riohteten (ordneten), bereitetea (legten an) sie ihre Kriegsgewande, gurteten sioh ihre Schwerter an, die Helden, iiber die Einge (des Panzers), da sie zu dem Kampfe ritten. Hiltibrant sprach [Heribrant's Sohn], er war der hehrere Mann, der lebenserfahrenere, er zu fragen beganu mit wenigen Worten, wer sein Vater ware von den teuton im Volke, " Oder welches Geaohleehtes du seist. Wenn du mir einen sagest, ioh mir die audern weias. Kind, im Konigreiohe kund ist mir alle Stammgenosseusdhaft." Hudubrant sprach, Hiltibrant's Sohn : " das sagten mir unsere Leute, alte und erfahrene, die eher (fruher) hin waren (starben), dass Hiltibrant hiesse mein Vater; ich heisse Hadubrant." j:fotes, gih6rta. The prefix gi, modern German ge, in Old High German is added, not only to the past participle, but to any other part of a verb, apparently to strengthen its meaning. urhettuu. The prefix ur = «'' signifies out or forth, bence urhetun, to call out, to challenge. snnufataruugOB, composed of sunu and fatar ; the syllable uug only joins the two words into one compound. iro, the genitive of the personal pronoun, takes the place of the possessive pronoun. garOi the general expression for arms or armour. g&dhamOi literally war-shirt (hamo = Hemde), i.e. corselet, coat of mail. helidOSt die ndden, the heroes. hiltiai the fight, whence the name Hiltibrant, and other proper names, such as Hildegarde, Hildegunde, &c. §276.] SPECIMENS OF OLD HIGH GEEMAN. 223 gimahaltaj the imperrect of mahaljailj to speaJe. Respecting the prefix gi, see above. ferah) the seat of life, the smil, hence life. frotorO) the comparative of frod, clever, experienced. herdrS} the modern German hehrer, i.e. more venerable. fdh§ni) from foil (Eng./ew), is the instrumental case. fired) the genitive plural for firheOj is governed by the interrogative hweii and signifies ma/n, like the Latin vir. Onuosal) ^a.ce or family. chiid = chmidi modern German Jcund, i.e. known. irmindeot, the Irmin people, i.e. the people worshipping the god Ii*mino aa their founder; probably therefore the tribe known by the name of Hermiones. But the word seems gradually to have acquired the general meaning of people of the same descent or origin. hina wesan, modem German Mnsein, is a euphemistic expression for to die, like he is gone. § 276. The following specimen of Old Higii German is the Wessdbrunner Oehet ("The Wessohrun Prayer"), which likewise belongs to the eighth century, and is written in alliterative lines : — Dat ga^egin ih mit /irnhim /iriwizzo meista, dat ero ni was noh aihimil, noh ^aum noh pereg ni was, ni nohheinig noli sunna ni soein, noh mS,no ni liuhta, noh der mareo seo. d6 clar nitoiht ni «)as enteo ni wentSo, [enti] do was der eino almahttco cot, manno miltisto ; enti dar warun anh manahe mit inan cootlilih.§ gelstl. enti cot heilao, cot almahtico, dft himil enti erda gaworalitos, enti d(i maunum b8 mauac coot forgS.pi, forgip mir in dino ganada rehta galaupa enti cotan willeon, wistom enti spa,hida, enti craft tiuflun Za wiidarstantanne enti arc za piwiisanne, enti dtnan icilleon za gaiouiohanne. Translation into Modern German. Das lernte ioh unter Menschen (als) der Wnnder grosstes, dass Brde nioht war, nooh Himmel oben, noch Baum, nooh Berg nicht war, noch . irgend, noch Sonne nicht schien, nooh Mond nicht leuohtete, nooh die hehre See. Als da niohts niolit war der Enden noch der Wenden, da war der eine allmaohtige Gott, der Manner mildester ; und da waren auch manche mit ihm gute Geister. Und Gott heilig, Gott allmachtig, du Himmel und Erde wirktest (sohufest), und du (den) Menschen so manch Gut (Yer)gabBt, 224 SPECIMENS OF OLD LOW GEKMAN. [§277. gib mil- iu deiaer Gnade rechten Glauben und guten Willen, Weisheit uiid Elugheit, und Kraft (den) Teufeln zu widerstehen und Arges zu verweisen (vertreiben) und deinen Willen zu wlrken (thun). Ifotes, gafregin is the past teDse for gafragni from fragani ^ inquire^ to learn, modem Germ, fragen. firiwizzo meista are in apposition to dat. Filiwizzi (^Vvrwitz) here signifies wonder. mit, with, artumg. ero» *^ earth; from it erda tw-as formed by the insertion of d, as is the case in manOi ^^^ Mond, and iiienian» niemand. mareOi splendid, grand. seO) ^^ sea. niwitlt) ^njot a whit, no thing, nothing. mit inan* with him; mit here governs the accusative. C. — Old Low German (Old Saxon and Anglo-Saxon). § 277. — 1. Old Saxon.— The following extract is taken from the Eeliand(xnode.ra. Germ. Eeilaml, the tainour, from heilen, to heal), SL Grospel harmony in alliterative verses, composed in the ninth century (see Matthew xxir. 1 foU.). 6eng im thuo the grodes suno endi is tnngron mid im, waldand, fan them teihe, all so is loillio geng. lac im nppan thena lierg gisteg bam drohtines, iSat im thar mid is gesitbon, endi im sagda Slo wararo Mordo. Sia bignnnnn im thuo umbi thena «rih sprecan, thia gumon, umbi thiit godes hus ; quathun that ni wari ^odlicoTO alah obar erthu, thie is tburu erlo hand, thnru mannes giwero mid megincraftn raced arihtid. Thuo thie rikeo sprak, Aer Aebancnniog, bordun thia odra. "Ik mt^ iu tellian," qnat hie, " that noh wirdit thin fid cuman, that is afstandan ni seal sten obar odron, ac it/allit te/oldu endi ityiur nimit, ^rradag logna, thoh it nu so gniodlic si, so wislico gitcaiaht. Endi no dnut all thesaro iceroldes giscapu, te^lidit grmoni wang." Thuo ^engun im is iungron tuo, fragedun ina so stillo : " Huo lango seal gtandan noh," quahtun sia, " thins tcerold an lounnion, er l£an that gitcand cume, that thie iezto d»g Ziohtes seine thuru 2iX)lcanscion, eftha hyann is thin eft tcau cuman. an thesan middilgaid, Tnanno cnnnie te a<2elianne, dodon endi quicon ? Fiao mm the godo, us is thesyiriwitt mikil, waldandie Kiist, hvann that gitoerthan scoli 1 " Thuo im andzcurdi alowaldo Krist ^odlico fargaf, them ^mon selbo. § 277.] SPECIMENS OF OLD LOW GERMAN. 225 Translation into Modern German. (Es') erging sich da der Gottes Solin, und seine Junger mit ihm, (der) WAltende, aus dem Tempel, ganz so wis sein Wills ging. Auch (sich) obeu auf den Berg stieg (der) Sohn (des) Herrn, sass (sich) dort mit seinen Uelahrten, nnd ihnen sagte (er) viel wahrer Worte. Sie begannen ihm da iiber den Tempel (zu) spreohen, die Manner, iiber das Gottes Hans ; sagteu, dass nicht waie gottlicher (ein) Tempel iiber der Erde, der je durch Manner Hand, durch Mannes Work, mit Volliraft als Palast errichtet (worden). Da der Machtige sprach, (der) hehre Himmelskonig, horten die Andern. "Ich kann Euch erzahlen," sprach er, "daas noch wird die Zeit kommen, dass davon stehen nicht soil (ein) Stein iiber dem andern, sondem (dass) er fallt zu Boden und ihn das Feuer nimmt, gefrassige Lohe, obgleich er nun so herrlich ist, so weislioh gearbeitet. Und so thun all dieser Welt Geschopfe, (es) zergleitet die griine Au." Da gitjgen ihm seine Jiinger zu, fragten ihn so still : " Wie lange soil stelien noch," sagten sie, " diese Welt in Wonnen, ehe dann die Wendung (the end) komme, dass der letzte Tag (des) Liehtes soheine durch (den) Wolkenhimmel, oder wann ist dein Wille wiederzu- kommen auf dieaeu Mlttelgarten (the earth), (das) Menschengesohlecht zu richten (die) Todteu und Lebendigen ? Herr njein, der gute (i.e. du guter), uns ist der Begierde viel (zu wissen), waltender Christ, wanu das werden soil." Da ihnen Antwort (der) allwaltende Christ giitlich gab deu M'annern er selbst. Not&s. geng im, ^ went, it is a peculiarity of the Old Sason of tlie Helicmd. to use intransi- tive verbs as reflective. The nearest approach to it in modem Gennan is er ■ trgin^ sicA. So afterwards im gisteg, A« ascended; sat im, As sat down; and several others. ■^^h, 0, ca Francistan ahton waslstowe geweald. Wilhelm sende dfer ealle Angla-lande, into seloere scire, his men, and lette ag^n iit hii feola hundred h^da wjeron innon Jrsere scire, oWe hwset se cyning secjlf bsefde landes and yrfes innau J ^m lande, o?¥e hwilce geriht he ahte to hahbanne, to twelf monafum, of ] sere scire ; and hwset o^'Se hii mycel sslce man hasfde ye land-sittende wses innan Angla-lande, on lande oWe on yife, and hii mycel feds hit wser weor?. He Isefde sefter hi'm freo suna. Eeodbeard liet se yldesta, ee wses Eorl on Normandige sefter him. so oSer het Wilhelm fe bser sefter him, on Engla-lande, )»ne cynehelm. se Jirydda hdt Heanric. He ssette mycel deorfriTS, and he Isege laga fser-wiS Jjset swahwa-swa sloge heort oMe hinde, fset hi'ne man sceolde blendian» He forbsed J-a heortas swyloe eao fa bSras, swa swife he lufode ).a heah-dedr swylce he wser heora feeder. Eac he ssette be \,i.m. h&an Jiast hi moston freo faran. Mi\sx his dea¥e his snnu Wilhelm feng to Jdm rice. He wear's on huntnaT'e fram his ^genum mannum mid aure fld ofsldgen ; and sy^fan to Wintanceastre gebrdht, and on f ^ra bisceopn'ce bebyriged, fset wses Jrses fryttedJan geares ].e he rice onfeng. The same in Modern German. Hier (in diesem Jabre)'kam Wilhelm, Graf von der Normandie, nach Pevensey, und Konig Harold sammelte dann ein grosses Heer und kam ihm entgegen. Und Wilhelm kam ihm unerwartet, ehe sein Volk versammelt war. Aber der Konig focht dennoch sehr herzhaft gegeu ilin mit den Mannen, die ihm folgen wollten. Und da ward eine grosse Schlacht geschlagen auf beiden Seiten. Da wurde Konig Harold erschlagen, und die Fra:izosen behaupteteu die Wahlstatt. §279.] SPECIMEMS OF MIDDLE HIGH GERMAN. 227 Wilhelm sandte iiber ganz England in jede Grafsohaft seine Manner und liess ausfiiiden, wie viele hundert hydes (of land) in jenen Graft schaften waren, oder was der Konig selbst an Land und Erbe in dem Laude liatte, oder welches Eeobt er haben soUte (?) auf zwolf Monate von diesen Grafschaften ; und was oder wie viel Land inne hatte in England, in Land oder in ]'"rbe, und wie viel Geld as werth ware. Er hintevliess drel Sohne. Eothbart hiess der alteste ; er war Graf von der Normandie naoh ihm. Der andere hiess Wilhelm, der nach ihin in England die Konisrskrone trug. Der dritte hiess Heinrioh. Er machte eiaen grossen Wildpark, und zugleieh gab er ein Gesetz, dass, wer aui'h immer einen Hirsch oder eiue Hirschkuh todtete, jenen Mensc'hen zu blenden. Er verbot dann die Hirsohe wie auch die Eber (zu todten). So sehr liebte er die Kehe, als ware er ihr Vater. Auch setzte er iiber die Hasen fest, dass sie frei fahren (leben) miissteu. Nach seinem Tode iibernahm sein Sohn Wilhelm das Keioh. Er wurde auf der Jagd von seinen eigenen Maimen mit eincm Pfeil erschlagen und dann naoh Winchester gebracht und in deiu Bisthum begraben. Das war das dritte Jahr, seit er das Beich empfing. D. — Middle High Gekman. (From the First Half of the Tuielfth down to the Fifteenth Century.') § 279. The following extract (the contest between Cfesar and Pompey) is taken from the song on Anno, archbishop of Cologne, vrhich was probably composed during- the first half of the twelfth century. Its language, which is mainly High German, forms a kind of transition from the Uld to the Middle High German. During this period, German literature is rich in various productions, both in prose and in verse, and it has therefore not unfitly been called its first classical period. Wer mohto gecelin al die menige Wer mochte zahlen all die Menge, di Cesari iltin ingegine Die Caesar eilten entgegea van Ostrit allinthalbin, Von Oaten allenthalben, alsi der sne vellit uffin alvin ; Als der Schnee fallt auf den Alpen; mit Boarin unti mit Volkin, Mit Scharen und mit Volkern, alsi der hagilverit van den wolkiQ, Ala der Hagel fahrt von tien Wolken. mit minnerem herige Mit minderm Heere genant' er an die menige. Kannte er an die Menge. duo ward diz hertisti volowig. Da war der harteste Volkskampf, also diz buooh quit, Wie das Buch sagt, daz in disim' merigarten Der in diesem M'ahrgarteu ie gevrumit wurde. Je voUbraolit wurde. Oy ! wi di wafini clungin, Hei I wie die Waffen klangen, da di marih oisamine sprungin ! Da die Eosse zusammen sprangeu ! herehorn duzzin. Heeihorner ertooten, becche bluotis vluzzin. Baohe Blutes flossen. 228 SPECIMENS OF MIDDLE HIGH GERMAN. [§ 280. d' erde dii-untim diimiti, di belli ingegine glunite, da di heristin in der weiilte Buohtin sich mlt suertia. duo gelach dir manig breiti scari iiiit bluote biiiinnin gari. dS, molite man sin douwen durb belme virbouwln des richin Pomp6iis man. 0#sar da den sige nam. Die Erde drunten erdrobnte. Die Holle entgegengluhte, Da die Hebrsten in der Welt Sich sucbteu mit Sobwertem. Da lag dir mancbe breite Schai Mit Blut beronnen gar. Da konnte man sebeti sterben Dureb Helme zerhauen Des reichen Pompeius Mannen. Da nabm Caesar den Sieg. Notes. alvin, according to some, signifies the Alps, according to others, mountains in general. betige is the dative for herie, from the nominative her or heri, on army. genaut) from the stem nind, past tense, genaade, to take courage, to venture against. VOlcwigi ajiglit of armies against each other. 'Vnuneni modem German /rommcji, to get on, succeed, accomplish, herehorzL) the uar-trumpet. duzzin, the past ti-nse of diezen, modem German tosen, to make a noise or uproar, douwen, to die, whence the modem Germ. todt. § 280. The following passage is the banning of a poem called Der arme Eeinrich, by Hartmann von Ouwe, one of the most dis- tinguished poets of his age, who died about 1220, and in the following lines gives some account of himself. Ein ritter so geleret was, daz er an den buorben !aa, swaz er dar an gescljriben vand ; der was Hartman frenant ; dienstman was er ze Ouwe. er nam im mange scbouwe aa mislieben buochen dar an begumie er suocben, ob er ibt des fuude, da mite er swaere Stimde mohte senfter machen, und von so gewanten sachen, daz gotes Sren tobte, und d& mite er sich mohte gelieben den liuten. nii beginiiet er iu diuten ein rede, die er geschriben vant. Ein Kitter so gelebrt war, Dass er in den Biicbem las, Was er darin gesehrieben fand ; Der war Hartmann genannt ; Dienstmann war er zu Ouwe. Er uabm sich mancbe Scbaue Zu misslicben Werken ; Darin begann er (zu) suehen, Ob er nicbt was fande, Damit er schwere Stunde^ Mochte sanfter machen, Und von so gewandten Saehen, Dass sie ziemten Gottes Ehren, Und damit er sicli mocbte Liebe gewinnen bei den Leuten. Nun beginnt er eucb zu deuten Eine Kede, die er gesehrieben fand. The language of this poem is already so nearly like the modern High GeiTnan that it can be imderstood without any further help. We will only note that Ouwe or Aue is a place on the Lake of Constance. §281.] SPECIMENS OP MIDDLE HIGH GERMAN. 229 § 281. The following specimen of Middle High German consists of the first twenty lines of the Nibelungenlied, the most celehrated among the many poetical productions of the Middle High German period. The poem, a great epic, received its present form ahout the year 1210, but its author is unknown. Uns-ist in alten maeren | wunders vil geseit von helden lobebaereu | von grSzer arebeit, von vroude \md hochgeziten, | von weinen und von klagen, von kiiener recken striten | muget ir nu wunder hoeren sagen. Bz wuohs in Buregonden | eiu vil edel magedin, daz in alien landen | niht schoeners mohte sin, Kriemhilt geheizen, | diu wart eiu sohoene wip, dar umbe muosen degeue | vil verlieren den lip. Ir pflagen drt kiinege 1 edel unde rich, Gunther unde Gemot | die recken lobelioh, unt Giselher der junge | ein uz erwelter degen ; diu frouwe was ir swester, | die viirsten hetens in ir pflegen. die h&ren w&ren milte, | von arte hochgeborn, mit krefte unmazeu kuene | die recken tlz erkoru dS, zen Burgonden | so was ir lant genant : si vrumden starkin wunder | sit in Etzelen land. The same in Modern High German. Uns ist in alten Maren des Wunders viel gesagt voii rubmvoUen Helden, von grosser Arbeit, von Freuden und Hoohzeiten, von Weinen und von Klagen, von kiihner Helden Streitea moget ihr nun Wunder horen sagen. Es wuchs in Burgunden ein sehr edles Madohen, so dass ill alien Landen nichts sohoneres moohte sein, Kriemhilt geheissen. Sie war ein sohones Weib, um sie mussten viele Helden verlieren ihren Leib. Drei Konige pflegteu sie, edel und reich, Gunther und Gemot, die riihmlichen Helden, und Giselher der junge, ein auserwahlter Degen ; die Maid war ihre Sohwester, die Fursten hatten die zu pflegen. Die Herren waren milde, von art hoohgeboren, mit Kraft unmassen kiihn, die Helden auserkoren da in Burgunden, so war ihr Land genannt. Sie voUbraohten starke Wunder seitdem in Etzel's Land. Notes. geseit baa arisen out of ge&agit. hochgezit, a great festival, originally of an ecclesiastical character, but afterwards also used of aojigreat meeting, sucli as a tournament and the like. The modem Eochzeit signifies wedding or marriage feast. recke, properly an adventurers-hut also a hero, in the same sense as Degen, which properly signifies a sword. niht, not anything; the modem nichts is properly the genitive of niht. lip signifies both Lelb (body) and Leben (life). 230 SPECIMENS OP MIDDLE LOW GERMAN. [§ 282. hetens. The final s here represents sie : " the princes had her under their care." milte in this passage has not the same meaning as the modem mildj but rather signi- fies generous. vrnmeil) the modem fromTnenj signifies to accomplish something witlL vigour and energy. Etzel is the name by which Attila, king of the Huns, is mentioned in this poem. E, — Middle Low Gekman. § 282. The following passage is from the celebrated poem Beynke de Voss (Eenard the Fox), which is an imitation of a similar satire originally composed in Holland or Prance. The earliest German edition, published at Liiheck in 1498, is written in the Low German dialect, and bears a strong resemblance to the Frisian. The author is unknown. Do alaus der kraien word Unde oh der kaninen weren geh&rd, Alse se ore klage sua hadden formeld, Nobel de koning w§,rd sere for- greld. He sprak in tome: by miner truwen, De ik shiildig bin miner fruwen, Ik wll dit kwade so griik wraken, Dat myn gelede unde myn gebod Sus is tobroken ! Ik was eln sot, Dat ik dessen shalken fos So willigen havve gelaten los, Unde ik siner loggen so faste lovede, Darmede he mi so listigen shovede. Ik makede einen pelegrim fan em, He sholde hen na Jerusalem. Wo klouwede he mi up der mouwen ! Men de shuld was dy miner frouwen ; Dog ik bin des aUene nigt, De by frouwen-rade shadeu krigt. Late ik Beinken langer betamen, Wi alle moten uns des shamen. It is tomalen ein slimmen drog : Da also der Krahe Wort und auch des Kaninchens gehort waren, wie sie ibre Klagen so formulirt batten, ward Nobel, der Konig, sehr arger- Uch. Er sprach im Zom: Bei meiner Treue, die ich meiner Frau schuldig bin, ich win diesen Prevel so ehrUch racben, das»mein Geleit und mein Gebot so gebrocben ist! Ich war ein Thor, dass ich diesen schlauen Fucbs so bereitwillig losgelassen habe und seineu Lugen so fest glaubte, womit er mich so Ustig hinterging. Ich maohte einen Pilger aus ihm, er sollte bin nach Jerusalem. Wie kratzte er mir auf die Schulter ! Aber die Schuld war die meiner Frau; doeh ich bin es nicht allein, der duToh Frauenrath Schaden kriegt. Lasse ich Beiuken langer gew'ah- ren, so miisaeu wir ims alle dessen Bcliamen. Es ist gewiss ein schlimmer Be- trug: ■ 283.] GERMAN OF LUTHEF. 231 So war er vor Jahren, so ist er noeh. Ihr Herren denket dariiber mit FleisB, ■wie wir ihn fangea in kuizer Zeit. Er kann uns nicht entgehen, wollen wir es ernstlioh angreifen. So was he to j6j, so is he nog. Ji heren denket damp mit flyt, Wo wi one krigen in korter tyd. Nigt en kan he uns entg^n, WU wi dat ernstlik gripen an, § 283. In concluding these extracts, we shall give a passage from Luther's translation of the New Testament (Matt. vi. 24: foil.) as published in 1522 at Wittenberg. Though it still presents several differences, especially in spelling, from Modem High German, it is quite easily understood; and readily recognised as the real basis of the present literary language of Germany. We arid, for the sake of comparison, the same passage as it is read at the present day in the German Bible. 24. Niemant kan zweyen Herrn dienen, entweder, er wirt eyneu hassen, und den andem Iiebe, odder wirt eynen anhangen, und den andem veraoliten, yhr kuud nitt Gott dienen unnd dem Mam- mon. 25. Darumb sage ich euoh, sorget nit fiir ewr Leben was yhr essen un trinken werdet, auoh nit fur ewern Leyb, was yhr antzihen werdet, ist nitt das Leben melir denn die speyse, und der Leyb mcbr denn die Kleidung ? 26. Sehet an die vogel unter dem hymell, sie seen nit, sie emdten nit, sie samlen auch nit ynn die shewren, und ewer hym- lischer Vatter neeret sie doch, Seyd yhr denn nitt viel mehr denn sie ? 27. Wer ist unnter each, der seyner lenge ein elle tzu aetzen muge ? ob er gleich drauf sorget, 28. worumb sorget yhr denn fiir dieKleydung? Sohawet die Lilien auff dem feld, wie sie wachsen, sie erbeytten nitt, auch nehen sie nitt, 29. ich sage euoh, das auch Salo- mon ynn alle seyuer herrliokeyt nit bekleydt gewesen ist, als dersel- bigenn eyns. 30. So dan gott dass Grass aufi dem felld also kleydet, das doch heutte steht, unnd morgen ynn 24. Niemand kann zwei Herren dienen. Entweder er wird einen hassen, und den andem lieben; oder wird einem anhangen, und den andern verachten. Ihr kon- net nicht Gott dienen, und dem Mammon. 25. Darum sage ich euch : Sor- get nicht fiir euer Leben, was ihr essen und trinken werdet; auoh nicht fiir euren Leib, was ihr anziehen werdet. Ist denn nicht das Leben mehr, denn die Speise ? " Und der Leib mehr, denn die Kleidung ? 26. Sehet die Vogel unter dem Himmel an; sie saen nicht, sie emten nicht, sie sammlen nicht in die Scheunen, und euer himm- lisoher Vater nahret sie doch, Seid ihr deim nicht viel mehr, denn sie ? 27. Wer ist imter euch, der seiner Lange Eine Bile zusetzen moge, ob er gleich darum sorget ? 28. Und warum sorget ihr fiir die Kleidung ? Schauet die Lilien auf dem Felde, wie sie wachsen ; sie arbeiten nicht, auoh spinnen sie nicht. 29. Ich sage euch, dass auch Salomo in aller seiner Herrlichkeit nicht bekleidet gewestn ist, als derselben Eine. 30. So denn Gott das Gras auf dem Felde also kleidet, das doch heute stehet, und morgen in den 232 GERMAN OF LDTHEE. [§283. denn offen geworffen wirrt, sollt er das nit viel mehr euch thun, o yhr kleinglewbigen ? 31. Darumb sollt yhr nitt sorgen, und sagen, was werden wyr essen, was werden wyr trincken, womit werden wyr unns kleiden ? 32. Naich solohem allem trach- ten die Heyden. Denn ewr hym- lischer vatter weyss, das yhr des aUes bediirffet. 33. tracht am ersten nach dem reych gottis, unnd nach seyner gereehtickeyt, szo wirt euch solchs alles zafallen. 31. Drumb sorget nit fiir den andem morgenn, denn dtr mor- gene tag wirt fiir das seyn sorgenn. Es ist gnug das eyn iglich tag seyn eygen ubell habe. Ofen geworfen wird ; sollte er das nicht vielmehr euch thun? O ihr Kleinglaubigen ! 31. Darum sollt ihr nicht sorgen und sagen : Was werden wir essen ? Was werden wir triuken ? Womit werden wir uns kleiden ? 32. Nach solohem aUen trachten die Heiden. Denn euer himm- lischer Vater weiss, das ihr dess alles bedurfet. 33. Trachtet am ersten nach dem Belch Gottes, und nach seiner Gereehtigkeit : so wird euch solches alles zufallen. 34. Darum sorget nicht fiir den andem Morgen, denn der mor- gende Tag wird fiir das Seine sorgen. Es ist genug, dass ein jeglieher Tag stine eigene Plage habe. loxdok: peisted bt ■William clones akd £OKs, sTAi:Foni> stekit AND CHARING CBOSS. 50, Albemarle Street, London, March, 1880. MR. MURRAY'S LIST OF SCHOOL BOOKS. MURRAY'S STUDENT'S MANUALS. % ^am ai Ctoss=toks tax Mmal ^t\!ikx%. FoBMiNQ A Chain of History from the 'Earliest Ages DOWN TO Modern Times. '* Ve are glad of an opportunity of directing the attention of teachers to these admirable schoolbooke."— TEE KTJSElTill. English History and Literature. THE STTTDENT'S HTJME: A History of England, FROM THE Earliest Times to the Revolution in 1688. By DAVID HUME. Incorporating the Researches of recent Historians. New Edition, revised, corrected, and continued to the Treaty of Berlin in 1878, by J. S. BREWER, M.A. With Notes, Illu.strations, and 7 Coloured Maps and. Woodcuts. (830 pp.) Post 8vo. 7J. 6d. %* Questio/ts OK tJie " Student's Hume." \^mo. ss. THE STUDENT'S CONSTITTJTIONAL HISTOEY OF ENGLANB. From the Accession of Henry VII. to the Death of George II. By HENRY HALLAM, LL.D. (63o pp.) Post 8vo. 7J. 6d, THE STUDENT'S MANUAL OP ENaLISH CHURCH HISTORY. From the Accession of Henry VIIIth to the Silencing of Convocation in the Eighteenth Century. By Canon PERRY, M.A. (635 pp.) Post 8vo. 7i. &i. THE STUDENT'S MANUAL OP THE ENGLISH IjANGUAGB. ByGEORGEP. MARSH. (538 pp.) PostSvo. js.ed. THE STUDENT'S MANUAL OP ENGrLISH LITE- BATUKB. By T. B. SHAW, M.A. (510 pp.) Post 8vo. 7^. 6rf. THE STUDENT'S SPECIMENS OP ENGLISH LITE- EATURB. Selected from the Best Writers, and arranged Chrono- logically. By THOS. B. SHAW, M.A. (560 pp.) Post 8vo. 7s. 6d. 2 MR. MURHAV'S LIST OF SCHOOL COOKS. Scripture and Church History. THE STUDENT'S OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY. From the Creation of the World to the Return of the fjEws from -Captivity. With an Introduction to the Books of the Old Testament. By PHILIP SMITH, B.A. With 40 Maps and Woodcuts. ^630 pp.) Post 8vo. js. Gd. THE STUDENT'S NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY. With an Introduction, containing the Connectiott of the Old and New Testaments. By PHILIP SMITH, B.A. With 30 Maps and Woodcuts. (680 pp.) Post 8va js. 6d. THE STUDENT'S MANUAL OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. From the Times of the Apostles to the Full Establishment of the Holy Roman Empire and the Papal Power. By PHILIP SMITH, B.A. (654 pp.) With Woodcuts. Post 8vo. 71. 6i Ancient History. THE STUDENT'S ANCIENT HISTORY OE THE EAST. From the Earliest Times to the Conquests of Alexander the Great, including Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Media, Persia, Asia Minor, and Phoenicia. By PHILIP SMITH, B.A With 70 Wood- cuts. (608 pp.) Post 8vo. -js. &d. THE STUDENT'S HISTORY OP GREECE. From the Earliest Times to the Rohan Conquest. With Chapters on the History of Literature and Art. By WM. SMITH, D.CL. With 100 Woodcuts. (640 pp.) Post 8vo. 75. td. *t* Qjtestiofts oil the " Siiident's Greece." ^2mo. 2s, THE STUDENTS HISTORY OP ROME. From THE Earliest Tidies to the Establishment of the Empire. With Chapters on the History of Literature and Art. By DEAN LID- DELL. With 80 Woodcuts. (686 pp.) Post 8vo. ■;$. M. TEE STITDENT'S GIBBON ; An Epitome of the History of thf. Di-:ci.iNE and Fall op the Roman Empire. By EDWARD GliJiJON. Incorporating the researches of recent bistorians. With 200 Woodcuts. (700 pp.) Post 8yo. 7j. 6(i MR. MURRAY'S LIST OF SCHOOL BOOKS. 3 Euwpe. THE STUDENT'S HISTORY OP EtTROPE DTTRING THE MIDDLE AGES. By HENRY HALLAM, LL.D. (650 pp.) Post Svo. ^s. 6d. THE STTJDENT'S HISTORY OP MODERN EITROPB. From the End of the Middle Ages to the Treaty of Ber- lin, 1878. Post Svo. [/« Preparation. ♦ France. THE STUDENT'S HISTORY OP PRANCE. FROM THE Earliest Times to the Establishment of the Second Empire, 1852. With Notes and Illustrations on the Institutions of the Colintry. 'By W. H. JERVIS, M.A With Woodcuts. (724 pp.) Post Svo. • Geography and Geology. THE STUDENT'S MANUAL OP ANCIENT GEO- GRAPHy. By CANON BEVAN, M.A. With 150 Woodcuts. (710 pp.) Post Svo. 7J. 6d. THE STUDENT'S MANUAL OP MODERN GEO- GRAPHT, Mathematical, Physical, and Descriptive. By CANON BEVAN, M.A With 120 Woodcuts. (684 pp.) Post Svo. js. Sci, THE STUDENT'S ELEMENTS OP GEOLOGY, By SIR CHARLES LYELL, F.R.S. With 600 Woodcuts. (602 pp.) Post Svo. gj. - — - — ♦ Law and Philosophy. THE STUDENT'S MANUAL OF MORAL PHILOSO- PHY. With Quotations and References. By WILLIAM FLEM- ING, D.D. (440 pp.) Post Svo. js.dil. THE STUDENT'S BLACESTONE. An ABRIDGMENT OF the entire Commentaries. By R. MALCOLM KERR, LL.D. (670 pp.) Post Svo. js.ed. THE STUDENT'S EDITION OP AUSTIN'S JURIS- PRUDENCE. Compiled from the larger work. By ROBERT CAMPBELL. (544 pp.) Post Svo. i2j. AN ANALYSIS OP AUSTIN'S LECTURES ON JUBISPKUDENCE. By GORDON CAMPBELL. (214 pp.) Post Svo. 6j. HORTENSIUS : An Historical Essay on the Office AND Duties of an Advocate. By WILLIAM FORSYTH, Q.C Adapted for School Prizes. Woodcuts. Svo. ys. 6d. 4 MR. MURRAY'S LIST OF SCHOOL BOOJ^S. Dr. Wm. Smith's Smaller Histories. These Works have been dra\ni up for the Lower Forms, at thereqnest of several teachers, who require more elementary booka than the STUDENT'S HISTORICAL UAinrALS. A SMALLER SCRIPTURE HISTORY OF THE OLD AND THE NEW TESTAMENT, In Three Parts:— I. Old Testament History. II. Connection of Old and New Testaments. III. New Testament History to a.d. 70.- Edited by WM. SMITH, D.C.L. With 40 Illustrations. (370 pp.) i6mo. 3J. 6d. This book is intended to be used with, and not in the place of, the Bible. The object has been to supply a condensed manual of Scripture history, comprehensive,- but at the same time concise, for Junior Classes. " Students well know the value of Dr. Wm. Smith's larger Scripture His- tory. This abridgment omits nothing of importance, and is presented in such a handy form that it cannot fail to become a valuable aid to tits less learned Bible Student" — Peoples Magazine. A SMALLER ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE EAST, From the Earliest Times to the Conqxxest of Alexander THE Great. By PHILIP SMITH, B.A. With 70 Woodcuts. (310 pp.) i6mo. 33". 6*f. '* This book is designed to aid the study of the Scriptures, byj their true historical relations those allusions to Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, P'hoenicia, and the Medo-Fersian Empire, which form the background of the history of Israel from Abraham to Nehemiah. The present work is an in- dispensable adjunct of the 'Smaller Scripture History;' and the two have been written expressly to be used together." SMALLER HISTORY OF GREECE, From the Earliest Times to the Roman ConqAst. By WM. SMITH, D.C.L. With 74 Woodcuts. (268 pp.) z6mo. 3J. 6rf. This histoiy has been drawn up at the request of several teachers, for the use of lower forms, elementary pupils. The table of contents presents a full analysis of the work, and has "been so arranged, that the teacner can frame from it QUESTIONS FOR THE EXAMINATION OF HIS CLASS, the answers to which will be found in the corresponding pages of the Volume. SMALLER HISTORY OF ROME, From the Earliest Times to the Establishment of the Emi-ire. By WM. SMITH, D.CL. With 70 Woodcuts. (324 pp.) i6mo. 3^. &/. The " Smaller History of Rome " has been written and arranged on the same plan, and with the same object, as the " Smaller History of Greece." Like that work it comprises separate chapters on the institutions and literature of the countries with which it deals. SMALLER CLASSICAL MYTHOLOGY. With Trans- lations from the Ancient Poets, and Questions on the Work. By H. R. LOCKWOOD. With 90 Woodcuts. (300 pp.) i6mo. 3*. Id. This work has been prepared by a lady for the use of schools and young persons of both sexes. In common with many other teachers, she has long felt the want of a consecutive account of the heathen deities, which might safely be placed in the hands of the young, and yet contain all that is gene- rally necessary to enable them to understand the classical allusions th»may meet with in prose or poetry, and to appreciate the meanings of works ojfart. A carefully prepared set of questions is appended, the answers to which will be found m the corresponding pages of the volume. A SMALLER MANUAL OF ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. By CANON BEVAN, M.A. (240 pp.) With WoodcBits. i6mo. 2S.6d. " This work has been drawn up chiefly; for the lower forms in schools, at the request of several teachers who require for their pupils a more elemen- tary work than the ' Student's Manual of Ancient Geography. ' The arrange- ment of the two works is substantially the same. The more important towns alone are mentioned ; the historical notices are curtailed j modern names are introduced only in special cases, either for the purpose of identifi- cation or where any noticeable change has occurred ; and the quotations from classical works are confined for the most part to such expressions as are illustrative of local pecuharities. A very ample Index is supplied, so that the work may supply the place of a dictionary for occasional reference. ' A SCHOOL MANUAL OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY, PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL. By JOHN RICHARDSON, M. A., Diocesan Inspector of Schools. (400 pp.) Post 8vo. 5s. " This work has been drawn up for the Middle Forms in Public Schools, Ladies' Seminaries and Training Colleges, Assistant Teachers, and Middle Class and Commercial Schools. It contains a careful selection of the prin- cipal known facts of Physical and Political Geography." — Preface. A most elaborate, conscientious, and compact piece of workmanship. Mr. Richardson has evidently devoted a vast amount of time to its compila- tibn, and has produced a work adapted to attain an exact and valuable mastery of the science of geography. There is a stupendous array of facts calculated to place the book high in the favour of teachers and students." — School Board Chronicle, A SMALLER HISTORY OF ENGLAND, From the Earliest Times to the Present Day, By PHILIP SMITH, B.A. With 60 Woodcuts, (400 pp.) i6mo. 3^. 6d. *' The most recent authorities have been consulted, and it is confidently believed that the Work will be found to present a careful and trustworthy account of English History for the lower forms in schools, for whose use it is chiefly intended." — Preface, " This little volume is so pregnant with valuable information, that it will enable anyone who reads it attentively to answer such questions as are set forth in the English History Papers in the Indian Civil Service Examina- tions." — Reader. A SMALLER HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE: Giving a sketch of the lives of our chief writers. By JAMES ROW- LEY. (276 pp.) i6mo. 3J. 6d. The important position which the study of English literature is now taking in education, has led to the publication of this work, and bf the accompanying volume of specimens. Both books have been undertaken at the request oT many eminent teachers, and no pains have been spared to adapt them to the purpose for which they are designed, as elementary works to be used in schools, SHORT SPECIMENS OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. Selected from the chief authors and arranged chronologically. By JAMES ROWLEY. With Notes. (368 pp.) j6mo, 3^. 6d. While the " Smaller History of English Literature " supplies a rapid, but trustworthy sketch of the lives of our chief writers, and of the successive influences which imparted to their writings their peculiar character, the present work supplies choice examples of the works themselves, accom- panied by all the explanations required for their perfect explanation. The two works are thus especially designed to be used together. A SMALLER HISTORY OF FRANCE, From the Earliest Times. Uniform *iih the smaller History of England. i6mo. £/« preparation. 6 MR. MURRAY'S LIST OF SCHOOL BOOKS. Dr. Wm. Smith's BibUeal Dietionaries. FOR DIVINES AND SCHOLARS. A DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE; Comprising its Antiquities, Biography, Geography, and Natural History. By Various Writers. Edited by; WM. SMITH, D.C.L. and LL D. Editor of the " Classical and Latin Dictionaries," With Illustrations. 3 vols. {3158 pp.) Medium 8vo. 5/. $5. " Dr. Smith's Bible Dictionaiy could not fail to take a very high place in English literature ; for no similar work in our own or in any other language is for a moment to be compared with it" — QiuirUrly Review. " By such a work as Dr. Smith's Bible Dictionary, every man of intelligence mav become his own commentator." — Times. ' Our Churches could scarcely make a better investment than by adding this work of unsurpassed excellence to their pastoi's lihrary."— Baptist Ma^asine. ''A repertory of invaluable Biblical Xore:.'"— Literary Churchman. * A magnificent undertaking worthy the great name of its Editor, and the great body of eminent men he nas gathered around him." — Christian Witness. "A book of reference alike for scholar and student. The most Qompletei learned, and trustworthy work of the kind hitherto produced." — Athenaum. ^"The work has our strongest recommendation. We place it on our library-shelf as a treasure, and we hope congregations will enable their ministers to 'do likewise.' —BvanQilical Masazine. FOR FAMILIES AND STUDENTS. A CONCISE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. Con- densed from the larger Work. With Maps and 300 Illustrations. (1039 pp.) 8vo. zu. This Work is intended to satisfy a generally expressed wish for an account of the most recent Biblical studies in a form adapted for universal circu- lation. A Dictionary of the Bible, in some form or another, is indispensable for every family. The Divine, the Scholar, and all who seek to investigate thoroughly the various subjects connected with the Bible, and to master those controversies which are now exciting such deep and general interest, must still have recourse to the Larger Dictionary ; but to students in the Universities, and in the Upper Forms at Schools, to private families, and to that numerous class of persons who desire to arrive at results simply, this Concise Dictionary will, it is believed, supply all that is necessary for the - elucidation and explanation of the Bible. FOR SCHOOLS AND YOUNG PERSONS. A SMALLER DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. Abridged from the larger Work. With Maps and Illustrations. (620 pp.) Crown 8vo. 7J. 6d. The *' Larger Dictionary of the Bible " is mainly intended for Divines and Scholars, and the " Concise Dictionary" for Families and Students; but a smaller and more elementary work is needed for the use of schools, Sunday School Teachers, and young persons in general. This "Smaller Dictionary" contains such an account of Biblical antiquities, biography, geography, and natural history as a young person is likely to require m the study of the Bible. In addition to the woodcuts inserted in the text, several maps are added to illustrate the articles relating to geography and histoiy. " An invaluable service has been rendered to students in the condensation of Dr. Wm. Smith's Bible Dictionaiy. The work has been done as only a careful and intelligent scholar could do it, which preserves to us the essential scholarship and value of each article."— ^rtVtVA Quarterly Review. MR, MURRAY'S LIST OF SCHOOL BOOKS. 7 Jr. Wm. Smith's Classical Dietionaries. AN EWCYCLOP-ffiDIA OF CLASSICAL ANTiaiTITT. Containmg Greek and Roman AntiquitieSj Biography, Mythology, and Geography.. By Various Wkiteks. Edited by WjM. SMITH, D.C.L. and LL.D. I. A DICTIONARY OP GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. Including the Laws, Institutions. Domestic Usages, Painting, Sculpture, Music, the Drama, &c. (1300 pp.) With 500 Illustrations, Medium 8vo. zSi-. II. A DICTIONARY OP BIOGRAPHY AND MYTHOLOGY. Containing a History of the Ancient World, Civil, Literary, and Ecclesiastical. 3700 pp.) With 560 Illustrations. 3 vols. Medium 8vo. 84J. III. A DICTIONARY OP GREEK AND ROMAN GEOGRAPHY. Including the PoHtical History of both Countries and Cities, as well as thciiT Geography. (2300 pp.) With 530 illustrations. 2 vols. Medium 8vo. 56^. " A work of so much utility to the study of ancient history, and of such general importance to classical education and the progress of knowledge, that its extensive circulation, wherever the English language is spoken or read, may confidently be anticipated." — William Martin Leake, F.R.S. " It is an honour to this College to have presented to the world so distin- guished a scholar as Dr. Wm. Smith, who has, by his valuable manuals of classical antiquity, and classical history and biography, done as much as any man living to promote the accurate knowledge of the Greek and Roman world among the students of this age."— Mr. Crote oii theLondon University. The two followinz Works are intended to furnish a complete account of the leading Personages, the Jnstitutiotts, Art, Social Life, Writings, and Controversies ofthe Christian Chwch from the time ofthe Apostles to the age of Charlemagne. They commence at the period at which the *' Dictionary of the Bible" leaves off", and form a continuation of it : they cease at the age of Charlemagne, because {as Gibbon has reinarked) the reign of this vio7iarch jvrms the important link of ancient and modem, of civil and ecclesiastical history. They thus stop short of what we commonly call the Middle Ages. A DICTIONARY OP CHBISTIAN AWTiaUITIES. The History, Institutions, and Antiquities of the Christian Church. By Various Writers. Edited by WM. SMITH, D.C.L., and Archdeacon CHEETHAM, M.A. With Illustrations. Medium 8vo, VoL I. (910 pp.) siJ. 6d. Vol. 11. (1200 pp.) 42J. "All matters connected with the form and arrangement of churches, their worship, and their ornamentation are treated with great care and knowledge, and, wnere necessary, with abundance of illustrations. It is obvious, that on a great number of subjects, necessarily presenting themselves in a work ike tliis, the difiiculties of avoiding the temi^tations to be partial and one- sided must often be great. It seems to us fair to sa^ that a very creditable access has been achieved in surmounting them." — Tiines. A DICTIONARY OF CHRISTIAN BIOGRAPHY, LITERATURE, SECTS, AND DOCTRINES. By Various Writers. Edited by WM. SMITH, D.C.L., and Professosi WACE, M.A. Vols. I. (926 pp.) and II. (goo pp.). Medium 8vo. ^is. 6d. each. (To be completed in 4 vols. ) " It is a great credit to English scholarship and English theology to have produced a work like this, full of the results of original and laborious study, which people on different sides of disputed questions, and differing-in view possibly from the writers of the articles, may consult with so much confidence that they will find sound and valuable information. The editors may with justice put forward the claim that they have made accessible to all educated persons a great mass of information hitherto only the privilege of students with the command of a large library."— jTi'mw. Br. Wm. Smith's Latin Dieiionaries. "I consider Dr. Wm. Smith's DictionarieB to bave conferred a great and lasMag service on the canse of classical learning in this countoy."— DEAJf LIDDELL. "I have found Dr. Wm. Smith's Latin Dictionary a great convenience to me. I think that he has heen ve^ judicious in what he nas omitted, as well as what he has Inserted."— BE. SCOTT. A COMPLETE LATIN-ENGLISH DICTIONARY. Based ON THE Works of Forcellini and Feeund. With Tables of the Roman CalendaTjMeasures, Weights, and. Money. By WM. SMITH, D. C. L. and LL.I). (1200 pp.) Medium 8vo. 21s. This work holds an intermediate place between the Thesaurus of For- cellini and the ordinary School Dictionaries, It makes no attempt to super- sede Forcellini, which would require a dictionary equally large ; but it aims at performing the same service for the Latin lan^ua^e as Liddell and Scott's Lexicon has done for the Greek. Great attention nas been paid to Ety- mology, in which department especially this work is admitted to maintain a superiority over all existing Latin Dictionaries, Dr. Wm. Smith's ' Latin- English Dictionary' is iifted, by its indepen- dent merit, far above comparison with any school or college dictionary commonly iif use." — /:xaminei: A SMALLER LATIN-ENGLISH DICTIONARY, with A Separate Dictionary of Proper Names, Tables of Roman Moneys, &c. Abridged from the above Work, for the Use of Junior Classes. (672 pp.) Square i2mo. yj. 6ei. "This abridgment retains all the characteristic excellences of the larger work — its clearness and correctness of explanation, simplicity of arrangement,' sufliciency of illustration, exhibition of etymological affinities and modem derivatives." — AthencBUm. A COPIOUS AND CRITICAL ENGLISH-LATIN DIC- TIONARY. Complied from Original Sources. By WM. SMITH, D.C.L. and LL.D., and THEOPHILUS D. HALL, M.A. (970 pp.) Mediurh 8vo. au. It has been the object of the Authors of this work to produce a more com- plete and more perfect English-Latin Dictionary than yet exists, and every article has been the result of original and independent research. Great pains have been taken in clELssifying the different senses of the English "UJOrds, so as to enable the Student readily to find v^hat he wants. Each meaning is illustrated by examples from the classical writers ; and those phrases are as a general rule given in both English and Latin. " This work is the result of a clear insight into the faults of its predeces- sors as to plan, classification, and examples. In previous dictionaries the various senses of English words arecommonly set down hap-hazard. This has been avoided in the present instance by the classification of the senses of the English words according to the order of the student's need. Not less noteworthy is the copiousness of the examples from the Latin, with which every English word is illustrated ; and, last not least, the exceptional accu- racy of the references by which these examples are to be verified." — Satui"- day Review, A SMALLER ENGLISH-LATIN DICTIONARY. Abridged from the above Work, for the use of Junior Classes. (730 pp.) Square i2mo, 7J, 6d. " An English-Latin Dictionary worthy of the scholarship of our age and country. It will take absolutely the first rank and be the standard English- Latin Dictionary as long as either tongue endures. Even a general exami- nation of the pages will serve to reveal the minute pains taken to ensure its fullness and philological value, and the ' work is to a large extent a diction- ary of the Engli-sh language, as well as an English- l^tin Dictionary,'"— li'iffflis/i Churchmaih MR. MURRAY'S LIST OP SCHOOL BOOKS, 9 Jr. Wm. Smith's Edueational Series, _ " The ^neral excellence of the books included in Hr. ]ffurray*s' educa- tional scries, is so universally acknowledged as to give in a great degree the stamp of merit to the works of which it consists."— SCHOOLMASTEB. INTRODUCTION TO THE LATIN COURSE. THE YOTTNa BEGINNEB'S FIRST LATIN BOOK : Containing the Rudiments of Grammar, Easy Grammatical Questions and Exercises, with Vocabularies. Being a Stepping Stone to Princi- pia Latina, Part I., for Young Children. (112 pp.) i2mo. 2J. THE YOUNG BEaiNNER'S SECOND LATIN BOOK: Containing an easy Latin Reading Book, with an Analysis of the Sentences, Notes, and a Dictionary. Being a Stepping Stone to Principia Latina, Part 11. , for Young Children. (gS pp.) i2mo. 2j. Laiin Course, PRINCIPIA LATINA, Part I. First Latin Course. A Grammar, Delectus, and Exercise Book with Vocabularies. (200 pp.) 1 2 mo. 3^. 6^. The main object of this work is to enable a Beginner to fix the Declensions and Conjugations thoroughly in his memory, to learn their usage by construct- ing simple sentences as soon as he commences the study of the language, and to accumulate gradually astock of useful words. .It presents in.one book alt that the pupil wUl require for some time in his study of the language. The Cases of the Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns, arc arranged both AS IN THE ORDINARY GRAMMARS AND AS IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOL PRIMER, together with the corresponding Exercises. In this way the work can be used with equal advantage by those who prefer either the old or the modern arrangement, *t APPENDIX TO PEINCIPIA LATINA, Part I. Containing Additional Exercises, with Examination Papers. (125 pp.) i2mo. zs. 6d. PRINCIPIA LATINA, Part II. Reading Book. An Introduction to Ancient Mythology, Geography, Roman Antiquities, and History. With Notes and a Dictionary. (268 pp.) i2mo. ^s. 6d. PRINCIPIA LATINA, Part III. Poetry, i. Easy Hexameters and Pentameters. 2. Eclogse Ovidianae. 3. Prosody an^ Metre. 4. First Latin Verse Book. {160 pp.) i2mo. s^- 6rf. PRINCIPIA LATINA, Part IV. Prose Composition. Rules of Syntax, with Examples, Explanations of Synonyms, and Exercises on the Syntax. (194 pp.) i2mo, 3^. 6d. PRINCIPIA LATINA, Part V. Short Tales and Anecdotes from Ancient History, for Translation into Latin Prose. (140 pp.) i2mo. 3J. LATIN-ENGLISH "VOCABTTLARY, Arranged according to Suisjects and Etymology ; with a Latin- English Dictionary to Phsedrus, Cornelius Nepos, and Cesar's** Gallic War." (190 pp.) i2mo. 3^. 6rf. THE STUDENT'S . LATIN GRAMMA.R, For tpie Higher Forms. (406 pp.) Post 8vo. 6s. SMALLER LATIN GRAMSIAR. For the Middle and Lower Forms. Abridged from the above. {220 pp.) i2mo. 3^. 6rf. TACITTTS. Germania, Ageicola, and First Book, of THE Annals. With English Notes. (378 pp.) i2mo. 3s, 6d. •,* Keys may he had by Authenticated Teachers on application. I 10 MR. MURRAY'S LIST OF SCHOOL BOOKS. i ' Greek Course. INITIA GB^iCA, Part I. A FiRST Greek Course, ccntainiiig Grammar, Delectus, Exeidse Bode, aad Vocabularies. z2mo. (194 pp.) 3£. ^d. The great object of this work, as of tbe "Frincipia Latina," is to make the stndy of the lai^^uage as easy and sim[de as posaUe, by giviog the grammatical forms only as they are wanted, and t^ rn^hHng tbe pupil to translate from Greek into Kiglish and fiXHn English into Greek as soon as he has learnt the Greek characters and the First Declensioii. For this pur- pose only a few new words are introduced in each Exercise, and these are constantly repeated, so that they cannot fail to be imiRcssed upon the mind of thepupiL APPENDIX TO nrrriA GS^CA, Part I. Containing Additional Exerdses, with Examination Papets and Easy Reading Iiessons with the Sentences Analysed, serring as an Introduction to Initia GiLECA, Part IT. i2mo. 2*. 6/. \In the Pre$t. XNTTIA GR^CA, Part H. A READING BOOK. Con- taining short Tales, Anecdotes, Fables, Mythology, and Gtedan History. With a Lexicon, zamo. (220 1^) 3f. 6d. nflTIA GB^aSCA, Part TH. Prose Composition. Containing the Rules of Syntax, with copious Examples and Exer- cises. i2mo. (202 pp.) 31. 6d. THE STUDENT'S GSEEE GBAJCMABw FoR the Higher Fosus. By Pkofessok Cusnus. Edited Vy Wm. Sjoth, D.CL. PostSro. (386 pp.) ts. The Greek Grammar of Dr. Curtius is acknowledged by tbe most com- petent schcAars to be the best refnesentative of tbe present advanced stale of Greek scholarship. It is, indeed, almost the only Grammar which exhibits tbe inflcxioiis cS the language in a really scientific form ; while its extensive use in stJiDols, and the high oonmaendations it has received from practical teachers, are a sufficient proof of its exceUcnce as a scfaool-book. It is surprising to find that many of the public and fuivate schools in this country continue ta use Grammars, which ignore all the imjwoTcments and discoveries of modem philology, and still cling to the division of tbe sub- stantives into ten declensions, the designation of the Second Perfect as the Perfect iliddle, and gimifer exploded erroiT. A SKAXXEB GBEEK GSAKMAE. For the Middle AND Lowes Fosus. Abridged &om the above Woik. xamo. (220 pp.) 3*. 6d. THE GKEEK ACCIBENCE. Ertracted from the abore Work. I2ma (125 ppu) ax. 6d, P T.A TQ The Apology of Socrates, the Crito, and Fast of the Piuedo ; with Notes in Eii^ish from Staixbaum Schleierhacher's Introductioiis. i2mo. (242 pp.) 3;. 6d. %* K^may be had ly Avibektic&ted Teachqis on affUcatum. MH. MURRAY'S LIST OF SCHOOL BOOKS, ii French Course, FBENCH PBINCIPIA, Part I. A First French Course. Containing Grammar, Delectus, Exercises, and Vora.bu- laries. ismo. (172 pp.) 3^-. 6d. This work has been compiled at the repeated requestor numerous teachers who, finding the " Principia Latina" and " Initia Grseca " the easiest hooks for learning Latin and Greek, are anxious to obtain equally elementary French books on the same plan. There is an obvious gain in studying a new language on the plan with which the learner is already familiar. The main object is to enable a beginner to acquire an accurate knowledge of the chief grammatical forms, to learn their usage by constructing simple sen- tencesas soon as he commences the study of the language, and to accumu- late gradually a stock of words useful in conversation as well as in reading. APPENDIX TO FRENCH PRINCIPIA, Part I. Con- taining Additional Exercises and Examination Papers. i2ino. 2^. 6d. [Nearly Ready. FBENCH PRINCIPIA, Part II. A Reading Book. Containing Fables, Stories, and Anecdotes, Natural History, and Scenes from the History of France. With Grammatical Questions, Notes, and copious Etymological Dictionary. i2mo. (260 pp.) ^. td. FRENCH PRINCIPIA, Part III. Prose Composition, Containing a Systematic Course of Exercises on the Syntax, with the Principal Rules of Syntax, izmo. [/» preparation. THE STUDENT'S FRENCH Q-RAMMAR : PRACTICAL AND Historical. For the Higher Forms. By C. HERON-WALL. With Introduction by M. LiTTR^. PostSvo. (490 PP-) 7s. 6d. This grammar is the work of a practical teacher of twenty years' ex- perience in teaching English boys. It has been his special aim to produce a book which would work well in schools where Latin and Greek form the principal subjects of study, "This book as a whole is quite a monument of French Grammar, and cannot fail to become a Standard work in high class teaching."— 5c/woZ Board Chronicle. " It would be difficult to point more clearly to the value of Mr. Wall's work, which is intended for the use of Colleges and Upper Forms in schools, than by quoting what M. Littre says of it in an introductory letter :— ' I have carefully tested the principal parts of your workj and have been com- pletely satisfied with the accuracy and correctness which I lound there.'"— ■ Saturday Reidew. A SttTALLER ERENCH G-RAMMAR. For the Middle and Lower Forms. Abridged from the above work. i2mo. (230 pp.) zs. 6d. •»• Keys may ie had by Authenticated Teachers on a^lication. 12 MR, MURRAY'S LIST OF SCHOOL BOOKS. German Course, aERMAN PEINCIPIA, Part I. A First German CouRSK, Containing a Grammar, Delectus, Exercise Book, and Vocabularies. i2ma, (164 pp.) 3*. 6d. This work is on the same plan as the " French Principia," and therefore requires no further description, except in one point. Differing from the ordinary grammars, all Gcnnan words are printed in Roman, and not in the Old German characters. The latter add to the difficulty of a learner, and as the Roman Iqtters are not only used by many modem German writers, but also in Grimm's great Dictionary and Grammar, there seems no rca-on why the beginner, especially the native of a ioreign country, who has Icamt bis own language in the Roman letters, should be any longer debarred from the advantage of this innovation. It is believed that this alteration will faci- litate, more than at first might be supposed, the acquisition of the language. Hut at the same time, as many German books continue to be printed in the German characters, some Reading Lessons are given, printed,in both German and Roman letters. When the learner has become familiar with the German -words in the Roman letters, he' will, after a little practice, find no difficulty in reading the German characters. GERMAN PRINCIPIA, Part IT. A Reading Book. Containing Fables, Stories, and Anecdotes, Natural History, and Scenes from the History of Germany. With Grammatical Questions, Notes, and Dictionary, ismo. (272 pp.) 3J. 6d. PRACTICAL GERMAN GRAMMAR. With a Sketch of the Historical Development of the Language and its Principal Dialects. Post 8vo. (240 pp.) y, 6d. %• Keys may he had by Authenticated Teachers on appUcaiion, Italian Course', ITALIAN PRINCIPIA, Part I. A First Itauan Course. Containing a Grammar, Delectus, Exercise Book, with Vocabularies, and Materials for Italian Conversation. By SIGNOR RICCIj Professor of Italian at the City of London School. i2mo. 3*. 6d. ITALIAN PRINCIPIA, Part II. A First Italian Reading-Book. Containing Fables, Anecdotes, History, and Pas- sages from the best Italian Authors, with Grammatical Questions, Notes, and a Copious litymological Dictionary. By SIGNOR RICCI. lamo. 3^. 6d. [Nearly ready. •*• Keys may he had by Authenticated Teachers m amplication. MR, MURRAY'S LIST OF SCHOOL BOOKS, 13 Bt. Wm. Smith's English Course, A PRIMARY KrSTORY OF BRITAIN. Edited by Wm. Smith, D.C.L. and LL.D. (368 pp.) lamo. as. 6d. This book is a Primary History in no narrow sense. It is an honest at- tempt to exhibit the leading facts and events of our history, free from political and sectarian bias, and therefore will, it is hoped, be found suitable for schools in which children of various denominations are taught. " This Primary History admirably fulfils the design of the work. Its style isjgood, its matter is well arranged, and the pupil must be very stupid who fails to gather from its lively pages an intelligent account of the history of our united nation. It cannot fail to be a standard book." — yohn Bull. A SCHOOL MANUAL OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. with 104 Exercises. By Wm. Smith, D.C.L., and T. D. Hall, M.A. With Appendices. (256 pp.) Post 8vo. 3s, 6ci. This Work has been prepared with a special view to the requirements of Schools in which English, as a living' language, is systematically taught, and differs from most modern grammars in its thoroughly practical character. A distinguishing feature of the book is the constant appeal for every usage to the authority of Standard English Authors, **Dr. Smith and Mr, Hall have succeeded in producing an admirable English Grammar. We cannot give it higher praise than to say that as a school grammar it is the best in this country. The writers have throughout aimed at making a serviceable working school-book. There is a more com- plete and systematic treatment of Syntax than in any other works of the Kind. It is a work thoroughly well done."— Ensiish Churchman. %• Keys may hi had hy Authenticated Teachers on aj^UeattoH. A PRIMARY ENGLISH GRAMMAR for Elementary Schools. With 84 Exercises and Questions. Based on the above Work. By T. D. Hall, M.A. (80 pp.) i6mo. is. This Work aims at the very clearest and simplest statement possible o£ the first principles of English Grammar. It is designed for the use of chil- dren of all classes from about eight to twelve years of age. " We doubt whether any grammar of equal size could give an introduction to the English language more clear, concise, and fulfthan this does."— Watchman. A MANUAL OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. With Copious Illustrations and Practical Exercises. By T. D. Hall, M.A. (210 pp.) i2ino. 3^. (id. A SCHOOL MANUAL OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY, Physical and Political. By John Richardson, M.A. (400 pp.) Post 8vo. 5^. This work has been drawn up for Middle Forms in Public Schools, Ladies' Colleges, Training Colleges, Assistant and Pupil Teachers, Middle Class and Commercial Schools, and Civil Service Examinations. " It fully sustains the high reputation of Mr, Murray's series of school manuals, and we venture to predict for it a wide popularity. Bearing in mind its high character, it is a model of cheapness."— jcAwi Guardian. 14 Mli. MURRAY'S LIST OF SCHOOL BOOKS. Standard School Books. A CHILD'S FIRST LATIN BOOK. Comprising Nouns, Pronouns, and Adjectives, with the Active Verbs. Witli ample and varied Practice of the easiest kind. Both old and new order of Cases given. By THEOPHILUS D. HALL, M.A. I/eTu and Enlarged Edition, i6mo. (124 pp.) zj. The speciality of this book lies in its presenting a great variety of viv(i voce work for class-room practice, designed to render the young beginner thoroughly familiar with the use of the Grammatical forms. This edition has been thoroughly re-cast and considerably enlarged ; the plan of the work has been extended so as to comprise the Active Verbs ; and all Paradigms of Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns are given a second lime at the end of the book, with the cases ARRANGED AS IN THE OLDER GRAMMARS. " This work answers thoroughly to its title. The explanations are very clear and very full, indeed AN inexperienced teacher will find here A METHOD SUPERIOR TO ANYTHING OF THE KIND WE HAVE SEEN," — Waichmaru KING EDWARD VI.'s LATIN GRAMMAR; or, An Introduction to the Latin Tongue. (324 pp.) i2mD. 3^. ^. KING EDWARD VI.'s FIRST LATIN BOOK. The Latin Accidence. Syntax and Prosody, with an English Translation. {220 pp.) i2mo. 2J. 6d, OXENHAM'S ENGLISH NOTES FOR LATIN ELEGIACS, designed for early proficients in the art of Latin Versification. (156 pp.) lamo. 35. 6(/. BUTTON'S PRINCIPIA GR-SCA, An Intro- duction to THE Study of Greek. A Grammar, Delectus, and Exercise Book, with Vocabularies. (154 pp.) x2mo. 3*. Qd. MATTHI^'S GREEK GRAMMAR. Abridged by BLOMFIELD. Revised by E. S. CROOKE, B.A. (412 pp.) Post 8vo. 4^. LEATHE3' HEBREW GRAMMAR. With the Hebrew text of Genesis i,— vi., and Psalms i. — ^vi. Grammatical Analy^ and Vocabulary. (252 pp.) Post 8vo. 7^. td. MR. MaJlRAVS LIST OF SCHOOL BOOKS. IS Natural Philosophy and Seienee. THE FIRST BOOK OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY; an Introduction to the Study of Statics, Dynamics, Hydrostatics, Liglit, Heat, and Sound, with numerous Examples. By SAMUEL NEWTH, M.A., D.D., Fellow of University College, London. New aiid Enlarged Editim. (200 pp.) Small 8vo. 3s. 6d. *,* This work embraces all the subjects in Natural Philosophy re- quired at the Matriculation Examination of the University of London. ELEMENTS OF MECHANICS, INCLUDING HYDRO- STATICS. With numerous Examples. By SAMUEL NEWTH, M.A., D.D., Principal of New College, London, and Fellow of University College, London. New and Enlarged Edition. (362 pp.) Crown 8vo. 8s. 6d. This Edition (the Sixth) has been carefully revised thronghottt, and with especial reference to changes recently made in the Regulations of the University of London. MATHEMATICAL EXAMPLES. A Graduated Series of Elementary Examples in Arithmetic, Algebra, Logarithms, Trigono- metry, and Mechanics. Third Edition. (378 pp.) Small 8vo. at. 6/. THE CONNECTION OF THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES. By MARY SOMERVILLE. ^ath Edition. Portrait and Woodcuts. (468 pp.) Post 8vo. 9s. " Mrs. SomerviUe's delightful volume. The style of this astonishing pro- duction is so clear and unaffected, and conveys, with so much simplicny, so Freat a mass of profound knowledge, that it should be placed in the hands of every youth, the moment he has mastered the general rudiments of edu- cation." — Quarterly Review. ^ PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. By MARY SOMERVILLE. ytk Edttiotu Portrait. (548 pp.) Post 8vo. gj. " Mrs. SomerviUe's * Physical Geography ' is the work she is most {feiifl« rally known by, and notwithstandinsr the numerous works on the same sub* icct that have since appeared, it still holds its place as a first authority,"— l6 MR, MURRAY'S LIST OF SCHOOL BOOKS. Mrs. Markham's Histories. " Mrs. MarUiam'B Historiea are constmcted on a plan which la novel and wa think well choBen, and we are glad to find that they are deHrvedly popular, for they cannot ba too strongly recommended."— JOtTBNAL OF EDVCATION. HISTOKY OF i:nGLAND, from the FiRST Invasion BY THE Romans. By Mrs. Markham. Continued down to 1867. With Conversations at the end of each Chapter. With 100 Woodcuts. (528 pp.) i2mo. 3s. 6d. " Mrs. Marltham's ' History of England ' is the best history for the young that ever appeared, and is far superior to many works of much higher pre- tensions. It is well written, well informed, and marked by sound judRment and good sense, and is moreover extremely interesting. I know of no history used in any of our public schools at all comparable to it" — QQ in Notes and Queries. HISTORY OF FRANCE, from the Conquest by THE Gauls, By Mrs. Markham. Continued down to 1861. With Conversations at the end of each Chapter, With 70 Woodcuts. (550 Pp-) lanio. 3J. 6d. " Mrs. Markham's Histories are well known to all those engaf^ed in the instruction of youth. Her Histories of England and France are deservedly very popular : and we have been given to understand, in proof of this asser* tion, that of her Histories ma7ty thousand copies have been sold." — BelPs Messenger. HISTORY OF GERMANY, FROM THE INVASION OF THE Kingdom by the Romans under Marius. Continued down to 1867. On the plan of Mrs. Markham. With 50 Woodcuts. (460 pp.) lamo. 3J. td. " A very valuable compendium of all that is most important in German History. The facts have been accurately and laboriously collected from ' ■" - . -. 1 . 1, , t them with ■gazine. authentic sources, and they are lucidly arranged so as to invest th the interest which naturally pertains to them. ' — Bvattgelieal Magai LITTLE ARTHUR'S HISTORY OF ENQLAND. By Lady Callcott. Continued down to the year 1872. With 36 Woodcuts. {286 pp.) i6mo. xs. 6d. "I never met with a history so well adapted to the capacities of children or their entertainment, so philosophical, and written with such simplicity." — Mrs. Marcett. MSOT'S EABLES. A New Version. Chiefly from the Original Sources. By Rev. Thomas James. With 100 Woodcuts, (168 pp.) Post 8vo. zs. 6d. " Of jEsop's Fables there ought to be in every school many copies^ full 01' pictures." — Eraser's Magazine. " This work is remarkable for the clearness and conciseness with which each tale is narrated ; and the book has been relieved of those tedious and unprofitable appendages called ' morals,' which used to obscure and disfigure the ancient editions of this work." — I'/ie Examiner. THE BIBLE IN THE HOLY LAND. BEING EXTRACTS FROM DEAN STANLEY'S SINAI AND PALESTINE. With Woodcuts. (210 pp.) i6nio. 2J. 6d. JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. Bradbury Agnew & Co., P.inte's Wliitefriars. i.'ftS-^s"WiVfs»iww6r ■iyij2i>\j%.ij 'm^: imii^