CHARLES WILLIAM WASON COLLECTION CHINA AND THE CHINESE THE GIFT OF CHARLES WILLIAM WASON CLASS OF 1876 1918 PK 2903:W37 ""'"""" """^ ^''ifiiiiWiSiiXiri"* Indian literature / 3 1924 023 "329'' 877'' Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924023329877 Messrs. Trubjter & Co. have received the following opinions on Professor Albrecht Weber's "History of Indian ^Literature:" — Dr. BiJHLER, Inspector of Schools in India, writes : — " I am extremely glad to learn that you are about to publish, an English translation of Professor A. Weber's 'History of Indian Literature.' When I was Professor of Oriental Languages in Elpliinstone College, I frequently felt the want of such a work to which I could refer the students. I trust that the work which you are now publishing will become a class-hook in all the Indian Colleges, as it is the first and only scientific one which deals with the whole field of Vedic, Sanskrit, and Prakrit literature.'' Professor CowELL, of Cambridge, writes : — " The English translation of Professor A. Weber's ' History of Indian Literature ' will be of the greatest use to those who wish to take a comprehensive survey of all that the Hindu mind has achieved. It will be especially useful to the students in our Indian Colleges and Universities. I used to long for such a book when I was teaching in Calcutta. Hindu students are intensely interested in the history of Sanskrit literature, and this volume wiU supply them with all they want on the subject. I hope it will be made a text-book wherever Sanskrit and English are taught." J. Eggeling, Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology in the University of Edinburgh, writes : — " I am delighted to hear that the English translation of Pro- fessor Weber's 'Lectures on Hindu Literature' is at last ready for publication. The great want of a general critical survey of Sanskrit literature in English, such as Professor Weber gave to German students more than a quarter of a century ago, must have been felt by all scholars engaged in teaching Sanskrit in ( 2 ) Britisli and American Universities. Tlie translation, I Lave no doubt, will be welcomed even more cordially by Hindu students, to whom, with few exceptions, Professor Weber's Lectures must hitherto have been a sealed booij. Hindu scholars and students have expressed to me repeatedly how much they feel the want of English translations of German works such as Weber's Lec- tures and Lassen's ' Indian Antiquities,' an acquaintance with which is indeed indispensable in dealing with questions of Sanskrit Literature. From what I have seen in proof of the English edition, I may say that the translation seemed to me exceedingly well done, and that it does great credit to the gentle- Dr. K. EosT, Librarian of the India Office, writes : — " I have carefully examined and compared with the original German the English translation of pp. 1-24 of Weber's ' Vorle- sungen,' and am able to state that it is more than a mere faith- ful reflex of the original work, and that it has the advantage of a very readable style and great clearness of expression. If the remainder of the translation is executed as carefully and as conscientiously as is the portion I have read, the whole will reflect the greatest- credit upon the scholars who have been engaged upon it." Professor "Whitney, Yale College, Newhaven, Conn., U.S.A., writes ; — " I am the more interested in your enterprise of the publica- tion of Weber's ' Sanskrit Literature ' in an English version, as I was one of the class to whom the work was originally given in the form of academic lectures. At their first appearance they were by far the most learned and able treatment of their subject ; and, with their recent additions, they stiU maintain decidedly the same rank. Wherever the language, and institutions, and history of India are studied, they must be used and referred tc as authority," TRUBNER'S ORIENTAL SERIES. THE HISTORY OF INDIAN LITERATURE. ALBRECHT WEBER. SCransIatelJ from tfje Seconti ©erman ffilit'ttan BY JOHN MANN, M.A., THEODOR ZACHARIAE, Ph.D., SMitfj tfje Sanction of tfje antfjot. Nil desperari — Aiich hier wird es tagen. THIKD EDITIOir. LONDON: KEGAN PAUL, TEENCH, TRUBNER, & CO. L™ PATERNOSTEE HOUSE, CHAKING CROSS ROAD, 1892. The rights of translation and of reproduction are reserved. TRANSLATORS' NOTE. According to the original intention, the English trans- lation of this work was to have appeared shortly after the second German edition, which came out in the end of 1 875, and which, as mentioned by the author in his preface, was in part prepared with a view to this translation. In con- sequence, however, of the death of Professor Ohilders, under whose direction it was in the first instance begun, and of whose aid and supervision it would, had he Uved, have had the benefit, the work came to a stand-still, and some time elapsed before the task of continuing and completing it was entrusted to those whose names appear on the title- page. The manuscript of the translation thus interrupted embraced a considerable part of the text of the first divi- sion of the work (Vedic Literature). It had not under- gone any revision by Professor Ohilders, and was found to be in a somewhat imperfect state, and to require very material modification. Upon Mr. Zachariae devolved the labour of correcting it, of completing it as far as the close of the Vedic Period, and of adding the notes to this First Part, none of which had been, translated. From the number of changes introduced in the course of revision, the portion of the work comprised in the manuscript in question has virtually been re-translated. The rendering of the second division of the volume (Sanskrit Literature) is entirely and exclusively the work of Mr. Mann. The circumstances under H'hich the translation has been viii TRANSLATORS' NOTE. produced have greatly delayed its appearance. But for this delay some compensation is afforded by the Supple- mentary Notes which Professor Weber has written for incorporation in the volume (p. 311 ff.), and which sup- ply information regarding the latest researches and the newest publications bearing upon the subjects discussed in the work. Professor Weber has also been good enough to read the sheets as they came from the press, and the trans- lators are indebted to him for a number of suggestions. A few of the abbreviations made use of in the titles of works which are frequently quoted perhaps require ex- planation : e.g., I. St. for Weber's Indische Siudien ; I. Str. for his IndiscJie Streifen ; I. AK. for Lassen's Indische AUerthumskunde ; Z. D. M. G. for Zeitschrift der deutsehen morgenla/ndischen Gesellschafi, &c. Tlie system of transliteration is in the main identical with that followed in the German original ; as, however, it varies in a few particulars, it is given here instead of in the Author's Preface. It is as follows: — a i i i u u ! li 11 e ai an ; k kh S gh »; ch chh J jb Ji; * th d dli V ; t th d dli II : P ph b bh m ; y r 1 V ; (S sh s h ; Aiiusvitra m, in tlie middle of a wurd before sibilants ;'i ■ Visarga ]}. July, 1S78. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. TuE work of my youth, whicli here appears in a ntjw edi- tion, had been several years out of print. To have repub- lished it without alteration would scarcely have done ; and, owing to the pressure of other labours, it was im- possible for me, from lack of time, to subject it to a com- plete and systematic remodelling. So the matter rested. At last, to meet the urgent wish of the publisher, I re- solved upon the present edition, which indeed leaves the original text unchanged, but at the same time seeks, by means of the newly added notes, to accommodate itself to the actual position of knowledge. In thus finally decid- ing, I was influenced by the belief that in no other way could the great advances made in this field of learning since the first appearance of this work be more clearly ex- hibited than precisely in this way, and that, consequently, this edition might at the same time serve in some measure to present, in nuce, a history of Sanskrit studies during the last four-and-twenty years. Another consideration was, that only by so doing could I furnish a critically secured basis for the English translation contemplated by Messrs. Triibner & Co., which could not possibly now give the original text alone, as was done in the French transla- X PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. tion* which appeared at Paris in 1859. It was, indeed, while going over the work with the view of preparing it for this English translation, that the hope, nay, the con- viction, grew upon me, that, although a complete recon- struction of it was out of the question, still an edition like the present might advantageously appear iq a German dress also. I rejoiced to see that this labour of my youth was standing well the test of time. I found in it little that was absolutely erroneous, although much even now remains as uncertain and unsettled as formerly ; while, on the other hand, many things already stand clear and sure which I then only doubtfully conjectured, or which were at that time still completely enveloped in obscurity. The obtaining of critical data from the contents of Indian literature, with a view to the establishment of its internal chronology and history — not the setting forth in detail of the subject-matter of the different works — was, from the beginning, the object I had before me in these lectures; and this object, together with that of specifying the publi- cations which have seen the light in the interval, has con- tinued to be my leading point of view in the present annotation of them. To mark off the new matter, square brackets are used.f The number of fellow-workers has greatly increased during the last twenty-four years. Instead of here running over their names, I have preferred — in order thus to faci- * Histoire de la Littlrature Indicnne, trad, de V AlUmand par Alfred Sadous. Paris : A. Durand. 1859. t In the tranBlation, these brackets are only retained to mark new matter added in the second edition to the original notes of the first ; the notes which in the second edition were entirely new are here simply indi- cated by numbers. — Tn. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. xi litate a general view of this part of tlie subject — to add to the Index, which in other respects also has been con- siderably enlarged, a new section, showing where I have availed myself of the writings of each, or have at least referred to them. One work there is, however, which, as it underlies all recent labours in this field, and cannot possibly be cited on every occasion when it is made use of, calls for special mention in this place — I mean the Sanskrit Dictionary of Bohtlingk and Eoth, which was completed in the course of last summer.* The carrying through of this great work, which we owe to the patronage of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, over a period of a quarter of a century, wiU reflect lasting honour upon that body as well as upon the two editors. A. W. Beelin, November, 1875. * The second edition bears the inscription : ' Dedicated to my friends, Bohtlingk and Roth, on the completion of the Sanskfit Dictionary.' — Tb. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. The lectures herewith presented to the narrow circle of my fellows in this field of study, and also, it is hoped, to the wider circle of those interested in researches into the history of literature generally, are a first attempt, and as such, naturally, defective and capable of being in many respects supplemented and improved. The material they deal with is too vast, and the means of mastering it in general too inaccessible, not to have for a lengthened period completely checked inquiry into its internal relative chronology — the only chronology that is possible. Nor could I ever have ventured upon such a labour, had not the BerKn Eoyal Library had the good fortune to possess the fine collection of Sanskrit MSS. formed by Sir K. Chambers, the acquisition of which some ten years ago, through the liberality of his Majesty, Frederick William IV., and by the agency of his Excellency Baron Bunsen, opened up to Sanskrit philology a fresh path, upon which it has already made vigorous progress. In the course of last year, commissioned by the Eoyal Library, I undertook the work of cataloguing this collection, and as the result a detailed catalogue will appear about simultaneously with these lectures, which may in some sense be regarded as a XIV PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. commentary upon it. Imperfect as, from the absolute point of view, both works must appear, I yet cherish the hope that they may render good service to learning. How great my obligations are, in the special investiga- tions, to the writings of Colebrooke, Wilson, Lassen, Bur- nouf, Eoth, Eeinaud, Stenzler, and Holtzmann, I only mention here generally, as I have uniformly given ample references to these authorities in the proper place. The form in which these lectures appear is essentially the same in which they were delivered,* with the excep- tion of a few modifications of style : thus, in particular, the transitions and recapitulations belonging to oral de- livery have been either curtailed or omitted; while, on the other hand, to the incidental remarks — here given as foot-notes — much new matter has been added. A. W. Berlin, July, 1S52. * In the Winter-Semester of i8si~'5?. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Introduction, • 1-7 Antiquity of Indian literature, 2 ; proved by geographical evidence, 3-4 ; by internal evidence from the history of the Hindti religion, 5 ; by evidence drawn from the language, 6 ; want of external chronology, 7. FIRST PERIOD— VEDIC LITERATURE. Preliminary Survey; 8-30 (i.) Tlie SarpJdtda, 8-11. SamhitEEs of the three older Yedas, 8-9 ; mutual relation of these three Yedas, 9-10 ; period of their final compila- tion, 10; Saqihitd of the Atharvan, 11, (2.) The Brdhmanas, 11-15. Their character, 12, and origin, 13 ; mutual relation of the Br^hmanaa of the several Vedas, 14 ; their commoa name Sruti, 15. (3.) The Sutras, &c. Their character and origin, l6 ; ^rauta-Stitras, 17 ; Grihya- or Smdrta-Slitras, 17 ; gradual transformation of tlie original Smpti (Custom and Law), 17, 18; origin of caste, 18 ; connection between the Grihya-Shitras and the legal literature, 19-20 ; linguistic SVitras, their origin, 20, 21 ; character of the time in question, 21, 22 ; Fr^ti^Elkhya-Slitras, 23 ; metric, 23 ; Anukramanis, 24; tradition — Bfihaddevat£[, 24; Mghantu, Nirukti, the Yed^ngas, 25 ; science of grammar, 26 ; philoso< phical speculation, 26 ff. ; names applied to the early sages, 28 ; Upanishads, Ara^yakas, 28, 29 ; astronomy and medicine, 29, 30. 4.~B,IQVEDA . 31-63 (a) Sarjihitd, 31-44. Its divisions, 31, 32 ; Sdkala and Y^shkala recensions. xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS. 32 ; Vdrkali, the school of the Sunakas, 33 ; Saunaka, PaSchila Bdbhravya, 34; mythology of the primitive ludo-Germanic time, 35 ; Persian and Indian cycles of legend, 36, 37 ; mode of life of the Indians in their nncient home, 37, 38 ; reasons -why they left their ancient homes, 38, 39 ; different constituents of Rigveda- Samhitft, 39 ; gods to whom the hymns are addressed, 40 ; exegetio literature connected with the Satphit^ : Ydska, 41 ; SfJyajja, 4I, 42 ; editions, translations, &c., 43. 44- (5) BrAhmamu, 44-52. Aitareya- and ^iukh£iyana-BrdIimanas, 44 ; data therein bearing on time of their composition, 45 ; they presup- pose earlier compositions with similar contents, 45-47 ; fables and legends contained in these two Bidhmanas, 47 ; the Aranyakas of the Rik : Aitareya- Aranyaka, 48 £f. ; ICaushitak^ranyaka, Kaushitakopanishad, 50, 51 ; Satp- kara's commentaries on the Upanishads, 5 1 ; Viishkala- Upanishad, 52. (t) Sutras, 52, 62. The Srauta-Siitraa of Asvalilyana and Sdiikhdyana, 52 flf. ; commentaries thereon, 54, 55 ; the Gfihya-Siitraa of A^vaUyana and ^inkhdyana, 55 ff. ; tlie literature pre- supposed in these, 56, 57 ; Rik-Priti^dkhya, Upalekha, 59, 60 ; ^ikshd, Chhandas, Jyotisha, 60, 61 ; Anukra- manls, 61 ; Brihaddevatii, Eigvidhitna, Pari^ishtas, 62. E — sAmAVEDA 63 Ss (a) Samhitd, 63-66. Its arrangement, 63 ; the Giinas, 64 ; antiquity of the readings of the Sdma-Saiphitil, 64, 65 ; recensions, 65 j editions, &c., 65, 66. (6) Brdhmanas, 66-75. The TOndya-Pa;&ohavin.4a-Briihmana, 66 if. ; geographical and other data contained therein, 67-68 ; Sba^vin^a- Brilhmana, 69 ; ChhiindogyopaniBhad, its relation to the Vrihad- Aranyaka, 70, 71 ; literary and other data in the Chhilndogyop., 71, 72; Kenopanishad, 73; the smaller Brdhmanas of the Sdmai. — Stoavidhdna, &c., 74, 75, (c) SAtras, 75-85. Srauta-Slitras : the ICalpa-Siitra of Majiaka, 75-76 ; Ld- tydyana-Slitra, 76 ff. ; literature therein presupposed, 76, 77 ; position of non-Brahmanioal tribes in this work, 77 ; existence of Buddhism presupposed, 78 ; Slitra of Drdhydyana, 79 ; its relation to the Sutras of the other TABLE OF CONTENTS. xvii Vedas, 80 ; Anupada-Stitra, 80, 81 ; BTidilna-Slitra, 81, 82 ; the Pushpa-Stitra of Gobhila, 82 ; SSma-Tantra, Palohavidhi-, PratihSra-, Tanddlakshana-, and Upa- grantha-Siitras, 83 ; the Grihya-Siitra of Gobhila, 84 ; the Karma-pradlpa of Kiltyslyana, 84 ; Paddhatia and Pari^islitis, 85. a— YAJURVEDA 85-145 I. — The Black Yajus, 85-103 (a) SamJiiids, 85-gi. Difference between the Black and the White Tajus, 86 ; names of the Black Yajus, 86 S. ; Charaka, Taittirlya, and Khdndikiya, 87, 88 ; schools of the Black Yajus : Taittirlya- Samhitil (Apastamba), the Kdthaka, and the Atreyi SSkhA, 88 ; Sainhitds of the Apastamba and Atreya schools, and the K^thaka, 89 ; data contained therein, 90 ; Ydska's oouueotiou with the arrangement of the Saiphitil of the Black Yajus, 91 ; the Mitnava and the Maitra, 91. (5) Brdhmanas, 92-99. The Brdhmanas of the Apastamba and Atreya schools ; the Kdthaka portion of the Taitt. Brdhmana, 92 ; Taittirlya- Aranyaka, 93 ; TJpanishads of the Taitt. Ar., 93, 94 ; schools of the Bhdllavins, Sdtydyanins, odkdyanins, &c., 95 ; Svet^vataropanishad, 96 ; Maitrdyana-XJpanishad, its modern date, 97 ; the planets, &c., in the Maitr, Up., 98 ; possible relation of the work to Buddha, 99. (c) SAtras, 99-103. ^rauta-Sdtras, 99-101 ; Grihya-Sdtras, lOI, 102 ; Vtiti- Idkhya-Stitra, 102 ; Anukramanis, 103. II. — The White Yajus, .... 103-145 The name explained, 103 f. ; the name ' Vitj.isaueya,' 104 f. ; the two schools of the Kiinvas and Mddhyaqidinas, 105; possible connection of the Miidhyaipdinas with the tiaSiaviivol, I06. (o) Samhitd, 107-116. Division of the Vdjasaneyi-Saiphitit, 107 ; later origin of the last fifteen adhydyas, 108 ; relation of the several parts of the Vdj. S. to the Black Yajus, 108; to its own Brdhmana, and to each other, log-lio; probable date of the Rudra-book, 1 10 ; the mixed castes. III; position of the Mitgadha, III; nis position in the Atharva-Veda, 1 12 ; astronomical and other data in the Viij. S., 113 ; position of the Kurus and Paachdlas, the names Subhadrd and Eampila, 1 14 ; Arjuna and h xviii TABLE OF CONTENTS. Phalguna as (secret) names of Indra, 115; the fickcis incorporated in the Yajus, 115, 116; editions, commeu- taries, 116. (5) Brdhmana, 116-139. The ^atapatha-Br^hmana, 1 16 ; ita name and extent, 117; relation of the Brdhmana of the K^va school to that of the M^dhyamdinas, 117, 118; relation of the several hdndas to the SaQihit^ and to each other, 118, 119; posteriority of the last five Jcdndas, 120 ; Aguirahasya- kinda, 120, 121 ; Ashtddhydyi-k^ndfi, 121 ; subjects of study named therein, 121, 122; other data, 122, 123 ; A^vamedha-kdnda, 124 ff. ; Gdthfe, 124, 125 ; position of Janamejaya, 125 ; of the Pirikshitiyas, 126 ; the Aranyaka-kdndii, 126; the Tyihad-Aranyaka : — Madhu- kdnda, 127 ; its name and list of teachers, 128 ; Ydjua- valkiya-kinda, 129; Khila-k£inda, 130; the concluding vania of the Satapatha-Brdhmana, 131 ; probable north- western origin of Mtfdas vi.-z. of the ^atap. Br., 132 ; the whole blended together by one arranging hand, 133 ; teachers mentioned in the ^atap. Br., 133, 134; legends, 134 ff. ; relation of these to the Epic legends, 135; position of the Kuru-Panchdlas compared with that of the P^rikshitas, 136 ; the Pandavas not men- tioned, 137; points of contact with the Sdipkhya tradi- tion, 137 ; with Buddhist legend, 138; commentaries on the ^atap. Br., editions, &c., 139, (c) Sutras, 139-145. The Srauta-Stitra of Kdty^yana, teachers mentioned there- in, 139; other data, 140 ; commentaries, 141; Pad- dhatis and Pari^ishtas : Nigama-Parifiishta, Pravar^- dhySya, Charana-vytiha ; the Vaijavdpa-SVitra, 142 ; the Kditiya-Gj-ihya-Stitra of P^raskara, 142, 143 ; the Pr^ti- ^Sikhya-Stitra of the VsCjasaneyi-Saqih., 143, 144 ; Anu- kramani, 144, 145. i).— ATHABVAVEDA 145- '7' (a) Sariihiid, 14S-150. Extent and division of Atharvaveda-Saiphltii, 145, 146 ; its contents and arrangement, 146 ; it probably origi- nated in part with the unhrdhmanised Aryans of the West, 147; data furnished by the Ath. S., the name 'Atharvan,' 148; earliest mention of this name, 149 ; the name 'Brahmaveda,' its meaning, 149, 150 ; edi- tions, &c., of the Ath. S., 150. TABLE OF CONTENTS. (5) Brdhmana, The Qopatha-BrShmana, 150-151. (c) SAtras, 151-153. The Saunaklyd Chaturadhydyiki, 151 ; AnukramanI, 152; the Kau^ika-Slitra, 152; Kalpas and Pariiishtas, 153. TJPAJflSHADS, 153-I7I. Number of the Upanishads, 154, 155; TJpanishads be- longing to the three older Vedas, 155, 156 ; special divi- sion of the Atharvopanishads into three groups : Ved^nta, Yoga, and Sectarian Upanishads, 156; Atharvan re- cension of Upanishads borrowed from the other Vedas, 157. The Atharvopanishads proper : (i.) those of the Veddnta class — the Mundakopanishad, 158, 159; Pra^- nopauishad, 159, 160^ Garbhopanishad, 160; Brahmopa- nishad, 160, 161 ; Mdndtikyopanishad, 161 ; remaining Upanishads of the Veddnta class : Prdndgnihotrop., Arshi- kop., 161, 162 ; (2) Atharvopanishads of the Toga doss : Jdbdla, Katha^ruti, Arunika, Bhdllavi, and others, 163 ; range of ideas and style in this class of Upanishads, 165 ; (3) the Sectarian Upanishads, 165 ff. ; (a) those in which worship of Vishnu (under the names Ndrdyana, &c.) is in- culcated, i65; NrisinhatiJpaniyopanishad, 167 ; Rimatil- paniyopanishad, 168; Gopdlatdpaniyopanishad, 169; {^) Upanishads of the Siva sects ; Satarudriya, Kaivalyo- panishad, 169; Atharvasiras, 169, 170; remaining Upanishads of the 6iva sects, 170, 171. SECOND PERIOD— SANSKRIT LITERATURE. Wherein Distinguished from First Period, . . 175-183 Distinction in respect of language, 175 ; gradual develop- ment of Indo-Aryan Bhdshd, 176 ; influence of Indian aborigines thereon, 177 ; separation of written language from popular dialects — ancient dialectic differences, 178; rook-inscriptions in popular dialects, 179; in- ternal evidence for posteriority of second period, 180 ; critical condition of texts in this period — age of MSS., 181 ; distinction as regards subject-matter, 182 ; classi- fication of Sanskfit literature, 183. ^.-WORKS OP POETET 183-215 I. Epic Poetrt, 183-196. (a) Itihdta, 183-189 : forerunners of Epic poetry in Vadio TABLE OF CONTENTS. period, 183; the Mahd-Bhdrata, 184; existence of a work resembling it in first century A.D., 186; legend of Mahii-Bhdrata, its relation to ^atapatha-Br^hmana, &c., 186 ; text of Mahi[-Bhi£rata, non-epic constituents, 187 ; Kavl translation ; Jaimini-Bh&ata, l8g ; (6) Pu- rdnas : their general character — ancient Puriinas lost — absence of epic and prominence of ritual element in existing Purinas and Upa-pur£[nas, 190, igi ; (c) Ki^ vyas, 191-196 : the Rimdyana, 191 ; its allegorical character, 192 ; colonisation of Southern India, 193 ; R^m^yana the work of a single author, 193 ; different recensions of the text, 194; remaining K^vyas, artificial Epic, 195. 2. DRAifATio Poetry, 196-208. Origin of Drama from dancing, 196 ; Nata-Stitras men- tioned in P^nini, 197 ; dancing at the great sacrificial festivals, 198 ; alleged mention of dramas in oldest (?) Buddhistic writings, 199; age of surviving dramas, 200 ; no foundation for the view which places Kdliddsa in the first century B.O., 201, 202 ; internal evidence froffi KdlidilBa's dramas themselves on this point, 203 ; authen- ticity of the M^lavik^gnimitra, 204 ; age of Sridraka's Mrichhakatl, 205 ; subject-matter and special peculi- arities of the Hindti drama, 206 ; possibility of Greek influence on its development, 207. 3. Lyrical Poetey, 208-210. Religious lyric, 208 ; Erotic lyric : Megha-dtita, ftc, 209 ; mystical character of some of these poems — the Gita- govinda, 210. 4. Ethico-Didactio Poetby, 210-213. Niti-^&tras, 210; ' Beast-F,ible,' 211; PaHoha-tantra, Hito- pade^a, 212 ; popular tales and romances, 213. 5. HiSTOEY AKD GeOQHAPHY, 213-215. Rdja-taraingini, 213 ; inscriptions, grants, and coins, 215. -WORKS OF SCIENCE AND ART, .... 215-276 I. Science of Language, 216-232. (o) Orammar, 216-225 : Pfeini's Grammar, its peculiar terminology, 216; Pdnini's date — statements of the Chinese traveller Hiuau Thsang, 217 ; weakness of the evidence on which Bohtlingk's view rests, 218 ; exist- ence of Mahdbbitshya in the time of Abhimanyu, 219 ; acquaintance with Greeks presupposed in P^niui, 220 ; ' Yavandni, '221; commentaries on Pinini — Paribhitshda, TABLE OF CONTENTS. Vitrttlkas, MahSbhilshya, 222 ; date of KiltySiyana, 222 ; of the Mahdbhdshya, 223 ; critical condition of the text of Pitnini, 224 ; Gana-p£ltha, &c., 225 ; other gram- matical systems, 226. (4) Lexicography, 227-230: Amara-kosha, no foundation for the view which places it in the first century B. c. , 228 ; internal evidence against this view, 229 ; age of the work still uncertain, 230 ; Dhiltu-pslthaa, 230. (c) Metric, Poetics, Rhetoric, 231, 232 : Chhanda^-^stra of Pingala, Alaipktira-^tra of Bharata, Sdhitya-darpana, 231. s. Philosophy, 232-246. High antiquity of philosophical speculation among the Hindtls, 232 ; ' Development,' ' Arrangement,' ' Crea- tion ' theories of the world, 233 ; gradual growth of these theories into philosophical systems, 234; the S^khya-system, 235, 236 ; the Yoga-system, 237 ; Deistio sects, 238 ; influence of Sdijikhya-Toga on development of Gnosticism and 6iifism, 239 ; the two Mimdnsf[s, 239 ; Karma-Mim£[nsil-Slitra of Jaimini, 240 ; Brahma-Himdnsd-Siitra of Bddardyana, 242 ; age of Bddardyana, 243 ; the two logical systems, Nyitya and Vaiseshika, 244 ; Heterodox systems, 246. 3. ASTBONOMT AND AuXILUKY SCIENCES, 246-264. Antiquity of astronomy, 246 ; solar year, quinquennial cycle, Tugas, 247 ; the lunar asterisms, 247 ; mention of these in Rik-Saiphit^, 248 ; Jyotisha, 249; the planets, 249 ; their peculiar Indian names and number, 250 ; importance of Greek influence here, 251 ; relations of Greeks with India, 251 ; the Yavanas, teachers of the ancient Indian astronomers, 252 ; 'Pbilemaios,' 'Asura- Jlaya,' 253 ; Eomaka-Siddhdnta, Pauli^a-SiddhSinta, 253 ; Greek terms in VarsCha-Mihira, 254, 255 ; further development of Indian astronomy : Hindds the teachers ijf the Arabs, 255 (also in algebra and arithmetic, — the arithmetical figures, 256), and through the Arabs, of Euro- pean mediasval astronomers, 257 ; Aryabhata, 257 > ^^^ five Siddhdntas, 258 ; Brahmagupta, Vardha-Mihira, 259 ; date of Vardha-Mihira, Satdnanda, and Bhdiskara, 260, 261 ; Albirtini's statements regarding Bbilskara (!), 262. Later period : Arabs in turn the teachers of the Hindris in astrology, 263; Arabic technical terms in Indian and European astrological works, 263, 264; lore of omens and portents, 264; magic, &o., 264. xxil TABLE OF CONTENTS. 4. Medical Science, 265-271. Its earliest representatives, 265 ; Charata, Su&uta, Dlian. vantari, 266 ; Sdlihotra, Tiitsydyana, 267 ; uncertain date of extant medical works, 268 ; Hindii medicine apparently an independent development, 269 ; ques- tionable authenticity o£ existing texts, 269 ; importance of Indian medicine, 269 j its influence on Arabs, 270. 5. Aet op War, Music, Pobmatite and Technical Akts, 271-276. Art of war (Dhanur-veda) : Vi^vi£mitra, Bharadvdja, 271 ; music (Gdndharva-veda), 271 (musical notation, 272) ; Artha-i5&tra, 273 : painting and sculpture, 273 ; archi- tecture, 274 ; technical arts, 275. C— WORKS ON LAW, CUSTOM, AND RELIGIOUS WOR- SHIP, 276-2S3 The Dharma-^dstras, 276 ; Code of Manu, Brahmanical organisation as here presented, 276 ; highly developed judicial procedure here exhibited, 277 ; connection of Dharma-Sdstras with Grihya-Sdtras, 277, 278 ; critical questions connected with existing text of Manu, 279 ; different redactions of Manu and the other Dharma- Ssistras, number of these, 280 ; relation of Manu's Code to that of Ydjnavalkya, date of the latter, 280, 281 ; Epic poetry and Purinas also sources for Hindii law, 282; modern jurisprudence, 282; Dekhan the chief seat of literary activity after eleventh century, 283. Z). —BUDDHISTIC SANSKRIT LITERATURE, . . . 283-310 Buddhism, its origin from SSijikhya _dootrine, 284 ; rela- tion of Buddhist legend to the later portions of Vedio literature, 285 ; princes of same name in Buddhist legend and Satapatha-Briihmana, 286 ; position in former of Kuru-PafichiSlas, P^ndavas, Mdgadhas, 286, 287 j Buddhist eras, 287 ; discordance of these with other historical evidence, 287 ; earliest demonstrable use of these eras, 288 ; Buddha's doctrine, 288 ; his novel way of promulgating it, and opposition to Brahmanical hierarchy, 289 ; tradition as to redaction of Buddhistic sacred scriptures, Northern and Southern, 290 ; mutual relation of the two collections, 292 ; Pdli historical litera- ture, 293 ; scriptures of Northern Buddhists, their gradual origin, 294 ; language in which Southern scriptures were at first preserved different from that in which the Northern scriptures were recorded at third TABLE OF CONTENTS. jotiii council, 295, 296 (Jaina-llterature, 296) ; data furnished liy Buddhistic Sanskfit literature of doubtful authority for Buddha's age, 297. (a) The Slitra-Pi(aka: distinction between the simple and the Mahdvaipulya-Stitras, 298 ; poetical pieces in latter, G^tbd-dialect, 299 ; contents of the simple Siitras : Ityukta, Vydkarana, Avaddna, Adbhuta-dharma, Geya, Gdth£t,XJpadefo, NidSna, j£[taka,300, 301 ; their Pantlieon different from that of the Brahmana-texts, 301 ; but identical with that of the Epic poetry, 303 ; other chronological data in the Stltras, 304. — (6) The Vinaya- Pifaha: discipline of clergy, system of mendicancy, 305 ; Buddhistic hierarchy as distinguished from the Brahmanical, Buddhist cult, 306 ; points of connection with Christian ritual, 307. — (c) The AbhidharmOfPitaka, 307 ; schools of Buddhist philosophy, 308 ; relation to the Siipkhya-system, 308; and to Gnosticism, 309. — Commentaries on the sacred scriptures, 309 ; Tantras, 310. SaPPLEMENTART NOTES 311 INDICES : Saitsebit Ikoex 329 Index of Matters, ka, , 353 iHDEi' OF Authors, , 358 LECTURES HISTOM OE imik^ LITERATUHE. At the very outset of these lectures I find myself in a certain degree of perplexity, being rather at a loss how- best to entitle them. I cannot say that they are to treat of the history of " Indian Literature ; " for then I should have to consider the whole body of Indian languages, in- cluding those of non- Aryan origin. Nor can I say that their subject is the history of " Indo- Aryan Literature ; " for then I should have to discuss the modern languages of India also, which form a third period in the development of Indo- Aryan speech. Nor, lastly, can I say that they are to present a history of " Sanskrit Literature ; " for the Indo- Aryan language is not in its first period " Sanskrit," i.e., the language of the educated, but is still a popular dialect ; while in its second period the people spoke not Sanskrit, but Prakritic dialects, which arose simultaneously with Sanskrit out of the ancient Indo- Aryan vernacular. In order, however, to relieve you from any doubt as to what you have to expect from lue here, I may at once remark that it is only the literature of the first and second periods of the Indo-Aryan language with which we have to do. For the sake of brevity I retain the name " Indian Literature." I shall frequently in the course of these lectures be forced to draw upon your forbearance. The subject they discuss 'may be compared to a yet uncultivated tract of A 2 LECTURES ON THE country, of which only a few spots have here and there been cleared, while the greater part of it remains covered with dense forest, impenetrable to the eye, and obstructing the prospect. A clearance is indeed now by degrees being made, but slowly, more especially because in addition to the natural obstacles which impede investigation, there still prevails a dense mist of prejudice and preconceived opinions hovering over the land, and enfolding it as with a veil. The literature of India passes generally for the most ancient literature of which we possess written records, and justly so.^ But tlie reasons which have hitherto been thought sufficient to establish this fact are not the correct ones; and it is indeed a matter for wonder that people should have been so long contented with them. In the first .place, Indian tradition itself lias been adduced in support of this fact, and for a very long time this was considered suffi- cient. It is, I think, needless for me to waste words upon the futile nature of such evidence. In the next place, as- tronomical data have been appealed to, according to which the Vedas would date from about 1400 B.C. But tliese data are given in writings, which are evidently of very modern origin, and they might consequently be the result of calculations ^ instituted for the express purpose. Fur- 1 In so far as this claim may not other hand, the opinion expresse'd in now be disputed by the Egyptian theflrsteditionof thiswork(i8S2),to monumental records and papyrus the effect that the Indians may either rolls, or even by the Assyrian litera- have brought the knowledge of these ture which has but recently been lunar mansions, headed by Krittikd, brought to light. witli thKra into India, or else have ^ Besides, these calculations are of obtained it at a later period th.'ough a very vague character, and do not the commeioial relations of the Phoe- yield any such definite date as that nicians with the PanJS%«)las recently given above, but only some epoch gained considerably in probability ; lying between 1820-860 B.C., see and therewith the suggestion of 1. St., X. 236; Whitney in /oiHVS. Babylon as the mother country of the R. A. S., i. 317, ff. (1864). True, observations on which this date is the circumstance that the oldeBt re- eatablished. Seethesecondof my two cords begin the series of nakshatras treatises, Die vedischen Nachrichteii with the sign Krittikd, carries us Jion d'-niVai-s/iaifa (Berlin, 1862), pp. back to a considerably earlier period 362-400 ; my paper, Ueber den Veda- even than these dates, derived from kalender Namens Jyotisha (1862), p. the so-called Vedic Calendar, viz., 15 ; /. St., x. 429. ix, 241, ff.; Whit- to a period between 2780-1820 B.C., ney, Oi-iental and Linguittic Studies since the vernal equinox coincided (1874), ii. 418. — Indeed a direct re- with 7; Tauri {Krittikd), in round ference to Babylon and its sea trade, numbers, about the year 2300 B.C., in which the exportation of peacocks see /. St., X. 234-236. But, on the is mentioned, has lately come to light HISTOR Y OF INDIAN LITER A TURE. 3 tiler, one of the Buddhist eras has been relied upon, according to which a reformer is supposed to have arisen in the sixth century B.C., in opposition to the Brahmanical hierarchy; but the authenticity of this particular era is still extremely questionable. Lastly, the period when Panini, the first systematic grammarian, flourished, has been referred to the fourth century e.g., and from this, as a starting-point, conclusions as to the period of literary deve- lopment which preceded him have been deduced. But the arguments in favour of Panini's having lived at that time* are altogether weak and hypothetical, and in no case can they furnish us with any sort of solid basis. The reasons, however, by which we are fully justified in regarding the literature of India as the most ancient, lite- rature of which written records on an extensive scale have been handed down to us, ai'e these : — In the more ancient parts of the Rigveda-Samhita, we find the Indian race settled on the north-western borders of India, in the Panjab, and even beyond the Panjab, on the Kubha, or Kwjyrjv, in Kabul.* The gradual spread of in an Indian text, the Bdverujiitaka, see Minayeff in tlie Milanges Asia- tiques (Imperial Hussian Academy), vi. 577, ff. (187 1), and Monatsbenckte of the Berlin Academy, p. 622 (1871). As, however, this testimony belongs to a comparatively late period, no great importance can be attached to it. — Direct evidence of ancient com- mercial relations between India and the West has recently been found in hieroglyphic texts of the seventeenth century, at which time the Aryas would appear to have been already settled on the Indus.- For the word kapi, ' ape,' which occurs in I Kings X. 22, in the form 50/, Gr. (c^xos, is found in tliese Heyptian texts in the form kafu, see Job. Diimichen, Die Fiotte einer eyypt. KSnigin aus dem 1 7. Jahrh. (Leipzii.', Ib68),tableii. p. 17. Lastly, tykhiim., the Hebrew name for peacocks (l Kings x. 22, 2 Chron. ix. 21) necessarily implies that al- ready in Solomon's time the Phoeni- cian ophir-merch.ints " ont eu affaire suit an pays meme de^ Abhira soit ^ur un autre point de la cote de I'Inde avec des penplades dravidi- ennes," Julieu Vinson, Remie de Linguistique, vi. 120, ff. {1873). See also Burnell, Elements of South In- dian Palceography, p. 5 (Mangalore, 1874). * Or even, as Goldstiioker sup- poses, earlier than Buddha. * One of the Vedic Rishis, asserted to be Vatsa, of the family of Kanva, extols, Rik, viii. 6. 46-48, the splen- did presents, consisting of horses, cattle, and vshfi-as yoked four toge- ther — (Roth in the St. Petersburg Diet, explains ushtra as * buffahi, humped bull ; ' generally it means ' camel ') — which, to the glory of the Yitdvas, he received whilst residing with Tirimdiia and Pars'u. Or have we here only a single person, Tiriiii- riira Pars'u ? In the Sdnkh^yaua ^rauta-Sdtra, xvi. 11. 20, at least, he is understood as Tiriijidira Pdra- s'avya. These names suggest Tiridates and the Persians ; see J.St,, iv. 379, n., but compare Girard de Rialle, Jievue de Linguist., iv. 227 (1872). Of cuur.'ie, we must not think of th(> 4 LECTURES ON THE the race from these seats towards the east, beyond the Sarasvati and over Hindustan as far as the Ganges, can be traced in the later portions of the Vedic writings almost step by step. The writings of the following period, that of the epic, consist of accounts of the internal conflicts among the conquerors of Hindustan themselves, as, for instance, the Maha-Bharata ; or of the farther spread of Brahmanism towards the south, as, for instance, the Ea- mayana. If we connect with this the first fairly accurate information about India which we have from a Greek source, viz., from Megasthenes,* it becomes clear that at the time of this writer the Brahmanising of Hindustan was already completed, while at the time of the Periplus (see Lassen, /. AK., ii. 150, n. ; I. St., iL 192) the very south- ernmost point of the Dekhan had already become a seat of the worship of the wife of ^iva. What a series of years, of centuries, must necessarily have elapsed before this boundless tract of country, inhabited by wild and vigorous tribes, could have been brought over to Brahmanism ! ! It may perhaps here be objected that the races and tribes found by Alexander on the banks of the Indus appear to stand entirely on a Vedic, and not on a Brahmanical foot- ing. As a matter of fact this is true ; but we should not be justified in drawing from this any conclusion whatever with regard to India itself. For these peoples of the Pan^ jab never submitted to the Brahmanical order of things, but always retained their ancient Vedic standpoint, free and independent, without either priestly domination or system of caste. For this reason, too, they were the ob- jects of a cordial hatred on the part of their kinsmen, who had wandered farther on, and on this account also Buddh- ism gained an easy entrance among them. Persians after Cyrus : that would current, of the word Tiri in Tiridates, bring us too far down. But the Per- &c., from the Pahlavi ifr3:Zend lis- sians were so called, and had their Irya (given, e.g., by M. Brdal, Dt own princes, even before the time of Persicis nominibus (1863), pp. 9, 10), Cyrus. Or ought we rather, as sug- is hardly justified, pested by Olshausen in the Berliner * Who as ambassador of Seleucua Monataberichte (1874), p. 708, to resided for some time at the court think of the Parthavas, i.e., Parthi- of Chandragupta. His reports are ans, who as well as P^rSas are men- preserved to us chiefly inthe'IySixa tioned in the time of the Acheeme- of Arrian, who lived in the second nidsB ! The derivation, hitherto century a.d. niSTOR Y OF INDIAN LITER A TURE. 5 And while the claims of the written records of Indian literature to a high antiquity — its beginnings may per- haps be traced back even to the time when the Indo- Aryans still dwelt together with the Persa- Aryans — are thus indisputably proved by external, geographical testi- mony, the internal evidence in the same direction whicli may be gathered from their contents, is no less conclusive. In the songs of the Rik, the robust spirit of the people gives expression to the feeling of its relation to nature, with a spontaneous freshness and simplicity ; the powers of nature are worshipped as superior beings, and their kindly aid besought within their several spheres. Begin- ning with this nature-worship, which everywhere recog- nises only the individual phenomena of nature, and these in the first instance as superhuman, we trace in Indian literature the progress of the Hindu people through almost all the phases of religious development through which the human mind generally has passed. The individual pheno- mena of nature, which at first impress the imagination as being superhuman, are gradually classified witliin their different spheres ; and a certain unity is discovered among them. Thus we arrive at a number of divine beings, eacli exercising supreme sway within its particular province, whose influence is in course of time further extended to the corresponding events of human life, while at the same time they are endowed with human attributes and organsi The number — already considerable — of these natural deities, these regents of the powers of nature, is further increased by the addition of abstractions, taken from ethi- cal relations ; and to these as to the other deities divine powers, personal existence, and activity are ascribed. Into this multitude of divine figures, the spirit of inquiry seeks at a later stage to introduce order, by classifying and co-ordinating them according to their principal bearings. The principle followed in this distribution is, like the con- ception of the deities themselves, entirely borrowed from the contemplation of nature. We have the gods who act in the heavens, in the air, upon the earth ; and of these the sun, the wind, and fire are recognised as the main repre- sentatives and rulers respectively. These three gradually obtain precedence over all the other gods, who are only looked upon as their creatures and servants. Strength- 6 LECTURES ON Tim ened by these classifications, speculation presses on and seeks to establish the relative position of these three deities, and to arrive at unity for the supreme Being. This is accomplished either speculatively, by actually assuming such a supreme and purely absolute Being, viz., " Brah- man" (neut.), to whom these three in their turn stand in the relation of creatures, of servants only ; or arbi- trarily, according as one or other of the three is worshipped as the supreme god. The sun-god seems in the first instance to have been promoted to this honour ; the Persa- Aryans at all events retained this standpoint, of course extending it still further; and in the older parts of the Brahmanas also — to which rather than to the Samhitas the Avesta is related in respect of age and contents — we find the sun-god here and there exalted far above the other deities (prasavitd devdndm). We also find ample traces of tlds in the forms of worship, which so often preserve relics of antiquity.^ ^ay, as " Brahman" (masc), he has iu theory retained this position, down even to the latest times, although in a very colourless manner. His col- leagues, the air and fire gods, in consequence of their much more direct and sensible influence, by degrees ob- tained complete possession of the supreme power, though constantly in conflict with each other. Their M'orship has passed through a long series of different phases, and it is evidently the same which Megasthenefe found in Hin- dustan,* and which at the time of the Periplus had pene- trated, though in a form already very corrupt, as far as the southernmost point of the Dekhan. But while we are thus justified in assuming a high antiquity for Indian literature, on external geographical grounds, as well as on internal evidence, connected with tbe history of the Hindu religion,^ the case is sufficiently unsatisfactory, when we come to look for definite chrono- ' Cf. my paper. Zwei vedische Texte popular dialects, for whose gradual iiber Ominauiid Portenta (1859), pp. development out of the language of 392-393. the Vedio hymns into this form it is * To these, thirdly, we have to absolutelynecessary to postulate the add evidence derived from the Ian- lai)8e of a series of centuries, guage. The edicts of Piyadasi, * According to Strabo,, p. 117, whose date is fixed by the mention t^wvuaoi (Rudra, Soma, Siva) was therein of Greek kings, and even of worshipped in the mountains, 'H^a- Alexander himself, are written in leX^s (Indra, Visbnu) in the plain. HISTORY OF INDIAN LITERATURE. 7 logical dates. We must reconcile ourselves to the fact that any such search will, as a general rule, be absolutely- fruitless. It is only in the case of those branches of literature which also became known abroad, and also in regard to the last few centuries, when either the dates of manuscripts, or the data given in the introductions or closing observations of the works theniselves, furnish us some guidance, that we can expect any result. Apart from this, an internal chronology based on the character of the works themselves, and on the quotations, &c., therein contained, is the only one possible. Indian literature divides itself into two great periods, the Vedic and the Sanskrit. Turning now to the former, or Vedic period, I proceed to give a preliminary general outline of it before entering into the details, ( 8 ) FIRST PERIOD. VEDIC LITERATURE. We have to distinguish four Vedas — the Rig- Veda, the Sama-Veda, the Yajur-Veda, which is in a double form, and the Atharva-Veda. Each of these is again subdivided into three distinct parts — Samhita, Brahmana, and Siitra. Their relation to each other is as follows : — The Samhita * of the Rik is purely a lyrical collection, comprising the store of song wliicli the Hindus brought with them from their ancient homes on the banks of the Indus, and which they had there used for " invoking pro- sperity on themselves and their flocks, in their adoration of the dawn, in celebration of the struggle between the god who wields the lightning and the power of darkness, and in rendering thanks to the heavenly beings for pre- servation in battle." t The songs are here classified according to the families of poets to which they are as- cribed. The principle of classification is consequently, so to speak, a purely scientific one. It is therefore possible, though more cannot be said, that the redaction of tlie text may be of later date than that of the two Samhitas which * The name Saqihitsi (collecHon) virfi/d, srddhyiiya, adhyayana, also first occurs in tlie so-called Aran- 'Veda' alone. It is in the Stitras yakas, or latest supplements to the that we first find the term Chhandas Brdhmanas, and in the Sdtras ; but specially applied to the SaiitihitSls, whether in the above meaning, is and more particularly in Pdnini, not as yet certain. Tlie names by by whom Rishi, Nigama, Mantra (?) which the Samhittis are designated are also employed in the same in the Brdhmanas are — either richah, manner. sdmdni, yajAnshi, — or Rigveda, Sii- + See Roth, Zur Litteratur und maveda, Yajurveda, — or Bahvrichas, Geschichte (leg Weda^ p. 8 (Stutt- Chhaudogas, Adhvaryus, — or trayl gart, 1846). THE SAMHITAS. 9, will come next under our consideration, and which, pro- viding as they do for a practical want, became necessary immediately upon the institution of a worship with a fixed ritual. For the Samhita of the Saman, and both the Samhitas of the Yajus, consist only of such richas (verses) and sacrificial fornmlas as had to be recited at the cere- monies of the Soma offering and other sacrifices, and in tlie same order in which they were practically used ; at least, we know for certain, that this is the case in the Yajus. The Samhita of the Saman contains nothing but verses (richas); those of the Yajus, sentences in prose also. The former, the richas, all recur, with a few ex- ceptions, in the Rik-Sainhita, so tliat the Sama-Samhita is nothing more than an extract from the songs of the latter, of the verses applied to the Soma offering. Now the richas found in the Sama-Sarnhita and Yajuh-Samhita appear in part in a very altered form, deviating consi- derably from the text of the Rik, the Rik-Samhita. Of this a triple explanation is possible. First, these read- ings may be earlier and more original than those of the Rik, liturgical use having protected them from alteration, while the simple song, not being immediately connected with the sacred rite, was less scrupulously preserved. Or^ secondly, they may be later than those of the Rik, and may have arisen from the necessity of precisely adapting the text to the meaning attributed to the verse in its application to the ceremony. Or, lastly, they may be of equal authority with those of the Rik, the discrepancies being merely occasioned by the variety of districts and families in wliich they were used, the text being most authentic in the district and family in which it originated, and less so in those to which it subsequently passed. All three methods of expiration are alike correct, and in each particular case they must all be kept in view. But if we look more closely at the relation of these verses, it may be stated thus : The richas occurring in the Sama- Samhita generally stamp themselves as older and more original by the greater antiquity of their grammatical forms ; those in the two Samhitas of the Yajus, on the contrary, generally give the impression of having under- gone a secondary alteration. Instances which come under the third method of explanation are found in equal 10 VEDIC LITERA TURE. numbers, both in the Sania-Samliita and the Yajuh- Samhita. Altogether, too much stress cannot be laid on this point, namely, that the alterations which the songs and hymns underwent in the popular mouth during their oral transmission, must in any case be regarded as very considerable; since preservation by means of writing is not to be thought of for tliis period. Indeed %ye can hardly admit it for the time of the Brahmanas eitlier, otherwise it would be difficult to account for the numerous deviations of the various schools with regard to the text of these works also, as well as for the great number of different schools (Sakhas) generally. But although the songs of the Rik, or the majority of them, were composed on the banks of the Indus, their iinal compilation and arrangement can only have taken place in India proper ; at what time, however, it is diffi- cult to say. Some portions come down to an age so recent, that the system of caste had already been organised ; and tradition itself, in ascribing to Sakalya and Panchala Babhravya a leading part in the arrangement of the Rik- Samhita, points us to the flourishing epocli of the Videhas and Paiichalas, as I shall show hereafter. The Sarnhita of the Saman, being entirely borrowed from the Rik, gives no clue to the period of its origin; only, in tlie fact that it contains no extracts from any of tlie later portions of the Rik, we have perhaps an indication that these were not then in existence. This, however, is a point not yet in- vestigated. As for the two Samhitas of the Yajus, we have in the prose portions peculiar to them, most distinct proofs that both originated in the eastern parts of Hin- dustan,^ in the country of the Kunipanchalas, and that they belong to a period when the Brahman ical element had already gained the supremacy, although it had still to encounter many a hard struggle, and when at all events the hierarchy of the Brahmans, and the system of caste, were completely organised. Nay, it may be that we have even external grounds for supposing that tlie present re- daction of the Sarnhita of the White Yajus dates from the third century B.C. For Megasthenes mentions a people called MaBiavSivol, and this name recurs in the Ma- ' Or rather to the east of the Indus, iu Hindustilu. THE BRAHMANAS. it dhyamdinas, the principal scliool of the White Yaius More of this later on. The origin of the Atharva-Snmliita dates also from the period when Brahmanism had become dominant. It is in otlier respects perfectly analogous to the Rik-Samhita, and contains the store of song of this Braiiiuanical epoch. Many of these songs are to be found also in the last, that 3s, the least ancient book of the Rik-Samhita. In the latter they aie the latest additions made at the time of its- compilation ; in the Atharvan they are the proper and natural utterance of the present. Tlie spirit of the two collections is indeed entirely different.' In the Rik there breathes a lively natural feeling a warm love for nature ; wljile in the Atharvan tliere prevails, on llie contrary, onlv an anxious dread of her evil spirits, and their magical powers. In the Rik we find the people in a state of free activity and independence; in the Atharvan we see it bound in the fetters of the hierarchy and of superstition. But the Atharva-Samhita likewise contains pieces of great antiquity, which may perhaps have belonged more to the people proper, to its lower grades; whereas the songs of the Rik appear rather to have been the especial property of the higher families.* It was not without a long strugg.e that the songs of the Atharvan were permitted to take their place as a fourth Veda. Tiiere is no mention made of them in the more ancient portions of the Brahmanas of the Rik, Saman, and Yajus ; indeed they only originated simultaneously with these Brahmanas, and are therefore only alluded to in their later portions. We now come to the second part of Vedic literature, the Brahmanas. The character of the Brahmanas f may be thus gene- * This surmise, based upon cer- Vedische Texte uher Omina und For- t!iin passages in tlieAthaiTan, would toito, pp. 346-348.] certainly be at variance with the t This term signifies ' that which name * Atharvilngiras.is,' borne by relates to prayer, iraimaji.' Brah- this Samhit^ ; according to whieli manitself means 'drawiiigforth,' aa it would belong, on the contrary, to well in a physical sense 'producing,' the most ancient and noble Brah- 'creatin logy just proposed, and for regard- ing the signification 'guiding-line,' ' clue,' as the original one. [This is the meaning given in the St. Peters- burg Dictionary. — The writing of the Indians is of Semitic origin ; see Benfey, Jndien (in Ersck and Ch-uber'a Encyclopcedia, 1840), p. 254 ; my Iiidische Skiszen (1856), p. 127, ff. ; Burnell, Elem. of South Indian Pal., p. 3, fi'. Probably it served in the first instance merely for secular purposes, and was only applied sub- sequently to literature. See Miiller, Anc. S. Lit, p. 507 ; /. St., v. 20, fi'. ; I.Str., ii. 339. Goldstiicker (PiiTiim, i860, p. 26, ff) contends that the words sitra and granlha must abso- lutely bo connected with writing. See, however- f. St. , v. 24, ff. ; xiii. 476.] — Nor does etymology lead us to a more certain result in the case of anotlier word found in this connection, viz., ahihara, ' syllable,' This word does not seem to occur in this sense in the Sanihitil of the Rik (or Silman) ; it thei'e rather signifies ' imperishable.' The connecting link between this primary signification and the meaning ' syllable,' which is first met with in the Sariihitd of the Yajus, might perhaps be the idea of writing, the latter being the making imperishable, as it were, of otherwise i6 VEDIC LITERATURE. on the Brahmanas, and must be considered as their neces- sary supplement, as a further advance in the path struck out by the latter in the direction of more rigid system and formalism.* While the Brahmanas, with the view of ex- plaining the sacrifice and supporting it by authority, &c., uniformly confine themselves to individual instances of litual, interpretation, tradition, and speculation, subjecting these to copious dogmatic treatment, the object of the Sutras is to comprehend everything that had any reference whatever to these subjects. The mass of matter became too great ; there was risk of the tenor of the whole being lost in the details ; and it gradually became impossible to discuss all the different particulars consecutively. Diffuse discussion of the details had to be replaced by concise collective summaries of them. The utmost brevity was, however, requisite in condensing this great mass, in order to avoid overburdening the memory; and this brevity ultimately led to a remarkably compressed and enigmatical style, which was more and more cultivated as the litera- ture of the Sutras became more independent, and in pro- portion as the resulting advantages became apparent. Thus the more ancient a Siitra, the more intelligible it is ; the more enigmatical it is, the more modern will it prove.* But the literature of the Sutras can by no means be said to rest entirely upon the Brahmanas, for these, as a rule, give too exclusive a prominence to the ritual of the sacrifice. Indeed, it is only one particular division of the Siitras — viz., the Kalpa-Siitras, aphorisms exclusively devoted to the consideration of this ritual ^^ — which bears fleeting and evanepcent words and ^ On the mutual relations of the syllables (?). Or is the notion of the Brdhnianas and Htitras, see also /, &t,^ imperishable X670S at the root of viii. 76, 77 ; ix. 353, 354. this signification ? [In the Errata * Precisely as m the case of the to the first German edition it was Brithmanas, so also in the case of the pointed out, on the authority of a, Kalptis, i.e., Kalpa-Siitras, Pdnini, communication received from Pro- iv. 3. 105, distinguishes those com- fessor Aufrecht, that alcsltara is twice posed by the ancients from those used in the Rik of the ' measuring of that are nearer to his own time. Bpeecli,' viz., i. 164. 24 (47), iiud " On the sacrifice and sacrificial ix. 13. 3, and consequently may implements of tlie Srauta-Stitras, see there mean 'syllable.' Aceonlingto M. Miillerin Z. i). il/. (r.,IX. xxxvi.- tlie St. Petersburg Dictionary, this Ixxxii. ; Hang's notes to Ills transla- lattcr meaning is to be derived from tion of the Aitareya-Bnihmana ; and the idea of ' the coTistant, simple ' ele* ray paper,ZMi' Kenntniss de» vedischen ment in language.] OpferrUuals, I. St., x. xiii THE SUTRAS. 17 the special name of ^rauta-Siitras, i.e., " Siitras founded on the Sruti." The sources of the other Sdtras must be sought elsewhere. Side by side -with the Srauta- Siitras we are met by a second family of ritual Siitras, the so-called Grihya- Siitras, which treat of domestic ceremonies, those celebrated at birth and before it, at marviage, as well as at death and after it. The origin of these works is sufficiently indi- cated by their title, since, in addition to the name of Grihya-Siitras, they also bear that of Smarta- Siitras, i.e., " Siitras founded on the Smriti." Smnti, ' memory.,' i.e., that which is the subject of memory, can evidently only be distinguished from Sruti, ' hearing,' i.e., that which is the subject of hearing, in so far as the former impresses itself on the memory directly, without special instruction and provision for tlie purpose. It belongs to all, it is the property of the whole people, it is supported by the con- sciousness of all, and does not thei'efore need to be spe- cially inculcated. Custom and law are common property and accessible to all; ritual, on the contrary, though in like manner arising originally from the common conscious- ness, is developed in its details by the speculations and suggestions of individuals, and remains so tar the property of tlie few, who, favoured by external circumstances, under- stand how to inspire the people with a due awe of the importance and sanctity of their institutions. It is not, however, to be assumed from this that Smriti, custom and law, did not also undergo considerable alterations in the course of time. The mass of the immigrants had a great deal too much on their hands in the subjugation of the aborigines to be in a position to occupy themselves with other matters. Their whole energies had, in the first in- stance, to be concentrated upon the necessity of holding their own against the enemy. When this had been effected, and resistance was broken down, they awoke suddenly to find themselves bound and shackled in the hands of other and far more powerful enemies ; or rather, they did not awake at all ; their physical powers had been so long and so exclusively exercised and expended to the detriment of their intellectual energy, that the latter had gradually dwindled away altogether. The history of these new enemies was this : The knowledge of the ancient songs B 1 8 VEDIC LITER A TURE. with which, in their ancient homes, the Indians had wor- shipped the powers of nature, and the knowledge of the ritual connected with these songs, became more and more the exclusive property of those whose ancestors perhaps composed them, and in whose families this knowledge had been hereditary. These same families remained in the possession of the traditions connected with them, and which were necessary to their explanation. To strangers in a foreign country, anything brought with them from home becomes invested with a halo of sacredness; and thus it came about that these families of singers became families of priests, whose influence was more and more consolidated in proportion as the distance between the people and their former home increased, and the more their ancient institutions were banished from their minds by external struggles. The guardians of the ancestral customs, of the primitive forms of worship, took an in- creasingly prominent position, became the representatives of these, and, finally, the representatives of the Divine itself. For so ably had they used their opportunities, that they succeeded in founding a liierarchy the like of which the world has never seen. To tliis position it would have been scarcely possible for them to attain but for the ener- vating climate -of Hindustan, and the mode of life induced by it, which exercised a deteriorating influence upon a race unaccustomed to it. The families also of the petty kings who had formerly reigned over individual tribes, held a more prominent position in the larger kingdoms which were of necessity founded in Hindustan ; and thus arose the military caste. Lastly, the people proper, the Vims, or settlers, united to form a third caste, and they in their turn naturally reserved to themselves prerogatives over the fourth caste, or Siidras. This last was composed of various mixed elements, partly, perhaps, of an Aryan race which had settled earlier in India, partly of the aborigines themselves, and partly again of those among the immigrants, or their "Western kinsmen, who refused adherence to the new Brahmanical order. The royal * Who were distinguished by their colour, for caste. [See 7. 5(., x. 4, very colour from the three other 10.] castes ; hence the name varna, i. e. THE SUTRAS. 19 families, the warriors, who, it may be supposed, strenu- ously supported the priesthood so long as it was a ques- tion of robbing the people of their rights, now that this was effected turned against their former allies, and sought to throw off the yoke that was likewise laid upon them. These efforts were, however, unavailing ; the colossus was too firmly established. Obscure legends and isolated allusions are the only records left to us in the later ^vritings, of the sacrilegious hands which ventured to at- tack the sacred and divinely consecrated majesty of the Brahmans; and these are careful to note, at the same time, the terrible punishments which befell those impious offenders. The fame of many a Barbarossa has here passed away and been forgotten ! The Smarta-Siitras, which led to this digression, gene- rally exhibit tlie complete standpoint of Brahmanism. Whether in the form of actual records or of compositions orally transmitted, they in any case date from a period when more than men cared to lose of the Smriti — that precious tradition passed on from generation to gctneration — was in danger of perishing. Though, as we have just seen, it had undergone considerable modifications, even in the families who guarded it, through the influence of the Brahmans, yet this influence was chiefly exercised with reference to its political bearings, leaving domestic manners and customs ^^ untouched in their ancient form; so that these works cover a rich treasure of ideas and conceptions of extreme antiquity. It is in them also that we have to look for the beginnings of tlie Hindii legal literature,^^ wliose subject-matter, indeed, in part corresponds exactly to theirs, and whose authors bear lor the most part the same names as those of the Grihya-Siitras. With the strictly legal portions of the law-books, those dealing with Ji For the ritual relating to birth (1854), and M. Miiller, ihid., IX. see Speijer's book on \\vi J dtakarma i.-xxxvi. (1855) ; andlastlj', O. Don- (Leyden, 1872) — tor the murriage ner's Pmrfapitrjyay(ia(i870). ceremonies, Ifaiis's p.iper, Ut.hrr die '^ Besides the Griliya-Sutr.is we I/eimtltsr/ebiduche der aiten Inder, find some texts directly called Dhar- with adclidous by myself in I, Ht., lua-Siitras, orSilmaydchiirika-Stitras. V. 267, ff. ; also uiy paper Vedisclie which are specified as portions of JHoc/izeitsspriiche, ibid., p. 177, fF. Srauta-Siitms, but which were no (1862) — on the burial of the dead, doubt suLisequently inserted into Hoth in Z. D. M. G., viii. 487, ff. these. 20 VEDIC LITERATURE. civil law, criminal law, and political law, we do not, it is true, find more than a few points of connection in these Siitras ; but probably these branches were not codified at all until the pressure of actual imminent danger made it necessary to establish them on a secure foundation. The risk of their gradually dying out was, owing to the con- stant operation of the factors involved, not so great as in the case of domestic customs. But a far more real peril threatened them in the fierce assaults directed against the Brahmanical polity by the gradually increasing power of Buddhism. Buddhism originally proceeded purely from theoretical heterodoxy regarding the relation of matter to spirit, and similar questions; but in course of time it addressed itself to practical points of religion and worship, and thenceforth it imperilled the very existence of Brah- manism, since the military caste and the oppressed classes of the people generally availed themselves of its aid in order to throw off the overwhelming yoke of priestly domination. The statement of Megasthenes, that the Indians in his time administered law only cmo /iz/j^^iu;?, ' from memory,' I hold therefore to be perfectly correct, and I can see no grounds for the view that fJivrniT) is but a mistranslation of Smriti in the sense of Smriti-Sastra, ' a treatise on Smriti.'* For the above-mentioned reason, however — in consequence of the development of Bud- dhism into an anti-Brahmauical religion — the case may have altered soon afterwards, and a code, that of Manu, for example (founded on the Manava Grihya-Sutra), may have been drawn up. But this work belongs not to the close of the Vedic, but to the beginning of the following period. As we have found, in the Smriti, an independent basis for theGrihya-Sutras — in addition to the Brahm anas, where but few points of contact with these Sutras can be traced — so too shall we find an independent basis for those Sutras the contents of which relate to language. In this case it is in the recitation of the songs and formulas at tlie sac- rifice that we shall find it. Although, accordingly, these * This latter view has Ijeen best nell, BUmentl of S. Ind. Palmogr., set forth by Schwanbeck, Megns- p. 4.] thenes, pp. 50, 51. [But see also Bur- THE SUTRAS. 21 Sdtras stand on a level with the Bralimanas, which owe their origin to the same source, yet this must be under- stood as applying only to those views on linguistic rela- tions which, being presupposed in the Sutras, must be long anterior to theni. It must not be taken as applying to the works themselves, inasmuch as they present the results of tliese antecedent investigations in a collected and systematic form. Obviously also, it was a much more natural thing to attempt, in the first instance, to elucidate the relation of the prayer to the sacrilice, than to make the form in which the prayer itself was drawn up a sub- ject of investigation. The more sacred the sacrificial per- formance grew, and the more fixed the form of worship gradually became, the greater became the importance of the prayers belonging to it, and the stronger their claim to the utmost possible purity and safety. To effect this, it was necessary, first, to fix the text of the prayers ; secondly, to establish a correct pronunciation and recitation; and, lastly, to preserve the tradition of their origin. It was only after the lapse of time, and when by degrees theii literal sense had become foreign to the phase into which the language had passed — and this was of course much later the case with the priests, who were familiar with them, than with the people at large — tliat it became necessary to take precautions for securing and establishing the sense also. To attain all these objects, those most conversant with the subject were obliged to give instruction to the ignorant, and circles were thus formed around them of travelling scholars, who made pilgrimages from one teacher to another according as they were attracted by the fame of special learning. These researches were naturally not confined to questions of language, but embraced the whole range of Brahmanical theology, extending in like manner to questions of worship, dogma, and speculation, all of which, indeed, were closely interwoven with each other. We must, at any rate, assume among the Brahmans of this period a very stirring intellectual life, in which even the women took an active part, and whicli accounts still further for the superiority maintained and exercised by the Brahmans over the rest of the people. Nor did the mili- tary caste hold aloof from these inquiries, especially after they had succeeded in securing a time of repose from 22 VEDIC LITERA TURE. external warfare. We have here a faithful copy of the scholastic period of the Middle Ages; sovereigns whose courts form the centres of intellectual life ; Brahmans who with lively emulation carry on their inquiries into the highest questions the human mind can propound ; women who with enthusiastic ardour plunge into the mysteries of speculation, impressing and astonishing men by the depth and loftiness of their opinions, and who — while in a state which, judging from description, seems to have been a kind of somnambulism — solve the questions proposed to them on sacred subjects. As to the quality of their solu-. tions, and the value of all these inquiries generally, that is another matter. But neither have the scholastic sub- tleties any absolute worth in themselves ; it is only the striving and the effort which ennobles the character of any such period. The advance made by linguistic research during this epoch was very considerable. It was then that the text of the prayers was fixed, that the redaction of the various Samhitas took place. By degrees, very extensive pre- cautions were taken for this purpose. For their study (Patha), as well as for the different methods of preserving them — whether by writing or by memory, for either is possible^* — such special injunctions are given, that it seems ^' All the technical terms, how- by the rest of the Brahmans. On ever, which occur for study of the the other han<], Goldstiicker, Boht- Veda and the like, uniformly refer liiigk, Whitney, and Roth (Der to speaking and reciting only, and Aiharvaveda in Kashmir, p. lo), are thereby point to exclusively oral of the opposite opinion, holding, in tradition. The writing down of the particular, that the authors of the Vedic texts seems indeed not to Prdti^dkhyas must have had written have taken place until a compara- texts before them. Benfey also tively late period. See/. 5i.,v. i8, formerly shared this view, but re- fF. (1861). Miiller, Anc. S. Lit, p. cently (Einleitung in die Gramma- 507, ft'. (1859) : Westergaard, Uther tik der vcd. /Sprache, p" 31), he has den dltcsten Zeitraum der indischen expressed the belief that the Vedic Geschichte (i860, German transla- texts were only committed to writ- tion 1862, p. 42, ff.); and Haug, ing at a late date, long subse- Veber das Wcsen des vedischen Ac- qnent to their ' diaskeuasis.' Bur- cc«(s (1873, p. 16, ff.), have declared nell also, I. c, p. 10, is of opinion themselves in favour of this theory, that, amongst other things, the very Haug thinks that those Brahmans scarcity of the material for writing who were converted to Buddhism in ancient times " almost precludes were the first who consigned the the existence of MSS. of books or Veda to writing — for polemical pur- long documents." poses — and that they were followed THE SUTRAS. 23 all but impossible that any alteration in the text, except in the form of interpolation, can have taken place since. These directions, as well as those relating to the pronun- ciation and recitation of the words, are laid down in the Pratilakhya-Siitras, writings with which we have but recently been made acquainted.* Such a Prati^akhya- Siitra uniformly attaches itself to the Samhita of a single Veda only, but it embraces all the schools belonging to it ; it gives the general regulations as to the nature of the sounds employed, the euphonic rules observed, the accent and its modifications, the modulation of the voice, &c. Further, all the individual cases in which peculiar phonetic or other changes are observed are specially pointed out ; ^* and we are in this way supplied with an excellent critical means of arriving at the form of the text of each Samhita at the time when its Pratilakhya was composed. If we find in any part of the Samhita phonetic peculiarities which we are unable to trace in its Prati^akhya, we may rest assured that at that period this part did not yet belong to the Sarnhita. The directions as to the recital of the Veda, i.e., of its Samhita,! in the schools — each indivi- dual word being repeated in a variety of connections — pre- sent a very lively picture of the care with which these studies were pursued. For the knowledge of metre also, rich materials have been handed down to us in the Sutras. The singers of the hymns themselves must naturally have been cognisant of the metrical laws observed in them. But we also find the technical names of some metres now and then men- tioned in the later songs of the Rik. In the Brahmanas the oddest tricks are played with them, and their harmony is in some mystical fashion brought into coimection with the harmony of the world, in fact stated to be its funda- * By Roth in his essays, Znr separately in their original form, Litteratur und Geschichte des Weda, unaffected by sarndhi, i.e., the influ- p. 53, ff. (translated in Journ. As. enoe of the words which immedi- Soc. Bengal, January 1848, p. 6, ff.). ately precede and follow. Whatever " This indeed is the real purpose else, over and above this, is found of the Prdti^khyas, n.amely, to in the PnStis'iikhyas is merely acces- Bhow how the continuous SamhitiJ sory matter. See Whitney in Jour- text is to be reconstructed out o£ nal Am. Or. Soc, iv. 259 (1853). the Pada text, in which the indivi- t Strictly speaking, only these dual words of the text are given (the Saiphitds) are Veda. 24. VED/C LITERATURE. mental cause. The simple minds of these thinkers were too much charmed by their rhythm not to be led into these and similar symbolisings. The further development of metre afterwards led to special inquiries into its laws. Such investigations have been preserved to us, both in Sutras ^^ treating directly of metre, e.cf., the NidaUa-Siitra, and in the Anukramanis, a peculiar class of works, which, adhering to the order of each Sanihita, assign a poet, ^ metre, and a deity to each song or prayer. They may, therefore, perhaps belong to a later period than most of the Sutras, to a time when the text of each Samhita wfjs already extant in its final form, and distributed as vsje there find it into larger and smaller sections for the better regulation of its study. One of the smallest sectionis formed the pupil's task on each occasion. — The preserv>'^- tion of the tradition concerning the authors and the origii of the prayers is too intimately connected herewith to b(j dissociated from the linguistic Sutras, although the class- of works to which it gave rise is of an entirely different character. The most ancient of such traditions are to be found, as above stated, in the Brahmanas themselves. These latter also contain legends regarding the origin and the author of this or that particular form of worship ; and on such occasions the Brahmana frequently appeals to Gathas, or stanzas, preserved by oral transmission among the people. It is evidently in these legends that we must look for the origin of the more extensive Itihasas and Puranas, works which but enlarged the range of their sub- ject, but which in every other respect proceeded after the same fashion, as is shown by several of the earlier frag- ments preserved, e.g., in the Maha-Bharata. The most ancient work of the kind hitlierto known is the Brihad- devata by Saunaka, in ilohas, whicli, however, strictly fol- lows the order of the Rik-Samhita, and proves by its very title that it has only an accidental connection with this class of works. Its object properly is to specify the deity for each verse of the Rik-Samhita. But in so doinrf, It supports its views with so many legends, that we are fully justified in classing it here. It, however, like tlie other Anukramanis, belongs to a mucli later period than most ^ See Part i. of my paper ou Indian Prosody, /. St.. viii. i, ff. (1S63), NIGHANTU—NIRUKTI. 35" of the SiitraS, since it presupposes Yaska, the author of the Nirukti, of whom I have to speak presently ; it is, in fact, essentially based upon his work. [See Adalb. Kuhn in /. 8t., i. 1 01- 1 20.] It was remarked above, that the investigations into the literal sense of the prayers only began when this sense had gradually become somewhat obscure, and that, as this could not be the case among the priests, who were fami- liar with it, so soon as amongst the rest of the people, the language of the latter may at that time have undergone considerable modifications. The first step taken to ren- der the prayers intelligible was to make a collection of synonyms, which, by virtue of their very arrangement, ex- plained themselves, and of specially obsolete words, of which separate interpretations were then given orally. These collected words were called, from their being " ranked," " strung together," Nigranthu, corrupted into Nighantu* and those occupied with them Naigliantukas. One work of this kind has been actually preserved to us.^" It is in five books, of which the three first contain synonyms ; the fourth, a list of specially difficult Vedic words ; and the fifth, a classification of the various divine personages who figure in the Veda. We also possess one of the ancient expositions of this work, a commentary on it, called Niruhti, " interpretation," of whicli Yaska is said to be the author. It consists of twelve books, to which two others having no proper connection with them were afterwards added. It is reckoned by the Indians among the so-called Vedangas, together with ^iksha, Chhandas, and Jyotisha — three very late treatises on phonetics, metre, and astro- nomical calculations — and also with Kalpa and Vya- karana, i.e., ceremonial and grammar, two general cate- gories of literary works. The four first names likewise originally signified the class in general,^'' and it was only later that they were applied to the four individual works * See Rotli, Introduction to the " SiksKd still continues to be the Nirukti, p. xii. name of a species. A considerable " To this place belong, further, the number of treatises bo entitled have Nighan^u to the Atliarva-S., men- recently been found, and more are tioned'by Haug (cf. /. St.,ix. 175, constantly being brought to light, 176,) and the Nigama-Pari^ishta of Cf. Kielhorn, ]. St.i xiv. 160. the White Yajus, 26 VEDIC LITERATURE. now specially designated by those titles. It is in Yaska's work, the Nirukti, that we find the first general notions of. grammar. Starting from the phonetic rules, the observ- ance of which the Prati^akhya-Siitras had already estab- lished with so much minuteness — but only for each of the Veda-Samhitas — advance was no doubt gradually made, in the first place, to a general view of the subject of phone- tics, and thence to the remaining portions of the domain of language. Inflection, derivation, and composition were recognised and distinguished, and manifold reflections were made upon the modifications thereby occasioned in the meaning of the root. Yaska mentions a considerable number of grammatical teachers who preceded him, some by name individually, others generally under the name of Nairuktas, Vaiyakaranas; from which we may gather that a very brisk activity prevailed in this branch of study. To judge from a passage in the Kaushitaki-Brahmana, linguistic research must liave been carried on with pecu- liar enthusiasm in the Nortli of India ; and accordingly, it is the northern, or rather tlie north-western district of India that gave birth to the grammarian who is to be 'looked upon as the father of Sanskrit grammar, Panini. Now, if Yaska himself must be considered as belonging only to the last stages of the Vedic period, Panini — from Yaska to whom is a great leap — must have lived at the very close of it, or even at the beginning of the next period. Advance from the simple designation of gram- matical words by means of terms corresponding to them in sense, which we find in Yaska, to the algebraic symbols of Panini, implies a great amount of study in the interval. Besides, Panini himself presupposes some such symbols as already known; he cannot therefore be regarded as having invented, but only as having consistently carried out a method which is certainly in a most eminent degree ' suited to its purpose. Lastly, Philosopliical Speculation also had its peculiar development contemporaneously witli, and subsequently to, the Brahmanas.' It is in this field and in that of grammar that the Indian mind attained the highest pitch of its marvellous fertility in subtle distinctions, however abstruse or naive, on the other hand, the method may occasionally be. PHILOSOPHY. 27 Several hymns of a speculative purpoit in the last book of the Rik-Samhita testify to a great depth and concen- tration of reflection upon the fundamental cause of things, necessarily implying a long period of philosophical research in a preceding age. This is borne out by the old renown of Indian wisdom, by the reports of the companions of Alexander as to the Indian gymnosophists, &c. It was inevitable that at an early stage, and as soon as speculation had acquired some vigour, different opinions and starting-points should assert themselves, more espe- cially regarding the origin of creation ; for this, the most mysterious and difficult problem of all, was at the same time the favourite one. Accordingly, in each of the Brah- manas, one at least, or it may be more, accounts on the subject may be met with ; while in the more extensive works of this class we find a great number of different conjectures with regard to cosmogony. One of the prin- cipal points of difference naturally was whether indiscrete matter or spirit vas to be assumed as the First Cause. The latter theory became gradually the orthodox one, and is therefore the one most frequently, and indeed almost exclusively, represented in the Brahmanas. From among the adherents of the former view, which came by degrees to be regarded as lieterodox, there arose, as thought de- veloped, enemies still more dangerous to orthodoxy, who, ralthough they confined themselves in the first place solely to the province of theory, before long threw themselves into practical questions also, and eventually became the founders of the form of belief known to us as Buddhism. The word huddha, " awakened, enlightened," was originally a name of honour given to all sages, including the ortho- dox. This is shown by the iise both of the root ludh in the Brahmanas, and of the word huddlia itself in even the most recent of the Vedantic writings. The technical application of the word is as much the secondary one as it is in the case also of another word of the kind, sramana, which was in later times appropriated by the Buddhists as peculiarly their own. Here not merely the correspond- ing use of the root sravi, but also the word Sramana itself, as a title of honour, may be pointed out in several passages in the Brahmanas. Though Megasthenes, in a passage quoted by Strabo, draws a distinct line between two sects 28 VEDIC LITERATURE. of philosopTiers, the Bpa-)(^fjidve<; and the Sap/J^dvai, yet we should hardly be justified in identifying the latter with the Buddhist mendicants, at least, not exclusively ; for he expressly mentions tlie vXo^ioi — i.e., the Brahmacharins and Vanaprasthas, tlie first and third of the stages into which a Brahman's life is distributed —as forming part of the SapfJ-avai. The distinction between the two sects pro- bably consisted in this, that the Bpa)(^fiave'; were the " phil- osophers" by birth, also those who lived as householders (Grihasthas) ; the Sapfidvai, on the contrary, those who gave themselves up to special mortifications, and who might belong also to other castes. The JJpd/jLvai,, men- tioned by Strabo in another passage (see Lassen, /. AIC i. 836), whom, following the accounts of Alexander's time, he describes as accomplished polemical dialecticians, in contradistinction to the Bpaxi^dve';, whom he represents as chiefly devoted to physiology and astronomy, appear either to be identical with the Sapfidvai — a supposition favoured by the fact that precisely the same things are asserted of both — or else, with Lassen, they may be re- garded as Praminas, i.e., founding their belief on pramdna, logical proof, instead of revelation. As, however, the word is not known in the writings of that period, we should in tliis case hardly be justified in accepting Strabo's report as true of Alexander's time, but only of a later age. Philosophical systems are not to be spoken of in connec- tion with this period ; only isolated views and speculations are to be met witli in those portions of the Brahmanas here concerned, viz., the so-called Upanishads (upanislwd, a session, a lecture). Although there prevails in these a very marked tendency to systematise and subdivide, the investigations still move within a very narrow and limited range. Considerable progress towards systematising and expansion is visible in the Upanishads found in the Aran- yalias,* i.e., writings supplementary to the Brahmanas, and Specially designed for the vX60loi, ; and still greater pro- gress in those Upanishads wliich stand by themselves, i.e., * The name Aranyaka occurs first passages iu contradistinction to in the vdrttika to Pdn. iv. z. 129 [see ' Veda '), iii. 1 10, 309 ; and in the on this, T, St., v. 49], then in Manu, Atharvopanishads (see /. 5<., ii. 179). iv. 123 ; Yitjnavalkya, i. 145 (in both ASTRONOMY— MEDICINE. 29 those "which, although jperhaps originally annexed to a Brahmana or an Aranyaka of one of the throe older Vedas, have come down to us at the same time — or, it may be, have come down to us only — in an Atharvan recension. Finally, those Upanishads which are directly attached to the Atharva-Veda are complete vehicles of developed philosophical systems ; they are to some extent sectarian in their contents, in which respect they reach down to the time of the Puranas. That, however, the fundamental works now extant of the philosophical systems, viz., tlieir Sutras, were composed much later than has hitherto been supposed, is conclusively proved by the following consider- ations. In the first place, the names of their authors are either not mentioned at all in the most modern Bralimanas and Aranyakas, or, if they are, it is under a different form and in other relations — in such a way, however, that their later acceptation is already foreshadowed and exhibited iu the germ. Secondly, the names of the sages mentioned in the more ancient of them are only in part identical with those mentioned in the latest, liturgical Sutras. And, thirdly, in all of them the Veda is expressly presupposed as a whole, and direct reference is also made to those Upanishads which we are warranted in recognising as the latest real Upanishads ; nay, even to such as are only found attached to the Atharvan. The style, too, the enigmatical conciseness, the mass of technical tei'ms — although these are not yet endowed with aa algebraic force — imply a long previous period of special study to account for such pre- cision and perfection. The philosophical Siitras, as well as the grammatical Sutra, should therefore be con- sidered as dating from the beginning of the next period, within which both are recognised as of predominant authority. In closing this survey of Vedic literature, I have lastly to call attention to two other branches of science, which, though they do not appear to have attained in this period to the possession of a literature — at least, not one of which direct relics and records have reached us — must yet have enjoyed considerable cultivation — I mean Astronomy and Medicine. Both received their fii'st impulse from the exigencies of religious worship. Astronomical observa- tions — though at first, of course, these were only of the 30 VEDIC LITERATURE. rudest description — ^\vere necessarily required for the regu- lation of the solemn sacrifices ; .in the tirst place, of those offered in the morning and evening, then of those at the new and full moon, and finally of those at tlie commence- ment of each of the three seasons. Anatomical observa- tions, again, were certain to be brought about by the dis- section of the victim at the sacrifice, and the dedication of its different parts to different deities. The Indo-Germanic mind, too, being so peculiarly susceptible to the influences of nature, and nature in India more than anywhere else inviting observation, particular attention could not fail to be early devoted to it. Thus we find in the later portions of the Vajasaneyi-Sarnhita and in the Chhandogyopani- shad express mention made of " observers of the stars " and "the science of astronomy;" and, in particular, the knowledge of the twenty-seven (twenty-eight) lunar man- sions was early diffused. They are enumerated singly in tlie Taittiriya-Sarnhita, and the order in which they there occur is one that must necessarily* have been established somewhere between 1472 and 5 36 B.C. Strabo, in the above-mentioned passage, expressly assigns dcrrpovo/jiia as a favourite occupation of the Bpax^^avet;. Nevertheless, they had not yet made great progress at this period ; their observations were chiefly confined to the course of the moon, to the solstice, to a few fixed stars, and more par- ticularly to astrology. As regards Medicine, we find, especially in the Sam- hita of the Atharvan, a number of songs addressed to illnesses and healing lierbs, from which, however, there is not much to be gathered. Animal anatomy was evidently thoroughly understood, as each separate part had its own distinctive name. Alexander's companions, too, extol the Indian physicians, especially for their treatment of snake-bite. * See /. St., ii. 240, note. [The seems to be that contained in the correct numbers are rather 2780- Jyotislia, we obtain the years 1820- 1 820 B.C., see /.S«.,x. 234-236(1866); 860, ijtii. p. 236, ff. See further aud for the ljhu.rai}i seriiis, which the remarks iu uote 2 above.] RIGVEDA-SAMHITA. ji From this preliminary survey of Vedic literature -w^e now pass to the details. Adhering strictly to the Indian classification, we shall consider each of the four Vedas by itself, and deal with the writings belonging to them in their proper order, in connection with each Veda sepa- rately. And first of the Rifj'ccda. The Rigveda-Samhitd pre- sents a twofold subdivision — the one purely' external, having regard merely to the compass of the work, and evidently the more recent ; the other more ancient, and based on internal grounds. The former distribution is that into eight ashtakas (eighths), nearly equal in length, each of which is again subdivided into as many adhydyas (lectures), and each of these again into about 33 (2006 in all) Vargas (sections), usually consisting of five verses.^^ The latter is that into ten mnndalas (circles), 85 anuvdkas (chapters), 1017 siiktas (hymns), and 10,580 rtc/ias (verses) ; it rests on the variety of authors to whom the hymns are ascribed. Thus the first and tenth mandalas contain songs by Rishis of different families ; the second mandala, on the contrary (asht. ii. 71-113), contains songs belong- ing to Gritsamada; the third (asht. ii. 114-119, iii. 1-56) belongs to Vi^vamitra; the fourth (asht, iii. 57-1 14J to Vamadeva; the fifth (asht. iii. 11 5-1 22, iv. 1-79) to Atri; the sixth (asht. iv. 80-140, v. 1-14) to Bharadvaja; the seventh (asht. v. 1 5—1 1 8) to Vasishtha ; the eighth (asht. V. 119-129, vi. 1-8 1) to Kanva; and the ninth (asht. \i. 82-124, vii. 1-7 1) to Angiras.^" By the names of these Rishis we must understand not merely the individuals, but also their families. The hymns in each separate mandala are arranged in the order of the deities addressed.^'"' Those addressed to Agni occupy the first place, next come those ^' For particulars see I, Sf., iii. tiiitas); the ninth 7 an. 114 s./ and 255 ; MUUer, Arte. S. Lit,, p. the tenth 12 an. 19 u. 220. ^"' Delbriiok, in his review of Sie- ^^ The first mandala contains 24 benzig Litder dcs Jiif/veda (of. note anuvdhas and igi sAktas ; the second 32) in the Jenaer Literaturzeitung 4a?j. 43s.; the third 5 a)i. 62 s.;the (1873, p. 867), points out that iu fourth 5 an. 58 s.; the fifth 6 an. books 2-7 the hymns to Agni and 87 «.; the sixth 6 an. 75 «. ; the Indra are arranged in a descending seventh 6 an. 104 s.; the eighth 10 gradation as regards ttc number of on. 92 «. (besides 11 viUakhUya- verses. .j2 VEDIC LITERATURE. to Indra, and then those to other gods. This, at least, is the order in the first eight mandalas. The ninth is ad- dressed solely to Somaj and stands in the closest connec- tion with the Sama-Samhita, one-third of which is bor^ rowed from it ; whereas the tenth mandala stands in a very special relation to the Atharva-Samhita, The earliest mention of this order of the mandalas occurs in the Aitareya-Aranyaka. and in the two Grihya-SAtras of A^valayana and Saukhayana. The Prati^akhyas and Yaska recognise no other division, and therefore give to the Rik-Samhita the name of da§atayyas,i.e., the songs "in ten divisions," a name also occurring in the Sama- ^litras. The Anukramani of Katyayana, on the contrary, follows the division inta ashtakas and adhydyas. The name s'^iUa, as denoting hymn, appears for the first time in the second part of the Brahmana of the White Yajus ; the Rig-Brahmanas do not seem to be acquainted Avith it,^" but we find it in the Aitareya-Aranyaka, &c. The extant re- cension of the Rik-Samhita is that of the Sakalas, and belongs specially, it would seem, to tliat ^branch of this school which bears the name of the Sai^iriyas. Of another recension, that of the Vashkalas, we have but occasional notices, but the difference, between the two does not seem to have been considerable. One main distinc- tion, at all events, is that its eighth mandala contains eight additional hymns, making loo in all, and that, con- sequently, its sixtlr ashtaha consists of 132 hymiis.^^ The name of the Sakalas is evidently related to Sakalya, a sage often mentioned in the Brahmanas and Sutras, who is *" This is a mistake. They formed part of the eighth matfdala. know tlie word not only in the When I wrote the above I was pro- above, but also in a technical sense, bably thinking of the Vilakhilyas, viz., as a designation of one of the whose number is given by SdyanA, six parts of the iastra (' canon '), in liis commentai-y on the Ait. Br., more especially of the main sub- as eight (cf. Roth, Zur Zitt. und stance of it ; when thus applied, Gesch. des Weda, p. 35 ; Haug on ttihta appears in a collective mean- Ait. Br., 6. 24, p. 416), whereas the ing, comprising several aiiktaa. Cf. editions of Miiller and Aufrecht ^dflkh. Br^hm., xiv. i. have eleven. But as to whether '' I am at present unable to corro- these eight or eleven Vdlakhilyas borate this statement in detail. I belong specially to the Vdshkalas, I can only show, from Saunaka's cannot at present produce any direct Anuvdkitnukramani, that the reoen- evidence. On otCer differences of sion of the Ydshkalas had eight tlie Vfishkala school, &c., see Adalb. hymns more than that of the Siika- Kuhn, in /. St., i. 108, & las, but not that these eight hymns RIGVEDA-SAMHITA. 33 stated by Yaska^^ ^g ^,3 ^^ author of the Padapatha* of the Rik-Samhita.t According to_ the accounts in the Brahmana of the White Yajus (the Satapatha-Brahmana), a Sakalya, surnamed Vidagdha (the cunning?), lived con- temporaneously with Yajnavalkya as a teacher at the court of Janaka, King of Videha, and that as the declared adversary and rival of Yajnavalkya. He was vanquished and cursed by the latter, his head dropped off, and his bones were stolen by robbers.— Varkali also (a local form of Vashkali) is the name of one of the teachers mentioned in the second part of the Satapatha-Brahmana.^^ The Sakalas appear in tradition as intimately connected with the Sunakas, and to Saunaka in particular a number of writings are attributed,} which he is said to have com- posed with a view to secure the preservation of the text {rigvedaguptaye), as, for instance, an Anukramani of the Rishis, of the metres, of the deities, of the anuvdkas, of tlie . liymns, an arrangement (? Vidhana) of the verses and their constituent parts,^ the above-mentioned Brihaddevata, ^ Or rather Durga, in Lis comm. on Nir. iv. 4; see llotb, p. 39, in- troduction, p. IsTiii, * This is the designation of that peculiar method of reciting the Veda in which each word of tlie text stands by itself, unmodified by the euphonic changes it has to undergo when connected witli the preceding and following words. [Seeabove,p.23.] + His name seems to point to the north-west (?). The scholiast on Piinini [iv. 2. 117], at least, proba- bly following the Mahdbhsishya, cites Sikala in connection with the Bdhi- kas ; see also Burnouf, Introduction (i VBist. du Huddh., p. 620, ff. The passage in the sAtra of Pdnini, iv. 3. 128, has no local reference [on the data from the Hahdbhiishya bearing on this point, see /. St.^ xiii. 366, 372, 409, 428, 445I On the other hand, we find ^tLkyas also in the Kosala country in Kapilavastu, of whom, however, as of the Sdkii- yanius in the Yajus, we do not ex- actly know what to make (see be- low). [The earliest mention of the word ^dkala, in immediate reference to the Rik, occurs in a memorial verse, yajnagdtlidf quoted in the Ait. Bijthm., iii. 43 (see /. St., ix. 277). — For the name Sai^irlya I can only cite the pravara sention added (it the close of the Ajsval.^yana- Srauta-Siitra, in which the Saisiris are mentioned several times, partly by themselves, partly beside and iu association with the Sungas.] ^^ This form of name, which might be traced to vrihala, occurs also in the S^khdyana Arnnyaka, viii. 2 : " aaUhaJittsram Vdrkalino brihatir ahar abhisampddayanti;" though the parallel passage in the Aitar. Arany., iii. 8, otherwise similarly worded, reads instead of " Vdrkalino," "td {i.e., vai) Arhalino/" t By Shadguru^ishya, in the in- troduction to iiis commentary on the Rig-Anukramani of Kdtydyana. "* Rather two Yidhdua texts (see below), the one of which has for its object the application of particular jrichat, the other probably that of particular pddas, to superstitions purposes, after the manner of the Sdmavidhdna-Brdlunana. 34 VEDIC LITERATURE. the Prati^akhya of the Rik, a Smarta-Sutra* and also a Kalpa-Siitra referring specially to the Aitareyaka, which, however, he destroyed after one had been composed by his pupil, Aivalayana. It is not perhaps, on the face of it, impossible that^ all these writings might be the work of one individual Saunaka ; stUl they probably, nay, in part certainly, belong only to the school which bears his name. But, in addition to this, we find that the second mavdala of the Samhita itself is attributed to hini ; and that, on the other hand, he is identified with the Saunaka at whose sacrificial feast Sauti, the son of Vailampayana, is said to have repeated the Maha-Bharata, recited by the latter on an earlier occasion to Janamejaya (the second), together with the Harivan^a. The former of these assertions must, of course, only be understood in the sense that the family of the ^unakas both belonged to the old Rishi families of the Rik, and continued still later to hold one of the foremost places iii the learned world of the Brahmans. Against the second statement, on the contrary, no direct objection can be urged ; and it is at least not impossible that the teacher of A^valayana and the sacrificer in the Naimishaf forest are identical. — In the Brahmana of the White Yajus we have, further, two distinct ^aunakas men- tioned; the one, Indrota, as sacrificial priest of the prince who, in the Maha-Bharata, appears as the first Janame- jaya (Parikshita, so also in M.-Bh. xii. 5595, ff.), the other, Svaidayana, as Audichya, dv^elling in the north. As author of the Krama-patha of the Rik-Samhita a Pafiichala Babhravya^^ is mentioned. Thus we see that to the Kuru-Panchalas and the Kosala-Videhas (to whom ^a- kalya belongs) appertains the chief merit of having fixed and arranged the text of the Rik, as well as that of the Yajus ; * On the Grihya of Saunaka, see quoted a.s an authority in the text Stenzler, /. St., i. 243. of the Rik-Prftisilkliya itself, viz., + The sacrifice conducted by this ii. 12, 44, and that beside the Saunaka in the Naimisha forest Pidchyas (people of the east), the would, in any case, have to be dis- above conclusions still hold good, tinguished from the great sacrificial See Regiiier on Rik-Pr., ii. 12, p. festival of the Naimishiyas, so often 113. Compare also 6ilnkh. ^r., xii. mentioned in the Brdhmanas. 13. 6 (pa-Hchdlapadavrittih), and '■" In the Rik-Prdt., xi. 33, merely ' Samhitopanishad-lBrillimana,' § 2 Bdbhravya ; only in Uata's scholium {sarvatra Prdchya, Pdnclidllshu muk- is he designated as a Pufichila. As, tarn, sai-vatrd 'muhtam). however, the I'anohilUis are twic.-j RIGVEDA-SAMHITA. 35 and this was probably accomplished, in the case of both Vedas, during the most flourishing period of these tribes. For the origin of the songs themselves we must go back, as I have already repeatedly stated, to a far earlier period. T|his is most clearly shown by the mythological and geo- graphical data contained in them. The former, the mythological relations, represented in the older hymns of the Rik, in part carry us back to the primitive Indo-Germanic time. They contain relics of the childlike aud naive conceptions then prevailing, such as may also be traced among the Teutons and Greeks. So, for instance, the idea of the change of the departed spirit into air, which is conducted by the winged wind, as by a faithful dog, to its place of destination, as is shown by the identity of Sarameya and 'EpfieLa<;* of Cabala and Kep/3e/Do?.t Further, the idea of the celestial sea, Varuna, Ovpav6Iall in Jom-naZ As. Soc. Beny., 1862, pp. 129-134. RIGVEDA-SAMIIITA. 43 Samliita of the White Yajus, not the Kik-Samhita, as ■well as commentaries on the two Prati^akhyas of the Rik and the White Yajus. As regards European researches, the Rik-Samhita, as well as the other Vedas, first became known to us through Colebrooke's excellent paper " On the Vedas," in the As. Res. vol. viii. (Calc. 1 805). To Eosen we are indebted for the first text, as given partly in his Rigvedce Specimen (London, 1830), partly in the edition of the first aslitaka,v/iih Latin translation, which only appeared after the early death of the lamented author (jMd. 1838). Since then, some other smaller portions of the text of the Rik-Samhita have here and there been communicated to us in text or translation, especially in Eoth's already often quoted and excellent Ahhandlungen zur Litteratur und GescMchte dcs Weda (Stuttgart, 1846). The entire Samhita, together with the commentary of Sayana, is now being published, edited by Dr. M. Mtiller of Oxford, at the expense of the East India Company ; the first ashtaka appeared in 1 849. At the same time an edition of the text, with extracts from the com- mentary, is in course of publication in India. From Dr. M. Mtiller, too, we may expect detailed prolegomena to his edition, which are to treat in particular of the position held by the songs of the Rik in the history of civilisation. A French translation by Langlois comprises the entire Sarnhita (1848-1851); it is, of course, in many respects highly useful, although in using it great caution is neces- sary. An English translation by Wilson is also begun, of which the first ashtaka only has as yet appeared.^^ ^'■^ Miiller's edition of the text, Indica, Nos. 1-4 (Calo. 1849), only together with the commentary of reaches to the end of the second Sdyana, a complete index of words, adhydya. A fragment of the text, and list of prattkas, is now com- edited by Stevenson so long ago as plete in six vols., 1849-1875. He 1833, extends l)ut a little farther has also published sepiirately the (i. 1-35)- — Of Wilson's translation, text of the first mandala, in mm- five volumes have appeared ; the hitd- ani pada-pdtha (Leipzig, 1856- last, in 1866, under the editorship 69), as also the whole 10 man^alas, of Cowell, brings it up to mand. likewise in double form (London, viii. 20. Benfey published in hig 1873). The first complete edition Orient und Occident (1860-68) a of the text was published, in Koman critical translation oi mand. i. I- transliteration, by Aufreoht, in vols. 118. Twelve hymns to the Maruts vi. and vii. of the Jndische Studien are translated and furnished with a (1861-63). Roer's edition of text detailed commentary in vol. i. of Max and commentary, in the Bibliotheca MuUer's ^igveda tSamhitd, trans- 44 VEDIC LITERA TURK. We now turn, to the BrdJimanas of the Rik. Of these, we have two, the Aitareya-Brdhmana and tlie SdaJdidyana- (or KMishitald-) Brdhmana. They are closely connected with one another,* treat essentially of the same matter, not un frequently, however, taking opposite views of the same question.- It is in the distribution of their matter that they chiefly differ. In the Safikhayana-Brah- niana we have a perfectly arranged work, embracing on a definite plan the entire sacrificial procedure; but this does not seem to be- the case in an equal degree in the Aitareya-Brahmana. The latter, moreover, appears to treat exclusively of the Soma sacrifice; whereas in the former it merely occupies the principal place. In the Sailkhayana-Brahmana we meet with nothing at all cor- responding to the last ten adhydyas of the Aitareya-Brah- mana, a gap which is only filled up by the ^ankha- yana-Siitra ; and for this reason, as well as from internal evidence, it may perhaps be assumed that the adhydyas in question are but a later addition to the Aitareya-Brah- nrana. In the extant text, the Aitareya-Brahmana con- tains 40 adhydyas (divided into eight panchikds, or pen- lated and explained (London, 1869). Rig- und Atharvaveda ilber Geogra- Bufc the scholar who has done most phie, Geschichte und Vev/assimg dea by far for the right understanding aiten Indiens (the identification here of the Rik is Eotli ; both in the mentioned, p. 13, of the Vedio commentary added to his edition of Sarasvati with the Indus, was first Yfcka's Nirukta (GoUiniren, 1848- made by myself ; cf. Vdj. S. Spec.,u. 52), and in the great St.Peterslmrg 80 u., 1847), and Die philosophi- Sjnskrit Dictionary (seven vols., achen und religiosen Anschauungen 1853-75), edited by Bblitlingk and des Veda {Prug, 1875); Alfred Hil- hira. Here we may also mention the iahvAtitii, Ueber die Gottin A diti {Bre&- following works: — Grassmann, Wor- Ian, 1876) ; H. Zimmer, Parjanya terbueh zum Rigvcda (1873, fl^) ; Fibrgyn Vdia Wodan in Zciiachnft Delbriick, Das altindische Verbum fur beutscliea Alterthum. New Series, (1874) ; Renfey, Einleitung in die vii. 164, fF. Lastly, we have to draw Grammatik der vediscken Sprache attention specially to Muir's Oj-i^ina^ (1874), and Die Quantitatsversckie- Sanskrit Texts (5 vols., second edit,, denheiteninden Sarnhitd-undPadt- London, 1868, fF.), in which the Tcoctcn der Veden ; Bollensen, Die antiquarian information contained Lieder des Pardkira, in Z. D. M. O. in the Rik-Samhitsl on tiie different xxii. (1868) ; Sicbenzig Lieder des stages and phases of Indian life at Rigvcda, Uberseizt von Karl Geldner that early period is clearly and com- und Adolf Kaegi, mit Beitragcn ron preliensively grouped : translations It. Roth (Tubingen, 1875) — reviewed of numerous Vedic passages and Ipy Abel Bergaigno in the Revue pieces are given. Critique, Dec. 11 and 18, 1875 ; * See on this 7. St., ii. 289, fl Alfred Ludwig, Die Nachrichten dea [and ix. 377]. ERAHMANAS OF THE RIK. 45 tads), while the Sankhayana-Brahmana contains 30 ; and it is perhaps allowable to refer to them the rule in Panini V. I. 62, which states how the name of a Brahmana is to be formed if it contain 30 or 40 odhyAyas, — a view which would afford external warrant also of the fact of their existence in this form in Panini's time, at all events. Geographical or similar data, from which a conclusion might be drawn as to the time of their composition, are of very rare occurrence. Most of these, together with really historical statements, are to be found in the last books of the Aitareya-Brahmana (see /. St., i. 199, ff.), from which it at any rate specially follows that their scene is the country of the Kuru-Panchalas and Va^a-U^inaras (see viii. 14). In the Sankhayana-Brahmana mention is made of a great sacrifice in the Naimisha forest ; but this can hardly be identified with the one at which, according to the accounts of the Maha-Bharata, the second recitation of this epic took place. Another passage implies a very special prominence amongst the other gods of the deity who is afterwards known to us exclusively by the name of Siva. He here receives, among other titles, those of Kana and Mahadeva, and we might perhaps venture to conclude from this that he was already the object of a very special worship. We are at any rate justified in inferring, unless the passage is an interpolation, that the Sankha- yana-Brahmana ranks chronologically with the last books of the Samhita of the White Yajus, and with those por- tions of its Brahmana and of the Atharva-Samhita in which this nomenclature is likewise found. Lastly, a third passage of the Sankhayana-Brahmana implies, as already hinted, a special cultivation of the field of lan- guage in the northern parts of India. People resorted thither in order to become acquainted with the language, and on their return enjoyed a special authority on ques- tions connected with it. [J. St., ii. 309.] Both Brahmanas presuppose literary compositions of some extent as having preceded them. Thus mention is made of the dkhydnavidas,i.e., "those versed in tradition;" and gdthds, ahhiyaJTia-gdtMs, a sort of memorial verses (kdrikds), are also frequently referred to and quoted. ' The names Rigveda, Samaveda, and Yajurveda, as well as trayi vidyd, a term used to express them collectively, repeatedly 46 VEDIC LITERATURE. occur. In the Sankhayana-Brahmaiia, however, special regard is had to the Paiagya and Kausliitaka, whose views are very frequently quoted side by side, that of the Kau- shitaka being always recognised as final. The question now arises what we are to understand by these expres- sions, whether works of the Brahmaiia order already ex- tant in a written form, or still handed down orally only — or merely the inherited tradition of individual doctrines. Mention of the Kausliitaka and the Paingya occurs in the Aitareya-Brahmana only in a single passage — and that perhaps an interpolated one — in the latter part of the work. This at all events proves, what already seemed pro- bable from its more methodical arrangement, that the Sankhayana-Brahmana is to be considered a later produc- tion than the Aitareya-Brahmana, since it appears to be a recast of two sets of views of similar tenor already extant under distinct names, while the Aitareya-Brahmana pre- sents itself as a more independent effort. The name Paingyg, belongs to one of the sages mentioned in the Brahmana of the White Yajus and elsewhere, from whose family Yaska Paingi* was descended, and probably also Pifigala, the author of a treatise on metre. The Paingi Kalpal), is expressly included by the commentator of ,Panini, probably following tlie Mahabhashya, among the ancient Kalpa-Siitras, in contradistinction to the ASmara- thaJh Kalpah, with which we shall presently become acquainted as an authority of the A^valayana-Sutra. The Paifigins are, besides, frequently mentioned in early writings, and a Paingi-^rahmana must still have been in existence ieven in Sayana's time, for he repeatedly refers to it. The case stands similarly as regards' the name Kaushitaka, which, is, moreover, used directly^ in the ma- jority of passages where it is quoted for the Sankhayana- Brahmana itself — a fact easy of explanation, as in the latter the view represented by the Kaushitaka is invariably upheld as the authoritative one,, and we have in this Brahmana but a remoulding by Sailkhayana of the stock of dogma peculiarly the property of the Kaushitakins. Further, in its commentary, which, it may be remarked, * The quotations from Brslhmanas Paingi Kalpah in the Mahdbhilshya, in Yaska, tlierefore, belong in part see /. iSt., xiii, 455.] perhaps to tlie Paingya (?). [On the BRAHMAKAS OF THE RIK. 47 interprets the work under the sole title of the " Kaushi- taki-Brahmana," passages are frequently quoted i'rom a Maha-Kausliitaki-Brahmaiia, so that we have to infer the existence of a still larger work of similar contents, — pro- bably a later handling of the same subject (?j. This com- mentary further connects the Kaushitaki-Brahmana with the school of the Kauthumas — a school which otherwise belongs only to the Samaveda : this, however, is a relation which has not as yet been cleared up. — Tlie name San- khayana-Brahmana interchanges occasionally with the form Sankhyayana-Brahmana, but the former would seem to deserve the preference ; its earliest occurrence is pro- bably in the Prati^akhya-Sdtra of the Black Yajus. The great number of myths and legends contained in both these Brahmanas of the Rik invests them with a peculiar interest. These are not indeed introduced for their own sake, but merely with a view to explain the origin of some hymn ; but this, of course, does not detract irom their value. One of them, the legend of Sunah^epa, which is found in the second part of the Aitareya- Brahmana, is translated by Both in the Indisehe Studien, i. 458-464, and discussed in detail, ibid., ii. 1 12-123. According to him, it follows a more ancient metrical ver- sion. We must indeed assume generally, with regard to many of these legends, that they had already gained a rounded, independent shape in tradition before they were incorporated in+o the Brahmana, and of this we have fre- quent evidence in the distinctly archaic character of their language, compared with that of the rest of the text. Now these legends possess great value for us from two points of view: first, because they contain, to some extent at least, directly or indirectly, historical data, often stated in a plain and artless manner, but at other times disguised and only perceptible to the eye of criticism ; and, secondly, because they present connecting links with the legends of later times, the origin of wliich would otherwise have remained almost entii'ely obscure. On the Aitareya-Brahmana we have a commentary by Sayana, and on the Kaushitaki-Brahmana one by Vind- yaka, a son of Madhava.^^ ■•^ The Aitareya-Brdhmana lias by Alartin Haug, 2 vols., Bombay, been edited, text with tran'slalion, 1863, see 7. St., ix. 177-380 (1865). 48 VEDIC LITERATURE. To eadi of these Bralimanas is also annexed an iran- yaka, or ' forest-portion/ tliat is, the portion to be studied in the forest by the sages known to us through Mega- sthenes as vXo^tot., and also by their disciples. This Forest-life is evidently only a later stage of development in Brahmanical contemplation, and it is to it that we must chiefly ascribe the depth of speculation, the cornplete absorption in mystic devotion by which the Hindus _ are so eminently distinguished. Accordingly, the writings directly designated as Aranyakas bear this character im- pressed upon them in a very marked degree ; they consist in great part of Upanishads only, in which, generally speaking, a bold and vigorous faculty of thought cannot fail to be recognised, however much of the bizarre they may at the same time contain. The Aitareya-AranyaJca^^" consists of five books, each of which again is called Aranyaka. The second and third books* form a separate Upanishad ; and a still further sub^ division here takes place, inasmuch as the four last sections of the second book, which are particularly .consonant with the doctrines of the Vedanta system, pass kut' e^oxv" as the Aitareyopanishad.^ Of these two books Mahidasa Aitareya is the reputed author ; he is supposed to be the son of Vi^ala and Itard, and from the latter his name Aitareya is derived. This name is indeed several times quoted in the course of the work itself as a final authority, a cir- cumstance wHch conclusivelyproves the correctness of trac- ing to him the views therein propounded. For we must divest ourselves of the notion that a teacher of this period' ever put his ideas into writing ; oral delivery was his only method of imparting them to his pupils ; the knowledge of them was transmitted by tradition, until it became fixed in Tlie legend of Sunahsepa (vii. 13- come to liand (Nov. 30, 1875), see 181, had been discussed liy Roih; see Bibliolheca Indica, l!l ew Series, No. also M. Miiller, Bist. of A.S.L., p. 325; the text reaches as far as i. 573, ff. Another section of it (viii. 4. i. 5-20), treating of roval iriausrura- * See/. St., i. 388, ff. lions, had previously been edited by '* This Aitareyopanishad, amongst Sclionborn (Berlin, 1862). others, has been edited (with Sarp- 33b Q'lie first fasciculus of an edi- kara's commentary) and translated tion, together with Sdyana's com- by Roer, Biil. Ind., vii. 143, ff. mentary, of the Aitareya-Aranyaka, (Calc. 1850), xv. 28, ff. (1853). by Hiljeiidra Lilla Mitra, has just BRAHMANAS OF THE RIK. 49 some definite form or other, always however retaining his name. It is in this way that we have to account for the fact of our finding the authors of works that have been handed down to us, mentioned in these works themselves. For the rest, the doctrines of Aitareyamust have found especial favour, and his pupils have been especially numerous ; for we find his name attached to the Brahmana as well as the Aran- yaka. "With respect to the former, however, no reasons can for the present be assigned, while for the fourtit book of the Aranyaka we have the direct information that it belongs to Alvalayana,* the pupil of Saunaka; nay, this S.iunaka himself appears to have passed for the author of the fifth book, according to Colebrooke's state- ments on the subject. Misc. Ess., i. 47, n. The name of Aitareya is not traceable anywhere in the Brahmanas; lie is first mentioned in the Chhandogyopanishad. The earliest allusion to the school of the Aitareyins is in the Sama-Siitras. — To judge from the repeated mention of them in the third book, the family of the Mandiikas, or Miindiikeyas, must also have been particularly active in the development of the views there represented. Indeed, we find them specified later as one of the five schools of the Rigveda; yet nothing bearing their name has been preserved except an extremely abstruse Upanishad, and the Mandiiki-Sikshd, a grammatical treatise. The former, however, apparently only belongs to the Atharvan, and exhibits completely the standpoint of a rigid system. The latter might possibly be traced back to the Mandiikeya who is named here as well as in the Rik-Prati^akhya. The contents of the Ai-tareya-Aranyaka, as we now have it,^ supply no direct clue to the time of its composi- * I find an Asvaliyana-Briiliiniiva the high importance of those fami- also quoted, but am unable to give liar witli them. Among the names any particulars regarding it. [In mentioned in the course of the work, a MS. of the Ait. Ar., India Office Agnivesydyiina is of significance on Library, 986, tlie entire work is account of iis formation. Tlie in- described at the end as Ahaldyanoh- teresting passages on the three torn Iranyakam.-] 0^Lf "'* '^"^^ "''■**''> = 'T" 35 See' /. St., i. ■587-^92. I am 'i-^tdpdtha, pratrmna ^padapdtha, now i» possession of the complete >ini^hhayama»tarena=l^amapd(ha, te.vt, but have nothing material to "e discussed by M. Muller on ^.k- a,l.l to the above remarks. Great Prdt.i. 2-4(see also li.rf., iVac/Kvayf, stress is laid upon keeping the par- ?• ' '^" ticular doctrines secret, and upon JO VEDIC LITERATURE. tion, other than the one already noticed, namely, that in the second chapter of the second book the extant arrange- ment of the Rik-Samhita is given. Again, the number of teachers individually mentioned is very great, particu- larly in the third book — among them are two Sakalyas, a Krishna Harita, a Paiichalachanda — and this may be con- sidered as an additional proof of its more recent origin, a conclusion already implied by the spirit and form of the opinions enunciated.^^ The Kaushitakaranyaka, in its present form, consists of three books ; but it is uncertain whether it is complete.^^ It was only recently that I lighted upon the two first books* These deal rather with ritual than with specula- tion. The third book is the so-called KausMtahy- Upani- shad,f a work of the highest interest and importance. Its first adhydya gives us an extremely important account of the ideas held with regard to the path to, and arrival in, the world of the blessed, the significance of which in relation to similar ideas of other races is not yet quite apparent, but it promises to prove very rich in information. The second adhydya gives us in the ceremonies which it describes, amongst other things, a very pleasing picture of tlie warmth and tenderness of family ties at that period. The third adhy&ya is of inestimable value in connection with the history and development of the epic myth, inas- much as it represents Indra battling with the same powers of nature that Arjuna in the epic subdues as evil demons. Lastly, the fourbh adhydya contains the second recension of a legend which also appears, under a somewhat different " The circumstance here empha- 9 gives the rivalry ot the eeiiBca sised maybe used to support the (like Satap. Br. 14. g. 2). very opposite view; indeed I have * See Catalogue of the Berlin 60 represented it in the similar case Skr. MSS., p. 19, n. 82. of the L^ty^yana-Siitra (see below). f See I. St., i. 392-420. It would This latter view now appears to me be very desirable to know on what to have more in its favour. Poley's assertion is founded, " that ^' A manuscript sent to Berlin the Kaushitaki-Brdhmana consists by Biihler {MS^. Or. fol, 630) of the of nine adhydyas, the first, seventh, ' Sdnkhdyana-Aranyaka ' (as it is eighth, and ninth of whicli form the there called) presents it in 15 adhy- Kaushitaki-Briihmaiia-Upanishad." rfyos/, the first two correspond to I have not succeeded in finding any Ait. Ar. i., v, ; adhy. 3-6 are made statement to this effect elsewhere, up of the Kaush. Up. ; adhy. 7, 8 [See now Cowell's Preface, p. vii., correspond to Ait. Ar. iii.; aidhy. to his edition of the Kaush. Up, in the Bill. Ind.] BRAHMANAS OF THE RIK. 51 form, in the Aranyaka of the White Yajus, the legend, namely, of the instruction of a Brahman, who is very wise in his own esteem, by a warrior called Ajata^atru, king of Ka^i. This Upanishad is also peculiarly rich in geogra- phical data, throwing light upon its origin. Thus the name of Chitra Gangyayani, the wise king in the first adhydya who instructs Aruni, clearly points to the Ganga. According to ii. 10, the northern and southern mountains, i.e., Himavant and Vindhya, enclose in the eyes of the author the whole of the known world, and the list of the neiglibouring tribes in iv. i perfectly accords witlr this. That, moreover, this Upanishad is exactly contemporaneous with the Vrihad- Aranyaka of, the White Yajus is proved by the position of the names Aruni, Svetaketu, Ajata^atru, Gargya Balaki, and by the identity of the legends about the latter. [See /. St., i. 392-420.] We have an interpretation of both Aranyakas, that is to say, of the second and third books of the Aitareya-Aran- yaka, and of the third book of the Kaushitaki- Aranyaka in the commentary of Sarnkaracharya, & teacher who lived about the eighth century a.d.,^^ and who was of the highest importance for the Vedanta school. For not only did he interpret all the Vedic texts, that is, aU the Upanishads, upon which that school is founded, he also commented on the Vedanta-Sutra itself, besides composing a number of smaller works with a view to elucidate and establish the Vedanta doctrine. His explanations, it is true, are often forced, from the fact of their having to accommodate themselves to the Vedanta system; still they are of high importance for us. Pupils of his, Anan- dajnana, Anandagiri, Anandatlrtha, and others, in their turn composed glosses on his commentaries. Of most of these commentaries and glosses we are now in possession, as they have been recently edited, together with their Upanishads, by Dr. Eoer, Secretary to the Asiatic Society of Bengal, in the Bihliotheca Iiidim, a periodical appearing under the auspices of that Society, and devoted exclusively ^ ^aipkara'a date has not, unfor- called a Saiva, or follower of Siva, tunately, been more accurately de- In his works, however, he appears termined as yet. He passes at the as a worshipper of Vdsudeva, whom snme time for a zealous adversary he puts forward as the real incarna- si the Buddhists, and is therefore tion or representative of 6ro/u»aii. 52 VEDIC LITERATURE. to the publication of texts. Unfortunately the Kaushf- taki-XJpanishad is not yet among the number, neither is the Maitrayany-Upanishad, of which we have to speak in the sequel. It is, however, to be hoped that we shall yet receive both.^^ — ^And may yet a third, the Vashkala- IJpanishad, be recovered and added to the list of these Upanishads of the Rik ! It is at present only known to us through Anquetil Duperron's Oupnekhat, ii. 366-371; the original must therefore have been extant at the time of the Persian translation (rendered into Latin by Anque- til) of the principal Upanishads (1656). The Vashkala- Sruti is repeatedly mentioned by Sayana. We have seen above that a particular recension of the Rik-Samhita, which has likewise been lost, is attributed to the Vash- kalas. This Upanishad is therefore the one sorry relic left to us of an extensive cycle of literature. It rests upon a legend repeatedly mentioned in the Brahmanas, which in substance, and one might almost say in name also, corresponds to the Greek legend of Gany-Medes. Medhatithi, the son of Kanva, is carried up to heaven by Indra, who has assumed the form of a ram, and during their flight he inquires of Indra who he is. Indra, in reply, smilingly declares himself to be the All-god, identi- fying himself with the universe. As to the cause of the abduction, he goes on to say that, delighted with Medha- tithi's penance, he desired to conduct him into the right path leading to truth ; he must therefore have no further misgiving. With regard to the date of this Upanishad, nothing more definite can of course at present be said than that its general tenor points to a tolerably high antiquity.*" We now descend to the last stage in the literature of the Rigveda, viz., to its Stiitras. First, of the Srauta-Sutras, or text-books of the sacri- ficial rite. Of these we possess two, the Siitra of Asvala- yana in 12 adhydyas, and that of Sankhayana in 18 " Both have now been published Maitri-Up. with that of Edmatirtha and translated by Cowell in the (1863-69). Bibliolheca Indica. The Kaush.-Up. *" See now my special paper on the (Calc. 1861) is , accompanied with gubjeot in /. St., ix. 38-42 ; the ori- the comm. of Samkaritnanda, the giual text has not yet been met with. SUTRAS OF THE RIK. 53 adh'jjuyas. The former connects itself with tlie Aitareya- Brahiuana, the latter with the Sankhayana-Brahmana, and from these two works frequent literal quotations are re- spectively borrowed. From this circumstance alone, as well as from the general handling of the subject, we might infer that these Siitras are of comparatively recent origin ; and direct testimony is not wanting to establish the fact. Thus the name Asvalayana is probably to be traced back to A^vala, whom we find mentioned in the Aranyaka of the White Yajus as the Hotar of Janaka, king of Videha (see /. St., i. 441). Again, the formation of the word by the affix Aijana* probably leads us to the time of estab- lished schools {o^yarui) 1 However this may be, names formed in this way occur but seldom in the Brahmanas themselves, and only in their latest portions ; in general, therefore, they always betoken a late period. We find corroboration of this in the data supplied by the contents of the A^valayana-Siltra. Among the teachers there quoted is an A^marathya, whose kalpa (doctrine) is con- sidered by the scholiast on Panini, iv. 3. 105, probably following the Mahabhashya,*^ as belonging to the new hal-pas implied in this rule, in contradistinction to the old kalpas. If, then, the authorities quoted by Asvalayana were regarded as recent, Asvalayana himself must of course have been still more modern; and therefore we conclude, assuming this statement to originate from the Mahabhashya,*^ that ASvalayana was nearly contemporane- ous with Panini. Another teacher quoted by ASvalayana, Taulvali, is expressly mentioned by Panini (ii. 4. 61) as belonging to the prdnchas, or " dwellers in the east." — At the end there is a specially interesting enumeration of the various Brahmana-famiJies, and their distribution among the family stems of Bhrigu, Angiras, Atri, ViSvamitra, KaSyapa, Vasishtha, and Agastya. — The sacrifices on the Sarasvati, of which I shall treat in the sequel, are here only briefly touched upon, and this with some differences in the * As in the case of Agnivesyd- kdyana (?), Ldmakilyana, VdrsbVil- yana, Aliimbdyana, Aiti^ayana, Au- yani, Silkatiiyana, SdHkbiyana, Sd- (lumiiarilyana, Kdndamrtyaua, Kd- y'siyana, Sdndilydyana, S^lamkily ana, tyilyana, Kliddiiyaiia, Driihydyana, Saitydyana, ^aulvdyana, &c. Piilkshilynn-i, Bildarslyana, Mdndtikil- *' The name is not known in tha yana, Kdnsiyana, Liityityana, Ldbu- Mahdbhiishya, see I, St., xiii. 455. 54 VEDIC LITERATURE. names, 'whicli may -well be considered as later corruptions. We have also already seen that A^valayana is the author of the fourth book of ^the Aitareya-Aranyaka, as also that he was the pupil of Saunaka, who is stated to have de- stroyed his own Siitra in favour of his pupil's worlc. The Siitra of ^aiikhayana wears in general a somewhat more ancient aspect, particularly in the fifteenth and six- teenth books, where it assumes the appearance of a Brah- mana. The seventeenth and eighteenth books are a later addition, and are also ranked independeutly, and sepa- rately commented upon. They correspond to the first two books of the Kaushitaki-Aranyaka. From my but superficial acquaintance with them, I am not at present in a position to give more detailed informa- tion as to the contents and mutual relation of these two Sutras.*2 My conjecture would be that their differences may rest upon local grounds also, and that the Siitra of Aivalayana, as well as the Aitareya-Brahmana, may^be- long to the eastern part of Hindustan ; the Siitra of San- khayana, on tlie contrary, like his Brahmana, rather to the western* The order of the ceremonial is pretty much the same in both, though the great sacrifices of the kings, &c., Y\z., vdjapeya (sacrifice for the prospering of the means of subsistence), rdjas'dya (consecration of the king), a&va- medha (horse sacrifice), purushamedha (human sacrifice), sarvamcdha (universal sacrifice), are handled by Sankha- yana with far more minuteness. For A^valayana I find mention made of a commentary by Narayana,''^ the son of Krishnajit, a grandson of Sripati. A namesake of his, but son of Pa^upati^arman, '* Tlie A^valdyana-Stitra has Bince *^ Tliia is a confusion. The above- been printed, iJiW. /«d. (Calc. 1864- named Ndrilyana wrote a commen- 74), accompanied with tlie comm. tary upon tlie Sdnkliilyana-Gfibya ; of NdrfyanaGi-trgya, edited by Edma- but tlie one who commented the Kitrdyana and Anandachandni. A Ai5valilyaiia-6rauta-Stitra calls him- special compariBon of it with the self in the introduction a son of Silukhiiyana-Sutra is still wanting. Karasinha, just as Kdrilyanii, tlie Buliler, CaMogue of MSS. from commentator of the Ottara-Nai- Gujardt, i. 154 (1871), cites a C9ni- shadhiya, does, who, aceordinif to mentai'y by Devatrdta on the Asv. tradition (Iloer, Pref., p. viii., 1S55), Sr. S., likewise a partial one by lived some five hundred years ago. Vidyitranya. Are these two to be regarded as one * Perhaps to the Kaimisha fo- and the same person? Hee I. Str,, test (?). See below, p. 59. 2, 298 (1869). SUTRAS OF THE RIK. 55 composed a,paddhati ('outlines') to Safikliayana, after the example of one Brahmadatta. When lie lived is uncer- tain, but we may with some probability assign him to the sixteenth century. According to his own statements he was a native of Malayade^a. lurther, for the Siitra of Sinkhayana we have the commentary of Varadattasuta Anarttiya. Three of its adhydyas were lost, and have been supplied by Dasaiarman Munjasiinu, viz., the nintli, tenth, and eleventh.** On the last two adhydyas, xvii., xviii., there is a commentary by Govinda. That these commentaries were preceded by others, which, however, have since ^ been lost, is obvious, and is besides expressly stated by Anarttiya. Of the Grihya-SiLhtras of the Rigveda we likewise only possess two, those of A^valayana (in four adhydyas) and of Sankhayana (in six adhydyas). That of Saunaka is indeed repeatedly mentioned, but it does not seem to be any longer in existence. However widely they may differ as to details, the con- tents of the two works are essentially identical, especially as regards the order and distribution of the matter. They treat mainly, as I have already stated (p. 17), of the ceremonies to be performed in the various stages of con- jugal and family life, before and after a birth, at marriage, at the time of and after a death. Besides these, however, manners and customs of the most diverse character are depicted, and " in particular, tlie sayings and formulas to be uttered on different occasions bear the impress of a very high antiquity, and frequently carry us back into the time when Brahmanism had not yet been developed" (see Stenzler in /. St., ii. 159). It is principally popular and superstitious notions that are found in them ; thus, we are pointed to star-worship, to astrology, portents, and witch- crafc, and more especially to the adoration and propitia- tion of the evil powers in nature, the averting of their malign intiueuce, &c. It is especially in the pitritarpana, or oblation to the Manes, that we find a decisive proof of " Sections 3-5 of tlie fourth book Streiter (1861) ; the variants pre- havB been published by Conner in sented therein to the parallel pas- his Pirfdapitriyajna (Berlin, 1870), sage in the Ait. Erdhm.liad already and the" seution relating to tlie Ic- been given by M. iluUer, A, ^. L., geiid of Siinahjiepa (xv. 17-27J by p. 573, fl'. 55 VEDIC LITERATURE. the modern, composition of these works, as the forefathers are there enumerated individually by name — a custom which, although in itself it may be very ancient (as we find a perfect analogy to it in the Yeshts and Nerengs of the Parsis), yet in this particular application belongs to a very recent period, as is apparent from the names them- selves. For not only are the Rishis of the Rik-Samhita cited in their extant order, but all those names are like- wise mentioned which we encounter as particularly signi- ficant in the formation of the different schools of the Rik, as well as in connection with its Brahmanas and Sutras ; for example, Vashkala, ^akalya, Manclukeya, Aitareya, Paingya, Kaushitaka, ^aunaka, A^valayana, and Sankha- yana themselves, &c. Joined to these, we find other names with which we are not yet otherwise acquainted, as also the names of three female sages, one of whom, Oargi Vachaknavi, meets us repeatedly in the Vrihad- Aranyaka of the White Yajus, as residing at the court of Janaka. The second^^ is unknown; but the name of the third, Sulabha Maicreyi, is both connected with this very Janaka in the legends of the Maha-Bharata,* and also points us to the Smdabhdni £rdhma')idni, quoted by the scholiast on Panini, iv. 3. 105, probably on the authority of the Mahabhashya,^^ as an instance of the 'modern' Brahmanas implied by this rule. Immediately after the Rishis of the Rik-Sarnhita, we find mention of other names and works which have not yet been met with in any other part of Vedic literature. In the Sankhayana-Grihya we have these: Sumantu-Jaimini- Vaiiavipdj/ana-Faila-siitra- hhdshya \_-Od,rgya-Babhru\ . . .; and in the A^valayana- Grihya these : Sumantu-Jaimini- VaiSampdyana-Paila- siitra-bJidrata-maJidhhdrata-dluirmdchdrydh.^'' The latter *^ Her name is Vadiivd Prdtl- They are tliere cited a eecoiid time tbeyi; a teacher called Pratltlii is also, to Pdn., iv. 2. 68, and are ex- mentioned in the Vai'i^-Brdhma^a plained liy Kaiya^a as Sulabhcna of the Sdraaveda. ■i>rohfdn.i. * [Cf. Samkara's statements as to ^' The word bhdshya is to be in- this in Ved. Siitrabli. to iii. 3. 32, serted above between sMraand bhd- p. 915, ed. Edma Ndrdyana.] Bud- rata; though wanting in the MS. dha's uncle ia called by the Bud. used by me at the time when I dhists Sulabha ; see Schiefaer, Le- ivro'e, it ig found in all the other ben rhs Sdhyamuni, p. 6. MSS. *" Sos on this /. iSt,, xiii. 429. S:UTRAS OF THE RIK. 57 passage- is evidently the more modern, and although we must not suppose tliat the Maha-Bharata in its present form is here referred to, still, in the expression " Vaiiam- pdyano mahdhhdratdchdryah," apparently indicated by this passage, there must at all events be implied a work of some compass, treating of the same legend, and there- fore forming the basis of our extant text. The passage seems also to indicate that the same material had already been handled a second time by Jaimini, whose work, however, can have borne but a distant resemblance to the Jaimini-Bharata of the present day. We shall find in the sequel frequent confirmation of the fact that the origin of the epic and the systematic development of Vedic litera- ture in its different schools belong to the same period. Of a Sutra by Sumantu, and a Dharma by Paila, we have no knowledge whatever. It is only in more modern times, in the Puranas and in the legal literature proper, that 1 find a work attributed to Sumantu, namely, a Smriti- Sastra; while to Paila (whose name appears froTn Pan. iv. I. 118) is ascribed the revelation of the Rigveda — a circumstance which at least justifies the inference that he played a special part in the definitive completion of its school development. — It is, however, possible to give a wholly different iutei'pretation of the passage from A^va- layaua ; and in my opinion it would be preferable to do so. We may divest the four proper names of any special rela- tion to the names of the four works, and regard the two groups as independent,^'' as we must evidently assume them to be in the Sailkhayana-Grihya.* If this be done, then what most readily suggests itself in connection with the passage is the manner in which the Puranas apportion ■^ This interpretation becomes tinction to one another, just as in imperative after the rectification of the Prdti^dkliya of the Black Yiijus the text (see the previous note), • (ii. 12) we find chhandas and bhds/id, according to which no longer four, and in Ydska anvadhydya and l)Mt five names of works are in ques- blidthd. We must, therefore, under- tion. stand by it ' works in b/idshd,' * What is meant in tlie latter though the meaning of the word [and cf. nets 47 in the Aiv. Qj-ib. is I'ere more developed than in the too] by the word bhdshya, appears works just mentioned, and ap- from the Pr^tisiikhya of the White proaches the sense in which Pdnini Yajus, where(i.i. 19, 20)i;edcsA«and uses it, I shall return to the sub- Ihdshye-ihu are found in contradis- ject further on. 58 VEDIC LITERATURE. tlie revelation of the several Vedas; inasmuch as they assign the Atharvaveda to Sumantu, the Samaveda to Jaimini, the Yajurveda to Vai^ampdyana, and the Rigveda to Paila. But in either case we must assume with Both, wlio first pointed out the passage in Alvalaya;ia (op. c, p. 27), that this passage, as well as the one in Saukhayana, has been touched up by later interpolation;" otherwise the dates of these two Grihya-Sutras would be brought down too far ! For although, from the wliole tenor of both passages, that in the A^valayana-Grihya, as well as that in the ^aukhdyana-Grihya — which for the rest present other material discrepancies of detail — it is sufficiently clear that they presuppose the literature of the Rigveda as entirely closed, still the general attitude of both works shows their comparatively ancient origin. — The question whether any connection exists between tlie Smriti-Sdstra of Sankha and the Grihya-Siitra of ^ifikhdyana, remains still unanswered. For both Grihya-Siltras there are commentaries by the same Nardyana who commented the Srauta-Sutra of A^va- Idyana.^" Tliey probably belong to the iifteenth century.* There are, besides, as in the case of tlie Srauta-Sdtras, "^ We find tlie Sumantu-Jaimini- 00mm. of tlie Sitflkh. Grihya, son of VaUampdyana - Pailddijd dchArydh KriBlinajit, and grandson of ^lipati. quoted a second time in the 6inkh. (Tliis third Ndr. lived a.d. 1538; see G., in its last section (vi. 6), which Catalogue of the Berlin MtiS., p. is probahly of later origin ; and here, 354, sub No. 1282.)— The text of without any doubt, the reference is the A^v.al. Grihya has been edited to tlie same distribution of the four by Steuzler, with a, translation (/«- Vedas among the above-named per- dische Jlausrcgeln, 1864-65) ; the Boniiges winch occurs in ihe Vishnu- text, with NiirilyMija's comm., by I'unlni, iii. 4. 8, 9. Both times the Edniiinjli-ityana and Anandacliandra, repreooniative of the Atliarvan in £ibl. hid. (1866-69). The sec- comes first, that of the Rik last, tioiis relating to marriage ceremo- which in a Rik text serves asaclear nies have bfen edited by Haas, /. proof that we have here to do with iSt., v. 283, fF. ; those relating to later appendaijes. A similar pruce- funeral riles, by Mtiller, Z. D. iL deuce is given to the Atharvaveda in G., ix. the Muhitbhiishya ; cf. /. St., xiii. * Two glosses on ^aipkara's 00m- 431' ment.aryon the Pra^nopanishad and ""This is a mistake, see note the Mimdikopanishad hearthe same 43; all three Nd.rayanas must be name, so that possibly the author of kept distinct, Tlie commentator of them is identical with the above- tiie Aiival. Sr. S. calls himself a named Ndrfyann. Aoo. to what has Gargya, and son of Narasinha ; the just been remarked in note 50, this comm. of the Asval. Grihya, a Nai- must appear ii priori very doubtful, dhruva, and son of Divitkara ; the Bince a considerable number of othel SUTRAS OF THE RIK. S9 many small treatises in connection with the Grihya- Siitras, some of them being summaries, in which the larger works a.re reduced to system. Among them is a Paddhati to the Sankhayana-Grihya by Eamachandra, who lived in the Naimisha forest in the middle of the fifteenth century ; and I am inclined to think that this Naiiuislia forest was the birthplace of the Sutra itself. It is perhaps for this reason tliat the tradition connected with it was so well preserved in that district. The extant PrAtiWchya-SMra of the Rik-Samhita is ascribed to ^aunaka, who has been repeatedly mentioned already, and who was the teacher of A^valayana. This extensive work is a metrical composition, divided into three kdndas, of six patalas each, and containing 103 kandikds in all. The first information regarding it was given by Eoth, op. c, p. 53, ff. According to tradition, it is of more ancient origin tlian the Sutras of Aivalayana just mentioned, wliich only purport to be written by the pupil of this Sauuaka ; but whether it really was composed by the latter, or whether it is not much more probably merely the work of his school, must for the present remain undecided. The names quoted in it are in part identical with those met with in Yaska's Nirukti and in the Siitra of Panini. The contents of the work itself are, however, as yet but little known '^i in their details. Of special in- terest are those passages which treat of the correct and incorrect pronunciation of words in general. There is an excellent commentary on it by tlata, which professes in the introduction to be a remodelling of an earlier com- mentary by Vishnuputra. — The Upaleklia is to be con- authors bear the same name. But he is probably identical with the ill this particuhir case we are able author of the clipikd on the small to bring forward detinite reasons Atharvopatiishads published in the against this identification. The £ibl. Ind, in 1872, who (ibid., ]>. glossiirist of the Pra^nop. was called 393) is called Hhatta Ndrdyana, and Ndrdyanendra according to 1. St., son of Bliattu llatuslkara.] i. 470; according to the note, ibid., "^ We are now in possession of i. 439, Ndrdyana Sarasvail; accord- two editions of this most important ing to Aufrecht, Catalogue of the work, text and translation, wiih Oxford SISS., p. 366 (1859-64), elucidatory notes, by Ad. liegnier rather Sdyanendrasarasvati (!). Tlie (Paris, 1857-58), and JI. Miiller glossarist of the Mundakop., on the (Ijcipzig, 1856-69); see 7. Str.,i\. other hand, was, according to /. St., 94, ff'., 127, ff., 159, ff. ; Lit. Ccn- i. 470, called Kdidyanab/tatla ; and tralblatt, 1870, p. 530. 6o VEDIC LITERATURE. sidered as an epitome of the Pratisakhya-Siitra, and to some extent as a supplement to it [specially to chapters K. xi.]. It is a' short treatise, numbered among tlie Pari^ishtas (supplements); and it has in its turn been repeatedly commented upon.^'^ A few other treatises have still to be noticed here, which, although they bear the high-sounding name of Veddngas, or ' members of the Veda,' are yet, as above stated (p_. 25), only to be looked upon as later supplements to the litera- ture of the Rigveda : the ^ikshd, the Chhandas, and the Jyotisha. All three exist in a double recension according as they profess to belong to the Rigveda or to the Yajur- veda. The Chhandas is essentially alike in both recen- sions, and we have to recognise in it the Siitra on prosody ascribed to Pingala.^^ It is, moreover, like both the other treatises, of very recent origin. We have a proof of this,, for instance, in the fact that, in the manner peculiar to the Indians, it expresses numbers by words,^* and feet by letters, and that it treats of the highly elaborated metres, which are only found in modern poetry.*^ The part deal- ing with Vedic metres may perhaps be more ancient. The teachers quoted in it bear in part comparatively ancient '^ Edited by W. Pertscli (Berlin, " Edited and commented by my- I S54) ; tliis tract treats of the irama- self in I. St., yiii. (1863); the text, jidtha, an extended form of the^pa- together -with the commentary of dapdtha, which at the Bame time Halilyudha, edited by Vi^vandtha- gives the text in tlie samhUd form, ^ietrin in jBibl. Indica (1871-74). namely, each word twice, first joined " See Albirtini's account in Woep- with the preceding, and then with cke's Memovre sur la propagation the followinjj word (thns : ab, he, cd, des cMffres indiens, p. 102, if. (1863). de . . .). Tliere are also other still Burnell, Elem. of S. 1. Palmogr., more complicated modes of reciting p. 58. the Veda,as to which cf. Thibautin '° On the other hand, tliere are his edition of the Jntdputala (1870), metres tanglit in this work which p. 36, fF. Tlie next step, called but rarely occnr in modern litera- ;'ate, exhibits the text in the follow- tnre, and which must be looked inir manner : ah ha ab, be cb be, and upon as obsolete and out of fashion. MS3. of this kind have actually Therefore, in spite of what has been been preserved, e.g., in the case of said above, we must carry back the the Vdjiis. Samli. The following date of its composition to a period step, caWed gkana, is said to be still about simultaneous with the close in use; cf. Bhiindirkar, Indian Arv- of the Vedio Siitra literature, or the tvinary, iii. 133; Haug, Uther das commencement of the astronomical Wesen des vediachcn Accents, p. 58 ; and algebraical literatures ; see /, S. , it runs : ab ba abc ebu. abr, be cb be viii. 173, 178. ^>cd deb hcd. VEDANGAS—ANUKRAMANIS OF THE RIK. 6i names. These are : Kraushtuki, Tandin, Yaslca, Saitava, Eata, and Mandavya. The recensions most at variance with each other are those of the Siksha and Jyotisha respectively. The former work is in both recensions directly traced to Panini, the latter to Lagadha, or Lagata, an otherwise unknown name in Indian literature.*— Besides the Paniniya Siksha, there is another bearing the name of the Mandukas, which therefore may more directly follow the Rik, and which is at any rate a more important work than the former. As a proof of the antiquity of the name ' Siksha ' for phonetic investigati9ns, we may adduce the circumstance that in the Taitt. Aranv., vii. i, we find a section beginning thus : " we will explain the biksha ; " whereupon it gives the titles of the topics of the oral exposition which we may suppose to have been connected therewith (i. 8t., ii. 211), and which, to judge by these titles, must have embraced letters, accents, quantity, arti- culation, and the rules of euphony, that is to say, the same subjects discussed in the two existing Sikshas.'^ Of the writings called Anukramani, in which the metre, the deity, and the author of each song are given in their proper order, several have come down to us for^the Rik- Samhita, including an AnwcdMnukramani by Sau- liaka, and a Sarvdnulcramani by Katyayana." For botli of these we have an excellent commentary by Shadguru- * Eeinaud in his Mimoire tur ^ The Piiiiiniyil Sikshil has been I'Inde, pp. 331, 332, adduces from printed with a translation in /. Si., Albiruni a Ldta, who pissed for the iv. 345-37' (1858); on the numerous author of the old Sdrya-Siddhdnta ; other treatises bearing the same might he not be identical with this name, see Eiljendra Lala Mitra, Lagadha, Lagata? According to Notices of Sanskrit MSS., i. 71, ff. Colebr., Lss., ii. 409, Brahmagupta (1870), Burnell, Catalogue of Vcdic quotes a Litdlidchdrya : this name iVSS., pp. 8,42 (1870), my essay on also could be traced to Lagadha. the Pratijnasutra (1872), pp. 70-74; [By Suryadeva, a sclioliast of Arya- specially on the Mdndiiki Sikshil, pp. bhata, the author of the Jyotisha is 106- 1 12; Haug, Ueber das Wesen cited under the name of Lagadd- des vedisclien Accents, p. 53, ff. chdrya; see Kern, Preface to the (1873), on the NdtadaSikshd, tiM., Aryabhatiya, p. is., 1874. An edi- 57, tt:, and lastly Kielhorn, /. St., tion of the text of the Jyotisha, to- xiv. 1 60. , ,. i j i cether with extracts from Somd- ^' In substance published by kara's commentary and explanatory Miiller in the sixth volume of hia notes, was published by me in 1862 large edition of the Rik, pp. 621- under the title : Uehcr den Vedaka- 671. lender, Namens Jyotisham.l 62 VEDIC LITERATURE. ^isliya, whose time is unknown,^^ as also his real name. The names of the six teachers from whom he took this surname are enumerated by himself; they are Vinayaka, Tri^iilanka, Govinda, Siirya, Vyasa, and Sivayogin, and'he connects their names with those of the corresponding deities. — Another work belonging to this place, the Bri- haddevata, has been already mentioned (p., 24), as attri- buted to ^aunaka, and as being of great importance, con- taining as it does a rich store of mythical fables and legends. From Kuhn's communications on tlie subject (/. St., i. 101-120), it appears that this work is of tolerably late origin, as it chiefly follows Yaska's Nirukta, and pro- bably therefore only belongs to Saunaka in the sense of having proceeded from his school. It mentions a few more teachers in addition to those quoted by Yaska, as Bhaguri and A^valayana ; and it also presupposes, by fre- quently quoting them, the existence of the Aitareyaka, Bhallavi-Brahmana, and Nidana-Siitra. As the author strictly adheres to the order of the hymns observed in the Samhita, it results that in the recension of the text used by him there were a few deviations from that of the Sakalas which has been handed down to us. In fact, he liere and there makes direct reference to the text of the Viishkalas, to wliicli, consequently, he must also have had access. — Lastly, we have to mention the writings called Rigvidh&na, &c., which, although some of them bear the name of Saunaka, probably belong only to the time of the Puranas. They treat of the mystic and magic eificacy of the recitation of the hymns of the Rik, or even of single verses of it, and the like. There are, likewise, a number of other similar Pari^ishtas (supplements)^ under various names ; for instance, aBahvricha-Pariiishta, Sankhayana-P., Alvaliiyana-Grihya-P., &c. " His work w].» ducted as mere repetitious,, iuas- SAMA VEDA-SAMHITA. 65 certainty that the ricJias constituting the former were bor- rowed from the songs of the latter at a remote period; before their formation into a Rili-Samhita had as yet taken place ; so that in the interval they suffered a good deal of wearing down in the mouth of the people, which was avoided in the case of the richas applied as sdmans, and so protected by being used in worship. The fact has also already been stated that no verses have been received into the Sama-Sarnhita from those songs of the Rik-Samhita which must be considered as the most modern. Thus we find no sdmans borrowed from the I'urusha-Siikta, in tlie ordinary recensions at least, for the school of the Naigeyas has, in fact, incorporated the first five verses of it into the seventh prapdtliaka of the first part — a section which is peculiar to this school. The Sama-Samhita, being a purely derivative production, gives us no clue towards the deter- mination of its date. It has come down to us in two recensions, on the whole differing but little from each other, one of which belongs to the school of the Eanayani- yas, the other to that of the Kauthumas. Of this latter the school of the Negas, or Naigeyas, alluded to above, is a subdivision, of which two Anukramanis at least, one 01 the deities and one of the Rishis of the several verses, have been preserved to us.''" Not one of these three names has as yet been traced in Vedic literature; it is only in the Sutras of the Samaveda itself that the first and second at least are mentioned, but even here the name of the Negas does not appear. — The text of the Eanayani- yas was edited and translated, with strict reference to Sayana's commentary, by the missionary Stevenson in 1 842 ; since 1 848 we have been in possession of another edition, furnished with a complete glossary and much ™ The seventh prapdtJiaJca, which specially refers to the Aranyaka- is peculiar to it, has since been, dis- Saiphiti, see Burnell, Catalogue of covered. It bears the title Aran- ^''edio MSS. (1870), p. 39. — Of the yaka-Saipbitd, and has been edited Ara^iyaka-gdna as well as of the by Siegfried Goldsohmidt in Mo- Grdmageya-giina we find, ibid., p. 49, natshei-ichte der Berl. Aeqd. 1868, pp. a text in the Jaimini-Siikhd also. 228-248. The editor points out that According to Rdjendra Ldla Mitra the Aranya-gilna is based upon the (Preface to Translation of Chhiind. drchika of the Naigeya text (?. c, p. Up., p. 4), ' the Kauthuma (-Silkhii) 238), and that MSS. have probably is current in Guzerat, the Jainn- been preserved of its uttardrchika niya in Karniitaka, and the Edijitya- also (p. 241). — A London MS. of nSya in Mahilnlsli^ra.' Bharatasviluiin's Samavedavivarana E 66 VEDIC LITERATURE. additional material, together with translation, -which we owe to Professor .Benfey, of Gottingen.^^ Although, from its very nature, the Samhita of the Samaveda is poor in data throwing light upon the time of its origin, yet its remaining literature contains an abun- dance of these ; and first of all, the Brdhmanas. The first and most important of these is the TdTidija Brdhmana, also called Panchavinia, from its containing twenty-five books. Its contents, it is true, are in the main of a very dry and unprofitable character; for in mystic trifling it often exceeds all bounds, as indeed it was the adherents of the Samaveda generally who carried matters furthest in this direction. Nevertheless, from its great extent, this work contains a mass of highly interest- ing legends, as well as of information generally. It refers solely to the celebration of the Soma sacrifices, and to the chanting of the sdmans accompanying it, which are quoted by their technical names. ' These sacrifices were celebrated in a great variety of waya ; there is one special classifica- tion of them according as they extended over one day or several, or finally over more than twelve days.^^ The latter, called sattras, or sessions, could only be performed by Brahmans, and that in considerable numbers, and might last lOO days, or even several years. In consequence of the great variety of ceremonies thus involved, each bears its own name, which is borrowed either from the object of its celebration, or the sage who was the first to celebrate it, or from other considerations. How far tlie order of the Samhita is here observed has not yet been investigated, " Recently a new edition, like- is said to be still in existence in wise very meritorious, of tlie first Maliibar ; see Eost, /. St., ix, two books, the dgneyam and the ain- 1 76. dram parva, of the drchiha (up to i. ^^ To each Soma sacrifice belon<; 5, 2. 3. 10), has been published by several (four at least) preparatory batyavrata SdmiKramin, in the Bib- days ; these are not here taken into liotheca Indica (1871-74), accom- account. The above division refers panied by the corresponding por- only to those days when Soma juice tiona ( prapdthakas 1-12) of the is expressed, that is, to the euiyd Geyagdna, and the complete com- days. Soma sacrifices having only mentary of Sdyana, and other illiis- one such diiy are called ekdha; tiiose triiiive matter. — The division of the with from two to twelve, ahina. nimans into panaris is first men- 6'aHras lasting a whole year, or even i.ioned by Pilraskara, ii. 10 {adhyd- longer, are called ayana. For the yddin prabrAydd-, rwldmuMidni bah- mtyd^ festival there are seven f unda- vriclidndm, parvdni chhandogdndm). mental forms, called sumsthd; I. St., A Rrlvaijabhilshia 011 the Sdmaveda x. 352-355. BRAHMANAS OF THE SAMAN. 67 but in any case it -would be a mistake to suppose that for all the different sacrifices enumerated in the Brahmana corresponding prayers exist in the SaTn.hita. On the con- trary, the latter probably only exhibits the verses to be chanted generally at all the Soma sacrifices; and the Brahmana must be regarded as the supplement in which the modifications for the separate sacrifices are given, and also for those which arose later. While, as we saw above (p. 14), a combination of verses of the Rik for the pur- pose of recitation bears the name iastra, a similar selec- tion of different sdmans united into a whole is usually called nktJia {1^ vach, to speak), stoma {ij stu, to praise), or frishtha ( hi ■pradlih, to ask) ; and these in their turn, like the Sastras, receive different appellations.^^ Of special significance for the time of the composition of the Tandya Brahmana are, on the one hand, the very- minute descriptions of tlie sacrifices on the Sarasvali and Urishadvati ; and, on the other, the Vratyastomas, 01 sacrifices by which Indians of Aryan origin, but not living according to the Brahmanical system, obtained admission to the Brahman community. The accounts of these latter sacrifices are preceded by a description of the dress and mode of life of those who are to offer them. " They drive in open chariots of war, carry bows and lances, wear tur- bans, robes bordered with red and having lluttering ends, shoes, and sheepskins folded double; their leaders are distinguished by brown robes and silver neck-ornaments ; they pursue neither agriculture nor commerce ; their laws are in a constant state of confusion ; they speak the same language as those who have received Brahmanical conse- cration, but nevertheless call what is easily spoken hard' to pronounce." This last statement probably refers to "^ The term directly opposed to The simple recitation of tlie iasiras Nostra is, rather, stotra. Prishtha hy the Holar and hie companions specially designates several stotras always comes after the chanting belonging to the mid-day sacrifice, recitation of ihe same verses by the and forming, as it is expressed, its Udgsitar and his assistants (graMya "back;" uktha is originally em- grMlaya slmiaie 'tha iansati, ^at. ployed as a synonym of iaslra, and viii. i. 3. 3). The differences of the only at a later period in the mean- seven sam»«/ida, or fundamental types ing of sdman (I. St., xiii. 447); of the Soma sacrifice, rest mainly stoma, lastly, is the name for the six, upon the varying number of the seven, or more ground-forms of the iastras and sioiras belonging to their ttotras, after wliicli these latter are sutyd days. See /. St., X. 353, ff., lormeil fur the purposes of chanting, ix. 229, 68 VEDIC LITERATURE. prakritic, dialectic differences, to tlie assimilation of gi'oups of consonants, and similar changes peculiar to the Prakrit vernaculars. The great sacrifice of the Kaimishiya-Rishis is also mentioned, and the river Sudaman. Althoughwe have to conclude from these statements that communica- tion with the west, particularly with the non-Brahmanic Aryans there, was still very active, and that therefore the locality of the composition must be laid more towards the west,** still data are not wanting which point us to the east. Thus, there is mention of Para Atnara, king of the Kosalas ; of Trasadasyu Purukutsa, who is also named in the Rik-Samhita ; further of Namin Sapya, king of the Videhas (tlie Nimi of the epic) ; of Kurukshetra, Yamuna, &c. The absence, however, of any allusion in the Tandya- Brahmana either to the Kuru-Panchalas or to the names of their princes, as well as of any mention of Janaka, is best accounted for by supposing a difference of locality. Another possible, though less likely, explanation of the fact would be to assume that this work was contemporary with, or even anterior to, the flourishing epoch of the kingdom of the Kuru-Panchalas. The other names quoted therein seem also to belong to an earlier age than those of the other Brahmanas, and to be associated, rather, with the Rishi period. It is, moreover, a very significant fact thut scarcely any differences of opinion are stated to exist amongst the various teachers. It is only against the Kaushitakis that the field is taken with some acrimony ; they are denoted as vrdtyas (apostates) and as yajndvakirna, (unfit to sacrifice). Lastly, the name attached to this Brahmana,* viz., Tandya, is mentioned in the Brahmana of the White Yajus as that of a teacher ; so that, com- bining all this, we may at least safely infer its priority to the latter work.^^ ^ The fact that the name of Chi- the other Stitraa invariably quoting ti aratha {etena vai (JliitrarathaTfi Kd- it by ' iti irutck/ peyd aydjayan . . . tasmdch Ckai- ** The Tdndya-Br.'ihniana has been trwrathindm ekah Icshatrapatir jdyaie edited, togetlier with Silyaria's oom- 'nulamba iva dvitiyah, xx. 12, 5) mentary, in the 5i&i. /nd. (1869-74), occurs in the gar^a 'Jidjadanta' to by Anandachandra Veddntavfigife. Pan., ii. 2. 31, joined with the name At tlie time of the Bhdshilca-Stitra IWiilika in a compound (C/«t)-a!'aS/ia- (see KieUiorn, /. Ht., i. 421) it must Bdhllkam), is perhaps also to be still have been accentuated, and that taken in this connection. in the same manner as the ^ata- * The first use of this designation, patha; in Kumitrilahhatta's time, it is true, only occurs in Liityilyana, on the contrary (the last iialf of the BRAHMANAS OF THE SAMAN. 69 The ShadviMa-Brdhmana by its very name proclaims itself a supplement to the Panchavin^a-Brahmana. It forms, as it were, its twenty-sixth book, although itself consisting of several books. Sayana, when giving a sum- mary of its contents at the commencement of his here excellent commentary, says that it both treats of such ceremonies as are not contained in the Paiichavin^a-Brah- mana, and also gives points of divergence from the latter. It is chiefly expiatory sacrifices and ceremonies of impre- cation that we find in it, as also short, comprehensive general rules. The fifth book (or sixth adhydya) has quite a peculiar character of its own, and is also found as a separate Brahmana under the name of Adhhuta-Brdh- mana ; in the latter form, however, with some additions at the end. It enumerates untoward occurrences of daily life, omens and portents, along with the rites to be per- formed to avert their evil consequences. These afford us a deep insight into the condition of civilisation of the period, which, as might have been expected, exhibits a very advanced phase. The ceremonies first given are those to be observed on the occurrence of vexatious events generally ; then come those for cases of sickness among men and cattle, of damaged crops, losses of precious things, &c. ; those to be .performed in the event of earthquakes, of phenomena in the air and in the heavens, &c., of mar- vellous appearances on altars and on the images of the gods, of electric phenomena and the like, and of mis- carriages.^" This sort of superstition is elsewhere only treated of in the Grihya-Sutras, or in the Pari^ishtas (sup- ])]ements) ; and this imparts to the last adhydya of the SLadvin^a-Brahmana — as the remaining contents do to the work generally — the appearance of belonging to a very modern period. And, in accordance with this, we find mention here made of Uddalaka Aruni, and other teachers, whose names are altogether unknown to the I'ahchavin^a-Brahmana. — A Uoka is cited in the course of Bflventh century, according to Bur- '^ The Adbhuta-Briihm.ina has uell), it was already being handed been published by myself, text with duwn without accents, as in the pre- translation, and explanatory notes, sent day. See Miiller, A. S. L., p. in Zwei vedischc I'exte iiber Omina 348; Biirnell, Sdmayiclhilna- Brill- und I'orienta {i8^g). luiiija, Preface, p. vi. 70 VEDIC LITER A TURE. tlie work, in which the four ywjas are still designated hy their more ancient names, and are connected with the four lunar phases, to wliich they evidently owe their origin, although all recollection of the fact had in later times died out.^^ This &l6ka itself we are perliaps justified in assigning to an earlier time than that of Megasthenes, who informs us of a fabulous division of the mundane ages analogous to that given in the epic. But it does not by any means follow that the Shadvin^a-Brahmana, in which the &ldka is quoted, itself dates earlier than the time of Megasthenes. The third Bralimana of the Samaveda bears the special title of ChJidndogyob-BrdhTiiana, although Chhandogya is the common name for all Saman theologians. We, how- ever, also find it quoted, by i^amkara, in his commentary on the Brahma- Siitra, as " 2'dndindm iruti" that is to say, under the same name that is given to the Paiichavin^a- Bralimana. The two first adhyAyas of this Brahmana are still missing, and the last eight only are preserved, which also bear the special title of OhhdndogyopanisJiad. This Brahmana is particularly distinguished by its rich store of legends regarding the gradual development of Brah- manical theology, and stands on much the same level as the Vrihad-Aranyaka of the White Yajus with respect to opinions, as .weli'as date, place, and the individuals men- tioned. The absence in the Vrihad-Aranyaka, as in the Brahmana of the White Yajus generally, of any reference to the Naimiiiya-Rishis, might lead u.s to argue the pri- ority of the Chhandogyopanishad to the Vrihad-Aranyaka. Still, the mention in the Chhandogyopanishad of these, as well as of the Mahavrishas and the Gaudharas — the latter, it is true, are set down as distant — ought perhaps only to be taken as proof of^ a somewhat more western origin ; whereas the Vrihad-Aranyaka belongs, as we shall here- after see, to quite the eastern part of Hindustan. The numerous animal fables, on the contrary, and the mention of Mahida^a Aitareya, would sooner incline me to suppose tliat tlie^ Chhandogyopanishad is more modern than the Vrihad-Aranyaka. With regard to another allusion, in "' DiffereDtly Uotli in his essay Die Lehre von den vier Weltal.crn (Tubiiigeu, i860). BRAHMANAS OF THE SAM AN. ?i itself of the greatest significance, it is more hazardous to venture a conjecture : I mean the mention, of Krishna Devakiputra, who is instructed by Ghoi-a Angirasa. The latter, and besides him (though not in connection with him) Krishna Aiigirasa, are also mentioned in the Kan- shitaki-Brahmana ; and supposing this Krishna Aiigirasa to be identical with Krishna Devakiputra, the allusion to him might perhaps rather be considered as a sign of priority to the Vrihad-Aranyaka. Still, assuming this identifica- tion to be correct, due weight must be given to the fact that the name has been altered here : instead of Angirasa, he is called Devakiputra, a form of name for which we find no analogy in any other Vedic writing ^excepting the Van^as (genealogical tables) of the Vrihad-Aranyaka, and which therefore belongs, at all events, to a tolerably late period * The significance of this allusion for the under- standing of the position of Krislma at a later period is obvious. Here he is yet but a scholar, eager in the pur- suit of knowledge, belonging perhaps to the military caste. He certainly must have distinguished himself in some way or other, however little we know of it, otherwise his elevation to the rank of deity, brought about by external circumstances, would be inexplicable.*^ The lact of the Chhandogyopanishad and the Vrihad- Aranyalca having in common the names Pravahana Jai- vali, Ushasti Chakrayana, Sandilya, Satyakama Jabala, Uddalaka Aruni, ^vetaketu, and A^vapati, makes it clear that tliey were as nearly as possible contemporary works ; and this appears also from the generally complete identity of the seventh book of the former witli the corresponding passages of the Vrihad-Aranyaka. What, however, is of most significance, as tending to establish a late date for * Compare also Pitn. , iv. I. 159, mytbioal relations to -Indra, &«., are and the naities ^ambuputra, Hdnd- at tlie root of it; see 7. St., xiii. yanlputra, in the Siima-StitraB ; as 34;), ff. The whole question, how- also Kittydyaniputra, Maitrdyani- ever, is altogether vague. Krishna- jiutra, Viitslputra, &c., among the woraliip proper, i.e., the sectarian Buddhists. [On these metronymic worship of Krishna as the one God, names in ■putra see /. ;S{., iii. 157, probably attained its perfection 485, 486 ; iv. 380, 435 ; V. 63, 64. J through the induence of Christi- "s By what circumstances the ele- anity. See my paper, ICrishna's vation of Kfishna to the rank of Geburlsfest, p. 316, S. (where also deity was brought about is as yet are further particulars as to the name obscure ; though unquestionably Devakl). 12 VEDIC LITERATURE. the Clihandogyopanishad, is the voluminous literature, the existence of which is presupposed by the enumeration at the beginning of the ninth book. Even supposing this ninth book to be a sort of supplement (the names of Sanat- kumara and Skanda are not found elsewhere in Vedic literature ; Narada also is otherwise only mentioned in the second part of the Aitareya-Brahmana"'), there still remains the mention of the ' Atharvangirasas/ as well as of the Itihasas and Puranas in the fifth book. Though we are not at liberty here, any more than in the correspond- ing passages of the Vrihad-Aranyaka, to understiuid by these last the Itihasas and Puranas which have actually come down to us, still we must look upon them as the forerunners of these works, which, originating in the legends and traditions connected with the songs of the Rik, and with the forms of worship, gradually extended their range, and embraced other subjects also, whether drawn from real life, or of a mythical and legendary character. Originally they found a place in the Erah- manas, as well as in the other expository literature of the Vedas; but at the time of this passage of the Chhan- dogyopanishad they had possibly already in part attained an independent ibrm, although the commentaries,* as a rule, only refer sucli expressions to passages in the Brah- manas themselves. The Maha-Bharata contains, especially in the first book, a few such Itihasas, still in a prose form; nevertheless, even these fragments so preserved to us be- long, in respect both of style and of tlie conceptions they embody, to a much later period than the similar passages of the Brahmanas. They however suffice, togetlier with the Slokas, gdthds, &c., quoted in the Brahmanas them- selves, and with such works as the Barhaddaivata, to bridge over for us the period of transition from legend to epic poetry. We meet, moreover, in the Chhandogyopanishad with one of those legal cases which are so seldom mentioned in Vedic literature, viz., the- infliction of capital punishment for (denied) theft, exactly corresponding to the severe ™ AndafewtimeBintlie Atbarva. cose, but Sdyana, Harisvdmin, and Ssimliitii, as also in the Vi.iisa of the ])vivedagan!ia in similar passages of tidmavidhitna-Brilhinana. the Satapatha-Brilhmaria and Tait- * Not ^aipkara, it is true, in this tirJift-Arapyaka. BRAHMANAS OF THE SAMAN. 73 enactments regarding it in Mann's code. Guilt or inno- cence is determined by an ordeal, the carrying of a/ied- liot axe; this also is analogous to the decrees in ]\(Ianiji We find yet another connecting link with the state ot culture in Manu's time in a passage occurring also in the Vrihad-Aranyaka, viz., the doctrine of the transmigration of souls. We here meet with this doctrine for the first time, and that in a tolerably complete form; in itself, however, it must certainly be regarded as much more ancient. The circumstance that the myth of the creation in the fifth book is on the whole identical with that found at the beginning of Manu, is perhaps to be explained by regarding the latter as simply a direct imitation of the former. _ The tenth book, the subject of which is the soul, its seat in the body and its condition on leaving it, i.e., its migration to the realm of Brahman, contains much that is of interest in this respect in connection with the above- mentioned parallel passage of the Kaushitaky-Upanishad, from which it differs in some particulars. Here also for the first time in the field of Vedic literature occurs the name E^hu, which we may reckon among the proofs of the comparatively recent date of the Chhandogyopanishad. Of expressions for philosophical doctrines we find only Upaniskad, AdeSa, Guhya Adda (the keeping secret of doc- trine is repeatedly and urgently inculcated), Updkhydna (explanation). The teacher is called dchdrya [as he is also in the ^at. Br.]; for "inhabited place," ardha is used; single Uohas and gdthds are very often quoted. The Chhandogyopanishad has been edited by Dr. Eoer in the Bibliothcca Indica, vol. iii., along with Sarnkara's commentary and a gloss on it.'" Fr. Windischmann had previously given us several passages of it in the original, and several in translation ; see also /. St., i. 254-273. The Kenopanishad has come down to us as the rem- nant of a fourth Brahmana of the Samaveda, supposed to be its ninth book.* In the colophons and in the quota- tions found in the commentaries, it also bears the other- '" In this series (1854-62) a trans- first eight hooks, ^amlsara fuinislies ]ation also has been published liy us with information in the begin- KiSjendra Liila Mitra. niug of his commentary. * Regardiiig the contents of the »4 VEDIC LITER A TURE. wise imknown name of tlie Talavahdras* It is divided into two parts : the first, composed in Uokas, treats of the being of the supreme Brahman, appealing in the fourth verse to the traditioa of the " earlier sages who have taught us this" as its authority. The second part con- tains a legend in support of the supremacy of Brahman, and here we find Uma Haimavati, later the spouse of Siva, acting as mediatrix between Brahman and the other gods, probably because she is imagined to be identical with Sarasvati, or Vach, the goddess of speech, of the creative word.f These are the extant Brahmanas of the Samaveda. Sayana, indeed, in his commentary on the Siimavidhana enumerates eight (see Miiller, Rik i. Pref p. xxvii): the Praudlia- or Mahd-Brdhmana (i.e., the Pandiavi'Ma), the ShadvinSa, the Sdmavidhi, the Arsheya, the Devatddhydya, the UpanisJiad, the Samhitopanisliad, and the VanSa. The claims, liowever, of four of these works to the name of Brahmana, have no solid foundation. The Arsheya is, as already stated, merely an Anukramani, and the Devata- dhyaya can hardly be said to be anything else ; the Van^a elsewhere always constitutes a part of the Brahmanas themselves : the two hitter works, moreover, can scarcely be supposed to be still in existence, ■which, as far as the Van^a is concerned, is certainly very nmch to be regretted. The Siimavidhana also, wliich probably treats, like the portion of the Latyayana-Siitra bearing the same name, of the conversion of the richas into sdm.ans, can hardly pass for a Brahmana. ^1 As to the S.imhitopanishad, it appears * Might not this name be trace- an Anukramani, but only contains able to tlie same root fdd, tandj from some information as to the deities which IMndya is derived ? of tlie different sdmans, to which a t On the literature, &c,, of the few other sliovt fragments are added, Kenopanishad, see/. <.S'i., ii. l8l, ff. Finally, tile Sitmavidliitna - Brah- [\Ve have to add lloer'a edition with mana does not treat of the conver- Samkara's commentary, in Biblio- sion of richas into sdmans; on the theca /udicii, vol. viii., and his trans- contrary, it is a worlc similar to the latton, ibid., vol. xv.] Rigvidhitna, and relates to the em- '' The above statements require ploymeut of the sdmans for all sorts to be corrected and supplemented of superstitious pur))oses. Both in several particulars. The Vansa- texts have likewise been edited by Briiliinima was first edited by myself Burnell, with Sityana's commentaries in I. St., iv. 371, ff., afterwards by (1873). By Kumilnla, too, the niun- BurnelL with Sayana's commentary ber of the Brithmarias of the Silma- (1873). The Devatiidliyaya is not veda is given as eight (Miiller, SUTRAS OF THE SAMAN. 75 to me doubtful whether Sayana meant by it the Keno- panishad; for though the smihM (universality) of the Supreme ^eing certainly is discussed in the latter, the sub- ject is not handled under this name, as would seem to be demanded by the analogy of the title of the Samhitopa- nishad of the Aitareya-Aranyaka as well as of the Taittiriya- Aranyaka. My conjecture would be that he is far more likely to have intended a work^^ Qf ^^^g g^me title, of which there is a MS. in the British Museum (see /. Ht., i. 42) ; and if so, all mention of the Kenopanishad has been omitted by him ; possibly for the reason that it appears at the same time in an Atharvan -recension (differing but little, it is true), and may have been regarded by him as belonging to the Atharvan ? There is a far greater number of S'&tras to the Sama- yeda than to any of the other Vedas. "We have here three Srauta-Siitras ; a Siitra which forms a running commen- tary upon the Panchavin^a-Brahmana; five Siitras on Metres and on the conversion of richas into sdmans ; and a Grihya-Siitra. To these must further be added other similar works of which the titles only are known to us, as well as a great mass of different Pariiishtas. Of the Srauta-Stitras, or Sutras treating of the sacrifi- cial ritual, the first is that of 3£asaka, which is cited in the other Sama-Sutras, and even by the teachers men- tioned in these, sometimes as Arskeya-Kalpa, sometimes as HJaljpa, and once also by Latyayana directly under the name of Ma^aka.'''* In the colophons it bears the name of ICaljia-SiJbira. This Sutra is but a tabular enumeration of the prayers belonging to the several ceremonies of the Soma sacrifice ; and these are quoted partly by their tech- nical Saman names, partly by their opening words. The A. S. L., p. 348) ; in liis time all of since this text appears there, as well them were already without accents, as elsewhere, i]i connection with the One fact deserves to be specially Van4a - Brilhinana, &c. It is not noticed here, namely, that several much larger than the Devatttdhydya, of the teachers mentioned in the but has iKjt yet been published ; see Vanaa-Briihmana, liy tlieir very /. . 6 (1868). BRA H MANAS OF THE BLACK YAJUS. 93 workl, gave rise to an Upaiiishad of the Atliarvau which hears the name of Kathakopanisliad. Now, between this supplement to the Kathakii and the Kdthalca itself a con- siderable space of time must have elapsed, as follows from tlie allusions made ia the last sections to Maha-Meru, Krauncha, Maiuaga ; to Vai^ampayana, Vyasa Para^arya, &c. ; as well as from the literature therein presupposed as existing, the ' Atharvangirasas,' Brahmanas, Itihasas, Pura- nas, Kalpas, Gathas, and Naralansis being enumerated as subjects of study (svddhydya). Further, the last but one of these sections is ascribed to another author, viz., to the Arunas, or to Aruna, whom the scholiast on Panini^" speaks of as a pupil of Vai^ampayana, a statement with which its mention of the latter as an authority tallies excellently ; this section is perhaps therefoi'e only errone- ously assigned to the school of the Kathas. — The Tait- tiriya-Araiiyaka, at tlie head of which that section stands (as already remarked), and which belongs both to the Apastamba and Atreya schools, must at all events be regarded as only a later supplement to their Brahmana, and belongs, like most of the Aranyakas, to the extreme end of the Vedic period. It consists of ten books, the first six of which are of a liturgical character : the first and third books relate to the manner of preparing certain sacred sacrificial fires ; the second to preparatives to the study of Scripture; and the fourth, fifth, and sixth to purificatory sacrifices and those to the Manes, correspond- ing to the last books of the Samhita of the White Yajus. The last four hooks of the Aranyaka, on the contrary, contain two TJpanishads; viz., the seventh, eighth, and ninth books, the Taittiriyopanisluid, kot i^o^-qv so called, and the tenth, the Ydjniki- or Ndrdyaniyd-Upanishcul. The former, or Taittiriyopanishad, is in three parts. The first is the Samhitopani-iMd, or SikshdvalH* whicli begins with a short grammatical disquisition,^^ and then turns to "' Kaiyata on P;!n., iv. 2. I04 * ValH meana 'a creeper;' it 13 (Mahdbbdshya, fol. 73*, ed. Benares) ; perhaps meant to describe tliese Upa- he calls him, however, Aruni in- nishads as ' creepers,' which have stead of Aruna, and ,derives from attached themselves to the Veda- liim the school of the Arunins (cited Sitkhit. IntheBhitshya, iftid) ; the Arnnis are S' See above, p. 61; MuIler,.4.S. Z., cited in the Kathaka itself; see p. 113, ff. ; Haug, Ucber das Wesen I. St., iii. 475. dcs vedischen Aectnls, p. 54. 94 VEDIC LITERATURE. the question of the unity of the world-spirit. The second and third are the AnandavalK and Bhriguvalli, which together also go by the name of Vdruni- Upanishad, and treat of the bliss of entire absorption in meditation upon the Supreme Spirit, and its identity with the individual soul * If in these we have already a thoroughly systematised form of speculation, we are carried even further in one portion of the Yajnikl-Upanishad, where we have to do with a kiud of sectarian worship of Farayana : the remain- ing part contains ritual supplements. Now, interesting as this whole Aranyaka is from its motley contents and evi- dent piecing together of collected fragments of all sorts, it is from another point of view also of special importance for us, from the fact that its tenth book is actually extant in a double recension, viz., in a text which, according to Sayana's statements, Ijelongs to the Dravidas, and in an- other, bearing the name of the Andhras, both names of peoples in the south-west of India. Besides these two texts, Sayana also mentions a recension belonging to the Karnatakas, and another whose name he does not give. Lastly, this tenth bookt exists also as an Atharvopa- nishad, and here again with many variations ; so that there is here opened up to criticism an ample field for researches and conjectures. Such, certainly, have not been wanting in Indian literary history ; it is seldom, however, that the facts lie so ready to hand as we have them in this case, and this we owe to Sayana's commentary, which is here really excellent. "When we look about us for the other Brahmanas of the Black Yajus, we find, in the first place, among the schools * See a. translation, &c., of the vii.— ix., see tlie previous note), in Taitt. Upanishad in I.St., ii. 207- Bibl. Ind. (1864-72), by liiljeiidi-a 255. It has been edited, with Saivi- Litla Mitra ; tlie text is the Drfvida kiira's commentarj', by Roer in Bill, text commented npoii by Silyana, in /ndjca, vol. vii. [; tlie text alone, as sixty-four anuvdkris, the various a portion of the 'iVitt. Ar., by lliijen- readings of the Aiidlira te.\t (in dra Ltlla Mitra also, see next note, eighty anuvdhas) being also addfd. Uoer's translation appeared in vol. In Burnell's collection there is also XV. of the Bibliothcca IniUca]. a oommentai-y on the Taitt. Ar., by t See a partial translation of it in Bhatta Bhilskara Misr.i, which, lilte 7. St. ,ii. 78-100. [It is piibliahed that on the Sarphitii, is entitled in the, complete edition of the Jnilnayajna ; see Burnell's Cata- Taitt. Ai'onyaka, with Sayana's com- loijue, pp. 16, 17.] mentary thereon (excepting books BRAHMANAS OF THE BLACK YAJUS. . 35 cifced in the Sama-Siitras two which must probably be considered as belonging to the Black Yajus, viz., the BMi- lavins and the Sdtydyanins. The Brahmana of the JBhdl- lavins is quoted by the scholiast on Panini, probably fol- lowing the Mahabhashya,*^ as one of the ' old ' Brahmanas : we find it mentioned in the Brihaddevata ; Sure^varachdrya also, and even Sayana himself, quote passages from the Bhallavi^ruti. A passage supposed to be borrowed from the Bhallavi-Upanishad is adduced by the sect of the ]\Iadhavas in support of the correctness of their (Dvaita) belief (As. Res., xvi. 104). That tlie Bhallavins belong to the Black Yajus is, however, still uncertain ; I only con- clude so at present from the fact that Bliallaveya is the ]iame of a teacher specially attacked and censured in the Brahmana of the White Yajus. As to the Sdtydyanins, whose Brahmana is also reckoned among the ' old ' ones by the scholiast on Panini,^^ and is frequently quoted, espe- cially by Sayana, it is pretty certain that tliey belong to the Black Yajus, as it is so stated in the Charanavyiiha, a modern index of the different schools of the Vedas, and, moreover, a teacher named Satyayani is twice mentioned in the Brahmana of the White Yajus. The special regard paid to them in the Sama-Stitras, and which, to judge from the quotations, they themselves paid to the Saman, is probably to be explained by the peculiar connection (itself still obscure) which we find elsewhere also between the schools of the Black Yajus and those of the Saman.^"" Thus, the Kathas are mentioned along with the Saman schools '^ This is not su, for in the Blid- tUority in this case either, for it does shya to the partionlar sUra of Pin. not mention the ^itydyanins in ita (iv. 3. 105), the Bhilllavins are not comment on tlie ultra in question mentioned. Tliey are, however, (iv. 3. 105). But Kaiyatii cites the mentioned elsewhere in the work, at Bi-dhmanas proclaimed by SsItyiS- iv. 2. 104 (here Kaiyata derives them yana, &o., as contemporaneous with from a teacher Bha'Uu : Bhallund the Ydjnavalkini Brdhmaryini and proktam adidyate) ; as a BhaUaveyo &«Zrt6Arfni ft-., which are mentioned Matsyo rdjajmtrafi is cited in the in the M ahilbhiSsliya (see, however, Anupada, vi S, their home may /. St., v. 67, 68) ; and the Mabiibhii- have been in tlie country of the shya itself citestheSfityilyaninsalong Matsyas ; see 1. St., xiii. 441, 442- witli the Bhilllavins (on iv. 2. 104) ; At the time of the Bhdshika-SHtra they belonged, it would seem, to the their Brahmana text was still aocen- north ; see /. St., xiii. 442. tuated, in the same way as the 6ata- "" See on this /. St., iii. 473. xi'i patha ; see Kielhorn, /. St., x. 42I. 439. "' The Mahdbhdshya is not his au- ' ^6 VEDIC LIT ERA TURE. of the Kalapas and Kanthumas; and along with the latter the Laukakshas also. As to the Sakdyanins,* Sayakayani ns, Kalabavins, and Salankayanins/"! with whom, as with the Satyayanins, we are only acquainted through quotations, it is altogether uncertain whether they belong to the Black Yajus or not. The Chhagalins, whose name seems to be borne by a tolerably ancient Upanishad in Anquetil's OupmJchat, are stated in the Charanavyiiha ^"^ to form a school of the Black Yajus (according to Panini, iv. 3, 109, they are called Chhagaleyins) : the same is there said of the ^vefdivafaras. The latter gave their name to an Upanishad composed in a metrical form, and called at its close the work of a Sveta^vatara : in which the Sarnkhya doctrine of the two primeval principles is mixed up with the Yoga doctrine of one Lord, a strange misuse being here made of wholly irrelevant passages of the Samhita, &c., of the Yajus ; and upon this rests its sole claim to be connected witli the latter. Kapila, the originator of the Samkhya system, appears in it raised to divine dignity itself, and it evidently belongs to a very late period ; for though several passages from it are quoted in the Brahma- Sutra of Badarayana (from which its priority to tlie latter at least would appear to follow), they may just as well have been borrowed from the common source, the Yajus. It is, at all events, a good deal older than Sarnkara, since he regarded it as Sruti, and commented upon it. It has recently been published, together with this commentary,* by Dr. Eoer, in the Bihliotheca Indica, vol. vii. ; see also Ind. Stud., i. 420, ff. — The Maitr&yana, Upanishad at least bears a more ancient name, and might perhaps be connected * They are mentioned in the tion to this extent, that the Cliara- tentU book of the Erdhmana of the navytiha does not know the name White Yajus [see also Kdthaka 22. Chh.igalin at all (which is mentioned 7, /. 5(., iii. 472] ; aa'is also Sityakd- by Pdninl alone), but speaks only of yana. Chhiigeyas or Chhdgaleyas ; see /. 1" The ^ilankiiyanas are ranked as St., iii. 258 ; Miiller, A. S. L.,f. 370. Brilhrnanas among the Vdhikas in On Anquetil's' Tsohakli' Upanishad the Calcutta scliolium to Piin. v. 3. see now /. St., ix. 42-46, 1 14 (hhdshye na vydkhydtam). \y&- * Distinguished by a great nnm- sa's mother, Satyavatl, is called ber of sometimes tolerably long Sillankdyanajil, and Piiijini himself quotations from the Purdnas, &c. Siilailki ; see' /. St., xiii. 375, 395, [lloer's translation was published in 428, 429. ^ the Bill. Ltd., vol. xv.] '"- This statement needs correc- BRAHMANAS OF THE BLACK YAJUS. 97 with the above-mentioned Maitra (Brahmana). Its text, however, both in language and contents, shows that, com- pared with tlie latter, it is of a very modern date. At pre- sent, unfortunately, I have at my command only the four first prapdthakas, and these in a very incorrect form,* — whereas in Anquetil's translation, the TJpanishad consists of twenty chapters, — yet even these are sufficient clearly to determine the character of the work. King Brihadra- tha, who, penetrated by the nothingness of earthly things, resigned the sovereignty into the hands of his son, and devoted himself to contemplation, is there instructed by Saldyanya (see gana 'Kunja^') upon the relation of the dtman (soul) to the world ; Siikayanya communicates to him what Maitreya had said upon this subject, who in his turn had only repeated the instruction given to the Bala- khilyas by Prajapati himself. The doctrine in question is thus derived at third hand only, and we have to recognise in this tradition a consciousness of the late origin of this form of it. This late origin manifests itself externally also in the fact that corresponding passages from other sources are quoted with exceeding frequency in support of the doctrine, introduced by " athd 'nyatrd, 'py uldam," " etad- apy uktam," " aire 'me dlokd bhavanti," " atha yathe 'yam Kautsdyanastutih." The ideas themselves are qidte upon a level with those of the fully developed Samkhya doc- trine,t and the language is completely marked off from the * I obtained them quite recently, to the commentary, on the one in transcript, through the kindness hand, the two last books aro to be of Baron d'Eckstein, of Paris, to- considered as khilas, and on the gether with the tenth adhydya of a other, the whole Upauishad belongs metrical paraphrase, called AnabhA- to a pHrvakdn^a, in four books, of tiprakdia, of this Upanishad, extend- ritual purport, by which most likely itig, in 150 ilolcas, over these four is meant the Maitrityani-Sainhita prapdtJiakas. 'J'he latter is copied discussed by Biihler (see 7. St., xiii. from E. I. H., 693, aud is probably 119, ff.), in which the Upanishad is identical with the work of Vidyd- quoted as the second (!) hdnda ; &ee ranya often mentioned by Cole- I. c, p. 121. The transcript sent me brooke. [It is really so ; and this by Eckstein shows manifold devia- portion has since been published, tions from tlie other text ; its on- together with the Upauishad in full, ginai has unfortunately not been by Cowell, in his edition of the discovered yet.] Maitr. Upanishad, in seven prapA- f Brahman, Rudra, and Vishnu thahas, with Rtlmatirtha's commen- represent respectively the Sattva, tary and an English translation, in the Tamas, and the Uajas elements the Bibl. Ind. (1862-70). According of Prajdpati, G 98 VEDIC LIT ERA TURE. prose of tlie Brahmanas, both by extremely long com- pounds, and by words entirely foreign to these, and only belonging to the epic period (such as sv/ra, yaksha, uraga, hh'&tagana, &c.). The mention also of the grahas, planets, and of the motion of the polar star (dhruvasya praclia- lanam), supposes a period considerably posterior to the Brahmana.^"^ The zodiacal signs are even mentioned in Anquetil's translation ; the text to which I have access does not unfortunately extend so far.^"* That among the princes enumerated in the introduction as having met their downfall, notwithstanding all their greatness, not one name occurs belonging to the narrower legend of the Maha-Bharata or 1-iamayana, is no doubt simply owing to the circumstance that Brihadratha is regarded as the pre- decessor of the Pandus. For we liave probably to identify him with the Brihadratha, king of Magadha, who accord- ing to the Maha-Bharata (ii. 756) gave up the sovereignty to his son Jarasarndha, afterwards slain by the Pandus, and retired to the wood of penance. I cannot forbear con- necting with the instruction here stated to have been given to a king of Magadha by a Sdkdyanya the fact that it was precisely in Magndha that Buddhism, the doctrine of Sdkyamuni, found a welcome. I would even go so far as directly to conjecture that we have here a Brahmanical legend about Sakyarnuni; whereas otherwise legends of this kind reach us only through the adherents of the Bud- dhist doctrine. Maitreya, it is well known, is, with the Buddhists, the name of the future Buddha, yet in their legends the name is also often directly connected with their ^akyamuni ; a Pdrna Maitrayaniputra, too, is given to the latter as a pupil. Indeed, as far as we can judge at '" According to Cowell (p. 244), jminieya (vi. 14; Cowell, pp. iig, by graha we have here to under- 266) ; see on this /. St., ix. 363. stand, once at least (i. 4), not tlie 1°'' The text has nothing of this planets but idlagrahas (children's (vii. I, p. 198) ; but special mention diseases) ; " Dhruvasya prachalanam is here made of Saturn, iani (p. probably only refers to a pralaya ; 201), and wliere iukra occurs (p. then even ' the never-ranging pole 200), we might perhaps tliink of star' is forced to move." In a Venus. This last adAytiya through- second passage, however (vi. 16, p. out clearly betrays its later origin ; 124), the grahas appear along with of special interest is the bitter pole- tlie moon and the rikshas. Very mic against heretics and unbelievers )ieculiar, too, is the statement as to (p. 206), the stellar limits of the sun's two SUTRA'S OF THE BLACK YAJUS. 99 present, the doctrine of this Upanishad stands in close connection with the opinions of the Buddhists.^"^ although from its Brahmanical origin it is naturally altogether free from the dogma and mythology peculiar to Buddhism. We may here also notice, especially, the contempt for writing (grantJia) exhibited in one of the ilokas * quoted in corroboration. Neither the Chhagalins, nor the iSveta^vataras, nor the Maitrayanfyas are mentioned in the Sutras of the other Vedas, or in similar works, as schools of the Black Yajus ; still, we must certainly ascribe to the last mentioned a very active share in its development, and the names Maitreya and Maitreyi at least are not unfrequently quoted in the Brahmanas. In the case of the Sti^fras, too, belonging to the Black Yajus, the large number of different schools is very striking. Although, as in the case of the Brahmanas, we only know the greater part of them through quotations, there is reason to expect, not only that the remarkably rich collection of the India House (with which I am only very superficially acquainted) wiU be found to contain many treasures in this department, but also that many of them will yet be recovered in India itself. The Berlin collection does not contain a single one. In the first? place, as to the Srauta-S'dtras, my only knowledge of the- Katha-S'6,tra,'\ the Manu-Sutra, the Maitra-SMra, and the Lauf)dkshi-S'6,tra is derived from the commentaries on the Katiya-Siitra of the White Yajus ; the second, how- gygj. W6 stands in the catalogue of tlie Port-Willituu col- "" Bilna's Hiirahaoharitra informs whether the word granilia ought us of a Ma,itr{iyarilya Divjikara who realJy d fHori-andt for the earlier embraced the Buddhist cieed ; aud period to be understood of written Bhau D3,ji (Journal Bombay Branch texts (of. /. St., xiii. 476), yet in if. A. S., X. 40). adds that even now this verse, at any rate, a different Maitr. Brahmans live near Bha^gilon interpretatiou is hardly possible;- at the foot of the Vindhya, with Bee below.] whom other Brahmans do not eat -I- Laugdkshi and the ' i(i}naJ(fja- in common ; 'the reason may have nindm Brdhmanam' are said to be lieen the early Buddhist tendencies quoted therein, of many of them.' ""* On this, as well as on the oon- * Which, by the way, recurs to- tents and the division of the work, gether with some others in precisely see my remarks ia /. St., v. 13-16, tlie same form in the Auifitavin- in accordance with communications du- (or Brahuiavindu-) Upanishad. reoeiveij from Professor Gowell ; cf, [Though it may be very doubtful also Haag, ibid. , ix. 175. A Miiuavn loo VEDIC LITERATURE. lectiou, and of the last, whose author is cited in the Katha-Sutra, as well as in the Katiya-Siitra, there is, it appears, a copy in Vienna. Mahadeva, a commentator of the Kalpa-Sutra of Satyashadha Hiranyake^i, when enu- merating the Taittiiiya-Siitras in successive order in his introduction, leaves out these four altogether, and names at the head of his list the Siitra of Baudhdyana as the oldest, then that of Bhdmdvdja, next that of Apastamba, next that of Hiranyakesi himself, and finally two names not otherwise mentioned in this connection, TddhtA-na and Vaikhdnasa, the former of which is perhaps a cor- rupted form. Of these names, Bharadvaja is the only one to be found in Vedic works ; it appears in the Brahmana of the White Yajus, especially in the supplements to the Vrihad-Aranyaka (where several persons of this name are mentioned), in the Katiya-Sutra of the same Yajus, in the Prati^akhya-Siitra of the Black Yajus, and in Panini. Though the name is a patronymic, yet it is possible that these last citations refer to one and the same person, in which case lie must at the same time be regarded as the founder of a grammatical school, tliat of the Bharadvajiyas. As yet, I have seen nothing of his Sutra, and am acquainted with it only through quotations. According to a state- ment by the Mahadeva just mentioned, it treats of the oblation to the Manes, in two prasnas, and therefore shares with the rest of the Sutras this designation of the sections, \yliich is peculiar to the Black Yajus.^"^ The Siitra of Apastamba * is found in the Library of the India House, and a part of it in Paris also. Commentaries on it by Srauta-Slitra is also cited in Biililer's Kumitrilasviimin was the autlior of Cafalo(jue of MSS. from Gujarat, i. tlie commentary seems still doubt- l88 (I'Syi) ; It is in 322 foil. The ful. manuscript edited in facsimile by "" The Bhijradviljiya - Siitra has Goldstiicker under the title, ' Md- now been discovered by Biihler ; see nava Kalpa-SAtra, Icing a portion of his Catal. of MSS. from Ouj., 1. 186 this ancient work on Vaidii; riles, to- (212 foil.) ; the Vaikhduasa-Stitra is getker with the Commentary of Ku- also quoted, ib. i. 190 (292 foil.) ; see »nrf7't7as»(imOT'(i86l), gives but little also Haug in /. St., ix. 175. of the text, the commentary quoting * According to the quotations, the only the first words of the passages Vdjasaneyaka, Bahvricha-Brdhmana, commented upon ; whether the con- and Siltyilyanakiuire frequently men- eluding words, ' Kumdreldblidshyam tioned therein. samdplain,' really indicate that SUT/iAS OF THE BLACK YAJUS, lOI Dhiirtasvamin and Talavrintanivasin are mentioned/o^ also one on the Siitra of Baudhayana by Kapardisvamin.^"" The work of Satyashadha contains, according to Maha- deva's statement/^* twenty-seven pra^Tias, whose contents agree pretty closely with the order followed in the Katiya- Sdtra ; only the last nine form an exception, and are quite peculiar to it. The nineteenth and twentieth praSnas refer to domestic ceremonies, which usually find a place in the Grihya- and Smarta-Sutras. In the twenty-first, genealo- gical accounts and lists are contained ; as also in a praina, of the Baudhayana-Siltra.* Still scantier is the information we possess upon the Grihya-SMras of the Black Yajus. The Kdthaka Grihya- Siitra is known to me only through quotations, as are also the Sutras of Baudh&yana (extant in the Fort- William ^"^ On the Apastamha-Srauta-Sli- tra and the commeutaries belonging to it, by Dhtirtasv., Kapardisvdniin, Iludradatta, GunnleTasviImit), Ka- ravindasviimin, Tdlav., Ahobalasiiri (Adabilain Biihler, I. c, p. 150, who also mentions a Nrisinlia, p. 152), and others, see ikirnell in his Cata- logue, pp. 18-24, and in the Indian Antiquary, i. 5, 6. According to this the wor-k consists of thirty pra4iias ; the first twenty-tin*ee treat of the sacrificial rites in essentially the same order (from darsapilrna- mdsau to sattrdyanam) as in Hiran- yake^i, whose Stitia generally is almost identical with that of Apa- pr.aniha ; see Biiiiler's preface to the Ap. Dharma-Sdtra, p. 6 ; the 24th praina contains the general rules, " paribhdshds, edited by M. Miiller in Z. JJ. M. G., ix. (1855), a pravara- khanda and a hautraka ; prahias 25- 27 contain the Grihya-Sdtra ; pras- nas 28, 29, the Dharma-S6tra, eilited by Biihler (1868); and finally, prasiia 30, the 6ulva-Slitra l^iulva, ' mea- Buring cord'). "* On the Baudhdyana-Slitra com- pare likewise Burnell's Catalogue, pp. 24-30. Bhavasvdmin, who amongst others commented it, is mentioned by Bhatta Bliiiskara, and is conse- quently placed by Burnell (p. 26) iu the eijihtli century. According to Kielhorn, Catalogue of S. MSS. in the Soutk Division of the Bombay Pre!., p. 8, there exists a commen- tary on it by Sdyanaalso, for whom, indeed, it constituted the special text-book of the Yajus school to wliich he belonged ; see Burnell, Vatlsa-Brdlimana, pp. ix.-xix. In Biihier's Catalogue of MSS. from Guj., i. 182, 184, Anantadeva, Na- Tahasta, and Sesha are also quoted as scholiasts. The exact compass of the entire work is not yet ascertained ; the Baiulhilyaria - Dharma - Stitra, \\ hich, according to Biihler, Digest of Hindu Law, i. p. xxi. (1867), forms jiart of the Srauta-Slitra, as in the case of Apastamba and Hiran- yake^i, was commented by Govinda- bvdtnin ; see Burnell, p. 35. "" Mdtridatta and VdnoheiSvara (?) are also mentioned as commentators ; see Kielhorn, I. c, p. 10. * Such lists are also found in A^valdyana's work, at the end, though only in brief: for the Kdtiya- Stitra, a Pari^ishta comes in. \Prai- lias 26, 27, of Hiranyake^i treat of dharmas, so that here also, as iu the case of Apast. and Baudh., the Dharma-Slitra forms part of the Srauta-aiitra.] I02 VEDIC LITERATURE. collection), of Bhuradvdja, and of Satydshddha, or Hirav- yake§i, unless in this latter case only the corresponding pra^nas of the Ksilpa-Sutra are intended.^' ^ I have myself only glanced through a Paddhati of the Grihya-Siitra of the Maitrdyaniya school, -wliich treats of the usual subject (the sixteen samskdras, or sacraments). I conclude that there must also have been a Grihya-Siitra^i^ of the Mdnava school, from the existence of the Code bearing that name,"^ just as the Codes ascribed to Atri_^, Apastamba, Chhaga- leya, Baudhayana, Laugakshi, and Satyayana are probably to be traced to the schools of the same name belonging to the Black Yajus, that is to say, to their Grihya-Sutras.^" Lastly, the Prdti&dkhya-S'ii.tra has still to be mentioned as a Sutra of the Black Yajus. The only manuscript with which I am acquainted unfortunately only begins at the fourth section of the first of the two prainas. This work is of special significance from the number of very peculiar names of teachers * mentioned in it : as Atreya, Kaundinya (once by the title of Sthavira), and Bharadvaja, whom we know already ; also Valmiki, a name which in this con- nection is especially surprising; and further Agnivelya, Agriive^ydyana, Pauslikarasadi, and others. The two last names, as well as that of Kaundinya,f are mentioned in Buddhist writings as the names either of .pupils or of con- temporaries of Buddha, and Paushkarasadi is also cited in the vdrttikas to Panini by Katyayana, their author. Again, the allusion occurring here for the first time to the Mimansaksis and Taittiriyakas deserves to be remarked; *" This is really eo. On Apa- fliarlvati and SnrnsvatI as tlie proper stamba- and BliilTJidviija-Griliya, see home of the ]VIilnavas, This appeara Biirnell, Catalogue, pp. 30-33. The somewhat too strict. At any rate, yectitnis of two ^ prayorjas,^ of both the statements as to tlie extent of texts, relating -to bii-th ceremonial, the Madliyade^a which are found in have been edited i»y Speijer in his the Pratijnd-Parii^ishta of the White book 7)e Ceremonia apvd Indos quce Yajns point lis for the latter more vacatur jfitakarjna (Leyden, 1872). to tlie east ; see my essay Ueher das '^^ It is actually extant ; see BUli- Pratijnd-Sitra (1872), pp. 101,105. ler. Catalogue, i. 188 (80 foil.), and ■"■' See Johantgen, I. c, p. 108, Kielhorn, /. c, p. 10 (fragment). IC9. '''' Johiintgen in hi.s valuable tract * Their number is twenty; see Vebcr das GesetzbwJi dcs Mann Hoth, Zur Litt. und Gcsch. , pp. 65, {1863), p. 109, if., has, from the geo- 66. graphical data in Mann, ii. 17, ff., t See I. St., i. 441 not. [xiii. 387, fixed the territory between the Dfi- S., 418]. THE WHITE YAJUS. lo? also the contradistinction, found at tlie close of the ■woijc, of GhhaTidas and Bkdshd, i.e., of Vedic and ordinary lan- guage."^ The work appears also to extend to a portion of the Aranyaka of the Black Yajus ; whether to the whole cannot yet be ascertained, and is scarcely probable.^i^ In conclusion, I have to notice the two Amikramanis already mentioned, the one belonging to the Atreya school, the other to the Charayaniya school of the Kathaka. The former "^ deals almost exclusively with the contents of the several sections, which it gives in their order. It consists of two parts. The first, which is in prose, is a mere no- menclature ; the second, in thirty-four Mokas, is little more. It, however, gives a few particulars besides as to the trans- mission of the text. To it is annexed a commentary upon both parts, which names each section, togetlier with its opening words and extent. The Anukramani of the Ka- thaka enters but little into the contents ; it limits itself, on the contrary, to giving the Rishis of the various sections as well as of the separate verses ; and here, in the case of the pieces taken from the Rik, it not unfrequently exhi- bits considerable divergence from the statements given in the Anukramani of the latter, citing, in particular, a num- ber of. entirely new names. According to the concluding statement, it is the work of Atri, who imparted it to Laugakshi. We now turn to the White Yajus. With regard, in the first place, to the name itself, it probably refers, as has been already remarked, to the fact tliat the sacrificial formulas are here separated from their '" 111 tliB passage in question Ar. or Taitt. Britlim. is made in tiie (xxiv. 5), ' chk'indobhdslid ' means text itself ; on the contrary, it con- rather 'the Veda language;' see fines itself exclusively to the Taitt. Whitney, p. 417. S. The oouimentary, however, in i'6 \ye have now an excellent edi- some few instances goes beyond the tion of the work by Whitney, Jour- T. S. ; see Whitney's special disous- nal Am. Or. Soc, ix. (1871), text, sion of the points here involved, pp. translation, and notes, together with 422-426; of. also 7. St., iv. 76-79. a commentary called Ti-iblidsliya- '■" See /. St., iii. 373-401, xii. ralna, by an anonymous author (or 350-357, and the similar statements is his name Kstrttikeya?), a compila- tr.'ni Hhatta Bhdskara Mi^ra in Bnr- tion from three older commentaries nell's Caialogtie, p. 14. The Atreyl by Atreya, Msthisheya, and Vara- text here appears in a special rela- ruohi. — No reierence to the Taitt. tiou to a sdrasvata pdtha. Id VF.DIC LITERATURE. ritual basis and dogmatical explanation, and that we have here a systematic and orderly distribution of the matter so confusedly mixed up in the Black Yajus. This is the way in which the expression iulddni yaj'&nshi is explained by the commentator Dviveda Ganga, in the only passage where up till now it has been found in this sense, namely, in the last supplement added to the Vrihad-Aranyaka of the White Yajus. I say in the only passage, for though it appears once under theform hikrayajiinshi, in the Aranyaka of the Black Yajus (5. 10), it has hardly the same general meaning there, but probably refers, on the contrary, to the fourth and fifth boolis of that Aranyaka itself. Tor in the Anukramani of the Atreya school these books bear the name dukriyakdnda, because referring to expiatory cere- monies ; and this name iuhriya, ' expiating ' [probably rather ' Uluminating ' ?] belongs also to the correspond- ing parts of the Sarahita of the White Yajus, and even to the sdmans employed at these particular sacrifices. Another name of the White Yajus is derived from the surname Vajasaneya, which is given to Yajnavalkya, the teacher who is recognised as its author, in the supplement to the Vrihad-Aranyaka, just mentioned. Mahidhara, at the commencement of his commentary on the Sarnhita of the White Yajus, explains Vajasaneya as a patronymic, "the son of Vajasani." Whether this be correct, or whe- ther the word vdjasani is to be taken as an appellative, it at any rate signifies * " the giver of food," and refers to the chief object lying at the root of all sacrificial ceremonies, the obtaining of the necessary food from the gods whom the sacrifices are to propitiate. To this is also to be traced the name vdjin, "having food," by which the theologians of the White Yajus are occasionally distinguished.^^* Now, from Vajasaneya are derived two forms of words by which the Sainhita and Brahmana of the White Yajus are found * In Mahsl-Bhitrata, xii. 1507, the by 'food' (anna) is probably purely word is an epithet of Krishna . a scholastic one.] [Here also it is explained as above ; ^'* According to another explana- for the Rik, however, according to tion, this is because the Sun as the St. Petersburg Dictionary, we Horse revealed to Ydjiiavalkya the have to assign to it the meaning of aydtaydmasamjndni yajiinski ; see ' procuring courage or strenf-th, Vislinu-Purdna, iii. 5. 28 ; ' swift, cictorious, gaining booty or prize.' courageous, horse,' are the funda- The explanation of the word v&ja mental meanings of the word. THE WHITE YAJUS. icj cited, namely, Vdjasaneyaha, first used in the Taittiriya- Siitra of Apastamba and the Katiya-S^tra of the White Yajus itself, and Vdjasaneyinas* i.e., those who study the two works in question, first used in the Anupada-Siitra of the Samaveda. In the White Yajus we find, what does not occur in the case of any other Veda, that Samhita and Brahmana have been handed down in their entirety in two distinct recen- sions ; and thus we obtain a measure for the mutual rela- tions of such schools generally. These two recensions agree almost entirely in their contents, as also in the dis- tribution of them ; in the latter respect, however, there are many, although slight, discrepancies. The chief difference consists partly in actual variants in the sacrificial formulas, as in the Brahmana, and partly in orthographic or orthoepic peculiarities. One of these recensions bears the name of the Kdnvas, the other that of the Mddhyamdinas, names which have not yet been found in the Siitras or similar writings. The only exception is the Pfati^akhya-Siitra of the White Yajus itself, where there is mention both of a Kanva and of, the Madhyamdinas. In the supplement to the Vrihad-Aranyaka again, in the lists of teachers, a Kanviputra (vi. 5 i) and a Madhyamdinayana (iv. 6. 2) at least are mentioned, although only in the Kanva recension, not in the other ; the former being cited among the latest, the latter among the more recent members of the respec- tive lists. The question now arises whether the two recensions are to be regarded as contemporary, or if one is older than the other. It is possible to adopt the latter view, aijd to consider the Kanva school as the older one. For not only is Kanva the name of one of the ancient Rishi families of the Rigveda^and with the Rigveda this recension agrees in the peculiar notation of the cerebral d by I — but the remaining literature of the White Yajus appears to connect itself rather with the school of the Madhyamdinas. However this may be,™ we cannot, at * Occurs in the gana ' ^aunaha.' vaka, a yellow (pingala) Kd^va, and FThe V^jasaneyaka is also quoted by a Ki^vySiyana, and also tbeir pupils, Latydyana.] are mentioned ; see /. St., siii. 417, 1^" The Mddhyamdinas are rot 444. The school of the Kaifvda mentioned in Patamjali's Maliit- Sauirdvasds is mentioned in the bhishya, but the Kdgvas, the Kifn- Kithako, see on this /. St., iii. 475, lo6 VEDIC LITERATURE. a.fiy rate, assume anything like a long interval between th& two recensions ; they resemble each other too closely ibr this, and we should perhaps do better to regard their distinction as a geographical one, orthoepic divergencies generally being best explained by geographical reasons. As to the exact date to be ascribed to these recensions, it may be, as has already been stated in our general survey (p. lo), that we have here historical ground to go upon — a thing which so seldom happens in tliis field. Arrian, quoting from Megasthenes, mentions a people called MahiavhwoL, " through whose country flows the river An- dhomati," and I have ventured to suggest that we should understand by these the Madhyamdinas.^^" after whom one of these schools is named, and that therefore this school was either then already in existence, or else grew up at that time or soon afterwards.* The matter cannot indeed be looked upon as certain, for this reason, that mddhyam- dina, ' soutliern,' might apply in general to any southern people or any southern school ; and, as a matter of fact, we find mention of mddhyamdina-Kautliumds, ' southern Kauthumas.' f In the main, however, this date suits so perfectly that the conjecture is at least not to be rejected offhand. From this, of course, the question of the time of origin of the Wliite Yajus must be strictly separated ; it can only be solved from the evidence contained in the audin tlie Apastamba-Dharma-Stitra quotes in the case of the Yajurveda also, reference is sometimes made to the beginninof of the Vdjas. S,, and w. teacher Kanva or Kdnva. Kanva not that of the Taitt. S. (or Kdth.).] and Kdnva appear , further in the + [Vinslj'alsa designates his Kan- pravara section of A^valiyana, and shitaki-Brdhmnna-Bhilshya as Md- in Pdnini himself (iv. 2. Ill), &c. dhyamdina - KautJinmdnugam ; but '™ The country of the MaSiaKBiKoi does he not here mean the two * is situate precisely in the middle of schools so called (Mddhy. and that 'Madhyade&' the limits of Kauth.) ? They appear, in like man- whioh are given in the Pratijni-Pa- ner, side by side in an inscription risishta ; see my paper Ueber dag published by Hall, Journal Am, Or. Pratynd-SMra, pp. 101-105. Soc, vi. 539.] In the Kii^ik^ (to * Whether, in tliat case, we may Pdn. vii. i. 94) a grammarian, Md- assume that all the works now com- dhyaijidini, is mentioned as a pupil prised in the Miidhyamdina school oi YyighTa,p&i{V;/dghrapaddmvari- had already a place in tliis redaction ihfliah) ; see Bohtlingk, Fdnini, Jn- is a distinct question, [An interest- trud., p. 1, On this it is to be re- ing remark of Miiller's, Hist. A. S. marked, that in the Brilhmaiia two L., p. 453, points out that the Go- Vaiydghrapadyas and one Vaiydgh- patha-BrJhmana, in citing the first rapadlputra are mentioned, words of the different Vedas (i. 29), SAMHITA OF THE WHITE YAJUS, J07 t\'ork itself. Here our special task consists in separating tlie different portions of it, which in its present form are bound up in one whole. Fortunately we have still data enough here to enable us to determine the priority or pos- teriority of the several portions. In the first place, as regards the Samhita of the "White Yajus, the Vdjasaneyi-SamMtd, it is extant in both recen- sions in 40 adhydyas. In tlie Madhyarndina recension these are divided into 303 anuvdkas and 1975 kandikds. The first 25 adhydyas contain the formulas for the general sacrificial ceremonial ;^^^ first (i., ii.) for the new and full- moon sacrifice ; then (iii.) for the morning and evening fire sacrifice, as well as for tlie sacrifices to be offered every foiu? months at the commencement of the three seasons ; next (iv.-viii.) for the Soma sacrifice in general, and (ix., x.) tor two modifications of it ; next (xi.-xviii.) for the con- struction of altars for sacred fires ; next (xix.-xxi.) for the sautrdmani, a ceremony originally appointed to expiate the evil effects of too free indulgence in the Soma drink ; and lastly (xxii.-xxv.) for the horse sacrifice. The last seven- of these adhydyas may possibly be regarded as a later addition to the first eigliteen. At any rate it is cer- tain that the last fifteen adhydyas which follow them are of later, and possibly of considerably later, origin. In the Anukramani of the White Yajus, which bears the name of Katj'ayana, as well as in a Pari^ishta^^^ to it, and subse- quently also in Mahidhara's commentary on tlie Samhita, xxvi.— xxxv. are expressly called a Khila, or supplement, and xxxvi.-xl.j ^ukriya, a name above explained. This statement the commentary on the Code of Yajnavalkya (called Mitiiksliara) modifies to this eiiect, that the Sukriya begins at xxx. 3, and that xxxvi. i forms the beginning of an Aranyaka.* The first four of these later added adhyd- yas (xxvi.-xxix.) contain sacrificial formulas which belong to the ceremonies treated of in the earlier adhydyas, and 1-' A ooinpreliensive but con- * TLiit a portion of these, last densed exposition of it Las been hooks is to be consideri'd as an Aran- comnienoefi in my papers, Ziir yaka seems to be beyond doubt ; A'cnnlniss tics vcdischcn Opfen-ituals, for xxxvii.-xxxix., in particular, in /. S<.,i. 321-396, xiii. 217-292. this is certain, as they are explained "^ See my p.iper, Uchcr das Pru- in the An^iyaka part of the Brdh- tijnd-Siitra {1872), pp. 102-105. mapa. 1 08 VEDIC LITER A TURE. must be supplied thereto ia the proper place. The ten following adhydyas (xxx.-xxxix.) contain the formulas for entirely new sacrificial ceremonies, viz., the puruslm-medhi (human sacrifice),^^^ the sarva-medha (universal sacrifice), the pitri-medJia (oblation to the Manes), and t\\e pravargya (purificatory sacrifice).^^* The last adhydya, finally, has no sort of direct reference to the sacrificial ceremonial. It is also regarded as an Upanishad,* and is professedly designed to fix the proper mean between those exclusively engaged in sacrificial acts and those entirely neglecting them. It belongs, at all events, to a very advanced stage of specu^ lation, as it assumes a Lord {ii) of the universe.1 — Inde- pendently of the above-mentioned external testimony to the later origin of tliese fifteen adhydyas, their posteriority is sufficiently proved by the relation in which they stand both to the Black Yajus and to their own Brahmana, as well as by the data they themselves contain. In the Taittiriya- Samhita only those formulas appear which are found in the first eighteen adhydyas, together with a few of the man- tras belonging to the liorse sacrifice ; the remainder of the latter, together with tlie mantras belonging to the s-iutrd- mani and the human sacrifice, are only treated of in the Taittiriya-Brahmana ; and those for the universal and the purificatory sacrifices, as weU as those for oblations to the Manes, only in the Taittiriya-Aranyaka. In like manner, the first eighteen adhydyas are cited in full, and explained word by word in the first nine books of the Brahmana of the White Yajus ; but only a few of the formulas for the sau- trdmani, the horse sacrifice, human sacrifice, universal "^ See my esaa.y, Veber Menschen- * Other parts, too, of the Vii- opfer bei den Indcrn der vedischen jas, S. have in later times bet^ii Zeit, in /. Str., i. 54, £f. looked upon as Upaiiishads ; for ex- 124 Tliig translation of the word ample, the sixteenth book {^ata- fTavargya is not a literal one (for rudriya), the thirty-iirst (f wrusAa- this see the St. Petersburg Diet., sikta), thirty-second (Tadeva), and under root varj with prep, pro), the beginning of the thirty-fourth but is borrowed from the sense and book (iiivasamJcalpa). purpose of the ceremony in ques- -f* Acconiing to Mahldhara*s com- tion ; the latter is, according to mentary, its polemic is directed par- HaugonAit. Brdhm., i. 18, p. 42, "11. tially against the Bauddhas, that preparatoryrite intended for provid- is, probably, against the doctrines ing the sacrificer with a heavenly which afterwards were called Sdip- body, with which alone he is permit- khya, ted to enter the residenceof thegods." SAMHITA OF THE WHITE YAJVS. 109 sacrifice, and oblation to the Manes (xix.-xxxv.) are cited iu tlie twelfth and thirteenth books, and that for the most part only* by their initial words, or even merely by the initial words of the anuvdkas, without any sort of explanation; and it is only the three last adhy&yas but one (xxxvii. - xxxix.) which are again explained word by woi'd, in the beginning of the fourteenth book. In the case of the mantras, but slightly referred to by their initial words, explanation seems to have been con- sidered unnecessary, probably because they were still generally understood; we have, therefore, of course, no guarantee that the writer of the Bralimana had them before him in the form which they bear at present. As to those mantras, on the contrary, which are not men- tioned at all, the idea suggests itself that they may not yet have been incorporated into the Samhita text extant when the Erahmana was composed. They are, roughly speak- ing, of two kinds. First, there are strophes borrowed from the Rik, and to be recited by the Hotar, whicli therefore, strictly speaking, ought not to be contained in the Yajus at all, and of wliich it is possible that the Brali- mana may have taken no notice, for the reason that it has nothing to do with the special duties of the Hotar ; e.g., in the twentieth, thirty-third, and thirty-fourth adliydyas especially. Secondly, there are passages of a Brahmana type, which are not, however, intended, as in the Black Yajus, to serve as an explanation of mantras preceding them, but stand independently by themselves ; e.g., in par- ticular, several passages in the nineteenth adhydya, and the enumeration, in the form of a list, of the animals to be dedicated at the horse sacrifice, in the twenty-fourth adhydya. In the first eighteen adhydyas also, there occur a few sacrificial formulas which the Brahmana either fails to mention (and which, therefore, at the time when it was composed, did not form part of the Samhita), or else cites only by their initial words, or even merely by the initial words of the anuvdkas. But this only happens in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth adhydyas, tliough liere with tolerable frequency, evidently because these adhydyas themselves bear more or less the character of a Brahmana. — With regard, lastly, to the data contained in tiie last adhydyas, and testifying to their posteriority, these 1 10 VEDIC LITERA TURE. are to be sought more especially in tlie thirtieth and" thirty-ninth adhydyas, as compared with the sixteenth. It is, of course, only the Yajus portions proper which can here be adduced, and not the verses borrowed from the Rik- Samhita, which naturally prove nothing in this connection. At most they can only yield a sort of measure for the time of their incorporation into the Yajus, in so far as they may be taken from tlie latest portions of the Rik, in which case the existence of tlicse at that ]ieriod would necessarily be presupposed. Tlie data referred to consist in -two facts. First, whereas in the sixteenth book liudva, as the god of the blazing fire, is endowed with a large number of the epithets subsequently applied to Siva, two very significant epithets are here wanting which are applied to him in the thirty- ninth book, viz., Udna and mahddeva, names probably indicating some kind of sectarian worship (see above, p. 45). Secondly, the number of the mixed tastes given in the thirtieth is nmch higher than that given in the sixteenth book. Those mentioned in the former can hardly all have been in existence at the time of the latter, or we should surely have found others specified besides thos? that are actually mentioned. Of the forty books of the Samliita, the sixteenth and thirtieth are those which bear most distinctly the stamp of the time to which they belong. The sixteenth book, on which, in its ' Taittiriya form, the honour was afterwards bestowed of being regarded as an Upanishad, and as the principal book of the Siva sects, treats of the propitiation of Eudra ; and (see /. St., ii. 22, 24-26) by its enumeration and distinction of the many different kinds of thieves, robbers, murderers, night-brawlers, and highwaymen, his supposed servants, reveals to us a time of insecurity and violence : its mention, too, of various mixed castes indi- cates that the Indian caste system and polity were already fully developed. Now as, in the nature of things, these' were hot established without vigorous opposition from tliose who were thrust down into the lower castes, and as this opposition must have manifested itself chiefly in feuds, open or secret, with their oppressors, I am inclined to suppose that this Eudra book dates from the time of these secret feuds on the part of the conquered aborigines, as well as of the Vratyas or unbrahmanised Aryans, after SAMHITA OF THE WHITE YAJUS. in their open resistance had been more or less crushcd.^-^ At such a time, the worship of a god who passes as the pro- totype of terror and fury is quite intelligible.— The thirtieth book, in enumerating the different classes of persons to be dedicated at the purusha-medha , gives the names of most of the Indian mixed castes, whence we may at any rate conclude that the complete consolidation of the Brali- manical polity had then been effected. Some of the names here given are of peculiar interest. So, for example, the vidgadha, who is dedicated in v. 5 " atikrushtdya." The question arises, What is to be understood by mdgadha ? If we take atikruslita in the s^nse of " great noise," the most obvious interpretation of mdgadha is to understand it, with MaMdhara, in its epic sense, as signif\'ing a minstrel,* son of a Vailya by a Kshatriya. This agrees excellently with the dedications immediately following (in V. 6), of the sMa to the dance, and of the iailiXsha to song, though not so well, it must be admitted, with the dedica- tions immediately preceding, of the kliha (eunuch), the ayog'd (gambler?), and the 'punidialu (harlot). The Vidgadha again appears in their company in v. i2,\ and they cannot be said to throw the best light upon his moral cliaracter, a circumstance which is certainly surprising, considering the position held by this caste in the epic; thougli, on the other hand, in India also, musicians, dancers, and singers (^ail'dsJias) have not at any time enjoyed the best reputation. But another interpretation of the word mdgadha, is possible.^ In the fifteenth, the '-' By the Buddhist author Ya- sides, an express condition is laid ^omitra, scholiast of the Abhidhar- down that the four must belong inako^, the Satarudriya is stated neither to the SAdra nor to the to be a work by Vydsa against Brahmana caste. [By ayogii, may Buddhism, whence, however, we also be meant an unchaste woman ; have probably to conclude only see /. Sir., i. 76 ] that it passed for, and was used as, + Sdyana, commenting on the a principal support tor Siva worship, corresponding passage of the Taitt. especially in its detached form as a Bidhmana (iii. 4. 1), explains the separate Upanishad ; see Burnouf's word atikrushtdya by atinindita- Introduction dVHiatoire du Buddk- devdya, "dedicated to the very iame, p. 568 ; 7. St., ii. 22. Blameworthy as his deity " [in Kd- * How he comes by this name is, jendra Ldla Mitra's edition, p. 347] ; it is true, not clear. this 'very Blameworthy,' it is true, + Here, however, the kitava is might also refer to the bad moral put instead of the ayogH, and be- >-eputation of the minstrels. I ! 2 VEDIC LITER A TURE. so-called Vratya book* of the Atharva-Samhita, the Vratya {i.e., the Indian living outside of the pale of Brahmanism) is brought into very special relation to the punichali and the mdgadha ; faith is called his harlot, the mitra (friend ?) his mdgadha; and similarly the dawn, the earth (?), the lightning his harlots, the mantra (formula), liasa (scorn?), tlie thunder his mdgadhas. Owing to the obscurity of the Vratya book, the proper meaning of this passage is not altogether clear, and it is possible, therefore, that here also the dissolute minstrel might be intended. Still the con- liBction set forth iti the Sama-Sutras of Latyayana and Drahyaj'^ana, as well as in the corresponding passage of the Katiya-Siitra between the Vratyas and the magadhadeHya irahmahandhu}^ and the hatred with which the Magadhas are elsewhere (see Eoth, p. 38) spoken of in the Atharva- Samhita, both lead us to interpret the midgadlm of the Vratya book as an heretical teacher. For the passages, also, which we are more immediately discussing, this inter- pretation vies with the one already given ; and it seems, in particular, to be favoured by the express direction in V. 22, that "the mdgadha, the harlot, the gambler, and the eunuch" must neither be Siidras nor Brahmans, — an in- junction which would be entirely superfluous for the rndga- dka at least, supposing him to represent a mixed caste, but which is quite appropriate if the word signifies " a native of the country Magadha." If we adopt this latter inter- pretation, it follows that heretical {i.e., Buddhist) opinions must have existed in Magadha at the time of the com- position of this thirtieth adhydya. Meanwhile, however, the question which of tliese two interpretations is the better one remains, of course, unsolved. — The mention of the nakshatradaHa, "star-gazer," in v. 10, and of the * Trausliif.ed by Aufj-echt, /. St., Mdgadha — explained by Siiyaniv as i. 130, ff. [The St. Petersburg Diet., Magadhaddotpanno hrahmachdri — .1, v., considers 'the praise of the is contemptuously introduced by Vrittya in Ath. xv. as an idealising the Stitrakiira (probably Baudhd- of the devout vagrant or mendicant yana ?) to T. S., vii. 5. 9. 4, in asso- {paHvrdjalca, &o.) ;' the fact of his ciation with a puMcliali; see /. St., being s|)ecially connected with the xii. 330. — That there were good punichali and the mdgadha remains, Brahmans also in Magadha appears nevertheless, very strange, and even from the name Magadhavdsi, which with this interpretation leads us to is given to PrStibodhipntra, the surmise suggestions of Buddhism.] Reoond son of Hrasva Milndiikeya, iu '-" In the very sime way, the Sitnkh. Ar., vii. 14. SAMHITA OF THE WHITE YAJUS. 113 ganaJca, " calculator," in v. 20, permits us, at all events, to conclude that astronomical, i.e., astrological, science was then actively pursued. It is to it that, according to Mah^- dhara at least, the "questions" repeatedly mentioned in v. 10 relate, althougli Sayana, perhaps more correctly, thinks that they refer to the usual disputations of the Brahmans. The existence, too, of the so-called Vedic quinquennial cycle is apparent from the fact that in v, 15 (only in xxvii. 45 besides) the five names of its years are enume- rated; and this supposes no inconsiderable proficiency in astronomical observation.^^' — A barren wife is dedicated in V. 1 5 to the Atharvans, by which term Sayana understands the imprecatory and magical formulas bearing the name Atharvan; to which, therefore, one of their intended effects, baiTenness, is here dedicated. If this be the correct ex- planation, it necessarily follows that Atharvan - songs existed at the time of the thirtieth book. — The names of the three dice in v. 18 (krita, tretd, and dvdpara) are explained by Sayana, commenting on the corresponding passage of the Taittiriya-Brahmana, as the names of the epic yiMfos, which are identical with tliese — a supposition which will not hold good here, though it may, perhaps, in the case of the Taittiriya-Brahmana.* — The hostile reference to the CharalxHcharya in v, 18 has already been touched upon (p. 87).i28 In the earlier books there are two passages in particular which give an indication of the period from which they date. The first of these exists only in the Kanva recen- sion, where it treats of the sacrifice at the consecration of the king. The text in the Madhyamdina recension (ix. 40, X. 18) runs as follows : " This is your king, ye So and So," where, instead of the name of the people, only the indefinite pronoun ami, is used; whereas in the Kanva '-' Since sarjivatsara is here men- * Where, moreover, the fourth tioned twice, at the beginning and nnme, iali, is found, instead of the at the end, possibly we have here to dskanda given here [see I. Str., i, do with a sexennial cycle even (of. 82]. T. Br., iii. 10. 4. l) ; see my paper, '^ Sdyana on T. Br., iii. 4. 16, p. JMe vedisciien X^achnchten von den 36l,explains(!)theword by 'teacher Nakshatra, ii. 298 (1862). The of the art of dancing on the point earliest allusion to the quinquennial of a bamboo ; ' but the vaManartin yuga occurs in the Rik itself, iii. is introduced separately in v. 21 (T. 55.18(1.25.8). Br.,iii. 4, 17). n fi* VE Die LITERATURE. recension we read (xi. 3. 3, 6. 3) : " This is your king, ye Kurus, ye Panchalas." * Tlie second passage occurs iu connection with the horse sacrifice (xxiii. 1 8). The ma- liisld, or principal wife of the king, performing this satcrifice, must, in order to obtain a son, pass the night by the side of the horse that has been immolated, placing its siina on her upastha ; with her fellow- wives, who are forced to accompany her, she pours forth her sorrow in this lament : " Amba, Ambika, Ambalika, no one takes me (by force to the horse) ; (but if I go not of myself), the (spiteful) horse will lie with (another, as) the (wicked) Subhadra who dwells in Kampila/'f Kampila is a town in the country of the Panchalas. Subhadra, therefore, would seem to be the wife of the king of that district,J and the benefits of the aivamedlui sacrifice are supposed to accrue to them, unless the mahisld consents voluntarily to give herself up to this revolting ceremony. If we are justified in regarding the mahisld as the consort of a king of the Kurus, — and the names Ambika and Amba- lika actually appear in this connection in the Maha- Bharata, to wit, as the names of the mothers of Dhrita- rashtra and Pandu, — we might then with probability infer that there existed a liostile, jealous feeling on the part of the Kurus towards the Panchalas, a feeling which was possibly at that time only smouldering, but which in the epic legend of the Maha-Bharata we find had burst out into the flame of open warfare. However this may be, the allusion to Kampila at all events betrays that the verse, or even the whole book (as well as the correspond- * Sdyana, on the corresponding subhadriMm kdmpilavdsinim are passage of the Brdhmana (v. 3. 3. wanting in it. 11), remarks that BaudhSyana reads J As a matter o£ fact, we find in esha TO Bharatd rdjeti [thus T. S., the Mahd-Bli^rata a Subbadrii as i, 8. 10. 2 ; T. Br., i. 7. 4. 2]. wife of Arjuiia, the representative Apastamba, on the contrary, lets us of the Panchjilas ; on account of a choose between Bharatd, Kuravo, Subhadrd (possibly on account of JPanchdla, Kurupdnchdld, or jand her abduction, related in the Mahii- rdjd, according to the people to Bhiirata?) a great war seems to whom the king belongs. [The have arisen, as appears from some K^th., XV. 7, has eslia te janate words quoted several times by the rdjd.^ scholiast on Pdnini. Has he the t The Brdhmana of the White authority of the Mahdbh^shya for Yajus quotes only the beginning of this ? [the Mahstbhilshya has nothing this verse ; consequently the words about it]. SAM HIT A OF THE WHITE YAJUS. iij ing passages of the Taitt. Brahmana), originated in tlio region of the Panchalas ; and this inference holds good also for the eleventh book of the Kanva recension.^^' We might further adduce in proof of it the use of the word arjuna in the Madhyamdina, and of phalguna in the Kanva recension, in a; formula ^^^ relating to the sacrifice at the consecration of the king (x. 21) : " To obtain intre- pidity, to obtain food(, I, the offerer, ascend) thee(, chariot,) I, the inviolate Arjuna (Phalguna)," i.e., ludra, Indra-like. I'or although we must take both these words in this latter sense, and not as proper names (see /. St^ i. 190), yet, at any rate, some connection must be assumed between this use and the later one, where they appear as the appellation of the chief hero of the Pandus (or Pan- chalas ?) ; and this connection consists in the fact that the legend specially applied these names of Indra* to that hero of the Pandus (or Panchalas?) who was pre- eminently regarded by it as an incarnation of Indra. Lastly, as regards the critical relation of the richas in- corporated into the Yajus, I have to observe, that in general the two recensions of the Kanvns and of the Madhyam- dinas always agree with each other in this particular, and that their differences refer, rather, to the Yajus-portionsi One half of the Vajasaneyi-Samhita consists of richas, or verses; the other of yaj'&7LsM, i.e., fornnilas in prose, a measured prose, too, which rises now and then to a true rhythmical swing. The greater number of these richas •=3 In T. S., vii. 4. 19. I, Kdtli. "» See V. S., x. 21 ; the parallftl As'., iv. 8, there are two vocatives papsa<;es iu T. S., i. 8, 15, T. Br., instead of the two accusatives ; hf- i. 7. g. i, Kdtli., xv. 8, have no- sides, we have suhhage for sub/tad- thing of this. rdrri. The vocative hdmpilaidsini * The Brithmana, moreover, ex- is exphiined by Siij'aija, ' O thou pressly designates arjuna as the that art veiled in a beautiful gar- ' secret name ' {guhyani ndma) of In- meut' {MmpilaiabdmaUdgliyovastra- dra [ii. i. 2. 11, v. 4. 3. 7]. How is tUesha uchyate ; see/. Si., xii. 312). this to be understood? The com- This explanation is hardly justifi- mentary remarks on it : arjuna able, and Mahldhara's reference of ili hlndrasya rahasyaip, ndma | ata the word to tlie city of Kdmpila eea k/ialu tatputre Pdndavamadh- niust be retained, at least for the yatne pravjrittih. [What is the wording of the text which we have reading of the Kitnva recension in in the V, S. In the Fratijnit- these passages ? Has it, as in the PariHishta, Kitmpilya is given as the Saqihitd, so here also, not arjuna, eastern limit of Madhyadesa ; see but phalguna ?] my PratiJndstUra, pp. 101-105. 1 16 VEDIC LITERA TURE. recur in the Rik-Sarphita, and frequently with consider- able variations, the origin and explanation of which I have already discussed in the introduction (see above, pp. 9, 10). Eeadings more ancient than those of the Rik are not found in the Yajus, or at least only once in a while, which results mainly from the fact that Rik and Yajus agree for the most part with each other, as opposed to the Saman. We do, however, find that verses have undergone later altera- tions to adapt them to the sense of the ritual. And finally, we meet with a large number of readings which appear of equal authority with those of the Rik, especi- ally iu the verses which recur in those portions of the Rik-Sanihita that are to be regarded as the most modern. The Vajasaneyi-Samhita, in both recensions, has been edited by myself (Berlin, 1849-52), with tlie commentary of Mahidhara,^^^ written towards the end of the sixteenth century ; and in the course of next year a translation is intended to appear, which will give the ceremonial belong- ing to each verse, together with a full glossary.* Of the work of tJata, a predecessor of Mahidhara, only fragments have been preserved, and the commentary of Madhava, which related to the Kanva recension,^^^ appears to bo entirely lost. Both were supplanted by Mahidhara's work, and consequently obliterated; an occurrence which has hap- pened in a similar way in almost all branches of Indian literature, and is greatly to be regretted. I now turn to the Brdhmana of the White Yajus, the Satapatha-Brdhmana, which, from its compass and con- tents, undoubtedly occupies the most significant and im- portant position of all the Brahrhanas. Pirst, as to its 1'* For which, unfortunately, no tary (lately again by Roer in the sufficient manuscript materials were Bibliolheca Indica, vol. viii.) [and at my disposal ; see Miiller, Preface vol. xv. — A lithographed edition of to vol. vi. of his large edition of the the test of the V^jas, Saijiihitd, with Rik, p. xlvi. sqq., and my reply in a. Hindi translation of Mahidhara's JAterarisches Oentralblatl, 1875, pp. commentary, has been published ly 519, 520. Giriprasddavarman, Riija of Besma, * [This promise has not been ful- 1870-74, in Besma]. filled, owing to the pressure of other ■''^ Upon what this special state* l^ibours.] The fortieth adhydya, the ment is based I cannot at present Isopanishad, is in the Kiliiva reoen- show; but that MiSdhava commented sion commented by Saipkara ; It has tlie V. S. also is shown, for example, been translated and edited several by the quotation in Mahidhara to times together with this commen- xiii. 45. BRAHMAN A OF THE WHITE YAJUS. 117 extent, — this is sufficiently denoted by its very name, which describes it as consisting of 100 pathas (paths), or sections. The earliest known occurrence of tliis name is in tlie ninth vdrttika to Pan. iv. 2. 60, and in the gaiia to Pan. V. 3. 100, both authorities of very doubtful* anti- quity. The same remark applies to the Naigeya-daivata, where the name also appears (see Benfey's Sdmaveda, p. 277). "With the single exception of a passage in the twelfth book of the Maha-Bharata, to which I shall revert in the sequel, I have only met with it, besides, in the commen- taries and in the colophons of the MSS. of the work itself. In the Madhyamdina school the ^atapatlia-Brahmana con- sists of fourteen kdndas, each of which bears a special title in the commentaries and in the colophons : these titles are usually borrowed from the contents ; ii. and vii. are, however, to me inexplicable.f The fourteen kdndas are together subdivided into 100 adhydyas (or 68 p'a- ^idthakas), 438 hrdhmanas, and 7624 kandikds}^^ In the Kanva recension the work consists of seventeen kdndas, the first, fifth, and fourteenth books being each divided into two parts ; the first book, moreover, has here changed places with the second, and forms, consequently, the second and third. The names of the books are the same, but the division into praj)dtha7cas is altogether unknown : the adhy- dyas in the thirteen and a half books that have thus fap been recovered* number 85, the brdhmanas 360, the kan- dikds 4965. The total for the whole work amoimts, accord- ing to a list accompanying one of the manuscripts, to 104 adhydyas, 446 brdhmanas, $866 kandikds. If from this the recension of the Kanva school seems considerably • The gana is an dkritigatfa, and Ehapddikd, that of the seventh Saa- the siilra to which it belongs is, ac- tighata, curding to the Calcutta edition, not "^ For statements disagreeing explained in the Mahill'lidsbya ; with this, which are found in the poissibly therefore it does not belong MSS., see note on pp. 119, 120. to the original text of Pdnini. [The J Of the fourth book there exists i-drtlika in question is, in point of only the first half ; and the third, fact, explained in the Mab.^bhitsliya thirteeiitli, and sixteenth books are (fol. 67''), and thus the existence of wanting altcgether, [It is mnch to the name iatapatha, as well as ahath- be regretted that nothing has yet Hpatha (see p. 119), is guaranteed, been done for the Kiinva recension, ut, least for the time when this work and that a complete copy has uot was composed ; see /. St., xiii. 443.I yet been recovered.] f The name of the second book is 1 1 8 VEDIC LITER A TURK. shorter than that of the Madhyamdinas, it is so only in' appearance; the disparity is probably rather to be ex- plained by the greater length of the handikAs in the for- mer. Omissions, it is true, not unfrequeiitly occur. For the rest, I have no means of ascertaining with perfect accuracy the precise relation of the Brahniana of the Kanva school to that of the Madhyanidinas ; and what I have to say in the sequel will therefore relate solely to the latter, unless I expressly mention the former. As I have already remarked, when speaking of the Samhita, the first nine Mndas of the Brahmana refer to the first eighteen books of the Samhita ; tbey quote the separate verses in the same order * word for word, explain- ing them dogmatically, and establishing their connectiob with the ritual. The tenth Jcdnda, which bears the name of Agni-rahasya ("the mystery of fire"), contains mystical legends and investigations as to the significance, &c., of the various ceremonies connected with the preparation of the sacred fires, without referring to any particular portions of tlie Sarnhita,; This is the case likewise in the eleventh Jcdnda, called from its extent Ashtddhydyi, which contains f\. recapitulation of the entire ritual already discussed, with supplements thereto, especially legends bearing upon it, together with special particulars concerning the study of the sacred works and the provisions made for this pur- pose. The twelfth kdnda, called Madhyama, " the middle one," treats of prdyaicMttas or propitiatory ceremonies for untoward events, either previous to the sacrifice, dur- ing, or after it ; and it is only in its last portion, where the Sautramani is discussed, that it refers to certain of the formulas contained in the Sarnhita (xix.-xxi.) and relating to this ceremony. The thirteenth kdvda, called Ahamedha, treats at some length of the horse sacrifice ; and then with extreme brevity of the human sacrifice, the universal sac- rifice, and the sacrifice to the Manes ; touching upon the relative portions of the Sarnhita (xxii.-xxxv.) but very seldom, and even then very slightly. The fourteenth kdnda, called A'ranyaka, treats in its first tliree adhydyas * Only in the introduction does of tlie new moon and full moon sac- a variation occur, as the Brdhmana rifices, which is evidently more cor- treats first of the morning and even- rect systematically, inj; sacrifices, and not till afterwards BRAHMANA OF THE WHITE YAJUS. 119 of the purification of tlie fire,^^* and here it quotes almost in their entirety the three last books but one of the Sam- hita (xxxvii.-xxxix.) ; the last six adliydyas are of a purely- speculative and legendary character, and form by them- selves a distinct work, or Upanishad, under the name of Vrihad-Aranyaka. This general summary of the con- tents of the several kdndas of itself suggests the conjec- ture that the first nine constitute the most ancient part of the Brahmana, and that the last five, on the contrary, are of later origin, — a conjecture which closer investiga- tion reduces to a certainty, both on external and internal evidence. With reference to the external evidence, in the first place, we find it distinctly stated in the passage of the J\Iaha-Bharata above alluded to (xii. 11734) that the complete ^atapatha comprises a Baliasya (the tenth Mnda), a Samgraha (the eleventh Mnda), and a Pariiesha (the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth Jcdndas).^ Further, in the vdrttika already quoted for the name Satapatha, we also meet with the word shashti'patha'^^ as the name of a work ; and I have no hesitation in referring this name to the first nine kdndas, which collectively number sixty adliydyas. On the other hand, in support of the opinion that the last five kdndas are a later addition to the first nine, I have to adduce the term Madhyama ("the middle one"), the name of the twelfth kdnda, which can only be accounted for in this way, whether we refer it merely to the last three kdndas but one, or to all the five* '** The pravai-gya conoerns, ra- third adliydya (viz., of the Icdnda), ther, the lustratiun of tlie sacrificer so that xvi. .ind svii. coincide. — [A liimself ; see above note 124, p. 108, highly remarkable statement is found '** It is found in the i'ratiJDd- in the MSS. of the Mitdhyamdina Pai'isishta also, and along witli it recension at v. 3. i. 14, to the effect the name aMtij>atha (!) ; iatapatha, that this point niaiks not only hdn- on the contrary, is apparently want- dasyd 'rdham, with 236 kandihis, ing there ; sec my essay on the Pra- but .ilso, according to a margin.1l tijnil-Siitra, pp. 104, 105. gloss, iatapatJtasyd 'rdham, with * In the latter case a difficulty is 3129 handikds ; see p. 497 of my caused by the Kitnva recension, which edition. As >i. matter of fact, the subdivides the last kdnda into two preceding haridihU do amount to parts (xvi., xvii.) ; this division, this latter number ; but if we fix it however, seems not to have been as the norm for the second half, generally received, since in the MSS. we are only brought down to xii. 7. of ^arpkiira's coinment.iry, at least, 3. 18, that is, not even to the close the Upanishad (xvii.) is reckoned of the twelfth book ! The point throughout as beginning with the which marks the exact half for tha' I20 VEDIC LITERATURE. Now these last five hdndas appear to stand in the same order in which they actually and successively originated ; so that each succeeding one is to be regarded as less ancient than the one that precedes it. This conjecture is based on internal evidence drawn from the data therein contained, — evidence which at the same time decides the question of their being posterior to the first nine hdndas. In the first place, the tenth Mnda still connects itself pretty closely with the preceding books, especially in its great veneration for Sandilya, the principal authority upon ihe building of altars for the sacred fires. The following are the data which seem to me to favour the view that it belongs to a different period from the first nine books. In 1.5. I, ff., all the sacrifices already discussed in the pre- ceding books are enumerated in their proper order, and identified with the several ceremonies of the Agni-chayana, or preparation of the sacred fireplace. — Of the names of teachers here mentioned, several end in -dyana, a ter- mination of which we find only one example in the seventh, eighth, and ninth kdndas respectively : thus we meet here with a Eauhinayana, Sayakayana, Vamaka- kshayana (also in vii.), Eajastambayana, Sandilyayana (also in ix.), ^atyayani (also in viii.), and the Sakayanins. — The Vah^a appended at the close (i.e., the list of the teachers of this book) differs from the general Vah^a of the entire Brahmana (at the close of the fourteenth book) in not referring the work to Yajnavalkya, but to Sandilya, and also to Tura Kavasheya (whose ancestor Kavasha we find on the banks of the Sarasvati in the Aitareya-Brahmana). The only tribes mentioned are the Salvas and Kekayas (especially their king, A^vapati Kaikeya), — two western tribes not elsewhere alluded to in the Brahmanas. — The present extent of the work (3812 i.) marking of the accents is earlier in is at vi. 7. I, 19, where also the date than the division of tlie text MSS. repeat the above statement into kandikds. As, however, we (p. 555)- — It deserves special men- find exactly the same state of things tioTi that the notation of the accents with regard to the final and initial operates bfyond the limits of the words o| the individual hrdlimariias individual A'a).?i/j/i.'«s, the accent at (see Jenao- Zito'aiursddjnj, 1875, p. tbe end of a kandikd being modified 314), we should also have to refer by the accent of the first word of tlie brdhmana division to a latei the next kmidihl. From this we date, and this is hardly possible], might perhaps conclude that the BRAHMANA OF THE WHITE YAJUS. 121 legends here as well as in the four succeeding hdndas are mostly of an historical Character, and are besides chiefly connected with individual teachers who cannot have lived at a time very distant from that of the legends themselves. In the earlier MiT^das, on the contrary, the legends are mostly of a mythological character, or, if historical, refer principally to occurrences belonging to remote antiquity ; so that here a distinct difference is evident. — The truyi vidyd (the three Vedas) is repeatedly discussed in a very special manner, and the number of the richas is stated to be 1 2,000, that of the ya/iis- verses 8boo, and that of the sdmans 4000. Here also for the first time appear the names Adhvaryus, Bahvrichas, and Chhandogas side by side ; * here, too, we have the first occurrence of the words upanisJuLd (as sdra of the Veda), upanishaddm ddeidli, mimdnsd (mentioned once before, it is true, in the first Jcdiida), adhidevatam, adhiyajnam, adhydtmam ; ^^ and lastly, here for the first time we have the form of address- hhavdn (instead of the earlier hhagavdn). Now and then also a iloka is quoted in confirmation, a thing which occurs extremely seldom in the preceding books. Further, many of the technical names of the sdmans and Sastras are men- tioned (this, however, has occurred before, and also in the tenth book of the Samhita) ; and generally, frequent refer- ence is made to the connection subsisting with the ricJias and sdvians, which harmonises with the peculiarly mys- tical and systematising character of the whole kdnda. That the eleventh kdnda is a supplement to the first nine is sufficiently evident from its contents. The first two adhydyas treat of the sacrifices at the new and fuU moon; the four following, of the morning and evening sacri- ficial fires, of the sacrifices at the three seasons of the year, of the inauguration of the pupil by the teacher (dcMrya), of the pi;oper study of the sacred doctrines, &c. ; and the last two, of the sacrifices of animals. The Rigvcda, Yajurveda, and Sdmaveda, the Atharvdfigirasas, the antisdsanas, the vidyds, the vdkovdhja, the itihasapurdna, the ndrd^ansis, and the gdthds are named as subjects of study. We have * Along with the ydtuvidas (those ''" Mimdnsd, adhidaivataiji, and sjcilful in witchcraft), mrpavidas adjiydtmain occur several times iu (serpent - charmers), , decajamwidas, the earlier books. 122 VEDIC LITERATURE. already met with this enumeration (see p. 93) in the second chapter of the Taitt. Aranyaka, although in a con- siderably later form,* and we find a similar one in the fourteenth kdnda. In all these passages, the commen-, taries,t probably with perfect justice, interpret these ex- pressions in this way, viz., that 'first the Samhitas are speci- fied, and then the different parts of the Brahmanas ; so that by the latter set of terms we should have to understand, not distinct species of works, but only the several portions respectively so designated which were blended together in the Brahmanas, and out of which the various branches of literature were in course of time gradually developed. The terms anuMsana (" ritual precept " according to Sayana, but in Vrihad-Ar., ii. 5. 19, iv. 3. 25, Kathopan., 6. 15, " spiritual doctrine "), vidfd, " spiritual doctrine," and gdthd, " strophe of a song" (along with UoJca), are in fact so used in a few passages (gdthd indeed pretty frequently) 'in these last five books, and in the Brahmanas or Upa- nishads of the Rik and Saman. Similarly vdkovdkya in the sense of " disputation " occurs in the seventh kd/nda, and ■itihdsa at least once' in the eleventh kdnda itself (i. 6. 9). It is only the expressions pitrdna and ndrdsansis that do not thus occur; in their stead — in the sense of narrative, legend — we find, rather, the terms dkliydna, vydkhydna, anvdkliydna, updkhydna. Vydkhydna, together with anu- vydkhydna and upavydkhydna, also occurs in the sense of " explanation." In these expressions, accordingly, we have evidence that at the time of this eleventh kdnda certain Samhitas and Brahmanas of the various Vedas, and even the Atharva-Sarnhita itself, were in existence. But, fur- ther, as bearing upon this point, in addition to the single verses from the songs of the Rik, which are here, as in the earlier books, frequently cited (by " tad etad rishind 'bhy- aniiktam"), we have in the eleventh kdnda one very special quotation, extending over an entire hymn, and introduced by the words " tad etad uktdpratyuktam panchadaJarcham Bahvrichdh prdhuh." It is an interesting fact for the critic that in our text of the Rik the hynm in question * From it has evidently originated t Here Sityana forms an excep- a passage in Ydjnavalkya's Code (i. tion, as he at least states the other 45), which does nut harmonise at all explanation also, with the rest of that v.'urk. BRAHMANA OF THE WHITk YAJUS. 123 (mand. x. 95) numbers not fifteen but eighteen riclias. Single 4lokas are also frequently quoted as cwifirmation. From one of these it appears that the care taken of horses in the palace of Janamejaya had at that time passed into a proverb : this is also the first mention of this king. Eudra here for the first time recei^'es the name of Maha- deva * (v. 3. 5). — In iii. 3. i, ff., special rules are for the first time given concerning the begging (bhilcshd) of the hrahvia- chdrins, &c., whicli custom is besides alluded to in the thirtieth book of the Samhita [v. 18]. — But v,-nat throws special light upon the date of the eleventh kdnda is the Ire- quent mention here made, and for the first time, of Janaka, king (samrdj) of Videha, as the patron of Yajnavalkya. The latter, the Kaurupanchala Uddalaka Aruni and his sou Svetaketu, are (as in the A'rihad-Aranyaka) the chief figures in the legends. The twelfth kdnda alludes to the destruction of the kingdom of the Sriiijayas, whom we find in the second kdnda at the height of their prosperity, and associated with the Kurus. This connection may still be traced here, for it seems as if the Kauravya Valhika Pratipiya wished to take their part against Chakra, their enemy, who was a native of the country south of the Eeva, and priest of King Dushtaritu of Dalapurushamrajya, but that his efforts failed. — The names Varkali (i.e., Vashkali) and Naka Maudgalya probably also point to a later period of time ; the latter does not occur elsewhere except in the Vrihad- Aranyaka and the Taittiriyopanishad. — The Rigveda, the Yajurveda, and the feamaveda are mentioned, and we find testimony to the existence of the Vedic literature generally in the statement that a ceremony once taught by Iiidra to Vasishtha and formerly only known to the Vasishtlias — M-hence in former times only a Vasishtha could act as hraliman (high priest) at its performance — might now be studied by any one who liked, and consequently that any one might officiate as brahman thereat.^^' — In iii. 4. i occurs the first mention of purusha JVdrdyana. — The name of Proti Kaulambeya Kausurubindi prolmbly presupposes the existence of the Pancl)ala city Kaulambi. * In the sixth tdnda he is still '*' See on this /. St., x. 34, 35. culled mahdn devah. 1 24 VEDIC I. ITER A TURK. The thirteenth Mnda repeatedly mentions purusha Nd' rcmjana. Here also Kuvera Vai^ravana, king of the Eaksh- asas, is named for the first time. So, too, we find here the first allusion to the s'M:tas of the Rik, the anuvdkas* of the Yajus, the daiats of the Saman, and ih.Q parvans of the Atharvanas and Afigirasas, which division, however, does not appear in the extant text of the Atharvan. A division into parvans is also mentioned in connection with the Sarpavidya and the Devajanavidya, so that by these names at all events distinct works must be understood. Of Itihasa and Purana nothing but the name is given ; they are not spoken of as divided into parvans, a clear proof that even at tliat time they were merely understood as isolated stories and legends, and not as works of any extent.^^^ — While in the first nine books the statement that a subject has been fully treated of already is expressed by tasyokto iavdhuh [or, so 'sdv eva iandhuh, and the like], the same is expressed here by tasyoktam hrdhmaruzm. — The use in V. i. 18 of the words ekavachaTia and lahuvachana exactly corresponds to their later grammatical significa- tion. — This kdnda is, however, very specially distinguished by the number of gdfhds, strophes of historical purport, which it quotes at the close of the account of the horse sacrifice, and in which are given the names of kings who celebrated it in earlier times. Only one of these gdtlids appears in the Rik-Samhita (mand. iv. 42. 8) ; the greater number of them recur in the last book of the Aitareya- Brahmana, and in the Maha-Bharata, xii. 910, f£, in both places with many variations.t The question here arises whether we have to regard these gdtlids as fragments of more lengthy hymns, or if they must be looked upon merely as separate memorial verses. The fact that in con- nection with some of these names (if we take into account * This term, however, occurs in terms in the Sfiukh. ^r., xvi, 2; As- the preceding kdndas also, e.g., in val. 6r., x. 7. ix. I. I. 15. + The passages in the Mahd-Bhsl- ^^^ This is favoured also by the rata evidently connect themselves fact that they are here attributed to with the Satapatha-Briihmana, to fishermen and fowlers ; with which which, as well as to its author Ydj-- may be compared the tale of the navalkya, and his patron Janaka, fishermaiden as mother of Vystsa, in special regard is had in this book of theMahel-Bhitrata. The whole state- tlieMahd-Bhilrata. [See also ^inkli., meut recurs iu almost identical xvi. 8. 25-29. 32.] BRAHMANA OF THE WHITE YAJUS. 1:5 the Aitareya-Brahmana also) two, three, four, five, and even six verses are quoted, and always in the same metre, in ilohas, certainly favours the former view. Only one ex- ception occurs where the first and fourth verses are ilokas, hut the second trishtubh, the third not being quoted at all ; it is, however, according to the commentary, understood by implication, so that this instance tells, perhaps, with a very special force in favour of the view in question. The ana- logy of the gdthds or iloTcas of non-historic purport quoted elsewhere cannot be brought forward in support either of the one view or of the other, for the very same uncertainty exists respecting them. Moreover, these verses repeatedly contain very old Vedic forms.* Again, their expressions of eulogy are for the most part very hyperbolical, and they might therefore perhaps be looked upon as the utterance of a still fresh feeling of gratitude ; so that we should have to consider their origin as in part contemporary with the princes they extol: otherwise this circumstance does not readily admit of explanation.! A passage in the thirteenth kdnda itself directly favours this view (see /. St., i. 1 87). Among the kings here named the following deserve special mention: Bharata, son of Duhshanta and the Apsaras Sakuntala, and descendant of Sudvumiia — Satanika| Sat- rajita, king of the Bharatas, and enemy of Dhritarashtra, king of the Kaiis — Purukutsa § Aikshvaka — Para Atnara Hairanyanablia Kausalya — but above all, Janamejaya Parikshita, with the Parikshitiyas (his three brothers), Bhi- masena, Ugrasena, and S^rutasena, who by means of the horse sacrifice were absolved from " all guilt, all Irahma- hatyd." The time when these last four lived cannot be con- sidered as very distant from that of th^kAnda itself, since their sacrificial priest Indrota Daivapa Saunaka (whom the Maha-Bharata, xii. 5595, also specifies as such) is once mentioned in it apparently as coming forward in opposi- * And names too: tlius, the king Still this is both in itself « very of the Pallch([las is called Kraivya, forced explanation, and besides many the explanation given by the Brjh- of these verses are of purely histori- ma^a being that the Paliohdlas were cal purport, and contain no allusion • formerly ' called Krivis. to the presents given to the priests. •I- Unless these verses were merely t See V^j. S., 34. 52 (not in tlio invented by priests in order to sti- Hik). mulate kings to copy and emulate § See Rik, man^. iv. 42. 8, , tlie liberality of their ancestors. 126 VEDIC LITERATURE. tion to Bliallaveya ; while his own opinion, differing from that of the latter, is in turn rejected by Yajnavalkya. On account of the interest of the subject I introduce here an- other passage from the fourteenth book, from which we may gather the same result. "We there find a rival of Yajnavalkya testing him with a question, the solution of which the former had previously obtained from a Gan- dharva, who held in his possession the daughter of Kapya Patamchala of the country of the Madras ; — the question, namely, " Whither have the Parikshitas gone ? " the solu- tion of whicli therefore appears to have been looked upon as extremely difficult. Yajnavalkya answers : " Thither where (all) ahamedha sacrificers go." Consequently the Parikshitas must at that time have been altogether extinct. Yet their life and end must have been still fresh in the memory of the people, and a subject of general curiosity.* It almost seems as though their " guilt, their hrahmahatyd," had been too great for people to be- lieve that it could have been atoned for by sacriHces were they ever so holy ; or that by such means the Parikshitas could have become partakers of the reward fixed for other less culpable evil-doers. It appears further as if the Brah- mans had taken special pains to rehabilitate their memory, and in this undoubtedly they were completely successful. Or was it, on the contrary, that the majesty and power of the Parikshitas was so great and dazzling, and their end so surprising, tliat it was difficult to believe they had really passed away ? I prefer, however, the former explanation. The fourteenth Mnda, at the begiiming of its first part (that relating to ritual), contains a legend of a contention among the gods, in which Vishnu came off victorious, whence it became customary to say, "Vishnu is the srnshtlia (luckiest ?) of the gods." This is the first time that we find Vishnu brought into sucli prominence; indeed, he otherwise only appears in the legend of the three strides, aiTd as the representative of the sacrifice itself, — a position which is, in fact, ascribed to * The country of the Madi'as lies wife of Piindu and mother of the in the north-west, and is therefore two youngest Pdndavas, Nakula and remote from the country of the Sahadeva, was a native of this re- ICurud. According to the Mahit- gion, and Parilcshit also had a Mil- lilidrata, however, Mildri, second dravati to wife. BRAHMANA OF THE WHITE YAJLS. 127 Inra here also. Indva, as here related, afterwards strikes off his head iji jealousy .i»» The second part of this h&nda-, the Vxilmd-Aranyaka, which consists of five prapdthakas, or six adhydyas,is again divided into three Mndos/the MadhuMnda, adhy. i. ii. {prap. i. i-ii. 5) ; the Ydjnaval- kiya-Mnda, adhy. iii. iv. {■prap. ii. 6-iv. 3) ; and the KMla- kdnda, adhy. v. vi. (prap. iv. 4-v. 5). Of these three divi- sions, each succeeding one appears to be later than that which precedes it, and each closes with a Van^a or statement of the line of teachers, carried back to Brahman, the primeval source. Tlie third hrdhmaiia of the Madhu-kanda is an explanation of three Slokas prefixed to it, a form of which we have no previous example. The fifth (adhy. ii. i) contains, as has already been stated (p. 51), another recension of the legend related in the fourth adhydya of the Kaushitaky-Upanishad, of Ajata^atru, the king of Kaii, who was jealous of Janaka's fame as a patroii of learning. The eighth {adhy. ii. 4) contains another re- cension of the closing legend in the Yajnavalkiya-kanda, of Yajnavalkya's two wives, Maitreyi and Katyayani, — this being the fii'st mention we have of these names. Here, as also in the eleventh Tcanda, we find an enumera- tion of the subjects of Vedic study, namely, Rigveda, Yajurveda, Sdmaveda, the Atliarvdngirasas, itihdsa, pzi- rdiia, vidyds, upanisliads, ilokas, sMras, anuvydkhydnas, vydkhydnas.* The same enumeration recurs in the Yajna- valkiya-kanda {adhy. vi. 10). Samkara and Dvivedagauga, the commentators of the Vrihad-Aranyaka, both, like Sayana (on the eleventh kdnda), take the expressions itiJidsa, &c., to mean sections in the Brahmanas. They are, in fact, as I have already pointed out (p. 122), used in 139 jiiis is flirong. The gods send tlie Paiich. Br. of Maklia alone (cf. forth anta to gnaw the bowstring of also T. S., iii. 2. 4. l). In the Vishiju, who stands leaning on his Satapatha, Makha is only mentioned bended bow ; the string, snapping among the gods who assembled, and springing upwards, severs his though, to be sure, he appears im- head from his body. The same mediately before Vishnu, legend recurs not only in the par- * The last five expressions tivke allel passage of the Taitt. Ar. (v. here the place of anuidsana, vdko- l), but alsoin thePafich. Br., vii. 5. tdkya, ndnUansis, and gdthds in 6 ; but whilst in the 6at. Br. it, is the eleventh book. _ The latter ara related of Vishnu, the Taitt. Ar. clearly the more ancient. ' tells it of Mnklia Vuisbpava, and 1 28 X'EDIC LITERA TURE. this sense in the Brahmanas themselves. It is only in regard to sutra* that I am unable to prove a similar use (though Dvivedaganga pretty frequently calls certain sentences by the name of s'Oiira, e.g., i. 2. 18, 22, 3. i, &c.); and this term raises a doubt whether the opinion of the commentators ought to hold good with reference to these passages also, and their time. The ninth (which is the last) hrdlimana is evidently the one from which the Madhu-kanda received its name. It treats of the intimate relation existing between the four elements (earth, water, fire, air), the sun, the quarters of the heavens, the moon, lightning, thunder, dMia (ether), &c., on the one hand, and all beings on tlie other; this relation being set forth by representing the one as the madhu (honey) of the other. This doctrine is traced to Dadhyanch Atharvana, as is also, in fact, done in the Rik-Samhita itself (i. 116. 12, 1 17. 22). In the beginning of the fourth kdnda of the Satap. Brahmana also (iv. i. 5. 18) we find the madhu ndma hrdhinanam mentioned expressly in this connection ; Sayana, too, quotes 8diydt/ana (- Vdjasaneyav) in support of it. A very early date is thus guaranteed for the name at least, and probably also for the contents of this chapter; though its form, of course, cannot make any pretension to high antiquity. The concluding Van^a hire, as elsewhere, varies very much in the tv»'o schools ; that is, as regards the last twenty members or so back to Yaska and Asurayana ; but from these upwards to the mythical fountain-heads the two schools generally agree. Asura- yana himself (consequently, also Yaska, who is recorded as his contemporary) is here placed two stages after Asuri ; at the end of the Khila-kanda he is even designated as his pupil; Asuri, again, being set down as the pupil of Yajnavalkya. The list closes, therefore, with about the twenty-fifth member from the latter. It must conse- quently have been continued long after the Madhu-kanda had been finally piit into shape, since both the analogy of the Vania contained in the last irdhmana but one of the Khila-kanda and the very nature of the case forbid the * The word siltra is found several supreme Brahman itself, which, like times here, but in the sense of a band, embraces and holds together ' thread, band,' only, to denote the everything. BRAHMANA OF THE WHITE YAJUS. 129 conclusion that its redaction could have taken place so late as the twenty-fifth generation from Tajnavalkya. The oommentators never enter into any explanation of these Van^as ; douhtless, therefore, they too regarded them as supplements. The names themselves are naturally highly interesting, and, as far at least as the later stages are con- cerned, are probably strictly authentic. — The aim of the Ydjnavalldya-hdnda is the glorification of Yajnavalkya, and it recounts how, at the court of his patron Janaka, king of Videha, he silenced all the Brahmans* of the Kurupaiichalas, &c., and gained his patron's fall confidence (like the corresponding legends in tlie twelfth book of the Maha-Bharata). The legend narrated in the eleventh hdnda (vi. 3. I. ff.") may perhaps have been the model; at least the Yajnavalkiya here begins in exactly the same manner, and gives also, almost in the same words, the account of the discomfiture and punishment of Vidagdha Sakalya, which alone is given in the eleventh hdnda. It closes with a legend already given in the Madhu-kanda, but with some deviations. The expressions pdnditya, muni, and mauna, occurring in this hdnda, are worthy of special notice as being new"" (iii. 2. i, iv. 2. 25); further, ekaliansa, Sra- mana, tdpasa (iv. i. 12, 22), pravrdjin (iv. 2. 25, where hhihsJidcliarya is recommended), and pratibtiddJia (iv. 2. 17 ; the verb pratihudh occurs in this sense i. 2. 21), and lastly, the names chdnddla andpaulhasa (iv. i. 22). I am now of opinion t that it is to this Yajnavalkiya-kanda that the vdrttiha to Panini iv. 3. 105 refers when it speaks of the Ydjnavalhdni Irdhmandni as not purdna-prokfd, but tulyahdla, " contemporaneous," i.e., with Panini. The wording of the vdrttiha does not necessarily imply that * Among them A^vala, the khig's hitil, viz., Tiii. 17. 14, and x. 136. Hotar, Vidagdha ^iikalya, who lost 2-5." — First German edition, Errata, hialife for his impertinence, Kahola Paulkasa is found also in V. S. 30. Kaushitakeya, and Gdrgi Vdcha- 17. knavi, who all four (the latter, at + Formerly I was of different least, according to the Gphya-Sdtra) opinion; see /. St., i. 57- Many of may be looked upon as representa- the views there expressed — especi- tives of the Rik, towards which ally pp. 161-232 — have here either therefore a kind of jealousy is here been further developed or modified unmistakably exhibited. after careful consideration of the 140 " Tiie vvord muni occurs in various passages, as may be perceived the later portions of the Rik-Sai]i- by comparison. I I JO VEDIC LITER A TURE. these Bralimanas originated from Yajnavalkya himself; consequently they might bear his name simply because treating of him. I prefer the latter view, for it appears to me very hazardous to regard the entire Satapatha-Brah- mana, or even its last books only, as directly bearing the name of Yajnavalkya, — ^however fully it may embody his system, — or to set it down as contemporaneous with, or but little anterior to, Panini. In regard to the Yajnaval- kiya-kanda, however, I have not the slightest hesitation in doing the latter.\*i — Finally, the Khila-kdnda, or last kdnda of the Vrihad-Aranyaka, is uniformly described by the commentators as such a khila, or supplement ; and as a matter of fact it is clearly enough distinguished from the other hdndas. Its first adhydya — the fifth of the Vrihad- Aranyaka — is made up of a number of small fragments, which contain for the most part mystical plays upon words, of the most clumsy description. The second adhydya con- tains two brdhmanas, parts of which, as I have already remarked (p. 71), recur in precisely the same form in the Chhandogyopanishad vii. i, 3. Of the third hrdhmana, which contains ritual injunctions, we also find another recension, ibid. vii. 2. It concludes with a Van^a, not, however, in the form of a list, but of a detailed account. According to it, the first author of the doctrine here tauglit was Uddalaka Aruni, who imparted it to Yajnavalkya, here for the first time called Vajasaneya ; * his pupil was Madh- uka Paingya, from whom the doctrine was transmitted to Chiida Bhiigavitti, then to Janaki Ayahstlnina, and lastly to Satyakama Jabala. The name of the latter (a teacher often alluded to in the Chhandogyopanishad) is in fact borne in later works by a school of the "White Yajus, so ^*' Oti this subject compare Gold- nini. Although he here coimta stucker's detailed discussion in his Yajnavalkya among the purdnng, Pdnini, p. 132-140, and my special 'ancients,' — and this interpretation rejoinder, 1. St., v. 65-74, xiii. 443, is required by the wording of the 444, /. Str., ii. 214. According to vdrttika, — yet the K&^iksi, on the these expositions, the author of the contrary, expressly declares him to vdrttilcaa must, on the one hand, have be " not chirakdla." considered the Ydjnavalhdni Brdh- * In the Ydjnavalklyakiinda Ud. mandni as originally promulgated ddlaka Aruni is, like the other Brah. {prokta) by Tdjnavalkya ; but, on mans, silenced by Ysijuavalkya, no the other hand, he must also have mention being made of his being looked upon the recension then ex- the preceptor of the latter, tunt as contemporaneous with Fd- BRAHMANA OF THE WHITE YAJUS, 131 that we might perhaps ascribe to him the final adjustment of this doctrine in its existing form. The fourth and last hrdhmaiwt, of this adhydya is, like the tliird, surprising, from the nature of its contents, which, consisting as they do of the rites to be observed before, and at the time of, coitus, as well as after the birth of a son, more properly pertain to a Grihya-Siitra. It too closes with a Vania,* this time of quite unusual lengtli, and distinguished, as far as the more recent members are concerned, by tliis peculi- arity, that their names are formed by the addition oiputra to the mother's name (see above p. 71), and that both parts of the names are accentuated. Asuri is here called the pupil of Ydjnavalkya, and the latter the pupil of Uddalaka. Then, having passed through ten more stages and arrived at Aditya, the sun-god, as the original author, we find the following words as tlie close of the whole Brahmana : dditydni 'indni iukldni yaj'i/hshi Vdjasaneyena Ydjnavalkyend "kliydyante, ' these Wiiite Yajus-texts ori- ginating t from Aditya are transmitted by Vajasaneya Yajnavalkya.' According to Samkara and Dvivedaganga, this Van^a does not refer to the Khila-kanda, but to the entire Pravachana, the entire Veda (i.e., the White Yajus). This view is at all events favoured bj'' the fact that the Van^a at the close of the tenth book (the only one which appears in the whole of the ^atapatha-Brahmana, besides those of the Madhu-kanda, Yajnavalkiya-kanda, and Khila- kanda) J evidently refers to this Vania, and presupposes its existence when at its commencement it says : samdnam d Sdmjiviputrdt, ' up to Samjiviputra the teachers are the same.' For, ascending from this Samjiviputra, there are still in this Van^a three steps up to Yajnavalkya, while in the tenth book, as before remarked, the doctrine is not traced up to the latter at all, bxit from Sarnjiviputra through five steps to ^andilya, and through two more to Tura Kavasheya.§ — This latter circumstance suggests to * In the Kdnva recension the Van^a here too at the close after Vanias invariably form separate the words ; Ydjnavalkyend "Ichyd- chapters. yante. + Or : ' these White Yajus-texta § Who is quoted in the Aitar. are named by Vdjasaneya Ystjnaval- Brdhmana as contemporaneous with Isya as originating from Aditya' (?). Janamejaya (as his sacrificial priest); J The Kiinva recension adds this see /. St., i. 203, note. ,.^2 ' VEDIC LITERATURE. us, moreover, the possibility of yet another division of the Satapatha-Brahmana with reference to the origin of the dif- ferent Jcdndas. For in the first five and the last four Mndas the name of Yajnavalkya meets us exclusively, and very fre- quently, as that of the teacher whose opinion is appealed to as the decisive authority, whose system consequently is in any case there set forth* Further, if we except the Yajna- valkiya-kanda and the gdtlids in the thirteenth Mnda, races settled in eastern or central Hindustan are the only ones mentioned in^ these Mndas, viz., the Kurupanchalas, Ko- salavidehas, Sviknas, and Srihjayas. Once only the Pra- chyas (eastern tribes) are opposed to the Vahikas (western tribes) ; again there is once mention made of theUdichyas (in- habitants of the north) ; and lastly, the (southern) Nishadhas are once alluded to in the name of their king, Nala Naisha- dha (or, as he is here called, Naishidha). From this the remaining Jcdndas — the sixth to the tenth — differ palpably enougli. They recognise ^andilya as the final authority f instead of Yajnavalkya, whom they do not even name ; neither do they mention any but north-western races, viz., the Gandharas with their king Nagnajit, the Salvas, and the Kekayas.J May not the' above-mentioned Van^a apply not only to the tenth book, but to these five Jcdndas ? Since the latter treat specially of the fire-ritual, of the erection of the sacred fire-altars, their possible north- * The fact that this is so clear later times. Besides, his patron Ja- may easily account for the circum- naka is mentioned at least in the stance that the Puriinas have here Kaushltaky - Upauishad. [In two for once a statement in conformity sections of the Kaushitaki-, or, with fact, as they cite Yajnavalkya Sdukhsiyana-Aranyaka, which, how- as the author of the White Yajus. ever, are clearly of very late origin, We may here mention that the name Yajnavalkya ))imself is actually of Yitjuavalkya occurs nowhere else cited (9. 7 and 13. l) ; but these in Vedic literature, which might be passages are themselves direct quo- explained partly by the difference of tations from Satap. Br. xiv. — In the Ideality, partly by his having edited Gopatha-Br., which shows so many the White Yajus after the text of special points of relationship to the the other Vedas had been fixed ; ^atapatha, Yajnavalkya is never though the latter reason seems in- mentioned.] suf&oient, since other teachers of f So do the Sdma-Sdtras ; ^iln- the White Yajus are mentioned fre- dilya is mentioned besides in the quently in lazier Vedic literature, as, Chhslndogyop. only, for instance.Aruni, Svetaketu, Satya- J The legend concerning these re- kilma Jdbiila, &c., who are either cms in the CLhiludngyop, his contemporaries, or belong to even BRAHMANA OF THE WHITE YAJUS. 153 western origin might be explained by tlie fact that the doctrine upon this subject had, though differing from that of the Persa-Aryans, been kept particularly pure in the north-west owing to the proximity of this latter people.* However this may be, whether the north-western origin of tlie doctrine of these five kdndas be well founded or other- wise,^*^ they at any rate belong, in their present form, to the same period as (the tenth possibly to a somewhat later period than) the first five kdndas. On this point the mention of Aruna Aupave^i, Aruni, ^vetaketu Aruneya, and of Indradyumna (in the tenth book), as well as the frequent reprehension of the Charakadhvaryus, is decisive. That the various parts of the Brahmana were blended to- gether by one arranging hand "^ is evident in particular from the repeated occurrence of phrases intimating that a subject has already been treated of in an earlier part, or is to be found presented more in detail in a later part. A closer investigation of the various instances where this occurs lias not as yet been witliin my power. The number of deviations in regard to ritual or readings cited in the Brahmana is very great. To these regard is had here and there even' in the Samhita itself, two differ- ent muntras being quoted side by side as equally good. Most frequently the citation of such vari9,tions in the Erahmana is introduced by the words ity eke, or tad dhuh ; yet pretty often the names of individual teachers are also mentioned, who must here, in part at least, be looked upon as representing the schools which bear their names. Thus in addition to those already named we have : Ashadha Savayasa, Barku Varshna, Aupoditeya, Panchi, Takshan, Jivala Chailaki, Asuri, Madhuki, Kahoda Kaushitaki, Var- shnya Satyayajna, Satyayajni, Tandya, Budila A^vatara^vi, * Ought we to bring tlie &Sk&- ^■''' The strong censure passed up- jranins into direct connection with on the residents on the seven western the latter ? But then what would rivers in ix. 3. 1. 24 must be ascribed become of the connection between to this ' arranging hand ; ' seel. St., Sdkdyanya (in tlie Maitriy.inl-Upa- xiii. 267. — That the White Yajus nishad) and the ^ilkyas ? ( I). was arranged in eastern Hindusbin, I*'-' See on this my detailed dis- seems to be proved by the statements cussion in /. St., xiii. 265-269, where in the Pratijnd-Pari^ishta respecting I call special attention to various the extent of the Madhyadeia ; see dififerences in point of language be- ray essay on the Pratijni-Sdtra, pp. tweeu books i.-v. and vi.-ix. loi, 105. 1 34 VEDIC LITER A TURE. Eama Aupatasvini, Kaiikiista, Mahittlii, Mudimbha* Au- danya, Saumapau Manutantavyau, Satyakama Jabala, Sai- lali, &c. Besides the Charakadhvaryus, Bhallaveya in par- ticular is regularly censured, from which I conclude, as already stated (p. 95), that the Bhallavi-Brahmana should be reckoned among those of the Black Yajus. By the " eke" where these are found fault with, we should pro- bably also understand {e.g., once for certain in the iirst Mnda) the adherents of the Black Yajus. Once, however (in the eighth kdnda), a reading of the Kanva school is quoted by "eke" and disputed. How the matter stands in the Brahmana of the latter as to this passage, whether it finds fault with the reading of the Madhyamdiiia school, I am not able to say. A collection of passages of this kind would naturally be of peculiar interest. The legends interspersed in such numbers throughout the Brahmana have a special significance. In some of them the language is extremely antiquated, and it is pro- bable therefore that before tlieir incorporation into it they possessed an independent form. The following deserve ■ special mention from their being treated in del ail, viz., the legends of the Deluge and the rescue of Manu; of the emigration of Videgha Mathava from the Sarnsvati to the Sadanira in the country of the Kosala-Videhas ; of the restoration to youth of Chyavana by the A^yins at the request of his wife Sukanya, the daughter of Saryata Ma- nava ; of the contest between Kadrii and Suparni ; of the love and separation of Pururavas and Urva^i, and others. Many of them reappear as episodes in the epic, in a metrical garb, and often very much altered. It is obvious that we have here a much more iutimate con- nection with the epic than exists in the other Brah- manas. liie names Valhika, Janamejaya, and Nagnajit have the most direct reference to the legend of the Maha- Bhdrcta; as also the names already discussed above in connection with the Samhita, Amba, Ambika, Ambalika, Subhadra, and the use there made of the words arjuna and 2')lialguna. In any case, we must look for the explanation * Compare the Mutibhas in the Mitrlhuki (or Piiingya), ftiid Kaushl. Aitar. Br. — Of the above, only Bu- fciki are mentioned elsewhere, dila, the Saumilpau, Satyaksitaa, BR AH MAN A OF THE WHITE YAJUS. 135 of this in the circumstance, that this Brahmiina substan- tially originated and attained its final shape among the tribes of the Kurupanchalas and the neighbouring Kosala- Videhas. The king of the latter, Janaka, who is repre- sented in it as the chief patron of the sacred doctrine it embodies, bears the same name as the father of Slta and father-in-law of Eama, in the Eamayana. This is, how- ever, the only point of contact with the Eamayana legend which can here be traced, and as the name Janaka seems to have belonged to the whole family, it also virtually dis- appears. Nevertheless I am inclined to identify the father of Sita with this exceptionally holy Janaka, being of opinion that Sita herself is a mere abstraction, and that consequently she had assigned to her the most renowned father possible. As regards the special relation in which the Brahmana stands to the legend of the Maha-Bharata, Lassen, it is well known, takes as the fundamental feature of the latter a conilict between the Kurus and the Pafi- chalas, ending in their mutual annihilation, the latter being led by the family of the Pandus, who came from the west. ISTow at the time of the Brahmana, we find the Kurus and the Panchalas still in full prosperity,* and also united in the closest bonds of friendship as one people.f Conse- quently this internecine strife cannot yet have taken place. On the other hand, in the latest portions of tlie Brahmana, we find the prosperity, the sin, the expiation, and the fall of Janamejaya Parikshita and liis brothers Bhimasena, TJgrasena, and Srutasena, and of the whole family of the Parikshitas, apparently still fresh in the memory of the J)eople and discussed as a subject of controversy. In the Maha-Bharata boundless confusion prevails regarding these names. Janamejaya and liis brothers, already mentioned, are represented either as great-grandsons of Kuru, or else as the great-grandsons of the Panduid Arjuna, at whose snake-sacrifice Vaifempayana related the history of the * Though certainly in the lastpor- + At least I am not able to offer tions of the Br. the Kosala-Videhas anotlier explanation of the word Beem to have a certain preponder- Kurupafichitla ; it is, moreover, note- ance; and there had perhaps existed worthy that no name of a king of the as early as the time of the Samhit.^ KurupaBchdlas is ever mentioned, (see p. 1 14) a certain rivalry between Such names are quoted only for the Kurus and Paaohdlas. Kauravya- or Piffichdla- kings. 1 36 VEDIC LITER A TURE. great struggle between the Kunis and the Pandus. Adopt- mg the latter view, which appears to be the better war- ranted, from the fact that the part of the Maha-Bharata which contains it is written in prose, and exhibits a pecu- liarly ancient garb, the supposed great internecine contlict between the Kurus and the Panchalas, and the dominion of the Pandavas, must have been long past at the time of the Brahmana. How is this contradiction to be explained ? That something great and marvellous had happened in the family of the Parikshitas, and that their end still excited astonishment at the time of the Brahmana, has already been stated. But what it was we know not. After what has been said above, it can hardly have been the overthrow of the Kurus by the Panchalas ; but at any rate, it must have been deeds of guilt ; and indeed I am inclined to regard this as yet unknown ' something ' as the basis of the legend of the Maha-Bharata.^** To me it appears absolutely neces- sary to assume, with Lassen, that the Pandavas did not originally belong to the legend, but were only associated with it at a later time,"^ for not only is there no trace of them anywhere in the Brahmanas or Sutras, but the name of their chief hero, Arjuna (Phalguna), is still employed here, in the Satapatha-Brdhmana (and in the Samhita), as a name of Indra ; indeed he is probably to be looked upon as originally identical with Indra, and therefore destitute of any real existence. Lassen further (/. AK., i. 647, ff.) concludes, from what Megasthenes (in Arrian) reports of the Indian Heracles, his sons and his daughter IlavBala, and also from other accounts in Curtius, Pliny, and Ptolemy,* that at the time when Megasthenes wrote, the mythical association of Krishna (?) with the Pandavas already ex- 1" See Indian Antiquary, ii. 58 1-4 (Ath., xx. 127. 7- 10), serve ; (1873). I may add the foUowhip;, as although in Ait. Br., vi. 22 (SSinkh. it possibly has a bearing here. Vfid- Br., xxx. 5), they are referred to rihadyunina Abhipratdrina («ee Ait. ' fire ' or 'year;' but see Gopatha- Br., iii. 48) was cursed by a Brahman Br., xi. 12. Another legend -re- on aocoimt of improper sacrifice, to apecting Janamejaya Fdrilishita is the effent that : imam evaprati a to notj'rf.yairi alone which ineaus 24, but denote loi, may also be instanced as gdyatrisampanna ^ sum AS OF THE WHITE YAJUS. 141 points of the compass,* is once used in the sense of " tha points of the compass " themselves (xx. 4. 26), which evi- dently presupposes the custom of the dig-vijayas — ^probably also poetical descriptions of them (?). The adhydyas relat- ing to the Saman ceremonial (xxii-xxiv.) are the richest in this kind of data. They treat, for instance, like the Sama-Sdtras, of the sacrifices on the Sarasvati, and also of the Vratya-sacrifices, at which we find the Mdjadhade^iya Irahmdbandhu (xxii. 4. 22) occupying the same position as in Latyayana. The Katyayana-Siitra has had many commentators, as Yafoga,^" Pitribhiiti, Karka (quoted by Sayana, and there- ibre prior to him ^^^), Bhartriyajna, ^ri-Ananta, Devayaj- nika (or Yajnikadeva), and Mahadeva. Tlie works of tlie three last.f and that of Karka are, however, the only ones that seem to liave been preserved. The text, with extracts from these commentaries, will form the third part of my edition of the White Yajus.^^^ — To this Siitra a multitude * See Lassen, /. AK., i. 542- [According to the St. Petersburg Dictionary, the word in the above passage should only mean * gain, the thing conquered, booty ; ' but a re- ference to locality is made certain by the parallel passage, Ldty., ix. 10. 1 7 : mjUasya vd madhye yajet (yo yasya dedo vijUah in/di, sa tasya m. y.) ; for the digvijayas, it is true, we do not gain anything by this pas- sage.] ^^^ This name must be read Yaso- gopi ; see my edition, Introd., p. vii, ^^^ A Dhimrdyanasagotra KarkA- dhydpaka occurs in an inscription ])ul)lished by Dowson in Jownal R. A. S., i. 283 (1865), of ^ridattaku- ^alin (Pra^iutardga), dated sam. 380 (but of what era?). f [They are, however, incom- plete, in part exceedingly so.] The earliest MS. hitherto known of the vydkhyd of Ydjnikadeva is dated samrat 1639. — I have given the names of these commentators in the order. in which they are cited by one another ; no doubt there were other commentators also preceding YsiogSk [Yakogopi], In the Fort William Catalogue, under No. 742, a com- mentary by Mahidhara is mentioned, but I question provisionally the cor- rectness of this statement. [The correct order is : Karka, Pitribhtiti, Ya^ogopi, Bhartriyajna, They are so cited by Ananta, who himself seems to have lived in the first half of the sixteenth century, provided he be really identical with the Sri- mad anantdkhyaehiSturmiisy ay dj in, wliom Ndrdyana, the author of the Muhtirtamiirtanda, mentions as his father; see my Catalogue of the Berlin MSS., No. 879. Deva on i. 10. 13 quotes a. Ndrdyanabhiishya ; might not Ananta's son be its au- thor ?] ^^^ This part was published 1856- 59 ; Deva's Paddhati to bonks i.-v. is there given in full, also his com- mentary on book i. ; the extracts from the scholia to books ii.-xi, are likewise taken from Deva's com- miiutary: those to books ii— v, there exhibit, as to style, some differences from the original wording, resulting from abbreviations ; the extracts for books xii.-xxvi. come from the scholium of Karka and from an ano- 1 42 VEDIC LITER A TURE. of Paddliatis (outlines), extracts, and similar works * attafih themselves, and also a large number of Pari^ishtas (supple- ments), which are all attributed to Katyayana, and have found many commentators. Of these, we must specially draw attention to the Nigama-Pari§ishta, a kind of syno- nymic glossary to the White Yajus ; and to the Pravard- dhydya,i an enumeration of the different families of the Brahmans, Avith a view to the proper selection of the sacri- ficial priests, as well as for the regulation of the inter- marriages forbidden or permissible among them. The Charana-vyiLulia, an account of the schools belonging to the several Vedas, is of little value. Its statements may for the most part be correct, but it is extremely incomplete, and from beginning to end is evidently quite a modern compilation.^^* The Siitra of Vaij'avdpa, to which I occasionally find allusion in the commentaries on the Katiya-Siitra, I am inclined to class among the Sutras of the White Yajus, as I do not meet with this name anywhere else except in the Vaii^as of the [^atap. Br. Here we have both a Vaijavapa and a Vaijavapayana, both appearing among the most recent members of the lists (in the Kanva recension I find only the latter, and he is here separated by five steps only from Yaska). A Grihya-Siitra of this name is also cited. The Kdtiya Grihya-S'ibtra}^^ in three kdndas, is attri- buted to Paraskara, from whom a school of the White iiy moua ephnme (saniJcsJUptasdra) o{ ff.), contain by far richer material. Deva, tlie MS. of whicli dates from If all these schools actually existed lamvat 1609. None of these com- — but there is certainly a great deal mentaries is complete. of mere error and embellishment in * By Gadddliara, Hariharamiaia, these statements — then, in truth, Kenudlkshita, Gailgddhara, &c. lamentably little has been left to us ! + Printed, but unfortunately from '^' See Stenzler's account of its a very bad codex, in my Catalogue contents in Z. D. M. 6., vli. (1853). of the Berlin MSS., pp. 54-62. [See and his essay on the arghaddna I. St., X. 88, ff.] (Pdr., i. 8,_Breslau, 1855).— The Seo- ''■* Edited in /. St., iii. 247-283 tions on inariiage ceremonial have (1854) ; see also Miiller, A. S. L., been published by Haas, /. St., v. p. 368, ff., and Kijendra Ldla Mitra 283, ff., whilst the seoticms on the in the preface to his translation of jdtakarman have been edited by the ChMndogyopanishad, p. 3. The Speijer (1872), together with critical enumerations of the Vedic schools variants (pp. 17-23) to the MS. of in the Vishnn-PuKina, iii. 4, and the whole text which was used by especially in the Vdyu-Purdna, chap. Stenzler. Ix. (see Aufreotit's Catalogus, p. 54, SUTJiAS OF THE WHITE YAJUS. 1.13 Yajus also (according; to the Charanavyuha) derived its name. The word Paraskara is used as a samjnd, or proper name — but, according to the gana, to denote a district — in th<: Siitra of Panini ; but I am unable to trace it in Vedic literature. To this Grihya-Siitra there are still ex- tant a Paddhati by Vasudeva, a commentary by Jayarama, tmd above all a most excellent commentary by Eama- krishna under the title of Samskdra-ganapati, which ranks above all similar works from its abundant quotations and its very detailed and exhaustive handling of the various subjects. In the introduction, which deals with the Veda in general and the Yajurveda in particular, Eamakrishna declares that the Kanva school is the best of those belong- ing to the Yajus. — Under the name of Paraskara there exists also a Smriti-Sastra, which is in all probability based upon this Grihya-Siitra. Among the remaining Smriti-Sastras, too, there are a considerable number whose names are connected with those of teachers of the White Yajus; for instance, Yajnavalkya, whose posteriority to Manu quite corresponds to the posteriority of the White Yajus to the Black Yajus — and no doubt also to that of the Katij'a-Sutra to the Manava-Sutra ; — further, Katya- yana (whose work, however, as we saw,_ connects itself with the Samaveda), Kanva, Gautama, Sandilya, Jabali, and Paralara. The last two names appear among the schools of the White Yajus specified in the Charanavyuha, and we also find members of their families named in the Van^as of the Satapatha-Brahmana, where the family of the Paraiaras is particularly often represented.* The Prdtisdkhya-S'Atra of the White Yajus, as AveU as its Anukramani, names at its close Katyayana as its author. In the body of the work there is mention, first, of three grammarians, whom we also find cited in the Prati^akhya of the Rik, in Yaska, and in Panini, viz., Sakatayana, Sakalya, and Gargya ; next, of Ka^yapa, likewise men- tioned by Panini; and, lastly, of Dalbhya, Jatiikarnya, Saunaka (the author of the Rik-Prati^akhya ?), Aupasivi, * [See /. St., i. 156.] r^nini, iv. cants. [The Pdrdiaririo hhihshavah 3. no (a rule which possibly does are mentioned in the Maliiibhi-iliTa not belong to him), attributes to a also, and besides a Kalpa by Pai-i Piinaarya a Bhikshu-Slitra, i.e., a &ra; see /. St., xiii. 340, 445.] compendium fur religiuus meudi- 144 VEDIC LITERATURE. Kiinva, and the Madhyamdinas. The distinction in i. r. 1 8, 19 between veda and hhdshya, i.e., works in bJidshd, — which corresponds to the use of the latter word in Panini, — has already been mentioned (p. 57). The first of the eight adhydyas contains the samjnds and paribMsMs, i.e., technical terms * and general preliminary remarks. The second adhy. treats of the accent ; the third, fourth, and fifth of samsMra, i.e., of loss, addition, alteration, and constancy of the letters with reference to the laws of euphony ; the sixth of the accent of the verb in the sen- tence, &c. ; the eighth contains a table of the vowels and consonants, lays down rules on the manner of reading 1*" (svddhydya), and gives a division of words corresponding to that of Yfiska. Here, too, several Mokas are quoted re- ferring to the deities of the letters and words, so that I am almost inclined to consider this last adhydya (which is, moreover, strictly speaking, contained in the first) as a ilater addition. t We have an excellent commentary on this work by tTvatn, who has-been repeatedly mentioned, under the title of Mdtrimodaha}^'' The Anukramani of Katyayana contains, in the first place, in the first four adhydyas (down to iv. 9), an index of the authors, deities, and metres of the several &ukldm yafiinshi "White Yajus-formulas" contained in the "Mddh- yamdiniye Vdjasaneyake Yajurveddmndye sarve [?] sakhilc sasukriye," which the saint Yajnavalkya received from Vivasvant, the sun-god. Por their viniyoga, or liturgical use, we are referred to the Kalpakara. As regards the names of authors here mentioned, there is much to be re- marked. The authors given for the riclias usually agree with those assigned to the same verses in the Rig-anukra- mani ; there are, however, many exceptions to this. Very often the particular name appears (as is also the case in * Amoii!; tlieni tin,, krit, taddhita, latiwii, with critical introduction and and upadhd, terms quite agreeing explanatory notes, in /. St., iv. 65- with Pilnini's terminology. 160, I77~33li Groldstiicker in his 1°° Rather : 'reciting;' because Panini, -pp. 186-207, started a spe- here too we must dismiss all idea cial controversy, in which inter alia of writing and reading. he attempts in particular to show •}• In that case the mention of the that the author of this work is iden- Mddhyaijidinas would go for nothing, tical with the author of the vdrttikas '"' In connection with my edition to Pilnini ; see my detailed rejoinder of this Prdtisikhya, tezt and trans- in /. St., v. 91-124, ATHARVA-SAMHITA. 145 the Rig-anukramani) to be borrowed from some M-ord occurring in the verse. In the case where a passage is repeated elsewhere, as very often happens, it is frequently- assigned to an author different from the one to whom it had previously been attributed. Many of the Rishis here mentioned do not occur among those of the Rik, and be- long to a later stage than these ; among tliem are several even of the teachers mentioned in the Satapatha-Brahmana. The closing part of the fourth adhydya* contains the dedication of the verses to be recited at particular cere- monies to their respective Rishis, deities, and metres, to- gether with other similar mystical distributions. Lastly, the fifth adhydya gives a short analysis of the metres which occur. In the excellent^ but unfortunately not alto- gether complete Paddliati of Srihala to this Anukramani we find the liturgical use of each individual verse also given in detail. The Yajus recension of the three works called Vedangas, viz., Siksha, Chhandas, and Jyotisha, has already been dis- cussed (p. 6o).t We come now to the Atharvaveda. The Samhitd of the Atharvaveda contains in twenty Jcdndas ^^ and thirty-eight prapdthakas nearly 760 hymns and about 6000 verses. Besides the division into prapd- (haJcas, another into anuvdkas is given, of which there are * Published together with the into twenty books is attested for the fifth adhydya, and the beginning of period of the author of thevdrttikas, the work, in my edition of the Vdja- and also by the Gopatha-Brdhmana Baneyi - SaiphitS, iutrodiiction, pp. i. 8; see /. St, xiii. 433; whereas Iv.-lviii. both the Ath. S. itself (ig. 22, 23) + For particulars I refer to my and the Ath. Par. 48. 4-6 still con- Catalogue of the Berlin MSS., pp. tain the direct intimation that it 96-100 [and to my editions, already formerly consisted of sixteen books mentioned, of these three tracts]. only ; see /. St., iv. 432-434. "8 This division of the Ath. S. 1 46 VEDIC LITER A TURE. some ninety. The division into parvans, mentioned in tlie thirteenth book of the Satapatha-Brahniana, does not ap- pear in the manuscripts; neither do they state to what school the existing text belongs. As, however, in one of the Pari^shtas to be mentioned hereafter (the seventh), the rich as belonging to the ceremony there in question are quoted as Paippalddd mantrdh, it is at least certain that there was a Samhita belonging to the Paippalada school, and possibly this may be the Samhita now extant.^*^ Its contents and principle of division are at present unknowu^^" in their details. We only know generally that " it prin- cipally contains formulas intended to protect against the baneful influences of the divine powers,* against diseases and noxious animals ; cursings of enemies, invocations of healing herbs ; together with formulas for all manner of occurrences in every-day life, prayers for protection on journeys, luck in gaming, and the like" f — all matters for which analogies enough are to be fiiuud in the hymn? of the Rik-Sainhita. But in the Rik the instances are both less numerous, and, as already remarked in the introduc- tion (p. 11), they are handled in an entirely different manner, although at the same time a not inconsiderable portion of these songs reappears directly in the Rik, par- ticularly in the tenth mandala* As to the ceremonial for which the hymns of the Atharvan were used, what corre- "3 According to a tract recently riage, xv. of the glorification of ■pnhWshedi \iy linth, Der Atharvaveda VrStya, xvi., xvii. of certain con- in Kashmir (1875), this is not the jurations, xviii. of burial and the case ; the extant Saiiihitil seems festival of the Manes. Book xix. is rather to belong to the school of a mixture of supplementary pieces, the Saunakas, whilst the Paippaldda- part of its text being in a rather Sainhitii has come down to us in a corrupt condition ; book xx. con- second recension, still preserved in tains, — with one peculiar exception, Kashmir. the so-called IiunidpasiiJcta, — only 15" The arrangement in books i.- complete hymns addressed to Indra, vii. is according to the number of which are borrowed directly and verses in the different pieces ; these without change from the Rigveda. have, on an average, four verses in Neither of these two last books is book i., five in ii., six in iii., seven noticed in the Atharva-Prilti.^itkliya in iv., eight to eighteen in v., three -(seenote 167), and therefore they did in vi., and only one in vii. Books not belong to the original text at viii.-xiii. contain longer pieces. As the time of tliis work, to the contents, they are indiscrimi- *, Of the stars, too, i.e., of the uately mixed up. Books xiv.-xviii., lunar asterisms. on the-'oontrary; ha/\'e all a uniform .+ See Itotli, Ztir Litt. imd Gcsch, subject-matter; xiv. treats of mar- dcs ]Vcda, p. 12. , A THAR VA-SAMHITA. 147 spends to it in the other Vedas is found, not in the ^rauta- Siitras, but with few exceptions in the Grihya-Si'itras only ; and it appears therefore (as I have likewise already re- marked) that this ceremonial in its origin belonged rather to the people proper than to the families of priests. As in the Shadvinla-Brahmana and in the Sama-Siitras we actually meet with a case (see p. 78) where an imprecatory ceremony is borrowed from the Vratinas, or Aryans who liad not adopted the Brahmaiiical organisation, we may further reasonably conjecture tliat this was not a solitary instance ; and thus the view naturally presents itself that, though the Atharva-Samhita originated for the most part in the Brahmanical period, yet songs and formulas may also have been incorporated into it which properly belonged to these unbrahmanical Aryans of the west.* And as a mat- ter of fact, a very peculiar relation to these tribes is unmis- takably revealed in the fifteenth kdnda, where the Supreme Being is expressly called by the name of Vratya,^"^ and is at the same time associated with the attributes given in the Samaveda as characteristics of the Vratyas. In the same way, too, we find this word Vratya employed in the Atharva-Upanishads in the sense of " pure in himself" to denote the Supreme Being. The mention of the mdgatVia in the Vratya-book, and tlie possibility that this word may refer to anti-brahmanical Buddhist teachers, have already been discussed (p. 112). In a passage commimicated by Eoth, (yp. c. p. 38, special, and hostile, notice is taken of the Angas and Magadhas in the East, as well as of tlie Gan- dhiiris, Miijavants, Siidras, Mahavrishas, and Valhikas in the North- AVest, between which tribes therefore the Brah- manical district was apparently shut in at the time of the composition of the song in question. Intercourse with the West appears to liave been more active than with the East, irve of the races settled in the West being mentioned, and two only of those belonging to the * lu the Vislinu-Purdna the Sain- the Chdlikopanisbad, v. II (see /. dhavas, Saindhavstyanas are men- St., i. 445, 446, jx. 15, 16). Ac- tioned as a school of the Atharvan. cording to Roth, on the contrary iw Xhis explanation of the con- (see above p. 112, note), the purpose tenta of this book and of the word of the book ia rather " the idealising vrdtya is based upon its employment of the devout vagrant or mendicant in the Pra4nopanishad 2. 7, and in {parivrdjaka, &c.)." 1 48 VEDIC LITER A TURE. 3^.ast. In time it will certainly be possible, in the Atharva- Samhita also, to distinguish between pieces that are older and pieces that are more modern, although upon the whole geographical data are of rare occurrence. Its language exhibits many very peculiar forms of words, often in a very antique although prakritized shape. It contains, in fact, a mass of words used by the people, which from lack of occasion found no place in the other branches of the literature. The enumeration of the lunar asterisms in the nineteenth kdnda begins with krittikd, just as in the Tait- tiriya-Samhita, but otherwise it deviates considerably from the latter, and gives for the most part the forms of the names used in later times.^''^ No direct determination of date, however, can be gathered from it, as Colebrooke ima- gined. Of special interest is the mention of the Asura Krishna * Kesin, from the slaying of whom Krishna (Afigi- rasa ?, Devakipiitra) receives the epithets of Ke^ihan, Ke^i- sudana in the Epic and in the Puranas. In those hymns wliich appear also in the Rik-Sarahita (mostly in its last mandala), the variations are often very considerable, and these readings seem for the most part equally warranted with those of the Rik. There are also many points of contact with the Yajus. The earliest mention of tlie Atharvan-songs occurs under tlie two names "Atharvanas" and "Angirasas," names which belong to the two most ancient Rishi- families, or to the common ancestors of the J ndo- Aryans and the Persa- Aryans, and which are probably only given to these songs in order to lend all the greater authority and holiness to the incantations, &c., contained in them.f They are also often specially connected with the ancient family of the Bhrigus.^"^ Whether we have to take the " Athar- 1"^ The piece in questioa proves, and if, according to tlie Bbavisliya- oa special grounds, to be a later sup- Purdna (Wilson in Keinaud's Mim. plement ; see /. St., iv. 433, n. surl'Inde, p. 394), the Parsis (Magaa) * An Asura Krishna we find even have four Vedas, tlie Vada (! Ya!5- in the Rik-Saijihita, and he plays a na?), Visvavada (Vispered), Vidut prominent, part ii^ the Buddhist (Vendidad), and ngirasa, this is a legends (in which he seems to be jiurely Indian view, though indeed identified with the Kfishi^a o£ the very remarkable, epic (??). "" See my essay Ztoei vedische + See I, St ,\. 295, ff. That these Texte iiber Omina und Portenta, pp. names indicate any Peraa-Aryan in- 346-348, tluence is not to be thought of ; ATHARVA-SAMHITA. 149 vanas" in the thirtietli book of the Vaj. Samhita as Atharvan-songs is not yet .certain ; hut for the period to which the eleventh, thirteenth, and fourteenth hooks of the Satapatha-Brahniana, as well as the Chhandogyopa- iiishad and the Taittiriya-Aranyaka (ii. and viii.), belong, the existence of the Atharvan-songs and of the Atharva- veda is fully established by the mention of^ them iu these works. The thirteenth book of the Satapatha- Brahmana even mentions a division into parvans* which, as already remarked, no longer appears, in the manuscripts. In the eighth book of the Taittiriya-Aranyaka, the ddeki, i.e., the Brahmana, is inserted between the three other Vedas and the " Atharvangirasas." Besides these notices, I find tlie Atharvaveda, or more precisely the "Athar- vanikas," only mentioned in the Nidana-Siitra of the Samaveda (and in Panini). The names, too, which belong to the schools of the Atharvaveda appear nowhere in Vedic literature,t with the exception perhaps of Kau^ika; still, this patronymic does not by any means involve a special reference to the Atharvan.j Another name, which is, however, only applied to the Atharvaveda in the later Atharvan-writings themselves, viz., in the Pari^ishtas, is "Brahma-veda." This is explained by the circumstance that it claims to be the Veda for the chief sacrificial priest, the Brahman,^*** while the other Vedas are represented as those of his a.ssistants only, the Hotar, Udgatar, and Adhvaryu, • Corresponding to tlie siiJctns, athnrvdngiraalh, as magic formulas ; anuvdkai, and dasats of the Rik, in the B^m£lyana likewise only once Yajus, and Sdman respectively. ii. 26. 20 (Gorr.) the mantrds t Members of the family of tlie chdtharvanAa (the latter passage I Atharvana are now and then men- overlooked in /. St., i. 297). [In tioned ; thus especially Dadhyaiich Patarnjali's Malidbhdshya, however, Ath., Kabandha Ath., whom the the Atharvan is cited at the head Vishiju-Purana designates as a pupil of the Vedas (as in the Rig-Grihyas, of Sumantu (the latter we met in the see above, p. 58), occasionally even Grihya-Stitras of the Rik, see above, as their only representative; see p. 57), and others. /. St., xiii. 431-32.] { It seems that even iu later '^* This explaiiati(m of the name, times the claim of the Atharvan to though tlie traditional ouf, is yet rank as Veda was disputed. Ydj- vciy likely erroneous ; by Brahma- navalkya (i. loi) mentions the two veda (a name vi'hich is first men- separately, veddlhama ; though in tioned in the Sdnkh. Griliya, i. 16) another passage (i. 44) the " Athar- we have rather to understand 'the Vitngirasas" occur along with Rich, \eA!<, uihraJimdni,' ol prayers, i.e., Saman, and Yajus. In Miinu's here in the narrower sense of ' in. Cude we only once find the srutir cantatious.' (St. Petersburg Pict.) I ;o VEDIC LITER A TURK. ■ — a cldim \vhicli has proliably no other foundation than the circumstance, cleverly turned to account, that there wag, in fact, no particular Veda for the Brahman, who was bound to know all three, as is expressly required in the Kaushi'taki-Brahmana (see I. Si., ii. 305). Now tlie weaker these pretensions are, the more strongly are they put forward in the Atliarvan-writings, Avhich indeed display a very great animosity to the other Vedas. To- wards one another, too, tliey show a hostile enough spirit ; for instance, one of the Pavi^ishtas considers a Bhargava, Paippalada, and Saunaka alone worthy to act as priest to the king,* while a Mauda or Jalada as purohita would only bring misfortune. -The Atharva-Samhita also, it seems, was commented upon by Sa3"ana. Manuscripts of it are comparatively tare on the Continent. Most of them are distinguished by a peculiar mode of accentuation.f A piece of the Sanahita of some length has been made known to us in text and translation by Aufrecht (1. St., i. 121-140); besides this, only some fragments have been published.^'^^ The Brahniana-stage is but very feebly represented in the Atharvaveda, viz., by the (ropatha-Brdhmana, which, in the manuscript with which I am acquainted (E. I. H., 2142), comprises a jo-iirra- and an «!;tora-portion, each con- taining five prapdthakas ; the MS., however, breaks oft with the beginning of a sixth {i.e., the eleventl\) prapd- * Yiljnavalkj-.a (i. 312) also re- Kashmir (1875). I" 'l'" Gopath.a- quires iliat siioli an one be well Brdlimana (i. 29), and in Pata^ijali'a versed atharvdiigirase. Mahiibliilsliya (see 7. St., xiii. 433 ; + Dots are Ijere nsed instend of altbougli, accordinf; tc] Burnel), ]n- lines, and the svarita st,anda mostly trod, to Vaii.4ii-Brdbinana, p. xxii., beside, not above, the akshara. the Sonth Indian MSS. omit the 185 fjjg Tvhole text has been quotation from the Atharvaveda), edited long since (1855-56) by Roth the beginning of the Siiinhitd is given and Whitney. Tlie first two books otherwise than in onr text, as it have been translated by me in /. commences with i. 6, instead of i. I. St., iv. 393-430, and xiii. 129-216, It is similarly given by Bliandarkar, and the nuptial formulas ccmtained Indian Antiquary, in. 132 ; and two in the fourteenth book, together MSS. in Hang's possession actually with a great variety of love charms begin the text in this manner ; see and similar formulas from the re- Haug's Brahman und die Brahma- inaining books, ibid., v. 204-266. nm, p. 45. — Burnell (Introd. to Tor the criticism of the text see Van&-Br., p. xxi.) doubts whether Viitth's tracts, Ueber den Alharraveda the Ath. S. was commented by (1856), and Der Atharvaveda in Sdynna. SUTJiAS OF THE ATHARVAN: 151 fi^fl/va. _ In one of llie Pari^islitas the work is stated to have originally contained 100 ■prapdthakas. The contents are entirely imknown to me. According to Colebrooke's remarks on the subject, Atharvan is here represented as a Prajapati %vho is appointed by Brahman as a Demiurge ; and this is, in fact, the position which he occupies in the Pari^ishtas and some of the Upanishads. The division of the year into twelve (or thirteen) montlis consisting of 360 days, and of each day into thirty muhtxrias, whicli Colebrooke points out as remarkable, equally appears in the Brahiiianas of the Yajus, &c}'^ Departing from the order hitherto followed I will add here what I have to say about the Siitras of the Atharva- veda, as these are the only other writings which have reference to the Samhita, whereas the remaining parts of the Atliarvan-literature, corresponding to the Aranyakas of the other Vedas, have no reference to it whatever. In the first ])lace, I have to mention the SaunaMyd cliatur - adhydyikd^^'^'' a kind of Prati^akhya for the Atharva-Samhita, in four adhydyas, which might possibly go back to the author of tlie Rik-Prati^akhya, who is also mentioned in the Prati^akhya of the "White Yajus. The Saunakas are named in the Charanavyuha as a school of the Atharvan, and members of this school are re- ■ peatedly mentioned in the Upanishads. The work bears here and there a more generally grammatical character than is the case with the remaining Prati^dkhyas. Saka- "" M. Miiller first gave us foiiie of wliicli appear in the same form as information as to tlie Gopatha- in the Satapatha-Brjlbmnna, xi. xii., 'BrShtnsns.in'hia Uutory of A. S. L., and .ire therefore probably simply p. 445-455 ; and now the work itself copied from it. The second half lias been published by Rdjendra Ldla cont.ains » brief exposition of n Mitra and Harachandra Vidyitbliti- variety of points connected with the ehana in the Bihl. Indira (1870- ^rauta ritual, specially adapted, as 72). Accoi'ding to this it consists it seems, from the Aitar. Br. Yery (if eleven (i.e., 5 + 6) prapdthakas remarkable is the assumption in i. only. We do not discover in it any 28 of a. doshapati, lord of evil (!?), special relation to the Ath. S., apart who at the beginning of the Uvii- fromseveralreferences thereto under para (-yuga) is supposed to have different names. The contents are acted as 'rialdndm ekadeiah.' This a medley, to a large extent derived reminds us of, and doubtless rests from other sources. The first half upon, the Mitra of the Buddhists. is essentially of speculative, cos- ^'^^ Tlie form of name in tha mogonio import, and is particularly MS. is : chaturddhydyiht, rich in legends, a good number 1 ; 2 VEDIC LITER A TURE. tayana and other grammatical teachers are mentioned in the Berlin MS. — the only one as yet known — each rule is followed by its commentary .i'''' An Anukramani to the Atharva-Samhita is also ex- tant ; it, however, speciiies for the most part only divine beings, and seldom actual Rishis, as authors. The KauSilca-SMra is the sole existing ritual Siitra of the Atharvaveda, altliough I am acquainted with aii Atharvana-Grihya through quotations.^"* It consists of fourteen adhydyas, and in the course of it the several doctrines are repeatedly ascribed to Kau^ika. In the intro- duction it gives as its authorities tlie Mantras and the Brahmanas, and failing these the sampraddya, i.e., tradi- tion, and in the body of the work the Brahmana is likewise frequently appealed to (by iti br.) ; whether by this the Go- patha-Brahmana is intended I am unable to say. The style of the work is in general less concise than that of the other Sutras, and more narrative. The contents are precisely those of a Grihy a- Siitra. The third adhydya treats of the ceremonial for Nirriti (the goddess of misfortune) ; tlie fourth gives bJiaishaJyas, healing remedies ; the sixth, &c., imprecations, magical spells ; the tenth treats of marriage ; the eleventh of the Manes-sacrifice; the thirteenth and fourteenth of expiatory ceremonies for various omens and portents (like the Adbhuta-Brahmana of the Samaveda).^"^ ^*' Of this PriitiiSiIkhya also Whit- ^°' By which is doubtless meant hey has given us an excellent edition just this Kau^ika-Stitra. A Srauta- in Journal Am. Or. Soc, vii. (1862), Sdtra belonging to the Atharvaveda i. 156, ff. (1872, additions). See also has recently come to light, under my remarks in /. St., iv. 79-82. the name of Vaitdna - Siitra ; see According to Whitney, this work Haug, /. St., ix. 176; BUhler, takes no notice of the two last books Cat. of MSS. from Gujardt, i. 190, of the existing Ath. text, which it and Monataberichte of the Berl. otherwise follows closely; since Acad. 1871, p. 76; and some fuller therefore the Atharva-Saiphitii in accounts in lloth's Atharvaveda in Pataipjali's time already comprised Kashmir, p. 22. twenty books, we might from this ^°' These two sections are pub- directly infer the priority of the lished, with translation and notes, Saun. chat.; unless Patarpjali's state- in my essay, Zwei vedische Texte ment refer not to our text at all, iiber Omina und Portmta (1859) ; but rather to that of the Paippa- the section relating to marriage liida school ; see Koth, Der Atharva- ceremonies is communicated in a veda in Kashmir, p. 15. — Buhler has paper by Haas, Ueber die Heirathsge- discovered another quite different hrduche der alten Indcr in /. St., v. Atli. Prdtlsitkhya ; see Monritsbcr. 378, ff. 01 ihe Berl. Acad. 1871, p. 77. VPANISHADS OF THE ATH ARYAN. 153 To this Siitra belong further five so-called Kcdpas : the Nakshatra-Kalpa, an astrological compendium relating to the lunar mansions, in fifty kandikds ; the ^dnti-Kalpa, in twenty-five kandikds, which treats likewise of the ador- ation of the lunar mansions,^"" and contains prayers ad- dressed to them ; the Vitdna-Kalpa, the Samhitd-Kalpa, and the Ahhiclidra-Kalpa. The Vishnu-Purana and the Charanavyiiha, to be presently mentioned, name, instead of the last, the Angirasa-Kalpa. Further, seventy-four smaller Pari^ishtas ^^^ also belong to it, mostly composed in Mokas, and in the form of dialogues, like the Puranas. The contents are Grihya-subjects of various kinds; astro- logy ,^^2 magic, and the doctrine concerning omens and por- tents are most largely represented. Some sections corre- spond almost literally to passages of a like nature in the astrological Samhitas. Among these Pari^ishtas, there is also a Charana-vy'd]ia,vfh\cA\ states the number of the richas in the Atharva-Samhita at 12,380, that of the parydyas (hymns) at 2000 ; but tlie number of the KavJikoktdni jmriiishidni only at 70. Of teachers who are mentioned the Ibllowing are the chief: first, Brihaspati Atharvan. Bhaga- vant Atharvan himself, Bhrigu, Bhargava, Ailgiras, Angi- rasa, Kavya .(or Kavi) U^anas; then Saunaka, Narada, Gautama, Kamkayana, Karmagha, Pippalada, Mahaki, Garga, Gargya, Vriddhagarga, Atreya, Padmayoni, Krausli- tuki. We meet with many of these names again in the astrological literature proper. I now turn to the most characteristic part of the lite- rature of the Atharvan, viz., the Upanislmds. Whilst the Upanishads kut' e^o^riv so called, of the remaining Vedas all belong to the later, or even the latest, portions of these ''" An account of the contents of kind are quoted even in tlie Maliil- lioth texts is given in my second bliilshya ; see /. St., xiii. 463. essay on the Naksliatras, pp. 390- '" One of the ParisishUs relating 393 (1862) ; Hang in /. St., ix. 1 74, to this subject has been cominiini- iiientions an Aranyaka-Jyotisha, dif- cated by me in 7. St., x. 317, ff. ; it ia ferent from the Nakshati a-Kiilpa. the fifty-first of the series. The state- '" Haug, I. c, speaks of 72; ments found therein concerning the amongst them is found a Nighantn, phmets presuppose the existence of which is wanting in the Berlin MS. Ureek influence; of. ibid., p. 319, Compare the Nigama-PariiSislita of viii. 413. the White Yajus. — Texts of this 154 VEDIC LITERATURE. Vedas, they at least observe a cerbiin limit wliicli they never transgress, that is to sav, they keep within the ranjjo of inquiry into the nature of the Supreme Spirit, with- out serving sectarian purposes. Tlie Atharvan Upani- &liads, on the contrary, come down as far as the time of the Puranas, and in their final phases they distinctly enter the lists in behalf of sectarian views. Their number is as yet undetermined. Usually only fifty-two are enumerated. But as among tliese there are se\'eral which are of quite modern date, I do not see why we should separate these fifty-two Upanishads from the remaining similar tracts which, although not contained in tiie usual list, nevertheless call themselves Upanishads, or Atharvopani- shads ; more especially as this list varies in part accord- ing to the different works where it is found, and as the manuscripts mix up these fifty-two with the remaining Upanishads indiscriminately, indeed, with regard to the' Upanishad literature we have this peculiar state of things, tliat it may extend down to very recent times, and consequently the number of writings to be reckoned as belonging to it is very considerable. Two years ago, in the second part of the Indische Studien, I stated the iium- lier at ninety-five, including the Upanishads, contained in the older Vedas.* The researches instituted by Walter Elliot in Masulipatam among, the Telingana Brahmans on this subject have, however, as Dr. Eoer writes to me, yielded the result that among the-e Brahmans there are • This number is wrong ; it ought vopanisliad) being different from to be ninety-tliree. 1 there counted tbe former Tlie number now the Anandavalll and Bhriguvalli here finally^ arrived at — ninety- twioe, first among tlie twenty-tliree six — is obtained (l) by the addi- Atharvopanisliads omitted by An- tion of six new Upanishads, viz., quetil, and tlieu among the nine the Bhitllavi-Upanisbad, the Sam- Upanisliadsborrowed from the other vartop., the second Mahopanishad, Vedas which are found in his work, and three of the Upanishads oon- The number would further have to tained iu the Atharva^iras (Gaiia. be reduced to ninety-two, since I pati, Siirya, Devi) ; (2) by the cite Colebrooke's Amritavindu and omission of two, the lludropanishad Anquetil's Amritanitda as distinct andtheAtharvanlya-Rudropanishad, Upanishads, whereas in point of fact which are possibly identical with they are identical ; but then, on the others of those cited ; and (3) by other hand, two Upanisliads identi- counting the Mahdndrdyanopauishad fied by me ought to he kept distinct, as only one, whereas Colebrooka fiz., Colebrooke's Prdndgnihotra and counts it as two. Ariiiuetil'a Pranou, the latter (Praija- UPANISHADS OF THE ATH ARYAN. J55 123 Upaiiishads actually extant; and if we include those Nvliich tliey do not possess, but -which are contained in mv list just referred to, the total is raised to 147* A list of these 123 is given in two of them, viz., in the Mahavak- yamuktava,li and in the Muktikopanishad, and is exactly tlie same in both. According to the statement given above, there must be among these 123 iifty-twof in all which are wanting in my own list, and these include the two names just mentioned. — A Persian translation made in 1656 of fifty Upanishads is extant in Anquetil du Per- ron's Latin rendering. If now we attempt to classify the Upanishads so far known, the most ancient naturally are those (i- 12) which are found in the thiee older Vedas only.| 1 liave already remarked that these never pursue sectarian aims. A seeming — but only a seeming — exception to this is the Satarudriya ; for although the work has ip fact been used for sectarian purposes, it had originall^ quite a dilferent significance, whicli had nothing to do with the misapplication of it afterwards made ; originally, indeed, it was not an Upanishad at al].§ A real exception, however, is the Svetdsvataropanishad (13), wliich is in any case wrongly classed with the Black Yajiis ; it is only from its having incorporated many passages of the latter that it has been foisted in here. It belongs to about the same rank and date as the Kaivalyopanishad. Nor can the Maitrdyana- Upanishad ( 1 4) reasonably claim to be ranked with the Black * Accoidmg to the previous note, Siuoe then many uew names have only 145. been brought to our knowledge by t According to last note but one, the Catalogues of MSS. published by only fifty. [In the list published by IKirnell, Biihler, Kielhorn, Eijendra W. Elliot of the Ui)aiiishads in the Lila Mitra, Haug (BrcJiman und die Jluktikopan., see Journal As. Soc. Brahmanen, pp. 29-31), &c. ; so that Beng., 1851, p. 607, ff., 108 names at present I count 235 Upanishads, are directly cited (and of these 98 many of which, however, are pro- are analysed singly in Taylor's Cata- bably identical with others, as in logue (i860) of the Oriental MSS. of many cases the names alone are at Fort St. George, ii. 457-474). But present known to us.] to these o:her names have to be J Namely, Aitareya, Kaushitaki, added which are there omitted ; see Vdshkala, Chhdndogya, ^atarudriya, /. St., iii. 324-326. The alphabe- ^ikslidvalli or Taitt. Saiphitopani- tical list published by M . Muller in shad, Chhitgaleya (?), Tadeva, Siva- Z. J). M. "o)- casionally extracts are added from § Like Krishna in the Bhagavad- the commentaries by Ndrityana and gitd. The Kaivalyopanishad is Jivagosvdmin. According to IWjen- translated 1. St., ii. 9-14 ; on Atliar- dral., i. 18, its first section is de- vaiiras see ibid., i. pp. 382-38^. scribed in Nardyana's introduction [Text of, and two commentaries on. I70 VEDIC LITERATURE. Upanisliad lias been expounded by Samkara. Under the' same title, " head of Atharvan," — a name that is also borne by Brahman himself, although in a different relation, — there exists a second Upanishad, itself a conglomeration ot five different Upanishads referring to the five principal deities, Ganapati (79), Narayana, Eudra, Siirya (80), and Devi (81).* Its Narayana-portion is a later recension of the Narayanopanishad (64, see above, p. 166), and the Eudra-portiou follows the first chapter of the Atharva^iras proper. AH five have been translated by Vans Kennedy. In the Mahci-Bharata (i. 2882), and tlie Code of Vishnu, where the Atharva^iras is mentioned along with the Bhd- rimddni sdmdni,3.nd in Vishnu also, where it appears beside the Satarudriya (as the principal means of expiation), the reference probably is to the Upanishad explained by J^am- kara(?). — The Rudrop. and Atharvaniya-Budrop. are known to me only through theCatalogue of the IndiaOffice Library. Possibly they are identical with those already named ; I therefore exclude them from my list. The Mrityulangh- anopanishad (82) t is quite modern, and with it is wor- the Kiiivalyopanishad printed in BiU. Ind., 1874; the first commeii- tarv is tliat of Nir^yana ; tlie second ia described by the editor as that of Sainkara, in the colophon as that of Samkardnanda ; it follows, however, from Riljendra Lilla Mitra's Cata- logue, i. 32, that it is different from the commentary written by the lat- ter ; and according to the same authority, ii. 247, it is identical rather with that of Vidydranya. In Nirdyana's introduction this Upa- nishad IS described (exactly like the Jdbiilop. !) as ehachatvdrhUattanil. The §iras- or ^^Aajtiasiras- Upani- shad is likewise printed in Bibl. Ind. (1872), with Nitrttyana's comm., which describes it as rudrddhydyah saptakhandah. See also Rijendral., i. 32 (comm. by ^amkarstnanda), 48.] * See I. St.,n. 53, and Vans Ken- nedy, Reaearchea into the Nature and Affinity of Hindu and *ncient Mytho- logy, p. 442, &c. [Taylor, ii. 469- 471. By Eiijendral., i. 61, a Gdna- patyapiirvatdpaniyopanishad is men- tioned ; by Biihler, Oat. of MSS. from Git}., i. ^o, a Gaij.apatipHr'vatd- pini and a Ganedatdpini ; and by Kielhorn, Sanskrit MSS. in theSouth- ern Division of the Bombay Pres. (1869), p. 14, a Ganapatipiirvatd- paniyopanishad.'] + So we have probably to under- stand Anquetil's Amrat Lanhoul, since he has also another form, Mrat Lankoun ; instead of, id est 'halitua mortis,' we ought to read ' salitus mortis.' [See now 1. St., ix. 21-23 ! according to this it is doubtful whe- ther the name ought not to be wnt- ten MrityuldHgiila (1). An Upanishad named Mrityulaiighana is mentioned by Buliler, Cat. of MSS. from Guj., i. 120 ; a Myityuldnglila, however, appears as 82d Upanishad in the Oiitaloguo of Pandit Kiidhdkrishna'a library. Finally, ' Burnell, in pub- lishing the text in the Indian Anti- quary, ii. 266, gives the form Mj-it- yuldiigala.] UPANISHADS OF THE ATHARVAN. 171 thily associated ih.Q Kdldgnirudropanishad (83)/°* in prose, of which there are no less than three different recensions, one of which belongs to the Nandike^vara-Upapurdna. The TripuropanisMd (84) also appears from its name — otherwise it is unknown to me — to belong to this divi- sion ; ^^ it has been interpreted by Bhatta Bhaskara Mi^ra. Tiie Skandopanishad (85), in fifteen MoJcas, is also Siva-itic ^^^ (likewise the Amritanddopanishad). The ado- ration of Siva's spouse, his Sakti, — the origin of which may be traced back to the Kenopanishad and the Narayaniyo- panishad, — is the subject of the Siindaritdpaniyopanishad (known to me by name only), in five parts (86-90), as well as of the Devi-Upanishad (yg), which has already been mentioned.^ The Kaulopanishad (91), in prose, also be- longs to a Sakta sectary.* Lastly, a few Upanishads (92-95) have to be mentioned, which are known to me only by their names, names which do not enable us to draw any conclusion as to their con- tents, viz., the Findopanishad, Nilaruliopanishad (Cole- brooke has JVilarudra), Paingalopanishad, and Dar^ano- vanishad}^ The Garudopanishad (96), of which I know two totally different texts, celebrates the serpent-destroyer Garuda,t and is not without some antiquarian interest. iss It treats specially of the tri- saptavinsatipiirani, the latter as sho- pundravidlti ; see Taylor, i. 461 ; daH ; it is addressed to Rudra (see Kdjendr., i. 59 ; Burnel), p. 61. also Edjendral., i. 51), and consists '"* See on it Taylor, ii. 470 ; Bur- only of verses, whicli closely follow nell, p. 62. tliose contained in Vdj. S. xvi. On "5 " Identifies Siva with Vishi^u, the Paingalop. and Dar^anop., see and teaches the doctrines of the Taylor, ii. 468-471. Advaita school." Taylor, ii. 467 ; t As is done in the Ndrdyanlyo- Burnell, p. 65. panisJiad also, and more especially * In the Tejovindu (61) also, in the S'!tpa7-nrfdAyt Palilava, Th. Koldeke, in a com- orisinal, since in the introduction muuication . dated 3d Novembet (83 SANSKRIT LITERATURE. these, moreover, appear as taking an actual part in the conflict — a circumstance which necessarily presupposes that at the time when these passages were written, colli- sions with the Greeks, &c., had already happened.^''^ But as to the period when tlie final redaction of the entire work in its present shape took place, no approach even to a direct conjecture is in the meantime possible; ^"^ but at any rate, it must have been some centuries after the com- mencement of our era.* An interesting discovery has 1875, mentions a point wliieh, if confirmed, will prove of the highest importance for determining the date of composition of the Mahd-Bhiirata and of the Rdrndyana (see my Essay on it, pp. 22, 25), as well as of Kami (see X. 44). According to this, there exists considei'able doubt whether tlie word Paldav, wliioli is the basis of Pahlava, and which Olshansen (v. sup., p. 4, note) regards as having urisen out of the name of the Par- thavas, Parthians, can have origi- nated earlier than tlie first century A.D. This weakening of th to h is not found, in the case of the word MUhra, for example, before the commencement of our era (in the MIIPO on the coins of the Indo- Scythians, Lassen, /. AK., ii, 837, .and in Meherdates in Tacitus). As tlie name of a people, the word Pahlav became early foreign to the Persians, learned reminiscences ex- cepted ; in the Pahlavi texts them- selves, for Instance, it does not occur. The period when it passed over to the Indians, therefore, would have to be fixed for about the 2d- 4th century A.D. ; and we should have to understand by it, not directly the Persians, who are called Pdra- sikas, rather, but specially the Arsa- cid.an Parthians. '^"^ Of especial interest in this con- nection is the statement in ii. 578, 579, where the Yavana pvinoe Blia- (radatta (ApoUodotus (?), according to von Gutschmid's conjecture ; reg, after B.C. 1 60) appears as sove- reign of Mam (Marwar) and Naraka, as i-uliiig. Varuna-like, the west. and as the old friend of Yudhi- shtliira's father ; see I. St., v. 152. — In the name of the Yavana prince Kaserumant, we appear to have a reflex of the title of the Roman CsBiars ; see Ind. Slciz., pp. 88, 91 ; cf. L. Peer on the Kesarl-ndma- aimgrdmah of the Avad p. 38), one of only begin to employ it after the the inscriptions found in Sir Walter year 1000 or so. According to Elliot's copies of grants dates as Westergaard, 0)n de indishe Sejser- far back as the year Sahi 169 (a.d. house (1867), p. 164, the grant of 247). Burnell, however, declares it Dantidurga, dated ^aka 675, Samvat to be a forgery of the tenth century. 811 (a.d. 754), is the earliest certain Fergusson, too, On the iSaha, Sam- instance of its occurrence; see also vat, and Gupta Eras, pp. 11-16, is liurnell, Elem. of South. Ind. Pal., p. of opinion that the so-called sanivat 55. Others, on the contrary, have era goes no farther back than the no hesitation in at once referring, tenth century. For the present, wherever possible, every Samvat- or therefore, unfortunately, where Samvaisare-da,ted inscription to the there is nothing else to guide ua, it Samvat era. Thus, e.g.. Cunning- must generally remain an open ques- ham in his Archceol. Survey of India, tion which era we have to do with iii. 31, 39, directly assigns an in- in a particular inscription, and what Boription dated Samv. 5 to the year date consequently the inscription 3.0. 52 ; Dowson, too, has recently bears.] Z04 SANSKRIT LITERATURE. the other two.^i^ And this view is further favoured by the circumstance, that in the introduction to this play Dhavaka, Saumilla, and Kaviputra are named as the poet's predecessors; Dhavaka being the name^of a poet -who flourished contemporaneously with king Sri-Harsha of Kashmir, that is, according to Wilson, towards the beginning of the twelfth century a.d.^i^ There may, it is ^^ In the introduction to my translation of this drama, the MiS- lavikstgnimitra, 1 have specially ex- amined not only the question of its genuineness, hut also that of the date of KitlidSisa. The result ar- rived at is, in the first place, that this drama also really belongs to him, — and in this view Shaukar Pandit, in his edition of the play (Bombay, 1869), concurs. As to the second point, internal evidence, partly derived from the language, partly connected with the phase of civilisation presented to us, leads me to assign the composition of K^liddsa's three dramas to a period from the second to the fourth cen- tury of our era, the period of the Gupta princes, Chandragupta, &c., "whose reigns correspond best to the legendary tradition of the glory of Vikrama, and may perhaps be gathered up in it in one single focus." Lassen has expressed himself to essentially the same effect {I. AK., ii. 4.57, 1158-1160) ; see also I. St., ii. 148, 415-417. Kern, however, with special reference to the tradi- tion which regards K^iliddsa and Vardha-Mihira as contemporaries, has, in his preface to Variiha's Brihat-Sainhitt, p. 20, declared himself in favour of referring the ' nine gems ' to the first half of the sixth century a.d. Lastly, on the ground of the astrological data in the Kum^ra-sambhava and Raghu- van^a, Jacobi comes to the con- clusion {Monatsber. der Berl. Acad., 1873, p. 556) that the author of these two poems cannot have lived before about A.D. 350 ; but here, of course, the preliminary question remains whether he is to be identi- fied with the dramatist. Shaukar Piindit, in Triibner's Am. and Or. Lit. Rec, 1875, special No., p. 35, assumes this, and fixes Kiilidgtsa's date as at all events prior to the middle of the eighth century. For a definite chronological detail which is perhaps furnished by the Megha- ddta, see note 219 below. By the Southern Buddhists Kdlidiisa is placed in the sixtli century ; Knighton, Sist. of Ceylon, 105 ; Z. D. M. G., xxii. 730. With modeiu astronomers, the idea of a triad of authors of this name is so fixed, that they even employ the term Kciliddsa to denote the number 3 ; see Z. D. M. G., xxii. 713. 212 The date of 6ri-Harsha, of whom Dhavaka is stated in the Kstvya-prak^^a to have been the prot^g^ — Kashmir is not here in question — has since been fixed by Hall (Introd. to the Vfeavadattd) for the seventh century, rather. Hall, moreover, questions the exis- tence of Dhavaka altogether (p. 17), and is of opinion that he "never enjoyed any more substantial existence than that of a various reading." — This conjecture of Hall's as to the name of the author of the Eatniivall, in which Biihler also concurred, has since been brilliantly verified. According to Biihler's letter from Srinagara (piibl. in /. St., xiv. 402 ff.), all the Kashmir MSS. of the Kivya-prakd^a read, in the pas- snge in question, Bdna, not Dhii- vaica, the latter name being alto- gether unknown to the Pandits there : "As Mammata was a native of Kashmir, this reading is un- doubtedly the correct one." — Comp. note 218 below. MKICHHAKATI— LATER DRAMAS. 205 true, Lave been more Dhavakas than one ; another MS., moreover, reads Bhasaka ; ^^^ and besides, these introduc- tions are possibly, in part, later additions. In the case of the Mrichhakati at least, this would appear to he cer- tain, as the poet's own death is there intimated.* This last-mentioned drama, the Mrichhakati — whose author, Siidraka, is, according to Wilson, placed by tradition prior to Vikramaditya ^" (i.e., the same Vikrama at whose court the 'nine gems' flourished?) — cannot in any case have been written before the second century a.d. For it makes use of the word ndnaJca as the name of a coin ; f and this term, according to Wilson (Ariana Antiqua, p. 364), is borrowed from the coins of Kanerki, a king who, by the evidence of these coins, is proved to have reigned until about the year 40 a.d. (Lassen, /. AK, ii. 413). But a date long subsequent to this will have to be assigned to to the Mrichhakati, since the vernacular dialects it intro- duces appear in a most barbarous condition. Besides, we meet with the very same flourishing state of Buddhism which is here revealed in one of the dramas of Bhava- bhiiti, a poet whose date is fixed with tolerable certainty for the eighth century a.d. The Eamayana and the war- part of tlie Maha-Bharata must, to judge from the use -'' The passage exhibits a great whom Chdnakya is to destroy. To numberofvariouareadingaiseeHaag, Vikramdditya, on the other hand, Zur Texteskritik «. ErMarung von is assigned the date Zix^i 4000, i.e. , Kdlid&m'sMata■cihdgnim,^tra{lZ^2), A.D. 899 (!) ; see the text in Isva- pp. 7, 8. Hall, I. c, prefers the rachandra VidyilsSgara's Marriage reaiinga BJidsaha, MmUa,a.iiA Sau- of Hindoo Widows, p. 63 (Calc. mrtoy Haag, on the contrary, S/iosa, 1856), and in my Essay on the Saumilla, Kaviputra. In Bdna's R^mdyana, p. 43. Harsha - charita, Introd., v. 15, f According to the ViSva-kosha, Blidsa is lauded on account of his quoted by Mahidhara to Vij. Samh. dramas : indeed, his name is even 25. 9, it is » synonym of rApa put before that of KiDidifaa. (= rupee?). Ysljnavalkya (see * Unless SAdraka-rdja, the re- Stenzler, Introd., p. xi.) and Vndi puted author, simply was the patron dha-Gautama (see Dattaka Miminsil, of the poet? It is qviite a common p. 34) are also acquainted with thing in India for the actual author ndnaka in the sense of 'coin.' to substitute the name of his patron [Both Lassen, 7. AK., ii. S7S. *"'i for his own. Miiller, A. S. L., p. 331, dispute -" In a prophetic chapter of the the conclusions drawn from the Skanda-Purdna, for instance, he is occurrence of the word ndnaka, but placed in the year Kali 3290 (i.e., I cannot be persuaded of the cogency A.D. 189), butat the same time only of their objections.] twenty years before the Naudas 20$ SANSKRIT LITERATURE. made of their heroes in the Mrichhakati, already have been favourite reading at the time when it was composed ; while, on the other hand, from the absence of allusion to the chief figures of the present Puranas, we may perhaps infer with Wilson that these works were not yet in existence. This latter inference, however, is in so far doubtful as the legends dealt with in these younger Puranas were probably, to a large extent, already contained in the older works of the same name * The two remain-^ ing dramas of Bhavabhiiti, and the whole herd of the later dramatic literature, relate to the heroic tradition of the Ramayana and Maha-Bharata, or else to the history of Krishna ; and the later the pieces are, the more do they resemble the so-called 'mysteries' of the Middle Ages. The comedies, which, together with a few other pieces, move in the sphere of civil life, form of course an excep- tion to this. A peculiar class of dramas are the' philo- sophical ones, in which abstractions and systems appear as the dramatis personce. One very special peculiarity of the Hindu drama is that women, and persons of inferior rank, station, or caste, are introduced as speaking, not in Sanskrit, but in the popular dialects. This feature is of great importance ^^^ for the criticism of the individual pieces ; the conclusions resulting from it have already been ad- verted to in the course of the discussion. * Besides, tlie slaying of Sumbha certainly to a later stage. Ouglit dnd Ni,4umbha by Devi, which forms the Stldraka who is mentioned in the subject of the Devl-Mdhittmya, this work, p. Ii8, ed. Wilson, to be v.-x., in the Mdrkand. -Purdna, is identified, perhaps, with the reputed referred to in the Mrichhakati,' p. author of the Mrichhakati? 105.22 (ed.Stenzler). — Whether, i6/d. ^'' For example, from the rela- 104.18, Karataka is to be referred tion in which the Pr^kyit of the to the jackal of this name in the several existing recensions of the Pafiohatantra is uncertain. — At Sakuntalii stands to the rules of page 126.9 Stenzler reads gaUaklca, the Prdkrit grammarian Vararuchi, but Wilson (Hindu Theatre, i. 134) Pisohel has drawn special arguments reads mallalca, aud considers it not in support of the view advocated by impossible that by it we have to him in conjunction with Stenzler, understand the Arabic mdMk! — In that of these recensions the Bengdli regard to the state of manners de- one is the most ancient ; see Kubn's picted, the Mrichhakati is closely Bdirdgc zur vergl. Sprachforsch., related to the Dasa - kumitra, al- viii. 129 £f. (1874), and my observa- though the latter work, writtea in tions on the subject in /, St., liv. the eleventh century [rather iu the 35 fF, sixth, see below, p. 213], belongs POSSIBLE GREEK INFLUENCE ON DRAMA. 207 From the foregoing exposition it appears that the drama meets us in an already finished form, and with its best pro- ductions. In almost all the prologues, too, the several works ai-e represented as new, in contradistinction to the pieces of former poets ; but of these pieces, that is, of the early beginnings of dramatic poetry, not the smallest rem- nant has been preserved.^i^ Consequently the conjecture that it may possibly have been the representation of Greek dramas at the courts of the Grecian kings in Bactria, in the Panjab, and in Gujarat (for so far did Greek supremacy for a time extend), which awakened the Hindii faculty of imitation, and so gave birth to the Indian drama, does not in the meantime admit of direct verification. But its his- torical possibility, at any rate, is undeniable,^^' especially as the older dramas nearly all belong to the west of India. No internal connection, however, with the Greek drama exists.^^* The fact, again, that no dramas are found either =" See Cowell in /. St., v. 475 ; and as to the Eansa-vadlia and Vali- bandba, the note on p. 198 above. -" Cf. the Introduction to my translation of the Milavikd, p. xlvii., and the remarks on Yavaniht in Z. D. if. G. , xiv. 269 ; also /. St., xiii. 492. -'8 The leading work on the In- dian dramas is still Wilson's Select Specimens of the Theatre of the Hin- dus, 1835', 1871'. The number of dramas that have been published in India is already very considerable, and is constantly being increased. Foremost amongst them still remain : —the Mrichhakatiid of SpBrsed with many instructions, hymns, prayers, and incantations. -^Tlie Mdo treats in general of science and literature in the following order : theology, philosophy " (these two alone make 94 volumes), "logic or dialectic, philology or grammar, rhetoric, poesy, prosody, synonymies, astro- nomy, astrology, medicine and ethics, some hints to the mechanical arts and information ; see Hall,. Pref, to tlie Vdsava-dattd, p. I2fF. (1859). And tlie same remark applies to the Vihrarndrika-charita by Eiliiana of Kashmir, in 18 sargas, composed about A.D. 1085, just edited with a very valuable introduction by Jjuhler. This work supplies most important and autlientic informa- tion, nob only regarding the poet's native countiy, and the chief cities of India visited by him in the course of prolonged travels, but also, as to the history of the Olidlukya dynasty, whose then representative, Tribhu- vana-malla, tlie work is intended to exalt. Ill Biihler's opinion, we may hope for some further accession to our historical knowledge from the still existing libraries of the Jainas. and, I might add, from their special literature also, which is peculiarly rich in legendary woi'ks (cJiaritra), The Satrumjaya-mdlidlniya of Dha- ne^vara, in 14 sargas, composed in Valabhi, under king Sildditya, at the end of the sixth century, yields, it is true, but scant historical ma- terial, and consists for the most part merely of popular tales and legends ; see my paper on it (185S), p. 12 ff. (Btihier, I. c, p. 18, places this work as late as the thirteenth century ; similarly, Lassen, /. AK., iv. 761, but see my Essay on the Bhagavati, i. 369.) Still, a great variety of information has been preserved by the Jainas, which deserves attention ; for example, respecting the ancient kings Vikraradrka and Sdlivdhana, though, to be sure, they,too,have become almost wholly mythical figures. The Vira-cha^'itra of Atlanta, lately analysed by H. Jacobi in /. St., xiv. 97 ff., describes the feuds between the descendants of these two kings ; introducing a third legendary personage, ^lidraka, who, aided by the Mdlava king, the son of Vikranidrka, succeds in oust- ing the son of Sdlivdhana from Pra- tishthdna. It is written in a fresh and graphic style, but, to all ap- pearance, it has only a very slight really historical nucleus ; indeed, it expressly claims to be an imitation of the Rdradyana ! The Sinhdsana- dvdtrUUikd, too, a work extant in several recensituis, i)f which one, the Vikrama-charitra (see above, p. 200), is attributed to Vararuclii, is almost solely, as the Vetdla-pnii- INSCRIPTIONS AND GRANTS. MS find, in the various Puranas, jejune enumerations of moun- tains, rivers, peoples, and ,the like.^^^ But modern works, also, xipon this subject are quoted: these, however, are known only by name. — A leading source, besides, for history and geography, is supplied by the exceedingly numerous inscriptions and grants,* which, indeed, being often of very considerable extent, might almost pass as a special branch of the literature. They are usually drawn up in prose, though mostly with a,i^ admixture of yerse. Of coins the number is comparatively small; yet they have furnished surprisingly rich information regarding a period previously quite unknown in its details, the period of the Grecian kings of Bactria.^^' From this general view of Sanslcrit poetry, we now turn to the second division of Sanskrit literature, to the works of Science and Art. cliavinsaH is exclusively, made up of matter of the fairy-tale description. The stories in the Bhqja-prdbandha of king Bhoja and his court of poets, are mere fanciful inventions. — Biihler, in his letter from Kash- mir (/. St., xiv. 404, 405), states that he has now also discovered the NUa-mata which was used by Kal- Iiana, as also tiie Taramginis of Kshemendra and Heldntja ; for the lldja-taiamgini itself there is thus the prospect of important correc- tions. ^-^ Of special interest, in this re- gard, are the sections styled Kirma- vibhdga in the astrological texts ; see Kern, Pref. to Brih. Samh., ji. 32, and in /. St., x. 209 ff. Cun- ningham's otherwise most merito- rious work. Ancient Geography of Jt^dia (1871), has unfortunately taken no account of these. * On metal plates, first men- tioned in YiLJnavalkya's law-book and in the PaBcha-tantra : in Manu'a Code they are not yet known. [See the special accounts given of these ill Burnell's Mem. of S. Ind. Palaog., p. 63 ff.] ^^ Wilson s ArUina Antigua (1841) and Lassen's IndiscUe A Iterthwrns- kunde (1847-61) still form the chief mine of information and basis of research in the field of Indian his- tory. In the department of Nu- mismatics and Inscriptions, Burgess, liurnell, Cunningham, Dowson, Eg- geling, FergusBon, Edw. Thomas, Vaux, Bhandarkar, and Edjendra Litla Mitra have of late doue emi- nent service. In connection with the so-called cave-inscriptions, the names of Bh£u DdjI, Bird, Steven- son, E. "W'. and A. A. West, Wes- tergaard, and J. Wilson, amongst others, may be mentioned. 2 1 6 SANSKRIT LITER A TURE. We give the precedence to the Science of Language,^' and take Grammar first. We have already had frequent occasion to allude to the early beginnings and gradual development of grammatical science. It grew up in connection with the study and recitation of the Vedic texts ; and those works which were specially devoted to it, protected by the sacredness of their subject, have, in part, survived. But, on the other hand, we have no records ,of the earlier stages of that gram- matical study which was directed tp and embraced the entire range of the language;* and we pass at once into the magnificent edifice which bears the name of Panini as its architect, and which justly commands the wonder and admiration of every one who enters.f Panini's grammar is distinguished above all similar works of other countries, partly by its thoroughly exhaustive investigation of the roots of the language, and the formation of words ; partly by its sharp precision of expression, which indicates with an enigmatical succinctness whether forms come under the same or different rules. This is rendered , possible by the employment of an algebraic terminology of arbitrary con- trivance, the several parts of which stand to each other in the closest harmony, and which, by the very fact of its sufficing for all the phenomena which the language pre- sents, bespeaks at once the marvellous ingenuity of its inventor, and his profound penetration of the entire ma- terial of the language. It is not, indeed, to be assumed that Panini was altogether the inventor of this method ; for, in the first place, he directly presupposes, for example, a collection of primary affixes (Un-ddi) ; and, in the second place, for various grammatical elements there occur in his work two sets of technical terms, the one of which is peculiar to himself, while the other, as testified by his --^ The general assertion in the * Only in Ydska's Kirukti are Jlahitbhilshya to i. i. i f. 44* {chhan- beginnings of the kind preserved ; dovat siitnlni hliavanii) which as- yet here etymology and the investi- •cribes Vedio usage to Sutras in gation of roots and of the formation general, is explained by .Kaiyata in of words are still in a very crude the sense that, not the vaUcthika- stage. sMrdrfi, for example, but only the f ^-O; of Pfcre Pons bo long aoro vydkarana-sMrdrd are here meant, as 1743, in theieWj'cs£Vii^aii(c«, 26. since these latter belong to the Veda 224 (Paris), as afiga ; see 7. St., xiii. 453. PANINI'S GRAMMAR. 217 commentators, is taken from the Eastern grammarians* But at any rate, it seems to have been he who generalised the method, and extended it to the entire stock of the language. Of those of his predecessors whom he men- tions directly by name, and whose names recur in part in Yaska's Nirukti, the Prati^akhya-Siitras, or the Aranyakas, some may possibly have worked before him in this field ; in particular, Sakatayana perhaps, whose grammar is sup- posed (Wilson, Mack. Coll., i. 160) to be still in existence, although nothing definite is known about it.^^" The question now arises, When did Panini live ? Boht- lingk, to whom we owe an excellent edition of the gram- mar, has attempted to fix his date for the middle of the fourth century B.C., but the attempt seems to be a failure. Of the reasons adduced, only one has any approach to plausibility, which is to the effect that in the Katha-sarit- sagara, a collection of popular tales belonging to the twelfth centurj', Panini is stated to have been the disciple of one Varsha, who lived at Pataliputra in the reign of Nanda, the father of Chandragupta (SavBp6Kvn-To<;). But not only is the authority of such a work extremely ques- tionable in reference to a period fifteen centuries earlier ; the assertion is, besides, directly contradicted, both as to time and place, by a statement of the Buddhist Hiuan Thsang, who travelled through India in the first half of the seventh century. For Hiuan Thsang, as reported by Eeiuaud (M4m. sur I'Inde, p. 88), speaks of a double exist- ence of Panini, the earlier one belonging to mythical times, while the second is put by him 500 years after Buddha's * See Bohtlingk in the Introduc- himself a Jaina, in his introduction lion to his Panini, p. xii., and in describes SiSkatij'ana also as such — his tract, t'eber den Accent im San- namely, as ' mahd-H'amana-gamghd- tlent, p. 64. dhipati ;' see also I. St., xiii. 396, --' In Benfej-'s (h-ient und Occi- 397. In Burnell's opinion, Vafi^- dcni, ii. 691-706 (1863), and iii. 181, Brdhm., p. xli., many of SiikatiJ- 182 (1864), G. Buliler has given an yana's rules are, on the contrary, account of a commentary {chinUi- based upon Piinini, or even on the mani-'iTitti) on the iSahddnmrisana of VdrtlilMs, nay, even on the further Siikatdyana, according to which (p. interpretations in the Mahiibhiishya. 703) PiJnini's work would appear to Might not these contradictions be be simply "an improved, completed, explained by supposing that the ex- and in part remodelled edition" isting form of the work combines of that of Sdkatiiyana. The author both old and new constituents? of this commentary, Yakshavarman, 2t8 SANSKRir LITERATVRE. death, i.e., loo years later than the reign of king Kanishka, who lived, as he says, 400 years after Buddha* As Kani- shka is proved by coins to have reigned down to a.d. 40 (Lassen, /. AK., ii. 413), Panini, according to this, would have to be placed not earlier than a.d. 140. Astatement so precise, obtained by Hiuan Thsang on the spot, can hardly be a mere invention ; while no significance need be attached to the earlier mythical existence, nor to the circumstance that he makes Panini a Buddhist.^^" As Phonini's birth- place he mentions Pholotoulo, some six miles north-west of the Indus, and this agrees with the name ' ^alaturfya,' the formation of which is explained by Panini, and which in later writings is an epithet applied to the grammarian himself ; ' Salatura,' the basis of the name, being phone- tically identical t with the Chinese ' Pholotoulo.' That Panini belonged to precisely this north-western district of * The text of Hiuan Thsang ia unfortunately not yet accessible : it seems to be much more important than the description of ITa Hian's travels, and to enter consideraliiy more into detail. [This blank has since been filled up Ijy Stan. Julien's tninslation of the biography and memoirs of Hiuan Thsang (1857 ff., 3 vols. ). From this it now appears that the above statement, communi- cated from the text by Eeinaud, is not quite exact. Tlie real existence of Pdnini is not there placed 500 years after Buddha at all : all that is said is, that at that date there still existed in his birthplace a 8'atue erected in his honour (see Siyuhi, i. 127) ; whereas he himself passed as belonging ' dans une haute antiquity.'] *^'' The true state of the case is, rather, that with regard to P^nini's date there ia no direct statemeni at all ; a legend merely is communi- cated of a Buddhist missionary who had taken part in the council under king Kanishka, and who came from it to Pdnini's birthplace. Here he intimated to a Brahman, whom he found chastising his son during a lesson in grammar, that the youth Was Piinini himself, who, for his heretical tendencies in his former birth, had not yet attained emanci- pation, and had now been born again as his son ; see I. St., v. 4. t The commentators make S^ld- tura the residence of Pdnini's an- cestors, and this is, in fact, the sense in which Panini's rule is to he taken. But the Chinese traveller, who ob- tained his information on the spot, is assuredly a better authority, especi- ally as it has to be remirked that the rule in question (iv. 3. 94), ac- cording to the Calcutta scholiasts, ia not explained in the Bhfehya, and may possibly, therefore, not be Psini- ni's at all, but posterior to the time of Pataipjali. [The name odidturiya doesnot, in fact, occur in the Bh&hya; but, on the other hand, Pdnini is there styled Dilkshiputra, and the family of the Ddkshis belonged to the Vi- hikas in the North-West ; see /. St., x'i'' 39S> 367. The name .^dlafiki also, which is bestowed on him in later writings, and which actually occurs in the Bh&hya, though it does not clearly appear that he is meant by it,, leads us to the Vihikas; see/. 5«.,xiii. 395, 375, 429. Hiuan Thsang expressly describes Pdnini as belongins to the Gandhiraa (TavSapoi).] DATE OF PANINI. 219 India, rather than to the east, results pretty plainly from the geographical data contained in his work;* still he refers often enough to the eastern parts of India as well, and, though born in the former district, he may perhaps have settled subsequently in the latter. Of the two re- maining arguments by means of which Bobthngk seeks to determine Panini's date, the one, based on the posteriority of Amara-sinha, " who himself lived towards the middle of the first century B.C.," falls to the ground when the litter nuUity of this latter assumption is exposed. The other is drawn from the Eaja-taramgini, a rather doubtful source, belonging to the same period as the Katha-sarit- sagara, and rests, moreover, upon a confusion of the Northern and Southern Buddhist eras, consequently upon a very insecure foundation. Jn that work it is related that the Mahabhashya, or great commentary on Panini, which is ascribed to Patamjali, was, by the command of king Abhimanyu, introduced into his dominions by Chandra, who had himself composed a grammar. ISTow the Northern Buddhists agree in stating that Kanishka, the immediate predecessor of Abhimanyu, lived 400 years after Buddha's death. If, therefore, with the Southern Buddhists, we place this event in the year B.C. 544, then, of course, the date to be assigned to Kanishka would be B.C. 144, and to Abhimanyu B.C. 120, or thereabouts.+ But upon the evidence of coins, which are at all events a sure authoritj'',^ Kanishka (Kanerki) reigned until A.D. 40 (Lassen, /. AK., ii. 413); and Abhimanyu himself therefore must have reigned 160 years later than the date derived from the previous supposition — according to Lassen (Z. c), till a.d. 65. Consequently, even admitting Bohtlingk's further reasoning, we should still have to fix Panini's date, not for B.C. 350 or thereabouts, as his result gives, but 160 years later at any rate. But in view of * The circumstance that the only 21 (1872), also /. St., xiii. 302, two works containing legends con- 366.] cerning him and the commentary f As Bbhtllngk, op. cit., p. xvii., upon his grammar — the Kathd-sarit- xviii., supposes; see also Beinaud, Biigara and the Edja-taramgini — Mim. sur I'Indc, p. 79. were hoth written in Kashmir, also J Of these Bohtlingk could not tells in favour of this view. [On avail himself, as they only came 10 the geographical data in Pitnini, our knowledge some years after his sue Dhan^arkar in Ind. Antiq., i., edition of Pt^ini appeared. a20 SANSKRIT LITERATURE. Hiuan Thsanjj's assertion, no credit whatever need at pre- sent be attached to the statement in the Eaja-taramgini. If Panini did not really flourish until loo years after Kanislika, i.e., A.D. 140,^^^ it is self-evident that the com- mentary upon his work cannot have been in existence, and stUl less have been introduced into Kashmir, under Abhimanyu, Kanishka's immediate successor ! — But, apart altogether from the foregoing considerations, we have, in Panini's work itself, a very weighty argument which goes to show that tlie date to be assigned to him can by no means be so early as Bohtlingk supposes (about B.C. 350). For in it Panini once mentions the Yavanas, i.e., 'Idov6<;, Greeks,* and explains the formation of the word yavandni "^^ Bat no such inference is de- duoible from Hiuan Thsang's ac- count, now that we are in possession of its exact tenor (see note 230 above) : the statement of the Rilja- taraipgini is thus in no way im- pugned by it. * Lassen (7. AK., i. 729) asserts that the most ancient meaning of the word yavana was probably ' Arabia,' because incense, which came from Arabia, was termed yd- vana; but this assertion is distinctly erroneous. So far as we know at present, this latter term first occurs in tlie Amara-koslia, and there along with twrushka, which can scarcely be a very ancient word. It may con- sequently either date from the time of the commercial intercourse of the Indians with Arabia shortly before lluhammad, or even with the Mu- liammadan Arabs ; or else — like yavaneehta, ' tin ' [Hemach., 1041, according to Bbhtlingk-Rieu, ' lead,' not 'tin ']. and yavana-priya, 'pep- per,' the chief articles of traffic wiih the Greeks of Alexandria — it may possibly have been named, not from the Arabs, but from the Greeks, who brought incense as well as tin and pepper from India (Lassen, I. AK., 286 n.) ! Wherever we find the Yavanas mentioned in the epic, or other similar ancient writings, only the Greeks can be meant. [The almost constant association of them with the Eambojas, ^akas, &c., is conclusive as to this ; see /. Sir., ii. 321 ; I. St., xiii. 371. The name Yavana was then in course of time transferred to the political successors of the Greeks in the empire of Western India, that is, to the Indo- Scythiana themselves, to the Per- sians (Pdrasikas, whose women, for example, are termed Yavanis by Kiliiisa, in Eaghuv., iv, 61), and, lastly, to the Arabs or Moslems ; see /. St., xiii. 308. Recently, it is true, Eijendra Ldla Mitra, in the Joum, As. Soc. Seng., 1874, p. 246 ff., has pronounced against the view that the Greeks were originally meant by the Yavanas ; but his arguments are in great part of a very curious kind. Uf. furtlier on this point my letter in the Ind. Antiq., iv. 244 ff. (1875), where, in particular, I .point out that the name Yavana first became popu- larised in India through Alexander, i.e., through his Persian interpreters, although it may possibly have been known previously through the me- dium of the Indian auxiliaries who servedinthe army of Darius.] — There is a remarkable legend in the Pu- ritnas and the twelfth book of the Mah^ - Bhiirata, of the fight of Krishna with Kdla- Yavana, 'the Black Yavana,' so called, it would appear, in contradistinction to the (White) Yavanas? Ought we here to understand African or dark Sem- DATE OF PANINI—' YAVANANI.' 221 — to wliich, according to the VdrttiJca, the word lipi, ' writing,' must be supplied, and which therefore signifies ' the_ writing of the Yavanas.' ^^^ — in the Pancha-tantra, Panini is said to have been killed by a lion ; but, inde- pendently of the question whether the particular verse containing this allusion belongs to the original text or not, no chronological inference can be drawn from it.^'^ itic races that had come into colli- Bion with the Indians? At the time of the Dti^a-kumdra, the name Kdla-Yavana (as well as Yavana itself) does, in point of fact, ex- pressly designate a seafaring people — supposed by Wilson to be the Arabs. In the legend in the Pu- rdnas and the Mahd-Bh^lrata, on the contrary, no reference to the sea is traceable ; and Wilson therefore (Vislmu-Pur., 565, 566) refers it to the Greeks, that is, those of Bactria. This view is perhaps confirmed by the circumstance that this Kdla- Yavana is associated Vith a Gdrgya; since it is to Gwrga, at least, who uniformly appears as one of the earliest Indian astronomers, that a verse is ascribed, in which the Ya- v;mas (here unquestionably the Greeks) are highly extolled. Pos- sibly this is the very reason why Gdrg}-a is here associated with Kdla- Yavana. -'- For the different explanations that have been attempted of this word, see /. St., v. 5-8, 17 ff. ; linrnell, Elem,. of S. Ind. Pal., p. 7, 93: the laicer regards it as "not unlikely that lipi has been introduced into Indian from the Persian dipu" Benfey also, in his Geschichte der Sprachmssenschaft, p. 48 (1869), understands by Yavandni 'Greek writing ; ' but he places the comple- tion of Pdnini's work as early asB.c. 320. In that case, he thinks, Pdninl "had already had theopportunity dur- ing six years of becoming acquainted with Greek writing in his own im- mediate neighbourhood without in- terruption, Alexander having, as is ■well known, established satrapies in India itself and in the parts adjoin- ing "^ — in the vicinity of the Indus, namely, near which Pdnini's birth- place was. But to me it is very doubtful indeed that a space so short as six years should have sufficed to give rise to the employment by the Indians of a special term and affix to denote Greek writing — (which surely in the first years after Alex- ander's invasion can hardly have attracted their attention in so very prominent away!) — so that the mere expression ' the Greek ' directly signified 'the writing of the Greeks,' and Pdnini found himself obliged to explain the formation of the term in a special rule. " The expression could only have become so very familiar through prolonged and fre- quent use — a thing conceivable and natural in Pdnini's native district, in those provinces of North- Western India which were so long occupied by the Greeks. But this of course presupposes that a lengthened period had intervened since the time of Alexander."— 7. St., iv. 89 (1857). ^* Since the above was written the question of Pdnini's date has been frequently discussed. Max Miiller first of all urired, and rightly, the real import of Hinan Thsang'a account, as opposed to my argument. Apart from tliis,however,l still firmly adhere to the reasoning in the text ; see /. St., iv. 87, v. 2 ff. To the vague external testimony we need hardly attach much importance. Pdnini's vocabulary itself (cf. yii- rondni) can alone yield us certain information. And it was upon this path that Goldstiicker proceeded in his Pdnini, his place in Sanskrit Literature (September 1861) — a work distinguished in an emineut 222 SANSKRIT LITERATURE. ■ Pdnini's work has continued to be the basis, of gramma-' tical research and the standard of usage in the language down even to the present time. Owing to its frequent obscurity it was early commented upon, and — a circum- stance to which there is no parallel elsewhere in the lite- rature — some of these earliest interpretations have come down to us. At their head stand the Pariihdshds, or explanations of single rules, by unknown authors ; next come the Vdrttikas (from vritti, ' explanation ') of Katya- yana ; * and after these the Mahdbhdshya of Patamjali. With regard to the date of Katyayana, the statement of Hiuan Thsang, to the effect that 300 years after Buddha's death, i.e., in B.C. 240,! " le docteur Kia to yan na" lived at Tamasavaiia in the Panjab, is by Bohtlingk referred to this Katyayana ; but when we remember that the same traveller assigns to Panini's second existence a date so late as 500 years after Buddha, such a reference of course becomes highly precarious. Besides, the statement is in degree by truly profound investiga- tion of tills aspect of the question as well as of the literature immediately bearing upon it. The conclusion he arrives at is that Pdnini is older than Buddha, than the Friltis^kliyas, than all the Vedic texts we possess, excepting the three Samhitds of the RIk, Sdman, and Black Yajus — older than any individual author in whatever field, with the single ex- ception of Yiiska (p. 243). In May 1861, before the separate publication of this work, which had previously (Nov. i860) appeared as the preface to Goldstiicker's photo-lithographed edition of the Minava-Kalpa-Siitra, I endeavoured — and, as I believe, snccessfully — in a detailed rejoinder in /. St., v. 1-176, to rebut these various deductions, point by point. For the post-Buddhistic date of P^nini, compare in particular the evidence adduced, pp. 136-142, which is excellently supplementeil by Biihler's paper on ^dkatdyaiia (1863, see note 229 above). To the mention of the 'Yavan^nl' has to be added a peculiar circumstance which Burnell has recently noticed (Elem. S. Ind: Pal, p. 96) : The denoting of numbers by the letters of the alphabet in their order (i=2), to which Goldstiicker (Pdnini, p. 53) first drew attention, and which, ac cording to the Bhdshya, is peculiar to P^Eiinl, occurs in his work only, and is "precisely similar to the Greek and Semitic notation of numerals by letters of the alphabet." If, furtlier, the Greek acoounts of the confederation of the 'O^vipi.Ka.1 and MaXXoi be correct ; if, that is to say, their alliance first took place through fear of Alexander, whereas they had up till ihen lived in con- B,tant enmity, then in all probability Api^ali, and d fortiori Pdnini also, would have to be set down as subse- quent to Alexander ; see /. St., xiii. 375 n- * Who there mentions several of these Paribhstshfo. + That is, if we adopt the chrono- logy of the Southern Buddhists ; but, rather, only B.o. 60, since Kaiiishka, whose date, as we saw, ia fixed by coins for A.D. 40, is by Hiuan Thsaug placed 400 years after Buddlia'o death. £ARLY COMMENTARIES ON PAN INT. 2:3 itself an extremely indefinite one, the " docteur " in ques- tion not being described as a grammarian at all, but simply as a descendant of the Katya family. ^^ Even admitting, however, that the reference really is to him, it would still be in conflict with the tradition — in itself, it is true, of no particular authority — of the Kathd-sarit-sagara, which not only represents Katyayana as the contemporary of Panini, but identifies him with Vararuchi, a minister of King Nanda, the father of Chandragupta {SavSpoKvn-TO';), ac- cording to which, of course, he must have flourished about B.C. 350. As regards the age of tlie Mahabhashya,^^^ we have seen that the assertion of the I'aja-taramgini as to its introduction into Kashmir in the reign of Abhimanyu, the successor of Kanishka,, i.e., between a.d. 40 and 65, is, for the reasons above assigned, in the meantime discre- dited.^'^ For the present, therefore, we are without infor- mation as to the date of those interpretations, just as we are regarding the date of Panini himself. But when once they are themselves in our hands, it will certainly be pos- sible to gather from their contents, by means of the great number of words they contain, a tolerably clear image of the time when they originated,^'' in the same way as we ^* It is this only that has weight; to understand Pataipiali himself; whereas no importance whatever is and the same applies to the name to be attached, as we have already Gonikiifmtra; see on this /. Si.,y. seen (note 230), to the second exist- 155, xiii. 316, 323, 403. ence of Pdniui. On the various -'"' By no means ; see note 231. Kiityas, Kdtyityanas, at the time of ^'^'' Onthebasisof thelithograplied the Bhdshya itself, for instance, see edition of the Mahdbhttshya, pub- I. St., xiii. 399. lished at Benares in 1872 by Edj.-i- 235 The name Patamjali (we should rilma^strin and HSlasiistrin, with expect Pdt°.) is certainly somehow Kaiyata's commentary (nf about the CDuneeted witli that of the Patam- seventh century (?), see /. St., v. cliala Kdpya of the land of the Mn- 167), I have attempted i]i J. St., xiii. dj-as, who appears in the Ydjnaval- 293-502, to sketch such an outline, kiya-kanda of the ^atap. Br. It The first section of the work, with occurs again (see below, p. 237) as Kaiya^a, and Ndge^a's gloss, beloug- the name of the author of the Yoga, ing to the eighteenth century, was Sutras. Pataipjali appears as name published so long ago as 1856 by of one of thos. 4-28. fifteenth century in E. Bengal, on 232 SANSKRIT LITERATURE. as soo years old, and it will be difficult to find any of a yet greater age. — For the rest, in the field of rhetoric and poetics, the Hindii mind, so fertile in nice distinctions, has had free scope, and has put forth all its power, not seldom in an extremely subtle and ingenious fashion.^*" We now come to the consideration of Philosophy, as the second branch of the scientific Sanskrit literature. I rank it here after the science of language, not because I regard it as of later origin, but because the existing text-books of the philosophical systems seem to me to be . posterior to the text-book of grammar, the Siitra of Panini, since they appear, to some extent, to presuppose the exist- ence of IJpanishads, writings which, in their extant form, manifestly belong to a very late period, comparatively speaking. The beginnings of philosophical speculation go back, as we have already more than once seen (see espe- cially pp. 26, 27), to a very remote age. Even in the Samhita of the Rik, although only in its later portions, we find hymns that bespeak a high degree of reflection. Here, too, as with all other peoples, it was especially the question as to the origin of the world that more imme- ^*^ Daiidin'B Kdvyddwria, of the example, adopted the Vaidarbha-ritij sixth century, and Dhanamjaya's see Biihler, Vikramilnka-ehar., i. 9. Bcda-rApa, ol the middle of the tenth — Vdmana's Kdvydliimkdra-m-itti has century, have been published in tlie lately been edited by Cappeller(Jena, Bibl. Indica, the former edited by 1875), and belongs, he thinks, to the Premachandra Tarkav^s:ila (1863), twSlfth century. ilLa.mmata,'aKdvyar the latter by Hall (1865). From prakdia, several times published in these we learn, amongst other things, India, belongs, in Buhler's opinion, tlie very important fact that in to the same date, since Mammata, Dandin's day two definite, provin- according to Hall (ftiij-od. Jo rdsa!;a., cially distinguished, varieties of p. 55), was the maternal uncle of style {rlti) were already recognised, the author of the Naishadhlya ; see namely, the Gauda style and the Biihler in /own. 5omi.jBr.JJ.XS., Vaidarbha style, to whicli in course x. 37, my /. Str., i. 356, and my Essay of time four othei's, the PdrlchAH, on Hdla's Sapta-^ataka, p. II. Cf. Zdti, Avantikd, and Mdgadhi, were here also Aufrecht's account of the added ; cf. my Essay on the Edmd- SarasvatI - kanthiibharana (note 220 yana, p. 76, and /. St., xiv. 65 ff. above). — A rich accession to the Bdna passes for the special repre- Alaipkdra literature also will result sentative of the Paftchila style 5 see from Biihler's journey to Kashmir : Aufrecht in Z. D, M. 0., xxvii. 93 ; the works range from the ninth to ■whereas tlie KiWmlra Bilha^ja, for the thirteenth century. PHILOSOPHY. 233 diately gave rise to philosophical contemplation. The mystery of existence, of being, and of life forces itself directly upon the soul, and along with this comes the question, how the riddle is to be solved, and what is its cause. The idea that most readily presents itself, and which is therefore, in fact, everywhere recognisable as the earliest one, is that of an eternal matter, a chaotic mass, into which order and system are gradually introduced, whether — and here we have two distinct views, each of which has its intrinsic warrant, and which must therefore have been early opposed to each other — by virtue of an indwelling capacity of development, or by impulse from without, whereby of course an object or Being existing outside of this chaotic mass is eo vpso postulated. This point reached, the idea is then a very natural one to regard this Being, whence the impulse proceeds, as higher and more exalted than the primary chaotic matter itself ; and, as speculation advances, this primaiy matter continues to sink to a more and more subordinate position, till at length its very existence appears as dependent upon th« will of this Being, and so the idea of a creation arises. The steps of this gradation may actually be followed with tolerable distinctness in the Vedic texts. In the more ancient portions the notion everywhere still is that the worlds were but ' fixed,' ' arranged ' {stabhita, skabliita *), by the aid of the metres (it is thus that the harmony of the universe is explained) ; only at a later stage is the idea developed of their sarjana, 'emission' or creation. As time goes on, the creative Being is conceived as more and more transcendental and supernatural, so that as a means of communication between him and the real uni- verse intermediate grades of beings, demiurges, are required, by classifying and systematising whom speculation strives • It is interesting that the Ger- of the word grown up independently man word sdiaffen is derived from with both peoples? Perhaps the this root stabh, skdbh, 'establish;' 'yawning gulf of chaos, 'gaho- originally therefore it had not the nam gambliiram,' ' ginunga gap,' sense in which it is now used. The might also be instanced as a similar idea of the ' establishment,' ' ar- primitive notion ? [The connection rangement ' of the worlds may pos- here supposed between sdiaffen and sibly therefore date from the epoch tiabh, skahh, (riojTrrew', is very ques- when Teutons and Indians still tionable ; the word seems rather to dwelt together : or has the same use belong to schaben, scabere, (r«:dirTeu>.] 234 SANSKRIT LITERATURE. to introduce order, but naturally only with the result of producing greater confusion. We have thus three dis- tinct views as to the origin of the world — that of its ' development,' that of its ' arrangement,' and that of its ' creation.' The two former agree in so far as the theory of development requires an ' arranger ' also ; they are, however, sufficiently distinguished by the circumstance that in the former this Power is regarded as the first pro- duction of the capacity of development residing in primary matter ; in the latter, on the contrary, as an independent Being existing outside of it. The theory of a creation starts generally with a desire on the part of the Creator to be no longer alone, the expression of which desire is imme- diately followed by the emanation itself. Either it is a female being that first proceeds from the Creator, in con- nection with whom, by a process of begetting,* he then accomplishes the further work of creation ; or it is the breath of life that first of all emanates, and in its turn produces all the rest ; or again, the mere expression of the desire itself involves creation, v&ch or speech here appear- ing as its immediate source ; or the process is conceived in a variety of other ways. The notion that the world is but Illusion only belongs to the latest phase of this emanation theory. — It is impossible at present to attempt even an approximate sketch of the gradual growth of these three different theories into complete philosophical systems; the Brahman'as and Upanishads must first be thoroughly studied. Nor until this has been done will it be possible to decide the question whether for the beginnings of Greek philosophy any connection with Hindu speculation can be established — with reference to the five elements in par- ticular,t a point which for the present is doubtful.^ I have already stated generally (p. 29) the reasons which lead me to assign a comparatively late date to tlie existing text-books (Sutras) of the Hindii philosophical systems.^** * By incest therefore: the story yi. 18 ff. [Cf. my review of-Schlu- in Megasthenes of the incest of the ter's book, Aristoteles' Metaphysik Indian Herakles with his daughter eine Tochter da- SdnhhyaUhre in Lit, refers to this. Cent. Bl., 1874, p. 294.] + And the doctrine of metempsy- ^■" Cf.Cowell'snotetoColebrooke'a cliosis ! Misc. Ess., i. 354. " The Siitras as X See Max Miillerin Z. D. M. G., we have them cannot be the original PHILOSOPHY: THE SAMKHYA SYSTEM. 235 Unfortunately we are not yet in possession of the treatises themselves ; * and for what follows I have had to depend mainly upon Colebrooke's Essays on the subject.^*' The most ancient philosophical system appears to be the Sdmkhya theory, which sets up a primordial matter as the basis of the universe, out of which the latter is by succes- sive stages evolved. The word Sdmkhya itself occurs first in the later Upanishads ; t while in the earlier Upanishads and Brahmanas the doctrines afterwards belonging to the Sainkhya system still appear in incongruous combination with doctrines of opposite tendency, and ' are cited along with these under the equivalent designations of Mimdnsd {sj man, speculation), Ade^a (doctrine), Upanishad (sit- ting), &c. I am especially induced to regard the Samkhya as the oldest of the existing systems by the names of those who are mentioned as its leading representatives : Kapila, Pancha^ikha, and Asuri. The last of these names occurs very frequently in the Satapatha-Brahmana as that of an important authority for sacrificial ritual and the like, and also in the lists of teachers contained in that work (namely. form of the doctrines of the several schools. They are rather a recapi- tulation of a series of preceding de- velopments which had gone on in the works of successive teachers." * Only two of them have thusfarap- pearedin India; but of the edition of the Veddnta-Sdtra with Saipkara's commentary I have not yet been able to see a copy ; only the edition of the Nydya-Slitra is known to me. The whole of these texts are at present being edited in India by Dr. Bal- lantyne, with English translation. [These editions, entitled Aphorisms of the Sdnkhya, Veddnta, Yoga, &c., extend to all the six systems, eacii sitra being regulaily followed by translation and commentary ; but unfortunately only a few numbers of each hare appeared.] '*' In the new edition of Cole- brooke's lissays {1873), these are accompanied with excellent notes by Professor Cowell. Since the above was written, much new material has been added by thelaboursofKoer, Bal- lantye, Hall, Cowell, JIUUer, Gough, K. M. Banerjea, Barth. St. Hilaire. In the Bibl. Indica and the Benares Pundit many highly important edi- tions of texts have appeared, and we are now in possession of the Sutras of all the six systems, together with their leading commentaries, three of them in translation also. See also in particular the San'o-dariana- samgraha of llddhava in the, Biil. Ind. (1853-58), edited by Kvara- chandra Vidydsilgarii, and Hall's Bibliographical Index to the Ind. Phil. Syst. (1859). t Of the Taittiriya and Atharvan, as also in the fourteenth book of the Nirukti, and in the Bhagavad-gitit. As regards its sense, the term is rather obscure and not very signi- ficant ; can its use have been in any way influenced and determined by its association with the doctrine ot &lkya? or has it reference purely and solely to the twenty-five prin- ciples ? [The latter is really the case ; see I. St., ix. 17 ff. Kapilas tutivsi-samhhydtd, Bhdg. Pur., iii, 25. I.] 236 SANSKRIT LITERATURE. as disciple of Yajnavalkya, and as only one or a few gene- rations prior to Yaska). Kapila, again, can hardly be unconnected with the Kapya Patamchala whom we find mentioned in the Yajnavalkiya-kanda of the Vrihad- Aranyaka as a zealous representative of the Brahmanical learning. Kapila, too — what is not recorded of any other of these reputed authors of Siitras— was himself afterwards elevated to divine rank ; and in this quality we meet with him, for example, in the Sveta^vataropanishad.* But it is above all the close connection of his tenets withBuddhism^*^ — the legends of which, moreover, uniformly speak both of him and of Pancha^ikha as long anterior to Buddha — which proves conclusively that the system bearing his name is to be regarded as the oldest.^*^ The question as to the possible date of Kapila is thus closely linked with that of the origin of Buddhism generally, a point to which we shall revert in the sequel, in connection with our survey of the Buddhistic literature. Two other leading doctors of the Samkhya school as such appear towards the sixth century of our era, l^vara- Krishna and Gaudapada: the former (according to Colebrooke, i. 103) is expressly stated * In the invocations of the Pitris explanation of this, when he says which(seeabove, pp.SS,56)formpart tliat the existinu; Sitras of Kapila of the ordinary ceremonial, Kapila, are "of later date, posterior, not Asuri, PaftchaiSikha (and with them anterior, to Uuddha." On the sub- a Vodha or Bo^ha), uniformly oc- jeot itself, see specially /. St., iii. copy a veiy honourable place in later 132, 133. times ; whereas notice is more rarely "' In the snored texts of the taken of the remaining authors of Jainaa also, not only is the Satthi- philosophical Siitras, &e. This too tanta {Shashfi-tantra, explained by proves that the former are more tlie comm. as Kdpila-Sdstra) speci- ancient than the latter. fied along with the four Vedas ^*^ This relates, according to Wil- and their Aagas, but in another son, to the community of the funda- passage the name Kdvila appears mentalpropositionsof both in regard along with it, the only other Brah- to " the eternity of matter, the prin- manical system here mentioned be- ciples of things, and the iinal extinc- ingthe Ba'isesiya (Vaiseshika). (The tion" (Wilson, Woi-ks, ii. 346, ed. order in which they are given is Rest.). In opposition to this, it is Ba'isesiya, Buddha -sdsana, Kdvila, true. Max Miillerexpressly denies any Logdya^a, Satthi-tanta.) So also in special connection whatever between a similar enumeration in the Lalita- Kapila's system, as embodied in the vistara, after Sdijikhya Yoga, only Siitras, and Buddhist metaphysics VaiiSeshika is further specified. See {Chips from, a Oerman Workshop, i. my paper on the Bhagavatl of the 226, 1870) ; yet he himself imme- Jainas, ii. 246-248. diately afterwards gives the correct PHILOSOPHY; THE YOGA SYSTEM. 237 to be the author of the existing Samkhya-Siitra, while the latter embodied its doctrine in several Upanishads.^^" Connected with the Samkhya school, as a further deve- lopment of it, is the Yoga system of Patamjali,^'- whose name describes him as in all probability a descendant of the Kapya Patamchala of the Vrihad-Aranyaka. Along with him (or prior to him) Yajnavalkya, the leading authority of the Satapatha-Brahmana, is also regarded as a main originator of the Yoga doctrine, but this only in later writings.* Whether Patamjali is to be identified with the ™ The ?. M, G., xxvii. 167. According to Biihler's letter (/. St., xiv. 402 ff.), Abhinavagupta is supposed to have died in a.d. 982 ; but Biihler has not himself verified the date, which is stated to occur in the hymn written by Abhinava on his deathbed. * Particularly in the twelfth book of the Mahit-Bhilrata, where, with Janaka, be is virtually described as a Buddhist teacher, the chief out- ward badge of these teachers being precisely the Icdshdya ■ dhdranam maundyam (M.-Bh., xii. 11898, 566). It appears, at all events, from the Yitjnavalklya-kitnda that both gave a powerful impulse to the practice of religious mendicancy : in the Atharvopaniahads, too, this is clearly shown (see p. 163). [In the Yijaa- 238 SANSKRIT LITERATURE. author of the Mahabhashya remains for the present a ques- tion. The word yoga, in the sense of 'union with the tiupreme Being,' ' absorption therein by virtue of medita- tion,' first occurs in the later Upanishads, especially in the tenth book of the Taittiriya-Aranyaka and in the Kathako- panishad, where this very doctrine is itself enunciated.^^^ As there presented, it seems to rest substantially upon a dualism, that is, upon the ' arrangement ' theory of the iiniverse ; in this sense, however, that in the Kathakopani- shad at least, purusha, primeval soul, is conceived as exist- ing prior to avyahta, primordial matter, from the union of which two principles the mahdn dtmd, or spirit of life, is evolved. Por the rest, its special connection with the Samkhya system is still, in its details, somewhat obscure, however well attested it is externally by the constant juxtaposition of ' Samkhya- Yoga,' generally as a com- pound. Both systems appear, in particular, to have coun- tenanced a confounding of their purusha, iivara with the chief divinities of the popular religion, Eudra and Krishna, as may be gathered from the Svetaivataropanishad,^^^" the Bhagavad-gita, and many passages in the twelfth book of the Maha-Bharata."' One very peculiar side of the Yoga valkya-Smriti, iii. no, T. describes of view of literary chronology no liimself ostensibly as the author of forcible objection can be brought the Arariyaka as well as of the Yoga- against this ; some of the points, S^stra.] too, which he urges are not without ^^'^ It is in these and similar Upa- importance ; but on the whole he nishads, as also in Manu's Dharma- has greatly over-estimated the scope Siistra (of. Joliiiiitgen's Essay on the of his argument: the question is Law-Book of Manu, 1863), that we still aubjudice. have to look for the earliest germs * More particularly with regard and records of the atheistic Sdipkhya to the Bhdgavata, Pdncharittra, and and the deistic Toga systems. Pd^upata doctrines. [A. Stitra of *^2* In my paper on the SvetiMva- the Piiiloharsttraschool, that, namely, taropanishad I had to leave the point of Siindilya (ed. by Ballantyue in the undetermined whether, for the Jiibl. Jndica, 1861), is apparently period to which this work belongs, mentioned by ^amkara, Veddnta-S. and specially as regards the mono- Bh. ii. 2. 45. It rests, seemingly, theistic Yoga system it embodies, an upon the Bhagavad-gitsi, and lays acquaintance with the corresponding special stress upon faith in the Su- doctrines of Christianity is to be premeBeing(J/ia^are); seeonit assumed or not ; see I. St., i. 423. Cowell's note in Colebrooke's Misc. Lorinser, on the other hand, in his i'ss.,i.438. Onthedevelopmentofthe translation of the Bliagavad-gitii doutiiiie of bhakti, Wilson surmises (Breslau, 1869). unreservedly as- Christian conceptions to have had Buraes such an acquaintance in the some influence; seemy paper on the case of this poem. From the point lldm. Tdp. Up., pp. 277, 360. The PHILOSOPHY: THE TWO MIMANSAS. 239 dDctrine — and one which was more and more exclusive]y developed as time went on — is the Yoga practice ; that is, the outward means, such as penances, mortifications, and the like, whereby this absorption into the supreme God- head is sought to be attained. In the epic poems, but especially in the Atharvopanishads, we encounter it in full force : Panini, too, teaches the formation of the term yogin. The most flourishing epoch of the Samkhya-Yoga be- longs most probably to the first centuries of our era, the influence it exercised upon the development of Gnosticism in Asia Minor being unmistakable ; while further, both through this channel and afterwards directly also, it had an important influence upon the growth of the Siifl philo- sophy.* Albiriini translated Patamjali's work into Arabic at the beginning of the eleventh century, and also, it would appear, the Sarnkhya-Siitra,t though the information we have as to the contents of these works does not harmonise with the Sanskrit originals. The doctrines of the two MimdnsAs appear to have been reduced to their present systematic shape at a later period than those of the Samkhya ; ^^ and, as indicated by their respective names, in the case of the F'^rva-Mimdnsd earlier than in the case of the Uttara-Mimdnsd. The essential purpose of both Mimansas is to bring the doctrines enun- ciated in the Brahmanas or sacred revelation into harmony and accord with each other. Precepts relating to practice form the subject of the Piirva-Mimansa, which is hence also styled Karma - Mimdnsd ; while doctrines regarding the essence of the creative principle and its relation to the N&ada-Pafiehariltra (edited in Bill, very questionable. Besides, as we Ind. by K. M. Banerjea, 1861-65) is shall presently see, in both the aritual,notaphilosophioal,Vaish9ava Mimiinsti-Sdtras teachers are repeat- text-book.] ' edly cited who ai-e known to us from * See [Lassen, I. AK., iii. 379 ff.] the Vedio Stitra literature ; while Gildemeister, Script. Arab, de reb. nothing of the kind occurs in either Ind. p. 112 ff. of the S&nkhya-pravachana-Siitras. tReinaud in the Joui-n. Asiat., This does not of course touch the 1844, pp. 121-124 ; H. M. Elliot, point of the higher antiquity of the mbl. Index to the Hist, of Mnham- doctrines in question ; for the names tiedan India,, i. 100. Kapila, Pata^liali, and Yitjnavalkya 25S Now that the antiquity of the distinctly carry us back to a far ra«onJ form of the Samkhya-SHtras, earlier time than do the nanaea according to Hall, has become so Jaimiui and Bildai-dyana— namely, exceedingly doubtful, the view above into the closing phases of the Bv^h« expressed also becomes in its turn mana literature itself. 240 SANSKRIT LITER A TURE. universe form the subject of the Uttara-Mimansa, which is hence also designated Brahma - Mimdnsd, Sdnraka- Ilimd-ksd (' doctrine of embodied spirit'), or also Veddnta (' end of the Veda '). The term ' Mimansa ' originally de- notes merely speculation in general ; it occurs frequently in this sense in the Brahmanas, and only became a technical expression later,^^* as is probably the case also with ' Ve- ddnta,' a word first occurring in the later Upanishads, in the tenth book of the Taittiriya-Aranyaka, the Kathako- panishad, Mundakopanishad, &c. The Karma- Mimdnsd- S'(htra is ascribed to Jaimini, who is mentioned in the Puranas as the revealer of the Samaveda, though we search in vain in Vedic literature for any hint of his name* Still, of the teachers who ^^* In the Maliiibliilshya, mimdn- saka, according to Kaiyata, is to he taken in the sense of mimdnsdm adhlte; and as the term also occurs therein contradistinction to auhthiha, it might, in point of fact, refer to the subject o£ the Ptirva-Mimslnsi. Still the proper word here for one speci- ally devoted to such studies would rather seem to he ydjnika; see /. St., xiii. 455, 466. * With the exception of two probably interpolated passages in the Grihya-Siitras of the Rik (see pp. 56-58), — Nor is there anything bearing on it in the Ganapdtha of Piinini — of which, indeed, for the present, only a negative use can be made, and even this only with pro- per caution. But as the word is ir- regularly formed (from Jeman we should expect Jaimani), this circum- stance may here, perhaps, carry some weight. [Apparently it is not found in the Mahibhdshya either ; see I. St., xiii. 455. On the other hand, the namejaiminioccursintheconcludiiig vanSa of the Sdma-vidliiina-Bnthiii. (v. /. St. , iv. 377), and here the bearer of it is described as the disciple of Vydsa PilriMarya, and preceptor of a Paushpindya, which answers exactly to the statement in the Vishnu-Pur., iii. 6. I, 4, where he appears as the teacher of Paushpirnji (of. also Ra- ghuv., 18. 32, 33). The special re- lation of Jaimini to the Sima-Veda appears also from the statements in the Rig-Grihyas (see note 49 above), which agi-ee with Vishnu-Pur., iii. 4. 8, 9. Indeed, the Charana-vytiha specifies a Jaiminiya recension of the Sdman ; and this recension ap- pears to be still in existence (see note 60 above). In the Pravara section of the Ai^val.-Srauta-S., xii. 10, the Jaiminis are chissed as be- longing to the Bhrigns. — All this, however, does not afford us any direct clue to the date of our Jai- mini above, whose work, besidi-s, is properly more related to the Yajur- than to the Sdma-Veda. According to the P.iSlchatantra, the ' Mimiinsilkrit' Jaimini was killed by an elephant — a statement which, considering the antiquity of this work, is always of some value ; al- though, on the other hand, unfortun- ately, in consequence of the many changes its text has undergone, we have no guarantee that this parti- cular notice formed part of the orig- inal text which found its way to Persia in the sixth century (cf. /. St., viii. 159). — There is also an astro- logical (Jdtaka) treatise which goes by the name of Jaimini-Siitra ; see Caial. of Sh: MS3. N. W. Pro: (1874), rP- S08, 510, 514, 532.] PHILOSOPHY: KARMA-MIMANSA. 241 are cited in tins Siitra — Atreya, Badari, Badarayana, Labukayana (?),^^^ Aiti^ayana — the names of the first and second, at all events, may be pointed out in the Taittirfya- Prati^akhya and the Srauta-Siitra of Katyayana respec- tively ; while we meet with the family of the Aitaiayanas in the Kaushltaki-Brahmana* Badarayana is the name of the author of the Brahma-Mimansa- Siitra ; but it by no means follows from the mention of him here that his Siitra is older than the Siitra of Jaimini ; for not only may the name, as a patronymic, have designated other persons besides, but in the Siitra of the Brahma-Mimansa, the case is exactly reversed, and Jaimini in his turn is mentioned there. All that results from this, as well as from the fact of each Siitra frequently citing its own reputed author, is rather that these Siitras were not really composed by these teachers themselves, but only by their respective schools.t The name Badarayana is not to be found " in Panini," as has recently been erroneously as- serted,! ^^*' oiily i^ '^'^ gana-pdtha to Panini, not a very sure authority for the present. — As leading expounders of the Jaimini-Siitra we have mention of Sabara-svamin,^^ and, after him, of Kumarila-bhatta ; ^^^* the latter is said to have flourished prior to Samkara.§ ^^^ In tlie passage in question (vi. ^^ This commentary of ^abara- 7. 37) ought we not to read Ldma- Evdmin, which is even cited by kdyana? This is the n.ame of a Samkara {Yeddnta-Sii,tra-lh.,ia. 3. teacher who is several times men- 53), witli the text of Jaimini itself, tioned in the Sstma-Siitras ; see /. is at present still in course of publi- St., iv. 384, 373. — The apparent cation in the &'6Z. 7n(i. , ed. by Ma- mention of Buddha in i. 2. 33 (bud- he^achandra Kydyaratna (begun in dlia-idslrdt) is only apparent: here 1863 ; the last part, 1871, brings it the word 'buddha' has nothing down to ix. i. 5). — MSdhava's Jai- whatever to do with the name xninly.T-nyitya-miilil-vistara, edited by 'Buddlia.'^ — To the above names Goldsilicker (1865 ff.), is also still must, however, be added Kirshiid- unfinished; see my 7. iS<7'. , ii. 376 ff. jini (iv. 3. 17, vi. 7. 35) and Kdmu- ^^^ Who appears also to have kSyana (xi. I. 51); the former of borne the odd name of Tutslta or even these is found also in K^tydyana and Tutttita. At all events, Tautitika, in the Veddnta- Siitra, the latter or Taut&ita, is interpreted by the only in the gafyi ' Nada.' scholiast of the Prabodha-chandro- * XXX. 5, where they are charac- daya, 20. 9, ed. Brockhans, to mean tensed as the scum of the Bhrigu Kumdrila ; and the same explana- Vme, " pdjiishthd BhrigHndm." tion is given by Aufrecht in his + See Colebrooke, i. it)2, 103, 328, Catalogus, p. 247, in the case of the and above p. 49. Tautdtitas mentitmed in Mddhava'a J By Max Miiller in his otherwise Sarva-darsana-saingraha. most valuable contributions to our § See Colebrooke, i. 298 : yet the knowledge of Indian philosophy in tolerably modern title bliatta awak- the Z. I). M. 0., vi. 9. ens some doubt as to th s : it may Q 242 SANSKRIT LITERATURE. The Brahma-SAtra * belongs, as we have just seen, to Badarayana. The notion that creation is but Illusion, and that the transcendental Brahman is alone the Eeal, but throning in absolute infinitude without any personal exist- ence, is the fundamental doctrine of this system. The attempt is here made to demonstrate that this doctrine is the end and aim of the Veda itself, by bringing all Vedio passages into harmony with this monotheistic pantheism, and by refuting the various views of the Samkhya, or atheistic, the Yoga, or theistic, and the Nyaya, or deistic schools, &c. The notice thus taken of the other systems would of itself seem to prove the posteriority of the Brahma- Siitra; still, it is for the present uncertain whether its polemic is in fact directed against these systems in the form in which we now have them, or merely perhaps against tlie original tenets out of which these systems have sprung. The teacliers' names, at least, which are mentioned in the , Brahma-Sutra recur to a large extent in the Srauta-Sutras ; for example, A^marathya in A^valaya- na ; f Badari, Karshnajini and Ka^akritsni in Katyayana [see above, p. 139], and, lastly, Atreya in the Taittiriya- Prati^akhya. The name Audulomi belongs exclusively to the Brahma- Siitra.^^' The mention of Jaimini and of Badarayana Idmself has been already touched upon. — Windischmann in his excellent "^amkara" (Bonn, 1832) not have belonged to him originally example of the new Kalpas, in con- perhaps? [According to Cowell, tradistinctiou to the earlier onea, note to Colebroote's Misc. Ess., i. and so is regarded as of the same 323, there actually occur in Samkara age with Pdnini. If, as is likely, "allusions to Kumiirila-bhatta, if the scholiast took this illustration no direct mention of him ; " the from the MahilbhiiBhya [but this is title bhatta belongs quite specially not the case ; v. /. St. , xiii. 455], ti) him : " he is emphatically de- then this statement is important, signed byhis title Bhatta." For the Imay mention in passing that A^ma- rest, this title belongs ' likewise to rathya occurs in the gana ' Garga ; ' Bha^ta-BhSskara-MiiSra and Bhattot- Audulomi in the gana 'Bdhu ;' Krish- pala, and therefore is not by any ndjina in the (/areas 'Tika' and 'Upa- means 'tolerably modern.'] ka;' in the latter also Kil&kritsna. * This' name itself occurs in the The Gana-pitha, however, is a most Bhagavad-gitsl, xiii. 4, but here it nnoertain authority, and for Pdnini's may be taken as an appellative rather time without weight, than as a proper name. ^^'' It is found in the Mahdbhiisliya f We, have already seen (p. 53) also, on Pilnini, iv. I. 85, 78; see that the AiSmarathah Kalpah is in- /. St., xiii. 415. stanced by Pdnini's aolioliast as an PHILOSOPHY: BRAHMA-MIMANSA. 243 Ims attempted directly to fix the age of the Brahma- Sutra. For Badarayaija bears also the additional title of Vyasa, whence, too, the Brahma-Siitra is expressly styled Vyasa- Sutra. Now, in the Samkara-vijaya — a biography of the celebrated Vedauta commentator ^amkara, reputed to be by one of his disciples — we find it stated (see Windisch- mann, p. Sj ; Colebrooke, i. 104) that Vyasa was the name of the father of Suka, one of whose disciples was Gauda- pada, the teacher of Govindanatha, wlio again was the preceptor of Samkara ; ^^^ so that the date of this Vyasa might be conjecturally set down as from two to three centuries prior to ^amkai-a, that is, between 400 and 500 A.D. But the point must remain for the present undeter- miued,* since it is opeu to question whether this Vyasa ought really to be identified with Vyasa Badarayana, though this appears to me at least very probable.-^^ ■-°* See now in Autrecht'a Cata- Ingus, p. 255'', the pa8sa£;e in ques- tiim from Midhava's (!) Samkara- vijaya, V. 5 (rather v. 105, according to the ed. of tlie work published at Bombay in 1864 with Dhanapati- suri's commentary), and ibid., p. 227"*, the same statements from uiiother work. The Saipkara-vijaya of Anandagiri, on the contrary, Anfrecht, p. 247 ff. (now also in the Bibl. Jnil. , edited by Jayanitrilyana, 1S64-1868), contains nothing of this. ' * Samkara, on Brahma-Sdtra, iii. 3. 32, mentions that ApiSntaratamas lived as Krishna-Dvaipityana at the time of the transition from the Kali to the Dvslp.ira yuga; and from the fact of hia not at the same time ex- pressly stating that this was Vyd^a Bildardydna, author of the Bralima- Sdtra, Windisclimanu concludes, and justly, that in isaqikara's eyes the two personages were distinct. In the Mah!l-Bh!ir.n.ta, on the oon- traiy, xii. 12158 fif., Suka is expressly given as the son of Krishna Dvai- pdyona (Vydsa Pdrfisarya). l!ut the episode in question is certainly one of the very latest insertions, as is clear from the allusion to the Chi- nas and Hi:inas, the Chinese and Huns. ''^ In the meantime, the name Bddarsiyana is only known to occur, besides, in the closing vayisa of thd Sdma-Vidhdna-Br. ; see /. SK, iv. 377 ; and here the bearer of it ap- peal's as the disciple of Pdri^arj'iiya- ^a, four steps later than Vyasa Pdrd- ^arya, and three later than Jaimini, but, on tlie other hand, as the teaeher (!) of Tiindiu and Sdtydyanin. Besides being mentioned in Jaimini, he is also cited in the Sdndilya-Siitra. In Varilha-Mihira and Bhattotpala an astronomer of this name is re- ferred to ; and he, in his turn, ac- cording to Aufrecht {Cataiogus, p. 329"), alludes, in « passage quoted from hini by TJtpala, to the *Yavana' vriddhds,' and, according to Kern, Pref. to Brih. Samh., p. 51, "ex- hibits many Greek words." — The text of the Brabma-SB\a.ted c'^vas, Subhagasena (?). Seleucus in I}id. Antig., ii. 143 ff., 1873. even gave Chandragupta his daugli- ^^ According to GoldstUcker, the ter to wife ; Lassen, /. AK., ii. statement in the MahdbhiEshya as to 208 ; Talboys Wheeler, JSistory of a then recent siege of Sdketa (Oude) /ndio (1874), p. 177. Intheretinue by a Yavana prince has reference to of this Greek princess there of Menander ; while the accounts in course came to Pdtaliputra Greek the Yuga-Puritna of the GdrgI Saqi- damsels as her waiting-maids, and hitd even speak of an expedition cf these must have found particular the Yavanas as far as Pdtaliputra. favour in the eyes of the Indians, But then the question arises, whether especially of their princes. For not by the Yavanas it is really the only are irapBivot eietScts rpis iraX- Greeks who are meant (see /. Str., \aKlav mentioned as an article of ii. 348), or possibly merely their traffic for India, but in Indian in- Indo-Scythian or other successors, scriptions also we find Yavana girls 252 SANSKRIT LITERA TV RE. of Piyadasi we find mention of the names of Antigonus, Magas, Antiochus, Ptolemy, perhaps even of Alexander himself (cf. p. 179), ostensibly as vassals of the king, which is of course mere empty boasting. As the result of these embassies, the commercial intercourse between Alexandria and the west coast of India became particu- larly brisk ; and the city of Ujjayini, 'O^rjv)], rose in con-r sequence to a high pitch of prosperity. Philostratus, in his life of ApoUonius of Tyana — a work written in the second century A.D., and based mainly on the accounts of Damis, a disciple of ApoUonius, who accompanied the latter in his travels through India about the year 50 A.D. — mentions the high esteem in which Greek literature was held by the Brahmans, and that it was studied by almost all persons of the higher ranks. (Reinaud, Mdm. sur I'Inde, ■()p. 85, 87.) This is not very high authority, it is true [cf. Lassen, I. AK., iii. 358 ff.] ; the statement may be an exaggeration, but still it accords with the data which we have now to adduce, and which can only be explained upon the supposition of a very lively intellectual inter- change. For the Indian astronomers regularly speak of the Yavanas as their teachers : but whether this also ap- plies to Para^ara, who is reputed to be the oldest Indian astronomer, is still uncertain. To judge from the quota- tions, he computes by the lunar mansions, and would seem, accordingly, to stand upon an independent footing. But of Garga,* who passes for the next oldest astronomer, specified as tribute ; while in Inditin * The name of Par!li5iira, as well literature, and especially in Kdli- as that of Garga, belongs only to diisa, we are informed that Indian the last stage of Vedio literature, to princes were waited upon by Ya- the Aranyakas and the Sutras : in vanis; Laasen, /. AK., ii. 55'- 957> f^® earlier works neither of the two 1 1 59, and my Preface to the Mdla- names is mentioned. The family ■vik^ p. xlvii. The ■mitier of these of the Parjt^aras is represented with damsels being devoted to Eros, it particular frequency in the later is not a very far-fetched conjecture members of the vanias of the Sata- that it may have been owing to patha-Brdhraana : a Garga and a their influence that the Hindd god Pardrfara are also named in the of Love, like the Greek Eros, bears AnukramanI as Rishis of several ii dolphin (makara) on his banner, hymns of the Rik, and another and, like him, is the son of the Par&iara appears in Pdnini as author goddess of Beauty ; see Z. D. M. G., of the Bhikshu-Sdtra; see pp. 143, xiv. 269. (For makara = dolphin, 185. [The Gargas must have played see Journ. Bomb. Br. R. A. §., v. a very important part at the time of 33> 34; f. ^*''-> "■ 169); and cf. the Mahitbhiishya, in the eyes of the further /. St., is. 380.] author at all events; for on almost ASTRONOMY: GREEK INFLUENCE. =53 an oft-quoted verse has come down to ns, in which he extols the Yavanas on account of their astronomical knowledge. The epic tradition, again, gives as the earliest astronomer the Asura Maya, and asserts that to him the sun-god himself imparted the knowledge of the stars. I have already elsewhere (/. St., ii. 243) expressed the con- jecture that this 'Asura Maya' is identical with the ' Ptolemaios ' of the Greeks ; since this latter name, as we see from the inscriptions of Piyadasi, became in Indian ' Turamaya,' out of which the name ' Asura Maya' might very easily grow ; and since, by the later tradition (that of the Jnana-bhaskara, for instance) this Maya is dis- tinctly assigned to Eomaka-pura * in the "West. Lastly, of the five Siddhantas named as the earliest astronomi- cal systems, one — the Eomaka-Siddhanta — is denoted, by its very name, as of Greek origin ; while a second — the Paulila-Siddhanta — is expressly stated by Albiriinif to have been composed by Paulus al Yiinani, and is accord- ingly, perhaps, to be regarded as a translation of the Ela-wymyt] of Paulus Alexandrinus.^^^ The astronomers every occasion when it is a question of a patronymic or other similar affix, their name is introduced among those given as examples ; see /. St., xiii. 410 ff. In the Atharva-Pari^islitas, also, we find Garga, G([rgya, Vriddha-Garga cited: these latter Gargas are manifestly very closely related to the above- mentioned Garga the astronomer. See further Kern, Pref. to Vaniha- Mihira's Brih. Sarah., p. 31 ff. ; /. Str., ii. 347.] * See my Catal. of the Sansh. MSS. in the Berl. Lib., p. 288. In reference to the name Itomaka, I may make an observation in passing. Whereas, in Mahi - Bh£[rata xii. 10308, the Baumyas are said to have been created from the roma- hipas (' hair-pores ') of Virabhadra, at the destruction of Daksha's sac- rifice, at the time of Rdm^yana i. 55. 3, their name must have been still unknown, since other tribes are there represented, on a like occasion, as springing from the roma-Mpas. Had the author been acquainted with the name, he would scarcely have failed to make a similar use of it t() that found in the Mahd-Bbfirata. [Cf. my Essay on the EdmiSyana, p. 23 ff.] t Alblnini resided a considerable time in India, in the following of Malimlid of Ghasna, and acquired there a very accurate knowledge of Sanskrit and of Indian literature, of which he has left us a very valuable account, written a.d. 1031. Ex- tracts from this highly important work were communicated byReinaud in the Journ. Asiat. for 1844, and in his Mim. sur I'Inde in 1849 [also by Woepcke, ibid., 1863] : the text, promised so long ago as 1843, and most eagerly looked for ever since, has, unfortunately, not as yet ap- peared. [Ed. Sachau, of Vienna, is at present engaged in editing it; and, from his energy, we may now at length expect that this grievous want will be speedily supplied.] -" Such a direct connection of the Pulisa - Siddhanta with the E/ff07io7i) is attended with difficulty, 254 SANSKRIT LITERA TURE. and astronomical works just instanced — Garga, Maya, the Eomaka-Siddhanta, and the Pauli^a-Siddhanta — are, it is true, known to us only through isolated quotations; and it might still be open to doubt, perhaps, whether in their case the presence of Greek influence can really be established; although the assertion, for instance, that Puli^a, in opposition to Aryabhata,^^^ began the day at midnight, is of itself pretty conclusive as to his Western origin. But all doubt disappears when we look at the great mass of Greek words employed in his writings by Varaha-Mihira, to whom Indian astronomers assigned, in Albiriinfs day, as they still do in our own,* the date 504 A.D. — employed, too, in a way which clearly indicates that they had long been in current use. Nay, one of his works — the Hora-Sastra — even bears a Greek title (from wptj) ; and in it he not only gives the entire list of the Greek names of the zodiacal signs and planets,t but he also directly employs several of the hitter — namely, Ara, Asphujit, and Kona — side by side with the Indian names, and just as frequently as he does these. The signs of the from the fact that the quotations from Puli^a do not accord with it, being rather of an astronomical than an astrological description. That the Waayay^, however, was itself knowntotheHinddSjin some form or other, finds support in the circum- stance that it alone contains nearly the whole of the technical terms adopted by Indian astronomy from the Greek ; see Kern's Preface to his edition of Varilha - Mihira's Brihat-Sainh., p. 49. — Considerable interest attaches to the argument put forward by H. Jacobi in his tract, Be Astrologies Indices Hard AppellatcE Originibus (Bonn, 1872), to the effect that the system of the twelve mansions occurs first in Fir- mious Maternus (a.d. 336-354), and that consequently the Indian Horii- texts, in which these are of such fundamental significance, can only have been composed at a still later date. ^* This, and not Aryabhatta, is the proper spelling of his name, as is shown by the metre in his own work [Ganita-pdda, v. i). This was pointed out by BhSu Diljl in J. R. A. S., i. 392 (1864). * See Colebrooke, ii. 461 (415 ed. Cowell). f These are the following : Kriya kpl6s, Tdvuvi raOpos, Jitunm SiSufiot, K ultra K6\ovpo^ (?), Leya \iuv, Pd- thana irapBivos, Juka i^vydv, Kaurpya cKopwios, Tmthshika to^Sttjs, Akokera alydKepuis, Hfidroga iSpoxios, Ittha IxBis ; further, Heli "HXios, Himna 'EppiTis, Ara "Apvh Ko^iii K/j^pos, Jyau Zeis, Asphujit 'A^poSlrij. Tliese names were made known so long ago as 1827 by C. M. "Whish, in til e first part of the Transactions of the Literary Society of Madras, and have since been frequently pub- lished ; see in particular Lassen, in Zeitsch. f. d. Kunde dcs Morg., iv. 306, 318 (1842) ; lately again in my Catal. of the Sansk. MSS. in the Berl. Lib., p. 238. — fford and hen- dra had long previously been iden- tified by P^re Pons with llspii and Kivrpov; see Lettres Edif,, 26. 236, 237, Paris, 1743. astronomy:: greek technical terms, etc. 255 yodiac, on the contrary, he usually designates by their Sanskrit names, which are translated from the Greek. He has in constant use, too, the following technical terms, all of which are found employed in the same sense in the Elawymyrj of Paulus Alexandrinus, viz.,* drikdna =: SeKav6<;, lipid = Xe-nrri, anaphd = dva(pij, sunaphd = crvva^i], durudhard = hopv^opia, kemadruvia (for krema- duma) = 'x^prjfiaTiafj.o';,^''^ veii = <^dai^, kendra = Kevrpov, dpoklima = aTroKXifia, panaphard = iiTava ; Kem, I. c, p. 29. Andubarius may have been intro- ■ t The C/ironicon Paschale nomi- duced then. 256 SANSKRIT LITERA TURE. in regard to Algebra and Arithmetic in particular, in both of which, it appears, the Hindiis attained, quite indepen- dentlyj^^" to a high degree of proficiency .^^^ It is to them also that we owe the ingenious invention of the numerical symbols,* which in like manner passed from them to the ^° But of. Colebrooke in his famous paper On the Algebra of the Hindus (181 7) in Misc. lias., ii. 446, 401 ed. Co well. Woepoke, indeed (M6m. sur la propagation des Chiffres Indiens, Paris, 1863, pp. 75~9')> ^^ of opinion that the account in the Lalita - Vistara of the problem solved by Buddha on the occasion of his marriage-examination, rela- tive to the number of atoms in the length of a yojana, ia the basis of the ' Arenarius ' of Archimedes (b c. 287-212). But the age of the Lalita- Vistara is by no means so well ascertained that the reverse might not equally well be the case; see I. St., viii. 325, 326 ; Reinaud, Mim. sur I'Inde, p. 303. ''^''- The oldest known trace of these occurs, curiously, in Piflgala's Treatise on Prosody, in the last ciiap- ter of which (presumably a later addi- tion), the permutations of longs and Khorts possible in a metre with a fixed number of syllables are set forth in an enigmatical form ; see /. St., viii. 425 ff., 324-326. — On geometry the ^ulva-Stitras, apper- taining to the Srauta ritual, furnish liighly remarkable information ; see Thibaut's Address to the Aryan Section of the London International Congress of Orientalists, in the special number of TrUbner's Ameri- can avd Orien'al Literary Mecord, 1874, pp. 27, 28, according to whicli these S'dtras even contain attempts at squaring the circle. * The Indian figures from 1-9 are abbreviated forms of the initial letters of the numerals themselves [cf. the similar notation of the musical tones] ; the zero, too, has arisen out of the ,first letter of the word diinya, 'empty ' [it occurs even in Pingala, I. c. It is the decimal place-value of th>-se figures which gives tliem their special significance. Woepokf, iu his above-quoted Mim. sur la jiropiig. des Chiffres Indieni (Journ. Asiat., 1863), is of opinion that even prior to their adoption by the Arabs they had been obtained from India by the Neo-Pythagoreans of Alexandria, and that the so- called Gobar figures are traceable to tliem. But agaiTist this it has to be i-emarkcd that the figures in ques- tion are only one of the latest stages of Indian numerical notation, and that a great many other notations preceded them. According to Ed- ward Thomas, in the Journ. Asiat. for the same year (1863), the earliest instances of the use of these figun.-s belong to the middle of the seventh century ; whereas the employment of the older numerical symbols is demonstrable from the fourth cen- tury downwards. See also /. St., viii. 165, 256. The character of the Valabhi Plates seems to be that whose letters most closely approach the forms of the figures. BurntU has quite recently, in his Elem. S. Ind. Pal., p. 46 ff., questioned alto- getlier the connection of the figures with the first letters of the nume- rals ; and he supposes them, or rather the older ' Cave Kumerals,' from wliich he directly derives them, to have been introduced from Alexandria, "together with Greek Astrology." In this I cannot in the meantime agree with him ; see my remarks in the Jenaer Lit. Z., 1875, No. 24, p. 419. Amongst other things, I there call special attention to the circumstance tha,t Hermann Hankel, in his exoellept work (pos- thumous, unfortunately), Zvr Ge- schichte der Ma(hernaiik (1874), p, 329 ff., declares Woepcke's opinion ASTRONOMY; ARYABHATA. 2S7 Arabs, and from these again to European scliolars."^^ py these latter, who were the disciples of the Arabs, frequent allusion is made to the Indians, and uniformly in terms of high esteem ; and one Sanskrit word even — uchcha, signi- fying the apex of a planet's orbit — has passed, though in a form somewhat difficult to recognise {aux, genit. augis), into the Latin translations of Arabian astronomers ^^ (see Eeinaud, p. 325). As regards the age and order of sequence of the vari- ous Indian astronomers, of whom works or fragments of works stiU. survive, we do not even here escape from the uncertainty which everywhere throughout Indian literature attends questions of the kind. At their head stands the Aryabhata already mentioned, of whose writings we possess at present only a few sorry scraps, though possibly fuller fragments may yet in course of time be recovefed.^^ He appears to have been a contemporary of Puli^a; and, in any case, he was indebted to Greek influence, since he reckons by the zodiacal signs. According to Albiriini, he to tlie effect that the Nco-Pjtha- g jreans were acquainted with the new figures having place-value, and with the zero, to be erroneous, and the entire passage in Boethius ou which this opinion ia grounded to be an interpolation of the tenth or eleventh century]. ^^ See also Woepcke, Sur V Intro- duction de I'ArUhmMique Indienne en Occident (Home, 1859). ^^^ As also, according to Reinaud's ingenious conjecture (p. 373 ff. ), the name of Ujjayiui itself — through a misreading, namely, of the Arabic ,j A as Arin, Arim, whereby the ' meridian of Ujjayiui ' became the 'coupole d'Arin.' 284 The researches of Whitney in Jour. Am. Or. Soc, vi. 560 ff. (i860), and of Bhdu Ddji in J. S. A. S., i. 392 ff. (1865), have brought us full light upon this point. From these it appears that of Aryabhata there are still extant the DaiagM-SiUra and the Aryiisktaiata, both. of which have been already edited by Kern (1874) under the title Arydbhatiya, togetlier with the commentary o£ Paramidi^vara ; cf. A. Bartli in the Revue Critique, 1875, pp. 241-253. According to his own account therein given, Aryabhata was born a.d. 476, lived in Eastern India at Kusuma- pura (Palibothra), aud composed this work at the early age of twenty-three. In itbe teaches,amongstotherthings, a quite peculiar numerical notation by means of letters. — The larger work extant under the title Arya-Sid- dhdnta in eighteen adhydyas is evi- dently a subsequent production ; see Hall in Journ. Am. Or. Soc, vi. 556 (l86o), and Aufrecht, CalcUogus, pp. 325, 326 : Bentley thinks it was not composed until A.S. 1322, and Bh^u Ddji, I. c, pp. 393, 394, be- lieves Bentley "was here for once correct." — Wilson, Marie, Coll., i. 119, and Lassen, /. AK., ii. 1,136, speak also of a commentary by Arya- bhata on the Slirya-Siddhinta : this is doubtless to be ascribed to Lagliu- Aryabljata (Bhtlu Diijl, p. 405). See also Eern, Pref. to Brih. Saiph., p. 59 ff- B 258 SANSKRIT LITERATURE. was a native of Kusumapura, i.e., Pataliputra, and belonged consequently to the east of India. Together with him, the authors of the following five Siddhantas are looked upon as ancient astronomers — namely, the unknowp* author of the Brahma- Siddhdnta or Faitdmaha-Siddhdnta ; next, the author of the Saura-Siddhdnta, who is called Lat by Albiriim, and may possibly be identical with the Lagata, Lagadha mentioned as author of the Vedanga treatise Jyotisha, as well as with Ladha, a writer occasion- ally quoted by Brahmagupta ;t further, Puli^a, author of the Fauli^a-Siddhdnta ; and lastly, Srishena and Vishnu- chandra, to whom the Romaka-Siddh&nta and the Vasishtha- Biddhdnta — works said to be based upon Aryabhata's system ^^ — are respectively attributed. Of these five Sid- dhantas, not one seems to have survived. There exist works, it is true, bearing the names Brahma-Siddhanta, Vasishtha-Siddhanta, Siirya-Siddhanta and Eomaka-Sid- dhanta ; but that these are not the ancient works so en- titled appears from the fact that the quotations from the latter, preserved to ns by the scholiasts, are not contained in them.^^^ In point of fact, three distinct Vasishtha-Sid- dhantas, and, similarly, three distinct Brahma-Siddhantas, * Alblininl names Brahmagupta thepresentonlytheStiryaSiddliiinta as the author of this Brahma-Sid- has been published, with Rafigan^- dlidnta; but this is erroneous. Per- tha's commentary, in the JSiii. /nrf. liaps Reinaud has misunderstood the (1854-59), ed. by Fitzedward Hall passage (p. 332). and B-ipilDeva ^&trin ; also a trans- + Lddha may very well have arisen lation by the latter, ibid, (i860, out of Lagadha; [the form Lstfa, 1861). Simultaneously there ap- however, see Kern, Pref. to Brih. peared in the Joiirn. Am,. Or. Soc., Siimh., p. S3, points rather to Aa/)iK'^]. vol. vi., a, translation, nominally by '■"^ Aa also upon L^ta, Vasishtha, Eb. Burgess, with an excellent and and Vijayanandin, according to very thorough commentary by W. Blidu T>i]l, I. c, p. 408. In the D. Whitney, who has recently (see latter's opinion the Romaka-Sid- Oriental and Livguistic Studies, ii. dhdnta is to be assigned to Sake 427 360) assumed " the eutire responsi- (a.d. 505), and was "composed iu bility for that publication in all its acoordanoe with the work nf some parts." In his view, p. 326, the Roman or Greek author." Bhattot- Sdrya-Siddhinta is "one of the pala likewise mentioiiii, amongst most ancient and original of the <)thei;s, a Yavane^vara Sphujidhvaja works which present the modern (or Asph»), a name in which Bhitu astronomical science of the Hindus ;" Biji looks for a Spe\isippusi but but how far the existing text "is Kern (Pref. to Brih. Saiph., p. 48) identical in substance and extent for an Aphrodisius. with that of the original Sdrya-Sid- **" See on this point Kern, Pref. dhdnta " is for the present doubtful. to Brih. Saiph., pp. 43-50. Up to Of. Kern, I, c, pp. 44-46. ASTRONOMY, VARAHA-MIHIRA. 259 are cited. One of these last, which expressly purports to be a recast* of an earlier work, has for its author Brahma- gupta, whose date, according to Albiriinf, is the year a.d. 664, which corresponds pretty closely with the date assigned to him hy the modern astronomers of Ujjayini, A.D. 628.^' To him also belongs, according to Albininl,t a work named Ahargava, corrupted by the Arabs into Arlcamd, This Arkand, the Sindhends (i.e., the five Siddhantas), and the system of Arjabahr (Aryathata) were the works which, as already remarked, were principally studied and in part translated by the Arabs in the eighth and ninth centuries. — On the other hand, the Arabs do not mention Varaha- Mihira, although he was prior to Brahmagupta, as the latter repeatedly alludes to him, and although he gathered up the teaching of these five Siddhantas in a work which is hence styled by the commentators Panchasiddhdntikd, but which he himself calls by the name KArana. This work seems to have perished,^^* and only the astrological works of Varaha-Mihira have come down to us — namely, the Sanihitd { and the Hord-^dstra. The latter, however, is * Albii-dnl gives a notice of the contents of this recast : it and tiie Pauliia-Siddhstnta were the ouly two of these Siddhantas he was able to procure. ^' This latter date, is based on }iis own words in the Brdhtua Sphuta- Siddbiinta, 24. 7, 8, which, as there stated, be composed 550 years after the Saka-tifqidla (°jidntaf), at the age of thirty. He here calls him- self the son of Jishnu, and he lived iinder Sri- Vytighramukha of the SrI-Chdpa dynasty ; Bhiiu Dstjl, I. c. , p. 410. Pyithlidakasvitmiu, his scholiast, describes him, curiously, as Bhilla-Mdlavakiicbitrya; see Z. D. M. ed. Wilson. [ b^or a complete list and examination of the names of teachers quoted in the Brihat-Saiphitd, among whom .are Biidardyana and Kanabhuj, see Kern's Preface, p. 29 ff.] ^"' Kern, Preface, p. 51, remarks that, according to Utpala, he was also called Bhadatta ; but Aufrecht in his Cataloffus, p. 329% has Bha- danta. In the Jyotirvid-dbharana, Satya stands at the head of the sages at Vikrama's court ; see Z. D. M. (?., xxii. 722, xxiv. 400. '"^ And as a matter of fact we find in Bhattotpala a quotation from this work in which he is mentioned ; see Kern, /. R. A. S., xx. 383 (1863); Blidu Ddji, I. c, 406. In another such quotation Vantha-Mihira refers to the year 427 of the Saka-kiila, and also to the Roraaka-Siddhiinta and Paulii5a ; Bhdu Diiji, p. 407. ^^ This statement of Colebrooke's, ii. 475 (428 ed. Cowell), of. also Lassen, /. AK., ii. 50, is unfounded. According to Kern, Preface, p. 6 ff., both in Vardha-Mihira and Ut- pala, only the so-called era of SSlivit hana is meant. ASTJiONOMY : BHASKARA. 261 ing to these he flourished in a.d. 504.^^^ Now this is at variance, on the one hand, with the tradition which re- gards him as one of the ' nine gems ' of Vikrama's court, and which identifies the latter with king Bhoja,^°* who reigned about a.d. 1050;^'^ and, on the other hand, also with the assertion of the astronomer ^atananda, who, in the introduction to his Bhasvati-karana, seemingly ac- knowledges himself to be the disciple of Mihira, and at the same time states that he composed this work ^ake, 1021 ( = A.l). 1099). This passage, however, is obscure, and may perhaps refer merely to tlie instruction drawn by the author from Mihira's writings;* otherwise we should have to admit the existence of a second Varaha- Mihira, who flourished in the middle of the eleventh cen- tury, that is, contemporaneously with Albiriini Strange in that case that the latter should not have mentioned him ! After Varaha-Mihira and Brahmagupta various other astronomers distinguished themselves. Of these, the most eminent is Bhaskara, to the question of whose age, how- ever, a peculiar difficulty attaches. According to his own account, he was born Sake. 1036 (a.d. i i 14), and completed the Siddhanta-^iromani Sake, 1072 (a.d. 1150), and the Karana-kutiihala (S^aie 1105 (a.d. 1183); and with this the modern astronomers agree, who assign to him the date &ake, 1072 (A.D. 1150).^^ But Albinini, who wrote in A.D. ^' Kern, Preface, p. 3, thinks ii5., p. 234) — seems to speak of this is perhaps his birth year : the l]im8elf as living ^oike^l'] (a.d. 995). year of his death being given by How is this contradiction to be ex- Amar^ja,ascholiaston Brahmagupta, plained? See Colebrooke, ii. 390 as ^aki 509 (a.d. 587). [341 ed. Cowell. The passage in ^* This identification fails of question probably does not refer to course. If Vardha - Mihira really the author's lifetime ; unfortunately was one of the ' nine gems ' of Vi- it is so uncertain that I do not under- krama's court, then this particular stand its real meaning. As, how- Vikrama must simply have reigned ever, there is mention immediately in the sixth century. But the pre- before of Kali 4200=a.d. 1099, ex- limiuary question is whether he was actly as in Colebrooke, this date is one of these 'gems.' See the state- pretty well established. — The allu- ments of the Jyotirvid-dbharana, sion to Jlihira might possibly, as ;, c. indicated by the scholiast Balabhadra, ^' See, e.g., Aufrecht, Catalogut, not refer to Vardha-Miiiira at all, p. 327'', 328'. but merely to mihira, the sun !] * Moreover, S^atdnanda, at the ™' This also agrees with an in- close of his work — in a fragment of soription dated Sake II28, and re- it in the Chambers collection (see lating to a grandson of Bhfckarn, my Calal. of the Sansk. MSS. Bed. whose Siddhinta-^iroma^i is hero 262 SANSKRIT LITERATURE. 103 1 (that is, 83 years before Bhasbara's birth !), not merely mentions him, but places his work — here called Karana- sara — 132 years earlier, namely, in a.d. 899 ; so that there is a discrepancy of 284 years between the two accounts. I confess my inability to solve the riddle ; so close is the coincidence as to the personage, that the Jtuj of Albi- riini is expressly described, like the real Bhaskara, as the son of Mahadeva.* But notwithstanding this, we have scarcely any alternative save to separate Albiriini's Ba£h- l:ar, son of Mahdeb, and author of the Karana-sdra, from Bkdskara, son of Mahddeva, and author of the Karana- kut'AhalaP^'' — more especially as, in addition to the dis- crepancy of date, there is this peculiar circumstance, that whereas Albiriini usually represents the Indian Ih by h-h also mentioned in terms o£ high honour ; see Bhiiu Ddji, I. c, pp. 411, 416. Again, in a passage from the Siddhdnta-^iromani, wliioh is cited by Mddhava in the Killa-nirnaya, and which treats of the years having tliree intercalary montlis, tlie year of this description which fell Saka- kdle 974 (a.d. 1052) is placed in the past; the year 1 1 15, on the con- trary (and also 1256, 1378), in the future. — Bhilskara's Llldvati (arith- metic) and Vija-ganita (algebra) have, it is well Icnown, been trans- lated by Colebrooke (1817) ; the former also by Taylor (1816), the latter by Strachey (1818). The Ganitddyilya has been translated by Eoer in the Journ. As. S. Bengal, ix. 153 ff. (r.assen, /. AK., iv. 849) ; of the Golrtdhydya there is a translation by Lancelot Wilkinson in the Bibl. Jnd. (1861-62). To Wilkinson we also owe an edition of the text of the GoUdhydya and Ganitddhyiiyii (1842). The Lililvatl and Vija- ganita appeared in 1832, 1834, like- wise at Calcutta. Biipii Deva Sds- trin has also issued a complete edi- tion (?) of the Siddhitnta-i^iromani (Benares, 1866). Cf. also Herm. JBrookhaus, Ueier die Algebra des Blu'tskara, Leipzig, 1852, vol. iv. of tile Bcriclite der ICSn. Sachs, Ges. der M'issensch., pp. 1-45. * Reinaud, it is trne, reads Mahd- datta with CU instead of <__> ; but in Sanskrit this is an impossible form of name, as it gives no sense, [At the close of the Golddliydya, xiii. 61, as well as of the Karana-kutd- hala, Blidiskara calls his father, not Mahadeva, but Mahe^vara (which of course is in substance identical) ; and he is likewise so styled by Bb&- kara's scholiast Lakshmidhara ; see my Oatal. of the Berl. Sansk. MSS., PP; 235, 237.] ^' This is really the only possible way out of the dilemma. Either, therefore, we have to think of that elder Bbilskara "who was at the head of the commentators of Arya- bhata, and is repeatedly cited by PritbAdakasvilmin, who was himself anterior to the author of the 6iro- mani," Colebrooke, ii. 470 (423 ed. Cowell) ; or else under Keiuaud's jiL^ (pp. 335. 337) tliere lurks not a Bhitskara at all, but perhaps a Pushkara. It is certainly strange, however, that he should be styled I " * .\q^ ^j and author of a Ka- rana-sdra. Can it be that we have here to do with an iuterpolatiou in Alblrtinl ? ASTRONOMY : LATER PERIOD. 263 {e.g., h-huj = hh'Arja, lalb-hadr — halahhadra), and for the most part faithfully preserves the length of the vowels, neither of these is here done in the case of Bashkar, where, moreover, the s is changed into sh. Bhaskara is the last star of Indian astronomy and arithmetic. After his day no further progress was made, and the astronomical science of the Hindus became once more wholly centred in astrology, out of which it had originally sprung. In this last period, under the influence of their Moslem rulers, the Hindiis, in their turn, became the disciples of the Arabs, whose masters they had formerly been.* The same Alkindi who, in the ninth century, had written largely upon Indian astronomy and arithmetic (see Colebrooke, ii. 513; Eeinaud, p. 23) now in turn became an authority in the eyes of the Hindi^s, who studied and translated his writings and those of his suc- cessors. This results indisputably from the numerous Arabic technical expressions which now appear side by side with the Greek terms dating from the earlier period. These latter, it is true, still retain their old position, and it is only for new ideas that new words are intro- duced, particularly in connection with the doctrine of the constellations, which had been developed by the Arabs to a high degree of perfection. Much about the same time, though in some cases perhaps rather earlier, these Arabic works were also translated into another language, namely, into Latin, for the benefit of the European astrologers of the Middle Ages ; and thus it comes that in their writings a number of the very same Arabic technical terms may be pointed out which occur in Indian works. Such temiini techniei of Indian astrology at this period are the foUow- ing:t mukdriiid Xi.Uu, <^ conjvoictioii., mukdvild ^LliU '^ opposition, taravi j-J^/" D quartile aspect, tasdi fjjjj,x^ * Thence is even taken the name translations, .is no Arabic texts on for astrology itself in this period, — .-istrology have been printed, and the namely, tdjiha, tdjika-Mstra, which lexicons arn very meagre in this is to be traced to the Persian . -.h respect. [Cf. now Otto Loth's meri- , *— > torious paper, Al-Kmdi aJi Asirolog — 'Arabic. in the horgenldndische Fm'schvngen, i See /. St., 11. 263 ff. Most of jg^^^ pp_ 263-309, published in these Arabic terms I know in the honour of Fleischer's jubilee.] meantime only from QiedisBval Latin 264 SA NSKRIT LITER A TURE. -^ sextile caspect, taMi ti-oJIj ^ trine aspect; further, Imddn j^ fradio, muiallaha JL^IU*, ikhavdla, JUij per- fectio, induvdra, ,L'jl deterioratio, itthisdla and muthaiila JLii'l and J^c conjunctio, isaraplm and m-dsaripha ^1 _tfl and ... ■ -2^ disjunctio, nakta (for nalda) \^ trans- latio, yamayd V., 1874, p. 423.] 278 SANSKRIT LITERATURE. to observe (pp. 58, 84, 102, 143), is the explanation of the circumstance that most of the names current as authors of Grihya- Sutras are at the same time given as authors of Dharma-Sastras.* The distinction, as a commentator f re- marks, is simply this, that the Grihya- Sutras confine themselves to thepoints^of difference of the various schools, ■whereas the Dharma-Sastras embody the precepts and obligations common to all.^^^ * In the case of Manu, too, there would seem to have existed a Miinava Grihya-Siitra as its basis (?), and the reference to the great an- cestor Manu would thus appear to be only a subsequent one (?). [This surmise of mine, expressed with diffidence here, above at pp. 19, 102, and in I. St., i. 69, has since been generally accepted, and will, it is hoped, find full confirmation in the text of the Miin. Griliyas., which has meanwhile actually come to light. 1 have already pointed out one in- stance of agreement in language with the Yajus texts, in the word ahhini- mruJcta; see /. Str., ii. 209, 210.] t As'Srka on the Karma-pradlpa of Kiityityana. '^' In his Hist, of Anc. Sansh. Lit. (1859), Max Miiller gave some account of the Dharma-Siltra of Apastamba, which is extant under the title Sitmaydehdrika- Sutra. He also characterised three of the Dliar- ma-^dstras printed at Calcutta (the Gautama, Vishnu, and Vasish^ha) as being Dharma-Siitras of a similar kind ; expressing himself generally to the effect (p. 134) that all the metrical Dharma-Siistras we possess are but "more modern texts of earlier Siitra- works or Kula-dharmas belonging originally to certain Vedie Cliaranas." (The only authority cited by him is Stenzler in I. St., i. 232, who, however, in his turn, re- fers to my own earlier account, ibid. PP- S7> 69j I43)- Johiintgen, in his tract, Ueher das Gesetzbuch des Manu (1863), adopted precisely the same view (see, e.g., p . 1 13). Biihler, finally, in the Introduction to the Digest of Hindu Law, edited by him, jointly with R. West (vol. i., 1867), furnished us for the first time with more specific information as to these Dharma-Stitras, which connect themselves with, and in part directly belong to, the Vedic .SAtra stage. In the appendix to this work he likewise communicated various sections on the law of in- heritance from the four Dharma- Siitras above mentioned, and that of Baudhdyana. He also published separately,, in 186S, the entire Sitra of Apastamba, with extracts from Haradatta's commentary and an index of words (187 1). This Siitra, in point of fact, forms (see above, notes 108 and 109) two prahias of the Ap. Srauta-Stitra ; and a similar remark applies to the Sutra of Baudhiiyana. According to Biihler's exposition, to the five Stitras j ust named have to be added the small texts of this class, consist- ing of prose and verse intermingled, which are ascribed to U^anas, Ka- ^yapa, and Budha; and, perhaps, also the Smritis of Hdrita and Sankha. All the other existing Smyitis, ou the contrary, bear a more modern character, and are either (l) metri- cal redactions of ancient Dharma- Stitras, or fragments of such redac- tions (to these belong our Manu and Yiijnavalkya, as well as the Smritis of Nilrada, Pardi^ara, Brihaspati, Saipvarta), — or (2) secondary redac- tions of metrical Dharma-Silstras, — or (3) metrical versionsof theGrihya- Siitras, — or lastly, (4) forgeries of the Hindd sects. — The material in vol. i. of Biihler and West's work has been DHAR.\fA-SASTRAS : CODE OF MANU. 279 As regards the existing text of Manu, it cannot, ap- parently, have been extant in its present shape even at the period to which the later portions of the Maha- Bharata belong. For although Manu is often cited in the epic in literal accordance with the text as we now have it, on the other hand, passages of Manu are just as often quoted there which, while they appear in our text, yet do so with considerable variations. Again, passages are there ascribed to Manu which are nowhere found in our collec- tion, and even passages composed in a totally different metre. And, lastly, passages also occur frequently in the Maha-Bharata which are not attributed to Manu at aU, but which may nevertheless be read verbatim in our text.* Though we may doubtless here assign a large share of the blame to the writers making the quotations (we know from the commentaries how often mistakes have crept in through tlie habit of citing from memory), still, the fact that our text attained its present shape only after having been, perhaps repeatedly, recast, is patent from the numerous inconsistencies, additions, and repetitions it contains. In support of this conclusion, we have, further, not only the fabulous tradition to the effect that the text of Manu con- sisted originally of 100,000 ilolcas, and was abridged, first to 12,000, and eventually to 4000 ilohe based upon these name-syn- Saka kings, with a view to flatter chronisms is that the advent of Bud- him for the zeal he displayed on dha is to be set down as contempor- behalf of Buddhism, aneous with the latest offsets of the '^^ So, too, Johantgen, Ueber das Brahmana literature, i.e., with the Oesetzhuch des JUanu, p. 112, refers ./Cranyakas and older Stitras ; /. St., the traces of Buddiustio notions iii. 158 ff. exhibited in that work specially to + See Csoma Korosi, Journ. As. the school of the Mitnavas, from Soc. Bmg., Aug. 1833 ; Wilson, which it sprang. 286 S UDDHISTIC SANSKRIT LITER A TURK. dha to a period exactly coincident with that of Janaka, and consequently of Tajnavalkya also ; for it specifies a king Ajataiatru as a contemporary of Buddha, and a prince of this name appears in the Vrihad-Aranyaka and the Kaushitaki-Upauishad as the contemporary and rival of Janaka.^^ The other particulars given in Buddhist legend as to the princes of that epoch have, it is true, nothing ana- logous to them in the works just mentioned ; the Ajataiatru of the Buddhists, moreover, is styled prince of Magadha, whereas he of the Vrihad-Aranyaka and the Kaushitaki- Upanishad appears as tlie sovereign of the Ka^is. (The name Ajataiatru occurs elsewhere also, e.g., as a title of Yudhishthira.) Still, there is the further circumstance that, in the fifth kdnda of the ^atapatha-Brahmana, Bhad- rasena, the son of Ajataiatru, is cursed by Aruni, the contemporary of Janaka and Yajnavalkya (see I. St., i. 213); and, as the Buddhists likewise cite a Bhadrasena — at least, as the sixth successor of Ajataiatru — we might almost be tempted to suppose that the curse in question may have been called forth by the heterodox anti- brahmanical opinions of this Bhadrasena. Nothing more precise can at present be made out ; and it is possible that the two Ajata^atrus and the two Bhadrasenas may simply be namesakes, and nothing more — as may be the case also with the Brahmadatta of the Vrihad-Aranyaka and the two kings of the same name of Buddhist legend. — It is, at any rate, significant enough that in these legends the name of the Kuru-Panchalas no longer occurs, either as a com- pound or separately ; ^^ whilst the Pandavas are placed in Buddha's time, and appear as a wild mountain tribe, living by marauding and plunder.* Buddha's teaching was mainly fostered in the district of Magadha, which, as an extreme border province, was perhaps never completely 339 Highly noteworthy also is the mentioned by the Southern Bud- peculiar agreement between Bud- dhists; see/. /S«.,iii. 160, 161. dhist legends and those of the * The allusion to the five Fundus Vrihad-Aranyaka in regard to the Jn the introduction of the Lalita- six teachers whom Ajtofotru and Vistara (Foucaux, p. 26) is probably, Janaka had before they were in- with the whole passage in which Btructedby Buddha and Y£LJnava!kya it occurs, an interpolation, being respectively; see /. St., iii. 156, totally irreconcilable with the other 157. references to the P^ndlivas contained '■^^ The Kurus are repeatedly in the work. TRADITION AS TO BUDDHA'S AGE. 287 bralimanised ; so that the native inhabitants always re- tained a kind of influence, and now gladly seized the opportunity to rid themselves of the brahmanical hier- archy and the system of caste. The hostile allusions to these Magadhas in the Atharva-Samhita (see p. 147 — and in the thirtieth book of the Vajasaneyi-Samliita ? pp. 1 1 1, 1 1 2) might indeed possibly refer to their anti-brahmanical tendencies in times antecedent to Buddhism : the similar allusions in the Sama-Sdtras, on the contrary (see p. 79),^*^ are only to be explained as referring to the actual flourish- ing of Buddhism in Magadha.* With reference to the tradition as to Buddha's age, the various Buddhist eras which commence with the date of his death exhibit the widest divergence from each other. Amongst the Northern Buddhists fourteen different ac- counts are found, ranging from B.C. 2422 to B.C. 546; the eras of the Southern Buddhists, on the contrary, mostly agree with each other, and all of them start from B.C. 544 or 543. This latter chronology has been recently adopted as the correct one, on the ground that it accords best with historical conditions, although even it displays a dis- crepancy of sixty-six years as regards the historically authenticated date of Chandragupta. But the Northern Buddhists, the Tibetans as well as the Chinese — inde- pendently altogether of their era, which may be of later origin than this particular tradition t — agree in placing the reign of king Kanishka, Kanerki, under whom the third (or fourth) Buddhist council was held, 400 years after Buddha's death ; and on the evidence of coins, this Kanishka reigned down to a.d. 40 (see Lassen, /. AK., ii. 412, 413), which would bring down the date of Buddha's death to about the year B.C. 370. Similarly, the Tibetans place Nagarjuna — who, according to the Eaja-taramgini, was contemporaneous with Kanishka — 400 years after the death of Buddha; whereas the Southern Buddhists make him live 500 years after that event. Nothing like '■" And on another occasion, in to the Buddhistic n.imea of the the Baudb^yana-S^tra also; see mountains about Biijagfiha, the cote 126. capital of Magadha, found in Mabii< • For other points of contact in Bhdrata, ii. 799. the later Vedio literature, see pp. f Which is met with so early an 129, 138 [98, 99, 151]. Lassen has the seventh century a.d. , in Hiuau drawn attention, in /. AK.^ ii, 79, Tlisang. 288 BUDDHISTIC SANSKRIT LITERATURE. positive certainty, therefore, is for the present attain- able.^^ X priori, however, it seems probable that the c^Juncil which was held in the reign of king Kanerki, and from which the existing shape of the sacred scriptures of the Northern Buddhists nominally dates, really took place 400, and not so much as 570, years after Buddha's death. It seems probable also that the Northern Buddhists, who alone possess these Scriptures complete, preserved more authentic information regarding the circumstances of the time of their redaction — and consequently also regarding the date of Nagarjuna — than did the Southern Buddhists, to whom this redaction is unknown, and whose scriptures exist only in a more ancient form which is alleged to have been brought to Ceylon so early as B.C. 245, and to have been there committed to writing about the year B.C. 80 (Lassen, /. AI^., ii. 435). — Of these various eras, the only one the actual employment of which at an early period can at present be proved is the Ceylonese, which, like the other Southern eras, begins in B.C. 544. Here the period indicated is the close of the fourth century A.D. ; since the Dipavahsa, a history of Ceylon in Pali verse, which was written at that date, appears to make use of this era, whereby naturally it becomes invested with a certain authority. If, now, we strip the accounts of Buddha's personality of all supernatural accretion, we find that he was a king's son, who, penetrated by the nothingness of earthly things, forsook his kindred in order thenceforth to live on alms, and devote himself in the first place to contemplation, and thereafter to the instruction of his fellow-men. His doctrine was,* that " men's lots in this life are conditioned and regulated by the actions of a previous existence, that no evil deed remains without punisliment, and no good deed ■without reward. From this fate, which dominates the in- dividual within the circle of transmigration, he can only '■■^ Kor have the subsequent dis- auy definite result; cf. my 7. Str., cussions of this topic by Max Miiller ii. 216 ; Lit. 0. BL, 1874, p. 719. (1859), Hist. A. S. L., p. 264 ff., by * Though it is nowhere set forth Westergaard (i860), Ueber Buddha's in so succinct a form : it results, how- Todesjahr (Breslau, 1862), and by ever, as the sum and substance of Kern, Over de Jawrtdling der Zuidel. the various legends. Suddhisten (1874), so far yielded BUDbHA '5 DOCTRINE. 289 escape * by directing his will towards the one thought of liberation from this circle, by remaining true to this aim, and striving with steadfast zeal after meritorious action only; whereby finally, having cast aside all passions, which are regarded as the strongest fetters in this prison- house of existence, he attains the desired goal of complete emancipation from re-birth." This teaching contains, in itself, absolutely nothing new ; on the contrary, it is en- tirely identical with the corresponding Brahmanical doc- trine ; only the fashion in which Buddha proclaimed and disseminated it was something altogether novel and un- wonted. For while the Brahmans taught solely in their hermitages, and received pupils of their own caste only, he wandered about the country with his disciples, preach- ing liis doctrine to the whole people,t and — although still recognising the existing caste-system, and explaining its origin, as the Brahmans themselves did, by the dogma tf. rewards and punishments for prior actions — receiving as adherents men of every caste without distinction. To these he assigned rank in the community according to their age and understanding, thus abolishing within the community itself the social distinctions that birth en- tailed, and opening up to all men the prospect of eman- cipation from the trammels of their birth. This of itself sufficiently explains the enormous success that attended his doctrine: the oppressed all turned to him as their redeemer.| If by this alone he struck at the root of the Brahmanical hierarchy, he did so not less by declar- * See Schmidt, Ssanglun der minority. My idea is that the strict IVeise und der Thor, Pret, p. morality required by Buddhism of xxxiii. ff. its adherents became in the long run t See Lassen, I. AK., ii. 440, irksome to the people; the original 441 ; Burnouf, Inlrod. d, VHistoire cult, too, was probably too simple. du Buddhisme Indien, pp. 152- The Brahmans knew how to turn 212. both circumstances to the best ad- J Under these oircnmstancep, it vantage. Krishna-worship, as they is indeed, surprising that it should organised it, offered far more satis- have been possible to dislodge Bud- faction to the sensual tastes of the dhism from India. The great num- people ; while the yarious cults of bers and influence of the Brahman the 6aktis, or female deities, most ciiste do not alone completely ac- likely all date from a time shortly count for the fact ; for, in proper- preceding the expulsion of the Bud- uon to the whole people, the Brah- dhists from India, mans were after ftH only a very small ago BUDDHISTIC SANSKRIT LITERATURE. ing sacrificial worship — the performance of which was the exclusive privilege of the Brahmans — to be utterly- unavailing and worthless, and a virtuous disposition and virtuous conduct, on the contrary, to be the only real means of attaining final deliverance. He did so, further, by the fact that, wholly penetrated by the truth of his opinions, he claimed to be in possession of the highest enlightenment, and so by implication rejected the validity of the Veda as the supreme source of knowledge. These two doctrines also were in no way new ; till then, how- ever, they had been the possession of a few anchorites ; never before had they been freely and publicly proclaimed to all. Immediately after Buddha's death there was held, ac- cording to the tradition, a council of his disciples in Magadha, at which the JBuddhist Sacred scriptures were compiled. These consist of three divisions {Pitakas), the first of which — the Sutras* — comprises utterances and discourses of Buddha himself, conversations with his hearers ; while the Vinaya embraces rules of discipline, and the AbhidJiarma, dogmatic and philosophical discussions. A hundred years later, according to the tradition of the Southern, but a hundred and ten according to that of the Northern Buddhists, a second council took place at Patali- putra for the purpose of doing away with errors of dis- cipline which had crept in. With regard to the third council, the accounts of the Northern and Southern Bud- dhists are at issue. (Lassen, I. AK., ii. 232.) According to the former, it was held in the seventeenth year of the reign of A^oka, a year which we have to identify with B.o. 246 — which, however, is utterly at variance with the equally traditional assertion that it took place 218 years after Buddha's death, i.e., in B.C. 326. At this council the precepts of the law were restored to their ancient purity, and it was at the same time resolved to send forth mission- aries to propagate the doctrines of Buddha. The Northern Buddhists, on the contrary, place the third council 400 years after Buddha's death, in the reign of Kanishka, one * This name alone might suggest the Stitra, not iu the Brdhmana, that Buddha himself flourished iu period. kEDACTION OF THE BUDDHISTIC SCRIPTURES. 291. of the Turushka (Saka) kings of Kashmir, who, as we have seen, is established, on numismatic evidence, to have reigned until A.D. 40. The sacred scriptures of the Northern Bud- dhists, which are alleged to have been fixed at this council, are still extant, not merely in the Sanskrit originals them- selves, which have recently been recovered in Nepal,* but also in a complete Tibetan translation, beaiing the name Kdgyur, and consisting of one hundred volumes ; t as well as, partially at least, in Chinese, Mongolian, Kalmuck, and other translations. The scriptures of the Southern Bud- dhists, on the contrary, are not extant in Sanskrit at all. With reference to them, it is alleged that one year after their arrangement at the third council, that of A^oka {i.e., in the year B.C. 245), they were brought by Mahendra, the apostle of Ceylon, to that island, and by him translated * By the Biitish Resident there, B. H. Hodgson, who presented MSS. of them to the Asiatic Societies of CiJcutta, London, and Paris. The Paris collection was further enriched in 1837 with copies which the Sociiti Asiattque caused to be made through Hodgson's agency. This led Bur- nouf to write his great woik, Intro- duction d I'MUtoire dii Buddkisme Indien, Paris, 1844 [followed in the end of 1852 by his not less iniportant production, the translation of the Lotus de la Bonne Loi; see /. St., iii. 135 ff., 1864. The British Museum and the University Library in Cam- bridge are now also in possession of similar MSS. A catalogue, com- piled by Cowell and Eggeling, of the Hodgson collection of Buddhist Sanskrit MSS. in the possession of the Eoyal Asiatic Society has just appeared.] t Kegarding the compass and con- tents of this Tibetan translation, our firat (and hitherto almost our sole) information was supplied by a Hun- garian traveller, Csoma Korosi, the Anquetil du Perron of this century, a man of rare vigour and energy, who resided for a very long time in Tibet, and who by his Tibetan grammar and dictionary has conquered, this language for European science. Two pretty extensive works from the Kdgyur have already been edited and translated : the Dsanglun in St. Petersburg by Schmidt, and the ligya Cher Mol Pa (Lalita-Vistara) in Paris by Foucaux. [Since then L. Feer, especially, has rendered valuable service in this field by his Textes tiris da Kandjour (1864-71, 1 1 parts) ; also Sohiefner, e.g., by his editions of the Yimala-prasnottara- ratnamdld (1858) — the Sanskrit text of which was subsequently edited by Foucaux (of. also I. Str., i. 210 ff.) — • and of the Bharatte Rtsponsa (1875). Scliiefner has further jnst issued a translation from the Kiigyur of a group of Buddhist tales, under the title, ilahdhltiidyana und KSnig Tschanda Pradjota. The ninth of these stories contiiins (see p. vii. 2b ff.) what is now probably the oldest version of the so-called 'Philoso- pher's Ride,' which here, as in the Paiichatantra (iv. 6), is related of the king himself; whereas in an Arabian tale of the ninth century, communicated in the appendix (p. 66) and in our own mediaeval version, it is told of the king's wise coun- sellor. 292 BUDDHISTIC SANSKRIT LITERATURE. into the native Singhalese.^^ Not until some 165 years later {i.e., in B.C. 80) were they consigned to writing in that language, having been propagated in the interval by oral transmission only.^** After a further period of 500 years (namely, between A.D. 410 and 432) they were at length rendered into the sacred Pali tongue (cf. Lassen,. /. AK., ii. 435"), in which they are now extant, and from which in turn translations into several of the languages of Farther India were subsequently made.* As to the relation of these scriptures of the Southern Buddhists to those of their Northern co-religionists, little is at present known beyond the fact that both present in common the general division into three parts {SMra, Vinaya, AhMdharma). In extent they can hardly compare with the latter,^^ nor even, according to the foregoing exposition,t in authen- ticity. ^*8 Unfortunately but little information has as yet '*' It was not the Piili text itself, but only the oral commentary {aitha- kathd) belonging to it, which was translated into Singhalese. (See the following notes.) So at least it is stated in the tradition in the Mahii- vansa. For the rest, it is extremely doubtful how much of the present Tipitaka may have actually been in existence then. For if we compare the statements contained in the Bhabra missive — addressed by king Piyadasi to the synod of Magadha, which was then engaged in the ac- commodation of schisms that had sprung up — relative to the sacred- texts {dhamma-paUyiiydni) as they then stood, a mighty difiference be- comes apparent ! See Burnouf, Lotus,- p. 724 ff. ; /. St., iii. 172 ff. **■** See Mabiivansa, chap, xxxiii. p. 207 ; Turnour, Preface, p. xxix, ; Muir, Oriff. Sanslc. Texts, ii. 69, 70 (Sf) ; I. St., V. 26. * That is to say, translated back again(?);fcirthissacredlanguagemust be the same that Maheudra brought with him ? [Not the texts them- selves, only their interpretation {at- thajcathd) was now rendered back ngain into Piili, namely, by Buddha- ghosha, who came from Magadha, and resided a number of years in Ceylon.] "^■5 The extent of the Pffli Tipitaka is also very considerable ; see the accounts in Hardy's Eastern Mona- chism, pp. 167-170. On the ear- liest mention of the name Tipitaka in a Sanskrit inscription of Buddha- ghosha at Kanheri (in the Joum. Bombay Br. B. A. S., v. 14), see /. St., V. 26. t If indeed the case be as hnre represented ! I can in the mean- while only report. [Unfortunately, I had trusted to Lassen's account, ill the passage cited in the text, instead of referring to Turnonr him- self (pp. xxix. XXX.) ; the true state of the case (see the preceding notes) I have set forth in 1. St., iii. 254.] ^6 fpije question which of the two redactions, i^hat of the Northern or that of the Southern Buddhists, is the more original has been warmly debated by Turnour and Hodgson. (The latter's articles on the subject are now collected in a convenient form in his Essays on Languages, Lit. and Bel. of Nepal and Tiiet, 1874.) Burnouf, also, has discussed the question in his Lotus de la Bonne Loi, p. 862 flf.,'and has decided, in principle no doubt rin:htly, that both. possess an equal title. Compare here I. St., iii, 176 ff., where certain SCRIPTURES OF SOUTHERN BUDDHISTS. 293 been imparted regarding tlieir contents, &c.* Soutliem Buddhism, however, supplies us with copious and pos- sibly trustworthy accounts of the first centuries of its existence, as well as of the growth of the Buddhist faith generally, a Pali historical literature having grown up in Ceylon at a comparatively early period,^*'^' one of the most important works of which — the Mahavahsa of Mahanama, composed towards a.d. 480 — has already been published, both in the original text and in an English version. doubts are urged by me against some o£ his assumptions, as also specially with regard to Buddhaghosha's highly significant part in the shap- ing oi: the Piili Tipitaka. Kern has recently, in his Essay Over de Jaar- teUing der euidelijke Buddkislen, gone far beyond those objections of mine ; but, as it seems to me, he goes fur- ther than the case requires ; see Lit. C. Bl., 1874, p. 719. At any rate, even fully acknowledging the part belonging to Buddhagboslia, it ap- pears to me now that the claim of the PiUi Tipitaka to superior origi- nality is, after all, far stronger than that of the Sanskrit texts of the Northern Buddhists, from which, as from the sacred writings of the Jai- nas, it is distinguished, greatly to its advantage, by its comparative sim- plicity and brevity. Cf. also S. Beal's very pertinent observations in the Ind. Antiq., iv. 90. * The must authentic information as yet is to be found in the Intro- duction to G. Tumour's edition of the Mahdvaiisa (1835, Ceylon) and in the scattered essays of this scholar; also, though only in very general outline, in Westergaard's Catalogue of the Copenhagen Indian MSS. (1846, Havnice), which comprise a tolerable number of thf se Pdli works, purchased by the celebrated llask in Ceylon, dough's writings, too, contain much that bears upon this subject : also Spiegel's Anecdota Palica. Exceedingly copious infor- mation regarding Southern Bud- dhism is contained in a work that has just reached me, by E. Spence Hardy, Eastern Monachism, an Ac- count of the Origin, Laws, ttc, of the Order of Mendicants founded by Go- tama Buddha, London, 1850, '\^^ pp. The author was twenty years a Wes- leyan missionary in Ceylon, and ap- pears to have employed this time to excellent purpose. [This was fol- lowed in 1853 by his Manual of Buddhism, also a very valuable work. — The study of I'ili and its litera- ture has recently taken a great spring, particularly through the labours of Y. Fausbbll (Dhammapada, 1855 ; Five Jdtakas, 1861 ; l)asarathajd- taha, :87I ; Ten Jdtakas, 1872 ; The Jdtaka, together with its Commentary, Vt. i., 1875), James de Alwis {Intro- duction to Kachchdyanas Grammar, 1863 ; Attanagaluvansa, 1866), P. Grimblot {Extraits du Paritta, 1870), Ij. Peer [Daharasutta and others of these Piili-suttas in his Textes tiris du Kandjour, 1869 S.), Joh. Mi- nayeff (Pdtimolkhasulta and Vutto- dnya, 1869; Giammaire Palie, 1874, Unssian edition 1872), E. Kuhn {KachchdyanappakarancB Specimen, 1869, 1871 ; Beitrage zur Pdli-Gram- matijc, 1875), E. Senart (Ch-ammaire de KachchAyana, 1871), K. Childers (Khuddakapdtha, 1869 ; Dictionary of the Pdli Language, 1872-75), M. Coomdra SvsCmy {Suttanipdla, 1874); to which may be added the grnm- matical writings of W. Storck (1858, 1862) and Fr. MuUer (1867-69). ^*» Northern Buddhism has like- wise found its historians. The Tibetiin TdraniStha (see note 350) cites as his precursors Bhatagha^ I ndradatta, Kshemendrabhadra. 2<)4 BUDDHISTIC SANSKRIT LITERATURE. With respect now to the scriptures of the Northern Buddhists, the Sanskrit originals, namely — for it is these alone that concern us here — we must, in the first place, Iceep in view that, even according to the tradition, their existing text belongs only to the first century of our yra ; so that, even although there should he works among them dating from the two earlier coimcils, yet these were in any case subjected to revision at the third. In the next place, it is d 'prion improbable — nor is it indeed directly alleged — that the whole of the existing works owed their origin to this third council, and amongst them there must certainly be many belonging to a later period. And lastly, we must not even assume that all the works translated in the Tibetan Kagyur were already in existence at the time when translations into Tibetan began to be made (in the seventh century) ; for the Kagyur was not completed all at once, but was only definitively fixed after a prolonged and gradual growth.* Prom these considerations alone, it is abundantly plain how cautious we ought to be in making use of these works. But there is still more to be borne in mind. For even supposing the origin of the most ancient of them really to date from the first and second councils,^^ still, to assume that they were recorded in writing so early as this is not only prima facie question- able, but is, besides, distinctly opposed to analogy, since we are expressly informed that, with the Southern Buddhists, the consignment to writing only took place in the year B.C. 80, long subsequent to both councils. The main pur- pose of the third council under Kanishka may possibly just have been to draw up written records ; had such records been already in existence. Buddhism could hardly have been split up thus early into eighteen different sects, as we p,re told was the case in Kanishka's time, only 400 years after Buddha's death. Why, during all the eighteen centuries that have since elapsed no such amount of schism has sprung up, evidently because a written basis was then secured. Lastly, one important point which must not be * According to Csoma KSiosi, the Bbabra missive as to tlie dhamma- Tibetan translations date from tbe paliydydni as they then stood render seventh to the thirteenth centuries, siieh a supposition extremely doubt- jiriuoipally from the ninth. ful here, just as in the case of the 2J' The data contained in the I'iiU Tipi^aka (see note 343). LANGUAGE OF BUDDHISTIC SCRIPTURES, 295 loiit sight of in estimating the authenticity of the existing Buddhist scriptures is the circumstance that the sources from which they were drawn were in a different language. True, we cannot make out with ahsolute certainty in what language Buddha taught and preached ; but as it was to the people he addressed himself, it is in the highest degree probable that he spoke in the vernacular idiom. Again, it was in ]\Iagadha * that the first council of his disciples assembled, and it was doubtless conducted in the dialect of this country, which indeed passes as the sacred language of Buddhism. The same remark applies to the second council, as well as to the one which, according to the Southern Buddhists, is the third, both of which were like- wise held in Magadha.f Mahendra, who converted Cey- lon in the year following this third council, took with him fo that island the Magadhi language, afterwards called Pali : X this, too, is the dialect in which the inscriptions of this period, which at least bespeak Buddhistic influence, are composed.**^ At the last council, on the contrary, which falls some 300 years later, and at which the existing scriptures of the Northern Buddhists are alleged to have * In the old capital (Rdjagriha). down to us officially under the name + In the new capital (Pdtaliputra). of Mdgadhi, and which presents % That PtUi could have been de- special features of resemblance to veloped in Ceylon from an imported that dialect, rather, which is em- SiUiskrit is altogether inconceivable, ployed in the inscriptions of Gimar. 3^ The edicts of Piyadasi present The question has therefore been raised themselves to us in three distinct whether Pdli is really entitled to the dialects. One of these, that of name Mdgadhi, which in the Pdli Dhauli, exhibits a number of the literature is applied to it, or whether peculiarities which distinctively be- it may not have received this title long to the Ardhamiigadhl of the merely from motives of ecclesiastical Jainas, and the dialect designated policy, having reference to the sig- Mdigadhi by the Pnltrit grammari- nificance of the land of Magadha in ans. It is in it that the Bhabra mis- the history of Buddhism. Wester- eive addressed to the third council gaardevensurmiseslfisSfrdenafteiien is composed — a circumstance which ZeUraum, dee indischcn GescMchte, p. conclusively proves that it was then 87 n., 1862) that Pstli is identical the ofBcial language of Buddhism, with the dialect of UjjayinI, the and, in point of fact, Mstgadhl (since mother-tongue of Mahendra, who Dhauli belongs geographically to was born there ; and Ernst Kuhn this district) ; see /. St., iii. 180, and (Beitrdge zur PdU-Ch-ammalik, p. 7, my Essay on the Bhagavati of the 1875) adopts this opinion. Bat Jainas, i. 396. But then, on the Pisohel [Jenatr Lit. Zeit., 1875, P- other hand, this dialect displays a 316) and Childers {Pdli J)ict., Pre- particularly marked divergence from face, p. vii.) pronounce against it. I'dli, the language which has coma 3o6 BUDDHISTIC SANSKRIT LITERA TURE . been compiled, the language employed for this purpose was not Magadhi, but Sanskrit, although not the purest. The reason of this lies simply in the locality. Por this concluding council was not held in Magadha, nor even in Hindustan at all, whose rulers were not then favourably disposed towards Buddhism, but in Kashmir, a district which — partly no doubt in consequence of its being peopled exclusively by Aryan tribes * but partly also (see pp. 26j 45, 178) because, like the North- West of India generally, it has to be regarded as a chief seat of the cultivation of Indian grammar — had preserved its language purer than those Aryans had been able to do who had emigrated to India, and there mingled with the native" inhabitants. Those priests,t therefore, who here undertook the compila- tion and recording in writing of the sacred scriptures were, if not accomplished grammarians, yet in all probability sufficiently conversant with grammar to be able to write passable Sanskrit.^ Agreeably to what has just been set forth,^^ it is in the highest degree risky to regard, as has hitherto been done, * The Greeks and Scythians were both too scanty in numbers, and too short a time in close contact with the natives, to exercise any influence in the way of modifying the lan- guage. t And it was evidently priests, educated men therefore, wlio formed the third council. In the first two, laymen may have taken part, but the Buddhistic hierarchy had had time to develop sufSciently in the interval. J Burnoufthinks differently, ffiai. du Buddh., pp. 105, 106, as also Lassen, /. AK., ii. 9, 491-493 [hut see /. St., iii. 139, 179 tf.]. ^^ Beside the two branches of Buddhistic literature discussed iu the foregoing pages — the Piili texts of the Southern and the Sanskrit texts of the Northern Buddhists — there stands a third group, occupy- ing, from its original constitution, a kind of intermediate place between the other two — namely, the Ardha- milgadhl texts of the Jainas. The sect of the Jainas is in all probability to be regarded as one of the schis- matic sects that bran-ched off from Buddhism in the first centuries of its existence. The legendary nar- ratives of the personal activity of its founder, Mahstvira, not only re- fer it exclusively to the same dis- trict which Buddhism also recognises as its,holy land, but they, moreover, display so close an affinity to the accounts of Buddha's ministry that we cannot but recognise in the two groups of narratives merely varying forms of common reminiscences. Another indication that the Jaina sect arose in this way out of Bud- dhism — although by some it has even been regarded as of pre-Buddhistic origin — is afforded by the circum- stance,amongst others, that its sacred texts are styled, not Sutras, but Aiir/as, and consequently, in contra- distinction to the oldest Buddhist texts, which date from the Vedio Siitra period, belong rather to the Anga stage, that is to say, to the period when the Angas or Vedilngas, works posterior to the Vedio Slitras, DOUBTFUL AUTHORITY FOR BUDDHA'S AGE. 297 the data yielded by a Buddhistic literature fashioned in this "way as valid for the epoch of Buddha himself, which is removed from the last council by an interval of four, or, if we accept the Southern chronology, of nearly six, centuries. Oral traditions, committed to writing in a- different language, after such a series of years, and more- over only extant in a mass of writings that lie several centuries apart, and of which the oldest portions have stUl to be critically sifted out, can only be used with extreme caution ; and d "pri ori the data they furnish serve, not so much to characterise the epoch about which they tell, as rather the epoch, in particular, in which they received their present shape. But however doubtful, according to were produced. But there is a further circumstance which is quite conclusive as to this point — namely, that the language in which these tex-ts are composed, and which, ac- cording to the scholiasts, is Ardha- mdgadhi, exhibits a more de- veloped and considerably later phase than the language of the Pili texts, to which, in its turn, the Pitli scholia expressly apply the designation JMgadhl. (At the same time, there are also dia- lectic differences between the two.) See my paper on the Bhagavati of the Jainas, pp. 441, 373, 396 ff. , 416. To the eleven prinoipiil Aflgas have to be added a large number of other writings, styled Updnga, Mula-Siltra, Kalpa-Siitra, &c. An enumeration of the entire set, showing a total of iifty works, consisting of about 600,000 slokas, may be seen in Rdjendra Lilla Mitra's Notices of SanxJerit MSS., iii. 67 ff., 1874. Of these texts — our knowledge of the Jainas is otherwise derived from Brahmanio sources only — all that has hitherto teen published is a fragment of the fifth Auga or Bhagavati-Sutra, dating perhaps from the iirst cen- turies of our era, edited by myself (1866-67). In ^- "S/!., X. 254 ff. (1867), I have also given an accouTit of the S^irya-prajnapti, or seventh Updnga - Sdtra, a commentary on which is said to have been composed by Bhadrabdhusvitmin, author of the Kalpa-S§ 37) 38 (lie™ as earthly foes?) particular, many prayers are ad- "■' Sura is a bastard formation dressed to the karpas ; in the ^at. from asura, resting on a misunder- Br. they are once identified with the standing of the word, which was lolcai : can the term have originally wrongly analysed into a-suro. The denoted 'ihe stars' and other spirits SUTRA-PITAKA. 303 das * too, are absent. This Mck of allusion in the Biahmanas to any of these genii might be explained by supposing them to have been principally the divinities of the inferior classes of the people, to which classes Buddha specially addressed himself, and to whose conceptions and range of ideas he was therefore obliged to have particular regard. In this there may be a great deal of truth, but the remaining cycle of deities, also, which appears in the Buddhistic Siitras, is completely that belonging to the epic poetry. In the Brahmanas, on the contrary, the name of Kuvera, for in- stance, is only mentioned once t (and that in the Brahmana of the White Yajus) ; ^* ^iva and Samkara only occur along with other appellative epithets of Eudra, and are never employed alone as proper names to denote him ; the name of Narayana, again, is of extremely rare occurrence, whilst Sakra,^'' Vasava,^' Hari, Upendra, Janardana, Pitamaha, are totally unknown. We thus perceive that the Buddhistic Sdtras, in all of which these names are prevalent, repre- sent precisely the same stage as the Epic literature.^ The of the air? [Serpent-worship has unquestionably mythological, sym- bolical relations ; but, on the other hand, it has also a thoroughly real- istic background.] The MaitrSyanl- Upanishad does, indeed, mention the Suras, Yakshas, and TJragaa ; hut this TJpanishad belongs (see p. 98) altogether to the later period. It is allied to these Buddhistic Stitrss in contents, and probably also in age. * Akind of dwarfs with 'testicles as large as jars ' (?). In the later Brahmanical writings they are styled Kushmdndas, SCslundn^as ('gourd'?); see also Mahidhara on Vs^j. Saiph., xx. 14, [Of. the Kumiha-mushtas inAth., viii. 6. 15, xi. 9. 17, and perhaps also the iUna- devas in Rik, vii. 21. 5, x. 99. 3 ; I{othonNir.,p.47.], + The Taittirlya-Arapyaka, which contains several of these names, can- not exactly be ranked with the Bnih- miina literature. '»' Also in the parallel passages in the Rik Sutras, and once besides in the Ath. S. (viii. 10. 28). »M As an appellative epithet of Indra, ^akra occurs in the Rik •ven, but it is there employed of other gods as well. 5^' As an epithet of Indra (but not as d name for him) Vdsava oc- curs once in Ath. S., vi. 82. 1. In the Nirukti also, xii. 41, it appears in direct connection wiih him, but at the same time also with Agni ; indeed, it is with Agni and not with Indra that the Vasus are chieflv associated in theBrdbmanas ; see /. St., y. 240, 241. + The Mdra so frequently mention- ed would almost appear to be a purely Buddhistic invention ; in Brithma- nical writings I have nowhere met with him. [Minayeff's conjecture, in the introduction to his Grammaire PAUc, trad, par Stan. Guyard, p. viii., that the name Milra is directly re- lated to Mairya, an epithet of Ahri- man in the Avesta, and in such a way that both "reinontmt A une ipoque aniirieurc A la siparation des h-anicns et des Vindous, " is rendered extremely doubiful by the mere circumstance that nothing of the sort occurs anywhere in the Vedc 304 BUDDHISTIC SANSKRIT LITERATURE. non-mention of Krishna ^^ proves nothing to the contrary, the worship of Krishna as a divinity being of altogether uncertain date : ^^ besides, it is still a question whether we have not really to understand him by the Asura Krishna who is repeatedly referred to in these Siitras (see p. 148). — Although — to notice other points besides the Pantheon — the lunar asterisms in the Siitras begin with ICrittikd, that is to say, still retain their old order, we cannot adduce this as proof that a comparatively high antiquity ought to be assigned to these writings, for the new order of the asterisms probably only dates from the fourth or iifth century A.D. ; all that results from this is, that the particular passages are earlier than this last-mentioned date. As an indication, on the contrary, of a date not specially ancient, we must certainly regard the mention of the planets, as also the occurrence of the word dindra (from denarius), which Burnouf (p. 424, n.) has twice met with in the older Sdtras (see Lassen, I. AK, ii. 348). As regards the second division of the Buddhist scrip- tures, the Vinaya-Pitaka, or precepts concerning discipline and' worship, these are almost entirely wanting in the Paris collection, doubtless because they are looked upon as peculiarly holy, and are therefore kept as secret as pos- sible by the priests, being indeed specially intended for (GopathaBr., i. 28, see note 166, is that of Krishna" (7. St., iii. 161), is only an apparent exception, clue unfortunately not before us in the probably to ^uddhiatio influence), original text : might not the passage If, therefore, a direct connection simply mean, " Your hair is yet really exists between Mira and Anva black?" The fact of Krishna Mainvu, it can only have come about appearing in the Abhidiiilnappadi- in historic times; and for this there pikii as a name of Vishnu proves, of is nowhere any analogy. course, just as little for the ancient 318 'Whether the Southern Bud- texts as the patronymics Kanhi, dhists are acquainted with Krishna Kanhiiyana in the schol. on Kachcli., is not yet clear. Buddha's prior v. 2. 4 (Senart, pp. 185, 186), which birth as Kanha has, according to the have necessarily to be referred to the text published in Fausbbll's edition, epic or divine personality of Krishna, p. 194, nothing to do with Krishi;ia ; '"' On the significance of tlie data the Jiitaka as Mahdkanha (No. 461 contained in the Mahabhslshya on in Westergaard's Catal., p. 41), can this point, see /. St., xiii. 349 ; for liardly have any reference to him the earliest occurrence of Krishna in either ; but what of the Jdtaka as an inscription, see Bayley in Joum. Kesavaf (No. 341 in Westergaard's As. Soc. Beng., 1854, p. 51 ff., with Catal., p. 40). The expression in which cf. /. Str., ii. 81, and my Hardy, East. Mon., p. 41, "You Essay Ueher Krislin.a's Geburtsfest', are yet a youth, your hair is like p.' 318. VINA YA-PITAKA. 305 the clergy. — Like the Buddhist mythology, the Buddhist liierarchy was a thing of gradual growth. Buddha, as ^\■e have seen, received all without distinction as disciples, and when ere long, in consequence of the great numbers, and of the practice of living constantly together, except in the winter season, some kind of distribution of rank was re- quired, it was upon the principle of age * or merit t that this took place. As the Buddhist faith spread more and more, it became necessary to distinguish between those who devoted themselves entirely to the priestly calling, the hhikshiis,X monks, and bhiMmnis, nuns, on the one * Tlie aged were called sthavira, a word not uiifrequently added to a proper name in the Brahmanical Stitras to distinguisU a particular person from younger namesakes : points of connection herewith are to be found in the Brdlimanas also. [Regarding the winter season, see (Jliilders, PdZi Diet., s. v. vasso.] + The venerable were styled arh- ant (ipxi^v), also a title bestowed upon teachers in the Briihmanas. J When Piinini speaks of Bh'ikshu- Sitras, and gives as their authors Pfl- rdiarya jind Karmanda, teaching (iv. 3. no, III) that their respective ad- lierents are to be styled Pdrd^arinas and Karmandinas, and (iv. 2. 80) that the Slitra of the former is called Pdrdsarlya, the allusion must be to Brahmanical mendicants, since these names are not mentioned in Bud- dhistic writings. By Wilson, too, in the second edition of his Dictionary, karmandin is given as ' beggar, reli- gious mendicant, member of the fourth order.' [According to the St. Petersburg Dictionary, from Amara, ii. 7. 41, and Hemaohandra, 809.] But the circumstance must not be overlooked that, according to the Calcutia scholiasts, neither of these two rules of Pdnini is explained in the Mahitbhdshya, and that possibly, therefore, they may not be Pdnini's at all, but posterior to the time of Pa- tanyali. [The ' PdnWarino bhiksha- vali,' at least, are really mentioned in the Bluishya to iv. z. 66 ; see /. St., xiii. 340.] — That mendicant monks must, as a matter of fact, have been particularly numerous in Fdnini's time is apparent from the many rules he gives for the forma- tion of words in this connection, eg., hhiJcshdcJiaraf iii. 2. 17 ; hhilcshdkn, iii. 2. 155 ; WdJcshu, iii. 2. 168 ; NiaiJesha irom hhiksJid in the sense of hhUxhdndm samUJtas, iv. 2. 38. Com- pare, in particular, also ii. i. 70, where the formation of the name for female mendicants [iramand, and, in the gana, pravrdjitd) is treated of, which can only refer to Buddhistic female mendicants. [This last rule, which gives the epithet ' virgin ' as a special (not as an indispensable) quality of the h'aitiai}d, taken in connec- tion with iv. I. 127, can hardly be said to throw a very favourable light on the ' virginity ' of the class generally; cf. Manu, viii. 363, note 330 above. The words saiiidnnlna, V. 2. 9, and kavMcutika, iv. 4. 6, likewise exhibit a very distinct Bud- dhistic colouring ; on this see /. St., V. 140 fF. On Buddhistic mendi- cants at the time of the Bhdshya, see the data collected in /. St., xiii. 340 ff.] — The entire institution oi the fourth order rests essentially on the Sslinkhya doctrine, and its ex- tension was certainly due to a large extent to Buddhism. The red or red- dish-yellow garment {kasluiyavasana) and the tonsure (tnaundya) are the principal badges of the Buddhist bhikshus; see above, pp. 78, 237. On a commentary, extant in India, on a Bhikshu-Siitra, see /. St., i. 470. U 3o6 B UDDHISTIC SANSKRIT LITER A TURK. hand, and the Buddhist laity on the other, updsakas and topdsikds* Within the priesthood itself, again, nume- rous shades of distinction in course of time grew up, until at length the existing hierarchy arose, a hierarchy which differs very essentially from the Brahmanical one, inasmuch as admission to the priestly order , is still, as in Buddha's time, allowed to members of the lowest castes on the same conditions as to any one else. Among the laity the Indian castes still continue to exist wherever they existed in the past ; it is only the Brahman caste, or priesthood by birth, that has been abolished, and in its place a clergy by choice of vocation substituted. The Buddhist cult, too, which now is second to none in the world for solemnity, dignity, pomp, and specialities, was originally exceedingly simple, consisting mainly in the adoration of the image of Buddha and of his relics. Of the latter point we are first informed by Clemens Alex- andrinus. Afterwards the same honour was paid to tlie relics of his most eminent disciples also, and likewise to princes who had deserved specially well of Buddhism. The story of the ashes of Menander, related by Plutarch (see "Wilson, Ariana, p. 283), is doubtless to be understood in this sense.t Now this relic-worship, the building of steeples — traceable, perhaps, to the topes (stupas) which * Or EfsaiAW^' huddhopdsaka, bud- blia, who is uniformly placed in the dhopdsikd, as we find it several times western country Sukhavati, may be in the Mrichliakatl. identical with Amyntas, whose name t For I regard Menander, who on appears as Amita on his coins ; in !iis coins is called Minanda, as iden- the name Basili, too (in Schmidt's tical with Milinda, king of Sfeala Daanglun, p. 331), he discovers the (Siikala), respecting whom see Tur- word |8a(«Xeiys. [But Schiefner calls nour in the Journ. As. Soc. Beng., my attention to the circumstance, V. 530 ff. ; Burnouf, I. c, p. 621 ; that as far back as 1852, in his and Catal. MSS. Or. Bihl. Jlaun., Erridmungen und BcricAtiguri(;en zn p. 50. (From an article by Spiegel in Schmidt's Ausgahe des Dsanglun, p. the Kieler AUgemeine Monatsschrift, 56, to p. 256, I. 3 of the Tibetan .Tilly 1852, p. 561, which has just text, he withdrew the identification reached me while correcting these of Basili with ^aa-iXeis : his connec- sheets, I see that Benfey has already tion, too, of Amita with Amyntas, identified Menander with Milinda which had been questioned by Kbp- [see the Berlin JahriiicAer filr wis- pen, ii. 28, note 4, he now rei;;ard3 sensed. ^W(j4, 1842. p. 87"].) — Schief- as doubtful.] The legend of the ner in his notice, tfeber Indra's Western origin of the 6^kyas I have Donnerheil, p. 4 of the separate im- already characterised (p. 285) as per- jiression, 1848, has expressed the haps invented as a compliment to conjecture that the Buddha Amitd- Kanishka. ABHIDHARMA-PITAKA. 307 owe their origin to this relic-worship — the system of mona- chisra, the use of bells and rosaries,* and many other details, offer such numerous features of resemblance to Christian ritual, that the question wliether Christianity may not perhaps have been here the borrowing party is by no means to be summarily negatived, larticularly as it is known that Buddhist missionaries penetrated at an early period, possibly even in the two centuries preceding our era, into Western countries as far as Asia Minor. This is still, however, an entirely open question, and requires investigation.^"" The third division of the Buddhist sacred scriptures, the Ahhidharma-Pltaka, contains philosophical, and especially metaphysical, discussions. It is hardly to be imagined that Buddha himself was not clearly cognisant of the pliilosophical basis of his teaching, and that he simply adopted this latter from liis predecessors, so that the courage and energy pertaining to its pubUc promulgation + constituted his sole merit. But it seems just as certain til at he was not concerned to propagate a philosophical system, and that his aim was purely a practical one, to * Afterwards adopted by the fected the growth of Buddhist ritual Briihmans also. [The very name and worship, as Ihey did that of the rosaj-yhaspossibly arisen from aeon- Buddhist legends, by any means to fusion of the two Indian words j'apa- be dismissed out of hand. Indeed, mdlil and japdmdld ; see my paper, quite apart from the oft-ventilated Ueber Krislma's Geburtsfest, pp. 340, question as to the significance of 341; Kopyiej], Die liellrjiondes £ud- suoli influences in the further de- dha, ii. 319; and also my letter in velopment of Krishna-worship, there the Indian Antiq.. iv. 250.] are legends connected with the Siva ^°'' See Ind. Skiz., p. 64 (1857), cult also, as to whicii it is not. at all and the data from tlie AhbfS Hue's a far-fetched hypothesis that they 'J'ravels in Tibet in Koppen, i. 561, have reference to scattered Christian ii. 116. According to the interest- missionaries; see /. Ht., i, 421, ii. ing discovery made by Lahoulaye 398; Z. D. M. G., xxvii. 166 (v. (see Miiller, Chips, iv. i?.5) and F. 263). — That Western influence has Jyiebrecht with regard to Barlaam played a part in Tibet, finds support and Josaphat, one of the saints of in aletterof Sehiefner'B,accordingto the Catholic Chnrehstandsat length which, in a work of Dsaja Pandita, revealed as Bodhisattva himself — a Galen is mentioned as the physician discovery to which Reinaud's ingeni- of the Persians, and is said to have ons identification of Yiiasaf, Ytidasf, been consulted by the first Tibetan with BAdsatf {Mem. stir I'lnde, p. 91) king, along with a celebrated Indian might alone have led ; aee Z. J). M. and a celebrated Chinese physician. (?., xxiv. 4S0. — But neither is the + In this courage the circumstance conti'ary supposition, namely, that that he belonged by birth to the Christian influences may have af- military caste finds expression. 3o3 BUDDHISTIC SANSKRIT LITERATURE. awaken virtuous actions and dispositions. Tliis is in accord with the circumstance, that, whereas the Buddhists allege of the Sutra- Pitaka and the Vinaya-Pitaka that they were delivered by Buddha himself, in the case of the Abhidharma-Pitaka, on the contrary, they start with the admission that it is the production of his disciples. Ac- cording to Burnouf, the doctrines of the Abhidharnia are in reality only a further development or continuation of the views here and there propounded in the Sutras ; in- deed, the writings in question often merely add single words to the thoughts expressed in the Sutras : " but in any case there exists an interval of several centuries be- tween the two, and that difference which distinguishes a doctrine still in its earliest beginnings from a philosophy which has arrived at its furthest development." * In the Bralima-Siitra of Biidarayana doctrines are repeatedly combated which, on Samkara's testimony, belong to two distinct schools of Buddhist philosophy, and consequently both of these, and perhaps also the other two schools which are ranked with them, belong to a period preceding the composition of this Bralima-Siitra. — The doctrines themselves cannot be recognised with perfect distinctness, and their affinity, although undeniable, to the doctrines of the Samkhya system is still enveloped in some obscurity.^^^ On this point, however, so much is clear, that, although Buddha himself may actually have been in full harmony with the doctrines of Kapila, as they then existed,f yet his adherents developed these in their own fashion ; in the * Whether row, after these words of individual existence was certainly of Burnouf's, loc. c&,. p. 522, Las- the goal to which Buddha aspired; sen's view {1. AK., ii. 458) is ten- hardlj', however, the resolving of this able — to the effect that "although, existence into nothing, but only its in the collection bearing the name return to tlie same state of ai'W?/d, or of Abhidharma, thereare writinsrsof unconsciousness which belonged to various dates, yet tliey must all be primeval matter before it attained assigned to the period preceding the to development at all," Lit. 0. third council" (this third council in Bl., 1857, p. 770 (/. Sir., ii. 132). B.C. 275 being here expressly dis- Ohilders thinks differently, Pdli tinguished from the fourth under Diet., s. v. nirvdna. Kanishka) — appears to me in the + Were he really to be identified very hishest degree doubtful. with the ^itkityanya of theMiiitrdyan! ™i Cf. for this /. St., iii. 132; Upanishad (seep. 97), we should have Jfax Duncker, Gesckkkte der Arier, in this work tolerably direct evidence p. 234 ff (1867) ; Koppen, i. 214 ff. — to the above effect. "" The extinction, the ' blowing out ' ABHIDHARMA-PITAKA. 309 name way as the followers of Kapila also pursued their own path, and so eventually that system arose which is now extant iinder the name Sdrakhya, and which differs essentially from the Buddhist philosophy* To the four schools into which, as we have just seen, this philosophy was split up at a comparatively early period, four others were afterwards added — or perhaps these superseded the former — but neither have the doctrines of these later schools been as yet set forth with anything like sufficient certainty.^"^ The question, too, whether Buddhistic con- ceptions may not perhaps have exercised a direct influence on the development of Gnostic doctrines,t particularly those of Basilides, Valentinian, and Bardesanes, as well as of Manes, must for the present be regarded as wholly un- determined ;*''^ it is most intimately bound up with the question as to the amount of influence to be ascribed to Indian philosophy generally in the shaping of these doc- trines. The main channel of communication in the case of the latter was through Alexandria ; the Buddhist mis- sionaries, on the contrary, probably mostly came from the Panjab through Persia. Besides the three Pitalias, the Sanskrit ma,nuscripts that have been procured from Nepal contain other works also, consisting, in part, of a large number of commen- taries on and elucidations of the Pitakas, in part, of a * Whether vv. 9-1 1 of the Iso- special work on Tibetan and Chinese panishad are to l>e taken, with tlie ■ Buddhism. See on this point Lit. commentator, as specially referring C Bl., 1875, p. 550. to tlie Buddhists, as I assume in t See F. Nfeve, L'AntiquUi Chri- I. St., i. 298, 299, appears to me tienm en OHctU, p. 90, Louvain, (louhtful now : the polemic may 1852. simply be directed against the Sdiji- ^ Cf. now Lassen, /. AK., iii. khya tenets in general. 387-416 ; my Ind. Shz., p. 64 ; "^^ Our information regardinc: lienau, Mut. dcs Lang. SHii., 2i eA., them is derived exclusively from 1S58, pp. 274, 275. That their in- Jfodgson's Essaj's(now collected, see fluence upon ilie jirowth of the doc- note 345). Their names, Svilbhti- trines of Manes in particular was a vika, Ai^varika, Kilrmika, Yittnika, most important one is shown, for are so far unsupported by any other example, liy this circumstance alone, literary evidence. Only for the that the formula of abjuration for names S.iutntntika, Vaibhilshika, those who renounced these doctrines ilddhvamika, Yogdehiira, is such expressly specifies BoSSa and the testim'ony found. Tdrandtha, for Zki/Shclvos (seemingly a separation of example," is acquainted with these 'Buddha Sitkyamuni ' into two)^ latter only, and they are also the Lassen, iii. 415. — Cf. also Beal, /. only ones known to Wassiljew in his S. A. S., ii. 424 (1S66J. TTo BUDDHISTIC SANSKRIT LITERATURE. most peculiar class of writings, the so-called Tantras, ■wliich are looked upon as especially sacred, and which stand pre- cisely upon a level ^vith the Brahmanical works of the same name. Their contents are made up of invocations of various Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, as also of their ^^aktis, or female energies, with a motley admixture of Sivaitic deities ; to which are added longer or shorter prayers addressed to these beings, and directions how to draw the mystic diagrams and magic circles that secure their favour and protection. ^^ '^* Cf. Emil Schlagintweil's Biid- poetry; aa to which see Elatt in dhism. in Tibet (1863, with a folio the preface to his edition of the atlas of twenty plates). — Recently sentences of Chdnakya, taken there- there have also come from Nepdl from (1873). Sanskfit MS3. containing works of SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. r*. 9, 36 ff. (and 64, 29 ff".)- Burnell, in his preface to the Avsheya-Br. (Mangalore, 187G), p. xvi. ff., and Aufrecht, Hymnen des Rigveda (Bonn, 1 877), Pref. pp. xvi., xvii., dispute the superior antiquity of tlie readings of the Sama- Sainhita, as compared with those of the Rik-Samhita. P. 25, note ",,and p. 6'/, note ^. On the Sikshas see Kielhorn's paper in the ItuI. Antiq., v. 141 ff., 193 ff, and my comments thereon, ibid., p. 253. P. 32, note ^y On the Vaslilvalas somewhat more light has now been cast. In the first place, from a comparison of the kdrikd quoted in my Catal. of the Berlin Sansk. MSS., p. 314, ' Sdkaldndm samdni va ity richd 'ntyd "hutir hhavet | Bdshkaldndm tu tachhamyor ity richd 'ntyd- hutir hhavet' it results that the citation in the forty-eighth Atharva-pari^ishta (see /. St., iv. 431) of the Samyuvdka as the concluding verse of the Rik-Sainhita has reference to the Vashkala-recension of the latter. Next, it becomes evident that this recension stood in a special relation to the Sankhayaiia texts, since in the Sankh. Grih., 4. 5. 9, the same verse is cited as the concluding one of the Sarn- hita, and this expressly as the view of Kaushitald. In addition to this we have' the fact that the pratika of the whole section to which this verse belongs, and which forms the last khUa — swmjndwx — in the vulgate recension of the Rik-Sainhita, is found cited in the ^ankhay.-Srauta- Siitra, 3. 6. 4, but is wanting in the parallel passage, A^val., 2, 1 1. And, lastly, we shall probably also have to allot to the Vashkalas the eleven hymns — ten Ahnndni and one Aindrdvarunam sijJctam — which, as End. Meyer has re- , cently pointed out (Rigvidhana, Praef., p. xxiv.), are cited 314 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. in the Brihaddevata, 3. 24, between Rik-Samh., i. 73 and 74. For, according to Meyer, their pratikas prove to be identical with those given by the scholiast on Sankh. Sr., 9. 20. 14) for the 'triiatam suparnam' there mentioned in The text, which again is specified under this name in the Sankh. Br. itself (18. 4) as part of the Aivina-^astra. Probably, too, the other portions of text, which, as stated, by Meyer (I. c, p. xxv. ff'.), appear in the Brihaddevata as well as in the Rigvidhana, as belonging to the Rik- Samhita, whereas they are found neither in the vulgate — the Sakala-Samhita — itself, nor in its khila portions, will have to be assigned to the Vashkalas. In point of fact, the samjndna khila also, to which (see above) the con- cluding verse of the Vashkala-Samhita belongs, is men- tioned in both texts (Meyer, p. xxii.). An exact comparison of the Rik-verses cited in the Sankhayana texts will pro- bably throw full light upon this point. — In Biihler's letter from Kashmir (published in I. St., xiv. 402 iJ.) the in- teresting information was given that he had there dis- covered an excellent S/i'jir^a-MS., some five to six hundred years old, of the Rik-Samhita in the ^akala recension. This MS. is accentuated, whereas the Kashmir Vedic MSS. are not wont to be so, but the accent is denoted in a totally different manner from that customary in India, the uddtta alone being marked by a perpendicular line, pre- cisely as, according to Haug, is usual in one of the two schools of the Maitrayanf Samhita, and as we ourselves do; cf. my remarks in the Jenaer Lit. Zeit., 1875, p. 315. On this MS. see now the detailed report of Biihler's journey in the Journal Bomb. Br. B. A. S., 1 877, extra No., pp. 35, 36. Pp. 35, 36, note §. See also Myriantheus, I)ie Aivins (Munich, 1876), and James Darmesteter, Ormazd et Ahri- man (Paris, 1877). P. 41, note ^l See Alfred Hillebrandt, Varum, und Mitra, ein Beitrag zur Bxegese des Veda (Breslau, 1877). P. 43, note ^^. Max Mliller's issue of the text alone of the Rik has now appeared in a second edition (London, 1877). Savihitd-pdtha and pada-pdfha are here printed on opposite pages. Respecting the latter it has to be remarked that, as in Miiller's previous editions, so again in this one the so-called galitas are in no way marked, the text which a particular passage shows the first time SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. 31 j it occurs being uniformly simply repeated, without any reference to what is done in the MSS. themselves in these cases. This is all the more surprising as, after I had pointed out this defect, in my review of the last volume of his large edition in the Lit. Cent.' Blatt, 17th April 1875, Miiller himself, in an article which appeared in the same periodical a year and a half later (i6th December 1876) fully recognised the critical importance of the galitas. — Aufrecht's edition has also been reprinted (Bonn, 1877): the preface (comp. desideratum at note 28) contains a variety of critical remarks. — Complete translations of tlie Rik-Samhita, by Alfred Ludwig (Prag, 1876) and Hermann Grassmann (Leipzig, i %j6-yy) have appeared. — Very meri- torious, also, is the edition of the Rik-Samhita which is appeai'ing in monthly numbers at Bombay, under the title ' Vedarthayatna,' with English and Mahrathi translation, as well as with Mahrathi commentary : the latest No. brings it do\vu to i. icx3. The name of the excellent editor, Shankar Pandit, is an open secret. — Lastly, there remains to be mentioned M. Haug's Vedische Edthselfragen und Bdfliselspruche (Rik, i. 164, 1876). P. 48, note ^^\ Rajendra Lala Mitra's edition, in the Bibl. Indica, of the Aitareya-Aranyaka with Sayana's com- mentary, has now been completed. A MS. acquired by Biihler in Kashmir shows a number of variations ; see his Report of Journey, I. c, p. 34. P. 50, 6 (cf. p. 285). Panchalachanda appears in a Pali Sutta among the mahdsendpatis of the Yakkhas ; for the conclusions -to be drawn from this see Jenaer Lit. Zdt., 7th April 1877, p. 221. P. 56, 8. The ^ankh. Grih. (4. 10. 3) inserts between Vilvamitra and Vamadeva, tlie two representatives of the third and fourth mandalas, tlie name of Jamadagni, to whom in the Anukramani to the Sakala-Samhita only the last three verses of the third viandala (iii. 62, 16-18) are in this place ascribed, — but in addition to these, also five entire hymns and four separate verses in the last three mandalas. Have we here also to do with a divergence of the Vashkala school ? (In Safikh. Grih., 4. 5. 8, however, there is no trace of this A'^ariation from the vulgate; rather, the verse iii. 62. 18 appears there as the concluding verse of the third mandala) 3 1 6 SUPPLEMENTARY NO TES. P. 58, note 5". The Saiikh. Grihya lias been published, ■with translation and notes, by Herm. Oldenberg; see /. St., XV. 1-166. There exists also another recension of it, which is designated as Kaushitaka-Grihya, but which, according to Oldenberg, is rather to be understood as Sambavya-Grihya. Its text is 'nowise identical' with the ^ankh. Grih., ' but it has borrowed from the latter by far the greatest part both of its matter and form.' The last two books of the ^ankh. Grih. are not used' in it, anU a great deal is lacking besides. P. 61, note *. On the Jyotisha a very meritorious work has just appeared by G. Thibaut. P. 62, 6, 26 ff. On the Brihaddevata and Rigvidhana see R. Meyer's edition of the latter work (Berlin, 1877). P. 65, 28. The forty-eighth Atharva-pari^ishta, see /. St., iv. 432, gives indeed the same beginning, but a different concluding verse to the Sama-Samhita, namely, the last verse but one of the first part of the vulgate ; accordingly, it did not reckon the second part as belonging to the Sam- hita at all, while for the first part also it presents the discrepancy stated. P. 65, note ^. The Aranya-Samhita, with Sayana's commentary, has been edited by Satyavrata Sama^ramin, and that in a double form, namely, separately (Calcutta, 1873), and also in the second part of his large edition of the Sama-Samhita, p. 244 ff. P. 66, note ^^ This edition of the Sama-Sarnhita, in the Bill. Indica, has now reached, in its fifth volume, as far as 2. 8. 2. 5. Pp. 73, 74. The Talavakara- or Jaiminiya-Brahmana, to which the Kenopan. belongs, has been recovered by Burnell (letter of 19th April). Also a Samaveda-Pra- ti^akhya. Pp. 74, 75, notes ^, ^^- TPie Axsheya-Brahmana and Samhitopanishad-Brahmana have also been edited by Bur- nell (Mangalore, 1876, 1877) ; the former with a lengthy introduction containing an inquiry into the Ganas, the secondary origin of the Sarnhita from tliese, the chanting of the sdmans, &c. On this compare A. Barth's detailed notice in the i2e®M« Gritiqm, 21st July 1877, pp. 17-27. The Arsheya-Briihmana has, further, just been issued a second time by Burnell, namely, in the text of the Jai- SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. 317 miiiiya school, which he had meanwhile recovered (Man- galore, 1878). Pp. 99-101. According to the catalogue (1876) of M. Hang's collection of MSS., there are now in the Eoyal Library at Munich, with which this collection was incor- porated in the spring of 1877, not only two MSS. of the Maitrayanl Samhita, but also several more or less com- plete, but, unfortunately, in great part modern, copies of Apastamba, Manava, Eharadvaja, Baudhayana, Yaikha- nasa, Hiranyake^in. — The description (in notes 108, IC9) of the Dharma-Siitras as part of the Srauta-Sutras is not quite correct ; rather both are portions, possessing an equal title, of a collective Siitra-whole, to which in each case there also belonged a Grihya- and a Sulva-Siitra, and which we might perhaps designate by the name of Kalpa-Siitra. — [The North-Western origin of the Katha scliool (cf. Kddaia, I. Si., xiii. 439) is also, in a certain measure, attested by the fact that, according to Biihler's letter from Kashmir (dated September 1875, published in /. St., xiv. 402 ff.) on the results of his search for ]\ISS. in that pro- vince, this school is still in the present day the prevailing one in Kashmir. The Brahmans there call themselves, it is true, chatwvedi, but they follow the rules of the Ka- thaka-Grihya-Siitra of Laugakshi. Besides portions of all the Vedas, the Bhattas learn by heart the Paddhati of Devapala, the commentary and frayoga to the Kathaia- Grihya. ' Of these Grihyas I have acquired several MSS., among them an old one on Ihilrja. To tlie Kathaka-Siitra are attached a Pravaradhyaya, an Arsha, the Gharayaniya Siksha, and several other Pari^ishtas.' — Additional note in second German edition.] According to Biihler, Z. D. M. G., xxii. 327, the Dharma-Siitra of the Kathaka school is iden- tical with the Vishnu-Smriti. On this, and on the Ka- thata school in Kashmir generally, see now Biihler, Eeport of Journey, /. c, pp. 20, 36, ij. P. 103, note "'^. The Taitt. Prati^alchya has also been edited in the Bill. Indica by Eajendra Lala Mitra (1872). Pp. 1 1 7, 1 1 8. The forty-eighth Atharva-Pari^ishta spe- cifies a recension of the Vaj. Samh., ^vhich begins with I. I, but which ends with 23. 32 ! See /. St., iv. 432. P. 114. Por the formula Anibe ambike 'mhdlike, which diiiers in all three Yajus texts, Panini (vi. 7. 118) 3i8 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. has a fourtli reading ; on this and the other points of con- nection between Panini and the vocabulary of the Yajua texts, see /. St., iv. 432. P. 138, 23. According to Mahavahsa, p. 9. 12, 15, the name of Buddha's wife was Bhad'da- or Subhadda-Kach- ch.ina ! P. 139, note "I Satap., 3. i, 1-2. 2, is translated in Bruno Lindner's dissertation, TJei&r die Dilishd (Leipzig, 1878); other portions inDelbruck's^ftmd Wort,folye{i2>'/%'). P. 142, note ^^^. The Paraskara has been edited by Stenzler (1876). P. 150, note ^^^- In the forty-eighth Atharva-Pari- ^ishta, the commencement of the Atharva-Sarnhita is given just as in the published recension, but it ends there with Book xvi. ; see /. St., iv. 432. P. 151, note ^^- With the doshapaii compare the^^?*' man dsura in the Nrisiiihop. ; see I.. St., ix. 149, 150. P. 153 ff. Cf. Paul Eegnaud, Mat&iaux poior servir cJ I'Histoire de la Philosopliie de I'lnde, 1 876, and my review of this work in the Jenaer Lit. Zeit. of 9th Pebruary 1 878. P. 182, note 1^^. Tlie dates of the Nepalese MSS. appa- rently reach back as far as a.d. 883 ! See Dan. Wright, History of Nepal, 1877, Jenaer Lit. Zeit., 1877, p. 412. Pp. 187, 188, note ^°^*. On Olshausen's explanation of the word Palilav — the basis of the Indian Palilava — from Parthava, ' Parthians,' see now also Th. Noldeke in Z. D. M. G., xxxi. 557 ff. P. 189, note ^''*. According to Kern, Over de oud- JavaanscheVertaling van't 3Iahdbhdrata(AmsteTdeim,i8yy), p. 7 ff., the Kavi translation of the Adi-parvan, from which he there communicates the text of the Paushyacharita, dates from the beginning of tlie eleventh century. P. 189, note ^"^ For the criticism of the Maha-Bharata, Holtzmann's researoiies (Indische Sagen, Preface, Stuttgart, 1854) are also of great importance. P. 191, note ^''^. The Index to Hall's edition of Wilson's translation of the Vishnu-Purdna (vol. v. part ii.) appeared in 1 877. The edition of the Agni-Purana in the JBibl. hid. has now reached adhy. 294. P. 195, 15. The identity of the author of the Eaghu- vansa and Kumara-sambhava with the dramatist Kalidasa is contended for by Shankar Pandit in the Transactiom SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. 319 0^' the London Congress of Orientalists (London, 1876), p. 227 ff. P. 196, note '^'^. Bharavi and Kalidasa are mentioned together in an inscription of Pulake^i II., ' in the' Saka year 507- (a.d. 5O5-O) ; ' at that date, therefore, they must have been already famous. See Bhau Daji in Journ. Bomb. Br. B. A. S., ix. 315, and J. F. Meet in Ind. Antiq., V. 68. — On the Kashmir poets Chandraka and Mentlia, of about the fifth (?) century, Eatnakaxa of the ninth, Kshe- mendra and Bilhana of the eleventh, Somadeva, Mankha, Kalhana, &c., of the twelfth century, see Buhler, Report of Journey, I. c., p. 42 ff. P. 199, note f. Por the text of these Suttas see now Grimblot, Sept suttas Fdlis (Paris, 1 876), p. 89 ; ' nachclmm gitarn, vdditam peJcMam akhlidnam . . Ui vd iti evar'd^d visii,kadassa7id' (exhibitions, p. 65, spectacles, pp. 179, 215). Prom this it appears that the word here properly in question is not so much the general term vis^ka as rather, specially, pckklia (jpreksliya), ' exhibition,' ' spec- tacle,' translated by 'theatricals,' pp. 65, 179, 'representa- tions dramatiques,' p. 215; comp. prckskanaka as the name of a species of drama in Bharata (Hall, Da^ariipa, p. 6), and driSya in the Sahitya-darpana as the name of dramatic poetry in general. Pp. 200, 12, 205, 20. According to Hall, Yasavad., In- trod., p. 27, Bhavablniti would have to be placed earlier than Subandhu, and if so, of course, d fortiori, earlier than Eana : the latter, however, does not allude to him in the classic passage in the introduction to the Harsha-charita, where he enumerates his predecessors (Hall, ibid., pp. 13, 14). See also Ind. Streifcn, i. 355. P. 201, note ||. According to Lassen, /. AK., iii. 855, 1 163, Blioja died in 1053. An inscription of his in tlie Ind. Antiq., 1877, p. 54, is dated in the year 1022. P. 203, note. According to Buhler, Ind. Antiq., v. 112 (April, 1876), a grant of King Jayabhata is ' older than the year 445 a.d., and dated in the Vikrama era.' P. 204, note 211. In Z. B. M. G., xxx. 302, Jacobi cites from the Urva^i a (chronometrical) datum betokening Greek influence. P. 207, note ^^*. Of new publications, &c., of Indian dramas have to be mentioned : Bhandarkar's edition of the 320 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. Malati-madhava (Bombay, 1876), Cappeller's edition of the Eatnavali (1877, in the second edition of Bohtlingk's SaThslcrit-Clirestomathie), the Bengali recension of the Sa- kuntala, edited by Pischel (see Cappeller in the Jenaer Lit. Zeit, 1877, p. 121), the two latter dramas translated by Ludw. Fritze ; lastly, Eegiiaud's translation of the Mrichhakatika (Paris, 1876). — On the question as to the various recensions of Kalidasa's Sakuntala — discussed in /. St., xiv. 161 ff. — see also Blihler's Eeport of Journey, I. c, p. Ixxxv. ff., -where the fjst act of the Kashmir recen- sion of this drama is printed. P. 210, note ^^''. To this place also belongs Srivara's Subhashitavali of the fifteenth century, containing quota- tions from more than 350 poets; see Biihler, Eeport of Journey, I. c, p. 61 ff. ; further, the Subhashita-ratnakara by Krishna Shastri Bhatavadekar (Bombay, 1 872). — Here, too, have to be mentioned the four papers Zur Kritik und Erlddrung verscMedener indischer Werlce, published by 0. Bohtlingk in vols. vii. and viii. of the Milanges Asiatiques of the St. Petersburg Academy (1875-76). P. 212, note ^^^- Comp. Benfey's Introduction to Bick- ell's edition and translation of the ' Kalilag und Damnag' (Leipzig, 1876). It now appears doubtful whether the ancient Pahlavi version really rested upon one individual work as its basis, or whether it is not rather to be re- garded as an epitome of several independent texts ; see my notice of the above work in Lit. G. Bl., 1876, Xo. 31, Biihler, Eeport of Journey, p. 47 ; Prym in the Jenaer Lit. Zeit., 1878, Art 118. P. 213, note ^2*. Eead 'recast by Kshemendra.' It is only to Kshemendra that the statements from Biihler's letter, given in the next sentence, refer. Biihler now places him in the second and third quarter of the eleventh century, Eeport of Journey, I. c, p. 45 ff. P. 213. On the Eaja-taramgini see now Biihler, Eeport of Journey, pp. 52-60, Ixvi.-lxxxii. (where an amended translation of i. i— 107 is given ) ; and on the Xila-mata, of about the sixth or seventh centu,ry, ibid., p. 38 ff., Iv. ff. P. 214, note ^^. The Harsha-charita appeared at Cal- cutta in 1876, edited by Jivananda. — On the Sinhasana- dvatrin^ika see now my paper in /. St., xv. 1 85 ff. 1*. 215, note ^-^. In the interpretation of Indian inscrip- SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. 321 tions, Btihler and Fleet also, in particular, have of late done very active service (especially in Ind. Antiq., vols, v., vi.). P. 221, note ^ Goldstiicker's ' facsimile' (conip. note 1°^ p. 100) edition of the Manavakalp. is not ' photo-Utho- graphed,' but lithographed from a tracing. P. 226, note ^^- Kielhorn has come forward with great vigour in defence of the Mahabhashya, first, in a lengthy article in the Ind. Antiq., v. 241 (August 1876), next in his Essay, Kdtydyana and Patamjali (Bombay, December 1876), which deals specially with the analysis of the work into its component parts ; and, lastly, in his edition of the work itself, which exhibits the text critically sifted, in direct reference thereto (the first number, Bombay, 1878, gives the navdhnikam). Cf., further, two articles by Bhan- darkar,. On the Relation of Kdtydyana to Pdnini and of Patamjali to Kdtydyana in Ind. Antiq., v. 345 ff. (December 1876), and on Goldstucker's Theory about Pdnini' s Technical Terms (reprint of an earlier review of G.'s Pdnini^, ihid., vi. 107 ff. To this place also belongs an article on the Mahabhashya, which was sent off by me to Bombay on 9th October 1876, but which only appeared in the Ind. Antiq., vi. 301 ff.,in October 1877. P. 226, note ^ On the antiquity of the Ka^ika see now Biihler's Eeport of Journey, p. 72. The issue of the work in the Pandit is perhaps by this time completed. It is to be hoped that it will appear in a separate edition. — Biihler's information regardiiig Vyadi, the Mahabhashya, Katantra, &c., is given in detail in his Eeport of Journey. — On Burnell's essay, On the Aindra School of Sanskrit Grammarians (1875), which contains rich materials, see my critique in the Jenaer Lit. Zeit., March 1876, p. 202 ff. -^Of Hemachandra's Prakrit-Grammar Pischel has given us a new edition (Halle, 1877, text and good index of words). P. 229, note t. This note, according to Barth, Eevue Critique, 3d June 1 876, is to be cancelled, as paraitre can only have the sense of ' seem ' (scheinen). P. 231, note ^\ On Kshemendra's Loka-praka^a see Biihler, Report of Journey, p. 75. P. 231, 29. See note above to p. 182. P. 231, note ^. The translation of the Sahitya-darpaija in the Bill. Indica ig now finished. — For the rich informa- X 322 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. tion supplied by Biihler regarding the Alamkara literature in Kashmir, see his Eeport of Journey, p. 64 ff. Accord- ing to this, the Alamkara-^astra of Bhatta IJdbhata dates from the time of Jayapida (779-8 1 3), whose sabhdpati the author was. Vamana, too, in Biihler's opinion, belongs to the same period. Anandavardhana and Eatnakara belong to the ninth century, Mukula to the tenth, Abhinavagupta to the beginning, Eudrata to the end, of the eleventh, while Euyyaka flourished at the commencement, and Jayaratha at the close, of the twelfth century ; Mammata is to be placed still later. P. 235, note ^'l Of the Sarva-dar^ana-samgraha there is now a translation, by Cowell and Gough, in the Pandit, 187s ff. P. 237, note ^^^. The Samkhya-tattva-pradi'pa has been translated by G-ovindadevalastrin in the Pandit, Nos. 98 fP. P. 237, note ^'^. Abhinavagupta was stiU living in A.D. 1015 ; Biihler, Eeport of Journey, p. 80. — The Saiva- ^astra in Kashmir, ibid., pp. 77-82, is divided into two groups, of which the one connects itself with the Spanda- l^astra of Vasugupta (854), the other with the Praty- abhijna-^astra of Somananda (ab. 900) and Utpala (ab. 930). It is of the latter — which appears to rest upon Samkara — that Abhinavagupta is the leading representative. P. 24 1 , note '^^. The last number of this edition of ^aba- rasvamin brings it down to 10. 2. 73 ; the edition of the Jaimim'ya-nyaya-mala-vistara has just been completed by Cowell. The Jaimini-siitra is being published in the Bombay monthly periodical, ' Sliaddarlana-chintanika,' begun in January 1877 — text and commentary with a double translation, in b.ngiish and Mahrathi. P. 243, note ^'^. Vaehaspatimi^ra's Bhamati, a gloss on Samkara's commentary on the Vedanta-siitra, is in course of publication in the Bill. Ind. edited by Bala^astrin, — commenced in 1876. — In ihe Pandit for 1876, p. 113, in the Preface to his edition of Srinivasadasa's Yatindramata- di'pika, Eamami^ra^astrin cites a passage from Eamanuja's Brahmasiitra-bhashya, in which the latter mentions the Z)Aa/7a»af?-Bodhayana as his predecessor therein, and as separated from him by several generations oi p'O.rvdclidryas. As such jp^rvdchdryas Eamami^ra gives the names of Dramida, Guhadeva, and Brahmanandi, at the same time SUPPLEMENT4.RY NOTES. 32 j designating them by the epithets inaharshi and suprdchi- natama. By Srinivasadasa himself (p. 115) the teachers are mentioned in the following order : Vyasa, Bodhayana, Guhadeva, Bharuchi, Brahmanandi, Dravidacharya, ^ri- Paranku^anatha, Yamunamuni, Yati^vara. — Here is also to be mentioned the edition in the Pandit, by Vechana- ramalastrin, of two commentaries on the Vedanta-siitra, viz., the Saiva-bhashya of Srikantha Sivacharya (see Z. D. M. G., xxvii. 166), and the Vedanta-kaustubha-prabha of Kelava Ka^mirabhatta. — Further, in the second edition of his Sanskrit- Ohresto7natMe (1877) Bohtlingk has given a new translation of the Vedanta-sara ; and the Vidvan- manoranjini of Eamati'rtha, a commentary thereon, has been published, text witli translation, in the Pandit by Gough and Govindadeva^astrin. In the same journal has also appeared the Advaita-makaranda of Lakshmidhara. P. 245, note ^'^- A translation, by Ke^avaiastrin, of the Nyaya-dar^ana and of Vatsyayana's commentary thereon, has begun to appear in the Pandit (new series, vol. ii.). The fourth book of Gange^a's Nyaya-chiutamaiii, with the commentary of Euchidatta, has also been edited, ibid. (Nos. 66-93) ^7 Balalastrin. P. 247, note ^''^. Of importance are the names, com- municated to me from Albiriini by Ed. Sachau, of the mendzil in Soghd and Khvarizm, the list of which begins with thurayyd, i.e., with krittikd, and that under the name parvi; by this is evidently, meant jjarmg, i.e., the name which stands third in the Bundehesh, whence it neces- sarily follows that the list of names in the latter is the modern one, commencing with dsvini; see Jenaer Lit. Zeit., i?ijj (7th April), p. 221. Some of the names here cited by Albi'runi are distinctly Indian, as frshtbdth, i.e., pro- shihapdda, the ancient form of name, consequently, (not hhadrapadd). Here, too, presumably, as in the case of China, tlie Buddhists were the channel of communication. Pp. 250, 251, note *^*. The proposition laid down by H. Jacobi in Z. D. M. G., xxx. 306, that no Indian writings, which enumerate the planets in the order — Sun, Moon, Mars, &c. — can have been composed earlier than the third century a.d., has application to Yiijnavalkya, as well as to the Atharva-pari^ishtas, which in point of fact already observe this order; see I. St., x. 317. 324 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. P. 253, note *. The absence of mention of the Eomakas in the Eamayana may perhaps also rest upon geographical grounds, namely, on the probable origin of the poem in the east of India, in the land of the Koialas, whereas the 'war-part' of the Maha-Bharata was in all HkeKhood composed in Central, if not in "Western India. P. 256, note 281. Cf. Thibaut's paper ' On the ^ulva- sutras' in the Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, 1875 (minutely dis- cussed by Mor. Cantor in the hist. lit. div. of the Zeitsch. fur Math, und Physih, vol. xxii.), and his edition of the Sulva-siitra of Baudhayana with the commentary of Dva- rakanathayajvan (text with translation) in the Pandit, May, 1875-77. P. 256, note *. The explanation of the Indian figures from the initial letters of the numerals has recently been rudely shaken, see Biihler in Ind. Ant., vi. 48, — through the deciphering, namely, of the ancient ' Nagari numerals ' by Pandit Bhagvanlal Indraji, ihid., p. 42 ff. These, it appears, turn out to be other letters, yet the derivation of the later figures from them can hardly be called in ques- tion. What principle underlies these ancient numerals is, for the rest, still obscure : the zero has not yet a place among them; there are letter-symbols for 4-10 (1-3 being merely represented by strokes) for the tens up to 90, and for the hundreds up to icxx). Comp. pp. 222, note 2^^ and 257, note ^^. P. 260, note *. The remainder of the Yatra has now been edited by Kern in I. St., xiv. and xv. P. 266 ff. In complete opposition to the former dreams about the high antiquity of Indian medicine, Haas has recently, in Z. D. M. G., xxx. 617 ff. and xxxi. 647 ff., characterised even the most ancient of the Indian medical texts as quite modern productions, to be traced to Arabian sources. In the accounts given by the Arabs themselves of the high repute in which Indian medicine stood with them, and of the translation of works of the kind, which are specified by name, from Sanskrit into Arabic, he recog- nises hardly any value. As regards the latter point, how- ever, there exists absolutely no ground for throwing doubt upon statements of so definite a character made by the old Arab chroniclers; while, with respect to the former point, the language of Su^ruta, Charaka, &c., is distinctly SUPPLEMENT AR Y NO TES. 3 2 j opposed to the assignment to them of so late a date. At the same time, every real proof of the presence of Greek (or even Arabian) conceptions in the works in question, will have to be thankfully received. But the early existence of medical knowledge in India would in no way be prejudiced thereby, as its beginnings are well attested by evidence from the Vedio period, especially from the Atharvaveda. P. 270, note '^'*- Charaka, as Biihler informs me, has now also been printed at Bombay, edited by Dr. Anna Mureshvar Kunte, Grant Medical College. P. 271, note *^*. The Kavi translation of the Kaman- daki-niti probably belongs, at the earliest, to about the same date as the translation of the Maha-Bharata ; see remark above to note ^''*. — Progress has been made with the printing of Nirapeksha's commentary in the Bibl. Indica. P. 273, note ^^. On modern Indian music, see now the numerous writings of Sourindro Mohun Tagore, Calcutta, 1875 ff., cf. Jenaer Lit. Zeit., i?>77, p. 487. — It is possible that the investigation of the gdnas of the Sama-veda, in case these are still in actual use and could be observed, might yield some practical result for the ancient laukika music also. P. 274, note '^1*. For such representations of Venus, supported on the tail of a dolphin, or with a dolphin and Cupid behind her, see J. J. Bernouilli, Aphrodite (Leipzig, 1873), pp. 245, 370, 405. See also numerous representa- tions of the kind in the Musee de Sculpture par le Comte F. de Clarac (Paris, 1S36-37), voL iv., pi. 593, 607, 610, 612, 615, 620, 622, 626-628, 634. P. 278, note 8^1 Btihler has also published a transla- tion of Apastamba : it is now being reprinted in the series of ' Sacred Books of the East ' which is appearing under Max MuUer's direction. — Gautama has been edited by Stenzler (London, 1876), aud is also comprised in Jiva- nanda's lai-ge collection ' Dharmashastrasamgraha ' (Cal- cutta, 1876), which, all inaccuracies notwithstanding, is yet a very meritorious publication, on account of the abundance of material it contains. It embraces 27 large and small Smriti-texts, namely, 3 Atris, 2 Vishnus, 2 Harftas, Yajnavalkya, 2 Ulanas', Angiras, Yama, Apa- 3:6 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. stamba, Samvarta, Katyayana, Brihaspati, 2 Paralaras, 2 Vyasas, Sankha, Likhita, Daksha, 2 Gautamas, and 2 Vasishthas. — Narada's Smriti has been translated by Jolly (London, 1876); see also his papers, Ueber die recht- liche Stellung der Frauen hei den Indern (Munich, 1 876), and Ueber das indiscke Schuldrecht (Munich, 1877). P. 280, note '^^. The Aruna-Smriti, Biihler informs me, is quite a late production, probably a section of a Purana. P. 281. As Yajiiavalkya enumerates the planets in their Greek order (i. 295) the earliest date we can assign to this work is the third century a.D. (see remark above to p. 251, note ^^*, following Jacobi). P. 284, 5. See remark on Panchdlachanda above, note to p. 50. P. 288. E. Senart, in his ingenious work, La Ligende dv, Bouddha (Paris, 1875), traces the various legends that are narrated of Buddha (and in part, identically, of Krishna also) to ancient solar myths which were only subsequently applied to Buddha; comp. my detailed notice and partial rejoinder in the JenaerLit. Zeit., 1876 (29th April), p. 282 if. P. 291, note -f-. Schiefner's 'Indische Erzahlungen,' from the Kagyur, in vols. vii. and viii. of the Milanges Asintiques of the St. Petersburg Academy, embrace already forty-seven such legends. P. 292, note ^^. Whether the Buddhaghosha of this in- scription is, as Stevenson assumes (p. 1 3), to be identified with the well-known B. must still appear very doubtful, as the princes mentioned in the rest of these inscriptions belong to a far older period; see Bhandarkar in the Transactions of the London Congress of Orientalists (1876), p. 306 £f. P. 293, note *. Sept suttas Fdlis, tirds du Bighanikdya, from the papers of Paxil Grimblot, were published by his widow in 1876 (Paris), text with translation. — The second part of PausboU's edition of the Jataka appeared in 1877. — The Mahaparinibbana-sutta was edited in 1874 by Childers in the Journal B. A. S., vols. vii. and viii. : a separate impression of it has just appeared. The same journal also contains an edition of the Patimokkha by Dickson. An edition of the whole Vinaya-pitaka by Herm. Oldenberg is in the press. P. 297, note ^^. A collected edition of the sacred Aiigas SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. 327 of the Jaiiias was published last year (1877) at Calcutta by Uhanapatisii'ihaji : the text is accompanied with the commentary of Abhayadeva and a S/icb/wi-explanation by Bhagvan Vijaya. P. 300, note *'". On this compare also S. Beal, Tlic Buddhist Tripitaka as it is known in China and Japan (Devonport, 1876). P. 303, note %. On possible points of connection between the Avesta and Buddhism see Jenaer Lit. Zeit., 1 877, p. 221. P. 305, note I. In Gautama the word ihikshu appears expressly as the name of the third of the four diramas ; in place of it Manu has yati. Berlin, 24*^ May 1878. SANSKRIT INDEX. Akshapdda, 8^ 245. akshwra, ' syllable,' 15. 16. — pbilos., i6i. Agastya, 53. 275 (archit.). Agni, 31. 40. 63. 159. 178. 303. — ckayana, 120. (274). — Purdna, 191. 231. 271. 275. 281. 318- — rahasya, 118. 120. Agnivesa, 265. 266. 269 (med.). AgnisvSCmin, 79. agra, 190. aghds, 248. Anga, 25. 216 (s. Veddnga), 296, 297- 326, 327 (Jain.). Aflgas, 147. Angir, 158. Afigiras, 31. 53. 153. 158. 160. 162. 164. 250. 325 {Smriti). — (Jupiter) 250. Angirasas, 124. 148 ff. AjiSta^atru, 51. 127. 138. 286 (his six teachers). — comm. , 82. atiknisAta, III. atthahtUhd, 292. Atri, 31. 38. 53. 102. 103. 140 Ved. — 102. 283. 325 (jur.). — 269 med. — daughter of, 38. 140. — Irihad", 269 (med.). — laghu', 269 (med.). j\tharvan, 151 (as prajdjiati). 153 {hrihaspati and hhayavaut). 158. 164. — (= Ath. Veda), 78. Atharva-PariUshtas, 249. 251. 253. 265. — the forty-eighth Ath. Par., 313. 316. 317. 318. Atharva-ParUkhta, Greek order of the planets in the Ath. ParUiehfas, 323- — Paippale, 158, 169. — PrdtUdhhya, 146. 151. — Veda, 8. 22. 29. 145 £F. 249. 265. — Hkhare, 164. — HkhA, 164, 167. Athwrvaiiras, 154. 166. 169. 170. Athania-Samhitd, II. 208. 318. Atharvdmgirasas, 11. 72. 93. 121. 127. 149. 150 {"rasa sing.) Atharvdifas, 113. 124. 148. 149. Atharvopanishads, 28. 153 ffi 239. ath& 'tah, 245. 265. A(&hiUad?iarma, 301 (Buddh.). AdbhiUa-Brdhmarfa, 69. 152. advaita, 171. Advaita-maharanda, 323. adhidevatam, 121. adhiyajnam, 121. adhyayana, 8. adhydtmam, 121. Adhydtmardtndyatfa, 168. adhydya, 14. 31. 32. 107. 117. adkydyddin, 66. adhvaryu, 14. 80. 149. adhvaryus (pi.), 8. 80. 86. 87. 121, Ananta, 141 (comm.). Anantadeva, loi Anantayajvan, 85. 245. aitapJid, 255 (Greek). AnukramanU, 24. 32. 33. 61. 64. 65. 74. 83. 85. 87. 88. 90. 103. 104. 107. 143. 144. 145. 152. Anupada-Slitra, 80. 81. 84. 88. 95. Anubrdlmuma, 12. 82, anubrdlimanin, 82. AnubhiitipTakdia, 97. Anubhtitisvartipiichdrya, 226. 33° SANSKRIT INDEX. aniilamba, 68. anuvdha, 31. 33. 88. 94. 107. 109. 124. 145. — 'kdnukramant, 32. 61. anuvydJehydna, 122. 127. anuidsana, 121. 122. 127. anustotra, 84. antlchdna, 78. Andhaka-Vrislinayas, 185. Andhomati, 106. anvadhydya, 57. 176. anvdJchy&Tia, 122. Ap^ntaratamas, 243. Apsarae, 125. Abhayadeva, 327. Abhichdra-Kalpa, 153. AShidharma (Buddh.). 290. 292. 307 ff. Abhidltdna-chintdmani, 230. — ratnamdld^ 230. Abhinavagupta, 237. 273. 322. abhinimru/cta, 278. Abhinishkramarjia-Siitra, 300. Abhimanyu, 219. 220. 223. abhiyajna-gdthds, 45. Abhira, 3. abhyaniihta, 122. AmarahosJia, 220. 229 ff. 267. Amarachandra, 190. Amaradeva, 228. Amarasinha, 200. 219. 227 S. Amaru, 210. Amita, 306. Amitibha, 298. 306. Amitraghdita, 251. Amritanddopanishad, 154. 165. 171. Amritavind/Hpanishad, ijg. 154. 165. AmM, 114. 134. 317. Ambikit, 39. 114. 134. 317. Ambdliki, 39. 114. 134. 317. ayana, 66. ayogi, iii. Ayodby^, 89. 178. 224. Aruna, 133. "nas, 93. — Smrili, 280. 326. Arani, 93 (and plur;;) Arkaliuas, 33. arjuna, Arjuna (and Indra), 37. 50. 114. 115. 134.13s- 136. 137- 1S5. 186. arjunyau, 248. Arthaiditra, 271. 273. 275. ardha, 73 (inhabited place). ardha/mdgadM, 295. 296. 297. arhant, 78. 138. 305. AlanikdraMetra, 231, 322. Avaddna, 299. 301 (Buddh.). Avalokite^vara, 298. 299. avyakta, 238. AvyayavrUiiy 227. asUipathaf 119. Asoka, 179. 273. 290. 29 1. A^vaghosha, 161. 162. A^vapati, 71. 120. ahamedha, 54- 114. 126. — oMnda, 118. A^vala, 53. 129. Asbiidlia, 133. ashtaka, 31. 32. 42. 43. 89. ashtddhydyi, 118. asura, 302 (sura formed from). — language of the A.'e, 180. — Krishna, 148. 304. — Maya," 253, 274. ahargana, 258. aid, 36. ahina, 66. 76. 79. 80. 139. Ahobalasliri, loi. dkdia, 12S. dkokera, 254. dkhydna, 122. 193. — vidas, 45. Agamaidstra, 161. ^.guive^ya, 102. 285. Agnive^yStyana, 49. 53. 102. (Igneyam parva, 66. Aflgirasa, 71. 148. 153. Angirasakalpa, 153. ri.ckdrya, 73. 77. 81. 121. Atndra, 68. 125. dnava, 171. dtman, 97. 156. 161 ff. — {mahdn), 238. Atmaprahodhopanishad, 166. 167. , 169. Atmitnauda, 42. jitmopanishad, 158. 162. Atreya, 87-89. 91. 92. 93. 102. 103. Taitt., 153. .4(i., 241. 242. (phil.). 265. 269. (med.). — kanishtha", 269. (med.). — bfihad°, 269. (med.). — 7n,adhyama°, 269. (med.), — vriddha", 269, (med.). -7- {bhikshu), 284. Atharvana, 128. 149. — Ofiliya, 152. Atharvanikas, 82. 149. A ihwrvai}iyavv,d/ropanishad, 154.17a dditya, 131. dditydni, 131. Adityad&a, 259. SANSJiTJi/T INDEX. 331 Adibuddha, 298. ddem, 73. 121. 149. 235. 301. Anauda-giri, 51. 243. — jnitna, 51. — tirtha, 42. 51. — vana, 168. — vardhana, 322. AnandavaMl, 94. 154. 156. 157. Anaittiya, 55. ^ndhras, 94. Apastamba, 88, 89 ff. 100. loi. 102. 317- 325- — Dhai-maa&tra, loi. 102. 106. 278. , 325- Api^ali, 222. dpoklima, 255 (Greek). jfptavajrasHcM, 161, Abhipratilrina, 136. Amardja, 261. ayana, names in, 53. 120. Ayaljsthdna, 130. Ayurveda, 265. 267. 271. dra, 254 (Greek). Aranyaka, 8. 28. 29. 48. 92. — kdnda, 118. — jyotisha, 153. — sainhitd, 65. Aranyagdna, 64. 65. Aranya-^SamJiiid, 316. ^rida, Ariiihi, 285. jj.runa, 93. Aruni, 51. 69. 71. 123. 130. 132. 133; 157- 2S6. A^-unihopanishad, 163. 164. Aruiiins, 93. Anmeya, 133. 157. drchika, 63. 65. 66. ^.rjunaka, 185. Aryas, 3. 79. 178. Aryabhata, 61. 254. 255. 257 S. Aryabhatiya, 61. 257. Arytxsiddhdnta, 257. ArydpailchdMti, 237. Arydshtasata, 257. Arsha., 85. Arahikopam'shad, 162. Arsheya-Kalpa, 75. 77. Afsheya-Bralimana, 74, 313. 316. AlamMyana, 53. ^^vantika, 259. Avantikft, riti, 232. .^silrka, 84. 278. ^smaratba^, lealpah, 46. 53. 242, A^maratbya, 53, 242. dirama, "mopanisliad, 164. — (bhikshu), 327. 4^vatard^vi, 133. ^ Asvaliyaua, 32. 34. 49. 52 ff^g. 62. 80. 85. loi. 106. 169. 266. — Kausalya, 159. — ParUishta, 62. — Brdhmana, 49. Asviiia-sastra, 314. divini series, 323. jjisurdyana, 128. 140. Asuii, 128. 131. 133. 137. 235.236. dskanda, 113. dsphujit, 254 (Greek). Asphu]'i(d)dhvaja (?), 258. ikkavdla, 264 (Arabic). ithimikd, 89. 1 tard, 48. IHhdsas, 24. 72. 93. 122. 124. 127. 159. 190. 191. Itihdsapurdna, 121. 183. 301. itt/ta, 254 (Greek). itthisdla, 264 (Arabic). ityukta, 300. inthihd, 264 (Arabic). induvdra, 264 (Arab.) ludra, 32.40. 52. 63. 123. 127. 176 (gramm.). 186. 2U. 265 (med.). 303- — and Arjuna, 37. 50. 115. 136. 185. 186. Indrajananiya, 193. Indradatta, 293. Indradyumna, 133, ludraprastba, 178. Indrota, 34. 125. Iritvati, 178. «, 108. I^itna, 45. no. liopanishad, 116. 155. 309. isvara, 238. I^vara, 272 raus. fivarakrisbna, 236. 237. isardpha, 264 (Arabic). vktapratyuktam, 122. uktha, 67. 81. ukthdrtha, 83. Ukba, 91. Ugrasena, 125. 135. vchcha, 257. Ujjayiul, 185. 201. 209. 252. 257 259. 29s. Ujjvaladatta, 226. tinddi, 216. 226. Uttaratdpini, 169. Uttaramimdnsd, 239 ff. UUarardmacharita, 207. L'Uaravalll, 157. 332 SANSKRIT INDEX. uttard, uitardrchika, 63. 65. uUardahddhds, 247. Utpala, 243. 260. 322. Vtpalinl, 227. Udayana, 246, uddtta, 314. udichyat, 132. 178. udgdtar, 14. 67. 149. Uddaaka, 69. 71. 123. 130. 131. 157. 284. Uddyotakara, 245. TJdbhata, 322. UpagrantlM-SMra, 83. 84. Upatishya, 199. vpadeia, 301 (Buddh.). upadhd, 144. Upanishads, 28. 29. 42. 48. 73- 74- 121. 127. 153 ff. 235. 277. — number of, 154. 155. — ( Up. Brdhmana), 34. 74. Vpapurdnas, 171. 191. 282. Vpaleklia, 40. 59. Upaveda, 265. 271. 273. upavydkhydna, 122. itpas^dra, 244. upastha, 114. upd/ckydTia, 73, 122. Vpdngas, 297 (Jain,). upddhydya, 82. — nirapehshxi, 27 1. wpdaaia, "aiAd, 306. Upendra, 303. uhhayam, antarena, 49. Unid, 74. 156. nraga, 98. 303. Urva^l, 134. 207 (drama). 208. «Wia, 246. tlyatta, 42. Uianas (Ksfvya), 36. 153. — 278. 282. 325 (jur.). U^li.ara, 45. Ushasti, 71. ushtrttf 3. ("lata, 34. 42. 59. 116. Uvata, 144. Vhagdna, Uhyagdna, 64. Rik-Swrnkitd, 9. 10. 11. 14. 31 ff. — aud Sdma-S., readings of, 313. — concluding verse of, in the forty- eightli Ath. Par., 313. — Kashmir MS., 314. — galitasiu, 314, 315. pigvidhdna, 62. 74. (33). 313. 314. 316. ^igveda, 8. 33 (rigvedaguptaye). 45. 121. 123. 127. richas, 8. 9. 14. 31. 33- 63- ^4- 65. 74- 75- , — number of, 121. 1 53. Rishi, 8 {= Veda). 122. 145. — Brdhmana, 64. — mukhdni, 66. Ruhy-Anukramani, 88. Ekachtirni, 42. 91. ekapddihd, 117. ekavachana, 124. ekahansa, 129. eMAa, 66. 76. 79. 80. 139. eie, 134. 140. Aikshv^ka, 125. Aitareya, 48. 49. 56. 70. 85. — Brdhmana, 16. 44 ff. J 2. — °yaka, 34. 62. — °ydray,yaka, 32. 48 ff. 75. 315. — °yins, 49. 81. 85. — 'opanishad, 48. 155. Aitiadyana, 53. 241 (Aita°). Aindra (School), 321. aindram> parva, 66. aisvarika, 309. om, 158. 160. 161. 163. 164. orimikd, 89. aukthika, 83. 240. Aukhiyas, 88. Audulomi, 242. Audanya, 134. audichya, 34. Audurabardyana, 53* Audddlaki, 157 (Ved.). 267 (erot.). Audbhdri, 88. Aupataeviui, 134. Aupamanyava, 75. Aupavf^i, 133. Aupa^ivi, 143. Aupoditeya, 133. Aullikya, 246. Aushtriikshi, 75- Kansavadha, 198. 207. Kachchdnd (Buddha's wife), 318. Kachohdyana, 227. 293. Katha, 89. 92. 1 84; plur. 88.89. 317- — Kdlipas, 89. — rain, 157. — idkkd, 89. — irutyupanishad, 163. 164, — Satra, 99. 100. Kanabhaksha, Kanabhuj, 243. 260. Kandda, 244, 245. 246. kandiJed, 59. 89. 107. 117. 1 18-120. kanva, 140 (deaf). SANSKRIT INDEX. 333 Kanva, 3. 31. 52. 106. 105 (plur.). 140. — SmritiSdatra, 143. Kanha, 304. Kaifhi, Kantbdyana, 304. Katas, 138. KatluUaritadgara, 213. 217. 219. 223. Kadru, 134. Kanisbka, Kanerki, 20;. 218. 219. 220. 222. 223. 281. 285. 287. 288. 290. 294. 302. 306. 308. Tcanishtha, 269 ( treya), Jeanydhimdri, 157. Kapardigiri, 179. Kapardisvdmiu, 42. loi. Tcapinjala, 211. Kapila, 96. 137. 162. 235 ff. 272. 284. 308. Kapilavastu, 33. 137. 284. Kapisbthala, 265. 268 (med.). — Katbae, 88. ICapishthala-Samhitd, 88. Kabandha, 149. Kabandbin, 159. Kambojas, 178. 220. Jcaminila, 264 Arab. ha/ratdka, 206. Icarana, 259 (astr.). — kutiihala, 261. 262. — sdra, 262. Karayindasv^min, loi. kardU, 159. Karka, 141. Karndtakas, 94. Karnlsuta, 276. Karmanda, "dinaa, 305. Kamufpradipa, 84. 85. 278. Karmamimdnsd, 239 flF. Karmargha, 153. kalds (tbe sixty-four), 275. Kaldpa-SMra, 227 (gramm.). EaMpin, 184. hcUi, 113. 283 yuga. — era, 205. 260. 261. Kaliiiga, 269. Kalitiiitba, 272. kaliyuga, 243. KalH-Purdna, 191. Kalpa, 16.46. 53. 75. 93. \Sz{Ath.). 176. 242. — Mra, 144. — SMras, 16. 34. 75. ICXJ. 102 (Ved.). 297 (Jain.) 317. KcUpdnupada, 84. Ealhaija, 213. 215. 319. Kavasbn, 120. Kavi, 153 (TOanas). igi. 195. Kaviputra, 204. 205. Kavirfja, 196. kaiyapa, 140 (baving black teetb). Kalyapa, 53. 140. — 278. 282 jur. hashdya, 78. 306. Easerumaut, 188. Kahola, 129. 133. Kiflkdlyana, 153 (Atb.). 266. 269 (med.) Kdtbaka, 41. 81. 85. 88. 89 ff. 103. 317- — Grihya, loi. 317. Kdfkakopaniahad, 93. 1 56, 238. 240. kdifdda, 246. kdifda, 59. 89.91. 92. 117 ff. 145. K^dam^yana, 53. Ednva, 103. 106. 113 ff. 142. 143. 144 (gramm.). Kdifvaka, 105. Kd^viputra, 105. EdnTydyana, 105. Kdtantra, lid. 227. 321. Kdtiya-Grihya, 142. Kdtiya-Satra, 91. 99. 100. 142. Kdtya, 138. 223. Kdtyiyana, 53. 61. 80. 83. 84. 107. 138 ff. (Ved.) 222. 321. (gramm.), 227 lex. 266 med. 285 (Buddh.). — SmritirSdstra of, 143. 326. — Kabandbin, 159. Kdtydyanl, 127. 138; = DurgiS, 138. 157, — putra, 71. 138. 285. Kddamiari, 213. KdpUa-Sdstra, 236. Kiipya, 126. 137. 223. 236. 237. 284. Kdmandakiya (NUi-Sditra), 271. 325- Kdma-SHira, 267. Kdmukiyana, 241. KdmpIIa, 114. 115 ; »lya, 115. 138. Kdmboja, 7J. Kdrandavyuha, 299. Kdrttakaujapa, 266. Kslrttikeya, 103 (comm.). kdrmika, 309. Kiirshnttjini, 140. 241. 242. Kitla, 248. Kdlanirnaya, 262. Kitlabavins, 14. 81. 83. 96. Kitlayavana, 220. 221. KdldgnirttdropanUhad, 171. KiUilpa, 89. 96. 534 SANSKRIT INDEX. Kdliddsa, 195. 196. 200 ff. 209. 228. 250. 252. 266. 318 f. — three Kiiliddsas, 204. IcHi, 159. Ktlvasheya, 120. 131. Kdvila, 236. hdvijas, 183. 191. 195. 210. Kiivya 36 (U.^anas). 153. KdvyapralcdUa, 204. 232. Kdvyddaria, 232. Kdvydlarnkdravritti, 226. 232. Ktlyakritsiia, 42. 91. 140. 242. Kds'akritsni, 139. 140. 242. Kdsia, 125. 286. KdUkd, io5. 130. 226, 227. 321. Km, 269. 283. KiL^miras, 227. Kdsyapa, 143 (gramm.). 245 (pliil.). 27s (archit.). Mshdi/adhdrana, 237. hitava, iii. Mimnara, 302. Kirdtdrjuniya, 196. Klkatas, 79. Kli-tidhara, 273. kuttaka, 259. Kiitliumi, 84. Kunclina, 91. — (town), 168. Kutapa-Saiisruta, 266. kuntdpasiikta, 146. Kunti, 90. Kubhd, 3. Kumdrapifla, 297. Kumdrasamhhava, 195. 196. 208. 318. Kumdrilabhatta, 68. 74. 241. 242. ICumdrilasvdmin, 100. Kumbhamushkas, 303. Kumbhdndas, 302. 303. Kurus, 114. 123. 135. 136. 137. 138 (and Katas). 286. Kurukshetra, 68. 136. Kuru-Panchdlas, 10. 34. 39. 45. 68. go. 114. 129. 132. 135. 186. 286. kuladhwrma, 278. Iculira, 254. Knlldka, 281. Kuvera, 124. 303. Ku& and Lava, 197. kwHlava, 197. Ktishmdndas, 303. Kiisuraapura, 257. 258. Kusumdnjali, 245. 246. iilntiavibhdga, 215. Kdshmdndas, 303. kril, 144. krita, 113 (yitga). krittikd, 2. 148. 247. 24.8. 304. 323, — series, date of, 2. Krityachintdmatfi, 80. Kri^a, 266 med. Kri^d^va, °^vinas, 197, kriahi}a (black), 304. Krishna Devakiputra, 71. 104. 148. 169. 186. 238. 284. 304. — and Kdlayavana, 220. 221. — and the Pdndavaa, 136. — and the shepherdesses, 210. — worship of, 71. 1S9. 209, 238, 289. 300. 304. 307. 326. — Afigirasa, 71. 148. — DvaipiSyana, 184. 243. — Asiira Krishna, 14S. 304. — Krishna Hstrita, 50. Krishnajit, 54. 58. Krishnami^ra, 207. Krishndjina, 242. KrishnAtreya, 266 med. Kekayas, 120. 132, ketu, 250. Kenopunishad, 73, 74. 75. 156 ff. 171. 316. kemadruma, 255. kevala, 245. — naiydyika, 245. Kesava Kd^mirabhatta, 323. Kesin (Asura), 148. ICe^i-stidana, °han, 148. 'Kesari' samgrdmah, 188. kesava, 304. Kaikeya, 120. Kaiyata, 56. 83. 93. 95. 223. 224. Kaivalyopanishad, 155. 163. 169 f. Kokila, 280. kai}a, 254. Ko&la, 160. 185. 192. 193. 324. Kosala, 33. 68. 137. 285. — Videhas, 34. 39. 132. 134. 135. 285. Kohala, 273. Kankiista, 134. knukkutika, 305. Kaundinya, 102. 285. Kantsa, 77. 140. Kautsdyana, 97. Kauthumas, 47. 65. 76. 83. 84. 89. 96. 106. Kaudreyaa, 140. Kaumiirila, 241. Kauravy.a, 39. 123. 135. 136. SANSKRIT INDEX. 33S Kaurupailohilla, 123. kaurpya, 254 (Greek). Kaulopanishad, 171. KauMya (A^valayana), 139. Kau^mbeya, 123. Kau^ika, 149. 152. 153 (4«A.). — (Comm.), 42. 91. Kaualiitaka, 56. Kaushltaka, 46. 81. — "kdranyaka, 50. 54. Kaushitaki, °kin, 46. 68. 82. 133. 134- 313- \ \ — Brdhma^n, 26. 44 ff. 71. — Upanishad, 50. 73. 127. 155. 286. Kauahitakeya, 129. Kausalya, 125. 159 (&). Kausurubindi, 123, Kauhala, 75. hramapdtlia, 34. 49. 60. Jcriya, 254 (Greek). Krivi, Kraivya, 125. Kraulioha, 93. Kraushtuki, 61 metr. 153. 248 Ath. ' kllba, III. kshatrapati, 68. Kshapanaka, 200. Ksharapdni, 265 nied. Kslilrasvduiiii, 79. 227. JCslmdras, 84. Kshurikopanishad, 165. Ksliemamkara, 213. Ksheinendra, 213. 215. 319. 320. 321. Ksliemendrabhadra, 293. Kshiiirakalambhi, 77- Kshaudra, 84. Khandika, 88. KbadiiasTdmin, 79. Kbarosbtba, 248. Kbitddyana, 53, "iiiiis 14. 81. KhiiAdikiyas, 87. 88. Khddiragrihya, 84. kkUa, 92.' 97. 107. 130. 144. 249. 313*- — hdnda, 127. 128. 130. 131. hhuddalcapdtha, 293. Gaugil, 51. 168. 193. 248. Gangildbara, 142. Gange^a, 246. 323. ganas, 225. 266 giamm. ganaka, 113. Ganapatipurvatdpini, 170. Ganapatyupanisliad, 154. 170. gmiapdtha, 138. 225. 240. 241. 242. Gatfaratnamaliodadki, 226. gariiita, 159. gamitddhydija, 262. Qa^e^a, 281. — tdpini, 170. Gad&dbara, 142. Gandharva, 272 (Ndrada). 284 (Pau- cba^lkba). — possessed by a, 126. Gaudhdra, 70. 132. 21S, "ris, 147. Garuda, 171. 302 (plur.). — Purdna, 191. Oarudopaniahad, 171. Garga, 153 Ath. 221. 252 ff. (astr.). — plur. 252. 253. — Vi-iddhagarga, 153. 253. Qarbhopanishad, 160. 167. 272. galitas, 314. 315. gallaika, 206. gahanam gami/Uram, 233. Gitngystyaui, 51. Gdn^apatyapiirvatdpaniya, 170. gdthds, 24. 33. 45. 72. 73. 93. 121, 122. 124. 125. 127. 132. 184, — 299. 301 Buddb. Gdnas, 63. 64. 81. 316. 325. Gdndharvavcda, 271. 272. gdyati'isampannaj 140. Giirgl Vichakiiavl, 56. 129. — Sarfihitd, 214. 251. Gdrgya, 56 (Griliya). 63 (Sdmnv ). 75 (Ma^aka). 143 (gramm.). 153 (Ath.). — and K^layavana, 221. — B.-tldki, 51. Gltagovinda, 210. — (time of composition), 210. GuniSdbya, 213. Gupta (dynasty), 204, Gurudevasvdmiu, loi. Gurjara, 297. Gubadeva, 42. 323. gukya ddtsa, 73. guliyam Tidma, 1 15. GAdlidHharatnamdld, 42. Gritsamada, 31. grihastha, 28. 164. Grihya-Siitms, 15. 17. 19. 20. 69. 84. loi. 152. 153. 264. 276. 27S. geya, 301 Buddb. Geyagdna, 66. yairikamvula, 264 Arab. Qairiksbita, 41. Gopikilpiitra, 223 gr. 267 (erot.). Gotama, 244 ff. (log.), — Siitra, 245. 336 SANSKRIT INDEX. Qoddvari, 283. Gonardiya, 223 gr. 267 (erot.). Oopatha-Brdhmana, 106. 150. 15 1. 152. 304. Gopavanaa, 140. Gopdlatdpaniyojpanishad, 169. gopi, 169. Gopickandanopanishad, 169. Gobhila, 80. 82. 83. 84. — Smriti, 280. golddhydya, 262. Guvardhana, 211. Govinda, comm., 55* ^2. — teacher of ^amkara, 161, 243. — sv^min, 101 comm. Gauda (style), 232, Gaiidapdda, i6i. 167. 236. 243. 298. Gautama, 77 (two G.'s). — 84. 143 (jur.). — 153. 162 (Ath.). — 245(phil.). — 162 (Rishi). — Dharma {-S^tra), 85. 278. 281. 282. 325. 326. 327. — {Pilrimedha-Sillra), 84. 245. Gautamah S^qikhyal>, 284. Gautamas, 137, grantha, 15. 99. 165. 193. — (niddnasarnjnaka), 81. graha, 67 (Soma-vessel). — eclipse, 249. — planet, 98. 249. 250. — {tdlagraha), 98, grdma, 64. 77- Grdmageyagdna, 64. 65. Ghajjakarpara, 200, 201. Ghora ADgirasa, 71. ChatuAshashtiJcaldidstra, 275 {°ld- chaturanga, game of, 275. Chatwr - adhydyihi, 151 (°ddkyd- yihd). Chatuniniatismriti, 280. Chandra, 219. 227, Chandraka, 319. Chandragupta, 4. 204. 217. 223. 251. 287. — (Gupta dynasty), 204, Chandrabhitgil, 269. Chandra-Vydkaraf^a, 227. Champd, 178. charaha, 87. Charaka, 265. 266. 268. 270. 284. 324. 325 med. Chardka-S'dkliA, 89. Charakas, 87. 88. 164. Charakfeh^rya, 87. 113. Charakiidhvaryus, 87. 133. 134. Ohara^a-vyHha, 95. 142. 153 {Ath.). "charitra, 214. Chilkra, 123. Chilkrjiyana, "Ji. Ch^ijakya, 205. 210. 260. 310. chdnddla, 129. Chdnardtas, 193. chdndanagandldka, 275. Chdndrabhiigin, 269. 6ri-Chdpa, 259. Oh^rilyaijiya, 88. I03. 317 {S'ihsM). Cb^rv^kas, 246, Chilukya, 214. Chitra, 51. Chitraratha, 68 (BSbllkam). chitrd, 247. 248 (series), Chintdmanivritti, 217* Chinas, 243. Chhdiu-ta/raip,gir}i, 227. Dhdtu-pdtha, -pdrdyana, 230. Dhdnaipjayya, 76. 77. 82. Dhflrii, 201. 202. Dhslvaka, 204. 205. 207. Dhflmrdyana, 141. Dhfirtasvilmin, 79. lOl. Dhritariishtra (Vaichitravirya), 39, 90. 114. — king o£ the K^^is, 125. Dhydnavinddpanishad, 165. Dhydnibuddhas, 298. dhruvasya prachalanam, 98. nakta (nakla), 264, Arab. nakshatras, 2. 90. Naksh/itra-Kalpa, 153. nakshatradaria, 112. Naguajit, 132. 134. Naohiketas, 157. na^a, 196. 197. 199. — SAtrai, 197. 199. 271. 275. Nanda, 205. 117. 223. Nandikehara-Upa/purdrta, 171, Namin, 68. Naraka, 188. nartaka, 199. Nala, 132. 189. Nalodaya, 196. Navaratna, 201. Navahasta, 10 1. Nika, 123. Ndgaa {ndga), 273. 302. SANSKRIT INDEX. 339 Ndgdnanda, 207. Nitgdrjuna, 224. 265. 287. 288 (date of). Nilge^a, 223. 227. Ksigojibhat^a, 223. 224. 226. Nd(akas, 196. nd(ya, 197. 200. — S'datra, 231. ndnaka, 205. 281, A'ddavindiipaniskad, 165. Kdnida, 72 (Ved.). 1S3 {Ath. Par.). 264 (astr.). 272 (etym. aud miis.). — panchardtra, 239. — S'ikshd, 6l. 272. — [Smriti), 278. 326. Nitrasinha, 167, 'mantra 167. 168. Nitritya^jia, 94. 123 (pwrusha). 160. 166. 167. 303. Nitrdyana, 54 (00mm., several N.'s). 58 (do.). 141. 158 ff. {Upan.). Ndrdyat^iyopanishad, 93. 157. 166. 167. 169. 171. Ndrdyanopaniehad, 166. 17a ndrdiaAsls, 93. 121. 122. 127. nigama, 8. Nigama-ParUishta, 25. 142, 153. Nighaif(u3, 25. 41. 153 (4«A.). 227. nitya, 167. Nichhivia, 276. niddna, 81 (Ved.). 301 (Bnddli.). Niddna-SMra, 24. 62. 77. 81. 82. Nimi, 68. Kifapeksha, 325. Nirdlambofianwhad, 162. Nirukla, °kti, 25. 26. 41. 42. 44. 59. 62. 88. 160. 167. 216. 217. 235- Nirriti, 152. nirbhuja, 49. nvrvdatam, 161 (J» \ma). 308 (Buddh.). KUumbha, 206. Nishadhaa, 132. Nishddas, 77. JViti-S'dstras, 210. 271. 282. Nilakoptha, 188. 189. Kilamata, 320. Ntiarudropaniihad, 171. Nfisinha, 167. 168. — tdpaniyopanishad, 167. 168. Nrisinha, loi coniin., 168, I^egas, Naigeyas, 65. 85. Naigeya-SHtra, 84. Naigbanfukas, 25. 85. Naiddnas, 81, Naimi^lya, 70. Nairn isha, °ahlya, 34. 45. 54. 59. 68. 185. naiydyika, 245. Naii-uktas, 26. 8j. Naishadhiya, 196. 232. NaisUidha, 132. Nydya, 159. 237. 242. 245. 246. — chintdmani, 246. 323. — dariana, 244. 323. — Satra, 85. 235. 245. I'akshilasvilmin, 244. 245. PaMchatantra, 2o5. 212. 215. 221. 229. 240. 266. 267. 291. 301. pancliadaJarclui, 122. l^aiicliaparna, 267. panchamdsrama, 164. panchalaksliaria, 190. Panchaviiisa-Brdlimana, 66 ff. PaMiavidhi-Satra, 83. 84. Paiichavidkeya, 83. 84. Panchasikha, 235. 236. 237. 284. Panckasiddhdntikd, 259. PaachdUs, 10. 90. 114. 115. 125. 135- 136- PaSiohdlaohanda, 50. 315. 326. •paHchdlapadavriUi, 34. Pafichdla Bdbhravya, 10. 34. (erot, Paiioh"). paHchikd, 44. patala, 59. 82. 84. Patamcbala, 126. I37. 223. 236. 237. 284. Patamjali, 87. 219 ff. 231. 277. 321 (gr.'). — 137. 223. 231. 237 ff. (phil.). 'patlia, 117. padakdra, 91. padapdtha, 23. 33. 43. 49. 60. 63- pailavrUti, 34. Paddkatis, 55. 59. 8$. 102. 141. 142. 143. 145. 317- Padma-Purdna, 191. Padmayoni, 153. panaphard, 255 (Greek). Para, 68. 125. Paramahansa, 'hansopanishad, 163. 164. Paramddi^vara, 257. paraniesvara, 162. Pandora, 44. 143. 185. 252. 260 (astr.). 265. 266 (med.). — i-Smfiti), 278. 280 {laghu and Vfiddha). 326.. Parikshit, 136. 349 SANSKRIT INDEX. Paritta, 293 (Buddh.). pariiJuishds, loi. 140. 144. 222. 227. Panilidshendidekhara, 226. parivrdjalea, 112. 147. 164. PariMshtas, 60. 62. 69. 75. 84. 85. loi. 107. 142. 146. 149. 150. 151. 153. 317. Parisesha, 119 (Satap. Br.). Parthavas, 4. 188. 318. paroan, 66 (Sdniav.). 124 {Athar- van, &c.). 146. 149. 183. 184. Par^u, 3 (.4). °paUydydm, 292. 294. Pavana, 272. Pa^upati^arman, 54. PaUavas, 187. 188. 318. Pdncharitra, 238. PdHchaiMhya, 83. P^aohiila, 267. pdnchdli, 34 (gr.). 232 [HtJ). P^neh^lya, 138. Pdfiohi, 133. Pdtaliputra, 217. 237. 251. 258. 290. 295. Pdtimohlchasutta, 293. 326. pdiha, 22. 49. 103. Pilnini, 3- 8- 12. 15. 26. 41. 57. 59. 61. 77. 82. 87. 216-222. 232. 239. 241. 242. 245. 249. 266, 281. 318. 321. — posterior to Buddha, 222. 305. — posterior to Alexander, 221. 222. Pdniniyd S'ilcshd, 61. 272. Pindavas, Pfindus, 39. 98. 1 14. 1 1 5. 126. 135. '136. 137. 185. 186. 286. pdnditya, 129. 161. pdihona, 254 (Greek). pddas, 161 (the four). pdpman dsura, 318. Pslrafevya, 3. Pdraslkas, 188. 220. Pilraskara, 66. 142. n^. 318. ■ Pdr^sirinaa, 143, 305. Pdrdia/riya, 305. Pdr^arya, 143. 305 (Bhikshu-Si- tra). — (Vyfea), 93. 184. 185. 240. 243. Pir^aryiyana, 243. Pilrikshi, 284. Pirikshitas, "tiyas, 34. 125. 126. 135. 136. 186. Ptlrlkshita, 136. Piili, 288. 292. 293. 295. Pitsupata, 238. Pingala, 46. 60. 231. 256, pitaka, 290. 304. 309. pindapitriyajna, 19. 55- PindovanisJiad, 1 7 1. pitdmaha, 303. pitritarpana, 55. Pitribhiiti, 141. pitrimedha, 108. 198. — SAtra, 84. 245. pitta, 266. Pippalitda, 153. 159. 160. 164. Piyadasi, edicts of, 6. 76. 178. 203, 252. 253. 292. 295. pUu, 229 (Persian). puiichali, °M, ill. 112. °putra, 71. 131. 285. Punarvasu, 265. Pwrdnas (Yed.), 24. 72. 93. 121. 122. 124. 127. 159. 190. — 190. 191. 195. 206. 207, 213. 215. 282. pmrdnam Tdndam, 76. purdnaprokta, 12. 129. Purukutsa, 68. 125. purusha, 162 (the three jj.'s, phil.). 237. 238. — NsirSyana, 123. 124. — medha, 54. 87. 90. 108. III. — siiito, 65. io8. 155. P'untshottama, 168. Purliravas, 134. purohita, 150. Puli^a, 253. 254. 255. 257. 258. Pushkara (?), 262. P-itshpa-Siltra, 82. 84. Pushyamitra, 224. piitd (filthy) vdch, 180. Plirna, 98. PArvamimdnsd, 239 ff. Prithridakasvtoiu, 259. 262. prishtha, 67. pekkha, 319. Paifigalopanishad, 171. Paifigi, Paingin, Paingya, 14. 41. 46. 56. 81. 90. 130. 134. 184. Paingya, the, 46. Paitdmahauddhdnta, 258. "paippale, 158. 169. Paippalida, 146. 150. 152. 160. Paila, 56. 57. 58. PaUdchabhdshya, 91. paiidcM hhdshd, 213. Potala, 285. PauUiasiddhdnta, 253. 254. 25S. 259. 260. SANSKRIT INDEX. 341 pauliasa, 129. Panshkarasitdi, 102. 285, I'aushkaliivata, 268. Piiushpin^ya, "piilji, 240. Pmishyachat-ita, 318. prakfiti, 177. 237. pradiolanam, 98. Prajitpati, 76. 97. 137. 151. 244. prajnapti, s. SHrya", 297. Pranavopanishad, 154. 165. Praiiind-FaHMahfa, 102. 106. 115. 119- . Pratithi, 56. jiratibuddha, 129. 138. Pratislitbdna, 214. PratHidra-Sutra, 83. Prati/idrya, 299 (Buddh.). praMnna, 49. Pratyabliij&didstra, 322. prapdthaica, 63. 64. 65. 66. 76. 79. 80. 8l. 82. 83. 84. 89. 97. 117. MS- 151- Prabodhacluindrodaya, 207. 241. Pramagaipda, 79. pramdna, 28. 244, prayogas, 102. pravachana, 12. 83. 85. 131. 2>ravarakharula, loi. 240. pravarddhydya, 142. 317 (Kdth,). pravargya, 108. 119. 139. Praviliana, 71. prawdjaha, 285. pravrdjitd, 281. 305. pravrdjin, 129. Pra^dntaritga, 141. prasna, 89. 100. Id. 102. Prainopanishad, 58. 158 ff. Prasthdnabheda, 267. 271. 275. yr "27. 131. 139. 157. 159. 160 flf. 188. 241. 242. 243. 267 (erot.). 308. — mi^ra, 244. — vyaya, 243. Samkarltnanda, 52. 163. 164. 170. Sanku, 200. Sankha, 58. 275. 278. 282 {Dharma). 326 (Smrii^. iatapatha, 117. 119. ffatapatha-Brdhmarfa, 116 ff. 276. 2S4. 318. Satarudriya, 108. III. 155. 169. 170. ^atdnanda, 26 1. Sat^iiika, 125. S'atrumjaya Mdhdtmya, 214. 297. iani, 98. ^aiptanu, 39. Sabarasfdmin, 241. 322. Sabala, 35. S'abddnitidsana, 217. 227. Sambdputra, 71. samyuvdha, 313. ^arydta, 134. Sarva, 178. ^arvavarman, 226, Salfltura, 218. iastra, canon, 14. 32. 67. I2t. Sflkatdyana, 53. 143. 151. 152. 217. 222. 226. Sdkaptini, 85. Sdkala, 32. 33. 62. 313. 314. 315. — (Sligala), 306. S&alya, 10. 32. 33. 34. 5° (two SiC- kalyaa). 56. 143 (^ramm.). 163. -~ Vidagdha, 33. 129. S'dkalyvpaniahad, 163. 167. idkdyanins, 33. 96. 120. 133. 137. 285. 6ilkilyanya,97.98. 133. 137.285. 308. ^dkta, 171. Sdkya, 33. 133. 137. 185. 235. 285. 306. Mhyabhikshu, 78. ^akyamuni, 56. 98. 137. 268. 309. S'dhhd, 10. 91. 158. 162. 181. Sitnkhiyana, 32. 52 ff., 80. 313. 314, — Grihya, 176- 3" 3- 3 'S- 3 '6. — Parisiskta, 62. — £rdhmai}a, 44-47. — fUlra, 44. -;— Aranyaka, 50. 132. Satyiiyana, 53, 95. 102. 128. — '^ndka 100. 249. — °ni, °nins, 14. 77. 8i. 83. 95. 96. 120. 243. Silndilya, 71. 76. 77. 78. 80. 82. 120. 131. 132. — 143 (Smriti). — SAtra, 238. 243. — "lydyana, 53. 76. I20. fdtapathikas, 85. Sdnptanava, 226. S'dnti-Kalpa, 153. S'dmbavyagriliya, 316. Sdmbuvis, 14. 81. idmbhava, 171. Sdrlputra, 285. S'drkiaka-Mlmdnad, 240. ^drngadeva, 273, ^iTig&6.ha,Ta.(- Paddliati), 210. Sdlaipkdyana, 53. 75. Siilaqikityannjd, 96. S^dlaipkityaiiins, 14. 77. 96 ^dlaipki, 96. 218. SdltCturiya, 218. ^dlivdhaua, 202. 214. 260. Silihotra, 266. 267. S'ikshd, 25. 60. 61. 145-272. 313- 3I7- — valli, 93. 94. 155. S'iras {U/ianisliad), 170. Siliditya, 214. yildlin, 197. nlpa, 198. Siva, worship of, 4. 45. no. HI. 156. 157. 165. 169. 190. 208. 209. 303- 307- — developed out of Agni (and Rudra), 159. — beside Braliinan and Viahijn, 167. 180. ffivatantra, 275. Sivayogin, 62. tfivasamixdpopanishad, 108. ISS- S'Uukrandiya, 193. 350 SANSKRIT INDEX. f^isupdlabadha, 196. iihia, 114. sisnadevas, 303, ■Jiu, 178. Suka, son of Vyisa, 184. 243. iukfa (Venus ?), 98. 250. — yajiinshi, 104. iuhriya, 104. 107. 144, — kdnda, 104. iiiMdni yajinshi, 104. 131- 144' Sungas, 33. iuddha, 167. Sunakaa, 33. 34. Sunah&pa, 47. 48. 55. Kumbha, 206. S'ulva-SAtra, loi. 256. 274. 317. 324- ivihna, 302. ^fidra, 18. 77. III. 112. 276. ^udras, 147. ^tidraka, 205. 206. 207. 214. sfinya (zero), 256. StilapSliji, 166. Seeha, loi (comm.). 237 (phil.). ^aityiSyana, 53. Saimi, 134. 197. ^aildlinas, 197. iailiiaha, ill. 196. 197. S'aivaihashya, 323. S'aivaldslra, 322. Sai^iria, 33. ^aifciya, 32. 33. SauOgSyani, 75. Sauchivyikshi, 77. 82. Saunaka {J^igv.), 24. 32-34. 49. 54. 56. 59. 62. 85. 143. — {Ath.), 150. 151. 158. i6i, 162. 165. — (Mahd-Bhdrata), 185. — Indrota, 34. 125. — Svaid^yana, 34. — Ofihya, 55 {^igv.). — vartita, 158. 162 {Ath.). — lagku°, 280 {Smriti). S^aunaklyaa, 158. 162. SaunaHyd, 151. S'aunakopoMishad (?), 164. 165. iaubhikas, 198 ; a. aaubhikaa. Saubhreyas, 140, Saulv^yana, 53. ^yfCpamaa, 180, iyena, 78. •^sram, 27. irmna'nia, 27. 129. 138. rrcmumd, 305. Sri Ananta, 141. ^rlkantba ^Wiehirja, 323, Sri ClJipa, 259. ^rldatta, 141. ^rldharaddsa, 210. Sridharasena, 196, 6rlniviisa, 42. Srlnivdaaddaa, 322. 323. ^ri Dharmimibha, 196. Sripati, 54.58. • Sripariiikusan^tha, 323. ArlmaddattopamaJiad, 164. ^rivara, 320. ^ri Vydgbramukha, 259. ^rishena, 258. 6ri Haraha, king, 204. 207. — 196 (Naiehadiiachar.), ^rl Hala, 145. ■../iru, 15. ^rutaaena, 125. 135. kruti, 15. 17. 68.81.96. I49(plur.). 159. 164. ireshtlia, 126. Srauta-SAtras, 16. 17. 19. 52. ileshman, 266. iloka, 24. 69. 70. 72. 73. 74. 83. 87. 97. 99- 103- 121. 122. 123. , 125. 127. Sviknas, 132. Svetaketu, 51. 71. 123. 132. 133. 137. 267 (erot.). 284. Sveti^vatara, 96. 99. — 'ropaniahad, 96 155. 156. 161, 165. 169. 236. 238. Shatchahropanishad, i63. Shattrin4at (Smriti), 280. Shadaiiti {Smfiti), 280. Shadguru^ishy.i, 33. 61. 62. 83. Shaddarianachintanihi, 322. Shadbhdahdchandrikd, 227. SAadvinsorBrdlimana, 69. 70. Skarmavati (Smriti), 280. Shashfitantra, 236. shashfipatha, 117. 119. sa/>!i = samvat (but of wliat era?), 141. 202. 203. samvat era, 182. 202. 203. Samvarta (Smriti), 278. 326. Sarnivartasrutyupanishad, 154. 164; aa/i)iahdra, 102 (the sixteen a). — (gramm.), 144. — ganapati, 143. aarjialq-itahhdahd, 177, aamsthd, 66. 67. SarpAitd (Ved.), 8. 9. 10. 14. 22-24. 60. — (phil.), 75. sa:^skrit index. 351 SiTWiiM(astr.), 259. 264. 265, 275. — Kalpa, 153. — pdtha, 43. 49. — 'topanisliad, 34 {Brdhmana). 74. yS{Sdmav.). 93. 155 (rotK.). 316 {Utimav. ). Sal:alddhii:dra, 275 (aroh.). larpkhydiar, 235. iSomj;itai'at«(iiura, 273. saip.gi-uha, 119 (Sate/iaiAo ■ £»'(tA- mana). 227 (gramm.). tamjndna, 313. 314, Satfliitanta, 236. ja«ro, 66. 76. 79. 80. 139. saitrdj/ana, 1 01. Satya, 260 astr. Satyakdma, 71. 130. 132. 134. Satyavdha, 158, Satydshddha, 100. lOl. 102. Saddnirst, 134. Saduktiiiarndmrita, 210. SadcUiarmapundaHka, 299. 300. Sauatkumdi-a, 72, 164; — 275 (ai- chit.). Sanandandohdrya, 237. tamdhi, 23. tainnipdta, 248 (Buddb,), Sairinydsopanisluid, 164. Sapiarshi {Smriti), 280. Saptaiatahi, SaptasaU, 83. 211. 232. sapta sHri/dh, 250 (249). fiamdnatn dj 131. Samdaa-SamhUd, 259. totmpraddya, 152. tamrdj, 123. Saras vati, 74 (Vdoh). — vydiarana, 227. Sarasvati, 4. 38. 44 (Indus). 53. 67. 80. 102. 120. 134. 141. — icanthdbharana, 210. 232. targa, 190. 196. 214. tarjana, 233. sarpa, 302. sarpavidat, 1 2 1. Sarpavidyd, 124. 183. 265. 302. iS^art:ac2arsanu9at}i^raAa, 235. 241. 322. i;a»t«2aa, 54* >S'un'(inuA»'aman{, 61. sarvdnnina, 305. Sarvopanuhatsdropanisliad, 1 62. Salvas, 120. 132. 180. Wtama, 264 (Arabic). Sdgala, 306. Sdketa, 224. 251. Sdipkfitydyana, 266 (med.). Sdinkhya, 96. 97. 108. 137 {Satap.). 158. 160. 165-167. 235-239. 242. 244. 246. 284. ff. 306. 308. 309. — tattva-pradipa, 322. — pravachana, 237. — pravaAanaSiitra, 237. 239. — bhikshu, 78. — yoga, 160. 166. 238. 239. — tdra, 237. — SMra, 237. 239. 245. Sdqikhya]; (Gautama^), 2S4. Sdipkbydyana, 47. Sdtpjivlputra, 131. Sdti, 75. Sdtyayajna, °jni, 133. Sdtrdjita, 125. Sdpya, 68. Sdmajdtaha, 300 (Buddb.). Sdmatantra, 83. sdman, 8. 9. 64. 66. 121. — number of tbe sdmans, 121. Sdmaydchdrika-SiUra, 19. 278. Simalakahana, 83. Sdmavidhi, 'vidhdna, 72. 74. 277. Sdmaveda, 45. 63 ff. 121. 316. 325 {Gdnas of). — Prdtiidkhya, 316. Sdma-SaTjihitd, 9. 10. 32. 63 ff. 313 (readings). 316. Sdmastam, 275. Sdyakdyana, 96. 120. Sdyakdyanius, 96. Sdya^ia, 32. 41. 42. 43. 46. 47. 48. 52. 65. 66. 68. 69. 72. 74. 91. 92. 94. loi. 139. 150. SdrcUthatarpgaha, 267 (med.). Sdrameya, 35. Sdratvata, 226 (gramm.). Sdratvata pd(ha, 103. Sdvayasa, 133. Sdliityadarpana, 231, 321. Sinkdianadvdtriniiled,2OO-202. 214. 320. Siddbasena, 260 (astr.). SiddJidnta, 253. 255. 258 ff. 269 (astr. ). — kaumudi, 89. 226. — HrOTnani, 261. 262. Sltd, 135. '192. 193- Siikaiiyi^ 134. Sukbavati, 306. StUtanipdta, 293. autyd, 66. 67. Suddman, 68. Sudyumna, 125. 352 SANSKRIT index: sunaphd, 255 (Greek). SunditHtdpaniyojianishadf 171. suparna, 314. Suparnddhydya, 171. Suparni, 134. Suprabhadeva, 196. Subandhu, 189. 213. 245. 267. 319. Subhagaeena, 251. Subliadri, 114. 115. 134. Suhhdshitaratndlcara, 320. Subhdshitdvali, 320. Sumanasantak-a (?), 208. Suiuantu, 56. 57. 58. 149. sura, 98. 302. 303. Surdlshtra, 76. Sulabha, 56. Sulabb^ 56. Susravas, 36, suirut, 266. Su^ruta, 266 ff. 324. — vriddha, 269. siikta, 31. 32. 124. 149. siita, III. SiUras, 8. 15 {etyraol. ; chTiandovat); 29. 56. 57. 216. 285. 290. — 127. 128 (passages in the Brdh- manas). — 29b. 292. 296. 298 ff. (Buddh.). — 128. 161 (s. = Brahman). siltradhdra, 198. 275. Stirya, 62 (coinm.). Stirya, 40 (god). — prajnapti, 297 (Jain.). — Siddhdnta, 61. 249. 257. 258. — °opanishad, 154. 170. (sapta) silrydh, 250 (249). SHrydruna (Smriti), 280. Sriiijayas, 123. 132. Setubandha, 196. Saitava, 61. Saindhavas, "v^yanas, 147. sobJia, °nagaraka, 198. Soma, 6. 63 (god). — (sacrifice), 66. 107. Somadeva, 213. 319. Somdnanda, 322. Some^vara, 273 (mus.). Saiijilta, 285. Sauti, 34. SautrSntika, 309. sautrdmani, 107. 108. 118. 139. saubhikas, 198 ; s. iaubhilcas. Saumipau, 134. Saumilla, 204. 205. Savrasiddhdnta, 258. tauldbhdni BrdhmanAni, 56. 95, Sau^ravasa, 105. Sau^rutapiirthav^B, 266. Skanda, 72. — Purdna, 191. 205. Skandasvdrain, 41. 42. 79, Skandopanishad, 171. yjskabh, stabh, 233. stiipa, 274. 307. stotra, 67. stoma, 67. 81. staubhika, 63. stiiavira, 77. 102. 305, sthdnaka, 89. Spandaidstra, 322. Sphujidiivaja (?), 258. Sphufa-Siddhdnta, 259. Smaradahana, 208. Smdrta-Siitras, 17. 19. 34 {S'aun.), loi. Smriti, 17. 19. 20. 81. — S'dstras, 20. 84. 143. 276. Srughna, 237. Svaraparihhdshd, 83. svddkydya, 8. 93. 144, svdbhdvika, 309. °s»(imi», 79. Svdyarabliuva, 277. Svaiddyana, 34. Hailsanddopanishad, 165. Sansopanishad, 164. 165. hadda, 264 Arabic, Hanumant, 272. ffanumanndtaka, 203. Haradatta, 89. 278. Hari, 166 (Visliiju). 303 (Indra). Hari, 225. 226 gramm. harija, 255 (Greek). Harivania, 34. 189. Hari^ohandra, 184. Harisv^min, 72. 79. 139. Hariharami^ra, 142. ^rl Harsha (king), 204. 207. — 196 {Naishadhachar.). — charita, 205. 214. 319 f. ^rl Hala, 145. halahhrit, 192. Haliiyudha, 60 (metr.). 196. 230 (lex.). hasa, 112. hastighata, 117. Hdridravika, 88, Hdrita (Krishijia), 50. — 269 med. — vnddha°, 269 (med.). — {Dkcmna), 278. 282. 325, Hitla, 83. 211. 232, INDEX OF MATTERS. 353 Hitleyas, 140. Httstinapura, 185. ■Hitopadeia, 212. hibuka, 255 (Greek). Himavant, 51. 268. liimna, 254 (Greek). Hiranyake^i, 100-102. 317. — idkliiya- Brdhmana, 92. Hira^iyaniibha, 160. Hutdiave^a, 266. H&nas, 243, hridroga, 254 (Greek). hctthd, 89. hdayas, helavas, iSo. Hemaohandra, 227. 321 (gr.). 230 (lex.). 297 (Jaiu.). Heldrdja, 215. heli, 254 (Greek). Haimavati, 74. 156. Hairnnyandbha, 125. Uaililiila, 185. hotar, 14. 53. 67. 80. 86. 89. 109. 129. 149. ho7-d, 254 (Greek). — Sdstra, 254. 259. 260. havtvaha, loi,. Hraava, 112. INDEX OF MATTERS, ETC. klyliKefim, 254. .A hriman (and Mira), 303. 304. Akbar, 283. Alblilinl, 60. 189. 201. 239. 249. 253. 254. 257-262. 266. 274. 323. Alexander, 4. 6. 27. 28. 30. 179. 221. 222. 251. Alexandria, 256. 309. Alexandrinus (Paulua), 253. Algebra, 256. 259. Alkindi, 263. 'AiurpoxdTTjs, 231. Amulet-prayers, 208. Amyntas, 306. Ara^i}, 255. Andubarius, 255. Animal fables, 70. 211 ff., 301. Antigonus, 179. 252. Autiochus, 179. 252. Aphrodisius (?), 258. ' A., 254. 2SS. Kijiros, 3. Kdppepos, 35. Kivvpd, 302. Kio-list, 2', 3. Kpi6s, 254. 35S INDEX OF MATTERS. Kpivos, 254. AapiK-^j 7^' 258. Ldt, 249. 258. League-boots, 264. A^wx, 254. AeTTT^, 255* Lion and jackal (fox), 211, 212. Longest day, length of the, 247. Love, God of, 252. 274. Lunar mansions, 2. 30, 90. 92. 14S. 229. 246-249. 252. 255. 281. 3°4- — phases, 281. W-aSiavSiPot, 10. 106. Magas, 179. 252. Magio, art of, 2$4, 265. Magic nairror, 264. — ointment^ 264. Mahmtid of Ghaena, 253. Maiiya (and Mdra?), 303. MaXXoI, 222. Manes, 309. Manes, sacrifice to the, 55. 93. 100. 108. n8. Manetho, 260. Mansions, twelve, 254. 281 (aetr.). Manuscripts, late date of, 181. 182 (oldest). Mdffffaya,, 75. Mazzaloth, Mazzaroth, 248. Medicine in Ceylon, 267 ; in Indin, 324. 325- Megasthenes, 4. 6. 10. 20. 27. 48. 70. 88; 106. 136. 137. 186. 234. 251- Meherdates, 188. Meuander, 224. 251. 306. Mendzil, 323 (in Soghd). Mendicancy, religious, 237. McffovpdvTjfia, 255. Metempsychosis, 234. Metrical form of literature, 182, 183. Missionaries, Buddhist, 290. 307. 309. — Christian, 307. Mv^/iri, airb (Hcijwijs, 20. Monaohism, system of, 307. Monasteries, 274. 281. Mongolian translations, 291. Mundane ages (four), 247 ; s. Yugn. Music, modern Indian, 325. Musical scale, 272. Mysteries, 197. 198. Mythology, Comparative, 35. 36. Names, chronology from, 29. 53. 71. 120. 239. 284. 285 (a. also Anga, Kavi, Tantra, Slltra). Nearchus, 15. Neo-Pythagoreans, 256, 257. Nepdl, 291. 309, 310. Nep^lese MSS., date of, 318. Nerengs, 56. North of India, purity of language in the, 26. 45. 296. Notes, the seven musical, 160. 272. Numbers, denoting of, by the letters of the alphabet in their order, 222. Numerical notation by means of letters, 257. 324. — Symbols, 256. Ntishirviln, 212. Omens, 69. 152. 264. Ophir, 3. Oral tradition, 12 ff , 22. 48. Ordeal, 73. Orissa, 179. 274. Otbi, 201. Odpav6?j 35. 'OfTjci), 252 (s. Arin). 'O^vdpaKat, 222. Pahlav, 188. Pahlavl, translation of PaQchatantra into, 212. 267. Pdli redaction of the Amarakosha, 230. — of Manu's Code, 279. UavSala, 136. 137. 186. Panjdb, 2. 3. 4. 88. 207. 248. 251. 3°9- Pantheism, 242. TlapBhoi, 254. Parthians, 4. 188. 318. Parvl, parviz, 323. Pattalene, 285. PauluB Alexandrinus, 253. 255. — al Yliniini, 253. Peacocks, exportation of, to Bdvuru, 2, 3- Periplus, 4. 6. Permutations, 256. Persa- Aryans, 6. 133. 148, 178. Persians, 3. 4. 188 ;— 273 (mu.=s.). 274 (arch.). Persian Epos, 36. 37. 187. — translation of the Upanishads, ISS- — Veda, 36. 148. Personal deity, 165, 166., neu/ceXawrts, 268. *aircs, 255. INDEX OF MATTERS. 517 'Philosopher's Ride,' 291. Philostratus, 252. Phoebus Apollo, 273 (type of). PhoBuioiana, their commercial rela- tions with India, 2, 3, 248. Pholotoulo, 218. Phouini, 218. Planets, 98. 153. 249-251. 254, 255. 281. 304. — Greek order of the, 319. 323. 326. Plato (Baotrian king), 273. Pliny, 136. Plutarch, 306. Polar star, 98. Popular dialects, 6. 175-180. Updfivat, 28. 244. Prose-writing arrested in its deve- lopment, 183. Ptolemaios, 253. 274 (astr.). Ptolemy, 179. 251. 252 (two). — 130 (geogr.). Quinquennial cycle, 113. 247. Quotations, text as given in, 182. 279. Eelio-worship, 306. 307. Rgya Cher Rol Pa, 185, 291. Rliazee, 271. Rock-inscriptions, 179. Rosary, 307. Soi/5p6(cuirTos, 217. 223, Zapiidvai, 28. Scale, musical, 272. Schools, great uumher of Vedic, 142. Seleucns, 4. Semitic origin of Indian writiuL', IS- of the Beast-fahle, 211, 212. Serapiou, 271. Seven musical notes, 160. 272. Sindhend, 255. 259. ■ Singhalese translations, 292. XKoprlos, 254. XKv8iav6s, 309. Snake, 302. Solar year, 246, 247. Solomon's time, trade with India in, 3- Siii^ayiur^vas, 251. SpeuBippus (?), 258. Squaring of the circle, 256. Steeples, 274. 306. Stone-building, 274. Strabo, 6. 27. 28. 30. 244. 246. Style, varieties of, distinguished liy names of provinces, 232. Succession of existence, 289. 301. Stifl philosophy, 239. Swai^)) 253. Sun's two journeys, stellar limits of tlie, 98. Su/jaoTpijCT}, 76. Surgery, 269. 270. Tandjur, 209. 210. 226. 230. 246. 267. 276. Tavpos, 254. Teachers, many, quoted, 50. 77. Texts, uncertainty of the, 181, 182. 224, 225. Thousand-name-prayers, 208, Tibetans, translations of the, 208. 212. 291. 294. 300; s. Dsangluu, Kdgyur, Rgya Cher Rol Pa, Tandjur. Tilidates, 3, 4, Tof67T;s, 254. Transcribers, mistakes of, 181. Translations, s. Arabs, Chinese, Kalmuck, Kanilrese, Kavi, Mon- golian, Pahlavi, Pdli, Persian, Singhalese. Transmigration of souls, 73. 288. Tptyuvos, 255. Trojan cycle of legend, 194. Tukhitm, peacocks, 3. Valentinian, 309. Venus with dolphin (and Cupid), 325- Vernaculars, 175-180. 203. Veterinary medicine, 267. Weights, 160. 269. Writing, 10. 13. 15 ; — of the Yn- vanas, 221. — consignment to, 22. 144. iSi. 292. 296. Written language, 1 78 ff. Yeshts, 56. 302. Yima, 36. Ydasaf, Ylidasf, Biidsatf, 307. Zero, 256. Zeis, 35. — planet, 254. Zodiacal signs, 98, 229. 249. 254. Z5S- 257- Zohak, 36. 2176^, 254. 553 INDEX OF AUTHORS. INDEX OF AUTHORS. Ambros, 272. AnandacUandra, 58. 68. 79. Anquetil du Perron, 52. 96. 154, 155. 162. Aufreoht, 16. 32. 43. 59. 80. 84. 112. 150. 191. 200. 210. 211. 224. 226. 230. 232. 243. 257. 260. 261. 267. 272. 313. 315. Eitlasilitrin, 223. 226. 237. 322, 323. Ballantyne, 223. 226. 235. 237. 244. Banerjea, 191. 235. 238. 243. Bipti Deva ^ifatriu, 258. 262. Bartb, 257. 316. 321. Barthelemy St. Hilaire, 235. Bayley, 304. Beal, 293. 300. 309. 327. Benary, K, 196. Benfey, 15. 22. 43. 44. 64. 66. 117. 157. 212. 221. 267. 272. 274. 301. 306. 320. Bentley, 257. 267. Bergaigne, 44. Bernouilli, 325. Bertrand, 202. BhagviSnlitl Indraji, 324. Bhagvdn Vijaya, 327. Bhandarjcar, 60. 150. 215. 219. 224. 319. 321. 326. BhSu Ddji, 215. 227. 254-262. 319. Bibliotbeca Indica, s. Ballantyne, Banerjea, Cowel), Hall, Rdjendra L. M., Roer, &c. Biokell, 320. Biot, 247, 248. Bird, 215. Bobtlingk, 22. 106. 2I0. 217-220. 222. 226. 230. 320. 323. Von Bohlen, 272. Bollensen, 44. Bopp, 178. 189. Boyd, 207. Brfol. 4. 36. Brockhaua, 213. 262. Browning, 84. Biibler, 50. 54. 92. 97. lOI. 152. 155. 164. 170. 182. 196. 204. 210. 212, 213. 214, 215. 217. 222. 227. 232. 237. 259. 272. 277, 278. 280. 282, 283. 297. 314. 315- 317- 319-322. 324-326. Bur^es=, Eb., 247. 258; — Jas., 215. Biimell, 3. 13. 15. 20. 22. 42. 61. 65. 69. 74. 83. 90. 91. 94. 101. 102. 103. 150. 155. 163, 164. 170, 171. 178. 203. 213. 215. 217. 221, 222. 226. 245. 256. 270. 313. 316, 321. Burnouf, 81. III. 162. 179. 191. 199. 246. 289. 291, 292. 296. 298. 300. 306. 308. Cantor, 324, Cappeller, 226. 232. 320. Carey, 194. Chandrak^nta Tark^laipk^ra, 84. Childers, 178. 293.295. 305.30S.326. Clarao, Comte de, 325. Clough, 293. Colebrooke, 42. 43. 61. 97. 148. 151. 154, 157, 158. 163. 201. 202. 227. 229. 230. 234. 235. 236. 238. 241,242. 243. 245. 256. 259-263. 267. 269. 281. 283. CoomEtra Svdmy, 293. Cowell, 42. 43. 50. 52. 91. 97. 98. 99. 207. 227. 234. 235. 237, 238. 242. 256. 283. 291. 322. Cox, 36. Csoma JCorosi, 199. 209. 267. 285. 291. 294. Cunningbam, 178.203 215.273,274. D'Alwis, 293. Darmesteter, J., 314. Davids, 267. De Gubernatis, 36. Delbriiok, 31. 44. 318. Gerard de Eialle, 3. Dbanapati Sinhajl, 327, Dickson, 326, Dietz, 267. Donner, 19. 44. Dowson, 141. 203. 215, Dumicheii, 3. Dnncker, 308. D'Eokstein, 97. Eggeliug, 203. 215. 226. 291. Elliot, H. M., 239. 267. Elliot, W., 154, 155. Faucbfi, 189. 194. Fausboil, 293. 304. 326. Feer, 188. 291. 293. 299. FergusBon, 203. 215. 27J Fleet, 319. 321. Fliigel, 270. TNDEX OF A UTHORS. 359 Fciuoaux, 185. 189.200.286. 291.299. l''riederioh, 189. 195. Fritze, 320. Gaflgildhara Kavirdja, 270, Garrez, 211. Geiger, L., 272. Geldner, 44. Gildemeister, 161. 229. 239. 270. Giriprasiidayarmau, 116. Goldsohmidt, Paul, 196. Goldsolimidt, Siegfried, 65. 196. Goldstiioker, 12. 15. 22. 87. 100. 130. 144. 193. 207. 221, 222. 223. 224, 225. 227. 241. 251. 273. 32I' Gorresio, 194. Gough, 235. 244. 322. 323. Govindadeva^iistrin, 237. 322. 323, Graasmann, 44. 315. Griffith, 194. Grill, 207. Grimblot, 293. 319. 326. Grohmann, 265. Grube, 171. Von Gutschmid, 188. Haag, 205. Haas, 19. 58. 84. 142. 152. 324. Haeberlin, 201. Hall, 106. 191. 204. 207. 213. 214. 231. 232. 235. 237. 257. 258. 318. 319- Haukel, 256. Harachandra VidySbMshana, 151. Hardy, 292, 293. 304. Haug, 22. 25. 32. 47. 60. 61. 91. 93. 100. 150. 152. 153. 155. 162. 314, 315- 317- Hessler, 268. Heymann, 231. Hillebrandt, 44. 314. Hodgson, 291. 292. 309. Holtzmann, 200. 228. 230. 279. 318. Hue, 307. Kvaraohandra Vidydsdgara, 205. 23S- Jaeobi, 195. 204. 214. 254. 255. 260. 281. 319. 323. 326. Jaganmohanaiarman, 231. Jayaniirfyana, 243, 244. JlvdnandaVidyilsiigara, 270.320 325. johantgen, I02. 238. 278, 279. 281. 28s. Jolly, 326. Jones, Sir W., 272. Julien, Stan., 218. 30I. Kaegi, 44. Kashinatb Trimbak Telang, 194. Keller, 0., 211, 212. Kennedy, Vans, 170. Kern, 61. 179. 202. 204. 215. 224. 243. 257-261. 267. 279. 288. 293. 299- 318. 324. Ke^avasilstiiu, 323. Kielhorn, 25. 61. 68. 95. .101. 155. 170. 212. 225, 226. 313. 321. Kittel, 189. Klatt, 210. 310. Knighton, 204. Koppen, 283. 306. 307. 308. Kosegarten, 212. Krish^ashastri, 320. Kuhni Ad., 25. 32. 33, 36. 62. Kuhn, E., 293. 29s. Kunte, 325 (Mureshvar). Laboulaye, 307. Langlois, 43. 1 89. Lassen, 4. 28. 75. 176. 179. 185. 188. 189. 190. 198. 199. 201. 202. 204. 205. 214, 218-220. 227. 229. 239. 244. 247. 251, 252. 254. 257. 260. 273. 275, 276. 287-290. 292. 296. 301. 308. 309. 319. Lefmann, 299. Leitner, 273. Letronne, 229. Liebreoht, 307. Linde, Van der, 275. Lindner, 318. Loiseleur Deslongchamps, 230. Lorinser, 238. Loth, 0., 263. Ludwig, A., 44. 249. 315. Madhustidana Gupta, 270. MahefechandraNyilyaratna,9l. 241. Marshman, 194. Mayr, 279. Meyer, Rud., 313, 314. 316. Minayeff, 3. 293. 303. MuUer, E., 299. MuUer, Fr., 293. Muller, M., 15. 16. 19. 22. 31. 32. 35. 36. 42. 43- 48- 49- SS- 58- 59- 61. 63. 69. 93. loi. 106. 116. 142. 151. 155. 176. 180. 205. 221. 225. 234-236. 241. 244, 245. 247. 278. 282. 288. 307. 314. 315- 325- Muir, 41. 44. 210. 292. 299. Myriantheua, 314. Nfeve, 309. Noldeke, 187. 318. Oldenberg, 316. J26. l6a INDEX OF AUTHORS. Olshausen, 4. t88. 318. Patterson, 273. Pavie, 189. Pertsob, 40, 60. St. Petersburg Dictionary, 16. 104. 108. 112. 141. 266. 305. Pisohel, 206-208. 227. 295. 320. 321. Poley, SO. 139. Pons, P^re, 216. 254. Pramad^ Ddsa Mitra, 231. Premaohandra Tarkaviigl^a, 232. Prinsep, 179. 229. Prym, 320. R^dh^kilnta Deva, 275. Udjdrdmasdstrin, 223. Rlijeudra Litla Mitra, 48. 61. 65. 73. 84. 94. 142. 151. 155. 158. 162- 164. 166, 167. 169-171, 182. 202. 210. 215. 220. 271. 274.275.297. 299- 315- 317- Rdmaniaya Tarkaratna, 158. 168. Rdmamilra^fetrin, 322. Rdmandrdyana, 58. gi. 243. Rdm Rdz, 275. Rask, 293. Regnaud, 318. 320. Regnier, 34. 59. Reinaud, 61. 148. 20I. 202. 217. 219. 229. 239. 252, 253. 256- 259. 262, 263. 266. 269. 274. 307. Renan, 309. Rieu, 230. Roer, 43. 48. 51. 54. 73. 74. 91. 94. 96. 116. 139. 154. 157. 160. 161. 231. 235. 244. 262. Rosen, 43. Ro8t,66. 182. 191.236.268.270.279. Both, 8. 22. 23. 25. 33. 36. 38. 42 43. 44. 48. 63. 70. 8o. 102. 1 12. 146. 147. 150.^ 152. 178. 201. 247. 267, 268. 270. 303. Royle, 271. Saohaii, 253. 323. SatyavrataSiimiisrami, 66. 299. 316. cichiefner, 56. 185. 209. 212. 227. 248. 291. 300. 306. 307. 326. Schlagintweit, E., 310. Sohlegel, A. W. von, 194. 231. 275. Schliiter, 234. Schmidt, 289. 291. 306. Sohonbom, 48. Schwanbeck, 20, Sddillot, 247. Senart, 293. 304. 326. Shankar Pandit, 204. 315. 31S. Sourindra Mohan Tagore, 325. Speijer, 19. 102. 142. Spiegel, 293. 300. 306. Steinsohneider, 247. Stenzler, 34. 55. 58. 142. 195. 2o5. 268. 277-280. 318. 325. Stevenson, 43. 65. 215. 297. 326. Storok, 293. Strachey, 262. Streiter, 55. Tdrdndtha TarkavSiohaspati, 89. 1 84, 226. Taylor, J., 262. Taylor, W., 155. 162. 164, 165. 167. 169-171. Thibaut, 60. 256. 316. 324. Thomas, 215. 256. Turnour, 267. 292, 293. 306. Vaiix, 215. 273. Vechanardmatotrin, 190. 323. Vinson, 3. Vi^vandtba^datrin, 60. Vullers, 268. Wagener, A., 211. Warren, 297. Wasailjew, 248. 300. 309. Weigle, 189. West, A. A., 215. West, R., 278. West, E. W., 215. Westergaard, 22. 184. 201. 203, 215. 223. 230. 284. 288. 293. 295- 304- Wheeler, T., 190. 251. 281. Whish, 254. Whitney, 2. 23. 64. 103. 150. 152. 247. 257, 258. Wilkins, 228. Wilkinson, 262. Williams, 189. Wilson, H. II., 43. 148. 179. 189. 191. 204-207. 213. 215. 221. 230. 236, 237. 250. 268. 270, 271. 281. 285. 305. 306. 318. Wilson, J., 215. Windisch, 297. ' Windischmann, 73. 243. Wise, 270. Woepoke, 253. 256, 257, Wright, Dan., 318. Zimmer, 44. I'RINTED RV BALLANTVNE, HANSON AND CO. EDINBURGH ANU LONDON TRUBNER'8 ORIENTAL SERIES. " A knowledge of the commonplace, at least, of Oriental literature, philo- sophy, and religion is as necessary to the general reader of the present day as an acquaintance with the Latin and Greek classics was a generation or so ago. Immense strides have been made within the present century in these branches of learning ; Sanskrit has been brought within the range of accurate philology, and its invaluable ancient literature thoi'oughly investigated ; the language and sacred books of the Zoroastrians have been laid bare ; Egyptian, Assyrian, and other records of the remote past have been deciphered, and a group of scholars speak of still more recondite Accadian and Hittite monu- ments ; but the results of all the scholarship that has been devoted to these subjects have been almost inaccessible to the public because they were con- tained for the most part in learned or expensive works, or scattered through- out the numbers of scien tific periodicals. Messrs. TrObner & Co. , in a spirit of enterprise which does them infinite credit, have determined to supply the constantly-increasing want, and to give in a popular, or, at least, a compre- hensive form, all this mass of knowledge to the world." — Times. THE FOLLOWING WORKS HAVE ALREADY APPEASED.— Third Edition, post 8vo, cloth, pp. xvi. — 428, price i6s. ESSAYS ON THE SACKED LANGUAGE, WRITINGS, AND RELIGION OF THE PARSIS. By martin HAUG, Ph.D., Late of the Universities of Tubingen, Gottingen, and Bonn ; Superintendent of Sanskiit Studies, and Professor of Sanskrit in the Poena College. Edited and Enlakged by Dr. E. AV. WEST. To which is added a Biographical Memoir of the late Dr. Haug by Prof. E. P. Evans. I. History of the Kesearches into the Sacred ^>itings and Keligion of the Parsis, from the Earliest Times down to the Present. II. Languages of the Parsi Scriptures. III. The Zend-Avesta, or the Scripture of the Parsis. IV. Tlie Zoroastrian Keligion, as to its Origin and Development. " ' Essays on the Sacred Tjauguage, "Writings, and Religion of the Parais,* by the late Dr. Martin Haug, edited by Dr. E. W. West The author intended, on Ms return from India, to expand the materials contained in this work into a compi-ehensive account of the Zoiojistrian religion, but the design was frustrated by Ms untimely death. "We have, however, in a concise and readable form, a history of the i-ese!U"ches into tile sacred writings and religion of the Parsis from the eiu-liest times down to the present — a dissertation on the languages of the Parsi Scriptures, a translation of the Zend-Avesta, or the Scripture of the Parsis, and a dissertation on the Zoroas- trian religion, with especial reference to its origin and development." — Tinus. TRUBNER'S ORIENTAL SERIES. Post 8vo, cloth, pp. viii. — 176, price 7s. 6d. TEXTS FROM THE BUDDHIST CANON COMMONLY KNOWN AS " DHAMMAPADA." With Accompanying Narratives. Translated from the Chinese by S. BEAL, B.A., Professor of Chinese, University College, London. The Dhammapada, as hitherto known by the Pali Text Edition, as edited by FausboU, by Max MilUer's English, and Albrecht Weber's German translations, consists only of twenty-six chapters or sections, whUst the Chinese version, or rather recension, as now translated by Mr. Beal, con- sists of thirty-nine sections. The students of Pali who possess FausboU's text, or either of the above-named translations, will therefore needs want Mr. Seal's English rendering of the Chinese version ; the thirteen above- named additional sections not being accessible to them in any other form ; for, even if they understand Chinese, the Chinese original would be un- obtainable by them. " Mr. Beal's rendering of the Chinese translation is a most valuable aid to the critical study of the work. It contains authentic texts gathered from ancient canonical books, and generally connected with some incident in the history of Buddha. Their great interest, however, consists in the light which they throw upon everyday life in India at the remote period at which they were wiitten, and upon the method of teaching adopted by tlie founder of the religion. The method employed was principally p.irable, and the simplicity of the tales and the excellence of the morals inculcated, as well as the strange hold which they have retained upon the minds of millions of people, make them a very remarkable study." — Timei. '* Mr. Beal, by making it accessible in an English dress, has added to the great ser- vices he has already rendered to the comparative study of religious history." — Academy. ''Valuable as exhibiting the doctrine of the Buddhists in its purest, least adul- terated form, it brings the modern reader face to face with that simple creed and rule of conductwhich won its way over the minds of myriads, and which is now nominally professed by 145 millions, who have overlaid its austere simplicity with innumerable ceremonies, forgotten Itsmaxims, perverted its teaching, and so inverted its leading principle that a religion whose founder denied a God, now worships that founder as a god himself." — Scotmnan. Third Edition, post 8vo, cloth, pp. xxiv. — 360, price los. 6d. THE HISTORY OF INDIAN LITERATURE. Br ALBRECHT WEBER. Translated from the Second German Edition by John Mann, M.A., and Th^odoe Zaohariae, Ph.D., with the sanction of the Author. Dr. BuHLEB, Inspector of Schools in India, writes: — "When I was Pro- fessor of Oriental Languages in Blphinstone College, I frequently felt the want of such a work to which I could refer the students." Professor CowELL, of Cambridge, writes : — "It will be especially useful to the students in our Indian colleges and universities. I used to long for TRUBNEIVS ORIENTAL SERIES. such a book when I whs teachiug in Oalcuttu. Hindu students are intensely interested in the history of Sanskrit literature, and this volume will supply them with all they want on the subject." Professor "VVhitney, Yale College, Newhaven, Conn., U.S.A., writes :- " I was one of the class to whom the work wus originally given in the form of acatlemic lectures. At their first appearance they were by far the moat learned aud able treatment of their subject; and with their recent additions they still maintain decidedly the same rank." " Is perhaps the most conipreheiiaive aud lucid survey of Sauski-it literature extaut. The essays contained in tlie volume were originally delivered as academic lectures, and at the time of their first publication were acknowledged to be by far the most learned and able treatment of tlie subject. They have now been brought up to date by the addition of all the most important results of recent research." — Yxmts. Post 8vo, cloth, pp. xii. — 198, accompanied by Two Language Maps, price 7s. 6d. A SKETCH OF THE MODERN LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. By ROBERT N. OUST. The Author has attempted to fill np a vacuum, the inuouveuieiice of which pressed itself on liis notice. Much had heeu written about the languages of the East Indies, but the extent of our present knowledge had not even been brought to a focus. It occurred to him that it might be of use to others to publish in an airanged form the notes which he had collected for his own edification. ** Supplies a deficiency which has long been felt." — Thms. *' The book before us is then a valuable contribution to philological science. It passes under review a vast number of languages, and it givea, or professes to give, in every case the sum and substance of the opinions and judgments of the best-iufoi-med ■writers." — Saturday Jieview. Post 8vo, lip. 432, cloth, price i6s. A CLASSICAL DICTIONARY OF HINDU MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGION, GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, AND LITERATURE. By JOHN DOWSON, M.K.A.S., Late Professor of Hindustani, Staff CoUege. •' This not onlj forms an indispensable book of reference to students of Indian literature but is also of great general interest, as it gives in a concise and easily accessible fovm all that need be known about the peraonages of Hindu mythology whose names are so familiar, but of whom so Uttle is known outside tlie limited .oireleofsnraiit.s."— Times. ..,-, j^,,- j " It is no slight gain when such subjects are treated fairly and fully in a moderate .snace • and we need only add that the few wants which wo may hope to see supplied -in new editions detract but little from the genei-al excellence of Mr Dowson's wnvV." —Saturday Review. TRUBNER'S ORIENTAL SERIES. Post 8vo, with View of Mecca, pp. cxii. — 172, cloth, price 9s. SELECTIONS FROM THE KORAN. By EDWARD WILLIAM LANE, Translator of " The Thousand and One Nights ; " &c., &c. A New EditioQ, Revised and Enlarged, with an Introduction by Stanley Lane Poole. "... Has been long esteemed in this country as the compilation of one of the greatest Arabic scholars of the time, the late Mr. Lane, the well-knOwn translator of the * Arabian Nights. ' . . . The present editor has enhanced the value of his relative's work by divesting the text of a great deal of extraneous matter introduced by way of comment, and prefixing an introduction." — T^mes. " Mr. Poole is both a generous and a learned biographer. . . . Mr. Poole tells ua the facts ... so far as it is possible for industry and criticism to ascertain them,, and for literary skill to present them in a condensed and readable form," — English- vian. Calcutta. Post 8vo, pp. vi. — 36S, cloth, price 14s. MODERN INDIA AND THE INDIANS, BEING A SERIES OF IMPRESSIONS, NOTES, AND ESSAYS. By MONIER WILLIAMS, D.C.L., Hon. LL.D. of the Uiiiveraity of Calcutta, Tlon. Member of the Bombay Asiatic Society, Boden Professor of Sanskrit in the University of Oxford. Fifth Edition, revised and augmented by considerable Additions, witli Illustrations and a Map. " In this volume we have the thoughtful impressions of a thoughtful man on some- of the most important questions connected with our Indian Empire. . . . An en- lightened observant man, travelling among an enlightened observant people. Professor Monier Williams has brought before the public in a pleasant form more of the manners and customs of the Queen's Indian subjects than we ever remember to have seen in any one work. He not only deserves the thanks of every Englishman for this able contribution to the study of Modern India— a subject with which we should be specially familiar— but he deserves the thanks of every Indian, Parsee or Hindu,. Buddhist and Moslem, for his clear exposition of their manners, their creeds, and their necessities." — Times, Post 8vo, pp. xliv. — 376, cloth, price 14s. METRICAL TRANSLATIONS FROM SANSKRIT WRITERS. With an Introduction, many Prose Versions, and Parallel Passages from Classical Authors. By J. MDIR, CLE., D.C.L., LL.D., PI1.D. *' . . . An agreeable introduction to Hindu poetry." — Times. "... A volume which may be taken as a fair illustration ahke of the religious- aud moral sentiments and of the legend.ary lore of the best Sanskrit writers."— Sdinburgh Daily Review. TRUBNER'S ORIENTAL SERIES. Second Edition, post 8vo, pp. xxvi.— 244, cloth, price 10s. 6d. THE GULISTAN; Or, rose garden OF SHEKH MUSHLIU'D-DIN SADI OF SHIRAZ. Translated for the First Time into Prose and Verse, with an Introductory Preface, and a Life of the Author, from the Atish Kadah, By EDWARD B. EASTWICK, C.B., M.A., F.R.S., M.R.A.S. " It Is a very fair rendei-ing of the original, "—rimes. " The new edition has long been desired, and will be welcomed by all who take any interest in Oriental poetry. The Qnlutan is a typical Persian verse-book of the highest order. Mr. Bastwick's rhymed translation ... has long established itself in a secure position as the best version of Sadi's finest work."— .Academy. " It is both faithfully and gracefully executed. "— Toiiet In Two Volumes, post 8vo, pp. viii. — 408 and viii.— 348, cloth, price 28s. MISCELLANEOUS ESSAYS RELATING TO INDIAN SUBJECTS. Br BRIAN HOUGHTON HODGSON, Esq., F.R.S., Late of tlie Bengal Civil Service ; Corresponding Member of tbe Institute ; Chevalier of the Legion of Honour ; late British Minister at the Court of Nepal, &o. , &o. CONTENTS OF VOL. I. Section I. — On the Eocch, B6d6, .ind Dhim&l Tribes.— Part I. Vocabulary.— Part II. Grammar. — Part Til. Their Origin, Location, Numbers, Creed, Customs, Character, and Condition, with a General Description of the Climate they dwell in. — Appendix. Section II. — On Himalayan Ethnology. — I. Comparative Vocabulary of the Lan- guages of the Broken Tribes of N€pAl.— II. Vocabulary of the Dialects of the Kiranti Language. — III, Gi-ammatical Analysis of the Vdyu Language. The VAyu Gi-ammar. — IV. Analysis of the Bihing Dialect of the Kiranti I