(ffnrnell Ittiueraitg SJibrarg atljaca. Neui llnrk THE LIBRARY OF EMIL KUICHLING, C. E. ROCHESTER, NEW YORK THE GIFT OF SARAH L. KUICHLING 1919 TK 1425.N6C3r"'""^''"""^^ Niagara power number 3 1924 004 982 249 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924004982249 NIAGARA POWER NUMBER. Cassier's Magazine ENGINEERING ILLUSTRATED ^^'..) Niagara. }^ CONTENTS. PORTRAITS OF OFFICERS AND DIRECTORS OF THE CATARACT CONSTRUCTION CO. . Kd\\-ard D. Adams, President, P'dwakd A. Wickes, 2d "\'ice-Pres't. Francis I.vxdi-: Stetson, ist Vice-Pres't. William B. Ranking, Sec'y-Treas. 162=172 Johu Jacob Astor, George S. Bowdoin, Charles F. Clark, Charles Lanier, Jos. Larocque. THE USE OF THE NIAGARA WATER POWER . Willi numerous illustral ions of Niagara Falls aJid vicinily, Diapsof early Niagara Falls poiver h ansniis- sion schemes, and portraits of the men ■zc/io /wiped to plan and execute / lie pi esent great enieipri>r. MECHANICAL ENERGY AND INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS . H'il/i illustrations of Niagara Falls and parts of the pozL'er development enterprise. SOHE DETAILS OF THE NIAGARA TUNNEL With ten illustrations, showi?ig the metiiods folloived in establishing the center line and grade of ilic tunnel, iti driving, titndering and lining the tunnel, sinking the shafts and in overcoining some of the various interesting construction difficulties encountered. THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE NIAGARA TUNNEL, WHEEL= PIT AND CANAL ll-'ilh eleven illustrations, shoisjing the lai ge PoiL'er station at Niagara and various canal, luheel-pit and tunnel views at diffei ent stages of construction . NIAGARA niLL SITES, WATER CONNECTIONS AND TUR= BINES li'it/i tzueiilv-five illustrations of the complete zuaier- wheel designs adopted by the Cataract Co., views of the Niagara pozuer station, tunnel and wlieel-pit. and plans, sections and elevations, clearly explaining the nature of the whole equipment. ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION AT NIAGARA With foriy-seven illustrations, showing viezvs 0/ the interior of (he Niagara Power House, the big gene- raiors, switchboards, transformers, measuri/ng in- stru)nents, and other apparatus. THE INDUSTRIAL VILLAGE OF ECHOTA AT NIAGARA . IVith a map of Echota , and twenty-one illustrations of (he streets and houses, the drainage and sewage dis- posal systems, and many interesting details. NOTABLE EUROPEAN WATER POWER INSTALLATIONS Witii illustrations of the great water-power plant at Geneva, Szvitzerland, shoiving tJie power housrs and the dam across (he river Rhbne. DISTRIBUTION OF THE ELECTRIC ENERGY FROM NIA= GARA FALLS U'Uh tiueniy-eight illustrations, showing the electric equipment of the works of (he Pittsburgh Reduction Co. and (he Carborundum Co at Niagara, and various modern electric power applicalioyis. THE NIAGARA REGION IN HISTORY . . Willi fen illustrations of historic interest, including the first l-inown picture of Niagara Falls D. O Mills. F. W. Whitridge, Francis Lynde Stetson First Vice-Pres. of the Cataract Construction Co. Prof. W. Cawthorne Unvvin, F. R. S. International Niagara Falls Cominissiouer. Albert H. Porter .... M. Am. Soc. C. E.; late Resident Engineer of the Cataract Co. George B. Burbank . RI. Am. Soc. C. E.; late Chief Engineer of the Cataract Co. Clemens Herschel M. Am. Soc. C. E-; Consulting: Hydraulic Engineer of the Ca"taract Co. Lewis Buckley Stillwell . Electrical Engineer and Assist- ant Manager of the We-^ting- house Electric and Mfg. Co. John Bogart .... M. Am. Soc. C. E,; Consulting Civil Engineer of the Cataract Co. Col. Th. Turrettini Director of Public Works, Gen- eva, Switzerland, and Interna- tional Niagara Falls Commis- sioner. S. Dana Greene .... Assistant IMauager of the Gen- eral Electric Co. Peter A. Porter , 365 An Earh' Advocate of Niagara Power Utilization. $3.00 per year. 25 cents per number. Entered at the New York Post-OflBce as second-class matter. Copyright, 1895, by Thb Gassier Magazine Company. All rights reser-ved. TESLA MOTORS IN A GREAT MANUFACTURING ESTABLISHMENT. ONE of the striking features of the remarkable industrial development resulting irom the extended and intelligent use of steam, which has done so nuicli to make the record of the nineteenth century memorable, is the e\-olution of great industrial establishments employing thousands ot hands, and combining the labor and skill of the employees with the best luachinery known to the mechanic arts. Of such establishments one which is, perhaps, among the largest, one that is certainly among the newest, and one which is ot especial interest to all who intelligently observe the tendencies of industrial evolution in America, is that recently completed by the Westinghouse Electric and Manu- tacturing Company at East Pittsburgh, a new station on the main line of the Penn- syh-ania Railroad, twelve miles east of the Union Station at Pittsburgh. Many features are perhaps no less interesting to the student of social economy than are others to the practical manufacturer, while all who are interested in recent pro- gress in the development of the applications of electricity to the lighting of our cities, the propulsion of our street* c^rs, and especially to the operation ot machinery in mills and factories, can here find much to study with interest and profit. But to the manufacturer ancL^nglneer the feature which is most striking and of special interest is the use of electricity to drive all shafting and machine tools, and to perform other work necessary in large manufacturing establishments. This is here accomplished upon a scal?liot previously attempted. A power plant centrally located with reference to the various shops, and equipped with boilers, engines and electric generators aggregating 2500 h. p. is used to supply current to a large number of motors throughout the shops, conveniently located with reference to the machinery which they are employed to drive. It is believed that the efficiency, flexibility and economy attained are superior to anything previously realised in distributing power in large mills and factories. The motors employed for the purpose are of the latest pattern of what is beyond question the most interesting and valuable type of electric motor known, — the celebrated Tesla alternating current motor, invented by Nikola Tesla, and developed by the able technical staff of the Westinghouse Electric and Mfg. Company. It is the especial object of this article to call the attention of those interested in the progress of the mechanic arts, and especially of those who may have occa- sion to investigate the problem of the distribution of power from central stations, to the method and apparatus here used, in the belief that it is an object lesson not only of scientific interest but of great practical value. A year ago the Westing- house Electric and Mfg. Company (at that time employing about three thousand hands) was operating three factories, located respectively in Pittsburgh, Pa., Allegheny, Pa., and Newark, N J. The business of the company had outgrown the capacity of the old shops, which were, moreover, somewhat scattered and inconvenient for the most economical manufacture of electrical apparatus. Rea- lising the advantages of concentration, and desiring' to carry out certain improve- ments in methods of manufacture, and especially in shop facilities, the company purchased a tract of land located, as has been said, about twelve miles from the centre of Pittsburgh, on the main line of the Pennsylvania R. R., with the inten- tion of there erecting new shops, with especial reference to economy in manu- facturing. It was determined that no expense should be spared in making these shops a model of the best practice of the day. The tract of land purchased embraces forty acres, and is in the form of a rectangular block, having a frontage of 2300 ft. along the line of the Pennsylvania, with ample railroad facilities to and lVcsti)iglw2isc Electric and Maniifacturino- Company. Tc's/a J/o/o/s in a (ireat J^fiviiifactiiring Establislinicnt. i33ais Noaavo '^l O a h S Wcsli)io-/ioiisc Electric and I\Iannfacturiivr Company. Ti's/a Motofs i)i a Great Mit)nifaiiuyi)tir Establislimcnt. on the ground. Page v shows a map of the property, and from it can be seen the relative location and size of the eight buildings that are now erected, which in the order of their magnitude are the Machine Shop, the Warehouse, the Pattern Shop, the Blacksmith Shop, the Power House, the Drying and Dipping Shop, and the Brass F"oundry. The Main Foundry, which as yet has not been erected, and is not shown in the plan, will be 150-ft. wide and 750-ft. long. The Machine Shop is 754-ft. long by 231-ft, wide, the ground floor covering four acres, while the galleries are about three acres in e.xtent. The photograph on page iv is a general view of the shops taken from a hill south of the Pennsylvania R. R. tracks. In the foreground the line of the railroad and the station and covered way, — erected for the con- venience of the employees, — are seen. The building nearest the point of view is the Warehouse 754 ft. in length and about 76-ft. wide. The western end of the second floor of this building, — that is, the end nearest the point from which the photograph was taken, contains the offices of the administration, engineering and drafting departments of the company, while the eastern half is devoted to the A TEST.A ^roxrui r)Ri\"iNr, machini-:kv ix the \\'i;sTixi',irn manufacture ot meters, arc lamps, switchboards and similar apparatus. Beyond the Warehouse, and parallel to it, is the Machine Shop, the western end of which is shown in the photograph. This building is divided by the roof lines and the columns supporting them into three aisles of equal width. Railway tracks in each aisle e.xtend entirely through the building, and are connected by switches outside. The main aisle is open from the ground to the roof, and two 30-ton travelling cranes traverse the aisle from end to end. The side aisles contain a second story, and each is further divided by a row of columns supporting the second floor. These columns also serve to carry the runways for two lo-ton travelling cranes, a pair of cranes in each runway traversing the side aisles from end to end. There is a gallery bridge at each end of the Machine Shop connecting the side aisles. For communication between the floors there are ten stairways and ten elevators, each of the latter being driven by belt from a 10 h. p motor. The side walls of the Machine Shop, as well as those of the Warehouse, Power House, Blacksmith Shop and Punch Shop are constructed of brick, the Ijrickwork enclosing the steel columns which support the floors and roof The girders and roof of the building ]Vesti)ig]iousc Electric and Manufacturing Companv. Tesia Motors in a Great I\^a}utfaduri)io- fstab/is/niuid. JJ^i.'sfi//i;7/c>iisc' Electric and IMiDuifactiiring Company. are ol steel, wood being used only in the floors and window sashes. Ample window and skylight area is provided, and the shops are in all parts reniarkabl)' well lighted. There are twelve toilet rooms in the Machine Shop, six to each floor, and in every way the comfort, cleanliness and health of the employees have been considered. The photograph on page ii shows a general view of the central hall oi the Machine Shop. The heating system is designed to warm the shops to about 60 degrees during the coldest weather, and the fin system of hot air heating is employed. The Machine Shop contains 9,171,000 cubic feet of air, and the heating system is designed to change and rewarm this amount in twenty minutes. The amount of heating surface in the six heaters used in the Machine Shop is about 20,000 square feet. Each of the six tans is driven by a 30 h. p. motor, and the heated air is distributed throughout the shop by blast pipes, which are carried o\'erhead. The other buildings are heated in a similar manner. The fire protection system of the various shops consists of a complete equip- ment of water mains supplied from a reservoir. These mains connect to the various stand-pipes and hydrants throughout the grounds. The employees are well drilled and supplied with a full equipment of apparatus for extinguishing fires. The photographs on pages vi and viii are views of the shojjs taken from the side opposite the Pennsylvania tracks. In taking the former the camera was pointed south southeast, and in taking the latter east southeast. In the former the Power House with its tall stack is conspicuous, and beyond it is the Punch Shop, where the steel plates used in constructing transformers and the armatures ot generators and motors are punched out of large pieces of sheet steel b)^ power- ful presses, the required forms being obtained by the use of steel dies. The building in the foreground is the Pattern Shop, and the building beyond it and to the left near the Punch Shop is the Brass Foundry. In the photograph on page vi the Machine Shop and Warehouse are seen from a direction almost opposite that in which the photograph on page viii was taken. Nearly all the machinery used in these great shops, comjjrising upwards 01 1250 machine tools, is operated by Tesla polyjihase motors, supplied with two-phase alternating current at a frequency of 25 cycles per second. This is the identical system worked out by the Westinghouse Electric and Mfg. Company, for the use of the Cataract Construction Company, in their great work at Niagara Falls. The alternating current generators are located in the Power House, from which current is conveyed by insulated conductors to motors conveniently placed throughout the various shops. The potential used is 200-volts, and this is sup- plied directlv to the motors without the interposition of transformers. The line shafting throughout the buildings is divided into comparati^'ely short sections, and motors ranging from 10 to 50 h. p. are employed to drive the sections ; in certain cases large tools will be separately dri\'en by independent motors. In the Power House three 500 h. p. two-phase generators, direct driven by Westinghouse compound engines, are installed. Two of these are shown in the photograph on page ix. They are dri\'en at a speed of 250 r. p. m., and deliver current to two separate circuits, these currents difiering in their time rela- tion or phase by 90 degrees. They are separately excited, current for this purpose being derived from a small direct current machine. The photograph on page \'ii shows a section of the machinery in one 01 the side aisles of the Machine Shop operated by a 50 h. p. Tesla motor. The pho- tograph on page xi shows a similar motor dri\'ing some of the larger tools in the ^Iachine -Shop. The improvement resulting from the sub-di\-ision of the line shafts and the introduction of motors to dri\-e a large numhier of short sections of line shaftine Tcsia Jl/otors i)i a Great Afa>n(fa'.iin'in_o- Estab/is/inniit. A =0 II. V. T1-:SLA MOTOR I)RI\"IXrT HEAVY :\r ACIIIXF.R Y IX THE ^YESTIXl.VHOUSi; SHOPS. Westhighoiise Electric and Manufactuying Company. is remarkable, and deserves very careful consideration on the part oi all interested in manufacturing establishments where a considerable amount of power is required. With shops as large as these the old method of supplying power to the tools by a system of line shafting and belts driven by engines located at a given point would be scarcely practicable. If the length, size and cost of the line shafts were not prohibitive the losses involved would certainly reduce the efficiency of the system to a very low point. An alternative method sometimes adopted is to use a number of engines located at different points, and supplied with steam from a boiler plant central with reference to these points. This also means poor economy and involves many objectionable features. As compared with the central power A MODERN COMMUTATOR FOR AN ORDINARY ELECTRIC MOTOR. plant using line shafting and belts a very material gain is effected by the reduction of the amount of shafting, but to offset this the losses due to radiation from the steam piping must be taken into account, and it must also be remembered that the smaller engines are less economical than the larger ones, which may be used under the plan first described. More than this, in its relation to economy the greater amount of fuel required to develop a given amount of power is not usually the largest factor ; every engine must be looked after, and the cost of attendance where engines are located at a number of different points are used is greatly increased. It is difficult to obtain accurate data in regard to the actual cost of power distributed throughout manufacturing establishments by these several plans, but Tcshi AJotors in a Great Manufacturing Establislnncnt. ONE OF TH1-: TKSLA MOTORS. it is believed that, as compared witli either of the two alternative methods hitherto used, the plan adopted in the Westinghouse shops reduces the amount of po«er required at the boilers by a large percentage. But this is not the most important advantage realised; as compared with the plan of using separate engines the avoidance of the heat from steam pipes, tending to make the temperature of shops unbearable in hot weather, the saving of space, and the decreased cost and trouble of maintenance, are still greater gains ; and as compared with the distribution of power by line shafting from a central power house the elimination of the heaviest, the most expensive and the most trouble- some part of the shafting are advantages of great practical value. As we have said, the type of motor employed, — the Tesla polyphase type, — is one of peculiar interest and value. The object which Nikola Tesla sought to attain when he began the work which led up to the invention of these motors, which are now so celebrated, was the elimination of the commutator, — the weak point, and the most troublesome element in all direct current motors, which at the time Tesla began his work were the only motors available for practical purposes. Since that time much has been done to improve the construction of commutators, but they still remain the weakest element in direct current machinery, and when well made are very expensi\'e. They are necessarily built up of a large number U'csfi//o7/o?/st' Electrit and ]\lainifadiiriiig Company. of segments of copper, and each segment must be insulated from adjacent segments by insulation of ample strength for the potentials employed, and without the slightest crack or pinhole. Any failure to realise these conditions will cause a breakdown and interruption of service. Moreo-\'er, the constant rubbing oi the brushes against the commutator, which is built up of segments of copper separated irom each other by thin layers of insulating- material, wears away both brush and com- ±x mutator, and this wearing away is, in spite of the best construction, inevitably more rapid than in the case of the alternating current V^^^:::^-^— ^-£'%^:;^j^^-''^ motor, where the brushes bear against the "~-C:Lrj^2"-r^-^'''' rings of a collector. The photograph on FIG. I. page xii shows an extremely well made modern commutator, and the photograph on page xvi illustrates a collector. The latter consists essentially of rings of metal, usually copper or brass, centred on the same shaft, and separated from each other by heavy rings of insulating material. The parts, as compared ^^'ith the commutator, are rela- tively few, and the insulation can be as heavy as desired. In the larger Tesla motors collectors are used, but in the smaller ones even these are discarded. The photographs on pages vii and xi illus- trate respectively a 3 h. p. three phase Tesla motor and a 50 h. p. two-phase Tesla motor, as manufactured by the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company, which Company is the sole owner of the United States patents issued to Nikola Tesla. In the 50 h. p. motor, as will be seen, the ring col- lector is used ; in the 3 h. p. motor no commutator or collector is employed. It is possible to build large motors without the collectors, but this is done at a sacrifice ot efficiency, which in some cases is very material. The collectors run without attention for almost indefinite periods, and are prac- tically not objectionable. Tes/a Motors in a Great Manufacturing Establishment. While the most marked advantage of the polyphase motor, as compared with the ordinary types of direct current motor, is in its mechanical construc- tion and low cost of main- tenance, the efficiency of those manufactured by the Westinghouse Company is very high, and as compared with direct current motors is especially high at partial loans. Every motor turned out of the shop is tested by a Prony Brake and its per- formance at various loads carefully determined, the re- sults of the efficiency tests being plotted graphically. The writer has before him a number of these graphic diagrams, showing- performance of motors of various sizes, and from these the following figures are taken; The efficiency of a lo h. p. motor, delivering half ""■ *■ load (5 h. p.) is 79 per cent. ; under full load (10 h. p.j, it is 84 per cent. ; and under an overload of 50 per cent. (/. e. when delivering 15 h. p.), its efficiency is 75 per cent. A 20 h. p. motor delivering 5 h. p. works at an efficiency of 78 per cent. ; delivering 10 h. p. its efficiency is 84 per cent. ; and at full load (20 h. p.), its efficiency is 82 per cent. A 50 h. p. motor delivers 5 h. p. at an efficiency of 72 per cent. ; 10 h. p. at 81 per cent. ; 20 h. p. at 89 per cent. ; 30 h. p. at 91 per cent. ; 40 h. p. at 9 1 per cent. ; 50 h. p. at 89 per cent. ; and 60 h. p. at 88 per cent. A i h. p. motor delivers )\ h. p. at 61 percent. ; ^2 h. p. at 72 per cent ; ^4 h. p. at 75 per cent. ; i h. p. at 73 per cent, and i J4 h. p. at 69 per cent. These motors are inten- tionally so designed that their maximum efficiency oc- curs at a load somewhat less than their rated output. This is thought desirable for the reason that motors in shop work are apt to run at some- what less than their rated outputs, and the net efficiency of the plant is therefore IVcstuig house Electric and Mauiifacluriiig- Company. improved by so constructing the motors that they work at their best efficiency at from lo percent, to 25 per cent, less than the full loads which they are capable of carrying. In using the polyphase system it should be noted that if the frequency selected be suitable, the shops can be lighted from the same circuits that are used to supply motors. The frequency adopted in the Westinghouse shops is 25 cycles per second, or 3000 alternations per minute. This permits incandescent lighting that is entirely satisfactory tor shop work, but it is too low for arc light- ing. A similar system of motors manufactured by the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company is designed for a frequency of 60 cycles per second, or 7200 alternations per minute, and this is adapted to both incandescent and arc lighting. The lower frequency possesses an advantage in reducing the speed of the motors. The question is often asked what is meant by a rotary field induction motor, and the lollowing simple e.\position of the principles upon which these motors are based will be of interest. The theoretical principle upon which the Tesla, or rotary field, motor is based COLLECTOR OF A L.'VRGE TESLA IMOTOR. is as simple and elegant as the practical apparatus in which it is utilized. The rotary magnetic field, which is the underlying principle of the motor, may be illustrated bv a common horseshoe magnet and an ordinary compass needle. If the poles of such a magnet be placed directly over a compass, the needle will assume a position in the direction of the lines of force between the poles of the magnet. This is shown in Figures i and 2, the latter being a section across the end of the magnets. If the magnet be revolved, the direction of the lines of force revolves and the needle will follow this direction and will turn at the same rate that the magnet revolves. If current be passed through a coil around an iron core a magnet is produced, somewhat similar, but usually much stronger than a permanent magnet. An iron ring with four inwardly projecting poles may have windings placed on the several poles. If a current be sent through the coils on the upper and lower poles, a vertical magnetic field will be produced, and a magnetic needle pi\'oted at the centre of the ring will take a vertical position in the direction of the lines of force as in Fig. 3. If on the other hand a current Tesia Motors in a Great Manufacturing Establishment. be sent through coils which are upon the other set of poles, a horizontal field will be formed and the needle will take the position indicated in Fig. 4. The direc- tion of the needle depends upon the direction in which the current is passed around the coils. In the latter case the needle may point either to the right or to the left, depending upon the direction of the current. If a current were passed through both sets of coils at the same time, the needle would assume a midway or 45 degree position between the poles Fig. 5. We may suppose that current is passed through the vertical coils in such a direction that the needle points upward and that this current decreases in strength, while another current through the horizontal coils gradually increases its strength. The needle will be drawn from the vertical position. Fig. 3, through the midway position. Fig. 5, to the horizontal position, Fig. 4, when the first current has ceased to flow. If now the current in the first coils be passed in the reversed direction, the needle will be pulled below the horizontal, assuming a greater and greater deflection until it' points downward, when the current in the horizontal coils has ceased to flow. A continuation of this action will evidently cause the needle to revolve in obedience to the revolving resultant of the two magnetic fields. The currents which have been assumed to flow vary in intensity, increasing to a maximum and then decreasing, reversing in direction and again reaching a maximum, and then decreasing to zero, and are alternating currents. Moreover the two currents have their maximum values at different times, /. _ 73 Harrisburg Pipe Bending Co 89 Hartford Steam Boiler Insp. and Ins. Co,. back cover Heine Safety BoilerCo 94 Hoppes Manufacturing Co 97 Hooven, Owens & Rentschler Co 67 Ide, A. L. & Son. 72 Jenkins Bros 102 Jenney Electric Co 34 Tones & Lamson Machine Co 128 Jessop, Wm. & Sons, Ltd .. - 131 Keasby, Robert A _ 95 Keasby & Mattison Co __. inside back cover Laidlaw-Dunn-Gordon Co 3.S Lane &. Bodley Co _- 67 Learmouth, Robert 97 PAGR Lehigh Valley R. R.. 119 Leslie & Trinklc 3« Locke RegulatorCo 109 Lombard Water Wheel Governor Co 92 London, Chatham & Dover R. R 117 Long & Allstaiter Co 130 Lunkenheimer Co 103 Manning, Maxwell & Moore 129 McGowan, J. H. Co 86 Mcintosh. Seymour & Co - 74 McNaulI, W. D. & Co 95 Michigan Lubricator Co 106 Michigan Central R. R ll*i Morse Twist Drill and Machine Co_ 128 National Tube Works.. 100 New Era Iron Works, The 113 New Process Twist Drill Co -. 128 New York Air Brake Co 84 New York Central R. R 121 New York and Ohio Co xxiv Niles Tool Works 125 North American Metaline Co 106 Northern Steamship Co ... front cover Norwalk Iron Works Co 8^^ Norton Emery Wheel Co 131 0)ln Gas Engine Co 28 Payne, B. W. & Sons 68 Penbertby Injector Co 113 Phoenix Iron Works Co 74, 96 Pittsburg Cms lied Steel Co - back cover Pond Machine Tool Co. 129 Fulsome ter Steam Pump Co _ 87 Packard Elec. Co xxiv Q. & C. Company 129 Racine Manufacturing Co 79 Rand Drill Co,. 32 Reliance Gauge Co __ 42 Reliance Gauge Co 109 Remington Arms Co back cover Rider Engine Co 77 Rochester Machine Tools Works 78 Rodgers, J. C __ xx Roots Co., P. H. & F. M 82 Schaffer & Budenberg 108 Schiffler Bridge Co _ 22 Seibert Cylinder Oil Cup Co 105 Sharon Boiler Works 95 Sherwood Manufacturing Company 101 Shultz Belting Co back cover Solar Carbon Co xxii Southwark Foundry and Machine Company 76 Springfield Mfg. Co 126 Standard Tool Co _. _ 128 Stanley Electric Co xxi Stearns Mfg. Co 76 Stewart Heater Co 98-99 Stillwell-Bierce & Smith-Vaile Co ., 87 Stillwell-Bierce & Smitb-Vaile Co _ 91 Sturtevant, B. F.,Co 80-81 Syracuse Twist Drill Co 128 Taunton Locomotive Mfg. Co 97 Thompson & Bushnell Co 107 Tonkin IJoiler and Engine Works Co. 96 Vacuum Oil Co 104 Van Wie, Irvin _ 87 WalkerMfg. Co xxii Warren Chemical and Mfg. Co back cover Watson & Stillman 130 West Shore R. R 118 Weston Electrical Inst. Co xxiii Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Co.. i to xvii Westinghouse Machine Co ._ 7:a Wetherill, Robert & Co _. 66 Wheeler Condenser Co 102 Wilkinson, Wm. H . ' 108 Wood & Co., R. D 30 World Specialty Co 113 Wrought Iron Bridge Co 114 Contractor. o?\t^-ir,v'>i>\.^M«0AZ:IN5 J. C. RoDGEKS. J. C. RODQERS, CONTRACTOR. N\ R. RODGERS is the senior member of the firm who built the Niagara Falls Power Tunnel for the Cataract Construction Company. At present be is engaged in building the Public Driveway between High Bridge and Dykman Street, in the 12th Ward of the City of New York, better known as "The Speedway." OTHER IMPORTANT WORKS FOR WHICH MR. RODGERS HAS BEEN THE CONTRACTOR: A part of the New York and Canada R.R. for ths Delaware and Hudson Canal Co. Sections 9 and 10 of the Lachine Canal for the Dominion of Canada. The Sideling Hill Tunnel on the South Penn. R R., 6,900 feet long. New Croton Aqueduct, about five miles of the thirty miles built, having received the first final estimate for Section 13, one of the last sections let and first completed. OFFICE: 2512 Amsterdam Avenue, Cor. 185th street, New York City. ^^ ^'^gfr^^ y^^^^i^^'^i ^^M The Highest Grade of Electrical Apparatus for Long Distance Transmission and Central Station Distribution. CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED. Stanley Electric Mfg. Co. PITTSFIELD, MASS. WESTERN OFFICE: 307 DEARBORN ST., CHICAGO, ILL. lsgi|R%^^ Electrical Apparatus. (iS^I^Nei The Walker manufacturing Co. GENERAL OFFICE AND WORKS : Cleveland, O. BRANCH OFFICES : 913-914 Postal Telep^raph Building-, Ne\\' York. 195 Crocker Buildino", San Francisco. 34 York Street, Toronto. 1645-164.'^ Monaduoc Building-. Chicago. 510 Security Buildiug:, St. L,outs Erie Canal Block Building-, Buffalo. 303 Could Building, Atlanta. Ga. 1120 Betz Building, Philadj^lpiiia. 416 Trust Building, Dallas, Texas. Manufacturers of Incandescent Arc Lighting Apparatus. Large Generators and Street Railway Molors. heavy klecrical machinery a spkcialty Insulated Wires and Cables For Aerial, Submarine and Underground Use. Transmission of Power, Wiring Buildings. Telegraph and Telephone Wires a Specialty. Ask for Samples. Send for Catalogue W. R. BRIXEY, Manuf a cturer, 203 Br oadway, New Yo rk City . J. E. HAM, General Agent. SOLAR CARBONS MANUFACTURING GO. MANUFACTURERS OF Carbon Brushes, Battery Carbons. SOLID ELECTRIC LIGHT CARBONS, For auj^ System, of any degree of tiardncss SOFT CORED CARBONS (NOT HOLLOW), For Arc Lamps on Incandescent and Railway Circuits. SOLAR CARBON AND MANUFACTURING CO., 95 FIFTH AVENUE, PITTSBURG, PA. Electrical Apparatus ^'MA'GAZ'I'NEi Tl(e WestOD Electiical lostnipt Go. make a specialty of manufacturing electrical measuring instruments for use in Central Stations, Isolated Plants, Laboratories and for the use of electrical engineers. The Weston Ammeters and Volt-meters are known and used as standards throughout the civilized world. The Ammeters are made in a number of different st^des and various ranges to measure from 1/200,000 of an ampere to 100,000 amperes. The Volt-meters are also made in many different styles, and embrace instruments adapted to measure from 1/100,000 of a volt to 10,000 volts. We also make a large variety of direct reading watt-meters for meas- uring the energy in electrical circuits and determining the efficiency of generators, motors, incandescent lamps and other electrical apparatus. THE WESTON GROUND DETECTOR for use on direct current circuits will be found to be an invaluable aid in discov- ering defects in electric light and power circuits. By its use, the condition of the insulation of electrical circuits can be instantly determined from time to time during the day, and any deterioration at once detected. By its use fires from defective insulation are rendered almost impossible. If you need instruments of any kind for electrical measurement, we shall be pleased to serve you. Nos. 114-120 WILLIAM STREET, NEWARK, NEW JERSEY, U. S. A, Electrical Apparatus |\ ^MAGAZINE- THE / ^ " ■ ■■■■ fe.:/ '.•ir/i'.'.-f^ Packard ElBctric Co. WARREN, OHIO, Manufacturers of the -1" - ' / f^PACKARD TRANSFORMER. NEW YORK & OHIO CO. Warren, Ohio. Pflr.KflRn STAKDARD AMD MOGUL [RMPS 5 to 500 Candle Power V The Packard Electric Co., ud. ST. CATHARINES, ONTARIO (I I Miles from Niagara Falls ), MAKERS OF PACKARD LAMPS AND TRANSFORMERS, DEALERS IN Electrical Supplies. WATER OB ELECTRIC POWDER TO RENT. GOOD OPPORTUNITY FOR PARTY WISHING TO START CANADIAN FACTORY. ELECTRIC SUPPLIES. iRECORDINQ WATT HETERS For Direct, Railway and Alternating Circuits. TRANSFORMERS. WIRES AND CABLES, SUBMARINE CABLES. CUTOUTS and SWITCHES ON PORCELAIN BASES, PORCELAIN INSULATORS for Hi^li Tension Currents, VOLT METERS, AHHETERS, POTENTIAL INDICATORS, APPLIANCES OF ALL KINDS. RAILWAY STATION AND LINE MATERIAL. Carpenter Enamel Rheostats. ELECTRIC MINING APPARATUS. ELECTRIC LOCOnOTIVES, HOISTS, DRILLS, M ELECTRIC BLOWERS, PUMPS, COAL CUTTERS. m ELECTROLYTIC DYNAHOS. STATIONARY MOTORS, for Mills, Factories, Shops, Etc. General Electric Company. Main Office; Schenectady, N. Y. SALES OFFICES: Boston, :Mas=i., iSo Summer Street. New York, N. Y.. 44 Broad Street. Syracuse, N. Y , Sedgwick, Andrews & Ken- nedy Building. BUFFALO, N.Y., Krie County Savings Bk. Bldg. Philadelphia, Pa., 509 Arch Street. Baltimore, Md.. 227 East German Street, Pittsburg, Pa., Times Building. Atlanta, Ga., Equitable Building. Cincinnati. Ohio. 420 West Fourth Street. ■ConiJiBUS, Ohio, 14 North High Street. Nashville, Tenn., 308 North Summer Street Chicago, 111., ritoiiadnock Building. Dktroit. IMich., 13 Rowland Street. Omaha, Neb. 309 South 13th Street. Kansas City, Mo,, New York Life Building. St. Louis Mo., Wainwright Building, Dallas, Texas. Cor. Elm and Griffin Streets. Helena, Mont., Electric Building. Denver, Colo., 505 i6th Street. San Francisco, Cal., 15 First Street. Portland, Ore., Front and Ankeny Streets. Seattle, Wash., Bailey Building, For all business outside the United States and Canada ; Foreign Dept., Schenectady, N. Y. and 44 Broad Street, New York. fllllV^ For Canada, address Canadian General Electric Company, Ltd., Toronto, Canada. 13 m THREE i SYSTEM THE <;EXEKATHi% Ul IHE I<)\\CR THREE TEIASE- CF-XEKATORS AT BALTIC. COXX. T^ I^ >Q^ 1^ ^ Iv^ I ^ ^ I C3 r^ Power. THE MOST ECONOniCAL SYSTEH OF LONQ DISTANCE POWER TRANSMISSION. vs/^^-rE:F=? F^CDWEi^^ ■LJ-rii_i2::^ED. Large Static Transformers Cooled by Air Blast or Oil Circulation. ROTARY CONVERTERS. INDUCTION MOTORS. SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS. THE TRANSMI?.SH)\ (.1 IIIFIOWEI lOLEIIXE I- OUR WILES LfJX'G, 15 LTV LlXEVLllL. \NDT\IT\ILLE. ^ GENERAL * ELECTRIC COMPANY m pi)" m Schenectady, Y, THE UTILIZATHiX OF THE I'ltWER. LOOM ROO:\I AT TAFTVILLE, COXX M'JSlmMMi^ 14 afc^'- ^"'^tii^^^^^^ ELECTRIC LIGHTING APPARATUS COMPLETE STATION EQUIPMENTS. DIRECT CURRENT. ALTERNATING SINGLE PHASE. ALTERNATING nONOCYCLIC. ALTERNATING THREE PHASE. EDISON INCANDESCENT LAMPS. ARC LAMPS For use on Direct, AUernatins;, Power and Railway Circnits. HARINE ELECTRICAL PLANTS. SEARCHLIGHTS, Etc. ELECTRIC RAILWAY APPARATUS COMPLETE EQUIPHENTS I- OR STREET RAILWAYS. SURBURBAN AND INTERURBAN RAILWAYS. elevated railways. trunk line railroads. Electric Railway Generators FROM loo Kilowatts to 1500 Kilowatts. m ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS. ALL RAILWAY SUPPLIES. GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY. INlAiN Office: Schxectady, N. Y. SALES OFFICES : Boston, Mass., iSo Summer Street. New York, N. Y., 44 Broad Street SYRACUSE, N Y., Sedgwick, Andrews & Ken- nedy Buildiucj. Buffalo, N.Y., HrieCounty Savings Bk. Bldg. Philadelphia, Pa., 509 Arch Street. Baltimore, Md., 227 East Gennau Street. Pittsburg, Pa., Times Building. Atlanta. Ga., Equitable Building, CiNCiXNATr, Ohio, 420 West Fourth Street. Columbus, Onto. 14 North High Street. Nashville, Tenn., 30S Nortli Summer Street. For all business outside the United States and Canada: Foreign Dept., Sclieiiectady, N and 44 Broad Street, New Y''ork. Chicago, III.. Mouadnock Buikliug. Detroit, ^Iich , 13 Rowland Street. Omaha, Neb., yy.) South 13th Street. Kansas City, JMo., New York T^ife Building. St. Louis, Mo., Wainwright Building. Dallas, Texas, Cor. E'm and Griffin Streets. Helena, Mont., Electric Building. Denver, Colo., 505 i6th Street. San Francisco, Cal,, i,s First Street. Portland, Ore., Front and Ankeny Streets. Seattle, Wash., Bailey Building i m For Canada, address Canadian General Filectric Company, Ltd., To drnx" the roaring loom of Tune itself:'-JAMES RUSSELL LOJISLL. JOHN JACOB ASTOR. GEORGE S. BOWDOIN. IS cw,^ 1 .^^-^Ir-^-zfe- ^^ ^^^^Wy'z^i£¥^'7^^i^^i=^-=^ Francis T^ynde Stetson is the first vice- presideut of the Cataract Construction Corn- pan 3', and, as such, is among- the best qualified to present a g'eneral and compre- hensive account of the use of Niagara water power. IXiacjara Btiuibev. Cassier's Magazine. Vol. VIII. JULY, 1S95. No. 3. THE HORSESHOE FALLS. THE USE OF THE NIAGARA WATER POWER. Bv Francis Lynde Stetson. SINCE Father Rageneau, in 164S, wrote to his Father Superior con- cerning Niagara, " a cataract ot fearful height, ' ' spectators by the million unconsciously have revealed something of themselves in various efforts to dis- close to others the essential character ol the Falls of Niagara, confessedl)' incom- parable with any other natui'al object. To souls sensitive to the beautiful and the sublime, the plunging torrent has appealed by the stateliness of its stream, the brilliance of its boisterous rapids, and the deep glassy green of its silent foreboding brink, as well as by its drop Cop3'rig-ht, 1895, by The Cassier Mag into the seemingly infinite depth, from which there conies to him who listens the note of the welcoming abyss, deeper than the diapason of any organ's pipe. To most, the first impression, and to many the enduring impression, is that of awe, in which the subjective mood ]5revails and a certain sense of personal danger dominates all other thoughts of this mighty moving flood, pouring' resistlessly down through the gorge, which, for itself, it has foi'ced through multiiilied strata of rocks of many ages. Danger there certainlv is, and death in this resistless, remorseless tide has been AziNE COMr.vNY. All rights resen'ed. 173 174 CASSJEJi • S MA GAZINE. THE FALLS FRO?>I PROSIMiCT POINT. THE USE OE THE NIAGARA WATER POWER. 175 louiid and also has been s()n^iit 1))' hundreds ; but notwithstanding its appaUint;- aspect, it is through this \'er)- sense of resistless power that the Falls speak to minds of great dignit\' and self-restraint, and lead them to ol)ser\'e as did Mr. Carter of New York, in his characteristically fine oration at the opening of Niagara Park, that the " sense which responds to this magnifi- cent motion ' ' is the ' ' sense ot power. And \\\\\ should it not Vje so ? Nearly The ordinary fli.iw has been found to be about 275,000 cubic feet ]:)er second, and in its daily force, ec|ual to the latent power of all the coal mined in the world each day — something more than 200,000 tons. This natural comparison at once sug- gests, as through tlie century it has invited, an estimate of this power in the terms of mechanics, and it has been computed by Professor Unwin that these falls represent theoreticalh' seven mil- A VIKW OF THE OLD MILLING DISTRICT 6000 cubic miles of water, pouring- down from the upper lakes with 90,000 square miles of reservr^ir area, reach this gorge of the Niagara ri\'er at a l")oint where its extreme width of one mile is b\' islands reduced to two channels of only 3S00 feet. Here, in less than half a mile of rapids, the Niagara river falls 55 feet, and then, with a depth of about 20 feet at the crest of the Horse Shoe Falls, plunges 165 feet more into the lower river. lion horse-power (others think more), and for practical use, without appreciable diminution of the natural beauty, sev- eral hundreds of thousands of horse- power. The idea of subjecting to indus- trial uses some part of the enormous power of Niagara Falls has, since the location of the pioneer saw-mill in 1725, occupied the minds and stirred the inven- tive faculty oi engineers, mechanics and manufacturers. Early in the centur)', the pioneers in the locality, to which 176 CASSIA Ji'S MAGAZINE. FROM GOAT ISLAXD, LOOKING TOWARDS T.UNA ISLAND. THE USE OF THE NIAGARA WATER POWER. Ill ^/ ■• — ' Njftt.ARA-. --T-~i^"~lur IvJ: i4 V-- hi, \% vh -1 G A B '''^°"" PliTEli, EMSLIE'S I\IAP, SHOWING THE EARLY CANAL ANr> RES1:R\'0IR 1'R0P0SI-:D IN 1S46. they then gave the name of Manchester, contemplated the probabiHty, but were unable to demonstrate the practicability, of reducing this mighty force to obe- dient and useful service. They dwelt upon, and to some extent exploited, the idea; but before the development or adoption of any method promising satisfactory returns, steam and steam engines had properly attained such a place in the favourable estimation of manufacturers that water-powers in general, and especially those incon- veniently situated and variable in quan- tity and quality, fell into comparative disesteem. The economical production and dis- tribution of coal for use in connection with the engines developed by the gen- ius of Corliss and his fellows, naturally led manufacturers to prefer to produce their own power at their own homes or in proximity to favourable markets, rather than to set out in search of re- mote and uncertain water-powers. But some water-powers were operated and continuously employed, notwithstand- ing, and even during, the steady de- velopment of the advantages of steam 2-3 power. No one needs much persuasion to admit that, except for the decided merits of water-power even in compe- tition with steam, the names of Man- chester, Lowell, Lawrence, Holyoke, Paterson, Cohoes and Minneapolis, in the United States, would possess nothing like their present significance. In view of the obvious advantages offered by water-powers such as these, Augustus Porter, one of the principal proprietors at Niagara, in 1,842 pro- posed a considerable extension of the system of canals or races then em- ployed, and in January, 1847, inconnec- tion with Peter Emslie, a civil engineer, he published a formal plan, which be- came the subject of negotiations with Walter Bryant and Caleb S. WoodhuU, formerly Mayor of New York. An agreement was finally reached with these gentlemen by which they were to construct a canal, for which they were to receive a right of way, 100 feet in width, together with a certain amount of land at its terminus. After various interruptions, in 1861, their successor, Horace H. Day, completed a canal, about 35 feet in width, 8 feet in depth 178 GASSIER ' S MA GAZINE. THE NIAGARA FALLS RAIL"\VAV SI'SPENSION BRIDGE. and 4400 feet in length, by which the water of the upper Niagara river was brought to a basin or reservoir at the high bluff of the lower river, 214 feet abo\'e the water below. Upon the margin of this basin have been con- structed various mills, to whose wheels the water was conducted from the canal and discharged by short tunnels through the bluft^into the river below, so that in 1885, about 10,000 horse-power, sub- stantially the available capacity of the canal, was in use. In that year there happened to be at Niagara an able and experienced engi- neer, engaged in the State's service in laying out a proposed reservation, just as nearly 50 years before he had been there engaged in assisting the State Geological Survey of Prof James Hall, who, in his report on the Niagara river district for 1843, specially mentions the ser\ices of Thomas Evershed. During this verv long interval, Mr. Evershed had been engaged as a public engineer, usually upon the Erie canal in that vicinity, and it was natural that he should be called upon to devise a sys- tem for the de\'elopment of hydraulic power from the ri\'er with which his whole prolessional career had been associated, his last great work being in connection with the effort to protect Niagara, in its principal character as the most magnificent and impressive terrestrial natural object, from vandal- ism and utilitarian desecration. This protection of the natural beauty of Niagara was the underlying idea in his conception and development of his plan, which contemplated the taking of water and the development of power in a dis- trict more than a mile above, and out of sight of the Falls, with an outlet tunnel discharging inconspicuously at the river's edge below the Falls, involv- ing the diversion of less than four per cent of the total flow of the river, and a reduction of the depth of the water at the crest of the Falls by le,s.s than two inches. After conference with Mr. Evershed, Capt. Charles B. Gaskill, the oldest user of power on the hydraulic canal, with se\'en other gentlemen of Niagara Falls, obtained from the legislature of the State of New York, a special char- ter, passed March 31, 18S6, which has since been amended and enlarged by several successive acts. Upon July THE USE OF THE NIAGARA WATER POWER. 179 I, 1SS6, Mr. Evershed issuetl bis first lormal plan aiul estimate, which was considered worthy ol discussion in Appleton's Cyclopa-dia for 1SS7, where it is described in general terms. But, of course, the publication of this plan invited and encountered the demon- stration of its absolute impracticability, as well as the improbability of the use of the power if developed. In Bradstreets, October 30, 1SS6, appeared a letter from Mr. Edward Atkinson (completely an- swered b}- Mr. Clemens Herschel on No\'ember 6, 1SS6), undertaking to show that cheap jjower alone A\'ould not bring people to Niagara Falls; and, somewhat later, on August S, 1SS9, there appeared in The Nation, a careful!)' written article tending to show that Mr. E\'ershed's tunnel would not be practicable for the production of power, nor commercially profitable. But strange to say, these objections have been fully answered through the demonstration of actual experience. For three years the originators ot the Niagara water-power project were en- gaged in con\-incing capitalists that it would be commercially profitable to Bellows I-'alls and Cohoes, and would \'ery largely exceed the actually devel- oped power of all these places, and Augusta, Paterson and Minneapolis in addition. Considering the further right to construct an additional tunnel of 100,- 000 horse-power on the American side, and to develop at least 250,000 horse- power on the Canadian side, it was readily recognized how vastly this local de\'elopment promised, in extent, to surpass the combined water-powers of almost any American State or section. In the special volume upon water- power, constituting part of the United States census of iSSo, it is stated that there were then in operation 55,404 water wheels, with an average of 22.12 horse-po«er each, making in the ag- gregate 1,225,379 horse-power. It thus appeared that the 450,000 horse- power a\'ailable to the Niagara Falls Power Company represented more than a third of the power of all the wheels in the United States in iSSo. The question ot the practical import- ance of the Niagara power being settled, Mr. Atkinson's next question arose as to the advantages of Niagara as a lo- ..I/.;..( S<-'J Z'.a/ Ab-<'f .?.,( L, rd Ah.;-> Sui l^:d f.**'-^ Ginua .-.sj /,,J .}SJ Jld l7 500' \ 400' 1 LAKE SUPERIOR — 1 LAKE jiicmoAy i_\ LAKE HCRoy iSf. >''^ jfiO /'"■« '""'' ^^^:>A -"^^*.. lor' \ljt.\TJl;io "-'-'&'y-_^ ^' ,'"'"' '"■' ' "'' £EA LEVEL IflO' S..."'/'y,l J- 1 nj.„.. j \ .■Line.,/ / 300' S.aLx'tl / ^Aj-I^-^ ■-__-' 400' soo' DEPTHS yVND LEVICLS OF THE GREAT EAKE.S. undertake and complete the develop- ment of Mr. Evershed' s plan, and the first step necessary to be taken was to demonstrate the advantages of the locality. It was shown that the ca- pacity of the original tunnel, about 120,000 horse-power, would exceed the combined tlieoretical horse-power ofLawrence, Lowell, Holyoke, Turners Falls, Manchester, Windsor Locks, cality, and to this, answer was readily made by pointing out that there in the very heart of densestpopulation, touched by nearly all the East and West trunk- lines, within a night's journev of Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Washington, Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Chi- cago, Toronto and Montreal, was a natural port of the great lakes, sus- tained bv a salubrious and fruitful I So CASS/£Ji'S MAGAZINE. country, and protected by the orderly and established institutions and tradi- tions of the most opulent and populous of the States of the Union, The exist- ence oi manuiacturing establishments sufficient to exhaust all oi the power then supplied by the hydraulic canal, and the subsequent applications for the new power, were and are the complete answer to the question whether, as a locality, Niagara would be attractive to users oi jjower. But the question still remained whether water-power could Ise used suc- cessfully in competition with steam, and there are few places in respect of which this question can be asked with more deadly effect; for, in the city of Buffalo, and indeed through the entire length of the district lying north of Pittsburgh, good steaming coal can be obtained at less than |> 1. 50 a ton. With coal at this price, it would, at first, seem impracticable to establish an-\' power plant capable of operating in competition with steam. But a careful examination has satisfied me, at least, that with coal furnished free at the furnace yard, it would still be economical for the manufacturer to employ water- power such as that at Niagara. When in England in 1890, I was told by an eminent gentleman that it was useless to discuss the profiitable employment of water-j)ower, for, as he said, " you can produce steam-power from coal at a cost of a larthing an hour," to which I answered: — ' ' Very well, let us work out the problem! Coal, at a farthing an hour, would, in America, represent five cents for a day of ten hours, or 12 cents for a day ol 24 hours, which is, for 300 days in the year, $15 for the short day and $36 for the long day for fuel only. At Niagara we will gladly furnish con- tiiuir)us 24-hour water-power for $15 a year, in any considerable quantity." After careful consideration, the offi- cers of the Niagara Falls Power Com- pany reached the conclusions that 24- hour steam horse-power is not produced anywhere in the world for less than $24 a year; that in the production of the steam-power the cost of the fuel does not represent more than one-half of the total cost: that ^•ery few, if any, manu- facturers ha^-e e\'er kept any separate account of the cost of their power, or have any actual knowledge of its cost; and that, aside from the cost of the power, many conveniences will come from the employment of power as it may be furnished Irom the Niagara ri\'er. In view of all these considerations, in the year 1889 the present interests in the Niagara Falls power development were combined in a new corporation called the Cataract Construction Com- pany, whose acceptance of the construc- tion contract rested upon two propo- sitions : First, that with proper organ- ization and development the Niagara project would be valuable solely as a hydraulic installation; and, secondly, that it gave promise of becoming, within the very near future, vastly more valu- able as a source of power for transmis- sion. This company was the outgrowth of the very keen and appreciative interest in these propositions shown by the following gentlemen in the order named: William B. Rankine, Francis Lynde Stetson, J. Pierpont Morgan, Hamilton McK. Twombly, Edward A. Wickes, Morris K. jesup, Darius Ogden Mills, Charles F. Clark, Edward D. Adams, Charles Lanier, A.J. Forbes- Leitli, Walter Howe, John Crosby Brown, Frederick W. Whitridge, William K. Vanderbilt, George S. Bowdoin, Joseph Larocque, Charles A. Sweet of Buffalo and John Jacob Astor, most of whom have seryed as officers and directors of the construction com- pany, gi\'ing freely of their time and experience to the conduct of the enter- prise. Among all these names it may seem invidious to select any tor special comment, but, after the early and con- tinuing interest of Mr, Morgan and Mr. Mills, and the later accession of Mr. Astor, it was, as it continues to be, a matter of congratulation to the Cata- ract Construction Company that the origination, the development and the guidance of its affairs have, from the first, received the intelligent and con- tinuous attention of its president, Mr. Edward D. Adams. THE USE OF THE NIAGARA WATER POWER. i8i NEAR PROSPECT POINT AT NIGHT. I82 CASSJ£J?'S MAGAZINE. THE WIlIRLT'iHiL KATJIiS HKLtiW THE F.M.LS. THE USE OF THE NIAGARA WATER POWER. 1S3 In the order of development, ol course, the first step was the adoption of a general plan. Dr. Coleman Sellers of Philadelphia having been retained as general consulting engineer, Mr. Clem- ens Herschel, formerly of Holyoke, was engaged as hydraulic engineer, and, in accordance with the \'ic\vs of these gentlemen, some slight modifications of wheel-pit in the jiower house at the side of the canal. This wheel-pit is 178 feet in depth, and is connected by a lateral tunnel with the main tun- nel, serving the purpose of a tail- race, 7000 feet in length, with an aver- age hydraulic slope of si.x feet in 1000, the tunnel having a ma.ximum height of 21 feet and width of 18 feet 10 inches, its net section being 3S6 scjuare feet. Its slo])e is such that a chip, thrown into the water at the wheel-pit, will pa.ss out of the portal in three and one-half minutes, showing the water to have a velocity of 26 • J feet per second, or a little less than 20 miles an hour when running at its maximum capacity. Over MAP OF NIAr..\R.\ FALLS AND VICINITY, SHOWING THE LOCATION OF THK r.REAT TT^NNKI.. Mr. Evershed's proposition were adopted. Generally speaking, the final plan comprises a surface canal, 250 feet in width at its mouth, on the margin of the Niagara river, a mile and a quarter above the Falls, extending inwardly 1700 feet, with an average depth of about 12 feet, serving water sufficient for the development of about 100,000 horse- power. The solid masonry walls of this canal are pierced at intervals with ten inlets, guarded by gates which permit the delivery of water to the 1000 men were engaged continuously for more than three years in the con- struction of this tunnel, which called for the removal of more than 300,000 tons of rock, and the use of more than 16,000,000 bricks for lining. The con- struction of the canal, and especially of the wheel-pit, 178 feet in length, with its surmounting power-house, were works of corresponding difficulty and importance. After conference with various wheel- makers in the United States, it was 184 CASS/BJ?'S MAGAZINE. THE USE OF THE NIAGARA WATER POWER. 185 found that while American water-wheels of standard grades could be obtained of considerable excellence, yet, except in the case of the Pelton water-wheel, it was not easy to find wheels suitable for special requirements such as those of the Niagara Falls Power Company. The conclusion, therefore, to consider the employment of wheels of special design, which, in the nature of things, involved conference with foreign makers, to whom alone special design had become a matter of frequent occur- rence, was reached upon the advice of Mr. Clemens Herschel, who was familiar with the use of the wheels at Holyoke which he had made a subject of careful study. The fact that Mr. Herschel himself advised recourse to foreign de- signers is a sufficient answer to some New England criticism that we did not adopt wheels such as have been used at Holyoke. But, as soon as careful consideration was given to the subject of turbines, it also became quite apparent that it was desirable, contemporaneously and from the beginning, to take up and ex- amine the question of power transmis- sion, and it became equally apparent that by reason of the rapid advance in the art and science of the development and transmission of power, even the latest books upon this subject had be- come inadequate to our demand for in- formation. In consequence of these conditions, Mr. Adams, while in Europe in the winter of 1890, happily conceived the idea of obtaining and perpetuating information as to the results and achieve- ments of the engineers and manufactu- rers of the world not yet in the books, and, in conformity with this purpose, established in London, in June, 1890, an International Niagara Commission, with power to award $22,000 in prizes. The commission consisted of Sir William Thomson (now Lord Kelvin) as chairman, with Dr. Coleman Sellers of Philadelphia, Lieut. -Col. Theodore Turrettini of Geneva, Switzerland, origi- nator and engineer of the great water- power installation on the Rhone, and Prof E. Mascart of the College of France, as members, and Prof William Cawthorne Unwin, Dean of the Central Institute of the Guilds of the City of London, as secretary. Inquiries and examination concerning the best known existing methods of development and transmission in England, France, Switz- erland and Italy, were made personally by the officers and engineers of the com- pany, and competitive plans were re- ceived from twenty carefully selected engineers, designers, manufacturers and users of power in England and the Con- tinent of Europe and also in America. All of these plans were submitted to the commission at London on or before Jan- uary I, 1891, and awards of prizes were made in respect of a number of the plans considered worthy by the commission. The first important result of this commission was the selection of Messrs. Faesch iN: Piccard of Geneva, as designers of the turbines, of which a careful description by Mr. Clemens Herschel is given elsewhere in this magazine. It is enough here to say that these wheels, calculated to yield 5000 horse-power each, are intended for a position in the wheel-pit, 140 feet below the surface, to which water is conducted by a tube or pen-stock leading from the service canal and dis- charging between the twin wheels, from which the water falls away into the side tunnel conducting it to the main tunnel and thus to the lower river. The power, of course, is developed through the drop in the wheel-pit, the tunnel serv- ing the purpose only of a tail-race. Three of these wheels have actually been built after designs of Faesch & Piccard, by the I. P. Morris Company, of Phila- delphia, and are now in place. They are about five feet in diameter. The pen-stock, yj:^ feet in diameter, is made of steel, and the constant pressure of its column of water, discharging be- tween the twin turbine wheels, serves to support the entire weight of all the revolving parts, namely, the weight of the wheels, the vertical shaft and the re- volving parts of the generator driven by the wheel, to which reference will be hereafter made. The mechanical problem to be solved in this case, viz.; how to get 5000 1 86 CASS/£J?'S MAGAZINE. horse-power from the point of develop- ment at the wheels to the surface, 140 feet above, was considered to be much less difficult than that presented in the case of an Atlantic steamer, where the moti\'e power of the 5000 horse-power eng ine is delivered by a horizontal shaft to the screw at the stern of the vessel, more than 140 feet away, the water- wheels at Niagara being our engine, the generator at the surface, our screw, and the connecting shaft (adopted in preference to belting or ropes), 140 feet in length, being vertical instead of horizontal. This shaft is of steel, ^ inch thick, carefully rolled into tubes, 38 inches in diameter, without any riveted vertical seams ; but at several in- tervals, where journals are needed to steady this vertical shaft on fixed collar bearings, it is solid and at those points measures 11 inches in diameter. While these turbines were made after foreign designs, the contract for building them was given to and was performed by the I. P. Morris Company, of Philadelphia, and, upon the observation of competent and disinterested experts, the Niagara Falls Power Company feels no hesitation in inviting general observation and criti- cism of this unusually difficult con- struction. The question of the turbines having been thus disposed of it became neces- sary to determine upon the mode of transmitting the power to be developed from them, and to this subject the care- ful attention of the officers and engineers of the company was addressed for more than three years, both in America and Europe. In 1890, four different methods of power transmission were seriously considered, viz., that by manilla or wire rope, that by hydraulic pipes, that by compressed air, and that by elec- tricity. How rapid has been the pro- gress of thought upon this subject within four years, maybe realized when I say that in 1890, I was advised that power could be transmitted from Ni- agara to Buffalo, not by electricity, but only by compressed air, and that my ad\'iser was Mr. George Westinghouse. But methods are clearer now than in 1S90, and this largely is the result of the competition initiated by the Interna- tional Niagara Commission. Rapidly summarizing the results and incidents of a tour of inspection made by Mr. John Bogart, one of the engineers of the company, and myself, in 1890, I may observe that we saw five instances of transmission of power by manilla or wire ropes, viz. , at Schaffhausen, Win- terthur, Zurich and Fribourg, in Switz- erland, and at Bellegrade, in France, ^^- BUFFALO AND THE TERRITORY WHICH PAYS HER TRII3UTE. THE USE OF THE NIAGARA WATER POWER. 187 .. Si'. . -i- ^»* ■*■".-' " '^ V ' V^-ii- ^ ■' v'' NIAGARA I--ALLS IN "V^'IXTKR. all of these installations representing the effect of the original installation under Mr. Moser at Schafifhausen in 1867. Mr. Moser, a gentleman of great intelligence, was among the first to observe that the use of water-power had declined, and that the preference for steam-power had developed, because of the common inconvenience of the bring- ing of the factory to the source of the water-power, which inconvenience he thought to obviate by taking the power to the convenient site of the factory. This he did by the use of the wire ropes, sometimes to the distance of nearly a mile. But while this device served a use- ful purpose, it developed its own difficul- ties, especially in localities affected by cold or frost, under which conditions the wire rope Irequently slipped on the wheels, an occurrence disastrous to spinning-mills, and which at Schaff- hausen, is now leading to the substitu- tion of electricity for the original wire transmission. The second system of transmission visited by us was that upon a very large scale at Geneva, in Switzerland, insti- tuted under the direction of Col. Tur- rettini, viz. , hydraulic transmission of hydraulic power from the turbines, through j)ipes to diflerent parts of the city, even for the purpose of operating dynamos for electric lighting. While this method of hydraulic transmission at Geneva did excellent w'ork, it was already recognized in 1890 that it was not equal to electrical transmission of power, and in the duplication of the work now being made under the direc- tion of Col. Turrettini, electricity is substituted as the means of transmission. The third system of transmission, the pneumatic, had been developed to a \'ery large extent in Paris, upon the system of Mr. Popp, under the observation of that most accom- plished engineer, Prof Riedler. Im- mense steam-power plants were estab- lished at Belle\'ille, nearly seven miles iS8 C.-ISS/BJ? ' S JlL-i GAZINE. from the center of Paris, and at other points, and by the use of compressors over 7000 horse-power was distributed throughout Paris, operating more than 30,000 pneumatic clocks in the hotels and residences, supplying reii'igeration l(_>r the stores for meats in the Bourse de Commerce, and also an installation for electric lighting near the Madeleine. We also obser\-ed the Sturgeon & Lupton system of pneumatic transmis- sion in Birmingham, and later the important example ot such transmission from the Menominee river, seven miles away, to the Chapin iron mine, at Iron Mountain, in Michigan. This was the system which, in iSgcMr.Westinghouse thought we were likely to adopt. But, in view of the great loss of power, the Popp system )'ielding only 38 per cent, in efficiency, and the Birmingham sys- tem yielding only 52 per cent., upon comparatively short distances, it did not seem wise to the Niagara Falls Power Company to adopt this system, useful and\-aluable as it is in many par- ticulars; but it is gratifying to be able to state that in the International Niag- ara competition a prize for a project for distributing power pneumatically, was awarded totheNorwalk Iron Works Company, of Connecticut. A very interesting debate as to the comparative merits of electricity and compressed air was conducted in Sep- tember, 1S90, in my jjresence, between Prof Riedler in behalf of compressed air, and Mr. Ferranti in behalf of elec- tricit\'. Mr. PY'rranti said that the electrical s\'stem was especially adapted to long transmission ot great volumes, inasmuch as the loss increased only in- versely as the square of the increase of volume; that is, if a loss of 50 per cent, were to be assumed for transmission of 500Dvi.ilts, that loss would increase only one-half upon doubling the volume — in other words, a transmission of 5000 volts with a loss of 50 per cent, might be increased to 10,000 volts with a loss of only 25 cent, of the increase, or 37 'j per cent, of the aggregate amount, or, stated concretely, though 5000 volts might 3'ield only 2500 volts, 10,000 would yield 6250 volts of the power de- ^■eloped. Prof Riedler was greatly puz- zled by Mr. Ferranti' s positive state- ment, and said that, if well founded, the loss in the case of electricity differed irom that of every other known force, to which Mr. Ferranti replied that this undoubt- edly was so, and that the differences were altogether to the advantage of its employment upon a great scale for such a service as this. Prof Riedler con- cluded by saying to Mr. Ferranti that if his statements were well founded, there could be no question but that electricity must prevail over compressed air. This was in 1890, and all subse- quent experience has tended to confirm the statements of Mr. Ferranti, Mr. Nikola Tesla having quite recently stated to me that if the company would put 100,000 horse-power upon a wire, he would deliver it at commercial profit in the city of New York. The fourth method of power trans- mission was that by electricity, which we found in actual operation in three places, all in France — Oyannax, Do- mene and Paris, besides the short trans- mission within the buildings of the Oerli- kon Company, near Zurich, in Switzer- land. Other examples, contempora- neously or subsequently developed, might be referred to, but these are the\- upon which, in 1890, the Niagara Com- pany founded its jireference for electrical transmission. At Oyannax, on the Jura Mountains, in the Department of Ain, there was a \'ariety of small interests, the principal one being the manufacture of silk, the smaller ones being the manu- facture of tortoise-shell combs and other lighter articles, in which not more than two or three horse-powers were em- ployed for the running of small saws and ]3olishers. The power for these various simple industries was derived from tur- bines in the Ain river at Charminet, dis- tant in a direct line about fi\e miles from the use of the power. At Domenc, op- posite the Grande Chartreuse, in the Dauphiny Alps, the jiower for a paper mill was dr.awn from a glacier in the mountain, four miles away, almost straight up in the sky, and in winter act- ually inaccessible, so that for three months the only communication between THE USE OE THE NIAGARA WATER POWER. 1S9 ^v-. /* ^00^^ •Ift" ICK liRIDGE UNDER THE FALLS. I go CASS/£Ji'S MAGAZINE. THE HORSESHOE FALLS FROM GOAT ISLANl^. THE USE OF THE NIAGARA WATER POWER. 191 the mill and its source of power was by telephone. Here, sleety storms prevail, and snow and frost to an extent equal to that conceivable at Niagara, and yet the results were so satisfactory that Mr. Chevrant, the owner of the mill, said that his power did not cost him over 50 francs a }'ear. But passing from these examples of 1S90, through the larger experience bv which power was transmitted 16 miles from Tivoli to Rome, and for a long- distance at Portland, Oregon, and also quency in the present state of the art is desirable for arc lighting, and is neces- sary for incandescent lighting; but having- regard to the special pur]iose, and conditions of this company, it was decided to adopt that method and sys- tem which is, on the whole, best fitted for a power company as distinguished irom a light company. It is onlv proper to say that in the adoption of the alter- nating system, as opposed to the con- tinuous system, in the adoption of the two-phase, as distinguished from the ANOTHER VIE^V NE.AK PROSPECT I'OINT. at Telluride, in Colorado, in all which places power, generated at a water- power station, is transmitted with bare copper wires on poles for ten miles and more with commercial success, the Ni- agara Company, in December, 1891, under the advice of Prof Rowland, of Johns Hopkins University, Prof George Forbes, of London, and Prof Sellers, of Philadelphia, invited competitive plans and estimates for the development of its electrical power and of its transmis- sion both locally and at Buffalo. As the result of this advice and this competition, the company adopted a two-phase alter- nating generator of 5000 horse-power, developing about 2000 volts with a frequency of 25, as the best practicable unit and method for the development of electricity for power purposes. It is distinctly recognized that a higher fre- three-phase, and in the adoption of the frequency of 25, the company was diversely advised and criticised, and the result finally reached was that which, upon the whole, under existing, present conditions, seemed best. The form of dynamo emploj^ed is that devised by the company's electri- cal engineer. Prof. George Forbes, of London, resembling a mushroom or umbrella, in which the stalk or handle is the shaft of the turbine, and the cap is the re\'olving part of the generator, serving the purpose also of a fly-wheel for the turbine, this special advantage having resulted from Prof. Forbes' happy idea of a dynamo in which the field magnets should revolve instead of the armature. A contract for three such dynamos, of 5000 horse-power each, was made with, and was performed by, CASS/£Ji ' S I\IA GAZINE. the Westinghouse Company at Pitts- burgh. The first users of the power de\'eloped h'om these dynamos \vere the Pittsburgh Reduction Works, man- ufacturers of ahuninum, haying an estabHsliment also at Pittsburgh. Their works at Niagara are upon the lands of the company, 2500 feet distant Irom the power-house, which is reached by an underground conduit for electrical transmission. After a competition for a design and construction of works suit- able for the transmission of electrical power to this establishment, and for con\-erting the alternating into a con- tinuous current, a contract was made with, and carried out by, the General Electric Company, ot Schenectady, N.Y. At the same time, both the West- ing'house Company and the General Electric Company, in competition, ha\-e submited plans for the transmis- sion of electric power to Buffalo, and, upon the adoption of the successful plan, the Niagara Falls Power Company is prepared to proceed with the construc- tion and operation of a pl.mt for trans- mission of electricity to that important city on Lake Erie. How much farther such power may be transmitted at a commercial profit remains to be seen. ?ilessrs. Houston & Kennelly, well known electrical engineers, independently reached the conclusion that e\"en so far away as Albany (a distance of 330 miles) elec- trical power, with a steady load of 24 hours per day, canbedeli\-eredat$22. 14 per kilowatt, which is cheaper than it can be produced by triple-expansion steam engines, though the cost would be proportionately greater for lo-hour power. Though these figures are grat- ifying, they are not those upon which the Niagara Falls Power Company is resting for the success of its undertaking. Whether or not electrical power can be furnished 330 miles away at less than S24 a day Icjr 24-hour horse-power, it can, within much nearer distances, be furnished at such prices as to lea^'e yery little surplus power for distribution at such remote points ; and, on the other hand, if it be practicable to transmit power at a commercial profit in these moderate quantities to Albany, the courage of the practical man -will not halt there, but, inclined to follow the daring promise of Nikola Tesla, would be disposed to place 100,000 horse- power on a wire and send it 450 miles in one direction to New York, the JNIetropolis of the East, and 500 miles in the other direction to Chicago, the Metropolis of the West, and ser\'e the purposes and supph" the wants of these greatest urban communities. Conscious of the difficulties of trans- ferring, at once, large industries to a new site, e\'en as attractiye as it has made Niagara, with its new industrial ^•illage of Echota, designed by Stanford White, and the new Terminal Railroad owned by kindred corporations, the Power Company, notwithstanding en- couragement from such home tenants as the great Paper Company and the Alum- inium and the Carborundum works, has definitely determined to furnish its power to distant consumers, e\-en at the risk of work which, in some measure, must be experimental, though not in so large a degree as many may suppose. Ti\'oli, Turin, Telluride, Ge- noa, Williamette, San Bernardino, all tell that commercial success lies back of the brilliant experiment, in 1S91, of Lauften and Frankfort, 109 miles apart. Buttalo, being reached, is onh' on the way to points beyond. How far be- yond, it is not necessary now- to deter- mine ; but haying once set in motion these mighty wheels, we may at least imagine and admire a bow of brilliant promise, — an arc of electrical energy stretching from the Metropolis of the Ariantic to the Metropolis of Lake Michigan, whose waters, swelling the mighty flood that stirs Niagara, may then be called upon to dri\-e "The roariiiL; loom of time itself." Prof. A\'.m. Cawthorxe U-xwix i> one of the best known engineers, anthors and teachers of eugiueering science in Kugland, as well as In America. He was a member of the International Niagara I'alls Commission. MECHANICAL ENERGY AND INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS. By jr. CaiL'/Zionic I'mciii, F. R. S. ■ T is an honour to have been invited to con- tribute a short article to a number of Gassier' s Magazine, devoted to a description of the work at Niagara, and it is pleasant to be so associated with those who have had the task of planning the arrangements, superintending the works and design- ing the machinery of that grand instal- lation. Writing, however, on the European side of the Atlantic, it will be wisest, — not to say most modest, — to a^'oid details and to deal, in prefer- ence, with some general consideration bearing on the question of utilizing and distributing power. In all producing industries, there are operations requiring greater, and op- erations requiring less, intelligence ; operations requiring great manual skill, and others requiring little manual skill. The sub-division of labour which has arisen in modern industries has for its object to economize the intelligence and skill and other special faculties of the workers. A factory should be so arranged that manufacture is carried on by the most advantageous number of processes, each worker doing what he is best fitted to do, and the number of workers in each class being propor- tioned to the requirement of the process allotted to it. The sub-division of man- ufacture in this way greatly facilitates the introduction of machinery, and with the use of machinery comes the need for motive power, more constant and tireless than muscular effort. Compar- ing the last hundred years with any previous period, their most obvious : characteristic is the enormous exten- sion ot the use of mechanical energy derived irom natural sources. At first, factories were placed near waterfalls from which alone, at that time, mechanical energy could be easily obtained in sufficient quantity. Then, about the year 1790, steam power be- gan to replace water power. For a time, the factories were aggregated near coal fields. To some extent this is still the case, though facilities of transport, due again to the use of natural supplies of energy, permit manufactures to spread more widely. In any case, the location and the growth of manufactures have been largely determined by facili- ties for obtaining cheaply large quanti- ties of power. In 1 832, Charles Babbage, the in- ventor of the well-known calculating engine, published an interesting work on "The Econom}' of Machinery and Manufactures. ' ' It deals with the guid- ing principles underlying modern meth- ods of manufacture, then already so far developed as to be recognized as con- stituting a new system. It is curious that Babbage says little about the pro- duction of power or its cost, though, clearly, the use of cheap steam power was the principal factor in the indus- trial change which he discusses. Towards the end of the book, howe\'er, he does mention that the application of the steam engine had added millions to the population of Great Britain.* Then ■■ Mr. Thomas Hawksley often said that the popu- lation of Great Britain Iiad trebled in his lifetime 195 196 CA SSIER ' 6- MA GA ZINE. TH1-: I-IORSE SllOIi FALLS AT NL\GARA, he points out that the source of steam power, — the fuel, — is hmited in quan- tity, and that a time may come when the coal mines will be exhausted. He mentions the tides as an inexhaustible source of energy, if means could be found for utilizing tidal action. Finally, he indulges in a curious speculation. He points out that hot springs, which have been observed to flow for centuries, unchanged in temper- ature, bring to the surface a practically unlimited supply of heat. "In Ice- land," he says, "the sources of heat are plentiful and their proximity to large masses of ice almost points out MIL CH. A \ 'li -.If. ENER (, ] : 197 the future destiny of that island. The ice of its glaciers may enable its inhabi- tants to liquefy the gases with the least expenditure of mechanical force, and the heat ot its \'olcanocs may supply the power necessary for their condensa- tion. Thus, in a iuture age, power may become the staple commodity of the Icelanders." Manufacturers have not yet been driven to obtain power by purchasing liquefied oxygen in Iceland. The coal fields are not yet exhausted. But the pressure on trade of the cost of the energy required is undoubtedly felt. This maybe inferred from the ceaseless efforts to reduce the consumption of steam in engines, and to improve the efficiency of boilers. There are obvious causes for this. As trade competition becomes more severe, every item of ex- penditure in carrying on work is scruti- nized, and out of many small economies a material advantage is reaped. Even if in some industries the annual cost of power is a small fraction of the total expenditure, any saving on it is a clear addition to profits. In many industries there is an in- creasing" consumption of power, proc- esses being multiplied to secure greater perfection of product, and then the cost of power is an increasing tax. Lastly, there are new electrical and chemico- electric industries in which the amount of power used is very large, and its cost is not a small fraction of the ex- penditure. In electrical industries, mechanical energy is virtually the raw material of the manufacture, and its cost is not a subordinate, but a princi- pal, factor in the cost of production. In an article in Engineeruig, several years ago, Dr. Coleman Sellers quoted some estimates of the amount of power required in different industries. These Ti[i; FALLS -m:ak spl:ct I'liixj igS C-^SSJEJi'S MAGAZINE. I\IECHANICAL EXER G ) '. 199 arc given con\'enieiitly in horse-power per artizan or worker employed. Tak- ing the cost of one horse-power year at about £\2 or $5o, which is a moderate, average estimate, the annual expendi- ture per worker can Ise calculated in is enormously greater. From figures known to be reliable, it appears that in stations in England the cost of fuel alone per electrical unit sold, apart from interest on cost ol boilers and engines and wasjes and maintenance, is seldom IX THK NI.^G.VRA WHEKL-PIT DURING C 'XSTRl-LTION. supplying the mechanical energy nec- essary to make his labour eflecti\'e. Horse- power Cost per Industry-. lor each annum per liancl em- lianil eni- plo^ed. ployed. / S. I Flour and grist mills J3.20 15S S (792) Lumber sawing ,5.56 66 12 (333) Cotton ." 1.49 17 16 (89) Paper 5.07 60 16 (304) Woollen goods 1.23 14 16 (74) Iron and steel 2. 82 33 16 (169) Agric'ral implem'ts. 1.13 13 12 (68) Worsted goods 0.S7 10 S (52) The figures in the last column are the annual charges, additional to his wages, for each worker for the mechanical en- ergy he uses. Obviously, these charges are not amongst the negligably small items of a manufacturer's expenses. In the case of electric lighting sta- tions, the proportionate cost of power less than one penny, and is, in some cases, double this. But the ordinary selling price of electricity is 6 pence per unit, so that the fuel cost alone absorbs one-sixth of the gross income of the works, and in some cases one-third. Up to the present time by far the largest part ot the mechanical energy used in the world has been derived from the combustion of fuel. But in the best steam engines the limit of possible economy has been nearly reached. A good deal may be efiected, no doubt, by replacing bad engines and boilers by good engines and boilers, but there is little reason to hope that any steam machinery of the future will work with materially greater economy than the best at present in use. Nor is there much hope of considerable economy from the improvement of other heat 200 O-ISS/ER'S MAGAZINE. engines. Short of going to Iceland, there is only one \\'idely distributed, easily utilizable source of mechanical energy, and that is water power. Under ta\'0urable conditions, and utilized on a large scale, the cost of water power near the waterfall may be one-tenth or one-twentieth of the cost of steam power. The ditt'erence is so great that even when considerable cost is incurred in transmitting the power from the waterfall to localities where power is required, there may be a mar- gin of economy in using water power. No doubt, in many cases, especially where very great, permanent structures had to be erected to render foils of considerable height available, water power has proved as expensive as steam power. Modern facilities of transmission and distribution ha\'e greatly altered the conditions of the problem, and engi- neers in se\'eral countries have come to realize the value of the waste energy of the streams. No one can now travel in Switzerland or southern Norway without perceiving that a new impetus has been gi\'en to industry by the de- velopment of large waiter power plants. In Norway a new industry, — the paper pulp trade, — has, in a few years, become extremely important, and the manu- facture is carried on entirely by cheap water power, derived from considerable falls on the glacier-fed streams. In utilizing a great waterfall and distribut- ing widely cheap mechanical power, the capitalists and engineers at Niagara are helping to solve one of the most interesting and important problems of the present time. r ^^^^^Z^" Albert Hotvell Porter was the resident enaitieer fi.ir the 'Cataract Construction Co. until the completion oi ^the tunnel, and the preliminary work: was done under his imme- diate super\'ision, SOME DETAILS OF THE NIAGARA TUNNEL. By Albert //. Porter. J/ Am. Soi. C. E. opi-:nixg CF.Rr.^roxiKS at ttif. r.i:Gixxixi; ni- the first shaft for thi-; NIAC.AR.V TFXXl.L, IN the latter part of March, 1S90, — a short while ago it seems when one sees the progress made toward the completion of the greatest water power project and enterprise of our time, which has changed Niagara Falls, then only a village, into a thriving city with the eyes of the world upon her, — surveys were commenced of the lands of the Niagara Falls Power Company and Cataract Construction Company, and the location of the great tunnel from these lands, under the village to the river below the Falls, was begun. A right of way had been acquired previous to this, surveys of which were started immedi- ately to see what additional grants would be necessary to locate the tunnel in a straight line, which was desirous for constructional and hydraulic rea- sons. This right of way was largely covered 204 CA SSIER ' 5 3/A GAZINE. with buildings, and in order to more readily and accurately perfect the sur- face alignment, a toiver was erected just east of the New York Central & Hudson River Railroad depot. The tower was a double one, over fifty feet in height, with three legs to each tower. a point set in Canada, from which points were thrown back across the gorge to the tunnel portal. Points were also set east of the tower for the shafts and along the line of tunnel. The profile accompanying shows the location of the tower, its use and ad- LMWKRINI A <,IRDIiR IXTO THE W 1 1 EE L- PIT. the inside one being the tripod for the alignment instrument, while the outside one, which was entirely clear of the tripod, in order that there should be no jarring or vibration, had a platform for the engineers to stand on in sighting the instrument. From the top of the tower all buildings could be cleared and vantage, and will readily explain the method of alignment. The work of constructing the tunnel was prosecuted from two shafts and the portal in the lower river. There was also a shaft at the portal at the top of the sloping bank to enable a straight lift to the top of the bluff". .Shaft No. i DETAILS OF THE NIAGARA TUNNEL. 205 2o6 CASS/£R'S MAGAZINE. was located 2600 feet, and shaft No. 2, 5200 feet from the portal. Points for dia- mond drill borings were lo- cated along the line of the tunnel, and borings were made at several places. From the results of these borings the profile showing the rock stratifaction was made. From the rock cores taken out by these borings, it was thought that an un- lined tunnel could be driven, but after sinking the shafts and driving the headings a short distance, the rock was found to be of such a char- acter that, upon consultation, it was deemed necessary to line the tunnel throughout, not only to make a safe and practical construction, but to have a more perfect tailrace. The upper stratum, or the Niagara lime-stone, is a hard rock, but is full of seams, through which the water comes in great quantities, and in sinking the shafts this water caused much trouble and greatly increased the difficulties of construction. In order to intercept the wa- ter from falling to the bot- tom, the plan shown in one of the appended illustrations was devised, by which gut- ters were cut and built around the shafts leading to basins or sumps in the sides of the shafts where pumps were placed and the water was forced to the surface. In shaft No. I fully eight hun- dred gallons of water a min- ute were pumped. When the brick work of the tunnel was completed and the working shafts were being closed up, the water again caused serious obsta- cles to the construction of the brickwork and masonry. To obviate this, tar paper was DETAILS OF THE XIAGAKA TUXAE.L. 207 put over the lagging on the timber- ing, and gutters built to lead the water to weepers or holes in the brick work, located at the wall plates. Above this point the filling was of dry packing, and the water percolated through this to the gutters below. A manhole was left in the arch at the shaft, 5 ft. in diameter, and was built up the shaft to the solid rock. The space around this manhole to the sides of the shaft was filled with dry packing of good-sized stone, and, upon reaching solid rock, a layer of about 12 inches of broken stone was placed on top of the dry packing ; coarse gravel was put on top of this, then came gravel and cement, and then three courses of brick work, the top course being of vitrified paving brick. By this time the water was falling down the man- hole, the weepers in the tunnel were dry, and no damage was done to any of the masonry. The shafts above were built up by a brick arch thrown across at the solid rock nearest below the surfrice, and a manhole, directly over the bottom manhole, was built to th face. Th rock, a' apparently when first up in th inn's, fell LLj ^-^^ 1^ ft!i ^ t: ■p"'!ll UIUul 20S CASS/£Ji'S MAGAZINE. large slabs when exposed to the air, and necessitated not onl)' temporary timbering and props in the advance heading, but permanent timbering throughout. The layer of limestone under the shale was a firm strong rock, and in that portion of the tunnel where it formed the roof, no timbering was re- quired. The sand stone and sand shale under the limestone were full of clay seams. The system of blasting used in the heading was the American, or centre cut method, the location of drill holes for the heading and benches being shown on the accompanying cross sec- tion and profile. The permanent timber arch was formed of five blocks of 12 x 12-inch timbers, covered with three-inch lag- ging, packed over with dry stone to the rock roof The first heading was excavated to the bottom of the longi- tudinal timber or wall plates. The second bench followed within about fifty feet of the heading, posts being placed under the wall plates, as exca- vated. The heading and first or upper bench were carred along together until the headings met. The lower bench was excavated a short distance ahead of the brick lining. In some cases, on account of the poor rock, it was found necessary to place long posts to the bottom of this bench to support the wall plates. The best progress made in any heading during the construction of the tunnel was 94 feet in one week. The best progress for the five headings was 331 feet in one week, an average of over 66 feet to each heading, and the same week 321 feet of the first bench were taken out and the timbering was carried along. The brick work was built in the different sections, as shown on the profile and plan. The brick side-walls were built first, a specially formed brick being used where the invert or bottom joined on. The invert was the last brick work to be laid in the tunnel. For setting these DETAILS OF THE NLIGARA TUNNET. 209 side-walls a templet 111' lonii was set on On the aceuracv of ali^'nment and correct grade and line. This was made, grade depended the meeting and out- as shown in the section, with notches come of all the different steps describetl cut ior the special brick and saw cuts above. The alignment in the tunnel made tor each course of brick. Above was produced from two small steel these the centres were set which were piano wires suspended from the surlace DRIFT 10 PT WIDE, 5 FT.H TO OU 5 DE LI^.E OF C ERS ^|E>p-j V / PLAN- SHOWIXG .\RR.1.\GEMENT UF TRUU<-ai .\XD CANVAS. Si:CTION THROV&H CEXTRE OF DRIFTS. rL.\N ,Anoi'Ti-:i) for ha.xdlini. \\'ati:Iv at ,^ii.\i t nh. 2. especially adapted to the arrangement of scaffolding and the method of hand- ling material used, which are shown on the cross and longitudinal sections. The spaces between the brick work and the rock and around the posts were all filled with rubble masonry up to the haunch of the arch. Above this and over the brick arch dry packing was used. with 30 lb. flanged plumb bobs, hang- ing in buckets filled with oil. These wires were on movable screws on the surface, and were kept on the true line with a transit instrument about 30 or 40 feet from the shaft. The distance be- tween the wires was about 17 feet. From these wires at the bottom a transit instrument was sighted and vvorked on to the true line and points 4-3 2IO GASSIER ' S MA GAZINE. set in the tunnel. This was repeated three times, or until the result proved satisfactory. The elevations were established at the bottom of the shafts by means of a long accurately tested steel tape, kept on a known elevation on the surface by means of a le\'el instrument, and read at the bottom by another level from which the elevations were established on bench marks of iron bolts, secured in the rock. This was also done three times, or until a satisiactory result was obtained. The result of the alignment and grade of the tunnel was most satis- factory, as there was no deviation or error in all the construction, and no work had to be changed or torn out. The clearance allowed between the tim- bering and brick work was only 4 inches, the smallest in any tunnel. The tunnel shafts were started late in September, 1890. The tunnel for a length of 6700 feet was entirely com- pleted in January, 1893, and the final estimate for the contract of the main tunnel was made in March, 1893. The material excavated from the tunnel was used to fill up the lands under water acquired by the company, a small rail- road being built from shafts Nos. i and 2 for that purpose. To-day the greater part of the plant of the Niagara Falls Paper Mill stands on land which was then mostly all under the water of the Niagara River. During the summer and fall of 1S90, contour surveys of the lands and river adjoining them were made, and from these the best entrances from the river, location of the canal, wheel-pits, etc., were determined upon by the engineers. r.EOKGE Barker Burbank was the resi- dent consulting- engineer of the Cataract Construction Co. during the period co%'ering probably the most important part of the work, and later was chief engineer. His article here embraces the first official state- ment ever made regarding it. f ( jrftj jiKi. fJUfc /fc £Sb !•■«» a^' re L . fti f CL. r LLl; ^ U f' I I 'ru tin* ^ai iK 1, LiL f- tijj |- III M k2i hii & ~\\[ h ■^ 4 * ^ * THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE NIAGARA WHEEL-PIT AND CANAL. TUNNEL, By (;i-orge B. Biirbau/:. jreiii. .-liii. Sof. C. E. IN the latter part of May, 1891, the writer was called upon by the Cataract Construction Company to examine and report as to the necessity of lining" the main tunnel of the Niagara Falls Power Company at Niagara Falls. At that time, under the direction of Resident Engineer Albert H. Porter, the shafts had been sunk to the tunnel le\'el, and headings had been driven for 50 to 75 feet from the shafts. In these headings the material to be encountered while driving' the tunnel was fully developed. An argillaceous shale was found which, upon exposure to the air, crumbled awav, necessitating prompt suijport with timlicr to a\'oid serious lalls from the roof After an extended examination of all the work- ings, it became clearly evident to me that lining with brick throughout was an absolute necessity, and that timbering would also be required for the entire length of the timnel, with the possible exception oi a distance of about 800 feet where a ledge of limestone, eight feet in thickness, could be utilized for the roof My report was rendered in accord- ance with these findings, and the sub- sequent construction iully confirmed the correctness of the recommendations. After making- this report, and assisting in the remodeling of the construction contracts, I was invited to supervise the work, as resident consulting engineer, and, resigning my connection with the New York Aqueduct, I became estab- lished in th;it capacitv at Niagara Falls early in the morith of June. Upon the completion of the tunnel to the 6700- foot station, in January, 1893, I became chief engineer of the work, and of the companies allied to the Cataract Con- 214 CA SSJEJ? ' S MA GAZINE. THE NIAGARA TUNNEL, WHEEL-PIT AND CANAL. 215 sti'uction Company, and continued in that capacity until the completion of con- struction in 1S94. After the decision in regard to lining was made, the tun- nel work was vigorously prosecuted by the contractors, until its completion, under the special supervision of Resi- dent Engineer Porter and Division Engineer Mr. William S. Humbert. The tunnel is lined throughout with exclusively for mortar in laying brick and stone masonry in the tunnel and wheel-pit. The composition of the mortar generally used was one part cement to three parts sand, but at the shafts and the wheel-pit, where the flow of water was very strong, the propor- tion was changed to one to two, and in some cases one to one. This bricking commenced in March, 1S92, and fol- ONE OF THE C.^N.^L INLETS ,\T AX E.^RLV ST.iGE. at least four rings of the best hard-burned brick, making a solid brick wall sixteen inches in thickness. At points where, from the nature of the material through which the tunnel was driven, it was thought possible that greater strength might be required, the thickness was increased to si.x and even eight rings. The upper or face ring of the invert was laid with the best quality of vitrified paving brick. All spaces between the brick work and sides or roof of the tun- nel were filled with rubble masonry. American Portland cement was used lowed the work of excavating as closely as was consistent with safety. A very satisfactory method of lining the arch was adopted. The main feature was the construction of a platform about ten feet above the invert after the side walls were laid to as high a point as was convenient for the handling of brick and mortar. On this platform tracks were laid, and the brick and mortar were hauled to their destination, a separate landing being made in the shafts at the proper elevation. The great advantage of this system consisted in enabling the contractors to carry on the work of ex- 2l6 CA SSIEJi ' S HI A GA ZINE. LO^VERI^'(J A PliXSTOCK IXTii THE WHEEL-PIT. ca\'ating and of lining at the same time, without the possibihty that the outg'oing cars, loaded with material excavated in driving the tunnel, could interfere with cars coming in, loaded with brick and mortar, the brick work, at times, being- carried on within less than loo feet of the face of bench excavation in the tunnel. At the portal it was decided to drop the grade of the invert about eleven feet below the average low water of the ri\-er thus permitting fully one-half the flow from the tunnel to discharge below the surface. To this end, the grade was changed into an ogee commencing at a point 90 feet from the portal, dropping nearly eleven feet in that distance. This portion of the tunnel, to the ele- vation of the spring line, was lined with steel boiler plate, ri\'eted to steel ribs three to four feet in depth, ^\■hich were bedded solidly in Portland cement con- crete, the arch being turned with brick except for 25 feet at the portal, where the construction \\'as granite masonry. The masonry for this facade was carried solidly to a depth of 38 feet Ijelow the surface of water, when a ledge of white sandstone was struck, which was entirely satisfactory for a foundation. The first contract was with Messrs. Rodgers & Clement, of New York City, for 6700 feet of tunnel with two main shafts and a smaller shaft at the bluff ne;ir the portal. This contract was com- pleted in January, 1893. On January 5, 1892, a contract was made with A. C. Douglas, of Niagara Falls, for an extension of the main tunnel 300 feet further, making a total length of 7000 feet in main tunnel ; for a timnel con- nection of same size to the wheel-pit, and for the wheel-pit, and f;ir a short tunnel, circular in shape and ten feet in diameter, pro\-iding for a possible de- \-elopment of Lands owned by the com- pany ijn the north side of the tunnel. The «-heel-pit, which is really an elongated shaft, is an uncommon feature in construction, particularly in its magni- tude. The dimensions are : Length, 140 feet; width, 18 feet; depth, 178 feet. This pit is lined on the bottom with 16 inches of brick, the top course being of best cjuality pa\-ing brick, and THE NIAGARA TUNNEL, WHEEL-PIT AND CANAL. on the sides, to the height ot^ 30 ieet above the invert, with from two to two and a half feet of solid brick masonry. This wall is capped with a sinoie course of limestone, two and one-hali ieet in thickness, on. which the girders, A^eigh- ing about t\veut)'-five tons, are placed. These carry the weight of the penstocks and turbines, of 5000 horse-power each. It is intended ultimately to extend this wheel-pit to a length of about 400 feet. The masonry construction ot special interest is at the connections Ijetween the main tunnel and the side tunnels, and at the portal or place of discharge into the lower river. First in importance is the connection between two horseshoe arches, each 21 feet high and 18 feet 10 inches ^\■ide at the spring line, at an angle of 60 degrees ; and second, the connection between a circular arch 10 feet in diameter and the horseshoe arch, also at an angle of fSo degrees. All de- signs and details for the connections were prepared by INIr. George F. Simjj- son, the chief d'rauo-htsman in this de- TlIK MOt'TH fn- THE TUNXKI. DrRINl, CONSTRUCTION. 2lS CASSIEJ?'S MAGAZINE. partment of the work. The Brandy- wine Granite Company, of Wihning- ton, Del. , furnished all granite in this construction, cut into shape and to the dimensions required. The arches for the connection with the tunnel were laid by the contractor under the direct supervision of Mr. J. G. Tait, assistant engineer, who iound all preparatory work so accurately done that practically no difficulties were encountered, except such mechanical ones as would naturally with two lines of crib-work filled with stone, the outer one 12 feet in width, the inner one 10 feet in width, with an intervening space of 8 feet, which was carefully lined on each side with sheet piling. After the piling was completed, the loose and sandy material was re- moved to a hard clay bottom by the use of a centrifugal pump, and the space was then filled with clay which was dumped into the water and worked as much as possible. This dam was prac- A PROGRESS VIEW OF THE CAN.AL. be expected in constructing arches of that massive character in tunnels, allow- ing an average clearance not exceeding one foot. In August, 1S91, work had been commenced, with a company force under the direct management of myself, on the main and inlet canals. The mouth of the canal is 600 feet from the shore line, necessitating the construction of em- bankments on each side for that distance into the ri\'er. After these embank- ments had been e.x;tended to the proper places, a coffer dam, 450 feet in length, was thrown across the mouth and con- nected with the ends of these embank- ments. This cotter dam was constructed tically water-tight and remained in per- fect condition until removed in the spring of 1894. One leak, which gave trouble for several hours, was due to an imperfect connection with the side dump from the shore at the east end of the dam. No delay in the work of excavation or of laying masonry was, however, ex- perienced from this cause. The side walls of the canal are of solid masonry, 17 feet high, 3 feet thick at the top and about 8 feet at base. This work was laid in ordinary American cement mortar, composed of one part of cement and two parts of sand. The excavation and masonry were carried on simultaneousl)-, and the canal was THE NIAGARA TUNNEL, WHEEL-PIT AND CANAL. 219 ANOTHER I^ARLY X IV.W OF THE TUXXF,L S INIOUTH CA SS/EJi ' S MA GAZINE. THE NIAGARA TUNNEL, WHEEL- PIT AND CANAL. 221 CASS/£R'S MAGAZINE. completed in October, 1S92. The canal carries cwelve feet depth of water at the ordinary low stage of the river. During the year 1892-93, the Niagara yunction Railway was constructed, its rails are laid, making connection with the traffic of the Great Lakes. By this railway, materials and freights are received from, and delivered to, all the manufacturing sites which this develop- GETTING READY FOR THE TURBINES. which runs through the entire length of the property owned by the various cor- porations allied in interest. This rail- way connects with all the trunk lines, and extensive docks have been con- structed on the Niagara River, on which ment opens to the public. During the same time a new water-works plant was established with a capacity of 6,000,000 gallons per day, the water being taken from the Niagara River one mile above the falls. THE NIAGARA TUNNEL, WHEEL-PIT AND CANAL. 223 A LATKRAL TUNNEL JUNCTION. -4 CA SS/£jY 'S mag a ZINE. Accommodations h;u-e also been pro- A'ided lor operath'es, bv the erection of 50 handsome and convenient cottages, with fine macadam streets, a complete system of drainage and sewerage, with disposal works and unlimited water sup- ply. Of this work, as well as of the water-works and railway construction, Division Engineer Mr. William A. Brackenridge was in special charge. A handsome power house has been completed oyer the wheel-pit, alter de- signs by Messrs. McKim, Mead & White, of New York City, the contrac- tors being Messrs. James Stewart & Co. , of St. Louis and Buffalo. Theoutersur- face is of limestone, and the inner, for a height of six feet from the flr,or, is of en- ameled brick, and abo\'e that of ordi- nary brick, coated with "white enamel jKiint. In this building, ^\■hichis 200 feet in length, a 50-ton traveling crane trans- ferred the machinery for the turbines h'om the cars to their location in the wheel-pit. The greatest number of men employed at any one time was about 2500. In the construction 600,000 t(jns of material were removed, and there were used 16,000,000 bricks, 19,000,000 feet of timber and lumber, 60,000 cubic yards of stone, 55,000 barrels of Giant American Portland cement, 12,000 barrels of natural ce- ment and 26,000 cubic yards of sand. saS ^»^ ^«^ Clemens Hekschel was con^iilting hy- draulic engineer of the Cataract Construction Company during tht period of construction. NIAGARA MILL SITES, WATER CONNECTIONS AND . TURBINES. By Clonens Hcrscliel, Hydraulic Engineer. ONE of the present series of articles must evidently treat of the power producing plant, and its installation, — two essential elements in the series of mechanisms that convert the flow of the Niagara river over the Falls, into other forms of energy, — finally represented by a revolving shaft in the factory, by the speeding car in the street, or by other of its manifold forms of utility. It is this part of the description of the manner of utilizing Niagara Falls that is to fall to the lot of the present article. The standard American method of utilizing a large amount oi water-power, has hitherto been, to distribute the water to the several consumers, or mill- owners, by means of a system of head- races, so-called, with facilities for its discharge at a lower level, to be utilized as the owner or lessee saw fit, and gen- erally on his own premises. This led to long head-canals, and to insignificant tail-races, whereas, as we shall presently see, the Niagara plant consists of a common tail-race, a mile and a half long, with comparatively insignificant head-races. The old-time water-power company sold or leased the right to draw 228 CASSJER'S MAGAZINE. NIAGARA MILL SITLS AND TURBINES. 229 a definite quantitv of water, at defined times, witli the privileo'C of discharging it at a lower le\'el, and the mill-owner did the rest; whereas, at Niagara Falls, the right is leased to discharge a defi- nite quantit\' of \\'ater into the tail-race tunnel, with the privilege of drawing this quantitv from the head-canal, or from the ri\-er. But over and above this the product, — power, — may be contracted for at Niagara Falls, de- livered on the shaft. To create a large group of mill-sites of the older sort, there was necessary, in the first instance, a large continuous body of land, properly located for the purpose. If this could not be bought up secretly, and in large blocks, the whole water-po«'er enterprise would fail to come to fruition. In Europe, however, several such enterprises came into being in spite of the inability ot the projectors to primarily buy tracts of land such as have been described. This was done by establishing central power stations near the dam, or head canal, and then transmitting the power produced, instead of the water to pro- duce it, to the consumers, or mill-own- ers. Up to within say five years, this had always been accomplished bv means of wire-rope transmissions of power, and it is easy to see that the in- vention of the electrical transmission of power would gi\'e this form of the utilization ol a large water-power a great impetus. Many such plants are, therefore, already in existence, many are building, but among them all, no one is probably so celeljrated, and is at- tracting the attention of all intelligent men as this at Niagara Falls. The work at Niagara Falls is designed to be utilized in Isoth of the methods above described, and examples of both methods of distributing power are built. The plant of the Niagara Falls Paper Company is an example of the first and older method of power utilization, while the Central Power Station of the Ni- agara Falls Power Company is the grandest example )'et vmdertaken ijf the second described, and the later method of power distribution. The Niagara Falls Power Company also owns some 1200 acres (if land adjoining the Cen- tral Power Station and the present head canal, all of which can be utilized for the sites of manufacturing establish- ments by one or the other of the meth- ods descrilsed. This has been laid out in streets and blocks, with a freight rail- road, to be spoken of presently, con- necting the mill sites with all the trunk lines that pass Niagara Falls, and adjoins the residential district being develo|)ed by the Niagara Develop- ment Company, whose first fruits are the village called Echota, and the ad- joining wharf and other property. But over and beyond all this, a transmission of power to Buffalo, only 20 miles ofl^, and possibly still further, Is within the scope and design of the Central Power Station now building'. It is interesting to find how the work of to-day was dreamt of in 1876. In that year the late Sir William Siemens came to America to see the Centennial exhibition. Proceeding to Niagara Falls, he was struck with its capabilities as a power-producing centre, and car- ried out what was probably the first computation ever made of the cost of distributing power from Niagara Falls to the country around it by electricity. In the " Life of Sir William Siemens," by William Pole, this subject is treated at length, and the following quotation from it may be interesting in this place: " When such a machine as a dynamo was once brought into existence, it was sure to be taken acK'antage of for other applications of powerful electric energy. * * '■'•- It is necessary here to allude to one remarkable case which was among the earliest to which Dr. Sie- mens ga\'e his attention. In this the electric current is used, not for action of its own, but merely as a \'ehicle for the transmission of power ; just as a boat on a ri\-er, or a wagon on a railway is used to transport some valuable com- modit\' for use at a distant place. The power of horses, or of a water-fall, or of a steam engine, is appliei-1 in a dy- namo to excite a current ; that current is passed along a wire, and will, by the aid of another dynamo at the other end of the wire, reproduce the power (or a CA SS/£Ji ' S MA GA ZINE. NIAGARA DfILL SITES AND TURBINES. 231 portion of it) in a far distant locality. " This use of electricity formed a favorite study for Dr. Siemens, and it seems to have first strongly impressed itself on his mind when, in the autumn of 1876, he went to America and\'isited Niagara Falls. In all his many jour- neys in diftereiit countries nothing made such a deep impression on him as this energy. And he at once began to speculate whether it was absolutely nec- essary that the whole of this glorious magnitude of power should be wasted in dashing itself into the chasm below — whether it was not possible that at least some might be practically utilized for the benefit of mankind ? ' ' He had not long- to think before a ^ IN Tin: ^lAIX TUNNEL. A\onderful natural phenomenon. The stupendous rush of waters filled him with fear and admiration, as it does every one who comes within the sound of its mighty roar. But he saw in it something far beyond what was ob\'ious to the multitude, for his scientific nfind could not help ^'iewing it as an inex- pressible manifestation of mech.anical possible means of doing this presented itself to him. The dynamo machine had just then been brought to perfec- tion, partly by his r)wn labors ; and he asked himself, why should nut this colossal power actuate a colossal series of dynamos, whose conducting wires might transmit its activity to places miles away? This P'reat idea, furmed CASS/£/?'S MAGAZINE. amid the thunderings of the cataract, accompanied him all tlie way home, and was meditated on in the quiet of his study. He submitted it to the test of matliematical calculation, and so iar convinced himself of its reasonable na- ture, that he determined, when a fitting- occasion arrived, to make it known. ' ' The opportunitv arrived in the spring of 1S77, when he had to give an opening address as president of the Iron and Steel Institute. In that ad- dress he had to point out the dependence of the iron and steel manufacture on coal as a fuel. He alluded to the grad- ual diminution of the stores in the earth of this \'aluable commodity,', owing to the ^'ast consumption of it for steam- power, and he urged that other natural THE (VEXERAL I'0^\■ER PLAN. sources of force, such as water and wind, ought to be made more use of. And speaking of water- jiower, he made the following remarks : ' ' ' The acK'antage of utilizing- water- power applies, however, chieflv to Con- tinental countries, with large cle\-ated plateaus, such as Sweden ,-'nd the United States of America, and it is in- teresting to cnnteiTiplate the magnitude of power whii:h is j-iow icir the most part lost, but which mav l:>e, sooner or later, called into requisition. Take the Falls of Niagara as a fimiliar ex- ample. The amount of water passing o\'er this fall has been estimated at 100,000,000 of tons per hour, and its perpendicular descent may lie taken at 150 feet, without counting tlic rapids, which represent a further fill rif 150 ieet, making a total of ^00 f .et between lake and lake. But the force repre- sented by the principal fall alone amounts to 16,800,000 horse-power,* an amount which, if it had to be produced by steam, would necessitate an expenditure of not less than 266,000,000 tons of coal per annum, taking the consump- tion of coal at 4 pounds per horse- power per hour. In other words, all the coal raised throughout the world would barely suffice to produce the amount of power that continuallv runs to waste at this one great fall. " ' It would notbe difircult, indeed, to realize a large portion of the power so wasted, by means of turbines and water- wheels erected on the shores of the deep river below the falls, supplying them from races out along the edges. But it would be impossible to utilize the power on the spot, the district being devoid of mineral wealth, or other nat- ural inducements for the establishment of factories. In order to render available the force of falling water at this and hundreds of other places similarly situated, we must devise a practicable means of transporting the power. Sir William Armstrong has taught us how to carry and utilize water at a distance, if conveyed through high-pressure mains, and compressed air has been employed for the same purpose. At SchafThausen, in Switzerland, as well as at some other places on the Continent, power is con- veyed by means of quick-workmg steel ropes passing o\'er large pullevs ; bv these means it n-iav be carried to a dis- tance of one or two miles without diffi- culty. ' ' ' As regards electrical transmission, suppose water-power be cmplo\'ed to gi\'e motion to a dynamo-electrical ma- chine, a ^■ery powerful electrical current will be the result, which may be carried to a great distance, through a large me- • The gaufim^s ot the United States s-ovei-nmeiit engmeers give an averase discharge of about 275 onr, cubic feet per .second, which, witli a fall of 216 feet —the difference of elevation between the water above the rapids and that of the lower river— gi\'es a total of 6,75.i,,j.,o theoretical H.-P._The Editor. NIAGARA MILL SITES AND TURBINES. 233 234 CA SS//£J^ ' ^ JA4 GA ZINE. si.ciiox OK ■\\tii;i:l ,\ni.' (_vo\'i:;i-: n<")K. ih;sh..xei> v.\ r,sciii-:K, w'lSs .^ co. NIAGARA MILL SITES AND TURBINES. 235 tallic conductor, and then be made to impart motion to electro-magnetic en- gines, to ignite the carbon points of elec- tric lamps, cir to effect the separation of metals from their combinations. A copper rod, three inches in diameter, would be capable of transmitting looo horse-power a distance of, say, thirty miles, an amount sufficient to supply one-quarter of a million candle-power, which would suffice to illuminate a moderatel)^ sized town.' This state- ment startled the audience considerably ; and other such bridges are already talked of Railroad freight rates are in competition with each other, and "with lake and canal rates, and are to-day no greater from Niagara Falls to New York and to Boston, than they are from the established manufacturing- centres of the East to these cities, while they are, on the other hand, very materiall)' less from Niagara Falls to the great cities of the West, Southwest and South than they are from these same older manu- facturing centres. The present fa\'or- PICCTIOX '.IV i-:sCTiF.R, wvss .'; en, s wiTy:F.r,. and it is still remembered that, A\"hen il was delivered, a smile oi incredulity was obserA'ecl to play o\'cr the features ol many of his hearers," One of the neatest and most \-aluable attributes of the Niagara Falls Power Companj-'s mill sites is the road of the Niagara Jvmction Railway Company. Niagara Falls is already, or is destined to be, one of the great railroad centres of the United .States. Two railroad brid,ges cross the ri\x'r there, each used bv several Fast and AA'est trunk lines. aljle Cduditiijus w'xA firing more manu- facturing into the Butialu and Niagara Falls district, and, as such tilings always operate, will also bring in still other trunk lines of railrr)ad. It is for the ]")urpose of enabling the occu])ant of any mill-site of the Niagara Falls Power ComjiauA' to receive cars .shipped to him by any line of railroad entering the Buffalo-Niagara Falls dis- trict, and of dclix'ering cars directU' to aUA' sucli railroad, tliat the Niagara junctiiin Raihva\' ConiiKuu' was organ- 236 GASSIER ' S MA GAZINE. NIAGARA MILL SITES AND TURBINES. 237 ^?,s CASS/E-R ' S MA GAZINE. ized and the rcuid built. It is an allied enterprise of the Niagara Falls Power Company and willdo no little in further- ing the growth and business of the new city, benefiting, in turn, all the trunk lines that do now or \\'ill, e^-entually, traverse the Niagara Falls neck ot land between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. Lake transportation, and transportation on the Erie Canal are, howe\-er, also available to the occupants of these mill- sites. ]\Liny of them front directly on the Niagara river, where it is na\'iga- ble, and none of them are any great distance from it. It will not be necessary to say much more on the subject of water connec- tions at the Niagara mill-sites. The Niagara Falls Paper Company has a square wheel-pit, which is connected with the main tunnel tail-race by a branch tail-race, 7 feet in diameter. All dimensions of underground work are GJ.;rs'ERAL ELEVATION OF 1" V]:SeM .V I'lCC.lRD kept as small as ])ossible at Niagara Falls, to economize rock excavation, as, for example, the branch tail-race just mentioned. Fall being a commodity of less than the usual value on these mill- sites, it is economy to spend some of it toward reducing cross sections. This produces high velocities, but the tail- races are built of first-class materials. NIAGARA M/LL S/r/:S AND TLRB/iYES. 239 RIVETING UP THi; PEXSTOCK OF THE NIAGARA FALLS PAPER COMPANY S PLANT. 340 CA SS/EJ? ' S MA GA ZINE. NIAGARA MILL SITES AND lURBINES. 241 and are set in a rock exca- vation. The water used carries no sand, and experi- ence has already shown that the taih-aces Hne them- selves with a la)'er of slime in spite of the great velocity in them. So long as this slime adheres to the brick and to the cement joints, there can evidently be no wear of the brick masonry lining. The wheel-pit of the Nia- gara Falls Power Company is a long slot cut in the rock, instead of a group of small wheel-pits, and to save ex- cavation, though at the cost of some fall wasted, the wheels are set on plate- girder bridges spanning the slot, and so as to leave a tail-race beneath the plate girders. This tailrace, or bottom of the slot, is con- nected by a short cur\'e with the main tail-race tunnel. The fashionable turbine of the present day, in the United States, is, no doubt, the twin turbine, with hori- zontal axis, this axis pro- jecting from the wheel case, at one or both ends, and either driving its attached machine directly, or carry- ing a pulley, to belt from. Several attempts were made to fit this general form of moti\'e power for the case in hand. These all failed from the great space re- quired for the belts or drive- ropes, which, in this case, would have had to be gained at the price of a material increase in the amount of rock excavation. Not to transmit the power to the surface of the ground and to attach the machinery underground, brings with it the necessity of excavated chambers 140 feet below 6-3 THE MOUTH OF THE TUNNEL, 242 CASSIEJi'S MAGAZINE. ONE OF THE NIAGARA POWER COMPANY S 5OOO HORSE-POWKR TURBINKS DESIGNED BY FAESCTI & PICCAKD, GENEVA, SWITZERLAND. BUILT BY THE I. P. MORRIS CO., PHILADELPHI.A, P.A., U. S. A the surface, liable to be damp, or wet, and requiring constant artificial light ; in short, forming a likewise undesir- able arrangemer.t. These considera- tions led, therefore, in the case of the Central Power Station of the Niagara Falls Power Company, to wheels W'ith vertical shafts, and, as has been de- scribed, to rows of such wheels, set in a continuous slot, directly over the appurtenant tail-race ; and to a group of such wheels, set in a square pit, for the Niagara Falls Paper Company. Considerations of economy in regard to rock excavation per horse-power de- veloped, led to large quantities of power per wheel; actually, to some iioo horse-power per wheel in the case of the Paper Company, and to 5000 horse- power per wheel in the case of the Cen- tral Power Station. The very idea of a central power station serves, by the way, to meet considerations of economy cessity of constructing wheel-pits to supply only small powers. When such small blocks of power are wanted, they will be furnished as parts of a larger plant, by transmitted power, as it would not pay to sink a wheel-pit for them alone. We may say, in round figures, that blocks of between 500 and 1000 horse-power will probably, and of less than 500 horse-power will certainly, be furnished on these mill-sites by trans- mitted power, and the Niagara Falls Power Company is preparing to trans- mit and distribute such power by elec- tricity. Given, then, turbines with vertical shafts of 5000 horse-power, on about 140 feet of fall, and a prescribed num- ber of revolutions per minute, it follows that American wheel builders arc not accustomed, or their shops not fitted, to supply such wheels. The turbine wheel business in the United States is NIAGARA MILL SITES AND TURBINES. 243 mtirely different from the way the lame business is carried on in Europe. kVhile wheels built to order are the exception in this country, they are all 3Ut the invariable rule in Europe ; and, A'hile American builders have, ordinar- ly, stocks of wheels on hand and turn ;hem out as they would shelf-hardware, ,vheels built in that way in Europe ,vould there prove entirely unsal- ible. American wheels are nostlv of a complex nature, as •egards the action of the water 3n the buckets of the wheels, md have been perfected in efficiency by test, or, as it has rreverently been called, by the "cut and try" method of pro- ;edure. A wheel would be built Dn the inspiration of the inventor, :hen tested in a testing flume, ;hanged in a certain part, and ■etested until no further change n that particular could effect an mprovement ; another part would ;hen undergo the same process >f reaching perfection, and thus, n course of time, the whole ,vheel would be brought up to ;he desired high standard of efficiency. European wheels, on the other land, are mostly of the standard dmple action kinds, and have )een perfected mainly by learned ;omputations of forms of guides ind buckets. Most American )uilders also shun high falls, and n their work, turned out in quan- ity, aim to suit only the ordinary leights of fall. The one speci; ligh fall wheel built in the United kates, the Pelton wheel, has I horizontal axis. To use it in a vertical axis, and with the Qultiplicity of nozzles recjuired ar producing 5000 horse-power t Niagara, would constitute practi- :ally a new wheel. Swiss and other European wheel builders were, there- Dre, early in the field with designs ar producing 5000 horse-power under , 140-foot fall, and having any de- ired number of revolutions per min- ite, which with their constant practice in building wheels to order, was, to them, only a case to be met, like most any other. The luiropean designs all appreciated the dilffculty of construct- ing a step, or bearings, that would sus- tain the great weight of a column of water 140 feet high, added to the weight oi the shaft itself, and e^■en of SECTIi.iN 01' THE TURBINE. the armature of a dynamo set on top of the shait. To meet this requirement of construction some designed oil or water bearings along the line of the shafts ; some designed hollow shafts, with an oil bearing on top of a column, ending near the top of the wheel, — the so-called Fontaine step ; others de- 244 CASS/£J?'S MAGAZINE. VERTICAL SECTION THROUGH LOWER ^VHEEL. ont; of the shaft bearings. NIAGARA MILL SITES AND TURBINES. 245 signed a \A-ater piston bearing : others hit upon the idea of having twin wheels set, the one larger in diameter and A'erticalh' o\'er the other, and thus neutralizing the weight ot the column ol water acting on the wheels ; and. be either of tlie h'ourneyron, in America often called Boyden, type, or else Jonval wheels. The 1 100 horse-power turbines ordered by the Niagara Falls Paper Company are of the Jonval type, designed and built b\- R. D. Wood & )I'' TIT1-: TlRlilNi; CASTLXl.B. finally, we ha\'e also a combination of certain of these methods of bearing, safely, the great weight on the revoh'- ing parts that supjiort the wheel and the weights upon the shaft. The wheels themselves, it is agreed among European turbine builders, must C("j., of Philadelphia, under the direc- tion of the \'eteran Jonval wheel builder in the United .States, Mr. E. Geyelin, and are very much like the Jonval wheels described l)elow as submitted to the Niagara Falls Power Company by Escher, Wyss *.\: Co., of Zurich, 246 CASSIER'S MAGAZINE. ^jEN1-:RAL ki.evation. fakscti .^ piccard dksion. Switzerland, but omitting tlie upper of the twin wheels. The three wheels now set and com- pleted for the Niagara Falls Power Company were designed by Faesch & Piccard, of Geneva, Switzerland, and were built under contract with the L P. Morris Company of Philadelphia. They consist of t«-o Fourneyron tur- tically over the other, so as to neutral- ize weight on the step or bearing. Each of these twin wheels is, moreover, made three stories high or deep, and the speed-gate consists of a cylindrical rim, moving up and down on the out- side of each wheel. To further neutral- ize weight on the upper bearing of the shaft, the water from the penstock is NIAGARA 1\I1LL SITES AND TURBINES. 247 upper guide-wheels, and to act vertic- ally upward upon the disc of the upper turbine wheel. The disc of the lower g"uide-wheel is, on the other hand, solid, and the weight of water upon it is supported by three inclined rods passing through it and the wheel casing. These wheels will discharge 430 cubic feet per second, and, acting under 136 feet of fall from the surface of the upper water to the centre between the upper and lower wheels, will make 250 revolu- tions per minute ; at 75 per cent, effi ciency they will give 5000 horse-power. gate. The turbine wheels are made of bronze, the rim and buckets forming a single casting. The shaft is a steel tube, 38 inches in diameter, except at SKCTION OF GOVERNOR. FAHSCH ^: PICC.4,Rrj DliSlGN. The guide-wheel has 36 buckets ; the turbine-wheel, 32. These buckets are thickened in the middle, this being the most approved form of bucket, especially useful when the wheel is acting' at part points where it passes the journal bear- ings or guides, at which it is 1 1 inches in diameter and solid. A heavy fly- wheel was originally designed to be mounted on this shaft, to enable the governor the better to control the speed ot the wheel, but has been re- placed by the revolving field of the dynamo. This fly-wheel was to have been 14^2 feet in diameter, to have weic'hed 10 tons, and was to have been 248 CASS/£J?'S MAGAZINE. NIAGARA MILL SLFES AND TU KB INKS. 249 made of kirged iron. It was ilesignod for a circumferential speed of 11,400 feet per minute. Tlie speed-gates of the wheels are plain circular rims, -which throttle the discharge on the outside of the wheels. This makes a balanced g'ate, easy of m(_ition. Together with the gri\'- ernor shown and the fly- wheel, it is warranted by the makers to keep the speed constant within two per cent, under ordinary conditions ot operation. and not to allow it to vary more than four per cent, should the work done be suddenly in- creased or diminished by 25 per cent. To shut the wheel douai tight, reli- ance is had upon the headgates leading to the penstock. At the ujiper end of the main shaft is a thrust Ijearmg, likewise shown in the drawings, to take up jM'essure along the shaft, in either direction — upward or downward. This pres- sure will, naturally, \-ary with the speed of the wheel, among other causes ; hence a thrust bearing, thus o[ierati\e in either vertical direc- tion, is a necessit)'. A system of \^"ater conling is pro\'ided for this upper thrust bearing-. The plans of Escher, Wyss & Co. show twin Jonval wheels, but having their discharge from out of the wheel case in a horizontal direction : hence, capable of being governed, and actually g(-jverned, by a speed-gate of very much the same construction as that already described in the case of the Faesch & Piccard wheel. There is a post or column passing up through the wheel from the bottom of the wheel case, and an ordinary Fontaine oil-bearing near the upper limit of the case. These wheels, as drawn, are submerged, and they discharge sideways from the slot in which they are to be set, instead of having the tail-race forn-ietl at the bot- tom of the slot and directly tmder the row of wheels set on beams spanning PENSTOeK CONNi:CTrON WITH Tr'RlJINI-:. the slot, as is the case for the turbines now erected. By placing the g-o\'ernor near tlie le\-el of the water in the tail- race, water fron-i the penstock is ob- tained imder presstu'c, and the governor can be, and is, designed to be operated by hydraulic power. In an article by the present writer, prepared several years ago, it was shown that L<:iwell, La\\-rence and Holyoke, Mass., combined, liail onlv one-fifth the liorse-fiower now hieing developed by 250 CASS/ER'S MAGAZINE. the works of the Niagara Falls Power Company ; that these cities had grown to ha\'e a population of about 150,000 people in 45 years, essentially by reason of having some 20,000 horse-power of water-pow'-er to keep their inhabitants in employment ; that Niagara Falls is more favorably situated as regards freight rates to the rest of the United States than these cities are : and that it wotild, therefore, not be a rash pre- diction that the now existing (then future) city of Niagara Falls would have a milHon inhabitants in 50 years. This sentence, the ever active real es- tate boomer turned to his own uses, though to the discredit of its quoted author, by writing ' ' in a few years, ' ' instead of 50 years. But such as it ■\A'as then written, the author still sub- scribes to. With a park on both sides of the river, that has restored and will forever preser\'e the natural beauties of Ni- agara Falls to succeeding generations ; with a power development, likewise, on both sides of the river, that has been designed with full regard had to the preservation of all of these wonderful natural beauties : with constant power deli\'ered at home and to the surround- ing country, at rates ne\'er before of- fered so fa\'orable ; the future develop- ment of the Buffalo-Niagara Falls dis- trict, as a manufacturing centre, no less than as a place of residence, cannot fail to be one of the marvels of the fast approaching twentieth century. T.il-: TAESCIl .V I'ICCARD t ;.u\-]:RXrirR IX PLACK. L. B. Stillwell is tlie electrical engiueer and assistant manafjer of the Westinghouse Electric and llauufacturiiig Company, and had under supervision the entire installation of electrical apparatus at Niagara Falls. ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION AT NIAGARA. Bv Ll-cIs Biicklcv Slilhrcll, E/rt/ri,u/ E, tii'j-nicer. ELECTRICITY as an agent (or transmitting and distributing power has recei\'ed its most weighty endorse- ment in its adoption by the Cataract Construction Company, of New York, for their great project at Niagara. No enterprise of modern times, in\'olving special and extraordinary engineering problems, has been more carefully, more patiently, more systemati- cally or more intelligently studied than has the utili- zation of this, the greatest water power in tlie world. The officers and directors of the company, controll- ing financial means ample for their pur- pose, have, for five years, energetically and persistently endea\'ored to avail themselves of the best resources of modern engineering science. Confront- ing a problem without precedent in its magnitude, and almost without parallel in its significance, they have attacked it with energy and ability of the highest order, studied it with keen insight and sound judgment and, in solving it with success, have contributed a chapter of rare interest and meaning to the history of industrial progress. The utilization of Niagara for indus- trial purposes imposes upon those un- dertaking it a responsibility far beyond that which is measured by the capital invested. Science is cosmopolitan; she recognizes no boundary of race or na- tion; and engineering science of the twentieth century, in passing iudgment upon the methods and apparatus em- ployed, while not failing to take into consideration the difficulties and limita- tions imposed bv the boundaries of our ]5resent knowledge, will allow no excuse for failure to find out and use the best means known to our age. It is, therefore, a source of profound gratification that, from the outstart, the policy of the company has been characterized by a breadth of view com- mensurate with the far-reaching import- ance of the enterprise. The directors ha\'e allowed no local or e\'en national prejudice to bias their judgment. They early threw the lists wide open and in the original competition which they in- auguratetl, the international commission passed upon no less than twenty-two plans co\'ering practically the whole known range of electric, hydraulic and pneumatic distribution of power, and originating irom places as far East as the city of Buda-Pesth, and as far West as San Erancisco. It must be gratifying to Americans that under these conditions a system tle\'eloped by an American company has been adopted, but for the recent rapid advancement in engineering science which has made this work possi- ble, America is in no position to claim exclusive credit, if she would. In the |jlans for the h^-draulic plant, Switzer- land, the land of water powers, shows the way, while in the design of the great electric generators, the most powerful as yet produced, ( rreat Britain is represented directly in the excellent general form of construction adopted, which was proposed by Prof Geo. Eorbes, and indirectly in the work of Ilopkinson, Kapp, Thompson, Mordey, and others, whose careful study of the principles underlying the construction of electrical machinery has done much to make it possible to design a machine so far beyond the range of actual ex- perience, in full confidence tliat the results ]iredicted from theor\' would 2.53 254 GASSIER' S MAGAZINE. ELECTRIC PiUVER AT XJAGARA. 255 be realized in practice. Perliaps no country is more largelj' or more creditably represented in the great Niagara installation than Smiijan Lika, — that sturdy little pro\'ince on the Adriatic, which has honoured itself by producing' Mr. Nicola Telsa, and were it possible to trace to its true source each one of the great number of ideas embodied in the complete installation, it is probable that we should find nearly every civilized nation represented — England, America, Switzerland, France, Germany, Italy, some in greater de- gree, some in less, but all co-operating to achieve what is, be^'ond question, one of the most significant triumphs of nineteenth century engineering skill. The problem in electrical engineering presented by the Cataract Construction Company, as defined by the organiza- - tion of the hydraulic plant in the power house and the requirements ot the pro- posed market for the power developed, maybe stated as follows: Given, 1st: — Four vertical shafts, di- rect-driven by turbines making 250 revolutions per minute and capable of delivering at the top ot each shaft from 5000 to 5500 mechanical horse-power. Additional turbines and shafts to be in- stalled as the demand for power in- creases. 2d: — A market for power, beginning just outside the walls of the power house and extending at least twenty miles (and as much further as possible), said power to be used for, ( A) general industrial purposes, such as the operation of machinery in mills and factories; (B) the operation of street railways; (Cj lightingby arc and incan- descent lights; (D) electrolytic pur- poses; (E) heating. Required: — The most reliable and efficient method and machinery lor util- izing the power for the purposes named. The system or organization of electric apparatus which was adopted is known as the Tesla Polyphase Alternating- Current System. Each generator de- livers alternating current to each of two circuits, the currents in these circuits dififering from each other in their time relation, or phase, by 90 degrees; that is to say, the current delivered to each circuit attains its maximum value at the instant when the current delivered to the other circuit is zero. The frequency is 25 cycles per second, — in other words, the direction of the current is reversed 3000 times per minute. By means of rheostats, controlling the field circuits of the generators, the potential of the current delivered is adjustable up to the limit of 2400 etfective volts. In ordi- nary service, and until transmission over great distances is undertaken, the normal potential will approximate 2100 volts, but, to compensate for the losses incident to long distance transmission, the generators may be operated at any potential not exceeding 2400 volts. The currents delivered by the gene- rators are con\'eyed through heavily in- sulated cables to the switchboard. There, by means of suitable switching devices, the engineer in charge of the station may, at will, connect any one of the generators, or any combination of the generators, to the external circuits which convey the currents from the power house to the consumers. These external circuits, known as feeder or supply circuits, passing from the switch- board, are supported upon iron brackets in a brick-lined subway within the power house, as shown in the illustration on page 286. Insulated, lead-covered cables are used, and these, leaving the subway, are continued through the bridge connecting the power house with the transformer house on the east bank of the power canal. The cables con- veying current, intended for the use of tenants of the company and other con- sumers of power within a radius of 2 or 3 miles of the power house, pass directly through the transformer house and en- ter a conduit leading to the works of those tenants who are, at present, the principal users of the power. Current intended for transmission to considerable distances, as, tor example, to Buffalo, will pass from tlie switch- board through similar lead-covered cables in the power house subway and the bridge to the transformer house. There it will enter the "step-tip" transformers, and from these current at high potential (E. G. 20,000 volts) will 256 CASS/EJi'S MAGAZINE. ELECTRIC PO W'Elx , I T X/.IC. I A'. I. 257 be delivered to the long-distance trans- mitting circuits. It has not yet been determined whether these long-distance circuits shall be overhead or under- ground. At the distant end of the cir- cuits " step-down " transformers will be employed to reduce the potential of the currents to an amount suitable for local distribution. The kind and amount of apparatus which it will be necessary to install upon Referring t(j this diagram, each of the generators A and B delivers two separate and distinct alternating cur- rents to the step-up or raising trans- formers RT, RT', RT=, and RT\ through the switchboard D. The cur- rent, delivered by the generators at 2000 volts, is transformed by the raising transformers to a high potential suitable to long-distance transmission, say 20,000 volts, and is delivered by them ONE OF THE 50OQ lIORSli-POWlCK .\R:M.-iTUREri. the premises of the users of power de- pends upon the kind of service required. In the case of large motors, the current delivered by the local distributing cir- cuits at Niagara maybe supplied to the machines without reduction of potential by transformers. In the case of smaller motors, and in the case of commutating machines used to sup]5ly direct current, step-down transformers will ordinarily be employed. The general organiza- tion of the system and character of the apparatus required for each of the prin- cipal types of service are illustrated in the diagram on the opposite page. 7-3 to the transmission circuits L, L', L; and L". At a point conveniently lo- cated with reference to the district where lights and motors are to be sup- plied a sub-station is erected. The transmission circuits enter the station and deliver their currents to the step- down or lowering transformers LT, LT', LT'', and LT', which, in turn, deliver currents at moderate potentials, suitable for local distribution. The switchboard F affords means whereby the circuits coming from the various groups ol lowering transformers may be readily transferred and inter- 2.s8 GASSIER ' ^ MA GAZINE. v.v. t,'_>\\"i:rij i:Ni:RA'roR si-iai't. changed, so that any of the transmission circuits may be used to supply any of the local distributing circuits, as may be advantageous or convenient, or all of the local circuits may be supplied with current from bus bars to which the transmission circuits of like phase are connected in parallel. In the diagram, beginning at the left of the switchboard, the first four-wire circuit is used to supply alternating cur- rent to the motor-generator or rotary transformer MG, which, in turn, de- livers direct current at 500 volts to a trolley line, from which the street car K is suijplied. The second circuit supplies the motors INI, M', M-, and M' of the two-phase, synchronous type, or of the induction type, which are adapted to general power purposes in mills, fic- ELFXTKIC J'OW'JiJ^ .//' XL\(,AK.l. 259 tories, etc. The next iour-wire circuit is divided into two two-wire circuits, and is used to suppl\' incandescent lamps through the transformers b, b', antl b". The next circuit supphes alternating- current to the motor-generator MG'', which deli\'ers tlirect current ior arc lighting purposes. The last circuit shown supplies the motor-generator iNICi', which, in turn, delivers direct current at a low potential for electrol)'tic purposes, as indicated in the vats \', V, V-, and V\ It is not intended to attempt the sup- plv of incandescent lights in general in the manner indicated in the diagram, as the frequency is rather low for that pur- pose. At 25 cycles per second a slight wavering- or variation in the intensity of the light is perceptible under certain conditions in the case of lamps ha\'ing especially thit-i filaments, such as a 10 candle-power lamp for a locj-volt cir- cuit. In loo-volt lan-i])s of greater candle-power, and in 50-volt lamps, tlie light i.s entirely satisfactory. Arc light- ing can, of course, be accon-iplished not only in the way shown in the diagram, but also by the indirect method of em- ploying polyphase motors to dri\'e arc light n-iachines of the types generally in use. The frecjuenc}- selected is in c\-er\- respect admirable for power pur|)oses, .•md was chosen in preference to a higher frequcncv because the amount of energy required for lighting from Niagara will, for n-ianv vears, and per- liaps fir all time, constitute but a coni- parati\ely small part of the energy dis- tributed. At present the only practicable way to utilize Niagara power for light- ing purposes is by substituting n-iotors for the engines now used in arc and in- candescent lighting plants in Niagara, Tonawanda, Buffalo and other cities and towns to -which the circuits n-iay be extended. AVl-ien the demand for TIIIL l'-IR.4T r; l.:Nr,R.^TnK IN rnSITlON IX Till: l'f>Wi;R IIDirSIC AT .^MA(;,\RA. 26o CASS/EJi'S MAGAZINE. A Ttip ^'Il■:^\^ ELECTRIC POWER AT NIAGARA. 261 current to be used for lighting purposes becomes sufficiently important to justify a change in the apparatus, and, per- haps, in the methods now employed for lighting the cities and towns to which the circuits may be extended, a certain number ot generators of higher Ire- quency may be installed. The drawings leproduced on this and the opposite p>iges are front and side elevations aiul a plan, showing the relation of the generator, the bed space occupied b)' tile generators, with the actual size ot the machine as shown on page 258. The height of each generator from the bottom of the bedplate to the top of the floor of the bridge is 11 ft. 6 in. The diameter of the bedplate is 14 ft., and the outside diameter of the revolving field ring is 11 ft. 7 '3 in. Each gene- rator delivers 5000 electrical horse- power, and requires about 5150 horse- power delivered through the turbine FRr.XT F.I,K\-ATinN" AXD SECTION THROT'GH F01TND.4T10N. of concrete supporting the massive cap- stone and the excellently constructed arch which spans the wheel pit. On pages 262 and 263 sections through the power house and wheel pit, reproduced from the general drawings, show the genera- tors in relation to the power house, the wheel pit and the hydraulic plant. The large scale upon which the work has been planned and carried out is graphi- cally evident upon comparison of these sections, illustrating the relatively small shaft to drive it under full load. Ex- clusi\'e of the bridge, which is simply used to give access to the brushes bear- ing upon the collecting rings at the top of the shaft, the entire machine could be placed in a room 15 ft. square and 15 ft. high. The weight of each generator is 170,000 lbs., of which about 79,000 lbs. are in the revolving element, which is made up of the shaft, the driver- to which the field ring is attached, the 26: GASSIER ' S MA GA ZINE. PARTIAL LONGITUDINAL SIvCTION OF THE rOT\'KR HOUSK ANH WI I I-:F.!,1'1T. field ring «"ith its ].iole pieces and bolj- bins, and tlie collecting rings, carried upon an extension ot the shalt above the driver. The speed at which the field re\'oh'es is normally 250 revolutions per minute, and the flv-wheel effect of the re\-ol\'ing parts of the machine, measured bv the [rounds multiplied bv feet per second squared, is 1,274,000,000. The conditions to be met in the con- struction of the generators, as deter- mined h))' the plans adopted for the hydraulic ])lant, ^\■ere such as to impose \'ery considerable diificultv upon the designers and manufacturers. These conditions were, in brief an output of 5000 electrical horse-power, a speed of 250 re^'olutions per minute, a weight in ELECTRIC POWER J I' XLK.ARA. 2 '''5 the revolving- element of the machhie not exceeding 80,000 lbs., and a fly wheel effect of the re\olving parts, measured by the pounds multiplied by feet per second squared, of not less than 1, 100,000,000. In sa\'ing that the imposition of these conditions in\olved difficulties, no re- flection upon the wisdom of the decision which imposed these conditions is in- tended. It would be, perhaps, more exact to say that the general specifica- tions laid down \\ere such as called for the highest skill in the designers and builders of the generators. The con- ditions ha\-e been met successfully, and the object which the officers of the Cataract Construction Company had in view is attained. The Niagara gene- rators represent to-day the highest state of the art of design and construction 01 electrical machinery. The construction of the generators is illustrated by the reproductions from the general drawings on pages 264 and 265. In the vertical section through tlie centre line of the shaft on jiage 264, a represents the stationary armature, secured in place by the armature sup- port AS, which, in turn, rests upon the bedplate B. One of the four terminals at which the current from the armature is delivered to the cables leading to the switchboard, is shown at T. Of course, since the armature is stationary, no ring collectors or brushes are needed. The revoh'ing part of the g'enerator consists of the shaft S, carr}'ing the driver D, the field ring V\<, the steel pole pieces P, the field bobbins FB (each bobbin surrounding a pole piece), and the collector C, by means of which the current delivered from the exciters to the brush holders b, b' , is conveyed to the field bobbins. In the horizontal .■-eetion through the armature and field, a is the armature, FR the field ring;, P, P', etc, are the pole pieces and B, B', etc., the field bobbins. The clear- ance between the armature and the held poles is one inch. The power house is equipfied with a 50-ton electric crane, built by Messrs. Wm. Sellers & Co., of Philadelphia, which is of ample strength to handle ^\■JI]■:^:Lpn^ any part of the electric or hydraulic machinery, and by means of this the revolving parts of the machines may be removed \\hen necessary. In doing this the collecting rings near the top of the shaft are first removed, and the bridge is taken out of the wa\'. The key wluch fixes tlie dri\'er to tlie shaft is tlien withdrawn, and a special tool. C--^SS/£J^'S MAGAZINE. HORsr,-powi:K rrr.Ni-:R-i \\'hich may be described as a combined eyebolt and hydraulic pump, is attached to the driver by eight heavy tap bolts. The pressure pump is then operated by hand, and, leakage of water being pre- vented by packing rings, a pressure of many thousand pounds, tending to lift the driver with reference to the shaft, is exerted. In this way the driver is loosened Irom the shaft, and, \\'ith the field, is then raised bodily by the electric crane. The bearings and the castings which support them are ne.xt lifted out, and theshaftis remo\'ed it necessar)'. When this has been accomplished, a clear space is left within the fi.xed part of the machine, that is, within the armature support, fi\'e feet in diameter, through which parts of the turbine shaft or other machinery from the wheel pit can be raised. An attractive feature of the form of construction adopted is the fact that the magnetic attraction between the field poles and the armature acts against the centrifugal iorce. As com- pared with the centrifugal force at high speeds at which the ring must still be safe, the magnetic attraction is not very great, and, unless the field is charged, there is, of course, no magnetic pull between armature and field. But with normal conditions, this attraction tends to reduce the strains in the ring, due to centrifugal force, whereas, were the armature revolved inside of the field. ELECTRIC POWER AT XLICARA. 265 the magnetic pull \\age. The end view shows the bushings in place, and these l)usliings are sepa- rately illustrated on page 268. The bearings, which are of the best quality of bearing metal, are in two parts, are fitted into conical bearings of iron sur- rounding the shaft, and are provided with set screws to assist in withdrawing or tightening when necessary. The bearings are lubricated by oil vuider pressure, admitted at a point midway between the top and bottom, and also at a [ioint near the top. Grooves are cast in the hub of each spider, with pipes at each end, permit- ting the circulation of water to cool the bearings, this water being conveyed to the bearings direct from the city mains at a pressure of 60 pounds per s<}uare inch. The oil is supplied from a reser- \-oir placed at an elevation of about 30 ELHCTKIC POWER AT XIAC.IRA. 267 ft. above the upper bearing-. After having- passed through the bearings, it is filtered and pumped back into the reservoir. The pressure at which it is suppHed to the machine is that due to o-ra\'it-\'. nrT~¥ "«'" T .VK.AIATUKi: SUPl'OKr A.\l The illustrations on pages 269 and 266 show, respectively, the armature core, or ring, in place upon its support before winding, and the armature com- plete, with conductors in the grooves or slots around the periphery of the core. The armature core is built up of \'Ii:\\- OF CASTING C.\RKYIX( BEARINGS. Sl':iJi:R FOR thin sheets of mild steel, No. 30 B. W., G., and, to secure free circulation of air, is divided horizontally into six equal parts, separated from one an- other by one-inch spaces. Each layer ol the core consists of eleven segments, which are so placed that all joints in each layer are overlapped by the seg- ments of the adjacent layers. One of the sheets of steel is shown on page 26S. These pieces are punched out of large sheets of a certain prede- termined quality, .015 of an inch thick, by steel dies in powerful presses. They are afterwards thoroughly an- nealed. In this process of annealing, the surfaces of the segments are oxi- dized, the oxide serving as insulation to reduce the eddy currents which are set up in the iron of the armature when the machine is in operation. The ring- thus built up is securely held together by sixty-six bolts of nickel steel, containing a high per- centag-e of nickel which renders them [jractically non-magnetic. These bolts are, of course, carefully insulated from the core. The large discs, or end- plates, at the top and bottom of the armature ring are of brass. At the time of tightening the bolts, the steel j-jlates are pressed closely together by FXD VIFVv- OF TIIF CASTING. powerful hand-presses. The six equal parts, or layers, into which the core of the armature is divided, are separated from one another by segments of cast brass, these segments being cast in such l(jrm that, while they have sufficient strength to withstand the pressure under which the armature core is assembled, the larger part of the spaces between the six adjacent rings or steel plates is left open for the circulation of air. The armature ring, when finally 268 CASS7£R'S MAGAZINE. built up, is turned on the inner surface so as to accurately fit the ribs of the armature support. It is then heated, and lowered into place against the flange on the support, and, in cooling, shrinks itself tightly into place against the ribs. The armature conductors consist of copper bars \\\ in. by ttt in. in section, the edges of the bars being rounded to a radius of about one-eighth of an inch to avoid cutting the insulation. Two of these bars, after being insulated, are placed in each of the 187 slots around the periphery of the arma- ture core. The conductivity of the bars used is above 100 per cent., by DETAILS OF .\RM.\TURE liK.VIilNG.^. Matthiesen's standard. In the case oi the second generator the conductivity of the copper, furnished by the Wash- burn &. Moen Mfg. Co., of Worcester, Mass., is 102.6 percent., which strik- ingly illustrates the fact that what was considered pure copper when the stand- ard referred to, and still generally used, ONB OF THE .SIIICETS aiAKINO UP Tin: .^RM.iTURE CORE. was determined, is now inferior to cer- tain grades of commercial copper. The proper insulation of these conductors is a matter of the greatest importance. Each conductor must be separated from its neighbors and from the iron of the armature core by insulating mate- rial which is abundantly able to with- stand the potential to which it will be subjected, and in order to be sure of this, a large factor of safety is allowed; that is, the insulation is tested by apply- jrXCTlON OF .\RM.ATURE BARS .AND CON- Xi;CTORS BEFORE SOLDERI^~^■r AND INSUL.ATING. ing a potential several times as great as any to which it will be subjected in service. At the factory, the insulation of each bar was tested by applying a potential of 15,000 volts. One terminal of the transformer used in testing was con- nected to the conductor, and the other terminal was connected to a layer of tin- foil, wrapped about the outside of the insulation. During the erection of the generators at Niagara, the insulation was again tested by applying a potential of 6000 volts, one terminal of the testing- transformer being connected to the con- ductors, while the other was connected to the armature core. An alternating potential was used in both tests, and the values given are in each case the mean or effective potential. The material used for insulating the bars is principally mica. The armature conductors project above and below the core, as shown in the illustration on page 269, and connections are made by pieces of copper, punched from large sheets and shaped into proper form by presses and iron moulds. These con- nectors are insulated by mica and rub- ber insulating tape, the former being used only where connectors conveying ELECTRIC POWER JT NIACARA. 26y currents of considerable difference oi potential are adjacent to each other. It is very important that good elec- trical connection be made at the junction of connector and armature bar. The illustration on page 268 illustrates the connection before the solder is applied. Three holes drilled through the split end of the connector correspond to three holes in the end of the armature bar. The split end of the connector is fitted closely to the end of the bar, and when the holes in the connector and bar are properly aligned they are se- curely fixed in place by three wrought iron bolts, the holes through one side of the connector being reamed out to receive the heads of the bolts. After the nuts are tightened into place, the pro- jecting ends of the bolts are upset; that is to say, they are split and, as it were, riveted to lock the nuts. The joint is then thoroughly soldered, this work being greatly facilitated by the use of an electrical soldering tool. The process will be best understood by referring to the illustration on this page, which was taken during the erection of the first generator. A transformer, supplied with alternating current at a potential of about 150 volts, is so wound as to deliver a current of very large quantity but low pressure. This cur- rent is coveyed through heavy jaws, or terminals, of copper to the point of junction between the armature bar and KLliCTRIC.\LT,Y SOLDKRINC. THI-: CONNICCTIONS OF AN ARM.VTURi; WINDING. 270 GASSIER ' S MA GA ZINE. its connector, and in a few seconds tliis point is heated to a hit^h temperature. The joint is then readily flooded with solder. This is afterwards dressed up by a file, and the joint is thoroughly insulated. In the illustration the soldering trans- former and one of the operatives are page 266, the conductors are so con- nected as to form two complete circuits, each thoroughly insulated from the other and from the steel core, and so related to each other that the electro- motive forces induced in them by the revolving magnetic field are ninety de- grees apart. THK GBN1:H.\T0R shaft. seen carried atone end of an oak frame, supported upon the shaft of the genera- tor and counter- weighted at its opposite end. In soldering the connections the operative slowly revolves the frame about the armature. The seat which carries him is adjustable, so that the connections at the bottom of the arma- ture, as well as at the top, can be Coming now to the revolving parts of the generator, we begin with the shaft, which is shown on this page. It is of open-hearth steel, and was forged and rough-turned by the Cleveland City Forge and Iron Company of Cleveland, Ohio. The diameter of the shaft in the bearings is \2\% in. It is tapered at the upper end to receive the driver, and a I>RI\'1:K I'nR Till-; field KINF reached, and it is provided with rails upon which the transformer is pushed forward until the copper jaws grasp the connection, or withdrawn after the sold- ering is completed. When the armature is completely wound, as shown in the illustration on flange, 27 in. in diameter, is forged at the lower end to provide means for con- nection to the flange at the top of the turbine shaft. These flanges are bolted together by eight tapered steel bolts. At its extreme upper end the shaft is threaded to provide means for securing JiLJiC'I'RIC r()]]'EK AT XIAG.lK.l. 271 in place the revoh'int;' parts which pro- ject above the driver and carry the col- lecting rings. For the purpose of securing informa- tion as to the physical properties of the steel used for the shaft, it was originally forged ot extra length ; an end, se^'eral inches in length, was then cut off, and from this five samples were taken, two being cut from the periphery of the shalt at opposite ends of a diameter; one, from the centre of the shaft; and two, from points midway between the peripherv and the centre, as illustrated in the cut on this page, where the numbers i, 2, 3, 4 and 5 indicate the places in the section ot the shaft from which the test samples were taken. These samples were tested by the Pittsburgh Testing Laboratory at Pittsburgh, and the fact that forged shafts are stronger near their outer surface than elsewhere is shown in an interesting manner by the results, which are set forth in the following- table : Reduction Hlonga Sample No. Tensile Strength in Pounds Per sq. in. Elastic Limit in Pounds Per sq. in. of Area ill Per- centage of Area Before Test. tion m Percent age of Length Before Test, I 63,000 35.500 53 37-5 2 5q 000 2q.500 5r 3S 3 56,000 28.500 37 5 ^t 4 58,500 3 ',500 4 1.5 3S J 62,500 35.000 55-5 35 A view of the driver is given on page 270. It is II ft. S in. in diameter. As has been noted in describing the shaft, the latter is tapered at its upper end, and by referring to the illustration on page 270 it will be seen that a hea\-v key- way is cut into the tapered portion. The bearing in the driver which fits over this tapered end of the shaft is also provided with a key-way, and the driver and shaft are held together by a long and massi\'e steel key. The driver is of mild cast steel, and was turned out by the Midvale Steel Com- pany, of Philadelphia. It was guar- anteed to have a tensile strength of about 60,000 lbs. per sq. in., but the tests of samples of steel, taken from the casting near the periphery of the first driver, showed a tensile strength of 74,700 lbs, per sq, in., an elastic limit of 44,590 lbs. per sq. in., an elongation of 30 per cent, in 3 in., and a reduction of area of 43 per cent. The surface of the fracture was silk)-' and fine-grained. The drivers are turned on their outside surfaces and are strengthened by .^i.x deep ribs on the inside. Perhaps the most interesting part of each generator is the field magnet ring, which not only illustrates the wonderful physical properties of nickel steel, but demonstrates in a most striking manner the perfection of modern forging ni.a- D D Lj TF.ST PIECES FROM Till; O IC.XlCR.VTi >K SH.^I'T. chinery and the skill of those who use it in the great plant of the Bethlehem Iron Companv, at South Bethlehem, Pa. The ring is forged in one piece without weld, and is shown in the photographic reproduction on the follow- ing page. The Bethlehem Iron Company guaranteed that the rings for the first three generators should ha\'e a tensile strength ot not less than 70,000 lbs. per sq. in., an elastic limit of 38,000 lbs. per sq. in., and an elonga- tion of about 25 per cent, in 2 in.; but they have done much better. Three samples, cut from the first ring before 272 CASS7EJ?'S MAGAZINE. NICKICI, STEEL FIELD KING, FORGED WITHOUT A WELL* BY TIIIC BF:TIILKIIEM IRON COMPANY. I>IAMETER, II FT. yj/g I^'- turning were tested with the following results : Sample No. Tensile Slrength Measured ir F'ounds Per sq. lu. 82,915 S[,I lu 82,, 40 Elastic Limit Measured in Pounds Per Sfj. ill 53oM 49,280 Elongatiou in 2" Measured iu Percent- age of Ori.ginal Length. The following brief account of the method of making the field rings is based upon notes furnished by Mr. R. W. Davenport, second vice-president of the Bethlehem Iron Company. A nickel steel ingot, 54 inches in diameter at the bottom, 197 inches long, and weighing about 120,000 lbs., was cast solid, and compressed by hydraulic pressure when fluid and during solidifi- cation. This ingot is shown in the illustration on page 274. A hole was bored through its longitudinal axis, as shownonpage 275, and a block of proper weight was then cut from the ingot. The cylinder thus formed was brought ELECTRIC POWER AT NIAGARA. 273 to a forging heat, and expanded on a mandril under a 14,000 ton hytlraulic press. Tlie high degree of skill, and the perfection of mechanical appliances required to expand part of the cylinder, shown on page 275, to the ring, illus- trated on page 272, are evident, and re- flect much credit upon the Bethlehem Iron Company. After forging, the ring was carefully treated to obtain the phy- sical qualities desired, and was then bored and rough-turned on a large boring mill. It was finally turned true in the shops of the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company, at Pittsburg, Pa. Not only are the physical properties of the ring extraordinary ; in size it is without precedent, and to those inter- ested in the recent remarkable improve- ment in the quality oi steel, and in the methods of working it, the interest which attaches to this ring, as an ex- ample of the finished product of the Bethlehem Iron Company, is not less than that which it derives from the im- portant part which it sustains in the Niagara installation. Why it is necessary that these rings should be so strong, and that they should be so forged as to eliminate the possibility of weakness in any part, will be better understood when we consider the speed at which they revolve, and the weight of the pole pieces and field bobbins which they carry. The illus- trations on page 276 show one of the field poles without its winding, and one of the field poles with bobbin in place. The poles are of mild open- hearth steel, and were cast by the Mid- vale Steel Company. Their magnetic qualities have been carefully tested by sample, and are excellent. The field winding, w'hich consists of copper conductor of rectangular section, thoroughly insulated, is contained in ribbed brass boxes or covers, one of which is well illustrated on page 276. The weight of each pole piece with its bobbin is 2800 lbs. The relation of the pole pieces and bobbins to the ring is shown in the illustration on page 277. The speed of the ring at its periphery is 9300 ft. per minute when making 250 S-3 revolutions per minute, and at this speed the centrifugal torce, due to each field pole and bobbin, is 2727 lbs. The strain is, of course, a maximum at a point in the ring midway between each pair of adjacent poles. The strain due to the mass of the ring itself is 2325 lbs. The total ma.ximum strain in the ring at 250 revolutions per minute is, there- fore, by calculation, 5052 lbs. It is not sufficient that the ring should be simply strong enough to withstand the centrifugal force due to the field poles, bobbins and its own mass when revolving at 250 revolutions per minute; it must be able to run safely at a much higher speed, for it is conceivable that, should anything happen to the appa- ratus which governs the turbines, a much higher speed may be attained. It was judged necessary, therefore, to so design the machine that it should be safe when running at a speed of 400 revolutions per minute, and at this speed the centrifugal force due to each pole piece and bobbin becomes 6500 lbs. The strains in the ring have been, as may be supposed, calculated with great care, and even at 400 revolutions per minute, equivalent to 241 feet per second at the periphery, the total strain will not exceed 13,000 lbs. per sq. in. As the elastic limit of the material used in the rings is 48,000 pounds, the factor of safety at this speed, which will prob- ably never be realised in practice, is nearly four. At a speed of 800 revolu- tions per minute, which means 482 feet per second, or nearly six miles per minute at the periphery, the ring would burst. But it is, of course, impossible that any such speed could, under any circumstances, be attained ; in fact, the calculations of the designers of the hydraulic machinery show that the speed could in no case exceed 400 revolutions per minute. Above the driver in the illustration on page 254 are the collector and brushes by which the current is con- veyed from the exciters to the revolving field of the generator. The conductor conveying the field current comes from the exciters through covered conduits beneath the level of the floor, passes a4SSJ£J? ' S JIA4 GAZINE. S<)LII> IXGOT OF VLFID ft )MPKKSSEli STICZL USHI' l"i)R ,M.\KIXC LKXGTH, 197 IN. DIAilF.TRR, 54 IN. riiK I'dRc.F.ii ]'^ii:i.i) RiN<; \\"i:il.!-IT, through an iron pipe concealed in the capstone of the ioundation, up one of the liollow iron columns supporting the bridge or platform across the machine, and thence, along the bridge, to the brushes. From the collector rings it passes under the driver through the shaft, and thence, along one of the ribs insideof the driver, to the field bobbins. The collector rings are built upon a separate cylindrical casting placed above the driver, and securely fixed to the hub of the latter by heavy screws through a flange at its base. The brush-holder rods are held in place by a heavy iron bracket encircling the casting below the collector rings. This bracket rests upon the bridge which spans the machine. Balancing the Revolving Field. The longitudinal and transverse sec- tions of the powerhouse and wheel-pit, showing turljines, shafts and eenera- tors in place, reproduced on pages 262 and 263, illustrate the relation of these elements in the plant more graphically and exactly than is pos- sible in a mere verbal description. The turbines are so designed that they and the shaft and the revolv- ing part of the dynamo above them are supported upon the water passing through the wheels. By calculation, the force of the water tending to lift the shaft and generator varies from about 149,000 lbs. to about 155,000 lbs., depending upon the amount of water passing- through the turbines, which, in turn, depends upon the amount of current which the generator is delivering to the circuits. The weight of the shaft and revolving part of the generator is very nearly 152,000 lbs. The difference between this weight and the upward ELECTRIC POUER AT NLIGARA. 275 thrust of the water is taken care of by the thrust bearing located on the third gallery above the turbines. When the upward thrust of the water exceeds 152,000 lbs., the collars on the steel shaft are pressed upward against the grooves in the bearing in which they revolve, and when the upward pressure is less than 152,000 lbs. the collars are dra«'n downward by gravitv against the grooves in the bearing. This press- ure, however, whether upward or down- ward, in direction, never exceeds 3500 lbs. in amount, and this, of course, puts very little work upon the bearing. The entire re\'oh'ing parts of each unit of the plant, therefore, consist- ing of the turbines, the dynamo field and the shaft, 166 feet in length, constitute a huge top, the weight of which is practically carried upon the water in the turbines. The bear- ings on the first and second galleries of the wheel pit, and the upper and lower bearines in the generator, are simply guides for the shalt, to keep it in a vertical position, while the thrust bearing on the third gallery acts as a guide, and also carries the relatively small diflerence between the weight of the revoh'ing mechanism and the up- ward thrust of the water. The turbines, shaft, and generator field revolve at the high speed of 250 revolutions per min- ute, and it is obvious that all of the revolving parts, especially the heavy generator field, w'eighing about 70,000 lbs. and measuring nearly 12 feet in diameter, must be balanced with the utmost accuracy to prevent vibrations which might become dangerous. The method emijloved in balancing- the revolving element of the generators is illustrated on page 27S. A special shaft was placed in the bearings of the machine, and supported at its lo«er end by a thrust bearing into which oil was pumped at a pressure of about 1000 lbs. per sq. in. This pressure was sufficient to lift the weight of the revoh'ing parts, COMl'RES.SELi STEEL IKCVOT WITH HOLi: TURf.iUGH CENTER, I'R liPARATOk V 1' i FOK'IIKC 276 GASSIER ' S MA GAZINE. and the collars on the shaft were sepa- rated from the grooves of the thrust bearing by a thin layer or him of oil. A small piece of tool steel was set into the upper end of the shaft, a half sphere or cup being cut in its upper surface, and in this was placed a tempered steel ball, matter of fact, in the case of the first generator the driver at first assumed the position indicated by the dotted lines. This was corrected by riveting to the driver a wrought iron plate, the weight of this plate and the distance from the axle of rotation being experimentally determined to obtain not only exact static balance, but also exact running balance. The driver was first balanced in this manner, independently. The ring was then bolted to the driver, and the two were balanced together as shown in the illustration. It was unnecessary to balance the combination of the driver, ring and field poles since the field poles and bobbins were separately weighed, and their weights adjusted to exact equality, while the positions in which they are bolted to the ring are exactly symmetrical with reference to each other and to the axis of rotation. Organization of Apparatus in THE Power House. The organization of apparatus con- stituting the system adopted, that is, A FIELD rOLE WITH "WINDING IN PLACE. WEIGHT, 2S00 LBS. S-a in. in diameter. A large eyebolt with a similar piece of tool steel, having in its lower surface a cup bearing similar to that at the top of the shaft, was secured in the tapered bearing of the umbrella-shaped dri\'er, to the periph- ery of which the field ring is bolted. The entire weight of the driver and the ring was thus supported upon the small steel ball. A casting, clamped to the shaft, served to rotate the driver and ring with the shaft. A section of this cast- ing and of one of the ribs of the driver is shown in the illustration. The steel ball, as will be noted, was placed a very short distance above the centre of grav- ity of the field and driver, and under these conditions, the dri\'er and ring being free to rock while rotated, a defect in balance was quickly shown. As a A FIELD POLE. the inter-relation and the functions of the generators, step-up transformers, step-down transformers, motors, com- mutating machines and other appa- JiLECTRIC POWER AT XIACrARA. 277 ratus, has been described in a general way in the early part of this article. I have also explained the construction of the generators, — the most important unit of apparatus in the plant. It re- mains now to describe the means adopted for controlling the heavy cur- rents delivered by the generators, and for delivering these currents to the supply circuits which convey them from the power house to the premises of the users of power. number of generators shall ha\'e in- creased from three to thirty or twice thirty, the organization and means provided for operating them must still be symmetrical and consistent in all its parts. The [jlan adopted con- templates an arrangement in groups of five generators each. The switching and regulating apparatus, and the in- dicating and measuring instruments, are concentrated in a swithboard cen- trally located with reference to each FIELD RING \\ITII PULES ANI> IIOBI'.IN'S IX PLACE. In deciding upon a plan of station organization, we face, at the outstart, two very serious conditions : — First : — The forces with which we are dealing- are, in amount, iar beyond the range of experience. Second : — The plan adopted must be capable of almost in- definite extension without radical modi- fication, and without involving loss of symmetry. We are dealing with energy in units of 5000 horse-power, developed under conditions which are, in many respects, without precedent : and ^\■hile, at the outstart, there are to be installed but three generators, the fact must be kept in mind that others will be added to the installation, and that, when the group. Provision is made for cross- connecting the several groups to be ultimately installed in this power house and in other power houses which may be erected on both the American and Canadian sides of the river in order that continuity of service may be doubly assured. The switchboard is the centre from which the brain and hand of the op- erator control the mighty forces of Nature which are here compelled to do work, — it is the bridge of the ship. From it, imprisoned energy, aggregat- ing 25,000 horse-power, — electric en- ergy, eager to escape, seeking for the smallest pinhole in insulation, and con- centrating instantly at that pinhole, if 278 C.~lSS/£/i ' S MA GAZINE. found, — must be controlled, combined, subdivided and directed. It is evidently desirable to operate the generators in parallel, this method tending to im- prove regulation of speed and poten- tial, insuring continuity in the delivery of current to the users of power, and house, and the latter referring to the service which will supply consumers in ButTalo and other distant places. This consideration makes it probable that it will prove convenient and desirable to operate the generators in two sets, for the following reason : — BALANCING _ FOR DRIVER ARRANGEMENT -5000 H.P. ALTERNATOR iSrETTTOn Ol- I'.Ar.ANClNQ TITB DRrA-T".R i\^Z> FnCI.l minimizing the necessity of opening switches con\'eying heavy currents of high potential in circuits of very con- siderable inductance and capacity. But it is also evident that the service will, in the near future, divide itself into two classes, which we may call ' ' local serv- ice " and "long-distance service," the former referring to the service which will supply consumers within a radius of a few miles from the power h)istribution of electricity at constant potential is strictly analogous to the methods commonly employed in sup- plying gas and water. Each consumer has a small, independent circuit through which he draws his supply from the distributing mains, and he may open or close this circuit without in any way interfering with the supply to his neigh- bours, provided the potential or press- ure in the network of mains is kept ELECTRIC POWER AT NIACAR.l. 279 TURNI-NG THE FIKLLl RIXG IN TlIK WESTINI .IKJVSK SHOl'S. constant. For satisfactory service, this last provision is a necessity, — the po- tential in the distributing mains must be constant. The local circuits at Niagara are supplied direct from the power house, through feeder or supply circuits of comparatively short length, and, consequently, the loss of potential, or drop, as it is technically called, will, in these circuits, not exceed one or two per cent. The distributing mains in Buffalo, however, will be necessarily supplied from feeders extending from the power house, a distance of about twenty miles, and in these feeders, unless a ^■ery high potential be used, the drop will vary from a maximum of, say, five or possibly ten per cent., depending upon the amount of copper in the circuits, down to one-half, one-fourth or one-tenth of these percentages, depending upon whether the current transmitted along the feeders is the full load current for which these feeders are designed, or one-half one-fourth or one- tenth of the full load current. It follows that at certain times during each day the poten- tial delivered to the long-distance feeders must exceed that delivered to the local feeders by a not inconsider- able percentage, and the readiest means to meet this condition is to operate the generators in two sets or groups, the units constituting each set working in parallel. When two or more generators work "in parallel," they are so connected that their currents are delivered to a set of large conductors, called ' ' bus bars, ' ' just as two engines, belted to the same line shaft, deliver the power which they develop to that shaft. By suitable de\'ices, such as friction clutches or fast and loose pulleys, either engine may be put into service, or shut down without stopping the line shaft ; and, in a simi- lar manner, any electric generator of a group may be made to add its current to that of another generator or group operating in parallel with it, or may be shut down without interfering with tlie 28o CA SS/ER ' S MA GA ZINE. ON1-: OF THE (;i:nkkator FOT'XDATIONS. continuity of the supply ol energy de- livered by the group. As an alternative to the plan of operating the generators in two groups, they may all be operated in one group, provision being made for adjusting the potential in either the local mains at Niagara, or the distant mains in Buffalo, by special regulating devices. For a limited number of generators this latter plan offers some advantages, but, look- ing forward to the time when a dozen or a score of generators will be installed, the method of operating in two gToups appears preferable. In the case of transmission to places more remote than Buffalo, it will be necessary to adopt special means for regulating potential in the distributing mains, at least until the time when im- pro\'ed methods of insulating circuits shall make it practicable to employ very high potentials. When that time comes, the drop in the circuits between the power house and the city of Buffalo will become so small that we may treat the Buffalo feeders as local circuits and can supply them with current from the same bus bars that are used in sujiplying power in the immediate vicinity of the power house ; and when the practica- bility of commercially employing these very high patentials, <;•. g. 25,000 or even 50,000 volts, is demonstrated, transmission to places more distant than Buffalo will naturally be undertaken. Here again the second set of bus bars will be useful. The diagram on page 282 illustrates the connections of generators, generator switches, bus bars, feeder switches and local and long-distance feeder or supply circuits. To avoid complication but two generators and one long-distance and one local feeder are showm. The currents are conveyed from the generators i and 2, to the generator switches, S, .S", through in- sulated cables, each made up of 427 tinned wires. The aggregate section of copper in each cable is i sq. in. Through the generator switches the currents from the respective generators pass at the ELECTRIC POWER .-IE XEIC.IRA. 281 will of the engineer in charge, to either of the two sets of bus bars A, B. Each set consists of four thoroughly insulated copper conductors, the construction of which will be again referred to. The switches are operated by compressed air, controlled by levers mounted on iron stands placed upon the platform above the switchboard structure within which the switches are located. By them any one of the generators, or any combination of the five generators con- the other end, establishing metallic connection between the four terminals in the row c, and the four terminals in the row d. If the two sets of bus bars are to be charged with the same potential we may supply both from the generator, i , by closing both ends of the switch simultaneously. Similar con- nections are, of course, possible in the case of the other generators and the bus bars. The feeder switch ,S' is similar in Tin: S^^'ITUHBOARIt stituting the group, may be connected to either set of bus bars. Each switch has two separate and in- dependent air cjdinders, by which the two ends of the switch are indepen- dently controlled. The construction of the switch is shown in the illustra- tion on page 292. To charge the bus bars A with current from the dynamo, i, the switch is closed at one end, establishing connections between four points in the horizontal row of terminals, marked a, and the four points b. To connect the dynamo to the bus bars B, the switch is closed at construction to the dynamo switches, but the connections are different. So far as the feeders are concerned, it is not necessary that we should be able to connect them to more than one set of bus bars. Until long-distance trans- mission is begun, either set of bus bars may be used, or both may be charged from the same generator or generators, in which case they will, of course, be charged with the same potential. When additional generators are installed, and long-distance as well as local service is undertaken, as I have said, it will prolj- ably be advantageous to operate the 282 C.J SSJ£Ji ' S MA GAZINE. J.IAGKAM SHOWING Till! CONNECTIONS OF Till' LOCAL AND LOXG-DISTANCF, VV.\- ELECTRIC PO]]ER AT XIACAK.L ^S3 generators in two sets to permit adjust- ment of potential to compensate for losses in transmission. Tlie respective local and long-distance supply circuits will then be simply arranged for con- nection through their switches to the local or long-distance bus bars, as de- sired. In the diagram on page 2S2, L rep- of circuits in the case of simple two- phase transmission by four wires. The diagram on page 282 shows an arrange- ment of transformers by which the two-phase currents, delivered by the generators, are changed to three-phase currents in the transmitting circuits, and then changed back to two-phase currents in the local distributing cir- cuits at a distance. This method effects a considerable economy in the amount of copper required for transmission. The potential that will be used in the transmission circuits for long-distance work has not been determined. For transmission to Buffalo it will probably CANAL POWER I S| |l ] HOUSE % ' ^'' \ I rl SWITChIsOARD STRUCTURE ' j FOR feedero^,--' .^ -^ : 'I'cx LflS^Z Z ' LZSS^ L -' — • — ■ — - ra I \''^'%^j w^ '''^BF"''' PLA.V OI- iM^^^■ER AXD TRA^'SFORMER IIOT'SHS. resents a supply circuit used for long- distance ser\'ice, and L' re]"jresents a similar circuit used for local service. In the diagram of the long-distance circuit, T and T' are step-up trans- formers, used to increase the potential for transmission, while T'' and T'" are step-clown transiormers, located at the distant end of the transmission cir- cuit, for e,\'ainple, at Buffalo or Tona- wanda. In the general diagram on page 256 is illustrated the arrangement not be less than 10,000 \'olts, and not more than 25,000 volts. For trans- mission to greater distances, still higher potentials are contemplated. The illustration on page 2Sr shows the structure erected for the switchljoard apparatus. It is of white enameled brick, and is 57 ft. 10 in. long, 13 ft. wide and a little less than 8 ft. in height. It is erected directly o\'er the sub-way, as shown in the floor plan on page 283. The top of the structure is of slate sup- 284 GASSIER' S MAGAZINE. ported upon iron I-beams, and the plat- form 'thus formed is surrounded by a neat brass hand-rail. The sub-way be- neath the switchboard is spanned at suitable distances by iron I-beams, to which the dynamo and feeder switches are bolted in place. The cables passing from the generators through ducts be- neath the floor line are connected to the generator switches, while the outgoing cables, constituting the feeder orsupph' circuits, drop directly from the feeder switches into the subway. Iron stand- ards are secured to each side of the sub- way by expansion bolts. They are placed at intervals of about 4 ft., and adjustable iron brackets set into these standards support the lead-sheathed ca- bles passing through the sub-way and bridge to the transformer house on the east bank of the canal. The drawing on page 283, showing' the floor plan of the power house, bridge and the transformer house, will make clear the position of the switchboard structure with reference to the first three generators and the sub-way. Additional generators will, in due time, be erected in line beyond the generator marked D ynamo. N( and the switch- board structure is designed to accom- modate all instruments and switches needed in connection with the first five generators. The organization of the switchboard apparatus and the general features of the construction of the essential elements will be best understood by reference to the illustration on page 286, which is re- produced from the official drawing. The upj)er part of the illustration at the read- er's right hand is a front elevation of the stands which carry the instruments for the several generators and for the ex- citers, and also shows one of the lever stands for the feeder circuits. Beneath the floor line of the switchboard platform is seen one set ot bus bars in connec- tion with an end ele\'ation of the gener- ator and feeder switches. A plan of the switchboard platform is also gi\'en in the illustration on page 2SS, a ]:)art of the platform being cut away to show a plan of one generator switch and one feeder switch. On page 2S6, again, is shown a plan of the rheostat chamber and sub-«-ay for the cables, and just above this, a section through the switch- board, sub-way and rheostat chamber, at right angles to the direction of the sub-way, is given. The essential elements of the switch- board apparatus are, — the generator and feeder switches, the bus bars, the switching and safety devices for the ex- citing currents, the rheostats for con- trolling the generator fields, and the indicating and measuring instruments. As shown by the plans, the switches and bus bars are located within the switchboard structure. Upon the switchboard platform are erected the instrument stands, one for each gen- erator, two for the rotary transformers, and one forthe engine-driven generator, temporarily used as an exciter, and in front of each instrument stand is placed a cast-iron stand, about 30 inches in height, carrying the levers which con- trol the admission of air to the switch cylinders, and a wheel by means of which the rheostats are controlled. Each of the lever stands used for con- trolling the large generator switches carries also levers for opening and clos- ing the field circuit of the correspond- ing generator, and a hand wheel by which the rheostat resistance in the field of the generator is adjusted. The rheostats are located in a special cham- ber below the floor line of power house, the face-plates being located in the bases of the instrument stands. Connection between the face-plates and resistance coils of the rheostats is secured by insu- lated cables of suitable section. The compressed air used in operating the switches comes from a compressor direct, driven by a Worthington water motor. This compressor is located at the bot- tom of the wheel pit, and supplies air to a large cylindrical reservoir from which pipes are led to the various switches. The pressure used is 125 pounds per square inch. Engineers, not familiar with the possi- bilities of electricity, will be impressed by the fact that the currents actually measured are not the heavy currents traversing tlie cables within the switch- ELECTRIC POWER AT NIACARA. 285 2S6 CAS5/£J?'S MAGAZINE. V ELECTRIC rOWJ-Ji AT XTICATA. 2S7 board structure, but are derived cur- rents, bearing' a known relation to the heavy currents delivered by the gene- rators. They are small in quantity and absolutely harmless. The operator, standing upon the switchboard plat- form, cannot possibly touch a circuit which is in the slightest degree danger- ous. The currents measured are ob- tained by means of transformers located inside the switchboard structure, the ratio of their winding being such that lor e\'er3' 50 amperes flowing in the main circuit, a current of i ampere is supplied from the secondary of the transformer to the measuring instru- ments. Currents to the respecti\'e volt- meters are supplied from transformers, the primaries of which are connected across the generator circuits. For the wattmeters both series and shunt con- nections from the generator circuits are needed, and these are obtained from the transformers used for the voltmeters and ammeters. To measure energ)-, current and po- tential in each phase of each generator, two con\'erters, an indicating watt- meter, an ammeter and a voltmeter are employed. The energ)^ required b)' these devices amounts, as a maximum, to about 30 watts — that is, »V horse- power. It is an extraordinary illustra- tion of the facility with \\-hich electricity is accurately measured that we should be able thus to determine energy vary- , ing from 25 horse-power to 2500 horse- power by means of measuring devices, accurate throughout their range within one per cent., and requiring for their operation not more than 71V horse- power. The instrument stands are boxes or cabinets, constructed of iron and mar- ble, the front of each, above the pedes- tal, being formed of a single slab of polished Italian marble, l;'4 inches thick, 30 inches in width and 45 inches in height. Each stand occupies a floor space of 38 inches by 20 inches and is 7 feet in height. Sliding doors at the back give access to the measuring in- struments. The marble front of the stand is pierced by six rectangular openings, and the instruments are se- cured to the marble in such a way that the front ot each, with its scale and in- dex, projects through the marble to the front of the stand. The cngra\'ing on page 2S9 illus- trates one of the alternating current ammeters, as \-ie\ved from the iVont. The indicating wattmeter and the volt- meter are similar in appearance. The fronts are finished in oxidised brass. These instrimTcnts, and the integrating wattmeters, used in connection with feeder circuits (not located upon the switchboard platlorm), comprise a re- markable group of measuring instru- ments recently in\-ented and designed by Mr. Oliver B. Shallenberger, Con- sulting Electrician of the Westinghouse Company. As they were primarily de- signed with special reference to the Niagara installation, they are desig- nated the ' ' Niagara type ' ' by the Westinghouse Company. Their sphere of usefulness, however, will be as wide as the applications of alternating cur- rents. They depend for their action upon the induction of currents in a movable closed secondary circuit, and all operate to a certain extent upon the same general principles, specifically de- veloped in each case to attain the ob- ject desired. They are extremely sim- ple in construction, the parts are few and comparatively massive, and yet the instruments are capable of giving very accurate results. They are guar- anteed by the Westinghouse Company to be correct within one per cent. In each instrument a thin aluminium disc, stififened by a flange around its edge, constitutes the movable element, in which eddy currents are induced by currents traversing coils placed above and below it. The relation of the in- duced currents in the disc and the in- ducing currents in the coils is such that the disc tends to rotate. In the watt- meter the tendency is proportional to a function of the energy traversing the inducing circuits, and these currents come from a converter located beneath the platform, and, in turn, are propor- tional to the energy in one of the gen- 2S8 GASSIER ' S MA GAZINE. ELECTRIC POWER AT NL I G.IRA. 2.Sg erator circuits, which is the energy to be measured. The tendency to rotate is resisted by a torsion spring, and the currents turn the disc, overcoming' tlie resistance of the spring through a cer- tain angle. This angle depends upon the relati\'e strength of the twisting moment, due to the currents and the resisting force of the spring, anrl the position of the disc, with reference to its position when no current tra\erses the coils, becomes a measure of the energy. The scale is attached to the circumlerence of the disc, and dcj^ends from it much as the field ring of the generator depends from the driver. This scale is carried with the disc, from its zero position, through an angle de pending upon the current measured and the instrument being once carefully compared with a standard and the scale properly marked, the energy can be determined by taking the reading of this scale opposite the index, which is always fixed in position. In the illus tration on this i>age the index will be seen in the centre of the rectangul ir glass window, and, immediateh' behmd it, an arc of the circular scale. The ammeter, which measures the strength of the current, and the volt- meter, which measures the potential, resemble the indicating wattmeter in the fact that they are based upon the same principles, and they are also sim- ilar in general features of construction. The methods employed to obtain the proper phase relations of the currents in the inducing circuits and in the disc are very ingenious and, to the elec- trician, interesting. But this is not the place to describe them in detail. The ammeters, which measure the currents in the fields of the generators, were furnished by the Weston Instru- ment Company, of Newark, N. J., and are of their well-known type, in which the current actually measured by the instrument is that which flows through a circuit connected in shunt to a resist- ance which is placed in the circuit trav- ersed by the current to be measured. All of the currents measured by the instruments located in the instrument stand are supplied through insulated conductors of small section, which con- vey the small derived currents from converters or from the terminals of re- sistances placed beneath the switch- board platform. Each generator in- strument stand carries, in addition to the instruments already described, a phase indicator, by means of which the attendant or the engineer in charge, who desires to connect a generator in parallel with another generator or group of generators, determines the proper time for closing the switch. The instruments provided for the stands belonging to the rotary trans- formers used as exciters, are not the ,,oK|i»iiuaHvk!sii acL J fllAGAf AN .ALTKKNATING CURRKNT AMMETER, NIAG.ARA TYPE. same as those provided for the gener- ator instrument stands, and they also differ from the instruments pro\'icled for the stand belonging to the temporary engine-driven exciter. They comprise two Shallenberger alternating- current ammeters of the Niagara type and a direct-current ammeter and voltmeter made by the Weston Instrument Com- pany. A number of plug contacts are provided, by means of which the ratio of conversion of the static transformers which supply current to the rotary transformers may be adjusted. The construction of the bus bars is, in several respects, remarkable, the magnitude of the quantities dealt with again making it necessary to de\'ise methods of construction outside the range of experience. As has been said, two sets of bus bars are jjrovided, but it 9-3 290 C.^SS/£/? ' 5 J/A GAZIXE. is, of course, conceivable tliat under certain circumstances it ma)' be desir- able to cut one set out ot service and control the output oi five generators through the other set. By arranging the generator switches and feeder switches as shown in the illustration, in such a way that the former, tli rough which current is delivered to the bus bars, alternate with the latter, through which current is drawn from the bus bars, the maximum current which it is necessary to convey through any sec- tion of the bus bars becomes that sup- plied by three generators. This is equivalent in each bar to about 3000 amperes, and; assuming a current den- sity of 1000 amperes per sq. in., would recjuire a section of about 3 sq. in. in the bus bar. The potential of the cur- rents may be as high as 2400 volts. A short-circuit might obviously be very dangerous, and this fact, in con- nection with the fact that at certain times the atmosphere of the power house is liable to carry a considerable amount of moisture, ready to be pre- cipitated upon metallic surfices, points to the desirability of insulating the bars. To insulate them in the most satisfactory manner, rounded surfiices are necessary, but iri a round solid conductor, 3 square inches in section, nearly 2 inches in diameter, two other difficulties must be faced : First, the surface from which the heat, due to resistance, must be radiated, is small as compared with that obtained by us- ing flat bars or straps of equal section ; and, second, an alternating current in such a conductor will not distribute it- self uniformly, but will seek the surface, lea\'ing the cop]"ier at the centre re- latively idle and ineffecti^■e. These difficulties have been success- fully ox'ercome by the construction adopted. From the middle each bar tapers toward the ends. The middle section consists of a copper tube of about 3 inclies outside diameter and 2 inches inside diameter. Into this, at either end is screwed a tube, the outside diameter of which is ap- prr>.\imatelv 2 inches, \\hile its inside diameter is about i\ in. Into the other ends of each t)f these tubes, in like manner, a copper rod I's inch in diameter is screwed. The offsets or connections from which short lengths of cable convey current to or from the several switches, are clamped to the bar thus formed, all surtaces being- rounded. The entire bar with offsets is then insulated with very high- class rubber insulation. These bars were con- structed by the Brown & Sharpe Manu- facturing Company, of Providence, R. I., U. S. A., according to the designs of the Westinghouse Company, and were insulated by the India Rubber and Gutta-Percha Insulating Company, of New York, the method employed being that covered by the Habirshaw patents. The insulation consists of alternate layers of ])ure Para gum and vulcanized rubber, two layers of each being used, and the outer layer of vulcanized rubber protected by a special braided co\ering chemicalhr treated to make it non-com- bustible. Similar insulation is used for the cables between the generators and the switches and for the connections between the bus bars and switches. A section of the Habirshaw cable is re- produced on the opposite page. The illustration is A'ery nearly the e.xact size of the cable. The makers guarantee that the insulation of cables and bus bars, erected in place, shall stand an alternat- ing current potential of 10,000 effective volts between copper and earth. Samples submitted and tested in the laboratory of the Westinghouse Company suc- cessfully resisted the application of potentials exceeding 40,000 volts. The calculated losses in a set of four bus bars conve^'ing the full output of five generators, 25,000 electrical horse- power, are less than 10 horse-power. The radiating surface is, of course, con- siderably greater than it would be in the case of solid circular bars of equal section. At the ends of the bars, where the section is about i sq. in., the current is that coming from one generator only, and in a bar of this section the tendency of the current to seek the surficc is negligible. In that part of the bar which has an outside diameter of 2 Indies the current con- j-:lec7'RJC power -i r xiagara. \-eyecl may be that coming from two generators, and the tendency to seek tlie surface would be appreciable in a solid circular conductor of equal section, while in that part of the bar which is 3 inches in diameter and which may be called upon to con\'ey current from three dynamos, it would be very con- siderable. The use of the tubes in- stead of solid bars gets rid of the idle copper at the centre of the latter, and at the same time increases the ratio of radiating surface to section of con- ductor. The construction of suitable switch- ing devices for circuits conveying 5000 horse-power at a potential of 2000 volts is a serious problem. To be sure, the dynamos will be operated in parallel, and by proper adjustment of the field charges of the generators and the gates controlling the turbines, the current traversing the dynamo switch at the moment of opening or closing the cir- cuit can be reduced within moderate limits. But there is always the chance that something may go wrong ; the operative may make a mistake, or something else may happen, and it was, therefore, deemed necessary to con- struct a switch capable of opening with- out damage to itselt or other apparatus, circuits conveying 5000 horse-power. The Westinghouse Company accord- ingly inaugurated a series of experi- ments, and detailed se\'eral expert engineers to thoroughly study the subject. The result of their work is illustrated on page 292. The oppor- tunity has not yet been afforded to thoroughly test this switch in commer- cial service, but shop tests, carried out under conditions approximating to those which will be met in practical operation of the plant at Niagara, indicate that it is capable of switching very heavy cur- rents without damage to itself and without dangerous rise of potential. Current for exciting the fields of the generators is obtained directly from rotary transformers, which, in turn, are supplied with alternating current from the generators, static transformers being interposed to reduce the potential. During the period of construction ex- citing current is also derived, when necessary, frt.im a 75 kilowatt direct current generator dri\'en direct by a Westinghouse compound engine. This generator and engine, together with the boiler plant for the latter, are located in a small temporary building at a distance of about 200 yards from the power house. The engraving on page 293 illustrates one of the two rotary trans- formers installed, and their location in the power house is indicated in the floor plan on page 2.S3. These trans- f >rmers are of 200 kilowatts output each. As will be seen in the illustration of A SECTION OF THE II.ABIRSH.AW C.^ELE. the complete machine, on page 259, the shaft carries a commutator at one end of the armature and a four-ring collector at the opposite end. Alternating current, at about 125 volts potential, is delivered to the col- lector trom the secondary terminals of the static transformers, one of which is illustrated on page 294. From the commutator end of the rotary trans- former, direct current, at a potential approximating 175 volts, is delivered to the fields of the generators, the field rheostats being interposed in these cir- cuits to permit adjustment of the current flowing in each field. The armature winding is of the closed circuit type, and each of the ring collectors is connected to a certain point in the same winding from which current is delivered to the commutator. The machine, in operation, runs as a a-lSS/EJi ' S JA4 (^AZIXE. synchronous motor, driven by the two- phase alternating current, and deHvers from the commutator continuous cur- rent, just as it would do were it driven as a generaror by a turbine or an en- gine. The fly-wheel at the end of the shaft is used to give steadiness of speed and to prevent what is sometimes called "pumping;" that is to say, unequal ang'ular velocity at successive stages in a revolution of the armature, caused by the flow of idle current between the generator and the rotary transformer. which the water circulates are shown on page 295. Before the generators were erected in the shops of the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company, at Pitts- burgh, careful tests were made of the materials used in the construction of the various elements of the machines. Of these, the tests of the physical prop- erties of the shaft, field ring and driver have been referred to. The special means adopted for balancing the re- volving parts of the generator have also )F THIv IMAIX Two static transformers, each capable of delivering 100 kilowatts each, are used to supply alternating current to each rotary transformer. They are placed in cylindrical bo.xes of boiler iron, and are immersed m oil. This secures an extremely thorough insula- tion. The oil is kept cool by water, which circulates through a spiral of gal- vanized iron pipe, fitting closely to the inside of the cylindrical bo.x. Each box is provided with an oil gauge by ^\■hich the height of oil may be determined. Provision is made for readily drawing oft" the oil at the bottom of the box in case of necessity. The transformer, the box, and the spiral of pipe through been described. Among other tests, the following are of especial interest : Tests of the Magnetic Qualities OF THE Field Ring. Two samples of steel, cut from the edge of the rough-forged ring before it was turned, were tested by the per- meameter method to obtain what is technically known as the B-H curve ; that is, the ratio of induction to mag- netizing force for •v'arious \'alues of the latter. The B-H curve was also deter- mined lay a modification of the so-called " ring method," the entire field ring being used for this j)urpose. This very beautiful and interesting experiment ELECTRIC POWER AT NIAGARA. 293 A 20i;i KiLi>w.\'rr rotarv transfi AX 1':xciti:k, was suggested by Mr. Chas. F. Scott, electrician of the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company, and car- ried out under his direction. All the measurements are illustrated graphically in the chart on page 297. Cur\'es A and B are respectively the B-H curves tor wrought-iron and cast- iron, as determined by Dr. John Hoj)- The tests by the ring' method indi- cate higher values of the induction for moderate magnetizing forces than were obtained by the permeameter. The for- mer is the more reliable method, and cur\'e H undoubtedly represents very closely the true relation of induction and magnetizing force in the field ring of the first generator. The permeability fi^tse'"'i("'"""'"''^ .V]\\' N TRANSl'' retical curve which they calculated be- fore the test was made, can scarcely be distinguished from the actual curve determined by experiment. By the efticiency of the generator we mean the ratio of electrical output to mechanical input ; that is to say, the quotient obtained by dividing the amount of energy delivered to the cir- cuits by the generator, by the energy delivered to the shaft of the generator at the top of the long shaft which con- nects the generator and the turbine. This quotient is expressed as a percentage of the input. The difierence between the input and output of energy is repre- sented by the various losses in the generator. These losses are mechanical, elec- trical and magnetic. The mechanical losses are those due to air friction of the revolving parts of the generator, and the friction of the two bearings which guide the generator shaft. The elec- trical losses are those due to the main or primary current traversing the arm- these various losses can with conveni- ence or accuracy be segregated , but fortu- nately, practically all that are of special importance can be measured. Tests were, therefore, made at the Westing- house fictory which determined the efficiency of each machine with a very fair degree of accuracy. They were made with great care, and in the case of the first generator all important measurements were repeated many times. This is not the place for a com- plete statement and discussion of the tests made, which, in itself would be as long as this entire article, but the methods employed and the results ob- tained may be briefly summarized. As the generator was erected in the shops, the revoh'ing element was sus- tained, as already stated, by a collar or thrust bearing. A direct current motor, capable of deli\'ering 200 horse-power, was used to drive the generator, the motor being turned upon its side, so that the shaft, supported upon a thrust bearing, was vertical, and, therefore. 296 CA SS/EJ? 'S JIAGA ZINE. THT5 AMERICAX FALLS AT NIAGARA. ELECTRIC POWER AT XIAi'.ARA. 297 parallel to the shaft of the generator. The field of the direct current motor was independently excited, and read- ings ol the current and jxitential, de- livered to its armature from a direct current generator, driven by an engine, were taken in a series of tests, which were repeated several times during a period of about two weeks. The results show that when the field of the gene- rator was not charged by exciting cur- rent, it was necessary to deliver to the motor 76 horse-power to dri\'e the what this belt friction, and the increased friction in the bearings, due to tightness of the belt, amounted to could not be easily determined, nor was any attempt made to segregate the loss in the thrust bearing from the other losses. This loss in the thrust bearing is not properly chargeable to the generator, since the machines, as erected at Niagara, ha\-e no thrust bearing above the point in the shaft where the power is delivered to the generator. It can safely be said, therefore, that at Niagara 1 19000 - — ^ — — — t _ U^ 1^— -^ TT = = :i_ — - _ = , 18000 - — F — ^ :c — ::;= ff ^ Fj = r — ' ^ =" — ~ — — — 16000 - 15000 Q ^ -..a^ T ^^ E V} y\ liOOO //// \ 12000 - //// 1 1 /'/ "" 1 . — — _,4— - " " ^j--"' t \/ c — — — — A. WROUGHT IRON, BALLISTIC METHOD, HOPKINSON. B. CAST IRON, C. NICKEL, EWIKG, D. NICKEL STEEL, PERMEAMETER METHOD. E. NICKELSTEEL. 'J 3000 -J ^ — — " / r' / , 1 f H 00 F. NIC KEL STE EL, R G vIET HOD 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 !iO 90 100 HO 120 130 110 lOO 160 r/0 180 100 200 210 330 230 210 450 300 270 350 290 300 310 320 330 310 CHART SHOWING THE MAGNETIC QUALITIES OP THT^ FIETD RING, generator field at a speed of 250 revolu- tions per minute. The belt connecting motor and generator being taken off, 26 electrical horse-power were required to drive the motor at the same speed as before. The difference between these two quantities, or 50 horse-power, represents the mechanical friction in the generator, made up of air friction, the friction of the two bearings which guide the shaft, the friction of the step-up or thrust bearing at the bottom of the shaft, and also the loss in the belt, which was necessarily kept very tight. Just the total mechanical losses in the gene- rator will be less than 50 horse-power, — that is, less than one per cent, of the power required to dri\'e them. The determination of the amount of energy represented by the current which excites the field of the generator is easily made. The method employed was to charge the field, beginning with a very small current, and increase this by successive steps until the poten- tial at the terminals of the armature, at a speed of 250 revolutions per minute, approximated 3000 volts, taking at each 298 CA SSIER ' S MA GAZINE. step simultaneous reachiiigs of the cur- rent in the field, the potential at the field terminals, and the potential at the armature terminals. The field current was then gradually reduced, simultane- ous measurements being taken as before of the current in the field, the potential at the field terminals, and the potential at the armature terminals. In this way the field current required to induce in the armature, without load, any gi\'en electromotive force not less than 500 volts and not greater than 3000 the field current in each generator under full load will in no case exceed 15 horse- power. The next loss to be determined is that due to the magnetization of the armature core. This is made up of two factors, but for our purpose, these need not be differentiated from each other. The test was made as follows : The generator being driven at a speed of 250 revolutions per minute by the di- rect current motor, measurements of the electric energy delivered to the ---'- --^ '-- ,'" ■^ --, / /■^^ -^ <\ /. ^ X \ V/ '^N \ v'-fvl ov" / //', ^.\ V // ' \ A / / / // '\\ // / 'i\ 1 \/ \\ 1 / \\ 1 W:i VE ORW \ \ ATO ^ \ If -- _-, -S(^ USO D 1 _^ \ 30' ■&' m' 75' 'JO' THE I'UTENTIAL Ct'RVE FOR ONE i 135' rilE GENERATORS. volts, was determined. From this the field current which corresponds to any armature potential when the generator is loaded, — that is, when the armature is delivering current, — can be deter- mined with close accuracy by calcula- tion. With some types of machines this would not be so easily done, but in these generators the relations existing be- tween the armature and field are similar to those which exist in many of the large generators employed in street rail- way service, and in making the calcula- tion, therefore, we are not far removed from the safe basis of experimental fact. In this way it was determined that under conditions which will exist at Niagara, latter were made coincidently with measurements of the potential at the terminals of the generator armature. As the current in the field of the generator is varied, by adjusting resistance in its circuit, the magnetization of the arm- ature, of course, varies, and the poten- tial at its terminals is a measure of the magnetization, or, more strictly, induc- tion in the armature core. As the magnetization increases, more power is required to revolve the field, the difference in the power delivered by the motor to the generator for any given potential at the armature termi- nals (that is, for an}' given degree of magnetization), and the power required to drive the field at the same speed with Dr. Coleman Sellers, oue o( the best known engineers on both sides of the At- lantic, is the consulting- engineer of the Cataract Construction Company, and is also president and chief engineer of the Niagara Falls Power Company. ^Qr*^^t.4/t,t^ /H^- De Courcy May was the engineer and general superintendent of the Cataract Con- struction Company during the installation of the wlieelpit machinery'. ELECTRIC POWER AT XIACARA. 303 no magnetization being accounted for by the core loss. As already stated, the energy required to drive motor and generator, as determined in the case of the first machine, is 76 horse-power, and by subtracting tliis amount from the amounts required to drive the gene- rator with any given magnetization in the core, we have a closely accurate measure of the loss. In this wa)' it was determined that the amounts of power deli\'ered to the motor, corresjjoncling to potentials at the armature terminals A'arving irom 2000 to 2400 volts, were as lollows : 2000 volts. .121 — 76 = 45 Iiorse-power 22UO " , I V — 7'> — 54 " 2400 " .,41-76 = 65 Were the armature in service, de- livering currents rejiresenting the full output of tlie machine, the distnljution ot tlie magnetic lines in tlie armature cure would be somewhat, but not ver)' radically cliflcrent, and consequenth' these measurements do not tell us ex- actly what the loss in the core will be under conditions of actual service. But, making a fair alhjwance for an in- creased loss due to tills and other minor causes which may make them- selves felt in the commercial operation of the generator, it would seem safe to say that the loss in tlie armature core, operating at 2100 A'rjlts, A\"hich is about the voltage at which those gx-nerators supplying local ser\'ice will be operated, will not exceed 60 horse-power. The loss due to the current in the armature conductors could not be ac- curately determined from tests in the shop. This loss, hf)wever, is easih- calculated with close accurac\- from measurements of the resistance of the armature ci^ncluctors and the known value of the full load currents which they will carry in service. Disregard- ing possible eddy currents in the con- ductors, which, from the construction, should be almost negligible, calcula- tions show that the loss in the armature conductors under full load will not ex- ceed 30 horse-power. Theory indicates that other losses, with the possible exception of eddy currents in the field poles, will be so small as to be practi- callv negligible, and including the loss in the lield poles, which could not lie readily determined, their amount will not be sufficient to materiall}^ affect the etficiency of the generator. To sum up the mechanical, electric and magnetic losses, when the genera- tor is delivering current at 2100 \-olts, we ha\'e roughly the tollowing: Masinimn Inss in field copper. t,s horse-power Loss lu aniiature con.*-_- 60 Loss iu armature coucluctors 30 '' Total 105 To arri\'e at the actual efficienc)' of the generator we must add to this the losses due to air friction and friction of the bearings, but the tests do not in- dicate to what these amount, except that with the loss in the thrust bearing- used during the shop tests they did not exceed 50 horse-jjower. With the losses in the thrust bearing charged against the generator (which is, of course, unfair to the machine) we have lor the total mechanical, electric and magnetic losses 155 horse-power. In order that the generator shall deliver 5000 horse-power to the circuits it is, therefire, necessary that 5155 horse- power be transmitted to it through the shaft. Dividing 5000 horse-power, the output, by 5155 horse-power, the as- sumed input, "we ha\'e almost e.xactlv 97 per cent. Fmm all this it ap^pears perfectly safe to sa\- that the generators, under the conditions of commercial service, will, at full load, operate at an efficienc}' e-xceeding 97 pier cent. At the time of writing this, the tests of the generators as erected in the power house at Niagara are not yet completed. The description of the electric gen- erating p)lant in the foregoing pages is necessarily incomplete. Much that would interest scientific specialists is omitted or merely glanced at, and on the other hand, space and time ha\-e not permitted the attempt to elucidate statements which, to those not familiar with electric work, must appear more or less obscured by technical phrase- ology. This I cannot hope to amend. The tests of the first 5000 horse- power unit are now in pirogress, and success is assured. When, on the 304 C.~ISS/£R'S MAGAZINE. morning of April 4th, 1S95, ]\Ir. Ru- dolphe Baumann, the Swiss engineer, wlio has for several 3'ears devoted his skill and energy to periect the hj'drau- lic plant, gently moved the hand wheel which controls the first turbine, the field of the generator began to revolve, noiselessly, irresistibly, testifying to the skill and painstaking effort of the civil, hydraulic, mechanical and electrical engineers, whose combined efibrts, di- rected by the splendid enterprise of the Cataract Construction Company, have united in producing a 5000 horse-power unit of machinery, capable of transform- ing the energy of falling water to elec- tric energy, live, vibrant, needing only suitable conductors to guide it across miles of country, to places where it may turn the wheels of a thousand mills and factories. The Niagara generators were con- structed by the Westinghouse Com- pany, following, as regards mechanical form, the type of machine proposed by the engineers of the Cataract Construc- tion Company. This was fully de- scribed b)' Prof George Forbes in a paper read in November, 1S93, before the British Institution of Electrical Engineers. The auxiliary electric ap- paratus, including exciters, switching devices, measuring instruments, etc., were designed and constructed by the Westinghouse Company, assisted, as to the bus bars, by the Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Company, of Provi- dence, R. I., U. S. A., and the India Rubber and Gutta Percha Insulating Company, of New York. Among those who have been par- ticularly prominent in the work are : Mr. Albert Schmid, general superin- tendent ; ]\Ir. C. F. Scott, electrician ; Mr. Philip Lange, superintendent ; Mr. O. B. Shallenberger, consulting elec- trician ; Mr. B. C. Lamme, Mr. E. C. Means, Mr. H. P. Davis ; Messrs. Sigfried, Wright, Boegel, W. F. Lamme, Beinitz, Alberger, Mirault, Friedlander, Strauss, Mould and Parks. To Dr. Coleman Sellers, president and chief engineer of the Niagara Falls Power Compan)', and Mr. JDe Courcy May, late superintendent and engineer of the Cataract Construction Company, who, in consultation with Mr. Schmid and his assistants, made many valuable suggestions, the thanks of the Westing- house Company are also due. John Eogakt i- one of the consiiUing eug"iucers for Ihc Cataract CousLruclion Co., and, as such, has taken a proiniuent part in most of the \vork pertaining to the great Kiagnra enterprise. Tin-: M.VIX STRF-ET. THE INDUSTRIAL VILLAGE OF ECHOTA AT NIAGARA. By John llogart, M Am. Soc. C. E. THE lands of the Niagara Power Company extend about two and one-quarter miles along the right bank of the Niagara river. The enor- mous mechanical power there available, either by the direct use of water or by electrical transmission, will bring to these lands very large industrial estab- lishments, some of which have been, in fact, already built, e\'en before the power which they require could be fur- nished to them. With such industries must come a large population of skilled labour op- eratives, mechanics, experts, foremen, clerks, accountants, superintendents and proprietors. It is in all respects desirable that the homes for these men and their families should not be too far from their work, and, therefore, the company owning the lands determined to create a residence neighbourhood which should have comfortable houses, with all practicable conveniences, with attractive surroundings, and which could be rented at very reasonable rates. A location was chosen near the centre of the lands of the company, and upon eighty-four acres, thus se- lected less than two years ago, there is now a very complete village. The story of so speedy a develop- ment of an industrial village, a descrip- tion of the plans adopted and of the methods of executing the constructions demanded by those plans should not be, under any circumstances, uninter- esting. But m the case of this village of Echota, there were a number of special conditions which presented pe- culiar difficulties in determining the best solution of the various problems inci- dent to a successful result. The land upon which the improve- ments have been made is of oblong, but not exactl}^ rectangular, shape, about 3000 feet long in a direction parallel with the Niagara river, and about 1500 feet in width. The river bank is dis- tant about 1000 feet from the nearer line of the village. The whole area, both of the village and of the land be- tween it and the river, is very flat, sloping very slightly to the bank. Over the whole eighty-four acres of meadow on which the village has now been laid out, there was an extreme variation of surface of four feet. The 3o8 CASS/EJi'S MAGAZINE. ^ 3 w I A o a THE IXnUSTR/AL J7LLAGE OF ECHOTA. .109 general average level of the river, 562 feet above tidewater at New York, is about three feet lower than the lower parts of the village, but the water of the river occasionally rises to very nearly the elevation of this village surface. It was, therefore, impracticable to carry the drainage of these grounds to the river, with sufficient fall in pipes or gutters to quickly relie\'e the surface the \'illage was covered with water of considerable depth soon after the be- ginning of the works of improvement. Under a lew inches of loam which covers these grounds, there is a stratum of about eight or nine feet of blue clay, then a red clay, and then a compact gravel and clay overlies the rock, which is found at depths of not less than four- teen feet. In their natural state these PI \ /^ ANOTHlcji stkj;i-:t Xi ■:\\' IX i-:cH<)TA, from the water of rainfalls, while to carry the requisite sub-drainage directly to the river was simply impossible. The western boundary of the village is a stream of very moderate and slug- gish flow in ordinary seasons, but sud- denly expanding and o\-erflowing with an enormous volume of water at times of heavy rainfall or sudden thaw. A branch of this stream, with the same characteristics, runs just north of the village line. The place is thus exposed on two sides to the overflow of these streams, and, in fi^ct, the whole area of fields were in very bad condition for long periods after e\-ery rainfall, and during the gradual melting of the win- ter snow. The water gathered in shal- low pools. There was not sufficient general surface slope to carry it away, and it could not pass through the tenacious underlying- clay. It disap- peared only by evaporation. Experi- mental excavations for cellars of houses retained water as tenaciously as well- cemented cisterns. The land during these seasons was wet, sticky and heavy, and when the water did evapo- 310 CASS/£Ji'S MAGAZINE. Tin-: SKW'AGK DISPOSAI, ^VORKS. rate, the ground became baked and seamed with wide and narrow cracks in the hard clay soiL Tlie roads in the ^■icinity were either very dusty or very muddy. One of the features of the design is that every house shall be provided with a dry cellar and shall have a fair garden area. The plans for the streets also contemplate considerable grassy sur- faces and ample provision of shade trees. It was, therefore, essential that the soil should be always in fit condition to maintain grass, lawns, trees, gardens and flowers. Streets and roads cannot be kept in good order nor taken care of economi- cally unless thoroughly under-drained. SECTION .IND ELBVATION OF THE SEWAGE DISPOSAL IIUILDING. THE INDUSTRIAL ]TLLAGE OF ECHOTA. 311 Furthermore, and of still greater mo- ment, it would have been criminal to have invited families to take up their abode in houses built upon ground in such condition. Malaria and kindred diseases would have had a fertile field. But the waters, both of the small stream bounding the village, and of the Niagara river, some distance away, were at too great an elevation to receive even the rainfall running over the surface, to say nothing of the water taken from the subsoil deeply enough to give the free drainage required. It was necessary also to provide an outlet for the sewage of the houses, and the elevation of the streams made a direct discharge into them impracti- cable. A discharge of this drainage and sewage into the lower river below the Falls, would have been possible, but it would have involved the construction of a conduit of great length, which, to secure the necessary gradient, would have been mostly in deep rock excava- tion and would ha^'e necessarily been of considerable size to pro\'ide, in addition, for the sewage of all the dis- trict lying between Echota and the lower river. The authorities of the city of Niagara Falls did not feel that it was necessary, at present, to extend their sewer system to Echota and the con- sulting engineer of the Niagara Develop- ment Company found a much less ex- pensive method of pro\'iding fully for its needs. It will, however, be practicable to directly connect both the drainage and sewerage systems with the extended trunk lines of the city sewers when they reach Echota. The recei\'ing well and the disj^osal house have been located particularly with this in view. A complete system of under-drainage was designed and executed just as designed. The street plan of Echota, as shown in the illustration on page 313, includes alleys in the rear of the resi- dence lots. Advantage was taken of this fact to separate the lines of drain- age conduits, and those of the sewerage system, the latter carrying only house wastes. The principal pipes of the drainage system follow the streets ; those to convey sewage are in the 1- PLATFORM Jt •r f PL.iX OF STATION FOR WELLS AXD PUMPS, S):\V,AGli iJLSPr.SAL AN^ ELLCTRIC LI(;iriT>7G. TIO^J 01 S!,\\A - ,, _^^fp5yf^5!iSS!ap5ffr^* ' ORIG_m AL WATER LEVEU • -"t _5 -PRESENT-WATER-^LEVEb^^ LRUSS Sl-XTION UF AN ECHOTA STIiliET ^^■ITII TELFORD-MACADAM PAVEINIENT. whole village is underlaid b)' this drain- age system. These open jointed small tiles have utterly changed the physical and sani- tary conditions of the ground on which the village is built. It is no longer heavy or muddy after rains, neither is it dusty nor dry during the warm season. The hard clay has become friable ; the water of rains sinks quickly into the ground and disappears, grasses flourish, the lawns are in excellent con- dition, the trees which have been set out are healthy, and the cellars are perfectly dry. In fact, the level of the ground water has been lowered fully four feet, which is virtually, and for all horticultural and sanitary purposes, ex- actly the same as though the whole surface had been lifted four feet. The place no longer suggests dampness and discomfort, and the difference in the feel of the air is very perceptible to those who have spent much time there before and after the introduction of this drainage. As every house to be built in the village is to be provided with running water, with closets and with kitchen sinks, a system of sewerage was re- quired which would convey all house wastes quickly and certainly to their ultimate disposal. A separate system was designed, which takes no storm or drainage water. Its conduits are vitri- fied pipes, with a minimum interior diameter of six inches. These are laid generally in the alleys, at an elevation above the drain tiles. House connec- tions will thus be made without disturb- ing the street surfaces. The pipes have cemented joints and are automatically flushed at regular periods. They con- duct the sewage to one compartment of the well above described. From this well the sewage might be pumped to the small stream near at hand, or through a pipe of proper size, directly OSEWER CRTJSS SECTK'X OJ- THE POT'LEVARD AT ECllCT.l, THE INDUSTRIAL VILLAGE OE ECU OTA. )i5 into the Niagara river. Wliile the dilution would be great, it was not deemed advisable, nor desirable, to thus deliver untreated sewage into the river, and a system was, therefore, adopted which secures the separation of all solids, the purification of the liquid and the delivery of an effluent deprived of all unsightly and unwholesome char- acteristics. This is effected in the sewage dis- posal works of which the location is seen in the drawing. The details of construction of these works are also illustrated. There is a double set of elongated tanks or deposition chambers, so arranged in section and in length as to ensure a very slow passage of the sewage undergoing treatment. It is pumped from the well directly to the end of one of these elongated cham- bers, and is there treated automatically, by the action of float valves, with milk of lime and a solution of perchloride of iron. Sedimentation and precipitation of the solids follow, and any floating sub- stances are intercepted by screens. Chlorine is delivered through perforated pipes supported on brackets near the isottom of the chambers. When a cer- tain quantity of the purified fluid has passed o\'er a weir into the terminal tank, it flows, by syphonage, into the effluent chamber and, thence, with the pure drainage water, pumped from the other compartment of the well, it en- ters the stream. While one set of tanks is in use, the deposited material is removed by traveling buckets from the other tank, and is used upon the cultivated grounds of the company. The effluent is clear and clean. These works were constructed by Mr. James J. Powers, an expert in the treatment of sewage. The building which shelters the well, the pumps and the disposal tanks is of an exterior construction in harmony with the architecture of the dwellings in the village. This building has also the dynamo for the electric light service of the place. The occasional sudden engorgement and overflow of the small streams at the site of Echota has been already spoken of While the system of drain- age will take care of all ordinary rain- fall, experience on two occasions has given reason to feel that special meas- ures were desirable to prevent the dam- age and discomfort which might follow the erratic action of these streams. At such times they overflow their banks. But observation has shown that a con- siderable expanse of country surround- ing Echota may then also be under water. An elevation of the bank of ONE OF THE CATCH E.iSINS FOR THK DRAINAGE SYSTEM. the stream immediately adjacent to the village would not suffice. In order to protect the whole area of the improved district, it must be guarded on every side. This has been accom- plished by the construction of a bank or dyke along the boundary line and en- tirely surrounding the village. This dyke is eight feet wide on top, has side slopes of one and a half to one and is compactly built so as to resist the pass- age of water. On the east boundary of the grounds it is supplemented by a ditch on the outer side, ten feet in width, so placed as to intercept and carry to the Niagara river any volume of water that may come towards Echota 3i6 CA SS/EJ? ' S MA GA ZINE. TH1-: sciiD'tr. AT i:cnoTA. from the higher g-rounds abo\-e. Where the small stream alaove alluded to is ad- jacent to the village, the dyke is widened to fifty feet and becomes an exterior street. As an additional precaution, and especially to prevent any possible clam- age in the event of a temporary stop- page of the pumjjs, a relief conduit has been laid to the ri\'er, arranged with a check ^•alve so as to open whenever the le\'el of the ground water should rise higher than the ^vater in the ri\'er. These combinetl measures ha\-e not only brought the land included within the boundaries of Echota to the satis- factory condition described above, but they have secured them from all danger of overflow. The study of a design for the ground plan of streets was primarily affected by some existing' contlitions. The village was bounded on the west by the small stream, on the south by straight lines of railroad and on the north and east bv defined property lines. There was one street, sixty-six feet wide, passing through the property, which could not, for legal reasons, be changed. Necessarily accepting these conditions, the plan adopted is shown on page 313. The system of streets and alleys was based mainly on parallelism with the longer side of the village. The streets are, generally, fifty feet in width, but all houses are placed twenty feet back from the street line. The fifty feet street thus becomes virtually ninety feet THE JXDJ'STRIAL I'JLI.AGE OF ECHOTA. 317 wide, giving to each house a front yard and lawn. The lots are, generally, about 115 feet deep, some being still deeper and only a lew being 100 feet. There is, thus, ample space for gardens and 3'ards. A system including alley's was adopted after careful consultation on each side of", and outside, the road- way, but near the curb and running between a double line of trees. The houses are to be, uniformly, twenty feet back from the street line, as is shown on page 314- The streets of fift}' feet in width have I'ROXT KI.KV.^TION, SIDE EI.EV.\TION. BED ROOM l2'o"x 18 '6" ' 311 "t - ■-: BED ROOM lo'e'x J5'g" z. IIRST FLOOR. SlXrtXl) FR't >;Li;V.\TIONSi ANl' PLAX^J^ OF OXF ' >F TIIF S^t.\LI- J-Ft AT ]:eiioT,\.. with the officers of the company. Under the strict sanitary regulations which will be made and continued, the objections against alleys, iound to e.\ist in some places, will not there obtain. One street, to meet the extension of a proposed boulevard to Buffalo, is 100 feet in width. It has a roadway of forty feet, a provision for electric cars a roadway of twenty- ii\e feet, and a single line of trees on each side. On the drawing of this street tliere are, in- cidentally, shown the lines of original water level and of the present level to which it has been lowered. The road- ways have a Telford-Macadam pave- ment. This is formed by bringing the earth to lines parallel with tiie jiroposed 3i8 GASSIER' S MAGAZINE. FRONT ELEVATION. FIRST FLOOR. BED ROOM ■ BATH ROOM I ii'o'X 12'0" BED ROOM 12'o"x J4'6" BED ROOM 12'o"x 12'o" BED ROOM 12'0"X J4'6" SECOND FLOOR. I-.LK\'ATIOX ANT) IT.AXS f >V fiXK 1 -" TI LARi.KR jlol Si:S AT ICCMOTA. final surface and the earth is then well compacted by rolling. On this surface is placed the Telford foundation of quarried limestone blocks, eight inches in thickness. Upon these stones is placed a small quantity of sandy binding material, and the surface is rolled smooth. Then follows trap rock broken into pieces not to exceed two inches in size. This is three inches in depth and, with another binding coat on its top, is again well rolled. There is then added another layer, two inches in depth, of trap rock, broken into pieces not to exceed one inch in size. This is rolled, covered with screenings from the broken trap and finally brought to the required lines by thorough rolling, using water during the operation. A steam roller is used for this work. Maple and elm trees have been set three feet within the lines of curb. The paved surfaces ha\'e a crown of four inches in the width of twenty-five feet, and of six inches on the one street, Sugar street, where the pavement is forty-two feet in width. The grades of streets and gutters are necessarily very light, but the lines have been laid so truly that no trouble has been experi- enced from stoppage of the flow of water. Inlet basins, of which the con- struction is shown by the sketch on page 315 are placed at the corners of streets and at other points, so that they are never farther apart than 440 feet and generally not more than 300 feet. These receive the water from the street surfaces and gutters and are connected by trapped inlets with the drainage conduits. They have a large depressed chamber below the ]e\'el of the outlet pipe, in which any solids or street detritus are precipitated by gravity and frequently removed through the cover at the surface. The same provision of a settling or silt basin, to intercept detritus, is made in the basins receiving drainage from the lines of sub-surface tiles, and wherever more than two lines of tiles met at one point there was placed a silt basin, made of vitrified pipes, fifteen inches in diameter, extending below the inlet and outlet. Connections with THE INDUSTRIAL \ILLAGE OF ECHOTA. 319 these basins were made by special vitri- fied pipe with branches to ht the angles of the drains. All the houses in the ^'illage are built by the company. Their architec- ture combines a general uniformity of design with much variety in form and detail. The architects were Messrs. McKim, Meade & White, of New York. The general appearance of the houses is well indicated in the several illustrations reproduced from photo- one roof, but with entirely separate entrances in the front and rear, and each with its own yard and garden space. The larger house has ten rooms, with furnace, bath and other desirable arrangements. The rental for the houses runs from $9 to $30 ( £\ i6s. to ^6) a month and includes, in each case, water and electric light. It is the in- tention of the company, as soon as the character of the settlement is firmly established, to give its tenants an ASSEMBLY ROOIvr STOKH AND HOUSES AT ECHOT.^. graphs. All are painted in the colors adopted by the company, — yellow and white. Houses for about fifty families have already been built. These vary both in e.xterior appearance and interior ar- rangement. One of the simpler and smaller houses and one of the larger and more elaborate ones are illustrated by elevations and plans on pages 317 and 31S. The smaller house has four rooms of good size and also a large cellar. It has electric light, running water, closet and kitchen sink. Some of the houses with this ground plan and number of rooms are detached, others are built with either two or four under opportunity to purchase their homes on easy terms, thus avoiding the evils which have at times resulted from the too positive application of the pro- prietary system. The general appear- ance of the parts of the village where houses have been built is very pleasing and attractive. Water, filtered by the Morison & Jewell gravity system, is furnished by "the Niagara Falls Water Works Com- pany, one of the allied companies of the power company, and hydrants are placed at convenient distances. Ample provision of hose is made for fire pro- tection. The streets are lighted by in- candescent lights of fifty candle power CASSIBJi ' S Jl/A GAZINE. THE INDUSTRIAL ULLAGE OF ECHOTA. 321 each. A large building has been placed at one of the prominent street corners. The lower floor is for a general store, and the upper floor has a handsome hall, with dressing and toilet rooms, which is put at the service of the resi- dents of the village. A commodious brick school-house, also, has recently been built at Echota by the city of Niagara Falls. All the works of construction have been continuously in charge of the resi- dent engineer, Mr. W. A. Bracken- ridge, who has also given many valuable original suggestions, particularly in the development of the protection dykes, the construction of the roads and the arrangement of the houses. The word Echota signifies, in the Indian language, " Place of Refuge." It was suggested as an appropriate name by Mr. Edward D. Adams, the president of the Cataract Construction Company. Echota is adjacent to the principal lines of railroad, the company having already built a handsome station on the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad. Two principal streets of the city of Niagara Falls run past and through the village, and lines of electric cars are now in operation, connecting with all parts of the city. At the foot of one of the main streets of the village is the wharf from which a daily line of steamers runs to Buffalo. The village of Echota has, thus, been evolved in accordance with the careful study of the men to whom was com- mitted the responsibility of the solution of a complex problem. A district, not fit for comfortable residence, has been transformed into an ideal, healthful \'illage. Ground upon which no vege- tation would thrive has been changed to a region of velvet lawns and bloom- ing gardens. Roads which were a dis- comfort from dust, or an annoyance from mud, have been made into well- paved, beautiful streets. An unattrac- tive expanse of poor meadowland has become a model town, with inviting residences at very moderate expense for the families of all who may have to do ^\•ith the busy industries called into action by the wonderful power drawn from the Falls. The prudent foresight of the managers ot capital, the artistic design of the architects and the well- matured plans of the engineers have given a result about which the author does not hesitate to write, because that result will have an efiective part in the great story ot the successful develop- ment of the forces of Niagara. 11-3 NOTABLE EUROPEAN WATER POWER INSTALLATIONS. Bv Col. Th. Tiirri-ttiin. H t'-^ A\'ING been in- vited by the editor to contribute, as consulting engineer to the Cataract Con- struction Company, an article to this number of Cass- ier's Macazine, it seems proper to say that my English and American col- leagues, who are living closer to the ,; . great Niagara work, W' are better able than I to speak of this gigantic under- .""taking, and to describe how the impetuous Niagara river was mastered and how the wonderful machinery was installed, which, by electric means, will spread light and power far around Niagara Falls. Leaving, therefore, all account of the Niagara plant to others, I will endeavour to give, for interesting comparison, a description of similar works which have been, or are being, carried out in Europe, more especially the works which the city oi Geneva, in Switzer- land, is now building and which I have the honour of directing as president of the Geneva municipality and director of its public works. In comparison with the installation at Niagara Falls e\'en the greatest Euro- pean works lor the utilization of water power are small ; thev are to the Niagara works in the [iroportion of the Euro- pean to the American continent, in the proportion of the Rhone or the Rhine to the Mississippi and the St. Lawrence. The town of Schaffhausen, on the Rhine, was the first in Switzerland to endeavour to use the ri\'er passing through it to procure power lor driving the machinery of the manulacturers in its neighbourhood. Its works were established twenty-one years ago through the generosity of one of its wealthy citizens, M. Woser, who, to endow his native city with this impor- tant water power, laid out large sums of money. At that time no other means of transmitting- power was known than that of wire ropes, and to that purpose very costly apparatus was set up in the middle of the river, the Rhine being dammed up so as to procure a fall to drive a set of turbines. About 1500 horse-power was obtained in this way and was distributed to neighbouring workshops. The system of wire ropes necessarily limited the development of the works, and the Schaffhausen plant remained as it was when started, until the progress of electrical knowledge allowed of further extension. Three years ago, three new turbines, of 500 horse-power each, were added, driving- dynamos which distribute electric power to neighbouring factories. The example of Schaffhausen was followed a few years later at Bellegarde, on the Rhone. The little town of Bellegarde is situated in France close to the Swiss frontier. There the Rhone, cased in between high cliffs of rock, has pierced for itself a subterranean channel in which it disappears entirely in winter when the waters are low ; for this reason the place is called the " Perte du Rhone." An English company ob- tained the concession to establish in this place a water-power plant amount- ing to several thousand horse-power. The company formed a reservoir to re- ceive the waters of the Rhone above the "Perte du Rhone," cut a tunnel in the rock about 1200 meters, or nearly 4000 leet long, and erected a /^^^ C4A^^ /^^ Col. Throdore Tukrettini was one of tlie members of llie lutcrnaLioual Niagara Falls Comniissiou. He is now president of the municiiiialily of Geneva, Switzerland, and director of its jjnblic works. EriiOPEAX WATER PO]]'r.R IXSTA LIGATIONS. 325 building for the housing- of six turbines of 630 horse-power each, working under a head ol water of 14 meters, or about 46 feet. The water-power was used to pump water to the upper level of the town above, and to distribute power in Bellegarde by means ot the previously mentioned wire ropes. There, again, the cable transmission was a cause of restraint in the development of the W'Orks and several companies suc- ceeded one another without attaining the utilization of all the available power. In 187S, the town of Zurich estab- lished in the Limmat, where it issues from the lake, and in the town itself, works of 1500 horse-power, by the suc- cessive setting up of several turbines of 200 horse-power, working under a fall of water var)'ing between 2 and 3 meters, or about 6 '2 and 10 feet. These remarkable works were constructed under the direction of M. Burkli, then town-engineer of Zurich. The greater part of the power obtained was used for providing water to the town ; what re- mained was distributed to factories for driving small private turbines up to 5 horse-power. Besides this, from about 200 to 400 horse-power could be dis- tributed by wire rope to an industrial quarter in the immediate neighbourhood of the water-works. While the distri- bution of power through water-pressure was rapidly taken up, the distribution of power through cables proved a failure just as it had been at Schaft^hausen and Bellegarde. At the same time a company was formed in Fribourg, for utilizing the power of the Sarine in the immediate neighbourhood of the town of Fribourg. There were 1 500 horse-power to be dis- posed of, and the system of trans- mission was again that of wire rope. The use of this system of transmission was there again a failure, and the com- pany had to be wound up. Several years ago the works were bought u]i by the Fribourg Government, and electric transmission was introduced. This transformation has given the works a fresh start and they are now doing well. In 18S2, I was elected by my fellow- citizens to the direction of the public works of the town of Geneva in conse- quence of a paper which I published in support of the idea of utilizing the whole power of the Rhone as it issues from the lake of Geneva and passes through the town. The studies made with that object, and to which several distin- guished Swiss engineers contributed, such as Messrs. IVIerle d'Aubigne, I^egler, A. Achard and Prof Pestalozzi, proved that the Rhone afforded, at Geneva, about 6000 horse-power. The system to be adopted for the distribu- tion of the power was the subject of a special studj-. Wire rope transmission of power had been condemned by experience, for it has been amply proved that factories will not come to the source of power, but, on the contrary, that the power must be transmitted to wherever fac- tories are established. Transmission by compressed air gave unsatisfactory results, and transmission by electricity had not, in 1882, reached the degree of perfection which it has attained since then, and could not be thought of The only system which remained to be considered was that of water under pressure, and this was the means of transmission which was adopted. Ex- jierience has proved that the choice of that system was a good one. The efficiency of water-pressure transmission is not considerable, but this drawback was counterbalanced by numerous ad- vantages, some of which result, it is true, froni the special situation of Geneva. The water of the lake, employed for the distribution of the power, is absolutely pure. It could, therefore, be utilized as drinking water, as well as for general industrial purposes and motive power. The same water mains could also be used for town uses and for working private turbines. The water employed, containing no sand in suspension, does not wear out machinery. The studies preliminary to undertak- ing the new works were completed at the end of 1883. A credit of two mill- ion francs was voted by the Municipal Council of Geneva and the works were begun at once. The plan consisted in ;26 C.4 SS/EJ? ' 5 A/A GA ZINE. EUROPEAN U'.ITER POWER INSTALLATIONS. 327 TH1-: XCW POWER IU.)USE NKAR >N^T AIXIXI (JF T20XV1CRTI-:RS \ND Tin-: Lo\\-Ti:xs iX S\\MrCH];ilARL>S. under the most economical conditions, so that there is an actual and very important saving to an establishment using electric power throughout, in- stead of steam, or compressed air, or rope transmission. becoming more and more a part and parcel of our every-day practical re- quirements, while in the language of the patent office, "new and useful" applications are in daily process of in- vention and development. 536 CASS/EJ?'S MAGAZINE. TWO (IF Til KOTARV C(1>:VERT1-:rS AND ALSO TWO n 1^ THR STATIC TRANSF(_'RMERS PITTSBURf.II REDUCTIOX CoIMPANY'S PTANT. With such a field of usefuhiess for electric power, and with the assurance of the best technical advice attainable that the work was feasible from an en- gineering standpoint, and that the cost was not at all prohibitive, one can realize why it has been possible to secure capital for the Niagara power plant ; and as the present power house stands ready to deliver fifteen thousand horse- power in electrical energy, with an ulti- mate capacity of fifty thousand horse- power (the intake canal being large enough to supply two power houses of this capacity), we can consider the near- by applications of power about to be made. The Niagara Falls Power Company owns somewhat more than a square mile of land around the power house, and it purposes to rent or sell this land to industrial establishments desiring to locate there, and to sell them electrical power, available for twenty-four hours a day, every day in the year, at a price so low that these establishments can afford to move from their present loca- tions and sell their present plants. The power, as generated, is an alter- nating two-phase current of twenty-five cycles per second, or three thousand alternations per minute, the electro- motive force, or electrical pressure, be- ing about two thousand volts. At this voltage, and with the short distances mvolved in local distribution, the trans- mission involves no engineering difficul- ties, electrical or otherwise ; in fact, it is similar to many such transmissions in various cities and towns. Many in- quiries have been received from all parts of the country asking for informa- tion as to the character and cost of the power service, the amount of power available, etc. Two manufacturing establishments have already closed contracts, erected new plants on the ground, and are about ready to start operations, viz. : the Pitts- burgh Reduction Company, of Pitts- burgh, manuiacturers of aluminium, re- quiring 2000 horse-power ; and the Car- borundum Company, also of Pittsburgh, manufacturers of carborundum, a variety of emery, re(iuiring looo horse-power. As each of these comixmies will utilize DISTRIBUTIO.y OF A7AGAR.I ENERGY. 337 the electric current for a special purpose, each differing entirely from the other, a brief description of the two plants will be of interest. The Pittsburgh Reduction Company produces pure aluminium, — a metal which is beginning to attract favourable attention — Irom alumina, an oxide of aluminium, by smelting the latter with the proper flux, in carbon-lined retorts or crucibles, the mass being liquefied and the aluminium reduced by an elec- tric current, passing from a series of carbon rods suspended over the top of the crucible and forming one pole of the circuit, to the carbon lining at the bot- tom ot the crucible which forms the other pole. The current required is what is commonly called a direct cur- rent, the voltage, or pressure, at the terminals in the reducing room being maintained constant at i6o volts, and about 60 retorts being placed around the room in series with one another. As the current, delivered to the Pitts- burgh Reduction Company by the power companv, is of the two-phase variety, alternating, at 2000 volts press- ure, it is necessary to reduce this pressure and then transform the current from alternating to direct. The first change is accomplished by passing the current through large "static trans- formers," built on the principle of the Rhumkorff coil, by which the voltage is reduced from 2000 to 115. The current is then passed through a ' ' rotary converter, ' ' where it is changed from a two-phase alternating current at 115 volts to a direct, or continuous, current at 160 volts. The rotary con- verter is a direct-current generator, with the addition of proper collecting rings and connections on the rear of the armature, by which the alternating cur- rent is led into the machine. It may be considered, in fact, as a motor and generator in one machine. The illustra- tions on jjages 334 to 337 show the power room of the Pittsburgh Reduc- tion Company's plant, with the ap- paratus installed and ready to operate. The plant has a capacity, on the direct- current side, of 10,000 amperes at 160 THE .\LT1;RX.VTIN{.: CUKKKNT sum 01^ THE KOT.VRY C )N VICRTER,^, TIIIC AETE.RNATINI.; CURRENT .S\VITCtIB(_t.ARDS .-\XD TI-TE .STATIC TR \N,Sl-( )RMiCRS C.-ISS/ER ' 5 JL! C.A/.IXE. ONE Tlu:irsAXr» luiRsr.-rDwr.K static rKAXSFORjri-R \'\' riii-: \\OKKS cf the carikiri'N'dum i:<"i."\irAN'\ . r.rjLT v.\ riii-: i;j-;xi-:ral i:i,i:c tric CO. Ni-AV ^'ORK. volts, or 1600 kilowatts,* 0rabout2ooo electrical horse-power. The Carborundum Company utilizes electricity in a different way. A large core of carbon, about 8 feet high and a square foot in cross section, is placed vertically in a large smelting furnace, and around this core is packed the carborundum ore. An alternating elec- * A kilowatt (one thousand watts) is the electrical imit of power. An electrical horse-power, 746 watts, is about -^.v of a kilowatt. trie current is then passed through the core from end to end, the core being gradually brought to an intense (white) heat. This heat is kept up for about twelve hours, the carborundum being gradually reduced from the ore, in crystalline form. The crystals are taken from the fur- nace, ground to a powder and pressed and moulded in various forms for use as emery. The Carborundum plant DISTRIBUTION OF NIAGARA ENERGY. 339 consists of a looo horse-power static transformer, by which the voltage is reduced from 2000 to 100 and 200 volts, and a special reoulator of about the same size, by which the ^'oltage at the core of the furnace is ^-aried as the resistance ot the core changes, owing to its change of temperature, the current being' maintained about constant. The illustrations on pages 338 to 341 and on page 348, show this apparatus in com- pleted form. The Carborundum plant is unicjue, both on account of the way in which the electric po«-er is utilized and also on account of the size of the static translormer and regulator, which are the largest pieces of apparatus of the kind e\er built. Static transformers of the size used in these two installations (270 horse- power and looo horse-power respect- ively) recjuire some artificial method of cooling, for, notwithstanding the iact that the transformers ha\'e an efficiency of from 97 to 98 per cent., the energy transformed into heat is, nevertheless, so great that there is not sufficient radiating surfice to carry it oft, and the temperature at full load -would soon rise to such a point as to endanger, if not destroy, the apparatus. Two dil- ferent plans of cooling ha\-e been adopted. In the Pittsburgh reduction transformers- a blast of air is forced constantly through the numerous in- terstices JDetween the coils, from below, and the heat is thus easily controlled. The Carborundum transformer is cooled by a continuous circulation oi oil. The transformer is placed in a cylindrical iron case, standing on a ring about 6 inches high from the bot- tom of the case. Oil is forced into the transformer from the bottom, and up through its interstices, until it flows over the top and into the surrounding case. It is then drawn off, passed through a cooling coil surrounded by running water and is again forced through the transformer. The result- ing decrease in the temperature rise is the same as in the case of the air blast. In either case the amount of power re- quired for the air blast or for the oil circulation is very small — less than ^3 ]->er cent, of the capacity of the trans- former. Another application about to be made of the power is the operation of the electric road at Niagara Falls, and also of that now being pushed to com- pletion, as a ra|:)id transit line, between Buffalo and the Falls. About 1500 ANOTHER VIi:\V OF Tin: STATIC TRANSFORMER. horse-power in rotary converters will be re-quired for this work, in 500 horse- power units, transforming the alternat- ing into direct or continuous current at 500 volts. The electric lighting sta- tion and the water works at the Falls will probably also utilize the power at an early date. With nearly 5000 horse-power con- tracted for locally, and with the prob- able deniands in the near future for other new plants, as well as for exten- sions to those already installed, it is reasonably certain that from 10,000 to 15,000 horse-power will be required in a year to supply the demands of con- sumers within a radius of three miles 340 CASS/EJiV S MA GA ZINE. Tin: IXTEKXAL ?vIAKI^-T-l' OJ- TIli: C ARIU iRTX 1 )r:\[ Ld.'s L\R(,1-. STATIL TR A XS1~I >RM i:R. THIS TRANSI'TiRrvIKR RETHCl^S THE TRESSI/RK < iF 'ITIE T\\"U-rHASE ALTI:RN,\TING CERUEXT ERO^r 2400 Ti> 2^0 \-()LTS. DISTRIBUTION OF NIAGARA ENERGY. 341 of the power station. Between Niagara Falls and Tonawanda — a distance of about ten miles — is an open, tarming country, which is already being bought up for the purpose of cutting it up for manufacturing sites. Tonawanda itself which may be considered within the radius of what has been classed as " near-by distribution," has special ad- vantages as a manufacturing centre. Ten thousand additional horse-power The consumers will reap the benefit of \'ery cheap power, available at any hour, day or night, while the Power Company will be assured of a definite revenue, without the large expenditure necessary for heavy transmission lines and their accessories. The applications of power thus far suggested or discussed are such as come substantially within the present stage ot electrical development, and THK CARBURI Xin-:\I C< I .M P AN "l' S ONE TIIOUS ■RRHNT REGrLATOK_. is a reasonable estimate of the power that will be utilized in this territory, so that it seems fair to predict that in five years, with m(jderatel\' prosperous business conditions, the "near-by" consumers of power will aggregate about 25,000 horse-power. This power will be distributed and used on the general lines already developed in other places, e.xceiH that the individual consumers will be larger users. No radically new electrical engineering problems are involved, and the cost of distribution will be relatively small. have little about them, therefore, to cause distrust of their successful out- come, financially or otherwise, even in the minds of those who have given no special attention either to the rapid growth of the electrical art in general or to the de\-elopnient of this great power plant in particular. We come now to the second and larger phase of the subject — the trans- mission of the power from Niagara to Buffalo and points beyond, where, in order that its sale may be rendered the more profitable by reason of the quan- 342 CA SS/£Ji ' S MA GA ZIXE. niSTRIBUriON OF XIAG.IRA ENERCY. o\i >\AX CAni.]-; XIAl.ARA. ity consumed, it must successiulh' dis- )Lice existing power plants of all de- criptions, including even the local ■lectric lighting and railway plants at )resent operated by steam, and must 'Stablish and prove its claim of superior 'conomy and of equal or superior re- iability and continuity of service. It 3 the solution of this problem that de- nands the attention of electrical engi- leers, and the results will determine whether the present power house at siagara, with its ultimate capacity ol 10,000 horse-pov/er, shall be onl)- he beginning or the end of the enter- )rise. It is instructive to study the map and onsider the geographical and com- nercial possibilities of different areas if distribution, with Niagara as a cen- re. From this point, on the map hown opposite this page, circles have leen drawn with radii of 100, 200, 300, .00 and 500 miles. Table I. gives nteresting data of several areas so cir- cumscribed, including areas witli the smaller radii (.>! 25, 5 j and 75 miles. Apprnxi- Vumber iiKUf .\rea of Cities in Squarej Witliiu :\Ulcs this Area 1 United of ^'iooo States I People Onl^-). or More Population ol Same Census 1^90 Approxi- mate Es- timate of Hor.se- Power at Present Used in these cities. I 5" 75 100 150 6,. ,00 11,500 27,700 196 000 272,000 282,806 63,000 ^05,000 76.7==.o 470 000 111,700 545. '^00 143,700 825,000 261000 1,756,000 521,000 8,246,000 1.967,000 11,150,000 2 733 000 About one-fifth of the population of the United States is included within a radius of 400 miles from Niagara. The conditions controlling the commercial delivery of power to a point within any of the areas given depend upon the answers to the following questions: 344 GASSIER ' S MA GAZINE. T.'G^^tfjr^k DISTRIBl'TION OF NIAGARA ENERGY. 345 1. What amount of power can be sold, provided it is delivered? That is, what are the local demands ? 2. Are the transmission and delivery to the desired points practicable irom an engineering standpoint ? 3. It the power can be delivered successfully, can it be sold by the Power Company at such a figure as to compete with the price of power gen- erated locall)r ; that is, compete with the large and economical local power plants, such as electric light and rail- way stations and city water works, as well as with the small and comparatively wasteful users ? The latter class of power consumers are, of course, much more numerous in point of numbers, but not necessarily so in point of amount of power consumed throughout the twenty-four hours. The first question can be answered only by a local investigation and can- vass of the power users, their present consumption and the probable annual growth of this consumption. This latter point is of importance, lor the transmission line and transformer stations should be built so as to provide for reason- able growth in demands for a period of from five to ten years. It should not be necessary to erect new buildings, nor to provide new pole lines or conduits for this growth; they should be built of such a capacity as to make it necessary only to in- stall additional appara- tus or additional cop- per wire in the stations or on the pole lines ori- ginally provided. The following table gives an idea of the demands for power in some of the principal cities included in Table I. on page 343. The second question, T.\Ei,K n. CiTV. Distance Popula- by Wire tion. fromNiag: Census ara Falls 1S90. to City I,imiLs Esti- mated Horse- Power Used. Buffalo, N. Y _.. Rochester, N. V.... Krie, Pa AshtabulEi, O _. Syracuse, N. Y Utica, N Y Clevelaud, O Pittsburgh, Pa Akron, () _. . 256 000 134-000 41,000 84,000 88,0-- 44,000 261,000 2^9 000 28,000 20,000 18,500 95 OOfi 152 203 213 240 ^5i 281 2S1 30,000 25,000 8,000 5,000 20,000 7,000 45,000 65,000 5,000 8,000 5,000 15,000 Schenectady, N. Y._ Saodusky, O Albauy, N. Y' Total regarding the engineering possibilities, is a vital one, and demands careful consideration. Apart from engineer- ing problems pure and simple, it is to be remembered that the transmis- sion line to any of the points men- tioned in Table I. must pass through SECTION OF A CAllI.I': CONDT'IT, 346 C-ISS//:Ji ' 5 J/A GAZINE. A.\ AL 1 l-RNATINt. CrRRKNr IXlJUCTIOX JIOTOR, (..EAR!-:!) TO A HOIST. a more or less jjopulous country, and if the necessary \'olt;it;'e or pressure of the current is so liigh, or if the pole lines and conductors must be of such a size and so placed, that the insulation of the line cannot be main- tained, or danger to human life cannot be avoided bv any reasonable precau- tion, then the transmission cannot be considered practicable commercially. Precedents are always of value in studying- the solutions of engineering problems, and it is interesting to con- sider briefl)' two remarkable long-dis- tance transmissions of power in success- ful operation in the United States, although neither are electric transmis- sions, and each clilters materially from the other. One is the transmission of oil by pipe-line, from the natural oil fields of New York, Ohio and Pennsyl- vania, to tide-water, a distance of over 400 miles. The other is the transmis- sion of natural gas, also by pipe-line, from the Indiana fields to the city of Chicago, a distance of about 120 miles. The piping of oil, first from the in- dividual oil wells to storage centres, and then from these storage centres to tide- water, has been a process of gradual development for the last thirty years. The necessity for what may be called the "collecting system" of pipes was felt shortly after the discovery of the natural oil wells, and arose from the rough and mountainous character ot the oil country, which made the ques- tion of transportation an exceedingly difficult one. The individual wells were gradually connected by feed pipes to larger trunk lines, which carrj' the oil to the storage centres. The largest of these centres is at Olean, N.Y., about seventy-five miles from Buffalo. There the Standard Oil Company have large storage tanks, with DISTRIDl'TION OF NIAGARA ENERGY. 547 an aggregate capacity of nearly 9,000,- 000 barrels of oil, and from this point starts the great trunk line, composed of three 6-inch wrought iron pipes, run- ning to tide-water in New York harbor, where the oil is loaded into tank steam- ers and shipped all o\'er the world. There are twelve pumping stations along this trunk line, situated about 35 miles apart, and both the pumps, the pipe-lines and the subsidiary fittings are marvels ot mechanical ingenuity and perfection. The pumps operate at a pressure of about 1000 pounds per square inch, and the capacity of the line is about 30.000 barrels a day. The main pipe-line is divided into divisions and sections, much like a trunk railway system, and has, simi- larly, its division superintendents and engineers, section foremen, line gangs and line walkers, telegraph stations and daily reports. The system works smoothly and quietly, and as the pipes are buried under ground from one to two feet, and run through a sijarsely settled country, the general public sees or hears bat little of the system. A trunk line runs from the Ohio fields to Chicago, another line has been projected from these fields to St. Louis, and two other lines run from West Vir- ginia and Pennsylvania to Philadelphia and Baltimore. The object of the pipe- lines is to cheapen the handling' and transportation of oil to the great con- sumption centres of the country, and while there is no general distribution system at the ]3oint of delivery, the line, nevertheless, can properly be considered as a transmission of power on a large scale, where the difficulties of transmis- sion are many and great. The natural gas pipe line is, perhaps, a more simple example of long-distance power transmission, and bears many striking points of resemblance to trans- mission by electricity. The Indiana gas field covers a territory in the north- ern part of the State, about 38 miles long and 18 miles wide. There are about 60 wells in operation, having an AX i:L!:ctric [>IAMnNI) riKILL I'l siM:c'nX(; wiiRtc, 34S CASS/EJi • S MA CAZINE. FRAME OI~ TJiI£ LARGK REGULATOR OE THE CARl'.GRUNDUM CO. (SlilC I'AGE 2,2,q.') average daily capacity of about 5,000,- 000 cubic feet each. As in tlie oil fields, so here, the individual wells are connected by feed pipes to a supply line, which collects the gas and carries it to the pumping-station at Greentovvn. There large compressors, capable of producing and sustaining a pressure ot 2000 pounds per square inch, force the gas into the transmission line to Chi- cago. The normal pressure carried on this line is 300 pounds per square inch, which admits of a daily delivery of 10 000,000 to 12,000,000 cubic feet of gas in Chicago. Along the line, which consists of two 8-inch wrought-iron pipes, laid 2'2 feet under ground, arc located what are known as ' ' by-pass ' ' stations, about 20 miles apart. At the " by-pass " either of the two main lines can be cut off and the gas sent through the other line. The stations are also utilized as head- quarters for division superintendents, telegraph operators and repair*" gangs. At the Indiana State line the pressure DISTRIDUTIOX OF NIAGARA ENERGY. 349 is automatical!}' reduced, in a "regu- lating station," to 40 pounds, at which pressure the gas is carried into the city by two to-inch wrought-iron pipes. From these pipes it is fed into an ex- tensive system of distributing mains, throughout the city, the pressure being again reduced to less than i pound per square inch. From the city mains the gas is delivered to individual customers for cooking, heating and operating gas engines, and for applying heat under sional man. The essential cnginccrhig features of the natural gas transmission are : 1. An initial station where the gas is collected from the wells and delivered to 2. A pumping station where Xhn press- ure is raised to a high point, measured by ordinary practice, in order to per- mit of the transmission of a large vol- ume of the gas a great distance, with a reasonable and practicable size of trans- mission pipe and loss in transmission. AN ELl-.CTRICAI.LY DRIVEN IlLOWER. Steam boilers, at a price much cheaper than the ordinary illuminating gas. We have here an example of a great natural force of nature, harnessed by man, carried to a distant point, and there distributed and sold for many purposes and to many customers, at a cost below that of the same force locally produced and distributed. The analogv between the eommercial fca- tiiresoi this transmission and that of the Niagara power (without reference to the means of transmission) is clear and striking, even to the non-profes- 3. A duplicate transmission line, with stations every 20 miles, where a section of the pipe in use can be cut out for inspection or repairs, the station also serving as headquarters for those in charge of the section. 4. A line construction involving the best material (much of it specially made) and the most careful work of installa- tion, in order to insure continuity ot service and immunity from leaks, breaks or other accidents. 5. A "regulating station" at the delivery end, where the high and dan- 350 C.-lSS/EJi ' ^^ J/A GA ZIXE. Hi.)KSi:-rowi:R threk-phash alti-:rxatini; current motor. gerous transmission pressure is reduced to one that can be safely carried through the crowded streets of a great cit\'. 6. A distribution system in the city by which the gas, transmitted whole- sale, is distributed retail to individual consumers. 7. Finally, a complete and thorough organization for the care and preserva- tion of the plant, including, especially, a continuous and minute inspection of the transmission line, with facilities at e^■ery "by-pass" station for instant repair ; in short, every facility for the maintenance of the plant in a high state of efficiency and repair. As will be seen, the analogy between these salient engineering features and those which will distinguish the Niagara transmission is quite as marked as is the commercial analogy already noticed. Returning now to the engineering jjroblems of the Niagara transmission, the conductors can be carried either overhead, on a pole line of iron or wood, or a combination of iron and wood, or underground, through a sub- way, where cables are laid or hung in the subway, with a passageway for inspection, or in individual underground pipes or tubes. Where the conductors pass through a city, one or the other of the underground methods will, un- doubtedly, be required, but for the main transmission line, across country, it is quite possible to construct an overhead line so substantial as to reduce to a small and unimportant factor the danger to the line from storms of wind, rain, snow or sleet, or from lightning. We have a practical example of such a line in the modern, long-distance, telephone trunk lines, which are the finest ex- amples of line construction anywhere in the world, and some of which are more than 1000 miles in length. The next important question is the size and insulation of copper conduc- tors necessary. Practical considerations limit the size of a wire for good over- head construction to one having a cross DISTRIDrriON OF NIACARA ENERGY. 351 sectional area of something less than '- square inch ; and if a greater area be necessary, it is divided among two or more conductors. The area of con- ductor necessary to transmit a gi\'en amoimt of electric power a oi\en dis- tance may be expressed by the equa- tion : A (area in square inch) ^ CX A^X D ^E'KJ- " In this (^"represents a numerical con- stant ; yVthe number of electrical horse- power to be delivered ; D the length of transmission line, in feet; iT the elec- tromotix'e force (or pressure) at the dclivcrv end of the line ; and V the loss of pressure in volts on the line, due to its resistance. This c(] nation applies strictly to direct currents, and while the transmis- L1-..NTRIM. G.^L I'UJNU' WITH DI R l.C "1 -Cn?^ NECTJCD MOTOR. CASS/EJ? ' S MA GAZLYE. TABLE III. Lauffen . Fraukfort, Germanj-. Water Power. Pachuca, Mexico. Water Power iMilau, Italy. Tivoli .. ._ Rome, Italy. 200' 50 40,000 Water Power iGuadalajara, Mexico.. 18 9,000 iS 350 1,040 River Gorzente Genoa, Italy.. Water Power_ jSanta Rosalia, Mexico. Water Power_ Griog-esberg, Sweden. I,auffen Heilbroiiu, Germany Richelieu River. Bleio Schwegar. Padenone Folsam. .... St. Hyaciiithe, Quebec. Kucheiin, Germany Fium.e, Italy Sacramento, Cal., U. S- 18 \ oh 1,000 20 I 20/ 2,500 5.000 11,000 8,000 2,500 Water Power Telluride, Col., U. S, Water Power Lowell, Mass., U. S... Oregon Citv-. Portland, Ore., U. S Mill Creek." Redlands, Cal., U. S San Antonio Canon San Antonio, Cal,, U. S. Baltic Taftville, Conn., U. S - 15 . 9&14 SewellsFalls Concord, N. H. U. S Water Power Walla Walla, Wa.sh., U. S_ Water Power Canandaigua, N. Y., U. S_ Water Power Pelzer, S. C, U. S Water Power Silverton, Col., U. S. Water Power Bel Air. Md-.U.S.. Water Power Hartford, Conn., U. S. Water PoA\-er Columbia Cotton trills, Columbia, S. C, U. S San Autonio, Cal., U. S Pomona Cal., U. S. Water Power. Anders >n, S. C. U. S... Water Power Mine at Bodie. Cal , U. S. 400 400 5 000 200 50J 5, coo 450 2,500 2,500 — 75 2,qoo 2.900 120 100, . 3,0001 3,000 8ooiir,50o 1,000 1,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 Aoo. 365 5,000 550 D.C. Three-phase alt. current plant for Exposition 1892. Vari- ous experiments were made on this line. Three-phase Geu. Elec. Co., under construction. Under construction. Gaiiz System, in operaliou three years. Three-phase G. E. Co., oper- ated three years at 5,000 v. on line, last three montlis at 11,000 volts. Ganz System. Three-phase G. E. Co., used in milling operations In operation three years. Three-phase, in operation three years. Three-phase G. E. Co. Just complete. Ganz S5'Stem. Three-phase G. E. Co. Co. alt. current, under construction. Single-phase Westinghouse. in operation four years. Three-phase G. E. Co , under construction. Operates St, R. R. b}' rotary converters. Ditto, Three-phase G. E. Co., in operation lYz year.s. Single-phase Westinghouse, Three-phase G. E " Co., in I operation one year. I Ditto. Single-phase G. E- Co , syn. motor. Three-phase G. E, Co., under I construction. Ditto. Three-phase G. E. Co.. run- ning three months. Ditto. Three-phase G. E. Co., oper- ates station by syn motor. jThree-phase G, E. Co., power I distributed by 18 iuduc. mo- I tors. 150' 1,000 j 10,000 1,000 Single-phase Westinghouse, I operates lights in Pomona. ^5'^ 5-500 5,500 1,000 Two-phase Stanley Co., oper- j I a tes incandescent lights and I ; I induction motors. 150 3,500' 3,500! 3,300 Single-phase Westinghouse, ; ' ' Synchronous motor. 10,000 6,oooi 300:2,5001 800! 400 2,500 I 400 2,200 100 2,000 m TOO 2, 080 1,500 125 3.300 2,300 75 300 2,200 Soo 1,^40 600 ! 6,000 2,500 10,000' J 000 ,500 2,^00 2,200 2,000 2,000 2,000 3.300 3.300 2,300, 2,000 2.200 2,000 7,oooi Soo Total, 44,105 horse-power. sion of alternating currents involves certain other losses and disturbances between conductors, they need not be here considered, since they can be prac- ticalh' neglected by a proper arrange- ment of the conductors in a system such as is here contemplated. In non-technical language the equa- tion means that the area of conductor, and, hence its weight and cost, varies directly as the horse-power delivered and distance transmitted, and inversely as the electrical pressure at the delivery end of the line and loss of pressure in the line. It follows that the higher we make the delivery, and subsequently DISTRIBUTION OF ATA(;aR,1 ENERGY. 353 the initial pressure, tlie smaller and less costly becomes the conductors. The similarity to the laws governing a sim- ilar transmission of a liquid, or gas, is noticeable. In the latter case the limit of pressure carried is the strength of the pipe-line and joints ; with electricity the limit is the insulation resistance of the conductors. For high pressures. withstood a pressure of go, coo volts be- lore puncture. In such a test, how- ever, actual conditions of weather and atmosphere cannot be fully reproduced, and a safety factor of two is not too large to allow. These insulators are sometimes made in two parts, separated by oil. It is very difficult, however, to keep the oil perfectly clean, and the SPECIAl. PORUKLAIN DOUlSLH-PKTTICOATIiD IXSl'LATOR FOR HItill-T IC XSIO X TR.^NSMISSION LlNi:S. 10,000 volts or more, on an aerial line, insulation material on the outside of a wire cannot be depended upon, for, apart from the fact that it has not a sufficiently high inherent resistance to penetration, the weather soon deterio- rates the insulation material, thus low- ering its resistance to such a point as to render the insulation practically useless. The safest and best plan is to use bare conductors, depending upon the supports at the poles for proper insula- tion. These supports are heavy, " dou- ble-petticoated " porcelain insulators, as shown on this page, mounted on the wooden cross-arms of the pole, like the ordinary glass insulators of a telegraph line. Such insulators have successfully 13-3 best practice to-day is to use air separ- ation, which, under conditions of ser- vice, is probably more reliable than a separation by oil. The following list of the principal transmission plants installed or in pro- cess of installation elsewhere is inter- esting as showing what has already been done up to date ; The plant which at once attracts at- tention in Table III. is the Lauffen- Frankfort transmission of 200 horse- power over a distance of more than 100 miles, and at a ma.\imum line pressure of over 40,000 volts (this in 1892). While it is true that this transmission was on a small scale, comparatively, and while it was more or less experi- 554 CASS/EJ?'S MAGAZINE. mental in character, it is none the less significant and suggestive of what can probably be done to-day on a large scale with the wider experience and im- proved methods and apparatus of to- day. The next highest pressure is that on the Guadalajara line, where 11,000 volts are successtully employed. The conductors of the Lauffen- Frankfort line were bare copper o\-erhead wires, attached to oil insulators on the poles, similar to those already described. For the transmission of the first 10,000 horse-power to ButTalo from Niagara Falls, it has been practicallv decided to use 10,000 volts at the delivery end. Connections will be ar- ranged at each end, so that this press- ure can be increased to 20,000 volts, if desired. For points beyond Buffalo, it will, undoubtedly, be necessary to raise the delivery pressure still higher, in order to keep the cost of conductors within practicable limits, and for dis- tances of 200 miles or more, the maxi- mum Lauffen - Frankfort pressure of 40,000 volts must be equalled or ex- ceeded. As the increase in the use of Niagara power, however, will neces- sarily be gradual, the pressure used, and hence the limiting distance of trans- mission, can be increased as rapidly as experience with lines already installed demonstrates that it is feasible and economical to do so. Having determined the delivery volt- ag'e to be used, the only undetermined factor in the equation fixing the area of conductors, and hence their weight and cost, is the loss of pressure in ^'olts on the line. Obviously we can reduce this loss indefinitely by increasing the area of conductors, but this increase can be carried too far, and the economical point is where the annual charges for interest, depreciation and repairs on the whole line (conductors, pole line and labour of construction) equals the money value of the power lost in trans- mission. This is known as Kelvin's A DIRECT CURRKNT KLKCTRIC MOTOR, GH.VRF.D TO X PUMR. DISTRIBUTION OF NIAGARA ENERCrY. 355 law, and applies strictly where the total line cost increases directly as the in- crease in area and weight of conductors. This is not usually the case in practice, since the pole line is built with a capacity for additional wires, and the cost of conductors is therefore usually so pro- " step-up " the generator pressure, which may range from looo to 5000 volts, to the transmission pressure, and then to ' ' step-down ' ' the latter for de- livery and distribution. This is accom- plished by large static transformers, similar t(j those fcjr the Pittsbur8:h Re- AN p:l]:ctric rotary co.al krill. portioned that the interest on any ad- ditional expenditure for copper will not be offset by the money value of the power saved. It is not practicable at the present time to build either generators or mo- tors which will stand safely the high pressures of transmission here contem- plated. It is, therefore, necessary to duction and Carborundum plants, al- ready described, arranged in units of irom 1000 to 2000 horse-power each, in "step-up" and "step-down" sta- tions at each end of the line. The " step-up " and " step-down " stations correspond to the pumping and regu- lating stations at each end of the nat- ural gas pipe-line. 356 CASS7EJ?'5 MAGAZINE. MOIilCRX ]>lRIiCT CURRliNT, SI.O\V STKEO >:LECTKIC :\IOT The use of transformers makes it necessary to use the alternating current for long-distance work, and technical questions of current phase and fre- quency are in\'oh'ed in the engineering- problem. A discussion of such ques- tions, however, invoh-es a high tech- nical knowledge, and as their i:)roper relations and proportions are now well understood by technical men, it is not necessary to attempt to discuss them in a paper of this kind. It is probable that duplicate pole lines and conductors ^^■ill be installed lor any long distance Niagara transmission, and for distances greater than 50 miles, one or more " cut-out " stations along the line will be advisable. The conductors will be led into these stations, and con- nections will be so arranged that any circuit, or any wire of a circuit, can be cut out for repairs or tests, and the cur- rent switched to another circuit. The stations will also ser\e as headcjuarters for telegraph operators, division fore- men, repair gangs and line-walkers. The work of a power transmission company ends properly with the de- livery of the power, at low pressure, in the "step-down" station. Its local distribution and sale are similar to those of power generated locally, and should be handled by a local company familiar with the people and with local affairs generally. Such companies have al- ready been organized in Buffalo and Syracuse, and will, doubtless, be formed in other cities to which the Niagara power may eventually be delivered. The local engineering problems involved are such as have already been met and solved in central station practice, and need not, therefore, be discussed now. The illustration on page 358 shows, diagrammatically, the connections of a long-distance transmission such as that to be installed Ironi Niagara to points sixty miles or more distant. Its distin- guishing engineering features, and those which will mark a departure from any- thing heretofore attempted, are ; The size of the units (generators, motors DISTRIBUTION OF NIAirARA ENERCY. 357 and transformers) ; the solidit\' and strength ot" hne construction, and the electromotive iorce, or electrical press- ure used on the line. The last fea- ture is the only one that presents any unknown cjuantities, and it is reallv the one which will determine the engin- eering limit of the distance over which it will be possible to transmit a gi\-en amount of power from Niagara. From experiments and tests already made on the Lauffen-Franktort line, and elsewhere, it does not seem hazard- ous to predict that a maximum pressure of 50,000 volts at the delivery end of the line will be successfully adopted for long distances, if business conditions warrant the transmission. It is inter- esting to obserx'C that in the transmission of either oil, gas or electricity, the limiting engineering condition is, in each case, the line pressure that can be safely carried. One other engineering' feature should be mentioned, and that is the efficiency of the apparatus and transmission line. The transformation of energy by elec- trical apparatus is accomplished with a very small loss, and the efficiency in- creases with the size of unit employed. For generators, transformers and motors of 1000 horse-power size, or larger, commercial efficiencies, that is the ratio of power delivered to power received, of from 97 to yS per cent, at full load can be maintained ; and as the load varies in a large plant, it will always be possible to keep the units that are in actual operation on lull load duty, so as to realize the highest efficiency. The line efficiency / ,. Power delivered to step-down tran.s formers , ratio -— r - .—r ^ V ^ Power received irom step-up transioriuers. ' will vary with the distance and the pressure on the line. For the most economical conductor cost, the line efficiency will vary, probably, in j)rac- tice, from 92 per cent, for a Pnitialo delivery of say, 10,000 horse-])Ower, at 10,000 \'olts (distance 13 miles), to something less than 60 per cent, for an Albany delivery of the same amount of power, at 50,000 volts (distance about 310 miles). The third, and last question for con- sideration is the cost of Niagara power, delivered at various distances, as com- pared with the cost of power produced A TVI'ICAL ELICCTRIC STREET CAR IMOTOR, 25 HORSE-POWER. 3S8 CASS/BJi'S MAGAZINE. DISTRIBUTION OF NIAGARA ENERGY. 359 locally ; and as steam power is now generally used, either for application to mechanical work direct, or else for driving electric generators, the question is, really, the cost of Niagara electric power, delivered in bulk, versus cost of local steam power. It goes without saying that if a city, as, for example, Rochester, is fortunate enough to possess a reliable water power close at for 365 da)''S a year, or $51 per horse- power tor 24-hour power, for 365 days. This cost includes interest on cost of plant, insurance, taxes, operating ex- penses and depreciation and repairs. As the coal cost is low as compared with other cities, and as the load of the particular plant tested is unusually steady and uniform, it is probable that this cost of steam power is as low as A TYPICAL ALTERNATING CURRENT INDUCTION MOTOR OF 125 HORSE-PO'^'ER. hand, and of sufficient size to provide for most of the city's requirements, Niagara power cannot hope to compete with it. From recent careful tests, made by disinterested experts, it appears that the cost per horse-power per annum in large and economical steam plants (looo horse-power or more) in Buffalo, coal costing $1.50 per long ton, is about $33 for power used 1 1 hours per day. will be found within the area of influence of Niagara electric power. It remains, therefore, to determine the approximate cost of this power, delivered at certain typical points within this area. About a year ago, there appeared in one of the technical journals, a very interesting and able paper by Messrs. Houston & Kennelly, two well-known American electrical engineers, entitled " An Estimate of the distance to which 36o CASS/ER'S MAGAZINE. H H DISTRIBUTION OF NIAGARA ENERGY, 361 AN ELECTRIC MINE LOCOMOTIVE. Niagara water power can be economic- ally transmitted by electricity." As- suming certain initial data, the paper estimated, in detail, tlie cost of delivery of certain maximum amounts of power to three points, — BuiTalo, Syracuse, and Albany, — at assumed distances by wire, from Niagara Falls, of 15, 164, and 330 miles, respectively. These costs were then compared with the cost of steam power, generated locally in large quantity, under most economical conditions, and certain conclusions were drawn from the comparsion. The paper, as was to be expected and de- sired, created considerable comment and discussion among electrical engin- eers and in the technical press, and much of the data assumed and some of the conclusions drawn, were publicly criticised or questioned. The critics, however, apparently without exception, failed to appreciate the great diiference in cost per horse-power and average efficiency between electric generators, motors and transformers of the size usuall}^ employed in central station practice, and those of 1000 horse-power capacity or more which will necessarily be used in the Niagara work. They also failed to recognize the fact that, inasmuch as Niagara power will be transmitted and sold in bulk in very large quantities, it is reasonable to assume that the " load factor" / . Averaj.,^e load , ratio ^, . " , \ jMaxniiLim loaci ' will be considerably higher than is usual in central station electric lighting- practice. The cost of local steam power assumed in the paper was also criticised as being too low, but as the figures were taken from tables carefully prepared and published by a well-known engineer, and as they agreed closely with those obtained from the test 362 GASSIER ' S MA GAZINE. alread)- referred to, they were probably accurate. While some of the data and assumptions used by Houston & Ken- nelly were, doubtless, subject to cor- rection in detail, they were, in the opinion of the writer, approximately correct, if taken as a whole. The conclusion to be drawn from their figures is ' ' that on the basis of prices and voltages assumed and detailed, the power of Niagara Falls can be trans- mitted to a radius of 200 miles, cheaper than it can be produced at any point within that range by steam engines of the most economical t^qje, with coal at I2S., or about $3, per ton ; that Niagara power can maintain at Albany, in New York State, a large day and night output cheaper than steam en- gines at Albany can develop it ; but that for power taken at Alban)^ for 10 hours per diem, the best steam engines have somewhat the ad\'antage over Niagara, unless exceptionally favorable conditions of load could be secured for Niagara power." -Speaking oi electric transmission from water powers in general, Hous- ton & Kennelly say : ' ' The broad conclusion to which an inquiry of this nature ine\'itably leads, is that while under ordinarv conditions the com- mercial limit of electrical transmission of power irom water powers of less than 500 kilowatts can hardly exceed fifty miles, the radius at which it will be profitable, with good fortune and management, to electrically transmit a water power aggregating 50,000 kilo- watts, or more, is, perhaps, to-day, two hundred miles, and that it might be commercially advantageous for such a large water power to undersell large steam powers at twice this distance with no profit, in order to reduce the general expense upon delivery nearer home. The reason for this difference in the trans- mission radius between small and large water powers, lies obviously in the fact that electrical and hydraulic machines can be built and purchased much more economicall)' in large sizes than in small, so that the cost of producing and of maintaining one kilowatt is ver)' much less for large than for small water powers." While time alone can prove the truth of these conclusions, the writer is of the opinion that, with the present cost and efficiency of steam generators, they are substantially correct. If on the other hand, a method be discovered lor trans- forming- the heat energy of coal into electricit}' direct, at an efficiency com- parable with that of modern electrical apparatus, the area of influence of Niagara electric power will, undoubt- edly, be contracted. While such a disco\'ery would undoubtedly be a great one, it should be stated that there is no prospect, at present, of its ac- complishment. In any event, it is probable that the Niagara power company will find enough profitable business to insure a satisfactory return on the money which they have invested. V=::& •f^MSyp'^rytz^ Peter A. Potter is promiuently identi- fied with the interests of the city of Niag-ara Falls. As a member of the New York State Legislature in 1&S6, he introduced the Niag-ara Tunnel Bill, under whicli the Niagara power is now being developed. THE NIAGARA REGION IN HISTORY. Bv Pc-tci- A. Porter. THE OLD STONF, CHIMNEY AT XIAGARA, BUn.T IN I7^0. IN 1764 Sir William John- son, commander of the English forces in the Niagara region, supplement- ing the treaty of the preced- ing year between England and France, assembled all the Indian warriors of that region, some 2000 in number, comprising chiefly the hostile Sen- ecas, at Fort Niagara, and acquired from them, for the English Crown, together with other territory, a strip of land, four miles wide, on each bank of the Niagara river (the islands being excepted) from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario. The Senecas also ceded to him, personally, at this time, "as proof of their regard and of their knowledge of the trouble which he had had with them from time to time," all the islands in the Niagara ri\'er, and he, in turn, as compelled by the military law of that period, ceded them to his Sovereign. It is ot the territory included in the above two grants, a region now popularly known as ' ' the Niagara frontier," that the writer proposes to treat. And a famed and famous terri- tory it is, for it would be difficult to find anywhere else an equal area of country (36 miles long and 8 miles broad, be- sides the islands) around which cluster so many, so important and such varied associations as one finds there. Through its centre flows the grand Niagara river, between whose banks the waters of four great lakes, — the water- shed of almost half a continent, — find their way to the ocean ; and through the centre of the deepest channel of this river runs the boundary line between the two great nations of North Amer- ica. \\\ it are located the Falls of Ni- agara, the ideal waterfall of the universe; in it are found the two government parks or reservations, established, re- spectively, by the State of New York and the province of Ontario, in order that the immediate surroundings of Ni- agara might be preserved, as nearly as possible, in their natural state and be forever free to all mankind. In it one meets with many and wondrous aspects of natural scenery ; in it one finds geo- logic records, laid bare along the river's chasm by the force of the water thou- sands of years ago, and wliich hold so high a place in that science, that among its classifications the name Niagara is applied to one of the groups. In it are found botanic specimens of beauty and rarity, and it is stated that on Goat Island, embracing 80 acres, are to be found a greater number of species and flora than can be found in an equal area anywhere else. In it are to be found, also, the development of hydraulic en- terprises which are regarded as stupen- dous e\'en in this age of marvels ; while as to places noted for historic interest, one may truly say that it is all historic ground. Within sight of the spray of the Falls the red men, in ages long gone by, lived, held their councils, waged their inhuman warfares and offered up their human sacrifices. To this Niagara re- gion long ago came the adventurous French traders, the forerunners of the " coureurs de bois," believed to have been the first white men who ever gazed upon the Falls, though the name of the man to whom that honour belongs, and the e.\act date at which he saw them will probably forever remain unknown. Across Niagara's rapid stream went several of the early missionaries of the 365 366 CASS/EJi'S MAGAZINE. Tin: tIRSr KNOWN PICTl'RK OF NIAGARA I'\ALLS. (From Father Heuuepiu's " Xouvelle Decouverte," 1697,) Catholic church as they carried the i^os- pel to the various Indian tribes in the unknown wilderness. To this region came the French, first officially in the person of La Salle ; afterwards, by the armies, seeking conquest and the con- trol of the fur trade. At the mouth of the Niagara river the French established one of their most important posts. There they traded with, conferred with and intrigued with the Indians, making firm friends of some of the tribes and bitter enemies of others ; and during the fourscore years that France held sway on the American continent, this region was a famous part of her domain in the new world. Later on, steadily but surely driving the French before them, and finally totally depriving them of their posses- sions, came the English. Shortly alter England became the undisputed owner of the region, the American Revolution began, and within twenty years after England had dispossessed France of this famous territory, she herself was compelled to recognize a new nation, formed by her own descendants, and to cede to it one-half, or, counting the islands, more than one-half of the lands bordering on the Niagara river. From that time on, the United States and Great Britain have held undisputed possession of all this wondrous section. Looking back in history for the first references to the Niagara region, we find them derived from Indian tradition or hearsay, and that, almost entirely by reason of the Falls and Rapids. However, it was not their grandeur, but the fact that the Indians were com- pelled to carry their canoes so many miles around them that impressed them. Thus, the existence of a great fall at this point was known to the Indians all over the North American continent, we know not how far back ; certainly as early as the arrival of Columbus at San Salva- dor. In 1535 Jacques Cartier made his second voyage to the St. Lawrence, and the Indians living along that river narrated to him what they had heard of the upper [jart of that stream, and of NIAGARA IN HISTORY. 367 the lakes be)'Oiid, mentioning, in con- nection tlierewith, a cataract anci a por- tage. Lescarbot, in his "History of New France," published in 1609, tells of this in his story of Cartier's voyage. This is the earliest reference (1535) to the Great Lake region and Niagara's cataract. Champlain, in his " Des Sauvages," published in 1603, speaks of a "fall," which, clearly, is Niagara, and on the map, in his ' ' \'oyages, ' ' published in 16 13, he locates a river with such approximate ex- actness as to be the Niagara beyond doubt, and in that river he indicates a " sault d'eau," or water-fall. In 1615 Etienne Brule, who was Champlain' s inter- preter, was in that vicinity, in the territory of the Neu- ter nation, and may have been the first pale-face to have seen the Falls. In 1626 the Franciscan priest Joseph de la Roche Dallion was on the Niagara river in the course of his missionary labors among the Neutrals. It is more than probable that at this date the Ni- agara route westward, as distinguished from the Ot- tawa route, was known and had been traversed by white men — the French traders or "coureurs de bois " previ- ously mentioned. In the 1632 edition of his "Voy- ages," Champlain again, though inaccurately, lo- cates on his map a river which cannot be any other than the Niagara, and quite accurately locates also a "waterfall, very high, at the end of Lake St Louis (Ontario), where many kinds of fish are stunned in the descent.' ' In 1640 the Jesuit fithers Brebeuf and Chaumonot undertook their mis- sion to the Neuter nation, the existence of the fomous river of this nation having been familiar to the Jesuits before this date. They crossed from the westerly to the easterly shore of the Niagara river, recrossing again, near where the A'illage of Lewiston now stands, when their mission proved unsuccessful. In the Jesuit Relations we find references to this region. In that of 1641, published in 1642, Father L'Allement speaks of " the Neuter nation, Onguiaahra, hav- ing the same name as the river," and F.^TiiiiR iii-:.\xi:i'ix. (From an Edition of 1702.) in that of 164S, published in 1649, Father Ragueneau speaks of " Lake Erie which is formed by the waters from the Mer Douce (Lake Huron), and which discharges itself into a third lake, called Ontario, over a cataract of fearful height." Sanson in his map of Canada, 1657, correctly locates the lakes and this re- gion, and calls the Falls ' ' Ongiara 36S CASS/£J?'S MAGAZINE. Sault." In Davity, 1660, Le Sieur Gendron refers to the Falls in the exact words of Father Ragueneau abo^e. In his " Historice Canaden- sis, ' ' De Creuxius very nearly cor- rectly locates this region and the Niagara river, and calls the Falls " On- giara Cataractes." In 1669 La Salle made a visit to the Senecas who dwelt in what is now known as Western New KEKE KUlllCRT CAVJiLIER. SIICHR DE LA SAL (From an Edition of 1688 ) York. With him went Fathers Dollier de Casson and Rene Gallinee, traveling as far as the western end of Lake On- tario, whence La Salle returned east- ward. Gallinee' s journal of that jour- ney includes the earliest known descrip- tion of Niagara Falls, which is as fol- lows ; " We found a river, one-eighth of a league broad, and extremely rapid, formino- the outlet or communication from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario. The outlet is 40 leagues long and has, from 10 to 12 leagues above its embrochure into Lake Ontario, one of the finest falls of water in the world, for all the In- dians of whom I have inquired about it say that the river falls at that place from a rock higher than the tallest pines, — that is, about 300 feet. In fact, we heard it from the place where we were, although from 10 to 12 leagues distant ; but the fall gives such a momentum to the water that its velocity prevented our ascending the current by rowing, except with great difficulty. At a quarter of a league from the outlet where we were it grows narrower and its chan- nel is confined between two very high, steep, rocky banks, inducing the belief that the navigation would be very difficult quite up to the cataract. " As to the river above the falls, the current very often sucks into this gulf, from a great distance, deer and stags, elk and roebucks, that suffer themselves to be drawn from such a point in crossing the river that they are compelled to descend the falls and are overwhelmed in the frightful abyss. I will leave you to judge if that is not a fine cataract in which all the water of that large river falls from a height ol E. 200 feet with a noise that is heard not only at the place where we were, 10 or 1 2 leagues distant, but also from the other side of Lake Ontario." Neither Gallinee, Champlain, nor any of the other writers cjuoted heretofore, ever saw the Falls. In 1678 Father Hennepin visited the Falls and in 1683 published his first work, "Louisiana," in which he tells of the Niagara river and of the Falls themselves, calling them 500 feet high. On Coronelli's map of 16S8 the word Niagara first appears in NIAGARA IN HISTORY. 369 14-3 370 CASSm/i ' S MA GA ZINK. cartography. In 1691 Father Le Clercq, in his " Estabhshment of the Faith in New France," uses tlie words "Niagara Falls." In 1697 Father Hennepin published his ' ' New Dis- covery, ' ' in which he g'lves the well known description of Niagara Falls, commencing "betwixt the lakes On- tario and Erie there is a vast and pro- digious cadence of water which falls down after a surprising and astonishing manner insomuch that the universe does not afford its parallel." Later on, in the same work, he describes them again, giving their height as 600 feet. He also gives in that work the first known picture of Niagara Falls, re- produced on page 366 Hennepin' s two works as above, and a third, entitled " Nouveau Voyage," were translated into almost all the languages of Europe and by means of this, as well as by the work of Campanius Holm, ]3ublished in 1702, who reproduces Hennepin's sketch of Niagara, and bv the works of La Hontan, published in 1703, and of others later on, this region and Niagara Falls became familiar to all Europeans. It was reser^'ed for Charlevoix and Borassow, each independently oi the other, in 1721, to accurately measure the height of tlie Falls. Hennepin was the first to use the modern spelling "Niagara," and he was followed by De Nonville, Coro- nelli and bv all F"rench writers since that time. English writers, on the other hand, did not uniforml)^ adopt this spelling until the middle of the i8th century. The Neuter nation of Indians occupied all the territory now called "the Niagara Peninsula," by fiir the larger number of their villages being on the western side of the river. It was the Indian custom to give their tribal name to, or to take it irom, the chief nat- ural feature of the country which the)- inhabited ; hence, they were called " Onguiaahra, the same name as the ri\er," as noted by Father Ragueneau. The Neuter nation were so called, be- cause, living between the Huronson the west and the Iroquois on the east, — two tribes which were sworn enemies, — the\' were at peace with both, and in their cabins the warriors of these two nations met without strife and in safety. The Neuters, however, were frequently at war with other tribes, and eventually everi their neutrality towards the Hu- rons and the Iroquois disappeared and about 1643 the Senecas, the most west- erly and also the most savage tribe of the Iroquois confederacy, attacked and annihilated the Neuters, their remnant being merged into the Iroquois. There are numerous ways of spelling the Indian name of this Neuter nation, thirty-nine of them being given in the inde.x volume of the Colonial History of the State of New York. The forms most commonly met with in early days were Jagara, Oneagerah, Onygara, lagara, Onigara, Ochniagara, Ognio- gorah, and those previously noted in this article. The word Niagara, ac- cording to Marshall, was derived by the French from Ongiara. The Senecas, when they conquered the Neuters, adopted that name as applied to the river and region, as near as the idiom of their language would allow ; hence, their spelling, Nyah-ga-ah. The word, thus deri\'ed through the Iroquois and from the Neuter language, is said to mean the "thunder of the waters," though this poetic significance has been questioned by some who claim that it signifies "neck," alluding to the river being the connecting link between the two lakes. The Iroquois language had no labial sound and all their words were spoken without closing the lips. They seem to have pronounced it " Nyah-ga- rah," and later on " Nee-ah-ga-rah," while in more modern Indian dialect, all vowels being still sounded, " Ni-ah- gah-rah " was the ordinary pronuncia- tion. Our modern word "Niagara" should really be pronounced Ni-a-ga-ra. IMany were the superstitions and legends which the Indians, living along the Niagara river and in the whole re- gion, held as sacred. To the Neuter nation, naturally, the Falls of Niagara appeared in the nature of a divinity. From them they had taken their tribal name, and considered them the em- bodiment of religion anil jjower. To them they offered sacrifices of many NIAGARA IN HISTORY. 371 kinds, often i<.)urne\'ino- long distances for the purpose. In the thunder of the Falls they believed they heard the voice of the Great Spirit In the spray they believed they saw his habitation. To him they regularly and religiously contributed a portion of their crops and of the results ot the chase, and exult- ingly offered human sacrifices and trophies on returning from such war- like expeditions as they were compelled to undertake. To him each warrior frequently made ofterings of his personal adornments and weapons, and as an annual offering of good will from the tribe and a propitiation for continued neutrality, and therefore existence, they sacrificed each spring the tairest maiden of their tribe, sending her o\'er the Falls in a white canoe, which was filled with fruits and flowers and guided solely by her own hand. The honour ot be- ing selected for this awhil death was earnestly cu\'eted by the maidens of that stoical race, and the clan to which the one selected belonged, held such choice to be a special honour to itself. Tradition says that this annual sacri- fice was abandoned, because, one year, the daughter of the great chief of the tribe was selected. Her father betra)-ed no emotion, but on the fateful day, as the white canoe, guided by his daugh- ter's hand, entered the rapids, another canoe, propelled by a ]xiddle in her father's hand, shot swiftly from the bank, followed the same channel and reached the brink and disappeared into the abyss but a moment after the one which bore his daughter. The tribe thought the loss of such a chief in such a way to be so serious a blow that the sacrifice was abandoned in order to pre- \-ent the possibility of a repetition. A more likely, but less poetic, reason for its abandonment lies in the belief that on the extermination of the Neuters, their conquerors, ha\'ing' no such inherent adoration for the Great Spirit of Ni- agara, and for many years not even occupying the lands of their victims, failed to continue the custom. The Neuter warriors also wanted to be bur- ied beside their river, as many exhumed skeletons at various points along its banks prove ; and the nearer to the Falls, the greater the honour. Goat Island is said to have been the burying ground reser\'ed for great chiefs and brave warriors, and the body of many an Indian brave lies in the soil of that beautiful spot. Prior to 1678 France laid claim to a vast area, now embraced by Canada and the northern portion of tlie United States, east of the Mississippi, includ- ing the Niagara region, by reason of early explorations and discoveries by her seamen, traders and missionaries. From that date, when La Salle began his westward journeys of exploration, for eighty years, she was a paramount lorce in that region, though during the last few years of that period her prowess and supremacy were waning and were swept away in 1659 by the capture ot Quebec and Fort Niagara, the latter being the last of the important posts that she held in the long line of fortifications which connected the great tract, known as Louisiana, \\\i\\ her eastern Canadian possessions. From 1759, by occupa- tion, and from 1763, by treaty, England owned all this territory until 1776, when the Colonists demanded recognition as a separate nation. This England con- ceded in 17S3, and thus relinquished all ownership of that portion of the Ni- agara region that lies east of the ri\'er, although it was not until after the ratifi- cation of Jay's treaty, in 1796, that England relinquished Fort Niagara ; nor until the treaty of ( jhent, in 1816, was it absolutely conceded that most of the islands in the Niagara river be- longed to the United States. On December 6, 1678, La Salle anchored his brigantine of ten tons in the Niagara river, just above its mouth. He saw tlie value, from a military stand- point, of the point of land at the mouth of the ri\-er and straightway built there a trading' j^iost. Proceeding up the ri\'er to where Lewiston now stands, he built there a lort of palisades, and carrying' the anchors, cordage, etc., which he had brought with him for that purpose, up the mountain side and through the forest to the mouth of Cay- uga creek, five miles abo\'e the Falls on 372 CASSIEJ?'S MAGAZINE. WT X THE "WHITE :man s T-\^^:^^ NIAGARA IN HISTORY. 373 THE RKl-i MAN S l'"ACT. 374 GASSIER ' S MA GAZINE. TlIK Bni-DIXG OF THE ORIFFOX, 1679. (Fac-simile reproduction of the original copper-plate engraviug, first published in Father Hennepin's " Nouvelle Decouverte," AnisLerdani, 1704 j the American side, where to-day is a hamlet bearing his name, he there built and launched the Griffon, the first ves- sel, other than Indian canoes, that ever sailed the upper lakes, and the pioneer of an inland commerce of un- told value. In 16S7, the iNIarquis de Nonville, returning from his expedition against the Senecas, fortified La Salle's trading post at the mouth of the ri\'er, but it was abandoned during the following year. It was, however, rebuilt in stone in 1725 by consent of the Irociuois, and thereafter maintained. The site of the present village of Lewiston, named in honour of Governor' Lewis of New York, — the head of navigation on the lower Niagara, — was the commence- ment of a portage of which the UDper terminus was about a mile and a half above the Falls, the road tra\'ersed being, e\'en now, called the "portage road." The upper end of this portage, at first merely an open landing place for boats, necessarily grew into a fortifi- cation, which was completed in 1750 and was called Fort de Portage, or, by some. Fort Little Niagara. A short distance below the site of this fort the French built their barracks. These and the fort itself were burnt in 1759 by Joncaire, «ho was in command, to pre- vent their falling into the hands of the victorious English, and he and his men retreated to a station on Chippewa creek, across the river. An old stone chimney, believed to be the first stone structure built in that part of the coun- try, and around which were built the French barracks, stands to-day solitary and alone, the only reminder of the early commercial and military acti\'ities at this point. It was in 1759 that the English com- menced that short, memorable and de- cisive campaign which was forever to crush out French rule in North America. General Prideaux was in charge of the English forces thereabouts, and, carry- ing out that part of the plan assigned to him, collected his forces east ot Fort Niagara on the shore of Lake Ontario. That fort had been strongly fortified, and this fact, coupled with its location, made its capture necessary for English success. Prideaux' s demand for its surrender ha\'ing been refused, he laid siege to it. He was killed during the continuance of the siege, and the com- mand devolved on Sir William John- son, who pushed operations vigorously NIAGARA IN HISTORY. 375 and captured the fort before French re- inforcements could arrive. These reinforcements had been sent from Venango, on Lake Erie, and, coming down the Niagara river, had reached Navy Ishind (Isle de Marine), then held by the French, when they heard of the fall of Fort Niagara. The certaint}' that the two vessels which had brought the troops and ammunition from Venango would be captured by the English, induced the French to take them, together with some small vessels nected with the great French and Eng- lish struggle. Champlain's early hos- tility to the Iroquois, when he sided with the Senecas against them, had made the Iroquois the firm friends of the English during all the subsequent years, .and it had also endeared the French to the Senecas, e\'en though the latter had subsequently joined the Iroquois confederacy. After the total defeat of the hVench and their practical surrender of all their territory in 1759, the old hatred of the raS^, ^,^^^^ r \ -'**^ , THE CAPTITRE Ol'" FORT GEl>Rf;E, 1813. (From an Old Hugraving.) which had recently been built on Navy Island, over to the northern shore of Grand Island, lying clr>se by, into a quiet bay, where they set them on fire and totally destroyed them. As late as the middle of the present century, portions of these vessels were clearly visible under water in the arm of the river, which, from this incident, has become known as " Burnt Ship Bay." One more historical point, the scene of the Devil's Hole massacre, is con- English on the part of the Senecas, abetted, no doubt, by French influences, led them to commence a bloody cam- paign iigainst the English in 1763. They knew the English were, on a certain day, to send a long train of wagons, filled with supplies and ammu- nition, from Fort Niagara to Fort Schlosser, a station, built in 1761 by Capt. Joseph Schlosser ot the English army, to replace Fort de Portage, wliich had been destroyed two years pre- 376 O-ISS/ER ' S MA GA ZINE. viously. They knew also that the niiUtary force accompan\'ino- the train was to be a small one. At a point, known as the Devil's Hole, about three miles below the Falls, and at the edge of the precipice, they ambushed this fated snppl)' train and destro>-ed it, forcing both train and escort o\'er the high bank, and killing all but three of the escort and drivers. They then cun- ningly ambushed the relief force, whicli at the sound of the firing had set out from Lewiston where the English main- tained a slight encampment, and killed all but eight of these. It was a striking- example of Indian warfare and of Indian shrewdness. Shortly after this, in 1763, the treaty between France and England was signed, whereby England became the absolute owner and master of the northeastern portion of the North American continent. No serious conflict marked England's rule in her new territor}', accjuired by so long and fierce a struggle and at so great a cost of lives and mone)'. But thirteen years after the above treaty u-as signed, the American Revolution com- menced. Had Gen. Sullivan's expedi- tion against the Senecas in 1779, been successful, as planned, he would have ]3ursued the dusky warriors who fled to Fort Niagara, and ■\\-ould have attacked and probably captured that fort, then in possession of the English ; but mis- fortune befel him on his westward march, and the Niagara region was never the scene of actual hostilities dur- ing that war. When it closed, England had lost and relinquished to the United States all that portion of this region that lies east of the Niagara river. The Niagara region, especially that jxu't Iving along the banks of the river, felt the lull burden of the three years of border warfare between American and English forces, each with their Indian allies, known in history as the war of 1S12. In the fall of 1S12, about four months alter the declaration of war, Gen. Van Rensselaer established his camp just east of the village of Lewiston, and collected an army lor the in\'asion of Canada. Alter some delay and one unsuccessful attempt to cross the river, many of his men reached the Canadian shore and promptly and easily occupied an advantageous position on Oueenston Heights. Gen. Brock hastened from Fort George, at the mouth of the river, with English reinforcements, and, in endeavoring to recapture this point of \'antage, was killed at the head of his troops. Other English reinforcements having arrived, the Americans were defeated and dislodged from their posi- tion, many being forced over the edge of the bluft'. Most of these and many on the brow of the mountain were taken prisoners. Meanwhile, directly across the river, on the American side, in full view of the battle, were several hundred American volunteers who basely refused to go to the aid of their companions. The results of this first battle were most depressing' to the American cause. At the foot of Oueenston Heights an inscribed stone, set in place in i860 by the Prince of Wales with appropriate ceremonies, marks the spot where Gen. Brock fell, and on the heights above a lofty column was erected to his memory in 1S26, as a monument of his country's gratitude. This was blown up by a miscreant in 1840, but was replaced in 1S53 by the present more beautiful shaft, within whose foundations Gen. Brock's remains lie buried. It was in November, 1S12, that Gen. Alexander Smythe, of Virginia, com- manding the American army on this frontier, issued his famous bombastic circular, inviting everybody to assemble at Black Rock, near the source of the Niagara river and to invade Canada. " Come in companies, half companies, pairs or singly ; come anyhow, but come," was its substance, and about 4000 men responded. But Smythe proved incapable, and having made himself a laughing-stock in many ways, among others in challenging Gen. Porter, who had questioned his courage, to a duel (which challenge was ac- cepted and shots were exchanged on Grand Island), the contemplated in- vasion was abandoned. In May, 1813, the Americans cap- tured Fort George and the village of Newark, both on the Canadian shore NIAGARA IN HISTORY. near the mouth of the river, and held them until I3ecember of that year. So effectual was American supremacy at this time, that the English Fort Erie, at the source of the ri\'er, and Chippawa, just abo\e the Falls, together with all barracks and store houses along the river, were abandoned, and the English evacuated the entire frontier. Fort Erie was promptly occupied by the Americans. Several minor attacks were made by small parties of English at points on the American side during 1813, one at Black Rock, where the English were badly repulsed, being the most important. In December, 1813, the British as- sumed the olTensive on their side of the river and soon Gen. McClure, who was in command of the American forces holding Fort George, determined to abandon it and cross to Fort Niagara. He blew up Fort George and applied the torch to the beautiful adjoining village of Newark. This was the oldest settlement in that part of Canada, was at one time the residence of her lieu- tenant-governor, and was further noted as the place where the first Parliament of Upper Canada was held in 1792. Its destruction was in the line of military tactics which leaves nothing to shelter an enemy when they occupy evacuated ground ; but it was a severe winter, the snow was deep, and the sufferings of those whose homes were thus burnt, were excessive. The burning of Newark raised a storm ofwrath through outCanada and England which stimulated the English forces to make great efforts for victory and re- taliation. In these they were decidedly successful, for ten days later, at three o'clock in the morning. Col. Murray, of the British Army, surprised and cap- tured Fort Niagara. Had Capt. Leon- ard, who was in charge of the Fort while Gen. McClure was at his head- quarters in Buffalo, been vigilant, the Fort would have, probably, been suc- cessfully defended. As it was, it fell an easy prey. Lossing says : " It might have been an almost bloodless victory had not the unhallowed spirit of re- venge demanded victims. ' ' As it was. many of the garrison, including inva- lids, were bayonetted after all resist- ance had ceased. The British General Riall, with a force of regulars and Indians was waiting at Oueenston for the agreed signal of success, and when the cannon's roar announced the vic- tory, he hurried them across the river to the village of I.evviston, which was sacked and destroyed in spite of such opposition as the few Americans in Fort Gray on Lewistou Heights could make. After a temporary check on Lewiston Heights the British pushed on to Man- chester (that name having been given to it in anticipation of its ultimately becoming the great manufacturing vil- lage of America) as the settlement at the Falls was then called. That place, the settlement at Schlosser, two miles above, and the country for some miles back shared the fate of Lewiston ; the same was meted out to Youngstown, near Fort Niagara. The destruction of the bridge across the creek at Tona- wanda saved Buffalo from the same fate, but only for a few days. Gen. Riall crossed the river at Queenston, and a few days later appeared opposite Black Rock which adjoined Buffalo. This he promptly attacked and captured. The hastily gathered and unorganized American forces not only offered little resistance, but hundreds deserted. Buffalo was burnt, only four houses being left standing, and many persons were killed. The opening of the campaign of 18 14 found an American army at Buffalo, and on July 3, Fort Erie surrendered to the Americans. On July 5, the Ameri- cans met and, after a fierce fight, de- feated the British in the memorable battle of Chippawa, on the Canadian side, two miles above the Falls. Soon afterwards, the British retreated to Oueenston, followed by the Ameri- cans under Gen. Brown, \\'ho then de- termined to recapture Fort George ; but learning that the expected fleet could not co-operate with him, he changed his plans and returned to Chippawa. Gen. Scott, reconnoitering- from this place in the late afternoon of July 25, found Gen. Riall with his re- 378 C.-ISS/EJ?'S J/AGAZIXE. inforced arm}' drawn up in line of laattle at Lund\''s Lane. Gen, Scott, «'ith a nominal force, but with the ho]ie of gaining time for the ad\'ent of Gen. Brown's army, immediately ga\'e battle. Of the details of that battle, fought mainly by the glorious light of a sum- mer moon, and continued until after midnight, with the spray of Niagara drifting over the heads of the opposing armies and the thunder of the Falls ming'ling with the roar ot the cannon, it is not possible to recount much. The central point on the hill was held by a British battery, and it was in response to an order to capture it that Col. Miller made his famous reply, " I'll try, Sir." He did try, and successfully, and the battery, once captured, was held bv the Americans against oft- repeated and brave attacks by the British. When at last the British army re- treated, the Americans iell back to their camp at Chippawa, and before they returned the next morning, the British had once more, owing to the American General Ripley's negligence, occupied the field and dragged away the cannon which had been captured from them. The battle of Niagara Falls, Lundv's Lane, or Bridgewater as it is \'ariously called was claimed as a victorv bv the British, and is still annu- ally celelirated, on the battlefield, as such. The Americans, too, regarded it as a substantial victory, and the United States Congress voted to Generals Scott, Brown, Porter, Gaines and Rip- ley gold medals for their services in this and other battles of the war. The American army now returned to Fort Erie which they stronglv fortified, and where they were besieged on August 3, bv the British, For ten days both armies were bus}^ ])reparing for the ine\-itable .and decisi\-e contest. Just alter midnight on August 14, the British attacked the fort, but were finally re- pulsed. From this time to September 17, there was frctjuent cannonading, but on that date a sortie from the fort was made by the Americans, and was so boldU' planned and so fiithfully exe- cuted, that the British were completeU' routed, and Buftldo and Western New York saved from invasion. Lord Napier refers to this sortie as the only instance in modern warfare, ^^•here a besieging arm^r was totally routed by such a movement. A few more desultory en- gagements occurred along the Canadian bank of the river. Gen. Izard having assumed command of the American army ; but the season was too far ad- vanced for any further offensive opera- tions on this peninsula, and Canada was abandoned. Fort Erie was mined, and on November 5, 1S14, was laid in ruins. It still remains so, — a picturesque spot. Some space has been devoted to this war, although not a fraction of what its importance demands. During its con- tinuance almost every foot of land along both banks of the Niagara river was the scene of strile, of victory and defeat, of triumphs oi armies and of bravery and heroism of individuals. The treaty of Ghent restored peace to both countries, to the delight of all, especially of the inhabitants along the frontier. The commissioners appointed under that treaty to settle the question of the boundary between the Lhiited States and Canada agreed subsequently that that line, " between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario should run through the centre of the deepest channel of the Niagara ri\-er, and through the point of the Horse Shoe Fall," Later years pro\'ed this to be a variable line as far as the point of the Fall is concerned, though this fact will never impair the validity of the boundary line. By the above decision Grand Island and Goat Island became American soil, and Navy Island fell under British rule. The frontier, espcciallv on the American side, recovered rapidly from the effects of the war, fir it was a section sought by settlers, and many who reached the Niagara river on a projected journey to lands farther west, became residents of the locality. Prior to 1825, all heavy goods were sent westwards by Lake < )ntario X'cssels to Lewiston ; thence, were carted o\'er the well-known "Portage road" to Schlosser, and there again reloaded into vessels which went up the Niagara NIAGARA IN HISTORY. 379 river, past Black Rock and Buffalo at the source of the river, and then out into Lake Erie. Freights from the west followed the opposite course, o\er the same route ; and this carrying- trade along the frontier, controlled almost en- tirely by one firm, was a source of per- sonal wealth to its members, a means of livelihood to many a fuuily, and a prominent factor in the si)eedy cle\'elop- ment ot the region. On October 26, 1S25, a cannon in the village of Buffalo, at the source ot the Niagara river boomed forth its greeting, foUowecl, a few sec- onds later, by another cannon, near Black Rock ; and thus thundered can- non alter cannon, down the Niagara river, to Tonawancla ; thence, easterly to Albany, and south, along the Hudson ri\'er, to New York city, announcing the glad message that, at the source of the Niagara river, the waters of Lake Erie had just been let into that barely completed water-way, the Erie Canal. The completion of the canal built up Buffalo, but at the same time, checked the rapid growth of the northern portion of the region, by causing a total sus- pension of traffic over the old portage. Two events, entirely dissimilar and in no way connected with warlike opera- tions, occurred in this region in the year 1S26, and each attracted the attention of the whole world. The first was the proposal of Major Mordecai M. Noah to create a second City of Jerusalem within clear view of the Falls of Niagara, by buying Grand Island, comprising some 1 8, 000 acres, and there building- up for the Hebrew race an ideal com- munity of wealth and industry. He even went so far, in his assumed capa- city of the Great High Priest of the project, as to lay the corner stone of the future city of Ararat. This he did, not even within the boundaries of his proposed city, but some miles away, on the altar of a Christian church in Buffalo, to which church, clad in sacerdotal robes, attended in procession by mili- tary and ci\'ic authorities, local societies, and a great concourse of people he was impressively escorted. The Patriarch of Jerusalem, however, refused his sanction to the project, money did not pour in to its support, and it was ulti- mately abandoned. The cornet stone was, however, built into a small brick monument at White Haven, a point on Grand Lsland opposite Tonawanda, and is now 'n the rooms of the fjuffalo Historical Society. The other event was the reputed murder oi William Morgan, of f]atavia, who had threatened to disclose the secrets of the masonic fraternity in ]:)rint. He was quietly seized and taken away from his home, and was traced, in the hands of his abductors, through Lewiston, to Fort Niagara. There he was confined in what is still called "Morgan's Dungeon," a windowless cell that was probably used as a powder magazine. All trace of him was lost after he entered the fort, and tradition says he was taken from his dungeon by night, placed in a boat, to be sent, as he was told, to Canada, rowed out on I^ake Ontario, and forced into a watery gra\'e. Se\'cral persons were arrested and tried for his murder, but no proof of their being directly con- cerned in the matter, nor, in fact, any direct proof of Morgan's death being introduced, they were discharged. Some persons, hov.-ever, were sentenced to imprisonment for conspiracy in con- nection with the matter. Thus the episode upon which the famous, power- ful and widespread anti-masonic agita- tion was based, occurred in, and became an integral part of Niagara's history. In the same year, the first survey and report were made at Lewiston on a pro- ject, which, so far as any commence- ment of it is concerned, is now as re- mote as it was then, ^'et, it is a pro- ject which has a national importance, on which, in at least four surveys, the LTnited States Government has em- plo}-ecI some of its greatest engineers, and one which has, on numerous occa- sions, been discussed and advocated by commercial bodies, and in the halls of the United States Congress ; namely, a ship canal, of a capacity large enough to float the largest war vessels around the Falls of Niagara. From a point from two to four miles above the Falls, to the deep and (]uiet waters near 3So C^ SS/EJ? ' S MA GA ZINE. Lewiston, has been the route most generally approved for such a canal, of which the cost would be enormous. The resulting benefits, howe\er, especially as the population and wealth of the United States increase, might be ines- timable, especially in the event of a war with England and Canada. The Niagara region again became the theatre of war in 1837, when the Patriots undertook to upset the Govern- ment of Canada. While the first revolt occurred at Vork, now Toronto, the entire Canadian bank of the Niagara river was kept in a ferment for several months. Navy Island was at one time the principal rendezvous of the Patriots, and from there, on December 17, 1837, William Lyon Mackenzie, the leader, signing himsell "Chairman pro tem of the provincial (a printer's error, which should read provisional) go^'ernment of the State of Upper Canada," issued his famous proclamation to the inhabitants of the Province. Without reference to the various in- trigues carried on all along the frontier by the Patriots with their American sympathizers, of whom there were, doubtless, a goodly number, the writer would mention only the crucial event of the war, the Caroline episode. It was openly charged by the Canadians that substantial aid was being rendered from the American side to the Patriots, both by private individuals in various ways, and especially by reason of the non-in- terference of the national and New York State authorities when informed, on credible testimony, that arms and amunition were being shipped and other aid was being furnished from American soil to the Canadian rebels. This feel- ing was so bitter on the part of the English that it is not surprising that they seized the first opportunity for retaliation. A small steamer, the Caroline, had been chartered by some jieople in Buffalo to run between that city. Navy Island where the insurgents were en- camped, and Schlosser, on the Ameri- can side, where there was a landing place for boats and a hotel. They maintained that it was a pri\-ate money- making venture, transporting the sight- seers to the Patriot's camp ; but from the Canadian's view the real object was to convey provisions and arms to their enemies. On the night of December 29, 1837, the Caroline lay moored at Schlosser dock. The excitement of the rebellion had drawn many people to this locality, the little hotel was filled and some persons had sought a night's lodging on the boat. At midnight, six boats, filled \\\xh. British soldiers, sent from Chippawa by Sir Allan McNab, silently approached the Caroline. The soldiers promptly boarded her, drove off all on board, both crew and lodgers, cut her adriit, set her on fire, and again taking to their boats, towed her out to the middle of the river and cast her loose. And a glorious sight, viewed merely from a scenic standpoint, it was. The clear dark sky above and the cold dark body of water beneath. Ablaze all along her decks, her shajie clearly outlined by the flames, she drifted grandly and swiftly towards the Falls. Reaching the rapids, the waves extinguished most of the flames ; but, still on fire, racked and broken, she pitched and tossed forward to and over the Horse Shoe Fall, into the gulf below. The whole affair, the incentive therefor, the methods employed, and the manner of the attack caused intense excitement, and once again the Niagara frontier was threatened with war, and the militia along the border were actually called into the field. Long diplomatic correspondence Ibl- lowed, the British Government assum- ing full responsibility for the claimed breaches of international law and the acts of her officers. During the melee at the dock, one man, Amos Durfee, was killed. A British subject, Alex- ander McLeod, claimed to have been one of the attacking force, was soon after arrested on American soil and was tried for the murder in New York State, but was finally acquitted. War was wisely averted, but another fateful chap- ter had been added to Niagara' s history. With the exception of the Fenian outbreak on the Canadian side of the NIAGARA IN HISTORY. 381 river in 1S66, the region has been free from war's alarms sinee the c!a-\'s of the Patriots. The Fenian outbrealc was one of the results of the plan of the revolutionarv Irishmen to oppose the English Government, and to compel that government to restore Ireland's rights. The Fenian hostility to Canada ■was solely because of the fact that the latter was an English dependency. The special time was selected, because of the actual ser^'ice that many loval Irishmen In 1885, l:he State of New York, after an agitation by prominent men for sev- eral years, purchased the land on the American side, including Goat Island and all the smaller islands adjacent to the Trails, and above and below them, for a State Reservation. In 1887, the Province of Ontario, Canada, took a similar action. The Canadian Govern- ment, many years ago, with rare fore- sight had reserved a strip of land, sixty- six feet wide, along the water's edge THK STK.ViMKR C.^RUl-IXK KI'RXT .\N1> lUKCHO 0\"1;K TIJi; I .^LLS OX iJKLt.MUliR 29, I837. ( From an Old Kngraviugj had just then seen in the United States army during the Rebellion. Of actual hostilities on this frontier there was but one occurrence during the fjrief agita- tion, fought on the Canadian side opposite Buffalo, from which city the Fenians in\'aded Canada. It was known as the battle of Ridgeway, the main contest having been at that point, with a subordinate engagement at a hamlet called Waterloo, close to the water' s edge. The Fenians were tem])o- rarily successful, but were ultimately entirely defeated and their invading force cjuickly dispersed. above the Falls, and along the edge of the high bank below them, from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, as a military reserve. This is now under the control of the Canadian Park Commissioners, and, together with the additional lands acquired near the Prills, and the land around Brock's Monument, forms an ideal government reservation. The honour of first suggesting the ]") reservation ot the scenery about the P'alls has been claimed for many ]ier- sons. Others, later on, suggested it officially : others still, advocated it more publicly and more persistently, 382 GASSIER ' S MA GAZINE. A RECENT VIE"U" OF NIAGARA FALLS. NIAGARA IN HISTORY. but the first real su_u;gestion, though made without any reference to details, came from two Scotchmen, Andrew Reed and James Matheson, who, in 1835, in a work describing their visit as a deputation to the American churches, first broached the idea that ''Niagara does not belong to Canada or America. Such spots should be deemed the prop- erty ot cix'ilized mankind, and nothing should be allowed to weaken their effi- cacy on the tastes, the morals, and the enjoyment of men." Such, in the ordinary acceptation of the word and in the briefest form, is an outline of the history of the Niagara region. Many points and iacts of in- terest ha\'e necessarily been left un- touched, but brief reference should be made to the old tramway, built from the water's etlgc, at the very head of navigation on the lower river, up the almost perpendicular bank, 300 feet high, close to Hennepin's "threemoun- tains." It was used in very early days, probably before the American Revolu- tion, for raising and lowering heavy goods between the vessels and the port- age wagons, and consisted of a flat car, on broad rimners, moving on wooden rails. It was raised and lowered by a windlass, and this latter was operated by Indian labour then accessible only at the Indians' own price. Braves who ordinarily would scorn to work at any manual labour, gladly toiled all day for a plug of tobacco and a pint of whiskey. The tramway was notable as being the first known adaptation of the crude principle of a railroad in the United States. It may not be amiss to mention also, the reservation of the Tuscarora Indians, east of Lewiston, where the half-breed remnants of the last-embraced tribe of the Six Nations now reside, cultivating their fields, and educating their children under the care of the State. A tribute also is clue to Canadian foresight in the building of the Welland Canal which connects Canada's frontage on the Great Lakes with her system of St. Lawrence canals to the seaboard. Mention, finally, should be made of the modern suggestion of a ship railway around the Falls, touching, at its termi- nals, about the same points on the upper and lower river as those held in view in the previously-suggested ship canal, and proposing, in the ascent and descent of the Lewiston mountain (which was the old shore of Lake Ontario before it receded to its present level), as remarkable a triumph of engi- neering skill as was shown in the enormous projected locks and one hun- dred acre basm of the ship canal. Ne.\t, glance back to the many Indian villages which, long" years ago, dotted the region, the four or more of the Neuter nation, or Kahkwas, on the eastern side of the river, and a much larger number on the western side ; later on, to the gradual occupation of these lands by the Senecas, almost three generations after their ancestors had annihilated the Neuters ; then, to the Seneca village, built on the site of the present city of Buffalo, and then to the one built years ago on the site of tlie village still called Tonawanda, where, of late years, at the " long house," was annually held the coimcil of the remnants of the .Si.x Nations ; and then at the docks in that village where once floated the Indian's canoe, and where now is seen the maze of vessels whose cargoes have, in the last two decades, built up the commercial trade of this, the second largest lumber market in America. Turn, next, to the geological page and recall the ever fresh and still much- discussed question as to the ages that it has taken the Falls to cut their way back from Lewiston to their present location ; consider, too, the ([uestion regarding the time when a great inland sea covered the whole region, of which proof is, even to-day, found in the shells \vhich underlie the soil on (^oat Island and the adjacent country. Con- sider, further, the cpiery as to when and why the great flood of waters abandoned its old channel which ran westward from the whirl])ool to the edge of the bluff at St. Davids, fir to the ^vest of the present outlet of the river into Lake Ontario, and how that old channel, still easily traceable, was 3S4 CASS/£Ji'S MAGAZINE. filled up to nearly the level of the sur- rounding country. Look also at the view, given in very recent years by nature, of how her forces worked to excavate the Niagara gorge in the mass of old Table Rock, left hang- ing o\-er the abvss for years and filling by its own Aveight in 1S53. Remember the thrilling trip of the little steamer "Maid of the Mist," which, from the quiet waters of her usual, circumscribed limit below the Falls, was, in 1861, taken through the mad rapids salely into the whirlpool and, thence, through the lower rapids into Lake Ontario, — the onlv vessel that, during the 100 years of Oueenston's existence as a port of entry, ever entered it from up-stream; and which ^'essel was compelled by the canny officer then in charge of the port, to take out entrance and clearance jjapers, although, according to these, she carried ' ' no passengers and no freight." The trip of that little steamer proved, so far as the river below the Falls was concerned, what the courts have since decided, that the Niagara river throughout its entire length is a navigable stream. Finally, think of Niagara as the Mecca of all travelers to the New World, think of " Wliat troops of tourists have encamped upon the river's briul;, A\'liat poets liave shed from countless quills, Niagaras of ink.'" Turn also to the long' list of noted persons who ha\'e paid their devotions and tributes at Niagara' s shrine. Poten- tates and princes have come, gazed on the Falls, and gone away, tlieir visit to Niagara, perhaps like their li\'es, color- less and without a trace. Then, with greater satisfaction, turn to the large number ot famous men and women, un- crowned, but still, hy reason oi their abilities, rulers of the people, who by their words, their pens, or their pencils, ha\'e gi\'en their impressions of the cataract to the world, and have, at least, earned for themselves therebv the right to be allowed a niche in Niagara's temple of fame. And numerous are the names ot men and women who, in these and other wa\-s, have connected their names «-ith Niaarara, embracinsr the leaders in ever}' branch of science, knowledoe and art. There is yet another set of men whose greatest notoriety has been acquired at Niagara. Among these are Francis Abbott, "the hermit of Niagara," whose solitary life, close to the Falls themselves, and his death by drowning, have stood as a perpetual proof of the influence of the great cataract on human nature ; Sam Patch, whose daring led him to make two jumps from a scaffold, 100 feet high, into the deep waters at the base of the Goat Lsland cliff, safely in both cases, although, not long after- wards, a similar attempt at the Genesee Falls proved to be his last ; Blondin, whose marvelous nerve led him repeat- edly, and under various conditions, to cross the gorge on a tight-rope ; Joel Robinson, whose life was often risked thereabouts to save that of others ; and Matthew Webb, whose prowess as a swimmer led him to try, unaided by artificial appliances, to swim through the whirlpool rapids, in which attempt he lost his life. Of early Indian names on the frontier, two are specially prominent, — Red facket, a Seneca, the greatest of all Indian orators, who spent most of his long life near Buffalo, and died tliere, and who fought, with the rest of his tribal warriors, in the American army in the war of 1 8 1 2 : and John Brant, son of the famous Joseph Brant, a Mohawk, educated mainly at Niagara at the mouth of the ri\'er in Canada, whose first leatlership in war was as an ally of the British at the battle of Oueenston. Forever and inseparately connected with the Niagara region will be the names of all of the |)ersons here referred to, some mentioned merely as members of a class, other.^ indi\'idually. Among the first on this roll of honour, as they were among tlie first to view, depict, and describe the Falls, are the names of La .Salle and Hennepin, — theintreijid explorer, and the noble, though much villified, priest, i'or since 1678 there has been no portion of the globe to which the attention of mankind has been lufire, and in more ways, attracted thtin to tliis Nia"'ara region. SOME INDUSTRIAL SUBJECTS ILLUSTRATED. AIR AS AN INDUSTRIAL FACTOR. c .ONSIDERED from a humanitarian standpoint, no representative engineer or architect of to-day wih underestimate the value of pure air lor ventilating and heating purposes, or iail to pro\'ide suitable flues fir its introduction and eduction for schools, thea- tres, churches, halls of audience, legislative buildings and the like, and large manufactories with their hun- dreds of operatives. It is, however, doubtful if the importance which air plays in industrial pursuits has ever been calculated. New and e.xtensi^-e fields for the use of air, as fur- nished by tan blowers, either cokl, or first tempered, or heated, by steam coils or other heating agencies, as the situation may recjuire, are frequently develop- ing. Impro\-ing the product of the industry or les- sening cost of output are the usual avenues through which these uses open up. Special study of the problems incident thereto, with detailed experiments, must then be carried on until an economical and reliable basis for calculating the proper sizes of apparatus are established. These tests have entailed the manu- facture of a number of delicate and special instruments and devices for making air tests under a variety of atmospheric conditions and temperatures. The engrav- ings appearing in connection with this article have been [prepared from sketches .'VIR SUCTION RE.MOVI.VG KMERY GRINDINGS. AIR AS AN INDUSTRIAL FACTOR. FORCED ATR DRAUGHT UNDF.R LJOIFER taken at random, and some me- chanical featnres are not as cor- rectly portra\'ed by the artist as though they had ., been made from original photo- graphs. Since the recent attitude of the various State legislatures has been so forcibly directed toward the abatement of e X i s t i n g nui- sances in facto- ries, easily ac- complished b)' he introduction of fms and the imj)roving of the atmosphere in all cases vhere rendered foul by the incident processes of manufacture, we obser\'e a ^reat manj' fans used for accomplishing these results, heretofore found only in the arger and more complete mills whose owners did not want to be com]5eiled by aw to introduce them, but who appreciate the possibilit"\' of their obtaining more vork from their oi)erati\'es by rendering the working apartments habitable. In the first illustration, we ha\-e what is known as a "B" Volume exhauster, handling the refuse from a series of enier)' wheels. There are two yi'jes of fans used for this class ol work, — steel plate exhausters, specially built .ncl extra hea\'y, and also cast iron fms as shown, the latter being- more durable. The former stvle of fi^ns are built in larger diameters and ca]>acities, and, there- ore, are more readily clapted to large plants. The operation of an mery exhaust outfit is xceedingly simple and eadily understood. The onstruction of the fans 5 such as to handle a omparati\'ely large vol- ime of air at a strong iressure, and the rush if the air toward the xhauster carries with it he emery grindings. "rom the fan the grind- igs are ordinarily de- osited in a vat of water, r, by the use of a ]3rop- rly constructed sepa- ator in a closed bin or oom. Blast gates are sually employed at each ranch pipe, and by fosmg' tnese \\nen cnat i-n., 3. where a strong air Br..\sT is indispens.^ijle. AIR AS AN INDUSTRIAL FACTOR. AIR CARRIES WOOD REFUSE TO THE BOILER FIRES particular wheel is not running, a saving in power is eiiected in proportion to the number closed off, and the consequent reduction of the amount of air allowed to pass through the exhauster. Foundry tumbling barrels in many States are no«' required by the factory inspectors to be connected to an exhauster, the kinds above mentioned being- suitable. With a barrel of proper construction, many of those now on the market being \-ery convenient and efficient, the working conditions of employes are no longer what they used to be. We have now an atmosphere comparatively free from dust and other impurities. The "B" volume fan blast wheels may also be constructed of copper or other special non-destructive metals for handling fumes from acid baths, the shells ha\'ing an interior lining of the same material. The second engraving illustrates what is perhaps the most important use made of air as furnished by blow- ers in recent years. The largest and most complete boiler plants are now erected with short chim- neys at great reduction of first cost, tall ones being rendered en- tirely unnecessary to obtain suffi- cient combustion of fuel, because fans are applied either to force air under the boiler grates or in connection with fuel economizer plants to create an induced draught. B^' forcing the air under the grates, it is [possible to obtain ]:ierfect comlnistion of 'i cheap grades of fuel, such as hard coal screening am.l soft coal slack. Mixed in the jjercentage „,:,. ,. progressive smiths do.n't use bellows. AIR AS AN INDUSTRIAL FACTOR. of 25 of the latter with 75 of the former, the best fire is obtained. The usual arrangement is to equip the tan with a direct-connected engine, its speed being controlled automatically by a regulating \'al\-e acted upon direct by the steam pressure in the boiler, the rise of pressure reducing the speed of the fan, and vice versa. The \'al\'e is, of course, adjusted to the steam pressure which it is desired to maintain in the boilers. The air is delivered under the grates into a closed ash-pit, being introduced at the bridge wall. The idea of burning this class of fuel was first originated at Buffalo, it being a great shipping centre for mine operators, with the consecjuent accumulation of fine coal dust screening, etc. Precisely the same apparatus has been successfully tried in the coal regions, with the result of finding that the millions of tons oi culm now piled up in these sections can be readily consumed with results practically equal to mine run coal. Not many years ago, it was generally accepted by foundrymen that nothing short of a positive blast blower could ever fill the requirements of melting iron in foundry cupolas. To-day, few are purchased for such service. The third engraving illustrates the most efficient and economical arrangement in power and durability. It is now an established fact that the proper amount of air at an ordinar}- pressure affords fu' better results in foundry work than an insufficient supply at a high pressure, the latter being the usual re- sult where positive blast blowers are used, the former with the fan type of cupola blower. Few planing mill operators now fol- low the old time practice of remov- ing the refuse by hand, but instead use air as a con- yeyor to the boiler fires through piping systems and dust separators with tur- c~ nace feeds attached. ' Another and more im]:>ortant use for air in wood-working industries is its ap- plication for season- ing timber. Rapid and efficient work calls for a contin- .r-<#^^ AIR BREATHES UPON US HERE MOST SWEETLY.' -Tempest. AIR AS AX INDUSTRIAL FACTOR. aal and trequent change of air in drying apartments, at a comparatively high temperature, with the humidity under perfect control. This result is obtained by the combination of a steel plate fan and steam hot blast heater, with an air change capacity in the drying apartments approximately two or three times per minute, and of heater capacity sufficient to maintain a temperature of from 120° to 180°. The humidity is principally regulated by the introduction of a steam jet into the main air duct between the fan and the dryer. The space at command prohibits not only a brief description but even a com- plete enumeration of all the uses of air as an industrial factor in the present state of progress. A few of the more common ones are the removal of odors from oil and grease, sanitary arrangements, steam dr-\'ing' cylinders, dye houses, bleachers, glue pots, lacquer and pickling rooms, rag warehouses, removal of steam from paper mills, and abating dust, etc., in multitude of particular processes for bringing forth the various manufacturers' products. The heating and ventilating system to-day first considered for important public or manufacturing buildings of any size is the one in which air is the prime feature, viz., the fan system. Embodied in it are the vital elements of the ideal outfit, perfect control of the quality, quantity, humidity and temperature of air and economy of operation. For legislative buildings, schools, halls of audience, manufactories and all large structures, the system stands unique in adaptability and desirability. There is almost an endless number of ways in which the apparatus may be applied to meet existing conditions in buildings of this class. The presentation of the greatest amount of data ever pulDlished and hitherto unavailable relating to the application of fans, fan system of heating, ventilating and drying appears in the i S95 catalogue of 500 pages issued by the Buffalo Forge Company, Buffalo, N. Y. It is embellished with hundreds of handsome and expensive engravings, and the tabulated data and formulas orig'inated by the above company places this work as a standard for basis of all computations upon the movement of air by fans for all classes of work. The Buffat.o h""oRGE Compaxv, Bulfalo, N. Y. MODERN BUILDINGS. ( I, 1 ^XCFLSIOR " seems to be the motto of all modern art and industry and r"^ in no department of social science has this been more apparent, in the last decade, than in architecture. The magnificent buildings of recent construction that adorn the thorough- fares of our Metropolitan cities were not dreamed of bv the architects of preced- ing generations, and all this is due to the advent of steel in building construction. So general has the use of steel become in the more pretentious structures, that it is now indispensable, and extends tn all sorts of industrial buildings ; in ilict it was the industrial building that ga\'e the impetus to open framework construction and Irom which the towering office lauilding of the city has grown. While the highest and proper aim of the architect is to be an artist, he needs the assistance of the engineer, as a builder, to determine the strength, character and fabrication of his material, especially in metallic construction where great care is required to pro\'ide for all superimposed loads, stresses of wind pressure, etc., in which the most minute details ha\'e to be considered, for in the e\-ent of the shearing of a few rivets where enough ha\'e not been pro\-ided to resist the MODERX BUILDINGS. stresses, or the .breaking of a bracket sustaining a girder, the culUipsc of an entire structure may be caused. In manufacturing estabhshments, such as Steel Plants, Rolling Mills, Foundry and Machine shops where cranes and other machinery are constantly "working, the determination of stresses and the proportioning of material to resist them, is, in this age of scientific knowledge and practical art, figured with the est accuracy and the proprietor of an industrial plant of to-day does r think of constructing his building without the aid of the experienced engineer. rHtJ .^.-At-, o(-l-n /^4-l .-, 1-, r-i^ 11-^-11-, l-ii-i ^1 ^..^.r- r^ ... 4- .-. ^1.-if.-.,. +1-,.-. /-, • ^ i^ n +,-o ,1-, ,I. ll TM-lr i \^ t reatest accuracy and the proprietor of an industrial plant of to-day does not t „,-,„.-<-.-, ,.,f;„„. ufg building without the aid of the experienced ei ^ e construction of iron bridges ante-dates the open framework of the industrial building and the engineering science recjuired to determine the stresses Tht / / ( ■ 'mi — «"* -^aN ONE OF THE NEW SHOPS OF THE ^VESTINGMOUSE ELECTRIC .VND JIANUF ACTURIN(; COMPANY, ERTNTON, T.\. FRFCTET" BY TFIF SHIFFFER ERIDr.!: C'OIPAXV, FITTSBTTRfiH, I'A. of loads on bridges, it may be said, has been the forerunner of the engineering knowledge required to properly design and construct the industrial building. Thus through the ordinary course of e\'ents it is the bridge designer who has developed into the builder of the manufacturing plant and the framework of the artistic business block. Naturally, therefore, some of the bridge building establish- ments have departments in their works especially adapted to this kind of con- struction which is now in demand everywhere from the fact that the scarcity ot timber and its unadaptability to present needs precludes its use. A magnificent example of modern steel construction in an industrial estalilish- ment, is shown by the accomjjanying illustration of a warehouse, 76' 2" wide by 7S4' long, taken during the course of erection. It is one of a nnmlser of build- ino-s of the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company at Brinton, I'a., constructed by the Shiffler P^ridge Company of Pittsburgh, Pa., to whom we are indebted for this cut and information. The ShifI'Li-:r Bridge Comi>ax\-, Pittsburgh, Pa. TURN ON THE SEARCH LIGHT. C CONSCIOUS that this article is addressed to men of the highest culture in science and that the audience is a very large one, the writer hesitates to use other than the simplest language in offering to the Mechanical Engi- neers of America, claims or explanations for an engine, which is believed to be the very best expression of intelligent and progressive thought in the line oi steam engineering that has been brought to general attention, since the da}' that the Corliss type of engine was designed. During the present wonderful electric period, great strides have been made in the \'arious phases of electrical development, the possibilities of which are so generally admitted as bevond conception, and the exacting demands for perfection in the generating power behind the dynamo are so great that it has required con- siderable courage on the part of engine builders to promise satisfaction. The uncertainty as to whether the faults were with the electric or steam machinery and the natural tendency on the part of the electrician and the engineer to disclaim responsibility for imperfection, has restrained the engine builder, for commercial reasons, from entering a field in which he was so uncertain of success. The time has, howe\'er, now arri\-ed, when the electrician has so far mastered the many phases of his subject that to-day, there is no longer hesitation on the part of the general public lor the installation of needed electrical machines, and the steam engine builder is forced to stand abreast with the electrician in the perfection of his product. Ha^'ing duly considered all this, and after many years dealing with the sub- ject of the best use of steam, it was decided by The Atlas Engine Works of Indianapolis, Ind., to undertake to meet the requirements of the day. To tell the story that has led to the development of this high grade engine in the simplest way seems the most forceful manner of bringing the engine to the attention of those who are best prepared, by study and experience, to appreciate its merits. It was determined to design an engine, with the end in view, of building the most perfect machine possible, without reference to what others were offering or without reference to the cost of construction. To this end, all known designs of 24 TrR^' ON THE SE.IA'Cf/ LIGHT. engines \v-ere carerully studied and investigated to discover, if possible, tlie most valuable features ot each and everyone, with the determination of improving upon everything that had already been done, if it were possible to do so. As a result, the Atlas Cycloidal Heavy Duty Engine is presented to the world as the most conspicuous forerunner in all that relates to merit in steam engineering that is feiiiiii TAi\DJ£lM COIMl'OUNI> ATLAS CYLlAJlLlAL JIKAVV UI'TV KXGIXi:, BUILT LY THE ATLAS E^'GIXi: W'iiRKS, INDIANAPOLIS, INU. now knoun, and this article is written in the hope of Ijringing it to tlie attention of that class ol experts, who ha\'e given so much thought along the line of better things, and who, we believe, will readily recognize the several meritorious features oi the various parts that enter into the so generally successful plan. The minimum use of heat and water and the most uniform speed, under varying conditions, supported by the greatest strength, is what has been obtained in the design of this engine. Accepting the iour-vah'e system, as proven the best in principle for the quickest use and release of steam, the effort was made to simplify the valves and the valve-operating mechanism, and to substitute for the rotating, the flat multi- ported valve. Either high or moderate speed necessities are accommodated, with economical results. Clearance is reduced to the lowest possible limit by form of valves and short- ness of ports. Finished inner faces of cylinder heads and finished fiiston heads reduces con- densation and fi.xes the amount oi clear- ance. The ease with which admission, re- lease and compres- sion can be regulated is a conspicuous feat- ure of excellence. The direct pas- sage from high to low pressure cylinders in double ex|;iansion, avoids loss of heat and pressure. The full opening of the steam port is so slight a movement of a very light valve that it admits of possibilities oi^ range in speed that is remarkable, and the lightness of the valve avoids the trouble- some momentum so common in valve motion, under high speed. The strains are held to straight lines, without sacrifice of attracti\'e form. I-'UONT \'IEW. TURN ON THE SEARCH LIGHT. SICCTHiXAI. VIEN\' OI'^ EN<;rXE. A four-\'ah'e cylinder with sliortest possible ports ; live steam jacket to pre- vent condensation ; valve seats removable for inspection or renewal : cylinder lining remo\'able for repair or renewal, affords important convenience for increase or decrease of cylinder diameter to a reasonable degree. Steam valves that are multi-ported, flat surfaced, tight-wearirg, quick open- ing, short traveling ; operated for any port opening by the least motion ot a simple cycloid ; closed by steam pressure ; without motion when under heavy pressure and removable for examination and return in three minutes time, without adjustment. Positive motion multi- ported exhaust valves op- erated by a fixed eccentric ; maintaining uniform com- pression under all load \'i\u- ations ; removable same as the steam \al\-es for exam- ination or exchange for new parts. The mechanism operat- ing the valves is stripped ol all crab claws, trips and dash pots. Rods direct from the governor and two eccentrics work in lateral motion sim- ple cycloids for the steam valves and cranks for the ex- haust valves. All are made of closest steel, are free from perceptible wear, con\'en- iently accessible for care, with but very light dut}'. Every part is constructed in the most particular and best manner known. A heavy locomotive main cross head of abundant weight to take the impact oi steam on the piston, equalize the pressure on the crank pin and diminish wear upon the piston and cylinder. Direct connection between eccentrics and valve rods. Absence of objection- able rock shafts. Diminution of wear by the mounting of one slide upon the other. Only the differential motion occurs between the two ports of tlie "\'alve cross head. 26 STEAM VALVF,. i:XHArST VAL^■E. TfU^N ON THE SEARCH LICIIT. A plain hea^■v strap joint rod, the strap of which is the special feature. No parts strained by bendintj Built up of two sides and one end piece. Tenons on the ends equal in strength to the sides take the entile strain. The through-going bolts merely hold the parts together. A removable main bear- ing, whose diameter equals in inches one-half the cyl- inder diameter and whose length measures the same as the full diameter of the cyl- inder, the frictionless journa box of which can be taken out lor renewal by simply jack- ing up the shaft and wheel A strong roller bearing shaft governor of the inertia or dead wheel lorm controls the light weight, non-resisting balanced valves C^Ll.XlilCK SICCTIOX THRiJUi.II ^■ALVIiS. with so little effort that there is practically no variance in speed. All the joints of the governor have roller bearings. Turn on the Search Light. The Atlas Ex(;ixe Co., Indianapolis, Ind. 27 GAS CONSUMED IN OXE 10 C, I'. i.AS JET IF USED -^1X11 A OLIN CAS ICNiVINK "\\"ILL PRODUCE THREE l6 C. P. ELECTRIC LIGHTS. ECONOMICAL POWER. OF all the machines that mark the industrial greatness oi the Nineteenth Century, the engine unquestionably stands first. It is a thermometer of our progress. For in such degree as it has been made a ready and effi- cient ser\-ant ; so has our commercial life expanded. For many years the steam engine has been the motor which has chiefly contributed to this result. But it has now reached the point where its improvement is very slow, and its practical efficiency very near the theoretical, that can be obtained. It is but comparatively recent that the gas engine has come to the front. The last fifteen years marks in it a period of remarkable growth. From a crude affair, continually getting out of order, and noisy, it has become a quiet, highly economical and reliable machine of the first order. For a gas engine to come up to the ideal standard it must be simple in design ; not liable to get out of order ; the parts must be accessible ; it must be economical in the use of fuel ; the ignition of the charge must be positive ; the go^'erning must be close ; it must run quiet ; and it must be durable. These points of excellence ha\'e been striven for by many builders and designers with varying success. But to get the foregoing combination in the highest degree, without sacrificing one good point for another, is not so easy. However, as illustrati\'e of what has been done, and can be, attention is invited to the engines of The Olin Gas Engine Company of Buffalo, N. Y., whose agents in New York City are the Ruggles-Coles Engineering Company, 39-41 Cort- landt street. This company manufacture two general types of engines. That is, engines getting an impulse every revolution ; and those getting one every second revolution ; or four-cycle and two-cycle. The two-cycle are built only in sizes of 10 h. p. and over and are horizontal in style. The impulse every revolu- tion is obtained by enclosing the crank chamber into which pure air is drawn, then slightly compressed and transferred to the working end of the cylinder ; also bv an independent gas-pump for pumping the gas into the working c^dinder with the air just before the charge is compressed and fired. The cycle of opera- tions is as follows : the piston on its instroke draws air into the crank- chamber ; then on its out-strr)ke slightly compresses it : when the piston has gone three- fourths of its out-stroke the exhaust valve is opened and the exhaust relieved ; then as the piston completes the out-stroke it unco^'ers ports admitting the slightly compressed air to sweep through the cylinder and clean out the old charge and replace it with the pure air from the crank-chamber. Then when the piston has made about one-half of its instroke a little gas valve is tapped by the governor eccentric-rod, and it admits a charge of gas into the working cham- ber from the independent gas pump ; then the exhaust closes and the mixed 2S ECONOAJiaiL PO WER. A'ERTICAL OLIX charge is compressed and fired. Thus every revokition an impulse is obtained when working' at lull power. This engine is characterized by great smoothness and steadiness. The design is such as to achnit of a leather seat for the air-suction valve ; and the exhaust-\'alve is handled by rocking le\'er and eccentric, making it exceedingly quiet. Lubrication is so provided for that it is thorough and relia- ble. All friction surfaces subjected to heat are water-jacketed. Even the exhaust-\'al\'e-stem is water-jacketed and means provided for its lubrication. In this engine the compression of the charge beginning at one-half in-stroke and the exhaust opening at three quarter out-stroke, the expan- sion is carried much farther than in other ^ ._^«j,„ engines ; thus tending to greater economy and I'"' "^1 \ ' '!'§. ^ quiet exhaust. III'! I — Ji!™ la These engines are adapted for manufact- I II r-^^HIl' ' iS^ ured, natural, or producer gas. The four -- /^^Oifi^ \ rV cycle engines built by this company are both vertical and horizontal. The vertical ones ranging from two-thirds to 8 h. p., and the horizontal ones from lo h. p. upwards, and are adapted for any kind of gas, or gasoline direct from the tank. Their remarkable sim- plicity will be appreciated from the following statements : The gas engine has three simple poppett-valves and two valve-chambers, and the gasoline engines only two poppett valves and one ^-alve-chamber. Any one of these valves can be easily removed and put back in place again in a minute's time. No fine adjustments are required in anv part of the engine. The governing is accomplished by automatically controlling the exhaust-valve ; that is, holding- it open when the speed is up to the normal. This method has been found to be economical as well as efficient, as it relie\'es the piston from doing work in com- pressing idle charges of air when the engine is running light. The governor is located in the gear and is sensitive enough to please the most fastidious. The work thrown upon it is very light, as its function is merely to indicate the time that the engine is to take an impulse. All horizontal engines of this type are so designed that the speed may be varied, and all parts lubricated, while the engine is running. This is found desirable in large engines for many kind of manufacturing and indus- trial work. The effort to make this, as well as the other type of engine, silent has been crowned with success, as the action of the vah'es in seat- ino- is so easy, and their moving parts so cushioned and muffled that the noise is \-ery slight. The "asoline engines take gasoline directly from a tank (which may be at a distance from the building) b)' a simple [jump. The va]3orization of the gasoline is so perfect that the heaviest grades may be used, even low grades of kerosene have been used with success. In the manufacture of these engines, the interchangeable system has been adopted ; standard gauges, reamers, jigs and templates being used, so that anv jiart 'RIZUXT.VL OLIX GAS EXGIXE. 29 ECONOMICAL POWER. irom a new piston-ring to a new base can be ordered with the certainty of its being riglit. Especial care is given to the quality of material used. Nothing but the best is a maxim with the builders. All cranks are steel ; cylinders, pistons, rings, \'alve-seats, etc., are cast from a special fine grained tough iron ; phosphor- bronze, A I babbitt, chilled iron, and hardened tool steel for such journals and wearing surfaces as experience has proven best adapted. For isolated lighting plants the gas engine is coming into great fiivor, and for a number of reasons, \'iz. : the price of gas is practically a fixed thing for any gi\'en loc.ility, and is not subject to the caprice and greed of electric light compa- nies ; again it is a motor easily handled, not requiring a licensed engineer, but simplv the occasional attention of a careful man or woman of fair intelligence. It is cleanlv and safe as there is no fire-box with its attendant dirt and ashes, and no boiler with its steam and danger of explosion. Its economy as compared with the steam engine is very marked, as the average gas engine will convert five or six times the number of heat units in the fuel, into work that the average steam engine will do. The following' problem will make clear the economy of the gas engine for electric lighting. We will take for example an engine using 20 feet of 16 candle-power g'as for each horse-power an hour. This gas would furnish four 5-foot biu'ners giving 16 candle-power of light each — or 64 candle-power of light for one hoiu". Now, this same 20 feet of gas used in the gas engine gi\'es one horse-power one hour, which horse-power will run ten 16 candle-power incandescent electric lights — or 160 candle-power of light for one hoiu'. Thus making a clear gain of the difterence between 160 and 64 — or 96 candle-power of light more than the 20 feet of gas. In producing' arc lights 12 times the light is obtained from the same power or gas consumption as would be obtained in producing' incandescent lights. In produc- ing electric lights with natural gas used in the engine, the economy is greater than the proportionate difference of price of the two gases, as natural gas contains more heat units to the cubic foot than the illuminating gas. These are fair esti- mates and show the remarkable econom)' of the g'as engine for electric lighting. Whv not use electric lights instead of gas lights? Olin Gas Enc.ixe Company, Buffalo, N. Y. THE GEYELIN-JONVAL TURBIiNES. THE accompanying cut is a general view of the now famous series of Geyelin- jonval In\'erted Turbines, each of iioo horse-power, erected for the Niagara Falls Paper Company, Niagara F'alls, N. Y., by R. D. Wood iS: Co., Philadelphia, which are especially notable in that they were the first to be installed and operated with the water power supplied by the Niagara I-'alls Power Companv through their splendid canal and tunnel. As is clearly shown, the great pressure due to the 140 feet of fall, instead of tending to decrease the efhcienc\' of the turbines, is in part utilized through the adoption of the inverted t^•pe of ■\\'heel, to counter-balance the weight of the \'ertical shafts and gearing ; the installation including the iron and steel supports in \\'hich these heavv vertical shafts and gearing are carried. These turbines have now been in operation some eighteen months, giving a high percentage of efficiency, and showing a surprising degree of durability and steadiness under var3'ing' conditions of service. The builders of the Geyelin-Jonval Turbines are prepared to offer both single and double wheels, especially adapted to meet local conditions, and for any required service. They are also prepared to build both single and THE I'rEYELlX-JOXl'AL TCRBIXES. double actino- horizontal and ver- tical water power pumps, ior ser- ^■ice in connection with their tur- bines : and as they have long been builders ol' such turbines and punijis, and ba\'e uneiiualed tacilities, thev are prepared to contract for the largest installa- tions, and can point with satisfac- tion to numerous plants throughoutth country that have stood the test of years ol ser\'ice. The Superintendent of the Dart- mouth (Ga.) Spinning Company writes ofthe Geyelin-Jonval Tur- bines used in his mill, as follows: " Our 7calcr "cvhcch arc giviug cntirc satisfaction. 'Jlicy have noic run over four years with- out a breakage or stoppage, be- ing compaet, 7ioiseIcss, eeonomi- cal and effectived R. U. Wood & Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 31 THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE TUNNEL. HERE is no more interesting chapter of the Niagara i Falls enterprise than that relating to the construction of the tunnel. Fast tunnel driving in the United States began with the construction of the West Shore Railroad, the tunnels of that Road being about the first to employ rock drills of the modern type and almost every important tunnel made since the West Shore Road was built has seen a new record made for speed. To this the Niagara Falls tunnel is no exception, the speed made there being nothing less than phenomenal and far in advance of any- other record. To complete the tunnel within the time required it was necessary to sink three shafts from the surface from which the tunnel was driven in both directions. In tunnel driving the upper portion or " heading " is taken out first, the remainder being removed in one or more "benches." In previous work there has been much loss of time and labor due to rehandhng the broken rock from the heading which was dumped over the first bench and reloaded at its bottom. In the Niagara Falls work a removable platform was AT WfiKK IN THE TUXNKL suspended at the level ol the upper bench over which the liroken rock from tlie heading was taken and dumped into cars at its further end, the gathering of the broken rock from the bench being carried on beneath this platform. In this wa^' a great amount of labor was saved as will be readily seen. The plan described was also of assistance in reaching the remarkable speed with which the tLinnel was dri^■en. The first of the accompanying illustrations is from a flash light photograph ot 32 THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE TUNNEL. A GROUP OF COMPKESSORS. a tunnel heading at work. It accurately shows the methods employed and is the first authentic picture of its kind to find its way into the public print and illustrate the doings of the underground world. No picture, however, can reproduce the stirring scene which forms the reality, than which there is none more impressive in the entire field of legitimate industry. It is a hand to hand contest with nature in her stronghold.. The deafening roar of the drilling machines, the shadowy forms ofthe workmen seen through the smoke and dust and rendered barely visible by the flickering light of the torch lamps, while over all hangs the sugges- tive odor of dynamite, all combine to form a scene not to be forgotten by any one who has once witnessed it. The rock drills will be seen in position mounted upon their columns, which latter are held in position by powerful jack screws. The drill holes are arranged in vertical rows, the two centre rows inclining toward one another, forming what is called the V or centre cut, this disposition of the holes being made to assist in breaking out the central portion of the rock by the dynamite blast. Outside this centre cut two rows of holes are usually placed on each side. The entire set of holes is drilled before the machines are removed, after which the holes are loaded with explosive and fired — the centre cut first, and the first and second "side rounds" following in succession. The excavating machinery employed consisted of three i8 x 30 duplex air compressors and twenty-five Little Giant rock drills furnished by the Rand Drill Company, 23 Park place. New York. The second illustration shows the plant of compressors in position and at work, their large capacity being required by the pumping occasioned by the immense quantity of water met with. The highest record of work for a single heading was 338 lineal feet of tunnel in 26;^^ days, which as before stated leads the record. Great credit is due to Messrs. Rodgers & Clement, contractors for the tunnel, which is unique among such enterprises from having been completed in less than contract time. The Rand Drill Company, 23 Park Place, New York. 33 ECONOMICAL POWER DISTRIBUTION. 'HE electric distribution of power in shops is now receiving considerable attention. It has been demonstrated in many cases that this method is the most economical, as well as having many advantages over the usual method where a series of shafts, countershafts and belting are em- ployed. Experience has taught that in shops where both large and small machinery is used it is economy to operate each large machine with a separate motor, and to group the small machinery togeiher in sections, driving each section with a motor. The principal saving in power realized by the electrical system of distribution is due to the fact that when a machine is stopped the power required to drive it stops at the generator and not simply at the machine it- self, as is the case when driven by a system of shafting. Further, when the load is re- duced the loss in line wire between generator and motor is reduced directly in proportion to the reduction of current consumed by motor. This regulation is instantaneous, and at any one time the dynamo only generates as much current as is needed by the motors at that particular time. The attention of shop owners is invited to the following figures taken from the books of the Brown-Ketcham Iron Works Co., Indianapolis, Indiana, where Jenney electrical apparatus is in operation. This company is engaged in the manufacture of structural iron work for buildings and bridges, and frequently handles pieces of from 20,000 to 30,000 pounds weight, the a\'erage yearly output being from eight to twelve million pounds. The principal shop is fitted with heavy machinery, very much scattered on account of the bulky character of much of the work done. Following is a partial list of machines in operation : A heavy shear capable of cutting off a 6" x 6" x i" angle iron, operated by a seven and one-half horse-power motor directly belted to fly wheel. A heavy plate shear similarly driven. Six (6) punches capable of punching a i'-" hole in ^'4" steel, each run by three horse-power motor, one of which is shown by the accompanying illustration. A double-headed rotary planer capable of facing ofl the ends oi a column 2' 6" in diameter and 34' long. A short shaft, operated by a ten horse-power motor, runs several lathes and shapers, seven machines in all. A ten horse motor on a Sturtevant blower, consuming fourteen horse-power during ten hours' run (has been doing this for nearly three years). In addition to the abo\'e is a 15,000 pound traveling crane, traversed by a three horse-power motor. The maximum power taken by these machines was thirty-fi\'e horse-power, and the average load about twenty-five horse-power, actually shown by the elec- trical meters in power room. (What would it have been with the ordinary shaft and belt transmission ?) This may be accounted for by the fact that all machines do not run at maximum power at same time. In the old and smaller building, burned and replaced by the present structure, 34 ECOXOAJ/C.IL POWER DISTRini "nON. shafting, gears, countershaits, quarter-turn belts and hangers were used, and when a machine was shifted in position a reahgnnient of shafting often became necessar}^ We have from the company that their a\'erage }-earh' expense for power maintenance in old plant amounted to ;r;3ooo. On the other hand, with present equipment an average taken for the twenty (20) weeks ending June 30, 1894, shows a yearly cost of maintenance with the electrical system of $493. If the present shop (much larger than its predecessor) were run by shafting, it would be necessary to use counters, hangers, pulleys and belt for each machine and to dri\-e the whole system from a shaft 370 feet long. All of this shafting would have to be run whether the machines did or not, and the power thus expended would be a large per cent, of the total energy generated by the power plant, and this loss would be continuous throughout the entire running time. Here, then, has been made a direct comparison between the cost of operation of a modern machine shop by the electrical and the old methods, and we find nearly a six-fold advantage in use of the former. A recent test of power required to drive a bicycle factory developed that to drive line-shafting and counter-shafting with all machinery out of service required about twenty-five horse-power, and with average working load the total power consumed was only about thirty-five horse-power. It will be seen from the fore- going' that when the ordinary belted shop is run on light capacity the percentage of loss in shafting is greatly increased. Aside from the economy there are many other advantages realized in electrical distribution. In large shops it is often necessary to shut down, either to fix a belt, to cool a hot bo.x or for some other cause. While the stop may onlv last for five or ten minutes, the loss due to a large number of men stopping work amounts to con- siderable. The electrical system of distribution overcomes this loss, for the stop- ping of one machine or section does not interfere with the balance of the works. Furthermore, irregular power due to slipping of belts is overcome, and on acccunt of the electric motor being under control, more work can be done in a given time. There are other advantages which we will not enumerate at this time. In order to get the best results with greatest economy, it is essential that the electrical apparatus be constructed in a thorough manner to insure durability and that it should have high efficiency. The apparatus put on the market by this company is the result of many years' experience in building electrical machinery, and we have therefore long ago passed the experimental stage. Jenney dynamos and motors have been in use for many years all over this country and in many foreign countries. This company builds a complete line of multipolar generators, adapted for direct connection to steam engines ; also a full line of multipolar belted genera- tors, for large sizes, and bipolar machines for smaller sizes. The last few years special attention has been given to electric elevator service, and we are now supplying motors especially adapted for this service to several elevator companies. Our latest type of elevator controller is a very simple device and was especially designed with a view to safety, and it is of such construction that any inexperi- enced operator can handle it with safety. We are also building motors of difl'erent sizes, expressly for operating launches, and our motors were used in two very fine launches which were used on the lagoons at the World's Columbian Exposition. We are prepared to furnish complete power equipments, street railroad or power generators and electric light plants. Correspondence solicited. Jennky Electric Motor Comp.-vny, Indianapolis, Indiana, U. S. A. 35 THE USE OF "GIANT" PORTLAND CEMENT ON THE NIAGARA FALLS TUNNEL. WHEN the work of putting in the heavy brick lining of the Tunnel was begun, tests were made of a number of diflerent cements, and finally " Giant" Portland was selected on account of its superior merit. The work to be done was considerable, there being 13,000,000 brick required, together with much massive cut stone in the Wheel-Pit and connecting tunnels, and what was absolutely necessary was a cement that combined strength and uniformity in ciualit"\'. The matter of price was a secondary consideration, as the ultimate success of the whole stupendous undertaking was dependent on the stability and sound- ness of the masonry lining- of the Tunnel, for should this be faulty, the rushing \^■ater passing through with a velocity of 26^2 feet per second would soon tear out the lining and render the Tunnel useless until repairs could be made. The hea\-\' brick lining was necessar}' on account of the rock formation being a friable shale, which crumbled badly upon exposure to the air for a tew hours. As Division Engineer in charge of Construction, it was an important part of mv duties to see that all materials furnished for the work were fullv up to stand- ard, and in all about 70,000 barrels of " Giant" Portland cement were used and with the most gratifving results. The mortar, composed ot i part Cement and 3 parts Sand, set up finely, and after the wctrk was completed it was necessary to cut through the brick lin- ing to connect the small lateral Tunnel from the Niagara Falls Paper Co.'s Wheel-Pit. This Tunnel is about 7 feet in diameter, and it required four men working for two days before the opening could be cut through to the solid rock wall. The bricks of the tunnel lining were shattered and split into small frag- ments, and the mortar was found to be much harder and stronger than the brick, and not a whole brick was taken out. "Giant" Portland was put to a peculiar " boiler test " on the v,-ork here. A discharged employee, for re\'enge, cut a hole in the side of one of the boilers used on the pumjis, and it was necessary to keep these pumps at work and there was no time to j)Ut on a patch, so as a makeshift a patch of neat " ( iiant " Cement was plastered on the outside of the boiler, and si.\ hours afterwards the boiler was filled and steamed up. It was found that the improvised patch was all that was required, and the boiler worked in this condition, under no lbs. press- ure of steam, until the work was completed (about three weeks). This is a remarkable test to put any cement to, and goes to show the strength and adher- ing qualities possessed by "Giant" Portland Cement. Yours \ery truly, Wm. S. Humhert. Xi.\GAR.\ F.\LES, N. \'., lune 10, 1895. i u IT] "spimod ni '^SBJaAv ; - 1 i ■y^:H3nbuo: O O O JO jaqmnsj; m oi m . : ! ; ■spanod ■«-+•- 1 : JO JsquuiM 1 ^ M . 1 ■ 1 : ■ypniiod 1 ^ i5 c^ :r « t^ , t : ■ssiianbijo: 1 O O O i in £-- i--. JO aaquiUNT [ ^^ J^ )^ ' \ 1 : fS 1 ': i s a3 '■'', 0\ CI CO l-^ ! : JO jaqntnsj: | ^ ►=< | ^"^ ': o IT) ni '.-)3uj.3AV i ^ ,'^ ,l5 1^ ,f^ ^ 1 ^ Ca -H lO cj ■s,^li;iiir)i_Tcr 1 O "O O 1 '-< r^ 1 jnil,imn_^ | ^^ ^"^ -t | lO ^ '^ 1 "" u a> '^"^ :s CI o t- d i.'S C-T CO 1 « -+ « ■s.->ii3ubuR 1 O O O O a\ o\ \0\'-rj r-- o 0^ O r^ ri 1 rj- r^ n o JO jaqiimx 1 ! it c « c M hi CI 1 ■^pnnod 1 ■'^ 'Jj 'Xj ij^ i-" i~* ^ H- -+■ CO -+" -HC5 CO 5^1 -^ -^w JO -laqtuiiN 1 w h 1 ^ S, „'| uo lo o <^ 1 --r o M M CI M Cl Cl CO in spanod i "^ :i jg SSy S"^ ':r2 S n; 'sSejsav iS S m i1^ -f cS iiS 5 «« « C 1 -^H Cl "(^ CO 0^ ;> ^ r-- 1 Cl -+ ro ■spunod 1 |iOj5 ,Sl;;0 ni 33Bj;3AV 1 ■^' ^1 c, O^CO Cl -:f '^ lO 'apnnod ni 'sSbj^av i ■ ■ S : ; o ■ ■s-3-n3tibue JO jaqnin^^q; M ■ • 0. CO • ■ MD ■ • • CO ■ - - j>. . . . O 4-1 M M loo So tl ^ << '^ o •< « 9 2 O < -^ a a T3 J. O a CJ o rt o" L- O ^1 ■ 528 ■ - a oj . ,=^ „o 3 ELECTRIC MOTORS APPLIED TO PUMPING MACHINERY. i^AIDL \^\-. T Bv Roil HE vast improvements made in the last iew years in Electric Motors, has increased the many uses to which Electric Power can be applied. Among the more recent is the application to dri\'ing Power Pumps for water- works for the supply of towns and villages. It has been found that where a Water-Works Plant and an Electric Lighting Plant can be operated from the same boilers and in the same building, there is much greater economy, and especially so, if the plant can be located on the line ot a railroad where fuel can be procured without the expense of hauling ; but the trouble is, a good water supply cannot always be obtained on or near the railroad, and it being necessary to place the Pumping Machinery in close proximity to where a good water supply can be secured, and that sometimes a long distance from a railroad and often from the \'illage, makes it very expensive and inaccessible. Here is where the economy comes in by putting in a Power Pumping Plant operated by an Electric Motor. The generators can be placed at the lighting plant and the current carried to the motor at the pumping plant. The Pumps can be driven direct from Motor by worm gear, or by belt from the motor to pulley on pinion shaft of Pump. The accompanying engraving shows a Duplex Power Pump of 3,000,000 gallons capacity in 24 hours. The plungers are iS" diameter by iS" stroke, and the Pumps are designed for a safe working pressure of 125ft P^'' square inch. The pinion on this particular Pumping Engine is placed on top of the spur wheel, so as to be near the floor level, as the Pumps are placed in a pit about 5' deep to get them closer to the ■\\-ater supply. The length of Pumps overall is 19' and the width 11'. The diameter of spur wheel is 9' 2" and the pinion wheel 2' 6". The diameter of steel crank shaft is 9 "2" and the pinion shaft 5". These Pumps have 18" suction and 16" discharge and were erected at Logansport, Ind., by the Laidlaw-Dunn- Gordon Company of Cincinnati. Pumps of this type can be used for mines, where Pumps driven by Electric Motors can be used to great advantage, also in hotels or any other place where pumping water is necessary. DUPT-EX PliWMK Pl"MP M A N P I" A CT T_' R Epi BY THE LAIDLAA\--DT"XN-r.ORDON CO., CIXCINXATI. UIIIO. LABOR SAVING DEVICES. HE (ilobe Company, of Cincinnati and New York, have laid the foundation of their phenomenal success by the recogni- tion of that most vital principle of business success ; namely, the direct relation of producer and consumer. No other dealers in Office Furniture and Filing Devices in this country, so far as we know, make their own goods and sell them exclusively direct to the consumer, and we are the only ones selling similar goods to the user who are not either jobbers of goods made by various manuficturers, or who make only a portion of the article they sell. ---'-t? The Globe Company has long been the leader in the quality and extent of their stock of the different Labor Saving Devices, with which modern offices are daily becoming better equipped. No one who has any regard for the time and labor of himself or his subordinates, will think of doing business without all the devices for systematizing and arrang- ing the different classes of papers, and the information contained in them, that can be used to advantage. = For the systematic preser\'ation of [lapers, the Globe Filing-System is without a peer, and any ]Daper or letter that A j)ra\\'i:r I'ROim a gloue card inim-:x svstkbi cabinet. ma\- be wanted, can be produced instantl}', and without any of the annoyance and' inconvenience of handling a large tiuantity of more or less dusty paper. It is frequently the case that one wants a more comprehensive system of filing than can be gotten by a division of matter, either by name or subject. Constantly we desire to index a paper under not only the name, but also the subject as well, and, in addition, make many cross references there- to. It is manifestly impossible to ha\'e one paper in more than one place, and we are therefore compelled to use an outside index or reference. For a complete and comprehensive index of this character, nothing has yet been devised which can compare with the Globe Card Index System. Originating as it did from the necessity for indexing the contents of libraries, the uses of it have spread to almost every branch of the professional and iEtJN-Pti'LE FILTC; 39 LABOR S.-UVjYG DEVICES. business world. In no profession is its use more advantageous than to engineers. For keeping traclc ot the cost of construction and maintenance, as an index ibr any facts worth preser\'ing, to classify and arrange an^• growing lists of names or things, its advantages are apparent on the most casual inspection, and the long use simply confirms and strengthens the opinion formed in the first place. Anyone who has e\-er tried to keep an index of facts, or arrange a growing list of names in a book index, must have recognized its limitations and vexations. All this labor, fore- thought and worry can be .\ jiodek.n- hksk. avoided by the use of the Globe Card Index System. Its advantages are manifold. Reference to the same paper can be had under as many names or subjects, or both, as may be deemed desirable ; everything" pertaining to a certain subject can be kept by itself, and this subject can be again sub-divided into as many parts or sub-subjects as may be necessary. The fact that this system can be extended and elaborated indefinitely, is its chief advantage. Dead matter can be instantly removed from the index, without disturbing any- thing else, and additional information can alwa3's be put in its proper place, even down to the minutest subdi\'ision. After matter has once been written, it is never necessary to re-write it ; and should a re-arrang'ement of the index seem at any time desirable, it can be accomplished by sim- ply transferring the cards to the proper location. No matter how complete the stock of Filing Devices and Business Furniture is, there is a constant demand for things to be made, according to the ideas and requirements of individual cases. We have built up a large business in doing work of this character, and will always be pleased to make estimates and submit designs for anything of this kind that may be desired. \Ve also solicit correspondence upon anything relating to indexing or the systematic ar- rangement of office methods, that our \\ide experience in these matters would render us competent to answer. Correspondence from the Eastern Seaboard, and its adjacent Territory, should be addressed to our Eastern House, at No. 42 Beaver street, New York, where a full line ot samples can be seen, and all information desired can be obtained. We issue a catalogue, fully illustrated, containing over 100 pages, and would be pleased to send ^■ou one, and (juote special net prices, upon receipt of information as to what your requirements ma-\' be. The ("ri^iiDE CoMP.xN^', Cincinnati, O. 42 fjca^-er street. New York. i,KTTr.R FILE ro SMALL SPACE. 40 THE BALL NOZZLE-A MARVELOUS CONTRIVANCE. From thic Baltimore Underwriter, IN the happening of the unexpected, a contrivance for a new and curious appli- cation oi the water that is still our main reliance, has been added to our fire fighting equipments by the American Ball Nozzle Company of New \ ork Cit\'. ^^ We do not pretend to see further through a grindstone than other people, nor-'fdo we claim a higher grade of intuiti\'e perception than the average ; but when we first saw the Ball Nozzle in J. _,, ■'' ^ operation, its capabilities flashed upon , ' t , - us in a twinkling. We saw at once that the iunnel-shaped stream would extinguish flame without drowning' and ^'i-'t -^- Wl ruining \'aluable property. We saw at I ^CTORY B.^LL i//r I SrK-\If>HT .STREAM. SI R \\ \M> SHPT-OFF. THE B.ILL XdZZEIC, entire blaze with a deflected and scribed single to speak. We saw ing the amount of was raining drops mist that would undergo original elements and th to the flame. We saw its s ships, to theatres, to manu a glance that it is a powerlul smoke driver ; and in forcing smoke before it, it will enable a fireman holding the pipe to advance at a rate that has heretofore been impossible in the rescue of im- periled li\'es. We saw that in contest- ing the spread of a fire, it covers the distributed sheet instead of throwing a circum- stream in spots so that without lessen- water delivered it — n o t intangible ,'sis or separation into its ;h hydrogen to add new fuel applicability to hotels, to ing establishments, to lum- 110 chance for impairment by rosion which so seriously lers. We saw, in short, that into universal use, and that strumentality now employed, loss and pave the way for re- rates. In the steady and promises we do not pretend ber yards. We saw that the the sedimentitous deposits damage automatic sprink sooner or later it will come it will, more than any in minimize the ratio of fire duction of fire insurance gradual realization of these to talk in the "we told "" you so " style. Thousands of intelligent lookers-on must have interpreted these forecasts just as plainly as they appeared to us. 41 I'.ALr, NOZZLE RI-:VOI-VING SPRINKLER FOR FACTORlI-:S AND STANDPIPES. SAFETY ]]ATER COLUMNS. While it is a mysterious principle involved, and difficult to explain why the ball remains against pressure ; whatever the cause is, the fact remains ; and at one bound, as it were, the ball nozzle has become one of our most valuable possessions. It is destined to take a place in the fire extinguishing equipments as indispensible as that of the telephone in the transmission of intelligence. American Ball Nozzle Company, 837-847 Broadwa)', New York. SAFETY WATER COLUMNS. Their True Value From an Economic Standpoint. By A. J. Wright. THE argument of economy is a threadbare one, and he who uses it courts ridicule, and must be prepared to defend the proposition, but if the recent developments at Niagara Falls enforce proper consideration of the subject on the part of the steam user, that influence will not merely be of assistance to me in this connection, but will hardly be less valuable to the manufacturers of the United States than the direct results, for most of the ' ' economy ' ' as practiced in the present age, instead of being " the road to wealth," is a short cut to the poorhouse, and accounts for a very large part of the ninety-five per cent, who fail in business. There is no room here in which to pay respects to that large class of steam users who willingly, but unwittingly, pay the coal dealer over and over again for appliances which they feel too poor to buy, under the erroneous impression that fuel, no matter how much it takes, is a necessary expense ; or to those who will renew their boiler plant, when the old boilers are worn out, because they consider it necessary to do so ; but, ridicule the argument of economy as much as you may, the fact remains that steady water at the proper level in a steam boiler saves coal, saves the boiler, and obviates repairs, all of which cost money. Each ol these savings is greater and more important than would at first be supposed. The saving of fuel depends very largely upon the location and con- sequent cost per ton, but being continuous, no matter how small, it is important, and as applied to a safety water column may be realized to some extent, at least, when the fact is taken into consideration that a saving so small as five cents per day per boiler, will agregate a saving equivalent to a dividend of 75 per cent, to 100 per cent, per annum on the cost of the appliance. With proper care and steady water, a well made steam boiler, instead of being short lived and expensive to maintain, would be practically indestructible. A clean boiler is not burned with the water at the proper level, nor is it racked and strained and worn out by contraction and expansion, if the water is carried steadily ; nor is there trouble even with leaky tubes, under ordinary circumstances. It follows therefore that the question of the value of safety water columns hinges upon the question as to whether their use does, or does not result in steady water. I know of no better way in which to settle that question than by bringing it home to every steam user. What therefore would be the result if you had safety 42 SAFET]- WATER COLUMNS. water columns in use in your plant? If you had them, and your employees were so blind to their own interests as to allow these columns to whistle, you would hear the whistles and hear them frequently, and your engineer and superintendent and everyone else interested would hear them. Remembering that the alarm points are at the upper and lower gauge cocks, extremes which the water line is never supposed to reach ; and remembering that the water tender has the water gauge and three gauge cocks on each boiler for his guidance ; and remembering that fuel is being wasted, irregular power is being furnished, and that )-our boilers are being worn out more rapidly than they can be in any other way, by reason ot the expansion and contraction incident to unsteady water, would you tolerate any such action on their part ? The logical conclusion is that )'Ou would say to these employees, if they were so lacking in personal pride as to furnish an occasion for your doing so, that the water gauge and gauge cocks are there for their guidance, and that you expect them to keep the water at least within the prescribed limits, thus keeping the whistles quiet, and that their failure to do so would at least call for an explanation ; and the actual fact of the matter is that personal pride on the one hand, and discipline on the other, causes any class of help that has any right to be tolerated in a boiler room, or to have a place of responsibility, to watch the water closely and continuously, and thereby to carry it steadily as nearly midway between the two alarm points as possible, for obvious reasons. What then is the true value of the safety water column ? We will not men- tion the uncertain value of lives lost ; the average loss by steam boiler explosion which has been placed at $3000, nor the extreme cases where the loss was many times greater, as for instance at Shamokin, Pa., where twenty-seven of thirty-six boilers exploded on October nth, 1894, with an estimated loss of $100,000, but will ignore the question of explosions entirely. There can be no doubt that the steady water resulting from the use of these appliances increases the durability of the boilers, decreases the cost of maintenance, and reduces the fuel account. If the life of a boiler costing |;iooo is thus prolonged 25 per cent., the safety water column effects a saving of $250 for its purchaser in this way alone, and if it saves $15 per year in repairs, the aggregate in twenty years, from this source, would be $300, and this estimate is probably not high, for repairs to leaky tubes, burned crown sheets, etc., etc., are never inexpensive, and they are practically unknown where safety water columns are used. Add to this as small a saving as you wish, or say, 5 cents per day for fuel, and counting three hundred working days to the year, you have another saving of $15 per annum, or $300 more, during twenty years, the period selected for convenience for this estimate. Here is a saving of $850, with explosions left out of the consideration, along with the general protection to life and property, all resulting from the use of an appliance which costs on the average about $20. It may be said that this estimate is extravagant. Taken as an aggregate it looks so, but taken item by item you will admit that it seems to be reasonable, but cut it in two and divide it by ten and you still have a return of 200 per cent, per annum on the investment. Divide it again and still again by ten and you still have left, after all this dividing, a return of 10 per cent, per annum, or the equivalent of a dividend sufficient to delight any financier. Is there any practical difference between dividend saved and a dividend earned ? Make enough such investments as this and the divi- dends will take care of themselves. I believe that I have established the fact that it is not the safety water column but getting along without it that is expensi\-e. All these remarks are made with special reference to the Reliance Safety Water Columns, appliances which have been on the market since 18S4, and which are in general use, and known to be reliable, for it is obvious that the desired results cannot be secured through the medium of an unreliable appliance. 43 SAFETY WATER COLUMNS. Space here is too limited and too valuable to justify a detailed description of these columns, but it is in order to say that their success is due largely to the fact that the floats are reliable, less than 2 per cent ever either filling with water or collap- sing — and even these being replaced free of charge, no matter how long they may have been in use. Without reliable floats no safet)' water column can be depended upon for anything except trouble and expense. Hardly less potent in securing success for the Reliance Columns is the sediment chamber, which obviates trouble from sediment, and keeps the glass and gauge cocks clean, a feature possessed bv no other safety water column, which is pronounced by no less authority than President J. JNI. Allen, of the Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance Company, to be one of the finest ideas ever brought to his notice in connection with a steam appliance. Other points of superiority are the short and direct outlet to the whistle and the mechanical construction and workmanship. Everything is of mechanical proportions, the parts all being equally and sufficiently strong, insuring freedom from trouble even with such minor details as the gaskets. Some idea of the construction of these columns mav be had from the fact that they are constructed for use up to 250 lbs. pressure, with a factor ol ten for safety. Anv information desired may be had from Tjie Reliance G.vug]-: Comi'.\nv, Sole Manufacturers, No. 93 to 103 East Prospect street, Cleveland, O.